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A SOURCE BOOK BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS (BiPV)
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NailonolUbrnr y olt\uSlrnha Caralogurng·ln·Pubhcarlonemry Designing wllh solar power: a 5OI.llte book for buildIng Imegrnledphotovoitalcs IIlbhogrclphy Includes Indc� ISBN 1 876907 1 7 1 . ISBN1 844011 47 2
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DED
PRASAD
&
EDITORS
MARK SNOW
SO LARCH Group, Centre for a Sustainable Built Environment UniverSity of Now South Wole s , Australia
CONTENTS PREFACE INTRODUCTION 10
CHAPTER 1
Tony Schoen, Stefan Novak David lIoyd·Jones,Steven Strong, Tjerk Reijenga
Building design and environmental concepts
DiscussIon of the hoUsHc design process and how new technologies arc part of the det:islon process, buildIng "esthellcs and urban aesthetics; funclional and
CHAPTER 2
59
61 66
70
74 81
88
95 97 101
105 112 118 124
Australia:
FraunholerlSE Mont-Cenis Academy
151 154 164
Spain:
UK: USA;
204
CHAPTER 6
Electrical concepts, reliability and standards
review of basic electrical concepts. reliability and International standards.
Germany:
Switzerland:
135
analysis of BIPV
Technical review of Issues and best practice consIderations including dctalled
BrundtJand Centre
141 147
of building envelopes at a City scale; review and
design tools and related iSSUes..
Sydney Olympic Village
Denmark:
Soulh Korea:
surfaces
'lY.'CntY·IWO Intcmillional case studies highlight design and development
Energiepark West
131
Study of the potential of PV, covering solar yield considerations and issues for
process issues. and archilcctuTilI and tC{;hnical quality of the projects.
Toronto Highrise Roof William Farrell Building
The Netherlands:
BiPV potential and design tools Authors: Marcel Gutschner (NET Nowak Energy 8. Technology ltd, Switzerlandl, Peter Lund (Helsinki University of Technology. Finland). Mark Snow (SOLARCH, University of NSW, Australia)
International BiPV case studies
Austria:
Italy:
CHAPTER 5
Authors: Per Drewes (Sol Source Engineering, Canada). Donna Munro (ESD, UK). Heinrich Wilk (Energle AG, Austria!. Herman Laukhamp (Fraunholetlnstitute ISE. Germany)
Canada:
Japan:
184
in the marketplace, summary of imegTiltion
concepts in use for all building typologies; architeclUral appropriateness; cost
54
Discussion and ex.lmples of non-building structures in the built environment,
Authors: Tjerk Reijenga !BEAR Architecten. the Netherlands), Daniel Ruoss (Enecolo. Switzerland)
Issues and efficlendes for dlfferem systems
CHAPTER 3
Non-building PV structures Authors: Miguel Angel Romero (EcoCoDE Environment and Architecture. Swedenl. Carl Michael Johannesson (Royal Institute of Technology. Sweden!, Mats Andersson (Energibanken I J3ttendal AB, Sweden) Including process and performance Issues.
Technologies and integration concepts
Examination of PV technologies
53
CHAPTER 4
Authors: Steven Strong (Solar Design Associates, USA). David lloyd-Jones {Studio E Architects. UKI. Dea Prasad (SOLARCH, University of NSW, Ausualia)
performance needs versus archItectural appeal of BIPV and other technologies
22
168
The Children's Museum 01 Rome
NIT DoCoMo Building J-House SBIC East Building
217
CHAPTER 7
Non-technical issues and market deployment strategies Authors: Reinhard Haas (Vienna University of Technology, Auslriaj, Patrina Eiffert I1maginh. USA) Overvie....• of intt:rn3tional marketing and government strategies for BiPV ImplemenJation. Includes discussion
opponunities. 234
APPENDICES
236
Glossary
239
References
Univer
249
Further resources: websites
ABZ Apartment Buildings StudemHousing
250
Energy Research Foundation (ECN) - Building 31 Energy Research Foundation tECN) - Building 42 Le Donjon Amersfoort,Nieuwland KIER Super Low Energy Building
Jubilee Campus Nottingham University Solar Office. Doxford International Business Park
4 limes Square
INDEX
of non-technical barriers and
PREFACE
This book on designing wilh SOlaf ele<:lric power In buildings IS the result of international collaoomtlvc rese
infor
Slilre-of.the.an mission of the lEA's collaboriltive work aImed ill performing profound analysis ilnd providing recommended best praClIct: In new energy technologies In
199<1, a number of government officials from the Netherlands and
Switzerland came
together to speak
wnh a consortium of other countries, a mix of
experienced countries indudlng Germany, Austria, the United States and Japan and nC\OJt:omers such as Australia, Italy and Canada
From the beginnmg, It was dear to the international consortium that architects play an Important role in developing the technology and language of solar bUlldmgs Particularly at the early stages of development, solar bUildings should be posltwe 'advocates' of the technology The installation of solar buildings continues to provide increased understanding of bonlened<.s and barriers that stili exist within the marketplace. In the years following the
nrst
meetings in I 9
together with architects. researchers and utility represemauves. These participants closely followed a number of solar projects. Experiences from these projects. With a focus on the
architectural and bulldlng.related aspects, have been collected in this book, to provide
examples and Inspiration for the deSigners of tomorrow's buildings, to renect the enthusiasm \'ork. and to document the diverse potential of solar tod.ly'S PV experts put IntO their design .. for future buildIngs Continuing from the t 096 PhOlOl'OlIaics In BUlldmgs book . developed under the lEA SOlar Heating and CooUng Programme. TIIs k
16. this new
publJcation captures the dramatiC
advancement of the technology Design guides are available and many well-concelved projectS are producing soli\! power every day We hope this new book ....iIl . help to develop responses to the questions Ihal still need 10 be ansv,-ered Our stncere gratitude is extended to the
co-editors,
Deo Prasad
and Mark Snow from the UniversllY of New South Wales. Sydney and
all the Tllsk 7 experts that ha\'C contnbuted Over the past years. gnd-connected . distnbuted photoVOltaic power systems have become the fastest gro.....lng market segment of this technology. the maJonty as systems in the built environment. This trend is e."
10 on
'Urban Scale
Photovoltaic Applications' The aim of this project Is developing the means to enhance the opportunities for wide·scale. solutlon-orlented application of photovollalc power electricity production In the urban em'lronment TIlis book Wlii have achieved Its mission if It can auract the interest of Its target audience. ()ppM'lePV'�adeonSt>laf Q11.:e.Do..fordlnIDlnatloool lImineDI'�It.UK
Scamoo.mG.-r�
namely archllects. designers and engineers and inspire them to further Ideas In this exching area, We hope that many new building professionals will join these errorts and that this book will be another milestone in the widespread deployment of solar designed buildings
Stefan Nowak
Tony Schoen
Chainnan
Operating Agent Task 7
lEA PVPS Programme
Photovolraics in the Built
Envlron�m=.=� ", ?,==,:,,:-_....
II V
.. _
i!�=It":;
__
1111
J.
INTRODUCTION PhOiovoltalc IPV) power's potcnual for wide distribution makes It a unique and novel energy source that can be embedded within Ihe fabric of individual buildings. while shifting power generatiOn away from being large.scale and regionally located As a
consequence, .:I free. cJean and silent electrical supply can be introduced into cities,
lowns and bulll'up areas Bulldlng·lntegrmed ph01ovollillcs rBIPVJ Involves combIning solar ptlotQvollatc electrlchy technologies with those of building construction. This subject Is of grein imerest 10 those In the fields of energy conscrv,llion and building design Ie; significance. however, e
SiP\' addresses
The current level of fossil fuel power generallon is by far the greatest bamer 10 a stale of sustainable equillbnum. Photovoltalc energy Is already making a Significant conmbutlon towards the transition to 'renewable· sources - the key to achieving a sustainable SOCiety. The relevance of
SIP\' in a sustainable world becomes clear after
close examlnallon of the
three words in the acronym
8uilding(s) protect against the extremes of climate. They evoke mood. they can excite. dellghl. and creale a sense of wellbemg and repose. In the develope{:! world. buildings also accounr for approximately one half of all energy consumed. The current energy generauon proces.s and reliance on fossil fuel source:5 IS one of the major threats 10 achieving suslalnable goals for the building sector
Integrated means Interdependence and imeraction. In a sustainable world.
it Is recognised
th
contained within it. but it wil! also have an effei:! o n Its immediate physIcal selling. the climate. the neighbours and local community. the region and, ultimately. the globe Itself Sustainable developmem endeavours to amlclpmc these effects and, through Imegtation with one anOther. ensures that ad\'erse effects are minimised and. if unavoidable. are In some way balanced by those that are benIgn or of equal value. Integration in sustainable development therefore seeks to reduce and hannonise detrimental environmental Impacts 11 also seeks economy or means and of materials in developing new Industry opponunmes This. In the right hands. promotes elegant deSign The goals of Integration in SIPV are JUSt those of suslainable development Photovohaics Is a technology whereby sunshine is convened mto electricity JUSt as plants use chlorophyll to photosymheslse the sun's irradiauon in order to provide energy for their growth. a buildmg can use panlcular composite solar componems to meet the energy needs of Its occupants. Only
1-1 4
per cent of sunshine survives filtering from the Earth's
atmosphere and falls on land where It can be harvested. This is. however. than our energy needs1
2.800 times more
This book encapsulates five years of work by more than 30 international experts from the 0ppool1of'llrntaporatedullo rooi of ECN
b\lItdI!l\l42. tile
Nalt�lliInds
fields of rese.l!ch. developmem and design In tlddition 10 greatly assisting the spread of the knowledge of
SiPV. it Is hoped that
the book wll! encourage governments and agencies
Scur:aHftlb.rm.l
to support 115 deployment and ralse confidence in Its use by architects. engineers.
�·JdrlIIIUIM.I/JN/J
environmentalists, planners and their ci!ems.
---u.....III LlIUIIf 117'
BUILDIN G DESIGN AND ENVIRONM ENTAL C O N CEPTS A renewable future
Jm;lgmc ,1 world where petrOleuOl is not the dominant source of
One of the llIost promiSing renewable energy tcchnologies Is
rOrC(.l�I IO pC;lk and tilt' ust:: of renewable energy [o a cceler:llc.
producing on·site eleclTlclty from the sun. without concern for
so much so [hat by 2050. rencwablc energy could supply half of
energy supply or envlronmenl.}1 harm tt IS estimilled thaI JUSt
lhe worllfs energy r\.'qUiremclIIs. The solar community has been
ono;: hour of solar energy received by the earth IS equal 10 the Pholovoh.lics are solid-stilte devices Ihal simply make electricity
world will undergo a major tr.lnsilion in energy sources and
OUI of sunhght. silentl}' and with Imle 10 no maintena.nce. no
""'
Infrastructure systems over Ihe nelil few decades. Oil industry
pollutiOn and no significant deplelion of malenal resources.
","""
orr·grid markets (nOI connected to the eleariCity grid systeml
\'<'lIhout a secure and affordable energy supply. ClUes become
but now in grid
BetWI.'en 1992 and t qqQ. the growth Tate of 100ai mst.alJed
vulnerable l o e conomtc. environmenlal and soclet.al decay.
capaclly was between 20 per cent and 31 per cem per ilnnum
....n 'affordablt: energy supply' IS no\\ recognised as one that
ThiS rate of Increase rose 10 34 per cent between 200t and 2002
nCllhcr wmpromlst:s tht: ability 10 pay for energy nor Jeopardlscs
It ciln be seen from figure 2 IhalIhe majoTlly of this rise was due
Ihe l."Cosyslems on which humans depend 'Securlty of energ}
/I401he
s._ USA
"
'.8
97
"
02
:?7.9
'.'
"
0 .3
O.
Germany IB2.6 MWj. In facl, of the 1.328 MW Installed in 2002.
depend heavUy on Imporllng �nergy sources from overseas flsk
"
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.,.
'.7
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'.8
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f1g3SaQ1III'III110MI.fIIti!IaI l/tJ1,tyDistnCli!SMUDj
SIu<,.n.atlll1Sl!MlmI·!mI_'_�u.lllaloo!orrr.atm_"""'"
IOU.. ILl·IWSIJ�II'WIIII\IXIU'O!naItf__ yIItS,lJIj ... �IS""""
;hIllMItlillCiIrTB'/V.,th ru:iearCOOlltlgtowerl
."'
SoomIW_1lmI
In 2002. Japan achieved the highest inslalled power per capita. (5 WI.
Energy planners have long envisioned large utlllly,scille solar
must be dcveloJlCd 10 power bUildings as well as transportation.
(:?67 W/ oj
more sustainable
.j. above Germany \3.37 W/-..l and Switzerland
power plants covering large exp.1nSe5 of desert While this vision
PV IS practical on a number of fronts. For example. the same
and havc minimum ecologlc,ll lmpao. II may come as a surprise
technology Ihal can power Wilter pumps. thresh grain and
10 milny archllects and their cltents. but every bUilding they
provide cornmuniC,luon and village electrification in the
deSign Ihill relies on fossil fuel may become obsolete within
developing world can also produce electricily for Ihe buildings
IIs lifelime
and dIstribution grids of mduslrlalised counlTles. II is dear Ihilt
BUlldlng� ilnd Iheir processes accoum for roughly one half of .111 energy consumplion When Ihe energy reqUired 10 mine.
. .s.:.mt.{APtfS ........._cog
22.0
"0
"
"""
l[AtIlUIIIrl8ll
16.0'
"
"
attrld2002I01�<'P;II,ng
""
91.3 >5 110
As Ihe eril of cheap oil draws 10 a dose. other energy opllons
almost 80 per cent W.15 Installed In Japan and Germany illone.
�ecurny of supply.
be
,. ,
'0
33 "
,�
"
"
'95
"
"0
" ..
90
'"
"
0'
02
02
The opportunity for building-integrated photovoltaics
il!:lflcuhure and mduslry. TIlcse oplions musl
"
39.1
8.'
11.5
'" 31.2
"
58
,.-
"
'"
'.7
10 Ihe continued dramallc mcreases In Japan 1184 MWj and
supply' IS CfUCliliiO m,lIntarnmg Independence; nations IMI
designing With solar power will become Ihe norm for the future
has milny f,lVourable illtrlbutes. the economics reqUire careful Investigation Ground-mounted PV systems reqUire Iht allocation of land. whldl must be acquired and prepared 10 accept Ihe PV
system The COSt of land and the cost of site work can be considerable.. In Europe. Japan and many olher coumries.
Ihe lack of available large open traclS of land has effecllvely precluded Ihe large-scale stand-alone PV option as afforded to
The most auraclive distribuled applications aTe PV power syslems for indlvidu:lI bUildings. which have the following compelling benefits
Sacramento in California Cflgure 3)
• The buildings and Ihe processes they house consume
for Ihc consttuCllon of bUlldings IS
As imerest in solar electriCity mcreases. Ihere is a growtng
Induded. the 100alimpaci far surpasses
consensus that dlstrtbuted PV systems that provide eleclricllY
• The real estate comes 'free' with the bulldtng
produce. dehver ilnd assemble materials
that ilmOUnt For developed countries 10 conunut.' to enjoy the comfOriS thaI are t.lkcn for granted. and for the
devt.'lopmg world to ever hope 10 allam them, sustillnabihlY must become the
cornerstone of our design philosophy. Rather than merely uSing less of Ihe non·renclI'able fuels and cn:.ltlng less pollullon. WI! need to deSign suslalnable buildings 111m rtlyon renewable resourccs to provIde mOSt. and eventually all . of their own energy needs and ellmlnacc pollution
._ ._-
al or near the poim of use Will be the first to reach Widespread commerCialisation Dlstrlbuled PV systems hilve conSiderable
_Cl��1ill
-
-
-
-
-
fl!ltCim.iIaIMlIl1:lIJlU'dPYP!M'eT�appllCII\JOI'I"nbelY.9ln 1!I92-2002fOllotematcnalEneril'9qIIEA� rVDOllIl1gCOOOIiIeI
10
12.4
"
..'"
101.11 amounl of cnergy consumed by humans m one year
demand outstriPS supply. The glObal dislribullon of fossil (uds nealt:s �1r.llt.'gIC ramifications for lhe security of energy suPP])'
8,
'''''''
-, SoulhKorea
"
..
"
UnilodKing!lDm
predlctmg posslbillUes 01 this nature for some (lme bUl now they
oT1gmall�' in Ihe form of stand·alone or . Growth In PV po....er.
0' 0.
"
Franco
afC also commg from Ihe 011 mdustry There is no doubt Ihallhe
;malYl>ls C>:pt:C1 ulcrea� pnce pressure on petroleum as
0.8 . .,
pl1otOVOlt,liC (PV) power PV power is a truly elegant means of
energy Over the ncxt twO dec.ldes. the burnIng of 011 and gas 15
"7
..
58
Gormany Spain
lioll.
""
""
DB
,.,
.. . . . . . J
s..-1EA�AM.-�"""iN'SI:or..w
_""",crp
-
-
-
-
• There is no real estate lax on land to suppon the PV
system o r on the
PV Itself
• There are no sile development C05ts - they are part of
logic They • Provide grid support. particularly in areas of summer
peak loads.
Ihe majortt)' of electrlclIY
.
• Eliminate costs and losses m transmission and
distribution • Create a diverse and resillem energy sysUlrn • Typically require no special approvals or permits
• Can be deployed very rapidly
Iho;: building construction • The utility interconnection already exists 10 serve the building (in mosl cases). • PV C,1n displace electrical power on the customer'S side of Ihe meter at the retail rale.
• PV can provide demand charge reducilons and very
favourable economics under tnne-or·use rates
• PV can prOVide: Significant sectoral greenhouse gas
rGHG) offsets in line with GHG emission targets.
reduCllon
Jnlcre�t In the building of Integralt.'d phoromJraiCS rknown a� 61PV). \'Ih"(I' th(' PV elements are Inwgral lO Ihe building. ohen �cnolng:t� tht· elCtcnor weathering skin. is growmg
worldwldc PVspecialists from some 1·1 countnes have worked
\\'l1hrn
the InternallonJl Encrgy Agency's
Pholovoltalc Power S}·stems Implementing Agreement
owr the p:m �t'V('ral },C.lrS to opt!mlse these syslems.
,lrldimhlit.'Cls
In F.urope.J3pan, Ihe
United Stiltes anc1
AUSIr.1II.1 art'now bcglnnlng to explore Innovallve ways of IIlcorpor.lllng solar electriCity fnto their building designs. 6U'V h3� man�' additional benefus
• Th!:' bu!ldlng Itself becomes the PV sup pan slructure
1 ____ _ 1_ ..___ 1
1-· I
Units
Pass Ive
Reference
Solar
Building
Office E.sllm,ttH!
Gro ss llo orarea Nello gross tloor area Window 10 wall area Aoof 119hllO ro of area
j_. 1-· t
i
1-
• systcm c!C{;trlc.11 Interface Is e.1sY-Just connect to
m' % % %
Act"",
Energy Self· suffi cient
Wo r k p lltCe
E.sllmllltHl
5,511
4.900
5.500
82
n
.2
30 30
43 0
22.5
16.6
10 .4 0
28.0 25,5
32.9
70.1
miuCrials :lrld 1,1bour, reducmg the nel JOstalled COSt of
tht" PVsystcm • On,slte generallun of elC{;lriclty offsets Imponed and
kWh/m'
LighUng demand
kWh/m'
Cooling energy
kWh/m'
Incidental loads
kWh/m'
Tot,I8
kWh/m'
e::o-=:-
-:-=-
':'::=-----
rIll4fmI!QSIIiIfVIIlsinGt«iarniulon�OO'ISforIlll!Aumalian�SIi!tUW 19'»-2tll0
.\Qru[MCTr.--um""lldrnJSIXA/OI�Ni!wSc:tte'l I·
1 1 . 54
•.84 0
28,0 ".38
Costs
residential bundlng sector alone, a
Install them. The land
structure IsaJready In place, the
building is already Wired. the utility rs alfead�'
connected. and
developers can fmance the PVas pan of the overall project Another henellt comes from
dlstribu!!ng the BIPVinstallations
over J broad grographlC area and ,1 large number of buildings,
mUlgilllng the eficcts of local weather condllions on the
greater than 30 per cenl per
building reduction in energy use would be nceded necesstlTy in order 10 achieve
More is
It i� cleM that Ille: integration of PVInto the built environment oilers consldt"r;}ble scope for energy·demand offsets and rt-duCllon of greenhouse gas IGI/G) emISSions. It is also clear that the manner In which new bulldlng� are designed and existing bUildmgs arl' rt'furbI5hcd. altered and extended
can Significantly
mnUl'nce energy consumption and environmental impacts 'Ianv government·supported ago)ncles In hav('
c,lrrled
Ihe developed world
01.11 siudies 10 determIne benchmarks for energy use
In various lypc� of bUltcUngs TIlese benchmarks mostly point OUt the Opportunlllt,� for slgnlflc,lnt energy demand reductions and consequent GI'IG emlss!on reductions 8ulldlngs have. In the pasl (l·rt!ury, been dl'slgnclj wllh litlle conSideratlon for their energy u�e and cnvlronmcntal Impact. It is no surprIse, therefore, that �tudles show Ihal sIgnIficant effICiencies are allilmable In existing bUlldlngs.1t \'Cry cos(·eift-etlvc ratt's In Australia, a study
�ponsort-d bv Ihe Aumah,1n Greenhouse Office and conducted by Ihe 50lJlRCH Group ,lnd EMET Consultants shO\\ed (hal m order
10 mc!.'t tht· �t.'(toral u:dutllons m GHG emiSSions In the non.
12
PV installatIon ThIs suggested that.
In a location In the soulheast of England. an additIonal
29 per cent to (he COSI of
with
construction, the buHdlng could be energy self·sufficient. The details or the PV Installation are
shown in table 2
USS/m'
0."
0.5
USS/m'
0,74
t.97
Cooling cost
USS/m' USS/m'
0 0.56
0.99
Eleclridty demand charges
USS/m'
1.98
0.98
4.43
or 5.510 square
melfes for Landsdown Estates on Ihe /I.1llton Park business estate, III Abingdon, Unued
55.04
,*4.Dn6iI
Kingdom It was designed by Studio E Architects. and senolces engineers SVM Comparison was made
wilh an eXiSting office
Ihe 8 per cent increase i n GHG
Pilchedro of
m'
1,740
Facade. Including sunbreakers
m'
Tot,l
m'
390 2.050
a conventional sealed, air·conditloned baSIS
lahlflI SummaryoimIDlmIJll(J:1re1allngllltnePaUMISc:llarO!!IC8
emIssions set for Australia under the Kyoto Protocol over the 1000 to 2010 period Figure
·1
hlghHglllS thIs nndlng,
!...ow·energy design is a clear prerequisite for all sustainable buildings, espeCially those with BiPV 11 makes little
scnse to
waste energy. particularly when it Is generated using premium inno\'atlve technologies such as PV
aggregate and producing a reslltem source of supply
low-energy design, the prerequisite to BiPV
Self·sufnclent Workplace (fIgure
6), to show the addItional energy benents and
speculative office bUilding
1,57t
USS/m'
HeaUng cosl Ughting cost
Arellllv,lI,ble forPV
highly VIsible public exprt.'SSion of their environmental
BIPV systems, building owners are already paying for fat;ade
the Energy
buildlllg of the same rental value designed on
incre.lse markct acceptance
Wllh
1,240
Capital COsl (t 992)
Tollllronnlng cost
• BIPV!i}'stems provide the bU1ldlng owners With a
Is alTt'ady paid for. thcsuppon
Park for Landsdown
as it was subsequently redesigned as
extensive
Healing demand
• Archuccturally elegant, welHntegrated systems will
,md/or roofing materials and the labour 10
representation) at MillOn
selected
The assessment covered the deSign of a
oiten more carOOn·lntenSlve energy
commitment
Solar Office (fIgure 5 shows a model
Estates Is shown In t"ble I This proJeCi was
design implications of Incorporaling an
a distribution panel
• B!PV components d!�place conventional bUilding
Summary inform,lIion relating 10 the Passive
PVsizlng:
solar radiation: 2.5 sun hours/day PV power TIlling: 120 WpI� 5.500 (noor area»)( 34.4 (eslimaled eTlCfgy demandV365 (days):: 518.4 kWh/day Required PV geneliltlon: 518.4)( 2,5 (Average solar radiatioo),., 207.38 kWp PV area required: 207,360 (Wp) x 120 (PV power rating):: 1.726 m"
Annual avolilge
ETlCrgy requirement per day:
The passive solar office and the energy-efficient workplace
Available area on building: 2,050 m"
Table 2 PI installallOlllil!tail$, Energ, SeII·suffltlelll'llMpLa
PassIve solar design mvolves ulllising natural forces such as the sun and wind for the heaung, cooling and lighting of living
spaces "'ell·deslgned bUIldings take advantage of the natural energy characteriSlies in materials and ,lit created b y exposure to the sun that reduce the need to purchase utility energy sources to control, for example, the temperature and lighting of a bundlng Recently, the Energy
Technical SuppOrt Unit (ETSU) III the United
Kingdom commissioned studies of three new out.-of·town ornce developments Consulta11ls were asked to design three low.energy office buildings In Ihe context of a specific site and client I\n analysis of the deSign and its energy performance was then compared with (hat of an existing conventionally designed. air conditioned ·reference' bUIlding The average reduction In energy consumption between the low·energy design and the reference office bUildrng w;}s 52 per cent. giVing an energy COSt reduction of 49 per cent The capilal COSIS for conStruCiion were similar 10 the conventional bU1lding. and the c.lrbon dtoxlde emIssions were reduced by 15 per cent
Fig 6 V_of m. 50Uih fao;ade 01 thII EnrHIrf Self·suttioent War\place
Swrr.SbilrrfArctwlm.!I:
13-
The approach required for energy reductions
Orher sl!:nlllCdlll points 01 the PilSSlve Solar Olhce include
deprl"C,mlon and maintenilnce costS were Included the PasSive Solar Ofrice would benefit from ,1 IUrlher Z5 per cent reduction In running costs Owrh"3tlnH Is contamed at an ilcceptable level If a natur.,1 venrilatlon rare of 8 ach lair changes per houn Is .lchleved and night time venting Is Implemented
• II (.lpual
•
•
nit" !'asslve Solar Office would reqUirc more
It is outside the scope of this book to describe 1O detail thc design and operational mC
knowlcdJ!t'able and more sensnl�'e comfort control pro(t'(lures than the reference bUlldmg • Some elt'ments 01 COSt ;lfe relallvel)' high due to passIVe solar or other energy efficiency measures These mclude tWO Wind scoops. low-emlsslvuy glazmg and external sunbreakers/light shelves •
The Pa��i�·c Solar Olilce has fewer and I� cosily Windows than the refertnce bUlldmg
•
The:! Enelgy !*.If·Surflch:�nt Workplace tOOk the Passive Solal Office. reHnN Its t'nergy saving and envlronmemal measures Jnd then applied S,PV \\-Jlh a view 10 providmg a net-rem-energy comrnt'rtiill office building and an elegilnt archnectural solution Othl'r SllllIIlJcant poml.� III respt.-ct to Ihe Encrg)· Self-Sunklent Workplace Include • •
Capnal CO�I of the building would be ,ln addillonal
Running COStS would be 15 per cent less than the PaSSI\'e Solar Office
If a conlilbullon towolids the energy consumption of the building IS 10 be suppllCd from an mtt!gralcd rv inslilllauon, the nrsl consldclUlion musl be to IlInll. as far as poSSIble. the demand (or powl·r In tht! lJulldlng In so doing, Ihe consumplJon of grid, supphed l'it""tlflclty is mllllmised and the use of pV-generated �upply ma"lImscd If. for ,,",xample, a bUlldmg located in a temperate or conllnental climate IS poorlr Insulated and the I".Xtemal envelope is poorly seall'tl. ,1 conSIderable proportion of the energy used to heal the bUIlding In wlIlrer IS wasted. If the fust call for power Is from a 1'\' Install'lIIon. th31 'clean' power Is also wasled Electrical en!'rgr u�'d for hcatlllg the building would In that case draw on fo�sll fuel. gnd·connected pow(:r and would add to an increased GHG ernisslon
"
•
:!C) pt'r cent of the cost of the Passive Solar Office.
•
•
•
Pursue ·passive' systems. that is. those that exploit natural forces such as Wind and sun and the effective use of environment.llly sustainable materials. bcfore c.llllllg on ·activc· systems - such as artirfClal cooling and lighting - to augment or replace the passive systems This requires wide-rangmg conslderallons such as solar access and Shading. orientation, use of thermal mass, effective daylighllng, natural ventilation .lnd thermal msulation. ConsIder the conSlrUClLon of the building as a whole, Including, energy used to e.·mact. manufacture and transport m
Ensure an approach that can deal With complexity effectively Determine, for example. the split and Imerface in the building between centralised comfort comrol by the building manager and lroll control by the occupants The more devolved comrol Is to the Janer, the happier they will usually be. 1\vo basic Strategies that usually work ate low tcchnologyllow management Input, and advanced Icchnologyllligh m.lnagemell1 Input Avoid the other IWO possiblHties high ICchnologyllow management input (whiCh perpetUiltes the myth that technology docs not necd to be managed!. and low technology/high managcl11Cnt Inpul (lmpractlc.11 for most organisations).
•
•
Ensure that control systems default to low·energy use. for example. put systems In place to ensure lights do not remain on unnecessarily and blinds are not closed when It [s OVerc.1SI Ensurc Ih,1t the bunding occupants and those who run it ·buy into· the design approach ancl !he praCilcallties of lIS operalion. This can be assisted by presenting designs for comment. organiSing tours of rhe partially completed building, explaimng thc buliding·s characteristics prior 10 occupation and providing feedback on the buildlng·s performance after occupatiOn
The Jist is not exhaustive - every build[ng Will have unique. as well as generic. requirements A complex series of decisions Is neceSs,lry to find the right balance between the functional demands of occupants and processes. energy restraint measures and the capacity to slJmulate and delight residems and VJsitors Finding this balance IS the key 10 ,1fchltectural profiCiency This St3te should be the goal of all bUIlding design Unfortunately. in BiN projects. due to preoccupation with aspects partiCularly connected to PV - its novelty, technology and the need to cover the additional COSt - II is. so far. rarely found However as PV becomes belief understood and more commonplace. MIPV buildings of elegance and confidence will increase
Principles of holistic building design Designing .1nd constructing a low-energy bundlng thOlt Is both efficletll and stimulating requires a ·hollstic' approach: that Is, one that Is comprehensive in its consideration of design Issues. weighs them up carefully and finds a partIcular harmony between them A holiStic approach to building design Involves • "'fully Integrated multldlsclplrnary desig" learn
Although the architect may lead the ICclm. creative decisions are needed from the Slart, In partiCular. from structural ,lnd burlding services engmeers Engineers should contribute key InfonnalJon and ideas about energy and comfort s}'Stems and structural deSign They need to Impress upon the clIent that the end product will be economically. environmentally and SOCially responsible while providing a delightful setting for work or home • An emono/tal!>' and intt!llec/llally comlXltlble desl!!" team.
r.,·lcmbers must have the right skills and understanding of the issues (or at least be ready and (Iulck to learnl and be able to work together harmoniously.
• Tlte provision to call on specIalists
when required and, at least in the early stages of the deployment of new lechnologies or concepts. 10 undenake research and df..'1Iclopment where appropriate
• The carly d('J.'e/opment Of energy conswnprlon IOrgets
for the range of consumption categories In Ihe bUilding In f,lCt, the whole sustainable building strmegy may be developed at thiS smge.
• Tlte capablllcy to carry out physical lind computcr
model/mg of aspects of
the building ranging frolll massing and form \0 therm,11. ventilation, daylight and acoustic computations to ensure I.3tgets are bemg met
•
EffectIve cost-planning. rost-checliing and cost-benefit n:aluating procedures
including direct and indirect COStS and value-added benefllS over the shon term and the building lifccycle
• Structured audlls and revtC"lI'S
oj the design as It develops - a value engmccring syslem that works
• Thejull IIIl'O/I't!11lCllt of the client III the design process;
engagement of the occupants at key stages and, where poSSible. the involvcment of the bUilder in the detailed design stages. Consideration should also be given to the post-handover ·tunlng' period when the design intentions are matched with actual operational characteristics. • t\ delennilUll10n to retam Ilnd protecl the prlllclplcs behind the design,
with the foresight and agility to adapt and reconstruct them should circumstances change (which they often do) during the course of a project
Many already adopt these strategies. but more do not, assuming that the bUildings they are designing are readily understood Olnd of a type that they have tackled before. However, to make
15
The opportunity provided by integrated renewable energy Thus far \\1: ha\;� concentrated on the need for low·energy desIgn, and the means .1nd the processes as.sOCJaIC�rl with lis re,lUS.ltion The mtroductlon of integrated renewable energy m;lke� the holisllc appro,lch even more lmponant, It also. as has been POlntt.'
It therefore
raises the Vision of many small. low·technology contributors In urban or suburban locations supplying to the national power need and. In relipect to thc bUlldmg within which thIS renewable source IS Installed. the possibility of energy self-suffiCiency and carbon neutraluy For pioneers of solar energy In buddlngs. zero emiSSions
meamng that. over the life of the bUlldmg. carbon
only generates power. but keeps the weather and burglars out and allows dayllghl ln). the slructural engineer sees il as a The chOice of proprietary pholovoltaic-composlte systems Is
pJrtlcular load requiring a bespoke supportIng slructure. and
wlde_ h Includes
the building services engineer sees II .lsan tllectronlc systtlm
• Curt,lln wall s),stems for \'ertlcal and Inclined fa�
• R.
requires multidisciplinary collaboration from the outset The collaboration Is facflltmed by carefully structured design
• Integrated roof cladding. sheeting and tJUng systems
development. mOiling from the Strategic to the specific, with
• Puched and na! roof mounted systems
clear benchmarks Identined along Ihe route. Shared modelling tools and CAD systems can .llso help to bring together team
• Roof light systems (semi-transparem)
A number of manufacturers are also developing combined solar·
by the savings In carbon dioxide made possible by the supply of
The designer. therefore. has conSiderable technical scope for
II is useful to have an
uilimate gwl. but In realuy a 50 per cent CUt would be
sausfaclOry and IS slill difficult 10 achle\"e in most buildings, BtPV does. however. offer the ene'&Y supply side of the equation that IS essE'nlial to slgmficam carbon dioxide reductions
members and their output
electric and solar-thermal roof integrated systems - these arc discussed In later chapters
In theory. zero emiSSIon is poSSible and
many cases, monitoring. This extended parentage clearly
• Fixed and motonsed solar shading louvre systems
diOXide produced by Its construction and occupallon IS balanCed rene\\'able enelgy - has been the Holy Grall
requiring e.xpert design. specJnc.ltlon. commiSSioning and. In
mcorporatlng PV Into bUildings. and !he chOice WIll increase over the next dec.lde. Howe\'er. like any new technology that Is both Inheremly complex and has Wide-ranging non-technical ramifIcations. introduction of PV Installations has to be carefully
Developing the energy strategy for a building A prlomy af the oUlset of a BiPV project Is to determine ItS energy strategy This involves • Reviewing the aCilvilles planned for the bUilding and determining ruture activities.
concel\'ed and erfecti\<ely deo.-eloped. A detailed o\'erview of PV
• Determining diurnal and seasonal usc patterns.
technologies and Integration techniques is proVided In Chapter 2
• Determining and agreeing on the extent 10 which the design should exploit and rely on passive systems
• Establishing local renewable energy sources
The building integration anributes of photovollaics Of the various nmewable energy sources. photovoltaic power Is the only one whose hardware lends Itself to composite
manufacture wl!h convcntlonal building materials such as glass. metal and plaStiCS The compoSition. physics and performance
characterIstics of the photovoltalc process afe described 10
Chapltn 2_ From the point of lIiew of the architect or engmeer consldenng the Incorporallon of pv. the product is available In the same way as any other bUilding component. but also In a \'anety of forms and With very particular installation requlrementli Essenllall}'. Ihe product in 115 manufactured Slate is in the form of mlcron·thln sauter-sized wafers. each faced wuh a grid of nlaments wired to each other and liandw!checl between t'NO sheet materials. the Outside facmg one being transparent (mono and poly-cryStalline modules). or as a fine depoSitiOn on a sheet material With the active areas again Wtred together (amorphous or thlll nlm modules) The laner are about half as efficient as the former. but about half the price per unit area Since both arc
manulactured or produced in sheet form and once S\lndwiched or deposited are rcl.1lively robust. they lend themselves to
Intorpol.uion Into the external envelope of the building. either to replace " convell1lonal componem or as an addhionai one Il ls
this .1Ulllly to offer the s,lmc aurlbutes as a convenllonal building componem and Its \'ersatlJlty In application that makes PV uniquely suilable for buJldlng intcgrallon
Principles of photovoltaic integration As we have noted. what has come to be called the holisllc approach to building design Is essential for successful BiPV. Unlike any other building Installilfions, BiPV can affect every aspect of the design process. In their fully integrated form
• Estimating the energy consumption of the building (given the assumptions on the extent of use of passive systems) and Idemifying the different types of energy usc Isuch as heating, cooling. lighting. Inddental • Setting a tOlal energy consumption target from
they arrect the • layOUt and orientation
IwdsJ
estimates relating to the diITerent energy usc types • Determining the extent to which the estimated energy
• Form and massing
• layout and height of surrounding buildings and
planting
consumption can be met by a BIPV installation Unless already detenmned by a paMicuiar national programme. this is usually decided on the basis of COSt andlor the
• Energy strategy.
area that ''In be made available wllhin the building
• 8uildlng structure and modularity.
development This laner condition may be largely
• Selection and assembly of other building materials. components and systems
determined by site conduions such as orientation. the extent of overshading by adjoining properties, and townscape requirements, There are lools available
• Capital and running COStS
• Construction integrity and detail.
to assist this critical determination. These and the criteria for eValu.ltlon are covered In Chapler 5
• Appearance and archilectural expression
• Manner In which the building owner and its occupants arc perceived Even ....here . a PV arr.,y is retronued
• Establishing the COSt of maIns supply energy,
• Estimating likely capital COSts. the extent 10 which PV
components can offsel the COSt of conventional ones, payback periods and running cosIS. Estlmallng the
or applied
10 an eXiSting
building Cas In the Instance of an array mounted on a nat rooO It can arrect many of these aspects. Design and Installation of a BiPV system. unlike most other building systems. do not reside in the realm of one particular skill within the consultant team The architect sees the Installation as an element of the building envelope (one that not
likely savings In energy and operational COSts arising from the tow·energy design and the ·frec' PV electricity compared to a convenltonal energy use equivalent In 'lddition. determining the 'value-added' bcncnts of BiPV such as shadIng impact on cooling loads and thermal comfort
• The formulation of energy strategy scenarios for
development of building design options by the deSign team
Flg 7 Inh!riofof�DlT WI ! h tralSpilrentJmCklles atECNio:t PeIlen. tha Ne!her1a-lds s-.:IbIIt*:r. ItlfNell'Mn:ll:
focused In p..1sSlve solar buildings. design anention is very much slab on the external em'elope the roof. the walls and the ground daylight. Issues of Insulation. thermal capacity. impermeability.
Design measures that would bencfu thc Opllmis.ltlon of PV power
hemage or aesthelic demands imposed by statutory bodies.
can run counter to those that would aSSist the OpUmls.ll10n of
second. the diem brief: and third. cre;uing illuminating and
P.1SSIVC solar measures. For instance, in the deSign of a IlIPV
Stimulating architC{;ture through the manipulation of form.
solar .lnd glare COntrol. solar gain. perimeter heating. \'Iews out. natural ventilation. SCi:Urily. nOise control. atmospheric pollution
f,1pde. a deSign tcam may be lookmg to maximise eleCtrical
and Insect Ingress all come IOgether in the design of the external envelope and most parllcularly in the design of the glazing and
the spaces behind the fa(ade. lo avold reliance on arttricial
fenestration
rv must also be integrated into the external
envelope. and in many cases, large expanses of it. This brings Issues of accommodation of cable fUns and electrical kIt. and possibly cooling Ihe array and/or reclaiming free heat (a product of PV conversion) Design of the envelope c.ln. accordingly, become complex
OUtput while at tile same lime ensuring sufflcl(:nt daylight rcaches lighting during the day Many PV c(:11s and deposhlons arc opaque. ,\ccordingly. power OUlput from opaque are,1S of the fil(ade would nced to be carefully weighed against the energy saving and psychologic,)1 benefits of good daylight. mitigation of solar gains ,lnd glare, and views out
the maximum amount of dlfeCt sunshine poSSible given the fixed circumstances of the site and the density at which it is being developed ActU.11 orientation and inClination of the army will. of course. depend on the global loc,ltlOn of the site. There Is conSiderable latitude In deviating from thc optimum orientation before output falls off significantly, Figure
10 shows dally
In resolving thiS issue. the design team will have recourse to
IIlsolalion (kWh/m'l relallve to oricntation for Sydney. Altmalia
seml!ransparent PV modules; those of glass-glass mono- and poly.crystaillne modules, where the cells can be spaced OUI to
OvershadOWing (or overshading as It is also referred to III Ihe
allow dayltgill through. and those of the laser etched amorphous flg BDeUiloICO'I$fII'rJIOIYlOQi
modules where patterns of transparency are applled to the
:11I.cIUle, ECN, r.rkl'-lIncb
surface. SemitranSparent PV technologies, such as those based
u.n. 1bM_llIu.oM,IIfT!
Itght and space Orientation of thc array is a question of ensuril1g th.1l it receives
on titanium diOXIde may also be available soon. Figures 7-9 iHustf,lIC the use of interior errC{;ts in .:unum desIgns at the EeN Building in the Netherlands. and at the Solar Orf1ce at Doxford International. United Kmgdom Another example is the sltu.1Iion where the design tealn may
be looking \0 maximise the thermal capacity of the fabriC of the
IndUStry) IS a more Iricky aspecl of Ihe design For Instance. If
p.1rt of the array IS overshadowed by anOlher bUilding for any
p..m of the day. the loss of OUtput can be Significantly gre.1ter than the output of the actual modules overshadowed This IS because the modules are typically Wired together in groups {known as stnngsl and therefore. overshadowlIlg part of the group knocks the whole Siring out
(see Chapter 6)
Ideally. no pan of the array
should be overshadowed dUring any part of the day on any day of the year This is a very onerous design aim. panicularly In respect to BIPV bUildings III a town or CIty The best arrangement. given
building In order to even OUt internal temperatures In summer
the parucular Circumstances. IS usu.1l1y determined by a
while at the same time Incorporating a BiPV pitched roof and
succession of studies These can be carried out by computer
(see Chapter 5)
Overshadowing by ,] nearby object
glazing system. The modules would normally be mounted In a
modellmg
metal framework and supporting structure th.lt has low thermal
may at times be unavoidable. but overshadowing by elemcnts of
capacity This 15 not to say that BiPV Insl<1l1.11lon Is Incompatible
the host building. although common. should be avoidable. If the
with low·energy desIgn The POint IS th,lt careful thought needs to
array is on a ra(ade. it is very easy to inadvertently Introduce
be put to integration so that the measures arc reinforced and.
proJccling elements thill overcast the array, This may be by
where not possible. compensatory desIgn measures are
projecting accommodation. but it can also be by small projectiOns
incorporated The crnical aspects of a BiPV Installation. In so filf as influencing layout and form. are the need to maXimise Irradiation on the array through orientation and slope. and the need to avoid overshadowing of the array Equally import.lnt is the need to meet Ihese tWO requirements while s.1usfying. first. any planmng.
adJilcem 10 the modules such as the framing in which they are set (self shading.! The problem of overshadowing. along with PV OUtpUt. are the main reasons why so many installations are placed on. or incorporaled within. the roof, where the possibility
of shading is minimised. It IS also the ralionale for consideration of 'AC modules'. that Is. modules with Individual inverters. such that shading of one module docs not impact on Ihe Output from the rcst of the afray This IS discussed further in Chapter 6
w
Oientallon (deg-ees dOCkwise from North)
fog 1D00Ilyll'OdiltIOOIWw'lVrn'lleiaIMlio II'lI!I'ItallOll III' SrtnrY.AusuallOl
'SO"" N.... �dNew � I\ _ 4I,trIr ...
A BiPV aesthetic? Another te.Json \\hy pV msmllalions end up SlUing on a nat roof or emblddcd In a plu:hrd onc IS the mabllny or unpreparedness
many rt.'Cent blo-climatlC buildings are recognlsably so. It has also been demonstrated Ihat the low·energy measures In buildings c..1n
of the de�igncrs 10 corne to terms wuh P\' as an expressive
be complelely suppressed Without impairing their effecllveness
wch' wllil the social responslbillty of mitigating envlronmemal
wtJI need to tlCarly demonstrate the principles upon which il is
contemporary archltcctur,ll ldlom willie countenng the sense of
as tommonplace as other revolutionar y Innovations. such as 11ft
prOnlY,ley With which this type of architecture is often aSSOCiated
Inst" lIatlons and central heating. thus fumiling a tenet of the
MchilcclUral element One of the most poS!lIVC auributes of pV IS us ,lppt.·arance: u com'eys the sophtStiCilied coolness of 'high.
depredation. In other words, It can suppOrt and enhance a highly
(ngure I I ) . It moly be that wilh the necessary close relationship between building and the environment. the resulting archltccture based. One day. BIPV and low·energy measures w1l1 110 doubt be
Tht' polctllial archllCClUral el(prcssion that PV contains has yet 10
Modern movement of the 19305. This was based on a manifesto
be fullv rc,llisf'd We need many mOlc ardiilect champions to ; t'mbr.:ce Ihis and demonstrate I1S archueClural polentlal and
aesthetiC was often hijacked by International tommerce. and the
",er;..llillllj
low
Whcn P" IS an element In a truly low-ene/ID'. holisllc bUilding tll.'5lgn. not only IS il5 own expressive potential available to the desl.I!llI'r, bUI
us low'energy clements - sunshields. wmd lowers.
solar scoops - to name the most oven. are also available. The
qucSllon of whether etO- or blo-ciimallc archlleclure has evolved liS own ae�thellc 15 the subJecl of much deb,ne It is dear that
of social awareness and responSibility Unfortunately Its purlsl
are now largely expressed In quast'\'crnacular garb The green
The BiPV marketplace With decreasing capital ,1nd mstallatlon COStS. Impro",ed aesthetics and all the benefits of distributed generation. 61PV systems are a prune candidate for early widespread market adoptiOn Innova!lve arthitecis are now beginning to integrate PV Into Ihelr deSigns.
Incorporation as a matter of course for all rebuilding. new development and property upgrading. the visIon of cities
tiles and shingles. and modules for verllc,,1 curtain wall far;ades.
becoming overall energy suppliers ralher Ihan profligate
sloped glazing systems and skylights Other archileclUral module
energy consumers becomes an achievable goal
designs. discussed In detail In Chapter 2. employ glass-superstrate. crystalHne modules with space between the cells and op.lque b,lcklngs. to provide diffuse dayUghting along with their electriCity prodUCtiOn In the pas!. incorporating pV Into a bUilding deSign required
movement. If nothing else. has arisen in order to protect and enhance humanity ArchiteClure that takes Its credo from
Today. as PV manufacturers are matching productS to building·
prll1tlples of susl,llnabihty can auempt to reintroduce the
industry standards and architects' requirements. companies In
social dimension that was denied to Modernism
considerable Innuence on layout and form
and expansion can only be Imagined. If BIPV IS conSidered for
and PV manufacturers ,1re responding with modules specifically for BIP\' applications. including integral roof modules, roofmg
tradcoffs and concessions in the architectural design process
Figures t2 to 14 demonstrate the VISible nature of PV and liS
failing on a building and/or Its site can provide much or all of the power it requires. In urban areas. the power Ihat could be
generated by incorporating PV 10 Ihe process of renewal. change
Notes I
Browne. J 1997. Speech presented by Ihe chief executive of
2
World Energy Outlook wwwworldenergyoullook.org
BP Solar to Stanford Un;versny.
the United States. Japan. Europe and Australia are atllvely pursuing ne..... module designs Ihat displace traditional building malerlals. Sudl BIPV components are facilitating a new generalion of solar architecture. With Ihe right deSign. sunlight
1"
r�A
l TWO
TECHNOLO G I ES A N D I NTEGRATION CONCEPTS
Ih:al1ng and cooling loads and daylight control systems can be performance studies by a designer will discover th;1I lOY can also
Growth) has become popular. where Ihe cells are CUi from an
bc an effe<:tive and Integral part of the thermal envelope or
approach deposits grown films of crystlliline silicon onto a low·
thermal systcm The most impotlant Issue for the archltcct Is
cost substrllle. The COSt of silicon ingot 5..lwing Is ehmmated and
to become fully convers.lnt with the capabilities of the PV cell
the quantuy of silicon per solar module can be reduced
typologlcs and comfortable !n nndlng creatlve Integr.lIlon
Introduction Pholovulraic (PVl product technologies and tt.'Chnlqucs for
has a solid. cylindrical shape. EFG (Edge.defined Film·fed
combined With the integration of PV sy5lerns Moreover. detailed
possibilities at the early stages of design A I'V system m.1Y not
octagon. to allow higher packing densities In modules Another
slgnincanlly. A third approach Is a string nbbon Icchnl
inlt.'grating systems as an imrinSlc pan of buildings are mpidly
be easily or cheaply added to a building that was not Inillally
shallow silicon melt and the molten silicon expands and freezes
L'"IIolving as market deployment increases TIlls section introduces
deSigned with that Intention. A PV system Is
between the strings
PV tcchnology basIcs. and includes a detailed summary 01
a building and thus. should be consldercd In the very early stages
Integration concepts in use for all bUIlding t}'PologiCS. wUh
of building concept design planning
a deSign element of
comments on .:m:hm;!clUral aspects and appropriateness
PV basics Holistic PV design
The applle.1Uan 01 1'\' syswms must be part of a whole iholistic) approoch 10 bUIlding design and consuucuon A hlgh.qualllY PV system can provide a substantial
pan of the bUilding's energy
'Cr Is [he most reliable source of elecuicny In the world SoI:J.r po.... today Photovoltalc modules generate eleenicity when they are exposed [0 sunHght The actual creation of usable electrical current in a solar ceil takes place a[ the atomic level. The most
needs IF. In tilt: first losl,lnce. the bUilding has been designed to
commonly available solar cells are made from high-grade silicon
more energy consurnpllon is reduced. the more slgniflcam PV
conductors. phosphorous and boron This process 15 called
accommodate PV approprlmely and 10 be energy efficient. nle becomes as a supply opllon In a holistic appro
that [5 treated with negatively and pos[tlvcly charged semi· 'doping'. When light energy (photons) strikes the face of the cell. it excites Ihe electrons within the cell This flow of electrons lcurrem) from the negative semi-conductor (phosphorous) to the posillvc seml·conductor (boron) Is what we c.lll thc pltotovoltaic (PV) effect.
The Integration
Poly-
envelope Moullled on a sloped roof. a PV system call be pan
or multi-crystalline silicon
cells
of the weatherproof skin using glass. or II Coln be mounted above
Poly.crystalhne (also c.ll1ed multi·crystaillne) cells are produced
a waterllght foil protecting it agamst direct and ultraviolet (UV)
USing ingots of multi·crystalline silicon In the manufacturing
sunlighl. thereby cxtendlng the life of (he foil. These kinds of
process.. molten silicon 15 caSt Into Ingots, which arc square or
systems are a\'i1l1able for nat roofs as well PV systems mounted on extruded polystyrene Insulallon material as
crystals. These ingolS are then CUI into very thin \\Iilfers and
system are ,wallable and are well'SUlled TO the renovation of large
assembled into complete cells. New manufacturing methods also
rectangular in shape. and allowed to cool
so as to form largc
use the approach of grown films of polyo(rystalline silicon on a
nat roofs PV systems can also be imegrated on buHdmg elements such as canopies and cxterior shading systems. The
10Wo(05t substrate. Such substrates have Included a metal1urgical
designer must carefully examine the details of shading and PV
grade silicon sheet, stainless steel. ceramics and quanz gla55. using a variety of growth techniques to deposit silicon films onto
technology operauon to fully understand how to imegrate PV
these substrates. Poly-crystal1ine cells are cheaper to produce
systems effectively and eIL-gantly. One of the first thmgs that
than mono-crystaUine ceUs, due to the simpler manufacturing
a designer will discover 15 that a good PV system is not automatically a good shadmg system, nor is the reverse the case, as depictt.'d In figures
1
and 2
Orientation is one of tht' major design considerations for bUildings, and Is particularly impOrtant in low·energy buildings. A bUllding's healing load, the need for solar shading and the
rlQJ Salarcell opelallllQpllnti� Soimo. /lirrwrr.. SIo!u.:t.M
process. They tcnd to be slightly less efficIent however. wlIh average efficiencies of around 12 per cent
Solar cells Coln be separated Into the following categories. according [0 Iheir crystalline StTUClUre:
design of fat;ades are all innuenced by the orientation
f'91S.... dI191 I1!l['m'$l!d lorPV lIl'flIIIal and detaol l'lews No>�Erevt llMllatthfOl.nlJI!OnIECNI -&I"dlllg ]l $cun •.v!� ....__
12
Orientation Is Importam for the performance of PV systems Fa�'lde systems tnighl be more suitable in certain countries. C5peclallyat a nonhern (above 500 N) or southern (below 500 SI lalllude For counlnt!s belween these latitudes. sloped surfaces facing the sun or even horizontal surfaces might be marc
appropnate. These are discussed in detail in Chapter 5 The final choIce made by the deSigner Will be Influenced by restrictions on orIentation, the amount of Irradiallon In the region. climatic operating constrall1ts (such as temperature , relallve humidity and snowfalh. any shading by surrounding bUildings and obstrucllons, and tltt! reqUired aesthetics of Ihe deSign
Mono-crystalline silicon cells Thesc cells arc made from pure mono·crystaliine sUlcon The stltcon h.1S a Single and continuous crystal lallice structure whh almost no defects or impurities. The principal advantage of monl}-crystalline cells Is their high etnclency. Iyplcally around 15 per cem. although the manufacturing process required to
produce mono-crystalline silicon Is complicated, resulting In Slightly higher costs than other technologies. Olfrerem manufacturing methods are used. depending largely upon the Czochralskl method of growing. or pulling a perfect crystal that
13 '
Dve-sensitised solar cell (DSC)
Amorphous silicon cells AmorphOU'> �lllcon cells are composed of Silicon atoms In a thm homo!lt'nous la)'t'r. rathcr than a crystal Structure. Amorphous
stllcon IS product.'d by depOSitiOn onlo a substrate. ralher than Wafer 5.1wmg. so the cells can be thinner. For this reason.
amorphous SIlicon Is also known as a 'thin nlm' PV technology Amorphous �llIcon Ciln be deposited on a Wide range of subslrilles. both rigid 3nd nexlble. which milkes It ideil! for curvcd surfaccs and ·(0Id.3way· modules. Amorphous cells are. howt.....er. less clficlent than cryslaltine·based cells. with t}'piCilI effickncles of around 6 per cent. but they require less material
Dye-sensitised Solar Cell rosa technology is best considered as artificial photOsyntheSis it performs well under indirect r.ldiation. during cloudy conditions and when temporarily or permanently . partially shaded_ OSC technology has been dominated by the 1tzel lIIanlurn dlOlode mO,) cell P.lrtlc1cs of tilanlum dioxide Gr. arc coated with a pholosenSitlve dye and suspended bctween two electrodes in a solUlion containing lodlnc Ions When Ihls dye Is exposed to light energ}'. some of ils electrons Jump on to the thallium dioxide p.lHlcles. which are Ihen attraCted 10 one of Ihe elecltodcs. AI the same lime. the Iodine ions transport
and arc therefore cheaper to produce. Their low cost makes them
electrons back from the olher electrode to replenish the dye
Ideally suHed for many apphc.ltions where high efficiency Is nOl
panicles This creates a now of electrons around Ihe circuit
required and low cost IS Important For Instance. their earl}'
EfficiencIes over lime are still to be established but lechnlc.llly
markCI has been in .1ppli.lnces such as calculators and watches
could achIeve around 10 per cent or more. and are very effective over a wide range of sunllght condllions.
From solar cells to PV modules and arrays
FIQIOf'VlIIOd
The solar cell Is Ihe basIc unit In a PV syslem An Indlvltlual solar cel! can vary In size from about I cm (0 ·1 inch) to about 15 cm (6 Inches) ,1CroSS and typically produces between I and 2 wall5.
Ilardly enough power for the greal majority of applications The power is Increased by connecting cells logether to form larger unhs called modules The cells are welded in St!ries to a SITing of several solar cells St.lndard modules use around 36 solar cells and have a peak rating (WPI of around 60 watlS. For large modules ( 1 50 Wp). twO cell strings arc employed and can be connt.'Cled at the back to
Typical module sizes are 0 5 x 1 0 metre and 0.33 x 1,33 metres
electrical junction boxes. Thin·film materials such as amorphous
However. modules of any desired size can be produced Because
silicon. CIS and cadmium telluride can be made directly Imo
of Ihe previously dlSCUS5ed properties of amorphous SIlicon.
glass. polyamide or stainless steel. and Interconnecled to a
though most of the commerCIally available modules are
modules The cel! material is sputtered 01110 a substrate. either
modules of thiS material can have various forms and SIIeS. rectangular and are SImilar in size to Ihe crystalline modules
module by laser
Funhermorc. amorphous silicon can be deposited directly 0010 buildlllg components such as window glass. metal sheets. plasHcs and roof liles..
Standard rcclangular modules can be dell\'ered wilh or Without frames. Frameless modules. or laminates. can essentially be processetl as normal glass panes The thickness of glass-Tedlar laminates IS generally 8 mm, Glass-glass laminales are typically at least 10 mm thick Tedlar is used (0 provide back reflection and a high transmisslVlly toughened glass acts as a superstratc A major COSt component of a conventional photovohalc module A PV module is composed of interconnected cells that are enc.1psulated between a transparent cover and weatherproof backing. The modules Me typically framed in aluminium for mounting. although frames may not be reqUired for building applications. nle PV module is the basic building block of any PV power system The term 'solar panel' is often used to refer
Other lhln mms
to a PV module. However. the s.lme expression is also used In
A number of OIher promiSing materials such as copper mdlum
dlselentde (CIS) Cflgure 7). and cadmIum telluride (CdTe). are now being used for PV modules The anraction of these technologies Is thai they c.ln be manufactured using relallvely Inexpensive mdustnal processes. cenamly in comparison 10 crystalhne silicon
reference to solar water healing systems. 'pholovoltaic module' is preferred
r"1lH GlluelbtJnimldioule rrtO,)ceIJ � � � AcaIr.N
Australian National University. is produced using special micro machining techntques. requiring the equivalent of two (rather than 60) sil tcon wafers to convert sunlight 10 140 wans of power The thin slivers are bi·facial and can be spaced out as required WIthin a glass encapsulant to alter its translucent properties.
Solar cells are laminated to protect them From the cxternal environment. On the front. a tempered. I()\\' lron-contem glass
Is usually used This type of glass is relatively cheap. sirong and
technologies. and typically offer hIgher module efflciencies than amorphous sUlcon Some of Ihe raw mmerials required. however.
are less abundllnt than Silicon and there are lingering concerns �r the environmental toxIcity of some of the elements used although I, appears poSSible to overcome these. with careful . manufactunng. recyclingand
so to aVOid confusion.
[s the processing of the silicon wafers. clectrlcal lntcrconneCiion and encapsulation There are many methods untler developnlcnt. aiming 10 reduce these COSIS. A new Sliver Cell'" developed at the
slable. Furthermore. it has high transparency. good self
I compares Ihe typical efficiencies o f P V technologies o n the market and looks inlO the future. b y seeing what can b e
Thble
achieved In I h e laboratory_
and gases For bl·faCial modules. which can generate electr1clt�'
MlIXlmum trlCorded
required. glass Is used at the reaT To pro\'lde adhesion between Ihe
12-15
22.7% :1: 0.6
Mlxlmum trlCorried llbom/ory efficiency %
1 1-14
15.3% :1: 0.4
19.B
The stability of the encapsulant Is one of Ihe major contributors to
...
10.4% ,, 0.5
7-10
12.7
the expeCted lifeume of the module. To improve Ihe strength and
10.7% :1: 0.5
16.0
13.0% :1: 0.6
rigidity of the module. II can be Framed using aluminium SOme of
lB.B
"fflc/ttncle8
Mono-ctysl811lne (m-Si) POIy-ctyslallfne(p-SI) Amorphous silicon (8·Si) Cadmium lelluride (CdTe) Copper Indium dlselenide (CIS) Gallium Arsanlde (GaAs) Titanium Dioxide GrAlZel cell (1lO�)
sheet should also prevent the penetration of undesIrable vapours from front and rear. or when exIra strenglh or seml·transparency Is
dlsl)Osal processes
TypICI'
gases. On the rear side. a thin polymer sheet Is usuaUy used. The
�
8-'2
outdoors
25.1 % :l: 0.B '0
"',
24.7
different components of the module. the cells are 5.lndwlched between thin sheets or ethyl vinyl acetate lEVI\} The enc.1psulant should be smble al elevated temperatures and under UV exposure.
rl\ltt $hI'!!/ Cell"(le!lj and co:Tllltlllltll s(righlj
s.xn:.. c.. nfrlSu< r.m.tII,o fJ>«VIS)lmmf. Aurtr ....�NJl#WItm-.norr
the crystalline Silicon PV module manuFacturers now guarantee a lifetime of 20 years for their modules
rlble t �lSQ'\ oI . c.Uett�
� j[.C r.t ltMnt ""W�'"i
15·
Modules can be conneclt:d In series 10 smngs and then in pmallel /0 form
These c.ltt.,&ories have been claSSified according to th(; Incre.15lng
2 The PV system was added to the desIgn The building
extenl of architcctur.ll l1l1egration, I-IQwever. il prOject does TlOI
may be mlssmg a deSign function that PV can fill In the
nt.'Ct'ssei;ausc
1>Y
modules have been applied seamlessly !\ highly viSible I'V
form of. for example a practlt.ll I'\, shading device. as
Modules or arrays. b�' themselves, do nOi conSlilute a PV system Also needed :arc StruCIUres oriented towards the sun on which 10 fix
system Is nOl always approprIate, especially In renovation
occur if the Intended purpose of internal spaces within
them, and componems that transpon and convert the DC electriCity
projects with historic archltecluml styles The challenge for
the bUilding changes or the comfort levels required
architeCts Is to integrale PV modulf:s into bUildings properly.
need 10 be improved PV provides both an acdve and
produced Imo ahernilling current (I\Q, for use In bUilding
appUc.ltlOns These structures and components are referred to
I'V modules arc new building materials that olff:r new deSign
as the balance of system (605) and are Illustrated in figure
options Applying PV modules in architecture should therefore
I)
BOS components include support Structures, electrical Junclion boxes and inveners lalso rderred 10 as powerconditioners) for DC to I\C conversion, These elements account for approximately ,10 per cent of the total investment COSt for a PV Installation
The efcclrlCity meier, which Is already a component of all grid. connected buildings, is not considered part of the BOS Interconnection of solar energy to the electricity grid network varies by COUntry and by power distribution utility
II is now
commonplace that the solar power produced may be fed into the grid, either using a separate production meter or a bl-directlonal
When using a separate
PV production meter. the power utility Is
shown In a bUilding III Madrid III figure
16
ThiS C.1Tl
passive solar shading solullon and Inv.ulably. a well,
designed PV eave (figur� ( 7), awning or louvre retrofit
lead to new designs, !\ selection of projects described below
c.ln avoid the need for a mechanical cooling system
provides further explanation
upgrade Often. the PV additions do not necessarlly
1 The PV system Is applied seamlessly and Is therefore
not architCCturally 'disturbing' The PV system on a
mean thai architectural Integration IS lacking as the 'added' PV system is not always highly visible
dwelling In Tokyo trigure 151 harmOnlses wllh the lotal project by majnt.linlng roof tile dimensions and a complimentary colour sequence. ,'nother example Is in Maryland. USA (figure
I-IJ where the PV Is
laminated o n a Sp.lndek roof S}'Slem and IS barely viSible. This Solulion was chosen because the emire proJCCt is of historical significance !\ modern high·
lech matt:!Tlal would clearly not be appropriate for this archllectural styie,
able to buy the solar power at a different rate than conventional t.lriff eleclTlclty, This concept is currently not well.developed and v.lries depending on the power utility's policy. BI-dlrectional net metenng Is becoming more accepted, where the PV owner receives the same energy rale for solar power produced as Is charged for conventIonal utillty·sourced energy. DIFferential rates and the use of separate production meters may become more common In coming years. as more power utilities develop f.; 12 0..yIlm,lIuSllftbog tfHto:ell tD lI1OIhJIe llJarTilYlflatlDll5hip s...a. .w..r.. I'MQ.-IRtIMAlW
renewable energy labelling and pay a higher energy filte for renewable sources Bullding designers should check this Issue at the early stages of the BIP\' project. as It can SUbSt.lnti.ll1y Improve grid connection planning and heighten the incentive to invest In PV. More tcchnlcal details penaintng to metering Issues can be found In Chapler 6
Key design issues for architects and associated practitioners Building and PV design interaction A successful BIPV solullon requires imeraction between building design and PV system design The approach can be to fully integrate the rv system In the building, displacing a conventional
external bUilding material. such as tiles on a roof or cfaddlng against a facade, An alternative, but equally valid .1pproach Is to see the PV system nOt as an intrinsic building design Issue, and to place It OntO .1 building clement, such as a roof or other fixture The Integration of PV syslems In archllCCture can be diVided Imo nVe approaches I t can be' •
applied seamlessly:
• added to the design,
•
added to the architectural Image:
•
used to cJ(plore new architectural concepts
•
- 26
used to determine the architectural Image:
rtg I5 Dv.ejhn!l Ill T�. .IaP¥I
� ""'c....,._""""nI ;�a..� t)pft»!O'IIN[DOJ"'"
27 -
J TI1l' pV sy�rl'm adds to the architectural image by berng rnlegrilrl:d Intu [he [oral desrgn of rhe burldrng wuhou[ ciomlnaung [hI: project In oth�r words, the Contt:XlU,ll mtcgriltron Is excelll:nt. PV provrdes a vrsual sta[crnt:nt thmColn elther offer subtle or sulN,lnllal changes to rhearchltc
4 The PV sy�tem
determines the architectural image
I f phOtOVoitaic appUcmlons are Integraled In an eleg.lm and
charnCh!flSIrC. Frgure 19 shows dwellings In the Dutch dc\'clopmem .11 L..lnget!�k using PV ro dommaH,' Ihe
convince c!rents. arChitects and rhe public of the POsItIve role that
roofscape and aesthetic feel of the area The blue coloured PV root. while unconventional. blends effectively wuh the water and sky vrst,1 In OIher eXilnlplcs, SUdl as the office buildIng shown rn figure 20, PV rc.'Vuallses what mlglu have bee:n a stereotypical
an oldcr offrce bUilding (scc: case slUdy, Nctherlands
glazed corridor Into a prominent feature. playing an
lc:alUrc� This can efJeclln:ly create a visual et!ge 10
5 The PV system leads to new architectural concepts
l� !)onion) wuh prc.'vlously predictable flat roofllne
[he burlding that could lead to a posillve mfluence on us market value
How can a good BiPV design be determined?
The PV sy�tem rs used as an Integral pari of Ihe bmldrng cme!ope Jnd thus espouses a core building
Imporlant role In the lotal Image of Ihe buildmg
TIle appllcatlon of PV mOdules, particularly in combmarron with passIve solar desIgn concepts. leads to new desrgns and new archuecture Chapter t figme 7
shows the: translucent propenles of PV, creating
curvet! or d}'namrc surfaces as a fundamemal
construct of the burldmg Ardlllecturally, thls presents
acsthe:!ically pleasing way. hlgh.quallty exampl'!s can be used to PV systems can play, both In terms of performance and as an
integral bUilding elemem To idemlfy high-quality projects, some crltella are needed Although most bullt I'V prOjects aim to
Well-contextualised
to be very well-Integrated and the archllectural qualrty C,1O often
The total Image of tht: building should be In harmony with [he PV system and match the conteXI of the building The entire
To qualify a projtX:t as ·well-integr,ued', Ihe architectural qu.llhy has to be of a high standard, and of course, both Ihe bUlldmg quality itself and the technical performance of the PV sYSlem have to be mer. A poorly Imegrated PV system on a well.designed
arc not mutually exclusive but proVIde a basis from which good questions and comparrsons concernrng the architectural quality of a BIPV project can be made. These architectural criterra need
the colour and feel of the mternal spaces as the sun's
dIScussion, particularly with non·architects and manufacturers of
posHlon alters during daylight hours. SImilarly, the use
photovoltalC systems for Integration In roofs and fac-ades, who
panels when natural light at night
bUIlding form
has disappeared. This
system, however, would frt beller rn a high-tech buildmg
Architectural cnreria that have been formulated by the architects
archllect can comrol .1nd experlmem With the natural
creales a new appe
system wrll iook beller [han large modules A hlgh,tcch PV
elegant PV system will not necess.urly improve the overall desIgn
tex1Ures, such as wood and steel. Imponantly. the
lamInates. Including fluorescent backings as used
system used and vice versa In a hlstonc building. a tlle·type
on a poorly designed building Is clearly worse Simrlarly, an
in lEA PVPS Thsk 7 are grven below and attempt to define and
(chapter 4 figures J9 and 40), can re-energise Ihe solar
appearance of the bUilding should be consrstent with Ihe PV
building mrght be diSturbing, but a poorly Imegrated PV system
characterise wh.1t a good BIPV design might entail These criteria
of artifiCial light on different textures and PV
the bU!ldrng grid !rnes used 'Grid' refers to the mOdular system of lines and dimenSIons used to structure tile building
achieve good technical performance, PV systems have tended not
new deSIgn options, workrng wrlh a vane!y of suppan
for the Sydney OlympIc Boulevard lighting pylons
bUilding This will determrne Ihe dimenSIons of [ile modules and
be disappointing
structure materrals and complememary building
lighting dynamic within the burldlng and transform
Grid, harmony and composition The srZlng of the PV system matches the slzrng and grid of the
ohen believe that thclr systems always fit perfectly, In m.1ny instances, ,1rchitects arc nOi aware of the altraCl!veness or expressive opportunrties of Imegrating bul1dings
I'v systems Inro their
Naturally integrated Natural Integration refers to the way that the PV system forms a logical, natural part of the building and how. wrthout a PV system, SOlllething will appear to be missing The system completes the buildrng. The PV system does nOI have [0 be Ihat obVIOUS In renovatron Situations, the result should look as though [he PV system was there before the renovation Architecturally pleasing Based on a good deSign. does the PV system add eye-catching features to the deslgn1 The building should look attractive and the PV system should
frg 71 ThII l'V root aIOe Kkmrr Aaidt. bteI. Isan::l!ltettlJilltyplllaU1Ojj s.-. fVJI��
nOilceably Improve the deSign, This Is a very sUbJt:Clive Issue. but there Is no doubt that people find some buildings more pleaSing than others Well-composed The colour and texture or the PV array should be In harmony With the other exterior finish materla!s In miUlY cases the !'V system will intentronally be produced in a certain way, for ex,lfllple, rrall1cless Instead of framed modules. SpeCIfic PV technologies can be chosen to achieve a sult,lble colour. transparency. shape or texture
' 11
fI!lZlOO5kWP�sdicoo IJIes The AtJa-r"s Sooslaln.eparr olagoD:l Q)!I1lOSIllOf!l'Itfle NatDlill HOfleStables ll1 Bem
Scutt M.W>.tSol¥�AG. "",,- s..,1oWlnf
The first Issue 10 clarify when designing wuh photOVOltllics Is Ihe primary reason for integrating PV in the bUilding, For elt.lmpll!!, IS II for general energy supply or Is It to make the building more Independent of conventional ulility power? For general energy
r.g 25 lru $UUCual 9lumg delad IS 1'oeI1�'ed ;ni1lQM1MI ... c.w .t..s..ar Dl'lil:.- 6 ..ww.m.-
consideratIons Will be the architectural treatmen\ of large areas
crystalline silicon cells diminishes when the temperature rises
of PV and selecting from different types of modules. different
Md hence the backs of the modules must be \'entll
shapes. different colours or different textures of modules to be
sp
Independent, the actual slle of the PV system will depend on Ihe
the Junction box) can be used for both functions. SafelY switches
efficiency of the system and the generaled yearly outpUt The
will be needed near the Inverters to work s.1fely on Ihe PV
of modules, the dimensions of Ihe modules and the 101.,1 well.engineered
well as c,udul considerauon of ways in which the differem
dimensIons of the system to be Imegr.ned into a roof or fat;ade.
p..l5Slve. ,lC!Jve and mechamcal energy systems IOteraCt
Compelilions such as the Universuy Solar Decathlon 111 Amenu1.
Shadowing of the modules is an Imponant consideration.
solar car racmg events. the virtual World Solar Challenge and
A module Ihat is partly shaded will lose more effiCIency than is
Includes the elegance of the details Ha\'e detatls
been wl'll concei\'cd1 Old Ihe designers pay anention 10 detai17 lias the amount of malerltll been mlnlmlSl'([7 Me deLails
many others arc mspmng new PV desIgn concepts and
convincing? Thcs�' considerations will determine Ihe Innu!!ncc of
technologic.ll ad\'ancements
the workln.ll dclalis
Tile way photovOltalcs Is dealt with in archuecture can differ
and add \'alue to bUildings
from counlry to COUntry It can also depend on the su11e, culture
I'V s�lI:,ms can be used III many ways and we still do nOI know
and type of linanclllg for PV building projects. In countries such
PV products for use in the bUIll environment has helped 5I1mul,'tc nc\\ deSign conCeptS and mnovallon. Winning designs Includl"d ') solar saIl featurt' In from of an office complex. and a
PV \'t'nlilat.:o:1 ralnscreen slTcssl'd·skln lImber conslruction. as
partlCul
Modules. paTilcularly those l.lid nat. Will collect dIn. especially in urban environments or dusly rural environments. and thiS can decrease the effiClency by appro:dmalely 4 per cem or more
Modules wuh an angle over 20° Will self·clean through the action of ram, Special treatment With PV Guard can help to keep the modules clean
expected since when one row of cells In a module Is covered or heavily shaded the outpUt of the whole strmg of modules can be
affected. Small objects Ihat can cause shadmg are less Imponant slgnlncant amount of indirect light available. Some modules have
BiPV project scale
thlnklnJ! by archItects New ideas Cilll enhilnCC the PV market
.1Jl of them The lEA T.1sk 7 Internauonal competition to design
system 8iP\l electrical issues are discussed In detail in Chapter 6
The shade will move during Ihe day and there Is typically a
Innovative new design I'V Is an IIInU\'J[lV(' technology. asking for innovative creative
(depending on the slzc of
Maintenance and cleaning
Core design issues for BiPV
This docs not only concern the watcrproofmg or reHablllty of the
IE
20-50 mm
used to face off the building. For buildings aspiring to be energy
The nexl crItIcal step in the design Will be to establish Ihe number
COnSlnlCUon
be connected to the Inveners Improved effiCiency IS gamed by
placing the Inverters near the modules From the Inveners. an AC cable has to be fed into the grId V1
designer Will have to accommodate ,1 specific amount of modules
IW_ tvrout�1"lIC1 1"" r.ennet.rtlett\ U�
effectively The modules haveJunction boxes on Ihe back that WI!!
supply, large PV systems will be neceS!klry Key deSign
,md wilt have to design the building around the Imegrated SYSlem
r.g nArnotpflcu.; liIoccn 1Obt1asc:"'�'tInb1 W�ll'IloG·1
Sp
as Denmark and the Netherlands. where public hOUSing is common. large-scale housmg developments are apparent Professionals, such as project developers and archItects. who Implement the housmg conSlruction process. are presented with numerous Opportunities for PV roof integration In single-family houses and for facade and roof integration in apartment
Integr.,red diodes 10 make a shan CUt when a row of cells Is
covered or shaded. AC modules also help to Isolate the impact of shading as each module's DC power output is converted to AC
Depending on the appllc<1llon. the PV module must meet
and drawn individually. Other photovoltaic technologies. such as
appropriate building standards. As wllh hail. Fire. wind. slOiCIural
amorphous silicon and titanium dioxide cells. arc Jess impacted
load and other bUilding regulatIons. Ihe developer of PV
by Irregular shading effects. due to differenl electrical connection
installadons should consider Ihe applicable nation,,' and local
characteristIcs and beller performance in low light Invener characteristics are also critical. since most have a cut·off point In general. shading should be avoided as much as possible.
buJldmgs This alloy-'S for the IntegratiOn
council codes. In general. nal or sloped roof applications are less affecled by bUlldlllg codes than overhead or facade installations
Specific compliance requlTements are provided III Chapler 6
._-----...,
of a large number of PV systems during construcuon. such as Ihose seen In Nieuwlands. Amersfoorl and the Sydney
f'!l28Ho'Jll'9 down p.snels s.u.. 1O.IuJnII""""**f-vrI�INIfiJ
OlympIC VIllage. Integration of P\I
systems in residential homes can be carried OUt on an ad hoc b,1Sls but orten the motivation comes from the pnv.11C owner There is a significant market for private homeowners who buy 1-4 IIWI)
�mall-scale P\I systems and mount them
Urban aspect
somewhere on their house. In thc priv" te sector, more bUilding-integrated
PV integrated systems in bUildings offer added funCtionality
PV systems arc found III commercial alld
beyond power generation PV structures can effeCtively displace conventional building mateTials ,lnd assist in reducing overall
Industrial buildings. where building professionals are closely Involved With these types of buildings, PV systellls ..re more readily mlCgrmcd both into facades and roofs
' 30
FIII 26 S11adow �ts S&uw .u.m IIwIlW u.. IMN/11
system costs. To generate maximum power from building Integrated systems. several urban and architcctural aspects are Imponam The Starting pOim IS the maximum power that can be produced from a system Hindrances can occur from the part shadowing of a system by other buildlllgs or objects and. very occasionally. by renecllve glare
]1 -
Distance between buildings
Onentation and angle
Th.· anloont of Irradlallon depends on the laflfude of the buildmg
,lnd the local cllm,lte The maximum irradlJuon depends on the orlentillion iind theangleof the coHeclion surfaces ForlaUtudes
nonh good results Cover 1)0 per cenlf can be achieved !>emecn southe3S1 and southwest with s}'siem till angles between
52"
30"
.lnu
50"
Orientations between east and southeast and
betll'el:n southwest and west are acceptable ror til! angles
hl'twe!.'n 10" and 30". sInce the irradlmion will only be reduced by approxlma!Cly 1 5 per ccru fronl oplimum. Figure 29 depICtS
annU,ll lrradlJtlon in relatIon to orientation Jnd nil for Freiburg. Germany Inonhern hemiSphere) and for Sydney, Australia
Shadowing between buildings should be avoided For low·rlse seulemems Ihe distance between the bUildings c.ln be eaSily
calculated and shadowing is il relatively easy problem to solve. For mll
.lpartment bUilding In a low·rise neighbourhood, for ex.1mple,
can generate a cOllSlder.lble amount of unwanted shading The building density of an area Is critic.11 In high·densJIY areas such as CIties and urban centres. the distances between bUlldings wltl
be limned and shadowing will occur for slgnlncant perIods of the year 'lypically. faJ;'ade systems are the most suscepilble to shading and require larger dlSlilnces between bUildings than roof sYSlems
lsourhcrn hemiSphere)
Form
and colour
Solar cells arc I�'pjcally blue, dark blue or almost black In colour DIHerem colours - grey. green. red, orange and yellow _ Me
pos�lbrc, but ilre not typically standard manufacture and may be significantly more expensIve than stand,lrd modules Blue colOllrt'd cells have the highesl effiCiency. The type of module also has an Impact on C.olour Frameless modules
givt' a
very harmonious Inlpresslon as the roof Is nOI
disturbed by frame patterns of differcm colour or matenal to Ihat of Ihe cell� TI1C colour of the cells Will be Ihe colour of the lotal surface and Ihe roof will look like one large surface. Framt-d modules give another visual accent The frames can look
Trees
heavy and profoundly Innuence the overall Visual impact of the
G�ning the area around bUildings offers a number of poslll\'e
PV ilrmy .lnd ItS inlCgratiOn With Ihe bUlldmg Sm.lllef frames In
qualities. IncludIng Improved appearance and a microclimate that 1'.'111 be comfortable for the mh3bllants. However. the shadowing effect of trees Is very imponant, esj)C(:iaUy as theIr crowns will be ill a maximum dUring the summer period In addillon. In the Winter I>criod, when trees lose their leaves. the branches c.ln also generate significant shade. The rate and extent of tree growlh is also typically underestimated
Smce every trcc will grow a Uule more each year, planning is very Important to avoid problems a few years aher the bulJdmg is
constructed or the PV system is installed PoSSible solutions
Impression Framed modules WII! emphasise the dimensions of
IllIcgranon of PI! The four mam options are - Sloped roof - F[al roof • FaJ;'ade special applicmlons • Shading system
Sloped roof applications have Ihe advantage of using Ihe Inclined roof a!. a platform, whereas nat roof appllcallons need a specl.ll
moummg stTliClure to prOVide the reqUired onent,lllon angle for the modules. Fal(ilde Installations have a high profile, due to the high VISibility of the installation. The technical requirements arc mosdy higher than for a nat or sloped roof Inst.1Uadon.
bec.1USC
of the wifing and the Juncllon boxes, which have to be hidden, and the Increased dlrflCUlty m (hung the array 10 the bulldmg
The founh category rel.lles to special applications. for e.'(ample, shadmg elemenLS. atriums. louvres. balconies and skylights ThIS sec.uon focuses on the four ca"�gOTies and presents different
t',lch module and 1'.'111 innu!!nce Ihe mountmg profile of the roof
typologies of Integration, A comprehensive list of product
The colour of the frames and of the encapsulant used as the rear
typologies can be found on an onhne Internallonal Energy
surface of the module c.ln also be different. thus providing more
Agency flEA) Internet database at wwwpvdatabase.com
opponunity for design interest
Sloped roof
Sloped roof construcuons are very common for reSidential buildtngs and are most sUlled for a PV installation Ir onentated
Include " Only pl.lnting trees on Ihe nonh side of buildings (nonhero hemisphere), or the south side for southern
- - " '10 " _15'_-'1
Ihe s,lmc colour as the cells are almost in\'lsible at the surface
Sometimes the frames can be used to make a specJfic
BiPV integration techniques The bUilding envelope prOVides a number of POSSibilities for the
hemisphere bUildings - Only planting small lrees that have a growth limil up
approximately IOwards the equator Different tYPologies of mountIng systems are readily .wallable on the market for sloped roof appllcallons. One of the cheapest typologies is Ihe mounttng of a profile system off the roof. above the tlles (figure
31 I
/0 roof heIght - Yearly pruning of Irees to avoid Shading of the PV collection surfaces
Zoning
PI! systems in urban areas may reqUire special solar zoning
Three-dImensional maps and computer models can be used to Identify rights 10 sunlight and to establish the borders of building
areas to prevem future shading problems.
Glare Although nOI Iyplcally a major problem. unwanted glare can occur under cen,lin circumstances There are typiC.ll1y few problems in
-
l2
Flill roof s}'Stems with very low angles (between sa and lOa) can be .1 Uood solullon should orientation prove difficult The loss of Irradl3110n for Iht' I'rciburg e.lt.1mple ts eSlim31ed 10 be between 5 per cent orlentaU.-d to the south and 10 per cent for a nonherly onentauon Dt'1311f'd diSCUSSion on oflent.1lion is provIded In Chapter S
low·rlse seltlemems, but In a mixed development of low. and high. rlse bUildings with increa.!oed faC
�
also ehmlllate mosl of the potential
glare problems
JJ.
flg35P1ug& I'Dwef"_ I'Ioh,.�.Australi:a
clamps ontO A common mst.1l1mlon approach is to fix special roof ed by b.1tlcns Vertical profiles afe Installed to form a base. follo\\'
So..a "� ��
those hon!ontal alulllinlum proflJ..'s The modules are placed on profiles ,md nxt.-d ell her by screws or clamps A l>l'Cond .1Pllroach Iflgure
J2J replaces some standard tiles with
�pet:lal l:lround pl,m:s. onto which the horizontal profiles are fixed dlrCCtly "g12 Kloberprolilll ryStem
..... l��
The main advantage or such mounting techniques IS Ihal an air gap eXI§IS between the rear of the module and the roor. pro\'ldmg a cooling effe<"t that can be achle\'ed on exlsung buildings wuh no large effon or addnional costs This may anrad dlffenng visual appeal with some prerernng a more Integrated solution Some cxamplc\ or stand-ofr mounung techniques. which differ mainly In the method of fixing the modules to the prOfile system. are gl\'1.'n III figures
33-35
Flg ll SunStlct """ - -
fIg:li Alu·lec:
w.. �tS..,�..ur.1
$everal systems are available for 'real' Integralion of st,lndard
PV
lamlnales or modules into Ihe roof profile itselF The key issue. other th,1n the need for water·tlghlness. Is tilat these systems
F'1!I3!1 1nsIallalKl1l wnhSchi.aJ l'{Stllm
need to be suitable for sl.mdard modules as welt as for custom·
---
made ones. If needed Thus. the overall product design is slightly The SUn Suck system prefabricates the modules wuh a hook at Ihe back of Ihe modules 10 snap Ihem onlO the profiles during COnSlnlCIIon Other systems use standard modules or laminates
more expensive than on-roof mounted deSigns. but In some
applications. they are cost compelltlve. As for the roof-mounted
systems. mOSI integrated sYSlems apply profiles. whIch are
mounted OntO the roof batten SIrUClure. The laminates are fixed
thai arc directly mounted Onto the prOfiles and then fixed by a clamp or by a so-called diamond chp
10 the profiles either by rubber solullons or mechanically. EPD:.."
Another s)':5tem. the Plug &. POwer'" product. IS al:50 manufactured
malleable product wJlh high reSIstance 10 punctures. UV radiation.
II'lih rear melal cltps In advance. The modules are clicked onto the proflll':5. plugged In .lnd prOVide power in a relati\'ely !.tralghtforward Inst.ll1allon process
(ethylene propylene dlene terpolymer) rubber is often used as a heal. \\Icatherlng and microbial anack
The BOAL profile system i s a Vertical profile fixed 1 0 the existing roof construction using rLogular screws The number of screws required is determined by Ihe maxllnum loc.l1 wind load The PV laminates slide into the vertical profiles and are glued In place. The lOp cover Is clipped into the vertical profile.
