DINOSAUR IN A HAYSTACK
DINOSLf\UF, IN A
HAYSTACK Reflections in Natural History
Stephen Jay Gould
T~e
Belln"" Press of 11.".rd Uni\ersih Press Cambridge. \I O\SSJchnselts
London. England 2011
Copyri£;ht
1995 by Stephen Jay COldd /\11 ri£;hts resened Printed in the United States oL\merica
Published by arr~lll£;elllent with 1brmony Books, an imprint of 'I 'he Crown Pllhlisllill£; (;Wllp, a division of RalHIOIll llollse, hlC. {<'jrst 1bn~HCI University Press edition, 2() 11. Desi£;n hy Cathryn S. Aison 1,ihrory of (;()lIgre,',..~ (;ata{()gillg-ill-PlIhficati()1I Data
Dinosaur in a haystack: reAectiollS in natural history / Stephen Jay Could. - 1st Ibn~HCI University Press ed. p. Clli. Ori£;ildly pllhlished: -"Jew York: IbrmollY Books, c199S. lllcliides hihlio£;raphic,d references ~l1ld index.
ISBI\ 97S-II-Cl74-IIClIClII-Cl (pilk. ,alk. paper) 1. li\oliilioll (Biolo£;y). 2. -"J~lImal history. 1. litle. QIHh().2.ChS920Il
211111117921
SOS-dcn
For Ill)' (Jill)' brother, Peter (/0++-/994) ,\J)' dc([rest £Inc! C()l1sf£lI7t COl1lfJdlliOIl 1\1
fh'c together ill that hl'o-Famil)' house OrOlll" lifelong dreams.
CONTENTS
"~A)me l,')('\ ' 'Cii
1\
I' ,\ R T
()" I·
111'\\1<'\ \'\1)/<:\1(111
Ilappy Thollghts 011 a Sunny Da~' in \:C\\' York Cih' Doming Diminntile Dennis's Debate (or DDDD = 3. The Celcsli
~
1.
2.
I',\RT
2000)
11
24
,K
T"O
Lin,R\II'IU, \'\11 SC:II.,\U,
5. The Monster's I11IIn'1II :\allife 6. Tile Tootll ami Cla\\ Cellicnnial 7. S\\'eelliess and Lighl I' ,\ R T
']' II R 1< J.:
ORICI'. SI\llll.m. \,-11 I-:'\II'\C: I"", OR1(;['\
8.ln the "lind of the Beholder 9. OfToligne \VonllS, Velsel \Vonlls. and \Valer Bems S'] \BII.IT)"
10. ll.
Cordelia's Dilcnlllla Luel' Oll Ihe I':arlh ill Stasis
12~
",
1':\Tl,C 1'10;\ 12. Dillosaur ill a Haystack '3. j",e's Thunderbolls
I'\I{T
J'Of'1{
\VRIII," \1l()l'1
,+ Poe's Creaicsl
Hil '5, The JlI\isiblc Womall ,6. I.eft Sliaiis alld Right \limIs
S, \11 ,S I;)
IH7 202
1'.\ RTF 1 \' E
Till CUl[(Y
()J.'
~1t'SI.l'\IS
17. Dillolll,-Illia 18. Cahillet ~lllsellllls: Ali\'e, Ali\e, O! 19. Vmllltioll I" \Valkillg 20. TiIe RaZllIll()\sh ])Ilet 21. Four .'.Iltclopes of tiIe Apoeahpse 1'.\ I{ T
221 2,H
24k 2()O
27 2
S Ix
DJSP_\R\TJ: V,\CI:S ()J' EliCJ-::\JCS 22. Docs the Stolldess Plulll IlIstTuct the Thillkillg Reed? 23. 'I 'he SlIloki IIf;'; GUll of EUf;';cllics 2+ The \Iost 1Il1ki",lcst Cut of All
I' .\ R T
2k)
290 ,09
S 1 \ I,: '\
F\'( )[ .I'Tl( )'\_ \J{Y 'i'11J-:()RY. 1·:U)[.I' II( ),\_\IZY S'I ()J{Il':S TllFORY
25.
We COillplcte D:II\\ill's Re\olutioll' 26. i\ Humongous Fungus .'\mollg Us 27. Speakillg of Silails alld Scales (;:111
STO
J{ J I'~
s
28. llooking Le\iatiIall los Its Past ..,....,....., 29. A Special Fondness for Bectles ) I I 30. If Kings Can Be I Icnllils. Theil We .'.re AlIl\lonke\'s' Uncles ,88 31. \lagJlolias frolll \'10SC()\\ 40J I' .\ R T
I" 1 (; II T
LI:\,\\I.liS \'\1) ])\1(\\1,\ 's CI( \'\Ill \11111(
32. The First l!!llnasking of ~:ltme 33. Ordering :sJatme I" Buddillg alld Full-Breasted Se,ualits 3+ Four :'sIct:lphors ill Three Celleratiolls BibliograpiIs Inde,
41)
-F7 442
Come Seven
MICIII:! III \j"'I.\IC'I, traditiollal fOl1uder of the essm as a literan geme, \\TOtc a short lettcr as a preface for his FSlars (1,80). I-Ie slated "to the Readers":
I desire therein to be \'ic\\'cd as I appe~H ill ll1ine 0\\'11 genuine, ordillar~' manller. . If r had li\"cd aillong those nations, \\hieh (the\ sar) \et ckellnndcr the swed libcrh of nature's prillliti\"c lel\\'S, I assure thee 1 \\"(Hlld 1110St \\'i1lingly ha\'C paintecilll\scif qnite fnlls and qnite naked.
simple and
I ha\'c been \\Tilillg the IllOllthl~' essays that COllstruct these books since Jallu(\fY 197+ This \"()Iull1c, the sC\Tnth in a continuing series,
inelucles the picee that J \\Tote to lllark the eonlpletion of h\enh ~·cars. \\'jth Ilc,'cr a month missed. [ should therefore llSC this preface
to celebrate \\·hat om founcler \·lontaigne c1efinecl as crucial to the genre in his statement ql10ted ahO\'c-orcliI1ar~' things (\\'itll deeper lnessagcs l. I ha\'c ah\'a~'s SCClllll~-scif as a Illcat-c.lIlci-potatocs man. You can takc Hlll r fas·iol i stuffecl with 'Ina il a!lel ... sse II, sll Iff i t sOllle"here ( I a III a Iso quite capable of releasing Illy 0\\'11 ground pepper from a shaker). I \\Tote, ill tire preface to the first volul1le of tlris series (Erer Sillee J)arLX
)) \'( )S.\l ' \< I '
\
II \)
S "I \ ( : 1..:
1(77 ). thaI' I \"ic,,"cd lll ~"se lf as <.l Irad c.:small. not CI pol~'nlClth -and business W<.lS C\·Ollltioll'-1f~ " hi o lo~y . ;\s [ h",'c IIritten lI'ith aeti,e passi oll. [ ha,'e also lI'atehed lI'ith odd dcl';,lc.: hlllcnL - i.ls lll~' 0\\"11 CSS
that
x
111 ~"
Come Se rell
fourth "ftcr basehall and philatek
record cd histo,,· of life (part ,L III other \\ ords, process alld palte rn, or 111<:cilanis11l ,1I1d path \\"ay; the hem alld lllc \\"hat of c\u lution 's fouTbillion-yea r COUfSe Oil Ollr pl anet. I t'ill a ll~". and further tru e to 11l~ " JO\"C
of II istolY (1I0t on k of! ife itscl f, but of se iell ee t,,·i ng to 1I11derstand life I. Iha' ·c illllstrated III ' II 1\. of 111\· the mes 1,,· lh eir eSIHcssioll ill Ih e life alld ,,"ork of Ll!o.cinating indi\"idllal s, emphasizing either th e lInfairl~ " lIllkno\\"Il. Of 1111appfeeiated by\\"a~"S i 11 ca feers of celebratcd pcopl c: PierrcSillton Lapla ce, i\LIIY Shelb . '\Ifre(\. Lord Tellilyson. jO"'lthall S\\ift, I':dgar All all Poc's 'HHk 011 shells, th e Imkll mm Ivlms Roberts, Ihe c'lualk Illlknoll'lI Cotthclf Fischer Hln \\',ddhcilll . I.uther Burbank. R. ,\ . Fisher. and j. B. S. i la""1IIc.ll1 th e book's last scction ofthrce ossa~"s, I cxplorc S0111 C \\"()J1derflll COllJl CciiollS bct\\"ecl1 Lil1llaell s alld L<:rasl11us Daf\\"ill , \\ "ith illc\'itahl c (."OI1l111ellt~ Oil Erasl1llls'S far lIlore fa~ 1I10llS gralldso ll.
i\h dinosaur in the hm st·ad 111'1\ re prcsent the gem of a detail al,,·ays sought to ground a ge ueraiih . dillosallrs as the cha mpioll details fOf p11hlic fa sc inatioll. th e h cl~ """i ta c k as an encompassing ge ncrality, and I hci r con j unction as th e secret to a sllcccssflllc!o.S;l Yill \10111.1ignc 's original and defining stralcg~"- thc marriage of alll1rin g detail wi th illstructi,·e gell cralih. all told "ith the st,n111' of an alllhor's persollal j 11\"0 h-e III C II t.
I am 110t a modest man , but I do kilO \\" Ill y great \\"(';Hkllesses Hmidst on e Inch strength . 1 alll not inllnlllcrate. but ho\\ I \\·ish for the mathtlll ..ltical crei.lti\"it~". a pllre blank for m e, that dri '" es so lIIany sci entists to fin e accoillplishment. I am 1101"ill ogical . hili how I ~"earl1 for the
XI
I) I '():'; \1 It I '
\
11 .\)':'; ' 1-\( :"':
t-iwt cl1ters m~ ' head, and I call
Ilcctions aillong th e di sparate detail s. In this se llse, I <1 111 all Ci\S;;l ~' I1lachinc; cite Hie (\ generality , .11H.1 r \\'ill gin: YO\l six tidbits of gelluine ill"st ration" A detail , I,," itself, is blind: a concept ,,"ithuut a conc rete illustration is empty. The conj unction defin es the essay as a genre, and J dnm' connectiol1s in
X\l
COllie SC'l 'en tl rec eipt documentillg <1 fe\\"guild ers [or th e hargcl11an 's bee r and Si.lllsage as ke:" c\"idcncc for the prO\"Cnall(:e of an C:xtilld antelope that c.II1no lou ge r speak for itself (essm' 21 ) , 'I 'bird , I tn' to link, ill "dlllittcdh idiomle"ltic, buinot forced or artifi cial , \\""" , th ese ICAel y details into their OI\'1l strin g, 'Illd th en 10 the e,I>:II.'s gcn erality as a truly helpful illustration, nol a frill or an indulgence - the dinosa11l' to the hmstack , I knc\l that King Cust,,, Jnd LinlIaellS must h", e somc deep Clln neetion if th e,' faccd each other th rongh th e IIla,iulal thinncssofa banknole (es"l ~ 31) , Self-deprecation in Hlho docs represent the same lal11entable habit as self-hate among lIatmal hi;toriall ~ fa c illg th eir lllokc lIbr colleagllC's-hoth parochiali sms Illust ccdc to mutual rcinforcClllcllt ill c qllf.llit~" (CS SCI:"") 1)" ,\ Iltllllongolls f1111gus docs illustrat e th c most diffic ult and abstract problcm in Dal",inian theon', Ih e mtme of imli ,'iduality and the identification of cl'Olution,H~" agents ( cssa ~" 10)" Rccent cliscO\"erics in th e c,"ollltioll of ,,"h<.llcs do both zing th e ercati oll ists a ncl iI hill I in"te the difficult e' 01111 iona n ' principle of llIultiple adapti"e peaks, and the constraints of histori ca l legac ies (ess:,,' 2S), Haldan e's celebrated qllip about Cod's fondn ess for beetlcs should be joined to th e e mpiri ca l issue ofjllst ho\\' mall\ species actuall , in ha bit our earth (cssas 2<) ), Iurassic Park, just a mosie perhaps , docs prOl'ide a grollnd for discussillg th e nature of fads, th e pitfalls of reductioni sm, and the esscnti,.li "rightllcss" of IHlI se llms ccn tered on objects (essay 17), Eelga r Allan Poc's book on shells is 1I0t th e emharrassment th at all literary sources proclaim (though th e ,"oluill c is slI I>sl<11Itialh 1)lagiari7.ed) , if YOli kno\\' tlte technical trael iti ons of malacologic
34FOllrth, YOll ,md I mllst walk together. \Iost "papillar" \lTiting in scicnce simplifi cs concepts (u sllall" tri , iali 7ing th em as \\elL if 111Iintencss a ~ "
XIII
tionalk ) ill th e belief, oftell fals e, that lInder,tanding \\illthcrclJ\ be enhanced . Perhaps, ~() ll1ct i lllcS- htil for lIle. the essay is then lIot worth writing.
1,,"ill, of COllrse , clarif~'lallg\lagc ,
TllaiI11 ~' to rClllO\'e
the
jmgoll
that docs illlpedc pnblic access. But I will not make concept, either llIore simple Of more unambiguolls than lIature's mnl complexity dictates. I illtend Ill'· essa, s for profess ionals and L1\· readers alike-an old traditioll. h~ ' the \\'
Ihis close a)](lllot attempt to satisfy "II illte rpretatioll s) -and thi, serie, should th erefore fllll for t\\"o morc \·olull1es. ill1llst rtm out my skci n, bllt nature nc'-e r ,,·ill -and we.:: shOldd all take th e greatest pleasnre ill this. her inrillitc bonllty. So, ictme "n mcl I this ,"ollllll c SC\'CI1 ,,·jtb Lewis Carroll's most presc ient rec ognition that sc\'cn of h1I1lli.1I I desi gn ca nJlot de llt the wOlldrous superfluity of nature. Th e Walrus and the Carpenter, walking Oil the beac h , ,rce p because they \\"cHIld lm'c to cleaT aWi.l~· nature's prese nce ill "suc h quantities of sa nd." But the,· recogn ize th e hopelcssncss:
If Se\'C Il maids.
wi th SC\'Cll mops SlIept it for ha lf a ,eilr, " Do \'Ou suppose," th e Walrus ,aid, 'That the, could get it c1car?" "I doubt it," said the Carpenter, ,\nti sh cd ,I hitter tear.
COllie S eH'1I
I am \\"(.' cpillg
~cars
of
jo~" -as
did \VorclS\\"(Hth contemplating ;'Th e
SP'Jrr(JII." !'\cs t": She gave me C~ "CS, she g
And lo,·e, alld Ihonghl, alld joy.
\\"
PART
O],;E
HEAVEN AND EARTH
Happy Thoughts on a Sunny Day in New York City
( !~ I\'I',RSF
f,lIl IOll~
G .\ I.ILLO 1)I'.SC RIB I·:n Till'. ill h is most li ne: "This gf
i) l '\ () S .U ' R 1:'\
\
1·1 \ \
S I \CK
chlllc's famou s quip (sec essay 29) thaI Cod must h;n"c all inordillate fond" ess for becll es , \\'c han:, ill man y respccts. becn o\'(~ rsold 011 the mathelll
day cyc ry fourth time rOil lid, hut rClllO\"C it a g~lill c\'cry hundred ,'cars (because Cod ordained a littl e less tl"'n an e,tr" '1l1arler after 365 ), escept for c" en fOllr hundred "cars \I,hcll ,,'c put il b"ek "gaill , (Alld Ihus, if "Ou pellet rated tl"'t selltence, ,ou \I'ill grasp \1,1", 2000 " 'ill be a ICcl1> year, en :1l if. amollg some purists, it ",ill not lI1ark cl llIillcnnium- scc IIC.\t essay, ) \l aturc also mocks Ollr atte mpt to encasc her in a Platonic straitjacket b, esta bli sh illg all "Imost Iaughabh- fortll itous rca SOil for some apparent, highly ,isible reglilarities thai h",'e played a Illajor role illllllllWIl history, III my fa\"orite exampl c, lllllch di scllssed by lllany COlllIllCllt.:ltors, so"" alld IUllar eclipses prodll ee a gorgeoush- prec ise anci light fit (as the 1II 0 011'S shadm\" snugly co\"(:rs th e SUII i:lnd ,"icc \"crsa), \llIsl' 110t sll eh e,actitllde be esplicit]" arrallged, or at least arise as a predictabl e eOnSe(JI,ellec from OIlC of those lllathematicalh- elegant l"'l"s of naturc' But the effecl is ani) a happenstallce of histor"\", The sun's diam eter is abollt four hnlldrcd times larger than th e lllOor"S, Bllt the slln is also abollt four hlllldred times more di slant- so their discs appear th e salllC sizc to . 111 ohscn"e r 011 carth, (1\0\\' cOllside r hO\\" IlIll ch of human lIlythology rests upon , Ill image of t,,'o guardians, illtimatel y related b~' th eir <': 0111111011 sil',e: ";\Ild Cod madc hH) g re ~lt light s: the g reater light to nde the cia\", and the lesser light to rule the night, ") \Vhcn Ilaturc so mocks liS, she oftell comes clcall c\"cry Ollce in a ,,'hil e, as if to offer confess ion for sllch a sllblime joke, Oni'l'la) 10, 199-1, " rare fornl of solar cclipse, far les> speclacn"" than the eom entional lid of cbrkn css , bllt illllllcll sc l~ ' fiJ sc.:ill <.1 tillg for its 0\\"11 mOTe subtl e strangeness , em'e1oped IlInch of ;'\orth ,\lIlcriea, Tir e moon 's distance from th e earth ,'a ries 'I"ite a bit during its rc\"()llltion (p!.lIlctan' orbits arc also lIot so regll!.rr as th e charls in our high-school textbooks implied ), If a solar eclipse occurs "hen th e 1110011 li es at ma,illlal distance
frolll the carth. th en the hll1
lIular eclipses arc Ilmeh less spedaeu lar than total eclipses at lI orlllal IlIlIar distallees. for a rillg of bri gh t sunshine st ill I'ields sllbstalltial light - as lllllCh or lllore thall on
eellt eOlllplete at 111\' BostOIl hOllle, wh ile tota Iitl' beckolleel 011 h- an hour or Iwo lIorth from Concord, ;"-J C\\' Hampshire, ::lllcl m i.lIl~· other pleasant sites tllloughollt :'siCII 1':llglalld, The lIes t annlliar eclipse in :'\e\\' I
odd
lnOlll c nts of Sllrccasc from Slli.l\\·'S
ob-
,e n'ati oll that those \I'ho ca ll. do; \\'hilc th ose IIho can't, teaeh- realhdo rCI'cI in sti ch application of limited pOlin. I so ordered, and not a one of th em wcnl-to their eternal S h i\Ill~> but o lh ~r\\'i ~c without consequ cncc.) ~:1caJl w hilc , duty-hound to honor a cOlllmitment made before I heard about th e eelipse. I \I'ent sOllth to :'\ew York City, tmlmel less solar coverage by "Ill already compromiscdlullar Sh'H.low. Vlml\' things keep us go ing in tlris I'ale of tears-a bal".'s smile, Bach's B-lllillOr ".'Iass, a decent bagel. E\"cr~ " once in a while, as if to grant li S the con:'age to go on, th e pOI,"ers that be turn one of life's little disasters into a bit of im or an episode of instruction, Tire Lord of th e (Partial ) Ring mllst h",'e becn smilin g on me this \b" 10, for he bronglrt m e in c lOll hold about t\ell' Yorke rs. (Thel' arc untrue, of course, but cnlturalh- powerflll as a recognizcd live or icon nonetheless, ) Nc\\' Yorkers are harri ed, scl fcentered , cynical , rush ed, acqui sitiH:, 1ll1CHrious, lIIlCOllllllllllicati\"e. ~lIld dC)\\"ll right nasty to all humans who can1l0t he \\"hcedlcd or manipulated fo r Illateria l ga in . Right? Of eOllfSC, as all Americans kno\l'. clen those \\h o hale nel'cr been east of th e Missi ss ippi ! i\ soh" eclipse mllst therefore ra nk as the last th ing that cOlild e\'cr intrigue a real :s.'c\\' Yorker. IIllC<-l Il , gilllllle a break mister. YOll \\ ",m l me to stop whilt I'm )
doing C:lncllook into the sk~ ' -
SCCOIlci . the sigll t of <.1cresc cilt Sllll is so IlllllSL\() I, so outside Otl r (Itt il~' e'perienee , lhat people do pallse 10 notice , ami ,milder. Iflh e first phenomCIHlll , eeric (if slight-) darkness, impell ed a kind of ,'iseeral alienlion , the crescent sun, by eonlra sl, promkeci a morc inlelleclual rc spo nsc.
r,'a/)f))' Th ough ts
Oil (/
Sunll)' /)a ,\'
ill Nell' York
Cil~'
,\t clen' cel ipse, offi c ial purl cmrs of th c ne\\'s delu ge us \\ 'ith \\'a Tll-
ings abollt" gr,J\"c dangers to our sight should wc slare
days of dire \\"1rnillgs. [ do understand why stich c\aggcratiol1s lllust he prcsented. St;.lfing
for
prC\Tlltill g
these longer starings. So stride]]t arc these warn ings that
nr,ml' people adua Iis' eOllle to heliclc in a spec ial po\\ cr of eclipse light
to do . . tlel! har111 . But
ol1 e C
of COllrsc, stare direc:tl ~· at the
SUIl for ,1
mOllle nt \\'ithout dan gcr on all daIS, bo th reg ular
we do glan ce in;](h-crtently into the su n \ dist e\"(;ry once in a while. alld do not go blind .
\\·t
But Illost people, and '1l1itc rig htis', did not loo k diredis' 'It the " Ill, anel tuok official a(is'iee for obse n 'ation bl' a cicr'c r set of clel'ices for filte rin g or projecting illla ~es, :\ud I beeolll e gra teful fo r this pano pl\' of
strategies during 1ll ~' hlllllanisti t "fidd trip" for sc iCllt(: through th e streets of!'..: c\\' York, for tlle \'icwing dC\'ites prm'okc discw.sioll and CIleo ma ge shariu " , thus h elpiug to forge the eclipse eOllllllunity, SOllle pcople look up throu g h filters, ,\ I'ollng man had prepared sc,'e ral strips of ol'crdel'Cloped film, and Ire passed thelll around, a donble lal'er for cach ollSl'TI'cr (as th c n c\\spapers had a(Ir'isni), to all intc rested parti es, :\ \\'elder Oil 5,rd Street spent hi s Imrk break sharing h is goggles \\'ilh th e g,rtherin g erolld , Oth ers took 'ldl"llltage of a II'(1Ilci e rfrri phellolllclloU in optics, usillg the principle that almost al1\' sll1alllrole or spaec will act as a pinhol e ca mera to project th e illlage o f the cresce nt sun , Ilcrc :sJe \\ ' York C ity
even holds an mh-<:111tage o\"(::r the cot1 l1tr~ '-f() r
On ')Bth Street, a 'vVcsl Indian janitor in his 1I'0rk c lotlr es stood in
fron t of an apartment building, where ;:1 rippcd awnillg cO lli
SC\ '-
eral s11lall holes. cae h proj ecting a beH utiful imHgc of th e c rescent slIn llpon th c sidewalk , The ja nitor, Hcting the part ofa ea rnilHI barke r, gathered ill the passtrsb~ ' under his
I) i "(' S \ , . It I '
\ II \ 'I ~ . , \ ( . ;.:
th e: s.llIl l' carni\"al , an Asiall Illall pi erced holes in cll \"(:lopcs , shcdS or Jlaper, and Illanila folders, sh(l\\ ing peopic ho\\ to proj ect Ih e slln 's in"'ge IIpon th e gro uncl-agaill for free and for the sheer picaslIre of sharing. People g
'Jell)I)," Thoue,hts
Oil (/ SUIIII."
Day
ill
T\ell' York City
the sun enters total eclipse, the ski turns off as if a celestial janitor thre\\ a s\\"itch, For the StIll is pmycrful, and a fraction of one pcrcent of SUlllight is cJ,l\tillle, \\hile totalit, is nighttiillc~and the transition is a illOment,
nl ,\()~ \1.1{ 1,\
\
11.\\
:"'1 \C!...:
this effect, nCle r I)icasure. and ccrtaink not intell ectual as opposed to purel y \'is(;(:r
10
n ' n" , LJennlS n "Sn h LJOUslng LJlmlnutlve LJeuate
(or DDDD
2000)
I"
lOY7, Oil the clay appointed for repenting mistakes in judgment at S,Jlelll, S'lIl1l1c1 Se\\all of Bostoll stood silellt" ill old SOllth Church, Bostoll, ,,-hile his cOllfession of error ,\"as rc;.lc1 aloud. He alone ,-lllHlllg illd~es of tIle falsel, aeclised (amI trllly e,eellted) "\\itehes" of SaleJlI had the courage to undergo sHch public chastisement. Four years latcr. the sallle Samuel Sc\\"alllllaclc a most joyfullloi.)c Ullto the Lord-and at a particlliarly auspicious lllOlIH:llL He hired fOllr tTlllllpdcrs to herald, as he \\Tote, the "entrance of the eighteenth CClltllr~'" h~' sOllllding
a blast Oll Boston COllllllon right at daybreak. lie also paid the tOlm crier to read out his '\-crscs tl]JOll the l\c\\" Ccntllr~-." 'I 'he opening stanzas seem especially poignant t()(Ll~', the first for its rclC\"
writillg this cssa~' 011 a bleak Jallllary da~" ill Bostoll, alld the telllperature olltside is _2 c Fahrellheit), allel the Sl'COllel for a sllperalllllwtccl patcfllalism that highlights both the admirable and the dubious in our histof\": Once morc! Our Cod HHichsafe to shine: Correct the coldness of Ollr climc"
\lake haste \\·ith tin impartial light, alld termillate this IOllg dark llight" Ci\"c thc iIldi,lllS C\"CS 10 SCC 11
1)1\()~.\1 It 1\
\
[I
\~·~·I \(:f,.;
The light of life, alld set thelll free. So Illen shall Cod ill Christ adore, ,\nd \\"(Hship idols \"
I do not raise this issue either to emharrass the good judge for his tragic error, or to praisc his cOllllllellciahle courage, hut for all aspect of
thc ti!'ll' tll;]1 h'll(· ,111l"d(I\ '1lrrlllllHkd Ihl' f!llillc011lill!_~ IIlilll'llllillill. 111<11 I ;]t k
011,11 IT'Oh'lhk, \ /il/t'!]lliuII! 11<1, 1110 1]',-I)(III('<,t 10 (;'1(1. il Il"dh dol'" dnpik .111(1 PI(I{IIICI Il
lIIillrulli," 'IL,n h'I' \/i!!culliulII i, j-nll)) 111l' I.,dill 11111-
11\"(1. hili till'
10
D()u,~ing
Dimin1ltive 1)el111is\· Debate (or 1)1)D1) :::::
2()()())
'I'-shirls, allcl a IhollSallci olher procillcts being floggecll" the fnll gam nt, frolll 7'\('\\" ,\ge fruitcakes of the eOll1ltcreulturc, to hard-line apocal~'P tic \"isionarics at the Christian fri1lge, to a thicket of ordillary gu~-s out to make an honest buck. The article even tells of a consulting firm <"plieit'" establishecl to help others market the millennium-so "e arc alrcad~" witncssing the fractal recursion that might be called III dap rof-
iteering, or grO\\"ing clams of ([(kiee in the elam beds of your ad\"isees' potential profits, 1 am truly sorr~" that I canJlot, in clIrrcnt parlance, "get \\"ith thc program," I feci eompellecl to mention tin) tim little cliffieulties that coulcl act as ,Lllllpers upon Ille ulli\ersalldhhoo, First-though 1 "ill not make a hig deal oft-his tcellllicalifY-lllillcnnia are not transitions at the cnds of thousand-year periods, but particular periods lasting olle thousand ~"c
DI,\nS\l'IZ 1'\
\
II\~sT\cr.:
judgment at this end of time, either rise to lise \Sith jesus, or end up in that other, unpleasant pbee along \\-ith Illost of histor:-'s interesting characters, And TS<1\\'
him into the hottomless pit, and shut hill1 up, and set a se~11up()n hilll .... and r sass the souls of thelll that \Sere he headed for the \Sitness of jesus ... and thes lised and reigned \Sith Christ a thousand \"ears ... And when the thousand years arc expired, Satan shall be loosed Ollt of his prison, and shall go Ollt to deeei\'e the lIatiolls \\"hich arc in the four quarters of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather thelll together to hattle ... and fire eallle do\Sn from Cod Ollt of heasen, and desoured them. And the c!cs·il that deeeis'C(l thelll \Sas cast into the lake of fire and hrimstone ... \nd I sass the dead, sillall and great, stand before Cod; and the books \\'ere opened, ,And \\,hosoeH'r \\'as not found \STitlen in the book of life \Sas cast into the lake of fire [Reselation 20:1-1)[.
TTcm-, thell, did this original COllCCpt of a foriheollling reigll ofCllrist becoille transillogrified in popular speech into a word for calellelt-ic transitions at lllultiples of one thousand? '1 'he main reaSOlllllllst be simple confllsion, and loss of kno\Slcdge abont thc original mcaning, as apnca lyptic \'ersioIls of CI nistiaIl ity, Ilot to lllelltioll Bihle readillg in general, decline in popularit~, (despite, to say the Icast, \'igofOlis continuing support ill SOll1C circles)! But '-I rationale of sorts for thc transfer of meanillg does exist \\'ithill the history of eschatology, particularl~' in its intersection \\'iih 1ll~' professioll of geolog~' in allcillpfs io ascertaill thc age of the carth. \bny hiblical passages state that Cod's clas Illas be cOlllpared \Sith a thousand human years: "Be not ignorant of this OIlC thing, that olle clay is \\'ith the Lord as a thousalld ~'cars, and a thollsand ~"c
14
Dousing Diminutil'e Dennis's Dehute (or
D1)D1) ::: 2()()())
sCience or hermeneutics could then determine the time of the earth's origin, \,-e might knm\" the moment of inception for this last happy age": \lost ealculatious of the earth's antiquity, if done literalh from biblieallifc spallS and other ancient sources, place the creatioll somewhere he!ll'ecil ,7(1l B.C. (the jellish ea1cudar) aue!ulorc thau 5500 Il.C (the Septllagi u t, or G reck Hi b1c). 'I'herefore, a t ra usi lion i uto the m illeuuial
clgC might \H:ll he 011 the hOfi/"on - Of should ha\-c occurred just
he \ il"11 ed,
tlllnl~11 IlL" mll;dh do ,0 .•1';1 rC Cit!" of (:ori! th;ll the lllil-
Icllllilllil 11111,1 Ill' I iClIl'd
,II
,I spirilll,d ,1,lIe l'olilTti\ell 1"1i!l-led h\ 111(' Church ,ill'cil!l-eosl--tlll" (il-'>C('llt
oi"llll" Iloh (:110\110 tlK ,lpIJ,lk, SOOil ;If!l-r (:llrisl", rl'sllrrlTliIJlI- IlhjlTI 10 nllilclllpIJI",lI": jll'rsOII'llc:o.:Pl'lil'IIl"l' III IllIsli"al C()Ililllllllioll
II
ilil (;od_ 'j"hi, arl;lllilulL 1!CI.·tI!c" 10 S;II. Sl'IYO ;1 Slll"ial pllr-
I'0\e fllf ,I jl()\lul-lll ,llld l'(lIlSl'II,llill' imlilulioll \\ishilil,; to lli,lilll
('lleOlll"'I~I.' \Iild IIKllril." ,lholi1 ,li."lu,d ,tlld iilllliilll'lill'llds tli" 111(' IIIHld_ Bill 1\ 111'11 ","I('li("I." ;11](1 ulil("1
(i<.-n:!"pi!!i'; r"nl!, "," 'l!"'!'!!"s!]!p" inc!!!(! ill!; !liston" phd",,,p!n" ,!!H! tC\t\!i!! ,Ph!h sis" hC!;d!l !o dCli,c !!lc"!!Iods for
r:IICl'c!Ii!JCrlid
Britt/lllljed Oil \lil!cll-
lIi;di~llI, jl
,III C\ilCS ,Illd SI.'YCllill j);II\(hcldi,h. Illi, Ili,joll i., \Cdfl"l'lI "f '1IIIi(llI'lfi'lIl illicrc,1 ,1IoIlC! i
15
DJ,\()S\lIR
j,\
.\
1·I\YST.\Ct-:
didn't e,'en get the date right, for llerod died in 750 \,l ,c:, Therefore, if jesns and Herod (Aerlapped (,nld the gospels \I'ill hase to be drastiealh re"ised if the,' did not), then jesus must hel,'e been bo]']) in -l"'C, or earlier-thus granting the bearer of time's title se\'eral years of life beforc the inceptioll of his 0\\"11 enJ! But Dellllis's misdate ofJesus COUllts as a mere peccadillo cOlllpared \\"ith the cOllsequences of his second bad decisioll, He started time again on January 1, 7)4A.l',c.-and he callcd this datc January 1 of year one .\,D. (AIIIIO Domini, or "year of the Lord"j-llot the year zero (which \\"ould, in retrospect, haye spared us frolll eycr so lllllch trouble!). In short, Dennis negleeted to begin tillle with year zero, thus discombobulating all our uSllalnotions of counting. During the ~'ear that Jesus was one ~'ear old, thc time system that supposedl~' startcd \\'itll his birth \las Is,o ,cars old, (Babies arc zero ,"cars old until their first birthday; modern time \yas already olle year old
1)ollsill~ 1)illli11l1til'e 1)e11l1is',,> 1)ehate (or 1)1)1)1) = 2()()(),!
or lllodc,) of 'llIal~'sis. (Shall \\'c pcrillit abort-ioll, alld ill \dwt circulllstallces? Does Cod c\:ist?) .\ subset of thcse llllresoh-ablc debates-llltimatcl~' tri\'ial. but capable of pro\'oking great agitation, and thus the most frustrating of all- ha\'c 110 ,-11lS\\'ers bccause thcy arc about \\'{Hds alld systellls. rather thall thillgs. alld phellOlllell
i'uiilll<111\ <1 c<1lcuLliing he<1d
IJI'()S\\II{ I '
\
II\'\'s'l \{:"
lias raek'd its brain, its ink has shed, To proyC by lllcLIphysics finc .:\ hundredme
The same smugness reappeared a celltlif~·latcr. The \'ew York Times, with allticipator~' diplolll;.ICY, \\Tote ill lKl)o; ".\s the prescnt cellttlr~ draws to its closc \\'e sec looilling llot \'cr~' far ;'llicad the \'cnerablc dis~ pule \yhiell reappears e\'er~' hUlldred ~'ears-l'i;:: \Vhell docs thc IIC:\t eenhH~' hegill?, , ,There Gill he 110 douhllhal olle persollillay hold thai the nc:\t centtn~' begins Oll the 1st of J<\l1t1ar~', 1<)00, anel another that it begins on the lSt of J,lllIWT\, 1901, alld set both of thelll be ill filII possessioll oftlieir f;.H.':lllties," Bill a Gerillall eOlllllleIltator rCll1mkcd: "tIllll\ life I haye seell 1l1;'1I1~' peoplc elo hattle O\'cr IllallY thillgs, hut O\'er fe\\ things \\"itll such fanaticism as O\'cr the acac1cmic questioll of \\'hell tllC celltlllT \YOlddClId ... II:ach of tlie hyo parties proc1llced for its side the trickiest of calclllatiolls and llwintaillcd at' the sallie lillie that it \\'as the silllpiest lllatter in the "orld, one that all\ child shollid IInderstand," YOII ask "here I st
DOIl,<;illg Dimilllllire Dellllis's Dehdle (or DD!)[)
= 20()())
about thc auachrouism that \\o\lld latcr be heaped upou all the scars of thei r liH~S? CCII tllrics C,-lIl thcll tllm \yhcll COllllllOIl sCllsihil i ty dcsi rcs, and \\e underscore niOll~'sillS'S blesscd arbitrarillcss \\'ith a capricc, a de\icc of our (m-ll that marries the warring camps_ ~eal, c"cept that I thillk people \yant to <1cgtle passionately about triyial llilresokabilihes-lest thcy he compellcd to ill\'est stleh rambunctious energy in rcal battles
tli,jlmight kill
sOl1ichocl~-.
What clsc might \\c salsagc from rchcarsing thc l,iston ofa dcbate withollt all ans\ycr? Ironically. sllch argllmcnts contain the possihility for a prcciolls sociological insight: sillce no ,-lIls\\"cr can arise from the "e"tcrn,ditics" of natllre or logic, clWllgillg \'ic\\'points I))"O\'ide "pllrc" trajectorics of c\'oh'ing hUlllan attitucles-
l~
1)1'\,()S.\llZ I'\, _\
11.\~s·I_\(:"
Sclm-mtz, pre\"iollsly cited, ,-Illd scores of refercllces cited ill chapter olle thereill). I ,,"ill, ill Ill~- igllorallce, take refuge ill the haLlilced positioll of the Frellch historiall llellri Focilloll (ill his book '/'he Year 10(0). Focillon allm\"s that apocalyptic stirring certainl~- occurrcd, at least loealh in !'J'anee, J ,ofraine, and Thuringia, [()\lard the middle of the tellth eenhm. \lut he finds strikingh little esidellee for ,1IlS general fear sllrrOllndi1i~ the year 1000 itself-liothing frolll all~' pope, ruler, or king.
in allY papal hull. notl-ling
Oil the plus side. olle prolific monk named Raoul Claber eertaink spoke of lllillclllli~d terrors, statillg that "S;Jtall \\"ill SOOIl be ullleashed becallse thc t-ilOllsallcl years h",'c bccll cOillplcted." He also clailllecl, thollgll ]]0 dOClllllelltar~" or archaeological support has hcen forlhcollli llg, Ihat a \\"
20
1)()usillg 1)ill/illl/tire 1)ellnis's 1)ehdle (or 1)1)1)1) = 2()()(J)
distinctioll Call be traced eyell to t-ilis ,-lll,-lciHOllistic recollstructioll, \\-ith scholars f
21
!)j\,.()S_\I'1{
111dl1aC
j\,.
_\
!!,\)'S'j',\{ h:
cleclcJrcd their \-olullles for 1l)01 the "first nllmher of the h\'cnti-
elll ccnlur~-." 011 Dccclllber jl, 1H99, The \ 'ell' York Times hcg~lll a st()r~ Oll The Nineteenth Celltw;.' h~' llOtillg, "TOllIO\TO\\' \\'c ellicr UpOll the
LJst ~elr of a ccntur~- that is marked hy greaicr progress ill all that pertlins to the lllaterial \\-ell-being and enlightenment of l1l;l1lkind than a1] the [Jre,ious histo" of the r'lce." On )'lllll'llY I, 1'101, the lead headlinc procbililcd "'I\rclitidli Celitury's Triuliiph
D()usin£!, Dimillulil'e Dellllis's Dehate ((Jr DDDD = 2()OO)
lelllliulll, \\"hich \rill OCCllr at the he~illlllll~ of the ~"ear 2000 hecallse lllost pcople so feel it ill their hOlles, J)iOll~"siliS lloh\"itilstallclill~-
ing the l\\"cnticth century hut ninety-ninc years! 110\\ 100eh-for clem,,1 debates abol1t the l1llfesoh"blc re"lh do ,,"aste a great deal of time, put tiS ill had humor, ,mel sap OtiT l'llerg~" from tTul~" illlporL"lllt pursuits" Lei" I1S, illsteacl, S,IYC our Illelltal fi,ght-llot to establish the blcssedll1illel1llil1lll (for I dOl1bt that Ill11llclllS arc capable of sl1eh perfectioll), bl1t at least to bl1ild jerusalclll l1pOIl our plallet's grecn and pleasant lallCl.
The Celestial ~1echanic and the Earthly Naturalist
Dl"Z,,\C: '1'1 II'", s,\'\., 1<'I(\"\CISCC) 1:,\IZTIIVl,\I(I: of H)O(), a stahle of l.ouis Ai,;C1SSil fell off the frollt of
The Celes tial .\ lCdWl1ic alld the
E (/rth/~ '
.\'a iu rali .'it
its placc head-first and \\'a ist-d~ep inlo th e CO li crete I,,"eille llt. S01l1ebOlk- Dr. ,\r~dl , pcrh ,'ps- rcm ,'rkcd th ,'1 ";\ !;assiz ,,'as great ill the abst ract hut llot ill th e concrete. "
People arc dc,·c r, bllt almost no one e\"(:r dc\"i~c ~ all opti1llal qllip prcc isch at Ihe lIeed ed momellt. Thereforc , \irtllalk all cel e brated onclille rs arc later i",'c ntions-\\'(",Is tha t people \\'is hed th cy had spollted , bllt fai led to manufacture at th e ~rlll y oppor!lIli C ill.\!illlt. Thll:-' the mo.r..;! famolls of all sc iclltific e pithets is also, "lid alas, sureh' cm be llishcd if not complctek fi ctioll al. W e h,"c all hcard th e stOIY of!\apoIeOlr's Illcctin l; " ith th e grca t astronomer Picrre-Silnon LlpL,ce i 1749-1H271. idcllti fied I" thc Dicliol/(/Il' O(SCiCllti/lc Hiogra!)")' as '';,, " ong the most intlllc ntial sc icntists ill all history," 1,aplacc, or so the s lor~ · gocs , g.. l\·c :'-.:apolcoll a eop~· of Ili s l11ulti\'() lwIIC AUcol1iqllc ceJe."ile (Celestia l ,\ lec!wl1ic,I;), N apolco ll perused thc IOlllcs and asked Laplace ho\\· he could w rite so Illuch aho ut th e workings of th e hC.:a lllin ed the future cllllx :ro r, thcn i ll I artill ery ("l(lel. ill math elllatics at th c I
BtlI' \"c\doll cOllld not th en fath01 11 110\\" all acceleratioll of rotatioll to of twenty-four hOllr. . could be accompli shed under llature's L.I\YS.
(1a~"S
so hc imokcd " posi ti,'c ,pin fmm God himself. I-Ie \\TOtc 10 Thoma, BnrJld (a eolleagne \\ho nphcld nni,'c rsal constam', and soffici e nc, of
nature's
!a\\"S
<md
\ \"\10
the refore fanHcd an allegoric;11 intcrpretation of
bibli cal 1'lIlgllage ab onl "da, ,'):
\\'il crc:.: natural C
By contrast, tllc most famous quote gelluinely attrihllted to Laplace rigorou sly defends <1 strict determinism tliClt does make
1.1\\, al
the outse t. bllt he has no Iwed c\"cr to illtern.' l1c ill subsequ cllt hi story: aft e r ,III, a truls- omnipotellt Cod ca ll surc ls- establi, h optimalla\\s ri ght
at th e start, tlUI S "I\""o iding
his work ill <..:cl cshaI11l cehanics, 1,apLH.'c W()1l1110.s t rcnOWll
for h is pi o llceri Ill; sludics of proba bi! i(s', Olle mi ght ask ",11\' the pro phet
of clctcnn i1\ ism .lIld 11 Cm"e lll ~ " e() ll st'IIl<..:~ " ShOlIId h
The Cele stial "\1 ed!CIllic (// /(/ the Earthly \ "af1fru!i s(
l)[It th e solntion is not far to scek " Laplaee finnk beliclcd that, in realit~ " , cn.' r~" c\"cnt is full~ " detcrmill cd h~" gC ll c rillla\\"~ of th e IIlliYcrsc" But nature is c()lllpk~ \ alld \n":" ,Irc \\"oe ftlll~" igllorallt of her \\"ays: \\"(: Illmt th cre forc ea!cnlate probabilities to cOlllpcllSatc for our lilliitatiolls. I':\"cnls , in other \\"C)rch., arc probable olll y rclati n ' to ou r 1I1C
III his 177(, artiel c, cited pre,"ioush-, Laplace directh-lillks the need for a Ih cor~ " of probahility to illtillan igno ran ce of nature's determillistic \\"i:. I~"S. and hc makes the salli e cOlllp<.uisOIl hchn ,: c ll a silllpler and ,,"ell-kIlO\\"l1 eelestial I11ceh"ni cs alld a Illuch l110rc diffi c ult earthk pl,,"sics:
1\ lall O\res that a(/I-;mtagc Ii11 celesti" I Illcch,," ics I to th e po"n of th e ill strum ent he C1I1pIOl S, '1I1d to th e sl11alllllllJlbcr of re-
I)I 'C )S \l l n
I'
\
II \'
~ I· \ (:1\
Intiolls Ihat Ilhis field l cmhnl('cs in ils "abdali(lIls, Bul ignorancc of thc different "a llses il1\ohed in the prodllcti,," of (,Tcnls, as \I'cll as Ih eir "omp\c,ih', I'akcn togethcr \I'ilh Ihe imperfect i(lIl of ana lysis , prc\"e nts CHiT reach i ng the Si.\ llle ccrt:]i II t~: aboul' the \"asl l1l, LapLree took np thc tro nbling problelll of will Jllpiler's orbit seellled 1"0 be shrinking ,,,hile Saturll 's c:xpandl'd (<1 situati on that, if continued , \\"o ll1d destroy the reglllarit~ " of pl a ll c hH~" lllotion; th e great ~ e\\" tOll , ill fact, had tluO\\"n IIp his hands and ill\"Okcd occasional di \"inc inlcl'l'ention to s"fegllard equilibri nlll ), Lapl
The Ce/I!.\ tial _\J cc hol1ic clnd the fo rt lli" ,\ 'ail/ reI!j ,;!
sl11all and be fulh- se lf-correcting, thns maintai ning th e stab ilih' oi th e sobr s\ "stel11 " i"ill
In"
tillue" I .
whe n th e ea rth 's orbit becomes more circular, bllt \I'ill be retarded \"h ell the ca rth 's cl'cc Jltri cit~ " iJl c:rcasc ~. I Ie thell <Jrgllecithat the earth '.'I orhi tal eccen tri city c~ d es \\"ith a period IIlcasured ill Illilliolls of years;
th e Ilinar orbit will therefore be seli-eorrecting, 'liid the llIoon will not escape" In ' 7HR, \I'ith the fall of th e Rastilk and the grea t seenl a r re Hlllition jllst nn e ~'C;\l"
J)I ' ( )\ \l ' H I '
\
II
\~..., I' \ (:f.,;
the Iwo !lien \\'cre 1101 in COIlt..I ct ,lIIeI surcly dC\'clopc:d their idcas illdcpcncicll tly. j H(m' could the <1 postl<: of nOi I('lta ngc .: 1Ilt! an tih i stor~· also cl c\'ise a t1H.:()r~· that. according to Ihe Dictionary o{Sciel1li/lc 13iogra/>h.l', ·'h'1S e Oll\{: lIl'ioll
or
jO
The Celestio / .\l cd/dllie
cllld
th e ":(//"1 111.," ,\ ·lItul"c1 li .-;t
Th e order in which I ' 1111 about to discuss Ihc princ ipal res ulh of Ih e "sle lll of th e \\mld is ~ o t Ihat which th e humall milld follO\,cd in iis research. Th e Illarch of the mimi has bee n enCllIlllx:red alld L.lIlcerlain: oftell. it nnl~' r<:(lched th e trllc cali se of ph enom ena after h '" 'ing c,hausted all the Edse h,volh escs Ihal inwginalion had snggcsted; and discm'cred trulh s ha"e al\llost ah\·(\ \·s heen allied to crrors that tim e alld ohscf\'ati(Hl nails- separated onto I 'rill offe r in a fe\\ ,rords the tabb1l1 of
n-
The nebuLlr h,volh es is is ulldoubtedls- Ihe mosl bmolls Iegae,' of Lap!;rce's ExpositirHl, Ill rt this th eof\' appears onls- as an aftc rlhollght ill a fe\\ pages of a final chapter appclIdedlo th e cnd of book fi ,c - Coll,')iderafivns slir Ie s)'steme du moneTe. et slIr les progrb; (utlln> de ['as -
tronol1lie (Consideratiolls 011 th e System orthe \Vorld. und ol1lhe Fliture Progres,'j or1htrono/lI.r ). 'l'lli s fC'ln;lrkabl c c hapter also fcahlres a corred
"""l\
llS'poth es is that "n eb ulae" (reso ls-ed ill the best te lescopes of th e time as diffuse clouds) arc aehwll, di stant galaxi es of slars (\\itlr the \-lilky \Va )" as an arm or ollr 0\\"11 galax~'), alld tlwt the lllli \'crse is th crefore e,'ell ,'aster than \\'e had e,er concei,'C(1. In tlris scction . Laplace C\"C Il rccoglli :t.c.:s that some stars llla~ ' he so dense that gr
"
I) I '( )S
\l l l{
I'
\ II \\ :-,' [
\ (:J.,.
off aro llnd planda,,' cores, LlpLlCC arglled that no other nl ed wllislll could aceOllllt- for ~dl the pril11<1r~ ' re~lIbrilics of motion in th c solCir syste m - pa rti clliarh th e remlll tion of all pi a nets ill th e ,,"l1 e d irectioll and lirtll"lh in the "II1IC pLllle, th e relollliion of sa tellitcs in thc sa llle directioll .
\Vhalcl'er olle n'
The
Celc ,~,ti (/'
\/ ec.:/wlJic: alld the Earth!.)' \.'oturaJi,.. t
culm, alld directed in th e same sense and almost in the salli e p];.111e. This ~y.\lc lll cnll olll~' o sc illate about a lIl c..lII state, fro m
\\'hich it call 01lJ ~ de\'iah: b~' \'er~ ' lin ~' alllOllllts. Th e
I \\ 'as arrogant
,·hink thnt I had llIade S(lme sort of disUl\ 'cr~ ' \\·hell I n:,ld the l<xpositiol1 alld recogn il.ed the ..lIItihistoric
for the Il\pothes i' that made l.aplaee so ti lillOlIS as the fj"t historian for th e IIni \erse, Bllt [ soon di sco\'e rcd that oth ers had foli oll'CCl th e sa me path of argulll c llt. C. C . Cillipic . perhaps Amcric,/s flncst sellior historian of sc ie ncc, put the point most forcefl1l1 ~' in hi s long article 011 I.aplace in the Dietir!ll
\V e C'UI , I th ink , hest grasp the eont rast hetll'een r."l'l ace 's anti h istorieal thinking and a truls- de\cloplllental 'Ipproae h by eOlllparing the nebul ar hypoth esis "'ith the only seri olls cO lltclllporar~' competitor as i.l th eo rs for planetalY origins-the 11If'o th es is of co liletars' co llision derised bl the grea tes t o f all e ight eenth-cen tury firen eh natu«lli sts, Ceorges Buffon (1707-1778 ). Laplace hilll ,elf adlllitted Bu ffo n as hi s onls- eOlllpe tition , IITiting in th e Ex posilirm; "B n ffo n is th e onis- olle I kno\\' \\'ho, since the dise",'ers' o f th e tnrc srstelll o f th e \\'o rld, has tried to go back to th e origin o r planets and ,Iatellites," Buffon
1)1 .' \l lS \I ! H J"
\
ll "
S· I· .\( ; I..:
tion, "ith all plancts in I'irtllalk the " 111 Ie plane la reslIli of th e llIotioli alld ori c ntalioll imparted to the "llIllIe kllocked frolll the slln l. BlIt Laplacc argued that BlIffOiI 's thcor,' cOllld 1I0t esplaill the COllnllOll di-
rctlioll of pL.111ctar~· rotatioll or the origill of satellites. Buff011 and Laplace see III so different at first glallee, Their gelleration or t\\"() of scparalioll spans a \\"orlel of change frolll Buffon's SClyi cc to th e last hm Killg I ,O llis before the remilition, to J ,aplacc's "'()fk " 'ith YariOllS rCH)lutiollary gOH..' l"IllllCllts and l\'apolcoll. But their lin.:s alld studies include SOlli e striking si lllilariti es re!c'·<'l1lt tn their joint interest ill theories of pbndar~· origin. Bllffoll \\·as al so a fille Illathclllatic:iall with hH.l special intercsts tlli.lt lllatched Lapla ce with 1I1H.:
The
Cele .~t ial
:\/ ec /wl7ic clnd the ":orfhl" ;\ !atuw li ,'ii
l::poq"e" de [a "at" re (I,;poch, of Nat" re) , \ losl hiologisls a Ild h islorialls consider the J<:/J()'I"es as Buffon's Illasterp icce and .IS one of the fillesl C:\,lI l1plcs of sc icntifi c prosc CH.' !' writtell. Tilc Ef)oljlles also in cludes an explicit defense and exposition of historiealmelhodologl', thus prm'iding
Laplace cndecllris disellss ion of tire nebuJ.lr h'"polhesis lIith jllS! SIl l' h an apologl', speaking of "Ihis phlllehiry sYste1l1, \I'hi ch I presenl lIith ~h e mistrust wh ich Illust accompany c\"c r~·th ill g tklt is not the result of <1n ohSell"'ll ioll or a e;llcnlati on," I3llffon, on tir e oth er iran,!. begins the Epoqllc" Irith a paean of praise to the excitement and efficae,' of diggin ~ into the archil'es of Ihe past wit h narrMil'e Illethodx, Consider Bu ffon':-; open i n ~ word s:
In eil'il hi stors', \I'e consnlt titles, lie research medals, we decipher ,IIlCiC ilt ills(;ri pti olls in ord er to dete rllline the ti111e of hum an rc\"(}lutioll S and to fix the elates of C\'cnts in thc mora l order. Silllibriy. ill J) at\lrallli story, it is n ec cssar~ ' t<) cxc a\ ',lle the archi, cs of the lI'Orld , 10 dra\\' old mon lllnenis frolll the cn traib of th e earth , to coll ect their debris, and to reassemh le in to a single bo,h of proof all th e indi ces of pill's ical changes IIh ic h ellable us to go back tl, th e different ages of ,wlllre, 'I'h is is the onh \\"a~' to fix po ints ill th e immensity of spacc, alld to place
l) I ' ()S_\l - lt I'
\
11 _\)s
1
\( :f.,.
ClI.\It IC' Ii'.1t ell' I.\ ·I " T S, Hi stOJ"I" Illust resped (
The Celesti(/l _\l ec.·hal7ic all d the Ear thl,," ·\ ·aiurulist
1"I\\-(ul timeless ncss i ~ 11\\ 'CSOIll C, bllt th e pageant of history thrill s LIS too, and in Cl differe1lt \\'<1\- that llIakes timc sellsibl e. '-\-erH)]lC needs (\ good Il1cciwnic, illcltlding th e hc(\\-ells, but gi n.: lilt: all earthly llaltlralist all r da" for huma", arc storYlclie rs. III th e IIcarh 050 essa, s of this series, I h,,,·e tri ed to a",id repctitioll lif onh to hOllor the prin c iples of hi stor\ cited abme ). Bllt, like a broke II record (a IIletaphor frolll th e last epoch of Iris ton·, SOOll to he rencleleclunilltclligible, I fcal ), one '1uotation keeps recllrring. I h
oj" S/Jecies:
There is grandeur in thi s \·ie,,· of life , \\'ith it5 stTeral po\\"(;rs, ha\'ill,g been ori giu<Jl1y brcalhed into a fc\\ ' forms or Illlo onc; and Ihat, \\' hil ~t this planet has gone c~dill,g 011 ac(:orclillg to the fixccllaw of gr;:l\"it~ " from so simple a heginning endless form s most hClJlltiflii nlld llIost \\"(mderflll hm'c bce ll, and ~lre bcing, emked.
The Late Birth of a Flat Earth
~II .
\IO I{ I .\I . [(\-:\ 1 11:\' O F lit e Venerahle Bede (1\73--;35 ) lie in Dllrhalll Cllhcdral, IIllder a IOllibstolie lI'ith an e pitaph thallllusl \\' ill all pri zes for a " 110 llonscllsc" appro.H.: 1i to death. In rh~ 'llling I .atill doggerel , the "a ll 11 prot b i lllS: /-la c su 171 il1 fossa, Raedae l'enerahi lis o:o;sa - ," I'he b01les of the Vellerablc Becic lie ill this ~r
sho1le
fafC light ill th e "nark ,-\gcs " be tween I\OIll<J1l El,ra ndclIr and lllccii t'\"<.Ii reeO\'cry cullllill
a slow
lon, and lledc preccded iris grea l lIo rk lI ilh 111'0 tre" tises o n the rcckolling and seqll en cing of tillle: D e tempori"".s (Oil Times) in 70 3,
and De temporu l11 Tdliol1e (On the \,Jeasli re mel1t o{Times) in 725. Ikdc's chron ologi es hi.ld their grea test inflilence in popubri/.ing ol1r iIlCOIl\'CII ien l S~'stclll of di\'id ill g fCCCll t ti me j ]lto B.( :. i.lnd :\. n, (see essa~ 2 ) on opposite sides of Christ's supposed llati\'ity (allllost slIrely incorrect" de tc nnineel . as Ilerod Irad elied hI Ih is lillle of transilio n . and cO llldnot hal'e scen Ih e \Vise \lcn or sbllghtered th e illilocellt a llhe onset
of year one). III his chrollologies, Bcdc sought to order the
e\,(~ llts
The Late Hirth o( (/ Flat Forth
of Christian bi sle,n', bill th e primalY motile alld purpose of his ea lcnlati01l S celltcred 011 il differc nt. i.llld persi,'.;l clltly \cxatiolls, problem il] e ec lcs i~t\ti('<.tI timi llg - Ihe reckoll i ng ofl':aster. The complex defi II itim] of this holidal'-th e first SIII1C\m [O\lOlI'ilig th e first fll\llllOOIl occurring on or after the H:nwl e quinox-reqllires eOllsiderahle astronomical soph isl!cation , ror lunar (Inc! seasonal c~-cl cs lIlust both he knowll \\-j til preC IsIOn .
SlIeh complitatiollS cn tail a tb co[l' of th e hClI'cns, and Becic c\carh presellted his classical eOlleeption of the earth 'IS a sphere at the hllh of the coslllos - oriJis il1 medio tof i us l11ul7di />m'it1l 8 (all orh placed in the cc nter of the lln i,"c rsc). I ,esl ; lIl~"OlH': lIlisconstrue hi s intent. Bedc then e'l'lieith stated that he meallt a three-ciimclIsiOld sph erc, not a tlat plate, \ lorcOIe r. he addcd, 0111' plallclan' sph ere """ he eOllSidereci as perfect becausc C\"C ll th e highest 1lloll!ltaills proclu ec no 1llore Ih ,l 11 ,Ill illipereeptible ripple Oil a globe of slleh great diamc\cr. I a!.so Ollec learned that 1I11"t oth er ecclesiastical scholars of the benighted Dark Ages lwei refilled Aristotlc 's notioll of a spherica l earth. alld had depided O\lf hom e as a nat, or at IIl0st a gellth clln ed, plate, Didn't li e all hear th e legcnd of Coin millis at Salamanca, tfling to eonlinee the Icafll ed cieries that he II'(Hdd reach the Indi es and llot fall off the ultimate edge' The human mind seems to work as;.l catcgo ri /"ing (k',"icc (perhaps CH:n, as 1l1<1I]~" Frc nc 11 structllra 1ists argue, as . I die hotolll izing Illac h i lle, constanth- partitioning the world into dllalities of "111 ,md cooked Ina. ture I'S. culture ], lllal e and female, lllaterial ami spiri"",I , aud so fmth ), This dee ph- (pcrhal's innately) illgrained hahit of thou gilt eallses us particular trouhlc \\"hell \\"e need to . 111<1ly'"c th e m;Jll\"cOlltinua Ilt<.lt form so cO llspi c tlOIl~ a part of our surrollnding \,"orlel. C ontillllC:"l arc rarcl ~" so sl1100th and gradual in th eir flllx Ih,l t \\"C ca nllot spec ify certain points or episodes a s d l'(' idccll~ " m o rc interesting. or 1llore tUlllllltuoll s in their mtes of ehauge, than the I'ast majorit\' oi mOlllents along the seqnence. We therefore fal sely choose these crucial episodes as boundaries ior fixed categories, and \\"(:' \ "Cill HthlTc's con tinuity in the \\Tappings of our lIlental habits. \\'e lIlust also relllember allother insidious aspect of OIlr tend ency to di\"idc con Ii !lila i 11 to fi xed categories. Th ese d i\"isiollS
example , J)Wll~ " people (including yO llr~ trul y) ,"ie\\" the weat Illeclic,"al cathedral s of Ell rope as the most a""CSOlllC of all hUlIlall cOllsi"ructiollS" (h)l" IllC -,lIld I say this as
chitcchnc. bllt scicllce ha;.; al so contributed. [ write I"his cssa~' lo point out Ihat the most promine nt of all se ienlifi e stories in this mode -Ih e
The I,,,/e Ilir/h
or" /,/,'/ /'ar/h
supposed Dark alld \lcdic\al CO\lSeusllS for a flat carth - is clltirch 1l1~tllOl()gic~li. J\·IofcOH.'r, \\-hell
\\-C
trace the
ill'-ClitiOll
of this fal)1c
ill
the llineteellth centllry, \\"C rccciH~ a douhle lesson ill the clall~ers of false seco1ld and larger purpose of this essay. For the lll~-th itself ()1l1~- makes sellse uncler ,I prejudicial "ie\\" of \\'cstcrn history as an efa of darkness hch,-ccn lighted heacons of dassic
earth, as \\'(' shall scc , occurred to support allother duhiolls alld har1llful separation \H-,cldccl to another legend of historical progrcss- the Sllpposed \\"arfarc hchYCCll science and religioll.