Sloped roof: shingle roof tile
A very dynamiC field is the shingle and PV roof tile Several new developments have been introduced mto the market lmponant Issues Inelude aesthetics. ease of handling and installation lime. The category co\'ers a wide spectrum from a Simple tile. equipped
Integrated systems typIcally show a better aesthellc than on-roof
with a very small pV module. to custom·made laminates glued
mounted installations. but have the disadvantage of less cooling
OntO
at the back of the modules Experience shows that the
with. for example. reinforced fibre plates. The following sectIon
temperature of the module may reach up to 60
DC for mid
European conditions. thus resulting In a power reduction of up
10 1 5 per cent during ambient lemperature l>caks Calculating the annual energy reduction because of a poorer cooling effect. a value of approximately
:!-5 per cem C;HI be nOliced for
InSl,ll1arions In mid· European locations This Will be even higher under very high ambient temperature conditions. II Is Iherefore
Imporlilnt 10 consider a ventilation Inlel at tlie bOIlOIl1 of tlie PV
a building substrate. and to the direct lamination of PV cells
presents some products and proVides more inFormation about the Integration typologies. All systems have one aspect in common. that of replaCing conventional Illes and being mounted directly on the roor structure (battens or .....ater barrier foil) Most products usc custom·made lanlinates. with the rv capacity varying from JUSt 7 Wp up to
100 Wp. either plaCL>(j on a building substrate and
1I\!illlllatlon and .1n outlet ill Ihe lOp. which would faCilitale a
then integraled. or rramed suitably for direct integral ion Tile
natum] ventilation effect and bring Ihe high temper-nure during
and are based either on a shingle system or have an overlapping
summer down to approxllnately 50 DC
products are usually easy to connect to the exfstlng or new tiles area thilt will be covered by prOfiles. Some systems provide a nearly watertight inst,lllation. whereas others have the s"lme properties as standard tiles and prOVide protection against rain and normal storm conditions
l4
35 '
Sloped-roof profiles Figure 40 shows the Sunny Tile. made In Switzerland by Slar Unity It IS a PV laminate (7 Wpl integrate(! in a plastic tile. with the same properllCS as a convenllonal ll!c The result IS a very aesthetic appearance, thanks to the small units These are relatively COSIly, In the range of approximately EURIO-1 J/Wp for the tile only. depending on the capacity Another example. which Is based on an e:dsling building element with the same dimensions, is shown in ftgure 4i . Sunslate IS a Swiss prOduct .1nd consists of.1n .1pprOXimately 14 Wp laminate, which Is glued to a reinforced fibre plate Figure 42 shows a product from Austria called SED D.1chzlegel One ,1dvantage of these products IS Ihat normal roofers (used to Illes and shmgles) can moum Ihe Illes and mterconnect them Without the need of specially tramed personnel Consequently. many SYSlcms are Similar In approach and design to e.'(IStlng bUilding products, to ensure Simple shingle or IIle mounting Some module products are screwed to the wooden banen (Terra Plana-. figure 45) and others are moumed on prefixed clamps on top of prefabricated plaslic moulds (Braas. figure 44) One of the oldesl known solar tile producls. seen 111 figures 46 and 4 i, IS
produced by Phomx and was im'emed and disuibuted by Ncwtec, Switzerland
All the systems above use cuslOm-made:: PV
laminates and are
therefore more expensive than profile-Integrated II1stallations In altempts 10 reduce mounting structure costs. new products were developed. based on standard lammates or modules where the mounting structure is adjusted to fit the dimensIons of Ihe PV element Figures 48 and 4q show a product from the Netherlands called lntersole. SOLRIF (Solar Roof Integration Frame) (figures 50 and Si l ls a mOunting system for inclined roofs and conSists of special profiles for the direct Integration of PV modules IntO the roof SOLRIF cremes a watenlght roof comparable to a clay tile. The profiles are cast from alummium by extrusion and are Independent
of
any PV laminate. An Innovative feature is the aspect of the lower edge where the frame is fixed on the back. thus allowmg free water drall1age. The problem of Salling along the lower edge of the module s i also avoided
Thin 111m roof systems New mountmg StruCtures can be explored If usmg thin OIm technOlogies. The
PV cells are deposited dIrectly onto a metal
substrate. Which can be produced 111 a roll·to-roll techmque of metal sheets up 10 5 8 metres In length If vertIcally mounted
or up to 2.5 metres \\hen horizontally mounted ...nother product based on thm film technology IS a ne:
roof
UI1ISolar. USA The shmgles /2 2 x 0 mounted on the
3t
metres) are hOTIZontally
The modules can withstand the bodywelght
of rooF mamtenance workers and the unobstructed lower edge shmgle design helps reduce SOiling of the modules Another special shingle system from Germany IS produced by a company c.lllcd Rathscheck One module has a capaCity of 50 Wp and can be w.llked on without concern for damage The dlsadv,lmage IS that in case of failure of the solar module, the neIghbouring shingles have to be removed first
. J!
37 '
thIS product Idea Illgures 54 and
55) illustrates the major
Flalroofs
advanta�e of BtPV products PV lammates do not Just need to
installations or
Ilm�ra1l'd) IntO the huilding materml. prderably as a part of the
i<1
slructures. fIxed only by welghl Although [his does not always have of
t?qulvalel11 10 " quarler of [hc ground noor arl:a for Sult"ble PV
Ihem In their malerlals, leading to 'real' BIPV products
57).
5.v
producIs as YCt
new solutions, less COSt and less millerial Is comparable to the
appro.:lch for BIPV products In the inclined roof sector The systems
25 squmc melres of nat 15 s(IIl
design shown In ngure b2 IS an example. Some of these systems m installallons of hundreds of kilowalls
present 10000'<05t solutions and have been apphed
IntO three categories: mechanically fixed to the roof slructure. based
Furthermore. one can assume [hat the 3es[hetics of such an
on welghl found.l1ion: ilnd an mtegrated soIullon. which
apphcallon ThiS howC\'t:r, requires funher research 11110
Incorporates Insulation propenics and forms the wmefllgtll layer.
,lppropriatc lammauon ma[enals and a beller understanding
In general. a noll roof rv generator helps to reduce the thermal
of lhe uwldmg lnduslry
load of a building due 10 [he shading of the modules, bUI " IS
Even so. ali Thc syslems prc!Sc!nted bring the disadvantage of less
important to ensure there Is space for maintenance VISits and Ihus
than optimal coollng a[ The hack or the modules. II IS Impanant [0
ensure the functionalllY of a nOli roof Oller itS operation Ufetlme.
cooltng eJftlCl
extcnded and are very suilable for a modular concepT TIle SOFREL
1\\'Q
If the pV cells arc Intcgr.ued In[o well,known building matenals
conSider a ventllallon Inlet at th� lower p.1r! of [he PV Installation
as they c,ln be plate(! almost al any place and can be casny
angle can be ildJuSled [0 meel specific demilnd and the locauon
clement WIll be optimised with minimal bamers to Its
and an outJet at [htl lop. lo encourage a nawraJ vcn[ilanon
based on weIght foundation have the advantage of heing flexIble.
optimally pOSitioned with suppan structures, and the Inclination
Flal roof PV Installations have [he ildvilntage of beIng able [0 be
The insl,lllmions C.ln lrack 10 the optimal sun angle either as one· or
It IS predIcted Ihal some healthy COSt reductions arc poSSible
toof can pose demands on the load.bcilring ablllty of the building and IhlS needs 10 be assessed wllh CMe. ,\1 presem. S(..'Veral systems are avaIlable and more are under dcvelopmcm The research for
Ihe area SUIT"blc for I'V is
an acsthellcally pleasing outcome. hrlnglng added weight to Ihe
sliing For eXilmple. If Thc ground noor area 15 100 S(luare melre5. roof Sloped roof potentl
into reInforced fIbre Iflgure 58) and .1nOlher rv cell laminated
These Me protOlypes and arc not commercIally a\'allablc
In a Study earned OUt by lEA Thsk
oITices and apartment complexes could offer. on average. roofmg
before the bUildIng Industry ,1(ccptS thc rv cells and Incorpor.lIcs
on a plastic suhstrate and covered with a plastic sheet lfigure 5q)
PV plants
potential In induslry, il was argued thai large faclOncs, corporale
manuf,u:turlng process, So far only demonstrallon projects have been realised with such products bur It Is only a question of tune
SOme Itk'as Me HlIegratoo In a plate of conCfelC (figure
Designers have also expenmemed with lower mounllng support
FI,lt roofs present a large potential of suitable arMS for
be �Iued ontO ,1 bUllcling subslrate TIte cells can be lamInated
r.g 54 Mlllat ",",1$ iIIe lWed Irllrq d'lKll �r,les - - ""'"
InstaU
Concrete elements are placed in a melal pan as weight
61 are examples of systems thaI arc available on [hc market
foundallon. Honzomal profiles are fixed to Ihe base clement
Many more appear ,15 custom·made appllcalions. depending on Ihe roof struclure.
according 10 the mclination angle needed
Olher concepts use the existing gravel on the roof as ballast The
struclUre IS made of reinforced fibre or PE'plastlc, which can be recycled II IS imponant that Ihese systems are nexible and can
take different sizes of modules In the range of 70- 1 3 0 Wp As the mounting structure is made of more expensive material, COStS for Ihe structure are higher. but c.ln be compensated by less cost for the Ins[allation overall
rl\l60 SalalFamul1/S ---
. )8
fIQ 63 Cor1:ept lnterJal flal rool
.s.a- o--SoIIr:edni. Go\'ru!r
J9 '
" mmmtlnlJ �tru(tttrc for f>V modules and lammates call1..'tl C;OLGREF.:-' h"� bl'l'n l,_,pL'Clall�' d,'\'t'lop(.'t! forgr�n roofs, The Jim IS to {h"V!·lo p .1 bghl\,,:r�.'ht system. wlm:h ,l!Jds aimosl no 10.10.1 10 ·n lOOt ... rhe gll
nl!' wunl!n: IS nXI..-d by rhe grovel found
th!' foor .md th!' 5ub�trate fof Ihe roof vL-getaUon Th�nk5 to IIns
.lpproach. o;olar .1Irays c.m be combined With \'egel;l[ed roofs In 'ln . 1UI .1l's[hc[iCillly pleasing way An important design I:conornicai 1 lS�lR' is [0 give as much sp.1ce be[\\t'Cn the ground and [he modulI' as pO�Siblc. since [ht.' ��geliluon can grow up to 40 cm
.lrId thl' gr.·en roof feqUires rnaimenance. such .1S grass mowmg
.�" ' "
.
-J
J
f.g&l An$it!ltSdd,'I-TOIl
nM.h.(iermart; s... E..- 5" �_
..
""-
--
/
Fig 68 InSlallatK;WI S{)lMAX
In :l thrrd calL-gory are systems that Incorporate tht, properties of
PowerGuard- ls a practical soluuon that deUvt'rs solar electriCIty
a roofing clement. such as J wa[erUght bamcr and an Insulallon
while Insulating and prOtecting the roof Each clement
layer These products add very little extra weight to the roof
Inlerconnects easily, wilh no roorlng pent-tralion, and works ilS
AI[hough more l:"xpcnslvc than standard flat roof �olut!ons. there
a rctrortt over existing roofs as wl;'ll as for new bUildings Th!;'
an: g:lIn5 In syn�'rglcs conccrnlng roof properucs, and In overall
s�tcm incorporales PV backed with extruded polyslyrenc loam
aesthetics
The eleml:nts arc applied un·adhered oller buill.up. mechanically attached or fully adhered mcmbr.tnes
in Bielelold, Ge!Jnany
... S\o'L�
S«.on- Soin
Another IntereSt ing produci is a roofing fall that Includes Un!
Solar's trlple·junclJon PV cell. The product. Ev.llon-·Solar,
combines two products: an amorphous PV module, developed by UniSolar in the US, and a traditional roofing fOlt. made by Alwltra In Germany II forms a watenlght barrier and can be Installed III
a Similar way to exlsllng roofing falls The product offers a new {and lightweighu aeslhe[tc. due 10 the horizomal mounung The
amorphous pV module IS produced wuh a 'roll 10 roll" prOCess on a metal sUbstrale and IS so nexlblc that
n c.ln be rollL'd
The dark
blue modules are up 10 [.55 melres In width and II or 1 2 metres
in length and are encapsulated In protcctlng plasllc Each modull:" has an installed capaclly of
t28 WI'
In northern Europe, each
module is expected w produce about 100 kWh of solilt electriCIty each year Alwitra foil consists of EVA (Ethyl,vinyl·Acetate) and PVC (Polyt'inylchlonde)
Fig 7O SOLGAEEN large
Slua!SoiSl!$.S""L�
"
-
- '
-
,....
�;-'.": 7.,''"!I"'I , ' , t... " , -""',' ,' -I t. �!f'.
'-:':. J
�
r':'/{��fi�1 '
-
\,,.<,·2r-JI( 1.'(
'
fIQ74 E-
',.\. . :
f"iJ 7J IS kWp 1/U1�lIal'on 11\ �allua·I\Ma, )lav,"iI.1
� (OKII/Q. Sn
f,g 75PV l!IStallatl!J!ll,ithEvakJr"
M s.u.. A'Ir.l�
' 40 �I
All fl.11 roof mounung systems. except the roof-Inlf.-gr.ucd prodUCIS. show a good performance. thanks to an Improved
cooling effect .11 the hack of Ihe modules As the module is mounled from 10 cm up to
100 em abovc roof leve!. airflow
al Ihe back of the modulc is guarnmced Thus. the flat roof PV gent'l'iltors usually provide a higher energy rield than §loped roof
Sustainable houses designed at Eltcn·Leur. In the Netherlands
(rlgure ifl supply all their own energy To accompllsh this. they use passive solar energy. photovOI!;lIc solar energy. heat pumps
,lnd heat recovery During the summer. heat Is slorcd in the ground. to be used dunng the winter The houses are situated m the district known as de Keen'. it newly dcveloped area With
or fJ,
lero-energy houses being bUll! to hclp reduce CO, emISSions.
Other flat roof PV conSlnlcuons. such as Ihe Williams Buildmg
TIlese zero-energ}' houses arc covered with an ·energy·roof
In Boslon ,rigure 7bl have developt.'
to assist runnIng a chiller SYSlCm. and 28 kWp of AC powcr Ihal ft.'eds directly into Ihe grid
cont.lining (, 2 kWp BI' Solar I'V modules (around 45 square metres) for each house. This roof construclion overhangs a row of houses. which means that the energy s}'S!cms can be eaSily reached mamt.llned and
f I necessary. expanded
Good venliialion
Improves the performancc of [he PV systcm The orientation or the houses Is more or less Indcpendent of the solJ.t systems The system can be further 0pllmlsed In the future Because the use of solar energy is a major p.lrt of the design process. new designs arise which are architecturally very interesting The project shows how new concepts enrich the architectural value of the (nat) roof Other examples Illustrate the abilit}, of PV to blend mto the existing cultural building context and remain
�l£
Fiji 76 f,., tOQ/ PJ ill Ihe CBDDtBaslIlfl s.u.:. /bo&
'2
� �Il
�--;-;:
aesthetically unobtrusive This is evidelll With the 150 kWp metal·line!! roof tile s}'Stem on a high school
gymnasIUm In Japan ff1gure 78)
l!.'
Fa�adas
Til. U�,· of 1'\' modules In I.l\ad,·� �ecms (0 be obviouS :'>IJny 1,1�,ak h;wc 1l',1'>'> or Illes ii' .1 skin
P\' modulI's G.ln lepl,Ke
Ih,�" m,lu'rlals Oftl'n, raprle,> IHl'sem IJrg�' surface arc,:!.!; lor I'V
Sugho. Italy tflgure 801. ami .1n office in Austria tflgure 8 1 1 PV
t,l�adl' PTOJl'ClS arc bl.'commg an mCTcaslngly popular allemauve ({l com'/'llIlonal cladding matenals. forming a dtsunclive feature
liS,' bllr lL!ukr ,I ryplc,l l v"rllCill prof!!e are usually sub-optlmal In
and pracuc,ll pomt·ol·use power generatlon source
Ollt�nt.lllr>l1 The ,'X(!;11C of rhl'" very much depentl� on lalllUde,
Poly.crystalhne solar (ells C,ln also be integrated into reflective
lhough ltwr" .lrc.1 numbcr 01 bcnt,rus 10 be gil!l1Cd b).' uSing il PV
Fl'nss panels Ont' such fa�.lde system was designed ancl patented
1;I�al,k appruilth, p,miwlarly ftJr e,15t· or wesl·facmg \term:.,1
by FLABEG /formerly Fl.lbeglPllkmg!On Solar) for Schuler and
bUilding �urla(c5 Ih,1I rt.'fjUlrc prOlecllon from sonlenmes very
Jiltzlau i\rchlteCt� who hrst used it
harsh morning or ,lliernoon sun Faptle5 are, hOll'cver. mort'
III I C)Ql on thc colourful 'Oekotec
,hadt· mod"lhn� arc r,':ommended 10 dewrmint' solar ,1ccess
:-'IodlJics arc made ,1S resin·flllt'd
PfI>Il!' W !;Xll'lIl,ll sh,ldlng eHccls :;0 careful silC t.'Valu.ll1ons and 1',I<';J(it' COI1Slrur:uons C.ln be sl'p.llatcd InIO two main groups vcntilit!cd ilnd fIOt Vel1Clliltl:.! Bt-callSl: ol tht.' hcal bUlld·up behilid
lhl' PV modules. It IS Impollalll to knOll whether or not a
]' Berlin office ra�adl: (figure BO)
glass-glass panels Thc rear glass �heelS of Ihe PV panels contain a refl,'clI\'e coaung around the
con�lrucuon Is vcnul:lIed. \'�'nul,ltcd far;ad.. s are suuable lor the
cell.lreJ to achlcvc a unlfted
l'l!IClenry l� �en�luve 10 high temperature. Non·venufah_"CI fa(ades
m the ra�,'de
ml�1:I,lllOn of crysr.llhnt' �!lIcon PV modules whose output
desIgn wilh the other glass panels
n-qUJrc ICchnologlt'S th.lt ciln toler-lie much warmer amblt'nt
Sloped fa�ade profiles
tl'mpcratures .lncl um'(:l11ilatt:d conl.liuons. such as amorphous
Sloped facade profiles are particularly pracllcal solutions for
opllmiSmg Ihe available PV surface area They can often also
Sill(Qn P\' moduli'S
achieve Jrrtmectural novelty. both fTOm .1n external bUlldlllg form
F.Iroldc ,III: bil�IC.ll1y constructed usmg in-SIIU bTicklaYll1g or
perspecuve and through the control and experimentation of
concrcte COmtrucllOIiS. prefab elements or structural metal
paSSII'e Ilghung and aC\ll'e PV structures. ViSIble rrom wnhln the
fa�,-l(ll's th.lt 'lft' mounted In place Concrele COnslruClions form
building The Solar Office al Doxford !nternauonal {sec case STudy,
thi' stnlclUrJ.l l,lycr and art' covcn'd with Irlsulauon and a pfDl1�m'I' skin This 5kin 11'111 be a claddll18 of different materi,11s
•
CI,ldrllng with
Chapler PV modules Me easily configured 10 create cUlVed far;ade prOfiles
i\ renovated radio and TV IranSmitting StatIon in Thbarz Inselberg.
Therl' are threl' baSIC SyStell1 lypes
31 is a well·known
example of this for commercial omce
spaces. but the concept IS also pracllc,ll for reSidentIal appHcauons (figures 85 and 86) and as J sloped framing louvre
Germany mgure 84) used a special fa�acle ftammg system so that
conStnlCtlOn !figure 87). Fa(ades used In this w,1y can optllnlse
mcchanlCalor glu(.'{J ,\\att'rials- conctele or ceramic
I I) 8 kWp of poly·crystailine Silicon modules. manufactured by
onemmion of large building surface areas to maximise The solar
till'S. nmur,ll SlOnt'. metal or plastIc panels and
ErSolarstrom GmbH. could be mounted Irom the Inside
power generation potenlial
open JOlillS, hIdden mountIng.
l.lmln,llC�, grass Shl'Cls and wood; • CUrl.ll11 11',1115. window frames and sheeting moUnted pronlcs. c]ost'd ,1ir gap, \1atcflals mctal or plasllc
m
p.lnds .111d lamin.ltes. glJSS sheets: • Strunural gl.umg. glass mounted on high·tech steel COnSIr\KIIOn, gaskets belw�n Ihc glass For luxury office bUlldll1g�. IIhlCh often have expensIVe cladding. cJ.lddlllg wllh PV modules IS nor more expenslvc than other commonly used malt:rlals. such as nalural stone. marble and
eJipt,n�l\,c �peCl.llty glass This CladdIng COSts around SUS!.ooo per �I]U,UI' mt'trt' comparablt: to the COSt of Today's PV module
Fa�adlls - inlcgralcd cladding
Curlaln Willis ,lit' I\cl!·kllown and used on a large scale. When Tht,�l' nHlStruCilons cover llle whole building there Is oflen a �e(()lld Inye! on lhe IIIslde wllh IllSu!arlon and an Inner skin To pr�'vt�m condensation. thl'" larcr can be almOSI alftighl. and hcncl' ,1nY ;lIrg"Jl is clol>cd lIld . the array IS not venlilaTed �truuur,,' gLutrlg or slructural far;adc:. are constructed using lughlr dt'\'clopl'eJ mounting sy�t"ms. which can be filled with all t)pt 01 sh�'t'llng, such .l� gla�s or fr.1nlClc5S PV modules Gaskets 01 proflles .lre u�l'd to close the g " p bel\\�n the sheels of glass
."
Rg 81 SlJIImw l(oostan.! ....'rh IolM8 1\'SIem. GemI¥r'( ScuQI/£IJ/AIdIo_,.,."--
45
Sunscreens and louvres
Faltades - vertical fixtures PV� 1/1It'W,llt'd .15 b;llustradt·� h.mdralls ,md ornament.,1 fay3de
F.:u;ades arc also sUI[.:lble for the addmon of all types of screens.
ft_�IU/C" m.1Y b,' applied In both new and rctrofu deslsns TIlls
sunshadt!..�. louvres and c:moples. There IS a IOglC.ll combination
tyP<' of Intlllrallon can rcvltalls.c the extern,ll bulldmg compositiOn
of shading a burlcltng III summer ilnd producing electrrclty at the
UsmR PV as an eco·senSlilve dt'slsn solullon. a Japanese pI,'
same lI1lle ArchlU.'cts rccogmze thiS and many examples of PV
IMlu�tradl' !llgure 681 cre,lIes a sophlSItC.ltcd finish to what could
shaumg systems art' being constructed In an incrca sing numbcr
h.wt' bf't'n " hl.lntl ;lIId uninspiring balcony design
of commies
FFg 98 1'\1 baWiy
b,i!wtraoo.Yol...1lllma "''Ied.3 TIM"Or. JaJ)Jn
The Schuco International KG. Top Sky
FIgure q2 Shows Ihe PV far;ade Integration on
consequently have no openings on thaI side (nonheast). except the entrance door The soulh and wesl f;Jr;ades have large Windows and glass doors To prevent overhe.lling In summer. shadmg devIces are needed The living room fa,ade has a IIxed shac!Jng device and Ihe pV panels arc pan of these clements
I product fflgurc 90) from
From the point of view of the PV system. [his solullon is nOi
Germany u�es an " Iurnlllium sunscreen deSign as ,1 PV canopy
opllmum. but III the context of the deSign of the house and the
For :;'lfety reasons. Schuco recommends the use of compound
far;ade5. the archileclural integration looks eflecuvc
safety glass or wired glass with these canopy roofs Thc system
Piping-shafl blind louvres Incorporallng
30 kWp pV have been
\\IOrl\5 JUSt
used extenSively a[ a research centre building In Tokyo trigure 93).
with alumimum or steel
wuh venulallon gaps [0 mimmlsc temperaturc increase of Ihe solar cells The gaps arc shaped so as not 10 create nOise durrng
Schuco's Top Sk�' I I product
Windy condillons
increases the maxImum profile
The entrance lO the BagJan ceo-factory in Wales demonstrates the
length to 1 500 mm. and the angle can be fixed between
30�
use of both cantilevered crystalline silIcon awnings and a \'ertlCal
and 45° A range of standard
amorphous slUcon \\;all system !figure 94)
aluminium powder-coated colours
PV sunscreen devIces are usually exposed structures and Ihus
can be used on the product
Eaves
PV module'S can bl: dfe'CtlveJy IIlcorporated into ea\"d; as a
• • : ell-venulated Examples are shown in benefit from belOg F
At de Zonncgolven. BOIueJ (figurc
f1gures
Q t ) 30 Dutch houses. wuh a [otal
(OntlllU,1II0n of a roonine or ,1S an overhead scr..:enlns device
96-9Q
of 43 kWp Integrated PV systems.
When used In cOIlJunwon wuh glared facades. ,his can produce
have a variety of roof and far;ade
vlbr.mt PV rnlrror rent-cllons from the StreelSCilpe. visually
BipV elements. Of particul
appcaHns elif.'(ts from within rhe office space. or eye.catching
c•..:tc mal leatures
22 houses In
Dordrecht. These houses arc locmed near a nOIsy highway and
interest 15 a cleverly distribUlcd
rlll !ll SchI.COTop SkylwFthaJO" �111IfI!I!8 --
row of PV shading devices that provides an Impressive and eh,lnging lighting effect ag,llnst a residential red brick far;adc.
FIII !ll J6�WO NnM\lS3S3SljrrJ fI & D CentFl.lotvo_Jap.an
- .......
fig 9-l Bag!an £co- PJn. dnogrll!!d byll1e Wetlh Sd!OOI 01 ArttIitkl"l. c.t!<1f
tklrversll'(.Wall'l
S
fiv !liOose'UP gIBPScIlar canldeYelOO awmngant!atrO'pi'ous lllican walJ fill 91 DeZOIlnegotyen. BQa.1ll 1. Ihe Nctheilallls
s-.fO.tM�Scmq.
5IvQr o'le.olQt C"y Calml
flll !lil'\lglnsanopy-
� (JU..dI:Fn'lMlAll:fl,:etU l/S.I
Translucent PV Translucent PV modules used as roorlng tn1llertals scrve as WateT and sun prO!ectton as well as transmullng daylight In glass covered areas. such as sunrooms and amUtl15, sun prOtL'Clion In Ihe roof Is necessary In order to avoid overheating In summer The dtstance between the cells IS between
5-20 mm. depending
on the amount of transmitted light required The PV cells absorb 70-80 pcr cent of the sun's radlallon. Thc space between the cells transmus enough dtffuse daylight to achiL'Ve a pleaS3nt lighting level tn the area PV cells were used In this way ill Ihe Centre for Susmlnabrllty De Kleine l\.1rde. In Smuel. The Netherlands and al Ihe Bnlndtland Centre to Denmark (see C<1SC study). The usc of semi-transparent PV modules to Ihe Solar
Offtce In Doxford has resulted In a srmilar contrast In the ra�ade In order to comrol the amoum of daylight to Ihe workplaces,
semHransparem PV modules have been used Instead of glass
The modules serve as sun protection, whIle also allowing daylight to pass Ihrough Stunmng Inlemal Hghllng effects Coln be created by modifying the
r,g g1�.'If!ltyorfilarl9o'n, �rtlJ Ceotl� rf1MfIIIlCUIIr BIOIogy,ErlIQe"'l Gerffl.)'Ty ... -
translucent propenlcs of Ihe PVs (figure
100) and sclecting cells
thaI resonate colour. whIch Is oflen associated with poly
CTyStallrne wafer SlrucIUre5. for example, the soulh, east and west orremed SIdes of Ihe church roof spIre tn Potsdam. Germany have been installed wllh trapeZOId cuslom·slzed PV panels to creille a
slUnnmg effect !figure ( 0 1 ) DesIgns usmg highly translucent GrtmeJ cell technology, with its red'brown colounng and nextbilny. have been put forward as
rnnovallve ra�ade structure concepts (figure 102), where PV rIll IOO lranslur.ertt f'VrIesqtl
s..... Sob>AIi.&rin.�
·(�i rro l0'2 Gr�tI!ll cell f� de�rg�
s.ur. � �A..
' 41
glazrng adaptability can be put to 51unnrng architectural effect
Atria and skvlighl PV designs Possibly one of the most elaborate and architectura lly Invigoratin g app!tcauons of PV has been in atria or skyhghling systems
Examples. such as ECN and Doxford (chapler I and case Studie s/ ha�'e become wcll·known BIPV bUlldmg tcons Combmed PV glazmg Structures (such as those in figures 103-105) arc being used to gain pubhcuy In solar power design circles as bcnchm ark archllcctuml BiPV .1pplicauons
Fill !OJ!2 lWpIIBOIIue8IIr l'Varrun. I\ch"nCQ. KVOhl.
s· 1.1)1.
Jaoan
AI the Dutch Floriadc 2002 cxhlbilion in Haarlemmcrmeer. thc NUON clectrlclty company buHI the largest roof-integratcd rv system in thc world. 28.000 squarc mctres of semHransparelll mono·cryst,llJlne silicon Siemens PV panels yielded 2.3 MWp of Installed PV power (figure 104) At the Netherlands Energy Research Foundailon (ECN) In Pellen. Building 42 has a conservatory With 43 kWp 51' sol<1r roof. Integrated transparent laminates. which reduce light and sun transmiSSIon b�' Mound 70 per cent compared to grass The conservatory therefore acts as a big parasol over the offtces. prOtecting them from the sun while still providing enough daylight (see c..lse study). In this way. it was poSSible for a passIVe cooling system to be used for the building. instead of a mechanical COOling system
BUlldmg·lntegrated PV modules generaJly operate at higher temperatures than those arrays mountcd outside the bulldlng envelope This is due to increaSt.'d nmural convection hem loss that Is possible due to wInd and buoyancy cffects when both sides of the modules are exposed Moumlng techniques . framing. and cnc.lpsulatlon of cells also impact on the operating temperatures of the cells. Since the vast majority of BiPV products :wallable use crysralline teChnologles. thcy will be the prnnary focus of the diSCUSSion. It should be noted. however, thm amorphous I'V cells have been shown to h,we ." most no degradation due to Increased temperatu res. and. In SOme cases. a positive temperamre cocfficlent
cooling! and lhe possibility of reducing or aVOiding costs for as the tot,11 building cost may be lower In BuUding .12 .1t ECN. thc applic<1iioll of Translucent PV modules was a neutral UlVCSlment (refer to case study, chapter 3)
PV thermal co-generation applications The negative temperature coeffiCient associated with crystalline silicon PV cell technologies raises interesting ObSt.1Cles and opportunltics for BiPV applications. As descnbed earHer and in more detail In Chapter 6. there Is an inverse relationship between temperature and PV cell effiCiency pnmarily due to band-gap propctlles In crystalline PV cells It affects the open CircUli voltagc most dramatically There is an assocIated slight increase In shon CIrCUit currcnt. bUl thIS Is of such small magnitude that II is eSSentially negligIble EffiCiency for cryStalline Silicon Is typically reduced by 0 . 1. 06 per cent for each degrec Increase in temperature above 25 0C; these are generally acceptcd figures for 1hls phenomenon The effect of increased ICmperalUre on voltage opcn circuit (Voc) is shown In figure 106 Amorpho us s1llcon. c.1dmlum telluride (CdTe). copper indium disclcnlde (CIS) and other PV technologies show differIng relationships with increased lempcrmure.
a wide range: of technologies
In thIs connguration PV cells arc gcnerally pasted to a typical nat platc solar thermal collector and act as the absorber These modules can utilIse clther air. or heat transfer liquids as heat transfer mechanisms Concentrator technologies Here. small arrays of PV cells are c)(posed
to high sun concentrations These cells require substantial COOling and can create hIgher temperatures than flat plate applications PVfdaylighting systems
i :: " •,
-"" __ 10",_,.,,, -...,_. ".... _ ...,.. -..._ . ..... --,..... -<00__ 11"' __10'" - <001_ . ..... _ . 10 ...
BiPV/thermal applications These have generally been placed In venical
f:u;adc installalions where rhe PV array acts as a second·skin building facade Forced or natural convective airflows can be used In the cavity that Is formed
Thc cost of Itanslucent PV modules is typically 20-30 per cem
mechanical cooHng systems. make Ihem well wonh irweslig.1tlng.
pvrr modules
In thIS category pin·holes are made In the PV cells. using lasers (In the case of thin film appllcallons) or cells are Simply spaced apart in order to achieve a desired light transmission Since larger amounts of incoming radlallon penetrate these systems. they can also act as combmed systems
higher than for standard modules. However. the integration possibilities. the multifunctional use (daylight. shading, passive
Buift ellamples pvrr systems in buildIngs can span
Fig 100 tvWlYl!S l'efSlClcetiteJnpelatUfli .$')oNy�
.s:cur. u.....n.l)" alN IMSoumW ..
PV cells conven appro>:imately 6-18 per cent of incomIng irradlance Into electrical energy: the rt:st Is renected. re.radiated. or lost as low·temperature heat. This. along wllh the tempcrature coeffiCient described above. serves .1S an impetus to remove unwanted heat from behind PV arrays and utilise the nuld now to create thcrmal energy. There has been considerable imerest In these concepts. which are known as combined PV/thermal (PVIT) systems or PV co-generallon systems. In any aiPV Co.gcneration system. the usefulness and timing of the thermal energy produced is crucial The thermal energy can be
fiQl()7l'VfTl��·sectU\lChemalJ: .5Qom lbttrml\' oINrw.\QIIII I I -",, $)
• transferred via a heat exchanger to hot water s)'Ste!l1s. • used In conjunction with air source heat pumps;
• used to heat mass;
• stored in underground pebble beds or phase Change matenals;
• used to preheat incoming air in cold seasons for
buildings With high ventilation requlrcments. The heat produced from a BiPV cogeneration system Is low.
till 100 BiFVco-gcl\elaloonsc/Iemal£
s.vu "",WJllYalNiM·$Q,rtt l'.� ��/fibi
temperature. Thus it can be used dIrectly for the processes named above. btu is not useful In generating electricity or in any hlgh·temperature process ilpplicatlons In Industry There is a large vari,ulon between system types and climatic conditIons III which the systems run Within these large wlrlations. ratios of thcrmal
Fig I 05 D>g.tal EquIP!lllflt COflDahOl1( Q(Cl CorI INdcYoltac IowrtI'(1I""'- S.... ,Uen.D _Cat�......
' 50
�_
OUtPUt to electrlc.,1 power production are In the order of
1-3.!
51 ·
C H A P F8 f i R E E Some BIP\'.f.l�"dl' bUildmgs Uliltse Ihe airflow i n the cavuy behind the PV modules This can help to mcrease the stack effect m a
.wallable from the roof space A system planned for a new campus residence comprises eight rows of 24.mctre.long
I NTERNATIONAL B i PV CAS E STU D I ES
commernal bUlldmg or alternatively. the thermal energy can be
parabolic mirrors that track the sun on a single axis and renect
captured and used as vemUatlOn atr preheaung or for direct space
light onto StnpS of high effiCiency mon(H;rystalhne siHcon solar cells at about 35 limes Ihe normal solar intenslty_ The solar cells
healtng. 1\\'0 excellent examples of this type of system are m place on thl' EJ.S<\ (European I...aboratory for Structural
covering 7.5 square metres convert around 1 5 per cenl of the
Asscssmel1l) bUilding fa�ade In lspra. Ilal),. and in the Doxford
sunlight into electriCIty that Is delivered to the building and to the
solar building In the UK These buildings have bOth used hOlistic
electricity nelwork through a 40 kW grid-connected Inverter The
deSign pracllces to Incorporate the benefits of PV rapdes for
balJllce of the SolJr energy cre.lles heat which. tather th,m being
15 collected as hot water In I 3-cubic-metre
co·gener.1/Ion The test ceU schematic (fIgure r08) shows the
w,lSled.
baslc lteat tfilnsfer mechanisms invoJved in the process
storage tanks It will be used to provide aboul 80 per cent of the
The Incoming thermal energy can be vellled to the outSide or captured as it flUid or In the mass of the bulldmg struclllre These syslCms have also been use(! experlmemally In smaller
thermal
hOt waler needs of the residential campus bUilding's bathrooms
�
kitchens Jnd IJundry. Jnd about 30 per cem of the wmler heatr g requirement via a hydronic noor healing system
commercial and reSidential roofs The decreased installation angles serve to decrease tlte velOCity of the nallIral convection found behind the modules. In mOSt I:llnudes. the increased
Summary
Insolation on tilted surfaces CM sen� to offset this deficiency
This chapler has described the basic principles of bUilding.
In energy producllon
integrated PV systems and shoWIa examples of the exCiting
The CHAPS (combmed heat and power system) collectors
0pportumtles available to architects in using these new
(figure IOQ). developed at the Australian NalJonaJ University (ANU)
technologies. The following chapters provide more detail of the
Centre for SUstainable Energy 5YSfl�ms. combine hot water and electricity generation into a smgle unit. maximiSing the energy
descriptiOns of some of the Innovallve sYStems mal have been -
technical aspects of system Installation as well as more derailed built around the world
' 52
53
AUSTRALI A: SYDN EY O LYMPIC VILLAG E The project is the world's largest solar vmage. II was a showc:.lse for the Olympics and
IS par!
of a sustainable Inner suburb,
exemplifying mnovatlve approaches 10 ESD principles lIS requlremems Inclu ded • housing
for 1 5,300 athletes and officials and future
Newington occupantS (2,000 homes for approximately
Roof-inClgratad
5 000 people),
Raid,milll Now
• strict Implemcntauon of energy-efficient and demand side management best pracllCCS
brownnetd slre;
LATITUDE: LONGITUDE: AlTITUDE: CLIMATIC TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS'
future repllcallon.
151" I2'E
a I,olsu.ll1y acceptable solution. without compromiSing
40 metres above sea level
the technical performance of the roof and the solar power system.
PV is vaTted over the site depending on the
house design concept, orientation and urban deSign • Matching the
BIPV system to the different architectural
styles of each archnect
• Sile planning and roof design so that the majorny of
30° east of nonh;
pilch to optimise OUlpUls; • Positioning of the solar hOi W.lter units In relation to the PV laminales:
systems where roof oriemation was not optimal (mIllOrity or houses)
variOUS designs from the eight commissioned architects.
Sustainable housing design context NC\\' energy-efnclent. paSSi\'t! and active design guidelines were wrlllen 10 commll Ihe design and development of the
Village to
conform to beSI practices The houses follow exemplar design strategies and energy-efficiem beSI prilCtiCe through paSSive and aawe solar appllcauon and the maximismg of naturill \'Cntllatlon The energy-sman designs are complememed by gas-boosted solar hot water, gas heating and cooktops and energy·effidem hglnlng and appliances The National Housing Energy Rating Scheme (NaIHERSl software was
used to calculate the energy
performance of home designs The Solar Village deSigns have
General project background
achieved an average -i·star NatHERS rating, The overa!1 result is a
NewingtOn Is a low-risc, inner-elty suburb of around
halvmg of greenhouse gas emiSSions when compared to a typical
It Is locau:d approximately
new dwelling m Sydney.
90 hectares 1 5 kllol1lclrcs wesl of the Sydney
C80. on a sile of approxllnalcly 2b2 hectares. which encompasses tlle Olympic
Village The site originally consisted
of salt marshes, wetlands and open grasslands and had been extensively used for Industrial puq)oses The brownfield site 1ln.,'Vlously housed snhworks, nour and tweed mills, a government asyl um and hosp!!al and mosl rceemly. a navy ammunition depot
The use of environmentally benign construction methods and materials was also followed These include minimisation of PVC use by choosing alternative cabling materials, low-allergenic palms, woo! Instead of fibreglass roof Insulation, timber and
ceramic tile nooring fibre cemem stormwater piping and 90 per cent recycling of hard w.1Ste du ri ng the construction perio d Water mlnllnlS
lollel cislerns and exlemal taps reduce Ihe use of potable water
Project brief The New South Wales government OlympIC Co-ordination Authorny (OCA) requcsted a sustamable .1pproach Including the promise of delivering a 'green' OlympICS. The Olympic Solar Vil lage is pan of this, with the ambitious goal of changing the
world's vltow of solar energy and energy effiCiency. demonst"nlng 10 OlympIC viewers and overseas viSitors the commercial t.1pacny of renewable energy technOlogies providing III
- 5\
of the
• Controlling the visual appearance of norHntegrated
• cost-effecllveness in delivering a clean. green suburb
Yearly average = 5.5 hours per day
desire 10 create a 'Iow·te(:h' streeLSCape The vtSlbility
• Prm'lslon of about 80 per cent of roofs With a 25°
• BIPV, which S
Sub-troplcal lTemperalure. wmter average = n "C, summer average = 26 "CI
• Balancing the incorpOrilllOn of phOtovOlt.lics with Ihe
roofs lie WlthlO the range of 20° west of nonh and
• renC\vable energy integratiOn as a demonstrallon for
33"81'5
Oesign tssues
goals:
• an enVironmentally bemgn communlly, built on a
CLI MATIC C H AR A CTERISTICS
BiPV design process Architectural design Issues that were considered include:
electrical energy to an entire urban residential d evelopmem
by 50 per cent o\'er conventional homes The energy initlallves aTe estimated to reduce non-renew:lble energy consumption by around 50 per cem compared With standard project housing, which will be equivalent to a S<1Vi ng of 7.000 tonnes CO, pcr annum once the tOial development Is complele in 2005
co-ordinated by Henry Pollack Architects, ensured iI unique variety of PV buildlng-imegr.lIed systems with maximum active and passive solar gain givcn the conscrafms Imposed by the geometric characteriscics of the urban pliln
AUSTRALIA: SYDN EY OLYM PIC VI LLAG E The project Is the world's largest solar village It was a showcase
.:,..."
"
,., PROJECT!
LOCAnONICITY: COUNTRY:
TYPE Of PV BUILDING: BUILDING TYPE:
NEWJRETRORT:
for the Olympics and is pan of a sustainable inner suhurb.
823 K 1 kWp OlympiC Village
excmpllfylng Innoyallve approaches to ESD principles lis re(llIiremellls included
Newington, Homebush Bay, Sydney
• housing for 1 5,300 athletes and officials and future
Australia
Newington occupants (2.000 homes for approximmely
Roof-Integrated
5.000 people):
Residenial t
• strict Implemenliltion of energy·effiCient and demand·
New
side management bcst practices, • an clwlronmentally benign community. bUilt on a
brownneld slle.
• renewable energy mtegration as a demonStration for
" "6,·,..·111·';'·" " ;'f" '+1 lATITUDE:
LONGITUDE: AlTITUDE: CUMATIC TYPE:
future replication.
33" 81'5 151· '2'E
• BiP\', which
40 melres above sea level
the technical performance of the roof and the solar
Sub·tropical fTemperature: winter average "
power systcm.
I7 "C:summer 8verage =26 "C)
SUNSHINE HOURS:
S
a yiSually acceptable solution. without compromising
• cost·effectiveness in delivering a clean. green suburb
Yearly average " 5.5 hours per day
BiPV design process Oesignissues Architectural design Issues th'lt were considered Include: • BalanCing the Incorporation of photovoltalCs whh Lhe
deSire 10 creme a ·Iow·tech· stTcetscape. Thc visibility of the PV is varied oyer the sile depending on !he house deSign concept. orientation and urban design goals: • Matching [he SiP\' system to the different architectural styles or each architect.
• Site planmng and roof design
so that the majority of
roofs lie wLthin the range of 20· west of north and 30° east of north;
• ProvISion of about 80 per cem of roofs with a 25°
PLtch to optimiSe OUtputs: • Positionmg of the solar hot water unilS In relation to the PV lammates:
• Controlling the visual appearance of non.integrau .. '<1
systems where roof orientation was not optimal (minOrity of houses)
Sustainable housing design context New energy·effident. passiye ,1nd active design g uidelines were written to commit the design and development of the Village to conform to best practices The houses follow exemplar design strategies and energy-efficient best practice through passive and
flg l O¥npi1: vdllgl! ho:mng w'!hDI� .-., .
vanous desIgns from the eight commissioned architects. co-ordlnaled by Henry Pollack Architects. ensured a unique variety of PV buildmg-lntegrated systems with maximum active and passive solar gain given the constraints Imposed by the geometric characteristics of the urban plan
active solar application and the maximising of natur,ll \'entilation TIle energy·smart designs are complemented by gas·boosted
...,.-r.d_ s..- "" --
solar hot water. gas healing and cocktops and energy-effiCient lighting and appliances The National Housing Energy R.lting SCheme (NaIHERSI software was used to calculate the energy
General project background Newington 15 a low-rise, mncr-clty suburb or around 90 hCClares It is located approximately 15 kilometres west of [he Sydney
CBO, on a sile of approximately 262 heclares. which
encompasses the Olympic Village, The sile originally consisted of salt marshes. wellands and open grasslands and h,ld been extenslyely used for Industrial purposes The brownfield site
preyiOusly housed sahWOlks, nour and tweed mills, a government asylum and hospital and most reeemly, a navy ammunition depot
performance of home designs. The Solar Village designs have achieved an average 4'Slilr NatHERS rming The overall result is a halVing of greenhouse gas emissions when compared to a typical new dwelling in Sydney The use of environmentally benign construction nlcthods and materials was also followed. These includc millimisauon of PVC use by chOOSing alternative cabling matenals, low·allergenic paints. wool Instead of nbreglass roof msulallon. umber and ceramic tile nooring. fibre cement stOTlnW,lIer piping. and QO per cent rcqrcllng of hard waste during the construction period Water minimismlon strategies. such as reclaimed wittcr used for
Project brief The New South Wales government Olympic Co,ordlnatlon
AUlhority (DCA) requested a sustainable approach, including the promise of dellYering a 'green' Olympics. The Olympic Solar Village is part of this. wuh the ambitious goal of ch:lIlging the World's view of soJar energy and energy effiCiency, demonstr:ulng
' 51.
to Olympic viewers and overseas ViSitors the commercial c.lpaCity of renewable energy technologi es in providing electrical energy to an entire urban reSidential development
tOllct cisterns and external taps reduce thc use of potable water by 50 per cent over conven1!onal homes The encrgy inltiallves are estimated to rcduce non.renewable energy consumption by around 50 per cent compared with st,1ndard project housing. which will be equivalcnt to a saving of 7.000 lonnes CO, per annum once the total development Is completc in 2005
I
bltlra ab�� UCsIIII L I B R A '" 1 071
PV perform,lnce was marginally compromlseO through ae.slhetlc
PVsvstemdesign Followmg exu:nsl�'� prOlOtyplng and full'SCille mock ups of vanous rooHmegr.lIoo JPVI sY5tem design opuons, the fmal product con5J.s BP SOlar high,efflciency Saturn PV module
3) usmg SIX custom-designed mounting clips Jfigure ,lJ
lanlm,ltes were fastened (figure diamomhhJpcd
r�qUlrell1cms to usc a d,lrk·coloured b.1Cklng layer rather than
condllJons ISTC), Thc darker backing ITlJterlal Increases thermal gains and is a �Ugl\lly less eFfcctl\'c intemal renecl,lnt of Incldem light (Collins Ct aL
PV system power 623 x I kWp
TrPl ol buildinginlegralion TrPl olcell lechnology
2000) System reliability Is nOi considered to
be unduly compromised in mCCting Ihe reqUIred overall pcrform:lnce output of the systcm Each PV system Is wired to Junction boxes mounted
lessons learnt from the project
COM PONENT CHARACTERISTICS
an ortlm,ll while la�'er This change In the laminate crrccted a small leductlon In efficIency compared wuh slilndard test
\Vhlle Sydney msolation levels ale favourable. temperature eXlremes prevail In summer periods and place uncomfortable
Rool iOlegrtlllon
thermal condilions on PV systems Standard Test Condmons lale
PV panels at 25 °C ambient temperaturE:, which IS notilbly below
Mono-c ryslailino silicon
Inver1er 623x customisOd BP Solo,1200W
PV
typIcal i\ustrallan summer climatic condillons. Further, the roof illea deSIgns of Ihe houses wele compalallvely small tfor Australia), being of terrace or 5E:ml·detachcd slyle
m urban
configuration The deSign strategy and nexlble arrangements
in the c,wny
12 lamina,es prOVIded an cffeCllve, yet SimplE: SOlution !O
Perfonnance characteristics
of the
In a meter box. TIlis is 11'lred to il compaci
Some c,lhbratlOn of the weather mOnitOring equipment c,1used
overcome Ihese Issues
Invener (fIgure
rlelay In the release of performance resullS Early mdlcmors confirm a\'erage PV performance of nround
/+, small number of invcTlcl locallons. which were sited on
DC Isolation Switch 12oo-waH BP Solar 0) that com'ens tht> generilted PV power into
of lhe roof, whIch is evell1ually broughl lO a
usable AC eleclTlcny ilnd feeds directly 1010 the gnd Systems
1 ,100-1 500
tooo kWh/year
Ihe
Side of the house, due to architectural deSign and slt(; orienlallon.
kWh/yeM. with a number of arrays achIeving generation gre..lter
suffeled from direct sunlight heat gain and consequently shul
are monitored using telecommunication technOlogy 10 track
than
performance output and pmpoim any outages Ihilt mIght arise
development has ImpaCted on the systems A drop In efrlclency
good Inverter poslUonlng: sIting mverters In shadt'. either by
.\lore hlghly-engmeered BIP\' approaches from overseas were
was noted following consecutive dry days when conSlrucllon she
using additional shading components or lee,side fa�des
rejected In favour of a design that could meet market needs ilnd be readily accepted by the housmg mduslI}, for Simplicity and ease of installation 'TYplI:aHy. the tray installation would take half an hour and PV Wiring a little o\'er two hours, A record number
of nine roofs were installed in one day by tWO skilled labourers Pacific Power proVided third-party Indemntty and the systems were covered by a to-year warranty on deterioration in OutPUt
due to faulty workmanshIp or materials. The frameless laminate deSign and diamond tray mounting chps lower lifecycle energy COStS and help to ,lchleve a pleasing balance of COSt versus thernlal performance and energy yield
Post·Olymplc reconstrucllon and
dust was suspected of covering the PV systems ThiS was
confirmed as post-rain generation and self
down
PV
laminates caused increased power OUtpUt relative 10 Irradlance and ambient temperature.
frequently. thiS expenence suppom the Importance of
Pacific Power allocated a full-Ume site manager during the conStruction phase. This was the butldmg transfer stage once the PV roof was ready to accommodate the Inst,111,1110n of the
BP
!ammateS Electricians were sub-comraclcd to complete thc rough wmng and fiXing of desirable terminal points Once the roof and sub-tray system was Installed and water tightness
approved. the same scaffoldmg was used, In coilabor
BP Solar complcted
this work in around three man·hours per Installation lusually tWO \llorkers) and supplied the PV laminates, invellers and
BOS usmg
reusable wooden pallels to transpon the pnrts from fnclory to site Post-system commissiOning. contract spares
t2
in�'Crters) are stored by PaCific Pmver but are yet !O be used
An IIIvcrted U'JOint bellveen laminates encourages natural com'eetlon cooHng.
/I. mesh was useO to surround the PVs to
prevent leaves and animals entering behmd the panels. Off-cuts from the sub,tray sheeting acted as weatherproof JOints between
trays The design was expected
to satisfy a
number of
reqUIremcnts These Included each system's delivery requIrement of 1 ,600 kWh per ,mnum, compliance wnh Australian bUIlding load, health and safcty specIfIcatiOns and electrical standards, developIng and venfymg best practices where stilndards did nOI �XISt and proViding a sJlllple product for rapid deployment of the PV lOystCms to ,WOld compromising the overall construalOn aCllvules ofeach dwclllng fig S C\lsiCIITUed BI' Solar 1200 WlIM!IW _ ..-
56
r 51
Further installations Sence the compll.-lion of the Sydney Olympic Games, Mirvac commissioned 7<) ,lddltlonal I kWp S}'l;(1!1ll5 on larger roofsc.apes uncleI' Sta'!e n\'O of the NewingtOn development Each home
mcorpnr,lu:s I :? IlleS uSing SP Solar's 85 Wp 5.1turn ccll p\,
practices, that a\'Oid poor distnbul10n network harmonics and Islanding eUeCls. have resulted Knowledge gained from thc Solar Village thus far has already facUitated a rapid Increase In the
lammjucs In thc solnr IIle frilme designed and produced by
number of developments proposing to integrate solar technology
I'V Solar Enl'rgy Pty Ltd
As Lord John Browne. CEO of BP Solar. st.lted In 2000. 'Change Frg9 Erhng5(llar 1,las SC
begins with Ihe first step ;1I1d the de\'eloprncm of successful systems here ISolar VlIlagel will set a standard which will spreacl ' II Is comforting to nOle Ihis rhetoric is supported by action, as
IW Solar rclocatctl and expanded
Its Australian operations 01110
the Homebush site post·Olymplcs. a move that is expected to acceleTine liS bUSiness growth 'down under·
Post-installation feedback
Project team
Conclusions
The Mirvac LendLease Village consortium was responSible For
While the BIP\' project deSigns may err on Ihe side of SImpliCIty, th�y remain sensnlve to market reality and are clever In that reg",d The houses, along wuh the
PV systems, are there [0 be
sold at an affordable price In ploneenng around 8.;0 kWp of PV PfOJe<:l5 around the Olympics sue, mcluding the nmeleen
b 8 kWp P\I Boulevard pylons and a
70 5 kWp Superdome
amorphous PV mstallatlon. an Invaluable knowledge base of SIPV
co·ordmatlng the development of a three-stage housing project designed. under StriCt environmental criteria. by eight local archuccts. The JOint development team conSIsted of Mlrvac and LendLeasc. Sydney-based eleclricity generalion company Pacinc Power olllns. managt!S and maimains Ihe solar electricIty cornponel1l For each house and commissioned BP Solar to supply Ihe grid·connected pV systcms
,1pplicallons under Australian conditions Is evolving. Experience
The NSW government Sustainable Energy Development Authority
has betn galn(.'d In collaborating wuh architects. de\'elopers.
(SEDA) has supported tile suslamable dimensions of Ihe project
the construction Industry and real est.1te operators throughout
.1nd checked the quality of work of the consortium delivered
the PV project process. PV technologies have becn tnalled. Icsted.
to tilC DCA as client EnergyAustralia, the local electricity retail
Installt'd and monitored. allowing comprehenSIVe tracking and
utility. has been dIrectly involved in grid connection issues and
recording of data 10 verify system componentS and
the servIces of the University of NSW were sought to assist with
commissioning results. Work has been carried OUt lIIith the
ensuring compliance 10 high levels of safety and power quality
Inverter manufacturer to Improve deSigns as necessary to meet
st.1ndards
Stringent power quality and safety requirements. Important grid conneCllon ISSues ha\'e been resolved In collaborauon between the University of New South Wales. energyAustralia and PaCIfic P\:Iwer In lespt.,(;1 of system s,lfety and power quality. Detailed on,slle training .1nd superviSion has been organised to enable
a large number of builders and tradespersons 10 achieve a quality
result whllt: workmg with an unfamIliar product and system Also, appropnale knowledge has filtered to the sales staff and home-owncrs at the cOlOmerel.ll cnd of the stream
AUSTR IA: ENERG I EPARK WEST
as current overse..1S standards. Australian PV gnd 1I11cgration beSt
General project background
gl••"
.,,·,
PROJECT;
LOCATIONlCITY: COUNTRY:
TYPE OF PV BUILDING:
Energlepark West is located In Sattelns near Fcldklrch. Vorarlberg. in the most western pan of ,\IIstria Sill1eins is J village with
t
Productiofl hall for thllrmal colillclors and photovollBic modu es, end offices
Sallcifls/Fetdkirch, Vorarlbcrg Austria Fatr0dll·integralcd. roof-mounted
BUILDING TYPE:
Commercial
NEW/RETRDfIT:
New
a population of about 2,550, situated on (he sunny side of the \Valgau valley. The site ofFered freely available and well·priced real eslatc. Further, favourable solar energy conditions prevail The number of sunny days. especially in aUlumn and In spTlng, Is much greater there than In the Industrial Rheintal n.,&ion The owner of Ihe building, Oor
..lA Solanechnlk. is one of Ihe
leading producers of thermal colleclors In Austria In 10'1<). the company dedde
" 'Mt." ,.,:t" ;!" .." ;'.,,,f1 LATITUDE:
LONGITUDE: ALTITUDE: CUMATIC TYPE:
4P 14'N
9" 4O'E 495 metres above sea level Alpine, peaking at 3.400 etres above sea level
SUNSHINE HOURS:
hu
m
Yearly average= 3.9 o rs per day
eaSily c)(lendable. Thus, Energlepark WCSt was developed as a new centre for renewabies With an ecologIcally sustainable premise In mind. the builder
aImed 10 minimise overall bUilding energy dem;md requirements and maximise Ihe supply of energy for heating and electricity from renev.'able sources. Consequently, the heating demand of the buildmg is covered by a solar Ihermal Fa(.ildc moor and wall heating) and by IWO combined heat and power \CHPI syslems.
workmg with blOdiesel as a backup energy source. Eleclriclty is provided by a PV far;ade on the south face, More pV modules on the rooF are connected 10 the grid and serve as a power plant {SAG Sorarstrom AGl The western pan of Austria is well known for Its innovative and environmentally fflendly architecture, It has become common to build low-energy houscs, most of whIch use passive and active solar Strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions The shape
The Mirvac l.endLease Village consortium co.ordinated the
of the chosen plOl did not allow the building to optimise passive
integratiOn of the pV systems intO the building envelope, producing
a schedule of procedures for facilitating Ihe use of PV Icchnology
solar gams. yet offered the poSSibility to mount photOVOltaic modules on a perfectly somh·orientctl construclion. serving as
by house builders. indudlng ret.'liJ of the properties. SEDA offered
a wmd shelter for the entrance 10 the ofnces and to the
a one-oIT AUD$500 rebate to emlce buyers, while the OlympiC
productiOn hall a! the same time
Co-ordlnatjon Authomy ensured compliance and meeting of
contradual obligations to ensure the Village was successfully
completed
While technical Issues of BiPV projects have to be satisfied• .!limliar Importance must be placed on achle\'lng commercial Viability through absorbing the higher PV roof compon�nl COSI
per square t1Ietr� IntO the overall marke!lng of the buildIng as .1
Single pacfulge Added valucs from PV as a distributed generalor and In offsetting greenhouse gas emiSSions wllJ help \0 facilitate the wIder market acCept.lnce of PV products. Achieving successful integration of systems. cost·effecllve Interconnection With extern,ll infrastructure and acceptance by ali stakeholders Is also a challengmg task. However, the Solar Village has requIred plont'erlng procedures 10 ensure that secumy and s.lfety Issues me compliant to Australian reqUIrements and also as rigorous flll t West rao;ooe or&erg.epar\Wesrgenelal \lllW inl data,1 --
' 58
59 '
and mmenals EnVITOnmenf.lUy benign corlSlrucllon methods pvC use by selecting
wen" u!>("d IncJudll1g mrnimlsatiOn of
ceIlings and .lIte-mati\'!: c.)blrng malt�nal5 Besides the massive of the Joad«uryln!tSlcel struCiurc nccesSilry for the stabllily
.....nh buUdmg, mostly wcll,insulaled light timber constructions wilh rock wool wert' used There IS a long tradlti()n of building
car· Umber In Vorarlbl'tg Encrglcpark West also has electric on tOP charging !:teWrles linked 10 the pholOvoJralc power plilnt
of Ihe roof There IS an clectric charge Sliliion dIrectly opposllC for thc cmrancc ;1I1doFflcc workers use company elecrric cars local bu�lne_\� mrs
Architecture, prOI Dct organisation
Inll81181ion design
Post·installation feedback
to ensure The architects were given a flexible brief but had an ilesthetlcally pleasing bulldrng outcome_ They dt.'Cided to
Integration design and mounting stralcgv
Idenllties of the companIes This resulted In a compact and cleM
The bunder had previously developed the mounting technology.
combIne functiOnality .lnd aesthetiCS m line with the corporate bulldrng shape with high
PV visibility TIle cemral staircase
connects Ihe offices with the productIon area and allows clients
Prt'.hcatcd w,ltcr collectors and photovoltaic modules were mounted so thill the surfaces of both are on Ihc same level where common clements of lar;adc construction had been adapted
for thiS special use. This worked well and at
a reasonable prIce
10 watch Ihe manufacturing process. The transparent atmosphere
concept Includes zones wllh different temperature levels: the offices Me kept at
20
°C to 22 °C. the production hall at
approXimately 16 °C and the slOrage area is not heated
PV system power
.....ilter collt:ctors was provided by the planners. MH�t and Gruppo benefits of the photo'lOltalc components, but the bUildrng owner had deflnue alms. which rncluded • the enetgr demand of the buUding should be covered
Root 45.5 kWp
Type 01 building integralion
T'(pe ofceU lechnology
by renewablcs. • phOlovoltalcs and warm water collectors should be completely Integrated Into Ihe bulldrng envelope;
Modullrdimensions Arrey dimensions
• pre·heated W,lter from the collt!"Ctors was to supply heilllng to thC,' massive concrcle floor rn the
production hall ,lncl the Interior surface of the walls III Ihc offlces,
Invel1er Monitoring equipment
• the chosen b,lCkup system must be environmentally
friendly (CHP working with blodleselJ. AII IC1:hmcal components must work together easJly and contribute to the overall energy design strategies: • Ihe buildmg must be easily e)(panded if necessary Planning strategies were delined wilhin Ihe planning team in co-operaUon wuh the builder and Stromaufwans Photovolra[k GmbH, the phOtOvOIt.llC contractor
South farrade: 17.16 kWp
West fat;ade:4,14kWp
Other BiPV system elements
so low that active and passive solar energy gains {maximisation of gainS) can cover It most of the time.. Also. the
backup system
.... ,orks with biodleset, thus meeting the remaining energy demand The buJldmg was ....-ell received by the community and $ervcs as an example for working ecological strategies. There is a pennanent
Fat;ade·imegrated
exhibition wuhln the office section of the building and the
Kyocera lsouthlat;ade), Solarfabrik(west larrade, rool)
design process �vas assisted by bUilding Simulation tools that
142.5 x 6 5 c m
predicted the achievement of good building perform.lnce..
133 m', 143 modules on the south fa�ade, 450 m' on the roof (SAG So[arstrom AG)
As the owner and builder was an experienced and
Fronius Thermal and electric monitoring; voltage, wind, energy production,eir temperature. radiation atthe south and westfa�ades and horizontal surface insolation are monitored. On the rool, photovolta;c modules by SAG are mounted in a conventionalwav. They produce 'clean and green' energy, 'OkoSlrom',whic h is fed into the grid and can be bought by other ecologically minded people who want to suppOrl
production processes can be watched from the public area The
environmentally conscious player i n the solar business, It was possible to assemble and direct a strong team of planners .md specIalists After the final completion of the construction, ilnd the successful use of the building for sC\'eral cold months In the Alpine region of Auslrla. the planning team released news of the building to the public. A further advant,'ge was thac the aClive solar lmplementallon could be constructed. controlled and
Project cost breakdown PV modules: EURI 09.000
Construction of combIned PV modules and glass: EUlUq.OOO COStS of monirnrlng system EUR 1 4.500
revised by the future users themselves. Doma, the owner, builder
and user of Energiepark Wesc. planned, produced and mounted
the Iherma[ water collectors and Stromaufwlirts, the second user, planned, produced and mounted the aiPV Installation
renewables.
Performance characteristics Decision process
The deciSion process was short
was required and
the milterlals and modules Ihal were to be
u�ed Given Ihat the modules had several years of market exposure. the plilnnmg process requIrements were made much
Scheer.
carefully hiHmonised in order to guarantee minlm.ll lmpaCt on the environment Due to lhe high quality of the bUIlding
SPOnJVC Architects They had no need 10 convince OIhers of the
ill the end of 1 9qq ilS
Lessons learnt from the project
envelope (m[n[mlsalion of heal lossesl, the heating demand IS
SIMI Sufficient bUIlding surface suitable for BiPV and for warm
Sb: modules were destroyed
a result of the 'Lothar" storm The project won the European
The most innovative aspect can be found In the overall design
Planning process, alternative designs
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS
(Fa Fronius) inveners broke down. but were repaired within
of the project DIfferent strategies of ecological bUilding were
BiPV design process The aims of the planning process .....ere cle.1fI)' defined from the
problems Since completion Three Wechselrichler Sunrise MIdi
a rev.' days.
Eurosolar 2000 Award. presented by Hermann
also has benefits for Ihe employees The workers in the production hall Stay [n vlsua[ contact with the office Th!! energy
The deSign and the planning of the project are sllll seen as the best solUilon for Ihe desired alms There have been very few
Energy performance for the hrst year: South·facing PV facade produced 1 1 ,280 kWh BHKW biodiesel:
17,728kWh
PV electriclty exported 10 the grid: 17,760 kWh Electricity imported Irom Ihe grid: Consumption of
7.0t7 kWh
biodiesel: 3,900 lilres
Thermal facade:
82ml producOO 22,400 kWh
simpler than If de.1Ung With a new product and design strategy More demlled monitoring data Is nOt aVilllable
CANADA : TORONT O H I G HRISE ROOF
. .:,...."" ,
PROJECT:
PhOlovoltatc systems arc small and modular and therefore It'qturt' minimal time to Implement It Is also an environmcntilily
G a n rllC.
frwlldly technology, eliminating lengthy formal hr.arlngs and
Ontario Power en ralio
a�scSstnt:ntS Perhaps the greatest adv.lnt.lge over other green
head offico: 5 kWpPV system LOCATION/CITY: COUNTRY: TYPE Of PV BUILDING:
technologies tS VISlbllfty. Wishing 10 make a green St,1tement.
.1 company citn architeclurally
Toronto, Ontario Canada
tntO ttS buildings The challenge for architcctS Is 10 make Ihis
Fiol roof
BUILDING TYPE;
High-rise office
NEW/RETROfJT:
Retrofit
i ncorporate photovohalc arrays
Integrallon as cre:lItve and auractive as poSSible ftg2 SpC.1·1e.e1 1ODl1nI
I'V IIISlaUauon s.-. a.. � Mi
LATITUDE:
43"60'N
7'1' 38W
ALTITUDE: CUMAnC TYPE.: SUNSHINE HOURS:
Planning process, alternative designs previous tenant The office bulldlng was conslructed in 1<)75 .lnd includcs fcalUres such as annUal thermal slOrage ror heattng and cooling Whtle It was energy·efficienl in lis lime, ils localion, shape and orientation made tt a poor c,lndldarc for .l bulldlng Integrated phmovoltalc system These factors limited Ihe deSign opuons to a rooftop installation Further. Ihe roof IS ilClually split tnto [\vo levels. the lOp portion being nUed with communlc.ltlOns eqUlpmtnl The top ncor also shades much of the second level,
narrowing the site to a small area at the soulh end
Havmg
selected the site for IhlS pholOvollalc array, it was le,1rned thai Ihe penmeler had to rematn clc.lr for the window washers'
· ;'·'..'';'.'1I11 ,fI''6'''II',:I' lONGRUOE:
BiPV design process The OPG bUilding was inherited from Onlarlo Hydro, Ihe
equipment These physical constraints hmlted the deSign to about 5 kilov.atts peak capaCIty
400melres abovo sea level
Decision process
As the photovoltalc system designer/lnslaller overcame each of
Temperate
Yearlv average = 3.5 hours per day (horizontal
Ihe above barners. another barner appeared. While OPG is a
surface)
long-term tenant of the building. the company docs not own It
The phoLQvoltalc array could Iherefore nOI be fastened permanently to the roof
As wllh all olher equlpmenl, such as
OPG's computers_ the photovolta!c system required the capacity 10 be unplugged and removed from the bulld!ng. ,\ppmval for Ihe proposed OPG s}'Slem deSign therefore had to be obtained from
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS
f"rg1 OntSIID I'ov.1!r
PV system power 4,8 kW - 48 ptlolowan PWlOOO
Ge-eallOn lnc:tucl Dtfo!. T..., ,,,,,,
pholovohalC design is a renection of all the above factors. It a[so meets another reqUIrement. namely low Cost
modules
s-:.&... � m;
Type of building integration
General project background
....
Typ e of cell tectlnology
The phOlO\'Olt8JC array is located on the roof of the Omario Po -ef Generallon Inc.
Toronto. Canada
(OPGl head omce building in downtown OPG. with an installed capacny of 30,873
megsw8ns, is Ihe J
OPG was formed in
[999 when Om.uio
Hydro, a publicly owned ulllity, was res!nlctured by the
prOVincial government, as part of an ele<:lricily deregulation
Modular dimensions Array dimensions Weighl
OPG to examtne
Ihe
porcntial of green energy The original ulilhy, Ontario Hydro, was in l,lCt founded on a renewable source of energy and the
Visual details
represents abuut 25 per cent of Ontario'S 101.11 capachy. orG Evergreen Energy is now looking 10 additional renewable sources such as small hydro, biomass, wind, and solar PV represents the smallest potential source. However, PV has many posluve features
Po/y-cryslalline sliicon 1.380 x11D x 7D m m Approximillllly 1 2 x 12 m ID.Skg per module x48 plus
Thearrayis located on the roof o f a 2O-stoley building and i s not visible from tho ground
Inverter 8alance of system compononts
word 'hydro' hilS become synonymous wtth 'electriC ut ili ty' In the Canadian sculng In Ihe prescnt mix of energy sources, hydro
Ballastlld flat loofmounting
54.1 kg x S5 fol baliast cUlbs
process that commenced in 2001 Thi!. new electricity market encout.1ged
61
Ihe bUilding owner before inst.,lIation could start The final
5 kW Arise GX 5000 Photovoitaic systllmconrlllctodto stBl1dard building olectrical panol
Monitoring equipment
BiPVdesign The photovolLaic ,may consists of seven mws of modules In varymg lengths from five 10 nme modules to conform to the diamond-shaped area available The modules are mounted
.....
hOrizontally al a IS" slope to mamtain a very low wind profile. ElectncaJly, the modules are
Ired m four strings of 1 2 modules
indiVidually, the mod�les arc configured for a nominal 1 2·voll output. resulting in an array DC operating ....,oltage of approx· Imately 200 volts AC OUtpUt voltage is 208 volts The suppOrt stnlClure is made from standard 'off·the-shelf' .llumlnium lengths
All components are bolted together. there are no expensive welds. Since the 5truCiure could nOI be fastened to Ihe roof. It Is held In place by concrete ballasts. These ballasts are standard concrele curbing blocks used In parking lOIS There arc 55 blocks. each weighing 5-1 7 kilograms
Schon Appliod Powor - data accesstblevtaOPG's wobsilll, w �'IIw.opg,com
Other BiPV system elements All metertng and proiect dllSCrtplion pres cmed in 0 display in the main
lobby of the oflice building
63
Project cost breakdown
Installation dHign
Integration design and mounling stralegV
The prOject was entirely funded by Ontano Pow!!r Generation Inc Approximate costs (CADS) ....ere .
Due 10 IImu,'d space the phOlovohalc ilrmy IS localed on Ihe roof of Ihe 'I'wnd top Hoor of rhe bundlng TIus small area was ThtjH� 15 no permanent anachmcll1 lO
co\,cr\'c! \Yuh pallO stones
[hI' rool TIll' ,11my concrele ballast curbs were arranged on lOp
Design, engineering and managemenl
of [tI,· p.ll10 \!Om�� :md .HI: IIIrerlocked With ,1lumlmum lengths thai .lIso serve as trays for the Inter-row Wiring The phOlovohaic
CADS
10,000
PhotOYOilaic modules 30,000 7,500 Invener 5,000 Array support slruclure Inslallal/on including BOS 10,000
modult·s all' mounted lengthwise In single rows [0 maintain a low profile The lIlounungangle was 30° In Ihe Initial design WhUl' the Toronto area Is not exceptionally windy (nel 3D-year
TIlere are no maimenance tasks amlcipated. Major components
OAB kPa), [he curved form of Ihe .mtl Ihe array location make II dlfficuh 10 prediCt wind t!xposure nil' rnouming angle was therefore lowered 10 I S D to return pI'rlod WInd rn..':;surc 15
are warranted Present electricity rates In the TorontO area are
building
5,65 cents per kilowall·hour
mtntmt�l' wmd loading while StJil malnlalnlng enough slope to
clrar snow
Eleclrical conliguralion including grid inlegration
TIll" .uray IS configured
thiS combmer box com.llns lightning spike prmecllon,
blockmg diodes and lsolallon swnches for the indiYidual strings n,e DC Ime IS fed through the wall 10 the mvener. which Is mounted IIlstde, aboul
The prOject demonstrated the nexlbility of phOfOVOltaics OPG Evergreen Energy wanted
:!O mctTeS from the combiner box. close
to a bUlldln.q electrical panel This Is the pomt of connection for tht' pholO\'Ohalc system
The Insul!lmlon of the pholoyoitalc system required the approval of Ihe bulicUng owner The main concerns were that the array would be sc.'rure on the roof and that the weather seal of the roof
W,lS nOt affected in any way.
Its energy mix. only pholOVoltalcs could be installed in a
Successful approaches
dowmown environment. Designing and InStalling the array on
Due to miscommunication. the concrete rurbs were delivered on
this panicular building proved to be a ch.1I1engc. Given the roof
area available In most large cllies and the fact that a photovoltaiC
pallets 100 large for the ele....ator, RealiSing the mallwl labour
required to transfer Ihese heavy curbs 10 the roof. several OPG
system could be IIlstalied on this building indicates the enormous
staff from the Shipping depanmenl volunteered their services. It
poEential for pholOvoltaic generallon In an urban seuing
was JUSt one example of the co-operation that helped make this.1
The phOlovtlltaic sYSlem 'offiCially' began on Earth Day. 200 1 .
successful prOJttt
Plaf1mng approval and inslilulional processes
The installed system also required
t:lL'ttrlcal Inspt'CtJon and approval by the Electrical Safet}' Authorny Both the phmovoltiltC and the utility Interconnectlon aspL'tts of thiS system represent fairly recent technological dl'wloprncnts; fhere are few applicable elttlrtcal standards in place In Canad.1 Nevertheless. the sysfem received fuJi approyal
from the ESA uSing e.,('Stlng codes and draft phOlOVoltai c
While 5 kW for a very large building only represents ,1 small step in terms of eitttrlcai contribution. it Is nevertheless a step
Problems during realisation
in the righl dlTttlion, The phOtovoltalc systcm represents an
The main problem W,15 related to weather. The first day of
environmemally Friendly way of generating elcctricity and has
Inst,,1I3tlon coincided with the onset of the thlrd·coldest winter
received much suppon from Ihe employees In the bundlng both
ever recorded In Toronto. This made \vorking on the roof Of.1 20·
dunng construction and follOWing start·up, The lobby display
storey building quite unpleasam at times_ Scheduled work was
keeps people informed on ils performance. Whlle people are
cancellIXI on several occasions due to cold temperatures .1nd
interested, the most repealed question Is 'What lights. computers
he,wy sllowf.111, thus extending the Installation time by many
and machlllcs are connected to the photovoltalc system?' The
wceks. While the sudden onset of wintcr was unexpected and
concept of utility interconnection, that is lhe pholovolJalc power mixes wuh Ihc ulliity power, can be dimcult for people to grasp
there can be no corurol over weather, Ihere should be somc consideralion glYen 10 seasonal timing when planning Ihis type of a projttt, at leaSI In the C1n.ldian environmcnt
Project organisation
guidelines from international sources
The project was initiated and funded by OPG Evergreen Energy. This department Is responsible for milrkeling green energy The
Performance characteristics Installation
Typically. a photovoltalc system installed in the Toronto area will
Installation procedures and eKperiences
produce about 950 kllowan·hours per kllowau peak per year
All compone!1lS were: transpOrfed to the roor via a single small freight elt'vJtor This fIXl ulred som\! co·ordlnation with other bUilding COnLraCtotS since the cop floor W.1S undergoing e.xtenslve rCIIOYJHOn during the mstaliation period The array was fairly strnplc co 111�talJ There were no eight tolerances and once the concrt'W curbs were arranged, it became a repetitive task to install the aluminium support Structure and modules
photovollalc s�'Slem was designed and installed by Sol Source Engineering under a fixed contract with OPG Evergreen Energy. which was responsible for the oYerali management of the project
This Yalue Is based on systems installed with a slope or 30D,
including performance monitoring
Bttause Ihe slope of the arr
Sol Source Engineering deSigned the pholovoltaic system, built thc support struCfure and assisled with the installation. The
wind loading. the system is e>:pecU.'
phOlovoitaic modules and the inverter were obtained from
Emission Reduction Credit is 850 JIg/MWh. Between St.ltl.Up In
Canadian manufacturers and a local Toronto electriC,11 contractor installed the system. The clectrical contraclor had previous
e.1rly 2001 and the end of Dclober 2002, 656 kWh had been produced by the system The power performance of the system was tesled using a SpIre PV Array tester An I·V curve was produced for each string to
' 64
10 demonslrOlte green technology to tts
cusoomers. While small hydro. biomass and wind all contribute to
In four strings of 12 modules connected
togl.'thcr m a comblm:r box mounted eXternally on the bUIlding
\\'.111
Post-installation feedback
fig 3 CIosII-up ot modJ1es. sfloY;IfIg lIIIU1ung angle s.ur. ..... /:b9W!J: 1I'I:i'
�ssess module matchlllg The power tracking capability of the m....erter and Its efnclency were also evaluated
photol'ollalc experience. hal'ing InstallIXI an SO·kllowatt photo....oltaic system on the roor of the Bloorvicw MacMillan Rehabllitallon Centre.
�'9 S Photll¥OhalCa"aylocated on rooI ofZ2.stonrf bulklillo irldcMTl\OYrT1 Toronto � "" lb.oWI): M;
CANADA: WILLIAM FAR RELL B U I L D I N G General project background
PROJECT: LOCATIONICITY: COUNTRY:
P
2.2 kWp (20 x 108 Wp) Bi V ventilation system
Vancouver, British Columbia Canada
TIle proJ(',("1 is an extensive Intenof and exterior renoViuion to the William Farrell building In dowmown Vancouver. Bntlsh Columbia. Canada thiS clglll-slorey office building was built In 1 940 [0 serve [he City'S telephone system and housed communications cqulplIll!nI as well as omccs for 18chn1c.11 and admlmslr
BUILDING TYPE:
FSfatlc.intcgrptetl
Commorcial
1 1 .800 squ.1re melres Imo office. retail/commercial .lnd
NEW/RETROFIT;
Rotrofit
presemmlon space
TYPE OF PV BUILDING;
'i'M..'II,d:t·'if" ..'!;'fj"" LATITUDE:
LONGITUDE: ALTITUDE: CUMAnC TYPE; SUNSHINE HOURS:
wuh Ille requiremem that
tile eXisting
bUilding
The architects Busby
+
Associates.
and engincers l
Ihe
buildlng's energy strategy An awareness of Birv was provided through prcsent.ltions by the BClT Technology Centre.
conditIons The design of the BtPV .uray takes into account
motor. fan and controller efficiency as well as bUilding oriemalion and climate.
The BCIT Technology Centre lV,lS comracted to design the
PV
syslem ConsullatlOn wuh the architect led to the selection of blue poly-crystalllne cells as Ihe most aliTactlve and compatible choice of cell technOlogy The colour and te.'«ture of the cells integrated effectively wuh the other building elements Crystalline Silicon solar cells allowed the modules to be desIgned
ventllalion system. In order to achieve sufncient airflow wllhln
enter the upper noars of the building. Amorphous silicon was
the fat;:ade. forced venulation IS required. as stack-effecl flow was deemed inadequate. Keen Engineering determined the power
obtaining modules of the required colour and transparency
butlding est,lblishes bOlh a strong visual presence for Telus in downtown Vancouver and demonstrates a commitmem 10
12:r 15W
CODSII!
revuaUsmion.
By reYltahsmg an extstlng building in a high profile location. the
the budding renovation Is the new double-glazed. frilled olnd
V9arlv average ", 4 hOllis per dav
In the building
be recycled olnd reused and that green strategies be Incorporated.
minimising environmental Impact The most viSible aspect of
vel
Ihe fa"ade fits very weU wllh the mandate 10 use green strategIes
Although the entire curtain wall could have been adapted 10 BiPV.
49" 'S'N
10 metres above seB le
BiPV design process Using a renC\vable energy source to enhance the performance of
framelcss glaZing system suspended 900 mm from the existing building face TIle structure of the cXisting buJJding was left eSSentially unChanged with the exception of removing the original brick veneer The bUlldlng's new exlernal cavity operates as a thermal
Ihis would have exceeded the energy requirements of the
requirements of Ihe forced venllialron systcm and Ihe BCIT
Technology Cemre designed the two I kWp pholOvoltalc alTol)'S Ihat supply Ihe power The integralion of a PV alTolY within Ihe
vemllaled fa"ade IS an auracllve source of energy bec,u1Se the
with appropriate space belween the cells to allow daylight to deemed mappropriate due 10 its colour and the difnculty of Cuslom-size solar modules were required for this project The number of cells and the cell spacing wilhin each module was detennlned by the dayhght requIrements of the building and the
venulation fans are operated directly by the PV array during
curlilin wall dimensions. Thus. Ihe electrical characteristics of
sunny periods when ventilation is required In addition. the
remaining design choices involved thc electric,ll configurallon
alrnow behind the filt;:ade cools the PV array and enhances
the modules were fixed early In the design process and the
of the photovoltaic alToly. fan and mOlor selection. and motor
buffer and natural lIemilallon intake and Significantly enhances
lts performance.
comrolJer selection
the thermal performance of the building envelope. The cun,lln
The paramelers for Ihe system were clearly defined early In
wall around the c,Wlly has a ceramic frltted pattern lhat. In
the dcslgn process. limiting the poSSible configuflltions for the system The power requirements for the ventilation syslem were
DC fans were chosen due to the higher effiCiency of the mOlors
combin,lIion with light-shelves. allows dayHght Imo the Imerlor Electronic lemperature sensors control lhe entire ventilation system to maintain Ihe optimum lemperature within the cavity The air space Is vCllIllaled with fans powered by bUilding. Imegraled phOtolioltalc
(BIPV) solar modules
incorporated directly
IntO the gl,lZed fat;:ade All perimeter windows ilre user.OI>crable
dunned by the amoum of air to be moved. Keen Engineering performed thermal energy modelling of the ra�ade to delermlne Ihe minimum airnow required to maintain the corn�cl lemperature wlthill the wall cavily under various climatic
and simpliCity of the design. " customised maximum powerpolnt tracking {MPPD controller. built by Ihe BCIT Technology Centre. Is
used to optimise Ihe
performance of the ,uray. 10 allow for a
soft start of the fan motors and to comrol the vOhage delivered
10 the DC fans.
for n;ltural ventilation Considerable reductions [n operating energy and allcndant greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the tempering effect of the new glazed r,lC
A. vanety of Other green Strategies are incorporated In the
renO\';Uion. Indoor air quality Is maximised by the use of 10IV volatile organic compound (VOCj paint. linoleum. waler.based adheSives. low pile and tight weave constnJclion carpel with low emission backing Ught shelves and whhew.lshed concrete Cetllngs maximise daylight IVithln the building and recycled ,l!ld
recyclable materials were used throughout the renovation ,'bOUl 75 per cent of the m;w.:rral from the previous structure was retained for reUSl: or recycling. This Includes the existing Andl:tsitc and gr.lnite stone that IV,lS re-cul and reused on the
ground noor exterior IValfs. Windows. handraJiS. sl,lirs. doors and fillings wcre also reused. whlle much o f the new material In the building was selected 10 be e.lslly recycled The new glazmg
sy.stem Is Unitised and C,ln be dismantled with framing and glaZing Inlact. All new concrele Contains 25 per cent recycled fly ,1sh ,lncl reCYCled steel rebar
' 66
0/ .
;.
...
-
BiPV design
p
The BiPV elcclrical design was performed by th e BCIT Technology Cemre In compliance with the Canadian Electrical Code.
rtgure 4 shows the elcctric.11
.....mng
Installation design
...
1\ 0 sub·arrays of cuslom·designed. semHransparent, poly.
I)
cryslallIne solar modules are Incorporated Into the northwest and southwest walls of the office tower's new glazed cunaln Fig S e.,PV module illlllilHauon mto t/le Qlrtilln wall mlcm 01 tttu Tolus hII,ld"1,I f�
- ""
..
wall facade Each module p roduces 108 waus at STC and is configured as a nominal 1 2-\'011 module with an open CirCUli voltage of 2 1 . 6 volts DC. The modules in each sub.array are
..
�
....
I
:
-
connecled m series to produce a maximum open Circuit vOllage o f 2 1 6 volts DC. The maximum DC po\ \,er generaled by this optimi�
pholOvollaic array IS 2 1 b kilowatts. dedicated 10 powenng
..
. ,
I:! high-effiCiency DC vemilatlon fans A umque MPP controller developed al the BCIT Technology Centre. regulates Ihe output T"IPIC.It fM.NX oru.1ICI'I rM.
�IHI=:!��
....
U :O DruIlX 5P"NIUlIIYl. DD.IIIX _1lUJll 1OII.
of each sub.array to 90 \'OllS DC for the "'enulauon fans Each sub-array dnves Six 116 hp exhaust fans. The fans are rolled for
a n ,III volume of 2.800 dm (cubiC feel per mmutel at 1 ,800 rpm (revs per minule)
From the glazmg contractor's point of view. the Inslall,)(lon of the complete fa�ade segments wnh Integrated BIPV modules was
PV .ystem powllr
a relatively standard cunaln wall Installation The BIPV modules
Type of bullding !ntllgralion Typeol cllll technolollY
Po lY'c ryslstiine sllicon
A".y dimensions Weight
Visull details
B.'.ncil 01 systllm componlllllS Olher B1PV 'ySlllm elomenls
2,370 xSOOmm
� i jd �
414 x 0.8 m 53kg eachll.Cl6 l totall
Seml·transparent modules matched
wllh the rest 01 the lae;ade elements
(shllpe and colourl
units in the
t\GS faclory and the mullions were pre-drilled to accommodate
Fae;ade·inlegraled curtam wall
{photowall spidargrid cells' Modulerdimensions
were a�embled il5 pre-manufactured sealed glazing
2.2 kWp
....
I
�
r", s ArtMoct .I .1.II1 01 IarvBi'Vmoi.te 1a)"DIII ..... ""
the electrical wiring GlazIers and eleclr1cians were bolh present dunng Installation of the modules Western Pacinc �Iectrlcians CarrtL'tl out some of the eleclncal work as the modules were being Installed The curtain wall mulhons are used as wire raceways
Post-installation feedback The project is an exceitem demonslr.lIlon of bullding.inlegrated photovolt.1lCS applied In an urban Canadian environment The system operales effiCiently and seamlcssly integrates wilh the other building syslems This SIPV ventilation system demonstr
Performance characteristics
The main purpose of Ihe venul:lIed facade is 10 ImpTO\'e the
disciplines has already encouraged olhers to consider BIPV as a valid design opuon
therm.ll energy performance of the bUlldmg and the mam
parameter affecting this Is the temperature of the air behind Ihe
falOade Energy productiOn of the solar array is nOt monitored;
Project team
MPP Controller (input 216 V DC,
Instead. me.lsunng the temperature behind the falOade montlors
Dominion Construction of Vancouver. BC managed the
output 90 V DC)
the overall performance of the venulated far;ade
renovauon of the Telus building and Busby
Curtain wall mullions IIslid as wire wa'{s. Lood; 12 l/6hp OC exhaustfllns
The \'I!nulation system is performing 10 the deSign speclf"icatlOn Durmg winter. the fans In the facade are turned off .1nd the air
space 15 used to reduce heat loss from the building while
trapping Incident sunlight and warming the concrete mass of the bulldmg During the summer. when the building must be cooled. the fans draw heat from within the facade and aw.1Y from the building The ventilalion system mamtalns a maximum air temperature of 27 DC al the tOP of the fa!;ade
' 68
CADSQO.OOO One half of the COSt was offset by a go....ernment gram towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Installation
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS
Project cost breakdown TOlal project COSI of the BiPV component was approxImately
+
AssocIates was Ihe
architect for the project. SIPV system deSign and co-ordlnatlon of
the mechanic,11 and electrical engineering as well as architectural in tegrati On of the SIP\' system was carried OUI by the BCIT Technology Centre group Keen Engineering and ReId Crowther and Partners were responSible for the mechanical and electrical engmeerlng. respectively The glazmg conlraClor. Advanced GlaZing Systems. and the Clectrlt.11 contractor. \\'estern PaCifiC Enterprises. worked togelher on the SIPV module Installation
DENMA RK: BRUNDTLAND C E NTRE General proiect background
As <1 result of the ret:ommcndatlons In the UN report, Our
.:" ,.."" .,
PROJECT:
Common I'lI/ure. Denmark invited municipalities to suggest how 14.25 kWp
a troll munlcipalily could become a 'Brundtland Town' The municipality of NOtre Rangsuup was selected and Tortlund was
Toltlund
chosen as the cuy [0 dcmonslr;l.1e lhe POSSibility of achIeving
Oenmark
an Qv(;tall energy saving of 50 per cenl The purpose of lhe
Roof and ra�ade system
Bn.mdlJand CClIlre was 10 coliect all Information and lessons
BUILDING TYPE:
Commercial
le.lrnt from the Brundtland Town project and dlssemlnale
NEWlllfTROflT;
New
LOCAnON/CrTY: COUNTRY: TYPE OF PV BUILDING:
LATITUDE:
AlTITUDE: CUMAnC TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS:
55"2fYN
PV modules was moume
educational activities related to energy tOpics. as well as for
or planning Issues
that the use of pholovoltalc elements musl servc more Ihan one
to an IT company and it now functions as a regular. but energy efficient, orrlce, The building Itself 51111 serves as a demonstration proJcct for energy-efficlent design. and incorporates components
The original site had a number of restrictions regarding
The discussions and deCisions made during Ihese two days moved the project for-yard dramatically compared to more
purpose in order 10 make Ihe technology. wuh the currell! 51.11e of delielopmem and economics. allr
traditional working melhods FollOWing the workshop. weekly
Round. opaque PV cells were comalned wllhln (he sealed.
meetIngs were held. following normal procedures In building
doub!ed-glazed transparem unilS Ihat form the saw·toolh lrussed
project design The Inilial deciSiOns ranged from general overall
atnum roof. The atrium roor. incorporating uansparem PV
problems regarding constnlclion principles to specific.s. such as
modules. slretches out above Ihe emrance of the building.
selecting concrete slats supported by pillars on both floors and
creallng a large canopy The PV system moull!ed on Ihe alrium
inveStigmions regarding the design of the atrium roof. There
roof is viSIble from the IIlside of the amum as well as from the
orientation, fOOtprint. height of the building and some general
were a large number of important paramelers. Including shadmg
architectural concerns. During the political negOilalion phase
effects on PV cells: solar shading needs of Ihe atrium: sizes and
had a great impacl on the architectural expression. Ihe bUilding
of Ihe proJect. It was decided to move Ihe project to another she.
shapes that could be mtegrated during conSlruction. mounting
layoul and Imernal atmosphere of the Cemre. To achieve the
on the outskirts of Toftlund. overlooking surrounding open
lechniques: the effects of snow: and cleanmg and maintenance
optimum oriemaUon and tilt angle of Ihe PV array (60G soUlh).
landscape This decision allowed the design !eam to fully control
Looking m the whole design process. Ihe atnurn roofing consumed
outside of the buildmg MOunting the PV system onto Ihe roof
the atrium roof was constructed as a saw-tooth form Ihat runs
The steel truss roof.
all paramelCrs of tlte shape of Ihe building shell. This was Ihe
the mosl time. due to the large number of parameters to be taken
diagonally across Ihe space
opllmal starting pollll for developing an architectural ide" while
IntO consideration
the alternating pauern of dark. round cells
(ollowlIlg the general design concept of the project. allowing careful landscaping of the site 10 reflect the design of rhe actual building. and integrating the building IllIo the open landscape.