Classical scholars, of coursc, had llO doubt about the carth's sphcrici Iy. ( )11 r pIa llet's roulldness was centra I to ;\ristotlc's COSlll 0 logy and \\'as assullled ill I<~ratosthelles' lllCLlSU1TlllCnt ofthl' earth's cireulllference in the third cellhlr~' H.C. The flat-earth lll~th argues that this kllO\dedge \\'as then lost \\'hell ccclesiastical darkness settled m'er Europe. lior a tlloll-
"llid \ears of lllid,lle tillie, allll",,1 all "ciIolars held that liIe cartiI IIImt bc flat-likc the floor of a tellt, hcld IIp IF thc CallOp\ of thc sh, to citc a biblicalmdaphor rC
sider this 1'Cf,iOll of thc legelld, cited IF Rllssel\ frolll 'I book for pri lll
carth i, round, ,\rc \ Oil llot ,\\I arc that thc hoh fathcrs of thc chlllch iImc eOlldelllllcdlhis bclief , , , This Ihcol\ of \ OlliS looks hcrclica\." CoiIllllbllS lIIiglil \\cll 'Iuakc ill his bools allhc mention ofhercs~'; for there \\"
-I'
I )I'() ~\ IRI'
\ II\ )~ I \(:"
Draillal"ic.: In h(' ~ lIr('. hilt e lllird~" fi c hl"i ()II ~" Th ere 1I ('\"(' r \\"a ~ a peri od of "fl<.l 1 C. I 1"1 II (hlllll(,ss" <Jlll o ll gsc h ol a r~ ( re!.;
h(\idcd hy Hernand o de 'J'aJau.:ra . l ~ahc lla '-'; confes-
sor <1 "d , !( ,lioIl'illg defeat of Ihe \Inors , ,\rehhishop of (;ran"d", This C ()l1llllj s~ j()l1. composed of both clericll and lay a(h-i~c.:rs. did meet, at Sa),n["," ei' alll ollg other plilees, Thel did pose sO lll e sharp illtellectnal ohjediolls 10 COIUllillllS. hut all "ssull,ed H, e eilrlh's roulldlless, ,\s a n,ajnr erili'lu e, Ih,,' "rglled th,,! Cohuuhm cou ld nol reach Ihe ludics ill hi s 0\\ n . dlottecl time, hecause the earth's c ircumference \\ "(IS too ,great" \ lon.:o\"(.:r, his critics \\ ere elltireh- right" Columbll s ]);ld "cooked" hi s fig ures 10 fi" 'or i' llluc h s",a\l e r earth , alld all attaini,hle Illclies, 0:eedless 10 sa ~", he did lIot <111<1 cO ll]dllot" fe;Jc lI "\ sia . <.Illd l\a ti n : , \lIl lTiG III S a re ~ till called Indialls as a legacy of hi s error. Vi rtlla \l y a IIlllajor Illed iel'a I scholars "ffi rlll cd Ihc e"rth 's roundness, I illl"rodll ced '"his cs~a~" \\ "jth th e ei ghth -el'll hlT~" \"i<:\\" of th e Vl' lI erable Bcdc, Th e I"'elf/h-cenln'" tr""slatio,,, into Latin of n""I1' (;rcl' k alld Ar
the rcctallgular, saulted arel, of the hcasC'lls ahosC'. But hotl'llll'll phl\cd millor roles in llH.'dic\',li scholarship. 0I11~' three rC
the flat-earth myth could I1c\'cr
dcn~- ii-lis
plain lcsti-
11}()]lY of Beck, Bacon, Aquilla,), aile! others-so Ihc~' argued th
·n
[)1,\()S\I'H. 1'\
.1
II\YST\Cr..:
mcnts ah\'a~'s nccd whipping ho~'s and legcnds to a(l\-aIlcc their claillls. Russell argues that the Hat-earth lll~·th achic\'cd its callonical stalus as a prilll,-n~' hOlllily for the trilllllph of scicllce Ilnclcr this false dic hotolll i;,at iOIl of\Vestcm h istolT. I r0\\- could a hettcr stOlT for th c ,,11"111\ of sciellcc en'r he cOllcoctcd? Religious darKness destro~'s Creck kIlO\\'!edge alld \\'C"I\"es us into a \\'eh of fears. hased 011 dogma and opposed both to ration~tlit~, and c\puicnce. Our ancestors thercfore li\"ed in (lil\ieil', reslrieted Il\ official irraliomliil', afraid Ihal al1\ challenge could onh'lead 10 a fall off Ihe edge of Ihe earlh into etefllal damnation .. \ fit tale for an intendcd purpose, but entireh false hecanse fe\\ Illedie\al scholars e\er doubted the earth's spherieih. I \\'as especiall~' clra\\'ll to this topic hecausc Ihe lllyth of dichot()lll~ alld warfarc hcl\\'ecn scicncc alld religioll-all important ninetccllthcClltllr~- thcmc "'dh maior alld largcl~- ullfortuniltc repcrctlssiolls C'\tClldillg to our tilllcs-reccin:d its grcatest boost ill hHl books that 1 o\Ul alld treastlrc for thcir firm cOJllmitmcnt to ratiollality r]]()\\-c\'er \\TOlig
++
The I,,,tc Hirth Drapcr c,tollecl thc Hat-carth
illS
()r" lilat C"rth
th as a prilllars c,alllple of rcligion's
constraint ~l1ld scicllce's progrcssin_' ])()\\-cr:
The circular \"isihlc horizoll allel it-s dip at sea, the gradual
the c,lrth. The \\Titings of the ~lohai11lllC(bi1 ~1Stronomcrs and philosophers had gi\"Cll CUrrellCY to that- doctrille throughout \Vest-er1l ]i~llropC, hut, as lllight he c:--.:pcctcd, it \\"'-1.'1 recci,-cd \\ ith disfasOi bs thcologians . . TraditiollS ami polics forbadc I thc Papal Coseflllllcntj to adlllit all\ other thall thc Hat figurc of thc emth, as rcscaled ill thc Scriptnres. Russell
(,01111I1(,l1ts 011
the
Sllccess
of Draper's \\"(nk:
The I liston' of the COII/7id is of im11lense importance, because it \\"as the first installce that all influelltial figure had cxplicitl~· declared thai sciellce and religioll \\"('IT at \Y,U, alld it succeeded as 1<:\\ books eser do. It fi,ccl in thc edllcatecllllincl thc idea that "science" stood for freedolll and progress against the superstitiOIl ~l1ld repression of "religion." Its \-ic\ypoint bCCJlllc COll,·clltiolla} \yisdolll.
,-\ll
45
DI'\()S,\I'I{ 1'\
\
II
\YST\Cr..:
It had eertaink ne\er entered into the millCl of either of us that ill all this \\'c \'"crc doing allY thing irreligious or unchristian" " I had been bred a ehllfchlllan, and had reeenth becn elected ,,1 trustee of OllC church college, alld a professor ill <.lllOtitcr " Illy grcatcst sourecs of cnjoymcllt \\"CIT ccclesiastical architccturc, rcligious music, and thc 1110rc dCHHlt for1lls of P()(.;IT~""
So far from \\"ishing to injure prolllote it; but lLllllSlll"
\\T
Christi
we hoth hoped to
did not confound religion \\"ith scciar-
But tIle calulllnics of COllSCn"ati\'c clcrg~"IllCll dismayed him profoundly and energizccl his fighting spirit: Oppositioll begall at Ollce " " " frolll the good protestant bishop \\"110 procbillled that all professors should be in hoh orders, since to the Church alol1c was gin..'n the cOlllmand "Co, tClch all the nations," to the /,ealous priest "ho published a chargc that, , ,a profOllllelh Christian scholar hael come to eoruell ill order to incnlc;:lte infidelity" " " from the emincnt di\"inc \dlO \\cnl frolll city 10 city denouncing the "atheistic and panthcistic tendencies" of t h c proposed cducal ion, 10 Ihc pcrfcIYid llli nistcr \\'ho inforllled
The L"le Hirlh
()f"
le/"I V"rlh
111 all modern hist()r~-, interference \\"ith science in the supposed interest of religion, 110 llutter hm\" cOllscientious sl1ch interference 11l;J~' 11;]\"(' been, has resulted in the direst c\"i]s both to religion and 10 science. and ill\'ari
the time to he, Ius
il1\"
resulted in the highest good both
of religion and of science. Despite these sbted disagreements. \Vhite's and Draper's aCCollllts of the actllal interaction hct\\"cCI1 science
47
[)]"\()S,\\ll{ ]"\
\
H,\YST,\CI...::
for Draper had beell all ull\\'illillg \\'itlless-ollc lllight C\'CIl say all illstigator-of thc single 1l1Ost celchrated i1lcidc1lt ill O\'cri strugglc hclI,eell Damill alld di\illill. We all he"e heard the famous stem of Bishop Wilherforee alld T. II. Ilmle\ dukillg it Ollt at the British .\ssociation mceting in I~H;o (for morc on this incidcnt, scc essay 2() in Illy earlier hook Bullv !:istcnt, religion did e:'>:telld its ulllbrelia i11to regiolls 110\\' propcrl~' \-ie\\'cd as domaills of natural knmdcdgc. But shall \\e hlallle religion for these m-erc:\tensiolls? As thinking heings, \\'C.' arc internally compelled to ponder the grC<Jt issllcs of 1ll1l1l,lIl origills ,-md our rebtiollSllip \\'itll the emth and other ere,-lhlrcs; \\'e hm-e 110 other option but i8;llor,-lllce. If seiellec OllCC haclllo clue ahoutlhese subjects, thell Ihe~- fell, alheit ullcomfortahly and inappropriately, into the domaill of religion h~- de-
falllL \!o OlIC gi\'cS IIp tllrf \-olllllb.nily, alld the later c~paI1Si()ll of seiellec illio rightful telTitor~' telllp()raril~' occupied hy religioll did cH)ke somc li\'ely skirmishes alld portentous hattles, 'I 'hcse tellsiolls \\"('rc also c~accrhatcd by particular circulllstanccs of contingent hist()r~--in cludillg the resolutc alld couragcol1s matcrialism of Dan\-ill 's personal Ihcon, clllc!lhc occllpatioll (at thc sellllC tilllc) of the Ho" See I" olle of the I nost fasei llat illg ;j nd ell ig1natie figures of ih e n incL-een ih eel iill ry: the Strollg. emhittered, anel il1crcasil1gl~' cOilsel"\'ati\'c pope Pio \l0l1O (PillS IXI. Bul thcsc adjusllllCIlL'i. hO\\'{'\,er paillful, do nol jllstif~' a silllplistic picture of histor~- as continual \\-arfarc hch\cl'1l sciencc and theology, 1<'POSIIIT of the fiat-carth llI\th sholllc! tcach liS thc fallacy of sllch a \'ic\\' and hclp us to recognizc the cOlllple~it~, of intcraction bet\\'ccll these institutions. Irr~l\iollality awl dOglll
D I '(l ." \l ' l{ I '
\ 11\~ S I \l : "
ian passes ri ght through. and th e~ did not ,,"ish to disrupt
,""el,
I/os 170rllm Sic est dOllllls i"-dd d()11I0ntlll ( It "'SCI
As til l' rose is the 11<)\\-er of flO\\"ers. so is thi s th e hOll Sl: of houscs.
;0
r • .~
r
r.
/\ .,
'I'
1
'I'
I
"r ..... H \)
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE
The
A"
~1onster's
Ol'!) 1,\'1'1'\ I'R()\'I
tells us
Human Nature
10
"heware the Illall of Olle hook"-
care ab 110011ine unius libri. Yet Ilolhwood knows onk one thellle in Illaking lllonster 1ll00'ies, frolll the archetypal Frdnkel7siein of H)11 to the recent mega-hit Jurassic Park (sce essa~' 17). I IUllllIll techn()l()g~' lllust not go he~'olld all intellded order decreed h~' Cod or set h~'natllre's b\\"s. "\10 Illattcr iIcl\\' hellC\-olcnt tiIe pllrposcs of the transgressor, sllch cosmic ,11Togallce can ()nl~- lead to killer t01llatoes, H'ry large rahhits \\'ith sharp teeth, giant ants in the I ,os .\ngeles se\\'Crs, Of e\-en larger hlobs that s\\'allm\' entire cities as the~- gHm-. Yet these films OnCl1 usc far morc suhtle hooks as their sources
1)1'\,()~ \l I{ I'\,
\
f1
\~·~·I \(:f,.;
speaks of hi;.; pupil's "insane aillbition to create lifc," a clia~ll()sis Sllpported b~- I<'rankellskin's 0\\"11 fc,"crish '\"ends of enthusiasm: '" created it. 1 made ;t with Ill~' 0\\"11 hands from thc bodies I took from gravcs, from the gallO\\"s, from anywhere." The best of a eartload of ,equels, The Bride of Frankenstein (19"), llwkes the f
5-1
The ;\/ollster's llllllldll \,'dfllre
had not been emlmed: Caesar \\ollid hase spared his eOllntn: America \\Dtild kne been dise()Ycreel more gTJdtl
(although 1110\\ found it impossihle) rene\\- life \\-here dClth h,ld apparelltl~-
deyoted thc h()d~- to corruptioll." l,'illall~. as Victor lies dyillg in the Arctic, llc lllakcs his 11iOSt forceful st,-ltClllCllt Oil thc dangers of scielltific alllbitioll, but lIe ollly berates himself and his o\YII failures. \\hile stating that others might \\'ell succeed. Victor says his d~'illg \\'ords to the ship's captain \\ho fOllnd him on the polar icc: "I<'are\\ell, Walton! Seck happiness ill tranquility, alld
J)1,\()S\l'l<.
1,\
.\
II
\~ SI.\Ci(
Ileln~' cxc\ai1l1s, '''I 'lie lleek's hrokell. The hraill is useless; \\T lllllSt filld allother brain." 'I he scene nO\l S\\itehes to Coldstadt \Iedieal College, \I here Professor \\'aldlll,-lll is lecturillg Oil erallial anatolllY and cOlllparill~ "olle of the Illost perfect speeimclls of the 110r1lU] hraill" \\-ith ·'the al)]lor111al brain of a IIpieal crilllinal." Waldillan firlllh locates the crilllinal's de-
pT;Ait~-
in the inherited malformatiolls of his hrain; anatomy is
destill~-.
"ole, \\"'aldllwll sars, "the "carcit\' of cOll\'olutiolls Oil the frolltallobes and the distinct degeneration of the Illiddle frontal lobes, All of these dcgellcrate charactcristics chcck 'l111azillgl~- \\'ith the case history of the clC<JcJlll, Coethe';.; Sorrml's o(Youllg \Verther, and i\[ilton's Puradi.se Lcd lof \lllieh Shelk\".s nO\'el is an c\'ident parociy). The original l11onslcr's tllllllclcrillg threat cerbillly p
or
oOlllph Ih
specifi c hehaviors Iha\ e
structioll - a heIlC,"olent th C(H~' of "nature .dolle," bllt 110
diffe rent in of c'\pbl1<1tioH from Il ol1~ '\n)od \ oppo site n:rsioll, He is, r
1\ Iv hcart was fa shioll ed 10 be 8lIsceplihie of [Ol'e alld s)'I1l/Jalhl'; ,lIld , ,dl ell \lTellcl,cd bs Illisers'lo "icc alld hatrecl, il did Ilot ell(11m,: the ,·io!tnee of th e el1
of clljuml ell\. Once I fal sels- hoped to lIl eet with bei ngs \I,ho, pardoning Ill" ollh,ard forlll, \lould Im'e IIl e for the excellenl cJll
57
1) 1'()S.\ l lt I '
\
11 .\\S I-\t :J...
scclld cltt \'isiolls of th e hCCC0111<'::-' llllbu H' lblc. He stales:
:\lId \dwt \\'as I? Of 111 ~' creati oll and creator I ,,'as absolutely i ~ nOl"al1l ; hilt I kllc\\' that I po. . scssc:d no lllon ey. IlO fri ellds. Il O kind ofproperh , I was, besides. CIIdOll'ed "ith a figure hideonsl)' deformed alld lo"th soille , , , \\'hen I looked moulld , I S"" ' " '1<1 heard 1I0ne like llIe, \\'as I thell" Illollster, a blot "poilihe e"rth, from ,,'hi ch all men ned , "lid lI'hom "ll mell disOl\'ll cd? Rlit why is th e mOllster so rejected, if hi s fec lillgs in clille to\\"md bCIIt'\"olcll cc, and his acts to c\'iclcllt goodncss? He certainl~ · tries to ad
killdh-, in helpin !:; (albeil seeretk) the famik in thc h",'cI that se rves "s his hiding place: I had beell aec lIstolned. dlllin g the ni ght , to sle,,1 a part of Ihe ir store for m y O\,'n cOllsumptioll ; but \\·he ll I fOllnd that in do ing
this I illnicted paill 0 11 th e cottagers. I absta ill ed. "nd s" ti sfied llIyseif lI'ith berries, nuts, allCl fOo ts, whi ch I gath ered from" nei ghboring wuod. ] discm'cred ;l!sO anolher means th ro ugh Idlieh I Il'as enabled to assist Iheir la bors, I fOlllld that Ihe 10llth spent a great part of e"ch dm' ill coll ect ill g IH)od for the falllihfire; "nd, during the lIight, 1 oftell took his tools, the IISC of IIhich 1 quickh- discOI'CJ'cd, and hrollght bOlne firin g , "ffiei enl for the cOllsllmptioll of sC\'eral da ~·~. Shelb' lelis liS 11,,11 all humalls rei ect <Jlld el'C II loath e the llIon ste r for
rcason both heartrc ndin g ill its deep injusti ce, aud p rofouud ill its bi-
ological aecurael' alld philosophical illS ight abollt Ihe meanillg of hlllll <.lI1
n':lturc.
Th e 1Il0llster, I", Shelb"s deseriplion, collid sc"rcciy hal'e bce ll less attnlcti \'c ill ilppC
The .\
[ ()l1s/er'x
I J1I /lllIIl
0.'olll re
I ]0 \\' ca ll I d esc ribe !lI ~' cmotiolls at this catas troph e, o r h(m' delin cate th e wretch "'holll with Stich infiJlite pain:-. alld carc I had CllciC<-lH)fcd to form? Iii., lilllbs " 'lTC ill proportion,
I <.1 111 mali c ious because I am misc rahl e ; <1 111 I no t sh llllned
O tlr stru ggle to forl1lulatc " hllillane anel accura tc idca of htllllan lIatllrc fo cuscs on propc r positi o ns bc hscclI the false alld sterile polcs
of nature anclIlUI'!lIre" Pure.: nati,"is1ll - <1s ill the Iloll\"\\"()()d n.?rsion of the 11l0llSter',S elcl'ras'ity-blels to a c ruel anel inaccuratc th eofl' ofbiolot;ic:al determinislll , the source of so lllllc: h llIi scr~' and suc h peJyasi\'(~ suppressioll of hope inlllilliolls belongi llg to tl llEworecl races, sexes, or social classes. Rut pure " nurtur i:'iln" c
,9
mcntal illness Of retard ation thM wc ca ll 110\\' ic!cllti(\' as gl' l\{: tic
of
The solution, '" ilil thon ghtful people recogni ze, mnst lie in p rope rh mddin~ th e the nl es of inhorn predisposi tion and shapillg throllgh Iife's e'pe rien ees, ' I'h is fruitful joi II ing cannot til ke the fa b e forlll of percClItagcs adding to loo - as in "intc lli gence is Ho percellt llatllfe allcl 20 percen t lIurt ure," Of "hOJIlOSC:\Ui.l lity is :;0 perce llI' inhorn and SO perce nt leilrlled," ;llld a hU ll dred othe r harm fll I statements in this foolish fOfmat. \Vh c ll hn ) ends of such a spectr11lll afC eOllllllil1 ~l ed , the rcsult is not a separa ble ama lga lll (l ike shuffling tlnl decks o(cards "ith differentl l
Th e best guide 10 <1 proper integration lies ill re(;ogni zin g that natllfe SllPl}li cs gell cri:.l \ ord c rill g nlle~ <1 11 (\ predispositions- oftcil strOllg. to he slIre - ,,-hiic ll uftllre sh.apcs spe(; ific manifestations O\"er CJ \\'ielc range of potCllt !il l outcollles, \Ve 1lIake cl ass ica l " C'lt ego r~' misblkes" wilell \\"(.: attrih11te too
ll1l1 C Il
spec ifi ci ty to lIatllre - ~I S in th e pop soc io-
biolog,' of slipposed ge nes for conlplc,k soc ial phenomena like rap" and racism ; or whell n"c ,"ie\\' deep stru ctures a ~ pllrely ~oc i<.ll COll structsas in carl ier claims that e\'cn thc most gc neral rules of gn.lIII JlI i.1r l1lllst bc learned contingen c ies without allY l1ni \·crsality across cultures . "\' oam C hOll\sks" s lillglli sti e tll cories represe nt th e paradigm for modern conce pts of pfo per integratioll beh\"ccII nature
he i ~ cmel h- CIl-
sllared b, one of th e deepest predispositio ll s of Ollr biological inheri tance - OIlT instillcti\"c a\'crsiOll to\\"ard seriollsly mal formed indi \'iduals. ( KOllfad Loren", the Illost fallloli s cI hol ngist of th e last gen era tion, based mue h of his th eon on the primae,' of this inborn m le ,) \Ve arc no,,' appalled by th e injllstiee of suc h a predispositi o n, but this proper nlOral feeling is all CH)llIti ol1
110
The \[nI1 8i r T S 1flll11c111 \'afure
icarnillg alld ulldersiandillg. I trtlst thilt \\"(: IIClH': all train ed ()llrsclH:~ in
this essential form of c()lllpas~ ioll. <1nd til;lt we all work: hard to supprcss th 'll fri ,w lIl of rejcction (ll hieh ill hOlleslllHlIllCllh II 'C all admil Ill' k e l), ,1Ild 10 judge people I,,' their qualitics of sOIlI , Ilot I,,' the ir e,lcnlill appCar
Ilis eOlllltmllcn could hal e bcell edu cated to aecepl hilll , hut the pc rrespo nsibl e for thai i IlstTlICtiOIl - h is creator, Victor FraIl kCllsleil1 -
SOl I
ran ;:l\\"ay frolll his forcmost dllt~ " , and ahalldolled hi"'-. creatioll at first sight. Victor's sin docs not lie ill mislise of tce hn()lo~~", or huhris in emulatill g God; \\"C ca nnot find these th ellles in \Iary Shelley's ,Iecount" Victor failed hecause h e follOll cd a predisposilion of hUlIl
I had worked hard for ncarly til 0 yea rs, for th e sole purpose of infusing life illto an ill
I rush ed out of the roOlll " . " A 1111l1111ll~" aga in endu ed with
<.lJ] -
imalion could not be so hideom as that \lTetch, I had gazed on him \\"hil e unfillish ed; he \\"<-1S ll gl~" th ell ; but \\"hen those IlI11 S-
e1es and joints wc.:rc rcnd ered capabl e of lIlotioll, it becallle a thing su ch as el'en Danle could not hm'c coneeil'ceL The I'e,,' first line of the preface to Frall kem/ein has often hccnmisinle rpreted: "The elenl on which this fiction is fonnded has becn supposed , bl' Dr. J)'lfllin, and SOIllC of the phl's io lngical \lTilers nfCefinam', of impossible OCC llrTCnc:(.;." People suppose that "Dr" Darwi11 " Illllst Ix: C harl es of c\ "oluti oll;I T\" fam e" Bill Charles J),1[\\"i11 \\"(j S hom
I) I ' ()S_\\ ' H I ,
\
II \'S I-\( : "
011 I ,jm:oin 's ],irthd
The Tooth and Claw Centennial
II,'
Bl 'rII"RCl ·I PS lW/.ZED
after the bee
Ifboats \\"Crc on land, churches at sea
If pOllies rode
Illen
alld if grass ate the CO\\"S
If cats \\"Cre cll
to Washin gto n at Yorktown , (The ,\m erie"", responded \\'i th "Yankee Doodle," ) Such res'ersal s of established orde r intrigue us for their challe nge to om "safc" assulllptions, ( keep a file for biological e,amples - ca rni,-orolls plants, \\"OnllS that cal" frogs, Ill ari ne phytoplankton (sillgl e· celled, photosyntheti c fOTlm ) that release tmins, poiso]) fi sl" and th e ]) digest fl ecks of tissu e dislodged from th e (ki llg s'Clte bralcs, I dm writing
this
CS~
the olle hundredth
al lIlin~rs<.lf\·
of all other curiolls r('\"er-
sal. sociol o~ i e a]thi s timc but from the hea rt of I1rit is h sc iellce , T he 1\'0,'elllber 1H<)2 edition o f Th e Ni neteenth Century', perhaps th e lend ing
Ilritish res ic\\ of th e ti llle, p"b]i shed a se ries of tri butes to ,\Ifrcd, Lo rd '!'e ])mson, the poet laureate sdlO had di ed th e mo])th be fore,:\ Ine ])lOria l frolll T homas (kim Il ",1cs 1cc"ls th e 1"'Ti"Ie-in suse, Th is trib-
I), ,\( )'i
\{ on
1\
\
II \,
'i I· \( :t..
lite IIiIS lIel'er 'HllI a",' pri zes for rlmne or Illde r. bllt r still take de k;ht
in1he Ihought thaI' Britain "", leading ~(: icllti st chose to honor TL'tln~"sOJI ill th e poet L IUfC
And
la~" hilll ge lltl~ " <10\\"11
'I 'he men of state, th e men of ~ollg:
The
lllt.:11
who
\\ "0111£1 !lot slIffer \\TO lIg:
The thou iiht-IIorll chieftaills of the llIind: 1,Iead scn'ants of the hUllIall kind, But win"didl Ju \lc\ choose to mCllIorialize 'I 'l'nJ l\"SOI1 ? 'I 'ill:\"
klll'\\ "
eac h other 011 h- sl i!;htls. Bllt h belon ged to th e \ letal'llI'siea I Soc ie ts', :111 c lite cillb of Victoriall intellectllals; l)I)t Tenll\'son allllost ahlal's reIlwilled silellt at meetings , T e llmsoll likcd 11mb', but rcc ordecl ollh, tllO I'i si !s of th e se ie lltist to his hOllle, r 1mb' resoh-es this riddle for Irs ill a letter to th e Sccrd,lf\' of the /{O\'al Soc ietl' IBritaill's Ieadilli; association of SCi ClltistS) , tlrging t1 wI all official rcpre., cnlatiyc he SC II t to 'I 'ell-
1hl'd e\ honored personal friendship:
II\"son 's funeral.
T CllllYSOll
from general respt:ct,
110t
He lias th e Oil h- mode m poet , in fad I th ink the on h- poet sinee th e tim e of r.nereti ns. IIho has takell the trouble to understand th e Inrrk and tend e nel' of the llIell of sc ience. 1'~H; 1l ~o , \\'iI ~ ' should this se ries of essays, dc\"(} tcd to c\'olutiollary subjects, choose the old dc\"i ce of CI fun era r~ " centenllial to llOlior T C I1n~"soJ1? I lis ~l'ller
light of o th e r lllolHllllcntal elenh ill 1 ~()2 , eqH al1s lIorth Inemoriali/,in g: the election of Grmer Clclclaml , the birth of Ha il e Scla " ic, \iollct's begi n t\ ing of the Rouell Ca thcdra I jJa i Iltings, th e pugil isti c ,"jeton' of Centleman Jilll Corbcit m er John L. SlllIi,an . alld the compositioll ,a nd first perfornwllcc of "Ta-ra-r
Th e Tooth (/lId ChI li' Cenl el1ni al
'
him frolll thi s his first scclle of l'\istcncl', to;l better \\"CHld, for \yhich he \\a, c reated . lie died at Vienlla on his rctnrn frolll Buda , by (lp()ple:\~ " - alld I hdieyc his Rcmaills eOlIle h~" sca frol11 Tri c:.-I"c "" Arthur Hall;lIn \\as h\'cllh-t\\o n'ms old \l'ilell he died. 111 ,\ ,Icmoriom, published in IH, o, is Tl' IlI1~"s()ll \ c\tcllsi\{: tribuk to this c\:traordill'Ir~" fricndship , ,mel to thl' cmotional, rc1igiow" ;lnd philosophical Illeanillg of slich loss. (T ell1l\'son origin;llh- puhlished alloll~ "11l01Isly-lhollgh his distinl'ti\"(: authorship didll "t elude a sOlll ill the krlo\\-Illlder the filII tille /11 \lelllOri"I1l AI1.f-!. Obit iclicd l ;\ 1DCCCXXX fII. ) The poe111 \\'as ani nsta II t success. and surc" pl;\\'ed
T ears of th e \\"idcm", whclI sh e sel's ..\ late-lost· form that slcep re \'eals And InO\'e, her doubtful millS, anci fecls Ilis place is empt\·, f;llIlike these.
Victoria requested (I think olle sa\'s "eolll11landed") ,I \'isit from TCllnyson ill lko2. and lat er \\"rote ill hcr di
\Vith thi s hackgrolllld, lllOliS illla~c of ';nai"lIfc
\\ "C
Gill grasp thc setting for T(; nll ysoll '~ fa-
red ill tooth and claw"" And wc ealllll\dcrstand \\"by cn)lutionists h ~l\"c so misinterprdcci th e phrase as either a harbinger or ~I description of Dar\\"ill's ,,"orle!. First" of all - alld s orr~" to sOllnd '0 defcllsive-lhe error is not e nlireh OIH fanlt. (T he most basic of all f
The Too/h alld C/(/1\"Centellnial
a ppeared in lil ,o, I, hile Dam'in ke pt his \'i ews close to I,is chest before pnbli shing The Origill ,,(S/Jeeie.s ill lS,,),I:\ long traditi on of\ile)';)r\' erdicis ill lIas r(';:I(1 CYollllioll into Hie hiologic:al p
or
It has bcc ome Cll s tOlllclf\" to rcad ill " . " 111 ;\ lel110 riam n o t Olll\organ ie e\'olnt ion, bllt also the geologl' of, . . L\'ell, Because th e re!c' ",lIlt sections were written " ". IOllg before D<1 f\\"in's Origin Speeie.s ' .. sOl11e literar, c riti cs h",'e inte rp reted these passages as all anticipatioll of the th eor~" of org;lllic CYOltlti Oll by the intuitin: gellius of a pod, hcforc the <1n ;tl ytical mind ofDan,"in dare-clio arri\"c althc sallle conclusioll . "Ho\\" did th c poet come to forestall th e s<.; iclltists in their O\\"1l ga m e?" o ne c ri~i c asks"
or
If 111 !\,lel11oriam is"l gric'"ing Il1clll 'S qllest for peacc, transccndcn ce, faith, rcsollltion, acccptilnc e, or whal e,"cr (all ilnd more 1l<1\"(_~ been proposed ), th en \\h at role docs science pla\ in thi s search - and re m cmber that Tennyson \\"as i.l ehampi otl of scicncc, Hot an embodime nt of th e unjust (,IIHI probahh- n on e, islcn t) stereots'!'" of a n affected, antitec hn ologi ca l, fOlll <'lIlti c poet. Th e scie nti fic \ "lTSCS of 111 {\lelllOriam arc among th e most fam ous, and crit ical cOll llllcntary has al\\"ay~ \" ie\\"cd the m <.lS cssc lllial to the narrato r's qnest ill the poe III " 'I 'cllnyson first cl ism i\scs
A. timc to sicken and to SWOOll, Wh en Scien ce rcaeh es forth he r arms To feci from \\orld to \\wld , .1I1d charms H e r secret frolll th e latest llI oon' 'I 'clln)"soll repli es with two affcct ing H 'rscs, also invok ing all image from Ilatllrc. 1-10\\"can ~"()l1 COlllp.lrC.1happ~" gCller<.llity \,"itll lily pri\"ate
deso lation ?
Behold , I e speak an idle thin g: YC IICI'er kn ell' thc sac red dust:
I do but si ug bee
Anel one is glad ; her For
110\\'
her little
llote
is g(]~'.
(Jill'S
haH,' ra nged ;
And olle is S
hefore the poem 's lIlidpoint. In section;4 (lI'hi eh I sh
r;ood I1Il1St lie behind nature's appare nt e\'il: Oh yet lie trust that somehow gooel \Vill be th e final gO
That 110t a \\"(HIIl is elm"ell ill n lill: That not
bul' then, "IS a stlllllliH~ re\'ersai in the section's iash 'crsc,
'i'ellll\'soll lahels this cOIl\'c ntiollai belief (1,11.1 ,'
So Tllll S Ill\, drcalll: but \\'hat ,lIll 1? :\11 infant cr~ ' in g in lit e lli ~hl:
Th e Tooth tlml C/OII' Centellnial
;\n illfalll c r~ " illg for th c ligll!: .\1ld \\"ilh 110 L1IIgl1<.1!;t: but <1 <.:r~ " " Th e l1
.\ re God a nd l'\a tllfe the n at strife. 'I 'hat i'\ahm: lends sneh ('\"il drcatlls? So eareflll of the IIpe she scellls. So careless of the si llgle life:
'I 'hal" I. consid erillg c\"c r~"\\"h erc ll er secret meaning in her deeds. Alld filldill g tllat of fifh ' seeds She often brings bllt o ne 10 h<.:clT . TClln ysoll thell looks to large sC
pCrIll
"So cmefnl of th e hpe?" but no. lirolll scarped cliff a nd quarried stolle She cri es, thow.<.IIHl t~vcs arc gOllc : I carl' for Ilotlring. all shall go . " j \
I)I '( J'\
\l ' H ['
\
II \ , :-, ['
\ (:f.,;
"Tholl nwk~st thill e "ppeal to llIe: I bring to life , I bring to death : Th e spirit docs bllt m ea n the breath: I kllo\\' 110 more." . ,\nd so \\e finalk COllle to "nature red in tooth
illlage, C,'CIl chides the narrator for illlaginill.£; slIch a ~ollltion illihe light of llature's fa clt"ll rap"cih': ,\Ild he, shall he, ,\ lan, h er I101\'11 "bo ut tlw deserl dllsl, Or seal'd \\'ithin th e iron hill s?
La te r inlhe poelll, as th e narrator resoh"es his grief, Te llll~ so ll docs take cOlllfort from th e progressi,e patl,,1'<'" that h e infers froln geol ogical histOlY, "Conteillplate all this ,\'()rk of time," he states in bel,;illoing scction ll ~. Perhaps the anc icnt dead arc harhingcrs of better things to cOllle: " But trust that those \\'e c
The Tooth (llId C/,,\\' Centennial
Illitllll (.1 fanc~ ' 1I.1I1lC for a \l1arriage odc). Ill' rciurlls to the th ellle of historical progre:ss <mel compares th e grO\\"th of thc child th,Jt will issuc fro 11 I this ll1
r'\o IOll ger half-akill to brute , For all \\'e thoughl' amllm cd and did , .\nd hoped, alld suffcr'tl is but seed Of what ill thelll is OO\\'('r and fmit; Whereof the m'lIl , thai \\ilh me trod Thi s phlllct, was a noble tI'JK' ;\ppcarillg c re th e limes were ripc, That fri elld of min e \\ho li,'es in Cod, ' I'he SO li fe es of these " oatll re passages" have almost always bee ll III isCOllstnled hCCi.llISC we rClllcmbc r
71
I ) I '()S.\ I It
l '
\
II
\ \ " 1 \( : "
potll(.:s is (C(l
111 ;\[ elllOria/11 can, I thillk, jus th- be ca ll ed a re li gio us poelll , but for allothe r [<':<1S011 tll
The Tooth alld CIa\\' Celltel1l1ju/
COlltclllpor
1)1'\,()~.\lll\
I'\,
\
II
\~·~·I \('r..:
tOIT, Alld he rejeels thelll all as polClilial resolilliolls of his ethical alld eillohollal quest. Oil olle olwious lc\d, tile Ilarrator lllust reject seiellce or ,-1lI~' source of ohjecti\'e informatioll-for how call allY e:\terior kllO\\"lcdge e:\tillguish the primal pain of personal grief? But Tenllysoll goes further alld argues that, ill prillciple. science canllot prm'ide allS\yerS for llloral ques-
tions ahout life's ilH.'aniiig .. \s a champioiJ of science, iJot " detractor sniping from another professioll, Tellll~-soll lauds its p()\\-er to huild (\ globallleh\Ork of railroads, feed nations, ,Ills\ler elllpirieal riddles of the lllli\-erse - but he kllmys that science C,-llllwt tcllus \\-11\- a lllall should die so young. or hm\" a grieyillg ]m-er should reso}ye his sufferillg. 'I 'ellllysoll cOllsisiclltl~· hclclthis positioll Oil the separ,-ltelless of scientific alld 1lI0lai kll(J\\ Icd~e, lie slaled las repOlled I" his SOil, "holll, to add a footnote to the poignanC\ of this stor" he named llallalll): \\le do Ilot get this [lith frolll ,",ature or the \lorl,1. If \Ie look a\ "ature alolle, filII of perfection a 11(1 imperfeelion, she lells IlS that Cod is disease, murder al1(l mpille, We gellhis faith from oursel\'es, from what is highest \\'ithill llS.
111 \ie11lorial11 fcatllres the salllc selltilllclltS. I<arl~' ill the POClll, ill sectioll -:;. Tellll~-sOll eOllsidcrs ,md rejects llature as a source of llHJral illstructioll (·'lll~- lIatural good"): ,\nd shalll take a thillg so blind, i
7-1
The Tooth
d/I(/
Clo\\' Cel/tellnidl
l()\\'ing one of his fe\\ long talks \\-ith Tennyson, llu'\ley remarked that "illllllOrl<-llit~- \\-,-IS the olle doglll<-l to \\-hieh TL'llll~-SOII \yas passiOlutcl~ dcmiccl." .\lld 'I 'Cllll\'SOIl hi lllSC If sialcd, ." I'he ea rd illal poi IIi of Chris1iallit~- is the Life afler Death," Thus, insofar as III ,\/eI1l0rialll reaches a moral conclusion ,It all, Telln~-son celebrates his yoyage from religious dOllht to eOllfidcllce that hc "illmect I Lillam agaill ill hcasell-.I lamc
resolution ,-Ifter so nHlell struggle, ,It le,-lSt for most modern n. ,,-\(lcrs. ills' o\SIl dim life shollid te.leh me this, That life shaillis'e for eSerlllore 11~1se earlh is darklless al the core, ,\lld dllsl ali(I
lllCHcO\'er, l1lust bc pcrsoll,-l\' Thc fusioll of llall
75
Sweetness and Light
"S\\
EET IS PI r .\SI IJU '. .\1 "] I:lt I' \ 1:' \." 'I 'Il i s llio t to \\ "j 11 hl: r;tlll i I iar to all, hut I ,·wlure Ih"t fell re"ders II ill klHlII the sOllrcc. Th e lill e is" l'"e"11 10 Bacc hus. "s Hlieed h, soldiers to celehrate II.e jo,· lh<11 call f"lIoll" fight:
Ba cchus, C\"cr f,-lir
to Sa int Cec il ia. patroll of Illll sic . Sen'ral COlli pose rs set the n~ rsc s for c1lOfU S
"fter J)mlell·s deall, 'Il,d ,[Iloled ahme. rell,aillS" slaple of Ihe choral litera tLlre,) .\ lcx
Sooth'cl ,,,jl h Ih e soulld, Ihe kjll~ g re\\' Vought illl hi s hattks o'c:r again,
' "<Jill,
Sweetrres.,; alld / ,ight
,\Ild thrice he rollted all his foes. ,\Jl(l thrice he S!ell' the slaill. 'I 'he pl!ellOillcllOIl of replayillg old tUlles is peIY
\ye happcll 10 he allhc 1ll0i1lClll, Ihey arc cllleiellt alld thereforc older than \\'C arc. r'\'O\Y, 1 ha\'e no quarrel \\'hate\cf \\itb I<stling's pluralistic judgmellt, alld I also agrce \,"ilb I
or
The olel age of the \\urld ... is the attrihllte of our 0\\11 tillles, not of that earlier age ill \\'hieh the ancients li\'cd; and \\'hieh, though ill respect of us it was the cider, yet ill respect of the \\'orlel it \\
Sweetness (flld Light
is the lI·isdolll of the tillles called old' Is it the lIisdolll of grm· hairs' '\lo. -It is ti,e lIisdolll of the cradle." I can offcr no resolution of this issuc to accollllxln~' Illy documentation of its \,encrahilih·. The se\'entcenth-cenhIlY dehatcrs \\'CIT right: Bacon's ohsel"\"'.ltion is ~-l true paradox- that is, a seemingly selfcontradictory or absurd statemcnt that happens to he truc. \'Ve get differcnt ans\\"crs fmill t\\"o cqlial1~' proper and juslifiable \'anlage poinls. Trilohites arc hoth ~-oung (looking up from the origin of llluiticellular life) ,llld old ilooking back frolll 1<)921. Both pcrspeeti\es, frolll both ends, arc "correct" -and the\ do contradict. As \lith all the classical parado'\cs that so fascillate and frustratc us, we hoth \\'illCC allel rc\'cl ill Bacon's d idulll hecause item hod ics olle of 1he ill herclll am higu ities of our eOlllple'\ li\cs. Just a \\eek after J<:stling's response to I
l)['\()s.\ll[{
['\.\
11.\ys[_\(:"
t
ginnings of modern science, first hecalne
Ho
Sll'ee!l1e.'i,~
(llld Li;;h!
ahllT" (The se\"ellteellth cellttll"~" pitted Aristotle against Descartes; I1m\" \\C cOlllllcrpose the canoll (Jf"~rcat books" by n\VI'~\Is-ell';Jcl. \\"hite, Europeall males-against a more diYerse contelllPorary literature") Consider the se\"ellleenth-celltury e()lltc\t of the original haule: I ,atin and Creek forllled the cornerstolle of the cu rricululll: the 1ea rn ing of ancien t Creece anel Rome set an llilsurpassahle stall(brd for all that \\"(Hdel eyer ~jj"isc
aftcl\\"ard (rcilieijjher tlut the Renaissance reecircd its name,
meaning "rebirth," for attempting to recm"cr, not to e\ceed, the glories of ei
[)I \O:-;\ {Il t I '
\
I I \ Y\ "I \(:I--
C\pli c ilk plaecs Baeo ll 's arguillellt ill Ihe cOIlIc, 1 of displltes beI\\'CC Il COl rI ~' and rcccill 1c~1 rIl i ng h~ \ Hi ti II g . ··;I('('ord i Il g to the ~ lode rll I'arad","'): Discord !.iT<.' \\ " c\trcmcJy high, hot words passed 011 both sid es, and ill bl ood ,,'as piclltiflilk bred, llerc a solitary allcicllt,
squ eel.cd up agaiil~ t a "hole shelf of mod en ls, offcred Llirly to ciisplli"c Ih e easc, alld to prmc I" IIlallifest reaSOll S, that Ihe pri(Hi t~ " \\". .IS due to them, frmll l()ll~ possessioll .. " Bill these [the 11Iodcl"Il s[ denied the prelllises. and seemed \"t.~ ry Illuch to \\"()Jldcr. IlOW the anciellts could pretelld to ill si~ t UpOIl th e ir
The 1)\\ I k of S" irt's te,t describes Ihe ;Iellial b;III-Jc, IIi IIr Ir is 0\\ II SS Illp"tllics fo r the a ll t ic llts scc lrcd~ " hidd e ll - as illlhi"\ p
all \\'esknr liil'r;llure: the disputC' of lire spidcr IrcpreselltiII!; Ilrc Illode rns) alld Ilr c bee (the all eicllts ), III lire libran', a spider d",c1ls "lIpOIl til e h i~ h c~ t corn er of a lar~e \\"illdo,,". " lIe i ~ fa! i.l nd sa tisfied. ''s\\ollell II p 10 II H': fi rst 1l1~lgll i t1lde. h~ " 1 he destructioll of i 11 fi II i te III \111 bers of fl it's. " 'hose spoil s Ln scattered before lir e i;a tes of hi s pa lace, like Irllman h O li es heforc thc c an.' of SOllie gi'lIlt." (S,,"ift . I ;J SS Lllll C, did not kllc)\\ tll
Sweelness
c/Ilc/ [ ,ighl
S,,-ift lcCl'-CS liS ill 110 doubt ;Jbout the intended comparison; till' spicler, spilllling sllcll illllathelllatic<-llly sophisticated ,yell frolll his 0\\"]1 innards (andllot relyill~ Oil lliellts ill tile' IIlatllcl11
])j'..()S_\111{
j'..
_\
11.\'l'SI.\Ch:
The bee thell respollds for ,ll] (botees of 'llleiellt kalllillg: ] borro\\ hilt- callsc IlO harlll ill so cI()ill~, alld Itr<-lllSllllltc "'hat I borrm,- illtO 11e\\' objects of great beaul\ a11dlltilih,-llOlle\ aile! \\a', But \0\1, \\'hile C1ailllill~ to huild ollly frolll your mYIl innards, lllust "till destroy a ilecaiolllh of flies for the r~m- materiaL \lofCOyer, your Y~ll\lltcd ,yeb is \\-eak, temporary and cphcmeral, ,,-hatc,-cr its supposed I1lathClll
hl'
:\0 OIlC has e\-er sel forlh the i.'.;sues hetter ill Ilearh- tlll'ee hundred of suhse(luent \\Titillg. :\Iost thoughtful people COllle dO\\"n SOllle\\'llcH_ ' heh\'eell the hcc alld the spider, hut c:\trel1lists Oil both sides are stillusi Ilg the same arglllllclltS. Cllnclll- partisalls of the spider cLI illl Ihat the "~reat books" of tradiliollal lcarllill~ (110\\' illcilldill~ ,'illch fonller llloderns as S\\ift and his Culliver's Travc/s) ha\"e hecol1lc both unreadable and irrc]C\-allt for moderll stuclcllts-allcl llligiit as ,\"ell be dropped (or liglltl~- rct,-lilled ,-IS
Sweetness
dlld
Light
repositories of prejudice \\rittell b\ that biased subset of hUlllalls called "h itc Ill~des" Current partisans of the hee can dispense \\"orth~" platitudes ahout upholdil:g stalld
and politic
(bil~"li\"cs
and thcit
ucated people lIlust llllclcrsLllld ill order to he effeeti,"e cllid thoughtful in their professiolls" l\Iore()\"er, defellse of the "great books" too oft ell beCOIll es ([ Sill 0 kesc rel'll for po I iii c a I co 11 se r\"<1 ti Sill ,Ill d III a iII Iell
DI'\()S.\l'l{
1,\
.\
II
\~"S'I.\Cf..:
e()lltaill something of \'alue. :\0 one eelehrates di\"ersil\' more 111<111 e\'olutiollary hio\ogists like m~"se\f; \\'(.' \O\"e e\"er~' olle of those millioll heetle spccies, (Tery \-,-uiatioll of lTery scalc count, c\"er~- nuancc in thc coloratioll of fcclthcrs. But \\"ithout SOille COllllllOll lllooring, \\"c canllot talk to eaell olhcr. Alld if \\C C
rnon lincs from Shakcspe
hope
for lllajority recognition. J am trouhled that the prilllar~' lingua franca of shared culture Illa\' 11m\' he rock Illusic of the last decade-·not heclt\se I regard the genre as inherentl~-ull\\()rthy, hut hecause I knO\\ that the langu,-lge "ill SOOll cll
SwceflJes,'j dllci {,ighl
ing, litcf,-llh-, h()lle~- and \\'a'\-clltercd our lc"icoll of s,-l~-illgs ,-IS the culminatioll ofS\,-ift's defense, \"ia .-\esop. for thc edclldcd hi,-e of Ollr greatest illtclleeluailratiitiollS'
As for us, the ,lllcicuis; \\'c arc content \\"itl! the hee, to pretend to llothing of ollr ()\Yll. he~'ond our \\"iugs (Iud Ollr \-oicc: that- is to S,-l~-, our tliglds ,md ollr Lmguage; for the rest, \\-helteH_'!' \H_' Il
PART
TIIRJ<:E
ORIGIN, STABILITY, AND EXTINCTION
ORIGIN
In the Mind of the Beholder
A
Llc~thet
' ", \1\11-:"1")" 0 '" anc ient mottoes proclaims that no principl e of ics call .spcc i~\ · th e gorgeolls alld th e ugly to c\'c ryoll e's satisfactioll. "Be"ut\'." \\e are told, " i, in the el·e of th e be holder"; there i, no accountin g fo r tastes -an ohsC n "
original (de gllstibw; 11011 disfJlftandllm ), anc! s urfi<.:icllH ~ · 1IIli,-ersa i In boast "1 tn.: ndi cr , 'ers ioll in OUT CUTrCl lt \'ernac ular (different strokes fo r differcnl folks ). Scien ce . by C01ltrast. is supposed to he elll ob jcdh'c clIlc rprisc, w ith COllllllon criteria o f procedure, and stand,,,ds of el·id ellce that sh o uld lead all peopl e of good \\ ill to ac ce pt a ci oclllne nted conclusion. I d o no t, o f course, dell y a genu ine differe nce hch,"c<': 11 aesth e tics and sc ience 011 thi -: score: \YC have truk disco\'CH:d -i.1s a filet of th e c:d c rnal \\wld , no t a prc fe re nce of our p"d les -th at Ihe earth ITI·ohes "rOlllld th e Still and that e\'o iutioll happens; bill we willll c \-cr reach COIlSCII~ t!S 0 11 \\'hcth er Bach o r Brclhlll s \\'as th e grea ter co mpose r (;llld professionals in I·he field o f "eslh e ti cs IHJlJld no t ask so foolish .1 qllestio n ). !llli I Imllitl al so rcjccl alll· c l"illl th a i pe rso nal prefe rc ll"", Ihe roo t of aesth et ic jl!dgmclll , do es 1101 pla~ ' a key rol e ill sc ience. Trllc. Ihe \nnld b indiffe rc nt to ou r hopes - am} fire hllrns \\"hdhcr wc like it o r IIot. Btlt OUT \\'a~'s o f k'a millf; ;lbout th e \\"()r1d afe st roll !;I ~ ' i1lfltlenced h~ ' th e social preeo])cc pl iOIl ."! and hiasl:d llIock:>; of tll iII kin g thai eac h sci-
I)I '( )S
\l l n
I'
\ II \):.;
I \l : I.:
elitist IIll1St apph to al1\' problelll , 'I 'he stcrc'otlve of" [lIlh ratiOld and objedi\"c '''scicntific method." \\-jtll indi\"idu
In the '\Jiml
or the Be holder
dance thereforc lies hehsn'l1pnhlic and professional perception (11ll1S reillforcing the Ill~ ,th of . 111 arcalle alld elllightelled pri esthood scientists) . Btlt mallY, probably most, of J1I ~' professional colleagucs \\ l~ rt· surprised as ,,,cll- ~o the rc. lsollS for In~ ' c:\pcdatiolls Illllst be sought elsewhere, [ th ell recogni zed all ahstr~l e t linkage <.IIl H mg the th ree 11('\\ 'S items , and rill
or
J oftc n think it's cOllli c'll HO\\" i'\'a tufc ahnl\'s <1oe~ cOl l1ri,'c
That C\ 'cry b()~ ' . llId <:\'(.: r~ ' gal That's borll illio Ih e II oriel ,r1i"l' is eithe r ,I little I.iheral Or else a liltlc C Oi ISe Tl 'lt i,'c!
:'\oj-hin~ is 1lIOH: dall,gt:rotl~ th all ~ dog11lati<.: \\'orkh-ic\\, - liothin g Illort: cOllstraining, l1lorc hlinding to illlIO,"al'ioll. mort: d<.:~ trll di,-<.: of opClIlless to 1I00elh', On th e other hand , a frllitfll l sHJrI (k ie\\ is the greatest shortellt 10 insight. and th e fin esl prod for making CO li neetiOllS-ill short. the best possible .Igent for a Peirec
lle
111 th e ,\-l illd
or th e Heholder
explosion lllllSt be measllred ill millions of ~'cars-a lon g tim e for anyolle wh o has cn:r s<.J a d~ ' II
<.1
h islon of I ife measured in bill iom (reme mber thai olle thollsand millions make ,I billion), Bul hOll' mam' III ill ions? I),d eolllol(l~i s is hm'e "hr",'s h edge d Oil Ihis cru c ial '1ueslion be-
callsc \\'e II
1) 1,\ ()S_\l It
I"~
\
1-1 \'
S' I \ C I(
This story rocked th e <.I in'·<1\·<:~ (inso far as any scie nti fic tall' mcr it's Ihe c Iieh,,) , The Nell' York Times a"ardcd fro n t-paf;e hiII ing in its ,,'cckk scie ncc sectio ll ; \I at iOllal PlI hIic Racl in fCc.J llIre cl lll ~· colle
III the " ' illd 0( the Heh older SOlill ds good . but i ~ it true: T h e fossil reco rd sugges ts an ob \'iolls test. hut. curi ollsly. n o Ol1 e had en~ r ca rri ed o ut th e pro tocol 1lntil lll~ ' eo llcaglle, C o nrad I "\I>,,ndei r,\ " "d Ja c k Sc pkmki Jlllbli, hcd a pape r in Jlll~ - 1<)1.) 1. JllSCct~ a rose ill th e DC\"(>l1i all pe riod, but hega n a ma jor radiatioll ill di \ 'crs it~- duri1l g subsequent C<.1 rho nifcrolls tim es, some ')25 millio n yeaTs ago . ,\ll giospCfIllS, by cOlltrast, arose milc h lale r. 'i 'heir first
foss ils arc fOllnd ill ea rl y Cre ta ceolls strata , sOill e 140 milli o n years ago. (I f th ey "rmc e" rii e r, a' SOIlIC ,e ie n ti, ts 'PC'C lllatC, th el collid 1\0 1 hal e
hct: 1l ,'cry ablllldan L) But an gio:-. pc rills didn't rC
foss il reco rd. If i n~c d di \"c rs it~" is tied to th e radiation of tlO\\"cring plall ts.
I h.,n"c nc,"cr ulld erstood \,"Ily SOlll e tr<.lditioll alisls di spamgc thi s
lH)rk . Thel·, aftcr all . I)!> hlishcd the lite ra tllTe th" l Se pkoski IIses; d Oll 't th er lIallt th e ir \H>rk so h on ored a n d IIdl c lIl p lmcd ? Through Se pk",ki 's painsta kin g effort in full an d stancl",d il.ed ta!>ulation , lI·e lr
99
DI ' -()S_\ lf lt t,
\ 11 \\,s l \ C"
I ,ab,lIldeiw and Scpkoski fOLllld tl",! thl' insect record is betier than (once \ou add all thc Rmsian a"d Chincsc publications). III E.u.: t, insect s arc more di,-crsc than that other t~llllOli S terrestrial group, for \\·hi ch no one has lTcr been shy about ()ffcrin~ eOllcll1~iolls thc tetrapods, or terrcstrial ,crtebrates (alllphibians, reptiles. bi"],, alld m,lIlllllais cOlllbined ). The fossil rccord of insects illcludes 1,20") families; that of tetrapods, Hz) falllili es. \loreO\u, except for th e latest DcHmian , \\-hcll insects \\"ere young and lwdn't yet takcn off 011 all c\'o llltionar~' radiatioll, illsect diH~ rsity lws ah\'ays c:xcceded tclrapod di\-ers it~, ill c,·ery gcological cpoeh. 1,(Joking at the t~L'\OllOillic lc\d of inscct families. Lahalld cinl and Sepkoski could filld no e,'idencc for aLI" positi,'e imp,lct of th e allgiosperlll radiatioll upon insect di\'crsity. The insect radiatioll heg':lll ill the carl)' Cmhollifcrolls. somc ")2) million ~ e;.lrs ago. got derailed ollee ill the greatest of all mass extinction; at the elill of the Perillian ("hen cigllt of h\Tnt~ '-Sc\'ell iIlsed orders died ), he~all agai 11 in the subsequent Triassic period, 'Ined <1t all, For 11r,I, e l{)n~ fell thai imilges ofhalallcc alld ()ptillli i', ill~ COIllpclitioll haH.' heL'1I ,IIlHlllC tllOtI~ht
100
I" th e i\ l i m]
of th e Beholder
greatk orc esold . tl"'t illlPortant and erreeti ,'ek random rorces I",ffct th e history of life, that mos t groups of orgalli sms make th eir 0\\"11 \\"elY according to I'heir 0\\-11 attributes, and that interactions am()Jl~ most groups are. Oil the broad scale of tillle ill milliom of , 'cars, lllore like l ,ongrcllow', "ships that pass ill th e night" thall the [l ook ofRlllh 's '\,'hithe r tholl go('st. [ \\"ill go." S. \\'1!l,:IU'. 11 11'1 1/( n /o S,\ PlrSS ORle L' _\TI':? ~l~ - la st issue is a C
,·il'w, to favor
102
// / the .\Ii"d
of the
Hcho lde r
plants and illsects, <1I1d a \illgle place of origin for HOII/o s({fJiel1s seem \ 0 \ur prising? I C<-Ill olll~ ' obsern: thai' all three conlTaries - a lllore Ici s llrcl~' origin for
I)I ' ( ) S\{ ' I{ I '
\
11 \):-; 1'\ (;10.:
the three stori es, for truth is th e
~\\ E I' IL OC I' I , 114{f I wrote this essa~"
III the ,\Iillellli the HellOleler scale) from a celebrated place, the Petrified Forest of eastern ,\ri'Jl1l
of bees and \\'aSllS \\ithin these logs (although fossils oftlie insects themSciH.'S haH.' lIol yet bee]) disco\"{:rccl~scarccl~' surprisillg, gi\'Clllhc dif-
ficulties of prcscT\'atioll ill this CllyirOlll1lcnt). The hee,,' 1lests, for e,ample, arc e""I\ated in shallO\\ holl(J\\s reached through knotholes,
E
ch~jmhcrs
less th<111
'-ill
inch long
aud sliapeellike nasks. This eliseO\en e,tenels the fossil reeorel of bees back 140 million ~'C<1rs, for the earliest kllO\\'ll spccilllclllics ill KO-lllil1ioll-ycar-olcl amher.
But C\'('11 lllore sllrprisillgl~', accordillg to the ~llllh()r of the article, the Tillles's leadillg SCiCllCC reporter, Jolin ~()hlc \Vilford, the origill of flO\\-crillg plants (<'lllgiospCfIllS) lay 100 million ~-cars illihe future \\-Ilell
these bees c:\c
10:;
DI"O:-i\lll<. I" .\ Il\Y:-iT\cr.;
lations ullder the lllultiregiollLllisl \'ie\\-. ('\llothcr diseo\'ery of the past extends the age of HOl1l0 erecills in ;\si;l to ;lholltl.() millioll years, so thc Illultiple rcgiolls lllllst he eH'n older thall pn.'\·iol1s1~- il1l<1gincdand genetic y,-uiatioll alllOllg raees should be eH'n greater if our major populations hu\'e been distinct for so long.) Study after study (lll
1
1Illlilall ",\c\am," jllst a,s mitochonc\rial [)7'\A can rcach "F\'c," III the \\a\, I ha\c I()n~ h'ltcc\thcsc cntc biblicalnlclaphors, bccallsc thc\ pro-
yoke the \\Tong illlpression that \ye
I" the Ili"d ,,(the fleh"lder beell after this plulll for SOllle time, but rC:-;lllts hadn't been reported before, ,';illlpl~' because this illtricaic and COlllplcx \\"(Hk requires so HIllCh
labor ,llid call'l bc fllSlrcd, Bllt 1l0\\'lll) colleaglle WalhCilberl allellll\ [orlner student Rob norit (paleontologist tlImed renegade molecular biologist) ha\"c ,ll1l101111Ccd their sh Ill]] ill~ res\! lis ()J I Y
racial
di\'crsit~-.