The desIgn team was StruClured so that architects and engineers shared the responsibility for qu.,Uty. etonomy and durability. as required by slandard design comracls for Danish buildlllg
is imegraled into the modules so that sharp edges from the
responsible for Ihe conslrucilon should share the lead role. Th1S
compared to ordinary buildings: • High mdoor comfort levels and use of environmentally sound mmerlals. • Demonslration of dayHghung systems integraled in
scaled glazing; • Demonstrallon of bUllding·lntegrated translucent pholOvoltaics prOViding solar shading;
• Demonstration of an atrtum Imegraled Into the
bUIlding for utilisation of passive solar energy
dayllghl In the Imerior of the atrium, A thIn diffusing glass fabriC circular solar cells are softened The VIvid blue c.,)lour of the PV
Project brief
• low energy consumption' 50 per cem reduction
Special allemion was paid to provIding a 50ft dlffuse quality of
the technical complexilY of the building. the design team agreed
The scope of Ihe bulldlng was to demonstrate how a 50 per cern standard. could be achieved The aims of the project Included·
combined with
glazing. gives Ihe atrium a high.tech almosphere.
projects Normally the architect le"ds the design team. but gillen to recommend 10 the eliem thaI Ihe engineering company
reducllon In energy use. compared LO normal Danish building
111
connecllng the adjacem two·storey bulldings, Another affay of
oplimal electricity production from the panels this demonslraled
rel,l1cd to photovoltalcs. Including daylighting systems. utllisalion
m maritime
array was integrated into the roof of the atrium, a central space
performance Criteria. planning conSlraints and buildIng design
to the overall energy optimlsalion of building. and a revlC\v
of passive solar energy and passive cooling
nhe
Two types of PV system were used in the building envelope t\ PV
workshop. in which all members of the design Icam pafllclpmed
these to the public The Centre was used for exhibitions and
20melras above sea tevel No
design work of the project Vias initiated by a two·day design The agenda for Ihis workshop Included topic.s such as building
bUIlding. the deSign team focused on mOfe than Just achieving
'1' 10'E
1.922 hours per year {where direct radiation isgreater than l 20 W/m')
integrated. aesthetically pleasing and energy-eHicient PV system
ventllallon and indoor climate. a revlC\v of Slrategles relating
8rundtland Town project Aher a few years. the building was sold
LONGITUDE:
BiPV design process E.lrly considerat!on of PV In the design process resulted In a well·
options; technical Issues such as daylightlng design. PV systems.
disseminating results from energy-saving activities frolll the
'1'M"'..'1:r" ;'·" ·';'.,"f'
Planning process Close co-operatlon was achieved between the englne�rs and [hc archlte<:ls, reSUlting In a positive experience for all parties. The
\\',1S a senSIble option as the engineer had experience In BiPV .lnd bUilding operation dynamic.s and was able to presem options
syslem imegrated in Ihe fa�ade has an even grealer ln1paci on Ihe building's image. Other materials and colours used in Ihe
curtain wall are anodised aluminium and dark blue p<,lmed aluminium wmdows that blend well With the PV
from which design strategies could be formulated A seelion of office space was located with a fa�de facing southeast. In order to demonstrate Ihal even wilh a soulheasl orientation. a good thermal Indoor climate can be provided WIthout the IIlstalialion of active cooling. The southeast fa�ade of the office section. the ·energy fa{ade·. was developed to opllmise solar energy use and diffuse daylight In the rooms behind the fa�ade. In order to achieve the best possible Indoor elflnate and a low energy consumption
f.g2CroSHI!(tJl)l'1 YII!W
s.xm. ,...". s.o-. �Cl:Ir>sIir"'.l rn;....
r", J E.o;'",1\aI "n.crllle or lVatl>\Jlt des'!)II � II(Nf�'80
Cefit'e II! r�5lnranoralrll.rn "*,, ofe.III'I!.Ind
s.vt. H.niS-- �c-"Vl�
Energy strategy
Lessons learnt from the design process
The tOial I!xpeClcd energy consumption of the Brundtland Cemre
Ihe maximum solar power, but was a geometrical solution raking
During rhe detailed design phase, the budget was not suffiCIent 10
15
imo accoum the maximum shadrng of the dayllght!ng windows,
Include all elementS. AddItional funding had (0 be raised, which
pltOlovOltait power) while an .werage slandard office building
archltectur.11 aspects of the far;ade and the need to avoid shading
was only possible through direct subsrdy from the Danish Energy
rn J)enmark uscs 1 70 kWh/ill' This reducllon In energy
bctween the solar panels
Agency, In the project. a number of completely lIew elements
approxrmately 50 kWhfm per year Inot including rhe
cunsumprlon hilS Ix't!n
rv clements, utrllsmion of rhe bUllding mass for thermal
storage and the usc of various Optlmisalion methods. Jn energy rerms, the Inregr.lted PV system in Jile aUium
roof was designed
to both produce eteCtrlClty and provide shading to pre�'ent the
,1trrUtn from overheatIng nle transparent modules allow 20 per cent of daylight to emer the atrium, The concrere floors and
of
Ihe building cOl1lp,<1red to the Investment, ., prof1table investmcl11 Is unlikely to be realised Whcn looking into all the other functions of the solar panels, especially on the atrium roof, more Oi:nefits than just electricity production can be Idemlfied, provrding bener profitability from the PV systems For example.
the panels provide suffiCient solar shading for the atrium to <1void
were designed and included In the building The main ObSt.lcle to reaUslng these was to nnd manuf.1CtUrers able 10 produce
underestimated the effort needed for all the different pho15eS of design, feasibility analysis, lab-testing. producrion stan. test production and f1nal delrvery Another lesson learnt was the Importance of very close collaboration between the members of
assisted \'cnrrlation IS used ro vemil:ue the adjacent rooms
The facade modules are <1 more standardised design, compared
of communication, a number of problems were unsoi\'ed at the time of construction commencement and had to be resolved
Automallc comrols SlOp the vennlatron when a suFfiCiently
to the ,ltrlum modules, but in the initial design phase, the
quickly, and the best solution was perhaps not found every time.
low temper.1ture Is reached
modules were connected to a decemrahsed ventilatron system for
Especially wrth the facade, with a large number of restrtctlons
rhe offrcc wing The ide.l of the original deSIgn was to combine
regarding shading and utilisation of PV elements, dayUghtrng
the need for effrcient cooling of the back of the solar panels wrth
elements and natural ventilation. a variety of details h.ld
the preheating of ventilation fresh air for the offices, but as
def1ned for thiS project compared to an ordinary buildmg project
BiPV design process considerations The phOtOvOltiltc clements rn the far;ade were subject to several ctmnge:. during rhe deSign process. Originally. It was pl.lnned to USt' thl.' hem thm built up on the back of the panels as a preheating source for fresh air to rhe ofFices f.lcing this far;ade DurIng the design process, simulations werc carried Out to calrulllle thc IXllenll,ll heal g:ltn nle rcsu!! was that the potentral would be far too httle, compared to the effort and COSt to est.lbllsh this possibility as an Integrated part of the photovoh"lc panels It was thereFore decided not to use the pilnels as preheatIng elements and instead a lOCOlI fan and heat exchanger Wt'ft" rn�t.'I1t.-d for the offtces filclng the rar;ade The tilling of the
photo\'Oltalc panels was not a result of optimrsed angles to Yield
FIlt;Bde: 4.14 kWp Type of building integratiDn Type of cell technology
PV atrium and lllt;ade SOIBI Ltd., Oenmark
new products were invented and the design team had largely
faC;.u/es accumulate surplus heat during rhe day. At night, rhe
arrrum and the adjacent rooms during overcast sky conditions
PV system power Translucent PV glass atrium: 17.16 kWp
these elements with high quality. To some extent. completely
overheating. but <1lso allow for suffiCient daylight emerlng the
.unum is cooled by natural ventilation, while the mechamcally
n
looking only at the lIet electriCity production of the PV system
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS
the design team, Even though Ihis design team had a good le\'el
10
Project cost breakdown Total building costs (gross) Typical costs for office building per rrr (gross) Oeslgn cosls EU funding for low-energy components EU funding for design phase and measurements Danish Ministry 01 Energy subsidy for building and components Cost without propeny per
m2
USS
2.337,000 1,290 1,110 82t,000 342,000 323,000 367,000
be
dcscribed .1bove, the energy potel11ial of this solution unfornmately was too low compared to the inveslment nle deSign of the facade panels changed instead to <1 more
Performance characteristics
Iradltlonal deSign, but with the panels carefully designed In
PV
power gener.ltlon 1 3,500 kWh per ,lnnum {DC}
shape and framing to m<1[ch the framIng of the other parts of the energy far;" de. I t was also illlpOrtant In the design of the Jllodules
PV
exported to the grid· It ,000 kWh per annum (AC)
10
take care not to shade the daylight windows,
Derailed mOnitoring data Is not publicly availilble Provision and control of daylight. combined with high-efficiency artificial lighting and movement sensors saved approximately 70 per cent of electricity for lightrng compared to traditional offlce lighting designs
7J
GERMA NY: FRA U N H O FER ISE Building concept The building features a sophlsllcated concept. follOWing the mOllO, 'Exemplary Building with Ihl! Sun'. the aim was to PROJECT:
combine it hlgh·quality working environment and high
20 kWp Fraunhofar Institul fuor Solare
LOCATION/CITY: COUNTRY: TYPE OF PV BUILDING:
g
functionality with a !ow·energy consumption and high design
EnlirgiesystemelSE
quality_ Most of the building compleJo! is three Stories hi h II
Frolburg
consists of three parallel building wings connected by an access
Garmany RooI.integrated, fBiWade·jntegrllted, llol roof· integrated
Solar design features The comb·like ground plan and the separation belween the wings were chosen on the basis of minimal shading. good daylighllng conditions. comfortable summer tempeT<1LUres.
passtve use of solar energy and a ple"sam Indoor iIImosphere (pronounced horizontal transparency). The main emrance foyer Is domlna[ed by an atrtum with a 5
area. which Is adjacent to a technical protOtype tabora!Ory The
pV modules. External venetian blinds with a IIghHedirecling
comb structure and the Interior wning were delibefi1te!y chosen
function proVide solar control Beyond [his. swltchable glazmg Is
Research facUity
to achieve south·oriented oFnces for ma)(imum daylighting
BUILDING TYPE:
installed in some areas (gasochromle systems) An underground
Thermal lnsulalion. solar control. lighting and ventilatIon
NEWJRETRom:
New
heal exchanger cools or pre·heals [he Inlet air for venlilation of
technology were designed for minimal energy demand
the entrance block The bUilding substance is caoletl ln summer by aeuve nocturnal venulation figures 2 and J show the office
� I AlIl'lal _ Q I Ffilll'ltw.di!f lS!:
� /_'rFfSl
_ _ ' m _-- ' m _ _ _
'fI'M"" " ":!" ;"''''';'''''!1 LATITUDE:
LONGITUDE: ALTITUDE: CUMAnC TYPE:
SUNSHINE HOURS:
411" OO'N "'5'E
260 matres above sea IElvel
· •• ·· ·····0 timer controlled cut-olf
General project background
Moderate {Temperature: January average = Yearly average = 4.8 hours per dey
Ihese parts together and provides a modem research facility with
area or aboUl 0 5 square kilometres, The new building brings
5Q lull
atmosphere for its employees. TIle building site Is located on the
It
75 lUll
�
Is
a n.lrrow 101 With a north-south orientation. and Is subject to a
0 '·
little shading In wimer Its boundaries are an abandoned railw" y track to the east, anOlher research inslltute building to the north. and streets 10 the wesl and south The site W,lS used for storing
manual OrYoff, infrared
chemicals from Ihe war period.
500 lux
needed and 10 cool the laboralories via an absorption cooling light rellection
!I
2,slage venellan bllods
. . ......•
y
I
h
minimised the internal and external loads with energy.efncient lighting and solar control measures respectlvely_ Thus. only the cooling load for laboralOry and special·purpose rooms remained the wasle heal from a gas·fuelled combined heating and power unit The electriCity generated by the co.generation plant reduces the expensive peak load drawn from the public grid and provides
rog 2 01tic:eIq.\lrI;j COll"binesbgl'tt{/llld.m:a.;taAImnlrOl antlbiojHlhaentyll«lntligtnkll!l �_ """ /SE
machine (powerlheat/cooling comblnatlon)_ To avoid the need for alt
This will be supplied via absorption cooling machines driven by
�! .. . .. ... . ,j
�.�
Energy concept The energy supply is based on a gas-fuelled combined heal and power unit The waste heat serves to heat the bUilding where
cut off, da lig t level depending
and shipping ammunilion during World W,lr II and had been Vilc.1nt since. ItS soil was heavily contaminated with organic
lightguidance
Offi� J
corridor
up.to·d,lte energy emciency features and a healthy and pleasam northern edge of the cemral area of the City of Frelburg.
�
-
Fraunhorer ISE Is a solar energy research InSlitute. For many years [he facilitIes were spread over some six buildings in an
I.S "C;July average = 19.5"CI
hghling and ventilation concepts
the backup to the grid supply The absorptive dehumidification of the inlet air to the clean·room laboralOry sh1fls cooling 10 healing loads The heating load in winter is reduced by using above
TOlal noor area of the bulldmg is 1 2 .000 square melres One
slandard insulation It 6 cm thermal insulation. optimised insula[ed
thIrd of IhlS area Is
double gtazlng Units) and efficient heat recovery for the laboratones
used for omces. Ihe remaining twO Ihlrds are
for laboralories and workshops. The 101.11 building budget was
./PV system 5 kWp
about DM50 million (EUR.25 million) including new laboratory
?
facilities and equipment
Po.ltlon lind rated power of the PV systems Southern facade Saw·loothed roof Spandrel south wing Rool southern wing Roof central wing
5.3 kWp
4.5 kWp
I used air
-f-.
A","m
2.5 kWp
4.9 kWp 2.9 kWp
and many of the offices Figure .; shows .:In overview of the
offlCes
3000m'/h -
offices
-I-
I�
canlnen
omces
energy concepl
-r-
'""
"'"
energy
energy
-�
coo in
locture hall
l
g
ACcoolln-g
3OOO m'lh
.mtm
:��
-
3000m'fh air 10 earth heat exchanger
outs
ftglAacood'll(JIjng i1y anlnletgrourdhei!la«hiInger
74
Scwt. ',.,...".,, 1SE
nalllrlli gu
.... ng
7 lubes 0250 mm, a'tOOm
Fog 4 Enefg"lctrUPtof llll! newbuiidltlQ s.x.c. fr."rldrt/SE
75 ·
,-I-- - - - -: ,--- i ,-�-i i / I: .�i� Building design process
wert' pursued In th" e.HI�' rh'slgn prowss, three building conceprs :md cvalu.1lCd 1Ill' 'block', the 'cmnpus' and the 'wmgs' tngurt'
IClf:nr 5) It thorough �"V,lluauon. gurded by rhe alms of energy..:ff
bUlldtng .1nd high indoor comlon. led to rhe selection 01 rhe ·wln!!"s' appro.l(h The evaluarlon scheme IS shown in table ;1
L---/
1..
__
-----f>g�'hr!I�.. �I"'UdtJq1to!1teprS
@ L.
___
- =
-- --
_ fradrMtiSl
The decision for rhe 'wing' concepr was strongly mnuenced by
the InSlllutc'S Solar Burlding DesIgn Group. which convinced the dt'(lsion·makers that this approach was the most appropmlte Thl' chosen concept has proved its value m Similar appllC.ll1ons
BiPV design prDcess
Fa�ade of access area
Rest',nch on phOlovohalcs tS iI major field of acm'lty at
nus
Fraunhofer ISE So IS solar bUlldmg design Therefore. it was the ,11m of Fraunhofer ISE to demonstrate several appro.lches of
homogeneous appearance in a large area module The cells
bUlldrng'lntcgrated PV Furthermore. It was of prime Importance
m demOnSlrille not only some 'mechanrcal' Integrauon, but to
,1150 dcmonstrate funCtiOnal lntegrauon .1S part of an energy concept The PV modules should hilve another funcuon besides
pV generator Is an f:y�tchlng structure for VISitOrs commg
from downtown It employs EFG cells with their rather
reduce the heal gam of the sOUlh·faclng glass fac;ade, The cells were chosen as a compromise belween the homogeneous. dark fog 6 fhll f"oJ generatOloo1hellar!OOl oflMld'"ll B Su'IlI irL
clectflCit}' production
appearance of mono-crystalline cells and the lower COSt of poly. cryst.llllne cells The Wiring IS run in a vertical duct at the easlern edge of the construction 01'1 the outSide of rhe bUilding Inverters
Stilrtlng ilt .1 very eilrly deSign stage of the project with
are mounted in the basement
Integrating phOiovoitaics Into the building offered iln e.'
below the faf;'ade.
opportullity for true Integration The PV elemellls arc not .ldd. ons, but integr.ll parts of the bUilding skin
Decision process: atrium rDof The saw·roothed roof over the atrium offers some 70 square metres of area for
Planning process, allernative designs
saw-toothed roof geamet!}' as pan of the bUilding concept Good
inu:grauon In the southern fa�ade and the saw·toothed roof.
daylighung condiuons are essential for the use and the aesthetiC
Ihe solar cells ilre encapSUlated within heat Insulattng Idouble)
effect of an atlium. Ho....ever. enormous overheaung would arise
gl.1Z.ing Ther reduce the heat gain to the building and support
in summer If transp.arency IS high and Ihere were no shadmg
the efforts to dispense largely with conventional air COndllloning
elements. Simulations were undertaken for Ihe mdool thermal
The saw-toothed roof and south facade will employ the effC(ts of translucent
f>V
PV modules and IS a good example to Illustrate
rhe design process. Figure C) Illustrates the optimIsation of the
The f>V generiltors demonstr.1te different aspects of building
ilnd daylighung conditions to take into account both aspects
modules and use [he shadow of the solar cells in
Elecmc power generation. daylighung and protecllon from
the building Interior as an arcl1l1etlUral element
overheanng in summer were balanced The first geometry of
thl." sile The three bUIlding wings are orIented east-west and are
The generator on Ihe facade of the southern wing wJU
figure
Wlflt:ly separated to allow daylighting, The offices. which ate not
demonstrilte the applic<1tlon of photovoltaic modules as sp
alr·condltloned, are located on the sunny side. while the cur.
elements In vertical and tilted configurations
and IS appropn:ue to the pronounced nonh-south onentation of
condItioned laboratorIes are on the shaded side The nat roofs of the wings hilvc been designed to funcuon as outdoor test areas The wing StrUClUrc ilnc! the internal distribution of zones combine PJ%lvc usc of solar energy for healing in winter (sun
9 was chosen Yielding an
rncilnatlon of the shed.skylightS
near the opumum of 35°
The glaZing is supponed by a steel structure that holds a type of mullion/transom Slick construction. Modules arc placed on
The focus of this case study will be on the 'saw-toothed roor array above the atriUITl. However. for comprehensiveness the other PV generators will be brieny discussed
FfII 7 Soulh r�ealtolmmplet,on Scuu ,,-.. 1Sf
sealing rubber Strips and fastened by a screwed cover profile.
lo\\" In the sky) with low {overJ-he.ltlng loads In summer (sun
high m the sky). A centr.11 access area extends more than 1 3 0 metres In the north-south dlreCllon a n d protects the rnner
Cladding elements on the wings' roofs
f>V arrays on
courtyards .lnd the Wing faf;'ades from the summer afternoon
The
sun An entrance block al the southern end of the access area
serve as cladding for the ventilation shafts behind them They
houst."S the administration and central services.. The technical
employ standard modules in a standard mOunting structure
the roofs of the southern and central wings
pmtotype laboratory. clean room and workshops adJorn the
These modules replace an Initially planned sheet metal wall
access area to the west
The cost for the suppan structure is completely recovered from
PJ glass
the saved sheet meral wall
Criteria
Block
Indoor climale Daylighting Energy consumption
Campus o o
Wings + o
dayJighling indoor temperature
no"h wing had been nearly completed II had not been included
+ ': favourable,
in rhe Original call for tender Therefore. only the later paris of the building, centr.ll and south Wing. benefited from this Idea
-....'" .,.
SUpport struClu re
Concrete elements above the slructural members of the buildIng On these
frames .1I1 'AluTec' mounting SlrUClUre is screwed on to hold the Type ASE-IOO-GT_FT modules in place This lTlodule Iype was chosen because It employs Ihe same cells CASE EFG 100
x 100) as used in the access area far;ade or
course, they also fit well Into the available geometric boundaries
76
- ': unravourable.
0 ,: neutral
F'II 9 Evaluillsm of dllferent geomeUK15 oi till! $I!ed root Slluctll"e
TIlble2 MJlIIlfOle>arU3IIM OfbluidrngeorceplS
bear galvanlsed steel (r.llneS These are Inclined .-u JO"
+
electric power
This idea was developed durmg the construction process ,1fler the
fIg 8 CrosssectrOflo1I 'ffllW nortlHoulhlh1oughIhll81l1lJfO
Sc:I.<m Dos.w . 11e.1r.-,
Optimising the electrical design
Module design
After opWnlsmg the geometry of the
\10<11,11(' dl'Slgn wasswdNI by • .lr\:hut"t:lural design con�ldera[jons;
Into account the p
• t'/1."('trlC power productron.
modules were spIll in three sub·modules
• dayHghling
(h;unmlned rhe module dimensions The baSK shape of the
S1rUClurc had bt'en fixed ilccon:Hng 10 [he optimisation iUusITilred
[!)OU mm
111;11. Ihe bilSIC dimenSions were set 10 about
lran�rnntanct:"J v,lluc below
JO
per cent ,lnd lIght ITilnsmlsslon
above [5 per cent The cell type was nOl imponant, bUi lhe rear vIew was. since the cells are VIsIble from below but not from the front After the baSIC dimensions had been defmed. [he modules were deSigned Inlllally. three drafts were d iscussed
!figure
10)
Eventually the 'SHELI: cell (125 x 1 2 5 mm) was chosen and [hen
tht' layout and [he electric.ll
circun was desIgned. The archltccts
Opted for large gaps between cells for transparency and the
dC5ign was fixed as shown In figure II JO per cem was achieved
II TSET value of about
I I
r'll 10VoYlous roodlJl tdeSlQlU� lefl llll l l00 tm CIIlb.te'ltle l25� l25nm tells. oenaIy � rq,t 1251 125nm ClIIs. 2Ornm d.slaru belWBel'lte!ls
Sluw Sr Galt,wr Gl.m,ra..
..-
ModulschnlttA:A
....
" ..... PlANIOUR": PI.T'·F.....
'. mmSZR1�1
B nm VSO
O,70 F.....
should Ju.:>t rail below the rear module's lowest cells.
from
row
The module Is constructed as heal insulating glazIng wuh a g,lS filled sp,lce between front and rear palle.
String
wiring
The module layout. ,1S well as the Wiring. was designed to allow a nexlble inverter concepl (figure ' 4). String In\'erters as well as
a cemral InveTler can be usetl Slight asymmetries in the data of
the smngs due to dlffenng numbers of cells In series are negligible
compared to the Innuence of IUrbulent Winds and different natural ventilatIOn "TIlble 3 IS a summary of the electrIcal data of the array_ A newly developed Central Inverter. the 50LWEX 35300 E + . a
transrormerless invener was chosen_ This Will yield an
-
,�-
lield arrays: at winter solsllce /\oon. the shadow of the
Further r(!qUtremenl5 for the modules wcre
ccll� from it parmer company, a TSET (lOIal solar energy
" rrrn PI..ANIOUR"OoamanI
FollOWing
(figure 121. The sub
modules were deSigned accordmg to the rule of thumb for ope/\
The building desIgn gmt ,1nd Ihe geometry of thl! "SilW leeth'
In figure " From
by the southern sheds.
a proposal by Ihe module manufacturer. 51 Gobaln Glass SoJar. the
• he.ll gam reduction;
5QO x
PV modules. the design of the
elcctncal CIrcuits Including Ihe PV modulC5 was optimIsed to take
,
Improvement In annual mean effiCiency of 2-3 per cenl.
5;;;;;; � =§i ==iiJ!�-!§� .. = ===� ;;ele
;;5 ==-
fig ll fN1 lll1Q.le l �
.5'o:Ir;Q Sl GctlMr GlMr s.r
Hum... Mod,Ie
69
Stnngs
Total
v.
v_
I�
V
V
A
1 0.6 '.3
8.7
53
4.4 4.4
360 371 366
296 30. 300
366
300
371
Tiltlle J�llIrTJ'tditaalSTC
298
4.3
4.3
17.2
p-
rtg I4'Ilr!WlMJ ofthearray lle$plte lhe lflegular sln.c1ur!o1tt.she:l rooI .an_cUurllltocn lll llllUJel "'Jtn"ll aruk1 b1r � .wr. f_,.,. /sf
Remark
W
36 3 separate 18 sub-modules 18 TolaJ:72
Installation The Installation followed Stand.lrd glaZIng procedures rI!J 19 "towl8SlIiM �nS«UI!ld byBUM)I P'lIfile.
1220 Slighlly 1260 asymmetrical 1240 1240
ihe llllHnod!:l. t!shawl bee!i conr«ledusmgOIlllll tJmunalsaMa PlOl8ctrlll slinnkab/elubli Thesillng Wlmllepl",edrnlO achamelbes>cle lhetOpaf tne
m::duJes Thrr llDllllem gl31ll1!ltw bee!i /lWl'lledard 5«Ul!d(wrUc:alr;over proliJeJ Arthebotumo1lhe piellW. 1!Ie tDpafil'll!lll lbuon l�is�e.
4980
Modulschnltt B:8
-
n rill rlQ 20Viewlrom lllSlllll dllling mounl1ll9 0tthriglaling
- 18
----'-1H--
:=:
rtg12 Conslr\CIlllll a!IIlI� 'I'III SlllHnrxkJlesaremartell lr;dlfferenl colcu, IIyp.ID-
IS(
'overI'IIIaf'
rlg 2 1 ihe roof lsIM)ariy tOflll)1ele
f9lles lSI021
$cuap.f�/SE
Fig tJ Bkd dillgram Dj the array
Soi:ftf "__1SC
Problems during realisation
h." .',,',\'(I '.1,lit:( :onckn�.Ulon In the tnS\Jlaung air ':.11' t1'1.\" n p.m, Pro 1In1,lbl�·. this resuhed hom c."ekss work by Ihe 1;ll.InC manufMlurt'r Til!> modules aflt·ned WL'rc H'm()\'l'c! .. m., Ol·
.lnd It ",lied
All electriCity 15 led inw the Ulihty grid at a rate or 0,50 EurolkWh This is according to the German law ro r electric power from Renewable Energies (EEG) Originally. it was planned to
{cl'd the eleclr!clty 11110 Ihe building grid using distributed feeders for the inverters. After the law for a higher buy-back r.lIe had
Performance characteristics
been passed Ihese plalls were change
1�'rhmll,IIlCl' d,IIOi an' nrll YCI ,lV.lllable, An annual yield of
.Irollnrl I r. MWh
h cXPI:CIl'd for .111
PV sy.slP.ms, which �hou]d
miTt the l'nUrt" (It'mand lor oUlce lighting In Ihe new building
G E RM ANY: MO NT- CEN IS ACA DEM Y
Project cost breakdown Total btl!ldmg cOSt was about 26 million Euro including I.,boratory faCilities and equipment
the utllity grid Thl: utility did not require distributed meters and
req uesled a separale, additional grid connection for Ihe feed-In rm.:tcr IWgul,1r electricity supply is connected on the medium
vollage levcl of20 kV
D"""" "
PROJECT:
LOCATION{CITY: COUNTRY: TYPE Of PV BUILDING:
1,000 kWp Mom-Cellis Academy Heme-Sodillgell Germany SemHransparenl PV overhead glnillg alld PV glilss fa1;ade
BUiLOtNG TYPE:
Governmellt Irainrng academy; mull1purpose buildillg
Lessons learnt from the project
Tru rme'r.UIOIl 01 phOlU\'OIt.1IC IIltO bUildings demands a
NEWJRETROm:
New
hIlisil ,I! In .1ppro.lch PV offer.; nl'W opponunnl� for
, sthlIIc.llly utt.l(IIW solullons to dayhghltng. and overheallng l'ft'vC!nllon A good lII'slgn of thl' denrlc.l] s}�lems mlmml5es Ihe
t'ifcCl 31 UIl.1\Old,lble )hddlng
'I"?I.,.,,.,:I·';'·'+·.;'.,·'11 LAmuOE: 51" 32'N
F•.,-of
accesa area Rated power IkWpJ Modules Mounttng structure Mounting and array wiring labour DC main cable and
SaW·toothed 4.9
2.5 20.000
ill
Roo' wlngl
50,000
o PI
0 131
0'
2.9
10
35.000 tll
42,000 4,500 1'1
1 0,000
25,000
1 ,500
1 ,800
8,000
1 ,600
2,800
7,000
nfa nfa
Inverter wiring including labour Inverter
Spandrel
louth wing
roof
I�J
Table 4 Cml t.eal.dcrMJ 101 the N subsyS1ems' A!lr;on1I11 EUlO ·aJ$IS fOlIIle s.pandrel ol!he SollUIh WIng are natYIII \.noY.T1 i!.\IJllIille
100uaiaHel " "xludcd ln bwldlng 51f1.cturo �A!utct lllDUlll lng pmfile� "'long ca�lfl luns 10 allow for rlCA:ll�e ICSllITll conhgurallOll!J
LONGITUDE: AlmuDE: CUMATIC TYPE:
7" 15'E
153 metres above sea level Moderate humid climale (Tempenuure: winter average ::: 4.S"C; summer average ::: 14.35 "C [JO·year average, period 1961-1990])
SUNSHINE HOURS:
Yearly average ::: 3.93 hours per day
nfa r'll2VoewfrQlll lII$Ide lDd'I!(J'v$lleadgWrngoJ glass llf1Wklcle
s-uIWlog.Solor ....&rdI ..
2,200 121
Other costs: Addlltonal grid connection for feed into grid Monltonng equipmenl including winng and sensors
General project background
3,500
;\1
12,000
Ihe end of the I Q80s Ihe �\lnisler of Ihe ImeTlor of Ihe SltlIe
of North Rhine Wl!5t phalta made Ihe deciSion 10 move Ihe COlllinulng Tralnmg Academy 10 Herne. II look len year.; 10
complele Ihis exciting architcctural concepl thai Included a I MW buildlng·imegrated PV sYSlem for the ecological and economiC renewal of the region The project began with a IWo
siage compelillon III IQql fo r the lnternationale B.luausstellung Emscher Park
(1M). won by French architects Jourda &.
Perraudln In the sccond stage of thiS compel1l10n, Ihe German architects Hegger. Hegger Schleif JOined the design learn and
a fruitful German/French collaboration began f'll I GerwralView tn:m 50Uthean
.sa.. 'w., .s.".w..,ylO1ll Gtrdi
The site Is Ihe former Mont·Cents black coal mine al the centre of the Ruhr area and .11 the heart of the region dedicated 10 the
Internalionale ijauaussteltung Emscher Park (International Archilectural Exhibulon). II is an importam pan of the 1M 'Emscher landscaped Park' project, a .serlCS of green spaces developed In Ihe last ten year.; to improve the quahty of life In
the Ruhr reglon
81 ·
Architectural concept SjlUa[� sllghely higher [han the surrounding area. the Mom· Cenls Academy bUilding consists of a huge mlcro-chm:uc glass envelope Iha! forms a shelter for several imerior buildings, 11 IS 170 metres in length. 72 mctres wide, and 15 metres high
Origmally plannetl as a training academy. the building today IIIcJudcs several other functions Including semmar r,lCllltics. mL'{!llng rooms. accommodation facilities. a restaurant. a
gymnasIum, a library. •1 Civic hall and leisure facilities. The buUdlng became one of Ihc Ruhr region's new landmarks and serves, like tlte mines before, as Ihc functional and urban centre of Hcrne·Sodlngen
Rainwaler svstem
Daylighting concept Different daylighting tcchnologles have been employed within
the bUilding In addltlon 10 the special design of Ihe
PV roof
(figure 21 light shelves were Incorporated Into certain facades of the bUildings Inside the glass envelope to reflect daylight deeper Into their rooms
The raInwater failing on the lilrge roof Is collected by a special rainwater system. which minimIses pIpe diameters It is collected In an underground storage tank. nitered and reused lor cleaning purposes. and for the watering and maintenance of plants within the micro-climate glass envelope
1997. IWO co-generation plant modules have supplied 253 kW elccmclty and 378 kW heat. One of the plants Is operated wnh
mine gas and the other opllonally with mine gas or nalural gas The heal is used for heating the Mont-Cents Academy as well as a
Iiologram films Integrated into the roof mIcro-climate envelope
nearby hosplt.11 and 250 nats The electricity generated Is fed Into
retUrcct the sunligtll down into the library and the entrance hall In the library the hologram films act as a heliostm. which
the grid The two co·generation plants worked so successfully that in (he year 2000 a third co·gencr
[ntenslnes the light level. In the emrance hall they break up the
Installed. supplying tOOO kW eleculclty and 1200 kW heal. In
light spectrum ilnd create a rainbow effect (figure 31
total. Ihis helps 10 reduce the CO. emiSSions by 60.000 t/year
Tht: project uses a series of devices to preserve and Improve the
Two peak.load boilers using nalural gas and each provIding
cnvlronnH:nt dt.'CQlltamlnation of the existing pollUled soil,
895 kW have also been installed to supply heat
collection of rainwater and re-use of groundwater: collection of
Consideration was also given 10 the requirements of people with
climatic envelope of the greenhouse: generatIOn of aClive solar
vanous disablities. To allow easy wheelchair access. barriers I were avoided and aU doors and lifts open automatically. To assist
and the utilisation of easily recyclable ecological building
system and Braille mformation on railings. lifts. and doors make
gas escaping from former mine shafts used for urban heating: generation of po1sslve solar energy by the use of Ihe micro energy for heatIng water and the production of PV electricity:
the blind. a feeler model is located at each entrance A routing
onentauon easIer
materials and construction techniques.
Passive soJar energv use
BiPV design process Planning process, alternative designs
The glass envelope of the Mont·Cenis Academy creates a climatiC shiFt in the summer and winter It keeps out wind and rain and creates a garden.like interior With a mUd mlcro-dimate Similar to that of the Mednerr.mean.
As a consequence the interior
buildings no ronger need 10 be absolutely weatherproofed agamst
The anginal compell1ion brief in I qql did not call for the use of
FIII J OewlfJI owrlllld glamg.tlArglau plll!! Wllli llllegl1ned hologram rl1m.: _trao:uparent P-l moduleson ther9Tt;nllllft $idl!s
.sa..-
PV (figure 5). Intake of solar light and heat was controlled only by
n;;.g.so. mn.tDvIGinIlH
sun screens and natural planting inside and outside the microclimatiC envelope. SUI In a I.lter planntng phase. when different
wind and rain. An air conditionIng system Is not installed.
shading systems were under dISCUSSion and the architects
Instead. sophisticated ventilation and heating systems reduce the
Ecological building materials and construction
energy consumptIon considerably in comparison with
Preference was given to ccologlcal building materials and
conventional "Ir-conditlonlng technologies. The ventilation of the
construct/on techniques that allow easy maintenance and bear
glass envelope is controlled automatically from a central position
a high potential for recycling. This resulted in a limited range
A meteorological station and sensor supply clImate data To prevent overheating In summer. the roof and facade elements can be opened variably On hot days. doors in the lower fat;ade can be opened as well The shadows of the trees and the cooling
effect of waterfalls and fountams are also used. Additional fresh air from cooler outSide areas is supplied directly to the inSide
through ground ducts (diameter I metre). The air is naturally cooled or heated during very hot or very cold periods respectively. thanks to consistent below-grade temperatures. The \'tntilatlon of the bUildings inside the glass envelope is achIeved by natural or mechanical means. In order to reduce energy consumption In winter and to cool naturally in summer.
showed the clients how much energy the roof deck could
produce. the installation of pV became a priority for the client
The idea of controllmg incoming light and shade in this elegant manner was anractive to the dlen!. particularly because there
were no budgetary constraints on the additional costs of the PV
of buildIng materials, mamly umber. glass and concrete.
system The client"s only requIrement was to bulld the world's
The timber elements of the structure make use of local wood
largesl I-megawatt bUilding-Integrated PV system
sources. The main structural suppon columns of Ihe glass
Design process
en'lelope consist of the trunks of I 30-year-old pine trees which ....'ere feUed In a nearby forest. Thanks to the protected climate.
the wood did not have to be treated (figure 41. The uniform basic
grid ( 1 2 x 12 melfes) enabled cost·effective pre-finiShing On the outside. waxed larch wood and larch·laminated wood were used.
f1g'v.wrlOOI southwesl. tDIhe Kllllh �oftht llllCJlXlili ma
IIM!IoptWlth�'M1OCIroh.Ims., rn..1 s-.RIbIQ.IOIM ....IlII!I . Ii'Ga!t>H
The Idea of integrating PV modules into the glass envelope was formulated when the design and structural concept of the striking glass cover had already been established. It was stili
possible 10 adapt the construction of the mlcro·climate glass
the total energy requirement. with optimum control of the
envelope to the specIal requirements of Ihe pV·system
Inst.1Uatlon. Is approximately 32 kWhlm' per year. This means
technology. but with cerlain limits. The roof-mounted PV
that the bUildings requIre about 23 per cent less energy than
modules are orientated south with an inclination of So. The
buildings with the same insulation standard (corresponds to the houses Is warmed in winter to about 8 °C through the
square metres of PV modules. The rest was integrated in the west
production at the same time..
periods of more extreme temperature differences.
In winter. the annual heat requirement Is below 50 kWh. while
ground dUClS
climate glass envelope. 10.533 square metres of which were filled with PV cells. The roof itself provides space for only 9.744
elements. They provide shading. daylightlng and electricity
temperature differences between day and night as well as
installed The heating system will use less than 2 kWhlmllyear
about 18 per cem less CO, emissions). The direct air supply to
A tOlal of 20.640 square metres of glass were used for the micro
fat;ade.. The PV modules serve as truly multifunCtIonal building
The concrete structure acts as a heat sink. balancing OUI the
an aIr handling system unit With a heat eXChange system was
- 12
Mine-gas driven co-generation plant The mine gas of the disused Mont·Cenis mines allowed the installation of a co-generallon plan! on the sile Since November
fat;.lde.moume
rIQ5Iawnptamtngrmdeloi Mant·ee.uSille Scut. fWlJpSoUt.,...,IIcnII�
inclination of 900 For this site location. the Optimal inclination angle of 28° could nOI be achieved. The single glass panes of the original desIgn of the overhead glazing were simply replaced by semitransparent PV modules of the same sIze.
83 •
evenly In the flrst d�lgn. all the solar cells and modules were dlstribUled across the roof. but compu!!!r modelling dark wuh demonmated that the bulldmg Imenor would be tOO
sky (figure thiS layout The solUlion looks li ke iI cloud.patterned 6J The cells arc concentrated over the Internal bUildings and left c!l'<1r glass between the buildings and over the central thoroughfare 51)( different types of pV modules wuh different
densilJes of solar cells and glass of \'ilrious degrees of
transparency were used_ TIle number of cells per module ranges
between 128 and 2bO. wuh corresponding power OUlpUts of bCiwecn 250 and -11 q Wp Their densities varied from 86 per
cent directly over the buildings to 58 per cent In transitional
zones. The varlauon of the ceU layout along wuh the passage
ules With monD On the ....esT fil�'de. seml·Transparent PV mod crystililine rv cells cover 30 per cent of the vertical glass fa�ade.
7. 8. 9, They help 10 a\'oid overheating (figures
To achieve Ihe highest system etllclency for the complicated I'V
modules and P\' cel l dlstnbutlOn on Ihe roof and ra�ade, an
Innovative string Inverter concepl was developed All inverters are mounled on Ihe rooftop. Originally it was planned to palm
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PV 'VI"m POWI'
lfttt of building inllgrelion Typto' cell tlchnology
the 569 inverters In different colours ilnd 10 loc.1tc Ihem over the
a) PV overhead glazing; semi-transparent PV modules wlIh different cell Brea ratio; olieRlation; soulh; inclination S·; b) PV faliade: semHransparant PV modules; onentation: west; inclinDtion 00"
Tr�e ofPV Cell Size (mm)
Efficiency1%)
tOlal roof area, symboliSing 'nowers' III different colours. BUI for maintenance reasons, Stadtwerke Herne AG. the owner of the
a) PV overhead glazing: 925 kWp; b) PV la�ade: 7S kWp; 101al; 1,000 kWp
Material
pv
required easy access to all the Inverters All Inverters are svstem. ' now located next 10 e.1ch other along the edges of the roof
Colour
Inslalled capacity Manufacturer
shade inside the budding An aUTomauc cleaning sYSlem employing recycled ftllnwater for the PV overhead glaZing was
Modular dimensions
envisaged. buT nor realised
Trpe of PV module
l oo x loo
1>5 silicon
IkWe)
of dayhght creates exclIIng ever-changing patterns of Ught and
12S x l25 poly-crystalline
IOC )x IOQ
16
12.8
mono-crystalline
poly-crystalline
Silicon
silicon
blue
blue
500
400
100
Solarex
ASE
ASE
blue
III
IV
Size lml)
3.36
Size lcm)
3.J6
3.36
3.36
120 x 280
120x 280
120 x 280
12Ox 280
II.
m
1 16 x 240
Weighl
114
114
"'
PV celi area !%)
86
"
PV celltype
73
B
C
416
332
282
250
259
132
'"
"
61
96
PV module capacity (We)
Votlage (Vl Manufacturer
63
70
"
A
Aabec Solar Internallonal GmbH; Pilkington Solar International GmbH
Vertical IIction 01 the semi tnntparent PV modules from outside 10 inside
a) PV overhead glazing; semi-transparem PV modules in glass-glass encapsulation technique: 6 mm elttra white-heat
strength glass; 2 mm cast resin with PV cells; B mm heal strength glass;
b) PV fa�ade: semi·transparent PV modules in glass·glass encapsulation technique: vertical glass fa�ade: 5 mm extra
white·heat strength glass; 2 mm cast resin with PV cells; 5 mm heat strength glass Arrav dimensions Mg8Wes t �Wlth $tlUCtinl g\alilYJJ and llltllQlilted 5el1ll-l/3nSiIiIIentPVrroduIes
a) PV overhead gluing: 2.900 PV modules. 3.36 m' each; total size 9.744 m':
b) PV faliade: 284PV modules. 2.78m'each; lotalsile1�.S2m'; 10101: 3.184 PVmodules: IO,533.S2 m'
5c11rm 1lltMt; :x.rIln_rD'lll�
Visual delei ls
Inverter Tvpe Maximum eHiciencv Nominal Power Sile Weighl Banery
PVpfugs
The PV cell area of Ihe PV modules vanes bel\veen 86% and 58%. The space between the single PV cells varies a ccording
10 the trallslucent ratio.
'Sunny Boy lSOQ'; maximum power. 1.650 W 96% 1.500W w 434 x h 29 S x d 2 1 4 m m Approximately24kg
a cel1 temperllt�re.stabilisef and on Butomalic 816 single baneries including II centrally conlrolled electfolyte circulator, of 1.2 MWll; expected lifetIme: 20 years waler retiller; lotal energy output 01 1.2 MW; total energy content Special developmcm from leopold Kostal GmbH The plug is not available on the mllrkel.
Hg 7 0etilII YI!IWo' we5tf�wIlI1W1ndcrw ooenlfl\lS fill ¥I!I1tJliltm iltld tlle rowof ltM!flllfS llfltop
s..r.- fl*gSollr__ 6IJdf
rIll 9 roong detllllofYl!nltill$UIKII.IIal lilabno '�
-..,-
Dala conlrol unit Mounting structure
& Ko KG for Flebeg Solor Inlernolional GmbH.
Sunny Boy Control
GmbH; with pressure plates manufactured by �icona Bausysleme al PV overhead glazing: custom·made aluminium profiles with aluminium profiles manufactured by Wlcona Bausysteme GmbH
M PV ta�ade: custom.made slIueMal glazing la�ade
85
1.... 1l11i•• d..;••
Intagration design and mounting strategy PV module!. and glass panes or the overhead glazmg resr on aluminium proflIt's and are held in place with aluminium pressure
pl,lIes The venica] PV·and-glass ra�de is c.1rTied Out as a Slrtlclural glazing r,,�ade The glass panes and PV modules are
glued 01110 aluminIum pronles. All alumInium proliles are moumed on Ihe fOild-beanng wooden subslruclUre and were deSigned specially ror [his prOject by Wlcona Baus�'S,emc GmbH. Ulrn The Interconnecting plugs and Ihe required c.lbUng are fnlcgr;Jlcd In Ihe aluminium profiles Ihal hold Ihe PV modules and gJ,l55 panes Inro place. They arc InvIsible and protected agalnsf weather COnditions and ultraviolet Ughl This new mounting detail was possible due [0 [he speCially developed PV plug The plug Is not thicker than the ·1 nUll glass pane of the PV modules (figure 10)
and therefore ftts well JIl Ihe rebate. The plug helps to CUI down thc lOstallatlon tlmeand coscs
Planning approval and institutional processes
Moniloring syslem With several Sunny Boy control umts, systcm monlloring and remote diagnosis are possible. These central data acquisition and diagnosis units allows a fle.xlblc sYSlcm managemem with remOle control of the plant components and the transmission of all the
relevant system data 10 a PC. The Inverters tr.1nsmlt their weather
data through the mains. using power-line communication, allowing access to thc data of each smgle component at nearly every polm of the building. This allows easy supervision of this large PV plant with Its Inverters.
During the ten years from vIsion to realisation. It took IWO years . to salVI! the leg.ll and f,"anctal problems .1nd to resolve other reservations and doubts relating to Ihe project Wuh regard to the PV system. cxtra effot! WIlS rcqutred by the design team to be granted a building permll to use thc glass.glass PV modulcs for the overhead glass construction. Spcclal load teSls werll rcquired and had to prove that thc sandwich
Regelsysteme GmbH. provided tlte 56<) tran�formcrless inverters. type 'Sunny Boy 1500'. Aabakus energiesysleme Gmbll. Gelsenkirchen. developed. In close collaboration with the
The battery systems refine the value and quality of the
walked without any problem on the roof anti Its PV mOdules
PV power is directly used
Today however. German Industrial safety regulations demand additional rope safety devices for workers on the roof whIch can
Project cost breakdown
The calculated energ).' Output of approximately 700,000
generator The PV system was financed 49 per cem by the state
kWh/year has not yet been reached The measured energy OUtput
of Nonh Rhine W�phaha and thc European Commission The
• it reduces peak demand loads;
reached a maximum between 600.000 kWhfYellt and 6SO.OOO
StadtwetHe Herne. the local UlilllY company. invested the
kWh/year On the one hand. if was assumed that the calculated
• II compensates for system fluctuations. which can
remaining 51 percent
figure was too optImistic and did not take special site conditions Into accounl. such as sub-optlrnal inClination and orlent3{ion much higher than expected. TIlls was likely due to the failure of the natural ventilation system of the micro·climate glass envelope. There were some problems with the opening
electrolyte Circulator, a cell temperature stabiliser and an
mechanisms of the automatically driven ventilation openings of
Electrical configuration including grid integration
automatic watet tefiller were integrated into the system, The
Ihe rooF. Although the PV modules were mOUlIIed only with a
Inverter
banery conSIsts of S I 6 single batteries and weighs tJo IOnnes.
slope of 5°. the saw·tooth rooF caused some shading on .ht! PV
It is computer-controlled and works through three reversible
modules In early moming and evening hours as well as in winter.
converters parallel to the PV Installation and to the low.voltage network of the local utility company.
when the sun Is low on the horizon. The effect of this panial shading on the total energy outpUt was underestimated
This battery system was nOl necessary for thiS project as the PV
between the PV panels and 10 miSmatching are reduced to a
generator Is connected to the public grid. It serves more as a
mmunum. Indtvidual management of each smng optimises the
demonstration project for the export of such technologies The
Post-installation feedback
energy Output of Ihe tOTal system
idea was to show that energy storage on a large scale could be
BUllding·lntegrated PV modules successfully allow control of the
Fifly·five kilometres of cables were used to connect the 56tJ
economically feasible
Interior climate of this large micro-climatic glasshouse The Intake
inverters wllh the 3 , I S5 PV modules. However. the use of am.
EUR (million)
2S.4 35,0
14.5
Academy of the State Interior MInistry DIStrict Town Hall. Herne Sodingen
1 1 .4
5.8 15.3
of solar heat and light in different zones of the bUilding is
Construction casts Site reclamation/new landscaping
17.9
Micro climate glass envelope
BiPV system
30.0 15.7
8.0
Total
120.5
61.5
BiPV system costs PV modules
11.1
5.67
1.2
0.60
Switches, cabling. ele
0.6
Planning and engIneering
1.1
0.56
Mounting
1.7
0.86
0.03
Q.02
Inverters
Total
15.7
0.31
....
Maintenance costs Total (estImated)
COntrolled by the choice of different cel! densities of the PV
intenSIVe DC cabling was reduced to a minimum The installation
modules of Ihe overhead glaZing. For large projccts such as this.
of the inverters took about three months: two weeks each were
the Integration of PV in the glass envelope is a good choice to
necess.1ry to Install the frames and to fix the inverters. which
replace conventional shading systems as they nOt only provide
were built in a durable st.1lnless steel case. on the roof. TIle
shade. but also act as a weather skin and PV generator It Is also
cauling Ilsdf took a further two months
expected that they will have a longer lifetime than convcntlonal
The adv,lrltagl! of this electrical layout is Ihat each Siring hilS its
shading systems The multifunctionallty of these PV modules
own AlPP·tr.lcklng and Is conneclCd to a central computer, which
makes them auractlvt:. Access to and any work on the roof
always requires the help of .1 crane. This Is nOI cost·cffecuvc and
shows not only the towl power of the PV generator. but also the working condition and power of each Siring. It is poSSible to easily
Is Inappropriate for the required maintenance and cleaning of
check the whole PV system with one glance at the computer screen The whole Im'erler concept proved to be a good choice.
OEM (million)
On Ihe other hand. air temperatures below the PV modules were
battery up to 20 years. For thIs reason. a cemrally controlled
10 temperature dIfferences
mllhon). This COSt includes roofing. fa�ade. shading and the solar
the banery storage system fulfils three functions
Automatic maintenance systems Increase the service lIFe of the
Losses due to pantal system shutdown.
The overall COSt of the PV sysrem was OEM 15. 7 million fEURB 0
With an OUtpul of t 2 AlW and an energy content of 1 . 2 MWh.
Ac.ldemy.
Inverters (Sunny Boy l SOO), help to achieve the highest system
commiSSioning of fhe lotal PV system
Perfonnance characteristics
• it can supply emergency power for the Mom-Cenls
efficiency for the complicated module distribution on the roof
modules and prepared lite working drawmgs. TIley also supervised tite Installation work on the bUilding site and the
surplus energy is fed mlO the public grid
emanate from the PV installation: and
The mvener concept for this project is innovative. Special String
architects, engineers. manufacturer and the Installers. me concept fot tlte elCCtrlcal lnterconnections of the J.IS4 PV
only be ensured by a crane.
withm the building. Surplus power is stored m the battery and used at night or dUring periods of low light The rest of the
Fig til De!ad 01 new f'Vplug - .,, -
PV modules. which were assembled In a nearby plant. The aSSOCiated cOnlpany SMA
purposes. and that Ihe PV modules would nOI collapse and fall
During thl! mounting of the PV modules and cables, the Installers
plant. and transmit the current aUiOmatically 10 Ihe network.
Pilkington Solar International GmbH (now (,Iabeg Solar Internallonal GmbH) In Cologne served as the general contractor
and manufacturer of the 3.1 B4
stable enough to walk on for maintenance and clcanlng Jller cr.lcking
exaclly when It IS needed Pari of the
ownership and (he chent's responslbHlty for the PV syslem
construction of the large PV modules 0 2 x 2 8 mctres) was
Banery system photovoltaiC elcclticfty and of the mine-gas driven co-generation
Project organisation Due to deciSIons on a political level, Ihe local utiILty company. Stadtwerke Herne AG, owned by the City of Herne. took over the
such a glass sheltcr.
Detall Vl!IWoI lll'.1!fl1lfl 31the rool e!lge .so...r. fI«»tI_�Gtrd/
Fig II
".
ITALY: THE CHI LDREN 'S MUSE UM OF R O M E Proj acl brief
PROJECT: LOCAnON/C1TY: COUNTRY:
Museum of Rome project brief aimed at ·offering The ChJldren's experience, play and sociality In a unique enYlfOnmem _ an extension to learning which Is beyond normal education. By
15 kWp roof end canapv
bringing together the family, school and the WOrld of WOrk.
Rome
chlldren arc encouraged to learn Ihe skills that they must acqUire
Ilaly
In order to enrich the world ,lround them'
BUILDING TYPE;
Commercial
NEW/RETROFfT:
Retrofit
Theil.' was nOI ,1 speCific requIrement to use photoyoll.1lcs, bur Ihe exposure of children to alternailYe energy was considered to be an effective Illustration of the baSIC aIm of this museum to helghfen awareness of the quailly or urban [ffe through 'a transp.lrent guided iilnerary· of everyday aCliYities
BiPV design process The initial renoyallon project dId not Include any renev..able SOurce of energy due to a Conyentlonal approach to the design of technical systems, the requirement 10 limit The overall COSt of th/:! undertaking and the need to Stay within the tight construcllon Ilmetable The IdCd of Integrating photoyoltalc energy was suggested by Clnzla Abbate and Carlo Vigevano, the designers of The PV system. eelriy In the ....-orkmg draWing phase of the project The Idea of Including an alternatlye source of energy In Ihe bUIlding, was enthUSiaStically accepTed by the directors of the museum, Since I( conformed to ilS oyerall didactic purpose, and the goal of USing only well-balanced. enYlrOnmenlally friendly matenals
LATITUDE: LONGITUDE: AlTITUDE: CUMAnc TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS;
42" II'N
The e5(lmared COSt of the PV mstaliallon was "n obstacle until
Abbalt: and Vlgevano found the opportunity of joining a
lZ"28'E
EUITHERMIE programme with 1\\-0 European partners. Cenergla
15 metres above sea level
Temperate (Temperature: yearly average = 15"(:)
from Denmark, and Ecofys. from the Netherlands. The Children's
\luseum of Rome subsequently became not only the first. but
Yearly average = 4.3 hOllrs pet day
also the largest building integration of photovoltaics In a histonc City centre of Italy The firsl PV design approach proposed a moyeable 3 kWp
PV
roof struaure that would shelter the large skylight, and 12 kWp moveable canopies shaped like a ·Meccano' toy. placed along the south fa"ade. Several systems were studied, and several comparative COSt analyses were made, before deCiding to limit the moveable partS to only Ihose essentl,,1 areas where the Indoor climate and natural quality of the light would benefit substantially from the mechanical moveable clements The COSI
Fig I lI'Itenor ..ew of slVhgll1
Scuu AitQ&
anal�'SJs demonstrated th.lt the SOlution of replaCing conventional
�1lft9Is-
glass With double-glazed PV modules in Ihe skylight reduced the COSI of the
General project background The prOject [s located In [he historic cemre of Rome, on a sIte prevIously occupIed by the public Iransponation warehouse. operated by the municipal government of Rome. The project Is the tr
pV installation and also eliminated
the COSt of
maintenance of the mechanical roof structure. The PV skylight also contributes signtficantly to ImproYing the overall indoor comfon and Ihe aeslheuc quality of the roof The architcos proposed three different layouts of the skylight and the canoplCS. 10 be evaluated by Cenergla, in order 10 seiC(:! the best solution to be built Cenergla used simulation programs to study the CJ(lsung conditions and to yerlfy the integratiOn of the photovollalc system In Ihe roof and the fa"ade as passive shading. Due to the large volume, and to the roof configuraTion of the building. the energy consumption required for heatIng wilh a conventional transparent skyhgtu would have been appro)\lmately three to four times more than for cooling. Indeed. the results showed thm the tJQ kWhfmonth for
consumption would have been approximately net heating and 32 kWhlmonth for cooling
enylronment, and all the mmerlal used for the construction tS either recycled or recyclable and non.toxlc It has been estimilled that approximately 1 30.000 people. mcludlng children from infants to 12 years of age, schools ..nd families vislled the museum In jts first year of operation
89
the architects The results for Ihe Ihree soluuons presemed by the AbbJIC and Vtg(.ovano werc almosl identIcal, bUl obviously
of one with a larger PV surface demonsu<1ted Ihe poSSibllllY Analysis of H.-durmg Ihe use of coolmg sYSlems during summer. for Ihe Indoor lemperalUre and of Ihe amoum of lime necessary energy nalUral air cxchange was used 10 eSllmate how much speCific 5.lving was generalcd by Ihe use of phOiovoltalcs and the
The aeslhetlc value of the phOiovoltaic panels played an Important role in convincing Ihe architea of Ihe museum 10
project was 10 encourage Ihe retrofit applicatio The aim of the n part of the resuuclurlng and maintenance of of pV systems as
The inSlaJlation of thiS PV system. which Is part of a larger EU THERMIE plan, has been accomplished in (O-operallon with Ihe
Indoor shading Real examples of Ihe modules. CompUier renderings. and piCtures of OIher buill prOjects with similar roofs
heal lood of the buildIng through the InnovatIve design of a gfld,
collaborallon eSlablfshes a conspicuous and preStlglOtIS European context for Ihe Children's Museum of Rome [t also aligns Ihe
were cxtenslvely used to persuade both Ihe art:hlllX:l and the
dcslgn of the skyllght surface In order to decrease the coollng demand, the photovOltalc skylight was designed 10 Imcgratc spt.'Clal solar rcnecllng glazing In the transparent area of the roof
director of Ihe added aesthelic value of the PV Inslallallon
Dlher addlt/on,,1 passIve cooling devices were incorporated 10 Impro\'c indoor comfort, such as comral of Ihe venulmlon rate
desIgners, over Ihe three-year span of Its complClloll Before Its
during usc and arter,use of the building, maximised use of nighl coonng In the summer lime .1nd an evaporative cooling device TIlls W,lS achic....ed by placing a large shallow fountain III the cemre of the museum, underneath the photovoJtaic skylight. The waler spnnk[ed on Ihe porous surface of the slone fountain evaporates and cools thc air, panicularly dunng the hot summer months.
..... II.lion design
accept the presence of Ihe poly-crystalline silicon cells, nOI only for the ....Isua[ Impaci of thc outdoor space, but especl,llly for the
The deSign and I"C.llls,lllon process of the phOiovolmic 11151allaiion took approxlmatc[y a full year of man·power for Ihe PV completion, the project underwent at leasl four different
older Industriill buildings In particular, Ihe projcct aimed to Improve the (luaJily of the natural lighting and 10 decrease Ihe
connecled 1 5 kWp PV plant. 10001ted on Ihe soulh pitched roof of the main building The PV InSlallallon is dIvided Into tWO SYSlems, with shadIng devIces and skylights becoming an Intcgml
Polr! of Ihe Industrial
fixed .lnd moveable secllons connected to Ihe lOwer pari of Ihe roof, which shades Ihe southern racade The 8 kW PV system
for the canopies.
replaced pan of the old roof Illes With a speCially designed
extSting cast-iron SlruCture, the Monuments and Fine Arts Ornce prohibited Ihe removal of several Insrgml1cam exlsllng Structural slcol bars In Ihe gUllers, requiring a desIgn moditication of the suppan element of Ihe canopies on the roof
project wilh the Alborg Chaner, and otlltr conventions on climatic change. formulated in Ihe 2151 Agenda of Rome for sustamable development and oullined in the 1 992 Hlo de Janeiro Conference.
pavilion The 7 kW PV c..lnopy system works with allerniliing
varlallons of the roof design, and at leasl nine dlffercm solutions
As an example, during the resloralion of the
Danish panner Cenergia and the DUich parlner Ecorys. This
skylighl of transparent PV glass modules The phOiovoltaic paly-crystaJline celis Iransform sunlight Imo a
1 5 kWp plant to supply 30 per cent of the energy required in
oper:lIfng Ihe museum's exhiblls. or 60 per cent of the 100al anincial lighting of the pavilion
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PV system power
T't'Pe ofbuilding inlegnllion
Type of cell lechnology Modulardimensions
inslallalion;
5 x l0.5 m lcentralpanof skylight) 3.811. 1.8m Ion canopies) Weight Modules: abouI2930kg
Visual delails
Introduction 10 PV IlX:hnology. The same prinCiple of clarilY and visual immedIacy Is encountered In many olher components of the technical systems
are visible 10 th e public
Inverter
and interest of the visliors
.Il:uu A/:l!wlf ' �"",," S1!Jd4
6 inverters, type SMA Sunny Boy 2500, 2500 W mal each, 1 5 kW melin lolal
Moniloring equipment
Remota plam mOllltonng through Oatalogger Sunny Boy Comrol Plus
of the Children's Museum of Rome, thus StimulatIng the curios"y
f'll 4 DiJgrllmlllett l'lll1rCl, nS;U $Im'IlI!II Of 1l1emaICJ\1lllaitar.:f paur.oe SDlar S')'Stl!!ll U$l!dliY indoor thermaJcunfllfl
Allthe componen15 ofthe plam Imodules, inverters, cables, g angways)
• reduce Ihe maimenance COSIS and
• Introduce iI playful configura lion. for a friendly
Poly·cryslalline silicon 12511. 125mm Canopy: 560 x l200 mm Roof: 1200 l 1200 mm
components, were designed to • reduce LIIe COSts of production, assembly and
Roof and canopyintllgralion
Arraydimensions 14.5 x 1.5 m lboth sides ofthe skylighl)
The motors, and aU Ihe mechanical pans of the PV bUilding • simplify (he mOUnting lechnology:
15.6 kWp
Olher BiPV system elements
Public grid interface general switchboard
In partIcular, the detail of the mounting system of Ihe roof adapts a t)'plc..ll PV Shuco window frame, but leaves all the junction boxes of the PV modules exposed, to show Ihe elcclrical characler of Ihe instaUauon. All Ihe cables of the motors for the moveable seclions of Ihe canopies are exposed and accenrualed by the brighl colour of Ihe cables. A child can easily follow Ihe
tl �
r'll 5 Dlff�fenl des'V'lPlOPDSaIJ fo/ l M � CiIrClpy/ll!sell1edthronologlCilltv
s-. AIIIlt' Io a�llIJIgrISIII1cI
path of the cables 10 understand where the electriCity Is genemled and where it goes, A panlcularly playful SCUlptural installation of bells and waler was designed to be mounted adjacent to Ihe PV system, showmg children how much energy Is gener.lted by Ihe solar e.'(posure of Ihe modules An eleclronic monitOring devIce and special graphic panels measure the amount of energy produced and show what could be done With the same amoulll of energy were It used i n
a dlfferenl context To COntrol Ihe general COSt of the PV installations, all the modules used .It the Children's Museum of Rome were selecled rront the l , dverllsed standard catalogue of Eurosolare, In order to match the Span of the roofs casHron SUUCIL!!e to the sizes of the I'V modules, Ihe deSigners Imroduced special transparent glass
panels over the existing roof structure. Ihus underlining liS
btauty with clear beams of natural Ughl The overall effect of light teXlure over the e.'(hibllion hall Is quile spectacular
f",6In!ll!lOl l'leWol*tl911 SJIm.A/:Iture& �/lIqnSndll � ".
s Performance characteristic
AI.
compliatlOn of this c.lse Study the system was tht' time of the therefore performance and monltoTing dat.l were not yet In use. all the data available below i1re predicted estimates nol available;
The energy produced will be directly used In tile museum. so the predicted yearly saving for energy produced by the rv IS 18.000 x ITL250 - ITl4.500.000/year !aboul US$2.200), plus the
estimated energy saved wlIh rv. labOUI USS4,OOO). will general£' a significant total saving of US$6.200 per year
The estImated power produclion shown In figures 10 and II was e calculatcd using PV SYST softwar
A study by the German scientists T Wetzel, E_ a,lake and A Muelbauer calculilted that wllh i1 solar mdliliion of
llI d overal! energy directly produced by the PV will be The eSlllllC 18.000 kWh/year. but the PV used as a pilssivc cooling and heating device 1'1111 reduce the consumption of energy for heating by I I 3 per cent. and the consumption of energy otherwise needed for cooling by 52.8 per cent
1 . 100 kWh per square meITe per year. and a 12 per cent energy-efficient poly·cryst.1JUne cel!. it will take S.D years {O pily back the COSt of the energy used to produce Ihe system In
companson to the SiO grams of co, emitted per kWh produced
wllh conventional energy In Italy. the rv Inst.1l1ation Will produce only 50-60 glkWh. saving q 270 t of equivalent greenhouse emiSSIOns per year
Simulation, version VC2: Pensiline -Balances and main results
Integration design and mounting sttategv
of the window frames were assembled from standard industrial elemems_ Tile only special paris that had to be produced. bUl agilin willi standard componems. were (llejoims fixing the
PV
skyllglll to the roof The deSigners produced deLailed drawings of the roof ridge and of the 10lnl.s between the aluminium fr.lme of the flV and the roof covering The mstallation was performed USing suction cups and a mobile platform f-or Ihe moveable canopIes, Abbate
&.
vigevano. in coU.1boralion
wllh engmeer Bruno Miisci. designed specJaI structural POStS 10 suppen the SUing of slandard PV modules. These verllcal lemlcular
93.7
660
603
9.21
131.4
127.0
881
810
9.08
8.41 8.35
Glo"W
169.0
t63.4
1097
1011
8.80
8.11
20.60
1 79.9
174.1
1 1 05
1018
8.32
7.66
23.70
1 92.7
1 86.4
1 149
1061
8.08
7.46
173.9
23.30
173.1
167.5
1054
973
8.25
7.61
126.5
1 9.60
132.8
128.5
849
781
8.66
7.97
94.5
1 5.40
104.6
101.1
691
634
8.95
8.21
53.3
1 1 .50
60.7
58.6
408
368
9.10
8.21
42.4
7.60
46.8
45.0
318
284
9.21
8.22
1399.0
1 4.50
1422.2
1374.4
9142
8384
8.71
7.99
EOuUnv
EHArrR
EffSyR
1 90.2
Jul
201.3
Aug
Sap
and electrical designer, subcontracted Ciei. the general electrical contractor for the museum. Ciel workers were trained to mount a
PV installation
of this e>:lent under Gechelin supervision
The result was a signmcant saving of operating time and COStS, such a strategy, the number of potential personnel responsible
ilnd Fine
Oct Nov Doc
59.3
427
HOl"llootalgiobal irralUtlOll
AmtIenltell'PI!I3!!1'!
EA".y
EO�ltnv EHAIIA
GlabII IlTadia1!On 1Jl
...... -
ElIICtr;t;1obi1. collec1ed tor illl1lY �louard U\adlngssunultaneaJsly
HIec.tJve eoelirat lhll an'il'/
outlJ.nllamg llM!fler beMviouI inlo lCCOl.Wl1l
AI'Il,labie etlll!gy al llM!rlel outpUt
Allaye'hcilll'Cy EArray/roughFV �lna
EIfSyA
SYSlllll1ullcenty
EOuIIm/J�aJea
fogtOEslu,unedpoYlef llOdOOO'I ol the rool slylll]l1t � .;...
.-
Simulation. version VC1 : Lucernaio - Balances and main results Successful approaches
Glob.....
Using standard components for the aluminium window frames of
deliberated over aU the elemems of the building that could not
the skylight resulted In rapid mounting time. requiring only four
be touched or removed The specific details of Ihe C
da}'5 of work for twO people to mount all the PV modules on the
result of the need to neither modify any e>:isllng componem nor
roof. nOt Including the time of wiring the modules.
Jan
FIb Mar
•
to scrcw any new pan directly onto the original
El ectricn l c onliguralion i nc luding grid i ntegra tion
An Important lesson learnt during conStruction was that no one
ll11n)
PV factory had verified the position of the junction
box of
the transparent roof modules during the elet:lric.l1 testing
The photo\,oltalc su\larray on the roof consists of b rows of 1 8 modules wIth J o cells ( 1 2 5 mOl )( 1 2 5 mm) connected to
at Ihe
:5
The result was that the modules delivered to the site could not be rnountt'!l on the skylight. since the dlst.111CC of the Junction box co the glass border was different 10 thai specified by the Eurosolare factory. Technicians from Eurosolare attended the Site Immediately and substltuled all 72 boxes with new ones precisely poSitioned A new electrical test for each module was then performed on sue to guar.lntee the expected eleancal performance
kWhlm'
TAmb ·C
Globlnc
kWhlml
GlobEff
kWhlml 59.3
EArray
kWh
435
54.2
6.20
66.9
7.10
72.4
92.6
9.70
97.1
93.7
1013
61.6
69.8
534
726
kWh
%
"
394
6.92
6.27
488
7.24
6.61
7.33
6.70
664
928
7.56
6.93
7.59
6.97
129.6
1 2.30
1 3 1 .4
127.0
173.5
16.50
169.0
163.4
1309
1202
Jun
1 90.2
20.60
179.9
174.1
1370
1257
7.46
6.85
Jul
201.3
23.70
1 92.7
1 86.4
1460
1341
7.43
6.82
1 73.9
23.30
173.1
167.5
13t8
1210
7.46
6.86
126.5
1 9.60
132.8
128.5
1009
927
7.45
6.84
94.5
1 5.40
1 04.6
101.1
789
723
7.39
6.78
53.3
1 1 .50
60.7
58.6
428
386
6.91
6.24
280
6.52
5.88
9801
7.38
6.76
May
Problems during realisation
The phocovohllic 5ubarray on the canopy Is composed of 6 rows
91
Gto"lne
of the
Arts Ofnce for approval For netlrly six momhs the commission
tnverters of �.500 \V
8.59
61.6
museum was reduced
PV elements had to be submiued 10 the Monuments
inverters of 2.500 W
9.40
emerged thai some operations. especially related to the cabling
dun
Key:
459
1 6.50
PV inst.ll1ation. could be done under the direction of the PV e)(perc with non·specialised workers. Gechelln. the PV Installer
EffSyR
502
173.5
definition of the rules and responsibillties of each contractor. It
EffArrR
%
May
reciprocal traIning and accumulation of information_ During the
kWh
8.46
12.30
•
EOulinv
%
129.6
the different contractors and workers. With unexpected results of
Mar
kWh
9.38
97.1
FIb
EArray
385
9.70
Since the structure of the Children's Museum of Rome IS a regislered historical lilndmark. the design for the museum and of
J
kWhfm'
92.6
e>:change of Ideas, not only among the designers but ,lisa among
fOf the rnilmtenance of the electrical system of the entire
connected to
GlobEl,
69.8
thereby Simplifying bUIlding mamtenance for the client. By using
01 1 2 modules C:lch with "" cells ( 1 25 mm >: 1 2 5
kWhfm' 72.4
columns. and echo the IIghl 'spider web' design of Pi!lencctlu's
Ihe
Globlnc
7.10
�haped clements were placed next to the e>:isung casl·iron ortgintll sll\lcture
'C
66.9
The collaboration on the project produced an Interesting
As mentioned above. all the major conslrucllon componems
T Amb 6.20
lessons learnt from the project
Installation
-kWhlm' 54.2
Jan
Aug
Sap
Oct
Nov
Doc
42.4
7.60
46.8
45.0
1399.0
14.50
1422.2
1374.4
f'\l11 ht'lIliIted POWeJ puxIooJon of the t4I'IDpII!
Sc:v..
..&ott>
s
311 10702
93'
JAPAN : Nn DoC oMo BUI LDI NG
Projact group datails Palrlzia Tomasich, President of the Children's Museum of Rome and the cliem of the overall project was an enterprising promoter of the museum from the beginning, She took [he original initiative of proposing [he projCCt [0 the mayor 199'1 and has
General project background
since led the fundraising campaign. The Municipality of Rome
The DaCoMa building Is located In a downtown area of Tokyo It Is the prominent headquarters for Ihe communication and
and the Mayor offered the space, but the COSt of the renovation and Ihe emire organisation and co-ordination of the project is due 10 Ihe vision of Mrs, Tomaslch SlUdlo llalplan of the Pagani architects, the designers of the renovation project and of the museum exhibits, were extremely open and enthuslaslic ad\'ocale5.
III,·II.IU
PROJECT:
LOCATION/CITY: COUNTRY: TYPE Of PV BUILDING: BUILDING TYPE:
Ali lhe PV comractoi"S underslood Ihe Importance of the educmlonal lnttlative of Ihe projecl, and all agreed 10 work al
NEWIRETROFrT:
NIT DoCoMo building
Voyogi, Tokyo
reflect I[s environmental credentials. DoCoMo was the rirst
Japan
Japanese PV Installation on a building over 200 metres in heIght
Fa�ade inlegrated Office building and mobile telephone electric wave relay base New
Immense publicity and allenlion gathered by the new museum Is an Imponant Indirect commercial benerit for the contractors On
Project cost breakdown
the other hand, It Is Important [0 analyse the indirect commercial PV """,,"
EJectricaI oomponenIS and instaIatIon &ructuraI suppotI ancl lnIIaIaIion lorcanopies DesIgn and c:oonfInatIon with Eutopean pattners TOTAL (no vat indudld)
US$ 53.630 47.500
35,000 ".000 '.130 (11.07JWp)
The Children's Museum of Rome paid for 60 per cent of the COSt
while '10 per cent was rinanccd by the EU
decrease in voltage. The system provides a backup power supply
u"ln" "'d;"';"" '!;'f1"!1 lATITUDE:.
LONGITUDE:.
value that Ihe project gathered with the Introduction of passive
ALTITUDE:
solar stralCgles and the use of pho[Ovoltalc energy, for its entire
CUMATIC TYPE:
fundralslng campaign. The Children's Museum of Rome [s the nrst of Its kind 10 be constructed with the building Integrat[on of
SUNSHINE HOURS:
3S'7'N
ordinated and m i plemented by the KaJima Corporation for the
Temperate (Temperature: January average = 5.2gC: A g s avoroge = 27,1 "C)
requIred a len'year guarantee of the PV components, and by the
dient NTT Power and BUilding Facilities Inc.
uul
Yearly ovorage '" 4,96 hours per day
BiPV design process The PV system was not applied In the original design, However,
Ihe policy to use BIPV for the exterior was Incorporated over six
All the contractors menuoned gave long-term guarantees for the components used, and they are liable for the function of [he
for essential telecommunications equipment In an emergency and feeds dlreaJy Imo the grid The coostrucuon and design of the BiPV element was co
139"7'E
40 metres above sea level
Ihese technologies and under Ihe aegis of the European Union
technologies, This was established under EU regulations, whIch
OUtputs.. Major challenges In the pre-design siege Included and keepIng the wiring as short as possible 10 minimise a
modules, Gcchelin Group as the installer and deSigner of [he canopies Obviously the high profile of Ihe projecl, and the
The cHem was advised on opllons to harmonise Ihe PV Into the building fabric Including installation costs and power generation avoldmg an effiCiency drop from partial shading of the systems
compelitlve cost: Eurosolare as [he producer of the phOlovoltalc electrical system, and lIalcarrellt as the bUilder of the special
Information company NTI Mobile Communlcat[ons Network Inc., whIch decided to integrate PV In the ra�1de of Ihe bUilding to
months into me construction phase, The south fa�de presented ------., f "l t Soo[h t�de.l.Dtl
.x...a ��101
Italian standard construction contract whIch requIres a mInimum
a large surface area and ample solar gain, nle vollege of the system
IS assumed to be the same ror each unit and [s !Inked
to a central 10 kW invener. Electrical connection boards are
installed every three !O four noers 10 reduce the ovcral1 length of
three'year guarantee of the work.
thick Wiring run (I 20 metres) from the modules to the Inverter,
Note
Shading was an obvious problem for the proposed falVade
] Wetzel. Th, Baake, E, Muhlbauer. A. 'Energy requiremellls and
installation. "TYpically, panial shading of the modules greally affects potential generation capacity This impact was reduced
ways of saving energy In the production process of photovoltoliC
by devlslOg an internal paranel circuit design. As a result, the
modules', ImemaNonaljournal ofSolar Energy. 2000 VOL 20, pp 1 85-196
fl\l ZOOCoMo bl.lldirl;t
.... _-
adverse shading effect on power generation was decreased, and the PV was ioslill1ed without an adverse effect on the design of the bunding The result was about a 70 per cent Improvement in the amount of power generation, compared with conventional wiring Strategies, The PV powers a large elccuical display on an adverllslng tower during peak daytime electricity demand It S\vitches 10 supplying emergency power in the advent of a blackout or earthquake, keeping essential telephone comnlunication systems running in the building
95·
JAPAN: J-H OU SE
BiPVd••ign
Grt:}' poly-Cf)'Slilllinc Silicon cells wen: adoplt:d 10 promote and hJrrTlOny bCI\\cen thc stone of Ihe wall outside Ihc building Ihe eny VIC"' of Ihc building Dummy modules were also applied
General project background
for both an aesthetiC outcome ,lnd poslIIoned In high shade areas to minimise tht' unpaet Caleful construction processes and
I I '
mournln!! techniques were applied to ensure durabiJuy under [he vcry high wind loads assocl'lled wllh taU buildings Glass etchmg pauf,lrns on Ihc from cover of the PVs nuillned any undesirable rcnetlfon from the building Parallel wiring was achieved by dividing moduJc5 into three CilSt-WeSt groups. thus decreaSing
J-House
PROJECT:
LOCATION/CITY:
Tokyo
COUNllIV:
Japan
TYPE OF PV BUILDING:
the Influence of tile �h
An underground cooling syslem and n;lIuml ventilallon were
Tilc-integrated rooling, double-glued glass window-integrated Private residence
BUILDING TYPE:
.bou ��
J-House Is located in a dense residential dlstrlc! In Shlnjuku W,ud. Tokyo. The pl.1n was to build an cnvironmentall y friendly model house Ihal utihses natural energy and solar power gcnerat!on. and blends In whh the surroundlng arc,l
N ,w
NEWIRETROFlT:
warm atr is taken in from Ihc roor. thus creating a passive solar
h""",.
Hot-waler radanl floor heating and a wood Stove are Installed In l the weUhole in the living room; the noor plan or thc house was
Installation In order to reslrlct environmental impact and unnecessary waste. the project designed a reus.lble transponalion containcr to deliver modules to the building site.
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PV system power DC op.rltingvolllgl Type ofcell llchnology
15.2 kWp
As a result. the typical waste
associated wlIh packing malerial was eliminated. Thus. thought was given to conservation of energy and mitigallng environmental problems during the construction stage.
301 V Poly-crystallinesiliconceU
Moduler dimenlions
designed so that hot air can reach individual rooms The use or natura! construcuon matenals such as concrete. wood. and
C L I M AT I C C H A R A CT E R I S T I C S LATTTUOE: LONGITUDE.: ALTTTUDE: CUMATIC TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS:
(cell colour: grey)
introduced via large openings, and a wellholc In Ihe liVing room, ensuring comfon in summer In winter, the living room becomes a wimer-garden wnh sun llghl rrom Ihe glass-covered openings;
diatom canh ensures a healthy IOdoor environment
35- TN 139"7'E 40 metres above sea level
Temperate !Temperature: January average = 5.2 DC; August average = 27,t -CI
Yearly average ", 4,96 hours pcr day
H 8IIS x W 1940 x 48 x 123 Wp
Uor 2nd-25thfloors)
H I348 x W I94D x 2B x l84Wp (for 26th-32nd floorsl Arrey dimensions Belence o' syatlm componentJ Inverter Monitoring equipment
Approximately l56 cm'
Fig 5 Tr;InSporlmtion or modulilS s.-. �CotpQt_
Grid connection
Central lD,OOOwatts Original system by NIT Power &
Buildmg Facilities Inc. Circuit composition
Three paralJel connectlons, bywhich power generation losses due to shade
ere prevented Power generation usage
The electricity obtained by PV is used for the 7th floor as a power supply on
a large-scale display foran
Performance characteristics
PV elect rici ty generated 10lals approximately 4.600 kWhfyear
Because the total extension of wiring was long. it was Important to reduce the voltage drops I n the venicel direction. Bundling
a wIring box installed on evcry third or fourth floor alleviated unwarranted losscs
advertising billboard
Project cost breakdown
Because the Imegration was applled to Ihe fa�adc of the hlgh·rise building. PV module Installation, construction and wiring work
were positioned t.....ery tWO to three floors. Increasing In COSt with
height The PV system COSI approximately 40 million Japanese yen.
fili i Soulh elevanon mulled Wlm seI!II·uilU\Wenl -.....
.."
doIbIe-vwed PVglass
9) .
BiPV design process Planning procass. alternslivo designs
As Ih" Sill' IS surrounded by dens� low'rlse houses. Ihe available
sunshine 15 rciallvt'ly good Originally, Ihe de-.'elopment of a hybrrd·lype BIPV mOdule using a combined PV and hOI waler supply �r.;ll'm was discussed 10 effL'Cllvely use solar energy from
11ll' roof.
bw t he Idea was abandoned bcc.luse of problems of
11(',ll'col1c"lng efficiency. cost and design Though move,lble
10IlVft.'·typll PVs were originally dIscussed for the glass PV on
Ihr! south side, Ihls Ideil was also abandoned. because the PVs Imcrfl're wllh each other in Japan whtm the sun is high in Ihc Sky, making effective Inst" lImlon dl mcuh.japan has more resldt"nces wuh PV Insl.lllatlons lhan any other country, bUl Ihcre are only a few cx.am ilies of bul lding-inregtated design Accordingly. II was decided to Install a rransparent PV module
r'll 6 Mo1Uri mtall3lQ1 (JlU) prelDIlncated tr
for the glass surface 10 achlcve an effeClive deslgn
Decision process
The shade remperillure is close 10 the annual average air temperature of the region. and the temperature of the
-�� l -q
1 7 GC A p.lneJ-Iype ,ur-condlllonmg system uSlIlg groundwater was
groundwater III Tokyo IS stable at an average of about
planned, bUl Tokyo's hor and humid summers neceS�illaled
countermeasures for condens-llion [t was difficult to install bOlh a
dehunmllnc.ltlon system ,lnd natural ventilation. Ii was also found
AC100V
that dlggmg of the well and t hc panel·type air-condillomng sysrcm
V
�in forPurcMse &Sell
would be expenSlvc. and so finally the Idea was abandoned A shnula[lon of the solar power gcnerallon showed that the annUli power generated could be equi\'alent to approximarely tWO
thirds of the required electric ity for this rcsidence. and the owner, who Is an architect. dt:clded to proceed with t he Installal lon
RoolModule Jul'lCllOrl Box
OisIributlon Boilrd
r-------...,
fIll 3Selm·tr�Ier1l doubieglanng - mIl!tD VII!W - "''''''
rog 7 C4neptU31 mo1el D i I'V !i"fS\em
I
I
CirculI Breaker
Circuli eaker Bl
I
I I
I
I � I I L_______---1
To
Loads
-... ...
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PV system power 4.94 kW Type of building inlegntlion
Roofing lile PV integralion and double glazed PV glass integration
Type o'cell technology
Mono·ctVslalline silicon cell (rool) and poly-crystalline silicon ceUs {wtndows)
Array dimensions Weight Inverter Monitoring equipmenl
34.2m' 12Dkg {double-glazed PV glass) linD Back FX (Nihon Oench; Co. ltd.) 4.5 kVA Horizontal pyrheliometer, incliJled pyrheliometer, air temperature meter, module temperature measurement device, PC for measuring various sensor signals,
fl\l4 Rooftllll I'V lJ/Jav - "' ...
PC lorinlormalion processing and telecommunications f'll 8 Cnm; secllCNl d.agmm of the J House ..... .....
· 98
gg.
Performance characteristics
Installation design The bl.1Ck sash .1nd blue cells of the double-glazed PV glass provide .1n Inu.-resung design effect The seml·transparem cell
JAPAN : SBIC EAST BUILD I N G
Performolnce of Ihe}House s�'Slem is mostly good and is
summamed m ngure 9 The system provided :!.607 kWh
arrangement protects pm'acy, as well as generaung power and
electriCIty over eight months following a detailed cvalu')l1on
providing shade The roof and Window arr.lYS are connected to
's over 00 per cent TIle performance .. conditioning effICiency \\
one Invener arwr adJusung the voltage. and are interconnected to the distribution nCllvork of the electncltyprovlder An eleclriColl company look control of all negoUatlOns wuh eleclrlclty provider
thc InlCfconnectcd
In 2000; system :wallabt1lty ,wer.lge was 6,4 per cent Power
rallo
01 the system was around 00 per cem. which was about
10 per cent less than the annual average performance ratio or 65 sampled Jap:lOcse residential PV syStenls In 1 999. Because of lower reliability of irradiation data. caused by occasional shadow on lIS pyranomelers. irradiation dam measured by the Japanese Meteorological Agency at Tokyo weather station. which is
Installation No problems were encountered during the instalialLon of the solar power relaled equipment. as all work was performed by expcnenced comr.lctors However. a dram bo.lrd covenng the BiPV cell surface on the roofwas reconstructed and the 6iPV roof module was moved upward by one step to mstaJl the snow·guard attachment It was found Ihal when the top skylight was fully
"TYPE OF PV 6UILOING:
Office building
NEW/RETROFIT;
New
a(lu.11 Irradiation on the PV arrays. caUSlOg a slight decrease in performance r.l1i0 esumates ,..
: II
50
shad� module
B
_ RIIIlIIllnceYieid � .... Pc-r!Of1MIlC8 Ra1io r",, 9 F't1w9r�rar.onperlarmaru ..... "' ...
_
Fln.aJ SyslI!m Yield
- - Power Cond"rtlonlng EffICiency
Centre of JOA, which IS commissioned by NEDO under site code
window surface used
ST08:! ITokyo-4) The Centre cofiC(;ts and orgamses the
ught and shadow In a lallice pallern enter the room. protect
PV glass module for the
10 the resIdence is an excellent deSign
privacy, and also generate electric power.
As the vOltage of the
roof module Is :! 15 V and that of the glass module is 2&8 V. Invener control Is an Issue In Japan.
Project cost breakdown
million yen. including a grant of 1 .132.500
yen from NEDO (The subSidy was 350.000 yenlkW In 1 999.)
5.2"C; August overage : 27.1 ·C) SUNSHINE HOURS:
Yearly average " 4.96 hours perdDV
F1g t V/elt einatlonW1,n 5l!l"l,Uans;liIrel1lV8ftlC3llouvreN rro:I\IIM
_ko'"
General project background
JLlpan National Railway The slle was sold and convened 10 an
Post-installation feedback
The 10lili construction COSI of the J.House (lotal area 314 square
139"7'E 40 metres above sea level Temperate (Temperature: January average "
The SBIC East building is Ioc.lted in Shibuya, where a newly
The seml-transp
melres) was ilpproxfmarcly 60 million yen The system cost
ALTITUDE; CLIMATIC "TYPE;
35· 6'N
developed city centre 15 being expanded The site was vacant.