They find almost
110 ge1letic varia-
tio1l-a strong affirmation for recency of COllllllon ancestry ill all hlll1l
esti mate of a bOll t 2,0,000 ~'ea rs. (' 1'h llS, llllcler th;s e\'idcn cc, originatcd, presllillahly in Africa, ahout a qllarter of a Illillioll ~'ears ago, and heganl0 spread into other continents ahout 100,000 ~-ears ago,) Cilbert alld colleaglles also fclt that thc\ cOlllel estilllate the sizc of the founding human population at about 7,,00 1I1clles-a particlllClrl~ i.;ratif\illi.; affirmatioll of lll\ 0\111 l'rejlldiees, Illlder plllletll
1ll1liWIlS
10 7
~,\ 91/~
Of Tongue '~/orms, 'Ielvet ,x/arms, and Water Bears
I
f()rlll(\ll~'
HI.;] '()\.c TO the last generation of students educated, III large llleasure, hy the practice of rotc IllClllCHizatioll. llellee, I kl\()\\- the Ccttys]JIlrg,\clclrcss by \iccJri. C\J\d \\-110 Celli ("-cr CX{JlIllgC the afc
the siallclarc1111Ill'lllOllic for remembering the 1l<\llles of cf
tllliC scale, illlclliIe list of allimal phyla, the lllajor t]VlllOlllic di\isiolls of lifc ill our killgdOlli (SOlllC h\Cllty to f{)rt~", dcpcnding on thc \"ersioll \"OU icamcd). .\Iost of 111\" fell()\\" students clidn't cOlllpLlin too llluch about the dO/"ell or so Illajor s.;roups, for C\"Cr~"Olle sllOuld kllO\\" a \ertcIHatc frolll Clll arthropod frolll a Illollusk frolll all cchilloderlll. if olll~" because \\"C do CllCOl.lllter sHch creatures in our c1aik li\"es" But for the larger llumher of so-called "lllillor ph~"la"-the
111l]"(. 'lllclllherahlc .
whatchall1acal1its \,ith sllch fl11111~" ll
O{'J'ongue \\'orms, Vehef '\'orms, and \Valer Bears alldloathillg, for \\'C couldll't recall thclll Oll l'XalllS, alld \\'C llCH'r ellcoulltered thelll in Central Park or at Jones Bcach ("nature" to 'Je\\' York Cih kids). Yet thesc "millor" phyla embod~' some of the most fascinating problems of natural histOl·~', and should not be ranked \\'ith the ullknO\\"n and the llnlO\'ed. The~' arc, first of all, "minor" only in the sense of current jliCjli]JC[ship (fe\\" specics ,ilivc today), though some, brachiopods
DI_"\OS,\l!l{
1"\
,\
II,\ysl,\C~
sellSllS of professors alld read ill dozells ofhooks-llwllthe foIlO\\-illg potential inH)catioll of minor phyla to l1lake the Call1briall explosioll merely an intensification of ordinary posslbilities, rather than an e\:-
c111si\ity: "B11t hcm C,lll \011 claim that al\ the plnla originated during this lllillinui beginlling ill1cnal? ,\f1cr ,lil, abcm! half the animal ph\1a contain no soft parts at all and therefore haye ~-Oll
liO
fossil record. Ho\\' do
knO\\- that these groups 11m-ell'! heell arising througliout the 3iO lliil-
lioll ~·ears sillce the Camhrian e\:plosioll? [\"lore()\'C_T, most of these phyla contaill \·ery fe\\" species. Doesll't their rarit~· illdicate a p()icllti,-dl~· recent origin, lem-ing little time for gradual spread
Mouth
/
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
'['he PCIl/US/OIIiC Cl'ph;ll()b~\l'Il;l Ictr~\p()(Ll.
a /ollguc \\'onll. \-"""Y ,_lImn. Qfie r Barf h "nd Br""h e"rs. ")~~ fm", 11I",:rtcb';ltcS. I,t cd h,- f{ich~rd C "nd
")')'-'. eh, "/.1',
llD
6~,
O(Tol7guf.' \\'ouns, \'ell'ef \Forms, Hooks
dl1d
\\"dter Hears
Mouth
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
\1II)nl.II<1\"".
1,1 eel. ·..c.~/.,·,.".
I"
PentastOilles arc parasitcs, and they !i\'e
DI:\os.\['I{ 1:\ .\ 11_\\s·I.\CK
Bonn, Such lont; amI technical articles on the 'lllatOlll\ of small Cambrian fossils ill\'ariahl~- fall hy the \\'a~-side ill puhlie pereeptioll (\\'hile often creating quite a buzl', in the tiny circle of paleolltological professionals ). Very fe\\' "science \\Titers" from the jouma I istie side ha\e muc h patience \\'itlt the arC_llI
O(Tollgu(! \\'orIllS, Verret \\'orill ,'j, alld \\'dfer f3edrs
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
The I)ell-{), disc())'(:red I k\lII()lli~c
(i
H()ral S()cidr ()f hlillhurgh.
length and ha\-e an elongated hody \\'itll fourteell to forty-three pairs of stlllllpl legs (ealledlobopods) behilld" head bcarillg three p"irs of appendages (antennae, ja\\'s, and slillle papillae, used hy these c
DI'\()S.\('R 1,\
_\
11.\YST_\Ch:
£;rades alld pelltastollles CIS \\'ell-so \\T' call ll()\Y affinll that all three ph~ll go right hack to the illitial diYcrsificatioll of lIl11lticelllllar allilllal lifc ill the Cambriall c'.:plosioll. Ulltil these C'.:Citillg publications, lleither tardigrades nor pcntastomcs had
()rT()II~lIe \FOriIlS, \'efl'el \\ 'OriIlS, dlld \Vtller Bedrs
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
A (cllld/e tdrdi:.;,rdde, or miter /Jed]', m()/ts her eJ!,J!,-f/I1('(/ (,II/ide. ,\'
,\/"'.1;<1'1, !(f~2,
- Rm,,-'d.
I'mm hll'('rtd""k,. by Rnl","a dllJ
"N"
dn shelf life. I Insnrprisillgh, tardigrades hase beell of special e'peri. llIellLll interest to students of
1)1:\()s.\l I{
1:\
.\
II
\'·S'I \(:f..:
haye a eOlllple\ life c~-cle, Illo\'ing fWIIl an interillediate to (] final host. I ,,\IY
()rT()Il~IIC \\'OrIllS,
Vciret \\'OrIllS, (/Ild
\\'(/[(->1'
HCdrs
oralon of n1\ friend allCl colleague Larr, ,'.Ide of Florida Slale lIniyersil~- (sec hihliography), .\hele and associates useel the 11l0st pO\\'erful and appropriatch Elshiooablc techoique of comparing 1);\,\ sequences (ill the C011l1l1{lllJ~-llsed ,ll1d hi,ghly illforlllati\-c molecule ISS ribosolllal R:\.\) ill pelll
])I'()S\I'1{ 1'\
]1\)s·I.\(""
\
squid
hones from
,I
terrestrial
P,lSl;
though .'.;0 sinlibr ill fillal fon]], fol\my lll
()rTOil~lie
\Vorll1,<;, \felre!
\VOrlI1S,
aild \\'ater Bears
their profollnd stahility for more than 500 million ~"ears. \Valossek anel .\ hiller conclude ... ' I"he 1011g h ist01Y oft-he group anel its relllarLI hIe II HHphoiogic
had
not yet
e\ohed. S\\"i!ehing of hosts, e\cn frolll olle phylulllto another, occurs fre'luenth ill the e\olution of parasites, so the need to postulate such a transition raiscs 110 thcorctical prohlems" But \\T still \Y,lllt to kllO\\" thc potential candidates" 'I "he origillal Cambrian hosts nccd not h,I\"e hcell cl()scl~" relatcd to \"ertchratcs, hllt one promillent fossil group. the coIlodonts, has hccn el~ igmat ic th rollghou t the h istor~" of pa lcolltolog~" (for thcir soH hodics prm"idc little opportullit~" for fossilizatioll, and onl~ thcir microscopic "tooth elemcnts" arc generally preseryed)" But softhodied rClllains of elltire
IJI'\,()'-; \(,1\
I'\,
\
II
\~.'-; I \(:r..;
W~lr(.lS, assllillillg that pClliasiolllcs arosc ollly 2S7 III ill iOIl ~"Cars ago frolll crustacC
But ,'\bclc Jild collc'igncs nc\C[ C\-CI1 mcntion thc oh\-jous altcrn
120
STABILITY
Cordelia's Dilemma
Wlll.l,: C O" I',I(II , ,\,,1) RH;\, joekcl for their fath er's IIealth III proc: L.lil1lillg th eir lo\"(: for hiIll in fal se and fulsolll e: tOIlCS , K i ll ~ I ,car's third dallghler. Cordelia. fears Ihe aeeollntillg tha t her falher I"ill SOOli demalld : "Whal , hall C ordelia do? I ,()Ie. and be silent . , , sin ce . I ani sllTe. lll ~' IO\'e's mOTe ponde rous thall Illy tongue." Lear then e lltice;., Cordelia into this gallic of escal ating profess iolls of Ion .! ; "'Vhat ca ll you sa~' to tInt \\' '= 1 third 1II0 re opul ent t11 ,111 ~'ollr si sle I's?" Wh en Ihe honorable C ordelia . refllsin g to pial falseh for ga ill, S
Lear's twgie erro r, ",hieh shaillcad to blillding, llIadne" , ;lIld dea lh , lies ir. Il n ~ recognizing that silcllcc - m-crt Il n thill ~ - c(11I e mbody the deepest ancllll osl import" nt me;1ll ing of a II , What, in all our h istoTl ami literature, has been Illore cio(l nelil than the sile nce of JestlS before Pilate, or Saillt Th o111as \ (ore's date II'ith the headsman beeallse he acknowledged that fealty for bade eritieislll of HenrI' VIII's Inarriage to Aline !lakin, bnt maintained, literalh to the death , hi s righl to re main silent alld !lot to apprO\"c. The illlportan ce of IH:gati\'c results - Ilature's (Ipparcnt ~ il c llCC or llonacqlli cs(;ence 10 Ol[r expectations- is al so a major con cern ill sciC:llee. Of COllrse. scielltists i:. lckllmdedge Ihe \ 'itality of ,I llcgati H~ Ollt12)
I ) I ' ()S\ I R I '
\
II _\\S' I- \ ( : "
come ,lIlel o ftcn tr~ ' lo ge ll crate such
12-+
Cordelia 's Dilelllma
pret
I had tholl ght abollt this problelll a great deal (espee i
0 ";1
bch\"cc ll acad cmic achi c, "c-
Illcnt and SOCiOCCOllomi <..: status; articles ill journals gm"e an a\"(;ragc of
0.,+ 1I"!rile ,,"pllblished stlldies ,"ielded a yaillc of 0.2-1. Silnil:rrh-. ill a 1986 mti ele. A. Coursol a"d E. E. \""gllCr found publieati oll bias both in the deeisioll to snblllit an article at all , alld ill thc probabilih for aeceptallee. In a " m "el of outcom es in pSlehoth crap' , I·hel fOlllld that S2 perce nt of studies \\'itlt positin: o utcomcs led to ~ubillission of papers to H jOllrnal. \\"hile olll y -F:; percent of llcg,Jti \"c olltcomcs pro\'okcd <.11\ 'Ittcmpt at p"blication" O f papers subillitted . 80 percent rcporlin!,; posili n: outcomes \\"(.' rc accepted for puhli cation , but only ) 0 percent of papers claiming ll cgatin' results,
12;
I )I'()S \ I ' It
"
\
11 \,S I· \ l :"
1\ I ~ ' f;wori Ie ~ tlld~ ' of ])11 hi ieLl ti oll hias lll il y he fOllllel ill Al 11 1(; FaustoSterl illg's .\ lyths orCc17der. ;J lIll iqll c rI', after all (as I halT arf;lIcd so ofte ll inlhcsc CSS.1YS), is prcc ill illcnl"iy (\ ., tlld~ · o[ rebti n : frequcncy, Ilot of <1bsolute I'escs or nocs, If a cla im I""eel on pnblishcelli te ratllTe sta lcs that "wolllen in all stndi es stTOllg"" , ," - and thc ad dition of Illlplibli shed data challges the c1 a illl to "in a millori!, of stlldics, a wca k cffcct sl1!;gesls t-Iwt \\lHlle ll . .... - th cll meaning is effeeti H:ly n:\'ersecl «.;\· CIl tll ough posit i\'c ollt co lll es. ",he n r'HcI ~ ' fo und . slt m\" a COI1 Si."itCllt direc tioll). For eX;lI11pl e. a rece nt fan )rit"c ill pop p~~c h () logy (though \\ 'alling of latc, I think ) has attribllted diffe re nt cognitil e shl cs in me n ,md \\,omcll to th e less i
Puhlicatioll bias is seri olls enollgh ill its pro motion of a f~ll sc impression based on a small and skell'cd subset of til e totalnumbcr of stud· ics, Blit at lC<Jst the right qucstions arc he ing asked
Cordefit} ',10 Dilemma 10 disse lllhie and w in hi s "ffcclinn . S he hnubl es into Ihis plighl became I ,car C;Jl II wt conceph la 1iI.e II Ie propos itioll Ihat Conlcl ia 's silen ce mighf
si f;ll iry hcr grc,lter lm'c - that lIothillg C<1I1 be th e biggest SO lll c thill ~. Cordc lia's dil ell lIlla is therefore d ec per and lIlore intcresting Ih"n
pllbli ciJtiOll billS! as "'c ~lilllps e th e constra ining rol e of nCllrolo~icaL social , alld pS~ 'cllOlog i ca l conditioning in Oll r strll gglc to gr
-,
p-:
or~'
treated st<1si~ as tlllilll l'rcs lill ~ lIoJlc\'iclclICC for IlOIlC\"ollltiOIl , Il:\"()_ Illiion had hccll dcfincd as gradllailrai1sforlllatioll ill cxte ndcd fo ssil scqllellces. ;l1ld the o\'cr\\"hcllllillg prC\'alcllcc of stasis hCCCllll l' (Ill c lllba rTassi Jl~ fcatll rc of thc fossil re cord. he ... t ignored a~ •.1 mall ifc~ tatiO\ 1 or Ilothilig (that is, llOIlC\'ollitioIl ). \I~' 0\\"11 th es is a(kiser had Ill
l2K
COTtle/iII 's Dilemma
Blilihe I'asllllajor iil' o[bllshes disp las no pcrsislenl' Irends th ro llgh tilllc, ,\11 p"lconlologish knoll this. but [e\\, \\'(llI ld eler think of act ileh st ,,(hilli;" bllsh \\ith no direction,,1 grOldh, W e acce pt th'll thc h is to ry
of c01ltin cnts alld ocealls prcscllt~ no progrcss i\'c paltcfIl most of the tilllc- "the SCIS come in alld thc st"IS ~o ou t," to citc ~111 old clic he of geology teac hers frolll limc illllllemorial. BlIt \\"('cx pect life's bushes lu groll' to\\'"rd th e light. to te ll sOllle storl' of direc ti o n,,1 e hangc. W e can1I0t acce pt for li fe th e preacher's asseSSlllent of eart h II' tillle (Ecclesiastcs 1:<) ): 'The thillg that h" th bee n , il is thai \\ Ilich sha ll be; and Ihat \\'hich is don e, is Ihat \\ hi c h shall be done; "nd th ere i,s 11 0 Ile\\' thin g lInde r the Still." Yet \\"c Illllst study hushes \\' i~h 110 lHol llin cllt di rectional change if \\ 'c arc to g<.lil l an~' proper scnsc of th e fIl ii range:.: alld c harac ter of life's history. !-o:\ 'CIl if \\'e bclic\'c (.mell ",ill c()l1fc~s to holding this (:O I1\"CI1 tion,,1 bi"s 111\'sclf ) that trenels, hOlleler rare. arc Ih c 1ll0s1 inte resting of phdctie ph e llOlll ena - for th el do snp ph th e direction that lIIakes ew~ Ilitioll" pageant ra ther tlr"n a ta ble"n- \\'e still need to knOll th e relati\"(: frc qll c n c~ ' of l1onprogrcssi\'c C\-ol utioll , if only 1"0 grasp the pre\'ailillg substrate frolll \\ hi e h rare tre ndin ess bnilds in l'e restin g histors. 1-l 0\\ call '\"c ci
important in 0 111' mod ern f
12<)
the carl in hi s tOl·~· of the
i\!OI1{lls[raea bll sh dllri IIg thl' long spa 11 of C rcmilli oll years' duration , and represcnting the las t period of dinosaurian dOlllinalion on la nd . They found lilli e eside ncc of directiOll
clearer \\"akrs Ilcar the reef crest. In additioll , lar.gc-coriJllit c spccies lend to feed adi sdr 011 snlall planktollic animals, ,,·h il e sillall -eorallite species deris'e Illore IIntrition direetk frolll Ihe zoo\lllithclbe (pholo"nl'lldic al gae) that lis'e symbioti calk wi thin the ir tissues. Budd and Coa les conjectllTc Ihat corallitc diameters mas' be held \\"ithill th ese limits by some ecological or de\"clopmelltal ('o Jlslraillt
Corde fitl "" Dilemma
long scglllcnts of geological time - lots of e\"() iutiOII
alld Coatcs's article inspired lll~ " de<.: ision to write this essay" Yd 11l~ " descripti o n of th e ir rcsnlts occ upies o nk a sm,,11 porti on of thi s text, be('<.1IIS<': IlOlldircctiolllli c\"()lutiolt doesn 't elicit th e :-.torics that stir our
hlood and illeite our inkrcst. This is the hias oflit"er;H\" COllH:nti on that \n' l1lust strtl~gl e to o\"(:reOlllC. How c
call \'"C 110]><: to understand the rare r 1ll011 lCnts that mallufacture hi stor~ " 's pagcallt. if \\ "C do not reeogni zc and rc\"("~ 1 ill the pen"asi\"c s llbs trcl~e? i'io one has illnstrated th e diicilima bette r than Cordelia a nd Lear til eIl1Seh-cs. ill their last appearancc as pri sollers in aet s. scen e 3" Th c~"
are ahotl t to he takell a wa~ ~l1ld Lear. through a H~ il of madness. speaks of forth coming lillie in jail , made ,lilllost deli ghtfnl b,' the prospect of tc llill~ stoTie~
in the hcroic and directional mode:
Come, let's
III a \\"all ed pri son. paeks ,Jnd sects of great ones That ebb and flo" 11,' the moon, Se'lII O'Case,' sa id that "the stage mu, t be I' ''f;e r th'lII life," for h ClI\' eau '\c make adeq uatc drama from the daik doings of sho pping, ea t-
ing. sleepin g. Clnd lIrin,lting (in no parl"iclIlar order )" If this be so, th en biases ill s!orytellillg allgur poorly fo r an adequate acco unt of life's real history. for how shall we e\"er prom ote th e "nothing" that sllrrcHlIlds liS to adequate fi.ISc inati oll for noti cc and documentation? But, tlien, on e of O'Case~"' s countrymen soh"cd this problem in the grc~ltes l" non:1 of Ih e twen ti eth centm\'. james JO\'ec's Ll /Y" e" treat, o n e cia,' in the Iifc of a fe,,"ordin<1r~ " people ill 1904, yet no work of literature has ('\"er taught ollr
II, mo re about the natu re of IUIIll
lillc of lIly",",\ for a totalk different purpose? ~Iolk Bloom, in hel ce lebrated so 1iloqll Y, is, of COli rsc, spcaki ng of sOIlH.:th ing ell tirely diffc rcllt! But her \Hmls prodde a good a1lS\ler to a pledgc \I'e shollid all take: Shall IPI0111 is(' to pay attention to the littlc. ae eu111u lat.irrg ('\('nls of da ily life aHclnol trea t them as not" hing
Lucy on the Earth in Stasis
\'ICTOltt\, just a bit behiud th e tillles as usual , took her first jou f1lel' bl' railroad iu IB42 - frolll Willdsor to l.oudon (bl' IH40 the United States alreack had 2.8,0 IIlilts of track ill operation, lI,hile England boasted 1.,,1 miles). ReH)Jld this ")\,,,1 S\'Inbol, IS.j2 lI'as a good \e,1T for ehallge in gelleral. Dmllin composed his first sketc h of th e theOfl of natural selectioll (followed, ill 1844,1,,' an e'panded draft and finalk. inIR',).I,,' a publi shed lusion, The Origin ,,is/Jecies), ,",lid Alfred, I ,ord Telllll'soll IITole, ill L()cks/e)' [jail. the llIosl famou s of all Victorianlillcs about th e incI'ih,bilill' of ehallge: "Let the greal lI'orld ,pin for e\"er dO\nl tile rillging gwm"cs of t1l<1llgc." I llnite Tellllyson's lille \\"jlh Victori.l aIld fail trallsport for sc\'cra l reaSOIlS, most literal" heea use 'I'en nl'soll himsel f lalcr IITote th at his striking, Ihough pceuliar, mclaphor for cllim ~e (both I'isua] and aural I arose frolll ;:llllispcrceptioll durillg his 0\\"11 first journey by rail: "\Vh Cll J lIellt bl' thc first traill from Lilupool to ~'lallehester (18:;01, I thonght thai the II heel s rail in a ~roO\ c, II lias a blac k Ilighl and there was sneh a I'ast crowd roulld Ihe Iraiu al the stalion that Ill' could Ilot sec Ihe Idwels. Theil I n",,1e this lille." We arc beset hI' d" ,Jiities, perhaps beca use natme fal'ors pairings, hut Il10re, I sWipecl , because our mind \\"orb as <1 dichotomizing Ilia· chine. (Sec.: fllrt-Ilcr discllssioll of this issue in l'~say +) ,\mung the orQl'EI :'
I"
"
I), ,( )s \
\'H
"
\
II \ '
S 'I \ (: "
gi.llli zing dllaliti es of Ol1T cOllsciol1SII CSS, C11 ;III£;C alld COll s tall (,~ ~t;lIld ~ Ollt (\ ~ perhaps the deepest
I.IIC Y 1)11
th e I';(/rlll ill St asis
()b\' iOllsl~' , I do not- \\Tite this CSS
"lliOI} oneil prC\"'lils. Blit r do t"hink tkll plinctll
I ,/Ie\'
Oil
the Earth ill Stasis
that hUillall bodill forill has beell sblble for tells of thollSallds of scar,
that- eyer~-t-hing \\'e c
the fossil record llli~lJ1 presclyci. I thcll add that ,tabilits'
011
scales of
hundreds of thouS,lllcls to milliolls of ~-ears is
of \\-ecdillg out the ullfit. thus blockillg adapti\'c e\'olutioll
In this \'ie\\", culture st~'lllics naturc hy permitting the unfit to sUr\'i\'e (through such cleraihllcnts of Dan\'illi,-lll order as lllanlifaeturing c~'e glasses, llearing aids, and \\"heelchair'-i). "Bad" genes acclllllidate and e\"oilition
DI,\()-';\\ I{
II.\Y""I .\(:1':
1'\ .\
'-H~·
cOllsequencc I can imagine, such a cultural "softening" of natural slight-h- hoost our gelletic \·
tlldt uiltllr,t!
''suftUlI11g'' C<:lused
hUi11,jii
st(jhili~\',
theii \\'e 11llply ,1 prior
(t 110llgil Iliistated) hel ief tl wt e\·ollltiOi wr~· cilallge is a Iwturaillornl - llll' 1.-1 Illilli. Oil \ Llr, ol\!. dll\lll;lIlln[ . \1I-,11(IIII/Jiliwt'lI' ,.111111111-'
/ ,/lC)' Oil
the Ldrth ill Stasis
fro II I the lllaill site at f radar by a tealll ullder DOll Johallsoll's leadership. This trO\'c included a +0 perccnt eompletc fcmale skcleton nO\\ famous throughout thc \yorld by its ficld Ilallle "LllC~-," gi\cll to h01lor the l3eatles' famous and sOlllc\dl
leontologists, tlwtlgh few find their
\\-a~-
into popular spcccl-I; I \\-ill not
borc \"e)ll \\'ith the lIalliCS of \·ariou.) s1lails ( hayc collcctcd.) '\Jatmc OftCIl pLl\'s cruc] jokcs IlpOIlIlS, ifollil to kcep this little c\'Olutiollary 1\,-ig ill its propcr placc. Johansoll's 2:::;0 fossils cOllstituted olle of the rich cst finds ill the history of human palc()lltolog~-. Our skeletoll includes about hH) hundred bOlles, '-lllcllll'-lll~' fossilize poorly. \\'c arc illtrigucd am] illforlllcd, abme all, I", skulls-Ilot ollil for prejudicial reasolls of t rad ibm w I m-eremphasis UpOIl hrai II pO\ycr (or lack t hcreof i11 our earlicst ancestors), hut also for the ll10re legitimate rcasolls that skulls arc so complc:\ <md thcrefore so inforillatiyc and diagllostic. \Vith so llluch lllatcrial, \\-C ll1ight ha\"c c:\pccteel a good skull or hnJ. But, abs, 1I0t a single skull, or CYCll a reall~- good fraglllcnt, clllcrgcd frolll this lllaglIificcnt collcction. [,uc~- rC111aincd hcadlcss. (johansoll
!11:\{):-;.\I'I\ 1:\.\ II_\):-;·I.\(.t.:
bCCIl follO\\-illg this C\ccllclll stT
,.,B
LfO
Lucy
Oil
the l';arth
ill
Stasis
Beloh,klie. :\dlllitledh. idelltih ill the frollt,'] rcgieJll is 1I0t proof of stasis throughout the skeleton, but Belohdelie is all \\-e lu\"e ofLuc~'s earliest ~'eiJrs, ancl stasis cloes pre\'ail for the illforlllatio1l m·ailahle. 'I 'hus, strong (Tidencc from m ue h of the ske leton i nd ieates stasis in /\. a(arellsi,.., for nearly half
DI,,{)S\l R I" .\ II\YSI.\(,I..:
"Remarkable" surel, led the pack as all adjeeti,e to modify stasis. I). i\. \Vilford I1sed it ill The ;\'ew York Times, as did R. C. Cm\-clI ill the Christion Science ;\lcmitor, \\"lio \\Tote, "\Vhat's lTlllarkablc abol1t this") Illillioll year old fossil is 1I0t that it is so old hut that it's ""iO yo\lll~" 11 is 200,000 years younger than the famous I ,11C~ " . " and a million years ~-()l1llgcr thall the oldest specimen. Yet it looks like those ancestors.") But Tim ~'ric11d
ill US/\ Todd)' Ln-OfCd "U11cxpccted," \\-hile i\lL CO\\-CI1 :Jlso pro-
claimed the ne\\" skull "astonishing" in its delllollstration of stasis" :\lost revealing are the more sllhtle lingllistic cllles that betray
Homo
II"
? .."......
Earliest known
Australopithecus afarensis
f'
Lue/ ( NewSku/l
V ?~ 4 million years ago
3 million years ago I
Australopithecus _
Time~anof
Fossil pedes Hypothesized EvolutIOnary Links
2 million
years ago I
1 million years ago I
present lime
latio])s \\'illl ill '-HI i lllcn",-d (lIl~Hl~' thollsallds of years) tilL! t appears glaci'llly slo\\' ;tllhe illappropriate scale of a iIlllllCJlllifdilllC, hili rcsoh-cs 10 a lllOlllent al gco]ogy\ proper scale of lllillions. (Relllemher thai 10,000 ~"C
lllillioll-ycar epoch of stasis.) III this light. cOlltilluing studies Oil the llIillioll-year period follO\\-ing I ,1Ic<s te!lure point Illore
I
DJ'\()S.\l [{ J'\ .\ H_\lSI\('h:
rOllilielltal change-the "hlnHAl'f-puise hypothesis," ill her forlllui
tinH:, it gan: risc to a grcat br::lncl-iillg of tlic
Lllni1~-
tree."
1 began \vith thc most famous poetic metaphor about change from Victoriall Ellglalld. Lei IIlC enci \\'ith au C\"('ll more celebratcd \'crse aboulleaping frolll 'I'cnnyson's predecessor as pocl 1;.1\ 11"C::I Ie, \\'illi
1\1\ heart leaps up "hm I behold >\ rainbO\\' ill the sky: So was it \\'hcll Illy life hegan; So is it nO\\ r am a mall; So he it \\hell 1 sll
1+1
EXTINCTION
~\\ 12 II~ n" "J 1. LJlnOSaUr In a -~ l~aystacl'
T,w
],'.\SII[O\: 1:\])lIS'IR) thri\'cs on our need to proclaim an idcntit) frOll! our lliost personal space. lior acadclilics, \\'ho by stereotype (though !lot ah,"ays ill actuality) scorn the sartorial lllOclc, office doors scr\'c the same functioll. Professorial clltTanCC\\";J\S arc festooned \\'ilb testimonies of deepest heliefs and strongest cOlllmitments. \\'c may, ,1<.; a professioll, h
147
Dr"\():-;
\l R
r"\ .\ II
\~Sr\Cf(
1cellth celltur~-, the foulldill~ lllelllbcrs o\Trreacted to this admitted hlight h~" hanning theoretical ciisellssion frolll their proceedings. Gcologists, thes ruled, should first establish the facls of our planet's hislolT hy direct obsen-atioll-and theil, at soniC h.hlfe time ,,-hen the bulk of ,-ICCUllIl1b1cd illfonllatiOll bccollles sufficientlY dellsc, llHAe to theories allclc~plallat-iOils.
Dar\rirr, \rho had sw_Jr a keen ulit.\crstalldillg of fruitful procedure in sciencc, kne\\' ill his guts that theor~' and obsen"atioll arc Siamcse h\"ills, ille~tricabl~' interh,'incd lind conti1ll1al1~' illterc,cting. One cannot perforlll firsl, \\·hile the other \\"ails in the wings. III mid-carcer. in IK()], in a leiter 10 l!cnlT Fa\\celt, Darwin renectcd on Ihe false ,·ie\\· of earlier geologists. III so cloin~, he outlined his 0\\-]] conceptio]] of proper scientific proccdurc in the best onc-liner eH,]" penned. The last sentence is inclelihl~' impressed on the portal to lll~' psyche. Ahout thirty ycars ago therc \\'as llIlH..'lllalk that geologists ought ollly to ObSelye alldnot theorize; ,md I \\ell rellH.'mbcr SOIllColle sa~-illg that at this rate ,Illlall might as \\-ell go into a gra\clpil and eonnl the pebbles and describe the colors. I [(1\\ odd it is Ihal
Dil/osC/llr ill c/ H(/)',~l(/ck
Bul fo\lo\\ers of Ihe 1m th ,Ire uitilllateh hurt and limited, for the of the \\"orld C,-l1l1iOt he £;rasped Of ordered \\"ithout cOllcepts. ".--\ll ohsclTatioll lllust he for or
1)1\'()~\11< 1\'.\ 11.\~·~'I.\(:f..:
e\iclcllCe of mass dyi llg \yi th a read illg more cOllgell ial to Da f\yi II 's prefercncc for the slmy ;lIld stc
In his Origin of SjJecies (iSSY),
D~l[\\-in
rejected "the old notion of
all the inhabitants of the earth ha\-ing been s\yept a\hl~- at successi\'e periods b~" catastrophes" -as \yell hc might, gi\'en the extremc \'ie\\' of total annihilation, \\'ith its antie\"olution
Ill'"
bst fossil be clltOlnbed one htlndred feet bel'l\\ the tipper botlndary. \Vc lllight thell f<-llscl~- <\SSlllllC tlwt- this fare species died out aftcr three fomths of the tot
the lllore likeh that its last t,)ssil appe
C0ll11ll0l1
forms per-
sisting as fossils right to the upper boundary. This phe1l0111eIlOn-a classic c\a1llple of the old principle that things arc seldom \\'hat thc~' seem alld that literal appearances oftell obscure rcalit~'-c\'cll 11,.1s ;J ll,\lIlC:
the Signor-Lipps erfed, 10 hOllor "YO of lll~- paleolltological hud-
dies, Phil Signor
nl'()~.\III{ I , .\
II
\y~ 1 \(',",
Tertiary extinction, the most recent of the great mass d~ings, and the time of dcp;lrttlrc for dinosanrs ;dong \,"ith somc SO perccnt of lllarinl' ill\"ertebrate species. This proposal ullleashed a fllriolls deha1c that C,1Il1l0{- be Sllllllll
J)illo sa ll r ill a l-l d)'8tad'
th e mosl dircct approach ' If rarc spccies adllallY li\'cd ri~],1 to Ih e im-
pact b0111ld
Similarly, if 1 rcall~ ' I,carch ealits . I
III ig], I
CHT~-
inch of sedil1l en t in c\'cry knowJI 10-
e\'e lltllalls' filld ('\'e ll Ihe raresl speci es rig],1 Il ear Ibe
boulldaly - if it truk sun"i\'(:d" Thi s all seelIls rather ol)\'iotls. I Ci.1tlllot possibly m,gue that such an approa c h co uld Ilot ha\'e bee n conceplualized before the ,,\ka rez hypolhesis, I C'1I1I10t clailll thai ideo logica l blinclers of gradu ali sm lllack
it impossible (',·clllo imagine Plliling ap;.II"nhe ll
through il-s cn tirciy pcde~triall c1wracl-er. 1 cou ld ci t"c m
lie . Illloug th<.:lll. \Vc do
IOH'
to find fossib -th c reason \\' h ~' most of ll~
entered th e profession in tb e fi<>1 piace, We didn 't scn ltini z,c escn in c h of,sedinlenl for th e lllOSt hasic of all sc ientifi c reasons, Life is sh or t and
the world is ill1m ellse; you C
cOlH.:cpt"ual sati sfactio ll (olle mi ght ~ay "slot h" in retrospect) set in. No impetus c\islcd fo r the Illllch more labor iolls tec hniqu e of dislllelllbc rthc-tntire-hayst
id ea forced li S to obscn'e ill <-1 different wa\'. ",\11 ohl,cn-atioll llIust or again st some \ "je\\"if it is to be of all Y sen·i cc." Conside r \\\'o premier exam ples-the best known Illari lle alld the
!l C'W
be for
best kn o\\'J1 tc rres tr ial group' to disappear in tire C rcla ceous: 1'crti a,,' cxtincti o n: allllllonites and dinosallrs, Both ha d been prominclltis- cited
for gradllal extinction tow
Aknez, In])oth csis inspired" closer look using th e ille h-by-illeh m cthod:
'5,
l) l '()S_ \l -lt l'
\ II \\S I-\( : t..
~lIld ill cac h C1S(';
thi s grC:ilt cr SL rlltill~" yieldcd C\ idcll (;c of persi stellce to the boulldan, alld potelllial" Gl"'slrophie dea th. ,\1ll1110n ites (\ rc cephalopods (moll tlsb classifi ed in th e same group as squids alld octopuses) "ith coiled e,tefllal shells close" resemhling those of th eir llearcst li\"in ~ relati\"c. the chambered ll'-111IilliS. ;\1l111l 0 1litcs n"ne;1 promillent. oneil dOlilinant, group of 1l1arinc predators, anc1their beautiful foss il shells ha"e ,!I" ,,,·s beell prized I" co ll ectors. Th e,' "'",e ill lllid-Paleozoi c times and had ncarIY hecome e\tin ct h,"ice hcforeill hHI other mass dyings at tll Ce lld of th e PUJ11i an and th e close of tile Tria" ie periods. Bul a lineage or 1"0 I",d scraped I" each lime. ,\t Ih e Cretaccolls-Tertiary hOllll(lar~-, hO\u..'H' r, al1lilleages Sl1ccllIllbed <1nd. 10 cite \Vorcls,mrth frolll allolh e r eonte,t. Ih ere "pa"ed a,,'a,' a glorl' frolll Ihe cnlh ." \1\' fri elld alld colleague Peter Ward, pal colltologist frolll :h e 1I11i\"c rs it~ - of \V;Jshingloll, is onc of the world's experts on
Dinosallr ill (/ Il m'8/od'
perfect se nse, so "hy look allY furth er? Blit th e impact h~vothes i s, ,,'ith its cl ea r prediction of amlllonite Sll T\' j\'al right up to th e bOllll(L.ll"~· itself, deillalided Illore ilitcllSe sCflltim' of th e thirh-foot haystac k, III 1986, Pcter "as .Itill touting seq lIcn t ia I c1isappea rallce: ",'\mmoll itcs , , appear to I",,'e becolll e e,tillet in this basin ,\ell before th e KIT ICret"eeollST ertian I bOllndar,'. supportin £; a more gradllalistic "iew of th e KIT e'tillctiOIl \. ,.
llut Peter and his field Ix"tn ers, illSpi red I" :\h'arez (if (Jn k b\ a hope of di sprO\ing the impact hypoth e,sis) , ,\'(Hked on throllgh th e h<1~ 's ta c k : "The fC1l1;lilli llg pmt of tli e Crctaceotl.'" section W
" 'crtia ry bOi mdary, , ,Y
fore bcclllllorc prolllinent Of li HUe pcrslltlsi,"C. than the: pcrsislclltdaim I" 11IOSt (bllt Ilot
f) i llO slIlIr ill (/
Il a1' stock
W c co-opted the 1 0 1l ~standill g HJlnllte er-bascd " J)i g-aDillosaur" progralll at th e l\ lih\',Il,kce i'llhlie \lll SC IlIll, Sixtec il tn h\"Cllt~·.fi H' ccJre illlly trsils in uJl perlll ost C reta ceolls rocks, W o rkin g ill th e Il ell C reek Formation ill ,\ Iontan;.} allel ;\!orth Dako ta , th c~" studicd eac h ell\-irOlllllcnt separate h-, \I' ith best e\'iden ee ,m,ilable from strealll c halln els a nd Ooo dpl ains, ' I 'h e\' di \'idecl the e nti re sec tioll into thirds, \l ith the nppe r third extendillg right to the impa ct bOllndan, and as ked \I,hel'her a stead\ decl ine: occurr<:c1 through ~h e tln<:<: Illlits, l<:i:l\ "ill g <111 impon:ri shcd fallll a whcn th e asteroid stru ck_ Agi.lin , [ will let their terse concl usioll , SlIlIlmari zing so IIlllc h intensc effort, spca k for itsel f: B<: c<Jl\ sc there is 110 signi ficant eh ,mgt' bel\\"cell the lower, middl e, and " pper thirds of the fo rlll ati o n, we rej ec t th e Il\Jloth esis that th e dinosaurian part of th e ceos~-s tc lll \' "<1 S deteri ora ting dllri ng IIIC,"~ latest C rctacco w._ 'I'hese filld ings are COllsistCIl t \\"i th all abrupt exl i ncti on scenario_
You G ill ah\-ays sa ~", "So wilat? T. S. Eliot \'-<.1 S \\Tong; some \\u rlcls at least (~ llel ,,-il-h i:.I han g, not a \,-himper. '· But stl ch a di stinc tioll makcs all th e differen ce, for bangs and whimpcrs hm'e slI eh dispanlte consequ e nces, Pe le r Ward sets th e ri ght the m e in his filial stat e llle nt o n th e IlOlHlcccss<\n- demi se of ammonites:
Their hi s tor~- \\-as onc of suc h Uilcomlllon .Hld clerc f aclaphl. li on that th c~" should hm'c sun-j,"ctl, ~oll lC\\' herc, al"~() IHC grci.l t depth, 'I 'h e nautiloids d id, It is nl\' prejudice tl",t th c ,llllll,o nit cs \\"Ollkl 11(\,"C, S
1);
!) I '()S. \l ' l{ I '
\
11 .\\:-;" 1 \( :1...:
IiOll years ago _III thcir IOllg !J i s lor~" 1 h e~ " \11 n-iH::c\ c\'erythi Il!; else the ca rth threw <.It th elll . Perhaps it \,"as ;;'O lllcthing frolll outcr spacc. not thc ea rth , that finalk hrollr;ht thcm dOlm . The true philistine n\;1\ still say. "So \\' hat? If no impact had occu rred, both amlllonites and nanliloid s mHi ld st ill be ake . \\'11<,1 do I care' I had ne,er e, en heard of nautiloids before reading Ihi s essol\·." Think abollt dinosa llrs and start cari ll,r;. :";0 illipad to termillate their sl"ill -\-igorou s di H:rs it~". ;:1IIt! perhaps cliJl()~
Jove's Thunderbolts
0 :,\ 1':
partl~- e~capt'
part~·.
,"le i IT J:\' lR...J.j . to her parellts' lIoi s,- diJlner \ laria ,\ [it c hdl ofl'\antucketluggecl h e r telescope to th e roof of th e Pacific t\J tional Hallk (\I'here hcr fath e r 'Hlrked as chie f cashier) ali(I discm e red a C0111et fi ,'e degrees from Polaris, the '\orth Star, For this dj scO\'c r~' , the first comet found b~' all America)) wo mall , f\·litchcll rcceised IlWl1\ honors, inclndi llg a gold medal from th e Killg of De llmark
alld election. as the first \\'omal1 c\'er so H.:cognizcd, to the ;\IlICriC<'11l
,\ eadelll'- of /\rts alld Sciences ill Bostoll . (\Iitc hcll 's certificate of eledion still hangs on th e mtll of h er hirth hotlse in f'\
i) 1 ' ()S_U-l t
I '\.
\
11 _\):-\ [ \ LI'
total c\c lllsioll for one sex frolll sciellce, but mo~t. like Caroline llersehel, ga ined access as s i ~tc r~. \\'in:s, Of daught ers of mal e astronomers, ~Jari" !\Iilchcll, hOIl CIW, su ccccded 011 her O\m , ller falh er, Willialll, \\'as
love',.;
Thulltierho /f s
cOllldary fragment s, stretch ed Ollt in <.1 trail I H.:arly 200,00 0 kilOlll t tcrs long, ncar jnpiter. Th el' determin ed that jupiter's gra"ih I",d prni ousk pnll ed th e CIltire comet apart \\I wn it had passed \\'ithin '00 ,000 kilollleters of thc giant planet's ""face, Th e\' also recogni zed - and no\\ th e escitement sta rted - that all these fragments \\'ou ld inc" itabk crash into jnpiter in jnk '99+ What a sIrO\\ , and \\'I",t timing- precisek at tire t\\'cnh'-fifth anni\('rs",,' of Neil ,\rrmt rong's first step upon the lunar surface, But an ep idcmic of co ld fcet th en gripped the astroll omi ca l cOllllllunity, aJ1d th e spin doctors of dilllinished e'pectation raised theinoices high, T he impact \\'(Hrld "icld result s of great sc ientifi c , alue, to be sure, th e,' said , but ,'ie\\'ers sllOlrldn 't e'pect to sec nlueh of ,nl\' I'isceral iuterest, The [raglllcnts would probabk be pulled farther apart, and burn into notlringnc,\s in the high rea chcs of Jupiter's
I)I ,(J";\{ :I{
1\
\
H \''';' I'\(: I..:
I11m"cd qlli('kl~ ' into ,"i!..',,", fonnillg;J linear chain of cjru dar sC,lrs, SO IllC larger than th e e ntire ea rth I We do not knoll h(m long th e scars II ill last, o r e,'en " heth er th e ir da rk ness re (;(l,ds shadoll' or snhstallee (blacke ll ed carboll , or sOllie forills of ,,"fur, I",,'e hecn sLL>;ges tcd ), W c do Ilo t
knO\\" ho,,' far th e fragm ents penetrated into Jupiter, or e\"cn what pel1etration 111ca ll!'> on
,:,0
enti re plallet ill bri ghtness" (So milch for sillgl e pixels!) I<'ragmcnt C lll<J~' ha,'c plullged uear" forl\' miles iuto lupitc r's atmosp here , :\ phnne of
sllperh ca ted
g;J S
th en erll pted m"c th e im pact site to a height of 1,300
luiles abm'e th e Jm'iall sur facc, ,'icldiu g som e of tire 11l0st spcctacu lar pictures of th c entire \I'cek, I ha,'e read , 'arions estimates of th e si /,e and pOII'c r of th is largcst strike. bllt takin g the most eOllsen '< lti,'c figure reported in major Il e: \\"spapers and sc ie ntifi c journals (USA '{od"r, luk 22) , Fragment C m e,lsllred sO l1l e 2.0 10 2.5 Illil c.:S ill diamcter
of abont Ii millio n mega ton, of '1':\'1', Taken a ll together. tire t\\'e nh'Oll C fragm ents, by this S
This comparison to the Il1cgatollllagc of our cll tire Iluclear arsenal sent shiH:!"s ti p 1l1~ " spin e <.l Jld brought for th frolll my memory ,1 similar figure that recalled the key debate lI'ithin paico ntol og" during tlr c past
dec.:;'lde, and also cr~ "s tallized th e ,'mious themes for this eS~
extraterrestrial object, a CO lll et or <111 <.lstcroiJ some six Illiles
ill
di
kr, st m ek tire earth at tire en d of tire CrctaceollS period, 6, million , 'ca r,
li S at
least, the most iIllportant, as th is e,'cnt
wiped outdinoSClllrs an d g"" CIll illlllllal s their opportl1nit~" - see the preceding essay. I kn cII' nothing abollt tire ph,sics of impac t at th c time, and I re-
harboring somc strollg i11 itial dOll hts aholl t the effi eac~" of sllc h e\'(;11t. I did 11 nderst
II H.: III ber
dccidedk ullpic
descent . hilt \\'hy siJOuld ;[11 ohj ect only six 111ilc:s ~1Cro SS wreak sllch haH)C upon
Ill\ lIai \'c skcptic islIl to I .\lis Akarcz, a t'
1)1 :\()S\ l I H
I' \
11 \):-; 1·\( ; "
"mel that the (;;IUses of stich cpi sodes could reside ol1ly ill <\11 intellsifi. cation of o rdin.o1les, !l1l1 Clcn rell1indcd 1IIe ofthc famo1l s slatement bs Frc nd Ih'l l I 1re1le ofte n qnolctl ill thesc es.s"ly~: 'I'he lIlost illlportallt sc ientifi c.: re\Ullltiolls alIi IIcludc , a.s thci f ()Ill~" CO llllllOl1 feat lire, til l' cldh fOll CIll Cllt of h lIlIl ,-1I1
lore' ,Ii
Thll/l(/er/)o/lx
:1 rrogallce fmlll ()Ill' pedestal after another of pn.',"im I ~ C011 ,"i clion s abOilt
our Cl: lltr<:llil~
thc cosmo~ (sec cssa~" 25), ,\1 the n"'f~ " lcast, great IT'"Olui iOlls 1l11l~1 al ter SOllIe ccntra I ('Oll ('cpt ,1bout 011 r Ii,"cs or I he \\"orki ng,\ of thc IIl1il'crse, I'lcltc tedonies radiealk ehangeel th e pill sics of tl; c earth. but fell fllllelalllcntal tCllets of hlllll0tcntd rel'isions speak to the tensiolls that I,'rcud identified as both scan' and liberating - for Ci.lt
or
II,n"c the changes \\"hi ch lead us from 011e geological state to another heel) , Oil a lOl1 g,n"crage, unifofm illlhcir inten.sity, Of h
\\"odd
inh)
"\"0
sec ts,
\\"hich
11U~ " pcr klp~
lill i/imllilmiall"
be
d cs i~ll
C, 1', Serope. one of I.relJ's k"ding geologi cal collcai;ucs, rcad \V!Jc\\dl"s rc\'ic\\" and \\Tote to 1 .~·c l1 Sl1ggC~ l'illg that the di c hotolllY lllight casil~ ' be fcsokcd Of compromised: ,\.s 10 the dispute he speaks of, lI,hic h I kn,JI\' has 11 011 ' and then raged pret ty \\'arnd ~' betwee n you a~ ;t Uiliformitariall
perfect cordialit\'. Hnt I ,\dl firmly reiected this Illediation <1lld stock h , Whe\\elJ's di\,ision , lie \nole to Whell'ell, 'looting Serope's opinion "nd then "dding his own slIpport for a dichotomy of prillcipk : 00 this point I eanoot budge ,In inch for reasolls to bc de\c1oped ill v, j Ithat is, th e third mlolllc of his i'rillcipb ,,(Ceo!. ogy, published th e ne,l \'ear, IHenl , II is of eoorse <1 question of probahilil\' to sOllle e,ten t inill e prese nl stale of om kIlO\\'lcdge, but! consider il a IllOS! imporlant qucstion of principl e, lI,heth er II'C incline 10 th e prohabilities as seen in the last j,OOO \'Cars or possihililies \\,hich I hold to he uoea ll ed for b\ a 11\ ' O\'er· \\'helming e\'id cllCC. In other \\'(lrds, J ,yell \\Tites, 11,1", il,,'ent lOlSee o (and catastrophic) forces \,"hell slO\d ~" acting present causcs, ohst' n "cd for lIlore than three tho\lsand years, suffi <.:e to render <111 geological en'lIts ill the fulllless of tim e, The intensih' of L\ell 's rhetorical support for ulliformitarianism ma\' besl be iudged ill the famou s hrst chapter of \ollllu e j , cOlllposed iII th e light of Whelldl's 1'C\'ic\\, alld its eodificd di el ".ltOll"', (Later cd itions of the Prinei/,!es o( Gcology dispersed the mal erial of this short se\'e n-page c\"'pler inlo earli er parh of the book ,) Ca tastrophislll, L\dJ argu es, musl be rejected as
lo\,e',.. Th llll(/erho/ ts
:'\!c\"el' \\"as there.: a dogllli.l Illore ca lculated to fostcr indolence , alld to hlunt the keell edge of curiosity. than this aSslllllpti oll of the discordance hd\\"cCIl the fo rm er and th e c\ isting ca uscs of changc" It produccd" sta tc of mind lInfa,"orablc in thc highest eoncc i,"abl c degree to the candi d rccephon of th e c,"idcn ce of th osc Illinute. hut ill cessant IIl1ltcl~i ()ns, \yhi eh c\"Cry part of th e earth 's su rface is ulldcrgoing " . \ Vc hear of sllddell
gllska ohject. ,I C 01llct
11m " produ ced the grea test disastcr ill hllillall hi slory Iwd il strllck ,11",lI,here Ilcar a population cC llter. 'I'his object, b,' bcst estim<1tc, measllred aboul threc Imlldred fccl in diametcr. Sllch smallparticics hit Ihe earth with \\'aitill f; times of llllllcln.:ds to tilol1s;'l1lds of ~ '<.:ars flld ied ..IS t lllCOllllll OIl h istorica 1en;nh , .:\Iay \\'e not extrapol ,ll c from these to the 1lI Heil rarer giallt bo 1iclcs. with diallleters 1Il(,:asHred in 11 tilc~ . Ih a ~ 1II11s1 sirike th e ca rlh" illl \\aiting tim es of tell S 10 hU11dreds of 11lilliolls of ,cars, bllt lI'ilh lIlass i,'e global effects alld lIith sllfo ciellt freqtlen e~' to shape Illllch of plallctar~ · history ill a hal f-dozell or so good strikes during th e tenure of multieell"lar 'lililld life L,'ell had lobbi ed hmd 10 sec life Whewe]]'s rel'iew ill the 1110.11 prestigiom of Briti sh jOllfllals, Bllt Wh ell'ClI, \I,hile prai sill g the book alld fair,," desc rihillg IAeil's S\ stem , Ih cn argued thai I "ell had becnullelll,," restri cti,·c ill his uniformitariall rigidity, and ~h i ll the C..1SC for c~1ta· strophblll relllained open ill principle, In other \\"()rd s, the issuc IllHst be settled In' scientific Stll'is' (o],se" <1 tion al1d inferellee), II0t hI' a priori definiti oll , Whelld l I\'rote in defense of catastrophi sm , and in tir e nc\:t paragraph follo,, ·itlg his definitions: It ~e el1l s to us SOl 11(. .·\\·11
We didn't necd Shoelllaker-LelY \l to ,alidate cataslTOphisml" the 111 0s1 direct routc of m·crt ObSC )Yiltioll. \Vc ,,'crc fortunate indeed 10 ,,·it·
all' el'cnl at sllch a scale dllring th e fel\' hlliidred ycars tlrat technology <1I1d cnlightcllcclulldcrstand illg ha\·c combincd to gi,·c us tools of comprehellSioll, 'J'h rough inferences based UpOll fossi lizcd results, the IlCSS
Jove's 'J'hlillderho!ts
Cretaccous bolide had prelt\' much prO\cn itself a fe" ,cars before Jupiter fractured Shoelll<1kcr-J.c\y into its lllurderous hits. Sh()cJllakcr-Lcy~- must therefore represellt '-Ill indlllgeIlce of Il;Jturl'-,-l gift to us, '-1 re\yard for ollr propcr IlSl' of sciclltific illferellce to ,alida1c at least one global catastrophe (the terminal Cretaceous bolide) against allihe prcjudices of our uniformitarian training" I\atufe almost
seemed to he saying to he r \\-,-l~ward and ill.c.;ignificant child on ea rth: "You did it the right aud hard "as, I" difficult infercnce; "ell done, thou good and faithful scn"ant; 1100Y I \\-ill shcm you a cosmic catastrophe directly, and for free. eyen though such <1n C\Tnt might plausibly not occur for lll,-lll\- thousaIlds of H:'
P
~
j\
n
t\.
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I.'
l'
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I
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I
n
K
WRITING ABOUT SNAILS
Poe's Greatest Hit
POST I !ll\!()IIS RIL()( :'\l'!!O:\ \1.\) HI-: (:()()n for the soul, hut most Jrtists \HHllcl prefcr a hit ofhodil~' sllccor durillg their hours of earthly lleed. I':dgar ,\Ilall Poe (lHo9-1H+9) pllhlished his first \lurk, Tdllwridlle dlld Other Poems, in IS1; at age eighteen. I Ie paid the cost-s of puhlicatioll hilllself, alld prodtlced btlt fifh copies, Clllh I\lehc han' slllTi\'ed, lllakillg this \\'ork the r
()rT()II~lIe \FOriIlS, \'efl'el \\ 'OriIlS, dlld \Vtller Bedrs
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
A (cllld/e tdrdi:.;,rdde, or miter /Jed]', m()/ts her eJ!,J!,-f/I1('(/ (,II/ide. ,\'
,\/"'.1;<1'1, !(f~2,
- Rm,,-'d.
I'mm hll'('rtd""k,. by Rnl","a dllJ
"N"
dn shelf life. I Insnrprisillgh, tardigrades hase beell of special e'peri. llIellLll interest to students of
P()e's Createst l1it and \\-e1l educated ill the \-arious ,ub of Renaissance humanism. Lconardo cLl Villci dcsigncd formid,lblc m;lchilles of \\',u-but \\'h~ llot, for prilleel~' patrolls lleeded his practical skills e\'ell more thall his paillt-er's art-. But llothill~
of Poe \\-andering through the \\"()ocls, or strolling
~ll()ng
the seashore
"drGllllillg dreallls 110 1ll0rbIl e\'er dared to drc,-llll before"? His \'arious litcran' creatures-the Ra\ell, tile apc of the Ruc :\Jorgue, or the Black Cat-e\'ince no particular knowledge of I:oolog~·. llis biographers l1a\'e had a most difficult time tr~'illg to suggest allY source for Poe's potential intercst in seashells. (Some h,,,e suggested that Poe Ill'" ha\e kn()\\n the llaturalistl,:dlllulld Ra\'ellel \\hile he \\as statiolled on Sulli\an's Island in Charleston Harbor during an arlllY hitcll illrk27 amlrR2R. Others point to a description of SOI1lC shells ill one chapter of his llO\-clla The Namltire orArt/wr Cordol7 1')'171.) We Illa, \\'ell conclude that The COllch%gist's First Boo" is a 11H)s\"quaillt alld curious \'olllllle," a true
175
DJ:\OS.\Llj{ J:\ .\ H,\ys),\CI-.:
CO~CHOLOGIST'.
...
A
FIRST BOOK:
RYS'l'f.M
•• TEsTACCOUS MAL&COLOGY.
'fue A~l)fAI..S. AOOOnDJNO TO CU\""ICR. ,'\.RE Qf\'£t\
WrT'1f THE
.\.1111
rna
~HEL1.I'1. •
[To view this image, refer to
lI'YI)U ~ • ..., CP,.U 4GO!IUT&LY AI ,*,KI, ....
the¥Xl' printt!O"CI~(Uf version of0'this title.] "t's...... TBt Klanc-.
BY EDGAR A. POE.
The title page filils Poe as Ihe only alilhor, allflOligh the bO(Jk (/ joint effort.
H'Os
know1cdglllcnt followed by an apparent search for "respite and nepenthe" (the drug of forgetfulness), F. T, Zumbaeh states that "it didn't bear esen the slightest relesanee to Poe's literars' career." Julian S~-1ll011S, an excellellt \\Titer of detective fiction as \\'ell as a literary hi-
ographer, writes that Poe "put his name to a piece of hackwork," Da\'id Sinclair describes The COlle/wiogis!'s Jiirst Book as "a piece of shameful haek\\'ork to \\'hieh onl\' desperation could has'e dris'cn him," Jeffry 'VIc\'ers labels the book as Poe's "grossest piece of hacbsork," 1 do not \\Titc this CSSLI\' eithcr to exoncratc Poc or to rC\'isc the llsual
Poe',,)
Cree/test
story ahout the ~cllesis of'j'he C017c1lO'()gi,,,t',~, First Book in any substantial \,-ay. R~' modcrJ] standards
mcr ill Ilca r sile] iCC. I \\-antto suggest. r~ither, that Poe's book succeeded hecause it fillcd a llccd ill a competcnt and at lcast 11lildl~' inll()\'ati,'e \\'a~' (\\"Iwtc\'er the duhiolls circulllstanccs of the \'olul11c's origin); 1110rcO\'er, \yhen \YC grasp I-he rcasons for its succcss, \YC learn SOillcthing interesting ahout popular education ill l1illctecllth-cel1tllr~- America. '1'0 ana Iyzc The COIlc/w/()gist's Iiirst Boo/" properly, \\'e IllllSt fi rst understand the gcnesis of the \"()lu1llc's \'arious parts, and Poc's role in cohhI i ng thelll together. (Reillelll her tha t Poe's na llle froll ted for the efforts of a COllllllittcc. \Vyatt ccrtainl~' \\"()rked 011 the hook, anel others lIIa~' h
l1il
!)1'\.()S.\I'1{ I'.. .\ 11.\YST.\Ch
Who publishes it? etc. etc.-about \\hat time \\as the aeeusatiOllllUdc? 1 assure you that it is totall)' falsc. In lS.fO IPoc is a \ear off herel I published a book \\ith this title-The Conehologisl's Firsl Hook ... This, I presllllle, is the \\ork referred to. r \\TOt<.: it, ill COlljUllctioll \\-jlh Professor Thomas \Vya1\, and Professor l\lc\lurtrie of Phi iladelphi la - I l l \ \Wille being pullo
the \\'ork, ,is hest kll()\\"ll ,mel most 1ikcl~' to ,lid its circuLitiol1. 1 the Pref,lce and llliToduetioll, alld trallslated froIll Cllyier the aCcoullts of the allimals etc. All school-books arc llecessarih llIacle in a similar way. The \ery title page aekn()\\leclges that the animals arc gi\'en "according to ClI\"icr." This charge is infamous and 1 shall prosecute for it, as soon as I settle m\" acCOUllts \\'ith the l\Iirror.
\\TOt<.:
The COl1ch%gisi'.'i First Book begins with a two-pagc "Prefaee," and I have no reason to cloubt Poe's claim that he \\TOte this part all b\ hilllseif. ,\ fOlll'-page "lnlTodne\iOlI" Ihell follcl\\'s-and no\\' the tronble hegills. Poe c\:propriateclilluch oft-his le\:I' frOili the fOllrth edition (lSjO) of a British \\ork b\ Captain 'I 'holllas BrO\\ll, titled The COlleh%gis!'s Text-Book. SOllle biographers have clailllecl that Poe's entire test is a paraphrase, if not a direet copy, of BrO\\"n"s. (V. 'I '. ZUlllbaeh, for e:\ample. \\Tites that Poe "copied from BrO\nl almost \\"ord for \\"()rd.") III fact, h~' lll~' O\\'ll comparison hch\"cCll thc hHl books, oIlI~' three paragraphs (about one fOllrtiI of the te\:l) shO\\" c\:tensi\'c "bolTO\\·illgs." (Poc wins 110 c'\ollCratioll thcreh~', for plagiarislll, likc prcgllallC~', docs nol increase ill se\"(",'rit~· by degrees: heyolld a point of definitioll, you cither did it or \011 dicllr'i-'llld Poe smeh clid.) The plot Ihiekel1s \\ith tile lIe,t seetioll of t\\ehe plates. Tire first four, illustratillg the part:; of shells, arc lifted ill toto, jot for jot all(ltittic for tittlc, from BrO\\'n. 1'\0 fuss, no pretcnscs, no e:\cuscs-just plain stolen. The sl1bseqllent eight plates, ilillstrating the genera of shells in t-
Poc's
Credtcst ilil
Lallwrck, \\'lio always presented his discllssions in chain-of-being order, but top dO\\'Jl, rather than the more con\'elltional direction of bottom up. That is, l.alllarek began \\'ith people and ended \\-ith allloebae, rather than the usual \"ice \"ersa. Bro\\,11 follO\\'ed J .alllarck and therefore started lI'ilh the most "aekallceer mollusks, Illlll'oe aud \\\all obel'ed the usual COll\'Cllholl alld bc~all \\'itli thc Illost "prillliti\"e" - hellcc the
rc\"crsed order. The elroice ofBrc)\\1I as lietim best illustrales tire lratme of tire SGIlII, or eilleasl tire easl-sireellueillocis folle)\\ecl bs \\'I'all, Poe, allcl eOUlpall) in producing their cheap edition of a lllolluscdn textbook. The key lies inC lasgc1\\", hOlllc of BrO\\"ll 's pu hI ish er. 1\ 0 cffccti\"C i nteflla tiona] copyright existed ill Poe's d,-l~-, alld lllaterial puhlished ill foreigll l1ations eoulcl be plagimized alld expropriated lIitlrout fem of leg,rl repriserl (llloral sanctiolls existed, just as today, hut prillciples \\'ithout practical power haH~ Ile\"er beell \'ery effecti\"e as illstrulllents of persuasion). Brolin lias British and Iherefore eillinenth e,ploitable, Wor the sallie reaSOIl, e,aells forts scars later, Gilbert alld Sullil'all brougirt tireir elltire troupe to ,-\lllerica to preseJlt the prcllliere of The Pirates o{Pel1,:::ollce ill "ell York, tirm to upstage the theatrical pirates who had made so lllllch money, without paying a cent ill royalties, from Cilbert ,mel Sulli\"all's IHl'\-iolls sllush hit, 1L\1.5. Pinafore.) POl' lllllSt haH_' fclt ~lt least millilllally guilty. for the pellciled correct-iolls ill his 0\\'1l cop~' of The COllch%gist's First Boo/;: illclude the t~)lh1\\-illg additioll to the acknowledgments: "[Thanks[ also to ~Ir. T BrO\\ll upon II hose e,('elent [sic[ book he has \en largely,iremn," 'I 'he llext section of The C017cho!ogist's First Hook. a tell-page "cxplallatioll "fthe paris of shells," also [leriles lerbalim from Broil II, lIith
DI'\()s.\\ 1\
1,\ .\
11.\ys"1 v:r..:
ferellt facets of a biological objcct, alld that olle Ilcedllot be eorrelated "ith the other (a frcqucllt theme of these cssa\si. Wc should apph thc same distinction to Poe's book. I "ill not defcnd its origin, but the final product had gelluine Iltilih (alld at least a dollop of innmation)-and
its cOllllllcrcial succcss \\"as IHl fluke. 'I '0 appreciate these legitimate reaSOllS for success, \\-e IllUSt ask l\yo questiolls: \Vhy did \VY;Jtt- celllupoll Poe
lS0
Poe ',~ Credte.'>! J-I it
Conchology, Illy friend, comprises the knmdeclge, arrangemcnt, and dcscri ption of tesblCl'OllS Jninuls; J scicncc,
of Conchology is formed." v\\att and Poe nl'" h,,,e pLlgiarized BrO\\II, bllt tlrn did impr",e Up01l his orga II izatioll, a lld til is ('llta ilcd SOlllC effort- desen'i Ilg more thelll an epithet of"haeb\Ork." An arrangement based onh IIpon slrells, al\(I ignoring the biological illanufacturers of these eO\'erillgs, Illust represcnt all e:\ereise ill ,lftificial pigconholing, and canllot prm-ide an uptinlal 'Ieeollnt of nlollrlsean life. ,\ more integrated ,md flllh biological discllssioll 11i1iSt presellt iliforillatioll tlbollt ClnilllClls and shells together. \\\att ,md Poe deeided to prmide lliis dllal treatnlent-esell lllllllglr \\\att had failed to do so in his more elaborate \'()lullle-andnot Oil a \\'him, or as a nice little sidelight. but cIS the fundamental feature of their 11e\\' \'OllllllC. Poe's h\'o-pagc preface is little 11iOIT thall a rationale for this defining feature of the lle\\' \Ohm1e, lie hegins \\'ith ciefillitiolls, contrastillg lllalacology, or study of all biological aspccts of mollusks, \\-dh conchology, or consideration of the shells alone. Poe then states that he \\'il1 keep the morc familiar name of conchology, hut introduce the important hiological illllm'atioll of descrihing hoth thc animals and shells together: Thc comlllon \\'orks upon this subjcct, hO\\'c\'er, \\'ill appear to c\'cry pcrson of scicnce \-cry cssentially dcfccti\-e, inasllluch (\S tire relatiolls of tire allilllal al\(I slrell, "ith tlreir dependence upon cach other, is a rCidicall~- illlportant consic1enJtioll iu the c\:Cllllination of eit-11er ... There is no good reason \\'h~' a hook upon COllch()l()g~- (using the eomlllOll tefln) Illay not he Illalaeologic<.ll as far as it proceeds. Poe thell reinforces his intent b~- describing tIle ne\\' book's "ruling fcature" - "that of gi\'ing
J)I"()~\III{ I" .\ IhY~I.\Ch
P()e ',.; Creotest H if to lll~llleU\"er arOllild thc conccrns, and the legal arm, of his original pnblishcr? To ~Ills\\-cr thesc questiolls, \YC Ilccd to Illake the right analogy to the most comparable modern phellOlllelloll-lllusical pcrforillcrs \\-llO tote tapcs and CDs ofthcir \Vork to nog at intermissions during their COIlccrts" The COl1ch%gisi's First Rook did not sell primarily in bookstores
(if many c\ist-cd in carly-ninetccnth-century Amcrica)" \V'yatt lwcl a specific, clcclieated market -and he realk needed all inexpemi\e prodne! to sell" Presentcrs of popular scicncc IIO\v teach in schools or frequcnt thc true "midnight drear~" of our modern agc-Iate-night radio talk sbmys" But a ninetccnth-ccntury counterpart to Jacqucs COllstcal1 or Da\"id . . \ttenhorough hit the tra\"eling circllit as an itincrant lecturer at the \";niOllS lyccullls, athenacullls, hook circles, and ladies' and gentlemell's elnbs (usnalh separate) that kept the fire of icaming ahe ill c\cn- substantial to\yn of ninctccnth-ccntulY ,\mcrica" Tholllas \V'yatt \\-as such a tr,-l\-cling salesman of sciencc-and he needed
Dl:\()S.\l)R 1:\ .\ ii:\YST.\CI..:
l.{O II&IId, IlIOIitudiDalJy ...blAYOlute in Ibe ..me pIone; apeotan 'PlY wide, oymmel;deal, c:ompIete. square ulorio.I,. a1ishll, mOo cUed by \be lam of Ibe IItlmmit, ud providod OIl . .cb sid. "ith rlike eppUldep ha.iug lbick and omooth WI!"'" Inhabits • Moditorranoan. Three .peci... Ars!>.!'&1I1a JPI!I.. A1'IODa~~ 7bon:o~. A. nitid...
g~ J!tdL~1*u...
Z. Grnue Carinoria. Pl.
xrr.
Animal. Body elongated, prolonged behind the nucle.s ioto a veritabl. tail odgcd at its exlromity by • vertienl fin; hoa • ononUo with lo\l<,} edges. SholL V my tbin, symmotrionJ, a lillie compressed, without opire, but wilb lb. s"mmit. lilll••eflexed pOIterio,ly ; apert\lTC [To view this image, refer to oval and oolire. Tnh.bits the theprint African, Moditerranean. and AUIversion of this title.] lra.li.a.n .&60S. 1'hree species. Oarin.ria 'Vit'rGtl. Carinaria fragilill. C.oymbie.
,
,
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I
1(/
(}",-C" "1l'
/1'?'. y/
r. I .
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•
-
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After (/ lecture, "Proff\\)'att"
I (l1wm(/~ \\,',i'at/, the expert behind the shell book! probdhfy ~()ld this cop,\' to its first owner For .)1.75.
P oe ',,; Crell f c .~'[
young ladies of Charlesto\\ 11 Female Semillary" (probably ill lh e set-
llellle nt just ea,sl of central Boston a nd spe ll ed lI'ith " "II," an d not th e c it, of Sonth C lrolina, West Virgi nia , Illin ois, or i\ li'Sissippi , rende red \\' itlr a le ite r le" as C harleston )" \fte r Ihe last page of Poc's joi llt an,l tolllieal and cone hological desuiptions, th e ",me r has IITitten: "The e lld of I,ee lures 0 11 C Ollc hol ogy h,' Proff. \V,'a tt" - th e cl inch er 10 Illy searc h fo r a source (! had ne, e r h ea rd of W ra tt before \\Tiling Ih is essa,', and the refo re had no cille to the mea n ing of th e imc ripl ions). Oth e r joltings
brgdy Ilote lhe ct) ' IlI()l og~" of Lillll
of The COIl(:li% gist's First Book In OIl C of hi s lectll re series 0 11
lll olIlISks, ,dl e re he sold th e H,lullle to a '\'Olllan ,dlO then attendee! the lectures a nd took copiollS 1I0tes, 1I00'e to thillk of th e hook passing frolll \\\.I tt 's 0\\'11 ha nd illto the own ersh ip of \ :1.1 , C ha rl esto",n , perhaps fo r t",o dollars for ked O\'e r, a nd a "lIarte r gi,'en in e h.mge , C hnc kle if \'0 11
\\"ill at 1lI ~ " imaginat ioll, bill the l~'('e Uin 1ll00"Clllcnt ill ,'\llleric
of th e most \\"o r~h y
1m edllcati on of 0 111' tim e ), This IlJO\'C llIent a lso represe nted a il e of the coll ecti"c cd Il C" tiO Il , Th e fe\\' pa tIl\\ a,s t he n ",'a ihi ble to wo me n for C;,mc/lOiogis!'s Firsl Book \\as ,1 reasord)ic contributi on to this effort, ami
,II'"
Illy
the heart of <1 \\"o rth ~; ca use. I am I-hcrcfo re led to \'ie,," Poc's most fa molls image in a differcnt
co py com es fro J1l
Iighl fruln the a 11th or's in tenl. Poe opcns hi s \\'indo\\', th IlS .1d ln itling the RiJ\"cll
" ho perches
011
his white
bll ~ t
of Pc.1lla." and nc,"cr le<.I\'es:
,\ml thc Rase\l , never flittin g, still is sitting, still
is sitting O n the pa llid bllst of Pall"s jllst .l bO\'e m " c hambe r doo r. Poc's R,-,,'cl1 is
ll il
1) 1'()S_\ l - lt I '
\
II _\\S" I \( :J...
/Jilrthenus-the l'"rtl,el1on of ,\th (' ns is her telllpic- refe r to ltc r purih' " ",I sirgin ih. Poe ".,lls her Pallas, and nndollbtedh- longed for th e unsullied life tha t she sS'l llbolil.ed .) Th e urbane Poe, (hell e r iu cities, sc ho lm of lan guages, no of n;ltural hi stoly. Ano the R,n'ell, mllbol
t'"1
of ra\\"ll
of opposi tes: black aod \I·hite, sc ience aod literature, nature "",I culturc. Shall lSe not c he rish the juxtaposition '
The Invisible Woman
EJll01l'IV : KIIIU'SIICIII'Y's RI,,\ILI'I'IO:-;S of Stalin's less than sa inth' pe rsona and proeedores. the SOI'iet lin ion rel'i led its offi c ial l'Crsion of COIlllllunist Party histor~· during th e h\Tllticlh century. I bought a copy of thi s nCII' editioo and imJll ediateh turn ed to the iod ex to learn the btcst word on lI nele Joe. I found that he Iwd suffered the lI'Orst of all fate" he simply lI'aSid there, i\nd I thoo ght to nn self, LOI e him or hate him , hllt hOlI' in he ll e"Jl yoo tell the storl' of twe ntieth-ce nt",) Rossia lIithoot hilll? The keep ers of offic ial records had med the primml' (bi ee of C\TOIllJlIUnicators, ,-lllathclllatizcrs, alld ostracizcrs througllOllt Ilistory:
there is a fate far l\'Orse tl"'n death or th e rack, and its nam e is o],li,'iOIl-oot the acce ptable fadin g of all honored life th"t passes from general JIIelllor, as histori e,, 1 record" degrade (for nemis' "II of o s Illilst endure this eTasure), bllt the terro r of lInpersollillg. of hein g present (e ither in life or illJlIlediate Ill c lllor~ ') bLlt bypassed as though IlOIlexis tellt.
Whole grollps hal'c sliffered this fate '" a eome'l"enee of general pre judice rather thall special excoriatio11. ,\s a pril1l(lr~· c:\<.I lllplc from IllI'<JI\n field of e"olutioJlaTl' reeoJl.ltrilction, Ilearl y all older theories for the "a,,'ellt of man" limited their concepts bl' the " II"e prejudice that set their e hoi ec of words, Until the fCIHinist 11100 elllen t p'OI'oked" salllt c.l r~· expallsion to th e entire human face , IlCi.Hl y <.111 th eor i e~ attrihllted
Ollr ~ h<1rcd
capa citi es for langllage. illl-dligcllee, and othe r \",tlll ed prop-
erties or the milld e ntirek 10 Ihe ael;"ilies of pre histori c males. Thm " e Icmncci th aI" langllage arose fromlhc coordination needed to hUllt large Clilimals (all aU-lllal e act i\"ity ill eOlln:lIti onal rec onstruction s), or that cOllsciousness itself cmerged frolll the 1110rc cO ll1pl ex mental function-
ill g rcquired to sta lk gamc hlllothcr male pr<. .'sen"c)" \VOIllCll, ullde r th ese thcori es, rCJllainccI ill \"i ~ ibl c-s itlill g ill th e can: \\"ith th e kids, I suppose (and so depictecl ill paintings ;IllcllllllSe Ulll dioramas ), hut unmcntioned in e'\pl icit text. This ideological illl·isihilil,· of prehi storic felll ,des ""IS bolslered I,,· a scxi:.- t soci ol og~" of di sc ipl ines that pren: lll ed li\"ing \\"()1I1 (' 1l frolll practic in g the Jllost prestigiolls parts of science - researc h and pllbli ~ hill g " Only ill this gencration haY(; \\"()lIlcn bee n entering sciellcc ill sllbslantial11111l1bers. (I <1111 prond that 1111' 0" " lab Iras incl uded 50 percent or more of \\"Dill e n grad llate st\ldents dllring the pust dcc,l(lc, but I must admit that the first wOll1an le.x' hing fellow ill onr largest ge l!eral collrse for 1I 0 nscient; sts did 1I 0t obtain he r positi o n untillhc carll 1<)70S: she is 110\\" a distingllished resea rcher at th e SlIlith soniall l1l stitUlio n . ) If intellectual \\"OllH;n lI.we beell so restricted in our 0\\"11 day, (onsider th e e\"ell gre;.l ter lilllits im posed dnring the ninetee ll th century, th e subject of thi ~ essay" III }<",n glr "'i lh the inh eritors of lire essenliallv aristoc ratic "blne-stoek ing" creed. I\'ilh its stlldied c lIltil-atio n of an uninl e nse intclleelualisnl. 011 th e.: oth er. it passed . IS acce pt ..lhle in th ose far l1Iore nUIllCrous middl e-class c ircles ,,·hich subscr ihed 10 Ihe l1e,,' e'lIll of sen tilll cniali /"cd \\"I}l I 1<.111 Ilood : til e "perfect tidy" of ,1 repressive E\-
The !lJl·i..,ihfe
\F0 111 t111
F~ \'(:.· 11 so, \\'{JIll cn played () nl~-
The BOl
\Vomcil \\'ith sc ientifi c interests wcre therefore cOllfined to a narrO\\ ' nll1ge of margilli.ll ac1i \'ities, <.l\\·ay- from (or, at best. '.H1xili ar~ · to ) th e
cC llters of pre~ tigc <m el illno\"ation in research ,lJId publishing. \VoJll cn could illustrate lI'Orks \\Titte n bl' lIl e n, Tire plates for )Olrll Could's Ilirds "fFuro/Je, secOl.d only to ;\uduboll in desirability and cost for 1l1odern book coll ectors, \\ cre d ,,"1'll largel y by his \\'ife, ,d.o th e refore dese.yes 1Il0st credit for the work's rcp Lltation- <1 consequence of th e fi gu res, 110 t the text. In c id e ntally, lIl am' of tir e other plates \\'ere dOlle b)' I':d",arci I ,e
I) , '" ()~_\t ! ' t I '
\ H \' S 1-.\( : "
tflIllIJl." Charles Kin~sle\' state d that I~ riti s h marine hota",' wOldd her, and, ill .1 rC \Talill f; choice of \\"ords, lauded her '; IIl
Ullllllmbered tribes of Victoriall ladi es seem to !J",·c \\Tittct) \\'ithollt e\'cr doin g.1Il iota of research. Ladi es werc next ill line to ele rg\J ncn as relen tl ess prodtl eers of popular nat",al hi st"", books, ahle at th e fIlstl e of a publisher's contract to laullch illto e ndless sto rics about, ,faithftll clogs \\ ho rese llcd the ir masters from c\'crsthing tlnclc r the sun , a llci ele phan ts Who N e\ er Forgot. \Iost of t'leir effusions \\'ere clirectcd to ot hcr ladies, or to childre n (it is ofte n hard to tell \\'hich ) and c ha racterized b) gll1tillOll ~ se lltilll cllta lit~· .. . and all abilit~· to drop into ,'ersc:; at the least pros'()catioll . I do not disputc Barbe r's a;;e5\lI1 e llt , btltl bclic\ e th at \\'e II1llSt ta ke this gCllre morc seriollsly for many reasons, rangi ng frolll the scholarly (for insights pros'ided into th e hi sto" of \\'{) men 's soc ial and intellectllir! strllggles ) to the ethicli (res pec td uc to lI1argi nali zed people who bridle a nd suffe r tinder imposcd limitati ons, but \dlO, C\Tn o n pain of illtls, trating a stcr(;'ot:v c, 111l1.\t filld SO lll C c\"press ioll for crcati\·c illlPulscsblacks \\ho prcferred opera btlt entercd the onk a\'a ilabl c world of popular mllsic; Jews like n1\ grand fa the r \d lO \\is hed to be artis ts but endeclnp as sk ill ed ga rment makers). I am hap p\ to notc that se\'cral seho lIl1CIl' s stud-
The l lll'isihfe \\'uman
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
;\ )\'()()c1-hnrillg c!alll, or sh i/Jmmll, as illw;/ra{ed ill :\/ to:'
HlJhert,~·.~
' ['11l' C(J1l(,: h(IJ{}gj ~I'~ C0111P'll l i o ll .
ics, arc no\\" rediscO\'criJ1g thc indsible wOlllen who \Hote popular books histOfY dllring th e n in etecnth centu ry. I do not ha\'c the kllO\dcdge Of experien ce to make a profcssiOlli. ll contrihutioll in this speciali zed area , but I " ish to record a pe rsonal c ncou nte r. [ rccenlk purchased, at Ihe deeidedk lOll-priced en d of a catalogue froIll Rri ~a il1 ' s Ill"liar plln'c~ 'o r of eJ ntiquarian books in il e:ltural hi story , a COP)' of a qllilltcsscntial represc nt',ll i\·c of til is gCllrc -" 'he C017 ch%gist's COll1panio/l, 18,4 edition, by on e Roberts, Ilrad not heard eithe r of it or h e r, but I "as iutrigued beeausc I alll ,1 co ncho[()~ist [n' spec ial!,' (a stude nt of mollusk shells), and becallSe I lI'anted to Icam abo ut thi s 0 11 (;(: import ant but HO\\" iIl \'isiblc gen re. '\ 5 I tricd to discO\er 1\ ls, Roberts, I quickk e ncountered the hngbear of all scholarly researc h into ti, e act i"i ti es of people decl,1fed periph eral by s ocict~·\ S;
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'vLIry Robe rts ' HOle" dozell books 011 "alm,,1 iIi slon·, som e "PP"lqllite popular in her day, hut she \"illS 110 more thall a colul1lll ill ,111 ~' biographie sourcc. She: was born ill I,ondoll in t7kS , th e daughter of a Quaker merchant ( ,I (.'0111111011 religiollS affiliatioll for nill etccllthccntllry ,,-omcn \\Titcrs). Il er famil y 1Il0\'ccl to C louccstershirc ill l790 , I' llt she le lurlled 10 i.ondoll ("lid lefl th e Quakers ) after he r fath e r's dealh . She li'·ed ill Hromptoll Sql1arc, London , for th e relllailldcr of he r life, Il e,·er llIarried , ""d di ed 0" )allllan '3, IH o+ I 1I<,,·e beell able to find abso illtc.:l~" Ilothill£i e lse ahollt her life" Th e 11I0St C0 1l111101l obscr\"atioll, mentioned by all fi\'c o f our SOllrccs, is he r frcquent confllsioll ",,·ith '"lOlher :\Iar) Rob e rls, 170,- .R2R ... who dcdi cal ed to I hlllllah \[orc "Il alllililiolls collection of poelll s. " SlIeh ,Ire Ihe in t',ilablc frnils of im'isibilily (a nd a COlll11101l llel1nc). " ·he biograph ical sources a Iso s"'· almosl noth iIlg aboll t Ih e eonlellt of her " ork, bcmnd li stillg litl es -allh o llgh Ihis e,·idc ll cc is potcnli alk a,·ai".bl" (ifalso hmd to get, for few libraries Il.ainlain collceti ollS of po p1I lar "riting of pa st agcs). ~h oldest SOli rce, A Cri tical Diction",)' of En glish Literature, fro m 1870 . rcfers to ~""T Roberts as "a use ful alld popular Fllglish authoress ." \ ·11 latest. Th e Femilli.st Com/,ull ioll to} ,ilera/woe ;11 English. frolll H)<)O. notes that "C\ 'CIl whell \\'filing for ~-ottng childre n, she careflilly 11<111le.:S IIer SOllJ"(': CS" " Sh e.; wrote SOI11C nonsc ientifi c.; books . most ll()blbJ ~' a compcndiulll on li\·c~ offalllolls WOlllel1 , titl ed Select Vemale iliogra/Jhy ( l ib) , alld 'wrk with the illiriguin£; tillc Sequ el to an Unfinished Manuscript ofH. Kirke Whit e's 10 Illu slrate the Contrast betll'een the Christian 's and the Intide!'.s Close of Life. Hut most promin cnt arc her dozen or so \\"orks ill popul ar natural history, including (ill chrono logie,ll o rder ): Th e Wonders of the Vegetable Kingdom ;AI1 l1a 1.1:> or\!)' \ 'i!fage, hei JIg a Calendar of(\la ilfre f(>r Every' ;\lrJlllh c lltl~'
,,".Hz,
ill the Year; Dom.estica/ed Animals COil S idered with reference to Ci vj· li;c:ation alld the Arts; Sist er Man.'" Tales in Naluwl Hi.stOl),; The Seaside Compan ion; Wild Animals; Sketches ofthe Animal "nd Vegetal,le Proc/w::tioll.'i ofAmerica; RII in8 and Old '}'rees associated H'ilh iVlemorahle El'ents ill English Histo ry'; Fl()\ver~ of the ,\-latin and Evensong, or Th oughts j() r those who rise eClrl~' in pro.o.;e and poeil)'; A Popular l-lislOlY oflhe ;\1011Il.,ca; alld (nil· fa",ril e title ) \ 'oices !rolll the Woodlands, descriplire of F()res l ~'f'ree8, [-<"'ern!';, ;\ 'lo8ses and Lichens. I C<.11l11Ot dcny th ,lt The C0l1 cho/ogi8t's CmllpCl11 irm is as cOln"cntiollal as cOllH:ntiolwl could possibly bc- as cOllsc n-ati "e, <.1S lll~lill $ trcalll , ,IS eslahlishme nt. as co nforlllable to all e 'pect,llio llS both of gelle ral arglllI. enl ami of parlieul'Ir sid e e'pected from Inlll. en author>. (I do sellSe th c (.'olltradictioll implied by st.:ltill£; that \\'ork in a marginali zed gcnre
The in visible \Voman
call bc IIlainstrcalll in content, but ideolog~"
cst, and f]"(;qIlClltl~", in our opiniol\, th e most despicabl e creatures; as~ ignillg to each its statiOlI , and so admirably adjusting the mighty ,d1OI c, that C, 'C IY particle of Ill atte r, alll] e,'ery ]i,'in g thillg tlIat creeps, o r n'O\'es, IIpon th e smface of the eart h , is forlllcd ill SliDSen"ieney to the genend good. C od is so a!te nti,'c that hc o"eil c rcated so me anill,als as food faT o th ers, being carefnl to locate th em in accessible pl aees,lvlolinsks e,ist,
ill part, to fecd highe r crcatures: SOllle inhabit ditc hes a nd stag nant \\'at e rs, II h e re the\ Aford a eOllStalit suppls' of fooel to slleh birds as frequent th e ir ballks; olhers, no doubt with the same hCIICH)lcnt dcsigll . incrust Illa-
rin e plants in samlv' barren pl aces, n car the sea; a large pro portion rClllain concealed ill the dccp recesscs of tllc ocea n, \\"here th e,' furni sh food to the finll\' tribes; others adhere to Roating sea-llceels, and ab,",da"tls' sllppl" th e wants of marin e birds;
<.I nd, t.lstiy, exoti c snails abound ill many llll<:lIltiyatcd regioll s of tir e globe, where the,' freqlle ntl\' afford a lI'cleo,n e re past to the f.lillting tra\"cler. Robe rts illustra tes the principle of uni \'C rsa l good n ess and tcl eolog,' b\' th e standa rd ,Ies'ice of taking an appare ntly harmful crea tllre and demonstrating its actual contribution to the gene ral good i,md to specific hu m all be nefit), Teredos, or wood-borillg darllS (eolllmo nis' called
D I ' ()S. \l ' lt
I:"
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ship\\"orllls), seem to be no:x io ll s ill the ir destrllctio n of ships, piers. and pilings, Btl t look again toa \rider beneficen ce, I' irst of all , the, hore ,'cn careflllly, in <.I mod e di\-inciy c.: alculatc.: d 10 canse lIlinilllal h m lll. I CO Ilfess that lil< allm,' ,'a tlilled desire to appmac h the past Otl its O\nl terlll s, \\ ithout rid ienle horn of c urrent ktlosdedge, th e foll O\\'i ng passage did Imke llI e ho,d : "Btlt mark th e protectitlg care of I'rO\'idctlce , Th e destru ct ive opcnl tiolls ofthcsc insidious iJllill1<.l ls arc ill <.l grea t degree oh,'iated, I" , the sitlgular fa ct of their gellerally perforat ing the l\'Ood in th e direction of the grain ," i\,'1orem"cr, by rcdu cing logs i:.md c1l1l1lps of ''Cgctatio ll to s
All aspects of Ilaturc illustrate and glorif,' Cod, el'ell those fe" ttlfes th at seem to contradi ct each other. We 111 ,1\ think that Cod made th e pretty colors of shells for Ili s (or our ) delight, bllt th ey actually prodllce cryptic patterns th,Jt caillouflage mo llusks from their e nemies: Bll t \\'h ~", illustrio lls natur.ali sl, did your obscn·'lti oJl s extend Jl O furth er? Sa\\"~"()ulloth i llg in th ese . "shells. but an mrangelllcnt of col ors to please the cI'e ' , , Saw lUll Ilot, that thc Almighty C reator of the Ull i,"crsc, ,,"ith ollt \",h ose perm issio ll
1')4
Th e i nvisible \\'o /ll a/l
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
S e(/~ltelh ilhl ,~lr(/lc d
ill '[ '11\:
C() ncl}()[ o!.; i ~ l \ COl llp;'l1l io n.
But in oth e r passages we learn that C od did make colors ouh for bed uty, and that, as sne h , th es stand in contrast to the ntilitl' of she ll sh apes and sizes. Robe rb ,ngnes for adaptation in Hle shape and o rnaIllent of the phohld (rock-boring e hllll ) she ll , bnt for decoration alon e
in th e col or: "An m'ate or oblong [o rlll is c o n seqll e ll tl ~' I'h e \'Cl} best tha t could be adopted ; and , lllorCOIT r, th e po ints \\'ilh \\'hi eh it is cmc red 'lnd 'ldo rned, arc e l'id entl y des igned to protect th e sh ell frolll e,tc nd in j1H~' ... At th e sam e ti me a bC<'lI1 li ful yari et ~' of ti nts C\'illee thaI mi n ute attc ntion to the fini shing and dccorating of hi s wo rks whic h the D e il\' so co nti n ualh displass." I'in'llh , nMure is not only well design ed a nd ftlll ofbcatlty, bnt al so repl etc \\'ith lIloral messages for humall bdlerm cnt. The metamorphosis of butte rni cs S\"lllholi/.es th e libe ra ti on of th e soul fro m an earth h body, while th e unfoldin g of a n o\\'cr represc nts our ho pe for lllen tal enl igh tcnme nt : ''The botan ist confesses, in th e " ufo ld ing of Ihe cah" , , , an a ttrad ile e mbl em o f th e e'panding of th e h u man mi nd, as it clll e rges from
195
Roherts's eOll\'e ntionalih of arg"mellt f"lk lIIatehes her faithf,,1 adhere nce to th e style of presentation expected frolll wo men ,-lIltllors ill
this genre , When, for exa mple , , he disc usses the utilit\' of mollusks ill hlllll
'1'0 tlris splendid snperstrll etllfe, nothing can bc added ; neither C;.lll all~"
thing he ,"aken frolll it, \\"it!J ollt producing a ehasill ill erc~ I'ion, \\"hich, hO\\"c'"cr imperceptible to li S, \\"ould l1laterially affect th e gencral harmony of nature. All thiJ\g~ "cre made by liim , and witlront him (,
The Inri sihle \\ 'oma/l
rct ufllin g to olle of the llJost illlportant' essays ill JI:nglish le ttcrs - a doclllllent that 11"111\ ' of us rcad (at least ill cxcerpt ) ill Plril osopl" I, bllt Ira\'c pro b"b)' Il e,er tlrou ~ltt a bollt sillee: I,:dmlllld Burke's Ph ilosophical 1,,quiT)' illto the Origill oj'our Ideas o(the Su{,{illle a/ld Beautiful,' first Jlublished ill ' 756, Burke afgucs that ou r aesth etic senses are I11 m 'cd h~ ' two sepafate eOll fig tl",tiolls, " lti e lr Ire call s the sublime alld th e heall tiful. These arc trul y di stinct. for one is not the nega tioll or the reciproGl1 of th e other. Th e sllhlil1le (,,'hieh BlIrke also ca lls th e "great") is bascd Oil o tlr illstillet for sel f-p rese1Ta ti oll alld found ed ill terro r. Its th e lll es in clude ,,)Strless,
darkll ess. n; rti cil Jit~·,
llla Ss i n:: IlCSS, rO ll g llll C,\ S, infillit~ ,. solidit~"
and
1ll~'S
ten , The beautiful, on the other hanc\. is ro oted ill pleasure a lld lillked to Ollr iu stinct for generatioll (Ilccc ssar~ ' for th e prescn'a ti oll of Ol1T race, but n ot so clem e llta l as self-preseIT"tioll and th e sublime I, The th ellles ofheauty e nco mpass slll"tlllless, smoothn ess, \'cHid), in shape (b ut on ly b~ ' rounded rather th all angular transitions), deli c;lc~', tram:p\.' In {lIII I. I~'(',\'''' I ~S ,I fk . lIlor e 111,111 I\\(,:" h ~ e; II ' " i llu ~ lIt .I rol , 'I Ill' . 1J1 ~ \\ n i, l><' 'illljlk, Bl1 rl,,\ /-:,\,W /I i, 0 111' of Ihc !.;rl'.ltl'" dIlCl l1l1t' n h ,'I'l'r I. \
Ilriltell il, Ol lf LIII :';l1a~l' - t~'1' :d l lhal
I rilld ll:plIl,\iH' lh l'fl' in ' ;un id olhn imigll h 11 1.11 'lH' II\1I ~' \1 (Hldcr· fill i. \ 1\ \"o IUllll: of Hmh: h;!1 :il\\ ,\I' 'h~, l(1 ;]('C('"i hk' Oi l 111\' h"obl ldf -,., lJ.uI ol\olll llK ~4 111 111\ w i of 11.1fI.llti CI..,\,i," \ 1\ t;f, llldf:l llw r ho m; hl Ill i, w I in I Ill' H):'O'. \\Iw il h(: ucci(kd 111;11 h t.: lla. ll o PIP'
, idl', for hilll\l'l f .Jlu l 1m d lllclfl'\l. ;lll opl'tlTlulI ih' for til l' l'.IIl(';I(iOIl tl. ,11 Il l ' Ila,\ liner rl'(Til c d , I do ubt Ikl t Ill' ~' I n , 'Olhlll kd 11101'\' Ih a ll;l l oll lllll' o r !l1{), \1 1 Iliollwr r~',1(1 all d lerca\ ti lt.: \ o h li lle [III \c" )I'_ (: l'i I\ UII , .11 )(\ ,\I\(icncli d ill ill~ Iler d lil,\ hlluJ. I ~ I IO I ,111 '1\\ " ,It Ihc ~1' 1 durill!; lin \ '(llll l! - ;lIld 1111 \,)111 111(' :4 i~ 11 ~ I II,rr\l' d I\ itll lI inl' lIo l l' ~ IILU kil1!.; m l' SI K n'''I:S, I 'I h\ :(~'~ likl'll Illi, p:l rlit'nl.lf lohllile ht'( .II I'l' th{, 'pilll' ~; I \ 'S: "( )n Ill\' , ubi illll" I ' l l'l l~' h I CI Ol li h ol l." I 11t'ITr II ot lId 11,IIl' , 0 l'l w r;ll·k ri/-l' d I hi ~ cpi'fJ(k in III," 10 " , ,0 Illc ti lk ah\.l~'~ pU llkd lil t', I ,1{)II'l l wfII \1 11t'1i I c\w IIHlIl t;ht o f ,! dlt,tll~ ojlcll illl.; tllc hook. hi lt I do n'lIWllIlll' r 111\' tll'li,,111 ill d i,cOl l' rill£; 111:11 llll' lith: I l1 i \<,d blo ~l' p,\I ,lIt' IImh - Hurkc',,, ~'o;~a ~ (Ill Ih t' ~ lIhlill 1l' ;11 )(1
hi., rdl n 'lioll' Oil tl w r{'u)\ lIti(l1l 1 'I '11l' \t, gCllero)l iml;1 1 :11 111 (J ll t(lI.;L'll l' l it; COllli llll i!i\.:, ~l\T 11 Il';lll illt; .1ll. 1.\ln l( 'lu fl' In our li \,(" , '1111'11 I ~h (! 1 , 'fI'~ )\IS: t1O\\ I II.mt II) 1(" ld , r (('lIld h.\Il~ pulll'd Illi ., hool o ff th e .. !rd f ,lilt! 1',;;1d Hmlr\ C",,;1\ .H1\' Ii IllCh u t l u el l'\" dl(I ,1I ,d. to ilt, I lI!I~ t.:' L I dOllht Ilu l I t l l'r \\,\u,ld h. IIC dO Il{' ,() .11I lid ,d l lll(' P .II\ ,1I11 11J1:ln i,I' cal CHJI\ ( k. \ b lt .. illl'I' o f 0 \\1' l i \ e.~, :\ I ~ (k (' i\io u II!" ri tt: Ih i~ l'~~. I~ nl . \ il'lofi. 1Il lI ,IIIIr;]1 hi~ l(>r~ hlo\l~h t ll ll' to HlHl..c al ld J 11 ,1(11\)(..' \\ ()Jakrflll pri l' lk!.;t, of rl" ldil l!.; t ll i ~ t; rt" ll :lIld illflm'n li ,il dO l'lUl wn l for p it-a· ' :Ill' .• 11\(1 II ilb 'IH lI C 1I I,lturill o f jtld!,(luc n l . r ; ~thl' l lh .1I1 i ll III ~' rl\ ~ l, o f ,\ ~'()l ll ' l' ,\lid for ,\ W;ld c ,II tOI> \'(lIllH!, .t!I :11!,(', I'or Ihi, prh ile!;\' I .1\ 111110-1 jl ro \~H lIldl~ 1!,rdll'fll l, If I d illn' t \1 rilt'lhe,l' Illo llth l~ l"'~;1 ~ ", _ Bml..t: \IP llld pr(Oll:)hh h, IH' \ t. l\cd Il ll 1111 .,h ell lin lil ti ll' !la\ I diu ]
HJ7
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ta lily. to Ih is disti netioll : "The subl illle " "ah ,,,"s dll"ells ou grea t objects. and terrihle; [hcau"i on slllall oncs. and pleasing " " . The bca uh of wOlllen is cOllsidcrabl y O\\"ing to their wcakness or delicacy. and is cn.'n enhall ccd hI' th e ir lilllidih . a '1uali""of milld analogo u; 10 it." I suhmit thai IIC call1lot grasp th c eSSCllCC of Roherts's hook. a lld thc genre she rcpresellt s. ulltil \\ ·c ;I<.;similat<: Ihis classic distinctioll of Ihe suhlilne alld th e hc"ntiful. Wc Illmt, al",,"c all. rc cOi;lli ,,, c Ihal Roberts alld h er collcagucs of like gc ndcr accepted Ihis distinction and sOllfiht to hc eomplelck hca ulifu[ alld nol at ,ill suh[im c -that is, c"clllia[k klllilline I"" Iheir lighls. ([ al so mge rcade rs 10 ac kllOld edgc this disI indi on as hoth producli ,"c and sllpporti, e o f the IIOfst aspects of se'iSlll-and to rClIlc lllhcr that lihe ration presupposes kllowledge of the causes of oppression .) Burke's criteria ofheauly suppk a ke,"thai opens The COl1ch%gisi's CO mlJelllioll to Ollr 11llders t~1Ildill g (rath er thall our ridielIl c: based largcl~' on puu.lenlc nt)" Th e conccptual themes nrc all presellt: com"cntionality, timidity, houlldedncss. lack of surprisc . rOllnded transitions. 1<\ell Ihc p[lI"sic<1 1 appcar,lnccs proclaim heaut,,, rath er than sub[illlilS'. Th csc hooks b, ,mrne n tendcd to he slIla ll in si,,, c - prilllcd at c1illlc llSion.s Iha t publi sh crs ea[1 "c1uodeeill1o" or "sl1];111 octa\U." rath c r than th e "Iargc oc:t
The I IIl'isihfe \rOmlln 1 '~\"{~ 11 the words of praise lIsed by 1Ilen ill their faHHablc re\"i c\,"s of \HUllcn's work ill\"{)ked the :-;t
It scelll s
l) l '()S\ t " lt
I'
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in the fonn"tion of " shell, or its illSignific"nt inh"hit,,"t , ,our arrogant pretcnsions arc.: cOlllpklely hnmhicd. I kncw th"t I h"d to probe fmlher into 1\ la,y Robe rts '~ hidde n 1110ti,cs and feelings, So Iloca tcd he r p,,\contolor;ic,,1 book, The Progress orCreatilJll (lH-fo edition ), inth cstacks ofWidcner I ,ihrardaciually not in th e stacks, hllt fmth er into purga tof\', at th e book depositof\' for rare k lIsed \"() illl1lCS , ilnd requ iring a h\"{)-day \\"~lit for dclj \'e r~ " - alloth c r sign of ill\" i s ihjljt~" for thi s ~e llrc ).
[ \\"as struck 1)\" all illl111en~C diffcren(; c in stdc within a basic similarity of drcmil~ " (;Ollscn"i:lti\"c content. The Con cl101ogis(s COI1J/JOl1iOI1 ll1C.l~" ha\"c lllade 111 C s':l(l for bo\\"illg to limitatiolls of a gen re, bllt The Pmgre,<.;s of Cre(/tioll Illadc mc mad for its igllOral lt pllgll
zoo
The fllrisihfe
\\"O/lldll
WOlllell, or did she seethe illside, yet keep her 0\\,11 eoullsel? r doubt tllat the records exist to ,lIls\\'cr such questions-for
told largclY I" males did snccced in rendering her nearh i}lYisiblc, I \I onder. What reallY \lent on belrind tire mask of acceptance and eOlI\'clltioll respected b~- Illost \\'()Jllell \\Titers 011 Ilatural history? Perhaps \\-e should ill\'oke olle of the great \,'Olllell of strength fWIll our lit-
erature-Little Buttercup ofCilhert and Sulli"an's 1L\l.S. Pinclf(H'(!. She tries to tell tire captain tlrat "tlrings arc seldon} \llrat tlre\ sccm" ~pcr haps also that \\'Ol11ell oftell hide the paill alld allger of ages ullcler a soft surface of acceptance; Though to catch Illy clrift he's stri\'illg, I'll dissc}nblc~I'll dissemble; \Vhen he sees at \\'hat rill dri\'ing, I.ct him trembIc~ let him trembler
201
~\116 I/~
Left Snails and Right 1Winds
'WI.\
1' 1\ l \ IO RI ,\1, 11\:"-.1) or C\"C
C Olild fUlIl e tl1\ rc.nflll S\!llllletl.,.? Willi
style of lllirror images arolllld a c<:.' IlIT'11
(lxis, predolllillate
amon g
differcllce bctl\'eell "right" alld "left" braills' ;\ fe w Illajor f; rollps of orgallisllls do not presclll ;J has i c;JII~ ' bilateral s~ ' I1lJl)(: try, including Ill~ - own fauHil c suhi ee l for re~(,;Jrch. Ih e gastropods, or snail s, Th e soft boch of a sllail is t" le rahll' bilateral lI,hell pull ed fro II I th e sll ell ami stretched Ollt', h ilt til e
(; ,.111
he \\"0l1l1d around a \'erti cal a-..:is in eith er of two direc-
ti OllS, d es i ~l lCl te d 202
,IS
right allclleft hallcled , If lI'e hold a Sll ,lil ill om ('Oll-
Len Sllails dlld Hight \/illch· sentional position, \\ ith the ape, at the top and the aperttlfc (or opening for the hocl~-) at the bottom, then \\'e call the direction of coilillg "righ t-handed" if the apertme lies to the right of the a,is of eoili ng sd ren we s'ic\\,thc spccinren face to face, and "left-handed" if the aperture lies to the left of the a,is of coiling, i,\ll this should be much clearer in the accompanying illustratioll than in all~- \\'(nds 1 can sllPpiy.lJlciclentally,
\\'(: lise the
Si:lI11e COI1H'l1tiOI1
for the thrclds of scre\\-s.)
'I 'h is designation is truly arhitrar~', for sna iIs kllO\\' noth ing ahou tape\: up and aperture dm\'n (in life, most snails carr~' their shel1s morc or less hori/.ontal to thc grouncl).lh\·e clra\\' the specimen apex clO\\'n (as l"rcnch traditious of scientific illustratiou haH' ah\'ays clolle), thell the apertures of"rigllt-lwnc1ed" speci1llens opell to the left of the axis of coiling. In India, for e,ample, the conch shell 'i'lirhillell" P!'rIll1l is senerated as a symbol ofVishl1u. (In the Blwgdrad Citd, Vishnu, in the form of his most celebrated as'atar Krishna, blo\\'s his sacred conch shell to call the arllls oL\rjlllla into bailie,) The e'l'Cedillgh' rare left-handed specimens of this shell arc partielliarh treastlfccl, and med to sell for tbeir \\eight in gold, But Ilincllls interpret the ape, as the bottom of the shell and therefore call this rare forlll "right-halleled," PerllClps thcs treasmc these rare shells hecause onl~- these specilllens. ill the Incliall \Trsioll of an arhilr
1)1,\()S\l'l{ 1'\ .\ I-I\YST\(,K
Axis of Coiling
Axis of Coiling
Apex
LEFT-HANDED
RrCIH-HANDED
cal1 a snail's apex "up" bccause this orientation \\"(Hdcl then allm\' lIS to desigllate the \'astly 11iOIT COllllllOll direction of coiling as "right." 'fhe \"ast lll
1,eFt S/1ails Clnd Hight ;\finds
th'1I1 1IIIIIIall ri~hlies I'S, lefties), and at all !clels: indil'iduals within a species, species \\'ithill a lilleage, alld lilleages \\"ithill larger groups. Atthis point, all\' astulc and in'luisitiYe reader \\ill he 'Isking the oblio\lS 'Iuestioll, "WIl\' What cOlleeil'ahlc a,kllltagc docs d"tralih' hold O\'er coiling in the other direction?" I can only rcport that this inquiry is both appropriate and fascinating-and that \\·c don't ha\"c a cluc
about thc
(I \\"ould not C\"l'n assumc that thc qncshon should
be posed ill icrms of plltati\e ad\"alltages. The t\\"() lllodes lllight be elltirely eqlli\'alent ill fUllctiollalicrms, \\'itb domillallt dextrality ollly a historicallcg
rarities helollgil7g to the Ro)'al Society, whereunto is slIbjoYl1ed the CO/11parative dl1dtOIll), ofstOl1ldChs dnd gIltS. (They did Im'c long titlcs back then, alld \\"c \"ill ignore the appendi\:, \\'itb its rcmarkable illustrations ofHT\cbrate intestines, all strcielred out and circling lire pages,) :'-Jote that all but one of these slrells arc sinistral in Cre\\''s engral'ing. The e\:ceptiol1. showll at bottolll left, is cOll\'elltionally elextral. I [as tire \\orld tmned' Those shells arc labeled "\\ilk," or "\\helk" in our llIoderll spelling (a COllllllOlln
!)I,\()S\l'l\ 1'\
\
fJ\)SI,\(:r;:
III the Clirrellt \'crsioll, all offsprillg of modern tc('hnolog~-. a snail may appear \\"ith re\Trsed coiling bccausc the photograph has been llIade frolll a llcgati\'e illacl\-crtelltly turlled over before prillting. /\11)- expert paying explicit
Square Wilk
Long Square Wilk
Thick Lipp'd Wilk [To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
Triangular Wilk
InverledWi/k Snail
(.= .• ~.t_. ·;;:, . III un illustrati())J fmm ,\'ehemiah (;rclI-'s J()r~'l
mIl/me, ont" the h()(f()J1l snail i.\ ,,/rOll'lI coiling to the right.
LeFt Snails alld Hight :\/inds errors - bonehead j lldgmen ts, forgetting the rulcs - which should nc\'er occu LOrd ina IT and honorahle errors of fact are l1I1an)idcl hIe in sciencc, a field that thris""s Oil self-eorreetioll, ami properh defines its o\\n progress by such imprc)\'cillent. I ha\'c ne\Tr \\Titten
So much for my first thoughts ahont Dr. Crc\\"'s mistake. But as soon as 1 relllelll hered a scholar's fi rst ohl igatioll -to drag Ol1cse If fro111 j udglllcnt \yithin a slllug prescnt, considered he1ler, and to place oneself, so far as possible, into the life ,md times of a person uncler consideration1 immedialch realized that the resolution could not be so simple. ;\11 media for printed illustration in pre-nineteenth-century treatises of natural history-\\"()odhlock printing, ellgrm'ing 011 metal plates, lithography-require the initial production of all ill\'crted image. That is, lhe eng-rayer lllust carye a mirror-image figure into his metal plate so that the paper, pbced atop the inked plate before pressing do\\n to print, \\ill recei\'e t he figure ill proper orientat ion. 1\ eedless 10 S;Jy.
2°7
DI'\()S.\l'J<, 1,\ .\ II,\\Sl.\CI..:
mitted h\· flopping a photograph. Perhaps the re\crsed shells of Dr. Cre\\''s illustrations arc not errors at all, hut representatiolls of a COll\ention then folhmed and nO\\ ahandoned. 1 shall defend this more gcncrolls alternative in concluding 1ll~ essay, hut I Il
file of oddities in natural histon. I must hm'e "LIbeled" the item "Crc\\-'s funny mistake," for I n('\"er considered the possihility that IT\'erscd snails could hc anything but lIicl, for this reaSOll, defend sllch ancient practices as rotc learning for the basic chronology ofhulllan histon, and reading the classics, partieularh Shakespeare all(1 the Bihle, with a vic\\' 10 lllcillorizillg kcy passages.) I 10\e alltiqll<.nian hooks in natural history, and Illy eyes cIo ine\'itahl~' \vallcIer, for professional reasons, to pictures of snails. Thus, Ill~' "ere\\' mistake" file has heen accessed quite a fe\\' times e1uring the past decadc, But J ne\'er had clll~' project in mind, anell had c!c\'iscd the wrong prclilllincH~' conclusion ahout Grc,,'s re\'crsals. In f
Left Snoils omi Hight ,\lincls (If a hih/iotheqlle is a libraTl, then a me/allotheqlle is a collection of mc1aLs clild other objects of the mineral kingdom.) The ,'Ie/allotheca contains nilillcrons pLltcS of fossil snails ill a chap1cr called LalJides Idiol11OrlJ/1IJi (or stones that look like lising things- :\lercati. along with Illan~' sixteenth-centllry scllOlars. did llot interpret fossils as remains of organisms, hut as manifestations of "pI astic force::." inherent in rocks). [n all plates-so \\'e arc in the presence of a COIISCiOlI.) ~cllerality, lIot all illdi\'idual error-dextral ::'llails appear as sinistral engra\'ill~s (sec the accoillpallying ilillstratioll).
/)exlnJ!-c{Jilin~ ;;IJecie.~
editi()n
dre crJl).,·denl{y
.~h()lI'lI
(Jr \ I iclrefe .\ lercati's
(/.,. .\illis{r,,{ iii (/ \ Ie!;!! tolt ICC!.
1-;1\)
But assumptions dic hard. cycn if nc\'er founcled Oil anything sensible. I cOllldn't call rc\ersed printing a simple error all\lllOfe, so I opted for tIle llext Iille of dcfellse \\"itll ill the bias of progress: 1 assllllled that st leh indifference to nature's factuality 11lllst represellt a curious arcliaicislll of the bad old da\s (for \Iercati goes "as back to the si,1cclltll celltllls)and thlls not ,,'Orths' of milch intellectllal attcntion. Again, r storcd thc obselTation on the back sheh-es. ill the stacks of my mellfathecd. \'lore randolll encollnters since then h~I\'e finalh' destf()\"C(IIll\" false asslllllptioll, for I ha\"{.' not'ed sillistral illustrations of dextral shells again and again in \\orks puhlished hefore 1700. In fact, allllost all snail illu.)tr~ltiolls from this pcriod arc rc\crsccl, so \\"c Illu"t hc lloting: a ~encral eOllYentioll, not all occasional crror. B~' contrast. I hayc almost nen'r
20,)
DI,\();-;_\l
I{
1,\
.\
fl\)SI.\Cr..:
scell a re\"crseel illustratioll in \yorks, say, frolll I ,innaeus's ti1lle (carl~' to mid-eighteenth century) oll\\"ard, e:xeept
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
.-\ dcx/wl'<;l1oil. "~1/(J1\"11 \\"ilh sinlstrul cUllini,; ill \ I m;Il"1l1l1 \ IcLd I iC\llll, In" sixlc(!lIth-cclltun" Itolirlll 1I0tufoli"t Uli.w' .,\ldmrolldi"
If thc shllidard source still doesll'l cOillplctels cOllsillCC, Ihell seck author \yith special expertise. r therefore COIlSllltccllllY copy of olle of the great \yorks ill late-se\ellteenth-celliury paleolltology, De co/'/J()rihus I17(Jrillis ld/Jidescelltihus (Oil Petrified ,\/arillc Bodies) hy ,\ugostill() Scilla (ll1~- l,atin editioll elatcs from 1747, hut Scilla first '-Ill
210
LeFt S//(/ils and Hight \finds publisbed bis \lDrk ill Italiall ill tbe 10701'). I decided
Oil
Scilla as a fillal
test casc Ix'Callsc he "as a painter hy tradc, a leading figure of the seicellto ill Sieih, alld be ellgra\ed bis 0\111 plates. All bis sllails arc dc"
tral specics, lInd all arc engrlI\"cd \\"ith sinistral coiling" Clcarl~", if stalldard SOllrces ,-llld noted artists all drc\\" snails ill mirror image from their natural OCCIIlTeIlCC, authors and illustrators IllllSt hlI\"e hccn fol-
lo\"\"iilg (j \,"ell-accepted COil\'cntion of the tiille, not making an error. But \\"iI~" \\o\lld carlier centllries h<.1\"(' adopted a eon\"ention so foreignl0 our 0\\"11 pr<.lcticcs? \Vh~" wOllld thesc older illllstrators ha\"e choscn 10 dcpict specilllens in lllirror illlage. \\"llcll tiIe~" surely kIlc,," the natural appearance of shells? Did they de\"isc tllis COll\"Clltioll ill order to make life easier for a profession foundcd on the principlc that olle (',-llYCS ill re'"erse ill order to print in the desired oricntation? But if so, \\"11<.It aid could bc prm"idcd b~"thc practice of printiIlg sllails ill re\crse: J suppose that all engra\"cr could thcn paste a picture directly 011 his plate, alld cut tbrougb \lith Illa,illlal ,isibility, \lbereas tbe mual tecb,
niql1c forced hilll to ill\"cr1" thc dra\\"ing heforc affixing it to thc platc, tbus Illakillg billl sie\l tbe sketeb tbrougb tbe backside oftbe paper (hut
papcrs of ac\cqualc
tTallsparCllC~"
IllllSi !Jc.l\"C hecll a,"ailahle, and I WOll-
der if tbe usml technique realh illlposed
'Ill\
great bard.sbip). Or did
engr
c1r,m": But thell olle morc mirror would projcct a IT,"crsed imagc-alld printcrs Ilsually c"llYcd reycrsc illl<.lges ill any casco \Vhaicn'r tIll' reason, thc \"cry existcllcc of thc COll\"ention docs, J think, tcacll us something illlportani: that t"IIC COllcCptll<.tl \\"cHld of precightccllth-cclltur~" l.oo1og~" lllust ha\"c accorded little importancc to thc orientation of a shcll. These 111e11 werc not stupid, and thcy \\"crc not primitiYe" if thc~" ""CIT \\"illing to sacrifice ,\"hat \\"C \\ould call "accuracy" for SOlllC gain ill eelse of production (or for some other reaso]j not no,," apparcnt to us), then the~" m\1st h<'l\"c held <.1 notioll of '';.ICC\1racy" C1u itc d iFfercllt from ou rs" Thc lTeO\"cr~" of" fossil" tllO\lght pa iten IS from such intri£;uill£; hints as this small. but prc\"iously Ull11otCCI, chan~e in a practice of illustratioll pro"ides the kinci of illtellectnal lift that
kceps scholars goillg. Thc greatest impediment to such rccO\"Cr~"-OllC that illfeslcdlllY ()\\"ll first thoughts on this isstle, and preeludcd an~" nlO\"emcnt {em"arc! <.1 proper solution after I had madc lll~" initial ,md accuraic ohselyatiolls-lies ill Ll1l1clltable habits illlposccl by thc twinned hiascs of 211
DI'\OS.\l!R ]'\ .\ J[\YST.\CK
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
Dextral ,',/lail sf)('cic.~ (lTe def)icted lI'itll {e/t-Jwnded coiling in (/ Idume '~'e)'enleenlh-cel1lll1y pa/c011t%gisi Augostino Scilla.
212
Oil tiJ.~,',if .~n(Jif.~
h,I'
LeFt Snails alld Hight ,\lin(/s progress and ()bjecti\·it~·. \Ve aSSUllle that \\'e nO\y do things bettcr than at any timc in the past, and that Ollr imprO\'clllents record increasing objectiyit~· in shedding old prejudices and learning to yie\y the \\'orld more accurately. \\'e therefore interpret ollr predecessors, cspeeiall~' \yhen their \·ie\\·s diffn fwm Ollrs, as \ycighted dO\\"ll by biases alld lackillg in data - ill short, as pretty darned incOlllpctent cOlllpared \\'itb us.
\Ve therefore do not take them seriously, and \\'c ricH' their differences frolll us as crudih' and error. Thus \ye cannot undcrstand the iIlteresting rcasons for historical changes in practice, and \\'e caililot recO\"cr the older systems, coherellt ill their 0\\"11 tenllS (al1d oftell hased 011 a fasciIlalillgh diffcrcill philosopll) of Ilalure), Ih"l Il",de Ihc carlier proccdures so reaso1lable. 'I'he key, in this case, lies ill realizing that all apparent error ill past practice represents a cO\1\Tntioll, 110\\' foreign to our cOllcepts but eyidelltl~' pursued for cOllscious re;JSOllS h~' our predecessors. \Vc 1I1USt still ()\"C1TOIlle olle ohstacle ill stTi\'illg to \·ie\\" the past lllore s~·lllp;Jthcticall~ (there by ga i n i11g i nsigh till to presen t styl es of th i nki ngJ. \Ve III igh t Ullderstand that printing snails in re\'erse represellted a COll\'elltion, not all crror, Ililt still hold ("ia Ihe hias of progrcss) Ihal Ihc hislOl'l' of challging cOll\'entiolls lllusl record a palll\\"ay 10 greater accurac~' in representatioll. \\'e l11ight, for eX
DI\()~\I R 1,\ .\ lh'lS'I\(:f(
\\'e haH.' not dispensed \\"ith com-entions for accuracy; \\-e ha\'c onl~ adopted differt'llt COll\-ClltiOllS. Secolld-and the clinchillg argumcllt that madc mc decide to \\Tite this essa~'-\\'e hm'e not-, e\"ell today, abandoned all COll\'eutiolls for rc\ersed illustration. III fact, olle highly prestigious and tccllIl()logical1~' "clItting edge" ficld continues to present upside-dO\\ll photographs, just
Len SlIails alld Highl\/iIIC]s be e(lI1\eseci to the brain b\ om eqnalh imperfect senses, all illn-rigged and cobbled together b) that maddeningly eomple\: process kllO\\"ll ~lS e\'oilition"
\-Vith 2")0 essays as i.l large sample, I know \\"hich pieces hring the Illost frequcnt and 1llost impassiolled responses frolll readers-and the answer fills me ,,"ith admiration for human foihles and human good sellse" I reeei\"e \'ery little correspondence ahout essays treating the hroadest and lllost trou hI ing isslles - the mC<.lning of e\"()iution for h Ulllall life, the relatiollship (if (.lI1~") of science and llloral \"~dues" But ,,"hen I "Tite about till~"lillle puzzles ,,"ith intriguing suhjects and potelltial1~ ascertainahle resolutions, I am flooded ,,"ilh cOllllllentary and passionatc claims for closure" Ci\"(.' liS a grain of eoncretc al1~" time in this \"<.de of tears, this reahll of such lrying ullcertaillt~"; let the mOlllltain of drealll~" clouds
21
5
DI,\():-i_\lIR 1,\ ,\ 1I.\)sl\('1(
this cOllH;ntioll beC
Left S/wi/S unci Rig hi ,\ f illd ...
:\k I!l Ost illteres ting COllllllellL pc rhap. . poi nting Ihe \\'ay 10 .1 re solutioll , ca ille from o lle of Ill ~- b \'oritc sciel1ti sts, Alll eri ca's leadin g 111<11aeologi,t, R. Tucker /\hhott (110\\' head of Ihe ,h ell l'IlI'CUm 0 11 Sallibcl Isla Ild J. Tileker ,"ade the foll cmi ng ohse rvatioll a bOllt 111\' search for the rati ollale behi1ld a eOI1\ 'c lllion for printing snails as im'c rted images: "Silllph' heea use th e g.I\' \\ho ealw d or ctd.ed tire , I.ell Oil ,\'Clod or copper plate though I a reversal (" lr en printed in ink ) did not Illatter \\'ilh a gas tropod shell ." ,\ COllH': llti o ll hased Oil active Ilot carill~ makes (\ good dea l of sense, fo r tire eiglrteellth-een tllf\' shift to our modern practice of prilltill g slr ells as \\'c sec thelll ill life \\'oll id then rc(:orcl
21
7
PART
FIVE
THE GLORY OF MUSEUMS
Dinomania
M.