Electricill sVstem
Informauon by computer and telephone line. sends a repon to
LATITUDE;
LONGITUDE:
having prC\llously housed a freight car terminal of the former
The PV performance Is being monitored by the Solar Technology
clients every month. and also compiles data for the whole nallon
'd'MP" "'d:P" iP" i'j;'fj"f1
" o
To harmonise with tile roofs of surrounding residences. a
\\'.lS 5
ii
: �f
BiPV design
rel.lung to BIPV
standard modul05 on roof BUILDING "TYPE;
the p,uts can be connected to the invener, thus Isolallng any
diagram are shown In flgures 7 and
Intogrotcd vortical louvros; rntegrated horizontal eavos; integratlld fUrfing parapet;
at the we.lther Sl.ltlOn are better than III general urban Meas.
VICW of the shadow of a pole lransrormer, Ihe electric cirCUli was designed so that three of
common In Japan, was adopted for the roof module, and semi·
Japan
so that Ihe subsututed irradiation could be sUghtl}' higher than
opened. It cremed a shadow over the module. so attention must
south side. The conceptual model and the cross-sectional
PV field test Tokyo
COUNTRY:
3 kilometres from the system. was used for calculaung the
be pilld when opelling and closmg it. The wmdow module IS
grounding aluminium long-plate PV module. which IS very
PROJECT;
LOCATION/CITY:
performance ratIo. The conditions of irradiation measurement
divided IntO four pans. however. in
transparent double glaZing was adopted for the glass part on the
(:•....,." .,
Irt:eS can reduce the external heat load
Integrated bUSiness district through regional redevelopment conducled by seven private companies. The S6fC East Building incorporates large conference rooms. training rooms and exhibition rooms. and an anti-seismic structure, It has a feeling of transparency with liS deSign themes of Illes and glass In order to
conserve energy. excellent weatherproofing and insulalion are installed. all Windows are double-glazed. and small wlOdows are
dUring the
summer by their screening effect. The reduction in power gener.ltlon from the cherry tree In the garden is estimated to be rather small, although It creates some shadow effecls This dlCrry tree was planted by the owner's parents. and is
Installed undemeath the glass curtam walls to ensure nalltr.ll ventilatlon during the appropriate se
conSidered symbolic of the region
The selling price of electflclty through the InterconnC(;lion was th� s.)me as the buying price: 23.85 yenlkwh Under a IIme·of· use power conlraCt. the price becomes 34.55 yenlkWh during the day. and 6 yenlkWh durIng the night
rlg 2 Loo1mg upBlsenu·tran5;I3IeI1t e3V1lamry
..... ko"'"
101
fIll 3�-IIJrisparem
BiPV dHign proC."
",,"QlPoIIowre�
lrom OIlier dIQ _......
Planning process, allemative designs In the onglnal plan. inlroducllon of BIPV was nOI considered
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PV system power
lflIe of building inlegration
However. effective adoptIon of vcnlcal louvres was considered in order to decrease rhe air condllJOnlng load dUring aftemoon sun Ambient Icmpcrmul"l;l Is typically around :;0 PC in
01
1
(4.4 kWp. no tlummy cell); dJ Shatle louvre-type semi'lransp�rent motlule (20.1 kWp, dummy cell capacity IS 745W)
system design were performed based on the results of studyIng Type oiceil lechnoloyv
decided as an Integrated element of the outside building desIgn Environmentally frIendly bUildings are now one of the most Important conslderarions for every company. and SBIC East
10 adopt
Installation The !iemHransparem shade louvre installed on Ihe \YeSI side of the building has bOlh energY-Sowing and power generallon functions. and Is an impon
c ) Furring-type motlule
Bmh [he
annu, 1 power generatfon ilnd the conceptual
the ShOldow condulons, and [he adoption of Bl?V was finally
dl'Cldl.'d
(o.9kWp, dummy cell capacity is 240 W); /5.1 kWp. no tlummy cell):
(cnEre ;!rca of Shlhuya, the sunshine conditJon is relmi"eJy good. wllh .1 rallw,lY linc along the west side of the slle.
a) Eave-type semi-transparenl array b) Inclined-type module
summer
Though the building is surrounded by the newly developed elly
eSlhllilllon
TOlal power is 30.5 kWp (dummy cell is 985WI
Mono-crystalline silicon
Problems during realisalion Installation did not progress smoothly due 10 a failure In the module
m.lnufacture, so some of the modules were
remanufaclured and the Installation procedure was changed
(eave-typlIsllmi-transparent module. shade louvre type semi,transparenlmodule)
Inc.
Grey coloured poly-cryslaUine silicon
BIPV for the ourside design wilh venlUre capital
(Iurring-type module)
to help promote small and medium bUSinesses..
Poly-crystalline silicon (inclined-type module) Modular dimensions
Decision process
15 modules
From the beginning of this design, the adoptiOn of venrcal
b) lnclined-type module ISJO K I200 K J5 mm),
louvres was planned in order to decrease the air condilloning
60 modules
10.1d during afternoon sun The architect thought Ihat BIP\'
c) Furring-type module II!IO x 175DK 23mm),
Imegrmed vertlc.:tl louvres cou ld add a power generation
160 modules
dl Shade louvre-type (480 K 1825x 14 mml,
function. 'lnd also presented an opponunllY to creale a new design (or the outsIde of the building uulising l ight and shadow
24Dmodullls
with semi-transparent modules. As It is located In the centre of a
Arraw dimensions
cny. the building Is afrected by the shadows of the surrounding bUildings However. with the owner's approval. BiPV was 'mroduced to crt!.lte a building that has great environment protection appeal. I)urlng lhe deSign process. annual power
Weight
Into accoum the shadow effects of the surrounding bUildings. desIgn. four types of BIPV were installed
1998. and its performance characlCrlstics, following detailed
c) Furring-type arraY I4.43 5 W. 48.4 m"
evaluauon. are summarised in figure 7. The system provided
a) Eave-type module (28.5kgj bl Inclined-type module (8.5 kgj
.n.,••r.n.....nrl
c) Furring-type module (6.l kgj
rypeDlray
dl Shede louvre-type module (JI.J kg)
$cuor,kolknil
Monitoring equipment
Capacity 30kW (Nisshin Denki ltd.) Horizonlal pyrheliometer. inclined
The owner was an organisation related to MiT/. Japan's Ministry
pvrheliomeler, air temperalure meier,
of International Trade and Industry (now MET!. Minislry of
anemomeler, module tempereture
Econo my. Trade and Industry). which conSidered the global
measuremenl device. PClor measuremenl,
envIrOnment. espe<:lally energy Issues. to be of gmu i mportance.
PC lor lelecommunication
The design process used infornl.lllon from diSCUSSions with engineers working for related soJar power genermlon makef3
Other BiPV system elements
Performance characteristics The SBIC EaSI buildrng system has opermed well since April
bl Inclined-type array 15,130 W, 38.2 m'l
FrgSShadelolM1t-
Inverter
Projecl organisation
a) Eavll-type array/926 W. l l m'j
d) Shade Jouvre-type array (20,1 12 W. 38.2 m')
generation was eSlimated using a simulation program Ihat takes Based on the c.llculated results and past experience of system
OIl Eave-type module (480 x 1528 x 14 mm),
In order 10 creale e new d&5ign 01 light metal
30.-100 kWh electrici ty duri ng the 30 months from April l Q98
to December :WOO. and the average of system availability was
4.Q
per
per cem. In 2000. the final PV syslem yield. that Is. electricity
pV rated capacity, was 421 kWh/kw. This v.llue Is les5 than
half the typical value for Ihe Japanese Field Test Program's PV systems. (1000 kWhlkW) a nd can
be accounted for by Ihe large
venical array Power conditioning effiCiency varied between aboul 70-90 per cem. and the average power conditIoning effiCiency
was 82 per cem
The performance rallo of Ihe system varied
between 40-60 per cenl, and Ihe average performance ratio was
53 per celli, which was about 20 per cem less than Ihe annual
a\'erage perform.lnce rallo of t 50 Japanese Field Tesl Program's PV systems In I Q98.
Secause of the lower reliability of Ihe
bUilding's own Irradiation dala. caused by frequem shadow
The proJecl was performed as .1 field test of NEDO wllh 50 per
finiogswhich support the s&mi-lransparenl
on its pyranometers, irradiation data measured by the Jap.1nese
vertical PV louvres, the OPG method was used 10 fix glass by wings which are
Meteorological Agency al Tokyo
cent finanCing, and was designated as a coilaboradve study
extracled from round pipes.Thll cantilever
BiPV design The SBiC Enst bundlng has four types of BiPV. eave-type array on l>ergoln. Inclined-type array on roof: furring-type .lfmy on
weather stallon,
which IS
6 ki lometres from the sYSlem. was used 10 estimate the performance rallo. The condilions of Irradiation measurement 031
DPG method was also used to suppon the
Ihe weather station are beller In sky Factor than III general urban
semi·transparent PV eaves.
areas. so the substituted irradiation
could be slightly higher than
actual irradiation on the PV arrays. and C.luse .1 marginal decrease in performance ratio eslimate5
parapcl, and shade 10uvre'lype array
' 102 -
... .
...-� --::.... --
I
EaatInl L�t�IIII U::Z-':� L I B RA RY 1171
103'
�-
_ Acferonce Yoold
_ Fll"lal Syslern Y'oeld
. . .
:::�
IfilB ....... PedormBnee ROllo
-e-
Power CondItioning
THE N ETHERLA NDS: EN ERGY RESEARC H FO U NDATI O N ( E C N ) - BUILD I N G 31 PROJECT:
Energy Research Foundlllion (ECN) BUilding 31
LOCATlON/CITY:
CO UNTRY:
TYPE OF (PV) BUILDING: BUILDING TYPE: NEWIRETROFJT:
Petlen
Netherlands
PV lamella system, canopy and curved roof
integration Office building and research laboratories Retrofit
','M,·" " ,:t" it" i" i'fj"f1 LATITUOE:
LONGITUDE: ALTITUDE: CUMATlC TYPE:
Project cost breakdown Talal cost 01 SBle East building
Solar energy plant Installation costs Maintenance, monitoring, other (5 years) Project finance
3.131 million yen
108 million yen 20 milliOn yen 17 million yen
50"/0 SBle East: 50% NEOO
SUNSHINE HOURS:
S2'" 47'N
r:..; 1 c.mp,root -.. lhr llmella shlrl""" s,mrll oIe.atI""" 31.ontDm-... .....
lr�toIaffllDdulll!; pnDad I1tShell M �eIe!IIems . ... .... ..-...
4° 40'E 5 mlllfes above sea level
General project background
Moderate west-European maritime
The t';elherlands En.::rgy Research Foundation lECNI. is the
(Temperature: January Bverage ::: -l.6 "C;
leading mSUlute for energy research In Ihe Netherlands The ECN
July average = 22 "C)
mission is (0 comribUle to a clean ;]nd reliable cnergy supply for
Yearly average " 4.05 hours per day
a viable
world. by research and developmem
in the fields of
gre.uer energy efficiency. the ImplementatiOn of renewable energy and the reduction of environmentally harmful emissions rrom fossil fuels with optimal cost·effectlveness. Rescarch al ECN Is carried out under comract from the government and from
nauonal and foreign organisallons and mdUSlfles. ECN's acuvlties
are concemrated m seven areas: solar energy. wind energy.
Post-installation feedback
TIle S8te EaSt bu i lding was reponed in bUildIng magazines as
Japan's first case of lot.l1 ImegralJon of BiPV In building design
Milny visllors nockeO 10 see this key BiPV building. and it was used
as the toc.llion for a TV drama The bUIlding is reported [0 be
1n5Humemai In .he hiring of ouLSlandrng new employees
biomass. dean rossll fuels. energy effiCiency. policy Studies. and renewable energy In the built environment As ECN ,urns to
strenglhen the synergy between market and suslalnabillty as a tl:(;hnology developer. the dl:(;ision was made to demonstrate an I:(;Ological transformation of Its own buildings
Benefits
h.1Vf: �n great for sOle EaSI Inc.. which promotes advanced small and
medium companies and \'cmure businesses. as an
owner of an envlronment.ll1y friendly. SOphiSticated building
foundation ECN. known as BUilding 3 I. was built in 1 Qb3 as iI
generation tlrrays In 101il!. the conversion effiCiency somelJmes
laboratory building .1nd has .1 total noar area of 3530 square
decreases during operatIon. so the use of smaller capacity
metres. Prior to the renovation. most of the roams or Building 3 1
Inverters should have been consIdered
l�
ECN Building 31
The General Laboratory of the Netherlands Energy Rese.lfch
As 30 kW Im'crlers were installed for rour 30 k�"" power
were i n use a s offlces
105
BiPV design process
Decision process
Planning process, alternative designs
After the decision for a PV lamella system was made In I QQ6. a
Building 31 was nOi only to be renewed. but a change In function was also planned The former laboratories along the south fac;ade
THERMIE project contract was successfully agrew by Ihe
were to be transformed into office spaces and Ihe rooms on the
SE/[t SJ
nonh side converted 10 laboratones Hours of Overheating ECN
I1gJBwldl"03t duIOngiatOOelertOValK)ll Swr. BORArdlollrl-'!
European Commission to commence in t CJCJi (fHERMIE
• Netherlands Energy Research Foundation ECN.
31 per Month
(Nelherlands); • Dasolas Internil!lonal Production tDenmark)fALCO. (Netherlands): •
ENW/NUON utility.
(Nelherlands).
• BEAR Archltecten. (Netherlands);
• StudiO di Archltectura dl Cinzla Abbate. (lialy)
1'�lflulIdtngJt �41(lI'Y bllh'D "llo:r;JhQII
�• .cA"'-"
Design of PV lamella fa'rade: Step 1 - computer animation In t'jQ7, the ECN unit for Rent'wable Energy In the BUIlt f.,lVlronmcm conducled .1 siudy to evaluate the bUilding condition and energy performance of BUIlding 31 The study found tllo1t the building had �'eral technical and thermal problems • poor bUIlding Insulation and thermal bridges;
The design aimed for both architectural quality and vIews from
The ambitious renovauon mcluded
total renewal of the complete favade construclion on the south and north elevations: • A PV system for the roof 172 kWpl and favade
142
kWPI to provIde approximately 30 per cent
of the
- overh{'.1tmg by sunshlm';
elecTricity demand and to assist with sun shading and
· lndhrlcIl1 UHhung systcm;
daylight optImIsaTion;
• high rale vcmUation system lor the laboratories wilh
low t'HlC:lcncy ,:lnd comfort.
- (It'tcriorilling fac;,lde leading to cold Ingress due to
• Beller artificlal llghtlngsystcm:
• dr,mght. due to ventilation system and badly dlstrlbutcd ht'Jt
beforelmea,uredl, right: Ittlr renontlon (ealcutlted)
Sata fO( /i
Ihal reduced the heaT load on the building Compuler Simulations showed that aIr-conditioning would nOI be necessary Figure 4 depicts the Situation before renovation, where most working hours during June and July show overheating and the projected
(Including com pUlers)
CHP
situation after renovation With a PV shadIng system The calculated values are wuhin an aCCeptable number of overheating
Ttu: COft' alms of tht' renovalioll were to enhance the indoor
plant, serving Building 31 and several other buildings The 1)I:lnl
cUm.ltt· and comfort and reduce the encrgy and greenhouse gas
had recently been renewed and a heating system for Building 3t
regulations. The money saved by not purchasing an air·
('miSsions by using solar energy effecm·ely.
and the new Building 42 was planned Wllh
conditiOning syslem was put towards Insmlllng the PV shadmg
lht' cleclrlcllY consumption before renovatlon was 80 kWhlm
• CHP·comblned heat and l)Ower gener-ulon,
with 140 kWhfm of space hemlng consumed. The study
• heat and cold storage usIng a heat pump
..d the nt'cd to reduce the energyconsumption for lmpha�lsf · Sp.ltc heating by 75 per cent and elcctriclty demand by 15 pl'r cenl. t.1rgt'tlng .1 101.11 primMy energy demand of less than 80 kWh/ill
deSigns.
r'll 'Gr.!ht � IhI Inn a/ lMIIlI;It.'Ig lt.ennd r;J\tMlI'Iotdlb:r lll llwl llll1lHlnlmed lOO'I\S OfaulJl;l Jl lleftb!lrgradl] ;n!lhe"oterudYilhmtltet_bOn(f9'\tbirgr3IiIJ.
device was requirw Preference was given to a PV·lameUa design
- Low energy consuming Installations and products
Further, there W.1S already a small utility building with a
l.ft:
in order to calculate dayllghting effccls of the proposed lamella
solution Either an alr-condllionlng system or.1 gOOd shading
ventilation for summer cooling; • New heating syslem;
proposals for the PV systems. a compUler simulation was made
The overheating problems on the soulh far;ade required a
- B.1lanced ventilation with heat recovery and night
• high he.lllng and electricity demand.
thermal brldgt·s,
the 1Illerior to the exterior After developing the firsl design
• Fa�ldc renovation. with high Insulation \'alues. and
hours for Ihe users and are compliant with Dutch building
s),stem. Further. a PV system was planned for the roof and for the Staircase fat;ade. which had 10 be renovated wuh Insulated
glazmg The PV system for the slaircase turned out to be prohibitively expenSive and hence greater effort was focused on Instalhng increased
PV capaclly on the roof
The alterations
in\"Olvw a decision by ECN to provide more laboratory spaces. which required highly technically defined Indoor conditions and a cooltng plant for Ihe laboralOries
r'i 5 �:1!I 3OIIJlabOn ofSuildalgJt ....,Ih PII '-t1elIl�tlll!l, canopy n CUlVld rooI Pll 1lUegrauon. llllh1 badgtoln1.newlyplimed Buddtng �2"""Ih I PII 'I!.-n .... ""AnI:U�Mln .....l.uI
A choice had to be made belween moumlng the shading device close to Ihe favade and mounting II wllhin a certain distance. Further. the size of the lamellas had to be dIscussed should a few, wide lamellas be chosen or a larger number of shm ones7 What should the length of the lamellas bel From Ihe polm of view of maintenance. accessibility and window cleaning. it was decided to have the shading/PV device conStruCted as a separa.te far;ade. about 80 centimetres from the building. but connected to the main structure of the bulldlng The length of the lamellas was guided by the Width of the rooms behind A general deciSion was taken 10 work with standard PV modules to save COSts. j·lence. a metal lamelia system had to be developed, which would be capable of holding the standard modules and would fit with the modularity of the building
1116
107-
Design .1 PV lomollo l.�odo: Step 2 - 1:10 scolo model and experiments in the artificial sky
of a laboralOfr room In .1 ",,mil d�'I�n Slt"p. a I 1 0 scale mooel ReSl'arch WJS \\." huill. 10 lind [Ile optilTlal design soJUlion table at 1t1� solar a ,lfTll'd our III " dayhgln chamber and on rIle lI'i!.lIh 01 the Technlc.ll UnIVl'rsuy. Delft In order 10 choose were system IruegrmeJ ,In Idm"lIil�, v,trrou\ soluuons for distance • two 1;lr!1l' lam(!II.1S wuh modules. ill ,1 venlcal of I 5 mcm:s
111 a fI.'(cd po$lfIon;
• ,1'" .lbf)\'c. but with ,1 moveable [racking s}'5lcm. • �"ven small l,lmcJlilS wuh modull<s JI a \'erllcaJ
dISt.lOU· of 0.5 metre in a flxt:d poSlllan;
• .15Jbov"bul \\'llhi1mo\'eJbJe rrackmgs�'S[cm
for solnr gam. shading The study showed th.ll the best resul!.s a model usmg four flxed Jnd dayhglmng were obt.lin�d wllh ratio bem·een fixed ,1nd solar the Consillermg flool pel lamenols
10 per moveable systems. the solol( gain IS only approximately the high COSts cent higher wllh a mOllc.lble system Consldermg and the of a moveabl� syStem compared to a fixed structure
a smail dlflercncc of solar gam. it was decided to select system
As J rc.>suit of the monitoring. It WolS found thai the lamellas shade the bUIldIng during the summer period With an effiCIency 01 abotU 85 per cent (which means that r 5 per cent of the sunlight thaI falls on the fa\ade 15 not renected by the lamellas) For fine·tuning the daylightlng ,1specls, especially In Winter. a �t:eond very simple Interior shading system was subsequently planned. as llgtlt Imensny W,lS stili bright on sunny test days To
that IS fixed In tht.> optimal position fOI the Netherlands with an Inc!lnatlon of 37" 10 the homon However. the OCCUpilnt of the
,wold glare, the light IntenSity was 10 be dlstribwed with further
loom can move one lamella .11 eye lellel in a horizomal posillon.
measUles on Ihe Inside. AdditiOnally. it was proposed to give the
In order to have a good outside view After a defined space of
Window frames a while or light coloured finish. to reduce the
measures such as horizontal white lamellas or light dIstributing
BiPV design The BtPV deSign process was conducted co-operauvely between BEAR Archllecten. StudIo dl Archneuura dl Cmzla Abbate. ECN and OASOLASfALCO Each metal lamella was to be .lbout 840 mm Wide. ]000 mm long and covered by three standard poly·crystalline PV modules. The lamella al eye·height for a SlUing pel50n worktng in Ihe Intellor Is moveable. to allow C>fterlor views. The lamellas are made from folded alumrnium sheet. enamelled for a hIgher dumblllty. and are mounted on veftlcal IPE 120 steel profiles, which arc Interconnccted with horizontal IPE 120 pronles. These carry Ihe metal gml for fa<;ade maintenance and are fixed onto Ihe concrete noors of Ihe
tfme. for mstance 20 minutes or so. the lamellil wll! automatically
contrast bel\vetln Ihe frame and Ihe sky The users had various
cxlsllng bUI!dlllg The rear of Ihe melal lamertas have holes for
mile its posillon of ]iG agam. Thus. a COntinuously varying
opInions about the PV lamella system In general. people were
venu[auon of the
archlicclUral vlew wUllJe cre.lled
qUllc curiOUS aboUi the final result
Design of PV lamella falj:ade: Step 3 - mock-up and measurements of light intensity in one of the laboratory rooms
Some did nOl like Ihe
In the
lamellas bC(;ause they hindered vle\,,,s when the users are in a
deSIgned with enamel alummlum sheet covers Clipped on front
silting poSHion. some did nOI like Ihe view of the rear of the
olnd bacll; The vertical Wiring Is placed under these clipped
lamella It should be mentioned thaI. after the (a�de was
aluminium covers. Along the steel elements. the PV facade
completed. acceplance by users has increased markedly In grneral. Ihe leStmg was successful and system components "erl: opl1mise
modules are vertically mterconnccted 10 form 13 strmgs
Each string constSts of 42
standard modules from the lamellas
and 12 transparenl modules from Ihe canopy_
As a thild design step. a mock.up of Ihe PV lamella system was
All IIlveners are
Installed underneath Ihe upper roof. which covers an Inst,ll1alion
developed .11 a t · 1 scale olnd placed in from of a laboratory room
on the nr51 floor of BUilding JI
PV panels. The eleclrlc wiring Is led
hollow cores of the lamellas The \'ert!cal steel profiles were
space. The BP modules of the upper roof are Interconnected
MonitOring by TNO-TUE took
into 1 9 Stnngs.
pl.lce between Seplember and November 1998. In Ihe test mom. ten light measurement cells [Hagner type SO I with a senSibility of 10 pAlluxl were placed. according 10 Ihe rules defined in lEA
Thsk 21 for dayilghtlng measurements. n\"O light cells were
placed at a 1 _5·mene helghl on Ihe inside of Ihe window glazing. one III the test room. the second one in a reference mom WHhout shading. The olher eight cells were placed hOrIZontally at a height of 70 cm above the floor 10 measure lighl intens!ty In T�O-rUE, Ihe Ccrute lor Building Research at 111(: TCt:hmcal Unh'cfsny of Eindhoven. conducted a compuler Simulation study Wllh Roldtolm software. The study
focust'(! on the questions of
• opllmal solar gam for Ihe PV lamella system;
• heat load of the building and paSSive solar gams In the • §hldmg olthe bulldlng.
• sl'U.sh.ldmR oflhe P\' lolmella nuxlules:
• out�lde Vle'.\ from the imenol, · optimlsedd.lyllghungcondillons
the workIng envilonmem
• effects of design and dimenSIon of the PV lamellas on
PV roof design
daylight Intensity .11 the work station compared 10 ol
The PV roofing system was origtnallr meant as a kind of parasol.
room Without sunshades.
a passive cooHng device for the roof The roof construction
• lestS of electrical and mechamcal componems:
underne.1th would proVIde Woller tightness.
• mimmlsation of damaging side effects such as noise
the Interior of the bUilding developed. It became clear Ihat the
produced by wmd on the metal Struclure;
• oplimismion of construcl1on and detail design of the
metal latnella structure; • beSt strategies for prodUCtiOn and mouming of the metal Siructure wllh
PV.
The parlic!pams In the projects concluded Ih,11 the mock.up was ver�' helpful In avoiding problems and especIally for gaining experiencc wllh
As the design of
space between Ihe parasol and Ihe eXlstmg roof could be
ust!d
for tC(:hnlcal devices such as ventilators and illr ducts Hence
It was decided 10 construct the parasol as a watertight p•.1fI of
the bUilding The roof is constructe
fig!HA'Il8Ila shadll',JlysUlIII Q'lBu,idirQ31 1OIl1ll 1�ehwa!,an Q 5eClQ'l .... ,.....-
The fa�ade syslem is made from .1 wooden construction. which
carry corrugated sheel The sheet is covered by a layer of rock·
holds the insulollion Ceramic fa�olde cI,1dding panels were
wool insulation. above which EPOM foil Is placed as a raln'Iighl
chosen as exterior weather protewon Melal clements
layer Above this. standard PV modules Me mounted with the BP
Interconnect Ihe fa<;ade layers. Galvanlsed IIgl1t metal gnds
Sunflower system The profiles to hold the Sunnower module
belween PV lamellas and fa<;ade altow cleaning and maintenance
• dll11cnsions of the components:
mOUnting points arc fixed on pieces of lamInated wood, which
of lhe PV system and fa<;<1dc
• re�IUlrcd and acceptable tolerances of dimensions.
arc rtlted Onto the IPE 240 profiles with bolts. As it is nOI possible
• acceptance of the PV lamella system by future users
Installed. 10 enable easy maintenance
• mourning process for mClal lamellas and PV modules:
101
flO B Mod·up· I I tesllng 01 the lamellil WtI'ng 1)'Slem 0I 6111k1111U 31 s..- fJlARAIdo:..rtetl
The (ollowing quesllons were to be clarified with the r I testing
to walk on this conSlntction, a roof trolley In bridge form was
109 ·
1� FiQl0lMnlla Jt\ldlllg lySlemofIlul1dlng 31 101O!h
Installation design and installation
S-W 1l.M .w._ .. ""-'dW M ,.
_I..n.-
A special metal construction was deSIgned and produced [0
fn
5tandJrd modules. as this seemed to be more cost·elflclem than custom·sized PV The 1 1 teSting ensured that the 10 Integrate metal construClJon details were proofed and the Installation did not have any problems In the beginning of the plannIng process.
scwral parHes thought It would be casler and 5.1fer to pre-ins[all the metal lamellas with the PV In the fabrlc.ltlon hall or on the ground Uut as a rcsull of the teSting II turned out that !he
Perfonnance characteristics Measurements are permanently performed on Ihe system by the 'wind and sun' unll of ECN with specIfIC scIentific alms· In panlcular. the PV modules include slOgle cells whiCh have been exactly callbra[ed before being Incorporated into [he modules This allows for exact calOJlation of the effiCiency of the PV sy5[em
PV
modules would be exposed 10 damage when mounted together would have to be agreed between the parties. So It was decided
Project cost breakdown Support
[0 fIrst Instali lhe
The PV system has been supported wilh
with the huge met.11 lamellas. Responsibility for broken glass
ALeo mctal lamellas with a
huge Inst.lllmion
IlTldgl' and to then Install the Shell Solar PV modules with the same installauon bridge
• ';0 per cem contribution by the European Commission wllhln the THEJV,1IE programme:
• Q per cent suppon by the Du[ch governmem vIa NOVE�1. the Netherlands Energy Agency;
• EURQ7.853 by NUON utility
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS TOliI PV IySII:ms
PV lemelle shading �em
PVcenopy
Roof-integrated
PV syst.... pOWlr
11.BB kWp
26.2I kWp
6.91 kWp
38.16 kWp
PVmodule.,.a
Approximately 100m'
Tn- of building inlegJllion
Tn- ol cell IIchnology ModullrdinteliliORl
The
represents a sponsorship of EURQ7.853
Poly-cryslallinecells
Poty'crySlalline cells
Mono-crystallinosolar
418x tOO6mm SlleliSolar
550 x l l00mm custom
5ZS x l l83mm type BP·
type RSM 50 with 48 Wp
made Shell Solar lRO 50
585·lwith 85Wp
Costs of PV system
• PV system for shading lamellas sOl.l!h facade EUR 1 8 1 .5 1 2 for 26.21 kWp turnkey PV-sys[em wllh
witll 44.3 Wp Numb" of PV-modules PV-module conltruClion
Weight Visull dellil.
'50
"6
standard modules by 5hell Solar (COSts Include
'50
Standard framed PV
Cuslom·mada framed
Framaless siandard PV
laminales produced by
glass-glessPV modules
laminates made by
Shell Solar
produced by Shell Solar
B P Soiar
Approximetely 30 kglm'
Approximataly SO kglm'
Approximaloly30 kg/m'
Opaque laminates
Semilransparenl g lass-
Opaque laminales
Monitoring equipment
13 string inverters
13 string inverters
19 string inverters SMA
'Sunmasler 2500-I5()"with
'Sunmasler 25OO-I5()" wilh
Sunny Boy 2400
2500 wau capacIty
Z500 wau capacity
rill 1 1 Inl.egr;lliat1cI PVmoduieS illto the molal .sh.:HhI1!lSVS1t'11l � 8£AR ArI1>ol«llI'I
� AlIIa!I "", ,(""""""
shading lamellas by ALeO. Pv-englneerlng. Inverters, electric ins[allallon and components):
• PV modules canopy roof EUR79,865 for 6.91 kWp glass-glass PV module canopy roof by Shell Solar (price only for PV modules. without mounting and elec[fic components);
38 76 kWp turnkey delivery of InStillied PV system by BP Solar (with Sunflower proOies including engineering, invencl'.i. mounting and all componcms)
The PV system is pennanent/y monitored by ECN
Calibrated solar cells are included in single PVmodules Other HiPV system elements
PV
system installation by Shell in pre·lnsJalied meta!
• PV roof integration curved roof EUR237.972 for
glass modules Invertel"l
local utility NUON/ENW supportS PV plants wllh EURI.36
per Wp for the 71 Q kWp Installed on ECN Building 31. this
A special metal substructure has been developed by AlCO and Oasolas for the shading lamella system The canopy roof profiles were manulaClured byAillcon
Post-installation feedback The project team Is convinced thilt
I
1 testing is always a good
idea. if innovative systems such as the PV shading system are to be realised on a large scale for the nrSt time
The curved rool-integration was made With Ihe BP Sunllowor systom Fig I2&nldingJl dlJ�
l�oon$tlI.o;11011
Scul;p B£AJ/AIl>'Nl«turI
RES EAR CH FO U N DATIO N THE NET HER LAN DS: ENE RGY (EC N) - BUI LD I N G 42 General praieet background PROJECT: LOCAflON/C1TY: COUNTRY: TYPE Of IPY) BUILDING:
Energy Research foundatIOn (feN) Building 42 PElnen Netherlands PV Integration in conservatory glazing
aUILDING TYPE;
Office bUilding and resII8rch laboratories
NEWIRETROm:
New
(see EeN BUilding 31 (,lSC As Building i t was bemg renovated adJacem to It 10 study). a new building complex was planned
feN Building 42 was St'rve the growing demand for space at the designed ,If> a modular extenSIon of the existing solar·renovated the two buildings connectlng BuUding 3 1 . with a conservalOry and Jctlng as J. common entrance ror both buildings Bullding -l2
conSIstS of three building blocks. whIch are grouped around a glazed conservatory space covenng the east-west circulatIon mus Jnd Will be bUIlt m thrl:e steps. BUilding -12 unll I was fimshed In �1arch 2001 Construction of umt 2 began In Sprmg 2002 and
unit J Is foreseen as a further extensIOn poSSibility to be bUilt
" "M·,II''':'''it''''J;'f1"11 LAmuOE:
LONGITUDE: alTITUDE: WMAnc TYPE:
m the future
S2" 4TN
."4O'E
5 metresabovesea fevel Moderate west-European mariume
fig � (!1hl1:8 l11lld 'OI'BlIlkfIl"942Il1!ftl llnd 8uo�Jl ltlljnJ s..... lttrltAAt»d �JrhllA'IouMnlbl
(Temperature:January average : -1.6 "C; Julyaverage =22 "C)
SUNSHINE HOURS:
Yearly average " 4.05 hours per day
f'9t AeoaI�U!wo'&,Id,ng 31 andB"11dmg42.'-'1lts l and2 httnlhenorthSide Sotmtl!fARtI�""""
An.n_brMln .... dlltJut
Ecological approach for Building 42
When the planning began. It was dC{:lded to bulld Buildmg
.12
benchmarked against an EPC (energy performance coeffiCIent
envlronmenc and for Jaw energy consumption standards.
measure). resuhmg from a calculation method I,lld OUI in the
contributing to the research and consulting work carried OUI by
bUilding codes. Energy consumption is reflected in the EPC
ECN In this field. EeN's aim is to promote Building 42 as the
The lower the coefficient, the better the building perfomts. The
'most energy effiCIent office building in the Netherlands' Energy consumption can be dlret:lly related to the bUIlding sheU
and instaUations. such as lighting needs and elevator p
d�pendent on how Intensively a building Is used and for what purpose laboratoflcs. for example. sometimes require a IQ-limes aIr exchange rate per hour This means a 101 of mech.lmcal venting IS needed and occasionally. energy mtenswe air. COndll1onfng Heating and Cooling dem.lnd for such SP.1Ces cannot be compared wilh the energy demand for olher uses. such as offices The electricity demand is also dt!pendem on
rlQ'�roorofBuddong411V'lh f>.lmorulesm;lalln!lCt!CWl ro8W;Lro;IJl ..... ...-
�.6htI-'At.-NII
· 112
fi!l 3 Cmsernlfll"!' rOO'IS�diMceforthaofflCl!bIixk!i !iA.oft Hllt�1tUt
�..,.. Jtm Je,onA�1h
In the Netherlands. the energy efficiency of bUIldings Is
as a demonstration project for renewable energies in the built
equipment used and the work carried au! in the space. Even In the same type of room in Building 42, one floor hIgher for
e)!ample. the energy consumption could vary by 100 per cent, depending on tile usc
use of rene\vables wlU further reduce the energy performance coefficient. The EPC value foreseen for office buildings is 1.6 Buildmg -12 reaches an EPC value of 0 86. If combined hem .lnd power generntion and the PV lnstallallon is laken into accoum.
A. small uuluy building with CHP plant. served BUlldmg 31 and several other buildings until
the EPe \'alue tS 0.-13. whIch
recently has been renewed 10 supply energy 10 bOlh Buildings 31
and 42 The aClual planning stage fores.wI combined heat and
powergeneration and heat and cold storage with a heat pump
Decision process and project organisation
d1 1I' . �....
CHP plant was earned out to determine whether the i used as luel. the EPC could run on blo·luel II blo-gas or blc>-oll s lun will building the and zero be will '12 ng i d l lIalue (II BUI of SUStilln.1bllity complelely on Irnewable energy Another aspect fnl BUlldlnf,l 42 IS the lIexlblhty of use; to avoid cost and energy been Int!'l151W rUlurt bulldlng processes. the building h.1S de51gncd 10 serve .1S an office as well as Jabor;lIoncs I�ugc Installat!on and IICl1IIlillion chilnnel5. adaptable 1r1Slallations ch.lnncls. non·load·b/:arlng walls and good dayllghting. suited In the dcslgn /0 different !unClions. are requIred As a First step
taken by the building All decISions In the buildIng project were dircctorate of ECN The ECN umt for RenC\\'able Energy In the planning process overall me In involved Built EnVIronment was from begmning to end as an energy consultant The ulliny NUON is Ihe inveslOr and owner of the PV system. ECN and NUON have a contract Ihat ensures the ECN will buy back the green solar electrIcity over a contractual period of 15 years from NUON The payment for the green eleclficity
process, flvl·televilnl bulldings lhroughout Europe were VISIlt.'tI 10 study the technologies. bUlldmg slrateglesilnd practlcallUcs (or Building <12
allows rlnanclng of the PV system by NUON. Afler 15 years the PV system Is given to the ECN for free The ECN was responsible for the architectural design. engineering. Installation and malnten.lnce of the PV system. thiS allows overall control and integral planning of the projeG by ECN The PV system was
The fmal options choSt'n were
delivered turnkey to NUON
•
daylight.f:ontrolled amricial lighting system. as users are not always conscious of the Imponance of lighting for dectncllY consumpllon;
•
cenlral switches for electnclty to avoid standby losses:
•
�'Cniliallon concept wnh heat recovery SYSlem;
•
summer night ventilation through centrally op<:nable windows;
• 0pl lmlsed
•
•
dayhghllng through the conservatones and
high insulatIon values for wmdows and facades; compact
building
form.
•
unheatcd conservalOry space as a cHmatic buITer:
•
reduction of cooling load by the conservatory glazing lumbrella lde.l);
•
alr·heatlng system to cover the low demand
PV plays an Importam role in Ihe dayUghung and m sunslladlng. and hence m conditioning the indoor dlmilte In the conservatory
BiPV design process Planning process, alternalive designs
In the begmnlllR. plans were made to cover not only the conservalOry area .....1Ih PV glaZing. but to span Ihe PV screen above the bUi lding blocks as well Above the blocks. opaque PV roofing wuh standard modules was foreseen The plans were rcvtsed due to COSt restrictions
COM PONENT CHARACTERISTICS PV sptem
power Total !Unlts one and two) 43 kWp Step I: Building 42 Unit I: 26.73 kWp Slep2: Building 42 Unll2: 16.31 kWp Step 3: Buildmg 42 Unit 3: no further PV
PV module erea
Typeof building inlegralion Trlle of cell technoJogy
Conservalory glaling
BP Solar mono-crystalline LGBG cells /125 x 125 mm, efficiency approximolely 16.5%)
Modular dimensions Number of PV modules
575 x 1175 mm with 32 PV cells per module Total: 570 PV modulos 1354 for Buildinll 42.1; 216 for BuiJding 42.2)
PV module construction
Frameless custom-sized PV glass.-glass
laminales made by BP Solar Front 3 m m hardenedwhile glass
BiPY design
rI!lSV-IO�mryruolof Budding Q I nt I ""lhPV'"Ie\1lJlIOn. IimN!ecl � b!mls 1'*l 1h8 � g\aDng Wllhlts elegiwrdy l/l'l3l'proflies ......-
"-P __- .Jtm��
Back: 4 mm gJass
As a choice for renewable material wuh low embodied energy. It was decided to build the conservatory with a laminated wood construction 1\\'0 cu.... r ed glued umber be,lms are Interconnected with small round steel profiles 10 form strong beams. The wood beams are horizontally Interconnected by 80 mm.high IPE steel profiles. On tOP of the IPE steel profiles. aluminium glazing proftles are placed to hold the PV modules horiZontally and vertIcally To be able to follow the curved wooden roof beams. the glazing profiles have been CUt OUt and bent every 120 llllll to form straight segments of the curved roof shelter. The greenhouse construction company A!licon was chosen as a partner to develop Ihe PV glazi ng and glass facades Glass prorlies developed for greenhouses are used for the conservalOry roof The conservatory of unll I is single glazed. as the conservatory space functions as a buffer zone and is not heated. nle PV modules were produced and installed by BP Solar. The laminated glass-gl,lss modules with PV cells are encapsulated With EVA Each module Is 575 x 1 1 75 mm
Tolal appfoximalely 400 m'
BP Solar
mono-cryslalline LGBG
fl..ascr Grooved Buned Gnd) cells have been used The cells are spaced wllh a distance of I and 2 centimetres to allow light transmmance of 30 per cem to the interior conservatory space to avoid overheating but allow daylighting
Weight Visual details
PV modules: approximaloly 40 kQlm' PV modules lor the conservatory tool ore
semitransparenl gloss-gloss modules In'ferlers TOlol: 24smng inverters Building 42.1: 14 x type BP Sunny Boy 2400 and I x type BP Sunny Boy 1 1 DG-E Building 42.2: 9 x BP Sunny Boy 2400 Moniloring equipment
The PV system is permanently monitored with modems included in the inverters, which tronsfer dala to a datologger ECN calibraled soJar ce1Js ond lemperaturosensors are included in nine
ou..r BiPV system elements
01 the PV modules
The conservatory PV glass rooling was made by Allicon with slandard proliles lor greenhouse glass
l ;bmg ol lluilding � 2W1!hPV ,"n!QIa!JOn lhe ta'lSllMloryrxmer;ts .-n r",6 r..cns.mry
IbkIirIOQWllhthe ren;watl'!d iJuldllg Jl ..... .........
1tm.'9';1JtW _ .-1lurI
In the fmal desIgn. the roofs on the left and the right side coverlllg the building blocks were changed The blocks of units J -3 are now attached as cubic building volumes 10 the central conservatory. where the I'V is placed The conservalory is diVIded IntO two pJrtS- the curved and south oriented roof. interconncctlng units I and 2. was bUilt In tW() steps together wi th units I and 2: the straight and north oriented central conselVatory withom PV WIll be allacht:d In a l:ucr slage. when unit 3 1s buiit
liS ·
Performance characteristics Monl1orlng will be permanently performed by the Solar Energy Group of EeN The sunny Boy siring invcncrs are equipped With modems. whIch permanently transfer data to a datalogger. which has been developed by SMI\-Regelsysteme (producer of Sonny Boy inverters) to store the dat,1 of several string Inverters The d,lla is transmitted over the electricity network EeN calibrated solar cells ;:Ind temperature sensors arc Included In nine of the
pV modules. 10 sclcntJnc.1l1y cvalu;l1e the cxact performance
efficiency of the PV system with measured dara
Project cost breakdown Costs of PV system PV system curved conservatory roof for Burldlng 42 Untt I and 2 EURJ84.J52 for 43 kWp complete PV system by BP Solar Price includes PV engineering. PV modules. Inverters with modems and datalogger. electric cabling
Financing
The utility NUON normally suppons PV plants with EUR 1 36 per Watt·peak In this case. NUON owns the PV system. EeN and
NUON have a contract. whidl foresees that EeN buys the green
electricity over a contractual period of 1 5 years back from NUON The payment for the green electriCity ,'l1ows nnanclng of the PV systcm. After
15 years the PV system will be owned by EeN
Support The PV system has been supported with support by the Dutch government via NOVEM the Netherlands Energy Agency.
r'll 9 tanservatary !ll\f-a 01 IWfirIg 41 -""
..,..,,.,.....w.. t... MWIIII
flgI01..etl Bu,1dwIg42.!IQht Ilurkl"'!lJI - ..�;-"IoMaa-
THE NET HERLAND S: LE DON JON General project backgrDund
.:,.,..,',,, '
PROJECT:
LOCAnON/CJTY: CQUNTlIY: TYPE Of PV BUILDING:
TIlt' 'I.e Oonjoll' omce building Is sHu,ued in Gouda, a small [own In the green heart of the Netherlands_ Gouda IS aboul
]0 kllollll!lres C,151 of Ihl! DulCh capital The Hague and enjoys ., mild bUt humid maritime climate. The building site is located
le Donion Gouda
between .1 rcsldcmial neighbourhood wllh two-searcy brick homes
Netherlands
from the I Q30s on onc side, and a train line on the other side, ;'lncl is the sl\e of a former elementary school. Town planning regu];nJons and building codes slriclly required imcgr.uion of the
PV canopy above f8�adas
BUILDING TYPE:
ONIca building
NEWIRETRORT:
Now
new building design imo ilS bunt environment context Therefore, lhe choIce was a flat roof and dark red bricks. The name 'I.e Donjon' (The Castle) was chosen for the compact two-storey building consIsting of three bUllding blocks. which are grouped
" "§I" ." "t·'iI',,,·,;"'·'!1 LATTTUOE:
LONGITUDE: AlJJTUDE:
cuum: TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS:
SZ-OO'N
around an IImcr counyard The units are owned by three Investors The same low·energy design is
used for all
three UOlts: ground
0 27 Wfm'K. the walls from sand-lime bricks with red·brown
Sealevel
bricks outside and an U-value of 0.24 Wfm K The windows are
Moderate West·European maritime
larger on the south and smaller on the nonh Side. TIle window
rremperature: January average :-l.6"C; Julv average : 22 "C) e
Energy: •
•
• •
4,05 hours per day
•
frames arc environmentally friendly and made from pinewood,
wuh lnwgraled metal louvres (triple glazing) with a resuliing U·value of 0 QS Wfm'K The Windows to the north and east have Inner shullers and a U-v.llue of 1 I WJm'K
01') for
, nd dishwasher, cle,lnlng. kitchen lap waler l
noor heating system for office spaces .lnd 10\'." temperature radiators for the meeilng rooms, balanced ventilation with heat recovery system (winter);
• water s.lving InSIaliatlons ancl rainwater use for tollel
flushing, • rainwater pond to slow down rainwater discharge and
" nesting boxes for bats and swifts The BEAR Architecten office Is listed as a 'Panda Office· by the World Wild!!fe Fund (WWF) for liS energy saving and renewable aspects
bUilding managemem system for outdoor cJlmall: regulation of heating and ventilation, daylight controlled and energy saving HF thigh
• electricity saving equipment such as nat screens, high
energy-emciem fridge and dishwasher, smndby losses of equipment such as computers at night; EI'c - Energy Performance Rmlo of 0 6 code requires EPc of
1.6
BiPV design process Planning process, altemative designs BEAR Architcoen has successfully completed more than
15
different projectS wuh PV inlegr.l.\ion and was named the most
• electricity switches for each \\'Orksliltlon, to a\'Old
•
• natural materials such as Forest Stewardship CounCil
rOOf-garden:
hlgh'efficJency gas boiler;
frequency) lighting and daylight spectrum,
covered With an aluminium melal sheeting on the outside as weather proleclion All soulh and west windows are equipped
small thermal collector r:.pproximillely 2,5
• summer-night ventilation for cooling,
•
Ecology: tFSq ccnined wood, natural paint and linoleum,
• PV syslcm 6.2 kWp,
noor and roof are made from concrete with a U·value of
4°4J"E
Y arlv average :
Further eny!ronmenlal measurements have been include!l In the bUilding, which Is pan-owned and used by BEAR Archllcclen
- building
�velloknown
architectural firm for bUllding-lntc:grau:d PV in the
Netherlands In a study carrie(! OUt by Novem In 2000. Therefore,
PV In the firm's own new omce building. The design had to nt into the neighbourhood, so a very futuristic high-tech bUilding with a huge south oriented pV-roof il was a must to integrale
or glass facade was nOl conSidered. Instead, a very basic building design was developed, based on classical brick buildings, but InclUding many renewable fe.ltures, A flat roof was chosen as the most effiCient roof form for office buildings A classical flat roof PV Installation with mdependent suppon structures 1'.'.15 not
desuable. as the PV system should be viSible ilnd enhance the architecture. Due 10 finanCIal limits only the unit used by BEAR Architecten Includes pV,
was co ntracted for mechanlc.,1 mounting of comp.my Verloop
Project organisation
PV S)'SIcm. dt..·...c1oped by "'Ir Ih(" BEAR An;tu1t,'Cu:n unll. a nat roof was evns1nl(tcd ..·. wuh ,111 Inslalit..'(1 ColP.1CUY of 3.5 kWp TNO'Axv squall' mt,tTl'S n.lt .000 1 t abou is In �OOl 'Tho;" ovtr,lli pDltnnal of possible PV Installations roof Jr�.1 Dt'pcncllng on Ihe muination d at Ic."bt 35 kWp Ihl' llO/('l\lJal could be up 10 80 kWp an
rlands is qUite tIght and for Thc buHdmq m,ukl'l in the Nethe it Is very common to prw.ltC" as well as for business purposeS.
DeciSion process
the consultamll The study was to proVide an o\'ef\'lew of eronormc par.lTlleleTS. so as to find a solution for optimal
II was fell thJt For .1rchl!t:{;lUral as wdl as for economic reasons. bUIldi ng till" rv �y�IC!1l should be a multlfullwonal. mlegr
c!t.mc!l1 This lcd to Ihe combination of solar energy gam and roof on ram prOll'!tiOn for the Willis in a PV--t;lcmem as a canopy the top of Ihe walis The roofll1g fu nction (or the walls tnt..'tIS suslall1able IWlldlng code 'OuBo maalregel SOD]' In Ihe Netherlands to protect the \\alls by adequate fa�lde deSign
wanted to move. own thl' bUilding used When BEAR Archllecten as a reference it d L'"(ldcd 10 bulld it� own SusI.1lnablc omce proJcct.ls well
a PV SyslCrn, To find the most L'Conomlcal way of Integrating finanCial ,1 feasiblil ly study was completed by Ekomation
financial PV project organls.lti ol1. The followIng parameters were evaluated • What kmd of public sponsorship IS available and opumal for the p\' Installation?
•
Should Ihe PV system be seifoo(lwned or leased?
A tunher ad\"ant.lge ol lhe cho�n de:slgn 15 an aestheIJc btu rdJII",ely c05t-cfilClem mounting construction for the PV system,
• What aTe Ihc tax advantages of difTerent mvestor
compared wuh other fa�ade or roof·mtegrat(.'1i systems In the
• Is amorphous silicon more cost--effictent Ihan
packages?
ht:I/U11I111g u was planned to Imegrate sun·proteCtion funcllons as well. bUI a fixed sunshade would have had the problem of lakmg
crystalline Silicon for the site?
away too much light when It IS needed
As a
Unf0r11l11alely. II was not posslbll' to convince the twO OIher
PV modules Integrated as a canopy roof was the best option. The
11Wt:SIOr5 In the building complex to nuegrat.e PV So the other tWO
result of Ihe stu dy and the desigl1 approach of BEAR
Archltecten. It was found th.1t around
b kWp of seml·transparem
Netherlands !.ax,system allows 'EIA - Energy Investment
block.!. have ,1 glass canopy roof with the same SubStTUClure and
Dt:duction' and the ·VAMIL - Accelerated Depreciation for
hardened glas�. but without PV Thkmg IntO accounl tha! subSidIes
Environmental Investments·. The Netherlands Energy Agency
for the PV systl'm have
NOVF.M paid subsidies for Ihe feasi bililY stUdy. for the
IH.-cn given and the system earns some
rnont-y lliLck by producing green eIL'Ctricity. the pure glass
construction and the PV installation
tht pV modules. The PV modules were directly supplied by SST, as a genera l contractor. and Siemens supervised the mounting procl'� B5T itsel f worked together wuh Siemens as subcontractor
for the electric installations. Including the plaCing of Inverters The connection 10 the grid was made by J05 StruJk, the company fl'5ponslble for all the bulldlng's elecuJcal l nStaliations
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS - CANOPY SYSTEM PV system power PVmodule araa Typa ofbuilding intagralion Type ofceil lachnology
Responsibilities
The PV modules are produced as custom'slzed frameles5 laminates The transparent back roll allows a semJ.transpa ren t Visual appearance. The use of
PV modules as Unle roofs above
Number o f P V modules
ordlnal1on and management were done by the project manager ARCOM, one of the three mvestOr5. The construction company Nl'� de Jong. a general building contractor. carrIed OUt the bUIlding Blank Staal was contr
lID
CBnopYloofoverfa�Bde walls AP.1D6 mono,crvstBllino silicon solar
H 5 0 ,, 1 1 5 0 ,, 8 m m 5 1 laminates 01 1 1 1 W p each and 8 Iriangular modufes of 567Wp in total
PV module construction
Custom·sized frameless PV laminates
walls for bUildings with flat roofs was a good strategy, espeCially
with lI11rdened glass for the front,
as the roofs are small and the anlc walls wHl shade part of the
traated wllh PV,Guard anda back
roof The PV modules therefo re
sheetof tedlar
• funclion as rain protection for the anlc walls and
Array dimensions
subslliute a horizontal metal covering: Weight
• could funnion as sunscreen If they were larger
space. especially in an inner·city neighbourhood wllh small roof
17 kg/m' Visualdetails
areas and a large proportion of facade shading For design reasons (rainwater flush) the PV c.lnopy was deSigned to run
around Ihe roof wnh a umform indil1atlon of S" to the homon
The lammates' ,eartodlarfoilis transparent
Inverter
3 x type'FroniusSunrise Midi'wlth
Balance of system components
Tho PV system is divided into three
1200-2400 Wp nominel power
For thai reason. (he PV elements are all inclined 10 Ihe cenlfe of
5" mc!incd to
ThePV modules hllvo aboutthesDme weight as glazing, approximately
The more or less horizontal Installation alloy.'S opl1mal use of
the roof. so Ihe PV modules on the south side are
PV is placed around tho roof border with a length of25x 1 2 motres
• prOicct the fatade from rainw.lter.
strings Monitoring equipment
The p,ogram 'Ene'gieMonitor' developod by Econorgy is instolled
BEAR Arch l tccten completed Ihe building and PV Integration
design Construction drawmgs as well as construction co·
72.5m'
cells madn by Astro Power Modulardimensions
BiPV design
Ihe north and so forth.
Ifls(allatlon Is not really more COSt emcient than the PV system
6.23 kWp
on a separate computor fot monitoring Olher BiPV system elements
A speCial metal substructure has been devoloped lor the canopy roof abovo the walls
Instalillian d..ign
II speclJI
rIl('I,ll
Installation
.
. designed and produced 10 fi1\ conslrnClton ....,lS swel profiles. to hold the th!.> U· Oonlon OffK" bUilding Triangular to a horizontal steel lUbe. held by vcruca.1 . !nodules. an: ....ellled IUb{'�. \\111,/1 art' flx..d ontO [he concrete mass of Ihc nOlI roof mtHal SlTIpS ilnd The fr,lnldcSS I'V modules are fixed wuh simple SCWWS llllhc lnangular prOrllcs
n l.
OO
[0 Ihrec . miD three strings. co n 'CI The \�It'm Is dIVl{h:d HlVt'rtcrs Thl�e!cclrlc;1I deSign was made wilhoUi dirrcrcnfliltlon o ly sn between Ihc module oflentatlons. as Ihe incilnallon is be I.llways [0 tht' centre of the roof) ilnd [he three strings could
n
The Imcrconnc{;ll'Ci Wllh shon wiring runs 10 lhe ca.ble Inlet Inverters ,Ul' placed 111 the entl
[hr� ck'ctnclly meier'S One of the cleanclIY meters registers
clt'Clrlcu}' fed b,lCk to the 1II111ty'S grid, the olhers reglst!!r electnclIr
used !.luring the day and durlllg the mght
However,
between the parmer Problems in the construction process and PV modules and the met.ll comp.lnles only occurred where the spots. The shape and construct ion did not flt perfectly in cenalll measurements of the PV modules were relallvely compllc,lIed had to be cut because.> the modules arc Inclined by 5° and
h
the ot er blocks and installed by the S
bUilding has tWO corners that are
reat additional casts for bUilding-Integrated pvr can be answered
not rectangular This required
eight differently shaped rv modules for the comers
rXilctly for this project on the basis of actual prices
o
...,
�. rI
for example on sunn}' weekends, when the nglOPll tllXlPY cU"'J insullIallDll ..... _--
...
Euro per i ea metre (with a depth o f 1 1 50 mm) and t h e pV
meHe Each running melre PV t.lnopy of I.e OonjOn has an Installed capacity of approximately 91 Wp The COSt of the
oldduion of PV is thererore about 7 20 Eum per Wall peak This Is JUSt as expensive as a completely separate flat roof PV system would have been Glal. GIt:M Canopy Canopy c-opy 6.23 kWp
submucture and the laminates. Due to the precise bUilding Integrallon and high vlSibil llY only small tolerances were acccPlable Problems also occurred because the welded metal supporting struClUre could not be produced wilh the same precision as the boiled construcllon. which was originally structure less precise, Tile lack of adjustment was a problem and made any Changes alter mounting the constructions very dlmcult Therefore one of the substructures was reassembled
The Invertcrs have been Installed in aCOUStiCally separated stamlcss steel m!!:tal profiles to avoid noise emissions. Because the Inverters are installed In the entrance area of the open·plan omce. attached 10 an Internal \vall made from
EfIgWIeerlng e
ruct f
;;::m (68m)
wood. any noise
transferred to this wall had to be smclly avoided as jt would ha\'C been he.1rd in the whole office bUIlding.
:;;:
,.i_ ,·,
"" wP'
sle l sl Ue AnctIorIng lleel etemenlS
--
--, IlminaIElS {pnce 1fldude5 sysIem COO1pOl'l1S ltll 1I5 �,cabling 8lld IIIeclncaI lTlQUflling oi r::ompete PV system) -
i cl
a separate compUier for monitoring, placed d re t y beside
COStS for the PV SYSlem reduce 10 only 100 EUTO per metre. This 15 further reducerl by the electrICity produced by the system and hence the additional costs are almost gone (32 Euro per metre
over a t().year produc\lon pcflo
PV system is relatl\'ely cost·effecllve Table 2 shows the effects of SUbSIdies on the first calculation Cost in Eum lor PV canopy Iytllem per metnl l�
p r Y/ pe
�subskty 1,046
Invl!$UT1el1t - PV system
Net il'M!Sl!11ent
Extf a COSlS - P V systam
14.819
' .....
628
EtA - energyinvestmenl deductJon
-.
14,&19
25%�bsidy
SubsKly NOVEM {Nethet1andsEnetgy Agencyj
Staodatd glass canopy cosls
Moun1ongsupportingproft1e5
"
785
376
".
68
68
32
151
rab1l!2C05t�DINYl ll3IWrd gt.nl canopytnlel d,lflR!1t PII Slbsodyl!Mtb
55.353
Post·installation feedback 25,131
-
'EnergleMOnltOr'. developed by Econergy. It 15 Installed on
the full installation COSIS, including the steel suppon structure
Net costs Income solar electllClty sales ovel 10 years (app oximately 660 kWh O.t r EUlO x l0 yearsj
--
"" """" -aIcwPV
Measurements are COntinuously made using the program
the canopy can be sponsored up 10 ·10 per cent, With 2S per cent
VAMIL- acceteraledoopt'eciatlonfor environmentalInvestments
Uoduie wppol'ling prolilcs
.... costsol s1andan:l glas$
Performance characteristics
the inverters
;:::n (68m)
PVC.nopy
MIdwIIcIII ITIOUnb:\g PV
and welding had to be carried out on the roof
PV systems
possible. In the Netherlands, an Innovative PV Installation such as
(lppro-.lmaleIy91 Wp.'m)
PV
In the metal
proposed Temperature changes during the process made the
SubSIdies are very Important to make investments In
gl.1S5 canopy would have been installed anyway, the additional
�Iisunderstandlngs In the measurements led 10 size differences
r
tImes the 157 Euro COSt of installing the hardened glass
The tax laws allow further savings ltlklng into account thaI the
cOStS for the Integrated PV system totaled 671 Euro per linear
l
PV laminate Instead of a plate of hardened glass, and to
pay all the necesS<1ry system COSIS, Including elcctrlc In�t.lllallons
modules by the glazing company The hardened glass was 1 5 7 syslem costS were 828 Euro per linear melte. Thus the additional
_
To install a
COSts, equ<1le5 10 828 Euro per linear metre This Is more Ihan five
metre of ra�adc, Including the w rk to place the g1as5 panelslPV
ln r
----
The PV building integration has nOt proven to be a money saver
expected for further InSTallations The subsidy 15 calculated over
The price of the mounted steel structUle was 2 1 9 Euro per linear
only the I'V elC"Ctrl�lly thai IS nOI needed Immedliltely 15 fed officc is clo�
OUler ra�ade of the three omce blocks with PV unopy on the rchitecten office Instead of hardened white glass oWr the BEAR A The steel conslruction. to hold the modules, Is the samc as for
running all around the exactly to size to fit together as ,1 canopy site, Ihe buildlng·s roof. Because of rhe char.1CteTlSIlCS of the
electrlclI}' IS generally fed dlreclly to the BEAR Archnecten office ruck to the grid
Project cost breakdown
Tht' over.,11 omce complex has been equIpped Wltl1 a glass
labie l PTo)QC1COSl bre� lor PII SYSlem
&9,971 -25,t31
".'"
1,044
The Idea of canopy PV roofs placed on allic \val1s of fl
rur;, WIth its flat roof design, leads to fac;ades that are nOI
ilrchllcc
protccted by rain Water running down the fac;ade will colour and penUlt! the fa�de. If the flat roofs are very small and an allic wall is envisaged. it will often be difficult to nnd enough unshaded
nat roof area for PV use.
Further. the canopy results
In less weight on the roof. as no addltlonal concrete weight !s needed as for Ihe independent suppon structures used !n classical nat-roof
PV systems
The PV canopy is also functional
as an
Ags l l a n:l 1 2 tl'e'malcoUOODl IDltBll-Wiltar �doSh�ron rtlllI IPII '"bidwoondl
ngI'IlbDolernlxrlWilwsu.iIQII .s:.vt.B£IIIAr;IormM, .. �M.In:e'_� I¥d. ""
113 ·
TH E NETH ERLA NDS : N I EUW LAN D BiPY design process
TIlt!' overall criteria of sustaillilbtllty. set by the City authontlcs,
provided an excellent opportunity to develop one 5(.'Ctlon of Nll'uwland Into a true solar suburb. Also. the local regional utility. REMU, was looking for opportunities to develop a number of PV projects as part of Its green energy strategy Prior to the I MWp project. a reI'.' smaller PV projects had been carried out by REMU in the tlrs! sections of Nleuwland These projects focused on
famlltarisatlon with the technology and on the process of PROJECT LOCAnON/C1TY COUNTRY TYPE OF !PVI BUILOING BUILDING TYPE NEWIRETROm
1 MWp PV proiect
working with architeCts. property developers. contractors.
Amersfoon
the PV industry and others Involved in bUildmg-lntegr.ued PV
projectS These first projects Include the SCW project (figure l),
Nelherlands
the Thomasson·Dura project !figure 4) and the De Border
Various: roof and fa�ade integrated
school project
ReSidential
The SCW proj(.-'Ct compnses 50 row·houses, developed logether
New
wllh a social hOUSing associalion and deSigned by architect Han van Zwieten {Van Slraalen Archltectenl. The aIm of the project was 10 te<:hnicatly integrate PV Into roofs together with solar thermal and dayHghung Compared to the original deSign
LATITUDE LONGITUDE ALTITUOE tUMAnc TYPE
SUNSHINE HOURS
52" 09N 5"23'£
of me project. Han van Zwieten decided w 'lIft' the PV section,
flO21< uuwIInd'a l.fb.1nsa;le 5 ....... (
not only to create a vertical window. but also to give tht: PV .1
Sea le�el Moderate coastal maritime
General project background
fTemporilture:Wlnter average = 2.S·C;
Nlcuwland Is a new housing .1rea of the City or Amcrsfoort
summernvera g e = IS.2°C)
(population 1 23,000) in the c:emre of the Netherlands. It WilS
Yearly averag e ::; 4 hours per day
dc\'cloped by a public-private pannership called 'OvcrCCI11', in which the City authoruies worked with properly developers and construction companies [0 develop the arei!. The lotal seulemem of Nleuwland comprises some ·1.000 dwellings for 1 1 .000 residents Nieuw[and began berore the Energy Performance Code {ErNJ was established In the
Netherlands. If translated 10 EPN
Criteria. all houses have an energy performance lower than 1.2. which is beller than the required level In the building code at the lime of the project. In addition. great ,1ttention was paid to passive solar (80 per cent of all houses arc orlcmed b€![ween southeast and southwest) and sol,lr Ihcrmal (900 solar water hemcrs werc
inSI,1l1ed In the sculemcntj CondenSing bOilers are used rorspace healing
well-defined and separated place Within the bUIlding envelope
The Thomasson-Dura proJCCt comprises 10 row·houses with
..�....�
���� inr:h.d
Individual PV roofs. The projC<:t was developed by a commercial property developer and the design by Artes Architects The aim of the project was to technically develop the prefabrIcation of PV roofs Prefabrication was not feaSible .1t the time or the project ( l 9Q61. given The Slate of the lC1:hnology. The design of the
project was. however, appreciated by architects worldwide The strong pointS include the combinmion of colours Md materials, and the use of PV as a protruding element of the bUilding envelope
f'lgSN"oeuwt.nfII:2S11ctD'1
I'i'IhIOOf·lI\!e!1fittd Pol
s.va,.s.-r .......s,...
1 MWp Niauwland project
a J \IWP project was developed by REMU as follow-up with the OVereem dt.'velopcr to these pilot projects. Together ."orking on Nlcuwland, an consorUUnl and the urban designer .. selected Th.:: main appropriate section of NU,?uwiand was for one camp.lel criterion was Ihilt t1 �hould be large enough design should allow urban TIle PV she wilh PV on all bUlldmgs shading suffiCient soulh·faclng roofs wllh limited
The
for The urban designer fomml;lIed J design thai <1l1owed more than sufficient roof space racrng south in order to install
prepared for 1 MWp PV In addition, an information package was [he properly developers and architects involved In [his seClion of
Nlcuwland The development of this Information PilCk.1gC was an Imponant aspect of Ih� project. II assisted in learning how to co operate In a slilndardlscd way With large numbers of developers and archuects on a large·scale project The most relevant section wuhln the mformalion package WilS
• Sections KI and f112 required a complete rctlt:slgn of
the houses The property deveJopers in theSl' �tlons fUll}' supported (finanCially) Ihls redesign. shOWing their dedICation to hnd attracllve solutions for Ihe Inlegratlon of PV into houses In secllon K I . however. the architect could nm meet the
Ecofys. REMU and
Architect Han van Zwieten, Van Siraalen Architecten This seclion involves the smallest 'Island' In the prOject two rows of houses with a ccntral street (figure 5) In most other sections With sloped roofs. each row of houses has its street on the soulh side. Howewr. in Ihls st.'Ctlon. the overall
costS The property developer In Ihls case was nm
deSign brief asked for a symmetrical view from the street to both
willing 10 rully bear these COStS As a result. REMU
sIdes This necesSitated a symmetrical building design, WillI
contributed to the addItional COSts Incurred by the f'V system requiremems
• In sections
K2 and K-l. the design of the houses W,lS
straigll1forward and without COnmct from the design rcqulrenlents for the PV.
For these seellons. the architect
was highly experienced In bUlldlng·tntegrated PV Non.
pV arrllitccts were involved In the other sections
emrances faCing south on one side of the street and north on the other side. If the houses were to be kepI completely symmetriCal (archlteauTillly and functionally). this sloped section would need to face north on one Side of the street and SOUth on the olher side The i1rchuect thererore decided to create a rather narrow cemral secrlon for the PVs. which could be 'turned around' on Ihe roof WlIhout dIsturbing the symmetry 1\ nonh wmdow was incorporated behind the PV for daylight
emrance to the central staircase undernealh. maxlmlsmg the
ENEL.
solar gam of the bUilding - PV not Just as PV, but as a
The informal1on package also contamed sections on aesthelics. project plannmg. lechmcal and electrical delaUs.
SectionK2
by the PV project team wuhout additional cOnStruction
a shonllst of technical reqUiremems 10 Iilkc Into conSideration. sel forward by the proJCCt panners
PV requirements set
Architectural concept
mulufuctionai solarelement includmg dayhghllng, The architect was not completely sallsfied wuh the standard promes for the
II standard
...'eloped as part of Ihe preparalion eleclrlc design scheme was dt.
wmdows. ISOlated glass. see·through panels. northern panels. and
process This design was based on the principle of one inverter
so on. Desplle being inexpenSIVe. he felt that they were not very
per house In order 10 limit the number of spme pam 10 be kept
elegam and the problem of findmg better ways to detail with PV
in stock for replacements. the same lnvener was used throughOUt
wlthoul profiles or glue has yet to be solved
the whole project. resulting in a requirement to Imegrate 2 kWp
As a finishing touch. the two sides of the island were connected
to 3.5 kWp perbuildmg The objt'Clive of Ihe project was to utilise. as much
,lS I>ossibic.
standardised, well'proven concepts provided by the f'V industry during the deSign process, which started before the f'V supplier
Fig 8 C10S11 up 01 N'I!lIwland"s '$OIar
pertat·S l: ... n ".Ja
with tWO 'solar portals' bndging the central Streel of the project The overall appearance of Ihe Island now resembles an ancient racecourse with an mumate inner COUrt (ngure 10)
was selected This created some difficulties as the architects were unable to determine the size of the PV modules that would be used. or which mounting system would be proVided by the
PV
supplier Thus. some redesigns were required after selection of the PV supplier due to specified module sizes and mounting systems In March ll'll'li. a call for tenders for delivery of the PV systems was publicised m Ihe official Journal of the Europe.1n Union. Out of the eight companies Ihat responded 10 Ihe Invitation. three were InVited to submit a tender Detailed terms of rderence were formulated and sem to the selected companies. Contract negotiatiOns were completed in I qqS Shell Solar Energy built the bulk of the systems. with Bp Solar as backup PV roor Iiles from RBB and sun shades from Colt International were appIJed ,lS special fixtures in small sections During this process. many designs were modified ilnd the follOWing Issues were resolved
• Al sections JU and N2. non·lnlegrated. Oat.roof.based
I'V systems were decided upon J\oof·lntegrated
rv
systems did not fit hllo the overall programme of
rC
126
\yuhout a vlstble and outstanding --
':"''':''':'___.
0;:.'
pv.nag
Flg t l lheroot lllOOtl:crutrUCllOll. shawor,;thllsmalleladd,IIOr1al :l8CllCnS Wllh sheet malerlal t�ar.l!1 Uj)gap! between the 1"-1 I«IKWtS
.... .."
I Ea:l:nIW-..
L I B RA RY 1 1 7... 1 U.m.:!r
121 ·
1IIIIIIIIion design
including grid integration SlctriClll c onflguration conHgurallon was dC"'Jeloped for the whole I MW A standard ptojeCt. based on the prinCIple of 'one house, one invertf:r" Ae&50ns for thrs approach were • Tn (onnect the PV to Ihe energy system of the occupant Even in Ihe utlllty·owned sections. the uuluy wantt.'d to establIsh a rermlonshlp With the building owner to ensure good and reliable operation
Installation
Installalion procedures and experiences Installation of the PVs was commisslonr:d by REMU to Shell Solar and lIS team The conslluo.lon of the buHdlngs was
commiSSioned by the developer �n Zwol to hs own contrnctor This meant that there wcre two teams on she. each wuh their own prInCIpal. therr own planning scheme. and so on Prior to installation. agreements were made between Shell Solar and van Zwol abour the usc of site huts, stornge racllltles, and .sc.,rfolds
of the system In the parts of the prOject where [he occupant co·financed the systems In return for ownership of the systcm, direct benefit by the occupant was a prerequisIte; • TO achieve Ihe IO....'eSt wIring COSlS No extenslVC DC
gnd was required. with limited addulonal AC gnd feawres,
• To limtt requirements for switches, fuses and blocking
Successful approaches For the Installation of the PV system. a quality control Str.ltegy \Vas
Ecofys and REMU to allow for a smooth reallsauon of large numbers of PV systems This quality cont(ol strntt:gy Included
developed by
pre'lnstaliation teSts. on-site inspecl1ons. commlS5lonlng checks and performance comraas
dIodes (which wcre omJUedl Cotrlrary to the inillal concept. no remote monrtorrng vIa the
Pllnning approval and institutional processes
f'll 12C1OS1MtlOnSol b;ltI/llll nlOpetll olt/JIPiroct Strla!I \1!I'Itdato'l \IIPS iIrlI �qlld lu�·IcM'_III II"Nl8'llrd lhlrracUelThegutter set:tGl l1lh1lowe1'encI '3lI1leIDw .,.,Iy l$.-l lot Ih:Ise teC\.I(IIS oI lIIt! rooI v."lletf 1hl<1! 1S1 ...mai ...
AU deSigns were reviewed by a
"" tbo-"Il- ... __ .
team conSiSting of the urban
planner. the environmental supervIsor, represemauves of
OVereem, and by REMU for PV-speclfic elements
in time for the
K2 section. These were used In most of the project. roofs ...."ere berng laid down. the invener
Consequently whIle the PV
was berng tested This resulted in a situation where the PV roofs
v.-ere finIshed long before an invener had been placed Due to this delivery problem. some of the h� were commiSSioned before the PV rnstallatlon was complete, and In some cases. the houses
BiPV design
were already inhabited when the Inverter was installed This was
,l
The str.:ltegy for section K2 was to use standard laminates and standard mounting systems provided by the PV supplier (Shell
not a desirnble SiNatron for the PV suppliers and other parties
Involved because it limited aCCe5s to the houses and made tile
Sol.u) [0 creme a cemraL tiited section on the nat roofs of the
procedure for finishing the PV systems more costly.
houses This vertical section runs over all houses. without
I
iluerruptlon To achlC\'e this. the width of each house (7.2 ml
was ad;,pted 10 the modules' width {I :! ml, allOWing ror SIX modules per roof The final module sIze IS 545 X [185 mm. with a cell1rc·tCKentre distance between the vertIcal profiles of 1 2 m
-
In practice. some additional smaller seaions with sheet materIal were fcqulred 10 nil up some gaps in the
Problems during realisation
Mastervolt was not able to dehvcr l1S SUnmaster 2500 inveners
cable network was used !too expenSIve)
",
PV roofs as shown In
,-'
r'll t 5 s.npie ol lhl M4lrervolr llMll1er
an:ItomlIC1l11'1 ba:lt.u.lrnK2 l1«tlll'1
....-
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS
rlgur� 1 1 . MOUnting details wefe designs based on expenences from prevIOUS projccts
... _ .--
- -
PV system power
Typtof building integration
Type of celi lechnology Modul.r dimensions
2.25 kWp per house; 38 houses Roof and fa4;ade·integrated Poly·ctySlalline silicon Module rype: RSM75. Size:545 x I 185 mm Iframeless) - 56 0 x 1200 mm Uncluding mounting systeml
Array dimensions Weight Inverter Monitoting equipment
FIQ14 Horlltwllal t;l0S1£8t1lQU olrlre f'VIOOl aanu rlreparurioo Wililool_nhou:WII A;a'Il. G rlillrowplOClol dlcelm.J18T1i1llJlI!.edtoliIlIhll IlilP Also r1Uloadd,honirJ l11(lasures IOIVOld ltJllsminorolllO<S8 lrom Ollll hause lOrlreother "'''''1.1 ,."
... ,,"-1>'11
6 x 5 modules - 2800 x 7200 mm 8.25kg Mustervott, Sunmaster 2500·1SD The Ecofys
monitoring
Eclipse is IIsed for global
ou..r BiPV system elements Connectors for module connection:
Hirschmann B 12 GOME; Module wiring:
VUV I VYO 1 x 2.5 mm'
', --
Project cost breakdown Financing,ownership by the loe.11 utility The Nltuwland I MW pV projl'CI was Onanced from the Nt
acce5siblllty of the lnslJllatlons and liability for any damage These agreemems are part of the purchase conuaC1S Ih3t the buildIng owners emered
A right of SUIH:rflcies (building nghl1 was e5labltshed In respect of the plots. It has also been stipulated that the solar panels should remain unshaded TIle residents are remunerated by REMU for the usc of theIr roofs 1\\'Cnty per cem of the enelID' generaTed on their roofs 1'0'111 be paid for at the normal domesllc consumer tanff The otllt'r half of the solar power instaUauons were lransfern-d 10 the residents In return for a 25 per cenl comrlbuuon 10 the system COSIS Agreements regarding the leg.11 .1nd finanCial arrangements were concluded for thLS purpose With the developers concerned IMabon. AthTgoecl and Schoonderbeek) The PV COSts were approximalely 7 Euros per Wp, thOUgh detallcd COStS varied per sub-section
S O UTH KOREA: KIER SUPER LOW ENERGY BUILDIN G General project background
"" (:" 111"PROJECT: LOCATION/CITY: COUNTRY;
TYPE OF PV BUILDING; BUILDING TYPE:
NEWIRETROm:
The Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER) Is a nallonal
e
KIER 1Korea InSliluleof Eneroy Aes arch) SLEB prolect Taejon South Korea
research agency loe.lted 100 miles SOUlh of Seoul. SoUth Korea In 1998, 11 initiated a national project to design and construct a
very low-energy consumption bulldlng, the so'called 'Super Lo..... Energy Building' (SlES) The building has six major energy eHicient systemS [nduding
Roof-inlegraled
• double-skln fat;ade;
Office
• thermal storage water tank;
New
• ground coupled heat exchanger system; • tntegrared system control. • high-erridency vaOJum type solar thermal colleclor, and
'fI'Mt" IIIfI:t" i'·'t" i'f1I1f' LATITUDE:
LONGITUDE: ALTITUDE: CUMATIC TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS:
36" IB'N
12J-24'E
n
met e
r s above sea level
Temperala rTemperature: wimer average :: 5"1;; summer average :: 22"t)
• 30 kWp solar system The purpose of the project was to design and construct the SLEB and target an annual energy performance index (EPI) value of yr from the use of vanous EnelID' Conserv,ltion 74 McaUm' Opponunities (ECO) Includmg the SIX major tcchnologit..'S descnbed above.
v
Vearly a erage = 6.0 hours per day
Feed-in tltriffs In the sections where REMU remains Ihe owner, the occupant Is nnancfally compenSillcd ror the use of the roof This compens,1l(on equals 20 per cent or Ihe produced PV power, rolled at consumer lariff (n the sections where the ownership was transferred to the occupant. a net,metering scheme wHh
double counlers Is used Residents re<:eive the Silme rate for PV
po\\'Cr as th,1' pay. approximately EURO 14 per kiloW;111 hour
131 -
Installation design
BiPV dasign procass
PJanning process. aJlematrve designs
• Poly·crY!itallln e solar cell. made In Korea.
,mel Ins!alled with 580 modules of Samsung SM-50;
25.1 kWp
roofwlrh )O·
support
was approverl,
• Module conncctors weu: used
dC�lgn KIER considered Ihret! alternative BIP\' designs
I
The InsmUatlon process WilS as rollolVs
W.1S oselecled
• Solar cell wllh one s Ide open, rectangle type
deSign was the Obaya5hl KUllll Building In Japan and for the SlEB m{xbflc.lllons Wt'le proposed .:md IrnplemcntL'(\
Opllon
Installation
InS!.ll1i1tlon design was fixed as follows
SM·50
l committee members In The proJl'CI \\'.15 I!�d b)' KIER and speci a The refo:rence model various ar�,1S rt:\'ll'llt:d the proposed design
provIde {[ to I nternal lighti ng and olher uses;
Option J, J.I 0 kWp roof and wall sYStcms with JO· ;md 1)0·
• Overall monitoring system was Instillled ; • lightn ing
anglc lilt respecl il'ely_
rod was inslalled;
• Sidc support heIght on the top of the building was
reduced from QO to ·15 cm,
Decision process
• The installa tion was com pleted i1S per figure .;
The SlES SII'\' design process was based on a combmed system
of Inrkpemlent and dependent eval uation. The
PV was reqUired
Inverter provided mains electricity back to the lighting III reduced
was chosen because II could reduce the in iliaL as well as the
nut and washer
•
anchors and treated wlth mOrlar
Electrical connecllon ror solar modules was connccted
In senes Wllh 20 unus and CV 5.5· (HI 22C) configured between array junCtion bol(es
• CV 8 O·
tHI 22C) was used between array Junction box the group or
guide
operaung cost. and al'>O provldc relallvely constant electricity on
ProbJems observed during reaJisation included:
I AmJCATlOSS
• Shading effect of guide suppOrt ovcr the cell • Fuse derect in the Inverter and ASS converter defect
was observed and reSOlved
of 2'1.85t1kWh
The ESI>·r dynamIc buildIng energy sImulation program
mm were joined With SUS bolt.
• The suppafT col umn i1nd concrele were JoIned Wllh SCt
solar cells. configuration as noted In the Inslallatlon
SM·50
supply condillons when cloud)' and al nlghl This design strategy
maXimum polYcr or 28, I kWp and an annual encrg}' generatIon
penet rat ion 11110 bUilding
• CommiSSIOning tests were done Oller
export to the grid In periods of excess supply The Interconnected
the demand Side The nnal design had an errectlve area of 265
tnsmlled to support them and also to prevent rain
• The fial pallIon of the tOP nnd treated suppOrt zinc
and Invener
10 supply el(''Clncuy for Ughllng as \.\-'ell as have the capadty to
s(luarc melres or poly
and installation gUide
2 J tl and anchor, concrctc angles were carcfuUy
• Inverter was Installed to monllor the Io.ld amI to
Opllon 2 J0 8 kWp roof lYilh JO· nit,
All frames i1nd supportS wcre Installed as In draWing
• The milterlal for the frame was steel ,lOgic 175 x 50 X
[0 conncct all the OUtPUt
from eilch modulc,
ull.
•
was used
to prcdiCI the energy consumption ,lnd 10 visuaJise the Impact of
'>Orne energy conserv,ltlon opportunilles (ECOs) on EPI
73.9 Meallm' .li'>O showed that i1nnual heatmg demilnd amoumed to was 1 0
Estlmilted .lnnual consumption was predicted as .lnd
15.5 Mcal/rn' III per ccn IJ. coolmg demand
(I-I.I per cent) and llghung ilnd office equipment demand lYas
4 7 q Meal/m (M q per cent) I t mdlc..lted that the majOr portion of Ihe ellcrgy was due 10 the internal load atrnbulf:d to lighting
i1nd eqUipment needs
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PVsyslem power Typeoi building inlegillion
30 kWp Rool-integrated
Type 01 cell lechnology
PoIv-crystalhne silicon
Inverler
3OkW 3-phose,4-wire
Monitoring IIquipmllnt
lG Honeywell
Othllr 8iPV sysltm IIlemllnts 4 PV junction boxes
. """"'"
. � - .. • 1__ .... __ '_ . -... _ ._ -
:=::7: -?""£:"':'
__
Fig4 81oddoagram �.... ., lJtI/
133
SPAI N: U NIVER PerformlRce chll1lcteristics
QO/) Mtu;.1 performance bctw�en I )anu.lry and 31 December I f('suhrd In l'lC<:Ulcity production of 2<1,2 14 kWh dUfing J det,lllcd
General proiect background
mOlllloflngph,lSl"
This project was carried OUi under Lhe THERMIE programme,
11,·1."" "
PROJECT:
Pmiect cost breakdown
n1l' ovcrall proJt.'(t COSt was alH>u1 USSI iO,OOO las ,t! OCtober 1 <1981
Post-installation feedback Inverter operation could be Improved through beller design,
LOCATION/CITY: COUNTRY: TYPE OF PV BUILDING: BUILDING TYPE: NEW/RETROFIT:
part of the fourth ROT framework programme of the European
2DDkWp Jllen
Union, and the PAEE programme of the MINER (Spanish MiniStry of Industry and Energy)
Spain
The main objeCtIVe of the project was the Inlegrmlon of a
Fa�adll-intagrllted, pergola (bUilding canopy). parking canopy
medium-scale PV plant Into a unlversny campus using different
Commercial
Retrofit and new (pergola)
Installalion and program tcsong Pre- and post-testing of the
architectural solutions (such as parking canopies, pergOI,l, facades) for research into, and dissemlnalton of information about PV. The prOject focused on safety and protection solullons specially designed for crowded public areas It Is deSigned 10 produce about [5-20 per cent of the elcctrlcJlY consumed at the
universIty, which ls e5ltmated to be around 280 MWh per year
nwerler operation nL'cds to be thoroughly conslderoo
LATlTUOE: LONGITUDE: ALTITUOE: CUMATIC TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS:
37" 7J'N 3" 18W
518 meltes above sea lovel MeditelTanean with dry and warm summer Yearly average", 4,9 hours per day
BiPV design process Project organisation The main orgamsatlons that collaborated on the Unlver Project • University of Jaen (project co-ordinator) the project \1IaS developed b}' Grupo Jaen de Ti!cnica Aplicada,
comprising architects and lecturers from the departments of electronics and electrical engineering One of the main fields of research of the Group Is photovollaic solar energy and the Integration of photovohaic (PV) generators In buildings; • Instituto de Energia Solar' photovoltalc solar energy R.+ D Cenrre at Madrid Polytechnic University
Responsible for quality comrol and technical advice for me engineering system;
• Newcastle Photovoltaic Applications Centre R + D
Centre of Newcastle University,
UK
The cemre has
wide experience with these systems and was responsible for monitoring and l"\'aluatlon of the project results;
• [sofolon, 5..0\ , manufacturer of the photovoltalc
modules Supplied the modules and was the technical advisor for the pholovoltaic generators;
• Solar Jiennense. inSt,lller of renewable energy systems.
It was responsible for the electrical Installation and the technical assessment of the civil works and the suppOrting structures:
• Compania Sevillana de Electr!cldad IGrupo Endes.l1
lutllilY company) Collaborated In the grid connection
135 ·
BiPV design Description oflhe instaJiation wuh The mS!.llIaUO!l is divJ(/t'{i infO four PV sub-genef.llol'S. dlffl."..nl :UChUl.'Clur;i! solurions and conngurauons {PV gt'ner
r
nlt.' Imention was [0 analyse the performanct' of dllkH·nt I'V moduks {mono-
In'nlr01l lnvcncr or string orlemed inveners) and [he potential for
usc on hutldtngs such ,15 pergolas. parking canopies and fa(ades In Itw sourh or Sp.l In, cspeclnllyln Jilcn. Figure :? shows lhc
The e)(t�1tng p,uking canopies ilt the university were used for the Intcgr,lllon of the phOIOV{lllalc generator The c.lnoples are .1Imo�1 [olally free of shadow. with a 38° southeast orlent.ltlon ,lnd lilted 5°
PV Sysu:m
I
modules
��� ��
The values oj Ihe IllOSt imeresung pm-amelers of the generator In System I are shown In 1dbJc I ManIlt.-:turOt ancl mooel
layout oflhc PV pl;lnl
"'
NUlMll oI -..I r:-.
....... crl cIIII ., .......
ISOFOTON 1- 106
� '*- I�. lIIIIJ*I c.IIo) Numberol ..1IlI 1lIOCIuIM 12 ....... oImoduIe:s., I ... ,. To!
Tatai __ oImoC!uIn
PholovoltBic System 3
((1r is Integra [t'(i 1010 .1 pergola close to thr. Thi� I'V genCr;l
rt,"l1l'C(lOn and cOlltml buildmg of rhr pr(jJcct The Inverters. tnt'
II,U.I ,Kqul51t10n system and the s"rcty dnd protcctlon System nrc Irx,lfCrl in this building The PV system conslst� of a phorovol!;llt 1!,·ncr.llOr wltl\ 20 kWp of nomlnill power and I) siring oriented ilwr!rtcrs of 2,000 W, made by Fronlus fAu�triill. as represcn ted srhr'll1i1t1cally In Figure 6. As for the IWO prcvlous sYSlems, til{'
, ll,lfion Includes all rhe necessary clements to ensure s,lfety Instl prot('{"tlon 10 rhc public
01'" of the aims of thiS
ImcgralCd syslem was 10 usc the pV to
pJ"twlue a shady area. lIery lIseful In thl5 part of Spain. proViding ,I comforl
-41'(; IIDIem' TONC (110 mWJOn'. 20,(;, ElIc:tnQoI prgNa _ A3IIda'd leSl cxtncll!a15 l.ooo W'm'. T".2S'C 156 ... 1I1"' SrIarI-ara.oI ShorI_ 726V �� seo v C/clIIIIH:o"CUoII � CI.ftft"It 113" Yaunum Maz.:Iun 1-46 A "64 V � SIV Ma.umlm MwnvnflO"lWl""*'Oe 67.640W;J 1000 Wp ...... prg",.., MuIIruoI ,,-" AlMd moo:u.