\CHI·TII 's SOU I .OQt IY 011 his illtcnd<.:d lIlurd e r of King DUll can pro\·ides om canonical quotation fo r the \·ital thelll e that deeds spa\m unintended c on sequences in distant fut ures. " If it werc do ne ,'· 'vhIebeth Illuses, " 't"cre ,,·ell it were done quickl y." The act Illust be swift, bu t, e\'Cll Illore illlpOrhl1l t, the sequelae must be contain ed, as i\b cbcth hopes to "tramlll el up the conseque nce, and catch , w itll his surcease. sll eeess; that but this bl o" might be thc be-all ,md tb e e nd-all here. " Ytt .'vlac bell, fears that big nents mllst unleash all thc gen ies of In,knowable futu res -for " blood~' instructions, \,"hi eh being taught, return to
plaglle the
ill\'elltor."
I dOll bt that I len,,· Fairfield Osborn considered these lines, or imagined an y popular futme for hi s ncw di scoYe ri es, \\ hen he publish ed a eOll\ entionall y dull, descriptiye pa pe r in 1924 on three gene ra of dinosa ",s recc nth fonnd ill \Iollgolia on the famous Colli Desert ex pedition . ln this paper, titled 'Three :>Ie,,·TheroJloda, l'rotocerutops Zone, Cen tra I ,\'1on gol ia," O sborn named , all(l deseri bed for th e first tillle, th e "skull and ja,,·s, onc front ela\\ a nd adjoinillg phalanges" of a sllJa li but apparenth lith e and skillful earni\orc. lie ca ll ed his n (''' c reature \ie/()ciraptor I1w llgolie nsis to honor these infe rred skill ~. for Ve /ociraplor Ill C~IIl S "q1lick seil,cr. '· Velocir£l/Jtor, Osborn \\Tote , "seems to l1
teeth as "perfeelk ada pled to th e sllddcn se izure of , , , swifl-mO\'in g pres , , , The long rostrulll 'l ml \\'id e gape of the j,m'S indicate that the prc.;y ',"as \lot only li\-ing but of (;ollsidcf111 lie \\'as also the politicall~ ' <:o llscT\'ati\"(:, soc ially pf()llIill C' llt , imperious pr<.:sidcllt of the :\'ll eriea n i\lllse lllll of i'ia tural Ilistof\' in f\!e\\ York , lIe \\'(mld, I think, hasT been 'Initc surprised, and not at all all1llScd, to learn that. m:ark scn:llty n :;lrs later. his creatllre \HHdd w in (J Ile\\" , and "
your Illodes of rootiug) io the bloekhuslcr film /'If",s,s ic Park, I'llhlie fascination has alssa\s follm\ed these prehistoric beasts, Just t(,ll ~'cars after Richard On"ell coilicci tll c \\u rd dinosallr illl K40, stlllplor Waterhouse I !a\\ki", mlS hard at \\ork on a series or full-scale models 10 displa\' in the Crystal Palace during the Creat F"hibilion of 18;1. (The C rsstal PaJ.1Cc hurn ed in 19,(', hut Iia \\'ki ns's di noS" "", reeentk spru ced up \\ ilh a coat of paint, ca n still he seen in Sn1Cllh31ll, south "fLond"n ), But the popular aeclailll of dinosa llfs has been filful and episodic. We \<111' thelll in King Kong (tllilnks to \Villis (J'Brien and his brilli'lilt tec hll iq ue of stop-motion pllOlo£;raphy lIsing small l1l ocl cis, bter llIa~ Ilificcl ). \Ve filled 0111' (ars ullder th e sign Of;1 giant grecn Hroll!oficlIIrus, the logo of Sioclai r Oil (\\'ho also pros'icl ed a fine e,hibit"t th e 1939 \Vodd 's Fair ill N c\\"York)" But dillosaurs I1c\"cr bC(il1I1C a pcn"asiH.' c ultuml icoll, anc! somc dCCcldcs largcl~" ignored the grc;lt beasts" I was a "d inosa llr HUt" as a kid growing up ill .\fC\'" York during thc I
222
l) il1o /Hal1i a
or
SOil I of eh ildhood
Oille proposed by a psychol ogist colleague: hi£;, fierce .
other ,mrds, alillringh- seellT, bllt sllffieienth- safe, ;\,105t questioller::. stop here, sllpposing the inquiry resoh-cd \\'!Jen the\' feel satisfied abollt areh oil'llal fa sc ination , But thi,1 theme eallllot touch the heart of current dilloll1
a chunn "bont them, We Illust therefore pose th e second qncstioll: \VI", 110\\ - <Jlld not before? We might propose 111'0 solutions to this les,s general, but more resoh-able, '1ues liou-OJl e that I lI'ish IIcre trlle (bllt almost ca nnot be ), and one thai I dec ph- regret (but must .lurch, bc corrcct ), As a practicillg paleontologist. I \\'01l1d lo\'c to hdic\'c that cllrrent dinoll1 stllpid, robotic, \'irtllally behm'iorless bchellloths of Ill\' childhood ha,'e been replaced b,' lith c, agile , potclltial1\' lI'ann-bloodcd, adcqllatcl), smart. and behm"iorally <.:omplex creatures, Th e gi~lI1t sauropods \"CIT mireel in ponds during III~' youth ) for m om)' paleontologists rega rded thelll as too hemy 10 hold "I' the ir 0\\'11 bodi cs on lalld, );0'" th e" stride across the plains, necks and tails olltstretchcd, In SOllle reconstructions they en.' ll rear lip on their hincllcgs to reach hi gh \cgelation. or to scare
off preda tors, (They arc so depicted in th e first BrachioS(!urus seelle of Jurassic Park , ali(I in thc filii -sca le fiberglass llIod el of Ha rosauftls rccClltk insta11 cd ill th e rotllnda of the 1\lllerican M IISC lIlI1 of "!atllfa III istor~"- tiJOllgil mosl-of Ill~ " colleagues consider sllch a POShlTC ridic ~IIOIISI)' 1I11Iikeh, ) When 1 lI'as a child , ornithopods laid their C!!gs and th cn \ralked
forc\'(.: r.
Todi:.l~ ',
these sa me creatures cu e th e
\T r~'
models
of n",lcrnal, cerring, politic<1l1, corrcct dinos<1l1fs, Th c\' lI'ateh OIn their nests , care for thcir ~'Ollllg, form coopcrati\'c herd.\. alld bea r slich Im"cly, pea<.:efulnalllcsas i\ IIaias(luYCl, the "earth lIlother li zard" (in contrast ",it-h .Inch ea rlier monikers as Pach)'cep!w!osaurll.s, th e "thick bonehead li zard ") , En":' n thcir ext iIlctiollllO\\" appears in
IllllCh more iIltcresting
li ght Th ey sllccllillbed to ,'agilely spec ified types "f"clilllatic change" in Ill )' ~'OlIth; 1I0W we hm'c firm c\"idcnce for extraterr<.:strial impad as the trigger for their final rCII lOS'" I (.Ice es.l<" ,, ),
22")
1)1 "\ :( lS\I I I{
1,\
\
11 \)~ I"\ (:l\
But ho\\" CCl n this gree lling of ciillos
II
C O lltclllpor
prcsents 110 more powerful s~" lllbol , or palpabl e product , of pCIYilS i\"c, coordillated cOllllllerei"llizatioll than th e <.lIl1l11
224
J) i Boll/ani(,
nlO\'ics th clllseh"es are sufficiently ibly fcel illore <J1nbis'l!cnt abont th e resnlt - Illarn:lillg and cllrsi ng, laughing and moalling. Oue G ill hardl y pay grei.lkr tribute to Ih c importance uf 'Ill e\·el1t than to proclaim th e imposs ibilil\· of neutralil\· before it. john HaolJnond (a o entrepreneur with more than 'I tou ch of e\·il in the book, but kindh and merely O\erenthusiasti e in the fi lm ) has built the ultimate th eme park (for greech profit s ill the book , for mi ,ed but largd y hOllora ble moti,'es in the film ) b~ ' rcmak ing Ii"illg dillosa tl r~ out of 0 1\,\ "'tract cd from dinosaur blood presen ed ,,·ithin mosquitoes and other bitillg inscc.:ls entombed ill foss il \·'Icsozoie <.llllber. Klldos to CrichtOll fo r cJe,·elopiog th e Inllst eb·cr and realistic of all scenarios fo r sucb all impossihle c\'ent, fo r plausihility is tile essence of good scicnce fi ction. (The idea , (I S Crichton acknowledges. had becll kicking aro ulld paleon tologica l labs for quite so me tim e.) In fa ct, the alllber seenmio has heen vielcling some reSJIits - till\ D1\:A fra ~lllen b of the cJllombcd ill seets the msel ves, not of aillone else's blood ,,·ithin the insects l In the Scptelllber 25, 1992. issJle of Sci· ence, a group of colbu;ucs, headed !J\. R. D c Sa lle , reported th e successful extraction of se\cral D0IA fragmeJlts Ife"er than 11m hUJldred hase pairs e,:J(.:h ) frolll a 25 to ;o- l1lillioll -~ 'e<-l r-() ld 1t:rlHitc enc,lscd ill alllber. TI, ell , iJi a publishing c\·ent ti ed to the opc ning of Jurassic Pmk, the junc 10 , '99" issueofth c lcadiJig I3ritish joumal Nature- salll e ,,·cck as th e fi lm 's premiere-reported resJllts of another group of colleagues, led b,· R j. Ca no, on the e,traction ofhlo slightk larger fragments ()I S and 226 base pai rs) fmm ,1 foss il \\,ec \·il. The am ber eIl clos ing thi s iIlsect is 120-1,5 million ~'ca rs old l- Ilot (Illitc as an cient as Jllr'lssie, but frolll the ne,t geological period, call ed C retaccolls and also featuring I. Sill('{' I \\ro ll' thi~ 1('1 i l'\\ of IUfr/.,',;(' Pm/.: i ll ll)lH. hIll d ;li lll" for rnu\(.'n uf \ l i l1 o~;: lIl ])"\.\ d (Tt],\ fr agIlWll l" (II' l om w, Il nl h llll'pr illh oi \, holt, m 1).ll li'IH<. ) h ;lll' ,IPPCcHl'd i ll ti ll' Il k wh Hl' ·- I)\t l I J ill ill~hl, , l l' ph t';d of il, 1111 CI. Il IIIS i ;llld 11 1\ d lJl lhh .\fl' ,\ i,k-h- .,h.l f c d b~ Ilrofc"i " " 'l l l·" llv;l ~\l C' !' I ll l· idL'll t;4 1l~· . I ,\ i II I ](I! Ill' at al l .'>!lrp ri ~l', l , hut l ,Ilh {:r OIU ill H '( 11 if b ih ;11 )(1 p I LTC~ o f I;l'IUli llC I l i\lIJ~,ll \l 1);\ \ 'Irl' ICl
\) I 'OS_\ I It
!'< \ II
\\'~n \ Cf\
din osaurs as domillant creatures of th e "md (m ost of the Jurassic P",k dinosallrs arc Cretaceolls in any casc!)": This re markabl e blurring o f pop alld profe" ion,'] dom ains empha~ sizes OIlC of thc most intercsting spilloffs - basicall:- positi\"C' in my ,·iew - of the Jurassic Park phenomenon . When a stai d alld dis tin~ gnishcd Briti sh journal mes the premi ere of all Am erican blockbnslcr film to set th c scq uc llc in g of il"s O\nl arti cles , thell we han: rcache d <1Il ultimate integration. :vluse nlll shops sell the most rCI"(Jlting dinosam kitsch. Blockbllste r film s ell .pl Ol the best pal contologists as advisers to he ighte n th e rea li sm of their creatures. Omdl 's pigs h",·c becom e IIl11llail surrogates n"alkill g 011 h\"O legs -and "already it ,,-as imposs ibl e to sa:" whic h \\"as whi ch " (nor do I kllO\\"allymore \\"110 was the pig. i.llld \\ho the persoll, at th e outset - tha t is , if e i ther eatego rs be appropr iate). If all this \\"d come sc ie lltific act i,·ity gi'·es people the id ea th at di~ llOSiHII"S lIlight actua lly he re-created b~" Crichton 's scc \];;lTio, I hastc ll (\\"ilh regret ) to pour frigid \\"ater UPOIl Ihis greatest f("'\"eri c for an~ " afic io nad o of an e ic nt life. Ari stotl e \\ isc h· taug ht us that one s\\·"lIo\\· docsn 't Illake
prO'lelling thc complete genetic program of an orgallism has been preserved in such allcient rocks. Th e most cOlllprC hcllsin.: and ri gorous stnd,· of fossil [)f'\r\-the se,!neneing of a complete chloroplast gene from a 20 million ,·ear old magnolia leaf (sec cssa, , ) -fol11111 no nuelear () ~ /\ at all , ,,"hil e the rcco\"cred gene occ ll rs illllllllH.:rol.ls copi es pe r cell. with a co rrespondingl, better e l",nee of prescfI·ation. \'1ore than 90 per~ cen t of all att e mpted ex tractio ns in the mag nolia stn,k yielded no D i\:\ at all . The a mber [)f'\;\ desc ribed ahOl·e is nuebH, bnt represents bascs coding for the so~e,.lIed 16S and 18S ribosomal RNA genes -among the mos t cOllllllon ly and easily rcco\"crcd segments of the gene tic prognllll. 01\1,\ is not a geologically stab le com[)OI111d" \ Ve ma y reco \"cr fragP.lI"doll ~O! n c Im "i,11 prok'"" I()II;11 (";Up illg" hilt ollh two o( II'l: Illtlol,"I\\I"\ ti:allHClllll lhl: hIm
Par/.: ,1("\l I,l lh lin:d clm ing !ll(' JIII ;I\., ic I'crio(I- !hl" L;i,1lI1 "':llIropo(1 B Tlldli "s'I III II~ " ,llId
jll r(/.\"ll;c
the ~ \l la ll
l)iffJpllt~~(/ !lfll'\" " "\ ll lt'l" lltlll"r\ l in',1dllri,l£; 11K' ~l lh'l"( lll t l lt( : rd; I( " l"(I\ I.' I'Clilld - ,\ !x:r flT lh at"("tplil ille Ill i\.< \I II;. ~i \clI 111\" iillll .... pr l" lIli~t" 11i ,\1 ,l\\ ll",r o j ;]1 1\ :ql[lTO[)f!.l( t' ar;<..: Ul IJ;hr lw .. (":t ILIll"d im dl! W<;;lll f hlood
S titl. Ih l" lIl a ] U l lr~ Illi~ hl m k illlll;lttel \ Hi II;llll illl.;. IIIOlll;h r ' ''ppmc tll ,l! C t l"i:JtTIl\I' ['a rk Im l d llC ",d 11:11 (" llll' \;\l lll" li \l ~" \\ hOI r \Ill'! \ tick le! C rieil ioll i lllllL; iJd;,rt: !Ill" fdlll "' ("OmpktiOlI I.I 11,1\1 (0 ;I',k hi m th i~ '"lol tl ' lllill(kd pmfl'~ ~ illl l a r , q ll l'~ !illl l" ""\\"11\ did \Oll p1.I("(" ,I (~ldalTll tl' dillmam 011 !ll t: e On'r d IIITII"';SIC Purk ?"" I for 111(' h, )ok\ tllI'\ ]Kll"t - "md I]()\\ 111\: tilt n o.. l(l1;[1 -f(.':.llI r(','" (: r(..'t;Il:l:IJlI\ 'I rra'iIIlJ'
l)ill o lllCln ia
11Icnts, or e\"cn ;:1 whole gelle here ;lnd there. but no \\" i z;Jrdr~ " call l!lake <.In organislIl from jllSt ,I few perce llt of its codes. Jurussic Park acknowledged til is Ii I1l itatiOl I \\"he n its gcnetic Cllgi nee rs lIsed Illodern frog f)!'\:\ 10 fill in thc lliissillg sp
ti t." ~·H'I; ()f !llra","","it: /'llrk 1II IIr(" illit" II'>C" 1-:\"1.: 11 l:j(; IJt."rn :III " t {I IIIOS"I I! I ):X"\ 11"()II" t 11 101 h":I fllll["li{l'l il1~ .,rg,\lliSlll hI itwl t" \ (" IIII PIL"' Il n l hOTl) '1IIi\I \,11 j, lU I! ,III ,\ll lI nll.lli," prodlld lof ib III O I~"Ol la r u)( I(" -- f(n tl w
~ odl' !!l"nl, II I Ilorl ill " aud IlIter;I' I II ill I. t!1l" 11I o JJ1."r ~'ll\"i 1"U 1H 11t.·u ll;,r l"1I il m o l" 1:ic,11 t;WII th" "\ I"k r
1Il;ltcll ;\ IIII ,,~t
he prt"'(:111 i ll
thl"
Il u lcrn; .J
n.;~ " \ IIlII:1WCI" " ,11111 11 10, 1 I
i!;d h.
OI!;"H lI'lll~
n l1l-
~ tnu..: l n i ollh hI Illci r 11\111 ~L" Il',:"" ( \"rt ,11I 1 1I1,lll-m al ~l" lI ("' 1I1 11\t pfl l.l u t"{" pru-
,lilt! l h l"lll ic"1 1 'i!.;II,i\, til l it, c.nly d i \ I,i[lil'>
the ft." ltili /\"l ) l"!.;o; 1 1 1I ("kll "~ ,.ript- ;l rc 1I0 t Pfl"""l"ll t ill ti ll" dil ll),,:m r l"t;t; ill" fo l"t" fC l lii ilel f. bll t ;1i"1 tlit; ll lll llhcr" I,,(",l t joll " ,11 1(1.ldio ll of 1Il,l tcrn,d ~ t "II(" ' IICt"\k- d If) cOil'trnd till" ri t;llI l"Il' InlllIlI ("ll t iur dt."lllulc d III
Ic1Upllll"llt"
227
D I 'os. u
It l '
\
11 .\YS 'I\C I..:
and far surpa",ed, lJnfortlll",teir, th e implausibility of rcconstructing dillosa tlrs by thl'
111
Iliked the book ycrsion of Jurassic Park, Crichton not onk nsed thc best possibl e scenario for making dinosaurs, but also based the book's plot upon an int eresting im"()catioll of currently fashionable chaos thc or~·. To allay the fcars of his creditors. John Hallllnond brings" set of esperts to Jurassic Park, hoping to "in the ir endorsc ment, His bluc-ribbon panel inelndes tlHI paleontologists and a prcach,' iconoclast of a In<1thcmati c ian nam ed I<m 'vlaicohn - the nOl'el's inte llectual and philoso phical center. i\hlicoll11 urges-often , colorfulh. and at length-a single dc\',[Sbltillg critique based 011 his kllO\dcdgc of chaos and fm etab: th e park 's safctl system Illust collapse because it is too preearioush ' co mp1t:\ ill t:oorcliJlating so 1llallY, and sllch intricate, fail-safe de\·i<.:es. MorcOI'e r. thc park 111ust fail both nnprcdictabh and speetae,Liark \lalcolm cspiaillS ill the book:
D;IIOII1(1111a
It's chaos thcor\" Rllt I not icc nobody is willing 10 listen to th e co nsequcll ces of the llIathematics. Ikc
IVl o rcO\'cr, \L.JJcollll IIses thi s argument - not the lIsual and \ '
D I "'\ (1 S
\I ! H
The
J '\
\
I J \Y ~
diIlOS,lllT~
1 "\ C "
th clll sehcs cc.: rtainh- dc..:liH:red" ,\ s a practi cing pa-
I COlltolo~ist, I conkss to \\ Ty ,llllliselllcllt cd the cxtended rolll i.lII-a-ch:f
embedded
ill
the
rc.:collst"rllctioIlS.
1 cOllld
re<,,:o~llizc lI ('a rl~" c\"(.' r~"
Ilrm"ocati\"c or olltre idcil of any collca,gllc, c,"ery social tic-ill 110\'"C\ ploitcd h~ " dinos,lIlrs ill thc ir cOIllIlli.l1lding rol e as cultural icolls. The herhinnes arc so slI'ed and icldlie, Th e giant brac hiosams lem to eac h other like cattle in the pC
l) il1o m ania
Thc ficld h,,,;\ long and honorable hisl'JfI' of continu
n
for mass alldicllces, has hrought
I1 S
to Ihi ~; impassc of ulter
ill-
nl ." l l;'; \l ! H J~
\
II
\\":-. I .\C I-:
cOllsistcncy. 110\\· ertl c l, ,111<1 how peIYCf.\C. th<11 wc im·csl 1hc lllost <1\\·c somc ex pertise (;.1I1d m il li ons of dollars ) in the dillos. IlJrs. sp<.l rillg no knowledge o r CXPCll S<.: to rend er c\·cry de tail, C\"lory possibl e 1111<.l1lCC . ill the Illost aee ur,,!e ,lIld re,,jistie 1I1<11111er. I ha,e nolhillg bul pr
DilJo/1lal7id
as his eille1llatie argul11cllt illH)kes the alltithcsis of chaos,
I \
In the fillll, John I iammond flies his helicopter to the e\GI\atiOll site of Ellic Sattler and Alan emllt, the 1\\"0 paleontologists chosen to ·'sign off" Oil his park ;Illd satisf, his imcstors. The\ S;l\ at first that the\ ea11-
nl,()~_\l I{ 1'\ ,\ IhYST,\cf..:
not come, for they
ahout ihe !uras.'>ic Pen-I? phenomenon,
~l11cl
ahout clino-
llIallia ill gCllcr,-d. Natllml histor~- is, <Jlld has
Dillolllulliu
mouth at \lcDonald's-sold to kids too young for the mO\"ie's scary scenes-to a rllsh Oil amher rillgs at fallc~' je\\'elr~" storcs); Jlld I GlI1llot illlagille Ihal cilher he or Michael CriehlOll is Inlh satisfied \\ith their gutless and incoherent script as all enjoined suhstitute for (\11 illiercst-ing book. Imagine, then, \\"hat compromises the same eOllllllercial \HHld forces upon the tin~' prineipalit~: of paleontological research?
;\s a symhol of our dilemma, consider the plight of natural
hist()r~
llluseUIllS in the light of comlllercial dinom
1)1,\()~.\1 It 1'\
\
II.\)·~·I·\(·K
at all. The\" 1ll00'ed the robots to another buildillg Oil the extreille opposite elld of the ealllpus-alld cvcn fc\\"er pcople "isited the rcgular museU1ll as a result. I 'll<1y epitollli;:e lll~' arguillent in the following way: Institutiolls ha\'e essences-central purposes that define their intcgrity and being. Dinol1l<1nia dramatizes a conflict beh\'een institutioIls \\'ith disparate CS.'iCilCCS-illUSCUillS
Di1701/Jdllid
"hile the object itself, Oil displas ill the I3ritish ~Iuseum, is magic. ,\ fiberglass 'J'rrCl1117()SOUrliS merits;] good look; the real bones send shi\,ers dO\\"ll my spine, for I knO\\" that they supported ;]n actual breathing and roaring aninwl SOlllC 70 lllillion ~"ears ago" Ij:H~n thc \\"il~" John Hamlllolldullderstooci this principlc, and a\\"ardedlllusclIlllS thcir garland of ullimale respect. J Ie wailled 10 build Ihe grealesllheme park illihe
history of the ,,-orld ~ but he could do so only h~- abandoning the ViTltd reality of Illost e,elllplars, ami stocking his o\\n park "ith real, lisillg dillosaurs, recollstructed from authelltic dillosaur DNA" (I do appreciate the consciolls irollies and recursiolls clllbedded in Jurassic Por/;:'s O\\'Jl rcality-that thc bcst diJlosaurs arc cOlllputer-gcllerated \\'ithin a llHn-ie based Oll a I1m-e1.) ll'or paleontologists, Jurassic Park is both our greatest opportunity and our most oppressi\-c incuhus-a spur for ullpar,-llieled gelleral illterest ill our subjcct, alld thc source of a eOllllllcrcial flood that llla~- truly e:\tinguish dinosaurs by turning thcm from sources of ,-I\\"C into cliches
~\\
18 II~
Cabinet l\1useums: Alive, Alive, Of
I"
Dl!HU:"'s I:"IR Cl'1 Y,
\',JIned kind, Inc\-cr understood why the song's third \'USC includes the ()lll~'llo\l-rhylllillg cOllplet ill slich a COllsistent and admirable ditty: "She died ofa feler; amino olle could ,,"'e her." Bllt thelll reali"ed that these \\(nds do rhYllle ill Ireland-illst as "thought" a!ld "note" rhYllle ill Yorkshire, and thercfore in Words\lorth, I Jnst a fe\l blocks from i\iolh alld riliht lIext to the Dail (the modem Parliament of the Irish Republiel slands the D"blin \I"sellin of""tural Ilistory. This IllllSell1ll traces its origin to a pri,-atc associaliOl] of fomteen eiti"ens, founded in 17,1 "s the Dublin Soeietl, The first public exhibit (largely of agricultural imple1llents) opened in 17)) ill the b"selllelit of tire Old P"r1i"lIIelit I-louse, lIIelitioned "b",'e, Ceor;e II prm-iclccl a royal charter ill 1749, alld P<Jrli,-llllcllt;Jr~- grclilts began ill
Ca/Jinet i\luseulIls: Alil'e, Afire, O!
1701. Crcming collcctions rcquircd a nc\\ building, and a govcrnmcnt grant of fino' thousand pounds, made in 185~, largel~' finalleed the presellt stmclure. I ,ord Carlisle, the I,ord I ,ielltcllallt alld Celleral eO\erIlor of Irelalld, laid the fOlilldatioll stolle ill l\1areh IBiD. IIis lordship, speakillg ill orotulld tOiles suited both to \lictoriall practice "lllel to the digllil\' of his official litle, e'pressed a hope "that the bllildillg abollt to
arise on this spot, ..
l1la~-,
\yith its kindrcd departmcnts, furnish
C\"Cf-
incrcasiIlg accollllllodation for the pursuits of useful kllmy]cdgc and hl1111
DI:\()S.\l
I{
1,\ .\
"_\YS'I.\Ch:
c)'Riorda1l, who IxO\'idcs a 1l\cticulous accoullt of ('Ycry chall~e ill \'cnuc for any stuffcd bird or scashcll, also ackllmdcdgcs hycllticthcentury st
Cahillet ,\/usellllls: /\/ive, Alive, O!
sillee l.eopold Bloolll Illet Stephell Dedalus ill "ightt("," (or sillee \[olh \[alolle last sold the sort of stuff labeled in the grou(1(l~floor e,~ hibits as "j\Iollmea of Irela((d''j. \Vith such Illl'lll0ries, 1 appro
prised"
\Jo~
one
jo~
or tittle of <1n~" C'-.:hihit has heen altered,
hli~
all
~he
surroundings haH: been meticulollsl)" restored to their original conditioll-not just aCCl1ratel)", but Im"ingly as \\"ell. An arlllY of broo1lls has hecn through thc prcmises 11 think of the enormous clone constructed hy "licke, \lollSe i(( the "Sorcerer's '\pprelltiee" sequellee of Jial1t(/~ sial-and, as lll~" gralH"llllother would surcl~" haH: said, ")\)l1 could cat otT the floor" (though llle,er ullderstood \111\ all Ill, older relati,es ill~ \'oked this expression, as J couldn't imagine \\'hy anyone \\ould \\,
Dl"()S_\l'R
I" _\ 1I,\)'s'I_\<'I..:
\\-e conceptualize "Victorian" as a ramshackle huilding \\-ith hroken steps, cre~lking floors, and peeling paillt-a set fit olll~- for the ,\dcbllls falllik, or the I bllo\\'eell "lwlIllted hOllSe" set III' IA the local J",·eees. \Iy firs\' alld keellly lTH~alillg, e'\pericllcc \\-ilh \Tic{oriall as Victorialls klll'\\' the style, di\'csted of a century's o\erla~- ill deterioration, occurred ill ](J76, \\ hen, to celebrate our nation's h\() hundredth birthcla\,
the Smithsonian Institution opened '-1
replic~1
of the PhiLtdclphi<1 Ccn-
tenniall':'I)()sition of IK,6. This \\onderful e,hibition illelueleel pIO\\s, pll
Cahinel ,\lllsellllls: Alire, /\lirc, ()!
signers. i\ lost of all, this splendid restoration tallght me something that 1 Iud 11e\-er appreei<1ted abollt \lidoriall lllllSClllll desigll. The displa~' of orgallisms ill these lllllSClllliS rests llpOli COllCCp!S strikillgly diffcrellt frolll lllOcicrll pracl-icc, but fl111~' COllSOIWlll \\'ith Victoriall COllccrllS: Today \\·c tcnd to cxhibit one or a fc\\' kc~- spccimcns, surrounded h~- an odd mixturc of cxtrancous glitz and uscful CXpLlll
tion,
~1l1
effort to [celeh iifthe intent he
ll1<1\ill1<.l1l~-
hOllOf,lhlc)
OJ"
10 dazzlc (nothing \\Tong \\'itll tllis goal eithcr). The Victorians, \\"110 \"ic\\-ed their 111llSeUl1lS as microcosms for national goals of territorial expansion and faith in progress fueled by increasing knO\dedge, tried to stuff e\'ery LIst specilllen illto their gloriousl~' crO\\"(lccl cabillds- in order to shO\\· the full r
DI'\'O:-;_\l It 1,\
_\
I-I,\)':-;[,\CI..:
"cabinet of cUfiosities") of older collectors; ,md the eightcenth-eenhm preferellce of Li III wells <-Illd the 1<~1l1 ighlelllllclIl for a syst-cll wt-ic dispby of llature's regular oreIer \\'itilill a coherellt alld cOIllprchensi\'c ta\:onomic scheme. r h;.l\-e long recognized the the()r~- and aesthetic of such com prehellsi\c display: show e\-crything
I h,ld l1c\-er rcalizcd 11m\' powerfully the dccor of ,I clhinct I11liSClI1l1
C111
promote this goal until 1 ,,1\\ the Dublin fi,tures redone right. Light floods through thc glass cciling, crcating a fascinatillg interpla~- ofhrightncss and shaclm\' in rcflccting off both specimcns and architectural clelllcnts of iron struts, \\'ooelen railings. and thc dark \\'ooel anel clear glass of the eabillets thclllsch"es. 'I 'hc bl1s~" arr,lllgelllcilt of cabinets lll
Cdhil7ef
:\lu,~culIIs:
j-\lirc. A.lire, O!
ill full integrity. ;\nd thc~- h
\H::ll
in al1~- curious person. I :Jgit,-llt for these old-style mUSeums
becallSe they arc wOllderful today, 'I'hel prmide, first of all, a richlless ill larietl'llot al'ailablc else" here, Wllell I I'isited the Dublill J\llISelllll, for examplc, a collcge coursc in dra\\"ing had convcncd on the prcmiscs-and c,Jch studcnt sat in front of a differcnt mammal, sketching ~lt leisurc. But a secolld rC,-,SOll he~-(Jlld iIlllllediate, practicallltility 1lI1lst he elllbraccd if 111~- argu1llcnt has any JJO\\'cr to persuadc. This 1llore suhtle, alld elilltrOlersial, poillt "as beautifulh c'pressed I" Oliler Sacks ill h\"o letters written to 111C, first in Dccember 19l)O, and then in Scptembel' 1l)91: 1\1~- O\\"n first love \\'as hiology. I spcnt a great part of my acloIcscellce iu the :'-Jatl1lalllistol\ Illuseulll ill I ,olldoll (alld I still go to the Botanic Cardell almost every cla~-, and to the ZOO (,\"('IT :\.IollcLn'l. Thc SCllSC of diversit~'-of the wOlldcr of illllllllierabic forllls of life - has al,,
LO\'c of lllllSel1111S ,,-as all i1ltellsc passioll for 1I1l', for lllany of lIS, ill adolcsccllce, bik KOrJI, JOllatlr'lII "lille!'. 'lIId I s!,ellt lirtnalh all our spare tillie ill tire :'-Jatural J listol\ \Jl1Selllll, eaclr of l1S adopting (or beillg adopted I,,) differellt grollpsIrolotlrmia (Erik), pohchaetes (Jollathall), eeplralopods (111\self), I call still sce, "itlr eidetic liyidlleSS, the dmll case containing i.l Stllel/otellthis camlii ,,-ashccillp Oll the Yorkshire coast ill It):!). 1 11
least lXlrth bccallse thc\ maintained (and transferred to their chosen profession) a ]O\-c of detail aIld
diH:fSity,
<\s llurtured b~- cahillet
Ill11SCllllLS.
Erik Korll is II:llglallcrs fillcst antiquarian hook dealer illllatural hi.'itor~-; \-liller's \york. ill lliCciicillC alld theater, Oli his earlier 10\-(' for /,oological t;:I:\:OIlOlllY. Ill' continlled ill his letter to Ille, "I partl~ scc Ill~' patients (some ofthclll, ~lt least,1 as 'forms of life:
C(}hilJet\/usellIl1S: A/ire, ,\/ire,
at the preilliere of\Te",,;,,", first perfOlllled ill DII"lill iIl17-l2-llalidel, \dlO \\Tote fOllr great odes for the coronatioll ofC;eorge II; the same King Ceorge ,,110 thell grallted a rll\al charter that e,ellhdh led to the Dublin 0-atmal Iliston Muse\lln, ,\nd I thought of Ill' fa,orite eholl1s illot "Ilallclujahl") in part h,o of '\1e",;o/', set b, llandcl "ith a ril'hh pO\ypitoll ic bcgillni llg alld '-I strow; hOl1lopiIon ic ending -
ogy, I tholl~ht. to the
intcrpla~-
of liature's \\"()lidrousl~- Y
sity with the ullit}" of ta\()1lomic order alld eyoJutiollar~· e"plallatioll, cOlltrastillg themes so ,,"ell displa~"ecl and illtcrt\\'illed in Dublill's \iatural History \hlselllll . .\lld I thought of the \\'()rds, e\pressillg the lllost llohle lliissioll ofleacheL"i: to e"palld out to the ellds ofkllO\dedgc, alld thell to gather in- h~- song, h~- "Titing, h~- instrllction, h~ clispla~". "(:reat ,,"as the COlllpallY of the preachers. Their sound is gOlle out into all lands, ami their "(nd,, IInto the ends of the ,\'Orld,"
()f
~\\
19 II~
Evolution by Walking
~11"K OJ-' Till: CRI·:-\'[' J)R-\\I\'I'IC CO,\]-'I ,IC'I S hChYCCll \\"(HllCll
disturhing, in its anti-Semitism, than gorilhhooc1
or parasitic aliellation, lInd unredeemed hy Portia's status as the strongest feminist ill the group). But 1 still cast Ill~' \'otc, ill this genre, for Raqucl \Vclch and the antihodies ill Falltdstic \ TO)'dge. Ji'or lvIs. \\ 'elch, as part of a scientific tealll reduced to microhial size and injected into a 1111111<1n hoell. Iea\es ti,e schiele for all illtend "space \\alk," alldlllllst tl,ell struggle \\'itb a horde of lllurderous antibodies \d1O correctly identify her
as nOll-self andl1lercl~· try to do their appointed joh. I gi\·e the llod to "Is. Welch alld the alltibodies beeallse she elllbodied a slllall hut distillguished gemc of pedagog\ that I filld partieu1arl~· effcctiYe in using the \·isceraJ to grasp the cerehral: scaling a human hcing up or dem·n ill order to i1111stmtc a cOJlcept hy moving thc b()d~ clircctl~· through <.1 process or phellolllcllon.l h<.l\·C, for ex<.llllplc, been a
(litcralhi ill a \ery large gallle of ehess-alldl really didllllClcrstalld the gallle better after IlllO\ed doggedls fo[\\arcl. slipped clen·rl\
1',1\\11
on ;1 diagonal to lllurdcr a brothcr of another color, and finally elllllbed to the ecclesiastical
cl iagoJl<.ll.
1'\\ eel'
SllC-
of a distallt bishop along the sarne
Silllilarl~ ' , IlHlSC lllll exhibits 011 th c heart ll1
d ry of c\"{)luti0l1
fjri.lphs. and oth er fOflll s of \'isoa I rc prcsellti:.ltioll ill chaundillg ..Hid
co n straining our thought. Intell ectual illllO\'atio ll oftell requires. abm'c all else . a n c,," image to e 11lh()d~' i.I 110\"(.:1 th eo ry. Pri111ates are \';sual animals, and " 'c thin k hest in pictorial or geomet ric terlllS. \-\.'ords arc i.l1l eYollitiona n ' afterthollght.
' I'he pm\'cr of pictu res. as ep itOllles or clIcapsulators of eentrell C011ccph ill our l"uiture, may hest be app recia ted ill stlldyin g wha t I like to call '·c.1I1onieal iro ns, " O f !:I tanclmd illlages th at al1toIl1Clticall~' trigger a body of <Jssoe iatiolls connected with all im portant th eory or institution in Ollr li \"(;5. The pmH:- r of canon ical icons is grea tly cn h.lIIce cl b~ ou r high'" ,ophi sti eated lIe llro logiea l eapaeih' to abstTaet, process, and di,tin gui sh images hased nn slIl;.dl diffc rcne e~ in form . \\'e
I)"
· (J~ \{ ! It "
\
11 _\\:-\ 1-\( . 1..:
recognitioll and th(,11 to (;H)ke cmotioll~ of grea t depth alld C\"(: 11 dangc r (for we m," as easih be led to lems as to a march into batti e ), ,\n
r':\'o/lIliOI1
hy \\ 'dlking
Upward grow th , according to th e captiOlls for most C\-olliliollar~ trees. ollly IlI<,:alls 1ll0n~ nH,: lIt from older to ~'() t1nge r periods of ,gcologieallillle, lmt
lip and dO\\"l Jal so stallds for gooci and
had ill ollr 1l1~ 'l hol
(beilliliful f10Il'CIS 011 Ihill brallchcs I'S, dirll' alld gllarh roois, the braill n, lhc h,mel" heal'c lI 'Illd hell , \ 'alilillia and Ciihdheimi-so
Of;1
"I'
on th e Iree tree of life,
lI s tl
hecolllcs conf1aiccl \\' ith Illore progressin.:, and th e drawil as
laddcr of progress to tclilhe sa m e fal se bIle, If firc lllllSI he fOllgll1 lIith fire, 1I1C11lhis grea t fallacI at Ihe corc of Ollr canonical icons for c\'()lutioll can only he corrected h~ ' dc\'cloping and pop lilari/,iJl ~ a 11lOTC <-ICCllrat <.: pictuTe, 'I 'rees ralher tlWll ladders hring liS part of the \\ 'a~ ' , but, a:-i 1l1~'l)fC\' i OlL' ]xnagri.lph no tes, treC:-i ll1 a~' ;tlso he drHlI'll rcstrictil'eh to Sll pport Ih e ccntral fallacl' of prcdictable progress, 11011', thcll, can lI'e drall' a tree ciiffcrclilk. 10 clllpitasi/,c Ih e ~cIJ(.: tll()gical cOll1ledioll:-i that d<.:fine eHlllltionary rela tioll ship ,,'hile esellcn-jllg th e confllsion of Ilpward gnl\\th with progrcs.~, illHI
tle frill 10
<1\1
effort that can
01111-
,lIT pril1lar~' fashioners ofl-ltOllght,
be fldfilled in tile lul" dmodc, Icons
and the search for flllld;'l111(,lI:<JII~ ' nc,, ' OltC of Ih e most' important efforts ;,1
repn.;scntali011 therefore becomes
scholar C,lll Illlcierl"ke, Sel'cra l biologis ts has'c tried to dCI'clol' IICII icons to record COIlti nge nCl and IIllprcdictahi Iitl' ilS ecn tm I themes ill the Ii i, lo,,' of I ifc Isec 1111' hook WOllder/iil Life for an "'lIItple ), But I Inite n Oli' to prai se III) collcagu c:-i at the ;\l1leri C;I 1l \lllse lJlll of:\atllral Hi s tor~ ' for c;Hr~ ' ing th e
task f\lflher in lire differell l cOllle,1 of an c,lribilion llilit Just as pclpcr pnw ides a :-iuhslrate for a \-~Hicty of ieons to eillhody
tlrc centwl fallal"l' of predictable progress -I ;tdders, marches, concs of in crcasi llg di\'(:rsity-.so too docs the spac e of
eslribit on tir e hist"", of life record tir e salllc biases, Most 1l11I Se Uln halls
arc reci'illlglcs " 'jilt a preferred lin eHT flo\\' of \'isitors in nne directioll along the major a,is, :\11 " hibit, o n Ihe historl of life Ihat I hillc cl er seell in all~' Il1l1SCUill . an~wh e rc in th e \\ 'odd, organize th e space pro\'id cd ill on e of two \\'aY:-i - and hoth , hmn'\'{'T ullconsc iollsly alld often \\'ithoul "'plicit signil gc, use th e bias of progress as il central principle for cHranging orgallisms,
One fannite schemc simply organizcs fo ssils in temporal orde r. oldcst ,II one en d of the hilll, loungest at th e olher. Sneh a stralcgl' do cs not Ilecessarih' (alld realll should Ilot ) record th e bias of progress, for
gcologic.l lly ~'Ol111 g docs 1l0~ meall al1ato11licall~' complc:\. <.111(1 b,lCtcria 25 1
contillue In rule the world toda~ ", as th c~: have since life's beginnings (and lI'ili until the sun e'plodes), Rather, temporal order ex presses the bias because museu1I1 ex hibits construe . Bul he treateel primates , including hUlllans , fifth rather than last, In oth er \\'()fds, h e disc lissed th e ri se of Jtlstralopith ccincs, th e eillerge ncc of 110 1110 erecl us , the interaction s 2:; 2
J<)'o/lItiOI1 hy \\'tdbll g
ofCro-VhIgnon and :\e""dcrl,,1 ill Fllrope, bejiJre he presented Ih e cso-
lution of pigs. elephants, and sca CO\\"!o.. I ",,,s thrmm into confusio" "t first. but thell I started to think ,,"d praise be to a 11\' scholar IdlO ea" so prosoke" neophde Ollt of his ficld', COIiITllli oIlS. \Vhy "re 1m"""" al\\"1\'s treated last? After all , ,,1though \\ 'C' arose late in geological tim e, oth er 1I1a1ll1ll
\c hCIJ Ie \"isccrally h~ " w
the I1I1IS('1I111 dllril1f; th e pas t h\"c llt~ ·-fi\"e ~ears. sti J11l1latill~
UTI£I
ft{II(Il .ftI~
mnl!
MJ.IS.NU.
GI IIinUO
HlIlnl lli llOJlI.Ill. I.MD in:(l()OOHll
(ilIU
HlEi iA!f\
[lm~m
n OOJ..i:\
lllt'(\lliln
P!Rlilrolmu
\CIU I ~
' IOlmttu,\
jifl!OoI UlIoJJt.IIB
I>BroI1'll:/JIj
I~D
rlln'( ll
[To view this image, refer\TlP.RUP·\HAPlG to SUPH -
-
___ .print ... . . .of .this . .title.] mHIiPJ:I the version
_ _. ._
• •-
rum'.
PIJ.UlloU
Th e (loor 1)/([11 j boltoll ) J oj" the AlllericC/11 '\i!tse um ·.~ lI e ll' f()s,~i f Hldm llw/ he/II... lin d Ih!! !mll/ching cldd{J~ro /JI ( to p ) o il which if i.~ ha,~ed.
orde r of bifu rC , and nol' 011 pereci\'ed progress or illcreasi ng COIllple,itY, ict me cite the e"lmple presented in the ,isitms' pamphlet: Sharb , " rI ,"nande rs, 1i " ",ls, bng;rroos, 'Illd horses a ll "'lie a bclckbolle composed of \'crtc brae and belong to i.I large group called ,'ertebrates, Of the an imals mentioned, only sa lalllande rs, lizards, kangaroos, ami horses I",,'e fOllr limbs, So th el';rre Illorc close ii' related and bel ong to a grollp called tetrapods, meaning fom-footecl, Within tetrapods, li za rds, kangaroos, and horses de,clop in \later-tight eggs that are e ither laid bl thc Illother or arc retained inside th e mother lIntil the em], r\'O is ],orn, Th e watertight melllbwnc illside the egg is ('ailed the amnion , so lizards. kangaroos. and h or~cs belollg to a grollp call ed alllniotcs. Onl~' kangaroos and horses produce milk for the ir yOUllg i:llld hm'e three bon es in their ears to conduct sound \'ihratiolls. So thel' arc morc close" relatcd and belong to a gronp within alllilioies call cclm<-llllllhlis. 2)5
1)1 .' \l lS\1 11{ J"\
\
II\Y ~ I·\ (:K
We lllight con tinue hI' nsing tile placenta to group horses I,ith alilatcr m,nnlllaJ, anel to place kangaroos on a preplacental branch, A walk in sllggc~tl'd order through the lllUSCUIIl'S t\\ "() halls of fos\ il IlIiolJlllllals di rec ts \·i sitors ,dong tlte.: main ro llte of tilt: cbdognllll. :\ se'Iuenee of six kel shmeel-el erised c hamcte rs marks th e tempora l se'Inenee ofbmnehing and cstablishes the ge nealogiea lh elefi ned topolog, of nested groups \\· ithill lllore inclusi\"C aggrcgations. L inl:
incilldi llg 1I1a1ll1ll
J
:;. !'1 .'ClSI \ . As dise llssed abOl'e , th e placenta dC"e1oped after 1ll011otrcmcs and lIIarsllpials brall ched off, and all s llbseq lj(_~ l1t mammals
possess this shared-de ri"ed c1wracter. In the hall . edeiliaie s (sloth s, '1IIIeatc rs, ami armadillos) branch off here beeallse Ihey have place lltas (fealure , ) bliinol feature +
+
TI 11< STIRRt 'P- SII \Pl',j)
ST.\PI ':S.
III reptiles and early lll
stapes is a simple rod. 13111 la ter on , at Ihis fourlh bifurcalion , a hole c\'Dlved ill Ih c slapes (an illlport'''11 blood "csscl goes through it), alld all slibseqllc lil llEllI1ll1al.s posses.s thi s perfof
main tru e 1-0 th e the llle of this C SSil~ ': all icoll s eTllbody til eori e:o., and arc therefore capable of both breakiog th e eonecptual locb of carli er, iuadeqllate icons, and of introdu ci ng ll ew (oftell suhtle
tiOllists , alld \H: do bc:lilTc ill imperfection and challge. The foll()\\"(.' fs of .·\ristotlc "ere called pcripateti cs bcca llse th e "Ill aster of th em thai kllo \\'" \"alll Cd the lillLlge of co~jtatioll and cllllbuhitioll (the cOH.' rcd "alk ill ;\ristotlc's L,eclim lI'as a iJ"ripa/os). Ane! Emersoll mad e tire sallle conncctioll in hi s E.IIllOIIS plea for a cli ~ tincti\"cl~" :\II11'fi call excellence: "\Vc ,,"ill \\"alk Oil OUT OWIl fe et" " " we \\"ill speak our OWlllllillcl s." I ,ct lIS , tlr e n, praise the Ia rt;t' scalc of this dcli ghtfll l attempt to slir Ollr Ill cll tilllllachiJl (; r~" b~" exercising th e his~ori ca ll y pri or and equally fUlldamental change that"ll)
259
~\\ 20 I/~ The Razumovsky Duet
I
l.1\F ()~ ,\ S\l. \ l.l. STR1,YT of some IIn.;ntl hOllses, all closeh' packed together. r presume that most of 1Il~' nei ghbors share Illy mCllhd geog ra ~ I'll\' of this terrain -strlletmal di\'isiolls into rcl<,d\la\', sidc\l alks, houses, ilnd gardc ns, with primary taxonomi c.: separations set by property lines of ownership, But th e streel al so fcatmes more eal s than peoplc-alld I kllO\\" that these members of the maillmalian lIl
aries hy natioll s and languages. Btli otiler S\'~ t<.:I1lS make as lllllch se llse. and ~ llrd y ha\'c more rclc\'
Fi sc her was Cerman I", birth (from the tOlm ofWaldh ei lll in Saxon)". \\'hich Fischer "Hided to his ll,-llllC \dlen the Russian C zar e llnobled him in 1817), Hc studied wilh ClII'ier, becal11 e friendh- with Goethe , travel ed " ith th e I-I1I11l boldt broth ers, tatlght ill ,arious Genl1
foreign collcchons, (Peter den;lopccl his 0\\ '11 grcat
mllSClllll
of
natmal hi sto,,' - still parlh on I'iew in Ihe bll ildi ng cOllStnrctcd to hOllse
I), ,( ):.;
\l 'l<
t, \ II \'
~ I" \ (:1..:
it, tIl e KlIllslkalllc ra of St. Pctcr:-. hllrg-h~· acqllirill g hn) i11lport
Dutch collectiolls,) The gro\dh of Rllssian 1Illi n:rs iti cs dllring the latc eight cellth a nd eclrly Ilill etct: nth cClltllri e~ prm'ided Jllotller patll\\"ay for importat ion of foreign scie ntists and profc~sors - r()r Russia , lacking lI11i\·cr. . ities in its pHst, could not slIb!o. i!o.t 011 h011lc-grO\\'n . . peci ai ist.\. Fisch er's res idency in '\loscO\\', begillllin!.; ill lko--l-.lics s,-lJl
posed I,,· leading I.oologists, nlOstk Frelleh and Gerlllan. n 'hc s·isll
prilllarik bibliogmphic, bllt
IIC
learn Illllch of hi stori c;Ji and theoreti-
cal interes t fro1l1 Vi schcr' s cOlllpilation. I'or e\;lI11p] C. hi:'itori cl11 s h
tion of c\'oiutioll , \\Tittcll ill 1Ho9, \\ 'a~ widely i ~ llOrcd as a fa tuolls and spee lli ati l·c trcatise. Bllt one of Fischer's longer cha rts prescnts a Tab u /0 c/arissi /11; 1,(/l1larck ("list of I he llIosl cc Icbratcd L,-UllaTck" ), reproducing [ ,i.l lllarck\ chain of being ill ftlll (:\"Ullllioll
periphcral loca tion ,,"ith c'"cn more limited primary llIL1terial , for
Fisch er has inscribed it "to the Society of .\rts ami Scienccs of C ourI"nd " - a duell\ on the Baltic Sca, nl"'· pmt of l. 1hi", that bcc"n lc a Polish ficfdolll in the sisleellth ccntmY, but passcd to the Rllss ian elllpirc in 179) after th c third partition of Poland. Co urland c lljm·cd a seventec1lth- CCllhlf~ " lllom ent o f gl or~".
iJ lId
c\"(:11 held enough pO\\"c r to build
"sllla]] colonial cmpire in the West Jnd ics IT ob,lgo] "!ld Afrk" IGabon J. ) 1100·c to rc,1(1 the dedications of old books "Tiltcn in lnon,]fchi cs for thcs· im miabh- honor sOlll e (u snalh in signifi can t) kni ght or dllke ,,"itll fulsom e \ \"()[(ls of S~COph elHtie ill s ilH.:c rit~-. praising him as th e light of the IIllilDSC (in hopes, no dOllbt. for a fcw dllcats to sllpport futmc ,,·ork ); this old practicc makes Ill e fcel like such an honest and upright 1ll;-.1Il , by comparison, \\ "hcn J put a posi ti \"(: spin , perhaps en:r so sli ghtly esaggcra ted, on a grant proposa l. Fisc her's dedication to Comes 11111strissime, Dom;ne C/em el1tissi me ! (:vlost ill ustriolls COllnt featllre s of thc test sparked Illy intercst aud led to tit is essa~"" First, Io ns 1I1 0st
easily in fcrred. I It \Srites tltat he is dedicating his book to tlt e illustrious cOllnt, ami sHndd al so like to so dedicate th e natural hi stOlY coiled ions of the I11tl SC lilll, btlt eheu. Ol11lWS pericfllIlt, rest.:mi {JO uc:i!'lsilll ae, (";\1..1 5, c\"cr~ ·thil1 g ha ~ becn d cs tro~"cd, so \Try littl e rClllains" ") lie thcll
asks \\·hat \\'ill happen p().~t tot ('alamitates tucll/osclS C(/'~l/sque tristi,'isinws, quos ;\JlJ,~'(/rul11 cll/tores A-lo.'iqllel1 sis experli SI'IIlW', (" after so Ill CS of ;\I ",coll ha,e endured " )" I happen to be \\Titing Ihis es ~a~ ' on July -J,. so Ioc':ll c\"(:nts ill Bostoll arc primed 10 drall",li ze the source of Fischer's complaillh" Jmt be fore SUIISc:t, as they do cn:ry year, th e Bosto n Pops Orchestr;'I, 011 the t;Splallade adjoinillg Ihe Charles Ki w r. ,,"ill pia, TchaikOl"sh's 18 10 01'eT" lure , \\'i1'll gloriolls fireworks cO llllllenc iJlg at th e boomin g of cannons (Illa rki Ilg the conelllsioll of th is 10ll(lcst pi ece ill the classica I reperlon"). Whelll "as a child. "allollillg ill patriotism , I eOllldll 't 'I"ite figllre oul \1"1" T c ha ikOlskl" had '\fitte ll an o\"erture 10 eelebrale a little skinllish of an :\lnericcll1 \I"ar 11",t " "C didll 't \lin" I discO\"ered lale r tl",t " fe,," olher ("\T llts of passing illlporhlllcc occurred in IR12. IllOSt 110t1" " apo lenn, fo lIO\\"NIIJ\ his subsequ ent retreal and dccisi\"e de feal, as th e old sarillg goes. I,," those grea tesl of Russian ge ne rals, '1m"ember and Dece mber. 'iapol coll had enl ered I\I",co,," on Septcmber q . hopillg to \I"in qui ck and f,,,orable peace le rllls from C zar ,\l c-,aneler. flut th c C/,ar wonld not deal \\"ith him and, 1110rc important,
011
th e da ~' of ~apolcoll 's entry, c\ 'eJl tllal1 ~' d c~tro~' ill g
lllOTe
than 1\1"0 th irds of th e c il) . and l)fesenting N apoleoll from fced ing and honsing hi, Iroo ps throu gh the \lin le r. The fire Illas 11<,,"e aided Russia I" hclpillg to forcc '1apoieoll's \lilhd f< ",al and subseqne nt de fea l, bnt the na mes also \lTccked most of ~ losco\\", inclndillg Ihe great libraries alld lI1\l SC IIIll co llcc:ti o ll S ofthc lllli\'c rs it~ · .I (' i sc h cr, in otller \\'ords, had been olle of so Illany \·ictillls. largely anonYlllous to later hist-ofY, of a signa l ("\'cnt in the COll!->trllctioll of Ollr modern \\·orld . .\ s a second intriguiJl g fC
The
Ra:::ull1()1',~kr
Duel
heh\'een Bedhm"cn's actual andl"ischer's anticipatcd patron" Becthm"cl1 wrote thc qllartets ill lHo(), and Fisehcr sought help seH.'ll years later, sn the c\"cnfs
of Fischer's COiile,;.; Jllustrissime - bu t the reSCill hlai leC c\teilds little heyond gcncalog)"" Their stor)" hegins hH) generations further hack. \\'itll a lJkr
his sccrci \\'ifc, and hccalllc CllCHlllOllSly wcalthy tlwllks to her largesse. Ilis brother Kirill Crigore"ieh (1718-180" and father of the Rawmmshs
ill our talc of Fischer alld Bcethm"cn-as their cOllllllon patronymic, Kirillm"ich, indicates) ""as a llIore a1llhitious and accolllplished lIlelIl" He sened, for nearh t\\enls 'cars, as president of the St. Petersburg AeadClll)" of Sciences, hut held Illuch greater political pO\\"er (including dominion c)\"cr more than 100,000 serf'i) as thc last hetman of I .ittlc Russia (mlcr of the Ukraine). lIis t\So
SOlIS
therefore inherited all eoneei"ablc
ach-<1l1tagcs of ""(,
(17:;2-1Sj6)-\\"
ill celltral E1lrope, \\"{JOillf!; \\"()Jllell (I1l0St lIotoriol1sly the Q1leen of I\
bass, in Vienna, he eertainh kne\\ ~IOI.art, and probahh met Ila,dll.
Ilc \\"as a lllore tllillllllerel)" competcnt \iolillist and oftell pLI)"ecl infhe
I)I'\,()~ \l I{ I'\,
\
II
\~·~'I \('~
'Jlwrtet that he estahlished, Iargeh for BecthOlell', usc. But he per· forllled his fillest sen-icc for Illusie
and illliSical parties \\-ere LiilHHiS throughout l(uropc ..\ \\-elleducated, liher,-ll, ancl generous aristocrat, '-lIH.1 brillialltc([lIseur, he \\',-lS OIlC of thc most popillar alld rell()\Ulnl mistocrats of the !r to Becthm'cll, Ra/,llllIO\'sk~' estahlishcd and fUllded a permanent string quartet, led hy Schuppanzig!J, ill IHok-alld placed thc pla~''---TS at Beethm'ell's disposal. A C()lltelllpOr
Beeth",ell "as ... cock of the ",rlk ill the prillceh establishment; C\-erytlIing that he COlli posed \\'
The
H..(/~11111()l'.,'k:\'
Ducl
Llpsec!. Rawillmsks, de,astated in both spirit and pocketbook, dis-
hJndcd Jnd pcnsioncd off his (Ilurk!. The
older son - Aleksei
Kirillmieh,
Fischer's
RaZlllllmsh
(174S-18221- bekee! nearl, all of h is brot her's ae!1ll irable e ha raeteristies, Stalldard sources (not ()1l1~- the SOl'iet l
,s;cllerally llIiserable. I Ie llIarried the richest heiress in Russia, but sellt hcr packillg sc\'cr,d ~'e(\rs later, after draining 1ll0St of her \\'ealth. Of his !\\'() SOllS, Olle \\"as \\'ildly dissolute <md the olher floridl~' mad; his \\\"o daughters SOllllcl quite ;J(lillirahle-ollc clc\otccl herself to estahlishillg hospitals for the poor-hut se:\ist sourccs
lished, at his ('sLlte in Corellski. llear \IoscO\\", a \\'olldcrful hoiallical gardell (spcci,llizing in alpinc plants) and thc most c:\tensi\"c collcctioll of books on natmal histo" in RllSsia (illclildillg the librm, of 1', S, Pallas, \\hieh he had purclwsedl, :\ollelhe\css, KUlllllmsh rareis Ilsee!
thosc rcsourccs to hellefit cither science or the public .. \ cOlltclllpOr
at Corenski in ordcr to \"cgctate thcre \\-itl! his pl
lIe didllOt, hO\\'CIU, act as all a
training of statesmcn and politici
sitl' ReF".,,, ,,(Tsar /\Iexo"der I, jallies 'I', Vlsllll \\rites: Ra/"UIllO\sky ga\'c so little acti\"e leadership thatcach 11lli\'ersit~" \\-as left to its 0\\'11 dc\-iecs to \\'(Hk Ollt its fOlllldal-ioll Cllld c1c-
nl,\·()~_\l It 1,\
_\
H.\Y~T.\CK
\-clopment. This circumstance magnificd the importancc of e~lch local cllrator, as \\-ell ~lS the pJrticllbr local sihwtion, ~lIld lllinilllized the importance of the slalutes and the ministry. Not necessarily a h;ld thillg. Razulllm-sky is best known as the confidant and supporter of the
deeply COI1SelY,lt-iYe SOCi
All scientific institutions arc destroyed. Our ulli\'crsity has lost so lIllICh. Of Ollr librar\'
The
Ha::umol'81~r
Duet
anatoillical instnllllellLs, Illy lliineralogical apparatus," aIld e\'eIl qo copper plates for engravings, "i1lcluding the large plate of the 1ll<'11l11110th skeleton." But as he continues thc letter to l'lISs. a strange aichelll\' takes hold, and Fischer's zeal aIld optimism break through:
\Ve seek to console ourselves witli the thought that '\"e ,He healths, and that \\C do not lack brcad. I do not knOll if I \\ill be ahle to finish my Zoogllosia, as only nine sheets have been priuted 11,1111 delighted that 111\ book-the completed Zoogllw.;io - delllonst rates the Il<.Ipp~· llegati 011 of this feaIl1 aIll 11m\ \\"orki ng on the latest cd i t io]} of the 0110m(/ ,<.;lico11 Oryctoglloside Ilist of naIllCS of rocks and fossils I. Thc \\ork lets Ille forget all lll~' misfortunes,
J)1'\()~\l:R 1'\.\ Il\Y~T\("h:
RaZlIIllO\·sk\·. ,\s late as If'l-)O he \\'as still lllakill~ trips to Cenllall~- \yith explicit plans for replacillg parts of the collection destro~-cd in IKl2. 110\\", then, shall we ta:\onollli;;,e l
help much. Fischer
\\'~lS
(j
Ccrman
\dlO
workcd in :"losC(m- (jnd puh-
lishcdlllosth in French. He \lTOtc a dedie'ltion in Latin. Iloping that a Rnssian noblemall \lonld help to rebuild \lhatthe fire of a Frencll in\aSiOiI had destrmed. iVleall\\hile, this noblelllan's brother li\ed in.\ustria, where he kne\y J\10zart and then acted for years as 13eethO\'e11's most significant P;ltroll. 1 do not kllo\\' 110\\- stllclcll ts
Redlcgs (I'es, all these happelled) - but seiellee eallilot alld dare Ilot ball COllClgllcs ill hostile nations disc()\'l'[cd the information. Fischer published his Loogllosia just
the happenstance of their national origin. Fischer lost nearly all his hooks alld specilllells ill the conflagratioll of \IoscO\\', allel thell spent
the rest of his life restocking his collectio1l for future generations of students. In so doing, he callcclupoll the generosity of
hm'c bccll all illdolent
"'""C
27 1
~\\ 211/~
Four i\ntelopes of the Apocalypse
GI''()R( :1:, \V\SIII'\C'!'(), I)II'',!) 011 Decelllber 14, 1799, after scorning the classic
ness something ('\'ell rarer-the inceptioll of a 1lL'\\' miliellniulll (sec eSsay 2).