TOIaI l"I
7J
PV System J module
The PV generator COnsIstS of 180 \,·rm·tTansp.lff,nr IglJss-gLlSS) lsofoton 1 106 modules. wnh ;l total power of 19.080 Wp In
�tand;lrd condillons. with J 52° soulhl."il�1 onemallon and liltr..'d 1 3 ° This generator is divnJed Imo Q sub-generators of 20 modult"S each. which are grouped in tWO p<1rallel arrays with each array having 10 modules connected In scnes
Thble 2 shows the values of Ihe most ]mcrestlng parameters of ea.-:h sub'generator of System J MODuLES �.-.......
'�IIkon /�. shapIod_) 3Ii
Tcut ""'--dCIII
72
tl_of_modUIes tlurroo.> of mcduIeI., �-
T_""'--of� lOOeem' TOflC (80 mWteM.2D'Cl ...... of _ EledraIpootin underllanrSrlnl leSl lXlnddlonl· 'DOO W'rf{. Tea2$'(; �CUIIWC ShorI_cunw. �YObgIr �...oaao. MD......,
�po-.� �_wobQe "'-'-'''-"
'abllt l [)pafaI"'!I �'!�rl l1Ger
T
1000 Wp
2 ClDem"'l � Jl �:'!!III J
PV System J in\'ener
The mvener
I t IS an ACEF·SOLr\R model from Enemon. Wit h 60 kW of
- .. u. :t4af'*'.A>*I
Photovoltaic System 2 PhOlovoltaic
System 2 hilS the same deSign. modules and 80S as PV Sysrem I
System 1
nIls PV system Is Irllegr.ucd into one of the covero:
�
ilfCilS on [he tmiliersll), cilmpus The system is composed of
a 68 kWp gener.llDr, a 60 kW [rlphaslc invcner made bv
Enemon. ilnd safelY and monllorlng components. The genemlor
(figure 3). It is locared in a parking canopy parallel 10 PV System I . In the 5.1me parking area. as shown In figure 4 The orIginal
rooling WiIS eaSily removed and Ihe exlsling suppor! structure was used to accommodate the PV m odules (figure 5)
comprises 6·10 150(010n 1-106 modules !see figure 31. The [olal
II-II-II-Im- ....
1m 11 11 11- .... .Im 11-11- .... 11 11-11 Im- .... 1m .Im Im- ....
136
used ror connectmg the PV generJlOr to Ihe grid
is
of nominal power. I[ is specially deSigned for grid-connecled phorovollatc solar energy appllca!lons
Photovoltalc SYS1em 4 thiS
PV generator IS integrated inlo the south faC'lde of a building
10Gued dose 10 the connCC!lon and control building. II consisls of 40 kWp
pV poly
1 5 slrlng·onent(.'d
im'eneB of 2.500 \V made by FrontuS {Austrial There were two maIO objectives of
IhlS s),stem
Integration element In the soulh of Spa.in; and
coming to the UnIVersity campus
a. a.a.a.a.
=
.U .U
-
rIgJt�U[oIIVSr;t6m t � S)1[em 2 Ij,. oW"".-
r'll 6 l.l1yoaJ I PfPV Sysrem J pl!fgota Sao· U...lWll dd..-
• to achle\'e a posLUve visua.l Impact for all VISI\Ors
comprises 80 modules. serial connected
-Im-Im-. - Im- II-Im-Im -Im-II-Im__ -II- Im-ImIm-Im-Im-Im -Im-Im-Im-Im- .Im-Im- Im -Im-Im-Im-Im
17.V 2.120'MI
• 10 evaluate the potential of the fa{ade as 3n
poller of [he sy<>tem is 67.840 Wp under standard tes[ COnditions The modules arc grouped as eight parallel arrays and every array
11 11 11-11- .... 11-11-11-11- .... 11-11-11 11- ..:.
2
.7'(;
a string invener rrom Fronlus (SUnTlSe·maxl mOdel) wllh 2 kW
nomm,ll power This Inverter has been specially designed for
r'll llier«oIIlolyDIII Qlltll!l"o' lia'u
10 20
cunllll
r.w.m..m "-
I.U.unlm � YOIIage
PV System I In\-ener
The mv(mer IS used for connecllng the pV generator 10 the grid
photovoltalc solar energy applicm/ons
�
PERGOl..A SUoaEUEAATOft ISOFOTOfI t· 106 Ir�r.m
"' �IurnberDl� CIII II_ Dl� .. paraiel
F.g SPatbIlgClODJ/"f flJI,I;\ur&tftfl
romovmgihtmn.enrionatrocl .s:o..r. �,O'l.dIrt•..-
..• •.• U .
.
�E*_
@Jj .. ... ... ... :... ,Sf}l}l}l ••• ••• • U U. U.j Sf }l Jl }l }l
... ... ... . .. .. . , " .. I I I ; I I : I : I ... iU . . . . . . . .
.
III
Description of the monitoring system The monlrorlng parameters of the overall system are
Py System .. module
TIlt' P\' g�nt'rator consbts of '105 Sh!!l! RSM
1005 modules. \Yuh
iI tOl,ll p<mN of 40,'105 Wp In standard condulons, wnh a 5:!"
SClLltl1!',l�1 orll:m,l[ion and
1I11t.'d 1l0" thIS generaror is divided
Inlt) I 5 �ub-H�'rlt'r,1[Ors of 27 modules each. which Jrc grouped In
J par,liJel Mr">,,,. with caeh army compflslng 9 modules
Tilbl� 1 �how� tht! values of Iht! most Interesting p
1roIAnuI.a....
-$I. I
Total nurrbfI 010:.-.
-'-01....
�CU*'II
4.• II.
3r t V .0"
....... .... CUII'II'I ...... _ .....
25 I V IOIWp
...... ,...
• powcr generated. measured at inverter output
N......oer o lsenalrnodulel NurnDer ol fnOdulH ln
Z1
.7'C
�_
". ,."
�"",
....... �
System 2
PIO (kW)
corresponding sensors (such as calibrate
TQI.oI........- oIrnocUn lONC ltIO rrNltmf.20"C)
...... �_ /olaxIftur! ��
PV System 1
PV Systems " 2
The measurement of Ihese parameters Is performed by the
....... ... � � l ,OOO W'm2. Te.2$'C
��
• gcneralorvohage: VA /V)
• power obtained from the grid PFU (kW)
SHEU.RSM100s
M'lCl fnOlloeI pyr..m..r ol ....... 01111 ....... oIC1111 .. .....
• ambient temperature- Thm (0C)
• grid-Injected power PTU (kW)
FA,C:AOe Sl.&OeNEAo\TOR (Xlil
1211.
226 V
2,mWp
sensors) connected to different dataloggers_ Cataloggers rake dara
PV System 3
every 10 minutes and generate daily files. A diagram of the
SwllCh Unlt. with a multlplexmg card of 20 channels and two
global purpose cards The datalogger is connected to a computer which Is Jlso an internet service provider. allOWing the remOie
I
. r",9PJs,.", . .. 4 11Q1C111 [I
_110"""
II
I
I' 111 1IIIlt Irll l) TT"""7 �
�
--:
-
-
-:
Safety system perfonnance The safety and protection aspect is one of the most oUtStandIng outcomes of the project. Jnd has also been the most studied. due 10 Ihe high number of students at this campus. nle studies on s.lfety and protection have been developed from IWO polms
All systems
Range
A
HP
0 - 200
HP
0 - 70
HP
0 - 700
HP
0 - 200
HP
0 - 70
HP
I"
Voltage de
p.,
kW
Current de
I�
Power ae
A
Po.
kW
Radiation
G"
T. cell
W/m2
0- 2,000
Voltage de
Too V�
'C V
-15 - 100
Current de
I�
A
Power ae
P""
kW
Radiation
G.
W/m2
V�
V
0 - 350
A
0 - 15
V�
0 - 350 0 - 15 0-3 0 - 2,000
'C
Ta I�
Datalogge<
0 - 700
Power ae
Voltage de PV System 4
N" Sensors
V
Current de
Current de
display of the logge
Fronlus (Sunrlse·maxi modell with 2 kW of nominal power
Unit
V"
T. cell
monitoring system is presented in figure 10 The dala acquisition is based on an HP 34Q70 Cala Acquisition
PVSystem 4 Inverter The Inverter used for conn�'Cting the PV generator to Ihe grId is tht' s,lme ,1S used In Systcm 3. a smng·onented Invener from
Parameter
Voltage de
• global radiation In the PV generator GI (W/m)
• generator current I,' (A)
tilth sub·gCnCr,ltor ofSystem
Syote m
those recommended by JRC-IsprJ
-15 - 100
HP HP HP HP HP HP
kW W/m2
T. cell
T...
'C
-15 - 1 00
HP HP
Ambient Temp.
T_
'C
-15 - SO
HP
2
Grid injected Power
PN
kW
1 - 3,600
HP
C1
P",
kW
1 - 3,600
HP
C2
Power obtained from the grid
0-3 0 - 2,000
Fronius
11IbIe 4 PlllatnlllllfSmonitoll.'daoo llleir maLil crorilC\i!l l!1lCS
Global Radiation kWh/m>
Ambient Tllmpllratufll !-C)
:1
"
"I
almospheric dISCharges. In this case. the installation includes voltage limiters that reduce over-voJr,lges to a v.llue under the insulatIon level required by the equipment. These limiters are
placed
• a noaung systcm configuration. • a cover of wiring:
• ;'I permanent insulation controller to dClcct Ihe earth
faults of thc generalors: and
• ;'In eanhgrid
Similarly. positive and ncgJtive wiring In different connection bo)(cs
are completely separated
20,22
P"" Gr u
because of the characteristics of the photovoltaic systems. the
Includes
11
Fronius
Radiation
PV was only affected by over-voltages as a consequCnce of
With the aim of maintaining public prOiection. the installation
19,21
Fronius
Power ae
risks tit;'lt can affect an electric instaJiation are due to ovcr voltages and over-ClmCnts. although in thIs particular case. and
mdudes paSSive and active measures to aVoid direct and indirect contact With the actlve pans of the system The Installation
10
Fronius
of vlcw from Ihe inSfalJation itself. ,md from the public safety viewpolm In this sense. it is Important to note the lack of legal regulallon related to such installations In SpaIn. In gener.1J. the
Channel
fill tl Valuesol rlldlatm llehlnl ill!lbrent tBn'4JIIDllft lnghtl ltwlht .WnSI11 s-. �drJMn
ValullS of annual PV yillid for each system
:� :�� j urnl
to.ooo '.000
,
J"N
fUI
-
u.o.A
_
IotAY
JUN
JUl
1rl.O
!S'
o:;r
DPV Sy&lem I . PVSyotem2 0PV 5.,.r- 3 0PVS.,..."
rI!l12Vitlues or_IPJfOIIId IOludt�lem s.. �dr"'"
fOol
12,13 14,15
Energy and environmental benefits T'yplcal v,llue, of radJJIIOn "nd amblent temper.l!un: forlhesne HI j,lt'n ,m: shown In figure II
\';llues of PV yields of each s�'slem
l,fc dcpj{leti ln hgure 1 1
Sinct' Ihe UNIVER proJL"1 annual PV yield I S around 250 MWh,
TOTAL COST (_xcIudIng co.f ot cMmonstnttlon ph••�) ESP Euro Engineering
9,540,490
57,340
AtchIfec:lufe
326,699
1,964
PV modules
151,ln,9S7
908,598
I.....,.,
31.31 9,502
188,234
Electrical material
4,364,970
26,234
54,638,999
328,387
399,493
2.401
liS relilltd ellvlmnmental benefits include an annual rt'mlssion
01 1.!5 lonnc� of c.lrbon dloxld� ,Ind 350 kg of sulphur oxides
Lessons learnt from the project Af1l.'r
IIV Svslem
tnstallatlon. cablIng, Civil woriI. support
,""""..
I begiln II' August 1 '11)0, some operJting
Protect visa
Iltllblcms emerged First. Ihc Invcrler Introduced a currenl
harmonic f5 kHzl In the gnd a5 a consequence of the poor fitllng
01 the output filter, which had damaged the invener capacnors
As a ft"SUIt, the prolecllon s}'!>lem of the uuluy company
dl'iConnl'cwd the PV plant many urnes IIWO or three limes per d,lY) This currem harmoniC also produced imerferences In a
SWITZE RLAND: ABZ APARTMENT BUILDINGS
Project cost breakdown The proJecl C05t bre,lkdown is summarised In table 5
TOTAL
251,768,1 4 1 1,513,157
At present_ all s}'Slems III Ihe Unh"er project are under guarantee, so the oper.allng COSt is practically negligible. A real estImate of
(.lpacilOr flhcr, which ehmlnaled this currem harmonic and Ihe
annual operallng cost would be around 0.-\-0.5 per cent of the
gfl(] lmerfert:nces Except for these dISconnectIOns, the P" plant
Installation C05t Currently, mamtenance contraos are being
optlrJled wtthout Jny runher dlsrupuons.
prepared With Ihe companies Ihal have collaborated in the
of il Ptrmalwm Insulatton Controller (PIC) device thaI is able 10
Raugenossenschaft Zurich IASZ), were built In the suburbs 01
PROJECT:
LOCATION/CITY: COUNTRY:
TYPE OF PV BUILDING:
2 K 26,52 kWp loofinstallations
Zurich In the 1 970s
Zurich
In 1 (1)8, ABZ tendered for the power Utility of Zunch's Solarslock
Switzerland
exchange programme, Based on the client's wish 10 IIlSlall an
Roof·inregratod
and highly viSible pV plalll, ASZ decided that eaSily acceSSble i the 'Marthwanstrasse' building was an approprIate site Bolh
BUILDING TYPE:
Residential
NEWIRETROFIT:
Relrol1t
promotional opportunities and techlllcal issues were favourable for this Slit:. ABZ had set a target 10 cOlier 5 per cem of itS annual general energy consumpuon from pV power.
C L I M AT I C C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S LATITUDE: LONGITUDE: ALTITUDE: CUMATIC TYPE:
proJecl, wuh the aim of ensunng ItS continuity and a stable energy production
SUNSHINE HOURS:
tnslilllatlon, bul to maximise Installed PV power. In IIlt-w of these
47" 2J'N
aspeas, BP Solarex and Ihe 50lrif IIItegrauon sYSlem were
&-33'E
effectIve and visually Integrated pV IIIstallallon. The power utility
440 metres above sea level
of Zunch accepts offers for solar energy of less than
Continental (Temperature: win ter average '"
USSO iOIkWh for Its SolafStoCk exchange
Yearly average = 3,6 hoUlS per day
Several environmental iSSUes emerged on the
S "C; s ummeraveraga ::: 2S "C)
selected as Ihe suppliers The goal was also to bUild a COSt
As il was a retrofit.
no sustainable tr.aits lnnuenced the buildtng
pV side. All cabling
was completed using PVC and halogen·free materials Further,
of the Insulalton resistance (about 5 kOI of the PV system The publl( safet}' s}'StCnl of the Untl:cr PV plam IS ba� on the use
The ap.mmelll nalS, owned by the Allgemeinc
The critical Issue for ABZ was the not the COSt of a turnkey
Operating COSI
be- til'iConnecled The Enl'rtfon company had 10 design a new
dcu�clCd dunng cold and wet mornings, due 10 the decrl!.lSt'
I I '
T�5Pr "'t1Wll br�
computcr room In a nearby budding and the PV syslem had 10
In the ronowlng months, some Inl:erter disconnections were
General project background :
Economic viability
electro-magnelic resonance was an area of concern for the tenants Due to an undercurrent of scepticism alnong the
dt'tl'C! the loss of system Insulalion When thiS fault appears, the
As a consequence of the publicatiOn of twO decrees by the
tenants, it was decided to implement some modifications on the
PV field Is §hort-circulted and connected 10 the ground and
Spanish Government. which regulate assistance to energy
AC Inslallat(on laU cable grounded and earthed) and the Inverters
a monu:lI re,oonneCiion is necessary On some cold and we!
produced by photovollaic InStallations and guarantee .1 level of
mornings, the PIC device detecled a decrease of the Insulalion
0.22 Eurolgrid,inJeclt"(;! kWh, the economic slIuation has changed
resIstance fthe usu,11 value of thIs resIstance varies between
radically The annual productlon calculated for the whole syslem
,10 kO and 700 kQ, dependlOg on the environmental condlllons)
IS 250 MWh, which would mean an annual Income of around
and dl5connectL'd the PV plam This problem was due (0 drops
55,000 Euro
of condensallon in the connecllon boxes of the modules A new comrol s)'5tcm, which Is able 10 reconnect the PV system dUlOmaticaUy, has been dt'l.'cloped This new comrol has been incorporalt'(! III PV Syslems I and 2
As a consequence of the
disconnections, some capaCitors and a dnver of Insulated Gale Bipolar Tr.ansl5tors (IGBTs) of the Invener were replaced It IS worth pointing OUI that the excellem performance of the S
were placed on a copper metal sheet. which was also grounded
Decision process
Thoughl WJS gl\'en 10 all Installation work 10 minimise the CO: Imp.1cl of Ihe conmuclion process Workers used Ihe public
Spt'ClflC cllelll requests. such
lran�pormllon sYMcm imd wer... also tllSlnlCled 10 use
array JplClure frame. it t 100�er edge. centred) and the Ughlnlng
environmentally friendly conslnlCllon millerials Reducing noise pollullon durlnJl lh�' msrallallon phase was also an Imperlanl aim
protecllon. reqUired several changes 10 the planning process But
rv
most planning. like elt:Ctrlcal installalion I\C Side. locallon of the
Jnd (''Vcry etfon was made 10 liaise wnh Ihe tenanlS who oflen
Inverters. chosen products and the monitoring. were slandard
rcm.llncd In Ihclr flats durmg Ihe day
procedures and needed no addllional efforr The DC cabling had to be citrcfully planned and carried OUI. because the shading Influenceo/ nearby trees Other planning Issues Includecl • Proposal (permit) for the grid conneclion to the power
BiPV design process Plannmg process, allernalive designs
utility;
Under Ihe framework of the power UIJ I iIY of Zunch's $olarslOck eJ(changc program. Ihe PV power plant was mlegrated mto Ihe roofs of IWO rows of aparlments. uSing Ihe $olrif SYSICm. In 10lal.
6:!�
61' $olarex model 585 p.1nels. framed wflh Ihe SOlrif system
wcrt' In�I,)Jled omo ·110 square metres of roof. pn)\'iding a 101.11 c,lpacny of 53.04 kWp Installed power. Maximum ,)\'allable roor area was
6bO square me[res
• BUildIng proposal to the City authOrity.
Installed PV capacity II was decided to give Ihe contract to BP SOlarex and EnerglcproJekle Koumann as lnsLJller The decision
earmilrked for the rv area were Slmpl}' remcn'ed A flush BIPV
was based on factors such as the maximum installed PV capacity.
design was chosen with a pleasmg appearance and was easy 10
Ihe COSI. [he performance and the aesthelics
WCSl1 lsbullt·!.5 Illetres hlgher mgure I)
nanking trecs had to be c.lrefully evaluated. The energy loss due
producing 26,52 kWp of
The Solrlf mounting system mgure 3) Is used 10 Integrate the PV modules This system Is suitable for almost any type of Inclined roof In e�lstlng or new buildings and also meets high aesthellc demands The unit conslSIS of any type of solar lamlnale and is framed by four specially desIgned aluminium profiles As an vlsual lntegral10n 10 the surroundings module Is rllled 85 Wp and they ,1fe connecled to [8 ASP 2500 and IWO ASP 4000 Inverters. Figure 4 sho"'S Ihe eleclrlcal deSIgn
minnl'lum of 2-4 rows of tiles should remam on
TIw shading resuhlng from the house construction and the
metres).
624 BP Solare� model 585 laminates were InSlalled. Each
IImeLJbledenned
.1Vallable roofing area was 10 be covered wi[h PV and thar a
moum !less conslruClion workl. in combmallon with Ihe exisllng
lappro�lmately 200 square
• Negotiation with suitable Installers and dismbUfors;
B.1Sed on Ihe orrers and the diem requesl to have a maximum
are at Ihe same level (roofs are jomed) and the flrsl block (faCing
Insrall;lIlon is divided Into 11'10 rows covering each hOUSe roof
PV power
oplion. the profiles are available in varIOus colours 10 aSSIst With
ptesentallon 10 Ihe cilent.
The roofs are covered wllh slandard
clay Illes. One row with nats consiSIS of three blocks. two blocks
Int lgration design and mounting strategy (belwet!n _250 and _300 azlmUlhJ. /figure 21 The 53.04 kWp
• Issuing of a lender Comparison of all offers and
clay tile SlOped roofs The diem required thaI nOI all of Ihe
all sides. AU tiles
.... n.tion design 11K' IWO rows of Ihe apartmenl house roofs face soulheasl
for one house row 126.52 kWP1,
AU AC cables were grounded 10
reduce Ihe possibility of electro-megnellc resonance No cxternal swllch Is necessary in Swiuerland. but a power SWitch Is required
w protecl against a possible islanding situation, This Is Ihe case i f
the number of Inverters is greater than one.
The specinc procedure W,1S Ihal one momh before construClion began. fhc project and Ihe complete installation was announced to the occupams of the two affccled house rows. All resldems were asked to raise any queslions or Issues from Ihe SI,ln. so that they could be taken Inlo account during the design process.
10 lhe shading was calculated using MCleDnorm software TIle InSlalla[Jon h"d to be adjusf(.'d In view of COSIo errectlveness and shading Influence Some 2 metres aboye the roonng area was nOI coYered with PV modules due to COSI and effectiveness issues
PJanning approval and institutional processes
The string WIring especially had to be seriously evaluated.
The standard bUilding approval process was undertaken. No special bUilding code was required for Ihe Inslallallon. The
planned and carried out The design of Ihe PV mstallallon was In process for aboUf four months before conSlnICuon commenct:d and was accepled by all panics The S1ta[egy was originated by Ihe PV engmt,.'<:flng company
In dIscussion WIth the bUIlding
owner and was c.lrried OU[ as planned
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PV system power
Typeof building integration Tw-pe ofcell technologwModulardimensions Array dimensions
proposal was submiued to Ihe local ICilY of Zurichl building
53.04kWp
aUlhoruy three monlhs before consttUCllon slilned. Slilndard
Sioped rool
forms were used and all the necessary bUlldtng drawings and
Mono-crystalline
authomy included the method of integratiOn of the PV plant inlo
blueprints were provided, The important Issues for the bUilding the roof. the aestheliC appe.lrance and Ihe nallona1 safety
52{l x 1 l 18mm
guidelines for conslruClion. (SUVA. Swiss Accldem Insurance
2 111 66.J m', 2 x 6J.5m' and 2 1II 77.4 m'
group and conslruClion guldelinesl. Since Ihe Solrif sYSlem C,1n
ItOia l o f 4 1 D m') Weight
be easily inlroduced in exisllng roofs in combination with any slandard clay IIle. a very aesthellcally ple,1slng BIPV installation
Approlilimately 1 2 kg per element
was achieved. Consequendy. the Zurich building authority
(includingnew frameJ Inverter BOS components Monitoring equipment
approved the propOs.ll to build Ihe PV power plant The building
Swiss products ASP TopClass 2.5 x 4 KVa
Inspector suggested Ihat the details of Ihe projeCi concerning the visual appearance and how the construCllon might afreCi them
SOLRIF integration frame system
should be outlined in advance [0 all neighbours. With this
The fault relays are serial connected by all inverters. An orror lamp indiclllDs the failure and the responsible petson will bo contacted.
approach. pOtential problems were aVOided and no objeCilons
fIQ2SI10plan - '-"
were submitted during the building approval process
The nre
and construction safety issues were checked by the local Inspector
143 ·
Performance characteristics
es successful approach
The esllmated power producllon was calculatcd usmg the
process on the roof W,lS completed by four non, constructiOn e
south, the Shading and many other dolt" ll,"Cre mken 11110 accOUIll
Thaf1ks tn the easy .lIld quick Solnf mounting sys[ern, Ihe
:::��:�:V :�::��� �:'������I;: b
MCteonorm sor[ware. The tll[ angle of the roof. I[S dirl.'Cuon 10
Ba5C
�����I���1n:��1:��;r
10 be approximately 43,210 kWh of green electricity per year
Compared With the actual weather data. Ihe MI!Iconorm base
was multiplied and resulted In the predicted figures for the year
Problems during realisation
2000 Shown in figure q are the mOlllhly predlcled values (In
A rew consrrUClion problems were encoumercd. The houses were
t01
buill In the late 1 1)705. using i1 construction technique that is now obsolete. II concrete wall was buill between the upper and lower roof by [hI! tWO adjoining roofs 55 and 57, 61 and
J
63,
<16,182 kWhl. The performance W,lS approxhnarely 5 per celli
better than predicted with savings of about 22 IOnne5 of equivalelll greenhouse emissions lCO,) in the year 2000
Ingurc 2)
as II fire safety Slruc[ure. Bec.1use of the juncl on box. whrch did
This was the result of no power failures during the year. less
nDI: 01 well inio the roor. most pans of the firc concrete waJJ had
snow on the modules than expeCled and a perfect Invener
10 be demolished. Additional work resulted. which was not
performance with an annual efficiency of around qz per cent
Foreseen ilnd planned Also, most pans of the roof were nO(
The performance rauo could not be calculated. because no
48 mm) instead of a thickness of 24 mm This helped to ensure
an e:([ensive mOnitormg program and demanded a monthly
levdltod out
In some areas a double bauen was
pyranometer was Installed on Ihe roof The owner dismissed
used lthickness
As a result, all cons[ructlon details .lnd work could be carrIed out according [0 the lime
mal lhe SOlrrf modules were level.
comparison of Ihe predicted values versus Ihe actu.11 performance.
As the Installauon is a retrofit. Ihe contribution to the building
schedule. so no delays or COSI overruns resulted The operation
needs was nor considered The total solar energy productron is
scaned on the dale when the comraci began with Ihe ZUrich
fed to [he grid and IS being purchased for U5$0 58fkWh
power utility
(Including subSIdy) by the power ulllity of ZUrich for 20 years
This rale WiIS based on a COSt analysis study and was negOtiated
rill 4 £le
cool'DIJIlIIUM
"...,.'"
between the cliem and the power utility
dllll'Im
InSlallalion
The cOIlStrualon process wen! smoOlhly most of [he lime and
according [0 schedule. As [he InstaJla[ion Involved abou[ )0
apanmems.
Ihe.> Installers had [0 be senSIll\·e 10 the dally needs
of Iht' rCSldems and respt.'C1 therr wIshes thai no conslruction
�
work be c.ltrrt'd OUI on weekends Construction work began WI[h Iht' removal of [he ull's: the ules were drrectly lransponed [0 the
box by bo."( Iflgure 5)
\
Nerd, new wood bauens were mounted and lead sheeung WilS plan.-d on [he lower roof edge (figure 6)
were screwed omo the wooden battens. The Solrif modules were rht.'n rnserred into the brackets (figure iJ and were placed on the
reflul.-d battens iUgure 8J
Bl".lu5e of Ihe unlver.;al prOfiles
moduli'S can
(no edges jut Out) the Solrif
Ile.> pillced very e,lSlIy omo the roof s[ruclurc. The
IIletal brackets and the overlapping area of [he 50lflf modules
I
�curl' he rnl!(hanlCal COl1net"tlOns and fulfil the wind crileria
against uplift. The sltl! work complies With slandard Clay tJJe roofmg procl.'tJurcs
January
' " -;,,ill ,- 0 :; !\,� =1'
ground by a crane which also lifted me modules up 10 the rooL
Aher fiXing new wood banens. S[ilinless steel metal brackets
Actual performance data
--
"' .
Year 2000
Me e
t r
readIng
996
1,974
FebruCI!Y
1,191
1,786
Difference
("I
-1 6.4 to.5
3,335
26.3
6,153
3,'
4.212
M.,
6,804
7,265
-£.3
6,622
5.796
-5.0
5,500
6,386
Ju""
5.318
Ju,
August
'.7
2000
(kWh)
March April
, �,�=-
Predicted
4,560
September
1 ,970
N
4.367
1.826
'7'
832
(kWhlkWp)
-£.7
Predicted 1997
(kWh)
1,032
lL747
84
3.295
155
5,875
120 183
4,525 6,153
. ........nn aa.ls97
lkWhlm')
26 44
83
714 148
155
'41
6,788
'7'
710
3,970
'00 58 27
7,9
4.6
Annual energy yIeld
45
46
4.4
44,143
953
30
146
46,182
889
LkWhlm')
14.3
-14.4
951
ovember
December
5.597
lS.5
1,112
()ctobe,
Annual energy production
4,764
Actual
"t> 2000
2B
24
1,112
5,716
2,302
1,072
794
43,270
'44
20
1,090
816
rog9PredICtodvruuJactual pcltormarr;e daia
145-
Post-installation feedback
Project cost breakdown
residents 10 relation to electro-magnelic resonance. Several Open
229,000
In"",o,.
47.880 27,300 17.400
Installation IS nOl comparable to a mob1le phone tranSmitting
EleCtro installalion
42.800
Stillion m relation to eleCiro-magnelic poliUlion Due 10 Some
SoIrif lrame RooI _
Mi ce
us
EngIneering s
llaneo
re�ldcnts and the building societ}· I[ was clearly shown Ihat ,1 PV
remaining fears. JI was decided to modify the AC Inst,ll1allon 10111
14.800 407,530
Ongoing maintenance
',000
er repiacement
2.700
MonitOtlng Totlll annual cost ($)
3,900
rl
.lnd seriously deb,lH:d diSCUSSions took place between the
28,350
Totlll lMtallaUon coat ($)
Savings lor inve
SWITZERLAND: STUDENT HOUSING
In Ihe planmng stage. many concems were rlllsed by the
US$
Solar modules
(7.68IWp)
200
cable grounded and earthed) and thc invertt=rs were placed on a copper 111et.11 sheel. winch is also grounded. I I is imponanl Ihm deSign [0 Ihe building owner and the reSidents so Ihat quesTions
TYPE OF PV BUILDING: BUILDING TYPE:
Further problems were more from lhe technical sIde BC1:ause the houses W1!re bUilt In the la[e 1070s. usmg a now-obsolete
15 per cent was polld by Ihe owner and the remalmng 25 per
construcllon technique. addillonal unforseen work was requIred
cem was �bsldlsed by the SWISS federal office for energy
Relrofll on a roof Structure older than 30 :.'Cars requires technlcJI nexlblh[)' and a nOHoa-ught nmelable.
and ft'<'l'ives a feedback tJnff of USSO 581k\Vh fmtludmg
of 43.000 kWh. amomSiluon wnhln 20 years IS guaranteed
NEWIRETROfIT:
nallonal distributor proVided the necessary warranties
for the
functioning of Ihe technology A delivery contract was signed by .lll Involved parlles. fixmg the price. specificmlon
of the products.
Fa�ade-intogratod Student accommodatIOn Retrofit
" "?l'''flfI:r''ir''t'I;'f1''!' ALTITUDE:
No Changes look place durmg the proJecl BP Solarex and the
Swil10riand
CLIMATIC TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS:
46° 30'N 6"36'E
380 matres abovo sea level
Continental (Tomperaturo: winteravorage = 5 'C;
summar avoraga = 17 "C)
Yearlv average '= 3.8 hours per day
tlmt! schedule. warranty condillons and the expected energy production The installation and construction went according to the time schedule and was controlled b}' the speCialised company Enecoto AG
Company ABZ Enecofo AG Energieprojekte Kollmann Ernst Schweizer AG BP Solarex Horinger Solar AG
Description
Tasks and responsibilities
BUilding society
Client, investor and PV owner
PV engineering company Installer Manufacturer, supplier Manufaclurer Nalional dIstributor
PV engineering
PV engineering, project design and controlling; proieel leader Installer, contractor and distributor of inverters ManufactUrer of new Integration system, supplier Manufacturer of PV modules DIstributor of PV modules
fig HlPrD)I.'cIOf]pntSalJQn .. A/i c s.-. ....
146
built In 1 962 as the admlntstrmlve centre for the 1 964 Swiss National Exhibition The buildings were then used for student accommodation and are now Ihe properly of !he UniverSity's student houstOg foundation and the SWISS Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne. Although the bU1ldtOgs had been pJnially renovated on several OCcasIOns. a complete rehabilitation was required The envelope SUbJK.led 10 mtensive use. required casler maintenance and
LONGITUDE:
Project team
each. connected to each other by a covered passageway It was
2 PV fa�lldas of 7.2 kWp aach Lausanno
. expenencing slgmficant thermal losses Jnd Ihe serviCes. ....as
LATITUDE:
5ub�ldYI This tariff IS contracted and ensured over 20 years Ai an Interest faIt! of :3 5 per cent and an annual energy production
lOCATlONlCITY: COUNTRY:
Of thc prOJ1'C1 COSt of US$
operaung lime and Will be adjusted to the nallonal innallon tJte
1"" " 111•1PROJECT:
the project te,lm cMefu!Jy check and present Ihe project and Ihe and concerns Coln be .lddressed at an earl}' stage
The P\' plam Is operated within the EWZ Solarstock exchange
General project background
The complex 15 composed of two parallel buildings of three noors
fI0 1 f'Y /il!;ildeolthll fustllllld"lII\j
.'\larq /llqaDl_ ...."nS�"'f�{s..sD
an upgrade to meet amcnt safety reqUirements In panicular. f t;ad6 had to be covered wllh insulation and the concrele a melal daddmg
l
The retrofitting COSlS amounted to nearly CHF 7 mi lion. The work
o,\'ilS carried OUI over IWO. three·month pemxls during the summer
holidays. to July. August and September of 19q<J and 2000
BiPV d.sign
BIPV dnlgn proc...
The Energy Ofrtce proposlXl to use Ihe ·Power·Wall·l..Jmln
Plannmgpfocess. 8nernalive designs
I'lli' /0 11\ m\lOI�'l'mt'nt In tht! E.uro�;ln 'HeUolran" programmt', lh. fn"rgy Olll(t' ol l�lus.lnne was looking (or [,uge surfolces
cells provtde a umform appearance of Ihe PV surface and
..
Weight
was mounled with only minor modlfic.lltons to the facade
\IUlUflr.ml l'xp"rlcnn' wnh roor.lmt:gr,llcd 1>Y. It hOld noticed
Visual details
framework. The !lulll-[n ventilaTion spaces (vclltllated fatade
promotion. molny Inslililatfons were quIckly from Ihe street. In
principle) were kepi for cooling Ihe PV p[am The blue thermo.
forgollcn bl·C.1U� ther were not visible
Inverter
qu pm nl
lacquered panels in the mIddle or each building were Installed In
.uldtl!on, tht'r(' \\,}s no co5I reductlonwnh prt."Vlous mslaliallOns.
Monitoring e
order to IlI1pr01le the .1ppearance and 10 give the Impression of
,I� I'V modull's wen' added [0 Ihc bUlldmg and did not replace
i
e
14.4 kWp Fa�ade Poly-crystalline silicon !Solaraxl
187x 1 1 1 cm 2fi kg Blue Tedlar Noillvener
-I. ,�-:1\ '. .
, �?-
......
fl\l3 Moc1ule tlandlir41 � o.nn.:.. dtIS
lJSfn "'r.-..p.ISlSD nt
VNR Electronic SA
a taller bUIldIng
�lrurturaJ campanelli,> The mitrili idea In this case was 10 mount
The European '!-Ieliotram' project was launched to show thai PV
Ilin Sh,ldc, In Irant ollhe sotJlh facades Howe\�r, thiS solullon
could be connectlXl
.....ol5 ,lb,lndantd ln f.wour ofan lnStaUallon wllh vcrucal p.lnels
10 a
DC network with benet efficIency than
with inveners and was a proactive solulion for cities With electric
dll1:'ctly il1lt'grau:d Into Iht' far;ades The solution was more
caml)(l(1f,m
Modular dimensions
Inlo The f.ltade architecture. The fastening system [s Simple and
A, th,ll llnll'. the f.ncrgy Office 01 llusannc ,llrcady had
vl�lble, Jnd �how('d an example of PV
T,pe of cell llchnology
f.lcHiJate fatade Imegranon The size of Ihese standard lam[nales also fitted the bul[dlng dimenSions and could be easily Integraled
rv 1,1.1m Inll'gralrd Into Ihe !iOuth ra�ades
th,ll, dr-Spilt- mUM]
PV system power
Type of building integration
.1ppearancc. wnh large modules of 2010 Wp each The blue Tedlar
,Ippmplt.u,· 10 host .1 phOIO'o'O!t.l!C Installation 10 SlJpply the Irolll'v bU$ network The fn('rgy OHlce proposed Ihc installation O f .1
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS
used as a suuclUral
public transpollation. The idea was to avoid Installing IIIverters. which generated losses and most of the failures. The electrical connectIons were calculated 10 deliver Ihe speCific voltage used for Ihis network {680 VI_ Six slrlngs of 10 PV modules were connccted prOVIding 2 01 kWp each. With this configuration.
DeCISion process Th
both PV fatadcs had IWO c)(tra modules Ihat were connected
,tudl'm hOUSlIl!l foundilllon accepted the proposal 01 the
by the ploJect"s POSlllve image. and no tntrR}' OUlce. ltrraClCd •
to the grtd vIa a small Invetler
.111,lIlIon,11 COHS Indecd. Ine Energy Ornce proposed 10 pay for tnl' Clftla COSI 01 the PV plant. prOVided that JI received any
r!!'Vcnut' lrom the elcctrlcJlY production. Il .....,ls agreed that the
1.lcadt, would be put to JiS disposal for )0 years and t hat
Ihl' SILSE .....ould be responsible for the energy efficiency of rhl' I IVt\C plam
Proloel orgllnislltlon Tht, organl\�tlon of Ihe work was nOT much affected by
Tht' P\' 11151,111,1110n proJCCI Ihe PV panels were moumed
!ly Iht' f,lt_l(le Ottcr who reTTolmed all fa�des: a PV S)"'itt'JI\ provld!'r dt'lwcred Solarex panels and they were
connt'ttt"lJ b�' a I"V Instalier to tne main electrlt.ll bo.l((.'s From thNt'. • 1 utility company handled the connection
",Jlh the lrolil')' bus network To commi thi.' c1f1clency of the PV plam, Ihe Energy Office Inst.tllt-d a conlrol s't"Stem for online collection of operanng
lI"lM
-."'1-�il 'I 'I 1
This Inform.1Uon Is ,lccesslble remotely VJa modem '111o\\,lng It'.ll-llme control to ,Ichleve opltmum performance
....
of tht· I'V pl.1n1 Once both r,l(,ades were finished. trees that OI/t·"'holrJO "t'd 11ll" PV were cut down ,lnd new Irees were plantt-d bt't\wt'n the two hUlldlngs
--it If
H lW.l H-l nr1LL·-�i1,�-i- �� .
l +
-
1
3
il
Perfonnance characteristics
Project cost breakdown
The Energy Office of LauSi'lnne is mOnitOrmg the opefillion of
The tOlal COSI involved In Ihe mstallatlon
Ihc
amounted TO CHF1 60,OOO which corresponds 10 CHFI 1 ,OOOfkWp
P\' planl by means of a control device wuh remote data
.lcqUisiTlon The analysis of the first results highlighTed that the produCiion effiCiency decreased under sirong insolation This
phenomenon was studied in more delai[ and It was nOticed Ihat
the p\' panel temperature could reach high values during the dav Ifigur( 6)
01 the PV plants
Heliolrilm program. the
European Community took part In the funding, providing CHF4.000fkWp The SwiSS Federal Office of Energy's E2000 programme subsidised the pholovoltaiC inSlallalions at a rilte of CHF3.000fkWp and the Town of 1..1usanne COntnbUled
An on·slle ViSl1 showed that Ihe openings planned for air'coollng had been closed by the
As the installaTion was pan of The
PV lOstalle!. It IS suspected Ihat an over·
conSCientious worker had not followed the mounting Instructions to achieve a completely watenlght fal;ade Thls was Immediately
CHFJ.SOOIkWp The remaining CHF500fkWp was paid by the Energy Office of l..Jusanne. PV electricity prodUCtiOn is dISTribUTed 10 the troney neTwork. of which the City of l..Jusanne Is a malll shareholder
Corrected by the fa�de m,lnufacturer, and three months afTer the PV plant was commissioned, the problem had been IdentiOed and solved. Overall, the d,lIa analysis showed Ihal Ihe production efflclency was not much bener without a DC/AC inverter There were no electriCity transformation losses but the operating mode Is also not optimised by a maximum power point tTacker
r'll 201C1r1Cll1 cmnectKlnol()'lll tao;ade ..... o..n.:..
..
_� "'r...,./SlSl}
149·
Production efficiency related to the PV panel temperature
UK: J U B ILEE CAMP US NOTII N G HAM UN IVERSITY
14%
General project background
12%
I I '
l � 10% iii
1i
The project II Is 50 years smce Nonlngham university gained liS Royal PROJECT:
Jubilee Campus NOl1inllhllm University
Charter During Ih,s time II has cuillva!ed a reputation for
Nottingham
promoting environmentally conSCIOUS design True to Ihe
COU NTRY;
United Kiflgdom
UlliverSity's prinCiples. the aim of Ihis new campus Is to be
Roof·ifltegratnd
LOCATION/CITY:
� �
8%
TYPE OF PV BUILDING: BUILDING TYPE:
Educotional
6%
NEW/RETROFIT:
New
�
4%
c
� ."
a model of sustaInable development for the region Its purpose is to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 70 per cent. raise awareness of environmental Issues among students and within the field of temary education, demonstrate the viabUlty of susLainable mdustrlal regeneration and achieve these objectives .....lthln exISting runding structures and levels
" "u"" " ':"'i"'t" i'fj"f1
2%
LATITUDE:
LDNGITUDE:
O % L---------______________________________� 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 o PV panel temperature IGc]
ALmUDE: CUMATIC TYPE:
52" 5lI'N
'·8W
30 metres above sea level
ventilation strategy was gamed through the Europe.1n Union's
THERMIE programme as a demonstration projeCt m 1998
Temperate (Temperature: Winter average :: 7 *C; summer average :: 15OC)
SUNSHINE HOURS:
� design team won the commiSSion for the £25 5 million project in a competition held in 19<J6. Funding aSSistance of £0.75 milhon
for the 1oY.'-energy building specification and solar.powered
Yearly average :: 3.4 hours per day
The site The Jubilee campus is constructed on a 7 5 hectare brownneld site (formerly the lOCatiOn of the Raleigh Bicycle factory) Within a mile of the exisung Beeston Campus Flanked by iln urban dual carriagev.'i1Y. low·nse SOCial housing and \Vi1rehouslng. the
development has introduced a landscaped oasIs. i1 composition of faculry buildmgs and student halls of residence bordermg
Post-installation feedback
a new lake.
In thiS prOJecl. Ihe Cliy of l1Ius.lnne benefits from [he electriCity
The campus is planned to meet the needs of 2.500 slUdents ..... lIh
production for a vcry small Investment The project contrrbUled
41 .000 square metres of buildmgs mcluding undergraduate and
[0 IInprovmg Ihe accepmnce of PV Integration and allowed Ihe
postgraduate actommociation. three faculty bUIldings. a central
connection 1V1111 it DC nI:lwork [0 be tesled The archuecturaJ
teaChing building and a learning resource centre The 1 3.000-
aspect Is lIery successful. Ihe large PV panels are perfectly
squ.1re-metre lake forms a buffer between Ihe suburban edge
integrated In [he filt;ades In addmon. [hey replace buildmg
and the new bUIldings. maxImising public amenity space and
components SUd1 as fhe overcladding elements
relnuooucmg wildlife. The site strategy focuses on opumiSlng
1\\'0 weak POintS were hlghHgtlled through Ihe operallon comrol
Fog I V_of
IaoJItyw.1d1lJjlSflom tl1e$Olllh
So.m- OI-tAow_�
measurements performed by [he Energy Off'ice
• The elecwcily producllon effiCIency decreased under
onentation and \'iews of Ihe landscape and gIVing pedestrians priorny over cars. BUildings are Sited to exploit the prevailing
southwesterlv wmets and 10 optimise paSSive solar gains The
oodland 10 the southwest has been reinforced 10
strip of \\'
strong Insolation, A scrupulous worker had closed the
provide shade. shelter and cooling
openings planned for air-cooling.
• The performance Is nor Improved wuh direct connection [0 the DC network. The lack of an invener makt'5 It possible 10 Qvoid transformalion losses. but the operiltlng mode IS no longer optimised by a MPP tracker. which Jeilds to a smaller DC efficiency
The rI!l 7 1"J !�Ile!aol
s.n:. o.r""__
JCa.un�dI�rstSl}
building and its construction
The mam faculty buildings each consist of three·storey wings These are connected by full·helght iltrla or open landscaped couns that act as social and environmental buffers. The struClure has been kept simple. with ncors of In,situ concrete on a
6 x b·
metre grid EJ(posed somts and columns provide therm,ll mass. as do green roofs. which are pl
from sust,ll1lable sources are chosen and
those with high embodied energy arc avoided The facuity buildings arc clad in western
ISO
F", 2 Roof d'ew!ng solal $l\il!ling. co lVt, IIIlCI PV arrays
S
red
cedar from a Canadian source.
chosen for its progress towards
151
mltt.llly seepue.ll ilbout the use or limber for il unlvet5lty bull.1lng. WilS persU.l(it'rI b}' Its use on Glher pn.."Suge projects.
provll.hng only 50 pascal pressure drop and B3 per cent effiCiency
.1lung "nh ItS c)(rellent lhermal performance
Highly dricient indirect gas heaters warm up the air only as neressary to provldc heating In winter, evaporative cooling
TIll' pn·f,lIJr1r:llt.-.l llmber cladding panels wrap around Ihe
comlofi,lble Internal condillons
'hrralhln� 1\',111', with a middle layer of warmcell insulation. which .1hsorhs mOiSture ilnd helps give the WJU .l U'\I,1Iuc of
0 287 P,lrwls lining the JtriJ Incorporate J layer of hesslJn
of [QOO per squMe metre ([ 1.225 for the learning resource centre
To reduce the fan powcr. lIddlllonal air dampers arc Included wuhln the desIgn of the air handling plants 10 bypass cornponents Ir not required ElectrOSltltic nllcrs are used to
Venlilation The ventllallon strategy draws on previous rt!Search by HOpkin!. and Arup While natural venlliation WJS the InruJI objective. n
solely naturill wnlllal!on Although II IS antiCipated that the
burldlng.-> n1.1)' be mechanically \.'entil:ued for mosl of Ihe year. a cO/lllol mode has be-en Induded for genume natural vemrlallon. ll.'iln!ol wrndows alone 10 Introduce fresh air and relying on the Slack dfect The balance Will be determmed alier the firSI year's monltOnng ol the budding An t:fhC:lem l 1aSSI\'� ventiJation sYSlem reqUlres carcrul consldcrallon of the hidden details. The design hinges on
presence and daylight Peak eleclrical power mput Is 8 w:ms per squ.lre mctre The larger teaching spaces under Ihe barrel-vaulted roofs are top-III by Monodraught light tubes. which can be closed 1f .1 'blackout' Is required The potential problem of glare in the teaching rooms was a\'oided by positiomng honzontal timber louvres over the upper pans of the Windows at risk The louvres are painted while on their upper surface to act as light shelves. AlJlOm3t1C mternal blinds shade the double'glazed atria spaces. and the southwest fa{ades carry retradable blinds to reduce glare and solar gain
pll'nurns. reducing the energy newtd to circulate air The air
An early decision was taken to usc phOlovOltaic power genermlon
to reduce air pressure
pressurc differcmlaJ to operate the purpose·deslgned rotating
to drlvc the ventilation of the building when there IS Insufnclcnt wind cowls and drive the air [hrough natural convC<:lion
apart a$ possible. TIICSC ducts had to be unobstructed. so carc
was nt'Cded to avoid air leakage
lighting Even on dull days. very lIule
by a slilnd·alone Intclligent lighting sYSlem linked to passlvc mfra-red movement detectors III cach room. acllvaled by people
equipment [0 achieo,.'e Ihe energy effiCiency 1,1r&etS and ,1150 10 fund monitoring in the first year of occup.lney,
Ihe ,-,enillation plant during the year was then matched wnh the photo\.'oltaic cclls OUtpUI mounted on the atria roofs. Ihcrefore prOViding a zero-CO, ventilation system
Integrated building services
Post-installation feedback On completiOn of the services installation. commi!.sioning of the
One of Ihe challenging aspects of the design and construction
sYSlems proved to be less time consummg because the systems
.. Ihe requirement to achielle an outstanding. innO\lative ....as
were designed for lo.....·pressure drop and slmphclty All comrol
project in a very shon lime period and within a tight budgel
pomts were mOllitored by the building management system and
To reduce the pressure on the budgel and to enable the dient 10
linked back [0 Ihe client's mam campu.s orrices
Include innollatlve. 'green' equipment such as the Wind cowls and the phOiovoltaic Installation. an application was made to the European Commission, The appllc.1tion was successful and (i50.000 was made available for the development of the zero
A condition of the THERMIE grant was that the installed eqUlpmem be monitored and the achieved figures be reported back 10 the European Commission. These ,ue currently monilored wilh more than 40 dm.1·polms on Internal lemperatures. waler. electricity and gas consumption collected by Ihe Faculty of Ihe Built Environment Thc Informmion collecled
BiPV design process
flow p,lsses through ducls which need to be JS large as possible
350 fllIII·deep floor voids and by spaclIlg undernoor batts as far
An EU THERMIE grant of [750.000 allowed for additional
minimise pressure drop across Ihe pancls. CompUler simulations mdieated Ihe energy requirements for Ihe ventilation system to
CO. ventila[ion system including the PV system
emclel1\ rm'Chanic.11 venillation. which circulatcs lOO per cent rre�h air aU year Corridors and st.llr towcrs are used as air
and [880 for the faculty bUildingS) TIle design team has effectively Shown thai ·grl..'en design' need nOl me.ln high COSI
be approximately 50 MWh per year The tOlal energy demand of
seemed unlikely Ihat fresh arr would be able to fuJly penetrate
Willt he.11 rceovcr)'. whrch g.:l\'e beller energy perfonnance than
Project cost breakdown The tOlal COSt of the main buildings was [25.5 mlillon. an average
Zero-COl ventilation system
covered ,tcoustlc quilt behllld th", timber 10 Jbsorb snund
they �ellilod on a mlxl'd·mooe. low pressure mechanical s)'stem
wllh a peak OUIPUt capacity of 53,] kWp
� air in summer ,lnd ensures
proVides coohng to the frcs
hUlltJlnn� both cXICTllaily and Inside the atria They form ,1
tlte Irttt:nsrvely us('d f.1CUlty buildings wllhout assistance Inslead
Performance characteristics Thc tOlal energy OUlpUt of the pV Instailallon is 51 \lWh per year
by the University is very useful and provides a good Insiglll 11\ the operation of the buildmg. Monitoring is usu;rlly seen as an
BiPV design TIle PV cells are an integral part of Ihe atria roofs within the
expensl,-,e luxury ilnd thercfore nOI appHed on olher projects.
schoo! of management. the depanment for computer science
whereas here II was mcluded as part of the THERMIE grant and
and the faCulty of education They provide shading 10 the Sp.lCes
therefore helps the chent to underst.1nd and operate Ihe building
below and replace the glazing system with laminated glass
In the most efficient way.
panels with Integrated squ.are PV cells
The Structural elements of Ihe bUilding are used .1S thermal m,1SS to provide comfonable condillons within Ihe spaces as well as air palhs for Ihe venlliallon system. to avoId conventional ductwork Itlstal1auons False ceilings are a�'Olded to reduce cost and
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PV system power
second (Wills) to only 0.5 Wills. whIch is well below the Scandinavian srandards and therefore provides the diem With reduced operallng COSt These targets were achIeved by limiting
the lotal pressure drop of Ihe supply and extract system at normal operation 10 only 2BO pascal
SMF atria 1: 12 kW SMF atria 2: t 2 kW
material use Usmg Ihls approach the energy requirements fOI the fan powcr could be reduced from 3-4 watlS per Illre per
Des: 18.5kW
fOE: 18.5kW Type 01 building integration Trpeol cell technology
Modular dimensions
Atria roof.integrated Mono,crystalhnesquareceUs SMf alTla l : 56 modules SMf alria 2:56 modules DCS:12 modulos
Super-efficient ventilation system. The venlilmion system of the buildings Is designed to minimise preSSure losses by ulilising ullra-Iow pressure clements wllhln fhe om handling eqUipment. using the building structure as air
152
paths and wind pressure [0 naturally \'enllla[e tile building� large self'powered wind cowls exhaust air from the seminar spaces Fresh illr Is taken Into the air·handllng units <1t a hIgh level and heat Is exchanged through large Ihermal wheels.
FOE: 12 modules
Number of ce1!s por module: 88 Array dimensions Visual details
450m' tOlol Black, mounted between 6 mm heat toughened gloss !low ironl fiQ 5 W"n;lcow11�aIBRE laboralDry
IDl!Stabll$h pr�ecaetflOeOl Scua!/M�n",,",*,
15l
UK: SOLAR OFFICE, DOXFORD I NTERNATI O NAL BUSINESS PARK .:" .•."" .,
PROJECT:
LOCATIONICITY: COUNTRY:
TYPE OF PV BUILDING:
General project background Solar Oftiee, Donard Intemanonal Business Park
Sunderland
UniledKingdom Integrated inclined fa(:ade
The Solar Office IS a new office building designed for AkcJcr Developments Lid on [he 32·heclilrc Doxford lntern,nlonal
Rock. The brief for Ihe building and lIS procurement follow Ihe
Commercial
robust fasHrack pauem that 15 now commonplace In speculative
New
ofrlce developmcnt
lATITUDE:
ALTITUDE:
CUMATIC TYPE: SUNSHINE
H R: OU S
the pOSSibility of introducing integrated renewable energy; in panicular photovoltalcs. a technology In which he had developed
The deSign addresses all the environmental and energy
research and development work The architect was a UK
conservation ISSUes currently bemg addressed in buildings
representative 10 Thsk 7 of Ihe IE.... PVPS Programme. The project developed concurrently with the Programme. enabling a tWOoway
by a lenant wuh conventional power requirements Is 85 kWhJm'ly
exchange betwecn the experiS (and their sub-tasks) and the
compared with a con\'entional air-conditioned office of more
design of the project.
summersverage: 1 5 �C)
annum. which representS between one third and one quarter of
e
fixed deli....ery dale with the consultants novated to the contractor
The energy consumption larget for the bUilding when OCCUpied
The
Yearly averag ", 3.4 hours per day
contractor was required to construct it within a fixed cost. 10 a
schemes for Ihc buslncss park. this lcd the archltect to suggest
an Interest nnd for which the practice had already c..1rned OUt
55" N 1°4'E JO metres above sea level
Temperate CTemperature: winter average " 1 -C;
The whole building was designed and constructed over
archllcct to took ill the pOSSibility of morc radical low-energy
England. It Is occupied by a leading building society. Northern
NEWI1IETROm:
LONGITUDE:
Project background
Business Park. locmed near Sunderland in Ihe northeast of
BUILDINGTYPE:
'i"6"'''*"!'';'''''11
Project brie'
TM project came about through the developer asking Ihe
than 400 kWh/m'ly, Electricity generation is provided by a photovoltalc solar array. integrated inro the bUilding envelope.
13
kWp array provides 55. [00 kWh of electrical power per
the elcctrlcity expected to be used by the building over one year In summer. when i[ generates more [han is required. the surplus Is exported 10 the nariona! grid The Solnr OFfIce is the
nrst
speculatively constructed office
building to incorporate BIPV and the resulring solar fa"ade Is the largest constructed In Europe 10 date. II is one or the few alPv
projects to adopt n holistic energy slratcgy
e g
i
Proj ct or ani saton
1 5 months on a design·and.build basis. this means that the
on complellon of an approved outline design The overriding objecti....e In terms of the envlronmCnt.ll design was [0 find a synthesis between the low-energy measures and those needed for an effective photovollalc InS(3l1ation The construaion COSt for the enllte building was £4.225.000
BiPV design process Building
lavout
Once outside funding had been found to coveT the BiPV and
The building is V-shaped in plan with the extremc cnds of the
associated research and development ....,ork. and the developer
apex of the V The building incorporates a 66-melre·long. south·
had accepted the proposal. he asked the architeCt to PUt a design
V spiayed a.....ay from each Dlher A centrill core is located at the
learn together The core design team was made up of Studio E
fadng Indined fa�de. at the centre of which is the main
Architects. the building serviCes engineers. the structural
entrance. Behind the fa�de is a three·storey atrium and. be[....een .
engineers nnd the master planners and landscapearchitecls,
the fa�de and the splayed wings. is an Internal passageway
None of these particlpams had previously been Involved in a
Setting back each wing in plan by 5" off south h.1S very liule effect
BIPV project The developer meanwhile put In place the bUilding contractor. project manager. agents for the trust fund and civil engineers. The research. de....elopment and testing element of the
on PV efficiency but does give the long elevation a faceted
dynamic.. The fa'Ydde Is around 050 square metres in area
project involved variOUS specialists including acoustic. wInd effects. air tightness. commlsslomng and testing. daylight and dazzle. and computcr graphics specialists The PV Installation package included the curtain wall installer. the curtain wall supplier. the cell manufaaurer. the module fabricator. the Inverter manufacturers. the specialist electrical and data·logging contractor and the display systems designers and suppliers .... univerSity department was responsible for the monitoring
The brief The brief required the design of a speculall\'e office building to meet the requirements of the commercial market It also required the building 10 be deSigned to 'beSt practice' 10w-energy. cnvironmentally sound principles. The client supported Initlmlves taken by the archllect to Include a worthwhile PV inslilliation. bUl
The building and its site
would only agree to include it in the bricf If It was wholly funded
Key site issues related to layout. orientat!on and climate. It was
from outside sources and It did not extend Ihe design and
found that the fa"ade could be aligned to face due south .md
construction programme.
sloped al 60° to the ground without compromising internal
Accordingly. the 4.600·square·meue. three·storey bulldlng was constructed 10 a ·shell and core' speclflcation. and was fitted out to suit the specific requirements of the occupying tenant The lenant was encouraged to operatc the building in lts low·energy 'paSSive solar' mode. but chose to augment Ihls strategy by utilising the provision made for comfort cooling due to high
project incidental cooling loads. It can. If necessary. be divided intO up to six separate tenancies.
planning. this connguralion provides good solar radiation at this northerly lalilUde. The inclined and sealed fa9lde overcame Ihe potential problems of dazzle and of noise From passing traffic on the adjacent lrunk ro.ld: office windows could be placed facing nOrlh. nonheast and northwcst. obviating the need for elabOratc solar prOlection; placing the car park In front of the bUIlding ensured that the solar fa"ade
•
155 ·
Ttl<' �11('. bt·mg t:lt11'lted Jnd clo!>
�ubJc(f 10 slrong winds Care WJS neL-ded in Ihe dCIJI!t'd deSign of th� openings to ensure (hI! buildrng e)'pluncd t1w l>cncru':lill.lnd nut Ihe dt'lrrmental ...rrI!Gs of (he Wlnd
I!wldorl'
156
Potential conflicts In som... lnslances the opumis.ltion of the photo�"Oltalc power generauon runs coumer to low·energy design Where possible. these apparent connictl. were reconciled to be mutually rdnforclng. and where nOI possible. a balance was struck bCIWL-t:n rC�flI!CIIVe requirements Accordmgly • Dangerous he.lt gaIns from the ra�ade (only a ponion of Ihe energy in Incoming light is converted to cleclrlcilY· the rcsl Is nansmiued as heatl can be used In WInter to aSSIst In healing the building and. In summt.'f. to �'enillate the office space lack of thermal mass In the fa�ade is coul1lerec! to some extem bv specifYing a concrete loof slab rn place of the nor�al HUSSl'tl and p!tchC(! roofs usC(! elsewhere in the park The rnsulalmg properties of the solar fa«lde are good In the conte\t of glaZing (U value. 1.2 Wfm·/"C for the PV moduIL>5). but relatively poor compared 10 solid wall construqlon IU valu!:' 0 4 \vlm·/oC), Heat loss. however. was mmlmlsed by ensuring that leakage of air through the building em'elope as iI \\hole IS Co'l:ccpllonaJJy low • The fa(ade Incorporates over 400.000 opaque phOlo\"olt.llc cclls. The concemration of cell coverage was necessary to achieve the power OUlpUl target 8ands of clear glJZlng ha\'e been mtroduced into the ',wadt· to allow vIews Out and ensure good Imerna! lIght levels, The b.llance between maxlmlsailon of rv power and maxlmisallon of daylight la requirt:menl of at least 2 OF over 80 per cem of the office noors) was ilrri\'ed al by modelling glaZing permutallons using a I 40 sCille model under an anlflela! sky TIle risk of glarll ls mlnllnlscd bYlhe lntroduclion of seml· "an�rarcnt modull·s Imodules that have transparem
hont and rear surfaces and a lower cell coum and arc therefore ,lblc to let more dJylight through) IInmedlatcly .lbove the dear glazed panels. and by pro\"I�lon for the Introduction of rocall}' comrolled roller blinds c.lpab!e of covering bolh Ihe clear and �eml·transparent modules Destgn for photovoltaics and for low-energ}' use. therefore aelv,lnced hand·ln·hand. one augmenllng the other
Natural ventilation and cooling The office depth was limited 10 IS melres 10 allow for cross· \'enulation Openable Windows With automated vents are proVided In the north·faCing far;ades ConSideration was given to mtroducmg openable Windows In Ihe PV fa�ade. but the dlfficulues of achIeVing weather·ughtness on a 60" inchned far;ade and the COSt and complexilY of pro\'lding mechanrsed wlndow·openlng ruled It out The two options for natural dnvmg forces are the wlIld and stack efft:(;l. (Stack cffect ls lhe rising of currerus of air that are warm!:r. thus less dense and more buoyanr than surrounding air) 80th stack cfft:(;t and wind·dnven air movement arc available here. Wind effc(ts are typically seVeral times more powerful than stack enects. especially for a relatively windy site such .15 thiS. With a mcan wInd speed of 5-6 metres per second The stack effect Is promoted by the PV far;ade IIself As the lI:mperalure rises at the back of Ihe far;ade. due 10 solar gain . 1• current of warm air rises to roof level. helping 10 draw aIr OUI of the adjacent office spaces Mechanical vents have been Installed al the bOllom .lnd tOp of the fa(ade 10 help encourage Ihl5 arrflow and to keep the PV arrays cool
Wind pas�rng (Ner a roof can create negatl\'e pressurt'5 (SUCtion). l'Ielplng 10 draw air
Installation design
Thebasic strategy for the PV inSt,lliation was dctermmed In the carl}' stages of the bUilding deSign The size of the PV array was derived from a balance of maximising power output. establishing a Size that could comfonably be Integrated into a three·storey. ",.bOO·square·metre office building. and determining the upper limit of allY European Regional Developmcnl Fund gram available for the inStallation Once the limlt of the fundrng had bt�en established "od the prices for the Installation had been returned. the extent of the array W,15 adjusted to an Mea of bSO square metres with ,1 nominal rating of 73 I kWp The far;:ades of the paSSive solar version of the building would have largely been constntcled in masonry with about one'thtrd of the far;:,ldes COmprising wmdow openings The windows. where
exposed to tht! sun. would have Incorporaled fixed external solar shading. motonsed top Ughts. manually operated mid hgl1(s. proviSion for Internal b1rnd� and po5slbly a combined Internal Irght shelf and glare screen The Introducllon of the solar fa�ade reqUIred an cnwely dlff!:rent strategy. 11 had 10 mcorporille baa squ.lre metres of 100 x 100 mm opaque solar cells, As described In the pr{:vlous section. a balance had 10 be [ound between maximising 501.11 Irradlance, shielding the Interior from unwanted solar g.1111S. providing good Internal daylight levels. providing views out. mrnlmisrng glare. providmg reasonable thermal msulalJon. and concealing the PV associated wlnng and Junction boxcs - all within a tight budget 'a The outcome .... s a proprietary cunaln wall/roof structure Incorporating • hOrizontal bands of dear glazrng. • seml·uansparent PV modules \\here the cells that make up the module are themsel�·es banded and graded to allow dlmmishlng Imensltles of daylight 10 emer me Interror. and • opaque PV modules where SO-qO per cent of the daylight IS excluded by the Ughl packing of the cells MontrcrystaUrne or poty-
Slze (m,) 2.02
Rating
(Wp) 238
Quantity
ln systam 96
1.58
"2
2.62
285
109
2.06 2.06
H
".
176
0.93
70
2.33
221
ll 8'1C1q.,ant'\.ieS lflthrl $ol3r(}t1a Pll amly labie l Moduiepar3llltel1
151
i- ....--
8ridiniegratlOn
M nott'll ('arher. the PV Installation is grrd-connened
Mai ntenance The
power OUtput had to be quallty·tested for ton5tancy bUJIdJOg·� PV frequency and accepUlble varmllol1$ In harmonic In vollage
Maintenance or the fat;ade is mInimal a w
distortion before grid connection could be m,lde
A cherry'plcker was selected that Is capable of reaching the
A1thouUh the UK has a Non-Fossil Fuei ObligatiOn requirIng eleclTlcuy companies to get Involved In selffng eleclrkny
enough to emer and service the atrium For tile ofnce wings. the
gener.1tcd without fossil fuels, there is no specmc requirement for them to buy pv-generated electriCity from grld-connecled
lncJtned outer surface of the facade and also fOlding compactly inSide of the facade will be reached using a proprietary ladder and·planksystem
buildings The project team found only one of the SIX regional elccmclty companies ready 10 do 50 - Northern Electnc
Testing and
Evrn then. the standard cormacr staned at I MW and the
Commi5Slonrng the PV installation was carried out In two stages
annu.ll ,ldminislr.llion charge was £ 1 .000 liater reduced to £5001
1
/--STUDIO
C\early. some new thinkIng. and parllcularly regulation. is needed to facl1irate smaller. buildlng·lntegrated renewable energy generators
Planning approval
ARCHITECTS
1ig 6 Mon t"""ll IlI$!allatlOllsct.oliuc
by the bulldrng COntraClors. as appropriate Some of the data arc
planning authority was consulted It h.ld no objection to the
fOUted through the BUIlding Management System and thus
The clIent recognised that there was a risk all,lched to BiPV on this scale and was keen 10 rnlnimlsc h Scveral sleps helped
towards Ihe east This enhances the visual aspect of the facade. but In praclfcc. results in a negligIble dIfference I n ompul
• Choosmg a tried-and-tested PV system
• letting Ihe PV tnstidlallon as a single package of
between the different sides of the array_
There ilTC two large sub-arrays. each consisting of 1 7 series strmgs and \Yuh an ilrray faung of 35 b kWp Each of these feeds m[o lIS own 35 kWp mvener The two small sub-arrays have it smgle senes String and ilrc Tilled ilt 0.94 kWp. They each feed
supply. installation. Imerfaclng and commissioning • Given thal lhe facade system provides sound cladding.
was required
The commissioning of the monitoring hardware took place at the
I qQB and included
nothing - the electriCity b1l1 goes up 25-30 per cent. but the bUlldmg slays weather·tight for the designers. the tenderrng process was more difficult than
10 a junction box In the supply trench at the bonom
usual For other construction packages Ihere was conSiderable
reuse of methods and assemblies from previous bUlldmgs on the
The gl.:mng oolld·up IS
Fog 7 The 50iIr f� 5hM'"J;I 1IlII eilett glln-glaumtldules CiJII haw on IhII inUlIIOl $p;IIJIS wi1en h Sll'l llllUt s...... 1lInww.r�
final decisions on the file format for recording
of the data. seuing up of the modem links, Including password protcoion. and connection of the dIsplay tcrminal ln the building The coUcolon and assesm s ent of performance data commenced on 5 March I (1(18. with the purpose of the data commissioning process being 10
•
in energy tenns Ihe PV 15 faUs.lfe. If it fails it generates
mlO iI 0 85 kWp mvener ilnd are located around me bulldlng entrance In all cases, the modules are strung down the facade
6 mm lamln;ued gl,lS5 with low-E coaling
interfacrng wnh the data loggrng system
PV f.1!;ade. or
same time as the commissioning of Ihe PV system rn March
west sub-arrays me oriented 5u off south towards the west.
One op1fon the designers consld(!red was developing some form of cavity r;Urade COI1S1(UCIiOn This may have had the added benenr or rmprovlng PV efJrciency. bUl lhere was no ready-made solution and not enough development lime available. So Instead they focused the CFO airflow modelling on renning the building secllon and Improvmg dJSSip..ltlon of heat from the fa,.-ade.
The monilOnng eqUIpment. Including sensors. cablrng. data logger and conlrol system. was Installed by the fat;ade
might have raised considerable controversy
while the IWO east sUb-arrays are the same angle off south
t 2 mm krypton·nllt.'!! void;
of the 5ySlem (73 kWp t\C) was recorded
conlrac\ors rn parallel With the Instilllation of the
PV procurement
2 mm cast resm enCilpsulallng solar cells;
The weather conditions v..-ere particularly favourable over the commissioning perrod and the Instantaneous peak performance
necessity of obtaming plannmg permission Even so. the local
the entrance and with slightly different orientations. The t\Vo
5 mm heat·strengthened glass;
the building services engineers carried out a series of teslS to
which. among other development incentives. waives the
The Imal array 15 split Into fout sub-arrays. IWO on each side of
'1 mm heat strengthened glass (Par.;olj;
relaling 10 the two facelS of the facade. FollOWing comm1sslonlng. satisfy the builder that the system was operating satisfactonly
The Solar Office is located in an Enterprise ZOne. a designatiOn
desrgn On another site. the size and prominence of the array
s-. s:.. (�
commissioning
•
establish the procedure for downloading Ihe performance data from the monltormg computer In the lnvener room. de'o'elop handling routines for those data;
• Inspect the milia! datil for availability and
inconsislenCiCS and advise the installers of any problems.
park. None of these nued Ihe PV package. whIch had to be tendered as a perform.lnce speclncation There IS as yet lillie in the way of standards or precedents to draw on. so the spectners began largely from scratch r"'Or eX
• TIle acceptability or bubbles in the resin that encapsulates the cells
• The appearance of circuit '
• A few cells th
Fig 8 01. p.l!Ji! from h! 'llSWI !hpI;rviDustratIll',l Wllltiilll� _gy� s.-SIt4of��
IS' ·
10 the Solar OffiCe. If the SoJal OffiCe had
� Ioio_", .'''''' as a low-energy office bUilding. it wouldbeen nOl be
Performance characteristics
ESlimaled a nnua l PV energy oulPUI Inclct.nt r8dleUon
950 kWhlmJIy
Solar radiation for the area (horizontal plane) Instaflatlon factor!inclinalion, orienlatlon, coaling)
1 .04
Denalty of 80lar radiation
988 kWh/m2/y 532 m2
Totll l'ldlaUon on facade
525,600 kWh!y
Active area of solar cells
Element efflclencl..
Efficiency of solar cells (al 25 "c) Reduction due to operating temperature losses from cables Average efficiency01 PV Inverter
x 0.90
0. 1 4
0.98
0.85 55,200 kWh!y
x
Eatlmated InnuII energyoutput
10.5%
System efficiency(estimated outputllotal radiation)
The capital ftmding oIlIIe project was made up as follows: Trust fund provided by City investors
European Regional DeveIopmant Fund
grant fO( capital expencllture UK Department 01 Trada and Industry grant fO( design development. commlssionlng, tesllng and monitoring Total
2,763,785 1 ,350,000
A cost comparison between a comprehensively conceived PV buIkIlng and a conventional one Is not Iherefore between a
bUIlding with rv and more or less the same bUilding wllh the PV tep&aced by conyentional glaZing or cladding. but between building that acknowledges Ihe full lmphcil1ions of
rv
1 1 1 ,215
4,225,000
3,514,000 365,000 346,000
4,225,000
The COSI 01 tM fil-out was as follOws·
Rt-oul Professional lees and other ch arges Total
work undertaken by about 1 7 different !fade contraclors together with the mam contractOr"S management costs
The largest tr.lde contractOr"S package in value was that of Dane all thc glazing including the windows. the stair lOwer glazing and the complete rv installation. but excluding the atrium roof lights
The value of tl1c PV installation. including the curtain wall
framework. Ihe main entrance and lobby. the opening lights. the
10 tcs neighbour, with (in Ihls case) an enhanced passive solar
InpUI and OutpUt power - were recorded as average yalues over a
Clearly there are COSI offsets to be made. the eXlent of which Will
A wtal OUtput of 94.7QO kWh was recordl!d between March 1998
-.we metre. a difference of [150 per square metre.
opemng lights This cannOI be described solely as the balance of systems COSts, since the facade prOVIdes for vents. vision pancls and the main entrance. In addition to the solar array The PV
600,000 54,000
654,000
The (fInl charged for /he Solar OffIC9 reflects rental levels for oIIIce dewJlopment generally 81 Doxford Intemational.
content. Including the monitonng systems. therefore works out at about [470.000 or [100 per square metre ol the gross floor area A benent of alPV that Is myanably cited Is the potential for offselllng a proportion of Its COSts against conyentlonal Components. such .15 glazing. cladding panels. roof nnishes or sun shades. which would otherwise have been used In place of the modules. While a straight orfsct can be c;,lculated In relmlvely Simple appUcmions. in a project such as the Solar Office, with Its \'cry large array. and the fact that It is not JUSt mtcgr.m:d IntO Ihe buHdlng envelope but into a comprehenslye ent:rgy stratcgy. c.llculatlons of Ihis kind arc precluded Immedl.ltely adjacent to the Solar Ornce is .1n ornce building of sImilar size It is designed to a very SImilar bncf except for one aspect - the PV installallon. In form and layout, it bears no
v.:eekly basis and analysed by Newcastll! PhotQVollaics
and May 2000 Some mvener problems experienced during the
summer months masked the seasonal differences in performance that ....-ere expeaed. although there was a nQ(lceab[e improvement
products of PV power generation such as the utllisallon of ils
In effiCiency dUring the wmter months. etnclencies for the four
thermal characteristics as well as its electrical output It faclhtates economy of detailing. allowing solutions thilt resolve a number of demands such
as power gener.ltion. glazing. solar control and
pV subsystems have also been calculated
Thf!Se consist of two
large arrays connected to three'phase inverters. and
(1'.'0 small
arrays connected 10 slngle·phast: Inverters The smaller
subsystl!m5 exhibited conSistently lower performance than the
cable management [t can also bring alUlbUles that are exclusively liS own. such as the qualily and charaCter of daylight
larger systems. Half Ihl! dlfferencl! was aSSigned 10 the fact that
within the building
efficiency modules due to higher cell spaCing The remainder was
the smaller subSYSlem array h.1S a higher proportion of lower
assigned 10 a lower erncrency of DCIAC conversion. It Is usual to de·rate in"eners for climates where there Is a s[gnlf1cant
Estimated cost savings
Cos!: savings arising from the operation of Ihe Solar Office
percentage of operallon under low light conditions. In this way
compared to conventional office development were an important atr-condltioned office ilre in three areas
ra�adc area About half of this COSI is attributable to providing the
to minutes. Data IV3S downloaded from an on·sltl! compuler on
Appilcallons Cl!ntre.
dellghl ' IntegratiOn a!lows a holistiC response to physical by_
aspecl of marketing the projea. COSt savings compared wuh an
cunaln wall framework. the entrance. the Vision Ihlncls and the
PV array has generated some
1 1 3,000 kWhly (Table 3). Which compares well to Ihe design prediclion Most parameters - Irradiation. ambient temperature.
spectftcation The Solar Office COSt about [Q40 per square metre,
monitoring equipment and the graphic display monitor came to abol.lt [')50.000 ThIs IS the eqUivalent of [200 per square mctre
Electrica l performance
Ihe building next door. enhanced 10 rnclude a concrete roof. larger aUlum. wrnd trough and barnes COSts about [iQO per
cleafglaZing. the cabling. theJunction boxes. the Inveners. thc
of the gross noor area or [ I .000 per square metre of the solar
Post-installation feedback Over the first tWO years the
tntegration. such as the Solar Office. and a building simll.u
Architectural Systems who were responsible for the Insta!latlon of
The cost 01 delivering the sheH-and-core building was made up as follows: Bullcbng construction landscape and infrastl"UClure Professional fees and other charges Total
The shell·and·corc burldlng COSt was made up of COStS rel.lung to
• A predicted COSt of gas 2p/kWh, electricity -Ip/kWh; • A maintenance COSt saving. over an air-conditioned bUilding. of [8 per square metre.
butktlng-Integrated photovollalcs is to do with ·commodllY and
PV costs
• A treated bUilding area of ·1.000 square metres;
retained, \vould have �n a very diFferent shape
\IU)' from bUilding to building. However. the real benent of
Project cost breakdown ProJect funding and costs !in G8P)
Operating cost savings are based on the fOllOWing
the soUlIl In the way that II 15 - the noor plates have been stepped back und the atrium, although
the loss of output under occaSional high insolation conditions is
more Ihan offset by the increased efficiency at low Insolation
condluons. In the Solar Office. the large Inveners are rated at 98 per cent of the corresponding PV array capacity. while the
• I\t!duction in energy use arising from energy·saving
small inverters are rated at ()() per cent of their corresponding
me.lsures Incorporated In the design of the bUilding.
PV capacty. Assuming similar low level light. the small inveners should gIVe slightly higher subsystem efficiencies. However. the
• Reduction in maintenance COSts. mainly arising from
single-phase inveners have exhibited Slightly different
the omission of ilir-condltloning plant, Md • S,wings In grid·supplled electricllY arismg from the PV supply The building service engrneers c.1lculated Ihat the Sol,,, Office In 115 low-energy mode. with an ocalpant of average energy demands. might have an energy consumption demand of about 85 kWh/m'lyear They further calculated thai 5.wlngs ansmg from
t� butldlng wllh this demand compared to a best practice air
performances. This is panly due to dlHerent solar input thresholds and partly due to translhlrency differences between the modules. Whde the major difference between the twO
i due to low light-level performance. this had had Inverter sizes s very little effect on total performance as the subsystems with the small ln\'Cners represent a small proportion (2 6 per cent) of Ihe arraycapaclly.
conditioned ofrice would oITer the rollowmg savings Reduced energy use Irom energy-saving measures
Reduced mainlenance costs
Savings
in grid-supplied eleclricity
Total
C
19,680 32,000 3,320
55,000
The prlte 1h1id by Northern Electric for PV generated electricity was 2plkWh
161 '
System reliability
Systemlo...s
The large Inverters were the main cause of operational problems at the SOlar Office. causmg imermluem OUipUi These were
Overall. the PV array efficiency at the SOlar Office Is calculated to be 1 1 . 1 per cent (compared to the design efficiency of 1 4 per
resolved and the system has since been operating without further
cent), ba$('(l on the wau peak ratings of the Individual modules and taking Into account their design levels of transparency. Whh system efficiency aI 8 per cem (compared to the design
a timescale and to a performance standard that is acceptable to
regular crashes of the monitoring computer. variously aSCribed to
a developer construcljng speculallvely
than that. the system has operated with excellent reliability.
were originally assumed to be 2 per cent of total OUtpuC) Other losses ilre
The buUdjng's occupation by Domainnames.com lale in the monitoring programme means that a full user survey of the
• mOdule temperature (Onginally assumed to reduce OUtpur by 10 per cent). • sOlhng (dependent on cleaning: 3 per cent assumed); • angle of InCIdence (asstJmed 5 per cent);
Ihls approach has been pursued with such rlgout It became clear
analysis of the bUilding under their Best Practice Programme. but
at a very early stage that pursuit of energy elficiency and
volume system with mechanical cooling has been installed. It Is hoped that this can be modlfied 10 run in a mixed-mode form'lI.
.... 98 !!IY88 Jun98
IIanIIorIng
"')
-.....
AC Output
(kWh)
97
4,607
85
5,411
100
4,240
--
'- .... .. (kWh)
.....-
Lou due to -119 (kWh)
142
4,749
955
6,366
927
.u 88
100
4,558
...
100
3,2n
1,710
4,987
100
2,740
497
3,237
0c198
100
3,267
710
3,9n
2.330
0
""88
Feb 99
77
1,887
100
3,687 "71fT
...
.... 99
100 100
4,170
1,147
Mfl/9 9
'00
4,185
' 606
Jun99
100
895
0
.... 99
3..Q25 1,377 2,685 3,687
807
3,594 5,317
-o.m..
4,927
4,927
.... 99
100
6,489
6,469
Aug 99
100
5,114
Sep 99
5,114
100
6,630
0c199
5,630
100
3,743
"" 99
0
0
3,743
Dec 99 Jan 00
2,711
2,711
4,ooa
4,008
51
1,138
Feb 00
100
1,093
3,793
.... 00
'00
0
4,712
Aft 83 82,752 'able 3 ConettBd OU1PU\l fG'tt.SoIir Otta'l � snllltn
shows that passive solar and renewable energy provision C41n be
reconciled and synthesised to creale a striking building
5 043
1.3n
74
challenges in respect to its successful integration. The project
5,167
800 88
Dec.8
generate a wonhwhile amount of electricity crealed considerable
Corrected Output
Aug 98
.... 88
renewable energy generalion from PV would Ihrow up conOiclS In design resolution The very size of Ihe Installation required to
Due to the tenant's high incidental COOling loads, a viable air
-
behind the design was to combine low
building and the relationship to the PV s}'Stem has yet to be carried out BRECSU has been granted funding to carry OUt an
mlxed·mode regime.
(poSSIbly up 10 12 per cen!)
In Ihe projCCI
II fundamental objecuve
energy measures with pV power There are few PV projects where
this is conditional on the buHding running in a passive solar or
• performance mIsmatch between modules and cables
What lhe fnduslry Is unable to do yet Is deliver the product at a COSI that can be accommodated in the piltamCters of commercial office development Had separale funding or the phOlovohalc Installation not been available. It would nOI h,we been Included
Comfort conditions
• Invener efficiency (Origmally assumed to be 85 per ceno:
• Insolation below Inverter thresholds.
has developed to a point that It can provide Ihe: prOducl within
problems. The only other reliability problems were caused by
corrupted software and clashes with the website software. Other
effIciency of 10.5 per cent). about 30 per cem of the expected DC power generation must be due to system losses (cable losses
Conclusion
The project clearly demonstrates Ihat 81f>V C,ln be part of a purely commercial development It shows th,lI the PV Industry
g,231
3,793
4,712 7,889
1 1,679
102,320
f'll 9 South fll(ilde of IIlo Solar Dffa. shoYm;r !lll! anay. /1\1111 emrara in! WIllI ball!l!s
'-' o.-&lwt�
\63·
USA: 4 TIMES SQUAR E The trJdltlonal view Is [hill photo\lOitaic systems are economical only for remote cabins and [elecommunicatlons, blU this IS chanRing
PROJECT:
1 4 kWp PV system, integrated i n skyscraper curtainwallla�adli
lOCAnONJCITY: COUNTRY!
As the firsl major commercial ilppUCatlon of bUIlding.
Inlegr
m051 - at [he pOint of gre.ltest use. The next major market for PV
USA
In the developed world should be where electricity COStS afe high and l11gh.quality buJldings are beIng built - in other words. In
glassleminate
urban centres like New York CIty. In addition to the BiPV system.
BUILDING TYPE:
Commercial- office building
.. Times Square incorporates a number of other sustamable
NEW/RETWORT:
New
e
PVsystem power Projected system output
PVetliciency
eleCtriclty wilt be genera[ed on a large scale where It 15 needed
Manhattan. New York
fa�8d ·integ
TYPE Of PV BUILDING:
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS
raled using custom-sizod BiPV
glass laminate Type 01 cell technology Modulardimensions
Amlydimensions
dayUghltng and reduce the need for artitlclal light. the HVAC Instead of conventional. fossil fuel-powered eleclriCJ.1 systems;
LONGITUDE: ALTITUDE: CUMAnc TYPE: SUNSHINE HOURS:
product. hOi water. 15 recyded for hot water and perimeter
recycled materials during demolition. and the use of paper was minimised as the structural engineer and the steel contractor
averag e : O "C:July averege :24 "CI
checked tens of thousands of drawings digtlaliy_
e rl
Inverlers
conSlruclion process - a wasle management plan salvaged and
Humid Continental (TempFlratllle: January = 4.6 hours per day
Gross surface Brea: 287 m' lSDm'
ThePV moduleS Brevisible as dark
bands 01 glazing onthe exterior 01 the building
heating. EnvIronmental conslderalJons also shaped the
13" saw 51 metres above sea level
Y a y average
Visual details
fuel cells produce electriCIty by burning natural gas. and theIr by_
4O"47'N
Amolphoussllicon
Weight 65.9kg/m'
system uses CFC- and HCFC·free gas-fired absorption chdlers
LATlTUDE:
6%
Type of building inlegrelion FD�ade·integrated custom·sized BiPV
bUilding technologies in its design OverSized windows enhance
'i'M'.."'..:!" ;"'+',;'." '11
1 4 kWp
13.800 kWh per year
Four: Z x 6 kW(Omnionl: Z x 4 kWiTracel
Monitoring equipment Power output monitored through kW/h readoulS and recorders
Installation BiPV design process
Inslililalion was a very smooth and straightforward process.
Kiss
despite the fact that TImes Square Is one of Ihe most highly
+
Cathcart obtaIned special approval from the Bureau of
Electrical Control of the New York City Building Oep.mment The client wanted a tcchnology that was economical. not Immediately. bUt In the near future. The design balanced aestheltc concerns With a low COSt per square melre. which was comparable to the COSt of the materials already specmed Because BiPV was incorporated into the deSIgn at the end of the conStruction documents phase. the installation was made to harmonise Wllh the already established design concept The PV
Project brief
modules were built to the same size specifications as standard
This -IS'slorey skyscraper at the corner of Broadway and '12nd
glass, ThIs projCCt demonstrates the fie;dbility of BiPV technology
Sircet was the firsl major office bunding to be conSiruCied In
In accommodating existing configurallons. Shildtng Issues were
N(:w York City In the ] 9905 To raise the envlronmcmal
il special concern. because of the bUlldlng's height. and because
regulated and physically dlfflcul! building environments In the country. The BiP\' pilnels were pre'placed IntO the panellsed
curtain wall. and the pre-assembled facade was delivered and
InSlilUed on'Slle JUSt as any other conventional wall. It took IWO
weeks off-site pre-assembly and two weeks on-site installatIon to complete the BiPV construction, Electricians then connected the wires Into the pV electrical system
The PV modules are allilched to the bUlldmg structure In exaclly
the same way that standard glass is attached The glass units Me allached Wllh structural silicone adheSIve around the back edge to an aluminium frame. �n addlllonal silicone bead Is Inserted
between the edges or adjacent panels as a water seal
s!.1ndards of hlgh-qualhy urban buUdmgs. [he Durst Organlzmion.
It Is located In one of the densest urban environments In the
The SQuth and east fat;ades of the 37th through the 4Jrd floor
which owns this skyscraper. IS implementing a wide range or
"'Orld The designers studied the local massing and obtained
were designated as the sites for a photovoltaic ·skln'. The PV
Slrategies that result In healthy. energy·efficlent buildings Kiss
+
projections of future construction at the site. They determined
modules. which are custom·Slzed BiPV glass laminate. rcplace
thaI the optimum area for the PV skin would extend from Ihe
conventional spandrel glass for the south and east fal;ades There
collabor.1llon wilh Fox & Fowle. the base building architects. By
37th to the 43rd floor on the SOUth and east f.l{ades. At thaI
are four different sizes of modules. and they correspond 10 the
doubHng as a building materia!. the PV curtain w,lll is one of the
height. because of setback requIrements. even the tallest new
most ("'Conomlcal photovoltaic building components Installed to
construction would cast only fleeting shadows on Ihm pan of
date In an urban ,lreil Energy Photovoh,llcs. Inc_. of Princelon.
the building.