But \\Iashillgloll was llot alo11e ill lliissillg this admittedly arbitrary transition b\ a hair. Half a ssorlel assay, jllst cast of CclpetO\\11 ill SOllth Africa, a Boer huntsman shot the \er\ last blaauwboek, or bille antelope,
thus completing the first
c\:tinctiol1
of a large-bodied terrestrial
ll\;\lll-
lIlalian species in historic times, (Perhaps the bille antelope jllst managed to slleak through, for SOille sources mention IHoo for the death of the lasl buck. though lllost agree 011 a tennill;Jl date of 179<1,) The heads of nlllSelilll collections arc called clirators, frolll a I.atill word, curd, that il
ji our
Antelo/Jes
of the /\;JOc(llypse
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
The hla([uH'!?()(J, (mm ([ l//k edition o(HutTi)!1\ llistoirc !1afllrclk. Riiksmuseum )'(//1 Natuurlijke Historic, I,eiden.
gllished ,·igor-seraps, fragments, and artifacts of ereatmes that shollld he thriving, but h,l\'e succllmbed to !ll1I1lan rapacity. Curators hecome 7.ealous ill sllch lamentable situations, for we often hold the oilly palpable remllants of greatness that should still walk among us. \Ve trca-
I)!,\()S_\!'!{
j,\
,\
II,\Y:-;T_\t'h
sllre '-I tecllager's notehook ill Alllslerd,-llIl, ,-IS ,,-e ]HeSe[\'e the balcOll\- of a lllotel roOIll ill 1\ leillphis, for these arc legacies oL-\lllle I
in the lliidst of tlie Cre,-it Depressioli. She ll,-ld figured
prol11il1el1tl~-
in
the iufamous Supremc Comt dceision of 1l)27 that cstablished tl,c legalit~, of forced sterilizatioll-see essay 20 ill The liI([Il1illgo\ Smile. As a hah~' she had heell judged lllclltall~' retarded 011 c\'idcllce of one Illillllle's ohsclTatioll h~' a Red Cross llllrse- the first frllit of a third gelleratioll of sllpposed illlheciles (her lllother \\'as sllhseqllelltl~- sicrilize'l as all outcoille of the case), This 11l1111hle scrap of paper frolll her last Icar of life prOled that she had been a competent if not brilliant studcnt-and that the diagllosis had hccn false, I cXlIltcd ill thc discO\'cry, bnt thcII relnembcrcd that Vil'ian Bnek shollid still be alile (for slrc died of a pre\cntahlc disease of childhood pOH.'r1~-), cllio~-illg all old age surfOunded 101 a fecund and normal famik I rejoiced in the objcct las a curator), bnt Lllllclltcd tlr'lt so little tCStilllOil1 shollid rClllain of a lifc Cllt so short. T reeelltly \\'i tllesscc1 allotller C\alllplc of th is pri llciple dll ri llg '-I tour through olle of the \\-orlel's fillest zoological collectiolls. III the l'\etherlallds, I,eiden is to Amsterdam as Boston is to [\'C\\' York-a eOllsiclerabk smaller bllt oldcr cill, lacking thc bnstling e,citcment of a cOllllllel"Cial center. hut rich beH)]]cI size ill lllli\-ersities aucI other illstitUtiOllS oflearllillg. Leidell's lIlli\"('rsil~-, foullded illlS7) by \\'illialll the Silellt, Prillce ofOrallge, is
27+
FOllr Allteio{Jes o( the AfJocdl)'{Jse
"Is \\onld delight "Jl\ f"n offilm noir-sh"fts of light and long sh"d(l\\s, piercillg throllgh .111 tiers at Ollec, for the floors ,He indllstrial iron grating, Ilot opaque cOllcrde, 'I 'he thellle ofhidclelllll~'ster~' can olll~' he enhanced hy knO\\'ing that, for se\'eral decades, the Leiden 1l111SellIll has presented no public eshibits (this \\ill soon eh"ngei-"nd that these \\"(Hld-ciass collections ha\"c therefore hecome a pri\"ate domain of zo-
ologists ill the
kllo\\",
I recently enj()~'ecl the pri\'ilege of a tour through this grand III 0 1ll1Illent, condudeel hy Illy colleagues ~;:dmulld Cittenherger, fe 11 0\\' researcher 011 mollusks, and Chris Smeellk. specialist in mamillals, Smeellk lcdllle up alld dO\\'1l the hers, past tigers, elephants, andnar\\'hals, Hut he \\"as looking for 0])(' specimcn. the central jewel of this diadem, Sllleenk found the eahinet and opened the large green door, re\·C
275
DI:-"·OS:\l.IR 1:-" .\ H.\)ST.\CK
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
J3!aauwh()ck specimen at the Leidel1
\lu.~eum.
Rijb1l1usellll1
ral1
:'\'atuurfijke f lis{orie, Leiden.
abundance of more succulent game spared the animal from much hunting for food. But Kolb greatly praised the beauts of the hide, especially for the bluish tinge that had gisen the animal its name. (Fark reports arc inconsistent: somc attributc thc bluc color to thc hair, othcrs to the underking skin; some sal that the color faded quickly after death, while others disagree. None of the fOlIr specimens in nlOdern museums shc)\\'s am' ",temi,'c sign of blue color.) "lllla\ truly sa\," Kolb writes, "that this animal appeared espeeialls beautiful to l l l \ eyes because its blue hair is so much like the color of the sk\" (T timme/hlau, or "heasen bluc)" as he wrote in thc original Ccrman). Kolb thercforc reports that huuters shot the blaau\\boek for its hide, uotiug, as a subsidiary benefit, that the suboptimal meat could then be fed to the dogs. Traselers and nattlfalists began to record the blaau\\boek's decline, sirtualh from the day of its diseO\ers. In 1774, C. P. Thunberg lamented its increasing rarit~·, while I-I. Lichtenstein later reported that the last known animal had been shot in 1799. Regret followed immediateh, and Captain
W. Ilarris, ill his Portrait olt"e Came and Wild Anima/.s oISo"t" Aji'ica, \\Tote in 11)40, "\<'Of a tel/Co/J/well, I \\"oulcl hayc \\"illingly gin_'ll a finger of my right hal1(1." Clu], eight lens aftcr LiuuaellS had codified the biuomial S\'s!em for namillg animals (illt-Iie tenth eclitioll ofllis S)'-"itel1lo Noturae iIl175!)), the blaau\\·boek eutered the formal roles of seieuee through the l\'Ork of Peter Simon P;lllas (17 ..P-lSll),
DI,\()S_\['R 1,\ ,\ II.\\SI\CK
tragu", Incidentalh, Pallas did not name thc blaau"boek for its prollli-
ll(,llt blu(' color, but /ellco/J/wea rmeaning dusky \\"hite] for <1 distinctive paleh of light color nnder Ihe e\'es,) HllllWll ac!i\'it\" deark drO\'c the blaall\\·bock to all accelerated e\:tinction.l
f()ur ;\lIte/O/JCS
()r the ,\/J()ca/Y/Jsc
sala and I ,()ndon, and pcrhaps in the ,\Ibam 1\lusetun of South ,\fricL Thcl .olldoll hlitz of H)-fI dcstro~-ed
sO Dutch collectiolls 1l1,1~- onCe haH' held more spccimens. Rut time 'liH.l \\'
DI'\,();-;\l IZ I'\,
\
JI\Y~T_\(;"
deddillgell. The first paper reasserted the specimen's birthright in the title: "On the type of Al7ti/o/JC /ellco/Jhaea P~dbs, 17(Al, presclycd ill the collection of the Rijksmnselml \an i\atllurlijke Historic, Leiclen." HllSSOlI alld Hollllliis identify the Leidell blaalmhoek as Ihe saIne specimell figured ill1he li7H edition of the stalldard eighteenth-centur: work in zoology- Buffon's llisioire Ilaturelle. This correspondencc <11re~jd)-
givcs thc Leiden hL1
lished the 0111y eighteenth-ccntury illustration of thc cOlllpletc animal (two prc\"ious sources had depicted hOf1ls only, or head and horns, whereas Pallas had inciudedno figure at all ill his origi'lal description1The 1778 edition ofBnffon prmides" good aeeollnl oflhe hisloryoflhis specimen: ill",d firsl been inlhe possession of Dr. j. C. Kliiekller, a for1llC! physician on ships 10 the I
lions, Of Ihe reb"lllt bills, Olle parli eulark ca ught 111" eye-a reeeipi for tire passage frolll Ilaarl elllio Leielcn : "For tmllSportatioll: for tire to\\'I"lfge f. 2, 00, for Ih e Alltelopcs r. 0,60, For deli,'en f. o,H =;, For eOIlslllllpli ons f. 0,7), lior purchase oflhe HlI!clopes r. .j-7, IO, Total f. :;qo," [ dOIl 't kilO\\, ,d1) tlris degree of detail affected Ille so pOl\'erfullY. Consider what illtimate cirCIlIIIstlllc cS \\"C C
PART
SIX
DISPARATE FACES OF
E UCENICS
~\221/~
-"S
_
Does the Stoneless Plum Instruct the Thinking Reed?
A
1)ISTl;'\CT1\ 'I',I,Y ,\ \ 11 ':R1 C \ ;\
V()R~l of gen ius combines p c r.'IoIlal bril-
Iianee wi th proilloti a na I h 0 klllll alld mo u n tai n s of hard work, W e no le \ 'ar~'illg balan ces amon g the three essential ingredi ellts: Barnum as a protot\'pe for hokum , I\diso n for the dili gence (as in his illSlifiabl y [,1IllC)llSquip
that genius includes olle percent ill sp ir<.ll'ioll and !lindy-nille
pereenl perspirati on), Lllih er Burba nk (lH49-l926 ) n ",\' represe nt the fin es l balanc e of all th ree factors, li e wi she d to eOll\'ert American deserl s to ra ngeland I", breeding a spin e less cactus as Gl ltic iodd er. lie
hyhridi zecl hn} spontan eO llS 11lUblll/".r.. -OIl C without prickl es 0 11 the Iea\'es and th e other "ilh no thorn s on th e )'o nng sh oots - bu t he ne\'er could eliminate th e spines colllpletek. :--ie\'erth clcss, inpllblie pcrforIll,-IIlCes he wOlild rtlb his cheek against i1 "prop" cactus made so :,tllooth by prC\'iollS clClTlOllstra\ions thai all rcsiclwli spin es had IOllg sin ce \yo rll
a\\' ~I\ ·.
Yet Burlwlk's successes mad e him th e greatest plant breede r in Am cric<JIl histo ry. An astollishillg string of trilll11ph ~ fostered his reput~lti on as a wiza rd with a magic wand for transfo rlllatioll - tl lI c:X:-lfjgerati oll that 13mballk, " 'ith hi" t"slc for publieits , learlled to es ploit to great advantage. As a young 1ll<1Il he cl c\'e1opecl th e Burhank potato ill his Ilali le ~'la ssacl'llsel t S
blackberrics, th e (allllostl spin eless cactus, the giant Shasta clai ,,', th e leire popp\", and the Burbank rose, Thcse triulllph s reneded the othu tim eOIllPonents of Ameri can genius, For his brilliall ce. Bmbank had all lInparallelcd CI'e for th e most lllillutC llseful ,-mialioll. lie could scall a field of daisies or ,m 01'chmd of plullls and pick the plant ",ith a slight edgc for illlprO\'ing the breed, For his intlnst"" no on e lI'orkcd at Burbank's seaie, alld ",ith sllch I,ealous ell erg\", Despite the 11\-pe that eu\"Clopcd hiln, Burbank performed 110 miracles. l-l e c\"()k<..: d nothing ne\\' from llature . lI e just
lI",keti harder- far hartler than :1Il10ne eise-llith the tin ) tricd and trllsted techniques of breeding: hdHidization and selection, With his nn can"" el e and un equalled jndglllent. he ,,",mid Illake nOlei pl ants by Illixing desired trails of 1\\"0 or more \'~Hicties in hybrid offspring. He lundd the n groll' field upon field ofh~ brid s, akals lookillg for the rare plallt that 1I00dd emphasize all the fam",ble characters and sllppre'S the IIndes irable fcatmes . For esampl e, hc prodlleed his stonciess plll)ll 1)1 crossill g productil'c and ri chh fmit cd (but cOIlI'cntionalh pitted ) lines \\'i~h a c lIriolls \' c1 css for its poor and llllproducti,"c fruils -the IJrrme :\(/11,<; 11O)'OU (seedless pI II III ) . By rcpcati ng c~'c1es of crossi ng
Due,,; the Stollefess Plum 11I struct the 'l'hi l1killg
/{ (!(!c/?
tiet\, b\" imprm"illg hercdit;.Ir~ " traits through control s upon brccd in g (w}lcthcr forced or \"{)]ul1t"aryJ- ancl hereditariani sm is a cOllse lya ti\"(;
strateg' pa r e,ceilell ee (people get \\hat Ihe, desclye b, birth ; dOll't look to gOH:rnlllcntal decrees or ha ndollts for all~" realignllll'llt). Sccond. the major (;O IlStlll1{;r of C ll g(;l1ic~ ill nne ex trem e form, i\I r. Ilitlcr himself. cOllld scareel, bc accused of liberal hiascs (sec eSSil\ 24 ), But thc cllgcni cs I11m"l'IllCnt resists cramming into ,I si ngle, unalllbigllolls politica l box (and I oftm ,\"{lIlder hO\\ \\cil righl illldlert, libcrid and con s('I"\'l ldcic sm
I) I '()S. \I I< I '
\ 1! ., )' S 'I\ C"
0\\'11 first step ill produc ill g IlC\\' !illes of pblltS. bllt that iJ!sO Illllst hau.: induced apoplccl"ic rage
I h , I\ "C constalltly heell impressed ,\"ith the silllilarity between the organization and (b·elopment of plant an d h lllll ,m life. I h<1\"c cO lli e to filld ill th t crossing of speci cs and in selection , \\" i s e l ~ dircdcd. a grc ..ll alld pO\u:.:rflll ill strtllllcnt for thc transforlil a tion of th e ,·egetabic kin gdom alollg lin es that lead eons tantl~: up\\" "ud . .. Let IIl C Il O\'" lay cllIphasi s on the opportunity no"· prescnted in th e ti nited States for obsen·ing ,)11(1. if ,,·e arc \\·ise, aiding ill what 1 think it fair to say is thc gralld est opportunity e'e r presented of dc,doping th e finest race the "urid has e'·er knO\m out of th e ,·ast mingling of races hronght here hy i111lll igratioll. Conside r th e stunningh radi cal ,,,,ture of this proposal in th e conte\ t of the times. COI lscn'ati\"cs, in th e ellgenics 1ll0'·ClIlcnt and elsewhere, campai gncd against immigration as onc of their Ill ost I-'<-lssionatc issll es - 1cst our vi ri Ie. ,"irtllou s, "lllel inlell igt llt "wlti\"c" stock (mealling "northe rn r': mopea n,"not trul y :sJati,·e American ) he diluted to folh and in eptitude by hreedin g ,,·ith th e inferior ho rdes no" swam ping us from south ern and eastern Europe . ("1 Y0\\·11 all cestors a Il arri \"cd fW Ill (lullgan·. Pola nd, and Russia dming the decade ofl3urhank's book- so I confess sOllle personal sensiti,·ih· to the issne.) Th ese nativists hoped to slenl the tide of im1lligra tion to a trickle and , ahO\·e all , to keep those already he rc frol1lllli scegcllatioll. Let the Ilew arri,"als \\"ork ill fado ries and s"Gltshops; let th e je,,· cu t Ill'· cl oth . the (t" lian 111'· hair, and let th e Irishwoman wash IH ~' floor; hut kecp them <\\\'ay from Illy sons ;;Jlld daughters. Can )on imagin e how Burh"nk's propos,,1 for the henefits of interhreed in g played ill slIch circles? Let me not c\i:lggcrate" 1 am lIot slire 110\\" far Burhank meant to go"
noes the Slo Jl eless Plllm Jl1struc:i the Th illking Reed."'
lie ckarh' favors JIli\illg o f differcllt i':urofJeoll stocb, bllt is conspicuousk silent about people of oth er colors (the umtated limit to r;l(liealism , I sllspeci', ill sllc h a racist age ). f'.lorco\'cr, Bnrhank was no egalitariall in a mode rn sc nse, l1c: accepted different illtrill,. . ic \\urths ;md telllpc:r,1Il1CJlbi <11 nong I': llropC
Look " t th e materi al a ll \\' Il ich to draw! Here is thc T\orth.\)(),,'crfu l, \'i rile, aggrcssi\'c, blended \\'jlh th e IlIxll riolls, eas c-I o\'ing, lIlore imp etuou s Sou th. Agai ll ~,()Il hm'c the emergillg or a cold phlegmatic te mpc ra ill ent "'ith one mercurial and yo lat ile, Still again the IlniOIl of grcat nati\'c mcntal sfrength. dc\'cloped or IIllden'lopcd, \\'ith bodily "igor, but with illferior mind,
Rllt mixing CiJ 11 OJ ll y lIlark th e bcgillll iIl g of h1I1ll.1I1 illlprO\'cll H:~ll t, jll st
i-o hUlllf.lll illlproH~ lllcnt. thus cf.\(licating hi s own
Thcre is 110t a single desirahle attribute which, lackillg ill a plant, ma~" not he bred into il. Choose ,\"hal illlproH.' llH: llt you wish in
(a iled "illJprm"emc llt" ,,"hell regulated to hUIlli.1n ;J(h-alltage, results from selection-the dcstructi on of most plants and the breeding of futllre ge])erations from jllst" fe\\ that happen to possess a desired sci of traits. Dar,,"in, of (o urse, ca lled llllture 's llllCc.lllseiollS n :rsioll of thi s pro ecss "nalllr::d selection," III either lllodc. natu rel ! or horti cultural , se-
lection acts \I'ith rigor, ,,1<111\ arc e,r ll ed , and \'Cr\ ' fe\\' chosc]), Rapid imprm'cmc nt dem'lIIds the escilision of nearh- all from rep rod uction. \\'ith
death as thc surest mcans of pre\'cntioll (lhough sterilil.atioll , cclibac~", and other analogues ma l' suffice for huma])s), Th e horticulturist uproots; nature ge ll e r
ture's amoreli rca lm to human life has heen- entirely rightly. ill my \i c\\ - the fatal na\\ of all traditi o])al programs in eugeni cs, Selection is natllfe's prim'H\' path for ge netic c han ge in populations , but this process, applied intir e c thi eal realm of human soe ieh', mnst be lIr1;1Cccptahh- cruel " nel autirori ta rian (fo r someone Illust plm the role of Lord II igh Uprooter). :;. C I :t; II\ \THl,\. i\o o])e doubts th e ,,, Iuta,,' role of ell lti\·ation that is. good e ll ,"i ronment- in slistaining th e hcalth and \" igor of an illdil'idual pl,rn!. But \\ hat role can good elll'ironment pLn in ge netic illlprm"Cll1cnt, for 110l1e of the virtues <.1(:qu ired during life
f)u e,1.; th e St(wcfcss Plum Instruct the Thinkill!j Heed:
for repro<1 lIct iOI1 . hl!t· tll is aspect of C Il\ 'irOl1 Ill C Il t Olll~' acb as iIlIH It to selection
\\"(mld ;.I(':CU1llu iatc through
~his
transfer , ge lleration by gCll-
cr"tioll "11(1 step hI' collst" nt stc p,
+ PI
for gCllcrations. and unrelllittillgly. l\. l elldcli
marckif.ln th eory. traits L'lI1 be di smembered
b~ '
gellerati ons of neglect
just as good rearing had bniit th elll sequcllti"lk With hi s categories three and fOlll , lie arri l'e at the e TII' and idioSI'IIC"l'" of Burhank's eugenical argullle nt - and its JJltimaic Lll1ae\',
l3urixlllk espollsed all illcorrect
theor~' about
hi s 0\\'\1
cffi c<) c ~ · . ~()
Lanwrckian c omponent hclpcd his pi.lIlt breed s alonl;, ;\la lrlTe is \1 c Jl(lclian and do es nol \lork inlhis hope ful m ,lIlncr. In fact, Burbank bred ptlllts 011 I horough I ~' Da r\yill ian prinei pi es. lIsi ng oli ly the fi rsf 1\\"0 ca tegories of his oW111i,..,t-crossing to mix th e ~Iclldclian characl"crs of different lin es into h\'brid offsp ring, a nd seleclion to coll ect and aceenlrJ<Jtc the traits he sOllg hl. But hc lI'as so ,i
<md 011
SUdl .. 1 gralld
sc .. dc.
BlITilank ,,'as surely ami speeta(;lliarly 7.c'llous in th c scopc of hi s selection anel th e heap-si, c of his hecatoulb, He lI'Oldd S
his diligence. 'I 'he source is parti cularly in te resting. e"e n a hit
ironic-lllIgo de Vri es, th c gre'lt Dutc h botalli st an d one o f lir e thr~ e sc icutists who rediscOl'e rcd 1\1cndcl's \\'ork, (D e Vr ies, " 'ho I'isitccl C llifonria til ice, was allestrrlck bl BlIThank's practical skills, bnt dumbstruck h~ ' iJis stubbofllllCSS in sticking \\'ith 1.:Jll1 clrck ;IS ~Jclldcli s \ll lIlarehed to triumph , "ith dc V ri es as a In'ljor gene ral in the ca mpaign ): His methods ;Jrc 11I'bridizaiion and scicction in the broadest sense and on th e largest scalc, OIl C Inl' illustratil'e c,ample (If 29 l
DI "()S.\( f lt"
\
II .\'I'S I'\( : "
his mctit och must suffice to CO Il\"C\"all id ea of th e work necessary to produce a ncw race of Sli p<.: r1ati\'e ex<.:c lIelley, Forty t11011sand bl aekbem' and raspberrYhdlri ,h were prodlleed and grOIn] ulltil the frllit ",atured, Th en fro", til e whole lot a singl e sarich' was chosen as the hest. It is 110\\" kllO\\"Il ullder the llallle of "Parad o,," All others ssere uprooted ss'ith th eir crop of ripening berries, hea ped up into il pil e tssd l'e feet sside, fOllrte en feet high, and t\\"c llty-h\"() feet long. illld burned, i\othillg rel1l <-lillS of that' expcllsi\'c amllc'lglhy c:o..:perilllent. c:o..:ccpt the one parent-plant of the new s'arieh',
Burbilnk's Illajor elllphasis in Training of the 1111111(/n 1'/<111/, the source of his "Iibe",,!" lilt on engenies,lies in a""logs' ssith Ih e third ,,,,d fourth phases (alas, the illllsor\ on es) of his snpposed hortienltnral prolocol: enltis'ation and persistence, Burb,mk ",akes his pica for healths childhood CIl\ "irollIll ClJts by his usual comparisoll with plants: If S'Oti arc ellltis'ating a plant, desclop illg it into something fin er and nohler, you must !O\"e it , 110t hate it; he ge lltle with it". not abusive; be flrlll, nel'er ha"h, I gis'e plants, , , th e best possible em'ironment. So shonld it be ss'ith a child, if \On want tn desdop it in right ss'a)" I,et the children h",'c Illusie, let th elll h",'e pictures, let thelll I,a"e laughter, BlIrb'lnk's formula for good rca ring is strictl~ " ,\rcadiall - a passionateh' rolilanliei,ed iddl of clean eO lmlr\, hing witholll intellectual pressure (Burbank ssanted 11 0 fornd sehoolillg before ,'ge ten , and he contillually stresses thi s singl e proposal as the begililling. if not the pana cca, for all reform ):
Es'cry child should has'e nllld pies, grasshoppers, wat er-bugs , tadpoles, frogs, nllld-turtles, elderberries, ss'ild stross'be rries, acorns, chestnuts. trees to climb, brooks to ,,'ade in, water-lilies, ss'omkhueks, bats, bees, butte rflies, s'ariollS animals to pel , has'fi el ds , pinecones , rocks to roll , sand , snakes, hueklcberries and hornets; and am' child who has been depril'ed of these has hee n depris'cci of Ih e best part of his ednea tion, Bs bei ng \l'cli acquainted with all Ih ese, the'\' come inlo most iutimate harll1on ~' ,,"ith lIature. \\"\1o:-.e lessons are, of COI lfse . Ilailiral and \dlOk:-'O lllC,
2t)2
Does the St(Jneless Plul11 ' /s/ru,:l the Th inking Reed?
l'\o reformer could fail to aclloca tc rca rin g for childrcn, But Burhank's book is a clIgcnic tract , an arglllllcnt ahollt gel1efic imprm'cllIcnt. I [e mnst therefore be acllocal ing good re",i ng as a eI ireci hereel itan' benefit to future generations-a senseless th eme in ~lcnde["s \\"CHid, Bnt Btlrbank , as di sc llssed ah()\ 'e, ackoc
Bnt \l hat abont the 1"'jl'I.,"ed second fador, the hngbear of all "liberal" cugcnics, and th e actllal source of Burhank's major t \lork like nature or horti ellltllre, " here , lInd cn iabk, tir e OI'Crwlrclllling maioritr of ineli\'idllals fall inl o the category of di spensable and cxtirpated? Burballk skirts arollnd this iss llc in his tract. III olle passage he docs admit a preference for L;\\\·s 011 prohihition of Illarri agc alllong th e "unfit" -a (Jllitc stullning exccption to hi s gcncral defense of c i\-illibcrti es \\-h el1 ~ 'o u c onsider th e cthicall~' repugnant issues of \\'ho gels ineluded anel IIho decides: "It \\'CHIld, if possible, be best absolutck to prohi bi t ill el'ery State in the linioll th c lIIarriage of the phlsiealh, Illentalh- and moralh- IInfit." But, for the l1lost pmt, BlIfbalik speaks little about thi s most powerfill force of all. I [e sense, th e 1Il 0ra i dilemnlJ and, for OIlCC, strays from the analogI' lI'ith natllre and horticllltllfc, IVhat of physical 1I'Ction: .. I>lIt' lI'itil those IIbo mc illenta Ih- defect il'e - ah, here
l)I ' ( l'i\ t : 1{
I '
\
11 \ ' :-" 1'\ <,:1\
is th e h
bank 1I·i11 Illakc an eseepti oll and adlllit the fa ilme of his penasi,·e aJlrllog~-:
III th e C;lse of I1111ll ;.lIl bcill g~ in \\ "hOIIl the light of reason docs not bUrll , thosc ,,-ho , i.l pparcntly, G ill Ilc\"cr he other thall a bllrdell , shall the'· be e1illlinated from the race' Co 10 the molher of all imhccilc child
Yet Burballk fOlllld a lI·al Olll - not
illl
ideal soilltioll. blll a 'H>rk111Oral-
abl e c:\ it that prc scn "cd his liheral \"CrSiOIl of cu genics. tluman
it~" must .'1 10\\- the proc eS:-i of illlprmT lllcllt. for \Y C C
hecatomb thai alll effecti'·e selectioll imposes. BlIl if hcredity is Lalllarckian, we may <111m\" the unfit to li\"c, c\"en 10 reproducc, and still make Slife, if 510,,"cr, progress . For good em -ironm ellt indllces illl-
pro,·c melli.
\ly expo sition Jlla~" hcl\"e heen l c ngth~", but the moral of 1l1 ~" story is short and llllillllb igll OllS. 1\atlllT, in thL' wild or in horti clIl ture, \yorks Oil Dar\\'illial1 ~ not LaJllarckic.lIl , principles. Acquired cilf.lf
OCC11rs h~- rigorou s selcction \y ith
el illl i nal io n of th e \".Ist Jll;.1jori t ~· frolll th e rc prod ucti \"C strcalll . Rli rba Ilk
eouid cb·elop nCII brecds, but he could Ilot alter the rules. He actuallv ,,-orkcd by c\:tcll sh-e h~"hridi zation <.Ind llIH': olllpromi sing sel ection, th ough his (mn success fooled him into thillking that nature helped his efforts i,,· Lllllarckian inheritallee. The LlIllareki<1Il them e scls the ke,·29-1
Doe . . the StolJefess Plum l' lslwcf the
Thil1~' il/g
Hee d?
stolle for I3l1rballk\ liheral eugcllics, bascd 011 the gCl1eti(; effects of good nurturing, ' I'hc fa llacy of I ,amarcki slll Illarks thc lIttcr lililurc of his argu ment. Yet a dceper crror pcn 'ldes Ihe entire enterprise, ",ith Burba nk'; tract reprcsen tillg bllt oll e cxampl e ill a cOJl tinllin g tradition - th c attcmpl' 10 p,lt Icn I Illllllan ci hica I (;olldllcl by .tpi Ilg 1l.ltli re 's \\·a~ · . Burha Ilk \\',11i \\Tong about llature's mode of action. Bllt C\'C ll ifhc had heen right. his effort \\'o uld haH: beell just as misguid ed. I\'aturc·s factuality is not, and C
The iri ston of eil'ilizatioll detai ls Ilr c steps I,,' \I'hi eh IIlen have slIc.:ccedccl in huildin g lip all artificial world \\'ithin the cosmos . Ff
~\\ 23 I/~ The Smoking Gun
Do
B. \ I'I IS
of Eugenics
l 'I'RI'~\CIILl~S causc public dnlllkcnne,,7 J raise Ihis unlikek
inquiry bC C;l ll SC '-Ill old and
fam o ll s
tahulation clea rly shO\\"s a strong pos-
iti \c correiatiou be h\cen the Ilunlbe r of preachers an d th e frecJlLenc" of arrcsls for incbriation dnring th e seeoncllral f of the ninclee nth ccntll n ' in Am eri ca.
You clon 't need a Ph,D, in I ()~ i c to spot the falla cy in m\' first se nle nce . Corre latioll is 11 0 t ca usality. The und eni able as.s ociali oll of pre,lellers and drtln ks might m ea n that he llfire inspires illlbibing; bnt th e sa lli e correlation co uld also (a nd m ore reasouabh') snggcst tire opposite callsal hypo thesis that a risc ill Pllhlic drinking promotes th e hiring of Illore preachers , flut ,'ct ano thcr possibilih' - air Llosl sm e k correct i II til is pa rticlllar case - hold s th i.lt preachi ng anci dri11 king 111 <1~' haH; no ca nsal relationship, \\"hile their simultaneolls increase on ly records a eOlllmOIl Iin k to a til ird, tru II- delerm i Ll iLlg factor. Tire steach' rise of the ,.:\mcri c;]11 populatioll durin g th e late llilH:tcenth (,cll hlT~' proJlloted all
increase in tilollsa nds of phe nolllella linked to total nllmbers, bllt oth-
cm"isc L1nrcl,]tccl- . \rrests for drillki ng and hiring of clcrg~" <1ll1ong th c1lI . Thi s talc has long selved as th e stan dard textbook e,ample for illustra ting the cl ifferen ce be t\\een correlati o n and eilLlSalih', Bllt good principles ca n also be llsed to bllll Trss bad mg llLll cnls, I ha ve often st'ated in tlrese esSi"S th ai onk great thinkers arc a llowed to
The Smoking
CUll
or Fugellics
fail gre
DJ'\.()S_\l'R J'\. ,\ 1I,\YST_\Ch
people so ,-lfflicted might be led to inl'fC
Is it possible, thcn, that lung cancer-that is to sm, the precancerous condition \yhich lllUSt e:\ist and is knO\\"ll to e:\ist for ~-e,-lrs in those \\-110 ,-Ire going to shO\\- OH.:rt hmg Ci:lllCer - is Ol1e of the causes of sllloking cigarettes? I clon't tllillk it call be e:\elucled ... 'I 'he pre-callcerous condition is one inHlh'ing a certain ,1l1l0l1llt of slight chronic inflammation" .\ slight causc of irritation-a slight disappoint1llent, an11ne:\jJcctcd deLt~-, SOllie sort of lllild rebuff. '-I frllstratioll- is COlllIllonl~-
\lhite stick frOlli a blind
III an ,
But Fisher recognized that the second altcflwtil'e for the correlation of sllloking
dcntls, \lith a trtlls callsal tllird factor-held llllleh greater plallsibilits ,-md promise. ;\nd Jiisher had llO doubt ahout the lllost likely COllllllon factor-genetic predispositioll. He \\TOIe: "I,'or 111~- p,-n-t-, I thi1lk it is 1llorc likely thai <J COlll11101l calIse supplies Ihe e:\pIallalio11 ... The ob\'ious comlllon cause to thillk of is the genotype." In other \\'{Jrds, gelles that make people more susceptihle to lt11lg cancer might also lead to bcha\"iors alld personalities that encourage smokillg" ,-\gain, the argument is ulldelliabl~"lo~ic<-lL gelles lll<.1~-Il
drecis of tllOlLS'lllds of prelll'ltrlre deaths in ,\ll1eriea each lear. Yet I call1lO! fallit Fisher 01\ the logic of his <'Irglllllcllt: correbtio1l is llot callsality, <-Illel the hare fact of correlation docs perlllit tlic threc c,-1Ilsal
The Sm()king CUll
()r l';ugcllio
scenarios that Jiisher detailed. Jf Jiisher had prcscnted his obiectiollS to the iIldictmeIlt of smokiIlg oIlI~- as ~l cautioIlary cLlim in the ahscncc of cOllclllsi\"c data, thell \\T could not blame him today. (Onc GlI1llOt al~ "'ays be right in our eOiliplex \\"orld; llO dishonor aitends ,Ill incorrect choice among plausihle outcoilles dr
,md his ohjcctivity-and some judgment for l1is incorrect conclusion ll1a\' therefore bc exacted. I~'isher did prescnt his case \\'ith the cOIl\'cntiolla] rhctoric of scicncc. lie claimcd to he hoth objecti"e in his wcighing of c\"idellce and ag~ lloshc ahoullhe outCOlllC. He mailltained that he raised the isslle onk ill a proper scicnlific spiril of caulion and IO\-e of Irun!. Visher 1l1,I<Je Ih rce exp] ici I a rgulllenis for specia] alld scrupu] ous care in ITea Ii llg sllch a sociall, chargcd issne, a potentiallllattcr of life and death. 1.
~oIillions of pcople cnjo~' smoking. \Ve darc not poison the
SOti rce
of thei r plcastl re \\ithout concl tlsi,-e e\-ielence. Fisher pleaded for the psychic health of ordinary sJllokers ill the elitist language of an O,bridge don (Fishcr "as the Balfour Professor of Cenctics at Caillbridge and, at the cnd of I,is career, president of Comille and Cains College):
,"'[ter all, a large ntlll1her of the smokers of the \\orlel
I)
I " ( ) S \ I 'It I"
\
II \ ~
S I \ l: I...:
51(11 isl ic.. . lw ~ gaillcd a place of Il1Od e~ 1 11 ~c fIIIIH:~S il) II)edi ctll researc h. Ii ca ll d c~en'c alld rdaill I-his olll~' by comple te illlparI i
lllaturc cOllclusions
,~ tiflc
further illrcstigatioll, III yet allother Jetter,
thi s time to Na/ ure, Britain's leading jotlrnal for profes~ iollal scielliists, fii shcr IITOIL' L\ugllSt ,0, "Jok): "Considcrable prop,lg'"1da is nOli being clc\'clnpl:d to cOIl\-ince the public that cigarette smoking is cbllgerotls." III Ili s Ieltcr of,\ugllSt 1,),7, I.'isher had alreack spcci fi cd the perils of sneh a campaigll : "J!::\ccssi\-c confidcllcc that th e soll1li oll lws iJlrcad~' be-ell found is the main obstacle ill Ihe \\'ay of Illore pCllctf
The Smo/':illg CUll
or r';ugcllics
ahove. llis \HHds call for argu1llent "free frolll elllot-ioll," ,-mel for "COlllplete impartial it::." 'Yet he lahel.-; tIle claim Illal SlllOkillg migllt c
(bLi, prc\"iously cited, on inhaling and incidence
iii
men
,"S.
\\,0111en-e\"en thollgh both sets would soon be discredited. I;'isher then shO\\'cased SOll1e even more dll bioBs data sllpposedl~' conson
Dr:\()s,\\I]<. 1,\ ,\ jj,\YST,\Cr..:
ers' Sta \ld ing COIllIll ittee. Fisher took great Uill brage at allY i 111 pI ieation that his ohjecti\'ity might he compromised thereby, arguing that he
wouldn't sell his soul for the pittance the, p<1id him.llighcr po\\crs lllust judge the tangled COllllllihllellts \\Tought by such employment; I \\ill olll~' obsef\'c that \\'e generally, and \\'itll good reason, require illstitu-
tional il1lpartia1it~· as a prerequisite for gcnuine ()bjccti\·it~· of lllilld.
The long-standing rcason is rnore interesting intellectually. and permits us to \\ork back tcmard Fisher's firs! grcat crror, thereby rc\'(,,-ding all important continuity in his lifc and carecr. Fisher \\'as a strong, lifelong supporter of eugenics, the proposition that human life and culture could he bettered if we illlplelllcnted stJ"
<11 the start th<1t I do not single out Fisher for <111\ spcci<11 opprobriulll on this score. Tire great majority of gClleticists mh-ocatcd somc form of eugenics, at least until llitler shO\\'ed so graphically hO\\· a ruthless program of negati\'c eugenics migh t operate (sec the n ext essa~·). !\ 1oreOH_'r, Fisher's idiosyncratic \'ersion was, as \\"(' shall sec, re1ati\'el~' benign politically, andlargcl~' in the positiu.' nlOde. Eugellics COIlllll,-llldecl a big
netical Theory of Ndtuwl Selectioll. Just as Illost of my colleagues ignore I<'isher's late and cnlharrassing work OJI slllokillg. they also pay little or no attcntion to the eugenical chapters of our profession's Bihle. l<\'ollltionists may not kIlO\\- Illuch about Fisher's c'-lI11paigll to exonerate the tobacco illdllstry, but \t(m- call the\" hypass several chapters of a crucial \'()lu1lle present in e\-en' professional's lihrary? One leading hook 011 the history of population genetics sa~'s this andllo Illore ,-Ihoul Fisher's eugellical chapters: "In the concluding fi\'e chapters he extended his genetical ideas 10 Illll ll
The Smoking
CU11
or Euge11ics
founelation of our ficlel, shoulel incluelc a practical \ic\\· of socicty that most of us fi nel both fala III n;1\\ eel anel pol it ieal h· llnaeecptab Ie. Perhaps \\'e tend to \'ie\\' the eugenical chapters as
insists that these chdptcrs hoth foil 0\\' directly froin his general
theory and callilot be scparated from his more ,lbstract conclusions. lie states th;Jt he ()111~- g;Jtilercd these chapters together for eOIl\-enicllec and 1llight, instead, h
)0)
DI.'<()S_\1 R 1,\ _\
ll.\\s
1'_\CK
rate is llluch higher in the poorer thall ill thc more prospcrous c1asscs, and this differellec lws beell illcreasillg ill reeclli gelleral-iolls," Intcrest-ingly, and on this has is, Fisher rejects the h\"() Illost eOllllllOll altemati\'e explanations for racial decay advallced by eugenicists of his time. lie denies, first, that the upper classes alone arc being sitiated bs dangcrous inbreeding. Thc declinc in fertilit~- is gradual and pen-asi\-c
through the social hicurchy, not cOl1fincd to tlie ruling clite, Fisher writes: "'I 'he deficiency in procrcation is not especially characteristic of titled families or of the higher intellects, hut is a graded quality extending hy a regular decli\'ily frolll the top to the hottolll of the social scale," Second, Fisher also rejected the common argument with the most unfortunate moral and political consequences-that superior civilizatioIls decay hy racial Illixturc with iIlferior groups, liisher's rejectioll arises directl~' frolll his geIleral e\'olutiollar~' \'iews-alldl-his lillk supplies the best proof that Fisher's eugenical chapters arc integralls connected \\ith his general csolntionars theon, and that the hso parts of his book cannot be separated, \\ith tile theon e"llteei ami the ellgenies igllored ill elllbarrasslllent. The book's centerpiece is a proposition nO\\' kllO\\-n as "Fish cr's fundamenta I theorem of natu ral scI ecti Oil ": "'I 'h crate of increase ill fitncss of any organism at al1~' timc is cqual to its genetic sarianee in fitness at that tillle." Or, fOlighh, the rate of esoilition bs llatu fa I .'Ie lectioll is d ircctly proporti una 1 to tIle alllolillt of usable f;ellc1ic yariatioll lllailltained in a populatioll. Or, c\'ell Illore rouf!;hly, gelletic \'ariatioll is a good thing if ~'0l1 want to accelerate the rate of eH)lution. Therefore, sillce ellgcnic betterlllellt requires cffecti\'{: evollltioll, all~' thillg that boost's the
The Smoking
CUI7
or Vugel1ics
argues that the Im\' fcrtilit~ of 1ll0derll clites is a perllieiolls alld re(Tilt deYeloplllellt, not <1 permanent state of all societies" III "prilllitin_'" social organizations, rulers generally h<1ve m()re children" (Fisher discredl~" hypasses the major reason for this former positive correlationconcuhinage and lllultiple Illarriage h~" Illales in pO\ver-largel~", I sllspect, hecause he rejects such practices 1ll()rall~' hut \\'ishes 10 think
\\ell of clites in i.lily age!) Fisher \\Tites: "The ilormal destiny of aCClimulated wealth was to pnAide for a IlUll1erous posterity"" But "ackllleed" ei,i1izatio11 has re\ersed this old allCl biologiea\l\ health, eorrelatioll. The elite 110\\ hale fe\\er ehildre11. prilllarik for reasons of relati\"(' genetic infertil ity" 110\\" did th e tragic 1TH'rsal OCCll r? 'I'h is sorry" situation could {ml~" h(1\"C ariscn, l"ishcr argllcs, if tendcncies for soci~d prolIlotioll of the less fertile predictahl~" arise ill ",llk,ll1ced" ci\"ilizatiolls, tl1us floodillg the upper classes \\"itll tile source of tl1eir eYelltual depletion in nllmhers" But hmv could sueh a telldel1e~" originate? 4- People \\"ho rise from the 100\"er to the upper classes (in a dem()crac~" pen 11 iHi Ilg sue h lllohil ity) do so h~" \"i rlue of genetic su periority and the ;J(h'alltages thus conferred "ia intelligellcc and husincss aCUlllell. But. uufortunateh. these people also telld to be less fertile. Fisher's argument j)recisely foUm'"s the form nfhis later claim for smoking. J ligh ahilit~" docs not Clllse infertilit~", nor docs infertility produce hrilliance. Rather, the correlatioll of high ability alld infertility originates because both traits arc independently lillked to a pemieiolls CirClll11stallce that ()111~" ariscs in "ad\'i.i11ccd" ci,"ilizatiolls. ,~ lllall has to possess strong, gellcticalh based abili" ill order to rise at all. (Fisher, fo\l(ming the per'"'I.,-;i\-e sexislll of his tillle, docs forlllulalc this <.lrglllllCllt cxplicitl~" for males") But if i.1 mall COllles frolll a large fi.llllil~" (allcitiIereforc ilIilcrits a propellsity for high fertility), his challces for rising arc dilllillished hecause his family will be poorer (morc 1llouths to fced, all other things heing equal) and he ,,"ill have less access to education" But a man \\"ith the saille high abilih. if he eOl11es from a sma \I famih (\\ith heritable 1m\' fertility), I\(\s a hetter chalice to rise" By this nOllCi.lllSal correbtion of ahilit~" and infertility, the cl1ief reason for declillillg ci,"ili;,i.ltioll elllerges: thc social promotion of tltc relati\'ely illfertile" This situation breeds trase(l\- all around" '] 'he lmver classes declinc b~"loss of their lllost able lllelllbcrs; lite upper classes sink by infertility of these UI)\\ ardk mobile people. Society goes d(m (I the tubes. Fisher, at least. tried to do his persollal bit to stem the tide b\ r'lising a bell of kids. '" l:islier llO\V L1ced ,1 prohlelll in the logiC of his argulllent. If the upper classe,,-; arc so illfertile, shouldll't rising inll11igrallts fronlIO\\"cr le\"-
cis help to replellish th e dea rth e,cll if these lle\\COlll ers Me less fe rtile tll
shollid the opportiillitl 'i risc (for thesc mell sO desperatel, need ,i fiII
\Vh c:nc:\"(: r, theil, the socially lower occ upatioll s arc the lllore fcrtiJt.. " 'C must face a paradm that th c biologicalh' successful 11lC:.'mhcrs of OUf society afC 10 he fOl1nel prin cipally i.l IlHHlg its socia l railllfes. alJ(1 c'luall, tlrat classes of persolls ,1'110 arc prosperous
The Smoking
CUll
oj" Eugellics
'
\dlO
olily ill quick derision)-iIICludillg,
,IS
1llCIliiollcd hefore.longer years
of schooling and de1a~"ed marriage, and greater access to contraception and abortioll. The first genetic conjecture (a biological basis for social prolllotioll) seems less implallsible, though quite 1Illl)]"0\"('II; but thc sccolld conjecture (a gelletic basis for fcwer childrell ill thc upper classes) seems \\'ilclly improbable, e\'en bordering on the absurd. Yet Visher's case absolutel~' requires that both genetic conjectures be \"liidfor if \\'e rise genctically hut then hm'e fc\\'cr children only for social re
In H):;;K Fisher \\'as hrought into discussion of the e\"idcnce in the United States ill c01lneetioll \\"itll Icgal suits c\IK'ctecI to bc brought to trial ,lgaillst tohacco 1l1,111l1facturcrs for persollal dalll-
age camecllJ\ their prodllcls.l<arh ill 19(,0 he lisited the Ullitecl
D I'dJS .U ' R 1"\ .\ 11\ )s"I".\c,",
Sblles at th e ill\·itatioll of a legal fi fill rcprcs(, 111 i Il~ all :\lII l' fi C~lII 101>"lc<:0 CO llIp
And th'lt, friends, tr,11IsicilcS inlo '11"11\', 111 'l n~' deaths - ,IS pressure to quit a1ld to restrict
Vor til" sake, Tobacco I WOllid do "ll\lhillg hul die, Bad and biased argumcnts
que ll ce;.;.
~oH
C<1Il
ha\'c scrioll.'i,
c\"{: 11
de
The l\1ost Unkindest
Cut of All
CO'\SI[)I
conference, - - I remember that at the end of this anc! j sat sen eozils nem the slme ,mc! then j SCl\\ sllloke for the first tillle, alld I thollght to 1llYsclf. " sllloking today"; I'd neH.'f seen him do that. "Ilc is drinking hrandy"; 1 hadn't seen him do Ihat for lears We all sat together likc comrades. l'\ot to talk shop, hilt to rest after 10llg hOllrs of effort, l\O\\ lei's pLI\ "fill ill ti,e blallks,"'1 'he mall IIho made such all e\ception to his usual ahstcllliOllsness in ordcr to eelehrate his pleasllre at such a successful Ollicome? Reinhard 11c",lrich, head of the l\a/.i seemill police alld chief deputs to SS director llcimieh Ilimmler, The location of the co7.~· stoye? 'rile \ Vanllsee Conference of Jan nary 20, lLJ+2, held to prepare a plan for the Vlldlijsllllg dcr /lidell/IW;c- the "final solution to the Jewish qllestion," the s~·stcln
jOl)
])]"\();-i \1'1{
]"\
.\
11.\'rsl'.\('I(
I':ielml
tuse, hut liiHllisl
The ,\j()st Unkindesl CIII of AI/
(Ilitier had, ill faet, alrcach ordercd such a strategs), I
COIl-
tinues with his masked description of forced transporLltioll to death ~lS emigration for labor: Uncler proper gllidance the Je\\'s arc 11m,- 10 he allocated for labor to thl' I':ast ill thc eoursc of thc fillal solutioll, Able-
hodied
JC\\-S
\\-ill he hikcn in Lirgc Llhor columns to these dis-
tricts for \\urk 011 f(),l(Js) scp;.n':ltecl ,-lccordillg to sexes, ill the course of \\'hich ,-lctioll
Til the course of the practical exe-
cutioll of this fillal settlcmellt of the problem, I<mopc \lill be cleallcd UJl from Wcst to Iluliollary theon? 'I 'he allS\ler lies ill the seeolld half of the Wallllsee l'rotoeolthe part of the docllillent that is rarek discllssed and al1110st llCH_'f quoted. \ly rationale also rests \\·ith Hitlcr's lllisllSC of gClletics alld e\,olutionary hiolog~· as a cellterpiece of plans explicitly stated right frolll the hegilllling, at the puhlication of Alein Kam/J(in 1t)25. Insofar ,rs Ilitier's es il sehcme should bc dignified as a "theon" at ,-111, he sllnk his
Dl\"()S_\1
I{
j\,.
_\
1I,\)s1'_\CI..:
leetion. The .\nan nation had bem great. but its strength had been sapped by r
lost his pbcc in the Pi:lradise \\"hich lie holel crei:Ited for himself. lie became submcrged in thc racc-mi\tLlrc. he gradually lost his ellitmal abilih' till ... he began to resemble more the subjected alld aborigincs than his i:lllCestors. Blood-mixillg. \\"ith thc 100\erillg of Ihe raeialle\el caused b\· it, is Ihe sole cause of tile dying-off of old ellitmes; for Ihe people do lIot perish 11\ losl \\ars la eommenl Oil Cermany's defeat in World War II, bllt by Ihe loss of that force of rcsistance \\'hich is contaillcd onh in thc pme blood. ,\11 that is lIot race ill this \\'()fld is trash.
(I am qlloting from the first complete ElIglish translation of \lein pllblished in America b\ Johll Chaillberiain and others ill I,),,) as ,1 \yarning about the cncmy \\·c \yould soolllleed to COil front. \ly parellis bOllght this book before lily father left to joill the battle. Throllghout lll~" yonth. r slared at this \"()lulllc Oil my parellts' shekcs, takillg it clO\\'1l 1I0\\" and again-Illore 10 experiellce the friss()ll of louching c\-il thall from am desire to read. When 1m father died a fe\\ years ago, alld 1m mother offered me his eolleetioll of books, I included this familim \ollllne. \\ith its blood-red jacket, 'llllOllg the fe\\ items that I \\'anted for Ill~- 0\\'11. To hold the book 110\\-, and to quote fmlll it for thc first timc, gi\"es mc an eerie fccling of cOllllecti\"ity \\"ith m~' past, and rekindles Ill~' dimmcst three-year-old impressioll of\VorJd \\Tar II as a fight bct\yccn 1m' dad,h alld a badlll
Ka11l1Jf:
I': ichmalln's trallsitioll sClllenee, \nittclI in optilllall~" opaque hureaucrat e"lie.:, states:
'I 'he ililplelllclltatioll of the final soliltion problem is sllpposcd to a certain extent to be based on the Nurelllbcrg L'1I\'s I.Na"i legislal"io n 011 c u ~cllic marriage alld sterili zationi, ill \\"hich eonn eeti,,,, also the solution of th e probl ellls presented I" th e llli \cd marriages and the perso ns of mixcd blood i:-. SCCll to he cOllditi olla\ to all ,lhsolutcl y final c.:Imificatioll of th e qll cstion" Th ese paq;cs on raci .ll mixing rc,"cal <.1 forlll of JIladncss different frolll I ~ iclllnallil's first half, 011 gel"leide in the cast, The first part of th e Protocol \\"allo\\"s ill th e ultimate e,"il of Cllph cllli zed l11i.l ~S Illurder; thi s seeolld half follo\\s the stceh lor;ie of total e[<",ill ess reasoll ed right throllgh, \\ith full e()\'erage of all detail s, Onh on ce before I"" e I experiellced sllch a feelillg \\hile reading an official state doelllllent: \\'hen , studi ed the '"lIlualproeeedings of the South African racial classification board (under th e old regillle, before :\ elson;\ 'andela ) as the,' tortured the logic of eontinuits, to filld a discrete pigconllole for cae h illdi,'idualunder strict apartheid, !\'eedless to say, am such effort faces all ill tractable dil elllllla at th e start : peopl e arc cOlllplexh illterbred at all degrees of Illixtme, amlllc ither purc solutioll \\'ill \\01''' Is c'crnlllC with e"ell the slightest t",ee of Je\\"i sh allce s tr~ " a Je,,"(which \\"()uld condclllll most of l"ilC \latioll ), or does sah-atio ll arise with <.111\" I\r~"all illfll~ i()1l (\\"hiell \\"(Hlld be far too lenient fo r zealolls JlIadme n )? Ile~:driclt, Eichlllanll , and cOlllp;my therefore ill \"( )ke th e llsual trick of argulIlent for breaking a true co ntinuulll hl Ckillg a cOIllpelling poil1t for scpar,ltio ll: chOO~C'lll arhitrary di\"idillg line and then treat lOur di"ision as " self-nident fa ct of nature, Thc Protocol basiealk proebillls that half-breeds me jC\\ S(offsprin g of onc purc jC\"ish and one pure ,\,,'an pa rcnl ); quarter-breeds me C erIllan (offspring of " half-hreed and an ;\ry,m ). flnt this tid y little mlc IT'Iuired sOllle n'];lucing at the horders. At one end , "a If-breeds could ",'oid th e ir dcath \\',mant if th e" had children hI lllarriage to a perso n of Ccrm an hlood (hut nol if such a uninu had produced no offspring), or "if e,cmptiou licenses hale hee n issued I", the hif;hcst Parts' or State allthorities."
E, en this hope for miti gation carried t\\O IHO\isos: first , each exclllptio llll1l1St he grallted 011 a casc-by-c
llIust Ill ake " littl e I-;est ure ill rd Ll rn: ",\11\ ' pe rson of mixed bl ood of th e first degree to \\'h 0 111 exemption from the C\ "' H..' I1<1tioll is ~ ra lli ed \\"ill be sterili zed - in order to elimina te the possibilitl' of offsp ri ng and to sec ure a final soluti oll of th e prob lelll prcsc nted bl' the l'e rsollS of mi xcd blood ," Bul fear II0t: "The steriliza li on \I'i11 lake place on a m luulalY basis." C ons ide r th e itit ernati l'e , hO\l e,'e r: "But it \\'ill be eonditiollal to a pe rllli ssion to S "l ~' in th e Re ic h ," Olle [larti e ipan t at th e collfe re llcc Illilde an astute obscf\ati on on this score: "SS-C rup[lell fii hrer J Jo fm ann ;.J(h·ocatcs Ih e: opini oll th at stcriJi zi.ltiolll1lllst he applied 011 ,I large sCi: dc;
in pa rticular as the perso n of Illixed blood pla ced before the aiterrrati" e as "h ethe r to be C"il Cl", ted or to be ste rili zcd \l ould rather Sllbillit to steril iZ.
scaled c\'er~ 'o ll e 's doom, paren ts anel eli ildren (J Iike.
E \ "cll
a norma 11 ~' ex-
empt qnarter-bree d 11111st d ie (,"ith a ll c hild re n ) if such a pe rson 111"'ries a ha lf-breed : "Marriage belssec n persons of llli,ed blood of the fi rst degree and persons of 111i, ed bl ood of th e second degree: floth partne rs \I'ill be e,aClla tecl , regardl ess of ",h ethe r or n ot thes hilSe child re n , S ince as a rule these childre n \I'ill ra c ial'" re,eal the ad111i,ture of jewish bl ood more strongk th a l1 persollS of 111i,ed bl ood of the second degree." \-Vhat ca ll be mort insan e th an madll ess that con strllcts its mn l b~7.antill c t-a xon o lll ~'- or are we just witnessi llg the orderly mind of the pe tls burca ucrat appl ied to h1l 111an lives ", thc r th an office fil es' Th e Protoco l's most stunning misuse of c\'olllti onary bio logy, howen:r, appears not ill this tedi ous ta\:onol1l ~ ' of gene tic nonsense. but right in Ill e h o;11'1 of the dOelll1l e nt '> c hi e f opcra tio nal pa mr;raph , I quoted the \Hnds abm'c, hut ill~c r ted ellipses to s i gni f~' all o miss ion ,-hat r om\" "'ish to restore. I I~ i c hlll
The :\/ O,'it Ul1bnde,\; t CIII
or All
then contillues (to flesh out 1m ellipses ): "Th e poss ible filial lelllilant \\'ill. as it must 1II1tioubkdh eomi st of the toughest, h",'e to be treated a cc ol"di11gl~' _. " I ,ct lIle 110\\ ' S\\'itch 10 I·he original Gcrman: ". . Ja dieser, eine natiiriiche /\uslese da rstellend, bei i,'reilasslIl7g als Keill/zelle eines nellen ;iidischel1 /\u/7Jalles (f I1Zllsp re(:h el1 i.lii. " Or: ", .. as it i:-. th e /J w dllct 0/ ndtll ral seleclion, and \\ould, ifliberated , act as a bud cell of a Jc"'ish reco nstruction_ " Perhaps you do not sec the spec ial horror of this lill e (elllbedded, as it is, in such maximal c\"il ), Bill \\hal ctl n he morc \\Tcnc lIin~ lh
D I \. ()S_\l - lt
I\,
\
11 _\)s- 1 \( :f.,.
It sC:
Th e ;\ los t thd'inc!es t Cut
or /\11
firsl dec id ed to opposc cq,llllioli \\'hcll he mislook Dar\\'in 's 'ldual formulation for the c~rcgio ll s Ccrman misusc that so deeply disturbcd hilll , tdall\' sc ientists c()nsistclltk opposed this 1I1isapplicalion , bul others, probably th e Illcljority, remain ed silellt (1l1c.lllY cnjoyi!1g th e prestigc , C'CII if faLck SHlI1 ), ,d,ilc a fe\\' ac ti,'ek abettcd Ih e eooplation oflhei r field for a \·arict~ · of lllotin::s , including lllisplaced patriotism and ilHInediate pcrsollill rc\\-ard. Sc\·c r
D I '()S. \l · l{ l '
\
11 .\)
S I \( : J...
A sci entist's hest defcnse ;lgai1lst snch lllis;Jppropri iltioll li es in
mility: yigilallcc ill
cOlllhatill~
and hu-
miSllses that thre,ltc ll cffccti\'cl1cSS (you
don't h",c to refllle CI'e l"\ kook who IITitcs a letter to thc local ncwspaper - tilllCdocsll " pen nit - but hO\r C:lIl \\"C distinguish Ihe yOllllg I Iitler frolll " just anoth cr IW' ''? ); hUl})ilit~, ill rccognil'.ing that science
docs not , and C(111110t in princ iple , find answers to l1I oral qllcstiollS. A poplliar linguisti c constru ction of latc ,,",mId h cl\"C liS belic,-c that morality lIlay be measured.as a kind of "fiher"- ;I S thoLlgI, one might pOllr ethics out of a ccreal b", pro mincntk labeled (bl e,ading laboratofl standards) lIith
precisc contcllt and cOlltributioll 10 Illinilllal daily rcquirem cnts! Sciencc G ill s Llppl ~' informatioll as input to ,1 moral dec ision , btlt th e et hical realll! of "ollghts" call not be log icall l' specified by the fa etllal " is" of the l1atural \I 'orld - the o l1k aspect of rcal ill' that sei el1ce call acljudiC
'I 'he mysti c chords of IIl C lll o r~', strt:teh illg frolll
t: \~e ry
b,lttlcfield
and patriot grmc to every li l'ing heart a nd hearthstonc all o\'er this broad lalld , \I'ill I'd s\lell th e chorlls o f the Ullioll \\'he ll agaill tOllched , ;), sureii' th e\' \\'ill be , bl' th e belle r angel s of our
nature.
Th e ,\1 0,,/ [f"b"de,,1 elll or. \11
~\I
I,: I'II ,()C 1'1'
I/~
I doubt that I h
Pong, as com ic relicf hctsl'ee n 'l'uraudot's heheadiu g of sCl eral scqu ential suitors.
Therefore, \\'ith such a historiealh dislillguishcd cxcuse, I hal'c decieled to cite in full a remarkahle leller rcecil'cell,,' the edilor of Na/lIral Hi . . tory ill response to the origin.ll Ycrsioll of this essay: AS.1 long-lim e fac ult y Ill emher cOJlcern ed ahout corred usage
of th e Euglish Iangu'lge, I was distmbcd 1)1' the litl e of Slcphcn J'1\' Could's latest article , Th cn I dec ieled something in the articlc 1I'0uid cxphl in \\'hy the double snperlatil'c \\',1.\ mcd, Wh cn thai supposilion prol'eel grOlmdl css , I cou ld onls- conc lude thai someone intellded it as a joke Of as a mealls to provoke corrcspond ence from readers like llll'self. Am I correct' I \\'ill COll tinue to enjos' 10m perioclical, but hope that H)l l will Ilot contillu e to IHos'ide shocks of thi s kind , I replicd that I grasped both her poillt allel her dislress, alld thai , lI'hil e I hate to pass th e bnck ami beli est Ih at a lllan 1I1llst bear the eonseq lI CllC CS of his 0\\"11 action s, she rea 11)" wo uld lH1 H.: to ai r her c Olllpla int with 1\'Ir. Shakespeare! If \OU hal'c tears, prepare to sheel Ihem no\\' I.ook! ill this place ran Cass ius' daggcr through : Sec what (l rcn t th e em"iotls CclSC
, H)
PART
SEVEN
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY, EVOLUTIONARY STORIES
THEORY
~\251/~ Can We Complete Darwin's Revolution?
1;\ :\
WO :,\ DI-: RH :I.I ,Y \\' ISI " and frc4 11cn tl y c ited statement, Sigmund Frelld id en tified th e comill on component of alllllajo[ sc ielltific rc\"oIlItions: "llunlanill' has, , , had to c ndure , ' , great outrages upon its nai\'e self-Im'c ," In olh er \\'Ords, great re\o luti ons smash pedestals -th e prC\'iollS props for OLlr cosmi c arrogall ce . Frelld then identifi ed th e two most significant fnl ctllrillgs: first , th e cosmological shi ft fro m a geocelltric to a heli ocentric IlIIi\'erse, "whe n [hlllll an ityJ real ized that our earl'h \'"(IS
not th e ccnter of the uni ve rse, bllt o lll~'
speck ill a \\'o rld-s~'s tc m
of a magn itude hardly con cei\'ahl c"; second , th e Da rw inian discO\'c ry of csol ution, which "robbcd lIIan of his particular p riyilcgc of haY ing been spce i,dh creat ed, and re legated hil\l to desce nt frolll the anima l world ." Frend th e n hinted that the di semen' and elu cidati ou of the UIIeomcious, in large part his 0\\,11 work, mi ght smash a third pcdestal in setting aside o ur COII\'ictions abo llt mental rati o n <.l lit~ · , 'Ill is statclllcllt suggests <.1critcriOil for illdgillg th e COl11pietion of scientifi c rc\'Olllti ons-nalHc!s', pedcstal-sIlIaslrillg itself. l{e\'Ollltioll s arc not COIlSlIllllllated when peopl e acccpt the physical recons j'n letiOll of the Ilni\ erse thlls implied , bllt ",he n th e~' grasp the m eani ng of th is reconstructio n for the delllotioll ofhulll
H)killg
Call \-Ve COIl1/J/el e f)anl'in',., Re\'o/ilti/JI/ ?
therefore relllaillS least co mplcte ill the !'reudiall sellse , I dOIl't tllink tlJ
for the h'"'l
l ) l '()S.\ 1 It
1 ,\
\
I-I
\\:-; 1 \ ( : i'\
di \Trsc to Il
;J
cOlllpendiu li l of C:0 1llIlle lltar~ from the
Times might gi\'c
ll S SO lll e insir;ht into til e sp in doctoring of f),u\\·ill '.s re,olutio n , r ha,'c been stnl c k b, three items th at ap peared in The New York Times dllring th e past yetl r, lor eac h represe l1ts a pri ma ry compoue llt of th e sp in-doctored , ie\\', yet all a rc sta ted \\ ith com plete ' Iss u rallce th'lt c\ 'ollltioll I1JW'il \\'ork ill stich
r,:",l.l
I. !II O, H lR ' 11 11 : COI.I.I',C II\ F, C(lOP, On jnnc -+- 19-++ th e allied
(IS (/
Whole
' I '0 th e I':dito r: , , Th e qu estio n \\,1", se, ual reproducti o n has eHI h-ed , sh ollid be asked not fro m the sta nd point of indi,'iduals ' , , bu t from th e standp o int of th e spec ies itself, W h ile sC'll al re productioll cOl1tinuall y introdllces 11luLJtio ns that ca ll damage indi \'icl uals of th e spec ies. the mll'antages of thi s continu a l introducti on of ne\\' geneti c materi al int o th e ge ne pool is an e\ 'o ll1tiOlwr~'
pIllS for that spc<.: ies . .. YOl! mi ss th e point. l:\'o-
Inti o ll is no t abo nt a good deal fo r illdi \'i dllal fem ales or indi \idnal m ales. bu t abon t a good dea l fo r th e spec ies,
Cdll
\Ve Complete
f)dn\'ill',~
Herolutioll?
I regret to iuforlll the \\Titer th;.!t he has lilissedthc poillt. Daf\\-in's cClltrallilcory of llatural selectioll is about ,J(h"alltages ("good deals," if IOU II ill ) Ihal accruc to indiliduals, explicith not to spccies, In fact, this cou Jl tcri ntu itiYe proposa 1- tha t ind i\-idual bod ies, not "h igher" ,grot! ps like spccies,
or
\-ic1ualislll" f)an\"in's mechanism work'> throush the differelltial rcpro-
ducti\-e success of indi\-ich1 in the struggle
DJ"\():-; \l R J"\
,\ II\YST,\CK
tell that nature is Daminian, rather than shaped by SOll1e other set of c\"()lution,-H\" forccs? ,\ cOIl\'incillg set of proofs lics
Call \Ve C()/Il/J/ete
1)(/n\'ill',~
/{ero/utioll?
plcXlIS ill frogs, docs the species no good, but surel~- boosts the reproducti\'c Sllccess of
\-ious llutings before depositing their O\\"n. Others, after mating, secrde a gellitalplllg Illaturc's chastity belt after the fact) into the \lIkl-a roeh sllbstanee that blocks eoplliation "ith am' otlrer male. Tlrese e,alnplcs of "sperm competitioll" (as prof..:ssiollals label the subject) call ollly eyoh-e if natur;d sclectioll \yorks for ;leh-antagcs of incliyiduals, not of speCIes, ,\notlrer letter to tire Times (jallll']]'\' 8, 1<)<)5), a~aill COllllllClltillg UpOll a prc\'ious report from thc "Sciellcc Tilllcs" sectio1l, subtly illustra1cs a major thcmc in Spill doctoring the path"a\ of e\ollltio]] (ratlrer tlran tire process). Tire correspondent objects to <J sentellce fro1ll
Dinosaurs
dlld
Destil7l'
To tire Vditor: Tn a Jall. ~ "Sciencc Timcs" article you report 011 a the01'~' that dillosaurs died Ollt after all asteroidllit sulfllr-rich rock in \\"hat is 1l0\\' the -Yllcai;JIl Peninsula of \'Ie\:ico, proclucillg a haze of sulfuric acid that blocked .lUll light for decades. Ilad the rock llot becll rich ill sulfur, you say, "the dinosaurs might \\"ell 11aye stln-iYcd the impact, thcreby changing the coursc of CYO111tioll." Achwlly, it \\'as thc de1llise of the dillosallrs that cha1lged the COllrse of exollltion. I lad the dinosaurs not been \Yipccl out, e\"()lutioll \\ould h,nc cOlltillued on the same path it had hcen f()IlO\Yin~ for at least 150 million \"C
)~1
])I"\()S\\11{ 1"\
\
]].\~S·I·.\(:"
nothing allliss in \\'hclt- the Times statcd on Jallll'H~' ). If the illlpact hadn 'I occurred, dinosaurs \\'Ollid prohahly han' sun'i\'ed andcH)llllion \\'ouldthell ha,·e proceeded diffcrelltlv frOlIl the path"ay acluali, fol100\'ed during the past OS million years (an alternate route, I hasten to add. that \HHlld almost surely 11a\'c kcpt mammals as small creatures in the intcrsticcs of a dinosaurian \\'orld, thus ]Hc\'enting the origin of a pe-
culiar group oflargc mammals \\"ith consciousness. and thc c\'cntual iil\'ention of The NCB' York Timcs). The error of the letter-\\Titcr lies in an assumptioll that e\-olution. if not disrupted SOJllchc)\\, folio\\s a path that \\ili scnsihh continue into an indefinite futtlre. Btlt no stich road e:\ists. Thc coursc of CH)lutioll is olll~' the sUlllmation offortllitous cOlltingellcies. not a palh\\'a~' \\'it-h predictable directiolls. \Vhat is thc supposcd roule that e,olutioll had [01Ic)\\cd for 'SO lllillion vcars beforc thc di.sruptioll at the clld of the Cretaccous period? Vor starters. this 1::;0 million year intelyal includcd a Illass c:\tinctioll just ,-IS intellse (alld pcrhaps just as c
Ca/7 \\'c Coml){eie Dc/rwill's Rel'O!lltioll?
shape the IHunaIl species, seielltists say, aIld the realization is TaisiIlE; LIlltali/,ing questioIls about ,,-here huma11ity ,,-ill go from here, Is human eyolution cnding, ushering in a long maturity ill \\'hich Homo sO/Jiens persists pretty 111ueh unchanged?" (Oh, hO\\· I hAC that uni\"ersal and ,-lIlonYlllOUS appea I to au thori ty - "scien tists sa~'''! ) 'I 'he a rticle then ga\'e an accurate account of the faet that human <1natolll\' has not altered substantiall~' for the past 100,000 years or so. The Cro-\bgllon people \\·110 painted the great ca\"('s of ]l:urope some h\'enty to thirty thousand years ago \\"(']"(: indi.,>tinguishahlc from us. Interesting fallacies arc often subtle, often based upon hidden assllmptions, unstated and probably unconsciously held. ;\s <1 professional e\olutiouist. I find nothing "hlte\er surprising about human stabilih O\"er 100,000 years (sec essays 10 and 11). This illteT\',-Il, \\·hile not quite so short as an e\'olutiollary eyehlink, represents a prett~· da111ned s111<111 unit of geological time. J\lost species arc stable during 1110st of their geological duration. Large, snccessful, \\"(~ll adaptcd, mobile, geographically \\"idesprcad species arc particularl~' prone to stahility- becausc c\'olutionary C\'ents arc cOllccntrated iu episodes of brallchillg speciation \\-ithin small, isolated populations. 1101110 ,'wIJiel1s possesses all these attributes for stabilits, so "I" should "e be surprised at the reported results? ,\nd "I" should Stc\CIlS's article hale elicited such a stroug respOllse of \"irtu,-li clstollisillllCllt? I can oIlly conclude that tile spin doctored \-ie\\" of life's history C011cei\Ts of c\'olllt ion \\·it II i n species as a COil t i nuolls flu:..: of illlprm'emCI1 t rking boulltifully for the good of ~pecies or all~' other "higher" entity in nature. \Ve nwy then \'ie\\' life's history as an ullpreclictable sci oflar~els- forluitous, <1ncl clllillelllh· interruplible, e'\cLlrsio]]s dm\]] highl~· contingent patll\\"ays. A. nd \\"(' \\'ill llncler~talld sllccessful species as islands of temporar: stabilit:·, not as stri\-ing entities in <1 flu\: of constant impro\"cillent,
j"st as the fi"t error appeared ill th e Times 0 11 the fift iet h '"lli \n" "" of I)-I)a~' , th e I"st occurred Oil \-I","e h Lj , 1<)<) , the dalc of th e Times's 5o,000th issue. The editor marked th e occasion \\"jth th e restrained Emf",e typi cal of a ne\\'sp"per that still ref"ses to pllblish the flllllli es, :\rth", Oc hs SlIl zbcrger, eha irlllall of Ihe t\C\\ ' York Tilll es COlllp;.tIl~·, se llt a llu..' Il]()randUlll in his ~IOllTces: Hallg ill there. as best" you C'111 , for ~lS lOllg as you call . :"Jo ignobility, hu t (llll~ ' enlightenlllent. all ellds otlr reduction to air propriatc si/.e. For \\·he ll we sllla sh pedes tals, we do gralll •.1 ra~' of free0\\"1 1 d C fjllill ~ c\ullltiollciry pct llli
dom 10 ollr n :ry
lIIilld , I dOIl '1 kilO,,' if IIle ITlllh ca ll lIIakc liS frce , hili I do hcli c\'c Ilwl our unique m entality thri \"cs on this form of "oul food . \\"I1<1I<.:\"c r till' paill of losl ilillSiollS,
~\\
26
I/~
it Humongous Fungus Among Us
Woo,\.
.\;\;\:'\1\1\1. \UIIL\LS
disembodied immortality by becoming
a ycrh, htllll,-lll speakers lIs11all~- honor its bch;lyior: 'YC h<1\\l our \\"
rahle phCllOlllC1W hut \\-jtll sllch differellt lllea1lillg-for olle llsllall~' expresses Ollr joy and the other our fear. ;\rt ancl prospcrit~- flower; t
fun:;i, ~rO\\-ing in dank dampness, sprouting in cancerous formlessness fro 11 I roHillf{; IOf{;s. (]';VCll '-1 colorfulllHlslnoOlll lIsll
DI'\()S_\lllt 1,\ .\ ll\YSI.\CK
with our general fascination for superlatives-the biggest and most persistent in this c
story ,,-ith
~l
more
sprightl~-
hC:lCll inc: '''I 'hirt~--Acre Fungus Called
\Vorld's I .argest Organislll." \\ie di\'ide Illulticellular life into three great kingdollls: anilllals, plants, and fungi. 110\\' docs this ne\v Armill(Jrio stack up against champions of the other dOlllai1lS 7 Blne ,,·hales, Il\· far the largest aninwls that ever lived (edging out hoth UltrdsourIls alld SUjJersoIlrIls frolllihe \"orld of dinosaurs), Illay reach one hundred feet alld as Illall~- tOllS. (Illeielentalh·, since felllale whales e,eeeellllaies in si1e, the largest indi\ielual animal of all time \"as undouhtedly a female.) Sequoia trees
i\ HUII101lgous /iungus AlI10ng Us
of the clolle's hulk, grO\\'ing ill placcs hardcr to assess-for c\:ample, \\'ithill tree roots allc! helm\' fifteen centil1leters deep in thL' soil; anc! also, pcrhaps l1lore illlportant, the lliass of fine h~vll
Thlh, this Ch,Ulipioii Armillaria clonc
n1
\\'cigh as nHich
(IS
a hlue
\\hale (though substantiall\ less than a large sequoia), and probably lies ill the Idlpark of the oldest tree for age, Its claim to "firstest \\ith the lllostest" llIust rest UPOll the additional criterioll of bteral sprc
J)]'\()S.\\
l{
]'\
.\
11_\YS'I.\C"
Spores arc certaillly uhiquitous, hut a constallt raill docs llot guar.mlce a cooIK'rati\"e matting to forlll m
game. Thus, single \'s. multiple sources for brgc fungal mats lus been \"ic\\"cd as an opcn and interesting qucstion for some timc. Cenetie tcsts arc now a\'ailahlc for rcsolving such all issuc. Smith ,old eolleaglles firsl salllpled sc\nal portiOIlS of the Armillari" lllat both for gellcs that- determille cOlllpatibility ill illlcrbreedillg (called lllatiIlgtvpc ,III e les) ancl for sc\era I fraglll en ts of In itoe h unclria I I) '-IA. Bot h t hc mating-type ancl thc mitochondrial gcnes arc highl~"variable \vithin the spccies Ann illari" hu {hos", bllt all salllples of thc :-1 ic h iga n lllat \icldcd the sallle alTa~·. This identit~" deillonstrates close genetic relationship, hut docs not prm'c indi\'idualify, for hm\' call \\"(' kllo\\' \"hcther the Ilwt deri\cs from many highl~- inbrcd sihlings or from a single sourcc of origin? ,\n additional genctic tcst thcn indicated a singlc fotlnder. Repeated closc inbrecding lc,-lds to a lllarked reduction of genetic \"ariahility all long offspring-the presullled ·'deep reason" behind our \",UiOliS LI\YS and tahoos against incestuous marriage. Cenes that arc \",niable \\ithin an in(li\ idual (called "hcteroz\gous' bccause the matcrnal alld patcrnal copics diffcr) \vill tcnd to bccollle tlniform ill offspring produccd b~- contillual mating, m-cr many gcncrations, alllollg vcry close reiatiYes. Slllith allc! collcagues traced ll1
A llumol1gous },'ul1gus ,--\mollg (Is bluc \\ hale and rcchmod e,hihit relatively determinatc gro\\ th \\-ithin a defincd bOllllcbry, ,,"here~ls fltllf}111l1~"eelia do !lot. III other 1H)f(ls, a "hale is a \\hale, "ith flippers and tail, bllt the ;\[ichiganmat just ,spreads, Vlme",er, \\e eanllot he sure that the \Iichiganl1lat remains truly continuous throughout. Pieces llla~- break off and hecome ph~-sic
What, theil, shall \\e accept as a definition ofindi,'idnalit" and ,I'll" is this questioll important to biological theory, not Illercl~-
DJ,\()S\lIR J'\ .\
11
\YST.\Ck
and the entire interconnccted s~'stelll (the underground runners and stalks, the mat of rhizoll1orphs \yith occasional lllushrooll1 buds) as (\ genet. In other \Hnds, the \'Cfn
Thc \"(~rnacillm and gcnetic definitions ;lrt' dri\-cl1 c\-en furthcr ap,-ut whell \\·c recogn ize tlwt eye II the chief fcatu re of eOllnectedness ca n fail when \\'C adyocatc the gcnetic criterion. In 1977, zoologist Dan Janzen wrote a proHlcati\-e article Oll this subject (sec hibliography), including the subheading "What is an aphid?" ,\"'m aphid species brced sesualh just once a ~'L'
:-\ IlulJlol7gous l,'ulIgu,~ i-i.IIJ(JIIg {is
[lee of the plants in its habitat, so thinlY that a potenti,d predator is ven- unlikelY to find ~lll of it Jt Ollce" Before I-his sequellee of illcreasillg ambiguity becomes all\" more maddellillg, let IllC propose a differellt approach. alld a polclltial soluIion, 'I 'crillS a Ie hesl clefi Ilecl \I'dh iIl Ihe COil le,I of e'pla nalo,'\' IIreories, Cr~l\ity
111::1Y hold
::1 \-arict~-
of \Cnl::1cuLtr mcanings, hut ch::lIlging tech-
nical c!efinitions ill the successi\-e fOrIllulatiolls ofl\C\\-tOll
1)1_'\()S_\llj\
I">
,\
11_\)S'I,\(;h
specify fiYe such properties: '-In illdiricluallTlust 11a\-e a clear hcginning (or hirth) point, a clear ending (or death) point, and sufficicnt stahilit~, between to be recognized as all el1tit~-. These first three properties suffice to define an "indi\idll
and thcsc offspring mnst hc produced
h~-
principle of inhcriL:lncc
that makes children resemble pmclils, \\,ith the possibility of some differellces. Darwin \\as surely right in holding that ordinar~- organisms (also ;\nl1illdria lllats and aphid clones) possess these file properties: the) arc horll alld die at elefillahle poillts; they are sialJ\e ellough dllrillg their lifetimes: the\' ha\e ehildrell; alld offspring re,selnblc pments \\,ith the possihility of difference. Organisms can therefore he ullits of selection. But \\"hat about entities either more or lcss inclusin: than organisms? \Vhat about gcnes "belem" organisms, and species ",Ihm'e"? \Ve llsl1all~ til ink of genes as 1)(lr!s and species as colleclirilies, hut perhaps this COlI\·entional ,·ie\\' only represents the hias of restricted foclls on our persona] li\Ts. \b~'he genes and species arc just as good Daf\\'inian indi,·iduals as hoelies. ;\fter all, species arc horn ,,·hell a poplllatioll heCOllIes isolated ~llld hrall(.'lles offfwlllthe parelltal sloek. Species ciie Ulla III higuous]~- ,dtheir exti Ilctioll. i\J osl species arc (JlI i1c stab Ie throughout their geological duration. Cenes also possess the fi\'e key properties of birth, death, stabili", reproduction, and inheritance \\ith the possibility of difference, Thus, incJilidualih ",tends be\oncl Armillaria mats ancl aphlcl clones tel enC(lll1paSS diffcrent lc\'els ofhiological organi/.atioll-so different that \\e kl\e IIsllalh callecl them parts or colleeti\ities IIncier the parochial clSSlllllpt-ioll tllClt ()1l1~- orgallisllls CellI be Ililits of sclection. CClles alld species arc also Dar\\'illiall illdi\'icluals, alld selection CCIII opcraie UpOIl these larger alld slllaller elltities as ,,-cll. i\'atural selectioll can \\ork simultancously at se\-erallc\'cis of a gellcalogical hicrarch~' on genes and ccillineages "hel(m" organisms, and OJ] populations and specics "ahm-e" org<.lllisills ..\ll thcse lc'\'cls produce legitimate Daf\\-illian illcli\'ic!lIa]s-Cllld this hierarchical defillitioll gi\'es liS the large, illcll1si\'e, and proper biologicallllc
,-\ I-/ll1n()ng()l1,~ FlIngll,~
Among
di"idual species Po)'o cristatus. Josc C
single lc\'el of organic hodies-as Anniflarid mats and ~lphid clones delllOl)strate. Fllrthcrlilorc, ill Dan,'illian terllls, legitimatc illdiyiclllais c:\ist and operate at sc,-cralle"cls of a gcncalogical hierarchy-gencs and spccies, as \\'(:11 as organisms. But ,,-hat a fascinatioll "hcll this maelstrom of differing imli, idnals builds its lllcsll\\ork of intcraetion to prodnce lifc's histOl"\' h\' Dan\'inian eH)lutiol1, Docs Il,lture herself then sing Walt \Vhilillan's "SOllg of \hself'" no I contradict lll,sclf7 Vcrs \\ell then I contradict n"self, iT '1ll1 large, I conlain nllliliindes.)
{)s
~\\ 27 I'~ Speaking
of
Snails and Scales
'f,w.
PS \1 .\IIST \ S}(I ':D:
"\\'hat is
lll,lI1 ,
that thou art mindful of him?"
We 11<1I'e se,]fehed, no dOllht \ainh, for a llahlre or esse llee of hlllll'lllit}" ('\'c r sillce \n.: ('yoh-ed cl](llIgh cogllit"iol1 \'{) ask. Just cOllsider the \'ariet) of clt.lssic<.tl respOllses, cae11 clIlpll
Speaki ng of SJlail,,, and Sc"le,, \VC gat her th e co mple xi ties of 0111' \\'orl
standing of lifc's Iriston', We hm'c been less aille to reeogni 7,e the subtler , but cqlla lh- cons trainin g, prejlldi ces that arisc froIll morc tllli\'(~ rsal properlics easik hiddcn by their lack of c\idcnt \'ariation across cultmcs and classes, Into this less \'isi ille eatcgon I \\'Oult! plaec om tendcncy to order com pic:\: rcalit~ " illto sto rie~ \\"ith restricted th elllcs ;Jild o utcomcs, I call this propcllsit\' "litera ry bias' (sec CS"I\' 16 in Hull), Ii" Hrol1/O,""Ir!IS), Anton C hckhm wrote that "one Illust not put a loadcd riflc 011 sl" age if no 011e is Ihinkil1 g of firing it. '· Cunei drallla reqllires SP;:HC and pOlfposi\'e acl'ion, scnsible linking of potcll tial causes " 'ith rea lized effects, I ,ife is lllllch m css ier; nothing happc ns most of the lilllC (sec c~~ay 10), \ lillioll S of AllIcricans (lIlan y hoth ea ded) 0\\"11 rifles ( m all) loaded ), hut the great Illa jorits , thank Cod , do not go off Illost of the tim e, \Ve spe lld most of rC
,\ particular class of slor ies holds specia l pO\\'Cf to distort [,\' combiniu g the standard form of sociopolitical prejudi cc with subtler literary bias" Ollr CO II\'c lltiona] c:-.pianatiolls of hi stu ri ca I seqllcllccS lend to be rcgulatedl)\' th c primary soc iopolitica l th eille ofWcstelll life sincc the laic sc\entcentlr ecnlllf\,: th e idea of progress, " ith corollaries of 1Il00"CIllCllt fro m SII1 <1 I1 to large. simpl e to cOlllplc:x, priJl1iti\"C to ad\"'lIleed -an ideal of perpetual growth and cXlxmsio ll, \Vh cll we add ollr more general sto r~"tcllin g preferences, our litenny biases for narratin: cOll tinuity bch\"ccn stages and causal unity of tran sformill g forces, we obta in th e shl1ldarrl format for histori cal stories: purposefnl. dircctional.
alld sensible c ll<.ln ge. C i\-cn the fcIilllrc alld inadcqwl cy of so 11l <'lIl ~' ta lc!)
ill th is Illode - the pagca" t of preh istoric 1ife fro m Illol l
he r constitution . III an~ ' casc, our stalldard histo rical stories of meanillgful proE;fcss do 11 01' stand
presclltk bClUlid otlr grasp (sttld, m,' pc" patch "lid \'()\l might e"c llDarwin scrllt il1ized
comm erce and soc i,d re latiolls. might stand cIS surroga tes for e(\r1 ~' stages
of We.IIern urballity, These differclltl y complcx. 1l01l-\Vesl"e rn cultures arc f
so too, belieH:" it or not. an: pigeolls, Erents of sm all scale
or short tim es should be stlldi ed ill th eir 01\'11 right. Bll t Ihe illterpretatiOIl of such c\'cnts as carl y stages ill a Il,-HTat i,-c of rising complexity lllay backfire beca use callSal eontinllity oftell fail s, Sillall an d short nrc often illst cli fferent froll) big and long, not little bro thers gliding to\\'a rd a more intri c,l te manh ood.
T o illustra le this th eme of mi seollstrui ng Ih c less compl ex as th c primiti \'c precu rso r, r wallt to tell a story about a sc icntific misjudgment of llly o\\'n earh career. In '96<) , I first I'isiled th e isl"",l of C ",a,ao (in the r--;dherlands Antill es, off th e c"ast " f VeneZllel,,) to stud\' th e hlild snail C eriOTl llra (I \\'illm en!ionlalc r \\ 11\ [ ehosc this pcripheral islancl ill th e genera 1 d istri bll tion of CerioTl) , [ll ' 994, cx"elk t\\'enh'-o,c "cars afte r "') first I'isit, I tf<1\'clcd to C urac;ao aga in (l \\'ill also reco llnt th e purpose of this "isit lakr -css<"s arc stu ries, and 1am th ercfore perm itted th e literary de, iccs of fo reshado\\'ing and mild )""ste r\) , C ",a,ao is a land of mixtures ancl contrasts , As a Dutc h island off Spani sh SOllth America, a eactns-fi lled desert in the Ca ribbean tropics, C l1r;'IGao ha s lneldcd its dispa rate pariS into ~I di s ti llcti n~ culture. COIlside r th e ~m O Il1
Oi;f<1plll ' h",'c set its dcsti, 1\', The periplrcf\ ' of tir e island is built of Irare!. ~o l id IiJll e~ t () ll C ( pri11\m il ~- of reef ('oral,
the in te ri or is cO\·cred h~ ' so ft
SfJe(/kil1~
()r SJ/(/il.~ and Scales
C Ollse(lll(:,lltly. C urac;ao featllres nllIt Ihink of the anolllalons Illi xtllfe, gin,'ll Ihe island 's other econolllic sl
' I'he people ofelll'a,'ao fOlln a grand Jlokglot as II ell , recordin g the realilies alld (',-ils of such ",alc mixture of people , a loeallallgllage eilierged , a creole called I'apiamcnltl, spoken only hI' the fell' hundred thousand people of Cur<1,<.IO alld the neighboring islallds of;\ruba
D I '()S.\ l · l t
I '
\
II \) :-;. [
\ ( :t..
built th eir retinue of s"I"es frolll people of different lingui stic ba ckgroullds, so that 11 0 secret S~·~ tclll of COil llllllll icatioll could emerge ill all "unknowil " Ilati" e tlllgtl, The,' consequen tk bu iIt l1e\\' lallguages UPOll this Europcal1 base , hilt intlllclleed by African sou rces and imbucd \"it h fC ;J tllre.s of s, 'nla'\ dcriH.'d more from lllli \"{: rs
.lIl
i.1l11algamation of Romallce alld Cerlllanie sources, as noted ill slIch phrases as Da"ki Dins ("Thank Cod," ,,·ith Ge rlllani c gm titudc to a Romance cleitd, Beyond th ese O\'crt amalgamatiolls, the most on\"iolls and distillcti\'e fCilhIre of Papialllcntn lies ill the strippcd-dO\\'ll logic of its ~rall1mar and syntax. For ()Ilt' \d JO has struggled so many ~·c<.l rs \\it!! th e COillplcx cases, cOl ljtlgations, declensions, phlrali l. illgs, ,llld gcnderings of llOllllS iJnd "crbs ill most ''' :uropc<.I 1l lallgwlgcs , th e simplifi ed . barehOlies strllclure of Papialllcntll prm'idcs a distillct plca.'iure. The ste ms of ,erhs, for eX"llIple, ne'·er change th e ir forlll , c ith e r in different tellses Of agree ments. Hai is "goi ng" in th e infiniti,'c, the impcrati\"c, the past, prese nt, or future, and whethcr thc moti oll im'oh-cs ~ ·otl . \\"e, I, or th c~ ' . Past and futnre te nses just lIlodif, thi s lllli,·e rsal form with an ad,nb. 'I'he futllre takes 10. frolll a Portt 19Ut'SC \\"end IHcall ing ''1.:1ter Oil " - /0 mi "ai t"I sh,,11 go" ) lite ralh· llIea 'lS "later on I go. " ' I 'he past defiII ite takes (I. Coilo tr
H9
1) 1 '( )S\t ' l ~ l '
\
II
\\'S ' j \( :1<
gllagcs of lIolIiiteralc pc.:oplc as priJllih,'c st i:lgc~ (or degclIerated rc\·c.: rsi ons ) of all c\"()llItion;Jr~ ' s('qucllee leading 10 lllodern Illdoeuropean torrgucs. Consider, for cxampl e,;1standard llillct ('c nth-celltllr~ ' \york inspired IJ\ the Dm\\inian relOlulirlll- William D\\'ight \\'l1iln e,'\ [4e
But consider also W!ritne,.'s I!lore abstract a"d largeis- litera" or stohiases for
Speak ill g of SlIails aud Scal es
tllre of lan gllage ill gell efaL I cannot judge th e yalidity of Bickerton 's the()r~ ' for the origin ofcrcolcs (alld I rccoglli ze that his opinioll s arc COll trO\e rsial all long lin gu istic selrolacs), bill- his h']loth csis docs illust"ltc the illlportant principle that less O\-crtly complex can connote differcllce with it ge neral message, rather than primiti \ 'ity to ellJloble Oll r c urrent stalll\ llllder our shH~'l el\i llg b ia ~cs. Pidgi ll':". accordillg to B ickcrton , are rou gh Cln d reacl r acco1llm odations to neccssary cOllllllunication and ha\'c little lingu istic strll cturc,,-hil e the c reo ics that deri,-e frolll pidgill.s de,-clop all tire formal eOlllplexih-of an,- tnre Irulilan hmgll
))1
I) I" ()S.\{ ' H I ,
\
11 \\S I'\( : "
characteristic,
1,,"-
SfJ€akillg of Snai!... allli Sco les
III fa d, since the Dlltch ,yere ca rl~ " colonizers "I1H.i assidllolls eolItc hm , Ceri()11 !Iva is th e S( ~e"lI ed h pc (first desigmlt ed speci cs ) of the elltire gellu s- and th e Ilam e, giYcll by Lillnaclis himself. could not Il
,5,
DI '\' ()S\{ I H
I'
\
/I
\YS I'\ C I\
ra,aD, But I also found Ih e basis for the sn",lIer-seal e I'ariation lI'ithin regions, linked to imillediate en\-irOl1mcnt.lo., that 1I1I1Il11lclinek
ee-
Speaking of SI/(Iih
([11(/
Sca/ex
of topics for researc h; and \\·c lllust lea rn to recogni ze the cOllstraillts <1l1d prejlldice, Ihat am partie lliar ;tOf\' lllusl ' pcc ifL We shollld , ahOl'c <.111, ell large ollr rallge of potential stories, for a choice alllong a tllou" lIlel ""d o ne ni ght; pro" ide; so IIIlI eh more sco pe Ih"n Ci"d crclla (or a " oth er progressi,'e talc o f rags to ric hes) told c'n' night. I Illad e n,,' rec e nl C llf
I try 10 lllC<.ISlIrc around
C\'cr~'
sall d grain , the le ngth \\'ill be C;ffcdi\'cly
in fi llite, If III,e,mll'e Ollis arollnd th e ap propri " le \I'igglcs at a sealc thai depicts ~la ille to Florida on a pi ece of paper one or lin) feel long, then
thc totallcllgth may he exadl ~' the same as
so n ;\bsalolll' But iSIl 't l)",id f.,llillg inlo the sa llle IraI' hy 1I0ndering 11,1", Cod shollid bother IIdh little IH'lllanit\' \I'he n he made the stars and "lilhe he il"e ns' F or if people ocellI'" jllst olle les'el in a predolll inalltl\' fraclal IIl1i, e rse, then \Ie arc like the gal"xies-hlll the alllocba Ihat Ill' s",alJo\led in that last ghlSS of \later alld the mites era",lillg o n OBr
c\"cbT()\\'s arc also like liS.
STORIES
Hooking Leviathan by Its Past
T,1I< 1..\\; I)SC. \I'F of c\'(::ry Cafecr co ntains a fe\\'
CfC\ "a SSes, and lIsuall y " llIorc c\tcIIsi,c ".,Ib, or t\\'o -for e,'en' Ruth', bat" Buckllc's legs; for C"ClT lopsided "ietor) at ,\ gi neolllt, a bloodbath at Antietam, Darwin 's Origin of Species conta ins som e \\"()llderfui ill sights alld l1lagllific ent lines , bllt thi s Ill,lstcrpicce also includes a few notable clunkers, Dan,'in c\pcricnccd IllOSt embarrasslllent frolll the folIO\\-ing passage: , curtail ed and l argel~ expunged from later ed itiolls of his book:
In North America th e black b eelf \\"as seen b~- H CClrllC S\\ -illllHing
for hOlm "ith wid eis' o]lcn lllouth , thus catching, like a whale, insects inlhc water. E,"e ll in so e:drcme a case <-1 S this, if the supply of insects wc rc cOllstallt, and if bctle r adapted co mpetitors did Ilot aircack ,,\ ist ill the eOlilltn', I call scc llO c1ifficlllh in a race of bears being relldered. by l1<1tllfai .sc\cdioll , Illore aqual-it: i,l thcir strrrctlllc and habits, ,,'ith larger ancllarge r Illollths, till a creature \\"as prodllced as monstrolls as a \\"hale.
\Vhy did J).IT\\"in be('oll1c so dwgrined ;Ihout this paSs'-H~l' ? I lis h ~·. pothclicalla1c Illa~- he p url' ~ pcc l1!ation ,llId cOlljl'dllrC, bll t the sCl'lIario is lIot l' lIti rL' k
<.l sc icntifi(' 110fm of a mOfe SOc iOcliittiralnatllrc, SCiC11tific condnsiolls \lIpp()scdl~' rcst upon facts and informatioll. Speculation is not cntirely ~(:.lboo, alld IIwy someti mes he lIec css<.lT~" (([ute de l1Iiellx, But \\,h en sc ienti sts propose truk nmel and eOlllpreh ellS ile th cories - as Dar\\"ill tried to do ill ;J(I\-allcing Ilatu ral selectioll as the prilIl ~lry mccha llism of c\'olutioll-thcy nced parHc llbrly f;ood support, and illl'cnted Illpothctic
life to follO\\'
1Jooking l,eriathal1 h)' Its
ical trallsitioll frolll rcptilcs to lIlallllllals is particularly wcll dOCUlllClltcd in the key alutolllieal change ofj~l\\- articulation to hcaring boncs. ()nl~ olle bOlle, called the delltal"l, builds the mammaliall j,m, "hile reptiles retain se\'eral small hones ill the rear portion of the ja\\·. \Vc call trace, through a 100'cl~' sequence ofilltcnnediat-cs, the reciuctioll of these small reptilian bOlles,
inc! tid ing the remarka h1c passage of the rcptil ian
~jj"ticli l
hones
illto the lll,-lllllluliall llliddle car (wiIerc dlc\- becClllle our lllalleus
P(L~t
1)1\()~\I.R 1\
\
II.\~·~·I \("f..:
Dualle Gish, creatiollislll'S llIost ardellt debater, makes the sallie argUlllellt ill his Illore colorful st~'le (El'ollltioll: The ClwllclIgc oFthe }<'O.'i-
si/Record): There simply are no transitional forms in the fossil record het\\'ccn the marinc mammals and their supposed land ma1llllla!
ancestors. , . It is quite entertaining, starting \\"ith ('m\"s, pig.",
Of
buffaloes, to attempt to s ismlize "hat the illtermediates 111<\1 hm-e lookecllike. Starting \\-ith
1[ookil7g, Leriathol7 hy Its /\1.';1 Ihemsehes I" I)()\serflll, horiwlll'lllail nllkes alld he"e 1I0 sisible hilld lilllbs al all-aJl(IIHl\\ call a lillcage both ,belop a nat propliisise lail frolllihe stalldard mammaliall length of rope, and then forfcit the lIslial equipment of hack feet so completely? (Sirenians ha\'e lost e\'ery H.'Stige of back legs; sdralcs oftell retaill till\', splilillike peh'ie alld leg bOlles, but no fool or finger hones, elllbec1ded illlllU.'iCulature of the hody wall, but \\·ith no \'isihle expression in e'\ternal anatolllY.) The loss of back legs, and the desciopment of tlukes, fills, and nippeTS bs \\hales, therefore stands as a classic eelse of a sllpposed cardinal problcm ill CH)lutioll
[)I",O;-;_\llj{
1_\
,\
1I_\'1:';'I,\CI(
\Vhalcs IllllSt hayc eH1IYcd during the Eoecne cpoch, SOJlle 50 millioll years ago, becallse L~ltc Eocene ~llld Oligocclle rocks alread~- contain flll1~' nwrille CciaCe
coulitry of present residence, from .\fiddle Eocene sediments some
)2
million years old ill Pakistall.III terlllS ofilltcflllcdiacy, OIlC eoulc1lwnll~ hase hoped for more from the limited material asailahle, for onh the skull of I'akiceills has heen found. The teeth strongh resemhle those of terrestrialmcsofl\chids. as anticipated, hut the sknl\, in featme after feahire, elearl~' belollgs to thc clen..'lopillg lillc,-lgc of \\-hales. Both the anatomy of ti,e sknll, partienlarh in the car region, ami the inferred hahitat of the animal in life, testifs to transitional status. The cars of modem \"hales contain modified honcs and passagc\\'a~'s that perIllit directiollal heariIlg in the dCllsc mediulll of ,,·ater. f\loderll \\'hales hme aiso c\{lhed enlarged sinuses that can he filled \I ith hlood to maintain pressrrre dllTing dising. 'I'he skull of I'akice(us lacks both these featmes, and tllis first \I Ide eonld neither disc deepls nor hear dircction<.llh- \\-ith ,-lilY efficicllc\- ill \yater. III ll)<)), J. G. \1. Thc\\'issell alld S. T. l---llissaill affirilled these COllelusions and adcledmore details Oil the intcrmecliael of skull arehiteettlre in Pa/~icetu". f\lodern "hales ;lcilie\-e 1l1l1Ch of their hearing through their ja\ls, as sonnd librations pass through the ja\l to a Tit pad" (the tcclillicallitcr<.lhnc, for oncc, il1\-Cllts 110 jargoll and elllplo~'s the good ole! English \'('macular illllalllillg this structure),
Hooking l,criat//(111 hr Tis Past
ill the surface "alers of sldl,m seas, hllt it lackeci mlciiton a,Liptellions lleCCSSalY for a fulh- lllarillc existcllce." Verc/ict: III 1crms of illtcrmcdiacy, OIlC could hardly hope for more ffllm the limited melteriell of skull hones ellone, flut the limit remelins SlTere, and the rcsults thereforc incollclusi\'e. \\-'e knm\" nothing of the limbs, telil, or boch fmm of Pakicetll,s, elnd therefore eelnnot judge treln-
sitiollal status in these key features of ;jn~-()ne's
ordili(lr~-
conception of
el "hellc. e\SI, Two. Discol'c/)' of the first com/Jlete hillel limb ill a /(Jssi/lI'hale. In the lllost failiolls lllistake of early Alllericall paleolltology, Thomas Jeffcrson, \\'hile nol cngagcd in ot-her pursuits usually judgcdlllorc important. misidcntificd the cla\\' of a fossil groul1d sloth as a lioll. :\\'I~. prizc for second \\'orst crror must go to R. I Iarlan, \\'ho, in IH,)+ namcd a marille fossil \Trtehrate HdSi/oSdllrllS ill the 'i"rclllsdctiOl1S of the i\111erieclll Phi/osophie(Ji Socieh'. Basi/oS(/lInLS Illeelns "king li'elrd," but llarleln's creaturc is
'''r.
1)1".()s.\\ R I".
\
lI.\~·s·1 \(:1..:
hind limb skeleton fonnd in any \\ hale-a 100eh all(1 elegant strncture (put together from several parti
acy, hut for one sm
eleg~1I1t
hut tiny (sec the
accolllpanyillg illustratioll), a Illcrc ~ pcrccllt ofthc anilllal's IOlallellgth. 'T'hey arc anatomiealil' complete, and thel did project fronl the boch \\all (unlike the tnrly lestigial hind limbs of modern \\hales), but these miniature legs could not have made any important contribution to 10COlllOtioll-the real functional test of illtenncdi
Hooking Leria/hdll by lis Pas/
.;:A~~,~~\~\~\~t~~"""ooiI#"~"'~4~_t"t'_"'04t"_'Io_"~oI~~'lot"__________ "'oj11o""'.~'~'~0~~ooll"................'..',..,........
~I
I
~
1--/- - - - - - ' I
view this image, refer to Fem~:~/[To the print version of this title.] I
.___----,-r"
/
Phalanges
[)
A
Fibula
/
Patella
~ibia L::J o
2 inches
.\ /iti.l'-/()(J/ Locel1(, 1I'hd/e, Ih\ilnsaurlls isis, /mill / he '/,eug/od(Jn \ 'dl/C)' (J/l
lated ;J lld fllll~' terrcs! ria I lllCS{Jllych id p(u:h)'OC1W ossiFraga). 'I 'hc all thors conclude: "The peh is has a large and deep acetabulum Ithe socket for articulation of the femur, Of thighbonel, the proximal femur is robust, the tibia is long ... :\11 these featmes, taken together, indicate the Ineloeelus was probabh- able to support its weight on land, and it \\as almost certJinly amphibious, as early I<~ocelle Pdkicetus is interpreted to hase been ... We speculate that Incioeeius, like I'ukieeius, entered the sea 10 feed 011 fish, but returned to bnd to rest and to birth and raise its yOllllg. Vereliel: Almost there, but llot 'Inite. \Ve lleed better material. ,\11 the right fcatu res arc IlO\\' ill place - pri lllarily leg hOlles of sufficiellt size and cOlllplcxit~'-hut \\'e need morc and hettcr-presen'ed fossils. C\SI·. I,'ul 'R: L({rgc, comIJ/cte, ({nd fiIllCiiol1c1/ hind legs j()1-/al1d and sed - filld illg the smoki ng gUll_ 'I 'he fi rst three cases, all cliscO\'ered \\.j til ill tell years, surely illdicate all illcreasillgly sllccessful paleolltological assault upon an old and classic prohleill. Once you knc)\\- where to look, alld ollee high interest Spill'S grcat attention, ftlll satisfaction often foll(ms ill short order. I ",as therefore delighted to rcad, in the Jallllan q, "J9+ issne of Science, all article b, j. C. :\1. Thc\\isSCIl, S. T. HllSsain, (\ nd \1. Ari f, ti tled "I
DI'\()S.\I'lt 1,\
\
II
\YSI \('~
~
Feel
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
Two recIJII.'ilnl(:lioJl" ,\hOl\'\lllilul()cctlls, d fi)s"il whale /Tom Pd!.:ddll, "Ial/dillg {top I dlld allhe elld "'Il'imming ,\l/T)i'e Ihojjoilli.
ora
,\dap/~d Ir"m Sl·i<:mT. ml. ~(i l , '4/a"'''I':1' ")<)4
In Pakistan, iII sed inleills 120 lIIeters ,I bO\e th e beds th,lt ,iellled /'a!.:.icetus (alld therefore a hit youllijer ill age), 'I 'hc\\'issell allel colleagues collected" relllarkable skeletoll ofa lie"· ,dwle-llot COlllpletC, bllt far better prescn-eci than ;lIlyth ing prC\-iOllsly found of th is
/-Io(Jking Lnialhall h,r Its 1\/.\1 the form of this transitional \\'halc, but also, ,,-ith good confidencc, an in termcd iJ r~' stylc of loeomotioll Jndl node of life (~1l1 impossibil ity \\-itll the first three cases, for Pdkicetus is ollly
ing \\"hile s\\"imming, "IS in
C:\l
I
"modern \\-h:Ollcs" in ordi-
nary lallguagel, and they lacKed a major pTOpulsi\'c force ill \\'ater." \Iodcrll \\hales 1ll00e throllgh the I\ater bl po\\erflll beats of thcir horizontal tail flukes-a motion made possible by strong undulation of a Ilc,ible rear spillal eohllllll, A111bu/ocellis had 1101 Id eloked a lail fillkc.llllllhc spille Iwd re{llIisile fie,ibililr, Thc\\issCII el al. \\Tile: "A111/m/oee( us s\lalll III Illca IlS of dorso\clltra I Ibac k-to-bel h IlIlIdlllati OllS of its lertebral colllilln. as elideneed bl the shape of the IlIlllbar Ilo\\'er baekl lertebra," These IIndlllatiolls thell flllletiolled \\'ith (alld 1'0\\'ered) the pad{llillg OL\111hu/ocelus's large feet-alld these feel prmided the major propulsi\'e force for s\\illll1ling, The\\-issen et al. conclude their article by \\Titing: "Like modern cetaccans-it s\\'alll by lllm-ing its spinc up and dmnl, but like seals, the lll,lin pro]>ulsi\'c surface \\-as prm'ided b~- its feet. . --\s such, Ambu/ocetus represents a critical interllledialc beh\'eell lalld 1ll,,1ll1111als
[)1,\():-i_\lIR 1,\ ,\ II.\)SI,\(:I(
not imagine a better tale for popular prcscntation of sciencc, or a more satisf~-ing, and intellectually based, political \ietor~- (ACT lingcring creatiollist oppositioll. As snch, I presellt the stor~' ill this series of essa~'s \yith both delight and relish. Still, I must confess that this part of the talc docs not intTi~ue Inc most as a scicntist and cH)lutionary biologist. I don't mcall 10 soulld
j'ldcd
Of dOgllUtiC,
but Ambu/ocetu,;,; is so close to our c\pcctation for
J
trallsitiollal for111 that its discm-el} couldllot prm-iclc a professiollal paIcontologist \\'ith the greatest of all pleasures ill sciellce-surprise. As a public illustration llnd sociopolitical \'ietor~', transitiollal \\'hales Illay proI'ide the ston of the decade, bnt paleontologists didn't donbt their existellee or feel that ,I central tlreorl \\onld collapse if thcir absence cOlltinued. \Vc lon' to placc flesh upon Ollr C\pcct
f100king l,(!rialiJdll hy Its Pas I
not ask the equally intriguing historian's questioll. Fisllcs swim ill <J trul~ opposite lll
1)1:\()~.\1 It 1:\
\
rr
\~·~·I·.\(·f(
terrestrial IlWlllillaliall allcesliT estahlished all allatOillical predispositiOIl. III particular, lllallY lll
hacKs rigid and i]jO\"C
()nl~'
hy flailing their legs, But sCijji~H,IU
Illals that s\\'im for
flooking Leridthdll hr Us Past
nnder om control. The hand of the past reaches fomanl right throngh us <-Illd illto
I \\Totc this cssm iii (\ flush of C\CitClliClll" duril-Ig thc \H_'ck that Thcwissen and colleagues publishcd their discO\'ery of the definitivc intermediate \dde ;\mhu/oee!us, in Jannary 190+ With 11lI lead time of three 11iOiltiIs fWIll cOlllpositiOll IT) the first publicatioll of thcse essays ill ;\'atlIral HistOl), magazillc, "I--Iooking LC\'iallwn by It-s Past" appeared ill April 1994-eomplete \lith central theme of a ehronologiealh de\eloping story ill four stages. I think of the old spiritual: "Sometimes I gctdiseouraged, and think Illy \york's ill \·aill. But thell thc Holy Spirit IT\'i\'es 1Il~' SOli I again." I'm actnalh a fairi! eheerfnl sonl, hnt \I'e all need repienislllllellt nO\l' all(1 then, If "there is;1 balm in Cilead" (the song's title) for scientists, that elixir, tllJlt infnsion of tire Iroil spirit, takes tire form of lle\l discOleries, On the \"cr~- \\-cek of lll~- essa~'s puhlicatioll, Phil Gingerich and colleagnes (sec bibl iograpll\) pn hi islr cd tlrei r deseript ion of \et anotlr er interillcdiate fossil \\'h"lc, a fifth talc for this gorgcous SCqUCllCC of C\olrltional\ and paleontological affirmation, (I did feel a bit fnnlll ahont the snperannnation of lll\ essas on the eLl\ of its birth, but all exciting scicncc must be obsolescent from inception~
]) ( '()S\l l l{ I '
\
1]\~ " " " 1 \(:f...
C\'ollit iOlI of whales frolll terrcstrial ~lIl ccstor~ , by sll11 llllari/.iIIg lTidcllce ill th e three grt:~lt ca tegories of p~llc()nto l og i c
I-looking Leriathan hy Its Past marine ",aters. The oldest of all \I·hales, P"kieetlls of Case One, li\ed a roulld the mouths of ri\"(Ts; J\mhulocetus and J l7c/ocetlls of Cases 'I'h rce alld Four illll
three creatures had ~,h(jut the same hod~" sizc). 'I'hus. ~lcli1littcdly unlimited e\"ic!ellce. lilllhs decreased ill size O\'('r time and heeallle slllaller faster in \\"hales frolll lllore full~" marille ell\'irolllllellts. (Perhaps J-{oc1110cetlls had already ceased making e:\cursions on land, \\"hile the earlier l\l1lhll/oeetlls, "ith a brger femur, almost sureh inhabited both land anel \\"ater.} In an~' case, the contemporaneity of l{odhocetlls (shorter felllur alld deeper ,,"ater) alld IIlc10cetus (Iollger fenllll" ,,"ilh life in shalIcm er \later) illustrates the dinTsih that alreach esisted in cetacean e\c~ lutinn. i-
)/5
J)1"\():-i\l'R 1'\ .\ 11.\I:-;I.\CI(
,ou all, I also couldll" hclpllo1irrg the paper's first selltellce: "The caris' eS'Olu1ioll of "hales is illustrated h,' partial skulls alld skeletous of fin' arelweoeelcs ofYpresian (Early I
the hluodiest 1::UropC
~\\ 291/~ A Special Fondness
for Beetles
J
I 'SI.\S n 1/.: L()R Il holds the \I hole l\"Orld in his hands, how \I·e long to enfold all entire subject into;1 \\' itt~· epigram. Th e quotabl e.: olle-lincr is
a maillstay of culture, not
eTcl
of soulld
hiles, 110\1' cOllld \I'e gm;p Ihe cternallmths of natllfe and hlllnanill' if \\ 'C
couldn 't <-l sk S;'llll to pla~ -
it clga in,
or didn't kno\\" that nice gu ys
fill-
ish lasl7
'1 'he 1ll 0~t \\'idcly qlloted olle-l illcr ill C\'o!lItic)llary bi olog~ ' hrill ialltly captures the tC lltral fad al)()u\"life's c\lIhcrallt \"
110t
lIatioll.
As
<1
pO\lcrfnl correctil'c 10 Ihis arrogant tradilion of n<1lurallh eol-
{)g~., e\·olutiollists argued,
early and ortt:ll, Ihaillatufc's undoubted ord er
is ne ither bCllcl'Oicnl in our te rms (bnl "red in tooth and clall'" -sec eS"iI' 6),1101' eslablished lI'illt liS in mind or al I'he helm , TIte killd of ..,-,...., ., I i
I)I .' ( JS \I I H l '
\
II \ '
:-" 1' ,\ (: 1..:
Cod implied by Jlatllrc's <1clllal composi ti on lIIight not be '-I d c jt~· \\"(JTIllI· of our IIOfship. At thi s point ill the argullle nt. almost ,-1J1 ~ ' CHJllltiOllist \\"ill 111m to our Cc.lllOl1i(., line, but did Haldane utter th e " ords - and if so, "hen, " here , and hOIl·? Th e standa rd source illustrates the problem-not hard COI'l " ith a byline, but" seconda,,· report, frank k labcled ," "pcrh"ps "po(IYpha!." I Ialdan e Iras a brilliant "1ll1 copious Initer. but he lI·as an C'-C1l1110re fluent barroom wit- and great COlllll1ClltS ill this \'CIllI Cend lip c ither scra tched into soggy Ilapkins, or dimly remclllhered ill the midst of a subsC (IIlCllt (and conscqll cnt) hallgm-er. Iialdane's line - an inordinate fonclncSl [or bcetles- is now so fam ous and siandard thollfee . Yet nothing is so eILlsi\"c as
l,'il1ish Seventh : False Phrase:.;, S/Jllriou s Sayings Clnd Familiar ;\li."quolalions, III n1\· old eollegc lJ1le"" Ralph Keycs). 1 tri e(1 to slip two of them
bl I'OU in nw first pa ragraph. Leo Durocher did not confine angels to the cellar; and I I ullljlh reI· Bogart (as Rick in Casablanca ) nel·er tol d Sam to pial· it again (th ough \\'oody All e n pllfposc k llSed this standard e rror as the title for a later fi ll11 ). Thanks to a charming, jf somewhat cranky . Ellglish trc.l,,,s ionate e\changes in Ietters-to-the-editor on the minute
i\ Spec.:ia/ /,'ol1dlle ,"i,\; for n eef/es
detail s of smallish sLlhj ects -lIe fiLia lk hal'c both as good a resoluti on as II C ca u get. and a catalog of th c lIsualm ista kes th at makc caLi o ni eal 'lu o tat iollS so hard to trac e, The hubbub started in the O ctobe r ). lI)H9. issue of ?Valu re. ,,"Iie ll 111\ frie lld (and O,ford professor) Bo b Id al' re-
\'ie\H:d a IlH.:ctinf; on in teractions bl'l\\'ce n ,1lI1s alld pbn b ulld er
th e Ie nees eolill n ns of bot h ;' \atu re, Britain 's leadin g professio nal jOIlfll ed il l gCll cftli sc icllce . and The Lil1 llean ( ll c\yslctter of th c Li lll1Call
So-
ciety ofl.ondon ) erupted ill magmati c frc ll z~', 1 do Ilo t tw ee th e hi stolY of th is e'1I 10lliea lline in th e interests of aLl liqllarian pc(Lmtr~ ' . bu t hecause the ell terprise call ~ ' ic ld sl1 ch rich rc\\'
o r m ore he roi c, I hl l'\;lne's q uip abont bectles has
II a ll owed
ill all three
ccltcgori cs of c rro r.
\,lItO
S\ ID IT?
I bld
\\ ';.IS sl1ffi c i e lltl~'
fa mOlls to \\ 'ill exemptio ll
from th e "magllct effect " -the directed llIig ra ti o n of good '1 no tes to Illon: -celebr<'l tt:d m outh ... . No biologist of Haldan e's genera ti oll coul d ha\'c l1lad c th e qllote m ore ll otahl e by assllming f.:l lse parentagc. But (111\ c \'()llIti oll
grea test of a ll p rose std ists in our pro fess ion , ' I 'homas Il elH)" 11mb , I hal'e four IlIisaitri bntiollS of th e bcetle lin t to [-JUX!c1 in IllI' files (th is
essay has beell gestating for
m ore tha ll a
dccadcl. and th e same error
m",' hal'c prom pt ed th e howler tha t nnleashed th e rcee nt rollllel of di sCl1ss ioll in i'iatllre and The I ,;lI l1eall- Bo b Ivla,-'s state m ent that 11
Th e pious all d cOllsen
;Ho
:\ Special
F()l1dl1e.~.~
for
Beet le s
all th c recent eorrespo]J{icll ee. Oil i\pril ,. 195 1. Ilald"' le fill ed ill for an illdisposed eolleagll c. lire greal pll\·sie isl· ). D . Berna l. to deli"cr all addrcss 10 th e British IlI te rpla" e la" Soc ie l,·. H c did nol publish hi s rclIIarks. bul a reporl of his , peech. \\Tillell b,' :\. 1<. Slater. Ihc soc ich's secreta". did appear ill 1'" lum e 10 o f th e /!)lIma l o( the British lilterplalle!ar), Socie!r-apublieatioll thai \\'illllot be foulld ill your loca l Iibra r~ -, IlOt to melltioll your co mcr drtlgstore (a lld another r C;J!'i() 1l fo r delal'ed doeulllcn tation of llaldall e's rcmark ). Iprcsell ilh e filII e ilation ;
Comil1g to th e ql1e!'i tioll of life b(:ing: fou nd 011 other planets, Profc!'i!'ior J laldanc apologized for di!'iCOlirsillg, as
from prccx istin~ lifc.
The ft"t h \'pothesis. he sa id. shou ld be lakclI se ri ollSls-. alld he l\'OlIld proceed 10 do so. Fromlhe fact th ai there ar c -loo,ooo species ofbcelles 011 this plallet. but Ollis- H,ooo species of m amIllals, he cOllcluded tha i th e C rea tor. if h e c,ists . has a special prefcrellee for bectlcs.
Fine. But ha,'c we now lost the del iciolls word s in
Oll r
L1SlIi:li
cita-
tioll' Did Ihiidane rca ll\' sal' "special prefcrellee," and nol the Illll c h
more pungent alld ironic ·'in orclill.,lk: fOlldness"? Is ollr lIsual n:; rsion ill~t anotlrer c,ample o f a f"l sels- "prollloted" qllotation? Or did tile seerelar~· of th e Inle rplalletary Society either lllisrcmc lllbcr Of downgrade ill Ihe an c ie nt traditi o n ofRritish ulld erslatc lllen l' Or did Haldalle sa\' differenl tlrings at different lillles' W e , lralill el'e r knOll ', bill a ielter ill Th e Lillneall (i\lI gIlSt ' 992) from Haldanc', fr ielld Kenneth Kern",ek restores OUT hope for accliracy of the usual ,·ersion: I han ' c lr ecked III)' Illelllory I\'itlr Doris IKenna ck's wife J. 11'110 also kne\\' H aldalle well, and what he adua ll y sa id \\'as; "God has an i nord ilIate fOlldll ess for beetles." J.B.S .l-l . hi mself had an illorclilla lc fondll ess for lire statellle nl ; Ire re pcated il frcq llen th-. ,\lore oftc n tlran 1I0t it had th e ,,,Idilion ; "Cod has an illordinate fo ndn ess for slars and bee tles." ... Haldall e lI'as making a theological poillt: Cod is most likeis- to lake lrollble (lIn rcprod\lcing his O\nl image. and hi s 4 00,000 t1l1cmpt's <11· the pcr-
1) 1' ( ) S.\l It t;-...