New Jersey. developed custom-milde PV modules to rit the
PV modules were chosen which Illet the client's standards for
4 kW (nverter. The larger Inverters serve the twO large PV
COSI effiCiency. and performed well at the high temperalures they would encounter in thIs installation They also were chosen to be
different from those of the two smaller ones Using tWO Inverters
Cathc..lrt Archlu.'Cts designed the PV system for the buildIng in
bulldlng's rigorous aesthetic. s[ructural. and electrical criteria
shadow·resistant to minimise the effects of shading from other parts of the fa{ade
spandrel sizes estab1tshed earl1er In the design process There
is a separate electrical system for each fat;ade. Each
system consists of twO invcrters. one 6 kW Inverter and one modules. which have electrIcal characteristics that are slightly per side enables the system to perform more efflciently_ The invcrters are located in a single clectrlcal cabinet at the core of the building. The AC output of the inverters Is lransformed from 120 v to 480 V before being fed into the mains electricity
165
Performance characteristics
Th" PV ,111'.1 15
k..s Ihan one pt!r cenl of Ihe avall,lble bUIlding
acceplance of 8iN by Ihe bUIlding community. This high,
II),In(/,,:1 .1rC,l, allli Ihe PV comribullon 10 Ihl! bulldlllg's energy
viSibility proJect, financed through the pnvalC sector, has given
rht' t'lIt'rRY u'>t-'d w produce II In eight months The I'V syslCm IS
apptlc.lbltlty of 61PV syslcrns
dl'Hlolrld 15 !I'ss rhJn one per cent nle BIPV sYSlCm Wilt pay back
pf'frormtnU �lIghtly better than amlclpatl.'d
Ihe bUIlding community more confidence In Ihe broad The major lesson learned is an organisational one. KIss + Calhc.lrt'S experience suggests Iha! It 15 stili 100 soon 10 tre,ll BiPV sY51ems as a standard pan of the building process.
Lessons learnt 'rom the project IIt'C.1U,'O(' rht' 61PV system was only considered .'Irrer thc design of
Speclalisls d 10 oversee dcslgn, construction. and commissioning of 6iPV systems
ttw core bullthng hold been complc[(.'d. crucial opflOrtunilles to Ollllrlli!it' the sy�tcm's COSt and performance were missed The COSt of tnt' PV panels could have been lowered through the use of mOIl' opllmal dlmt:nslons, and Ihe design of the eJeclrical sYSlem could have been Stmphflt..'ti, both In Ihe PV WIring and In Ihe bUlldlng lntcrconnccllon
thiS WOIS tht, first custonHized Ihin.fllm BJPV plOjeCt In Ihe UnUt'1'J Slales, and II Is Iht' hlghCSt-V1SiblhlY BiPV application In
Project cost breakdown The projcct rcceived support rrom the New York Sustainable Energy Research and Developmenl Authority (NYSERDA). Savings in terms of replacement of buildmg components with PV USSt05 pcr squ.lre mClre
Ihe COUrllry The success of gelling projeCt approval in the Stringent rt..'gul;uory envlronmenl of Times Square has shown thai BIPV can be used In Ihe IOUghest envIronments Comt'rvJusm and fear hJ\'t' bt:en Ihe biggest bamers 10 the
"!"'-
-'
hgl[Ittc1rItll UW1tIQUl'IIIDflid'atlallC: SIIon:. �" , 174l11a't M1ooIf
.n.�
\I Ea:.:n :·:t�:�U 1 111 ,
NON-B UILDIN G PV STRU CTURE S
•
1i.'chmml per/ormunu
m;lIntcnance. "'pair and
replacement OCcasional module fililures should be pOSSible to de.ll with by repairing or changmg the ,Iffeeted modules wllllOUI destrOYing or dlsmounllng the rest of the NBS elements
Introduction Pho!ovol!iIIc
WV) teChnologies are parliculolrly sUilt.'d to bemg
• Al'srhclic appearllllt'C InSt,1l1atlon In speclill areas
FJlrJC(iorJlI/ I'f.'qUlrt·lllents: the technical solutIons and conStruction
When P\' has to be Installed In some locations such as
PV·NBS design strategies PV·NBS wlih well thought through desIgn Str.ltegICS can heip mUlgale unwanted threats from th!eves and vandals, en�urt' publiC So1fcty compliance and mailltain dMlrable operJtmg performance. Some thoughtS on this ilft' provided below
P rotection
IlIdmy: integralion of the module Into the NBS shcll so Ihat \I wtll not be seen
syslems are determined by the funCTion that The NBS shOUld
hblorical cemres, parks ilnd g;lrdcns, non,urbanarcns.
conventional sm:l'l furniture. Urban archncclUre. bulldmgs.
provide (such as water,"ghtness. wind protection. shading
or wild or natural Inndscapes, the Integration In the
devices, safcty and eqUlpmcllI colliroll
Smart designs' using odd/very special module sizes. colouf5.
sm�('[scapes. parklands i'lnd w,uer feamre5 resonate with the
environment should be carelully conSidered
voltages. which render the module useless or difficult to use
Inno\',1U\'l·I)' lnlcgr.tlcd \\'uilln urban envlronmC!lIs and
sociaL economic and culmra! Iral/s ofa
elry. Jnd arc oflcn
dl.'slgncd a� components of thai CH}" S image The usc of solar pOIl'C r a s .l funclional feature and crcilnveexpresslon m puhlic sp.Kes. olnd as a means of engaging city commUOlIiCS In the technology. IS becoming Increaslngl, common as cuy aUlhonue5 srrl\'c [0 deliver Sustillnable soluuons.
The use of PV In urban
\\1:'/.Ir lind (tOur the way in which people use these StruCTures
technical eqUipment. ohen resulting In Ihe rejc(lIon of
secumy Pl!1I1I.POII't'r. SlOrugl! Q/td surfi/C(' requ/l'l:,mems Ihe quality and qUJnllt)' tnumber ilnd typel of funCTions proVIded by the
positive Inregrillion of
"-'qUJremems. which in tum dlttennine the f'inill dimenSIons of
a dCt31ll'
t!'V·NBSI In the built enVironment Including design process and performance issues These are presented in later sections of this chapter and Include
the structure
5lalJOns. [ourist information points/maps; · &/mers.' fences. road nolse bamcrs, gatcs. hilndmils:
• Shel/r/'i) flmlkIosks: pelro! st,uions, bus stops. phone booths, parkIng. umbrellas, Information stands. pavilions. telephone boxes, toilets. news,sJands;
ratepayers and service provIders considerably Damaged street
furniture. gramtl. wrecked urb.an
equipment and broken cars .1nd shop wmdows can be an all tOO common sight after, for Instance. weekend nights, concerts, or sponmg events thIS problem
PV community atone. and
cannOT be solved by the
ilS such. the need for batteries to store the produced energy .1nd
should be handled m Ihe besl way with appropriale
Implementation issues and challenges
Whcn P\' modules are 10 be Installed In cliy areas, Invariably ilt strect level. Ihe likelihood or conditions such as shadl/lg .1ml low Irradiation Is heightened The non.building struclUre (NBS) mighl already ClIist and The orientation may not offer an optimum pOSition. Simllarly. physical limits to avallilble surface Mea and
pubJlclly structures
planning. although careful consideration of micro-climate
PV power perfomMnce and Is often dictated by the urban COntext In whICh it Is placed and the purpose it plays as a non.bUlldlng
leature
StrU<'fUml rt'qU/rt'l/Irnts: this aspect depends .,Iso on dimensions
Slron9 mounTIng 51's/ems. usmg extra strong joints and conn�ions between the modules and the slructural components
aesthetic COnSlrilints could reduce the a\'allable power production to a level that IS insuffiCient for the electrical needs of the aClUal
10 resIST wllld loads
People who stcal modules do not see Ihe conllC(tion
localised sYStems that c.1n be incorporated into tht modules and
between modules and their owner. This makes ste.:lhng
are neces
easler, even for the less hardened of criminals The
theft
high price of modules and existence of a sC(ond·hand
the remote-controldevice
markct for this kind of product has great innuence
• COSI
thIs is nOt a specinc problcm of NBS but needs
10 be addressed as. although uslllg more sophisticaTed
deSigns and matertals could soll;e some of the
�ry for operating the system
because II would nOI be possible
These could also avoid
to use the module without
Hodlll� etchi ng: etchlllg Ihe module with a speclf1c code or sign.
Which could be identiried and recognised on later inspeclion
Energy effiCiency. uslllg energy,efflclent consumpllon devices
prevIously mentioned problems. hlgh-cost PV
such as sensors or light-emitung diode ILEDl lamps
components can threaten proJC(t affort!..lblhty
Cleamng syStems using machines for efficient cleaning of modules (cleaning SYSTems In Sweden. fOI lIIumin
Rqlectors' applying renecling Irradiation elements or surfaces III
InOuences In urban environments should be taken The built
DllllrnslOns the scale and shape of the NBS directly Impacts on
as dIfferent plastic covers Instead of glass
Electromc remo/e Ope17J/ion using electrontc remote-control and
installalJon Invarlabl}', this can be avoided through sensible
key Issues
Technical improvements
Strong/flcxlble marena/s' using extra,slronglOexlblc materials such
mainly when PV modules are moumed in pubhc areas
Hulll 'amlil' strucCUlTS screen road signs. scr�n
consideratIons thilt effectively have to resolve the followlIlg
using fences. posts. and other obstacles
design strategies, The problem with theft DCa.lrs
•
Design considerations
tools to operate
Protf!C/lon systems making j[ dlITicult lo reach the module by
mallllenance, must be considered
Singlr 'Ot'rillt struCIIIITS slreet Hghts. street signs.
EJch P\,·NBS c.:negorised above faces panlcular design
m everyday applications
Sa/e mountmg systems. uslllg rwets 01 screws that reqUire spe
related aspects such ilS \'enlJlallon. overhealmg. safety and
•
commercial Signs. road sign·posts; and
this type of instaUation
• I'llmwllsm, thiS IS a senoos problem In cities and COSTS
Storagr l'
• Urban street rqwpmf!nt.' parking melers. mformation sIgns, tlckct vending machines, meteorological
all, but are onty elemems of
such as durability. accessibility, milterial strength. control ilnd
structure WIll determme the electrical needs and surface
and respecllng liS technological effICiency. This section provides
some of the PV·NBS do not have .1n
defines certilln spct'lfic characteristics of differelli lypologies.
rhe world In man)' cases, IhlS IS being achieved through rhe enhanCing Ihe archUl"Cturnl quality of the photO\'OltalC material
FI511ll1 unpuct
:ntracuve deSIgn at
�paces IS being successfully achieved In numerous ClUes around
pV wuhln its urban COntext. whlle
•
form and activities wtthln it disturb the natural local climatic
order to increi'lse the avaIlable solar gaIn of the PV modules when
eqUJlibrium, creatmg pockets of high ilmblent temperatures and
local condnions ilre not opllmal, and
humidity. haze and smog, and wind perturbations between
'Elastic' StruCtures' usIng systems that can absorb wllld loads
bUildings and slrcclSCapes UnprediCti'lbfe sueet Wind gUStS can
through the elaSticity of their structural elements
cause problems for some mstaUations. especIally to the wind load ff.!liIStance of large module surfaces relative to the supponlng SlTucture HIgh ambient temperature. humidity ill1d reduced direct Irr.1dlatlon Impaci upon PV module degradation tolerance and performance. depending on PV system type, Further. soiling from bird droppings or the build up of traffic pollutant residues
but Is more related to Ihe mechanical performance of the
l on PV performance. Good design can have detrimental f:ffecs
!)!ructure In terms of materml type. wind 10ilding and static load
and maJlllcnance strategies c..ln help mitigate these threats
ch.lraClemtlcs
Fig I PV lII5tailatKll'l onatusstDII SlJ1 anc1onaphonl!boJ
..... tnjttJftIICoOC � l�S � o.lt
1&9
St,mdardiSOllon, usmg a dcs1gn that facilitates the use or standard
Design flexibilily and adap18bility \fultl"fJnf'ntt't1 .sy.'ltems making ne)nble mounung systems to allow the modules to be moved In the optfmum direction
modules and camponenlS m order to reduce the cost
Independemly of the onenL11J0n of the NBS
Posts: using a POSt for the module to reduce shading concerns or [0 make " dimcult [0 reach the module
Dismounllng ,�y.'l/ems ensuring no permanem joints and
/nstnJcnonslmonua/s' provJdlng mounting and dismOUnting
connections have been used. making maintenance. repair and
inmllcllons Incorporated in a visible place In the NBS to guldc
DG Une p V parking meter
These are st,lnd-alone PV vending machines wlIh the solar
Fnerator Integrated In Ihe structure ThIs design helps deler !heft and vandalism bee-lUSt! the PV generator Is well-engineered
.nc! secured to the machme.
replacemem or moduleseasler.
maintenance pcBonncl and prevent inappropriate operation
Fog5DGLineparbngbO:El l'B11f�mad'one.aumyo! manu!ac:tU!e
Indept'mlcm S)'MCIIlS ensuring a separatiOn between PV moumlng
Injonncmol1 using environmental. economic and other
SI0ra0e r.il1lilt'1'f 3 � lI1 t OO ULiell lll!f day
componcms and NBS in ord!:1 10 allow for mouming and
mformation in an effort [0 convince people not [0 s[cal modules,
dismounting to operale Indcpendemly of each Olher
and 10 use Ihem correctly.
fraru
s-. £Cd:d1i.s...dorI. �
M�.".UniYeT.'Ia' 2000 PV parking meter
Erpandablr systcms: creating a design IMt easily allows the
Urban street equipment
This photovoltaic,powered vending machine oHers a variety of PV
Parking meters
complCtely Invisible from the ground and dlHlcul1 to access
COStS and lime aSSOCiated wllh extending con\'Cntional eloorlcity
simply
adduton of n�w PV modules [0 the NBS. Addition of new PV modules as a funcllon of the power needs should be possible.
f'ukpower5-II}Wp
mounting solutions thai can be loca[ed so that Ihey are
supply, digging up roads_ disrup[ing traffic mo\-emem and Installing underground p
fig 6 � 2IDI - � rnKt.. !!W� vou:IIeq ""\l'Id'I!IIII!II PYr!w'UlI'I;I D
than a solar alternallve. The integr.:lled solar NBS solution Is easily and quickly Installed without the disruptions oflen
Sunga � 3 weeb ll1 l00uchu,*1Iay
SIIUc. � �/$l�"'-
aSSOCiated with new electrical services. Aesthetic benents may accrue by eliminating the need for overhead power lines and sys[em reliability also provides what might be essential emergency power supply at times of grid blackouts. The PY-equlpped version of the standard pay-and-display ticket f'll l Dl!Slgn lOl�rd.lbk! �lems
s.uc' '''''� '' �II'�NS1l'kI'rr.Ilot
machine has provided aesthetic and technIcal lmegratiOn of Ihe solar cells The solar module on the Parkline 200] meter (figure 4)
Aeslhelic and practical improvements IIIfl'yNitlOlt Imegraung modules imo the NBS shape. The banery, the suPPOrt elemem and the PV modules are integra[ed Into the NBS design
features poly-crystalline cells with a surface area of 190 square
roM 94 PV parking meter
The standard ticket vending machine is equipped with a PV cell especially resis[am against Impacl. The consumption Is very low and the battery provides about two momhs of autonomy
centimetres and II peak power of 23 Wp. The PV parking mciCr Is equipped with a 12V/60 Ah battery. TI1e bauery bo)! Is stored behind a slrong door panel The elemems for maintenance and replacement are easily accessible, but only to authorised stafr wllh a special key,
#'I ;1-� -
J tA PV-iIIuminated bus timetable
F'II J�tI911Dlol moo"III ""IDNBS
s.u.. MrI� �'''rr ''' olNSU' ''''.t.. ''
Energy-efficient light-emItting diodes (LEDs) illuminate the bus
PVaesthetic "harl1ctemiltcs: using the aes[hetic performance of
timetable and are activated by a movement sensor Energy
Ihe PV cells and modules such as [exture, colour, lamInate IThllcrillls. and module framing allernatlves
consumption Is 3-70 mW and thus the PV cell required Is small and can be sImply glued on lOp of the sign
Doubkjunctjorl: combining seveml simple functions In the same
NBS IS a simple way of reducing Installation COStS To some extcm, this 15 a glvcn for many NBS appHcalions, such as shading struClures or rOtld barriers
F'II BBos llllttma1Ull1 svstl!!ll by Eba Scherpellleel beheel BV_ e- tbe Ne1lleflancl1 C1:U111yof manuliltt.. � !�s....,
Fig 4 Parkhne 2001 1111!1lIt: tru'llryl)/ lIIiIOUlllttllftI GennanV
- 110
I'!iIIt pcmer' 2JWp
s.u.. � w . ...
StOligll �l'( lD-4OO tdelSper !by
Grat. �
aarrier systems
PV-powered timetablelighting
pvwheel block
a red blinkmg TIm public mlO(ll1JIIOI1 device is equippoo wuh
Thl� I'Y wlte!.'1 block
prcb oltl1/' bU1l011 .1C11vt'frorn dusk unul daybreak. with e.1Ch The bUllon Iliummaung the I1il1t!table for a 20-second Intt!I'\'al cadmium t'!ectrlclty .l!l'neratL-d during thc da�' IS stored In a IlIckcl
Ilistom;al bulldlllgs II is powered by 0.25 Wp PV cadmium
of !I'lIed} rechargc;lblc b,mcry The electrical power consumption tht' IlIumln,ll1on unn has been reduced to about 0.0 W, by
tellunde tCdTe) cells Integrilled Into the tOP of each pole and WHh n910 f"IP-,lIuro'l\iIte!ltatill'>eUI'QI'I. I:OOI1try nl mallll13ttU'e GemlJR}'
Including a pl.lnarhght swcle, Extrerncly bnglu. red LEOs ilfe used as the light source. MulU·coloured route map� ;ue IlIwmnollcd wuh dmerent colour",d LEOs
Simple PY hullding slgmlge Iflgure 10) can also be used to Illumin,ltca bUSlne% ,lddr",ss at mght
model has been c.uefully dl!slgncd for hlJlhly
IIt�lblc .1rNS such as p;uks. petleStft.ln strect$, public �nd
_F",,;.,J., I:I[ �
r'q 9 1'V-1JM1JIl'II ....
1, t3bIe ligtlt
iI range of 1 _ 1 0 Wp In order to reduce the ('nergy l1f.'edcd, lhe ngllling system is operaled With LED
f>glJPV'!XM'£IedwtJeel l*ltl_tleta,l iII1CI gerer;al w,,''''_ tounuyol man,olilClUlO Jap;Jn 1IM!_gr_i!MIIV��
_'IhfDOl..-. 0IpIn.
PV pedestrian salcty handrail ThiS handrail is powcred by 1 0 Wp PV amorphous slhcon la-51} modules Integrated III the shape of the steel profile. With an
mterestmg aesthellc appearance, the product 15 designed for use III pedestrian streets .111d bridges. and to protect people from
road traffiC haz.ards. Agam. by usmg IIghlS operaled wilh LED the energy requlremenlS are 5lgnlfic.lntly reduced
PV streel inlormatJon Tht! swndilfd Inform-llion screen is eqUIPped \vith ,1 P\' cell
s.-:.roro:a: S"",wIInd
�pl-clally placed to prQtt-ct the post boxes against ram The
PV road noise barrte rs The world's first PV noise barner over 100 kWp was bUIll In 1989
iwstllt'tical Imcgr.:lIIon has also �11 considered In the
near Chur. the second was bUIlt In 10QS at Glebenach (near
'Infoconeep," SttuCIUle, combmed with dlUcrent standard
BasIc) In Switzerland A slmil.)f Installallon was built In 1902
deSigns
along a railway Ime In tlte southern pan of Switzerland. but without a noise prOlccuve runcllon Other smaller installations were piloted in Austria and Germany durmg 1992 As a rcsult of an international ideas competition In 1 t)QS and the Introduction of Integrated PV sound barner concepts. a further
5i)! installations of 10 kWp each were built commencing in 1 097 through to I MO in Germany and Switzerland, UtiliSing different technologies to show typical advantages In different SUU,luons The Netherlands boasts one of the longest and largest PV·NBS inslallatlons al 220 kINp. StretChing
I 0 kilometres along
a 1l1000rw,ly near Amsterdam. and generating around
Solar eJectric sunllowers
N",stlt-d alop iI hillside III nonhem California. 30 solar elecmc
sunOowers represent an elegant combination of an and
tedmologr The client requested an unconventional and anisllc msta[!allon They got JUSt that The solar elC(Erlc sunflowers look and act like nature's \'I!ry own sunflowers, usmg a two-axis
tra(klng system, the sunflowers wake up to follow the SUIl'S path
throughout the day. enabling the sYSlem to produce enough energy for 8-10 horne:.
r>gl.p/- unirli:sd � ClXIIV,oIlIWIlI«!lIr& .bpar\ ..... """ -
ng l 1 11tfocorcent 1'V-powered street �1CJ1bo1td
fio 1 2 PV "SUIlfIov.l!I'·1f11egrl\ed llllglhll I.lrotl:supe,delati andgenetal 'illlY/1 s.v.:r.Stbt�A1Jocqr.. US4
1 i6.000 kWh of electricity per year (table 1 and figure
Ou(AIJ)
,•• m",
.......
.,....'" "., ""
(kWJ ".
.... -
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SWlL!Orbnd """"'"
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171
103 kWp Chur. Switzerland case study
The [OJ kWp Installation from Chur in the Swiss Alps (figures 15 and 16) is the oldest operable PV·NB installation. The slle produces on average dL'duCting
1 .863
108.000 kWh net energy ptr o1nnum
after
kWIt C 1 7 per cent) for powenng the 1l10nitonng
sYSlem and inverter
For the
[OJ kWp system thiS pro\'ldes an
annual yield of 1 .0J5 kWh/kWp The site Is onenled 25 degrees east of south at an oprimal tilt angle of -15 degrees to the lalllude of the region II covers BOO linear metres of road. top mounted flush on a 2-metre vertical Slructure, and add:,. DbB s(luare metres to the noise barrier area, 11 comprises 2,208 Kyocera poly' tryst.lllinc PY modules .lm[ one 100 kilovol1 amps IkV.l} Siemens Inverter With a power condlt[onlng effiCiency of q.[ per cent Ahcr eIght monlhs planning and an eight-week Insl.lllatloll timeframe, the site commenced generation in December 1 'lSQ [n Its first 10 years and three months. the sile co\'cred 38,157 hoots of generation lime resllhmg In an ovcrall OUtpUt producllon of I . I0S,il:! kWh
111
FtglSA1JTruI!tl3(l1er_ SWl�1m;J
��I_m:: �""'t'O_""" 113
Retrofit designs are cUrremly Ihe mosl common PV·NBS approac h and provide additional area to o1n
existing noise barner StruCture InStances whereexisting noise
overhang design lfigure 16) olfers greater PV A lop-moumed surf.1Cl' area per linear meue of bamer wall While not condusl\Ic. Ihe overhang could prOVide a beneflc/al nOise
In
contain noise pollution levels through mcreased traffic volumes a well·deslgned
rv
�
retrofit SOlutio
could assist in achieving
deflection componenl away from urban zones The diagrammatic ?V·NBS design representations do nOt assume the PV modules facc lhe road There may be advantages In orienting Ihe rv tiway from Ihe roadside bUI Ihat will depend on road orlent.1llon and
preventative measures no longer
compliance Icvels and generate electrical power slmultaneously_
The top-mounted flush PV-N8S design shown in figure I 7 uses
the eXisting nOise barrier as a suppan struCture The height o1nd
surrounding natural and miln-made objects lhat could augment unwantcd shading innuences, Shingle retroru deSigns utilise a I,uger surface area for solar po.....er generalIon as shown in figure 1 9 InnOVo1tive lilt
flg t 8 tOp l!llUlll!d loverl'lan!ll
s-.. Mn$/r;w�dNS'.V.�
ilnd orientation is required 10 reduce shading effC1:ts SUch a structure would demand careful conSideration of public safety. and strategies such as siling the Insmllauon close 10 24-hour
toU gates or surveillance areas 10 minimise the threat of theft
and vandalism
orientation of mOUnting
r
mlmmlses any mddence of
headlight or sun glare and reduces Ihe threat of Iheft Of damage of the PV modules
flgtS9wt,)ltdi!:s9'.-dA6.Geo:m.Iy
... V. AoosIT o..- u.1S- l.DotRIfr dN51
� rJ:ooo."'-'S_
fig20 I'Y lllli$ll barnerw,thsemi-tr.In$palool billIt131 llOlulc5. oolalisard getll!l'ill VIIIW S!Ii.fI:t' .lSfGllIiJII M1 K�G4tbH
Bifacial PVnoise barrier This innOV3ti\'e system allows the application of blfaclal PV modules along mOlorways wuh north-soUth oriemmlons_ One Side generates power 10 the morning and the other In the afternoon as the sun tracks a palh across Ihe sky_ A 10 kWp
system has been installed 10 WalUsellen, Switzerland mgure 20), where the PV biracial modules replace the existing concrete wall
This application shows the high level of integration possible as
the PV module funcuons as the noise protection structure with
the IOcorporauon of dummy elements. where nC1:cssary, for a belief \'tSUal appearance. The wall. Wllh a tOlal length of 120 metres, has a power density of 80 \VIm. For a standard 3-melfe wall it could
r'!l 2 1 PVlIDI$eballltl lIllD!P1
fa... MIrr.r �tJw'-IM AR1J
be raISed to about 200 Wlm. even allOWing fOf a
cenain leo,'el of transparency. Given the vertical nature of the modules, careful headlight glare studies may be required to avoid unwanted renccllons
1\\'0 other integrated design approaches are presented In the
·zig.zag- design of ngures 22 and 23 and the 'casscne' design of 60lh offer a more effective melhod of renecllng noise
ngure 24
but encourage structural shading There are trade-orrs between
material and PV coment and an errC1:live noise abatement struClUre_ The casselle design, while demanding higher millerial fig 21 'lig'laI;f design aloog a Iilllway 1100 III Sv.1trellard lIwva'll .u.t� I.tne<""dNSW "",,a-..
1lvrqjr� 11urw�s..'wrlMi
usage. is partiCularlyeffcclive In abating noise as the cassettes act as a sound absorption unit with the upper surfaces ideal for mounting the
rv modules,
'Zig-zag' PV noise barrier
TIlL' concept of the stache.:! allernaung planes allo....'5 for the
combln.mon of PV. transparent surfaces and noise absorbing
surfaces By choosing the distances between the cells of the PV modules, dlffercnI degrees of transparency are allowed The transpOlrt'l1cy could also be obtained by .1lternatlng PV and glass pl"ncs. The modules .ue tilted approximalely i5° from the horizOlllal plane Further prefabncatlon of the whole systcm will lead 10.1 reduction of the moumlng time "nd, therefore, the COSt In gencral, the nOise absorpllon level of PV-NBS depends on tht.' share of [he glass surface. With the zig-omg and cassellI' construcuons, very high nOise absorption levels arc possible For pure glJSS surfaces (such as the biracial module) a high level of rl!'nection would be anucipated
Careful conSideration of
surrounding hOUSing would have to be taken In this instance
f'\l14 t.us.l!e llc::gt. GennIoy
\t , ... � u-t.� oIli ;}ksIr ....
� -.sM-.Sior."
As for nOise dampmg (behind the walU. this IS similar to a
Y'rI raltway station
canopy
strUClWC of thiS raHway platform (.lnopy cOn.�lst5 of a with a roof. glazed on bolh �Ides of the horizontal stcel tube pj)e. Thi� is Intended to let the daylight through to Ihe CCntral pan of tht' platform but also to mark the border between the
wailing :lIld the boarding area About hair of thc glazing alca contaIns rv cells special allentlon has been paid to ensure
compliance with Swiss stand
Inc! snow loads
Investigillions with regard to electromagnetic
nelds reve.lled no direct Ihreal lo passengers below Experience of dealing with bird soUing and pollution from train engine brake dusC suggestS thai preventallve measures to slap birds landing
should be Incorporated Into the deSign Either regular
malnten
conventional noise barner. as long as the weight of the Structure c)(cl.-eds a cena(n mimmum
PV busshelter
The' PleXiglas semitransparent solar modules provide Ihe bus
Shelters and kiosks
$heIter lighting By combinmg solar cells with highly transparent �iglas. daylight can be used for natural Irghtlng In addition to
Is sandwiched
Railway station PV roof
anmclal light sources. ThIs kind of module
This photovohaic·powered station roof and showcase Illgure 25)
between twO sheets of Plexiglas in a permanently clastic
IS a nice comblnallon of a nC\vly designed 'standard' roof and
struCture. The encapsulation method allows the PV modules to
well.lntegrated PV modules placed in a public location The solar
be desIgned al will. The resulting product is lightweight. weather
modules provide both the required energy and a watertight roof
restStant .lnd durable. These modules could. therefore. replace
covering This Is especially interesting because of [he emphasis
any Iype of exiSting sheets in entrances or canopies without
on architectural demands thaI have been considered in the roof
changing the geonletry of the structure In qucstlon.
Integration destgn f'\l25 lb1mof2OlXl ItatJOn l'VrOClf
s.- .w.." �S"'�'IN
PVumbreUa The structure can be Inclined rrom 0-200, to respond beLler to the local solar condltlons. and give optimum shading The umbrella consists of a steel structUle capable of supponing a maximum or rIVe photovoltaic panels of I square metre each, accommodating around
600 Wp or nominal power The deSIgn of
the large square base. besides counterbalancmg the structure.
also offers the placemem of several accessories. such as Ihe
se-ats. thai hide the batteries. a table. planters. and a small ught fixture. The pmJect allows the use of coloured fabric or polycarbonate al Ihe four corners of the cover. so that the object may blend Into the environment in which It is used. touriSt Villages. or as displays for company logos are twO examples
ENEl PV canopy The shelter was designed ror the Italian energy utility. ENEL and selected for ItS wIde range of possible uses In all those areas where excavatIons for electrical cabling could be partiCularly l.ilJricUlt, such as parks. archaeological sites, recreational areas, and sea resorts. The structures c.1n be inclined frolll 0_200, by liltIng speCially designed capitals on the tWO supporting columns.
flg :ll ENELIIiIU'I\I N canopy
Soua.(JI(Ifit>It Ii�c.wAlnrz.. /uIJ
177 '
ENEl
PV kiosk
r", lBrtw: 1CIar dBga ll* IsadBgolY,I
This PV kiosk is desIgned to J.ccommodatc a small ofnce space and an exhlhltlon art"a for temporary public cvems The kiosk is modular. e.1ch module is conceIved as a bay of three
PV modules
Depending on the space avaIlable for the temporary event. and
the electrical rcquHt:mem of the kiosk. lI 1S possible to assemble
..
f1lJJlf'\/ sIIt'll8f tllOOPl' �'!I" -bm! O/IJCN
Artto.ltmn ""-'W�. ",,"l
(120
uslllg as many bays ifrom a mlllimum of three) as desired The
120
small version of three bays incorp0r.ltes nme PV modules em widtll x
cm length) and is sufnclem for Indoor nghting,
Ihe energy of a computer. and other exhibit dIsplays The wiring
of Ihe PV system IS visible through Ihe wooden composile pilaster of Ihe kiosk The \WO small sealS located on Ihe side of the entry hide the bauenes BOlh Ihe UV-resislam Plexiglas roof .1nd the fabric used for the exlerior walls can be sllkscreened wnh publicil)' or logos of Ihe evems
P V c a r shelters and petrol stations Car shelters either for parkIng or When nllUlg up at petrol slmions are excellcnl Slrucrures for Imegraling PV With Ihe growth of eleclric ballery h�'brid petrol vehicles and fuel cell lcchnologies. there IS a clear logIC In charging or refuelling vehicles usmg direct PV elecrnmy. or m Ihe production of hydrogen 10 supply fuel cells. The a
PV
US
Department of Environmem car neel has adopted
electrical car ballery system where Ihe vehicle Is recharged
while shellering from dlrecl sunlight Car shelter examples are shown al lefl fq11
0es91 of a
113nll1r1
s.,,. f,"!OO Jcw!
tI�"bkI. hohIWII'QI,\ S!n.clum f� a Cilroort lool
BP Solar has initiated a
US$50 million. 3.5 MW rwo·ye.lf program kWp on 200 of ils 1 ;.900 BP·brandcd
to install a maximum of
20
retail PV pelrol stations in 11 countries. This follows a successful Irial of 19 sites in Europe. Austraha. Malilysia and Ihe USA f9lJf'\/ta' paf\CII"
.'I�lc AnJllll _ N!1J?
fog )4 1 9 kWp ptug.,,..
\�'SII'1 m0n0-cry5QII_
1001 ImUfIIIICI f)'Slern
- .... ,.
...
Fig J5 1 0 �Wpo.r.e1 IhIn-I,irn 1ntIlll'IIW
deslgn,� dI! HiNII!I.$p;JlI'I
- ,.-
A I <).kWp syslem at Olney. Maryland tngule 3'1) supplies .1S much as 40 per cent of Ihe petrol Slatlon's daytfme electricity needs. BP Solar has redeSigned liS new petrol slalion canopies ,15 curW!d
surfaces to IncorporalC PV panels. ellher at the time of construction or al a larer date (figure 35)
Other ltilnsport-relaled PV-NBS tl1at can be used as a design opllon Includes its use on garages (figure 371 or as a solar charging device for electronic vehicles engure 38)
'!IIlll'lPil" :��:::5��1 a)IIlct�llIydoub�al ... s.x...., /lnil:J<
fog. IOllVtllw:lPY aOlod1 1oologlal Par\, kocN.. /;Ipan
178
M,'tI ....
Swtllfff.Jrf!
deYatOlTHINt:eIecbc-.el'llde$ (�OWIWId
I71'fmll] Th!. N(IItt.!poIeII5eN�m. Ifog.taI �nthedownlqn.atnq.l
..
s..ar .w
I'h*r J\ s,..._lSI1
-�
Single aerial structures
The ann of Ihe tower support s .1 20-melre horilOm,11 steel truss
PV slreel sign A photovohalqlOwered publiC transport Information board is
shown In figure 40 It is safe from theh of modules. since the rv component (5 an imegral part of the board. TIle system Is very
efficlt!JlI In energy US!:. since light for the board is based on LED .1nd will only operale after pressing the bU\1on (and switches off "fler 20 �econds)
canopy of PV modules. collecting sol
lighting use and providing shade during daylight hOUfS The PV
stnlClUres usc 1 .520 BP Solar laser grooved laminates in toml Eolch lOwer consists of five rows of 1 6 solar panels with a
nominal capacity of 6.8 kWp per tower. gtnerallng
PV slreet lighting The 'SOllght' model /figure 4 1 , IS designed to be used In highly
dl!{:trlcl1Y company PNEM's use of ·solar sails· for promolJonal
VIsible art!.lS such .1S parks. pedestrian streets. public and
purposes Problems with theft. vandalism. wind Jnd aeslhetlcs
historical bUildings. The
fog.1 P111-.....,'"
laum F'II Q I'IIIHlt'd
�t",tl.gllt
WlII1tl'9"l
f'Vbfj.,.... ""
Slum .'.HO .-.
Pl' lIIlm
Another example of a grid-connccted PV system Is the Dutch
pV streetlighl
IS made of high-grade steel.
were solved to an Innovatwe way through the use of water .1S
with special anenllon paid 10 the aesthetic deSign of the SUpport
a n
structure and 10 the Imegr;mon of the PV modules. It is equipped
d(:slgning an open structure. the wmd load was decreased
wuh em:rgy-savmg lamps of 27 W and a malntenance·free
special attention was pi'ud 10 Ihe aeslhellcs. with bnght coloured
bauery. COntrolled by an IMS (Intelligent Management System)
panels placed between the
The bauery and the IMS system are incorporated Inside Ihe
PV modules !figure 46)
ballery box under the lamp case. The two 50 Wp PV modules
are fixed in wnh special ami-theft screws.
Other innovative designs
UtI! "roo ....
The final figures in this chapter present innOvatwe designs either as concepts_ or In the case of [he PV cube In 5.1nla Ana !figure 54).
Multi-aerial structures
as a completed project The scope of using pV-NBS is unconnned
Multhlerial structures are Increasmg in popularity as distinct
as long
features of urb,ln landscape furniture.
u!Wble electriCity either at polnt-of-use or fed directly Into the
Olympic boulevard PV lighting lowers case study
The Sydney Olympic boulevard pylons are
prImarily urban
sculptures desIgned 10 bring a sense of mO\'ement and festivity to
clc:ctrlcilY grid Tht! PV sunflower feature tflgure 47) is prominently posilioned In the grounds of an Austrian school. maxunising Its exposure to
the centrill pedestrl.1n spine of the Olympic precinct The towers
studl:nts. parents and passing public
serve as IndlCil1ors of scale and direction within Ihe vcry large
The P" planter lfigure 48) is intended as a lIfe·support system for
boulc\,.1rd as well as displaying signage. gencrilllng electricity_
,1 rare Iree The PV provides power for water pumps and 5011
providing power oUllelS for activities in Ihe boulevard. prOViding
monitoring sensors.
Fog46·SoIar�lr911c!a.lI'«md PJ $y'ltmn .. .s;,....,. fCN. lIw �
�hadc. providing night Illumination and conveymg graphic In(ormanon through digital screens The viSiblHty of Ihe PV is also deslgnl-d 10 showcase solar energy producnon and screens
n
ill boult....ard level display the amount of energy being gener.lled 10 passersby The I') photovohaic light pylons Une Ihe I ,S-kilomelre Olympic boulevard .llongside the 1 I 0.000·scat Olympic stadium. .1nd the coumry·s largest Indoor 'Superdome- arena where 20.000 spectators w!;'re .1ble 10 willch_ amongst olher spons. basketball and gymnastics Each lighllng pylon marks the name of a P.1SI host OlympiC City. is 30 metres in height and feiltures ,1 large
concr�·le leg Structure to coumcrl)iJlance.1 stt:el tower AI! mooulcs face llway from the stadium lowards true north (southern hernlsphert!l and provide the necessilfy electrlcily 10 power noodllght5 directed upwilfds OntO .1 mirror which spreilds Ught diffusely below The rV-backing bOIse layer Is iI blue
fluorescent colour whIch IlIumlnatcs the PVs :lnd produces .1 stunmng effect .1t night ExpeCted generating OUlpUl per year Is 1 60.000 kWh which matches Ihe lighting demands of the public boulevard Mea
F1Q 41 PI MfWf!r WI sdlaoI gn:uUs. GIIIsdorf, Austrii � � \I..� ksN
181
In l'pcr,mon sineI.' IIlQ], SII ..'Ckborn boo\IS the liBI BIP\' church In tht' world Supported by the SWISS Fedt�ral OHICt' 01 Energy. thiS III kWp Inst,lll�lIion compriscs Mb5 Siemens modules flll/ure 53)
Conclusion PV·NBS SOlutions are cro:!atlng a new nlla�f' and InSplr.IUOn ror
city environments The vancly of ex.lmples provided In this chapter emphasises the extent 10 which solar power can be utlhsed to meet important InfraslruCture rcqUlrt-mcnis In urb,m areas. with economic anti aesthetic benefliS impOrtantly. 11 IS also bnnging the technology IntO the public realm and Increasing
fJQ 5J19kWpPVthutthlower cloct. SUlI:lbom.S"'lllllllam
S
understandmgand appreclallon of lhc rolc thal lntegratcd PV products can play The morc NBS appllcmlons enter tile urh,ln marketplace. the more likely thm solar access ncc(ls olnd �UppOr1 sttueture functions wilt be beller Interprcted and accepted by urban planning JUlholll!eS and olher stakeholders ThtS can only help to alleviate mSlI1utlonal bamers that mlgtll confront the approval of PV-NBS
·$!np· n ID light llfr� flll S5 ThI$OIarlllobtlS a N"WM!Iedildl'el1lS111!1 tmrding Thl PV pitMdes ptl'Wel lorotaUl tbellM!rt Thllliobq also lIICOIJD"all!$ 8 1',1la\her 1J'(II\I10I1IlII l13bon. � Mh""" PIIJt__ffTS. \_ t
\hI!lgpandbon�lips oilht $ll'plln9l1
183
CHAPTER fiVE
BIPV POTENTIAL A N D DESIGN TOOLS
• Good solar yield is 'llso ,wal[able for a very Wide range
• DI5tTlbution of the annual mCJdenr solar energy on a
IIhed surface as a funcrlon of slope lU[t) and azimuth
of Mlrface oncntat[on, typiC,llly Inclined from 0" up to
t)(l0
• Relative solar yield for fl,1 1 roofs
or even more. andlor devlallng from the equ;uor
• Best lilt for sloped roofs (beSt aZimuth IS usually 0" _
!lilcetlon byat least 60"
2
reflects the solar Yle[d for nil! and sloped roofs as well as Figure for facades The re[allve solar yield (pcr cent of maximum loca[
Introduction nll� chapler commences by discussing the relL'vance of buildmg SUrro1CC Orlcmilhons aml thcir pOlcmJal lor harvc.sting SOJilf
IKlWCr.
equator·facingdirectlon)
• BeSt azimuth for fal;ades
anm,1.,1 solar mputl facilitates the comparison of the durerent
A BiPV pOIcmlal study at it Cit)l scale from lEA
p;lrIlclpaling COUnlTIt.'S 15 presented Includmg prospective
0worlunilies A revIL>\',' and analysis of BIPV design tools ,lnd consldl'r.ll!on of rcJilled issues complemem lhlS, including key Is:.UCS a�socl.lted wuh pre-system design and model slmuJallon approaches. Eva[u:lIion of Ihls kind Is an Important process In und("l'5mndlng both [he various design options ilVall.1bJe and
making a case for BIPV appllcanons_ It also helps designcr5. planners. decisIon makers and other related praClllloners cSlJ.bhsh prosp.:ctlvc benefits and constTamts on a Cil5t:.by' ',151: [cllcl
In Slmer,l!. onl' of the most cmical factors to be consIdered Is Ihe
bUilding surfaces Md Ihe v.ulous lociltions The following
orient;lIIon of the bUilding envelope elements IOwards the sun
char,lcteristlcs are provided in figure 2
TIle solnr yield for nat and sloped roofs as well tiS for facades Is
• Good solar yield for sloped roofs lUI! JO") and fal;ades
highlighted under the followmg topics • Annual solar Yield for the building envelope: how does the orientation of the building envelope mnuence the solaryield7 • Seasonal solnr Yield for the building envelol)C how does the onentation of the budding envelope Innuence Ihe solar yield through the seasons?
• Dailylhourly solar yield for the building envelope, how does the oriental1on of the building envelope innuence Ihe solar Yield throughOUt the day?
• Trade.off on nal roofs: how does the type of
How much sunshine can a building harvest? BIPV faces a v,1rlety of solar an::hnecturill factors and requirements In order 10 achieve high·qualit�, budding mtegrallon and solar yield, Three important ques!lons anse
mtegral10n Influence the solar yield? What Is the best/opumal use of nat roofs?
• BIPV potential
In cities how much solar e[eclflcity Coln
a City produce7 In thiS chapler. the annual solar yield 15 discerned for a selec[lon
• What Is the best solar yield?
of cities across the world IOgure 2) One location. Zurich in
• Whm Is a good solar yleld1
Switzerland. Is researched in order 10 bctler underst,lnd the value
• Wllilt Is the Optimum solar yield? The main types of building Integralion and asSOCiated tilt angles Cln be distinguished and relmed to the ume/perlod of production
and varlarlon of seasonal and dailylhourly solar yield. the rf,lde. off assoclared with flar roof Integration and finally, the potential is assessed
.1nd consumprron of solar electriCity These Include annual, st'asonal and dallylhourly solar energy yield
Annual solar vield for the building envelope So[ar radlallon 15 unequally distnbuted on surfaces of different onental1on. It is obVIOUS that surfaces oriented 10 the equator and r"",, _foI �.�.""'_ .,:lI'.IS',W
...... 1"1 _ _""'"
r'll t lnIJlVlilllon�"'arcl MSOa/Ited l.lIqIes '[ I""" [ Sco,oQo "
.. ...... ,f �'WIIII. S\o.uwt.u
•
lilted by the degree corresponding to the local latitude usu.ll1y promote optimal annual solar yield For locarions such as Los Angeles. at JJ" 5'N or Sydney at 33° 5'S. sloped roof arcas tilted
by some 3D" yield [he maximum
annual solar input possible.
But Ihl5 only partly renecls the BIPV opportunities. What Is less
commonly underslood. but essential to keep in mind, is that a Wide range of surface orientations obtain a vcry usab[e annual solar yle[d at only a few per cent less than the maximum Further, these surfaces offer parllcularly interesting feillures
with respect to the seasonill and daily/hourly solar yield Some basic principles and trends for BiPV and solar yield, with reference to [he annual Input, can be dr,wm; • The best solar yield is usuaUy obtained 011 surfaces
oricnted to the equator and tHted by the degree corresponding to Ihe [ocal latitude (ilhhough in some
Azimuth: 0" 'or equalor direction.
cases a lo.....er tilt is optimal, for example Zurich, with a
lBO·for pole direction
[amude of 47" 4' exhlbl/s a preferred IHt of 30" from
II<
the horizontal planel
+ values lor west orientation, - values lor east orientation,
��M-==:r=:=�m:�t......
__ ·a.a.Mm31 /gt----
185
SOme basIC princIples and trends for BiPV and solar yield
pt'ClflC loe.11 melcorological condhions such as a high
referring 10 Ihe lallludes can be drawn Exccp'ions to these Irends are due 10 s
share of diffuse hghl. a characteristic of overcast Zurich days
...... nal solar yield for the building envelope of Ihe tilting of the earth's axis as It orbits seasons arc a product around the sun. The sun's height consequently varies according 10 the season and Is more Significant at higher latitudes Figure 4
demonstrates a northern hemisphere example for determining the' angle of incidence of a lilted PV module relative to the
The higher the lalllude of Ihe locauon. away from the equaJor Une • The lower Ihe relative solar yield of nat roof areas
post'ion of 'he sun at a given location and time of year How the
SOlar yield follows the seasonal changes Is shown in the example ror Zurich lfigure 5), A erage daily global [rfadl.llion values arc
• The hlghcr the tilt of besl yield
....
• The wider (he lilt spread for south- or north-facing
given for each momh of the year and for surfaces facing south,
roof .lfeas (depending on hemIsphere, able to access
southwest and southeast. west and east. northwest and nonhe.1St
good solarYlcld
and nDrih
• The tigiller the azimuth spread for roof areas (ult 30")
Some baSIC principles and trends fot BiPV and seasonal solar
obl.llning good solar Yield
yield can be drawn The higher Ihe tilt of the surface
- The higher the relative solar yield of fac.,des
• The higher the solar input in wimer
- The tIghter the azimuth spread for fa�ade areas
fIg.Ang�of$Olar I'W:ldln;e CJIilWI!df'V rrxxIuItI s..c..u.:..
• The lower the solar mpul In summer
obtamlng good solar yield
• The lighter Ihc azimuth spread fot areas obtaining
... Dr'-iUMI
good solar yield
The seasonal solar yield, both absolute and relative. is strongly comlaled wuh surface oriental1on. Optimal or good annual solar
yields can diner from Optimal or good seasonal solar yields. Roof
surfaces of higher IIIIS and fa�ades oriemed slightly away from nonh In the southern hemisphere and south in the nonhem
" " " " " "
" 00
�.tilnh
Jan F
/,1
M.ar ""'
U.�
Jun
JIJI
hemisphere. achieve beller solar yields in wInter, such as in
J.
Iwv Sep OQ
SoIIIh _SWISE .WntIEHl .WNI NE .Nor1I'I
"
Ie)
1.1
..
I'oflt Mit)'
J\In
Jul
A.ug Set!
SOul!! .SWI SE .Well/ EII" .NWI NE .NofttI
0c1
NO>'
H<Wiron
fIll J A\11faQ11 IyQIobIIIflIdQI"lI'1 m�Whper JqIW. metn!'Df root lltUill !rlled bI4�', d llO" � d I IDf'�!bIhilIhl\'WII'I'ha:lrtlaJIareaof lrnll s"" tlwIlIrd. W 2 N I" 3 1. ' I J m.aa.do_02
trl'JI�
harvesl calculation USing the clear·sky model For global Irradiation. the pOtential dally solar input and Intensity can be calculated and compared between days throughout the year
\.
" " " "
'0
F.o
A clear-sky model can be applied for a more precise energy
Ibl
"
hili
" 30 " " "
Har\mn
" " 00
are.1S of moderate lallludes
'.0
Oec Vear
Mar
"'"
May
.!un
Jul
Aug Set! 0;, Nov o.c; v.ar
Sou\rl .SWISE .WIHlI lEasI .NWf NE .Nor1I'I
Horil:on
" I "
:.. (til
i!
J$Outh .SWI Se .WeSl/ EaII .NW/ NE .Nortn
1,
,e
i 1a.
Horb:on
"
kWh!
21 Jun
m'lday
21 Mayl 21 Jul
21 Aprl 21 Aug
21 Marl 21 Sep
21 Feb! 21 Oct
21 Jan! 21 Nov 1 .93
21 Dec
Average Year
3.28
1 .46
5.04
O·
8.47
8.07
6.84
5.07
8.14
7.81
6.91
5.48
3.95
3.28
6.37
45'
8.21 7.50
7.54
7.60
7.22
6.10
4.63
3.91
6.50
60'
6.36
6.54
6.93
7.09
6.34
5.01
4.29
6.24
90'
3.36
3.66
4.58
5.56
5.65
4.81
4.24
4.70
30'
r"ll 5 Valwso'dai!y slllar VJeJd lclearsl;y globill lrrad�loQ1)oIsoutil-racIfl9 I11Ulll\ Zurich. Sw1llerlandOl!rdilV
.,. Nff....,.."..� a Ta:tmlcgy{Dt S'lo��1'V$l'STJIs-r.uorrod
':'- "'�)Slll"'"
II!
181 -
HDriZtKttM .,.. - "., toO'
The sum of the IIOIar Irradiation per day and the length 01 sunshine follow the sun'S heighl over the year. and in summer. produces almost 16 hours of sunshine and 8.5 kWh per square meier at lnadlalion. Minimum is 8 hours
PI.... 0... s� GI"b.I 1....I.nu 11 Zulltlo. (leL �1.2"", Ion!. I.)'f, .... �Il .., - .- 11104_ >� l'IOcI.I'. l'I_JlIn
01 sunshine and only 1.5 kWh per square melre of Jrradlabon. Values for spring/autumn are exactly In between: 1 2 hours 01 sunShine resulting in 5 kWh per
MlXlfnUm values for Ihe solar IrradiatlDll per day are not In
IUft'III18r but in spnng and aulumn. The areas then yield .round 7 kWh per square melre. The lenglh at sunshine is fairly siable dunng more !han halt al tho year. The sun
"*'" IOf aboul I I
hours per day. Compared wllh
- . >�-.
__ _._ t.r
- �g§ -- 11 1'«
diftentnlly orienled areas, the areas have boSI values in wtnter wtlh up to 5 kWh
at Irradiation. Again,
Ihe length of
sunshine Is a minimum of 8 hours.
square me1re of Irradiation.
Inclined area - sloped roof 1111 al 30-
v.uc.I.,.. - fllt;sds
The sum 01 the solar irradiation per day and the length of
The sum Of the solar irradiation per day is almost a reversal of the values found with horizontal areas. Maximum vatues of 5.5 kWh per square metre ate in (early) spring and in (late) autumn. In summer, the values are only 3.5 kWh per square melre. The length of (direct) sunshine is around 10 hours. The values in winter are around 4.5 kWh per square metre 01 Irradiation and. 01 course, e hours of sunshine.
sunshine have high values during a longer period in
summer. Due to the till 01 30-. the values are muttlplied by 2 in winter The maximum In length is around 14 hours 01 (direct) sunshine and around 8 kWh per square me1re 01 Irradiation during a lalrly long period in summer. Minimum
Is also 8 hours 01 sunshine bUl the sum 01 irradiation Is over 3 kWh per square melre.
- .- .-
= �= l'I _.u...
-- l'I e:.
ng 6 Soi.-y.elaltleaf u., gIobal rndJabOn per dayl oISOUJtt.I�a'lllI$ ," lundl. Swl\leflard Inclinedares - SlOped roof tilt lit 45-
The sum of the solar Irradiation per day and the fength at sunshine have fairty high and stable values during hall of
the year. The maximum In length Is around 12 hours at (direcl) sunShine and around 7.5 kWh per square metre 01 Irradiation during a fairly long period in summer. The values in wlnler are 8 hours at sunshine and the sum 01 irradiation yields around or over 4 kWh per square melre.
188
PIIIII 0... Sty Glabll t".dllllf:1l Il brldl. (lIt.H.1'N. lang.8.J'E. lll 41] ml
- ]1 u. - l'I Ur-'
s-. NCT ...... f......,. .. r""""*'tlr tJd. � "",,, l"VS'rSrJl �lI>III
- �=
IS9
Oaily"'.u"y ••10' yield I., the building envel.pe TIw �un's height also depends on the rolallon 01 Ihe earth. hence
The dall�'Ihl1Url�' sobr Yield - both absolute and relat1V� - 15
IntenSU}'ll·...elsat ullFeTCnt llmcs lhrough the day \',lluesof glob.1!
strongly correl,lted With the orientation of the surface BeslIgOOd d'llly!hourly solar Yields can paflly differ from beslfgood annual
o;olaf Irradl;ulon on a clear :! I 51 June (see
and/or sl'a�onnl solar yields, If solar electricity prodUCtion Is
dtJrrm:nII}" oriented surfaces oblilm solar Irradlanon .11 dlnercnl
00)(1
In waIlS per
StI UJff' mcrn: arc gl�'en for fa{ades and for surfaces faCing SQUlh.
supposed 10 match �peclnc dailynlOurly 10..1d5, for example.
southwest and southeas!. west and cas!. northwest and northeast
before or aft�r noon, then roof surraces of higher 1(its and
and north SOme baSIC principles and trends for BiPV and sol;u
fa�ades f,lClllg cast or west may have beller solar yields TIlis
yIeld C
may be pafllcularly true (almost) all year round Iloc.ltlons close
illirnUlh of a sUglllly Inclined roof surface [Q the west or east • Ihc c,ulic r o r lillcrrn theda}, Ihal hlghlcr) solar yield
can bc obfilmcd.
to tht' equator} or for seasonal periods (locations ill moderate latitudes) Some specmc applicatiOns are possible wllh blfacial eh.:ments, thai IS. tWO photovoltalc aCJ1\'e areas. one surface faCing east, the other facing Wesl
• Ihc lowcr Ihe peak OUlpUt,
TIId....n .n flat ,••Is
kWh!
The [fark,ofr on nat roofs 15 Illustrated for Zunrh, Thl'fI� arc tWO
m'/day O·
prinCipiI'S concerning best use of fliH roof Men • fk"�t Yield per square metre of acuv,. area I� abldtnM ,1\ ,1 Lilt angle of about 30-45°, the sum of optimal
c,ln
......
.,98S
8,466
8,466
7,768
',231
',207
3,537
4,756
1,899
3,409
6,749 5,291
5,786
7, 1 45
7,621
7,500
6,436
6,717
6,357
4,740
4,422
3,366
a/1liH 1ll lu'dI.S.,.,tmt.rf
_/£T'-"�&�UIIl.S",'u.w.J
_ 'Ior-t roof area can bc uscd by horlzontal lntcgratlon
!'V
8,466
f'll B s.tn 01 I/1e glotraLsWr W!adoal� CII1 I Ileal 2111 ..ko '" w�tti pe1 ,quaIB melle Ioi
t)!' u!i�d, hence Implying a lower riltLO 'module
arc,l/roof a ren·
of thc
= EastIwMt = 8,466
45' 90'
modules cause shading and only a part of the Mea
8,466
30
eo
anmhll solar electrlcily prodUCtion HOwcvl.'r. the PV
......
modules The roof area aVilllable can be
uscd 100 per cent as the PV modules have no shading effccts. hence Implying a ratio 'modulc area/roof area'
• [hc cioser lhe ;mmulh oflhe fa!;<Jde surrace lo lhe
of one, However. Ihe solar yield Is a lIlIIc less th.ln
qO pcr cent of the milXLmum
par-Sible
For OPIllIlI5.1110n of the sol.lT YIeld and the milo 'module
area/roof area·, a further clemen! has to be conSidered the "oo
---
10 . ,
• North_NE . Ea51
--
- ,Cj� ...
1.1
shadmg angle limn The greater the angle of Ihe
/", � \,�-f .....------.. .. .... � -,
-_ . -
_
..-..,..
_
and the closer the
PV arm}'S are, the higher
rv mOdule/array
the shadtng angle
and the marc the solar Yield Is affected by shading. That Is why Ihe Ihmlt for Ihe) shading angle has to be considered A very low shadtng angle hardly arfecls thc solar yield, that Is, a shading angl� limited al 100 reduces the solar Yield by far I�s than
Scua:1Ef'-"-'�I �l#.�
1.-.
':- -" - - -, -. ,'- - - - - - -'- - -,i -SE
Soutl'l
SW - West .NW
Ibl
o Nonh _ NE o Easi
SE
Soulh o SW - West · NW
".. 900
BOO
. .
_ .:'
...
'.
/""":'
' ::"" O.:.':': '.� ':"= ' . '=:.-:: ::-'' ' '._''_ __ -= � :: ._ ''. : ' "" .'" •• W". '.:-::: ' .::'� ". = ''' ' ' ._'_ , .S ' ._ 1<1
o N Of1/ l _ NE . East
AI noon It is directly overhead, With sunrise and sunsel ocwrring at symmetncal urnes either Side of noon Loctll lor clockl l1me is deiermined by the local time zone and is taken at a referenc� longitude For each degree of difference m longitude between the actual and rderence. thcre 15 a 4·mtnute lime dIfference. Thus, to com'crt solar 11mI' to Joca.I ume. a Simple fonnula IS
...:..�" (_/ .�\ .. �\ X, X, ..
local and solar time In most locations. there wi!! normally be it dlrrerenc� between solilr and local time. Solar time IS determined by the posilion of the sun
� --
.�
600
SE
fi9 9 � nwn; tt. I'IiI:rn � fl)' trJdt.otI diSQlUlCln IimlIIiI!-faolllSll
Sottlh . SW - Wosl ·NW
Tlccal _ Tsolar
+
used
((Longitude - Longiluderef) • 4)
The lable below details Ihe solsl1ce and equtnOX dates for both hemispheres.
A
Southern
D TE
Hemisphere
Northern
Hemisphere
Description Sun at its highesl noon altitude
Summer Solstice
22 December
22 June
Autumn Equlno)(
21 March
21 September
Winter Solstice
21 June
21 December
Sun at ils lowest noon al1ilude
21 March
Sun rises due easl, setsdue west
Spring Equlno)(
21
September
Sun rises due east, selsdue west
onl' per (I'nl
TIu.' wtlu(uon 15 Ihree per Cent for each slep 2SQ and fmally JO� whr.re
10 :!Oo. IO�5 equals len per cen!
m(rt'ase of shadmg angle up global '
sqUJtt! metre of roor area.
n:fle
corro�ion. On surfaces uhed by
IS. 5° for bOlh the shadmg angle and thl' lilt the 1111 of thl' Ihe lower the rano Is (hoTizonloll
Ihe dm with It
of the awve area result m .1 ralio of 0 5. The higher
By acc('ptlng ., higher shading angle. the rmio can be
mulupllcauon of the
.!!
i g'
the anglc of 5°
annu.,1
per square metre of active are.' and Ihe ratio
In
optImal
kWh per
IS less problemallc for aeslhetic reasons
0'
5"
10·
20"
30<
45"
60a
0·
1 , 088
1,110
1 , 1 43
1 , 1 55
1 . 1 67
1 , 1 66
1.143
So
1.087
1,109
1 ,141
1 , 1 52
1 , 1 63
1 , 1 63
1,141
100
1 ,083
1.105
1 , 1 37
1 . 148
1,159
1 . 1 59
1 . 1 37
1 ,056
1 ,077
1,109
1,119
1 , 1 30
1 , 1 30
1 , 1 09
1 ,028
1 ,049
1,079
1 ,090
1 . 1 00
1,100
1 .079
300
989
1 ,009
1 ,038
1 .048
� 45-
1 ,058
1 ,058
1 ,038
832
849
874
882
890
890
874
!
I
25-
r'\ltO AnnuaI IIIadI�I,on ,"lWhpflISQLtalC llll!lIeQIIItf'>"8a'cal{J1z...otI1,S"";UI!fbod
So
I\mrJI Sur>.!.r,-
nit angle
.!!
o·
i s"
E �
0.67
25°
0�
10"
20"
3�''
0.21
0.15
0 0.50
g' 10· li 20" i
5"
0.34 0.51
45"
I
buildings
1
unit)
60·
0.11
0.10
90,758 952,464
36
1 ,747,631
8,016
38
374,694
14
758,050
16
buildings eommercial buildings In(:IuatrlaI buildings
� bulldings
1,013
197,067
7
236,845
41 6,707
16
595,995
486
37,904
1 ,952
272,730
10
376,673
453
26.615
33,046
1 15
19,083
29,564
671
82. 1 1 2
82.112
� buildings
722
90,780
140,395
"" bufldings
230
10,979
99.090
Church buildings
234
24,591
47,007 All buildings ftg IJIW'V(tDOfareal poten�aI InIMctty of looch lll1"l. butkhng CMegOllft
2,668,093
can be seen that "
Wide
the BII'V roof area potenllal for Ihe eXlstmg building slock is
annuill solar inpul achieves very favourable
make a valuable contribmion to the optimis,ltiOn of solar
Is sunable and
elecuicny production and
supply,
The assessment of the BiPV potenllal in several countries show� that per 100 square metres of ground noor area. an average of
0.21
0.18
0.38
0.35
far;ade area are avai!
0.43
unsuu,lble roof area is typically due to construcilon. histoncal
0.52
0.50
0.73
0,71
0.73
..tUg
..0 square rnelres of roof area and another
15
square metres of
and shadtng elements. Md half due to InsuffiCient solar yield Fa�ade areas conmbute about one·seventh of Ihe solar electricity production potenllal The ratio ·sol.1f electricity production polentjallelcclTlcilY consumptiOn' Is around )0 per cent for �ral countnes For cities. this ratio happens to be smaller
1 ,087
554
242
1 74
128
1 1.
1,083
740
402
313
243
205
1
91
r'!l 'i
872
593
508
429
388
1 ,028
881
654
572
495
989
464
878
681
614
550
519
832
781
688
650
632
638
751
�'Sr'S,�I/lI"'�Wh per,� lI"ftI\ItDO!8Iea lIl1"Zwdl. S"'\lef1tfod
unsuitable for construction elements and another 22 per
cent
for shading. Ihe remaimng roof area has to be eHmlnated purely on the grounds of insufficient
New conSlrUCIlOns and,
50Iar yield
above aU. renovations, represent an
tnteresung dynamic SIPV potentIal. Thklng average values, there are about 30.000 square metres of suitable roof are.l on new constructions and another 40.000 square metres wuhln the
category of renovations thIS area Is considerable and ...."OUId
permit Ihe irlslallatlon of several MWp of solar p!)\\'Cr each year
The solar electricity production potential wlIh today"s 'common'
IS 270 GWh!y for tlte qo per cent yIeld roof arca and cent yield roof arca, 100alllng
despite Ihe considerable bUlldtng stock prescll1 10 these areas
technology
square nletre of ground floor area
4-10 GWhly These values roughly correspond to one tenth and one sixlh. respectively. of the act",ll electricity consumption of Zurich
,I� electricilY consumption Is often proportionally higher per
1 ,056
20 per cent of the gross roof area (I J,7 square kllomellesl has a fairly high solar yield. another 1 4 per cent has a fairly good YIeld About )1 per cent of Ihe roof area 15
"bout
0.27
0.58
presented. with sunable areas being defined as haVing at least 60 per cent and 90 per cent of the maximum annual solar Yield
seasonal and/or dailylhourly values. These areas can Iherefore
0.52
0.65
IS conSiderable as the example
of a case study In the city of Zunch illustrates !figure I J) Here.
0.45
0.78
NC\.'enheless. the SiPV potential
range of surface orient.1110ns. and Ihus building surfaces. obmin
0.53
0.86
100
a solar energy harvest of 90 per cent of the maximum pOssible
0.35
0.78
4,618,072
BiPV potential in cities By looking at the annual solar yield. II
0.60
0.87
78,585 1 00
.s.arNlrM"'JIc..y,& �IIl. S"lL""",,,
0.68
0.92
13
49,441
71 ,609
304BS
..,buIIdIngs
7
58,996
-.us for sports
BuIldIngs for cultural use
0.74
45°
331.651
3,119
0.81
3
%
9,877
0.84
0.45
BIPY (roof
erea) potent..1 with .ata, Vield > 0.8 In aquare rnetret;
%
16,631
-., bulldlngs
cent of the maximum
0
f.g l1 R.llJ(J molllll tfllii/looI.ea· lorlund. S""1l!I1anl /,\-sr.'JfA>
unil)
A conSiderable share of the bUilding envelope yielding 80 per
Ratio 'module area/roof area' for Zurich, Switzerland, 4]'1. 2'N, � 3'E, 4 1 3 m
A"
Of course,
Integr.llion cannot be generalISed but has to be considered
speclflt.lJly wnh evcry obJcct lfigure 121
20�
;;
solar YIeld for the
(1
(:>
a shadIng
orientalion mlO and half due to the shading angle Furthemlorc.
Annual irradiaHon in kWhi'rIl' of active area tor Zurich, Switzerland, 471 2'N, S9 3'E, 4 1 3 m
nit angle
5° with
Irradlallon per square metre of actl\'C area TIle solar Yield Is
In order to optImiSt' roof .lrea utilIsation and yIeld. Ihe peld per
A Simple
takes
aClIVe area. the loss of some ten per cem IS half due to sub-opllmal
'modul!: area/roof are." results In the annwl IrradIatiOn
0'
losses duc to shad mg. a fairly good v,llue
around qO per cen! of the maximum annual
�hadlng ,lngle �hourd nOI exceed 100 (figure 1 1 )
In kWh
flows away and
angle nf 20° h,15 a \'cry high ratio of 0.81 and Ion kWh of
Improved (vertical a:\ls) To limit Ihe solar Yield IOS!it's. the
Irradl
rainwater
IS Obt,1lnNI. Ihal IS. the aCHIiC ,1fea nlted by
modules mounted In
roof ,uea 15 applied
AllOWing
5°.
BiPV (roof ar••) potential with IOI.r buildings yield > 0.9 in aquare metr•• Number
angl� Yield high Irradlallon
and W,ller lend 10 slay Jon�r on horizonlal areas and Coln plovoke
A StrlCI sh,ldmg angle IlInll ImplIes i] lower ratio 'module
,1XIS)
the tWO prinCiples low lilt
v,llues - besl opuons appear to be honzonlill lmcgration but dut
much higher losses and �hould be i]'
,l lea/roof olr�'a·. that
01 courst'. these fIgures do nOI lake Into
account aU finanCIal ,lnd ardmt.'Clural .15pet:IS They nevenheJess
Higher shadmg angles C.lUse
another 170 GWhly for Ihe 80 per
193·
-_ 0I _ 1or Bl'V paIonIIoI
_ _ _ 01 _ Ior SIPV poIanIJoI ...
_ 1I00I' .... - ....
1 m'
1.2m'
RooIs and � Baao 01 BlPV � In relative
18nna
Ratio 'gross area/ground ftoor area'
Solar architectural rules thumb for BIPV potential
F8f8des
01
on
1 m' 1.5 m2
SUI1abla building envelope parts 60%
laking Into account construction,
historical and shading elements,
20%
Including vandalism lac10r _rally auHabIe _
0,72 m'
Ratio 'an:hlteclurally sul1able
araaIground floor area'
SUI1abla building envelope 55% Solar
an:hIIacturaily auHable erae
parts
taking Into 8CCOW11 sufficien t solar yield RatIo -. an:hlteclurally suitable
0.4m'
araatground floor arae' (utilisation faclor)
a.3 m2
50%
a.15 m2
f'!ll'RulmclrtunblOfPVp(uentlilc.alabtJOn$ .s.ur.NfI��iI�IIl1.�
I
l 'I; .&
I i
!
residential buildings
aglicullural buildings
Industria[ buildings
FIJ IS lMol thlll lfaood lloor area of II uaWtal1y r/IIIQI buU1lng III tllllIJI WMJe!n EOOlPIl-t51q11if1! mt!rtSI
App[ying Ihe corresponding overall ulitis.ltlOn factor of 0 4 for roofs and 0 1 5 for faltades (for the bUilding stock). the so[ar arrhllcclurally suitable bUilding roof and fatadc areas per caplla ate calcu[ated for central western Europe (figure 16)
Facade areas
Roof areas
Based on [he case studIes and funher data sent by the parlners of
llw patrlClp:ulng lEA countnes. some rules of rhumb can be
derived, i1sshown In figure 1 4
The mClhodology can be used I n order 10 conecI essential global figures and g/!nerilt� corroborared BiPV areil potentJal data
It CM be statcd that the relam-e valucs reflected In Ihe utllisation
Vilry less and are more coherent on an intcrnational lcvei between countries and ....1lrJd regions. The abSOlute fTgures for the
faclOrs
BIPV potenllal In squilre metres vary much more. even when the ground floor area per capita Is considered That is why thc rules
of thumb In relauve terms are valuable and operational glob,ll key figures, whereas In absolute lerms the ground floor areas c,ln be aggregated for different regions on the globe wuh simHar bUilding
Archjtecrurally suitable solar areas on buildings As Illtlntloned. Ihe archlleclUraJly unSUitable part of mOSI bUIldings Is 40 per cent for roofs and 80 per cem for facades
About half of the remaining architecturally suitable buildIng area docs not obtain any good solar YJeld, wuh 45 per cent for roof areas and 50 per cent for facade areas. Finally, the ralio 'architecturally sUitable solar area/ground floor area' lcalled the utilisation factor) can be calculated. It ground floor area of 100
sqUJre metres results correspondingly 10 40 square meues of solilr,archltecturally suitable roof area (utilisai!on faCior of 0.4) and In 15 square metres of solar-archuecturaUy suitable facade area (utIJIs.liJon factor of 0 15)
stock ch
The ground floor area can be aggregated for an arca. in this
case central ....'eStern Europe. It Statistically typical building for a person hVlng In central western Europe has about 45 square metres of ground floor area Half [5 used for residentla[ purposes.
Oelermination of the BiPV potential for selected lEA counlries By hnklflg the average figures of solar·architCClUralLy suitable area per capaa 10 coutllry-speclflc features. tmiun[y population size
3.5
calculatedlfigure 11) More precisely. the formula ingredienls are • Bwldlflg type. residenual, agricultural (pnmary sector).
9.0
Residential bulldlngs
3.0
Agricul1ura[ buildings
0.5
Industry isecondary sector). commercial (tertiary
2.5
Industrial buildings
1.0
sectOr), other and lotal (all building stock)
2.5
Commercial bulldings
1.0
1.5
01her buildlngs
0.5
All buildings
6.5
18.0
fog t6 6,P\l po1(11111i11 1or Wluat weltemElIIopellllloo1and1� .,aas m � meIles per cap!la
s.uc.. M1"MIowIE-w&�11I1 S...Uf<_
There are 1 8 square metres of roof area per capita potentially usable for PV with a good solar yield Typically. Ihe roof are.l characterised by very high solar yield (Inc[udmg only surfaces
Rules of Ihumb for architecturallv suitable solar building envelope area in absolute terms for central western Europe
other buildIngs
and annual solar irradiation} the solar e[ectricay potentla[ can be
8PV potential for central Weslern Europe lor roof and fa�ada ... In square melras par capita (approximate flgures)
International BiPV potential findings
commercial buld[ngs
s.-Nf1M._E""'II'& 1«/tIDDgf11lf s...�,.,....,
with more than ClO per cem of the maximum yield) Is half of Ihe roof area With good solar yield Addilionally. there are b.5 square metres of fa�de area per capit.l fulnlling solar architectural requirements. and hence potentially us.lble for PV About a third of the BIPV area potentia[ is attributed to roof areas and a qu.1fter to fatad<: areas
• Available area per capita average ngurcslstandards
The values are given In squarc metres
• Uttlisation factor (suitability In re[atlve terms) of 0 " for roofs and O. 1 5 for fa�de5
• PopulatiOn size number of people livIng in the COUntry 10 rnilhons
• Solar yteld weighted avernge relative yicld of good areas per geographlca[ umt (countries)
• Solar irradiation. country·specific weighted value for
Ihe maximum annual solar Input [n kWhlylm
• Global conversion effiCiency. ralio of 'clectrlclty
output/solar Irradiation· (slmphfiC(l rano: generally 10 per cent)
• Producuon of solar electricity product of Ihe factors
descnbed above in nVhly
1 squarc meues for the primary sector. 6 square metres cach for
The St
ApplylOg this calculation scheme leads to the (ollowlng figures for
the secondary and tertiary sectors and the rest for other purposes.
45 square metres per capita for central western Europe - much
the so[ar e[ectrlc BiPVpotential (figure 19)
larger 10 the US and Australia. where thc ground floor area is about double. This is maln[y due to much higher v,l[ues for av.lll;tble resldelllial building ilreas Consequently. the share of ground floor area for resldentia[ purposes is larger and makes
UI) Mound two·thirds J
flgl7CDltvlallOO sdleItIII 1or thB �oOOcIl OOor 8i1'VsoIarelectnol'f --'Nfr� c..,.. " �tllS_ SIo1I:11'W
- .- - _
--
- "" lao') -
•
-
....25
85..
17.13
15.11
17.45
'.20
139.62
82.,'
....
727.20
....,.
78.81
..... ....
, .... ,.88
..,.
.....
22.73 ' •.80 ....
•.73
,.58
133.32
....
963.54
...88
2.72
361.33
10.80 5.30
, ...
....
19.16
....
0.41
127.31
..88
5.30
0.40
32.99
-
721.78
184.04
.....
16.40
1,295.92
270.'"
....,
184.04
...
... , .
...02
6.15
485.97
0410.28
1 13.96
138.75
91.17
1 1 .40
763.53
, .....
14.25
51.28
.....
4.27
286.32
-
753.18
.....
75.88
91.07
5.06
966.38
...
282.7'
5."
28."
".54
1.90
362.39
".75
35."
0.63
259.36
-
-
== --
o
68.176
32.99
'.88
-
flWhlV) on .-.
87.98
21.01
127.48
-..
_ 01
- -..y
".36
, ....
=
' ,9&
3.75
158.34
1 •.08
-
�
AI, -...
1.41
...
D
UnIted Stales
, ...
.....
-
....
-
....
=
1.00
-
....
-
-
-
2.8'
...
...
-
.....
-
-
-
UnIted Kingdom ..... StIIIeI
-
_....10001 .....
_.I1y(TWbly)
- ..- .. _ --, _ _ -...., ..... -,
on _
(TWbIy)on_
15.881
...,.
19.78
17.90
0.24
97.26
25'.97
78.74
55.12
55.12
7.87
448.82
.....
....
10.87
27."
2.95
'34.52
38.1'
14.51
0.71
218.77
SO."
32.92
4.51
'2.35
7.26
0.27
82.04
67.12
21.90
182.24
15.197
3.528
46.1%
18.725
53.93
34.""
33.054
151 .762
495.31
B.710
30.6%
2.155
10.865
34.43
1 1 .763
31.6%
3.063
14.827
76.51
1 28.296
31 .745
160.040
531.84
30.1%
103.0n
23.827
126.904
282.01
45.0%
1 1 7.416
29.456
146.872
',012.94
14.5%
6.210
31.887
99.06
32.2%
70.689
15.784
86.473
180.17
.......
21.1n
5.515
26.692
137.12
19.5%
15.044
3.367
18.410
53.17
34.....
83.235
22. 160
105.395
1,662.349
418.312
2.080.661
343."
3,602.63
30.7% 57.8%
flQI9SclareJer;tro.:1Y :I Bil'Vpotl'I'I!� lulldl� l good "yiIIkI l!Il,.tIn\oIlIla
�1oI;3I 8I'RIoll " 1flPUl 5elJ3lltely delll*llofslDp!d roofs ""' �
SUrf EA b .... OI1 .. �h l!Bf
lbe role of BiPV design tools in whole building deSign Oesign rules for photovo1taiCS in buildings are 110t yel well
168.31
from Ihe very firsl skelc.hlng of the BIPV to prediCtiOn and
Integration and the number of bull ding typologies available for
performance analYSIS, Based on practical expeflcnce. Ihe
Pv, such
rules may nOi even be easy to formulaIC. At the same
time. PV is a valuable building and energy component that deserves special attention in the building design process. Design and analysIs l00ls are important aids to the architect and enable maximise the resulting beneFits. PV is a new technology for buildings and may still involve design caveats for tradilional bUilding deSigners. In addition to the general solar surface aspects. PV in buildings has technology.speclfic fealUre5 that the
12."
15.36
138.22
• pre·design of BiPV systems: · sjlstem OpUmis.1Iion.
• lechnical planning of the BIPV; • analysisof sYSlem performance. In many cases Ihe pre-design phase may play Ihe most ccmral
role in the BiPV design process as crucial deciSions are usually made al the very beginning of the project. For example.
archileclUral Integration approaches. selection of appropnate solar
sensUlvity_ Good PV design tools account for these features and
technologies and whole BIPV projecl evalUallon are ohen made
are very useful In avoiding unnecessary design mistakes
before the actual building planning or det.1i1erl planning TIle early
DeSign tools can also have an important ectucallonal function When design lools are used consiStently in the PV deSign process, they help Ihe designers and archlteclS to obtaIn a more profound
design may include a simple performance analysis. searchmg for Insight on possibilities and even a first crude oplimisatlon of Ihe BIN system, The level of accuracy required from the [001 is ciearly less than for technical planning of the PV system
with PV For advanced PV designers. tools represent an Important
Finally, when moving Into the technical planning phase of PV
aid to develop and test new BIPV concepts before their practical
system design. the questions to be addressed become more
....
5.76
51.83
601.88
71.09
61.61
168.24
1 1 .85
914.67
also have ,) use In the analysis of commissioned projeCls. often
225.70
....
23.10
84.12
4.44
343.00
helping to Interpret performance OUlcornes or amblgwlles found
322.91
602.76
2,260.36
1 1 8.40
10,096.26
".38
226.04
1,130.18
44.40
3,786.10
7."
impormm [asks In which design 10015 are panicularly useful arc
deSigner should be aware or. such as shading and temperature
deSign InSIght and thus improve their professional competence
21.05
DesIgn tools are useful lhroughout Ihe whole building process
established Indeed. given the diverSity of posslblluil!:s for PV
2.74
2,546.94
19.4%
25.6n
25.17
F�
_pn _ _ TWh) _ -..pI'Ian
1 1 8.7013
the PV designer 10 develop the best design solution for PV and to
5.34
6,791.83
84.057
..... ntMdu31"Iof Ndl b:abl:J\l� 1,O"h1J
47.81
Roof
_
real1salton In such instances. design tools can dell\'er
detailed, For example. Ihe following lasks need to be
considerable savings in the development costs of BiPV They
accomplished'
between planned and measured PV performance.
• electrical and archl1ectural lntegratlon design: • PV array design:
• custom designs for PV Integration: • accounting for real conditions at site (such as shading and temperaturel:
• estimation of PV production dynamics, requiring more sophiSticated and accurate assessment 10015
II I� also Imponam 10 dlslingulsh belween frt'esmndlng PV. and PV Ihal IS InlrgrJll'fl InIO Ihe bUlI.Jlng. Obmlmng Ihr fuji benef"s frum
P'o' In
bUlldlng� allen requires going beyond ma'IClmislng
unl)' Ihl' ekClnCIt�' produ(lion. wtw::h may � Ille rase for frl'e'
1
�1i1rhflnK PV �y�lem�, II can mvolve sllonger Integrallon of the
PV 11 10 11ll' bUilding en\'l'lor�. or handling PV ,15 a bUilding
component or C\'en as a hUlldlng material. These n�cds place
lllC ,ll
new reqUlwllwnts on lhe
In g '
r
Illrv deSIgn tools compared 10
PV lOol�
When dl'slgnlng SuStillnabk. eeologlcal or lo....·energv . buildings. Ihe ,Irdmeci and designer need 10 consider [h1;' bwldmg as a wholl' [0 (lpllmlsc [he overall energy concept There arc <;e�'eral lCrhnolOb'Y options and allernallves available In addition 10 PV
11101)' reqUire consideration m parallel
The '1V.1II;lblhty of solar radiallon on the PV module depends on the loe.ltlon .lnd arrilV onentation In high latitudes. the tOlal lIlSolallOn on Ihe collcclor pl.,ne Cdn range between 1 .000_ 1 ,400 kWh per squ.ue mCire (lalllude 60-45°). 1 ..100-1 .700 kWh
per squ,lrc melle flatltude
<4SG1:
and up to 2.000 kWh per
squ.ue mem,! .11 the equator Accurate sol:tr radiauon values lIlay be found Irom h.lndbooks and metcorologlcal services and d,'I,uetS Tht,
rv surface :treJ comt!S from the BIPV deSign and
from the architect·s decision.
EXllmp/(' In central EUrope. the average solar radiatIon on the collector plane 15 around 1 .300 kWh per square metre Tht! expcclCu yield per squilre metre 0/ a crystallme SIlicon PV sYSlem
would be 1 2 - 1 5 per cent )j 1 .300 kWh per square metre. or
From Ihe SiP\, point
130· ISO kWh per square melTe of PV ilrea If the PV area is ]0
squ.lre meues. Ihen the t01il1 P" production is 1 0 - 1 2 per ccnt x
not only con�lder [(adltlonal energy concepts bUI also arc able
1 .300 kWh pt-r square metre x 30 sqUilre metres
[0 propt:rl}' account for the contributions of alP\' systems. Design �IIU,lI1ons often have 10 cvaluall: the imponilnce of P\' ilS part of Ihe .....hole bUlldmg d.:slgn or buildmg energy syslem deSIgn proce!" Ex.lmples are • Whell: tht:re I S .l [fad�o(lff betW'et!n dlfft!rent
Icchnology opllons ,lnd especially OIlier solar Icchnologres • Wlu,re there IS InleraClion between PV and other
!:nl·rgy nows m bUlldtngs • Where there IS Iht· use of multIfunctional PV modules
for dayllghllng. ...!eClriclly. and heat producllon
kWh per ye.lr
-
3.ClOO-4.680
What tools are available for what purpose?
SOphlsllc.lIIon H.,<)Ulred from the BiPV design tool depends \'Cry
much on whJt purpose Ihe tool IS used for. One may fmd Simple dt:slgn gUldehn!:s or rules of Ihumb. compUter-aided deSIgn rCAD) .1nd slmulallon 100ls A sophistiCated tool could. in prinCiple.
handll· 5Cveral of Ihe different Iasks m tht: PV desIgn process
Thl' flr.il deSIgn lask faced often retates to dctennming the size of the PV array and eSllm.llmg the electricity produced All PC.based
P\' design tools arc Cdpable of doing thiS. bllt there are even
casler w"yS to establish a rough eSllmate. A fir.it very crude eSllmate of Ihe yearly eleclrlclty OUlput of Ihe PV system Cdn
be I.Iblained uSing the follOWing formula
In addition to dynamiC simulation of Ihe PV syslem performance. design lools for BiPV systems should conSider the archltcclural that affect the PV performance Thus. InSlcad or a free·Standing
delillied factors on the PV technology and building typology.
Q, '1
the �"¢.lrly lotal solar raclliltion on the PV surface [kWh/me,
A
• the surface are,l of Ihe PV system [m'J
.,;. .B.
1...-.0
• BiPV as shade clements
above are SIIU rare The PVSYST deSign 1001 developed m the
in SWllzertand. and tesled within the lEA T.tsk 7. represems an
Imeresting approach for advanced deSign PVSYST Is capable of
Each of these BiPV designs may need a special trealmen! In Ihe deSign tool and should not be generaHsed with one model only.
because the PV module temperature will dllfer In
This 15 mamly
each case For example. a shadmg element corresponds to a free·
modules. lemperalure effects on PV productIon. losses in cabling
standing module with ambient air cooling both sides of the
and prot�tlve devices. effiCiency of the grid·conneCtiOn
module. whereas a hOI BIPV fa�de element Is tightly Integraled
(Inverter). and so on \1.:my of these phenomena \lary during
Into the building envelope. Is less ventilated and consequently will
the day and season and their dynamiC nature c.lnnOI be handled
show a much higher module temperature. In addition, these BIPV
wllh simple lOols. Dynamic design tools are often based on
conllgurillions often have a large surface area. such as the roof or
mathemal1cal PV system .lnd subsystem models. enabling step·
ra�ade. whIch may be subject to shading from adjacent objects
by·step Simulations of Ihe PV performance for a given set
Shading or the PV modules Is of specIal concern as the OUtput may drop Significantly cven with small shadows.
....
d�llng with a sophisticated shading goome[ry and SiPV. and allo 'S for accurate engineering planning of the PV sYSlem
BIPV design (Q(lls are parlicularly relevant In the pre.deslgn phase
of a building projeCt and when analysing BiPV amongsl olher energy technologies and sYSlems The pre-d�ign analysis or oplimlsauon is followed by a delo'lled design described earlier In the whole bUIlding design tool approach. the Interplay and Interaction between dIfferent components. for example. BIPV and the building thermal performance. Is taken Into account Thus. the PV is not only considered as an electricity production unit. but one [h.ll may also (ntera" with the healing. cooling. and daylight energy fiows of the building as is orten Ihe case In
models to calculate another case and Ihus the designer may
real BiP\' systems The designer may seek the best comblnillion
SWiftly In\lestlgate a range of possible PV system designs as
of different technologies using a variety or combinallon of
well .15 the senSitivity of the main PV desIgn to variations or
different cmeria mgure 21).
uncenamtles In tht: input data. PC tools for performing a yearly simuliliion of the PV system are readily available. bUi mosl of thcse h<we weak PO"llS m describing [he alPV·specmc realures and are best suited to free-s[anding PV systems A now chart of a step·by,slep simulauon of BiPV systcms Is
Econom'y
weather data SCI is needed. At [his stage. the shadmg effects of deSign lools seldom account for shilding and more sophisticated tools Me required to deal With obstructions The simulation then
cent per dcgrce (DC) increase in module temperature. In some
cases. the amount or rv eleClrlcilY that cannot be directly used
be fed Into Ihe grill ThiS IS of particular intercsi when thc surplUS needs to be minimised. for example. If the local utility does nOI prOvide any fmancial compensallon for Ihe surplus Thus ilt each SICp. specific ISSUes need 10 be considered properly to reach good
Ilfecycle cost
heat pumps actvanced control systems air infiltration
annual energy cosl Environmental Impacts. CO2 emissions
nalural/mechanlcal ventilation Passive solar heating direct gaJn systems
So2emlssions lifecycle emission (direct and indirect) Malerial and resources use
solar walls
endIng up with Ihe nct PV power. When calculating the PV
on sltc In lhe building needs to be estimated as the surplus will
operating and maintenance cost
heat recovery
proceeds through the different subsystems and compollcnts.
0.5 per
construction cost �nvestment)
insulation/glazing
shown In figure 20. The slmulauon starlS wilh the determination
nearby ob5ttucuons should also be accounted for Simple pre·
DecisIon Criteria and Factors
Technologies and Systems Energy Conservation
of Ihe global solar radiation on the PV array for which an hourly
tempt:raturc. Typically. Ihe power output dccreases by Ihe yeMly ciet"lrtclty outpUt or the PV system [kWh].
IZI
-- --'-
Design (Q(lls that Cdn handle the BIPV.speclfic femures identified
may need 10 account for the orientation and mcllnation of the PV
bet"ome Important In hot climates as the OUlput decreases wllh
the ilVl'r,l!le effiCiency of the PV system;
� .
;-
Ecole Polytedlmque de Lausanne and the University of Geneva
sunspaceslatria
n lc o
Energy
heating
dayllghting systems
electricity Output. determining the PV moduli: temper.1ture may when.'
...
'SO"" _I.h "'tI1l�
-""'
• BiPV surfaces In cool climates.
• BiPV surfaces in warm climale5
To oblam a morc reliable estimate of the PV output. thc designer
01 Inpul
Fog 70 flc7wtlQrl 01 I 5tecKr!.SIep UI'lI�lIIIn ot lW'Y'Yl_
PV module. onc may foresee the following typologi� relevant for
the BIPV design
• Muliifuncuonal aipv (such as PVlthermal systems)
The next stage of complexlIY of design tools would include morc
parameters The inpUt paramelers may easily be varied in SUdl TIle cll'sign tJsks encoumered In a BIPV prOject range from early 'h.'�I!ln 10 dctalled design The tools .wadable to the designer and .1rchllt!(I rangt! from the Simple to the sophiStiCated The le\lel of
provide additional InsulatIon that positively afk'1:t5 bOlh the cooling and he:ttlng demand
and slfUctural usc of PV clemcms .lnd Ihe associated phenomcna
01 VICW. 11 Is I1l1portant 10 usc bUlldmg energy design tools Ihal
Iha[
. Not shown here are ICCUf8.cy in Ihe estimation of the PV po....er
efrcels of PV on the building energy performance Ihe secondary for example if the PV modules are used as shading elements. the load may det"rease. Rooftop mOdulcs may cooling bUIlding
atura
cooling
o ling
daylight eleclricity
Active solar heating air collectors
annual energy use
waler collectors
rnonthly energy use
healslorage
dallv energy use
Photovoltalc systems freestalldlng PV modules building.integraled PV muillfunctlonal PV PV shading elements
trltell.1 relevanl m 8rPII r", 21 &le or t«I'I'IOIog.el arddatisoOn
ScuttHlllrilblbWll1l'd � PtIr'1nI
hourly energy use Indirect energy use Comfort/heallh Impacts
....
llIe b:nldrlg r:m1�1 prHesql 1DOb it! th& I
199·
It IS JI'SO Imporloll\1 to dl!>llnguish betwet'n frt!eStandlng PV. Jnd
PV th.lt Is Int('grJIL-d IntO Ihe bUIlding Obtaining the full benefits
from /'V In bulldmgs of/cn requires gOIng bt.>yond maximising ani}' tlw elt'ClrtcltY ploduclton. whICh may be the C,lSC for free·
�t.1ndl/1g PV sYSI(·ms. II can Involve stronger intt:gration of the /,V IntI) the bulldlng envdope. or handling PV as a bUilding compom:nt or t'Vcn as a bUilding m:nerlal.
TIlcsc needs pl.lel:
IIl'lIi rCllulrcmenl:; on Ihe BIPV deSign lools compared to PV tools
nl�' a\',li1abthIY of solar radlalion on the PV
module depends
on the locallon and array onent,:ulon In high latitudes. the tOtal Insol,ll1on on the collector plane can range belween I .000-
1 .-100 kWh per square mctre !lalllude 60-450); 1 .400- 1 .700
pt!r squ.ue metre (latitude < 45°1: and up to 2.000 kWh per
kWh
square metre at the equator Accurale solar radiation values moly be found from handbooks and meteorologic,11 services and d,l\ilsets The PV surface area comes from the BiPV deSign and from the archhl.,<:t·s decISion
When dL'slgnlng sustainable. ecological or low.energy bUildings
Ex!Jmp!(' In cemr.ll Europe. Ihe average sol"r radlLttlon 011 the
Iht' JrdmeCl and dcslgner need ro consider the building as a
collector plLtrle is around 1.300 kWh per square metre The t:xpecrC
would be 1 2 - 1 5 per cent x
1 .300 kWh per SqUolfC metre, or
,hat m,IY require consldcratlon In par,lllel From Ihe BIP\' point
130- I 50 kWh per square metre of PV area I f the PV area is 30
of \l1I:w. it Is Imparl.1n1 to Ll!ie bUilding energy deSign 10015 that
square metres. then Ihe tOlal P\' production Is 1 0 - 1 2 per cem x
not only consider trJdulon,ll energy concepts but also are able
1 .300 kWh per squ<1re metre x 30 square metres - 3.QOO-4.o80
to properly account for the contnbutions of BiP\, s�'Stems Dt"sign
kWh per year.
511uallons ohen have to evaluate the Imponance of P\' as pari of thl' whole building design or building energy S}'Sh:m deSign process ExamplL'S Jre • Where thert' IS a Iradc-off between different
that aITecl the PV performance. Thus. InslCad or a frec,slanding pV module. one may foresee Ihe following typologies relevant for
ItIt' BIPV design:
• SiP\, surfaces In cool c1imales
Design tools that can handle the BIP\'·speclnc features Idenllfied
above are still rare. The PVSYST design tool developed at the
• Multifunctional alPV (such as PV/thermal systems)
in Switzerland. and tesled within the lEA T.:Isk 7. represents an
• BIPV as shade elements
Ecole Polylechnlque de L.1usanne and the University of Gene\la tmeresung approach for advanced design PVSYST Is capable of
detailed factors on the P\' technology and butlding typology
Each of Ihese SIPV designs may need a special ueatment In the
dealmg with a SOphlsllcated shadmg geomelry and BiPV. and
design tool and should not be generalised with one model only
allows for accurate engineermg planning of the PV system
To obtain a more reliabfe eslimale of the
This is mainly because Ihe PV module temperature Will differ In
The next stage of complexity of design lools would Include marc:
P\' output. the designer
tL'(hnologlcs
and prott:cUve deviCes. efnciency of the grid-connection
module. whereas a hot aiP\' fatade element is tightly imegrated
energy nows m bUildings
the day and season and their dynamiC nature cannot be handled
\invener). and so on Many of these phenomena vary dunng With simple lools Dynamic design lools are often based on
The design tilSIe; encountered in a BIPV projet:t range from eilrly de...lgn to detailed deSign The rools iI\IiIllablc to the designer and
architect range from the simple to the sophiSticated The level of sophiStlc.lllon requIred from [he BiP\' design tool depends \'ery
mu(h on Wh.lt purposc the tool is used for One may find Simple dr5ign gUidelines or rules of thumb. computer·alded design (CADI and $lfnulaliOn 10015 A sophisticated tool COUld. III principle.
handle several of Ihe different tasks In the PV deSign process
The flr.;t deSign LlSk faced often relates to determining the sIze of the PV array and t:Sllmating the eleclriCit)' produced All PC.based PV deSign tools are capable of dOing this. but there are even
t'asler ways 10 establish a rough esllmate A fir.;t very crude estima[C of Ihe yearly electricity outpUt of the PV system can
be obtained using the following formula
where the yearly electricity OUlput of the PV system [kWh].
'1 • rhe a\'Cra.�e effiCiency of the PV sYStem.
tht· yearly total solar radlmlon on Ihe PV surface [kWh/m'); the surfact' Mea of the PV sYSlem 1m')
IntO the building envelope. Is less ventilated and consequently wLIl
show .1 much higher module temperature. In addition. these BiPV
conngurallons often have a large surface area. such as the roof or
mathematical PV system and subsystem models. enLtbllng step.
fa�de. whtch may be subject 10 shading from adjacent objects.
by·step sllllulations of the
Shading of the PV modules is of specl<11 concern as the OutpUt
P\'
performance for a given SCt of Inpul
parameters The Input parameters may eaSily be varied in such
What tools are available for what purpose?
-- ;-'� c:. 't- ___u 1 [0
• BiPV surfaces In warm climates
standing module with ambient air cooling both sides of the
for da)'hghting. clectrlclty. ilnd heal produCtloll
Qr
In addilion 10 dynamic simulation of the PV system performance.
design tools for SiPV syslems should consider the architectural
modules. temperature effects on PV production. losses in cabling
• Wher", thc!e IS thc use of multifunctional PV modules
s..... /oIIIJIrIIJ u-s.,,"'� -...
cooling and heating demand
each case. For example. a shading element corresponds to a free
• Where Ihere IS Interaction between P\' and other
surwtm ofBof"J rtSttms
bUilding cooling load may decrease. Rooftop modules may provide additional insulallon thill positively affects both the
may need to account for the onenl3tion and incHnation of the PV
technolOID' options and especially other solar
rl!l 20fbvdlanollueo-ar·ueo
for �ample Jf the PV modules are used as shading elements. the
and structural use of PV elements ilnd Ihe associated phenomena
whol(' 10 0lltlmlse the o\lcrall energy concept Tht're ilrl: several tl'chnol(Jgy options and alternatl\les a\lallable In addition to PV
in the estimation of the PV power Not shown here are accuracy effecls of PV on the building energy performance the secondary
may drop slgnlficanlly even with small shadows.
SLPV design tools are panlcu1arly relevant In the pre-design phase of a buildtng project and when analysmg BiPV amongst other energy technologies and systems. The pre-deslgn analysis or optimisation is followed by a detatled design described earller In the whole bUi l ding design tool approach. Ihe Interplay and interaction between dlfferem components. for example. SiP\, and the buildlllg thermal performance. Is laken into account Thus. the PV is not only conSidered as an electriCity prodUCtion unit, but one thai may also interact with the heating. cooling. and daylight energy flo'-'-'S of Ihe bUilding as is often the case In
models to calculate another case and Ihus the designer may
real SiPV systems. The deSIgner may seck Ihe best combination
swiftly InveStlgale a range of possible PV syslem designs as
of different technologies uSing a varielY or comblllation of
well as the sensitivity of Ihe main PV deSign 10 vuiatlons or
different criteria (figure 2 l J
uncertainties in Ihe mput data. PC tools for performing ,1 yearly Simulation of the PV system are readily available. bUI n10St of these have weak pomts m describmg the B1PV-specific fe<1tures and are best suited to free·standmg pV sYSlems
A now chart of a step-by-step Simulation of SIPV sYSlCms is
Technologies and Systems Energy Conservatlon
insulalion/glazing
shown In figure 20. The simulation starts with the determlmllion of the global solar radiation on the PV array for which an hourly weather data set IS needed AI this stage. the shading effects of
nearby obstructions should also be accounted for Simple pre deSIgn tools seldom account for shading and more sophiStiCated lools are required to deal with obstructions The simulation then
heat pumps advanced control systems air inliltration
annual energy cost Environmental impacts
CO2 emissions
natural/mechanical venlitation Passive solar heating direct gain systems
SOz emissions Iifecycle emission (direct and indirect) Material and resources use
solar walls sunspaceslalria
Energy heating
daytighling systems
cooling
natural cooling
become Import,lnt In hot climates as Ihe OUtput decreases with temperature. Typically. Ihe power OUlpUI decreases by 0.5 per
Active solar healfng
cases, the amount of PV eleclriclly 111m C<1nnot be dlrcclly used on she III the bulJdmg needs to be csllm<1lCd as the surplus wll! be fed Into the grid. This 15 of particular Imeresl when Ihe surplus needs to be minimised. for ex.lmple. if the local utility docs nOI
Photovoltaic systems freestanding PV modules
provide any fln,lnCial compensalion for Ihe surplus Thus at cach step. speCific Issucs need 10 be considered properly to reach good
construction cosl (Investmeni) operallng and mainlenance cost tifecycle cost
heal recovery
proceeds through the different subsystems and components. ending up wuh the nel PV power When c.llculatlng the PV electriCllY OUtpUt. dClermmlng the PV module tempermllre molY
cent per degree (OCI increase m module ICnlpemlure. In some
Decision Criteria and Factors Economy
air collectors water colleclors
heat s lorage
building·lntegrated PV multifunctional PV
daylight
electricity
annual energy use
monthly energy use
dally energy use
hourly energy use indirect energy use ComfortJhealth Impacts
PV shading elements ftg 2I Eaample ol tedn;llolJtil$ar.ldtCI$I(W1 clller!.il r1!lev.lotIOBd'\I plIHIesign IOOI$ II1thi!Wlde bulIding COOlUt
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SOLPROS. HeIIinkI IJniversIIy 01 TectInoIOW. FrUnd Nllanll MlcfDlllc;lnlrD c-..Cork.
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TU·Barhn lfWllutfUr Energielechnik, ". ,",' . .,
I.JnIWrIIIy til 0IcIerWg. Germany ZSW Baden-Wumemberg, Stuttgart,
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Ober6stetr8lChiscl'le Kratrwerke AG,
Unz.
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SandIa lab and Mau. Solar, USA
Genec, France
UnivelSfly 01 Wiscooson, USA
Sendi.I
National Lab. Albuquerque, New
SIITIple PVsiZiog AcMnc:ed PV & BiPV -""
Advanced PV& BiPV deslgntool
Pl1I-design and Simg ""PV Pre-deslgn aodsiZlng ofPV
PV Nodo
Pre-deslgn and sizing olPV
PVS2000
FrauMoIer nsbIuIe FhQ·ISE, Frelburg,
Pr&-deslgn andsizlng oIPV Pre.ooslgn and sizlng olPV
-
PVSHAO
OlOenburg University, Germany
PV'"SOL2.12
VaIenbn Energy Sonware, BIIfIn I ,
Gennony
Advanced PV & BlPV - """
PVSYST3.2
GAP University of Geneva,
PVTAS
-_. GenNny
Pre-design and sizing ""PV
PV WATIS
NREl. USA
Pra.design and sIZing oIPV
SWllZer1and
'998 '995 '996
'989
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Many of the tools use solar geometry algofUhms from Uu and JordJn (1 960). and Erbs 1 1980/ 10 cJleulate diffuse radlaUon when only global radiation figurts slflking a horIzontal surfacc are available. or when only direct radiation has been mOnitOred
BIPV tools should not assumc that diffuse Irradiation is unl· dlreCtional (lsotrOpiC) from all partsof the sky, lsotroplc sky.vauh modelling leads to an underestimation of total radlallon reaching IIlttd surfaces and is a common IImltauon Identlflcd In the PV
A clear sky docs nO! JPptar to he the sam�
design 1001 review,
• poor interrace wnh other building design tools for bolh
blueness from the honzon to Iht upper zenith patnt as the sun'S
input and output of datil
• umued considerations of economic and COSt imphcatlons for variOUS PV sYSlem options
energy 5trJlegy within an urban context
analysis. The majonty of tools are practical for only Stand·alone
,,..
model1tng and PV component Specit1Cillions. whIch limit the func!iOnalllY of Ihe 1001 to basic preliminary deSIgn enqulrtes
• Ltmned shading predictions.
fIt-Ids of appliCatiOn and do not offer simple input proctdu� through windows·based platforms In addillon. thtrt are also a
position and the vanallon of atmospheric thickness affects the concentralton of diffuse lrr.ldlaUOn BIPV models will ohen
use
non·Isotropic sky condluons from calculanons by RIchard Perez known as the Perez model. whIch account for thls sky
cl\araclenSllc This can prove impanant. especIally If PV systems such as amorphous SIlicon cells more readily harnt'ss dtffust
Irradauon condlllOns
Examples of a number of BIP\' speciflc tools ilre dtsplayed lI\
figures 23-26 showing tht-ir grnphlc user Interfaces ;:Jnd salienl features
Advanced PV & B,PV design 1001
'992 '993 '995 '999 '997 ,,..
'999 '999
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'992
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01 ..
'993
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2000
SOI.ARSIZER
CREST, USA
SOMBRERO 2.01
Pre.deslgn and sWoo oIPV
Unlverslty GH Selgon, Selgon. Garmany
Shading anatysls
SOMES 3.2
UIrBchI Unlversily. The Nethertands
Pre·design aoo sizIng
SUNOl 1.2
TU·Berlin, nSI,lule lor Enorgy Technology, Germany
WATSUN PV
WAT�UN SIm Lab, Waterloo Universlty,
Onlano. Canada r..,n8J'Vdesq1too15 arld�enSla
stand-alone/individual bUilding
'999
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s.a.o SllA!D!: �l)
• EmphaSIS on
pv Design Pro-G offer duecl BiPV Slmulauon functions and shade
Pre-deslgn and sizing oIPV
I
of surrounding shade SlPV siluations directly. or the effects influenceS. Hcvlcws of existing PV tools h.lVe Identified Ihe
'999
oIPV
laPlace Syslems, Jepan
very few consider the
PVSYST 3.2, PV CAD I I I . PV·SOL. BIPVsirn. Solar Pro and
Natural Resowcea Canada', CANMET Enarvy 0IYetsIfica1lOn Research labotatofy (CEORL)
=.InsbIuleforEnergyTechnoiogy.
USA,
• LImited use In considering BiPV as part of an ovtrall
ZSW Baden·Wilrt1emberg, StUTIgaf1, Germany
SMILE 1.1.17
prrdomlnantly from Germany and
,,..
RETSaoon 2000
Solar Pro 3.49
While lherc are a large number of simulation lools lechnologleS (figure 221 from lechnlcal and elemlc.11 engineering backgrounds.
number of assumptions about local ci!matt data, sky IrradIation
Simple PV calculalion
�,USA
I
n Exllllpl •• •, PV desig tools
'"'" grow1h In research. development and deploym(,nt of PV sl1muimed numerous computet-based tools for sysIem� /1,15 �jcllng operational charaCICflSUCS and sizing new sy..lem
folloWlOg lilTlltiltions'
� KrdwerQ AG, Unz.
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GenNny I.II'WMIty til WIMlonIIn. MIcIIon, USA
YEAR
Advanced PV & BiPV design tool
ZSW Baden,Wurt1emberg, Slungart, Germany
PVFORM".O
100
TOOt.
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Domo _ """"" ,, -
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Sland·aJone, DC grid connected and BiPV Grid MetOOflOrm, US TMV2, ASCII fiJe input COtMIrslon Non-iSOtropic Including user defined albedo values 3-0 elemenlalY model www.pvsyst.com Y"
English and French CHF 700 single- CHFIOO lor lab license 01 10
PV-DHlgnPro 4.0 Maui Solar Energy Software Corporation, USA
Tool locus
Stand·alone, PV wa1llr pumploo and BIPV Grid
Wealher dala
2,000 global localions
1996
Sky simulation Shading
Non·lso1rop1c
'99'
Website
www.maulsolarsottwmo.com no
Oemo verslon
olPV
'997
Shading analysIs
'995
PV pr&design and lechnlcaldesign
PVSYST 3.2 Unlveral1y of Geneva. Swltzerlend Tool locus w.e.. dal8
3·D model
languages
English and Spanish
Price
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Examplo of the PV pre-design In die whole building context
1ht Ekovilkkl PV building developmem Is an InSlrUCUvC example deSign lools In Ihc whole bUIlding context. Ekovukkl of using PV bUilding site neM Helsinki (bOO N), Finland, 15 a m.1Jor ecological
where ()·I.OOO square metres of residential buildmgs have been
de!olgncd according (0 SHiel sustainable and ecological cmorla The Ekovilkkl project employs a novel ,ntegrntlon scheme In
which the pV modules have been Inlegriucd Into the balconies, Ihal IS. the I'V modules have Ihe same I\LIIcllon as Ihe balcony
Ir a posHlve outrome could be found for PV In each 01 the above ques11ons, then building companies Imgtn be more willing to conSider installing PV syslems The prc.deslgn tasks Ihat were
performed here Included energy. economic and environmental analysis of the PV system and Clher sust.llnable energy opllons and accounling for IIFecycle aspecls Based on the oUlcome of Ihe pre-design analysis done with Ihe
sheets. Each residential building has some 1 ,500 square mClres of living area !t1gure 2i)
AUSOL whole building 1001 Ihat includes different renewable energy options and PV. Ihe local buHdrng company chose a BIPV
pre-deslgn was neCeS5
(echmcal lifeume of PV modules wllhout any moving pans Is in
conslruction company pUI for.vard prior to accepting PV Into the
generat longer than that of meehamcal energy sys,ems
Prior 10 Ille decision to utillse PV m Ekoviikkl, a comprehensive
bUilding The issues relCliant In the Ekovilkki case included • Estimation of the
PV output
for different
PV array
sizes. onenlallons and mcllnatlons. and findmg an optimum solution for the building site. • Estimanon of economics of
PV and comparison With
other sustainable energy options
• Matching of PV outpUt with buildmg load as the uullty buy·back rate was unclear: with the bulldlng-optimised deSign. about 75 per cenl of the dlreclly used by the building and
proved 10 be one of the key factors ravounng PV because the
The pre-design
also allowed oplimis.ltion of Ihe BIPV sYSlem PV modules inlo
alco es With
The final pre.design Included Imegratlon of the
the b
ni
several techmcal advantages bener matching
of PV prodUCllon wuh the electricity demand. lower module temperatures increaSing the PV output. and avoidance of
obstJUaions and shading of the PV modules. In addition. Ihe COSt saVings v>�re achieved as the PV modules replaced Ihe ordrnary balcony glazing
25 per cent Is fed
into Ihe grid. mainly in the summer months PV modules vertically Into Ihe balconies
A venical
surface shlflS the maximum solar yield away from the northern summer with low electricity consumptIon to spring and autumn with higher consumption level • Comparison of the lirecycle costs. emissIons and energy use of different sustainable energy optIons
29).
aspeclS oflhe technlcal syslems lnSteadof lnveslmenlS only
PV production is
lfigure 28). TIlis was accomplished by lntegr.ulng the
(figure
sy5lem ror Ihe Ekoviikkl buUdlng I\(counling for Ihe Ufecycle
including Ihe PV lifecycle {Lei, includes
Investment/construction and 40 years of operatiOn
The solar heat (domestic hOI water) and \\ ind power
Conclusion this chapler Identifies some of the key aspects in PV design
assessment and lists a number of useful computer slmulmion lools for this purpose DeSign tools are proving to be iHl essenllal componenl for CIIaluation of the prospeCllve BIPV potential of a given site location. Innuences or shade effects. different PV
system characteriSlics and Ihe relationship of PV generation to
the energy needs of buildings require early Investigallon In the pre-design phase. Often. seeking expert advice 10 complete PV potemiaJ evaluations during early project stages can pay
dividends In the longer term
options have been optimised for the building The ref erence ene!ID' system is nalural gas
lC CO2 (t CO2)
lCEne'IWIMl'ltlj
LC Collt f OOO .urol
C ,ererenc. clI •• lOIar hlat/nv _ ""' _ wInd 1>0'<'11
fl\l 19lJrl!C't'Cle lltlollvm ofdllferenl entrV'iOPllO't$amtdeted tOf IhlD:�il:kr prO]eCI JtIr.�l!onldecyclll tulIl. CO, eminlllM lII'Id en!!VY
Sowt. /WislrIoI � «rldn:lill:Vr
11)3'
iated with shoner wavelengths (and therefore ptw;ICon5 aSSOC hIf'e" WJVC frequency) of light. near the v[olet end of the
ELECT RICAL CONCE PTS, RELIAB ILITY AND STAND ARDS
have greater energy than longer wavelengths (or lower speccrum. the red end of the viSible spectrum Invisible rrequrncles) near
Electrical PV basics and the solar spectrum
Introduction PhotOVQthllcs Is the dIrect ('on\'�rslon of light energy to etcctrlc
The baSIC buildIng block of a pholovoltaiC power supply, that converts light energy Into elC{;tricity, is the photovohaic cell
Indlc.l1lng the clcclrlenl aspect. The conversion Is ,1 direct
A typIcal photovo!!aic cell Is a thin wafer of silicon, ehher a
process Unlike olher solar-based technologies. there is no
Single cryslal or multi-crystal silicon cell mcasurlng .1round
an electrical phenomenon. an important conSideration when
In one direction but not the other The vollage generated across
Inlcrmedl,lu: thcrm.ll siage In iI pholOvol!i1lc power supply 11 is
1 0 '{ 10 centimetres The cell IS a diode. allowing current !O flow
100t'grilllng pholovol!i1lc power systems imo buildings This
a silicon cell, front to back sutface, is approximately half a Vall
chapler discusses el�lrlcal concepls. reliabIlity Issues ilnd
The \'oll
relevant standards applicable to bUlldmg-mlegraled pholovoitalc
temperature. Cooler temper.lIures actually increase vollage
IBIPVj Llppllc.1liOnS
and therefore power. dIsmissing the WIdespread belief that phOlovoltaics. a. solar·based lechnology, Is nOI appropriate for cooler climates. The current generated by the cell varies directly with the amount of light Under bright sunlight, a typical cell
Electrical basics Electrical power is measured In units of wilns
IWI. or more
commonty In typical applicatiOns. In Idms of kilowans (kW, Power IS determined by two factors, the VOltage of the source
produces approximately 3 amperes of direct current II shuts
The sun emits a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic rildlalion This solar spectrum tfigure Il is comprised of photons
Power (walts) • VOltage (\'Olls) l( Currenl (amperes)
Ught reaching the earth mil}' \'ary conSiderably, both In Intensity
with dffferent levels of energy or wavelengthS. The spectrum of
,lnd colour content (and In directional propenies - dlrectfdlf(use) In ,1 hydraulic analogy where one Is determining the power of
waterfall ilnd the clcctrlcal currem as the water now Signlflcantly,
thc s.:lrllC amounr Of pOIVC( C,ln be supplied by a high current and
iI low \,oltilge or conversely, a low current and a high voltage
Another r\!levant eleclrlCilI concepl is that of distribution losses, that Is, power losses in eleclrlcal wires due to resistance, which 15 ,1 (uncuon of the current nowmg through the wIre Again stated mathematically
TIlls [s usually e,xpressed as an ·Air Mass' fAM) number, whIch Is an Indication of the path.lenglh Ihe light has travelled through the e.lIth's mmosphere. AMO Is the spectral distribution of sunlight outside the earth's atmosphere and is known as the Solar Constant. If the sun Is e..xactly overhead and the sky ls clear, the spectrum wlll be fclose tol AM I, indicating the light has crossed one atmospheric thickness. For standard reference and
--I � --��
nleasurement purposes, AM!
it
In other words. losses are very sensitive to the current That IS why eleclnc uuluJes select very high voltages and a relatively low current when tran5ml!!lng power over long dIstances In dlslrlbUllng power from a bullding.lntegrated phOlovoltalc system 10 Ihe inwrnal bUlldmg loads. there are limits to the vollage level allowed for 5<,fety reasons This has implications for system lo�<;cs and Is dIscussed further below
_ " wa>1!ferJdth � " I\iIIDIleIef I1[I'Qfl rnlll'l
W/rrf "w.mspel�l melll
5 IS used. since It Is close to the
typical energy dlslnbution of hght reaching the earth's surface
Power Los�s (walts) • Current (amperes)' x Resistance (ohms)
IN-u!lIl1-'fio1ct UI "lIIfr.Hed
scanered tight from the sky) On clear'sky days, the direct
VISIBLE
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C"I,st"", • •,,,
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component will dominate and on overcast days the maJonty 01 solar irradiation will come from diffuse Irradiation Useable Irradiallon by a PV cell will comprise direct and diffuse sources but also ground reflectance. otherwise referred to as 'albedo' As represemed in ngure I , amorphous Silicon's spectral range makeS beuer use of shorter wavelenglh photons assocIated with diffuse or overcast weather conditions than does cryst.llUne SilICOn. Crystalline silicon, however, responds more readily to photon pmver towards the infra·red spectrum Some thin film phoIovollalc modules use layers of different materials. to capture as Wide a range of available spectral energy as possible
Standard test conditions and rating of modules
pV modules are rilted under a deOned �t of conditions known
as Standard Test Conditions !Slel. These cond1l10ns Include the tem�r.llure of Ihe
off at night If no natural or artificial light is present
and Ihe amount of current supplied SImply stated
,I w:Hcrfall, the voltage c,ln be thought of as Ihe height of the
provides PV cells with an even higher level of ultra-vlol!!t light Conversely, inviSible Infra.red photons, which \\e phOton energy prOVide a lower energy Icvel than in (he vtsible light reel as heat, made up of direct Irradiation (emanating band Sunlight is d1rettly (rom the sun Itself! and diffuse Irradiation (rencctcd and
pressure and current IS the amount of WOller passmg through If the hose noz:le s i closed, the VOltage (pressure) remains high and the current IS zero. Shadow restricts the flO\<.' of current through
pV cells (25 ac or 77
OF). the intenslty of
radiation (I kW/m'), and Ihe speclral dlswbudon of the light (AMI.5) This IS aImed al SImulating noon on a clear sunny day With the sun abom 60" above the homon, {he PV module
Wiring of cells to form modules and arrays
"The low \'Oltage and
current o( an IndiVIdual cell limit lIS pracllcal
applications Cells are therefore wired together to produce a more useful source of electricity. When cells are WIred in serres,
directly faCing the sun. and an aIr temperature of 0
"c (32 OF)
Figure 3 shows a typical IV curve for a Silicon PV module
STC. This condition Is someumes called 'one sun'
posilive terminal to negative terminal. much like the batteries
operating at
In a flashlight, the voltage mcreases. When cells arc wired In
mclude
parallel. that is all positive terminals are joined together ,md
shorr'arcuJl Cll/'lVlI (I,) which is the point on the curve where the
all n!!gallve terminals arc joined together, the current Increases "TYPIcally, the cells may be Wired In a series of 36 cells (Ch,lpter 2 fIgure [2t 10 produce a voltage of ! 7-18 volts, the
or 'peak sun' and assumes no shading Key points on the curve
voltage and the power output of the solar cell (s zero; open-cil'cUll
recommended charging voltage for a lead aCid storage battery The string of cells is encapsulated under a plate of glass .lnd the sealed unit is referred to as a photovoltaiC module, Modules are
produced with outputs ranging from a few wails to several hundred walls. A module wnh a slOgle string of 36 cells. as descnbed above, would have a power rating of about 50 waus
�TJltage (V.} where the current
of the solar cell is zero.
module, stnng Of array, where the product of current and voltage
and thus. power IS ma.,{lmum This point is also referred to as the
'knee' of the IV curve.
1 1 7 volts " 3 amperesl As With cells. photo\'oltalc modules can be connected
10 any
comblnalion to generate the desired voltage and current When modules are interconnected electrtcally. the resulting structure
is referred to as a pholovoltaic array This is the component of Interest to the architect when integrating a photo\,oltalC system Into a bUilding A photol/ol"lic array ma�' be rated In tens of wailS up to hundreds of kilow.lIlS. depending on Its surface area and the efficIency of the cells and modules used Shadowing can slgnlncantly reduce the output of a
PV
module
In a mCKiule, solar cells are connected in serIes and the electrical current has to flow through all cells. If one cell Is covered or shadowed, it produces a smaller current than the others and limits the OUtpUt of the entire modJ.Jle. depending on the e..xact interconnection design ThiS Is similar 10 the analogy of liquid now In a hose. as shown In ngure 2. Vollage telates to water
and the power oUlPUl
maXImum power point (AlPP} the POInt on the IV curve of a PV
flQU'u J A typ1t3t IVtIJ'R
s.m. StVJ!1I. UJM!nI1I'tJlNS1\'�
The com·erslOn efficiency !eel of 3 PV module (PVl IS the rolllO belWttn the opum'll electric power CP.1 delivered b)' the PV
Electrical da.ign concepts Maximising solar exposure Since- Ihe power produced by a photovohiUC array Is directly
Shlding impBcts
1ht currenl rroduc('d by a pholovoltalc source. such as a
building·Integrated array. IS proporllonal to Ihe light level to
module and tClloll solar insolation (5) received at a gIven cell
proportional to IiRhl intenslly. II would seem obvious Ihat the
whICh II is exposed Ilowever. when only pan of Ihe artay IS
temperature ( ) This can be calcul,lIcd by dIVidIng the optimal
energy produced by a phOlovoltalC system can be maXimiSed by
exposed 10 light. Ihe current Is not proportlOn,ll to the ared
mcreaslng the arrJy·s e�posure to the sun o\'er time. lIowever.
ed earlier. shading of even a small portion of expoSfii As explain surface call have a dram,ul c effctt on Its eleclflcal • pholOvohalc
array onl'mallon. Sh,ldows from nearby objects and sOiUng o[ Ihe
becausc the phOiovolt.llc modules are wired In �r OUlpUI. volt.1ge ThIs means thai Ihe currem sertt"S to increase the system In IndIvidual strings tmvels through each module In this 'chaIn·
electrical power cp) In wails (WI by the surrace area of tile actwe
PV modul�' area (PV,) in square metres (nn
multiplied by tOlal
solar Insolallon (5) In wans per square metre (Wlm') Thus
Ihl� may nOI al\\a)"s be pOSSible In the real world. fattors Such as surf,lee or lI1(hvldu.11 modules WIU reduce the amouni of 5uIIIIgl1l
c,
_
10 whICh the pholOvolialc Mray IS exposed
p
_ _
Tile ideal photovOltaiC array would follow Ihe sun as it makes
PV..S
ItS dally palh across the sky The array surface would always be normal 10 th" sun's rays There are tn facl. small pedeslal.lype
of modulcs. the current Is only as high as Ihe currenl prOduced by the weakcsi module: " single shaded module will limit the current produced by Ihe unshaded modules.
Snow and ice load In northern climmcs. snow or ice cover can be an ISMle Pho!Olloltaic power supplies are known 10 operat(; In some rather harsh environments Arrays prOVIding power for mount.1In.tOp radio repealers can be
covered In thick Ice for weeks. BuildIng..
ImegralW pholovohaic 'lHays In rriendlier cnvlronm('nts may also experience timeswhen Ihey .11'(; covered with �now In mosl caSC5. sunlight will pene"iI\(: the layer of snow and WI!! warm the dark pholOVoltaic surface. " mm of Willer Ihen forms. allOWing the snow to slide off the sloped array An Imponant array design
considerauon s i therefore 10 minimise any bOitom prolruslons of Ihe support struclure Ihm Will prevem this natural sliding of the snow cover
array support siructures Ihal can track the sun by one
MlsmJtch occurs In PV arrays when cells wuh different IV cholraCterisucs are Imerconnected Different IV CUn.'l'S may result from euher the prOpfrties of the cells. or different conditions
mechanism or anolher. Typical applications for lrackers ille for water·pumplng phOlo\·oltalC s�·stems The benefllS arc the
such as hghl Intensity or temperature \tlSTnalch can resul1 In
greatest In Ihe summer when the sun makes 115 widest path
poor performolnce of the module. since the performance of the
across Ihe sky Under these condmons. a lracker c.ln Improve
·good· cells I� limiled by Ihal of the ·bad· cells or C\-'f:n one bad
dady energy production by up 10 40 per cent compared to
cell The open CIrCUli ,
a fi>.ed aTray
voltages oflhe mdlvldual cells PV yield Ciln be U5ed to compare the perfonnance of PV Inslallatlons
01 different sizes to each CIIher This 15 calcu lah .. 'd
by
laking the (!Oergy produced by the system (kWh) diVIded wllh Ihe mSlillied pcilk power fkWpl For example. if a system wllh an fns/alled peak power of 3 kWp produces 300 kWh over a momh,
The effect will depend on the contrast of the shadow. that is. Ihe
tht' calculated yield for the monlh IS 1 0 0 kWhlkWp ThIS does
rallo of direct and diffuse sunHghl. but shadingjust 10 per cent
nO! lake mlo account Ihe difference m Irradlalion at different
locallol1s. If system performance IS requIred for different sy5lems
of a phOlovoitalc array c.ln reduce the tOlal OUIPUI by more than
f'll 4 E.
anc! lrr,ldtmlon conditions. Ihe c.alculatlon of Performance Ratio
_t.I1,."/I
II1SI.ll1ed peak power and Irradlilllon_ The calculallon diVides Ihe
There are very few bUllding.integr.lIed phOfovoh.llC Inslallations
(PA) provldC5 a performance for the S)'5lem regardless of Ihe
50 per cenl. as presenled dJagrammillically in ngure 6 Any design of a buildlng·inlegrated phOlovohaic array should make
F;g7TbeSlJ;lW belWl!e"l l"lp;Jl"l8ls slOlld JlOl entOOIiIgI! INI Ia1.11UaWloisnoworu s-t.-.u.tr.IIMc.u../IJAilr/
every ,luempt 10 aVOid shadows.
ent'rgy produced by the sYSlem with Ihe installed peak power
that could Incorporate iI two-axis tracker Some canopy or louvre
Temperature
and the trradlallon as follows
designs. which can lrock In a vertical direction either on a d,lily
While light exposure is the single most important factor
or .1 seasonal basis. have been tried However. most bUilding·
detennlning the power generated by the photovoitalc array. system designers should also conSider Ihe lemperatures that Ihe
Integrated phOlovolt.1IC arrays are fixed and in m,IOY Instances. PR _
produced energy (k\Vh) Installed peak power (kWp)
x Irradiauon {k\Vhfm-)
array e.I[penences. High temperatun�s will reduce Ihe operating
the orientation of Ihe array is dictated by Ihe building design or
vOliage of crystalline silicon modules and therefore Ihe
oflentation. Chapter 5·s discussion on PV potential re!terotes thai
photovoltalc pelformance Note Ihe eHect of panel lemperalure
benef,CIal PV power generation does not necessarily require
on produaion effiCIency ror the SWISS 5lUdcnt HOUSing, �see Case
optImally orienled surfaces
Study. Chapler 31 Extreme lemperalUres can also damage
Thus. an Instollled peak power of 3 kWp produces 300 kWh over a mOrllh If Ihe Irradiation for Ihe monm was 125 kWh/m' thts gives a perform,lnce ratio of 0.8 or 80 per cent
photOVOltaiC modules. Since the photovoltalc arrays are exposed
lo direcl sunHght. there ls a nalural tendency to creale heat
Z oo
L J ..
A well·deslgned photovoltalc array Installalion should IIlclude provisions ror venting Ihe array back surface to remove thIS heal Ph% vollaic cell lemperatures should Ideally be kept below
70 DC.
• • • ,
' 206
As a European rule or thumb. the rollowlng losses ('I,
may occur with fJ"ade·mounted syslems
.
"
.
Pen:.nl $Mded
(%1
No air gap - 10'1 loss: 5 cll1 air gap - 5% loss: 1 5 cm air gap - minimal loss from temperature eHCClS
101-
--
.....,.Z�lW
Buildlng-Intognl.d PV .,.ctric.' compon.... In ') 1}'P1CJ.1 uulllY'lnlefconnected PV s}'sicm. the array Is
_.
.. , ,
_ _ IW> -
connected 10 an lnvenl."r or power condmonmg unit which com"f'n� Ihe DC power 1n10 AC power This AC power
Is then
"" '"
,." '"
7111.
".
t� �
lZID
,�
"7$
'''' lUI
y", ,W
M� '"
,�
1714 ",
,",
"'" ,�
fed InIO the building's mlernal drSlflbulion system or mlo the public grid Ihgu!'t'81
..u-.-g,.f1Id_It./ICj . 30 IV
Inverter or power conditioner TIle Invcncr, otlcn called a power condmoncr. IS the component
.. , ,
-__ 1Wl "'"""
1/1,11 changes Ihe powcr oulpu[ from the pholovoll.llc ,uray Into convcnrlonal electrlcal power as supplied by lhe local uuUIY 11 15 the link 10 the outSide world and performs three f\JnC!lons
.." , ..
,;/ ,
I The InVCrt!:f controls the operauon ol lhe pholovohalc
13."16
".
.
� .. '"
":� '��
'
array As Iht" sun rises m Ihe morning. It connects Ihe phOiovoltaic array 10 Ihe utilny system.
As light and
.,__,..poow (__ �IrIJ�) , --
temper,uure change throughout Ihe day. the Invener
....... ..... (W} "'"""
,ldJU5IS lhe array current and voltage fc-.'efs 10 maxlmlst: Ihe eHlclency of Ihe phOiOVOltalC array. ; !rJcklng Ihe ma'amum power poinl Finally. as he sun sees In !he e...enlng.
0
Central invenerdesign
,
The tradJUonal array SlnJClure consists of modules conm.'<:tetl III
5Clles to form a s(nng A number of strings arc connected in
FlgIObtill!l'elliaenl:yCllW
II disconneclS Ihe array from the
uIIIIIY s)'Slem thiS may be descnbed as (he power
figS Tte elkt!al strWI.lI! oIa .IlSldsm.aI N syslem
Sotm' MMuI �:a.Deru.. fIJ .\.�n
tracking funcllon of the inyerter
parallel to form an array One CC'lltr.l1 inverter transforms the
.... �IlINS\¥.�
DC electricity to AC amem that can be fed Into the grid. Llrge
buddlllg'lIllegrated
(l11'(.'(t current (DC) from the phOiovoltalc array to .,hern'lIlng CUfrt!nt
lAC) wnh a frequency and voltage
The Invener may be conSidered 10 be an elec!ronlc component. It will reqUire periodiC Inspection and maintenance. Often the inverter Incorporates a display panel indlc.lting power prodUCtiOn
matching the supply from Ihe local utllily This IS the
or fault conditions II should therefore be Installed In an
Inycrwr funcHon
accessible location and. unless designed for oUldoor cxposure.
Trade Fair Cemre or 200 kWp
background noise. The sound can be Irrililling when the high
be Installed m cabinets In a centra! SYSlem room where repair
Mosl buUdlng'lntegrated photovoltalc syslems Will be ulliny Interconnecled They are calegonsed as distributed rt:sources tOR) or embedded generalor and
frequency switching coincides with certain psychologically
big mveners arc cascaded Imo a maSler-slave
selecting the location of the inverler.
effiCiency could reach very high values. up co 95 per celll
The range of Input current and voltage to the inverter must malch number of modules In an afray has 10 be a muiliple of the
appearance may 1Il0uence the prOOuCi seleclion and hence the
number of modules in a string. Invener performance Is influenced
Another approach is !O connect each single string of modules 10
by me DC po.....er OUtput from the PV modules Figure 1 0
one inverter. Partial shading and different thermal charaCtenSlics
syslem design
the range of OUtPUt currents and voltages From the array Also the
shows
how the invener effiCiency reduces with loss In DC power
to any
Electrical configuration
oulage Dunng periods of normal operation. po....er fed to the 1I11l1ty must meel standards for VOltage. frequency .lnd hiHmOntC (ontell!. Safety and power quality issues an� Ihe main concern of ullhtles The
' 201
Will not tngger losses across the whole PV array with Ihis design Ex.lmples C.ln be lound in the Germany Mont-Cenis Academy on Ihe DC·side Ihal can cause safety problems with the so1.lr i good practice to moont the invener close to the modules. It s
Photovoltaic systems have a highly modular structure and can be
modules to reduce (he length and cOSt of DC cabling According
electrically conAgured In a variety of ways The building blocks of
to the German manufaCiurer SMA. watenight unils can be
a solar generator. the PV panels and their rated peak power of
Installed outside bUlldlllgs on rooftops or faC
typIcally between 50 W and
maimenance records will show the reliability of thcse systems.
lOO \V (Aln be conngured to
maximise OUtpUt emclency Figure 11 prcscms a number of
tnverler will monilor various parameters such as dCVIJW from a set range.
String oriented invener concept
case study This concepl oflen leads to rather high vohage levels
ullhty dIStribution sYSlem experiencing a power
voltagl' and frequency and will shut down If they
conFigurililon thc
come In a vallely or casings; some of them are ralher sober.
.11 times Will be able 10 feed power back Into Ihe ullillY mUSI met'l cerlam safety and power quality
work and malnlenance can be done In a convenient way If several
annoying frequenCies. Noise may therefore be a faClor in
dlstnbullon sYSlems This means that Ihe Invener reqUirements A DR must nOi feed power back
Bremen have been Implemented this .",ay The lilTge inverters can
while some are deSigned fOf public display In some cases the
should be loe.lIed In a dry and temperate environment. Inverters l The Inverter also funclions as a safelY component
pV projects like the 2.000 kWp PV Munich pV power station. Auf dem Kruge In
service panel Some inveners are known 10 generJle some
Most inverters are Installed next 10 the building's electrical
2 Tht: second funcuon of Ihe InVenef is 10 change the
C'leculcal conAguratlon (oncepts
rig !I OP Solar2400 W 11IY!l11C(1
SoIuu [Cll. u. �
".-.-�
1\�'o1
�.
)�� IJ
Multi-string invener design The main Jdvantage of the string Inverter 15 the optimal power lracking done for a Single string of I'V modules. The rated power
Q�
solar of the inverter is limited to approximalCly 2 kW because modules cannot withstand very high voltages. To gain the cost advantages of larger units and maintain
Ihe optimal string
power pOint inverter. several DC/DC convertcrs with maximum Slfings to a lracking (MPPT) combine Ihe power of the different
when I'V strings DC bus. The multi'Slring Invcrter is very useful are combmed. of dlfferem faled power or different orientations
or 10 mitigate partial shading
109 '
System wiring
AC modules
convent:rs Wnh AC modul(.'S. also known as module·integrated box of (MICS!. very small inverters are Integrated In the Junolon
't01;!f modules efigure]:!)
The typical system size 15 100-300 W
Thl� deSign Is advanl1lgeous when pafllal shading cannot be lead 10 .wotded or small systems are used 1>\.lSS producllon could arc J substanll,,1 unit cost reduction. Reliability and maintenance more significant Issues because the devices are exposed to
J Wide fange of temperalUre Jnd humidity conditions when
mounted on a roof lOp or a fa�ade. Ambient temperatures between -20 °C and
+ 90
°C are quite common In these
joined together In The phOlovolt.llC modules in the array are parallel stnngs As described earlier. the number of modules In the Individual strings determines the system voltage and the number of parallel strings determines the currem Electrical
b.lsiCS also stale that the current determines resistance losses In a wIre. Large array currents wili thererore require a he.lvy wire to
minimise resistance losses while transmitting the power from the pholovohalc array to the Inverter, The array Is orten roof·
mounted while the Inverter may be located 111 a basement electrical room. Long separations result in high wire losses
applications ThiS means extra stress on electronic components. Inrluenceng the useful Itfe, Keeping Invener boxes watertight Is of
Heavy wire will reduce these losses but Is expensive and orten
dlsmbuted mstallallon of many small units in a large array field
applicatiOns, electrical codes limll the allowable level to 600 volts
high prlOTlEy. Repair work can be ralher an effort because of the It Will be necessary to develop systems that ImmcdJillely detecl
thl' failure of any of the small inveners. T.!.bll' I summarises salient polms from each invener concept
difficult to Install High operating voltages lower the current and thereFore the resIstance losses. but In most buildlng·lntegrated It [s recommended ror the winng on the
DC side to usc double·
IOsulated UV stable cables. ellher 2.5 mm' or IF needed 4 mm'.
The cables must also tolerale temperalUres up to
In general. a cemral invener cOStS a lIule less lhan smng
60 "C
� strtngs making up a PV array arc connected to a junClion
bOX. which
tS preferably localed close to the PV ,UTay and not
exposed to the natufi'll clements A JunCtion box should have to a cable. such as UV resIstance. and Slrnll.lr [ealUres As each siting is controlled by a standard fuse temperature 10 mm) lhe junction box should be acceSSible If needed
(5 "
"JUnctiOn bo" has dimensions of around 30 " 20 " ]0 cm h x dl for a residential applicatIon (3 kWpl and for a bigger
IW )(
Installation (greaeer than 10 kWPl around 60 )( 80 )( 20 cm
[W )( h )( dJ Ie Is also a desirable design feature co cMerully storc
Wire runs that are easily Identifiable. as In figure 1 4 . or to cleverly compronllsed
pV O\'CNOltage devices and DC
isolating deviCes (an array swnch)
are needed co electrically separate the
PV array from the invener
tf high voltages occur. for example. due to nearby lightning strikes. or when needed for maintenance It is [mponant to note Ihat
chest' devlCC5 are operallng under DC
conditions and the operallng
current Will vary at any time. The devices mUSt be able to suppen not pass through this device) and the open DC voltage.
due 10 Ihe other components mvolved such as the wifing and
adVant,lge for roof-mounted modules They c.ln be connected by electncal laypersons. for example roofers. and Ihus help to streamline (he l05tallallon, Modules for mullion Iransom fa�de systems are often clistom-lallored and thell terminal Wires oflen leave the module at the edge If these Wires need 10 be field· connected. crimptng is the most reliable method of connection The cnmp connection should be prOtecled by a layer of shrinkable lUbe fitled wlIh Inside adhesive
create " decorallve wiring fC,1tUre as long as s.lfety Is not
the PV array shon current (if surge-protected, then current does
mverters of the same capaCity. but has higher installation costs
Standard modules often come with screw terminals In theIr JunClion bo�, However. special plug/receptacle connectors olfer an
Grid interconnection The total photovohalc system Is connC(too 10 the ulliity system at what IS referred to as Ihe point or common coupHng or lntertonneaion. In a resldenllal system, thiS Is normally the bUIlding breaker panel, The pholovoltalc system Will be connected as a load 10 the panel. Most Jurisdlcllons reqUire the photovollalc system
to be connected via a dedicated line
That Is. there are no
orner loads on mat panicular breaker Depending on the design of the interconnealon, II may also be necessary ror the breaker to be rated for bi-dJrectional operalion The breaker and the array
Juncuon box Stnng inverters. however need a beuer monitoring
swtlch serve to isolare the invener for servicing
concept compared to a centfi'll InveneT Currently. the COSI balance Is slightly m favour of the string invener concept
Monitoring and metering
II IS importanl 10 have some simple method of monitOring
•
whether or not the system is working The invener is an
electronic component and can have failures. If a central Inverter Is not properly monitored and breaks down. solar energy is not bemg converted and me PV owner loses out Today. most inveners offer access to the inverter da[" via dlal·11I modem With a SUitable PC program, the user can automatic.llly receive an error message 10 case of a failure or check the performance of the (nveners. Alternatively, if Ihe Inverter is located In an easily viSible location. a warmng light should show malfulICllon
F.g12At.�v.thll"lOdlllll llltegrated tllW\!rlel Ot CXWM!fUlf [MCJ y,'lhACplugRl sad!!1 s.ur. Wl N�
tu.. jIn;Uon 00x FI\I 13 Mockrle Wlmg RIa .... s.:.- (CII "�
Net metering An increasmg number of Ulillties ofrer 'net metering· for small residenllal customers Under thiS arrangement. a Single billing
Inwrter concept ea., DfmMsion/weight Insr.fI.tJon
ShMJIng InfluMJCe Monitoring
Reliability
· 110
CM>
5"","
Appro�ln'ately
ApprOlumately
US$O.6/wp
Large and heavy Junction bo., more wiring. more effort
/l«Ju/. Appro)umately
USSO.7/Wp
USS1IWp
A4 sile and
AS sileand
aPPl"o�lmately 1 0 kg Very easy and fast
appro�lmateJy 1 kg Little more than string Inverters
High
NOl much
Not noticeable
No big Issue
Some effort necessary
ExtenSIve
High
Moderate
Moderate - Low
meier is allowed to run forwards and backwards Whenever power produced by Ihe phOtovohalc system exceeds the customer"s load. the excess feeds back to the utility. The photovoltaic system can Ihereby reduce the customer"s electricity bill However. Ihe utility may nOl pay for ::my surplus showing at the end of the billing period This arrangement reduces metcring COStS and In effect. allows the customer 10 sell the energy to the ulllity al retail rales It also simpllfles tile utililY·S bi!ltng procedures for very small generators. Net.bllllng Is not really a technical Issue. Other than (n the choice of a suitable mcter. It is a commercial arrangement and In many Instances. is becoming a policy mandated by governments
Protection
In I/:rru·ms., �r'veral protection devices arc rn�tall(.-d 10 '>,jh·�u.J/(1 (ht· tn�I,ll1allon agarnsl abnormal (In:umStanc�s
Wuh!ll lh,· UYM,lllrrw srllcon modu],'. bypass dIodes alc usually M't JlJr,lUd [0 eI.'l·f)' ijl!;lUp of 1 2 - 1 8 ceJls to avoid so-called hOI
po" Thl� 'PO[� C;1n OC(ln as J result of shading or din when a p,m of [h" cdl.,> dOt's not gener-tee power but dissipates power
trom tlw ottwr rdb imd consequently hears up TIle bypass dlnd,.., rhvell Iht" mooult' currenT and prt'vent hal spots
II I� cu�trJm'Hy 10 mst,lll blocktng diodes and surge prolecTOrs to
"vI:ry �trlng. ,'lthou,�h Ihelr usefulness and desimoUlty are subject •5 to dl'b;lw The diodes pft'Vem revers.11 of the strrng current . 1
The preferred locations for Ihe Installatron of PV arrays ale unused bUlldrng surfaces, such as roofs or far;:ades. This means Ihey arc oflen exposed to direct srrlkes of lightning or Ihe IndUCtion of overvoltage after nearby slllkes. The IIghll1ing prolecrron concept should have neither a negative Innuence on Ihe demands made on the availabllilY of the sysrems, nor on the protection of Ihe syslem and the operalOrs or other persons
n'e
in5tallmlon depends on the existing lightning pro!Cction srruClure (lPS) on Ihe building Figures 18 and 19 show a recommcndarlon tllilt 15 pfilcllsed in mOSt European applicatiOns
-
rations .... erectrical configu
appliances. such as televiSIons. radios, and computers
=
runalon rmernally using DC supply by transforming the 2-10 ... /C. grid vollage to. Iyplcally, a low·level 12 or 24 DC volrage.
....... pV energy In
:=en
thiS way Involves two sleps of encrgy
rslOn from DC 10 AC and back from AC to DC again, With t energy losses The power demand of some appliances is
cannol be supplied by 10W,volt,lge DC ..." and therefore (due to losses In DC cables) Also. DC dfIU'IbUIlon system
swftCheS are more expensive
than AC switChes and DC appliances
III flOC wldely availabfe. Only al the 12 V level Is there a broad
..... of devices avaJlable based on the leisure and c.lmplllg
market, These consumer arricles ;:are not produced (Q the highest
Ol.l)' br' (,lused b}' c,urh faults somewhere In the siring I n C.1St! 01 11!'.HUy IllIhtnlnll, slIIge protectors will Uml\ the VOltage to r",liOn,lule vJ.hJt'� Some ulllilles WIll reqUire an J.ddllIonal
1here are however. a number of PV applications using DC. An
Isol.luon �wlI(h Ihar IS lockable ,lnd ,lcccssible to UTIlity personnel
emesgIng market for
only Th., "�a(t rl'qU1f(�mt'nr� vary from counllY 10 country .lnd
(UPS) systems UPS sYSlems traditionally comprise Inverters. JWitI;hes. control circuitry and a means of energy storage (such as
quaHcy and energy erriciency slandards
...·r:n ,Imon!l ulllllit'S of the s,lme country l
ot mOfl' IlIIpon,mct! ,ue Ihe saft'ly olSpt.'CtS of a pV mstallallon Ir IS uUll.tl 10 renwmbcr that while a generaTOr can easily be • PV array cannot be SWitched orr As long as rhe �WII(h('<1 0" . 1
systems to ensure availability of power for essenrial funClions such as sewerage and communications during blackouts
HJlltlllUl'S TI1!5 a�r(.'Ct musl be rneluded in protection guidelines
InSMllaUOr1s "II 1'f1.'1:trical Issues art: under rhe standard bod}' of
that of Unimerruptible Power Supply
In the case of a grrd power outage. Many large buJldrngs have UPS
Standard UPS system with PV fog I B LIS \\11to:rt e.\temalprotec1JDn S
prepaR!d for ,1 grid power outage. Charging Is done by the grid.
till' lEe IIntl"(nauonal ElectrotC<:llOlca[ Commission) and can be
connet1ed rectifier f'horovoltaic panels may contrlbutt� 10 charge the baUIo!I'y. The advantage of this concept Is Iilat some elcttriclry consumption Irom the grid Is replaced by PV energy OUTIng
' rotl'(IIOn ,lsallisl cfecltlc;rl shock has been considered under l
lifl'ftrit
longer grid outages. operation of the whole system Is possible al
I reduced power level
In emergency mode
W/m irrJ.tllattonl docs not exceed 120 v then no
�Jlt:t.l.l) measurt's are r/"quired
r",19tl'SwIIMlI.llffMlllOllIC\lDn ... � � .... AG. � s-. 1
extended for several hours by PV
m
l
PV UPS su pp y for a co puter network A simi lar UPS system Is operated at the Helsinki University of
F
Technology 10 supply a computer nelwork al the research Institute.
igure
22 shows Ihe deSign of the 800 w unit
�
-
' ''' IN ,''''
'!'
�
-
I!It'l9
fIoa Hllln1l I\.
c,.... Ali. �
Direct coupled PV systems! DC load Any direct use applicauon of DC elect/[city can be supported by
wuhln ,1n arl'a accessible only 10 skilled or instructed
1l1\'('rrcr
absorbs all the pV electricity available. Depending on the weather
Fig 2D � lI'Ssystem Sl(l!Xlrled byptllrUJvOlW:eleclllCllY
In.l�' be ommed where Ihe f'V generator Is localed
bl',u a worrnlng lallcl Indlcilll11!:1 thJ.t ilctlve pans Inside
When the PV array Is connected to the
battery the solar inverter is switched off because the battery
s-riClt��
• Prott"Cuon against ImltreCl contact of the PV gene.r-llor
till' bOM'S moly sll11 be live after isoltllion from the I'V
Wilh a relay SWitch (52).
O by ptllrlaVl;lllta CeleculClly ftg 2'2 lOl W tf'S $fS\!IlI S\IflIIOed
\VIm [fr,1(II,uIon) does exceed 120 V then one has to
pt'f:;on� In such cases. easily vIsible wamlng signs ,hall bl' pl.let'(! In Ihe vlclnny oflhe PV generalor AU jUl1l1lon bo)l,t:S (PV generator J.nd f'V ;:array boxes) shall
suglto. The pV array is connected to Ihe DC bus bar of the ballery
IIS-
• If the DC \'oltJ.gc lopen CirCUli al 25 °C and 1000
e
generator was used for the first time in the Swiss projCC't UBS
-
• If th', DC voh,lge topen Clrctlll al 25 °C and 1000
U�I' $Of,1I modules wllh protection class II and
A direct connccuon between a standard UPS system and a PV
In scandatd UPS systems, the ballery is kept fully charged.
ord"/t'd from wwwlec ch
COn�l'(I IU'ntly use of lass II eqUipment for the DC side ISIICh a� c.lblt's. switches. Junclion box)
fig21 M.-a"ICIld tf'Ssy$rem S1/!lPDfll!d by ptolCMlltac energy
lProreal.J8S.Sugbol �.... �.Somm.rd
conditions and the UPS load. the time of autonomy ca.n be
for mstaU"I'i ,lnd operators Many gurdelines are still rn draft stage ,t.1lc-of.thl··art knowlr-dgc and should be applied at all
pV is
blUeriesl for marn"unlng continuity of electrical supply to a load
sun �hlnes on II. the phYSical process of produdng eleclriclfY
,ln,' Will t.lk!' tlml' to be approved \105t draft guidelines represent
not 10 cause problems with computer power supplies When S2 is closed. PV electriCllY Is used to charge the ballery. In standard operation mode the PV syslern operales as any olher grtd. connecled PV unh
An external lPS prolects against direct lightning strikes. bur a s.lfety clearance between the PV installation and the external lPS has to be laken {mo account A direct conncclion from Ihe f'V Mray 10 Ihe external I.f'S Is also recommended and reduces the rIsk of InViting a IIghtlllng strike intO the building
Advanced U P S system with P V Figure 2 1 shows I h e now diagram of a n advanced UPS system In standard UPS units all electricity passes through rectiner. ballery and Inverrer to power the dedlcaled UPS load Advanced unilS operale the UPS load direCTly o n the AC grid The S t Switch is doSed In this mode of operation. A bl·dlrectional Inverter Is used
phorovoltaics. Beside Ihe battery·based systems like UPS or telephone exchanges. there arc many means of public transport that are operated wirh DC, including tram. trOlley bus and subway, These DC networks can absorb .1 lot of PV energy. For example a 75 kW PV array [s mounted aTOp Ihe Neufeld park·and. ride facility in (he City of Bern. Switzerland The plam supplies the solar-generated DC current directly to the grid of the public
to charge the battery in grid.conneCTed made. During power
transportation system, The a'nnual energy production [s 76,000
OUtages. S) Opens very quickly and the UPS load is supplied by the bl-cllfc(tionai inverter now working With reverse energy now IDC to ACI S 1 is an electronic switch and must open faSt enough
kWh This IS about 0.5 per cem of the total electrici ty demand of the tram and lrolley bus network of 5VB Bern
' 11/ 113 ·
SysIom reliability
Tht' (rJi.lblhIY of ol phorovollalc system may be defined as us db,l!l), 10 pcorfonn .lccordmg 10 SpeclfiGIIIOnS over a given penod
01 lime I..Jrnuallons on performance due [0 design faclors such as shading or perhaps unusuallv poor weather should be excluded
from [hi� deflnillon Ahhough gnd-connecled phOlovolt
01 whilbtrny
III f"el. manufacturers ofphOlovoltalc modules
Iyplcally offer lVilrranliCS of:?O or more yt:.1rs, b..lsed on [his wcont
In ,hl' las! few years. Ihe number of grId-connected pholovollalc Installations. including bUlldlng.imcgr.lled systems. has Incrcased
eleclfical SYSlem. it bulldlng-intcgrated pholovohalc
Reilablluy tSSUCS for pholOvoltalc modules relatc almOSI cntirely to I'andallsm and theft. PhOlovoit.llc modules must. by their
must meet established rules and regulations Thc Ihe system must meet applicable produci
Inherenl function. be exposed Also. In the case of non·bulldlng inStallations such as slreet hghting. they arc often locaTed In lsolatL'i:I areas. Thc}' afC therefore vulnerable 10 diJmage by vandals /\s the general pubHc becomes aware of Ihe uses of pholovoJtalc systems. the modules also become targets for theft.
safe and reliable operation Thc Installation of meet applicablc electrical codes. agaIn to ensure
m..
addition to these requlremcnts. a UIIlIIY_ ph",,,,,,,, ,,,, system may be required 10 meet by the local elcctrlcal powcr
Vandalism and theft Issues can only be minimised during the sys[(:m design Gencrally. the photovoliaic modulcs should be
group to make resull.') stallstlcally meaningful Large grid connected projL"Cts are also underway mTernationally and lEA T.lsk i hilS undenaken TO SUrvL'Y some of these projects In member ccontries The followmg summanses the limited expeflence With ulllity Interilcllve photOVolraic systems
r,lStencrs
con\'enlional components are used in the system. their
apphcation (SUCh as bl·dlrectional power flow in breakers).
blocking dtodes have failed in some systems due to lack of heat
may mean that elCisting standards need revision
In N.lstraha. gnd connection of energy syslems via lnveners is required (0 be supplied and Installed to meet AS 4777 PV
t
For Ihe small Inl'erters used In BiPV systems. often used as string
suppon structure on the roof should nOi compromise the MructuTilI integmy or \\·t:ather seal of the eXiSting roof
Inverters in large arrays. the system designer should consider ease of unit remO\',lL shipping to supplier and replacemcnI until
This has resulted in a large number of
many to include in this chapter. Many of the and qualificatiOn procedures were developed as process for nalional and InternatIonal PV
product AC modules. again a relatively new tcchnology. place Ihe
and If they perform well for Ihe first year. they are likely to conunuc to perform for a very long time. While perhaps not a
Installanons have experienced problems during the first weeks of
are Installed must also conform to prescribed installation practices. Each country has evolved Its own SCI of ST,lndards
replacemenl of defet;til'e uniTS after array inSLillJatlon could be an
based largely on local characteristiCS and requlremems. Working
with a recently dC\-eloped technology. installers have had to
rdiablhty Issue. onc rt:ason for reponed poor system performance has moen the overrating of module power by the manufaCturers So far. no system has been in oper.lIion longer than the expected hfcllme of the photOVoh.llc module. If there is a future problem. II IS likely 10 occur in the module junction box. Because this box Is very exposed to the elements and mounted on the back of a
gl.lSS Surface. It cxpertences higher than ambient tempermurcs El'ldence of corrOSIon may show after [0 TO
[5
years of
0pl'ratlon Corrosion may be delayed If cables are alw,lYs Introduced frum the bOllom and drainage openings for water condensation Me provldC
conform to mynad different and sometimes conOicting electrical
thirds of reported troubles according to lEA sludy lEAPVPS
standards. For example. the European community favours and documents The InternaTional Electrochemical
In today·s market. the pt(.'valling size for an inverter Is In the 1 -5
jO.OOQ units per year arc now being
produced They should therefore have been thoroughly tC5led in the factory. With Simple. stralghrforward installation. no start.up problems shOUld bc expected from these units. Nevenhelcss. Ihe pholol'ollalc Industry 15 rdalll'ely new and component designs .1fe largely unproven FaUures have occurred with the smaller Invt!rters. usually within several weeks of actual field opcratlon nle problems can usually be allrlbuted to comral circuitry Ihat
has been recently developed but lacks actual field experIence. Failure to protect flsclf frOIll utility irregularities or user abuse usually leads to deslrucllon or ilt besl. r.,Uurc of Ihe cOrllrol [0 bring the unl! Into oper.lting mode.
codes
performance standards. the manner In which these componenlS
operation Aside from high failure Tiltes. accesSibility and
kilowatt ronge, AboUi
wwwstandards.com.au
In addition to components of a system meeting safeTY and
Inverter in an extremely hostile enl'lronment . Several European
T5-0J [ 999
Standards. Refer to AustTillian Standard AS 4777 at
Installation
such time Ihat the Industry Is able to supply a very reliable
in dt:termlnlng overall system performance. It accoumed for two.
Photovoltalc madUlcs prodUce dectriclly whenever the sun shines
modules require a minimum IO-year warranty. and other components and designs need to meet relevant Australian
programs. For e)(ample In the U S . Ihe jet
Issue for this technology, The quality of thiS unit Is the key factor
Pholovoltaic modules
82
may be conSidered as vanalions of convenTional clectrlcal
role as well as Ihe malUmy of the elecmcal IndUStry Array string
thiS component occurs In the original design Photovoltalc arrays
phOiovollalc systems on eXiSting bUildings. the addllion of the
Charge Controllers/or Use in Photo�-oICl/ic Power Systems, IEC TC
products to which esTablished standards apply However. whet(.'
photovoltaic systems. Their reliability may reflecT their passive
Aeliabiliry of inverter (power conditioner)
array surf.lce At roof edges and eaves. wind loads may surge by a
In the U.S ..
connected phou]l'Oltaic fPV) power genCMnon S)'lltems, Other
arc likely 10 function accorchng to specificatiOns for the life of the
madulcs �wncrally do not blow off the roof. The main concern for
filclor of thR'C compared to more ccntral sections. This requires a
107.1 for General Use R:llI'cr Supplies.
independent document. Ul1741 SlImdard/ar SIalic Inverters 011(/
components used in a bUllding·integrated photovohaic SySTem
Fuses. breakers and sWHches normally function :IS required and
Support �truclUres hold the photovoltalc modules in place;
higher r(:.�lstance against pullJng forces. Also. for reltont of
SlOndord
Underwriters L.lboratories Inc. h.1S produced a completely new
pnxedure - Islanding pre\'Cntion measures/or Inverters used In grid
proper Wiring. both the stnng dIodes and the SIring fuses can be
should be Installed to ensure maximum solar exposure for the
unique photovoltall: and utility requirements 10 an exiSting
for use In photovoltaic: (PV) power systems and IEC 62]16. Testing
Aeliabililry 01 electrical components
eliminated. rcsuliing m a Simpler and morc reliable system
aCllvc phOiovoliJic area while minimising Wind loadings on the
their own standards for this component In Canada. Ihe Canadian
Standards ASSOCiation has simply added sections penalnlng to
IEC 62109. Electrical sa/ety o/stutlc in\'fmers and charge controllers
dissipation, lEA study IEAPVPS TS-03: I <'I<'IQ suggests that. with
PhOiovoltaic array support structure
system is the invener Again IndiVidual counttles have developed
has developed two standards relevant 10 photovoltaic Inverters
kept out or reach, TIley can also be inswlled with theft·proof
drarnmlcally L.1rgc wcll·monhored programmes, such as Ihc German ' 1 000 Roofs' programme. provide a large enough .')ample
The other main unlquc component of a bUilding-Integrated PV
(lEC) develops imernatlonal standards for renewable � lIX:hnologies IEC Technical Committee 82 eTC 82) Is IIIpOn$lble for solar photol'oltaic energy systems TC 82 has now petished a series o f inll;al basic standards and Is In the process OIdeveloplng further slandards. Oel
The mosl important
Thee Is a well-eSTablished standard for PV modules that Is normally referenced when purchasing modules For
There is a move towards international harmonisation with the drafting or IEC 62234. So./ery Guidclinesjor Gnd Connected Pho/OI'OltulC Sj'Stems ,\-founted on BUlldmgs. which is being produced by IEC TC 82. Another IEC Technical Committee. TC 64. is responSible for all electric.11 components within buildings and
and unique components in a building.
inlegraled photovohaic system are the phOtovoltalc modules.
This Is IEC 0 1 2 1 5 ( 1 993-04).
ungrounded circulls In Ihe phOlovoltalc arrays. whereas U.S regulatiOns requIre these source circuits 10 be grounded
rv systems
CrystalJim: sJ/icon tcrrcsllial
IIhotrNoUaic (PV) modules - Design qu(l/ijicallolI and type approml. Whkh lays down requirements for Ihe deSign qualification and IyPe approl'al of terrestrial phOtovollalc modules suitable for long.
has produced a draft addition to
Its existing standard. Elecrrical
Inswllatiol1s: ReqUIrementsfor special mstallatlons or locations PV poll'er sapply systcms {lEC 60364-7-7(2) There Is also an
existing standard that gives guidance on overvoitage protection for both st.lnd·alone and grid-connected photovo1talc power generating systems - [EC 6 1 1 7 3 ( 1 092-09). Ovcrl'OllUge protection
for photo�-ollUic (PI") powcrgenerating systems - Guidr:.
tenn operation in general open.air climates. IEC 6 1 646 (1 996- 1 1 ) does Ihe s,1me ror thin-Film phOtovoltalc modules
215-
N -TE C H N ICAL ISSUES AND MARKET DEPLOYM ENT STRATEG IES
Conclusion BUlldlng'lIllCgraled phOtO\·oltaICs. b�' rhelr \'ery nature. alc
UtiJity connactJon
clt'Ctrlcal components thai bnng togelher DC and I\C power
I\lmo§1 .,11 butlding·rnIL"graled photo\lolr;uc SYSlems \11111 be connC
In terms of .. withIn bUildings TIlls ,reales inht'renr chllienges
eleculcal performance deSIgn and configuration. installallon procedures. and the 5.1fc Intcrconnecllon With utility grid systems ThiS chapter provides an overview of core electrical concepts. rellabllitv I�ues and best praCIICl� standards Jnd compliance
company For a bUilding owner. the added COSts of InStalling and
';'cnts. many of whIch continue to evolve as the Industry
rl'l\uirl.'
operating a system to generale electrICity may be offset by the
mmures ilnd the number of BIPV Instilllallons Illcreases There Is no doubt thai electrrcal elcmems of BIPV applICatiOns require
avoided coSts of purchasing electricity. or by selling surplus electnclly to the utih[y company_
colfeful preparatIon. ongomg monllonng and f:Xpertlse frol1l
COSts associated with the Integration. deSign and InSlaliation
accrcdut'd practrtioners
should also be evaluated III comparison With the traditional
M.ln, utlilues are reluctant to adopt this new mode of opera lion
consuuCtJon products and systems. In order to determine the
gent.'r,:l1ors will resuh In a loss of control of their own dlstrlbuuon
COSts versus other cladding materIal
They feel thai ,1 network Incorporating many smali lndl:pendent
marginal COS[ of the BIPV sYSlcm Flgurl: 1 presents mdicative
s,su:ms and cOtnpromisc their abIlity to gu.lr.lntee the s.lfet}' ,1nct Building �I
power 'lu,llny of the dl�lrlbutlon system The main concern IS
Concrete or terracotta rool hle/battens
·Islandlng·. a condmon rn which a generator feeds power back 10 pan 01 a urrln}' distribution s}'Stem Ihar
is expenencing a po\H:r
CoIourbond decking
outage Pan of the dismbutlon hn.: would then be live and could present a
.. to utility service personnel. Interfere wllh lL.lZlrd
normal pow..:r restoration and feed eleclnclIY not meeting Ullin, power qualilY rC(IUlrement:; to surrounding loads To iWOld IhlS problem. standards generally require thar Inveners have means for detL'Ctmg utlluy outages and isolallng themselves from the
diStribution s}'Su:m The Internallonal standard IEC 6 1 727
f I QQS-D6f. PhQf(wo/rmc (Pt') sysrems - Characteristics oj the un/II)'
mt.'rjaCt'. addrcs�es Ihe Ulterface requIrements between the PV
system ,1nd Ihe utill/y. ,1nd proVIdes technical recommendauons In Ihe U S Ihe IEEI: has reCently compleled IEEE P I 5-H. Standard
jor Dl.\frlbW
Pre-cast concrete panels Window wailing
world.
Proccdun:s for monuorlllg the energy performance of PV systems the Europe.ln Commission developed guidelines for use III EC
funded projectS These were wrdely
used Intcrnal10nally and
then
used as the basis for developIng IEC 61 72-1 ( l Qo8-II). PhOLCFI'O/tQ/c $)'Sum {It'rjonnanct: mot1[tonl19 - Guidelmesjor meaSU1't7tWlf. dora
e:uhan!/C and analysIs TIlis recommends procedures for [he monilOring of energy·related phOlOvoltarc (PVr system
characterisHcs. and for the e.xchange and analysis of monrtored data In thl: U S . IEEE 1'15-17,) GU/d�jor MomtOring. lnjonnation Exehllllg<'. 1/11(1 D.JI1tro/ oj DIstributed Resources Intercollnected WIth F.kctrrc A'Jwer S)I:\·/t·ms Is referenced
Polished stone (marble. granite)
The architectural world has created award.winnlng.
PV
iileeanl solar buildings. Utility companies and munlCipaU[les have ldopIed thIS technology to augment their Infrastructure and Cllectittc cy services network It is widely recognised that the poh!nllal for BIPV IS significant. however. institutional barrIers can slow Its deployment
1t\II chap,,:!r provides inSights into
the economic and other
nonuchnical aspet:ts of BiPV. it presents an overview of the
commercialrsation of photovoltalc IPVI power systems In[o the
are well cs[abllshC(l In Europe. the JOInt Research Center (lRC) of
Curtain walling
_ hundreds of thOUs.lnds of inSlalled systems around [he
C&InaIl lnstltutional Issues related to the Introduction and
Moniloring svslem perfotmance
Faced brick caVity wall
requires the necessary fnstrtullonal support t o fulfil Its pomise of being a viable [cchnology and a sustainable SOlution 1M-r Industry has demonstrated that the technology works.
bulk env,ronment This overview includes an economic analYSIs.
clIcussIon of values. an assessment of the e.'I(IS[ing barriers In the �place and an overview of how to remove [hese barners byldopling proper deployment Strategies
(mono- or poIy-crystalline Silicon) PV (thIn film)
Co.! USStn'
15-25 30 100 150
400+
5DO-8OO
2.400-2.800 650-1450 400-450
fi;r l N ",,"� CIIINeI1UDIIiII dadthr.gl1'."l!eflal
.... ..""
The COSt of a BiP\' system can also be compared to using a standoff P\'system added to an !.'Xlsung building When evaluating the expense of BiPV technology. the follOWing must be
considered in addition [0 the cost of the materials_ marginal added COSt. labour costs. maimenance COSts. utility Interconnection COSts. and COSIS associated with building permIts Until BiPV becomes a mainsu-eam technology. there are added labour COStS associated With specialLSed architectural desIgn. engrneenng deSign. and installation_ However. wilh technical supervision. traditional butldrng tradesmen such as glaziers. roofers. sheet metal workers.
lilt economic performance of BiPV
IIPY $}'Stems generally have low operating e.xpenses because
01 avoided fuel COStS; however. Ihe
initial system purchase and
lnaanallon COSts make them capltal.intensive and economically
PftIhIblli\IC when using first·cost analysis Hence. economiC IncenUvtos llllterest rate buy-downs. utility rebilles. metering P!'aIrammes. tax advantages. depredation allowlnces and .. ptOgtammes for financing new BIPV construction alld renOVations) may be needed to encourage their usc Cotwemlonal energy systems may initially be less expenSive. but may have
hJaheor long-term COSts.
and eleo.ncians can Install BIPV systems .. Regular malmenance COStS are t}'plc..llly low Manuf1Cturers recommend periodic system checks and cleaning as part of a pre\'cntive maintenance routine. This includes regularly clearIng away any debrrs and deaning the PV surfaces exposed to the environmem. Rain or water from a simple goltden hose Is often
sufficlem [0 keep the system clean. As a rule of thumb. visual inspectiOn of essential components. based on an inspeCtion checklist proVided by Ihe manufacturer and/or Ihe Installer. should be made every six months. The utility meter and bill
can be reviewed monthly to dc[ermlne whether output from the
because of higher recurring fuel costs When PV technology Is adapted and used as a building
syStem Is dropping (adjusting for seasonal or mher mitigating
COmponem. as exemplified In BIPV. Its economic costs and benefus may be shared between [he occupant and the utility
screening Indicates poor system performance
f ctorsr Funher inveStigatiOn is warranted if this simple
;
117
1990 total costs: 15 EurolWp PV
2003 lolal cosls: 5,7 EurolWp
Iptefn COlli (3 kWp 1,lllm)
Modules
50%
[ _DE
(Eunl/Wp)
_JP
(lOll YlI'\IWp)
- -US (USSlWp) __CH (ELII1YWp)
JAPAN 2003 lotal costs: 679 Yen/Wp
1990 lolal costs: 2500 Yen/Wp
____NL tEUf'ClIWp)
rlQ lbolu100n ofPV''fIlffll ar ml9!n--1IXl3 m �, .lap;wJ. USA.S''''UerlnandIhe Nsllleflards, eltl\ll,""v;Jlue lKlded tu !VAnorllQlX!s;Jlld 5l!mees l4>.(Gsn
.... __
Modules '2%
Ul llny Inlcf'(onnl'Clfon COStS are assOCiined with the specific rl'(llUrl'merm tit-terminer.! by each Ioc.,) aUlhorny Public utility comp,lnle$ h.we wIdely varying altitudes towards additional rt'"ulrel11enlS CO�IS C.1n Include InWTConneafon fees. net mt'!t'rlllg
I.I"H\, metering c,lUbratlon charges.
engmeermg study
(('I'S, .1m.l M,lndb}' charges Addillanal requIrements for lIolblHlY m�lIr,lIlCl·, propt'ny easement. legal mdemnny. fecord.keeplllg 01 aU Opt'fallon ,lnU m,llmenance
10 & M) COSIS. and addItional
l"ot�lIon clluipmem WIU (onlttbute to even gre..uct UlllilY rnlt'rconnetllon CO�IS The relative COSI of meeting Ihese It'qUlrt'ments (,In
N' much greater for sma!) systems than It Is for
Price trends The COSt trends for small grld-cannecled PV systems In the built
environment. III countries where comprehensive promotion actlvlIIes have taken place. are depicted in ngure
2,
Il ls of
IfItereSt thill system prices dropped substantially between (1)1)0 and 11)06 Yt!1 since 1996. with the exceplion of Japan, no remarkable price reductions h,we been achieved Germany has recognised this and through government programmes and market uptake. system C051S are beginning 10 rail
)'I�l'r Sr�tt'ms Furtht'rmolC, bUilding permils may be required
planning, .1Sscmbling, construction work and inslallation, have been reduced to a larger exlent than module COStS, as lIIuslrated
btJlldm!l I,lk�� pl,l'", EI«rrical permIts arc required for new,
in figure 3 This shows the Importance of pursuing further
Some of the costs InClude
USA
Modules 43%
reductions bOlh in module prices and in design and installation
It'b lor 1,1Ild dlslurb,1rlCe. resldcnual or commercial building
Jll'nllll (t't·s, ,lnd rt'·lnspt'Ctlofl rees Building permit fees vary,
,mil .1rl' uflt'n
2003 total costs: USSB/Wp
1990 lolal costs: USS121Wp
In recent years, non'module COSts such as Inverters. design and
!>t·fOle ,m�' conslructlon, addnion. moving. or altenng of a
n·moddlt·d. or upgraded �Iructures
[
Ilr Iht' ,lthlUlon
Modules
,.%
based on the ('sllm,lled COSt of constrUCtion or
blilldll1Jl 1100r Ml',l Therc(ort', permit fees may
be Increased
of .J BII'V system Installers must COlll.1Ct local
1,lIId U�t' ,lIld bUilding lIt'slgn officials 10 identify spe
- 218
Inverler 17%
r'll J Share 01 maOuIes. IIl'.WIers and orhef COSIS OIl IOtal PVsystetn 1IrOU 19!n-2003 W1 Ewope,USA.andJapan ; � VATDf GST .... -...
11g ·
COil
Methods of economic evaluation
01
(USDIkWh
0('\1'111.' /Xm....nllon.ll . l\"lsdorn. economICs is nOI rne only
PV
200212003 100 JP'fIkWh)
.tulrlclly
• EURlkWh '"
of
value, they Include energy, environmental.
Y
and socia-economic aspects 8('I\cllclatles tnclUde
lQ wider market pencrranon
TIlt" {wnC!!iv,lblcl l'llVlmnmcmal
benefits of ft.'sldenuJI PV
.
r:kc!rI(uy shoullt In principle, be compared wnh Ihc producllon
C C
CO�IS ot f'V dt" lrl il
Usm.1l II tradl!lonal fmit cOSts cconomi�s
appro.leh. rhe CO�t of ,1 kWh of PV cleclrlCl1y IP..1 can be
1c.,J. the capual r" following equalion c.lh.ulal�·d by consldt�rI!lg Ih", Investment costS
I I
OlO
----
Q
Kn
0.40
o eo
0.10
1 00
. "'''''m ''' Q
1 20
J
1 .•0
IjI
where r 15 the imereSI r.ue and LT Ihe lifeume of Ihe sYSlem
\\
Jts value ts equivalent [0 Ihe conventional
J[
tn olher
price may be determined by the wholesale electriCity market
dl'lt'rmlllJOI In evaluallng Ih(o value of PV s}'stem gener.uion, th�
InW 1',lItW will be 'If/ecled by relative retail elt!'CtTlcllY COSts. Figure
Some ceuntfles oper.lI� green energy markets, with an Inflaled
\'
S WPfCSI!IIIS the conwrgence of con\'emlonal electrICity taTif/s
\'alue for renewable energy sourced e!eClriclty, or higher ulililY
an,) P ·deril'cd ell'clriCity for drrrcrt:rll lEA Ceuntfles Japanese
buy,back rates GIven the likelihOOd of conventional elet:trlchy
re�ldentl,ll eleCtricity tatlffs are amongst the mosl expenSive and
prices Incn::asing o\'cr the longer term, [he value of PV generated
hence, Ihe competitive pncl' gap Ihat PV eleclricity has 10 bfldge
power will ,1150 appte1:I,1te
=>
1§
> �
FI, UK AT, CH, DE, NL
0.80
/.
0.60
/.
,/
,/
/.
,/
�--
0.05
0.10
is recommended ittIrepon by wall t:!OOI)
Ftom . pv customer'S
,/
,/
,/
,/
,/
/
/.
/.
,/
,/
/.
,/
�
,/
,/
,/
R=2 �
0.15
E
0.20
Electricity price (EuroIkWh, USS/kWh)
��=
From SOCiety's pomt of VIew, environmental benlgnllY � no
emiSSIons. no poliullon In operation _ IS the most Impofl.lnt added value. along with liS decentralised apphcablilly and the Y,"ually com plete absence of acceptance problems to date FUrther SOCio·economlc I'alues
.. Ehlc pV systems are available in every size, due to their
PV systems
local employmenc in both urban and ruml areas Decentralised PV applications could Impact on both Supp!y-side and demand stde ISSUCS. Consumers are mote likely to be i1w.1te of the!r elcctriCity meter and thetr consumpt!on h,lbl1s. leading to energy conservation and
point of view, Ihe most Important values
.1fe thai decentralised
foster employmcnt In general as well as gradually enhanCing
the purchase of energy·efficlent applIances and
1\
other renewable energy·uSing eqUipment Finally, Increased securuy of supply due 10 decentralised generation may. COuntries. also be of value
some
PV syslems with storage increase consumer .... Funher. lndIPeI'Idence from central supply by ulihues
Fast and easy to Install Increases independence (with storage)
Rlmar/(s PV systems can be constructed in any SWI and can be expanded over Ilme ThIs value is subfect 10 further improvements!
Wllght
+ + (+)
Storage adds system compleXIty and COSI
SOCIETY:
Environmentally benign
No emiSSions or pollutiOn in operation
No aceeptance problems
Tlus maYOCClltWlth large-scaJe
Decentrallsed generation laci lity
Adds to regional energy sefl-sufflClency
Enhances general and local
A range 01 skills roquired
Indirect effect: triggers energy
Enhances awareness of energy issues
conservalion
In some counlnes WIth a low developed grid or high summer peak demands, PV may contnbule to increased supply security
deployment andlor unsympathetic uman
design
�
--
,/
�
,/
/.
employment
anct strengthens locaJ gnds
Increase Supplyseeunty
�
Local and community choice and control EdlJCalional device
--
JP
0.25
lallO alP'lgenerallOfltosll/leta,lelectIlClI';jri;:e/
PV Is probably the best example lor
teaching energy supply and electnclty generation
,/ ,/ � ,/ ,/ "/ S, IT ,/ /. -� /. ,/ / � -/ ,/ _ USA � _ ,/ ,/ � /. ,/ ....... � R=1 -� '/ " ....... /. / � Cost-effectiveness! "/ � AU,NZ
0.40 0.20
R=4
SE,
0.00 0.00 210
retan price
clrcumSlances. where tht: PV IS exponed 10 Ihe grid, purchase
from COUillry 10 caunlry While pflCe pel k owatt hour is a key
j
points of view. •1S discussed by Ilaas I I (95) and Wall For funher in.depth reading.
and summarised In lable I
ulanty
is smaller. If a building uses BiPV.generated electrlcJty directly.
With COSts varying a great deal
1.00
varioUS other addL'd v,llues have been IdenciFIed from
Mod
Inso!auon may vary tremendously bel eE'n dlfferenl countfles
1.20
owner!> and occupants. the d"slgn, engmeerlng
PV CUSTOMERS:
.lnd locMions making them Imponant variables
,I elucldales IhlS point,
I
"".."",, ,,on industrics and SOCiety as a whole (Wall, 200t)
&n.nWIIIHI
Current!}', Iht' PV module effiCiency is by·and-large Ihe Solme all owr Ihe world. wh�reas Ihe Investment COSts and Ihe solar
F,guTI:
;;,;..
IrIhetenI modulanlY· and [hal they arc fast and relatively easy 10
Fig 4 fangtllfam.:pel f;I.\'11 otPJ*Ilitlt'tlndltferemOfCOI;ounl1lasin 2OOV2OOJ IreI.JTlld tDlmo1t1��loms olJW'tll
C CKF(r,Ln p, .
s}'Stems can directly affect the deCision
These bene fits can be Idf:ntlfled and evalualed
.1IE/IOUgh Ihe high (monl'!ary) tnvc�[m<,nl COStS of PV sy�rems
.1ft' the major Hl1pechrncl1l
81PV
direct eConomIC Impact. IndlreCl economic impact. and
JsSt"S..�!llCm (TUNion th.ll r1l't."ds 10 be Iilken mlo ,KeOOn!.
UTILITIES:
Summer poak loads are an increasing
Peak shaving Low trnnsoction cosls and short lead-Ume compared 10
issue In many countrios Especially important in a liberalised eleclriclty marl<:ell
bUilding a power slallon
BUILDING INDUSTRY:
0.30
For archl1octs; Innovallve mlllUfunctional bUildIng construction element For developers: An aUraclive new marketing concept with a
Needs education 01 architects to ensure proper appUcaUon Need support malerials 10 be able to show benefits to wslomers
green ,mage Table I SurYeyon valuas adOOd by P'l qsletnS � \IJII{1U1IL1WJ1 ..
a Jl1
121
The values of PV for utilities are Ihat transacuon CostS and le.ld f'\.' power station are low UhlS rna)' become
flmt'S for buIlding a
fIgure 6 lIIustr.lIes the process of developing cost·efFective PV
systems. from the current stage where incemives arc used to
Ihat In Important especIally In liberaliSCd eleandlY mark�sl and somC' counlrle
buy down the effective cost. through Increasing acceptance and quannOcallon of the added values PV can orrer These added
load-carrylng G1pacuy (ELeC) of PV Citn be especlaU}' high for
and evemually lead to situations where PV is more auractive than
PV may comnbute subStantially to 'peak·shaving' The effective
commerCIal customers. With typically good matching between pt'ak PV OUtput and daytime air-conditioning load (\V:tn. 2001)
I
power systems face a number of bafflers to their mainstream energy and building markets These
\',llues can ser\'e to reduce the nel cost of PV'generated e[ectriclty
capit.,1 costS and associated Financing, plus , architectural, communication, markeung and Issues. '\5 discussed previously, some of these
conventional energy sources
by aSSc.<;slng bOlh the energy and non.
..... lnW'
Moreover. PV m,ly also prOVIde \',llues for other sectors In the market Archllects may benefit from PV as a new and innovallve
mulu·funCllonal building construction clement It also ,lllows the
that can be provided by a phorovoltalc power
I
m",,,,, 11 a cosl-effective option even with current
. " ,,'pp"'� have indlcmed Ihat they need a bigger .;".,.., . the necessary price reductions, but conversely.
designer 10 create envIronmentally bemgn and energy efficient buildings. wHhout sacnriclng comfort, aesthetics or economy.
are needed to accelerate market growth
and offers a new and versatile building material (Wan, 2001)
programmes. such as buy-downs and
i
Builders and developers may use the posJt[ve 'green' image of
help offset the high Initial COSIS and encourage
PV for markellng purposes
...... '0 ",," the invcstmem In PV. However, some policy ald.",...." ,,, designed to stimulate the PV Industry may PV [nvcstmems, The short-term duratIon of
JIII_ ,..,..,",m' and
governmem funding programmes creates
Investor.; and developers. In that the rules and apply to today's project may not be in place for
CommunlCittlon barriers to the growth of BiPV In the built environment are based on a lack of knowledge. experience, .1nd Information among the parties Involved While pocketS of fmense aCllvity exiSt at some municipal or national government levels. Ihey arc inconsistent from region to region vaSt areas wllh few or no government PV programmes exist in regions throughout the world, With accOmpanying vast knowledge voids. One
suggested problem in communications Is that the target groups do not know enough about PV and arc prejudIced ag,llnst it by their lack of knowledge. The building sector, for Instance. does nOi readily accept ne..... Innovations in some cases. lacks awareness of the potential and possiblillies of PV. and therefore may be reluctant to implement PV.
WIthin the energy sector there appears to be a focus on supply• Side issues, a lack of experience and Insight Into the customer's
needs, and a slrong resistance to PV among the utilities. Utllilles
have msuFficient understandmg of the economics of Pv, and are scepucal about pv. believing that It requires a hIgh level of
insolation or that It wUl lnterfere with their networks Among the communications barriers w1th the public, a lack of trust towards
. [n the Financial seclOr, a lack of confidence or
developers and planners st.,nds out Many appear to lack
the pan of investor.; makes it diFficult for
awareness and knowledge of PV and have a critical altitude
information about technology, costs. performance
sources and educational programmes. due 10 the broad and
to secure financIng for renewable energy projects.
These faclOrs create baffler.; based on false suppositions and a lack of specialised
tov.'ilrds it. There is a lack of independent reliable information Interdisciplinary nature of renewable energy. The marketing baTTlers relate to problems WIthin the PV Industry and the energy sector Lack of standardismion within the PV industry makes it dIfficult to develop comparative an.llysis of PV products, deSigns,
J
and applications. This makes il difficult to develop new PV markets or penemlle existing markets, Manufacturers' product literature is often lacking In information on PV components' weight, attachment options. visual details. durability, cenlfication Is that PV products do nOI correspond ....,,"g a'rr"",,o",. This mismatch results in the necessity building materials to be used OlS filler materials
I
crealing a 'filled·in· appearance. General
to the aesthetIcs of SIPV applications is not Whilst PV manufacturers have made an effort to BIPV modules that resemble bullding materials (such as I
' �IIIdI"og m."""
architects have for some time been selecting " thai mimic PV modules. especially glass
and warranties. maintenance. repair and cleaning procedures. installation practices, COSts, and embodIed energy data In general, the PV industry may not fully understand who Its customers are. the size of its market. or what kind of products are needed It may also lack adequate understanding of the utility market and other possible niche markets Additionally, the PV industry operates in an international market and may not be able 10 focus on local needs. The energy sector shares similar challenges. It needs a beller understanding of customers and PV applicatiOn potential The energy sector also displays lillie knowledge of niche markets, or of which markets arc most
amenable 10 early PV e.,
- """
-
-,
-
"""
marketplace and PV technology is caused by a lack of utility· • It Is nOI available through informmlon avenues
normally used by architects: and
"'-
S:uaI � '"""'- /l_
.. �-,
""' � -
r'll 6 IhJ �o' nm-enervr\13luesan apparent PV geoerallonto!ls
• the roUtes for Obtaining the Information are not
known; Ihe information is spread OUt across a wide
related distribution channels or third parties Ihm can dellver services such as maintenance. installation and products. Due to a lack of sales and service infrastructure, buyers must turn 10 the utility when they experience problems or have questions. which places an extra burden on the utiHties
range of SOurces
223 ·
I.mldo••l mo"'•• d.ployma
MIIrkee SlI1lU!iD' considerations ThC-U·.Jrr
..
In the hislory of PV lmplementallon, vanous Iypes of
SIrI'agia.
dissemination Sirateglcs have oc'Cn launched. as shown in T.lbll" J As early as I08:? In Massachuscns. USA Ihe fma net metermg
h\f' ,mp"" ,lnl " rr' It-' Ot' I
rv {and other rent.'wabl�l was Introduced Whllt, thiS programme addressed only vcry few clislOmers. in lq'lt in
programme for
�
• J""' III{"W the bendus of ;1 Iect1lloJ(lgy. for c)'ampJe.
Germilny the fusl comprehenSive dissemination Siralegy was launched - the German ' 1 000 roofs' programme In tilt- carly I OOOs Ihe muniClpal Utrlily of Sacramento in CalifornIa _ S\IUD
,'m,r"nmerH.li b"ni�nlly. lo.ld·5havlng. moduJarny
• I',U"1oII" f,IJ'I,mi,1I I� II fl(Js�lbre that thr� tt"Chnology
Introduced various new stralegies. Most ImpOrtanl were green
,.'I1If1l1uit!\ �eriousJ�' w �"I"" ng a problem. �1I,h il�
cOllntries, and the
• Identify h.uru·l� ",hal .1ft' rhe major unpcdlrnenl5 fur ,J I1m.llkr ITloIrk,'! pl'nClr,lllon Isurh a� lack
ra C·
PV pioneer programme,
ion In other
whIch WilS a type
01
cOntraCting process Imroduccd In I O'll. At about the S
of wchmcal
th!'! fIrst
1.·hatJlluy, hIHh m"""'Ullt,m CoMs. no soclal acccpranrcl •
m
pnr:ing models, which laler iliso altracted atle
l
I based mcenllves programmes were launcher! 111
Swltzcrland and Germany !Burgdorf and Aacht.·11 model
P"ful!' l,l.g•.-I Ml'J� nh�' rl1;lrkel, Ihe It:chnolrogyr i1nd
1.1111"1 ).!f(jUp� 'rrl�'.l"· mdll'lllu.ll!;. P\' mdusH)'.
ty
Solar Stock-e.'(change models for PV t:lectriCity hec.lme popular In the CI
;UciHI,"CI!. gowrnnwnls) for .1(IIOnS [0 be undt:-naken
k!nve .1nd a�sess posslblt· srrall'gi!'s [0 OVl'rCOme • r
of Zurich In 1 q96 By the end of 2000, mOTI: than half of
Ihe SWISS households had access to 'Sol,lrsuom', Since about
I qqS. programmes for the promotion of renewables have focused
h.ufit'IS such ;.\ /tnan(j.1J rll(cll/iVl'-;. mformallon ,lnd
on Irberalrsed eleclfiClly mathelS. EXilmples are public purpose
ell'J(,I/!'ln ',l""J.1'.�n�
r,g lll ,
" ,< <
t
programmes as Introduced in Califorma. follo\\'l'
.,!t
S&tua 1lo..._HMI
In the USA. and tradable cerlincilles Other developmen s Include sofl lO.1ns lmroduced 111 Ihe German ' 1 00,000 roofs' programm�',
y
green pnCing programmes with labels and NGO Inltiauyes As can be seen clearl
from lable J. the wldcst varielY of
different types of slralegl� undoubledly ellists In Germany
.:: t ±
�----
Figure
.u,,", '" a/her
/+
,
depending on Lhc !Unc. We sta
bllrril!r5 \.+
".
� ,-
.
",.
;
.... .
::-
,-
;
barriers
n
The clenrimy gcncralcd is shown
T�"(:hnil'al l'olcnll;l1
PuJilirJI Ec(m\lmi� p(llcrllLll
l s
9 depiCtS how pOlcnuals.
and slra eglc ,1rc linked 111 prmciple
Thctlh.:lil;al Po/cntial
",.
",.
hlscorical developmc",
wilh Ihe
of l'V in a Certain
coumry and idemify dlffcrenl pownHals
Various barriers exist, which Impcde Ihe pracHc.11 achit .'vcmenl or lhe pOlentlals If no IlQlIcy �Tr.ltegH�s arc Implemellled, Iht.' lower brokcn line will be achieved,
��ieS
-- -- ,
tht; so,called busll1css·as·usual !iCcnaflO Jf an arnblUous policy launches Ih�' prol>cr
lfI ll
str.1teglt.'s. Ihe upper broken line wIn be achrcv�-d The nrsl impc a l
targCl Mea
IS Ihe It'ChnoJogy "�it'lf T�'{;hnlc.ll ,s�uc�
III/I;III'I\-(IHI.I/I(II
such as Sland.Jrdls,lllon
.mel rdlabillty
are of high relevance m il succcssful
dlssl!mmalJon Slriltcgy Nc,'(t arc markel
2000
1005
1010
201l
.1Spt."CtS such as cornpeutiOn, transaction (0515 and fllilr!u:1 l
ra
n
nspare cy Morcc)'o'L'r,
the IndiVIdual prelen::llccs
of CuStoml'r'S
I. VoIunlal)'nlltiooallarg-ets
Ilo15 10 be conSidered
Cleating mar�et tlllnsp.1ltoncy
YIN YIN
YIN
YIN YIN
3. Govel'Ml&lltlll �IG$ � FInaodno soft loans
.
S.TaJl lI'ICefluYes .. REGULATORY RNANClAl
ICENTTVE. GENERATION·BASED 6. Netmet&nng
YIN
7, En/'r.anced I&e
9. Env.rormental pllCing(II\I Co,-laxH)
IV. VOLUNTARY FINANCIAL
INCENTIVE INVESTMENT FOCUSED 10. Conlractmg
n�
II. G
oJl sharaholder
12 Contnbuuon
V. VOlUNTARY FINANCIAL
ty
YIN
"". event!publlc aWilrene"
.. REGULATORY FtNANCIAl INCENTlVE IN'iES1"NENTFOCUSED
fI'prc�\:'nts a very Imponant roJe I'mally,
C
N
lC
Improved
tecllll al performance
PROGRAMMES
t3. Blddmg
IL'f:hnoJogy in SO ie
Marl<,alingand latgaled iI1IOf1rulllOll
L GOVERNMENTAL TARGET 2. MandaIOl)' naoonaI larget$
and thclr Willingness 10 pay (\\'TI',
tilt' St,ltus and Ihc accl'ptance Or lhL'
""""'" IneenllVG
INCENTIVE, GENERATION·BASED
14. GreeJl tllntfs
15. Green·powor mar1le1ing
Y M,,.,.
16 Solar "ode e�chango
VI. OTliERS
17 NGO markellng 16. SeJllng green bUIId'llgs t9 Retadoralliallalll
20. Cornme'cial linancing programmes 2t PublIC buildIng programmes such as IChooIli. lersure centles. sportSfaalllleS ·.bIe 2 M"II)! I\'IlIl'S aI SIJateg!tS lar I1tUenW'131"",ol $1113I If'VSY:;11l'I\Sat1Ilhoifcure featur�
YIN
M,,.,. M.,.,. M,,.,. N Maybe
115
y-
'982
COunIry
US
11187 -
DE
-
REN
1991 - 1 995
DE
Rebate
l000-0Acher Programm
-"
1881 - 2000 CH
Voluntary large' programme Rebate
AT DE, CH. AT
Regulaled _
KosIe_
SMUO PV pioneer I
prOMI1I ' 994 -
present
'9114 -
prOMI1I '99619981997-
'887prasenl
worldwtde
promo1Ion programme
_ .998
ES
Regulated rates
P.A.E.E.
revised 1998
-. -
SOnne In dar SChule, SONNEonUne
DE
Green pricing
AWE Umwelttarif
CH
BIddIngIG-.
SOJars1rombOrse
NL
Voluntary target programme
Heading into the Solar age together
CH
G...., priclng
Solarstrom yom E Wark
DE
Bidding
SolarbOrse Berlin
labelling
Golden and Silver lebel (EUROSOLAR) Sonnenschein
AT
Shareholder
'999-
DE
Soft loans
100,000 DAchetProgramm
1 999 -
Nl
NGO initiative
SOLARIS
US (CA)
Rebates
California's emerging renewables buydown programme
AUS
Rebates
PV Rooftop Programme
The Japanese residential PV promotion programme The largest worldwide dlsseminallon programme so far was launched In Japan In 1994 In the following years Ihe number of small grid-connccted systems skyrockeTed TIlis programme was
launched by various
combmed wnh low-mterest consumer loans and comprehensi�'e
U1I1_ and
_, Ins1i1utions
educauon and awareness aOlvilies ror PV. The progr3mme makes
111
blocks of
1994 In the Netherlands. various organis.ltlons under the
bidding
lI!Idenhip of the MlOistry for Energ y and Environmem �ted by NOVEM) launched a cooperalive programme for broader market dissemInatIon of decemraltsed PV systems, the 'NO'Z.pv progr.lmme· Under the Dutch 'PV intrOduction plan'
pricing
DE
Thx credits up 10 U5S2,000
Rebale programmes and soltloans
__ PV
1997 - 2001
1 999 -
programmes' Is of specIal relevance
were made possible for IndIvidual systems
By 2002. three large rebate programmes had been lruroduced
-
'998-
present
Wllh respecT to pv. the Team,Up Initiative wIth Its 'fflendly PV
the USA (Prc§ldent's
VeqpJ1ung
Contracting
present
;lnt!
Wf:re to be eqUipped with a PV system andJor a solar thermal system for water he-lung. pool he.1tlng. or space heallng by 2010
way tn SWitzerland fENERCIE 2000). the programme).
US
present
prOMI1I
• pOSSlblt" Such programmes haV(' btcn IntrOduced
I
JP
DE
In 191)7. PreSIdent Chnton announced the 'Million Solar Roofs' initIaTive Withm this programme. one mIllion roofs II) the USA
�ll'nl'ra[ In pTirlclpll'. bOlh regulatory dnd voluntary
200 kW PV-Programm
1992 - 1 994
1 993 - 1 997
. programmes Imve been l,lUnched which focus I,uge! market shilre or on Installed C.lpJClty of PV or
ENERGIE 2000
11192 - 1 999
19114-
US 'Million Solar Roofs' Initiative
-
1ftIe of IIroIogJ
Net melering
(NOYEM I qq;)
It was planned to install 7
; MWp of PV capacity
by the year :!OOO and 500 MWp by 2010 (see Schoen 2000)
1he ntst target of ;,7
MWp was surpassed. with 9 2 MWp
InIIalled by the end of I
Qq9
.1nd 12.5 MWp installed by the end
01 2000 The new PV covenant is .1nticipatet! to aim at a targeT tl300 MWp by 2010 and 1 .'100 MWp by 2020 In addition, it is Intended 10 reduce the Investment costs to 2 75 NLGlkW by 2010
funds avaIlable to PV sYSlem retailers In a competillve
process. In I QQ7. the 'New Energy Promotion
law' was
IflTroduced. with subsidies for PV and a targel of 400 MWp by
2000 3nd 4.600 MWp by 2010. While Ifl 1994 'only' 300ut 540 systems had been Installed. by the end of the year 2003 about
52.000 small gnd
600 MW in
Japan by the end of FY200J Ukki. 2004} A major question is whether the Japanese programme has brought down the pV
pTice substantially
Currently. it appears th3T
It has [n the Japanese programme, rebates were decreased
present
present present '999-
presenl 1999-
present 2000 plesent
DE
2000 present
DE
1ariff
Enhanced feed-in
Naues Einspelsegesetz (EEG)
Rebale. contribution
Kirchengemeinden fOr die Sonnenenergie
iaUIe J A iltiiOlyaf 1M mast Itnpllltlmi pmm(lIIon S1!8IegrES fDt gnd
For grid and off-grid buildings,revised 2000
200 tll94
1995
t996
1997
199B
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Au�iUalra. CH. SWlllerlaild. DE_ Ge!many; Nl, the Netllellland . UK .l,kI,led KIIIgCkm. US- UmiedStJlilS leA. California), .IP .. � ES. Spain
121
Amur8. AUS.
227 ·
IY Ol.',·r
lime frum 50 pel(enl of the tolal invC5tment fflnunuoll ru�l� 111 I "'H 10 II:ss th,m 30 per cem ln 200:;, Thl' upper limn 1M retJ.ll!� hilS tx"t·n rcduc:ed from ';<JOO,OOO In FYI<)<)-! to
�',(l/U)()(l ln FYl fl<Jh to 'til <)0,000 In FY200:; jsel.' figure 10) FIWIrI
LO (kptcts Ihl' ,l!-vt'l0plTlenl of InVL'SUTlenl CO<;t5 and
SUh\i.ill"S In J,IIJ.!Ilf"$e Yt'n O\'l'f the IIIn!! penod of Ihe promollon
I'wsr,lmm.' IIkkl, O.
I (j{jH. 2000. 2003) A resull of this efror! 15
(UIUlt'IWd �y�CI·m� This success IS the dtrL'Ct result of a conscIous poJII"Y II) prmnolt' I'V Icdmology, both for teason� oj n:IlIOl1al ,·,wIIlY St"tUrllY IJnpiln Imports most of lis fuelsl and for reasons of
PV m,mufacwrlng d� it domln.lles Ihe producl/on of elL'CHonlc
.'Conumlc IIt-vcJOPInt'nt Ijap;m alms to dominate 10 11ll" ',lf11l' "III/'nt
The Germiln '1000 Roofs' lind ' 1 00,000 Roors· programmes TIl< tlr�t contprch..oslVt' Intern.1110llal dlsscmination programme W,h tIlt' 1000 Roufs· programml' Iiluncht.'d in Germ,lIlY In 1<)8<)
ycoll ten 15 cancelled If the system Is stili opcratlng. The response
This W,lS only 11.11f of the planned capacity of 1 8 MWp. In MilICh 2000 Iht· Germ
WithIn this approach Ihe Net Excess (NEG) Is refunded by the utility at about as the retail price of elcclrlclty.
:WOO (figure It), The programme was then Slopped for almOSI Six 10
I
8 per cem m June 2000
In
<)5 MWplyear In the year 2003. Unfortunalely, the second target
65 MWp were planned, i n addillon to the 0 MWp missed from
,110;0 In liS .1ftf'mMth. [ompreh"nslve Invcsugallons on lechlllcal
missc
,md 50uologl�.tl aspt.'C"ls took plJce The major results of rhlS
beyond the planned target. wilh 350 1'o'IW being installed (figure I I )
fll ihe year 2000 WilS also tnlssed (figure I I ) ,
2000. 41 7 MWp
were installed inSlead or the I.lrgel of 50 MWp. For 2001.
the public utility has to buy back PV electricity
full production COSt This Idea gained anemion
where muniCIpal utililles are responsible for PDI>o'er local politicians have lile power to put these full imo practice. They have gamed special attention in SWitzerland, and Austria, They vary curremly between and
USSI O Figure
12 shows the installed PV
to successfully integrate
PV as distributed generation Into the
uutlty system and developing long-Ierm market and busllless Strategies. In addition. Its role was to stimulate the collaborative processes needed to accelerate the COSt reductions necessary
for PV to be cosl-compe[illve in these applications by aboul the
year 2003, This efTon resulted in about 8 MWp of PV systems installed in Sacramento by the end of 2000. dlslnbuted over some 700 n i stallations. SMUD gamed expel1enr.:e in the: Installation, operation,
1Ii.... _'�mm� are m general VOluntary and usually provide PV generamr
These financial lncentlvcs
the utility'S electricity consumers. Of
1!t!���:�,�""I,;o
thtH Ihe utility itsclf Is the generator,
j
,lfUVlltt·� In i\uStrl.l ,mdJ;rpan
PV power plants, each about " kWp, The PV PIoneer I customer
The programme was aimed at developing the experience needed the Idea of full production COSt rates was launched
for a
;rf(t'p1
its power dIrectly into lile SMUD electriC grrd SMUD resldenllal customers volunteer to share In thIs effort through a form of 'green pricing' and by providing the roof area to place the SMUD
utility blU In order 10 participate.
the first two years' targets The targets ror 2001 ilnd 2002 were
('IIpc'lII'nn·s �,lInt"tl ln thl� progr;lInme were also used for sImilar
I
Installed, owne�, and operated by SMUD (Osborn. 2000) It feeds
pays a $<1 per month 'green' premium In addition to their normal
ft'ed'in tariff of Of) PfennlglkWh (0.5 Euro/kWh) for PV In March 2000, This was a major reason for the boost in approvals in April
raIsed from 0 per cent In I qqQ
I>V syst
model has gained attenlion for PV (and other renewable
Imo force with the ilCC0l11pimying introduction of a sUbSt,lllllill
rlloh \\'·rc "qUtI'I'I"t1 wllh PV systems of an a\'crage sire of 2 h kWp and a total CJp,lrIty of ilbotu b MWp Average system [O·I� \\\'rt' lJ'iS1 5.000IkWp and a\crage subSidies were 70 per cem (.1 1111" im...,tm\'nt CO,IS Dunng thj� dissemmauon programme, and
II,eMlc,ll rclt,lbllllY,
Municipal Utility District) In CalifornIa _ the 'PV Pioneer
programme', Under this programme the system was purchased, early I Q80s, especially I n the US, the 'net metering'
Only
The mrget for 2000 was raised to 50 MWplyear. IncreaSing to
pWJ!liunm\ \wre tIM!
worldwide for PV was launched in 1993 by SMUD (5.1cramemo
Ihe public. Inillally the interest r.ltc was 0 per celli lin 1 1')�} over a Icn·YCilT rt.:paymem period The loan hilS been repaid in eight inslahnt'nts fronl years three 10 ten, and the last 1Ilsl"lmetl[ In
momhs and Ihe initIal plan was revised, The Imerest rail.' was
ThIs progr,1nllne WitS compll'ted in IOQ4 SOme2.250 German
Contracting programmes The first. and so rar mosl popular. comraCllng programme
wllh Ihe ' 1 00,000 Roofs' programme_ Within thIs
10 Ihls programme In thc firsl year ( 1 999) was disappoInting
Ih,1I J,IIJ.lfl I� now tlw world learler In the development of gild·
"QUtlHl1l'tUI
From I Qflfl to 2003, a new fmancial approach has been pursued
In German}'
programme. very altraClive crcdtls (sofl loans) werc provided to
include possible 'Green brokers' and
maintenance. pricing strategies and other aspects of residential
PV systems, and obtained 10woCost 'power plant sites·, With little PV
marketing undenaken. SMUD has been adding aboul 100
Pioneer I systems each year Finding customers willing to pay has not been dlfficulL PV Pioneer marketing normally consists of JUSt one or twO leaneting promotions a year, door·to·vlslts In neighbourhoods with a predominance of 'good roofs' and as a reSUlt. free media coverage.
16
14
MWp cumulative
400
I
8:
'"
�
�a
f �
."
:g
350
..
g:
300
o J:
250
200
12 10
8
Planned
I SO
I
I
lOa 50 a
�
�
�
,
• •
•
••
II I I I
.
I• I I I I I II • • II I •
-
�
�
f'll 1 1 SoIt LOlIIl GarmIn '\UI.CDJRoob· l'O(IIiWIJIIII cunoIittMl SllPllClliON 1995-7OOJ ---
.bilsedtnCllnlMlS. FiQ 1 2 1nm1ledPV-capactty IllWil1l1*ca;JlaIll GennolnCllll!$,Wlthrate jNotethat IflS(Wl18Cl!rmthe htllll ot thelJictt tolll ll'ltle;ueshaloll.udy been lllitdledl
- --
129 -
•
Green
Prlvate
carlf&
IS that Thl� nlolJor fl',llllre of thiS Iype of financing programme regular P,UIIClp
thr NI'\Ilf'rl.lnd� Wuhm Ihts progrnmme type, utilities offer thai is, electricity generated by wind turbines. 'Nu't'n' ('IL'Clrlclly
blomJ�5. small·scale hydro, and PV - al a price tim by·and·large nW�'I.s Ihc gcl1crallon costS
In rL'wm year.>. labels have become more and more Impormnt to PV,
prow the concelll of the product Green larlffs. with respcci to aft' most Important In Gemlany. SWllzcrland and Ihe US In AUSlf,llla .1 wide variety of Green lartffs exist and most utllhles
havt· Instalkd some PV, although (t IS typically a very small portlon of lotal gr�n powtlr reqUIrements IWeUer, :!OOOI W!lh respect to
shareholderslpanicipation shares
Another concept Ihat has auracted attention. mainly In Germany, Is the sale of shares In ,1 PV plant to pflvate CUStOnlCr.;. for example In blocks of 100 W The customer thus becomes a shareholder in a renewable power station I\n example of this programme type Is the 'Barger mr SolaTStrom' model of the
call far bids
'sayernwerke' Conlribution programmes WithIn contribution or donation programmes. custOmers can
contrlbutc to ,1 fund for renewable energy projects Usually thesc
funds
�
focuses mainly on promotion of PV systems 10 the public, for
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Uti l ity
conducts marketing lang lerm contract
example, schools. Thc projects developed arc unrclated to the
customers' electrIcity usagc
/
/
PV generator
the promotiOn of 81P\! systems, It has 10 be staled that mostly
largcr plants ,Ire bUilt from the rcVtlnues of the 'Green tMlff programmes
Thhlt' .\ deSCribes the major features of the most popular Green
t,mlls In dlffrrent countries Only those programmes that com,lm a substantial amoum of PV arc listed
Non-government organisation (NGO) initiatives
SoIIt stoCk eXChange
Aside from green
Another idea of providing nnanciaJ tncenl1ves for the construcl1on
fJl f'II systems Is the 'Solar slock exchange'
where electricity is
eenerated by privately-owned PV systems and fed into the public
ftd u.r (oounIry)
..... -
RWE(OE) "''''
..... (DE) ---
'--I"'"
211997 1902
-
Umwetnaril (26,," PVj
USOO.102JkWh(Mix)
- .....
USOO.41IkWh (MucI
Umwelttanlsolar (t� PV)
_....... ""
Numbet ofparticlpants (yellr)
....,.. .....
rate(%)
2,070(2000)
PV CIIPKlty IQtalled(kW)
PV elO(:trlelty
generated (MWhlyr)
...
333(20001
ESM·SoIar
CHFI 4(l1kWh
440(2000)
....... """ lllbll 4 Oteen f,1I,n .lldlerroM ",ah i'V S. .....
""",,,,Wh
NlG O �Wh
52,000 12000)
PUfo Energyl GreenPowor
AUO 0, tJ7lkWh (40"4 prefTllum for lO!M. gleenpow-er)
15,500(2000)
",",p""""
USD O. I7e.1lWh
1,600 (2000)
(O.5 "" PVj 19"
230 (2000)
only. the most cost·effective projects arc selected by a bidding
process
The utility acts as a 'power exchange'. That is, II
OI1Inlses the balance between supply and demand, launches
15,800 (1998) 12,500(2000)
CHF t 4O(1988l t.3O
.......
MJONINl)
SeMc. (USA)
.......,
1,050
eoo
calls for lenders for new PV capacities and signs long·tcrm contracts whh the generalor. On the demand·slde. marketing
0.t2
aalvilJes arc conducted and the customer may subscribe on
(I"To PVj
EleltrllSlrl8ek MIIIIdleI'I5 ' Ioin(CHI
Energy Auslralla
.......
LIbeI cPY ....,
Olher customers may buy this electricity and pay rales
c::orrespondlng to the PV prodUCtion cOSts On the supply·slde
I yearly basis or longer (figure
62
1 3). I n mosl cases, the utility bears
Ihe administration COStS but has no other e:�penses The
CURomers choose how much solar electricity they want to buy ...
The minimum order [s usually 100 kWhlyear. The price was InIWld USC 0.63-0.7S/kWh (CHF I 00-\ 20lkWhj In 2002
(ariffs. private shareholder and donation
projects have been launched by different Iypes of organisations, specincally NGOs. The most Important programmes arc summansed below The Sonnenschein programme An example of a very successful shareholder programme is the Sonnenschein campaign in the Ausman province of Vorarlberg, where about t50 kWp of decenlralised systems were inStalled between t ')Q8 and 2001 This programme is still running. The Solaris programme Another successful example Is the Solar[s programme, launched by Greenpeace in
1007 in the Netherlands
AboUl \ 5.000
appltcams were registered and 3.000 systems were installed up 10 the end of
[000
(Schoen, 2000). Wllhin this programme. no
financial incentives arc proVided for residential customers.
II has 10 be recognised that the system's COStS and the pnce for
1 .000
'02
877
500
atKomer.; has decreased continuously since 199b (from about
CHFI
40 In 199b to CHF 0.8S/kWh in 20021
'Ihe advantages of this strategy are
Core issues
This review of marketing strategIes for PV shows that there is a
wide range of poSSibilitIes for increasing their dissemination with
• customer.;' willingness to pay is fully exhausted;
real success stories. Yet. there are considerable differences in
• private 'green' PV owners ensure that only Ihe best
as weI! as their success in triggering a substantial number of new
a efficielll operation
15 encouraged,
examples for PV will be constructed, • a 'green label' with high credibllit)' C'pure solar electrlclly') may be associated with thIs type of stralegy nus Idea was nr.;t developed for the city of Zurich In Switzerland Ind has smce attracted attention in mher cities, At the end of 2001 about 2 MWp had been installed in Switzerland With respect to � system sIze, it has to be smted that In most instances larger
plants arc built from the revenues raised by the 'SolarstrombOrse'
these strategies with respect to technical and economic efficiency installations The most Important conclUSions of this analysis arc reported below, spill into three major categorics I What are the core issues for successful dissemlnat!on
stralegies, regardless of which strmegy [s chosen?
:! Under which conditions are different Iypes of
strntegies successful? 3 Which activities are required now with respect 10 different target groups?
231 ·
and by comprehensl\:c Information, loducatlon techmcal monitOTltIg ,lCIIVUH::S Ocher.vise. the typlC.11
Rt-gattltt�� of whICh 5If;uegy I� choscn. the following basIC requlr('ml"nt§ .lppt�' lor suc(CS!o
'ny.by-mght' effcct of supphers may take placc, as
avoid 'stop and • Pre
happf:ncd m the e.,Tty t980s m the
• compreht..nstv", 1I_�soci31",d tnformlltion and educalton
To aCCeleT.1Ie the COSl reduction of
3ctivUlcs .1Te lmporlam
PV systems.
.l percentage of the investment costs
a Similar
1V.1Y to rebates. although up to now the
hnllgs about 50cielill benefit by mcans of
company th:1I l<.Iunches the strategy
PV
• Strive for a guaranteed technical performance. ,1nd Increases 111 standardisation and efflclcncy_
• Try 10 make Ihe programme a SOCial event and address
• Regulated rates regulated Tales are preferable to
till'}' exhlbu a de<:reaslng trend O\'Cr time. are designed
regulau:d rates were close to the produalon costs
• It Is of hIgh relevance that eFftciem promotion
and guaranteed over a penod of about
programmes depend on consumers' 'Wililngness To Incentives provtde at the most only Ihe difference
successful
1 5 years were
to private households. the most important aIm is their Willingness To Pay This can be achieved by'
green pricing programmes \\-'Ork only if they are
Incentives In most programmes up to now have not
launched by a utility with high Credibility. are
been optimally designed Consumers' WTP for
marketed. and have an attraalve label which. of
pV is
course. has to Include PV
higher than expected by programme designers. With
of
• simple purchase conduions; • sfmple technical installation; • Inlfoduction of education programmes for architects
To be successful. II is necessary to design strategies in a way thaI
Which activities are required now with respect to different target groups?
ensures the cooper.1l1on of governments, ulliities. customers and
The actions required now with respect to different larget groups
potential inveslOrs
In tile four relevant areas of activity are:
the grid and II1troduce environmental pricing
• Minimise Ihe COSIS for the publiC. Suive for low monetary financial suppon to reach a certain amount
• arrordable systems at reason.lble prices;
the sallle amount of 101..11 subSidies It would have been possible to promote more I'V systems
5QCleIY's point of view Remove barriers for access to
administration and transaction costs and minimise
• Green priCing/solar stock exchanges/green shareholder'
between the s�tem COStS and the WTP for PV The
• MInimise admlnlstrallve and transaction costS
• Stnve fot selling the correct regulatory conditions from
performance .lnd have lower transaction COStS and bureaucracy; vinual1y all programmes where Ihe
dynamically, and have justifiable benefitS to SOCiety
P,ly' (\VTPI It IS very Imponant that finanCial
Ihe public as well as the mass media
rebale5. since they are based on PV s�tem
• With ft'spcct to fmandal Incentives, II IS imponant thai
asof lhe market foreleclrlCity iegby means o f a conunulty of the strategy over tlnle. .lilt! sustainable
'100.000 roofs' programme are nevenheless
very encouraging
Industry Is likely and that the market does nOi collapse
and the transparency of the PV system market. as well
growth of the Industry.
being the case. the lessons learnt so far from the German
14 and can be enlarged upon as
power content label) is enhanced. Moreover. ensure
cxpenence a\'ail.lble has been ralher limited This
• It has to be ensured that after the programme is
follows
exhaustion of customers' \VTP.
and local governments must be convinced thilt thc
• Flnancmg/soft loans: this Iype of instrument works in
dlssemlnallon strategies of small grld·connected PV systems These are Illustrated In figure
• Improve the market ensure that the competitiveness
c.1pacity. or even beller. of kWh generated. ilnd nOI
COSIS have to come down subsmnttally, to a level close
Conclusion This chapter has Identified eight key factors for successful
• Provide a mimmum financial Incenllvc Ihat allows
it Is
Import" nt that rebates arc .:t fixed amount per kWp
UClng lhl' key Howcver. over the next five ycars the
lerminated. a SUS13mable deve[opmell1 of the
no competilive Md trilnsparent
a PV system leads to changes in consumer behaviour
• Pure' cosH:ffl"C!lvcness is nOI crucial, with aITordahllily
to resldcntJ:lt rc.all clcclriclty prices
and Japan
to solar Ihermal collectors In addilion. the purchase of
gO' SH31l'West
• High envlronmemal credibility of the inslUutionl
USA with I'eSI>CCt
work. and 10 reduce the SUbsldle5 any programme or the patd. II is Important 10 have a good Infrastructure i1nd milrkCl Yet . currently in mOSI counlfles - except
and hOUSing companies;
• provision of financing programmes for commercial companies
pV capacity
• Provide comprehenSIve. detailed and targeted
information for the potential programme partlcipanls
• Conduct nlarketlng. Who are the potcntia[ customers
and what are their needs? It musl be recognised that lhere is a tremendous variety In strategies. programmes and disseminiltion ideas If the 1110st valuable lessons learnt from these widespread activities are summarised and extracted, the groundwork Will he set for cominuously increasIng Ihe dissemination of SIPV SYSlems [t is al50 Imponant. howe\·er. that the market continues to
Under which conditions are different types of strategies successful? TIle conditIons required for the success of different types of stralegies are • National targets national target programmes work if
defined and achievable targers per year exlsL MorCQver. It Is of high relevance thai a carefully conducced progress rcport IS provided
• Rebates in principle, rebates work as a dissemination
stratlogy. Ihey arc more effective if they Me
arrordable systems.
Te<:hnlcal barriers slill exist and many technical Issues are not yet solved satisfactorily The most pressing problems concern;
• system optimisation; • a need for an Increase In slandardisatlonlsimpllclty!compaClness
they arc pursued seriously. accompanied by mform.ltlon and educ.1tion activIties. and tf clearly
transform so as to reach new customers with ... .. ell-performing.
Technicafissues
(I e ·sun-In-the·box. plug·and·po.... -e();
• safely,
• utlUty lnterface It Is " high priority to solve these problems before any wldesprcad dissemination strategy is triggered
accompanh:d by comprchenslve Inforrniltion and l-duratlon activities Ilebmes h.lve to decline cOl11lnuously over time. as the suppliers would not fL'ducc the system COSIS to the same extent. but rather earn ,1n extra profit If rebates on Investments arc Ilrovlded, II IS of hl)lh rcle\'ance Ihat they are linked to performance siandards and thai Ihey are accompanied
Merkals In principle. we have to differentiate between countries and regions where there Is already a mature market and where Ihere is not
1 ' , '''., ,. 5UCCe1$luI diS$E!lIIln:)11G'I s'lalegJeS iii small gnd.coonecled N 1'(.I'ems lJIII 4 ..
233 ·
APPENDI CES
G LOSSARY emissions:
Emlsslon5 of gases th;1I collect In the atmosphere and contribute to the Eanh's ·greenhouse· of gases, such as c..lrbon dioxIde. , conc entrations melhane and nllrous oxide are currently prodUCing an effect because they Me accumulating at a rate faster than they GIn be dispersed The combustion considered to be a major C,lUse of thts enhanced effect, which In turn IS expected to contribute 10 hIgher I lcmpcmtures over the next century
the now Is reversed at frequem Intervals. [n Europe Alternating current (AC': Electric current in whIch the dlrcclion of per second. r (' 50 Hertz [Hzll·lnd 120 limes per st.'Cond In and Australia, thlS occurs 100 limes pet second (SO cycles the USA This Is the opposue of direct curren! iDCI
Ancillary services: Resources used
rrequency stability [0 malmaln power supply quality stich as rchablluy, ",ohage
and wavdorm purity.
Anti-reflection coating: A thin coaling of a m,lIcnal thm reduces the light
distributed photovoltaic power system: System Installed on consumers' premises. usually on the of the eleclflclty meter This Includes grld,connected domestIc photovoltalc power systems and other gfld. pV power systems on commcrcial buildings. motorway sound barriers. etc, These may be used for support of
renccllon ilnd Increases hght transmission,
applied 10 a pholovollaic cell surface
distribution grid
Angle between the nonh direction ilnd the projection of the surface normal m[o the horizontal plane, measured clockwIse from "eMh As applied 10 the PV array. ISO-degree aZimuth means the ilrray faces due sOUlh
Azimuth:
Balance of system (BOS): The pans of the photovoltalC system other than the pV array mcluding switches.
tenn that relates to direct
power: Power delivered by a photovoltalc module or a
controls.
an explanatiOn of
meters, power-conditioning equipment. the supporting structure for the array and storage components. [f any
Building.integrated photovoltaics (BiPV): The hamesslng of sol:.r power technologIes as a part of. or attached to,
STC.
Also Gliled SfC output
photoVOltaic array. under Slandard Icst conditions (STC)
po....-er
Unit Wan peak lWpl
Not to be confused wilh insolation Insulation is a material charaaenstic that reduces the transfer of heat
the
external bUIldIng skin
Cogeneration: The
DeVIce that convens direct current (DC) intO alternating current
SImultaneous produCiion of electrlcity and heat. usually for commercial or industrial use
Direct current (DC): EieCiric currem
In whIch electrons are nowlng In one direction only. This is the opposile of
from the short CIrcuit (no loadl conditIon to the open circuit (maxImum voltage) condition. The shape of the
alternating current CAC)
Distributed resources: Small·scale generallng.
storage or demand management plant. sometimes referred to as
r11lcropower and typically connected imo the electricity dIstribution. rather than transmission. network, These CH!l Include photovollalc power systems, wind generators. banerles or other storage deviCes and appliances. such as solar
{IIO
graphical presentation of the current (I) versus the voltage (V) from a phOtovoltalc cell as the load Is
box: A
PV generator junction box Is an enclosure on the module where
where prOtection devices can be located. If necessary
pV strmgs are elecuically connected
watcr heaters. which reduce clectrical load on the distribution network Symbol of kilowatt·hour. unit of energy (power expressed In kW mUltiplied by time expressed in hours)
Embodied energy:
AU of the energy invested in bringIng a material to lIS FInal product. This includes the transponation.
maintenance, repaIr. restoration. refurblshmem or replacemem of matenals. components or systems during the lifetime of. for eXilmple. a bUlldlng
Emissions trading: A mechanism 10 control the increase In greenhouse gas emissions by seiling emission
.lne-commutatec inverter:
limits,
amount of electric power that is being consumed at any gIVen moment
electrical CIrCUli. any
wllh season
The time required for any energy prodUCing system or device to produce as much useful energy as
power point (MPP): The point on the current-voltage {I-VI curve of a
was consumed In its manufaaure and conslructlon For pV the energy payback time is approximately twO to four years
EVA:
Also. in an
or appliance that is using power The load for a utility company varies greatly with lime of day and to some
emiSSIon reductlons overall
Energy payback time:
An lIlvener that Is tied to grid power The commutation of power (conversion from DC to AC) 15
by the power hne. so that. if there Is a failure in thc power grid. the P" system cannot feed power into the line.
module under illumination, where the
current and voltage is maximum For a typical silicon cell panel. this is about \7 volts for a 36 cell
Abbreviation for Ethylene Vinyl Acetate. used as an encapsulant between the glass cover and the solar cells In pV
modules. EVA Is durable. transparent, Is reslst;]nt to corrosion and Is ,1 name retardant
Final annual yield: Total
photovoltalc energy delivered to Ihe load durIng one year per kilowatt of power Installed Unit kWh per annum per kIN Installed.
Fossil fuals:
Energy sources derived from ancient plam and animal m<1lICr trapped on the eanh's surface over gcologlcal Itme These Include coal. 011 and natural gas. all of which are non·renewable over any human timeframe
. Abbreviation for Nominal Operating Cell Tcmpertuure The solar cell temperature at a reference environment as 800 \VIm' irradlancc. 20 gc ambient air temperature. and I m/s wind speed wlIh the cell or module in an
domestic photovoltaic power syslem: systems installed 1Il households and villages that are not connected to a commonly lead· distribution network (grid) Usually a means to store generated electricity is used. which is most Ittd batteries /\Iso systems or remote area power supphes (RAPS) referred to as stand.alone pholovolmlc power ,
237 '
•
REFEREN CES $IOfC Ihe sun'� heat In a p�lVe syslcrn, there are Passive solar. Tt:chnology th.lt utilises a stnJcturt' to c,lpture and Ihermal lechnologll�s IS In homes and bUildings usually no mOYlng parts (fans_ pumps, ["IC I The pnmary USt' for passive for �Il.lce hl',llfng
mmal powerl 15 the amount of Peak power. PV modules Me ralt:d by Ihl'lr peak power QUll'Ut The peak power (or no peak {Wpl pow()r OUtpUI a PV module produces al standa rd ICSI condulons (STC) Unil Wal! or dally Performance ratio: RallO of thc final Yield to Iht, rdewnw yield calculilled on the annual or monthly TIle reference yldd IS Ihe theor�IIC.:llly a\'allable eneTID' on an annual. monlhly or daily basis per kilowall 01 in�lalled power pl'rformance
Pholovoltaic power system: A s�-stem IncludIng photo...ol!.l(C modules. (merters. batteries (If appllc.lblel, and all for the purpose of producing solar photo\'oltaiC e[ectrtclty. A[so
assocIated Inslallallon Jnd control components, commonly
refem,'11 to as PV or pho\OvoltalCS
PV: Abbreviation of phOlOvoltalC!!i and depending on thl' context. can refer to cells, modules or systems PV-l: Abbreviation for P'" Therma[ which rders to a photo\,oltalc s),stem lhilt. m addilion to convenmg sunlight Into t'lCCUlCIlY, conects the residual heat energy and delwel'S both heat and electriCIty in usable form Pyronomeler. An instrument for mt!asunng IOtal hl.'mlspheric.11 sol.lr Irradlance on a nat surface, or 'global' irradlancc; thermopile sensors ha\'e been gcnerall)' Identlflt!d as pyranornctcrs, however. silIcon sensors are also referred to as pyranometers Renewable energy: Energy sources recently derived directly or Indirectly from the energy of the sun. the earth's core, or wind, biomass, IId,ll. wa\'e, hydro and geotherm,ll energy_
from lunar and solar graYtlatiOnal forces that are renewable over short timeframes These Include sol.lr,
Solar thermal: Term used to descnbe the generatlon of heal (rather than eleclnctly) from the sun Examples are solar sWImming pool healers and household domesuc Woller heaters
Standard test conditions ISleJ: The Jesting condl\lons used to measure photo\,oltalc cells' or modules' nominal output
power where lhe irradiance level is 1000 Wlm:. wuh the reference aIr mass 1.5 times the solar spectral lrradiance or module Junction temperature of 25 °c
dlslrlbution and a cell
Vertically integrated utilities: Where gentrauon, IransmlsSlon, dlstnbution and retailing of electricny are combined In a smgle organisatIon, A \Cnical1y mttgrated uUllty could also consIst of generalion, electriCity transport Itransmlsslon and dlstnbutlon) With no retail functions. or of only elccmmy transport Watt IWJ: S I
unll of power Symbol IS W One W.ll1 IS eqU.1] to one Joule per sCt'ond. With I kWh equalmg 3 6 MJ Multlplcs ltke kW (1000 WI or MW ( 1 000 k\..·, are also used In thiS public.l11on, it is understood to be power outpUt under st.lndard test conditions ISTC), Also wrntcn Wp (wall peak) by PV professionals 10 mcan pcak power at STC
CHAPTER 1 : BUILDING DESIGN AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS AISt'm,l.
F.A 11)1)8, -Energy Hequlrcmcms and C02 Mlugat(on Potenllal of PV Systems'. presented al lhe BNUNREI_
N July, Colorado, USA \\-lIrllShol' on I'V and thl.' £nvlroIIllWI1/ /9Q8. 2J-.
Duffle. J/\ &:
Beckm,ln, \VA
tlon�l)l'rg, eB & Bowden. S \til I , Version 1
So/ar f:n.lJllltWlng Of Thl'rmal Prtxe.�scs. John Wiley & Sons,
IEA-PVPS.
2000/.\. 71Jsll
/
I qQq,
W:hnology
alld system upp/ilations.
Inc. New
Prentlce·Hali.
York
New York
PhOIOI'O/wics - dcvlcl'!;_ s),slems lind upplu:ulions, CO,ROM, UNSW PhOlovoltalcs Cenue,
�\k)rl!shop on Ihe Added �'tllut' oj PI! S)'slems. Glasgow, 5
May 2000
Uoyd-Joncs. 0 2000, 'Effective usc of buildIng Integrated photovoltalc ....'i!ste heal Three proJects', Proceedll1gs of lhe 2nd \-\-nrld SOldr E//:ctric Bm/dlngs COIl/arenct', 8-10 March, Sydney, AustralIa. pp 2<'1-34
LovtOS, A & Lehm:mn, 1\ 2000. 5mall iS Profilable Thl' IMelcn Bcnl'jirs of Makmg Elf!t:mcal Resources Ihe RIght SIte,
IRocky \tountatO
Institute. Boulder. Colorado, USA.
forthcomIng!, CIII!(! In Dunn, 2000
Munro, O. Ruyssevelt. p, Knight, J 2000, 'PhOtovoltaic BUI[dlng Integration Concepts and Examples' Prtxccdlngs of Ihe
2nd \\'orld Solar Electric Buildings Co'!fenmce.
OUthn.'11, H &
presented at
8-10 March, Sydney, Australia, pp
It 5-- t 20
Wall, M tClClQ. 'ProspectS for RenC\vab[e Energy m the Restructured Australian Elecmclty Industry', World Ren�ublc Energy COllgrt?ss. 10-13 February, Perth. \\estern Australia, Auslralia
I'crcz. R eI al 1997, 'PV as a Long-Tenn Solution to Power Outages. Case Study The Great 1996 WSCC Power OUiage', Pm:reellngs of [he riSES :\/III!IIlI ConJerence, WaShington. DC, USA Perez, R l llC)S, 'Photoyoltaic Avallabllity to the Wake or the January 191:18 Ice Storm'. Proceedings ofRcn,'w 98. NESEA, USA
Grcenneld, Massachusetts,
Prasad, OK. SChoen, TNJ. Hagemann. I. Thomas, PC 1 91:17, 'PV In the Built En...ironment - An International Proccedmys oJfhl! 15ES 199; So/ar \Vor!d Ccmgrt?ss, 24-)0 August. Expo Science Park, TheJon. Kore..l
Review'.
Prasad. Ol{ and Snow. M . cds 2000. ' I E,\ PVPS Task VI I Photoyoltaics in the BUIlt Environment - p.m of the Renewable Energy for the New Millennium' Procccdmgs Of Ihe 2nd World Solar Electnc 8wldmgs Conference, 8-10 March, Sydney,
Australta Sick, F &. Ergo. T, eds 1 996, PhOIOlull/lles m Buildmgs, desigll handbookfor arrhllCl.'rs and I!J1gmeers. lEA Task
1 b SOlar
Heating and Cooling Energy Systems. James and James, Glasgow, UK
Snow, /I[ &:
Prasad, OK 200�, 'ArchitcclUral and Aesthetic experiences for Photovolta(cs IPV) In the BUIlt EnVIronment',
Proceedings oj Pass\l'£' &. Loll' Energy Archlli:crure (PL£A) Coliferl!lln-. Toulouse. France.
SOIensen. H & Munro, 0 2000, 'Hybrid PVfThermal collectors', ProaNmgs Of /he 2nd World Solar Electnc Buildlllgs
COIift."rt?nce. 8-10
March, Sydney, Al.lSlralia
Wall. �IE, Kaye. RJ. Trayers, OL MacGlII, I 1997, 'Assesls l1g the pOlemial of PV In Buildings', NIh European PhOIOlV)llak Saldr Ellergy Coriferellt't·. 30 June-4 July, BarcelonJ. Spain Watt, ME, et al 1 999, Opporltlntliesfor rhe Use of Bwldmg lnregraled Photovo/IaiCS III NSW Repon 10 the NSW
Departm....m of Energy, SEROF, PV Special ReSearch Centre, Sydney, Australia (see PV Centre website for reports)
Wall. ME
2000, Added Vf/IUI! of PV SySh'n\S,
Report lEA-PVPS,
OCl:2oo l , Imernat(onal
Energy Agency. Umverslty of NSW,
Australia Wt!nham, SR,
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IQQI.
GII'I'n, Mi\ I QQ:!, So/tlr Cells opt'ratm.r] J/rIllClplo!s,
Green, MA & Wm!. ME 1\)<)<[, AppiJc!1l Photo�'OI/aks, Prentlce'Hali. New York
9 23
CHAPTER 2: TECHNOLOGIES AND INTEGRATION CONCEPTS
OK 2001. 'PholO\'olt.lic Cog�ncra(lon In ,hl' BUIlt En\'lronmcnt' Raztlian. �tD. let'nders. F. Van Der�. BGe & Peas.1d.
SoIar Ena�: \'oJ
71. No I . pp 57-6'1
Prot'j't'dlll.'l:> a/chI! lEA PI'PS Tusk ; Workshop. IEA.P\'PS Ti-OJ 2000 'Ph01o\,ollalc BUlldmg Imt.'gr.lled concepts 1 1 ,., 1 2 February I'I<JQ, EPFL Laus.lnne. Swltll'rland. P,lns. Frall'c
\\clkc.
W
�Unl-Gfld·.
I OQt!. 'HOI Chmalt! ftrformancl." bClwet'11 Poly·CrYM.ll1mc ,md Amorphous Silicon Cells connectcO to a Ulliity /'T(X'r:.'dmgli a/30rh A,','lSES So/II' EIII'(9)' co'!fCl'L'7ICt' 25·:!7 No\cmhcr. ChmlChurch. :-.lew Zeal.llld. pp. ':;04-·170
RCijenga. T 2000. Archlle<::lurill qUJhl�' of bUilding integration of rolar energy
Pmc:t'cdmgs Ihl' :!nd World S
(0r'!/,'I'l'nc,'
case studies In Ihe Netherlands',
8-10 M
Wren. C &. Barram. F :!OOO. 'Solar Integration on Comml'rcl;ll l�Ulh.llngs·. Proccrfimgs oJ lht' 211,/ \�brltl So/ar Hit-nne
8m/clmgs C.(JII/ercnec. 8-10 �Iareh. Sydney. Austr.11t,l, pp 08-74
AUSTRALIA: SYDNEY OLYMPIC VILLAGE
Fax
�sw. Sydney NS\\' 205:0. Auslralm
... 01 2 1)385 0,35
Trol
t I "'0·1 451
oq].l
Fax
Collins. R. Davenport. 1 &. Schach. .\1 2000, 'Recent expefl.:nces in bUilding mtegraJed phOIOVO]r,llcs', Proct'/.wngs of thr 211<1 I\-()rid S% r £Iatrie Bill/dings Cor!fc"'ncc, 8-10 �larch. Sydner. Australia. pp 1)5-
Solar Power In S}'dney 2000' Rent1l'f1bl.: En�"Y>' World. July. pp. 77 -8i
Pr.lsad. OK &. Snow .\1 :!OOO. 'SydnL.''li Ol}'mptcs 2000, A solar power showcase . REFOCUS. ISES International Solar
Henrlk Smellsen (wwW l'shensen dkl 'n Consulting E.ngineer.; E5bcn<,t \'c'stcrbrog.ldc 1 2,1 B. OK· t 620 Copcntl.1gen V. Denmark
Fax + 45 :n 26 73 01
tierm.mn LJukamp (W\VW ise rhg del Fraunhorer·lnslltut fuer SolarI! EncrgiesySteme
Tel: + 4q 761 ·1588 52i5 Fax: + 49 761 4588 5217
GERMANY: MONT-CENIS ACADEMY Ingo Hagemann (wwwrwth·aachen del ArchllekturbOro Hagemann
AUSTRIA: ENERGIEPARK WEST
Tel + 4q
K.lrm SUcldorf (IVwwlUwlen aeao
Additional rderences:
Departmem for construction and bUilding dC51gn
K.lrlspl.ltZ 13. A-I040 Vlcnna. Ausltla Tel ·'-"13 1 58801.0
Fax + ·13 1
58801-t01QO
CANADA: TORONTO HlGHRISE ROOF
Ntwmarkct Omano I Q05 61)S
:!iOI3. Faculty of Architecture.
(OJ 241
34530 Fax
+ 40 (0) 241
30547
Hagemann, IB 2001 . 'Gebaudelntegricm: Photovoltalk. Archllektonlsch sinnvolle Integration der Photo\,ohaik in die GebiludehOlle·. verlagsgesellschaft Rudolr MUlier. Koln. Germany Susa·Verlag. Ed 1000, 'Akademie Mont·Cents Herne'. Baudoltumcl1lanon 84, Hannover, Germany. Pilkington Solar International GmbH. Ed,
lqqa.
,\ff'gtanlt/Srar.l!, [company brochurel. Kaln. Germany
Emwlcklungsgesellschaft Mont·Cents GmbH. Ed 1008. ·MontoCenis. Fonblldungsak.adem1i;! Herne, Stadtellzemrum Hcrne,Sodingen· . Hern.:. Germany Dassler. Fnedrich et .11 1999. 'Solarzeualler Fonblldungsakademie Mom·Cents m Herne', lnt;:1Ii9f'nIi Ul,rchllcktur No 19.
EMC - EmwicklungsgesellsChart Mont-Cenls. Ed 2000. '
Sol Source Englneermg
+
Annumtmenbach ·13. 0·52062 Aachen, Germany
Elnr. Spezlalausgabe der AIT. pp 29-43
Per Dr.:\\'�s
Tl'l
60,1 ,nb 0286
DENMARK BRUNDTLAND CENTRE
Energy SOCiety Magazme. Sept/Oct. pp. 22-2-1
Vienna University of Technology
tI
Heidl'nhofstrasse 2. 0-791 1 0 Frelburg. Germany
Mdilional references:
140
]700 Wllhn.:dun Awnu!!. l\urn.1by IK V�G 31t:?, C.1n.1(\.1
GERMANY: FRAUNHOFER ISE
Dco Pras.ld. �lark Snow iww\\',fbe,unswedu aUI
Tel + £> I 2 1)385 4868
BCIT TL'Chnoic).\{y Centrc
Tt-I + 4.':> 33 2u i3 00
CHAPTER 3: CASE STUDIES
SOLARCH Group, UntV"l'5llY of
CANADA W1WAM FARRELl BUILDING LJUbiS,1V St.ltllcnl( (WWWOCll rill
L3Y 1 R.i. Canada
DOqS
Fax
+I
905 808 1 6bS
auf \lont·CentS', Pressemappe. Herne, Germany
wwwak.adcmle·mom·cenis·herne.nrwde wwwsma de/de/phOiovoilalklveroITcmllchung/elekmnikl l 01 qqfUlnhalt html 'Sol.1rkraftwerk mil modularem Aufbau',
Ekk.tronik, SOnderdmck ilUS Heft
1 9 f t Qoo. FranzJs Verlag. Germany
141
LE DONJDN
ITALY, tHE CHILDRElfS MUSEUM Of ROME
THE NETHERLANDS,
(lnll,l Abb.lll: (W"waevarchllctu.it)
1)erk ReIJt'ng.l Iwwwbearnll
Abb,l1l' 6.V.gevano ArChLlCUI
f'[.lU.l
kl
5
t 3'J Ot> 61"U.jQ8 Fax
BEAR Archltccten bv Postbus :H9. NLr2800 AI-! Gouda. The Netherlands
+ J9 06 bQ78JO:;8
Ttl + J 1 182 529 89q Fax. + 3 1 182 582 599
Additional rererences: Wt'tzl'l.
Co-author Astrid Schneider
,'nJS[J�liI J. 00186 Romt'. [lOlly
r. 8aakc. E O. \1uclbauer. A. l.il Stumpo.
,., rtbruary .2001
JAPAN� NTT DoCoMo BUILDING
THE NETHERLANDS: NIEUWLAND Tony IN Schoen (wwwecofys.nll Ecofys
Thd,lSh, 1I0 1<.1JIIIM Technical Research InslUulC. KaJlma Corpor
PO Box 8408. 3503 RK Utrecht. The Netherlands
" I.' Totmakyu 2·Chomc Chofu·shl. Tokyo 182·0036. Japan
Tel: + 3 1 30 2808300 Fax: + 3 1 30 2808 301
Tl'I
Additional information supphed
.. 81 42'189 7090 Fax
+ 8 1 424 Sq 71.28
by
Adrlaan KII. Edith Molenbrock (Ecofys,;
Ingmar Gros. Frans Vlek (REMlJ): Cinzia Abbate
JAPAN, J-HOUSE SOUTH KOREA: KIER SUPER LOW ENERGY BUILDING
jl[oOl1no
(M'"'\''' hanbat ac.krl
Sell10r " roJt'Cl Manager. Archllcctural Design DIYISIOn
jongho Yoon
Nlhon SckkCi. lnc
Depanment of Architectural Englnt:crlng. Hanbat National Unlversity
.:!CJlh 1100r. ShlllJuku I-LAND Tower. 6-5· ] , Nlshl.shinJuJu, ShlnkuJu·ku, Tokyo 1 63-1329. Japan
"tlcJon. South Korea. 305-71 9
Tel f il l :; 3:;4" 2311
Tel
+ 81 :; 53258821
Fax
JAPAN, SBIC EAST BUILDING
+82 4 ::! 821 1 1 2 6
F,lK
+ 8 2 4 ::! 821 1 1 1 5
EJ Lee. :-.\W Jung (wwwklerrekr) Korea Institute of Energy l\escarch
Jlro Ohno St.'nlor f'roJl'C[ f>lan,lgeT ArchlteclUral Design DiylSlon
TheJon. South Korea. 305-343 Tel + 82 42 8b0 35t4 Fax' +82 42 80 0 3 1 3 2
Nlhon St'kkcl. Inc 20th floor, Shlnjuku r·LAND Tower. 6·5 · 1 . Nish[-shinJuJu, ShlnkuJu·ku. Tokyo 16l-1 329, Japan Tt'!
+ 8 1 l 334·1 ::! 3 1 1
Fax + 8 1 3 5325 8821
SPAIN: UHIVER jorge Aguilera. G.1.bino Almonacid (Wwwuj:J.cn es)
THE NETHERLANDS: ECN BUILDINGS 31 AND 4Z TJt'rk RcIJenga rwww bearnl) Co·author), Astrid Schneider. Henk Kaun IECN)
Grupo jacn de Tecnica Aplicada. Untversidud de Jacn 23071 Jaen. Spain Tt"l + 34 Cl53 002434 Fax + 34 Q53 002400
BEAR Archuecten bv Po�tbus l·Il). NL·2800 AH Gouda. The Netherlands
Tel
+ - 3 1 tB2 52l) SQQ F.1X
+ J 1 1 82 582 5Qq
SWITZERLAND: ABZ APARTMENT BUILDINGS Daniel Ruoss (wwwcnec:oloch) Enecolo AG Undhofslrasse 52.
CH
Tel: + -1 1 1 994 9001
8 6 1 7 MOnchaltorf. Switzerland Fax'
+41
I 9940 Cl005
111 143 ·
CHAPTER 5: BIPV POTENTIAL AND DESIGN TOOLS
SWITZERLAND, STUDENT HDUSING
ElSU 1'1<17 PhO/(Jl'flltak· m Bmldm.l/!
IWWW.epn chl ChnSflJn Roecker. Fran,ols SChaller
CH 1 0 1 5 l..lusanne. SwlIzerland
Tt'I - ..4 I :? 1 1)63 4545 Fax
+ 4 1 21 1}63 27
fJlllltlm9-m/t'!lf,lled I'hM(J�"()llcllC.\ tlJiF'\'J uult'. AD. Inc t "<'5. Nowak. S. GUlschnt:r. M. Toggwcilt:r. P, Runs
SnOw. M Janes.
6lb
f'.
Cambridge. UK. pp.
1531
Fax.
+44
6.. Technology. lid
68.J-6BQ
Cuy. EnvIrOllm�'nI - Proct','dInYs of PI.EA 2(/(}().
Snow. M. Travers. DL. Jones. P. Prasad. DK I 99B. 'SUlldlng Intcgr
(0120 7 4653673
ror ("illc�' ANZSES Solrrr Ellt'r!/)' Colljen:ncc. 22-25 November. ChtlStchurch. New lealilnd
UK SDLAR DFflCE. DOXFORD INTERNATIONAl BUSINESS PARK
CHAPTER 6: ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS, RELIABILITY AND STANOAROS
David Uoyd Jones (wWWSIUdloe couk)
Ambo. T 1 997. 'Islandmg Prevenllon by Slip Mode Frequency Shih'
Studto E Mchuec:ts Ud
h\tt'l"t"Oml.'ctlOlI ofPhotovoltQlc Sys/o!ms. 1 5- 1 0 September, Zurich. SWI(zerland
-+ '1'1
(0)20 7385 7126 Fax
+ -1-1
Islanding Prevenllon in Gnd-Connected PV Systems'. Proceedings oj the 2nd \'ror/d Confl!rence and Exhibition on
(0/20 ;)81 491}S
PIIO/OIlo/taic SolarE.l1crgy Com·erSion. b·IO July. Vienna. Austl1a von Bergen. Ch t 999. Conl'l'rt 2000 lVuh LonWorks·/nlt'rface. Sputnik Engineering IIG. 12119qq
USA: 4 TIMES SQUARE
Bonn. R, Ginn. J. Gonzalez. S ) OOIl. Standardizcd Arm-Islandmg Test Plan. Sandia �allonal laboratOries
KISS -+ C.llhcJrt ArchucCls (wwwkiSsCilthcilrtcorn)
Bower. W. et
+I
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Ene'!/)' Coliferrnce and Exhibitioll. [·5 May. Glasgow. UK
401 Court Stwt:!. Tower C. 12[h Floor, Brooklyn NY 1 1 2 0 t . USA
Tel- -+ 1 7 1 8 237 2780 Fa'>.:
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IkgoVIC. M. Repp. ,\1. Rohatgl. II. Pregelj. II 1998. 'Octerminlng the SuffiCiency of Standard Protective Relaying for
Palace Wharf, Rainville Road, london Wo QHN. UK Tel
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1..1nnon. S. 6. Pras,ld. DK 2000 'Appllc.lllon of a GIS·bulldlng Integraled photovollalc (PV) mOdellIng
appro.lch for cities ,\ C.1SI: exarnplr' Newcastle. Au�tr.lll,t", tlrchlleClI/rt·.
6. Partners
I J Fitzroy 51rt'Ct, London W I T 4BQ. UK -+ 44 10)20 ;
D 2000. Pofrnllaljor Blll/dmg Integra/ed PhfJIovollalcs. SQlar-ridcl
D!Urn'ntlaro:Ott'llfllllfor SOm£' SdtY/fel /Ett Counlr;e.� NET Nowak Energy
Enecol() Ltd . MOnchal(orf. SwltzNland
Prof Juhn Berrv (w\.. warup com)
Tel
ERDC
AnalYSIS lind (IS Murk.,.1 PuIi!l1l!al. repon 10 US Department
of Ent'rg.v. olflCl: of BUilding Tcchno[f)glC�
n
UK, JUBIL£E CAMPUS NDmNGHAM UNIVERSITY
O\'�· Arup
(I �urwy o f ,1"S[l/n I(IQ/.�. ETSlJ Report �o. SlP2/002891REP.
� T. OI'IM.mhcIOI, D 6 WlllialTlson. T I '['"is. Au.�rrolllln Solllr Hadlalroll vala i/lmdbook.
LESO - ITB EPFL [SWISS FederJ.1 InSUlUIt: of Technologyl.
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K �OOO. 'Prololyping of AC
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1001Jor PV sysll!lIIS.
Addillonal references:
£CllpSt' PVIE. Energy management
World AI'('JUlo'flUre 81. '4 Times Squar� Breaking New Ground: February 2000. pp_ 56-63
Gonzalez. S 2000. 'Removing Barriers to Utility·lnterConnected Pho\ovoltaic Inverters'. Proceedings ofthe 28/h IEEE P\'
Eiflcn . P & KI�. G 2000. Bwldmg-lntegrilled Photol'OllUic DeslgIJ.�jor Commercial Qnd Institutional Structures'
5p«ialfsls ConferclIL'i!. Anchorage. Alaska, Usn. He. W. Markvan. T. Arnold. R
A Sourcl'lJookjor ArchueclS. U.S. Department of Energy. Oak Ridge. Tennessee
Ecofys. U(rC1:hl. �elherlands
[ooa. 'Islandlng of Grid-connccted p\' Generators
Ihe 2nd I....orld PV Solar Ent'T9)' Conference. Vienna. AIlStna Habcrlin. H. et
011
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CHAPTER 4: NON· BUILDING PV STRUCTURES
E.nergy Co'!{en:nce. Momreux. Switzerland. p 1585
ClavadetScher. L &. Nordmann. Th 1999. '100 kWp Grid-Connected PV·lnstallauon along the A I 3 Motorway in Switzerland -
HillK!rlin. H 6.. Graf. JD 1998. ·Gradu.ll Reduction of PV Generator yield due 10 poHulton·. Pmcec.'dmgs Of Ihe 2nd World
Plant Momtorlng and fvalu:lllon - OperatiOn and Maintenance', Annual Reportsfor Ihe Swiss Federal Office of Energy 1<JC)Q_I QOIl. Project No. 32046 Nordmann. Th. FrOllch. A. Reiche, K. Klel�. G
&. Gotzberger. A
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Pho/tJI'Ollt.Jic Solar Energy COnl'USion. Vienna. Auslria
Nordmann. Th 6.. GOlzberger. II 1 994. 'Motonvay Sound Btlrrlers Recent Results and New Concepts for Advancement of
Technology". IEEE Flnj/ World Conference an PhorOl'OllUi�' Energ), COIH'l'rslon. December. Hawaii. USA. pp 766-773
&. Gtltzberger. ,\ [995. 'MolOrway Sound
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H.1berhn. H & Graf. JD j 998. 'Islanding of Grld·connected PV Inverters Test CU"CUIIS and Some Test Results', Proceedlllgs
1998. 'Integrated PV Noise Barriers Six Innovalive 10 kWp
Tesllng Facthties - II German SWISS Technological and EconOmlc.11 Success Story"
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lilt!
Potential In
Germany'. 13/h Ellropelln PI'O/OI'OltclIC and SQlar Energy u:mfel"ence alld Exhibition. 23-27 October. Nice, France. pp 707-709
\I &. Pras.ld, DK 2000 'Po\ver without the noise - 0ppoftunUies for Integrating pholovoltalc noise barriers (PVNBI under ,\u�tralian condnlons·. ANZSES Solar Ertergy COIiference. Gnftlth University. 29 NOv-I Dec. Brisbane. Australia
oj the 2nd World Conference and Exhlblllon on PhOlOl-'Ol/tlic Soltlr Ellery)' Conwrsion. Vienna. Austna. pp. 2020-2023 lEA-PVPS Thsk V 1 997. Procl!edmgs of the lEA P\'PS 71Isk V IVorkshop OIl Ufl/ll)' (ltft>rcomlectlon ofPi' Systems. Zunch.
SWitzerland
IEA-PVPS V· I ·03 t998. Grid-Connec/I!(/ PIIOfOVOIl,[1(' Power Systems: Status Of EXIStlllg Gllldc/mes And RcgulatuJlls In
Sekc/e(/ IErI
Member Coulilfles (Revised Version). Thsk V Inlcrnat Report
IEA··PVPS TS·O I
) nqa. U/lli()' Aspct·ts of Gm! IlIIl·rr.·0I1n1·cteti PI' ,',)'s/ems. IEA-PVPS Report
International Electrochemical CommiSSion 2001 . Sl.!fcfy gllicfelUlo!sjor grid connected pho/avolwic systems mounted on
Snow.
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TNC Energy ConSulting. GmbH Frciburg DL. ENEA IT. ISf Frelburg DL. Utrecht UnlversllY NL. N PAC UK. PHEBUS France. TNC Consullillg IIG SWilzerland. I Q99. EU PFNB POT - E�-alliat/Oll of the Pmennal Of PI' NOIse Barrier TI.'chnalogyfor f.lt'CInClly Protfuc(ion find .\1arlwt Shan:. EU ThermiC B PrOject, j()<}0-1999. Project Number: 32046
kern. G, Bonn. R. Ginn. J. GOnzalez. S I ()98. 'Results of Sandia National Laboratones Grid. iCd Inverter Tesllng·. PfOt.w:dlllgs Of the 2nd World Conference IlIId Exhibition on Ph% l'QllUic Solar Eneryy COnl'er51011. 6- 1 0 July. Vienna. Austria
Kilhn. T. Solal" p�' Powo!r P/lml
P+ R Nt'lifeld.
Bern. ElectTOWall Engineering. Zurich. Switzerland
�
145
Pruceecllll!l.� Of the 28th 2000. ·Improved AcGUr.Jcy fur 1...o.1W·COSl Irradlance Sensors·, Kmg. DL. lianown. B & soyson. WE USA IELt: PV .'ip«JIlII!SU confrmrce. AnchOragt', ....laska.
and Arrays: Measurement 'T�mper.1turl' CO<'lhclents lor PV \lodul� Kin ' ()L. KrJlOchvil. JA Ii soywn. WE IQq7. ·ta/!st� Cfh IEE£ PV sp Met ('dS Olrfirulnes. and Rt-SUIts·, Procudin9
�
Q
u..UVl'rslon. (j. IU July. Vienna. Ausllla
KulJ:ty.IShl. H. Taklgawa.
K
lion 01 Multiple PV Systems', 1 <)<)8. ·Islandmg Prevention Method fllr Gnd·lnterconneC Solllr £ul'rgy Com....rsroll. 6-10 july, Viennil. Austria
.t.'drn!I.� of (he 2nd \\-brld Conj.'rrnce IIml Exhlbllwn nn Pho/fJ�'OI/(l1C n l'ro
Developmen!", Procccdmys of lilt! 25111 I£f£ f>V KroP05kl . B CI .11 I qQb, 'PhotOVOll.11C Modult' EnNgy Roltings Melhodology SIIl...wlr.�I� con/cn·ncc. Washington. DC USA I...:lukJmp. H el ,11
:!OOO. 'Rt'lIabihly Issul'S In PV
SystenlS
Experience and Improvements·. pro..:admgs vf Ihl' 21\11 \Vorll/
Solar Eiec/ricnutIJmgs UJ1tference. Sydney. Australi.l. pp 88-q-l
CHAPTER 7: NON-TECHNICAL ISSUES AND MARKET DEPLOYMENT STRATEGIES
Bolinger. M. WI5t!r. R 2002 . CusmlTlt'T-Su.." Pl!. A .\unry o/ nclln Ent'r9Y Fund Supporl. L6NL RePOrt -IQ668 Brasil. T 200:!, Iimer!JIn.tl R(·Uf!lIlllbll·:; HuydulI1n Program Pas/ ,m" Future. PV Alliance. 5.3n Ramon. CEC
counCil of the Europe.,n UnIon, ::!OOI . On rht· pmmaCJrm of elt"Clricltyfrom r':lIfwab!i! encrgy sources III lhl! Internu! electriCIty marker. propo!>al for it Dlr""ti�·c (,I thl' European Pathamcm otnd the councIl. Brussels. BelgIUm !COFYS. 2000. Fmtllldn!1 1'\.' /II /hI! .\'Cllrl·rlan
Elffen, P. Leonard. G and TIlOmpson. A 200 1 . GUiddmc'�fnr Ihe Ecunonnc Anflto·Sls of BUlltlmg lll/cgrtm:d Pho/(JI't)!JoIC Sysll!'m$. Nmionotl Rcnewabl!: Energy Laboraloflcs. Goldcn. Color,uto. USA Elffen. P & Kiss. Gj 1 0QQ• Buildmy IIIIt"yralt·d flhot{)V(Jllmc.�jnr comm..rcful I1ml insriwtionul structures - A sourcclJookJor
Itrrhlfl·C/.�
EJffert. P. Lt:onnrd, G. Thompson. A 2001 , Glllddlm·sfnr /he EconomIC .'\nalysis oj HUlldlng /Illcgrillcd PhOIO)."Olwic Sy51L'1J1..� NREl
y :;/t'ms. Final lkport Draft rev JO.08 0 1 . Th.sk 7 Repon IEt\-PVPS I...:lukh.lmp, H 2001. lit'/lOhl /rty of Pho/tll'OItJlC S
ETSU. IQq8. The �b/u.: of elcctriCIlY y.:nerorlrmfrom Photo�'(lltaJ(· PO.... t. ·r Syslems III BUlldmgs. S/P2/00:!7<'1IREP
11mr!. P. cunlnbllllons to the rcpon ·NI:\\" EJecmc.ll Concepts· Helsinki University or Tt'Chnology
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I'MI'IC Ga� lnd Ell'CUIC Co. '9ClJ. Ind"IJf!Jldo:nl Pr.l\wr Pro
Panhuber. C. Economlm/ ond Rf!llt1brIU\' OpmmSOllon of <1 J kW Gnrl-Cou/Jll'tl lm-erlct: FronlUs KG. Wels. Austrta
PcIlIS, j ,QQ; Th( OCulII·-It>lwgr 1I0u�. ECN Report ECN·C·Oj·58
I\cqllr;1 for Propo�1. llt!lUY Scale PholOvollatc Power Systems IU5-2). Kerman, 'PhOIO\'oILlics for Utility Scale ApplKilllon'f PVUSA ProJI·ct. Jan 1<)<)2
1\IJPP. M. Begovlc. M. Kohatgl. A
I Qq'l. ·Preventlon of 1�landing In Grtd·connected PhmovollalC Systems·, Progress m
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I �well"l. .. T(I!l. ToggW!'ller.
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ContrlbulJuns to the report,
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I'. Meyer T. 'AC Modules·. Jolnt dc\'�lopml'l1I wllh FHG
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DL"\·lce� and S�·slems. UN5\\� Sydney. AuStralia, C�ntre RJ'pon No 101'13102
�
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1-Ilh E(! 1'\' Cmlj'"rellce. Barcelona. spam
Wllk. Scho1uerlVerbund. Harich. Enders {Arsenal Rt:�eafchl 1 "1'18. 'Testl ng Inveners for Utility ImeraClive OpcriltiOn'
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�
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Farhar. BC. Roper. \\ 1008. ·Underslanding ReSldcnllal Grid·lled PV Customers and TheIr Willingness 10 Pay Today·s
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t C}C}b. Sol!ffhl'I&'�t'1l-�("hdftlu·he B..g"'ltunlersuchung rum Burrd·/..imder·/OOO DIl.:cher
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oj 26th IEEE PhOIO\vlwil.' Spe.�wlrsts Co'!fi!rt'rtce.
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Haas. .R I QOB. '!\esidemial PhOlO\'llhaiCS Applications The Relt.·lIance of '-ion-Tcchl1lcal lS5ues·, The /nlcmllnonaljollrnal ojSolar fn..ryy. 20 I l l . pp 3;-55 Haas.
1\ 2000,
\Iar&llng Stralt'glE'Sfor PV �·Sh:ms, (III IlIlt'manona/ Sun"t)� Institute of Energy Economics. Vienna
Unl�·elsuv of Tl'"Chnology. Vlcnna. Austria
11.1.15. R. Ornetzeder.
M. Hametner,
K Wroblewski. A. Hubner, \1 I \}I'IQ ·Socia-Economic Aspects of the Austrian 01. pp 1 8 3 - 1 q l
200 KWp-PhOlovoltarc rooftop programme·, SOlarEner!1y. 00
H,las. R ZOO:!. ·M.lrket deployment strategl�s for P \' systems Il1 lht: bUilt envlronmem: A n evaluation o f incentives, 5UPPOfi programmes and markellng ac[[vltles· lEA rholo\Y)/wlC POIrl'r Sj'Slf'mS Programme Report IEA-PVPS T7-06::!00:! tlabcrlilnli. U. SlllhlweLssenburg, P :!OOO ·n"s 200 O. lcher-programm der HEW·, Proceedings q{ 161h Symposium
PhfJIOl'OIWlsl·hc SoIlllf'11L'lle1Y'f". Staffdstt'll1. Germany
Hlrshmiln, \\11'
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·t\u�tralia's PV reb;ue program proves 100 successfUl". PHOTON Intenuwortal. 2t:!001
Honlllann, VU 1 <)<'15, 'Sozialwissenschaftllche Beglellforschung wm 1000-Daecher·PV·Programm·. ElfktnZllarslI'irtschtift Hub�r. C ted) :!OOI . .1ctlOII plallfor a gI'Cen Euro/ll.'dll l·ll'ctnCI1Y markel. Report of the proJecl ElGREEN, ca-IIOdnced under the 5th 1r.lmework programme of the European CommiSSion, Energy Economies Group. Vienna Uni�·ersIlY of T�rhnolog}'. Vlenn:!. Ai.ISlria
14) '
IfNl "'Id ]001 1£.'\ Rl:pol1. PVI>5 TI ln seft"Ctm If:o\fQunm,"S bCnll'm IEA.PVPS. PTrIds In PhoIOt.1litalc APJlIicdlWlU ·fIj.·St·,':" hf,fl lSE Frcltlul1:lt.t-'pzlg IQQ4 :WOO gramm·. FraunhC!f, ISE. . IOOO.Daecher.MeS. und Al.lS.wenepro
11 2{)():'
Phl)to\"ollalk.Anla�<·n' "rocI't·Jm.I/.� oJ ·GeslChent' Emagt- \"on net:gelwpp..llt':l K,efer. K. Hoffm.lnn. VU. Erge. T 1000. cht" Sonnrot"1ltryTl'. Star(elslt�m. G,-rm,lny
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and Jap.,n Ic:td. will (:lllfornla follo\\'�' R,·n,'m,bl.' t:nCryy Maycock. PO 2001. 'The PV boom: Where Germany
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Australian Business CounCil for Sustainable Energy BiPV simulation tools:
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European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA)
NOVE�t 1 QtJ,. H"lIdmg mlo rht!SolarAgI! 709o:thcr. AmslerJ.lm, :-'t'th<:'rl.lntls
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wwww,·�nhw�· g(N,lulyourhomd(Qnsum.:rlcg7b him "'...whn... �luffw"r�.s comlsolar-ce1l 11lm
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2.9
INDEX A8ZAplrtm,m Buildrngs,SwlIurlllnd,tlUl sludy, 141-146 Idded v.lul 01 BIPV. 221-Z22 IeUaIITIIIClurll. I80-IBI IUlhelielot PV,20
II�ademounung systomJ, «-48
nelmllte,ing, 2 1 1
Sol.rDffiCII,Dollord lnternationaI Businll5S Part. UK,case lludy, IS4-163
ftalrl)Dl moon1l!lg systems,l9-4J
Nethellands
loIarIJme, 191
4 limes Square, USA, case study, 164-1&6
ECN Buildmll 3t case sludY, ID5-111
Fraunhoter ISE, Germany. case sludy.74-80
ECN Building 42 case study, 1 12-117
",.y,Wl/etufo,26 Ilri., lnl°llfDllonol PV, !iO AU5t1�III, Sydn.vOlvmplcVIIiDgecue s!Udy, 54-58 AUllria, EmlfglepaII; WlISl cne llUdy. 5!Hi1
blfllor sylloms, 173-116
Gormany
SOUlh KOIBa,KIER Super low Enelgy Buildillg cue study, 131-134
Ammloort. NiollWl8nd. 124-13D
slandordtUl condiliana !STCI.205
FraunhoforISE casllslUdy.74-80
slandards,lnlernatlonal.215-216 Nleuwland. Nothoriands, case study. 124-13D
SlIQBlsign$, PV, I71_112
nOISll bDIIIIIII, PV, 17J-176
Sludnnt Housing,Swtllerland, cnll sludy, 141-150
grid,conneclion lo, 211
non,building sllu�turIls, de$1I1nand implomenIBtion, 16&-170
SUnSCI8&nS, integration of PV, 4&-48
Mont·Conis Acodomy case siudy, Bl-87
NTTDoCaMo Building. Japan. CDSO study, 95-96
5unshlne,harve5l. 1S4
onentBuOll and angleol modules,32
Swrueriand
holisllC buildmll design. principles, 15. 22
Brundlllnd CenUD, Oenmark, case Sludv.1G-13
Sydney Dlymplc Village. AUsllalla, cas. sludy. 54-58
mlllgralion 01 PV Clnlda TOlonl(l Hlllllnse Roof case study, 62-65 WiU,lm FaflIIi Buirdmg cue srudy. 66-69 c., Ihelter5. T78-T79 cIlls.,truclurl. 23-24
ABZApanmentBulldings case study, 141_14.fi p,rkrngmetol1, PV, I1D-I71
pnnclplu, 16 IlIchniquu. 3J-50
pUlive Solaf Dffice. 12-14
lamperlture, lmpacron power generation. 207
powtlcondll.lOners,209
tharmalco·lI·narauonapplicanonS,5D-52
pncellllnds.218-219
Ihlnfilm rool5y5tems, 37-38
p,OIacuon dovices. 212
TOfonlo Hlghnse RooI.Canada,tue sludy, 62�S
PVbnic conceplS.23
lfackorsyslllms,206
PVpowel. cumulativB grDWll1 and DpphcalJons, lD-11
lfanslucemPV modulll$, �9
J·Housct. Jopan, C9S0 sludy. 97-100
PVinllgratlon, concepls, 22
trlllls. lmpaclaf,32
Japan
PVinlBgrallon. principles, 16, 22
Invlinarl,2OB rllliabllity. 214
Ilaiy, Childrln's MU$num 01 Rome case sludy, 88-94
CMdrln'1 MUSBum of Romll. Ilaly, cilSe surdy,8B-94
IVcurvll. �206
colour olsorarclIlls.J3
Donmart Brundtland Conun c�sIl Sludy, 10-13
J·Hou,ocase sllIdy,91-100
doslgninuos
NTI OoCoMo Building caso study, 95-96
1Illlablhty o f P V sySlems.214
SB1C Eul Building caseswdy, 101-104
l.nawablo llnlllgy, ID
core doslgn issues, 31-J3 for .rchitecls,26-29
UllIladKingdom
Jubiloo Campus Nottmgham Universily. UK. caso sludy, 151-153
dOlrgnlooll, 197-203 aumplos.20I-202 Icollomic IVlluluon. methods, 220
IIconomlc lHlrformallclloIB,PV, 217-219
Illctllcal componenlJ. ZIlII IIflculul conhguralion,2O!I-213 allcuicll dulgll cOflCIIPIll.2Il6 IIIClllclI'YSlnmwlltng,21D IIICU1Clty, buin. :zo.t Enlfglapalk WUI,Austrla, COSB Iludy, 59-61 EnllgyElllclllnIWorkplaclI. 12-13 Enlfgy RlIslllrch FoundalJon lECN), Nlllhllltlndl BUltdlng 31, cIIII sludy, 10S-1 1 1
BUildlllg O . CUI sludy, 112-117
EnolgySolt·SulflclonIWo,.place, 12-14 IIllorOYIUltaglos lol buildmlll, 17-19
SludentHOUSln1l caso study. 147-150
potennal of PV, calculation, 19J-197
rnlernalJonal deploymllnl Slralegles and programmes, 224-2J1
cIIII. wmng, 205
conflgur&lrOn,uleclricDf,209
Spaill, Unlver case study, 135-140
glarll,impacl ol,32
blmerllo dinemrnllionof BIPV. 22J bllnel!t. 01 PV, lIvaluotlon, 221
lolaryield, IM-I93
Le Donlon cau sludy, 1 18-124
Jubilee Campus Ncttingham UllIversity caso sludy, 15 1-153 Solar OIficll. Dodcrd Inlernauona! BUSInass Park CDSU siudy, 154-163 Unlvor, Spalll, case slUdy, 135-140
SBIC East BUIJding. Japan. caso study, 101-104
Urban streelequlpmenl Integration 01 PV. 17D-I72
KIER Super LDw Energy Bu!lding, Soulh KOlea. caso sludy, 131-134
Ic.1I 01 BrPV prOjOCIS, 30-31
Lo Donlon, NOlhlllllnds. cl1estudy. 1 I8-12J
Iillding. mpICl 31.32. 201
Wilham Farfell Bui!ding. Canada, case sludy. 6&-69
1hIdrng1ySteml,46-48
wiling
USA,4 1imes Squar.case Sludy, 164-166
IHIOIIal solllyield. 1B7 louiUln•. 191
IOlJYles,illlegrluon 01 pv. 46-48
!ow·elllfgy d.lign lor building•• 12. 14
....... lftd bosb, 176-179
IIIingII rooftrle, lnleglDtion 01 PV,3S
� intear'boll ofPV, 50
I!IIllIW\tnc• •nd ell'", 01 modulo. 31
IIDprtd roof, lntl1lratron of PV, 33-3S
m.rUl d.pIoyment llfltqiu. 224-ZlI
liDpedofOOl plolilas. 36
IIIItInna. methodI 01'. 211
lIIOw .nd Ice. impacl on power genelDtlon, 2D7
modute.. 1Crucbn, 25
ICIIlt cells
monrtonng, mtthodt of. 211
Mont·C... ACId...." Gtmllny. e.n
mountiIIi .... 33-5D
....1Iy. 81-11
mono-crystallino silicon ceIl5, 23 poly·crystaUina silicon cells. 23 Imolplrou5 siliconclIlIs,24 dye'sensitlsed sOlarcei!,24
ce1!$,205 sySlem.21G-211
ACKNOWLED GM ENTS ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OR OED PRASAD NSW Cemre for a Sustainable Bull! of the SOLARCH Group University of Professor Deo Prasad is the Dlrt!clor and engm�ring and has an has qualiFicatiOns and c)
OR MARK SNOW a senior rese.uther at lhe SOLARCH Group. Univcl':!ilty of NSW and previously worked with a Icading completed at Ihe Welsh School of Archllcnure. energy environrnemal consultancy. Mandlx. In C.udlfT fiis doctorate. urban environmems. �lark consuhs ill thIS ,uea Cardiff Un!Versuy was In Ihe field of modellmg BiPV and solar access In Dr Mark Snow is
educallon. and has panicular interest In urban sustainabllny fese,lrch and
Ray Cole. School of Archncctmc. The pnncipal editors acknowledge and greatly appreciate the assistance of Professor UNSW m revIewing Umversu)' of Brlllsh Columbia. Canada and Dr \1urlcl \\'311. Centre for Photo�'ollajcs Engmeenng. manuscnplS
Whlle every effon has been made to trace and acknowled th book. il Is possible that sOlne attributIons have been Omht ht:ar from copynght holders to rectify any errors or omlsSion
�� 0:
�:
I!ljnal source of copyright
mawrial contaIned In thiS be plea�l!d to
ay be Incorrect. The publishers would
:a
Information an illustrations In this publlc.,llon have been re at ed and supphed by the pnnclp,,1 editors and chapt' authors This matenal has been used In good f.llth. and while a r sonable efforts have been made 10 ensure a(cur,ley the publishers do not. under any circumstan ces. 1ecepl • lesponSlblUty for errors, omissions. or II1formaltOn I tl,1I h.15 sin( become superseded.
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