\ 11 .\\'s 1-\( : "
,,""I.
fec t bectlc contrast ,,·ith his Ilipshod cre"t io n of When ,,·e m eet the .\llIlighty face to fa ce he "ill relemhle a beetle (or a star ) and not Dr. C arel Ith e Arehhil hop of C llltcrhllfll
So IXl ~' ~"Ol1r money and take ~-o tH choice', You G ill t:ithcr select the dull e r '\pee ial prefere ncc" for bectlcl alo nc, or YO Ulllust sharc th e Ici ttier "i nordi"ate fond ness" lIith all the cc\cstiallllultitlJ(lcs. I h," c made a h,h rid comp romisc in the title of thi s ell,,,·. RlIt wlwt
So 1'1 0'" inordi1late is natllre's fOlldness for beetl es ",hcll we tn to estimate actual Illllubers. rather t-h 'lIl rc l ~" ill g 011 the p,- tllrin ess of PlJblished information? Th e brie f fo r beet les now grO\\"s mightil y in
J\ Special FOI1Cllle.'i,~
For Heeti es
strength - not onh' for th e ohiolls ahsolntc gain innnlllher of spee ics, bllt prilllaril~" for increasing dOlllination in rdati\"(: freqllcI1c~ , 01" percentage of spccics. I'or bectlcs, b, their sizc and famrcd habitats, rank with th e Illost tlilderc.:olllltccl groups of orgalli sms" A co mplcte (,C "'IIS of species will not ,,,Id mcmbcrship c'JI",lIy and across the board-for in SOlll e grollpS \\"C lIearly 1M\"(: them ~lll: \\"hilc ill other. . we Ilf.l\"C barely begun to cOllnt. The " "nrld\\"i<.\c company of bird,,"atc lll'l"s, for eXilmple. hashecll so ilssiduOlIS-and objects of th e irstudy gCll e rall~" so conspicuous-that \YC expect 110 great illcrea . . c ill the nin e
thousand or so namcd spec ies of hircls. The innm of n e" · hird spccies has alrea,h' ,kindled to the Illerest trickle , ,,·ith onh' a species or 11m added cach ' ·c"'. Silllila rh', thc ledger of fon r tllOlISand or so nl
,0
D I ' ():-i.\l ' lt
t,
\ II .\\,:-; I \ C "-
En\-in 's 11l1l11he r come!:. from hard work ill tIle ficld, 1101 from <1 pocket calc ulator cOllsulted ill
J. \Vorkillg durin g .!l1three seasons recognized
III
the
P'1l1<1111
fa i II forest. I( r\\'i 11 fogged 11 i Hetcell trees of I Alehea seem
seasons, 2. I Ie COI\11tCc! tlrc totallll1mbcr of hect ic specics reeO\·c rcc! at SOIIlC
I ,ZOO,
j, Erwin then assigned eac h species to oll e of fOl1r "guilds," or ecologica I roles i11 habitats: Ir crbimrcs (plallt ca tcrs), fl1l1gimres (recder., 011 fun gi), predators, and sCClvellgers. 4- ,'\ s a key prohlem ill Illm-jng frolll beetles on a tree to insc<.:ts in a fOfcsl', olle must kll o\\ 110\\' many of those beetl es lin' cxclllsi\'ely on one kind of Irt'c, and bo\\' lllall~ ' ;:i re more cosmopolitan, (If. for CX<1IlIpic, all \,200 beetles li,·ec! o nk 011 Lllche" , tlren tire totalnl1lllher in tire forest Illas be as higll ,IS 1,200 timcs th c 1I111nbcr of tree spec ics. But if all 1,200 beetles li,·c on all forcst trec spccics, then th e tutal 1\111111>cr of beetles 1ll
A Special i"ol1dness for Reet les
,6,
collected on I,flehea, Erwin estimated that spec ics might be confined 10 life on Lflchea, (" World,,'ide dilusit, of tropical trees prob"bl, stands at some 50,000 species. ]f I()j i~ i.I rC
7, Sin ce bectlcs represent sOllle -10 pe rcent of total arthropod ditrees IWI~ ' hOllse some 20 million species of arthropods . H. This estiIllate of tropical cli\TTsity olll~ - counts species in tn.:c ca nopies. I':n\"ill thell cH~lI c d that '-',1110]>)" spec ies might outnu1l1ber grolllld·dwcl1illg speci es b~' abollt {\\"O to olle-adding illloth er to millioll arthropods for Ihe foresl noor, and raising th e final estilllate 10 ,0 million . \·e rs it~. tropical
The lowe r and higller figures of LHi
DI :-.;O:-i\ ll it
1"'\
\
II \ YS I \ C "
area of tropical raill fores t ill Sulawcsi lJtar<1 , IIIdollcsia" " In broadcst outline, llodkinsoll "nd Cassoll follc)\\·ed the sanlc logic th'lt b:nyin h,ld elllpIOl·ed. Thn collected 1,6<)0 specics of bugs frolll SuI.l\\esi "lid deterillined that 0'., pereellt h"d beell pre\·i ollsk tlnkllOIlIl, If the fil·e htllldrcd described speeics of SIlLIII·es i trees yielded 1, 0 , 0 ne"· spceies It he tota I of 1,6<)0 spec ies Ii Illes 0'.5 percent for the proportion of Ileld\ disem·crcd forIll S), thell the "urlckide fi gu re ofapprc)\inlatek fiftdh ollsallel spec ies 011 tropical trees mi ght ~"ielel o ll e hundred times as many 11 (:\\ " spec ic.:s of bllgS , or 10 ;, 0 00" Add these ncw specie'i to the f:i1, jOO spcc i<.:s alread y d<.:scril >cd, and \' "C arri,"c
also u1ldcrstand , from Ollr great difficulty in cstim <'ll"in g th e trllc 1111111Iocr of spec ies on e'lrth, and frolll tir e sllbstanti al differences among figures offered bl· our best e'perts, hc",· prec ious litt le lIe kilO,,· "bout the narur,,1 histofl· of our plallct. 'I 'he nest tilll e SOll1eOll e tells HlU th at t,iSOnOlllY is a dull slIbj ect beca use \\e onlY need to fill ill a few details for known - laugh in hi~ fa ce " III tire midst of this ignorance, we sholl id take cOlllfort in hlO eOIljoined fealrtres of nature: fi rs t. tlrat ollr ,,·orld is illcredibh strange and tlr erefore sllpremek fascinating (tire kc\ poillt, I think , belrind 11 ,, 1dane's quip that uitilllate meaning Illllst reside in tir e IInparalleled di..111
c~Hth alrC~ld:" \\"ell
A S/J(!ci(//
FOl1d!1(!.~s (fi r
Heelles
\'c[sity of a group that raT<.:ly ri\'cts ollr attentioll); second , that ho\\'c\-er bizarre and arcane ollr world mi ght he, nat lire remain s potentially COlll pre he llsibl e 10 the h,,,n'lll milld , ] shollid elld b,' eelllentillg these two cardillal prece pts lI'ith their canonical ollc-liners. Finstc in spoke for th e poss ihiljt~· of graspillg natlind cOlllpJ ex it ~· \\'h clI he \\Tote, in '-I theologicallll ctaphor sccolld ollly tn I]aldan e's Oil bcetlcs: Rull,nier! is! der llerr Colt , "her Ho,sha(! is! er nieh! (The Lnrd Cod is slIhtle, bllt he is 11 01 malici olls ), As for the joy of lliiturc\ strallgen ess. \\"C canllot do hetter thall a famolls lille by a clli:lp nallled / ' B, S, ]laldallc -and this tim c lI'e kllOIl lI'hat hc said beea llsc hc IIToie it dO\\'I" t in Possihle Worlds, 1927)' " \11 slIspi eioll is that thc
1l11i \"crsc is not o1l1~ ' qu cercr than \YC slippose, bllt qllcerer thaI! \\"C Call Sll p),ose, "
~\\ 30 I/~
If Kings Can Be Hermits, Then We Are All Monkeys' Uncles
W,
I.F,\R'- I'RO \ I 0 1'I( FRI(OI\S , perh 'lps Illost of all from our shameflll Il1i stakcs. I therefore begin \yith ;J s tor~' <.It my 0\'"11 C'xpcnsc. \ 'Iany years ago, on e of Ill\' stlldent> told Ille about her father 's brother, a se\'ereh' retarded man of childlike disposition , When she desc ribed hilll as "nl\ llncle," 1 did" mental double take land fortunate h- said nothing, so the shalll e of Ill)' e rror remained inte rnal llntil no,,' ), I said to 1lI\'self, " Uncles are " 'ise people "ho re nder free advice (not a I,,'a\ s \\'(Jrtll\\h ile ) ami take ~-Ull to baseball games; ho\\"can a persoll with sllch limits be an llncle?" 1 the n kicked 1I1\'self (also Illct'lphoricalh-) and continu cd the soliloqu\': " I Ie is he r father's brother; hc is there fore her nneic pure and simple; uncle is
cepl of action;
he is as good and . IS tru e '- Ill
lIncle <-I S<.l11Y Illall \\"110 en:r
li\'ed," EH)llltioll
\\ irat Dam ill called "I'ropinquits"" or rctlti\'e nearn ess, 1111 ,1\' look "lid ad 11101'(: like 111\ ' cOllsill Bob thall 111\' brother Bill, hilt Bill is still closer to me b~ · gCllealo~y. Function and app caran ce need not corre\ ,l1e
strong'" with genealogical propinqllill', To c ite a classic e,ample : all
c \'()-
If Ki ll gs COil Be
llermi l s. Th eil \\ 'e Are ; \11 ,\ 'ffJld..-e ys' 111/cle,~
iutionisl'S agrec that gellcalogical rctr Oll1 cow l
1) 1'( )S_\l It l' \ 11 _\\s 1\ (:"
ader of all allecslrallllanl1lWls; sHch trails (;i11l llol help li S make di\·isiolls Il'ithinlatcr 111 ~1I 111l1 a li;JJl l'\'ol l1ti()n . ) If 'OIl ha,·e found the foregoilll; icsson abstrac t alld dull.lct m e 110"· re"·,,rd sour patience \\·ith" IHlllderflll stem that becolllcs e,·en bettcr ,,"hell YOII absorh th e lessoll. In functi on al tcrllls, \YC \\"oliid acknowledge maximal di~parity b e hH~ell more apparcn tls· diffe rent crea tllres in this admitted ly limited doma in. Thc king crilb (Paralithodes eal1ltsc/wtica). a panlgon of size "i thin th e broth erhood, li, es in :\rd ie and north te mpe rat e \\·aters from the northern tip of Vane 0 11,er Island , all arollnd ,\Iaska , (Aer to Siberia , and dmm the easte rn I'ac ific Ill
If
is
(.'\'C11
more
Ki " g~
CO li Be ll er mil s. Theil \\!e Are /\ 1/ .\ rol7l..·C' ,\'s · Ullc les
prOll Ol II H.:cd .
A kill g crah looks like an ordinary crab: its
carapHee (oll ter shell ) is natte ll ed and \\ idellcd , an d it bears a pHil. of clalrs up fro nt and th rce pa irs of long stllnk legs behind i m ost crahs hm'e four pairs be hind th e c1H \\s) . B~'
don't kn o\\' \\' h~ a n~ -Oll C en:f decid ed to designa te th e he rlllits a s c rabs in th e first pLKT . Crabs forlll Oll e of thre e maj or d i\ ' i s i n n ~- \\' ith lohsters alld s hrim ps as th e o the rs- \\'ithill th e large grollp of lIlarill e crllst<'ICC;! nS eHllcd D eeapod,r (Th e Arth ropoda. biggest or all ph ~' I
J
finlll ~' prc ~scd against the 1I1lcl e r~ i d e.
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
' 1 ~\'p i L',d
hermit crab , H'ith right'/H 'i,'itillg ahoo!l]c!l.
Brili),
MIJsrlll:J (\'(JI ~ ral
Hi,lor. . ) ;n"logl, l'n/. 111. JjO. " p. JJ)
T he Aat and \\idc crab she ll correspon ds o nl y \\'ith th e fron t part of the body in a lobste r or shrimp. Th e abdomen , source of ;III good eating, extellds out and bac k in shrimps and lobsters, bnt d isap pea rs from sigh t (as a remnant tnckcd undern eath the bock ) in crabs. Take the fron t e nd of ~ lo bste r, nc rs of th e Braehmr
I'IJI'i,
IInder the boch. bllt rather c lln'ed alld e'tended , ,strollgh altered and \\ ell adapted to fit into snail shells, Hermit erab abdomens arc so ft and decalcified, me these c rcilt llrc~ ca lled hermit crah!)? Doesn't herlllit shrilllp fit
disparitl'. did
,"11 on e eler sllspect propin'lllill' in the first place? Threc
argumellts ha\'c hcc il prese nted, ld
If Kill!j8 Cdll He lIermits, Theil \\'e Are /\If A/oll/wys' Ullcles
110l11ell0ll oflalyal COllSelYatioll the "SacclIlhw principle" to hOllor a fa1l10US parasite of crabs (as it happcns). As all adult, S(fcculhw is little Illore than a blob of formicss reprodncti\e tissne in the host's boch, bnt frcc-li\-illg L1ryal sb.lgcs retaill dcn fcaturcs of b;Jrllaclc ,lllccs~ry, TIle accolllp,-Illyillg illustratioll, frolll a crucial H)57 article by 1\tacDOllald alld collcagucs, slJO\yS glalicotllOc (late Lln"al) stagcs of Pogurus hemh(udn;.",
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
()r
(;IUl/('()/ h()l' (/(fte .\/u.gei Iun'(/e fhe hem/it cruh I)a~llnl.\ ill'rllll,lrdlis f leftl ulld !.:ill;.!, crtll; re/ofire I ,illlOde\ lll:li,l (rit;hll.
). III the lIlost f
DI,\oS\\'j{ 1'\
\
II
\YST,\CI-.:
ologist I." A" BOlTadailc-carcinil.ation ("crabification" in thc lcss dignificd \"crn<1cu1ar. Remember that wc also call a cancer-producing substaIlce ~l careillogcll, and that cOllcer itself comes from thcl .atin \\"ord for crah-a rcfercllce to the cClltn.llmass and cl
T{ Kings C(1I1 He 1ferlllit<~, Theil \Ve /\re /\" ,\/ollf.:e,\'s' LIncles "robber" or "coeoullt" CT"b of P"eific isl"llds, dispLns Illlieh of the
process ill its (j\\-ll growth, The adult is fully terrestrial and erablike in "ppeafallee, bllt jlllelliles still h"se t\listed "bdoillens "nd inh"bit sn"il shells "t the shoreline.
\Vc may lll(j\-e fWill these parti,-dl~- carcillizcd lincs of iIermit cr,-lhs to fOllr C,-ISCS of \-irhl
speei"lists (the f"lllilies I ,olllisidae and I'orcellanidae, the porcelain crabs), and thc faillih I ,ithodid"e, inclllding thc king crab (and fiftd\lo
other species ill sixtcell dCllizcus of cold \\'aters),
genera-ll1()stl~'
llluch slllaller anilllals and
If doubts of close propinquih' bctlleen herillit crabs and king crabs
persisted, they \\'CIT recelltly dispelled, and con\incing l1e\\' proof pro\-ieleel, ill all cicg;lllt stllel~' puhlished ill H)l)2 ("l'~n)lutioll of killg crabs frolll hennit crab "Ilccstors," I" C. \\'. Cunningh"lII, 'i. W. BI"ckstolle, ami I" W. Buss). This stuch, donc in thc laborators of Ill) friend and colleague I,co
Buss ofYalc LJni\'crsit~" t,lkcs (lCh'alltagc of the rc\'ollltioll ill taxonomy llndef\\-ay th,-lllks to rccent techllo\ogiGll ach-
J) l'\A and R;s.J,\ prOlide.s 1IIIIIdreds or tlrousancl s of lIe\lh 'ila ilahlc elrar-
acters (the orderillg of strings of Iluclcotides, oftell highly cOllsef\'cd ill CH)lui iOll) , 'I 'hesc lllolccul
classification, They de\"clopceI a l1l
lllatrix of reLlti\'e silllibritics, The\' achieH_'d the same hasic reslllt- \\'ith either of tiIe "YO lllost COllllll()ll llictliods for tree-buildillg: distallce
DI:\O:-i_\l R 1:\
,\
II,\YST.\CI(
~ 4q CD
"
PagunJ.\' pof/icari,I' Pagurl/.I' fXJlliwri.~
pa.t;!JrI1~' Irmglcarpus p(/gunl~ longICdrfm,I'
..s Pagllfus /wrn/wrdus PaglifUs
[To view this image, refer to
LllaVK·hiru"the lenuillltlllllS print version of this title.] [,abid(J('hirll~
sp/tlldcsCCIl.I'-----_
I ,ithodcs acqlmfJilia P(/r{/fit/j(Jdc.~ camf.w:h£ltica _
, - - - - - - - - C/ihu!lariu.l' \'il/dtl!.~
C;()CllOiJita (sf)) ArtcllIitl ,~(Jlill(/
/)id~rdlll (){~elle("()i!,icdl
re/alinllshi/),,, o{hermit cwhs and kini!, crdh." (mill ClIIlIlillg/WII/, Hlack.~I()I/(\ dlld Hu,\s. \JaIme, vol. »5. "),)2,
p,
dll
article h)'
51"
analysis, \\'hich \\'()rks onl~- with measured degrees of o\'er<111 similarity; ,md p,-nsill1()ll~-, \\'hich constructs trees \\'ith a millimallllllllhcr of e\'olutiollar~- steps. The ill\'ari
If Killgs Call He l1ermits, Then \Ve ,\re /\ll
\/(Jnker~'
Uncles
textbook or local seashorc" But 110\\" look al the 100\"er subclllIllp-and Ilote that it illcludes two furlher species offhe gelllls PdgZlTZls alollg \yith the hyo species from the king crab line" III other \\"e)fds, king crahs arc so close to hermit crabs b~" the proper criterion of propinquity that they actuall~" branch off (rom within a narrO\d~" restrieted genealogical grouping so con\"{:ntiOll<.l1 in forIll and behavior that all species han; been in-
cluded in the canonical genus PLigUni8! The form of the tree also allO\\"s us to make a reasonable inference
for the tillle of splitting beh,een the king crab and the eomcntioml herlllit crab lineagcs. Point A, tlie splitting of left and riglit-twisting herlllit crahs, Gill be estilllated at SOllie 7~-7f) million ~"ears from independent e\"idcllce of fossils. 'rhe geographic division of regions \\"ithin rightt\yistillg hermit crabs (point BJ occurred some ))-40 million years ago,
agaill I" independent geologie,rl and paleontological e,idenec. 13, c,tr<.lpolat"ioll dO\\"ll\\"ard, king Cf<.lhs split from the genlls Pagurus some q-25 million years ago- a good stretch of time, but not a great deal (geologicall~" speaking) for the e\"{)llltiol1<'H~" \\"()rk accoll1plished"
One tangential poillt before lea\"ing this clegant study" Creationist critics oftell charge that c\olutioll C,lIl1l0t he tested,
not be sie\led as a properll scientific subjeet at all (sec thc ne,t essas' for fuller discussion of this illlportJnt isslle). This claim is rhetorical nonsensc. 110\\" cOllld olle ask for a hetter test, based on a \"cr~" risky prediction, tiIall th is? 'l 'he cOllnterintui tive Ii nk het\Yccn king and herm it cra hs \yas postlllated Oil the hasis of classical e\"idence from morphology (the argulllenis detailed pre\"i()llSI~" in this essa~" as poillts 1--;). 'I'his predic-
:1
tion \las then tested b, the eOlllpletelY indcpcndent data sci of DNA sequcnce cOlllparisons-and confirmed ill sp;.ldcs, \vith eVCll closer propillquity thall suspectcd het\\"CCll king crab and hermit crab lillcs" 1 regard this stor~" of king and Ilennit crabs as olle of the most clegant I havc learn cd of late in eH)iutionary biology-a 100d~" combination of
craiih (thc difference between gelleaiogieal propin'lllih and am flllletional meaning of silllilarit~"-alld thc m"crriding importance of propillquih"L Bllt can I hrin~ ~"ou aloll~ with me in the face of all oh\"ious dClllurral that lll
V)7
J)I"\()S \l'l\
" ~
Y" '" -"
'"
::~
1"\
\
II
\YS"I.\Cr..:
-" 0
~ ?
:;"r
2
'"
2 0 -q. ~
'"
/
The accolilpall~"illg gellealogie
cr~lhs"
\rho \\"ollld h,Ac
thollght thelt sllch el difference eOllld he aehie\ed ill so little gellcalogical room? \VllO \\"ould ha\"c imagined that kings and hermits cOllld be so close bs the Illost illlporL"lllt of all e\"{)lutiOllar~" criteri<.l Chari hI' .\Iark Ahraham -propillqllit~", or gencalogical distance? Inow rcproducc thc c"act samc diagram" I havc made IlO changcs whaten:r ill the positiolls and ordcrings of hranchcs. I h;l\"c, hO\\"c\"cr, substituted diffcrellt llelmCS, for I 11m\" \\"ish to dcpict our bcst kllmdedge of pwpin'lllits in the so-cell1ed "higher prilll<.ltes"" The gCllc~liogi cal stOlT ofhullwllS alld our closest primate rclati\cs corrcsponds c,,eldls "ith thc talc of propill'luits be1\\"CC11 king cTabs and hermit crabs! Danyill conectly surlllised, and little dOllbt has heell elltcrtelilled by scientists e\"er since, that chilllPs a lId gorillas are Ollr closest re la tin:.'s. Chari hI' .\Iark Ahraham But Dan\"ill, alld nearly eH'l'~"Olle else until recelltl~", assullled that chimps and gorillas formed the closest genealogical pair alllong the three species-only reasonable, after all, gi\"Cn the e\"ident similarity betweell the two apes, and our ob\"iousl~" e"alled separateness" (But remembcr that functional and genealogical silllilarity nced lint correspond!) Although e\idenee relllelins imperfect, ellld still subject to \\"ide dehate, lllost of the latest infoflllC.ltioll suggests that \\"e ha\"c been wfOng-alldthat chilllPs alld hUIllalls forlll tllc closest gcnealogical pair, \\"ith gorillas hranching off a hit earlier. Chimps and gorillas are convcntiollally elassificd in the (;1l11il~ l'ollgichlC, "ith hlllllalls ill the separate famils Ilomillidele, But if 1m di-
IF Kil1gs C(/11 Be
1-lermif,~,
Then 'Fe Are All :\/ollken" Uncles
agram is correct, thell humalls arise lvithill the space of the Pongicbe, a11ci call110l therefore represellt a separate famil~', lest we cOlllmit the gellcalogieal absurdity of ullitillg hyo l11OlT-disbJllt forllls (c·iIilllps alld gorillas) in the same f<1mil~' and c:-.:cludinga third creature (humans) more closely related to one of the !\\'() united species. I surely cannot elaim to he lIlore closel~' related to my unclc than to my brother, but \\'e makc
exactly such
(j
stalcmcnt \\'hcn
\\'C
arguc that chimp .. , arc closcr to go-
rilbs than to humans-sec the third diagram of identical topology. llennit crClbs Clnd king erClbs tell 111\ prccisc1~- the sallie story. Our ill~rl':lt lll\ lll\ st i ncts i nfon 11 llS Illal the two groups llll<."lc UllCle hrother 111l' should be separated in classification to recognize their profound differences ill form and fUllction. But lll\'(bd king Cf
DI'\,()S.\lIR I'\, _\
JJ\~SI_\C:"
so confidcntly alld arrogantly asscrt? Tn appearance. of course (reduced hair and erect posture have a strong \'isual impact). In brainpm\'(_'r, undoubtedly (chimps arc as slllart as could be, but thes "ill neser ponder the genealogical position of king crabs). Bnt the underlying biological differellces lleec\lIot hc so grcat. Strengthen and straighten tile legs, Clllarge the hrain. The conscquclices ha\'e heen enormous. i:lndunprecc-
dented ill a1] the history of life; hut I am not so sll re that the topological and genetic iTansforlllations ha\'e beell so profound. Consequences arc effeds, and effccis arc not equatahle \\'dh generating forces alldlllorphological resuits. Small changes can hm'e cataclysmic effects. People of goodwill and intelligence readils aekncl\\lcdgc om kinship "'itll apes
~\1311/~ ~1agnolias
I
11 \ 1) '10
co .\1.1 . Till"
\\ ' \)
from
~1oscow
to i\lo!-.c()\\' 10 co mplete
11l~' roster or fift~·
sla lcs - \lmcc)\\', kl"llO, Ihal is, I spe nlllll' e ntire childhood il ilhe northeastern United States. I "'<'Illdcrc:d ]]J Or<.: in Illy I\\Tllti c:s, hit, th e outposts of I Lmaii and ,\I"ska ill 1m thirti es, ilnd filled ill neark "II the blallks in Ill)' fortie s-i'd o nlana as forll'-ei ghlh , ~'1ississippi a,s fort~-llilllh, !lui I h"d "I"",s Illissed Id"ho , oftelll,,' jllSl a fell miles (durill!; I'isils to Yel!ellls tone "Jal iona I Park, for e,alll pie ), So an i1l\'ila lion to co mplete fifll' "I age fift" could 1101 be refllsed , ilnd I l"'l'pi" preseilled " talk al Ihe lJ II iH.'rsi ty of Jdid HI ill i\loscO\\'. \Vh il c n 1111 inati ng upon the s~' llIh()1 ism of dOllble fifll ', I did fear Ihal somethillg terrible might l1<1ppell Ollec I crossed the state line after landiIlg HI the nearest airport ill SpokaIle, \\'ashinglo11. Perhaps Cod \Hmld ask me to intolle Siill CO I1 's pra~'cr "Oh, Lord , 11011' Iel lest tholl th y sen'a llt (iep"rt in peace" - and Ihen strike me dc'ld . But I guess 11(.:: doesn 't ca re 1I11I Ch ahout artificial houndaries 011 his hOllllleous rea l estate (or IJl;l ~ b<: he just isn't sp<.' ll
\\'atelling OH,: r 1I1 e ) . I " rallkl ~ ' , \H.:ste rlII Ilost ld
-l0 l
1)!\"()~_\l'l{
I\,. _\ H_\l'~'!'_\(:"
tecnth ccnhm had naming rights, and hc so designated the temn bcrcminded him of the tcrr~lill hack hOllle in Pcnnsyh-i.lllia-aro\!!ld a \'illage also named -:\IoscO\\", ,-md presllmahly for a Russian c01lnection,) In fael, i\,loscc)\\- seems the \-ery antilhesis of dangerous and discordant forcign \-alucs, Could we possibly find anything morc sicrcotypiC~lIlSC I()c~li topogr~!ph~'
call)- ,-lpp1e-pic Amcricli1 th,li1
,I
to\\-]] th,lt ,lch-crtiscs itself <-is the
"dr~
pca allCllentii capital" of Alllcrica, and has a ''skylinc'' dOll1inated b\ grain clc\'ators at thc railroad tracks, Sumillcr Iloncrcdit courscs at thc nni\nsits inclndc "Bake a Pic for the [,'ai r," "Pickle :vlaking for the Fair," "Crowing Big Pumpkins," and, for thc truly risque and ach-ellhnous, "\Vinc Taslillg ill Spokanc," H!e nearesl cit~- of all~- size, Frolll a Imal allCllifelong I,'astern urbanite like nl\self, a \le\\ Yorker no Icss, such obscf\'atiolls might clicit the most conicmptible form of paroch ia Iism - thc si ll~' name-call ing tha t c lc\'<1 tes onc' s O\\'n illsecuri ty to supposed superiorit~" and precilldes any llnderstanding of different slsles ,md terrains, I'll takc a good bo\\1 of lentil SOLII' and a nice slice of pic at the county fair
hue series at Yale; no Olle \\'as mean to me (and the talks were well attendcd), hut 110 OilC cOllld figure out \\'hat to do \\'itll Ille, eithcr. I:<\'eryOlle \\'
As one sign
ofhospitalit~·, m~'
host V
geologists took llIe Oil a field trip to their llIost precious local site (\\here "locIl" means ,} couplc of hours' c!riving)-the \Iioccnc (17 to 11 milIiOIl scar old) lake beds e'posed Ilear the tOSSIl ofClarhl. Western field\\"(>rk conjures up illlages of strugglc on horseback (or the lllillilllal mount knowll as shank's lllarc)-loughing it oul Oil one callicen a day as ~'0l1 labor IIp alld do,,"]] mOlllltaillS. The \'aluc of a si1c is supp()se(ll~ correlated \\ith the diffieults of gettillg there. This, of eO\lfse, is romantic drivcl. I<<.lse of access is no me
DI'dlS\l'l{ 1'\..\ ll\YST\cK
in surrounding fOfests, their gfeat discO\-cr~- of Il)jl e:\tellded our knowledge of local bobllly 20 millioll years back. KienbJlllll. noting fossil Iea\es that peeled off the rock Ia\ers as black films and ble" off in the willd, alld recognizillg the lea\'cs as ullrelated to allY trees nO\\' li\'illg ill the area, called the geology department in "[osem,.. Fortunatcls', Charles J. Smilc\ ("Jack" to his fricnds ami colleagues), au expert
p
\\-011.
J
Sllliley Ius focused his researcll Oil the Clarkia site eH'r sillce, alld has clliistcd all illlpressiYe and international array of e:\perts to collaborate on the botlnt\-, Ij'ossillea\'cs frolll ancicnt lakc heds arc not rare (thc site also contains less ahundant insccts and fish. and a largc ;lfra~- of microscopic forIlls). The falllc alldulliquclless of Clarkia rcst UpOll the e\tr
ill southern App
()f .-\Si::itiC
cOmpOliL'lits
in the Cbrki,l heds, the gelius
\letasequoi(/, the da\\"11 redwood, has excited 1110st illterest-for this for1ll \\'as first disco\'ered as a fossil, and o1l1~'1atcr fOllnclli,-ing ill a fe\\' remote ,'allcys of celltral ChiIla.
Preservatioll \\"itb this degree of fidelity requires ,lll llllllsllal set of circulllst,-lIlces, (J C
DI".{)S\ll{ I". .\ II.\YSI\Cr.:
of this dise",en. The\ me generalis aeemate in deseribing the res11lts, hul- oft ell III isleacl i Ilg ill lIol reporl i IIg Ihe alltecedellis. Olle III ightlh i III that the leas'es "ere diseosered \esterd",', popped into a fane\ Illaehine in a modern molecular biology lab, and turned into a string of J)'\J'\ base pairs. Science thriYes on continuity; scicnce rcquires endless p;ltiellce; scientists, follmying Edisoll's famons qnip, perspirc llluch more tholll tlic~-
illspirc. \Vc nc\-er \\"(lUld lu\-c gotten to the
D~,\
\\'ithout Fr,llicis
Kienba11Ill's bnlldozer, Jaek Silliles's 11nparalleled e"pertise in traditioIlal S~'stclllatics, and Karl0.:iklas's skills in chelllical analysis. ~lore "''Cr, the 1)".\ se'l"enee \\'Ol1ld,nean se''\' little "itho11t these e'l"alls important supporting data from so many other disciplines, most not so flash~' and trcndy as molecular biology.) We hase estracted D",\ frolll aneient creatmes before, b11t nothillg that \yoilid illspire Illore thall a "hanullph" fWIll a real paleolltologist. II:g~vtian llllllllillies, quaggas (zehra rehibH's that hecallle extillct a hout a centu ry ago) - eyen frozen mammoths - h(\\-e yielded Dl\ ,-\. Before Clarkia, the record belonged to a thirteen tho11sand scar old sloth. B~' Illm-ing fmlll thirtecll tllOllsalld to lllore than 1) lllillion, \ye have extended the range of preselTation for Di'\.\ more than a thousandfold. Such an enormous gain must inspire doubt amid \yonderlllcnt. \lan~ biologists had 1)[C\'iollsly regarded D1\'.-\ as incapahlc of Sllf\'j\'al \yith011 t- degraclation for more th;JIl '-I fc\\- III ill iOIl yea rs
;\1aglJo/idS (TrJI1I :\1()scOl\'
tracted from these leales.) Fiest, chloroplasts ace present inmam copies per cell. Second, for reasons not \\"cllulldcrstood, chloroplasts arc prcsen'ed far better than am other cell organelle at Clarkia. (In a ll)S) paper, K. J. ;s,:ikLrs, R. \1. BrOl\'ll Jr., and R. Santos randomil- sampled 2,:;00 cells frollllcc"'es intire Clarkia beds. Tlrel' fonnd tlrat ,)0.1 percent eOlIbilled chloroplasts, 26.0 percellt lllitochondria, alld ollly +) percellt nuclei.) 'rhus, if <my D0).\ has been prescncd at CLirkia, ehloropLbt genes provide ol1r best prospects. III cOlllpariw; tiIis fho base pair scqucncc with the sallle regioll ill a closcl~· related li\·illg species, .\logllolio 11/c/(;roIJhyllo, Colel1herg al1d colleagues foulld differences at onl~· sc\"entccll positions. The llature of these differences eonfirllls a central fact about the e\olution ofDIs::\ (not surprisillg, hilt ,t!\\·ays gf
D I '\()S\ I ' 1t 1'\
\ 11 \\'s l .\C J..:
ity, not a lli CIT frag ll l<': lIt. ) They found onl y clc\"Cll ha~c-p
for 20 lllilliOll ~"t.:
fcrred e\"olu tion " ry sep
The diffc n:nce ill ,lI1101ll11" of change.: - Icss than a pcrccnt of basc pairs ill Ta xoc/illlll. llIore thall 2 perccnt in ;\ (agllo!ia- is intriguing. Pc rh
the organislll, or close r to til(' "CSSCII CC oflifc." \\"hale\"(:r that II1C<1ns" Orh •.I\"e.: 1) ]\' /\ c ode.:~.
~;Jlli s lllS
11;!,·ior,. Bolh arc e'ln;!1 and flllld;!lllental cOlllponcnl, of heing. 1)]\;, \
docs not ('\-en build <.I ll on.;allislll direc tl y. but lllll .\ t \\"()rk t hroll ~h COIllplcx intcmal em"irOlllllents of clllbryolo£jica i dc \"clo pm c lIl . and (' \,I"crIlal Cll\"irolllll cnts of . . . llrr()l1llclill~ con dition", " \Vt.: \\"ill Jl ot k"O\\" the COfe
C larkia icayes is a prec iolls rarity, !lot thc harbinger of
·\ l dgJlo/iU." {mill
.\1 0:-;(,"0\1'
lutioll ill practice, D1'\..\ '1u iekk de!;ra d cs ill al lllost a ll geolo£;ical forl1l
that preser\"(: fossils. Only th e gorgc.:o lls ~lllci C'xquisitt: prC~elY<.l
ti on of the C ia rki a leal'cs pcrlll its th e presen'a lion of a llIolee ule Ilsu,ll k iu ea pablc of suc h IOIl ~ sunil'ai. h 'cII at Clarkia, succcssful e,tracti oll of n\';\ is c,ccp tiollal and diffi c ult, Seiclltific l" lpcrs tra diti Olw lk do Ilot rcport failurcs (sce CSSsi ll ea l se rapillgs ~·icld
nothing. all d the proc edure is th e refore lOll!;. expc ll ~i\"(.: . alld fru s-
traling, ~ l o rcOl'('f . ,,"k chloroplasl nN;\ has beell rceolncd '" f'lf at C larkia. ""d c hl oropl,d s presen 'e bettcr than am' oth c r org'lllcllc at thi ,s IOC,llih, lI11forluuate h-, lluclei mc Ieasl stable, and lIl mt oft hc J.)!'\i\ re~ icl es
thcre in . \Ve .Ire not ahout to SCqtl Cll CC the entire ge lletic progra m
o f a fossilmagllolia . " thc tale of C lmkia 0 '\,\ llo lhing but an isolated ston ' in llatura l
wilh
Il eith er extellsioll nor ~c ll e ra lit y?
at .111. for Ihis cli seo\·ery of ancient D ~ A rai ses slTcral dccp i~s\lcs in L',·oluti ol1<1r)
history, all epi sode
Not
IhcOIY, at th e most I""ic bd th ai professio nal s rarch- co nsid er ill th e ir da~ ·-to-d
all , that evolution £;c ll ('ratcs 110 predictions, neYL' r exposes
itself to tcst. an d th e refore , Iamb ,IS dogma ",thcr than disprol'a ble sciellce, This claim is nonsense, W e lllake a lld tes t risky prcdidions a ll Ihe lilli e; our Sl1 cec~s is ll ot dOglll.l. but ,1 highly probahlc ind ication of e\"()-
Ilitioll 's has ic trllth. As in any historical ~c i encc. most predictions refer to an lInkllo\\'nI'"st (tcchnicalll ca lled "posldictio))S" in the jargon !. For e,a mple. c,'c n ' lilll e I collect fossils in Pal eozoic rocks (S;o to 22 ) million I'ears old ), I preelict Ih<1l' IlI'ili not filld foss ilmamln als- for mammals no h-cd ill th c sllbscqucnt Triassic period (lI'hile I'ollllg-carth
creationi sts. c1aill1 in g that God ma de life ill six days of twe nty-fOUf hOllrs, sholli d ex pcct 10 e nco llllt er m <1l1 n nals in all strala ), If I filld fos-
si llll
alld indepelldc llt criterioll of c\'icl ellcc, \\lc haH:' a rcasonabl c clas:-.ifita tioll of forest tree ~, bascd on tried ,md tnlt LiIllW C;,lll criteria of exte rn;d Illorphology in eOlllples shap es and strllclmes of ic;1\es a nd flo we rs, With respect to this cstahlished tasonUlll\". bioche mical data of D-;\fA SCqllCllCCS prm'ide "Ill c llhrc l ~' ~l' p. on the oth e r hane!. shoule! espect 110 slle h similarih , for God Illay du as lie "icases, WI1\' shonl" entireh- different crite ria rccord thc S;lIl1e :'illpposedl~' nonexistent patterll of C\'Olll!ionary hranching? (Of COllrse, one might sa~' thal Cod chose to crcate \\ 'ill! sllch congrllcllcc , hilt tllCIl Cod becomes l1l c<.lllingl essl ~- olllilipol-ent - that is, so flc:\ibl c, so ,1\-aibble for im'oca tioll 10 ;,lchi e\'c allY cOllcci\'abl c resnit that lie beeollles trllh- impoten t for failme to illustrate am' distilleti"e act that Illight test the lIattne of Hi s lInique \\ ;,,'S alld PO\\"Cr,) I alll thrill ed that lI"e Gill e,tract 2 0 lllilliOIl ,'car old D \J ," and Icam that th e scqllell ees fit so lI"e ll with emilltiol",ry relationships de termin ed b,' the a na ton,,' of lea,es a nd flo \\'ers , What better evidence can \\c offer, \\hat prediction nl(rre trillln"hant'" affirmed . than a foss il record of D\J/\ c hanges filII" eOllgrllent \\'ith th e illdepende nt evid ence of estemal Cl llalOlJl \'? The Clarkia \\ork also helps IlS to Ililde rstalld the proper relationship of re inforceillent and Illlltllal resped alllOIl!; sllbdisc iplin es of e\"()IlitioIlar~' sc ience . ~. . lolcc llh1f biology is trl'nd~' alld cxpc ll si\-c; fossil coll ecting, and cnratiolJ iIlIlH\ SC lIIl1S, slrike 11l,1Il~' people (including, 1111fortllll c1teis-, th e press) as stllfh' allcl antedi lll\'iali. Bilt D;\;i\ is no HoisCrail. and the specific seqllence of base pairs ill a chloroplast ge ne of a magno lia is 110 more fUJldamclltill to th e species Ih<-lll the sha pe and celIlllar arc hitectme of its leaf. Th e saddest aspect abollt second-c lass c itizcllship lies ill self-hate and de precatioll alllong thc aftlieted, D cspised grollps oftell tell jokes abollt thclllseh-es, Rllral people often eedc to urban opinion ami do not assert th eir 0\\,11 legitimate concerns. 'I 'his cult"t1 rc of pon: rty tends to afHitt lllYO,,"Jl colieagLles \\"ho \\'ork with wholc organisms in muscum collectiolls, W e too often br", beforc the icollS of espcnsi \c Illolecllhrr research , and start to agree that the big boss realls' shollkl get all th e nell" buildillgs
,\ 'f ugllo/ia8 (mIll \I ().~(.·()\ I ·
ulaf data 0 11 difk:rcllccs 1>cl\\"('c11 human s alld chimps to infer tll ,11 we tlSt .'S harcd "l C0 1111110n <1llCCsln T6 to Hl1lilli Oll yeaTs clg0; hllt no c\·i<.!c!lu: froll1lllocl cril g<':llCS \\'ill rc\·c<.d the appc
-I"
PART
EIGHT
LINNAEUS AND DAR\VIN'S GRANDFATHER
~\ 321/~
-"S
_
The First Unmasking of Nature
I
c..V"/T 1\'-\(:1 . . .·1'", t\\·o people illlllorc intimate contact-just the tini est sli,'e r of a miliimeter'; separati on - than th e figures 011 th e fro nt and hack of a ballknote, We all kno\\', of COlllse, that th e fall of any I1m\ds petal re,'e rbcrates through th e uni,'erse to distlllb th e most distant ga la",;
therefore , these cl oser juxtapositions Ci.lllilof he ,,'ithout deep mealling. Dilling a recen t "isit to S,\edcn, I ,,'as de lighted to enco unte r the co m mOll European practice of placing sc ientists, rather than ,lll uninterrupted parade of statesm en, 011 hallknotcs-fo r I ,inllac ns graces l\n) S"ulish bills, just as Ital y features Ca lil eo, and the old British pOllnd note had "e",ton backing up th e Q ueen, (:\merica docs so ho nOf both Je fferson and Frailklin , but no!, I think, primarih- fo r paieo ntolog" and electricity,) I \\as, h o\\'e,'er. pll Zl.!e d by a jnxtaposition Oil th e fi[h 'kroll or no tc: WI", (as shown in th e aeeomp,u"'iIlg ilillstrati on ) do LiIlll
and King ClI stel\"III stand
ill sllc h
minimal
proxiTllit~ ·
(they (:\'(': 11
look directh- at eac h o th er if lO ll hold the bill up to the light and scall both figures at o ncc) ,
On one im ill ediate Ic\d , the llnion poses no problem: both m ell \\"C Te emincn t alld co ntempora ry S\\"C:des; Lill naeus li\"cd from 170 7 to
177H, a nd Gmta, Ill, hom in 1746, reigned frolll 1771 to '79", The ir pe rtics \\'cre n ot close , bllt th e l' certainly liked and apprec iated cach other. Th e o ld er scien tist fl ourished ill the atmosph e re of th e S,,'cdish
SOI1<11
-P 5
1989 9031078835 [To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
~) )
The First tll/ma skill g of )\ ' a l II re Fnlightcnlllenl, so strongk prolllolcd b,' Ihis ,"tistieall\' inclin ed king
(,1'110 collabof;lted o n a n opera \\'hill' not o\'(:rk ellgaged in afTairs of stak ); "hile Ihe ,ollng king basked in th e presti ge, ,md e ndless string of h()IlOr~ . " "Oil by S\\"t:c!<:ll 's illost Elm()lI~ Il
. P7
J)1 '() S\l ' lt I '
\ 1-I \rS T\C I\
at sOJlle IIllspec ifi ed colonial tim c, (Boston h;.I(1 [10 gO\'crnor, though \bssaehllsetts did ; "hile th e thollght of a glittcrillg masked ball "t the op c r~1 hOllsc of this puritanical c ity cOlltinues to pron)kc endl ess ,1IlH[ Sl'lIl ent. ') The cOll spir
The First U'"l1l1 skil1g
or \'allirc
Ihr:-.: k y begills by tcllillg liS that "scicnce is simpl y COllllllon ~CIlSC at its hest; that is. rigidl~ ' aCCllr'ltc ill obscrnltioll , and mercil ess to fal l"es' ill logi c," He th en argucs that the stutl\' of organisills has progressed through the sallie threc st'1gcs follo\\'cd I", all scicnees in their tbdOpille nt : 'Ill initial phase of gathcring illfoflllatioll \\'ithollt th eoretical guid,ulce (111l,lcy call s this first step "',,[ural I lis[o!')" defincd as "accllrate. bllt Il c ccss
the older positis'ist sic\\' (so \\ e ll e,clllplified bs 1111 , le\) lac k s,.,lidits, ,Ind impede understandillg: the notioll of a timel ess scicntifi c lIlethod based 011 rigo rously obiccti\'e obseryati oll ilnd logic, alld the idea that earli er systems ,yerc either th e()r~'-frec or theory-poor beeCilise explallation call onk folio\\' ace mate desc riptioll, Theon-free science nl
1)1 ' ( 1:\\ [
I{
I'
\
H \, s l \( : "
edge ,1S <Jn~' more jc<.: tivc ohsc r\'atioll or 11Ili \'{~ rsa lly u1Iambiguous logic. \Vitll this perspecti\'c, we Illay rcturn to the subject of tIIl111ilSking eeond, This perspee til'e elwllcnges o ur an, tiquated and disrespectful I'iell of I.in naells as an old lI'orll,,' I\'ho ulti, malch' fail ed de'pitc an admirahle passion for order. Wc Illal' th en hec01llc frec to sec the gre,lt Swede
ct' ntim sc l)(lLm lIkssc ,\ldrOl ancii in Bologna. and Conrad Cesne r in Z uric h, ,\Idro l'<mci i m ed au cclectic S\s te m baseci on lIlulti ple, and sometimes contradictory, crit eria organi ze d ()Ill ~'
by S0111 <.. '
n o~io n of im-
portance 10 humans (o r just noticeabil ih' by hll1nans), llc began his lli, ton' QuadrulJe
or
-12. 1
I) I ' ( )S \\ 11{
I'
\
II \)
S' I \ l ; I..:
reside ill thc ge 1llls Ca llis, but c;Jc:h IlIllst h;l\"c a separ;.ltc tri\"ial name to designate the spec ies 11 is fami/iu ris
ea
4 22
The First UIIl1Ios kil1g
of Xaillre
Linna e lls substituted this idca for carli er notio ns of looser defillili o n and Illutability. But. as I argued abo\l~ . the history of Sl'iCllCC progresscs ill sll ch a 1ll<.lIlllc r-from thcory to thcory along jJ l'omplc:\ slIrfacc \\'ith a slant toward greater cmpiri ca l aclcqll ac ~', 110t' along a stra ight alld n;unm path , jl\lSh ed h,' a l;athering slI ",d)all of faclual aeelllllliialion, Th e conceptual <:Ilangc \\'as sure l~ enormOlls. hut DarwiII 's im'oca tion of natural seled ioll in steps as a replaeelllent for Cod all at once did nol reql1ire am' 11l 'l jor overhaul ill pf{Jecies 110Vlle 1' 11 0 Il C\\" spec ies·l. In latc r books , I ,innae ll s argued Ihat nel\' speci es cOllld form I,,' h \ briclizlIrprisin g source: Dag 1Iamu",rskjiild in all address all tlte h\'O hundred fiftieth
D I :'\ ( J S \
1' 1( I "
.\
II \ '
:-" 1 \ l: I(
. lIlni\"(:rsary of Lillll
C od h"s sll ffered him ( 0 peep illto hi s secret eab illc t. Cod has pe rmilled him ( 0 see nlOrc of Hi s e re,, (eri 'mrk (han 'lilY mo rt,,1 beforc hi ll1. Cod h"s bes(OIH:d upon hilll the greatest insight iliin " "-
Ilire-study, grea ter thall anyone has gailled ... i'\o lle beforc him I"" so lol alk re fo rll1ed a ,dlOlc sc ience allc1111 ~lde a 11(;\\" cpoch. I\one before hill1 has arranged " II th e produd' of nalure lIith such lue idil,·. Arro~a nl , ,·es. Bul note that the cahin el is Cod ';, alld th e produds Ihereof. If someone ,l ith an el,;o '0 ullbollncled still slaled Ihal he h"d
oll ly di sco\'c red God 's ordc r,
cOllstructcd his 0\\'11 from the tran ,ee nd ent brilli 'lIlee of his ulli'l"e I",·e he, Ihell Imusl ' "ppose he truk em braced the icic<1 of n"lural orde r independe11t of the hlll11a11 mind (C\ 'C Il at its Linnaeclll apogee). I wOtlld be !'illspiciollS of stich protcs l
nalural tic s
syste m IImks, do 1I0t fa II into palte rns of bea lltiflll snll Ille ln· or COlli pic, geollletry that creation ists like l ,i llll<1e llS alltie ipated, 'Illd therefore eOllld
The Firs t UlIl11l1skil1g o{ '\diure 11t'\"Cr find, '}'he masks di"clls:-)cd ill this essay arc 110t c,lllwlltlage placed b~ - naturc o\"C.:r her products, hilt illlped imellts that \\'c c.:Oll struc:t with f,lise theories, Sillce this essay began \\"it-h a curiolls conjunction, i1l1llst cud \\-itb olle of Ihe lllosl slriking of alllllC
LOlldoll . Th e~ ' sl iIl fornl I he shri Itt' and ce nterpiece of til i;.; (In;an il.;l tio!! ,
Brita in 's fore most societ, for tir e slllck of lIal ural h ision , Th e collect ions reside ill ilmlinglon 1 IOllse, right Oil I'i eeadill, in tire center of Lollcloll, } ollce \·isitcclthi s "hrille alld \\'orkplilcc for
[)1",O:-i.\lIR I",
\
H.\'1SI.\CI(
iIllCll trllh represents this distinetiye species (sce cssa~ 27). 1 \\'as Ilshered illfo the \",mIt of I·he llOly of holies
\Vhell Ch"rlcs [)"rllill recei\ed \V"ll"cc's Ill""llscript frolll Tcrnate, and realized that his ~'()l1ngcr colleague \\as about to scoop hn'nt~ ~'e
hOllor::lblc \\"(1)' th::lt might recognizc both his priority ellid \Vellbcc's discO\·ery. Ilis friellds proposed a joint preselltation of \Vallaee's paper wi til S0111e of D,I n\·i n 's ea rl ier, llnpub 1is hed \\Ti ti ngs. D
l",d codified. ,\nd the l',,,llllist intoned his "ncient song: "Behold, IHJ\\ good allclllO\\' pleasallt it is for hrctlnclI to (hn;lltogcther ill 1IIlit~·!"
~\\ 33 Ordering l'Jature by Budding and Full-Breasted Sexuality
r)-I~·bol.
11-\) I Y.Y (17 .. pod. biographer, and patron of the arts, O\\'CS his little corner of illllllortaiih" almost ('ntiTch' to the hcroic cOllplet \\Titkll IA \Vill ielll I Blake al the tcrlllilla\ioll of their rcIatiollship:
" W I ,I,[ \ \1
'lIn frielldshil' oft has Illade lll) hemt to ache: ])0 be 1ll\·I':llelln for FriellClship's sake. Thc \\calth, i Lnkl had engaged Blakc to cngrenc figures for his hooks. and had hOllsed the great poet and illustrator in a cottage Oil his eslale llear Chichester. Blli Henle,· lle,er llllClerslood Blake's idios\llClalic briliiallee. alld Ihrealelled 10 Ihrottle his arlistic gCllillS \\ilh phil
artistic
hcr loyc follmys:
DJ,\();"'\liR I'\, _\
11_\);"'-J \(:1\:
The steepy path her plighted s\\"ain pursues, ,\nd tracks her light step o'er the illlprinted de\ls; Deli~hted H~"lIlcn ~i\"es his torch to blaze, \\"'inds round the crags, ;!lldlights the lllaZ~" \\"ays; Sheds o'er their sccret \"()\\s his influence chaste, ,\nd clecks \yith roses the admiring \\aste. Heroic eOllplds, \lith their stilted illiages ,llld forced r1l\lllCS ill iaillhic pelltcllllctcr, telldl0 attract ridicule these da~"s (though 1, as
Ordering ,\'uillre 171' Hllddillg a/lc/Jill/l-Breasted Sexuality \",-nicty of liberal reforllls ill politics and economics, hut e\Tntuall~- ran
crO\\"(ls rioted ill Hinnillgkl1l1 Oil July q, 1791. the second
,-lIlni\'erS,-if~
orthc fall "fthc Bastillc. I'ricstb, supportcd by his fricnds John Adalns and Thomas Jeffcrson. e\cntualh settled in I'ellnss·hania. But Antoine La\"oi;.;ier, the other chief figure ill the cliscm"ery of ox~"gen. fared far \\"(Hse by feeding the guillotil'e during the height of the H. eign of 'ferror rscc essa, 24 ill Bull\' Ie" Brolltosaurus I.) William 11a\1cs \\TOtc his puff to introduce a later cdition of a hook that l
DJ'\()s.\\ R J'\ .\ 11_\YS'l.\Cf..:
ishes, carth cllollgh is left for other lllosses to root thelllseh'cs; and after SOllle ages a soil is produced sufficient for the gnmth of more succulent and large yegctables. In this manl1er perhaps the "hole earth has been gradualh emered \lith segetation, afler it \,"as raised out of the prillle\',-d ocec\1l b~ subtcrr
A.s scholars sa\" so oftell (though the JllCssagc 1Ic\'cr really sinks ill, because pcople seem to cr([\-e clean points of origin and heroic initiators I, Charles Dar\lin did not insent the concept of esolution. Instead, he took this most common of nincteenth-eentl1fs biological hctcroc1c):..:ies, gathered mort' copious allel pcrsuasi\'e cyiclellCe than e\'er before, and eliscO\'erecl a plausible mechanislll of clwnge ill Ilatural sclection, Charlcs's O\\n grandfather I'~raslllus ranks a1llong the 1ll0st promincnt (and yocal) of his precursors. ~Charlcs I1c\-er kne\y I
Ordering
\~({!lIre
by Budding (Jlld
Full-Brea,~led
SexlIolitr
the looscr analogies, which dress out the imagery of poctr~", to the strider ones, \\"hich forlll the ratiocilution of philosophy. \Vhile their particular desigll is to illduce the ingellious to culh\ate the knc)\\lcdge of Botall\, I" introducing thelll to the \estibule of that delightful science, and reeollllllending to their attention the illlillortal m)fks of the celebrated Swedish I\atu.__ l: .. : ........ " JaIISI, II ,llllldCll~. ~
I ,innaells's sexual system for hotanical classification, first proposed in the '7,os, became a focal point for popular CduC
I ,inl1,Ieus's sexual system found its greatest (1chantage in utility-easy to le,Jnl <mel C
D I'd)S\ I ' I t " _\
H
\\ S I \ c t-:
(Ve n little ",IS knO\\Il abonl plant se,u" lill' in Linna em's linle; cI'c n the C\:istcllce of separate sC:Xllal orgalls and fcrtilizat-ioll relllaincd COllIToYcrsiai. ) LinnaclI s's origi llal hicrarchi ca l S~ ·st(, 11l for all of Ililture lltili/.cd fOllr categories - classes, orders, gener;l, 11\ sc\-crai stalllens of rO ll ghl ~ c'Iuall e ngth ), The first te n-named ;\ /,,",,"dria, Di,,"dria , 'l'rialldria, etc" or One Male, '1\1() Males, Three ~ Iales, ete , - simpil' refe r to the !lumber of stamens. C lass 10. Decandria, thLls cOlltains flO\\"crs ,,·ith tell stalllCIlS. Class II, f)odeccllldria, has 1,,"C h:c ; Class 12, /costll1dria, has twentl; "hil e C lass Ij, P"f)'andria, or \lalll ' r-dales, in eilides a ll hi gher numbers fTOlli t",en tl' to one hlilidred, The lIe,( 1110 c lasses. called "po,,·ers" h~ · I ,illlW ClI S, rccoglli /.c f1ower~ ,,·ith sbllll e llS of hn) di~tinct sizes. Class 14. Didyllllmill, or '1'\\·0 Powe rs, has fOllr s la llH.: ll S, h,·o ~ h o rt and two tall ; \\·hi lc class 1), Tetrad) 'l1cflllid, or Four P()\\crs, kl s six sta11iellS, 1I1l) short and fOl lr tall. Th e lI e,( fil 'e cbsscs, r() throllgh 2 0 , honor the mode and degree of adhesioll among si"aillells, not tll cir 1l11l1lhl:r. C lasses 16 through If) refer to different arra llgemcnts of joi llin g hy filaI\\ e llts, or "stems" "fthe stalllcns: ,\/()))adel/Jhia (One Brotherhood ) for oll e g rollp, /)iadelphia (, 1'11'0 Brolh e rho ods) for 11m gro ups, and Po/yadelphia for three o r 1110re groups. C lass Il), S)·l1gel1 e...·hl, or CO llfederale Males, incilides flo"ers " ith sta lne ns joined III the ir anthers, or top parts, ChlSS 20, "ith the loadcd Il<\m e ofC\'Jlalldria. or I'emillille "'lales, contains n o"crs \lith stam cns atlached to the pisti l. Three of th e ],Ist four classcs 'lCcolllmod,ltc plants "'ith ,separa te nl'llc Clnd felllal<: flowers, For classes 21 .l11e1 22 , Lill11aCll S coill ed t\\U \u)nis still prollline nt" in lise by botanists- ;\ /o))oeeia (or Olle Ilollse ) for sep'H
Ordering Nature h}' Budding aile! Full-Bredslee! Sex//(ilil}"
nongenealogical group including ferns, IllOSSCS, and algae. \Vc can nm\ fill
DI'\():-;.\I It 1,\ .\ I-I.\)':-;I'.\CI-.:
cOIlles, through his sexual systelll of cbssificJtiol1, Cl bi;Jsed reflection of the lllllll
Ordering ;-..ral ure hr Budding dnd
J,'ull-Bre(/,~ted
Sexualitr
"bls bro"d-Illillded ill his sie\\s Oil scxnal behasior. J Ie held t\\elsc ehilcIrell ill hHl h~lppy llurri~lgt's, and liH.'d opellly \\"ith a third \Hlll1
thell, \\-110
~l
position
~ll1lOng \\-e~Ilth~-
eigh-
teenth-ccntury British males? lIe wanted to cduGlte intelligent WOlllCll so that they could becoille hettcr companions for their hushands, not to prepare thcm for profcssions. In short, Erasllllls Daf\\'in \'ie\\"ed se\: as a natural part of a healthy anel rational \HHld order-and these ~lttitucles prm'ided
·m
I)I".();';.\(:I{ I".
\
1[.\)';';'1 \(:1(
a COllllllon practice that selTes as the fOCliS of this essay, and can become deeidcdl~- tlnft1l1n~', eYen pernicio11s, in a \-~Hicty of his to riea I C'Gllllplcs from the annals of racism and sexism (incillding the case of mallard "rape" described earlier). D;u\\-in, for example, dnes not ah\-ays ;\H)id the lluptial termillo\og~- of I,innaeus's earlier uses, and he docs aekn(m-lcclge the consequent, ~lncllil1C()n\-entio11
ClI/JresslIs
Bul tmh separaled lo,ers in II,e class Dioeeia (male allCl female tlO\\'crs Oll different plants) \\'in his admiration for their tenacity in achie\-in,g a treacherous meeting across great distances. The naked pistil gnms 11p and calls to her hCC_lllX: Each \Sanloll beau", Irieked in all her grace, Shakes the bright dc\\.drops from her blllShing fae< In ga~' undress displa~'s her ri\'al charms, and calls her \yonderillg lm'ers to her arms. As one might expect, stamens in the class C~-nandria, or I:elllinine Males (stamens attached to pistils) do not fare \\ell, and arc branded as both effete anel subjngated: CigcllltiC \J~'mph! tile fair Kleinlwrio reigns, The grace and terror of Orixa's plains. With pla,ful ,iolenee dispLr.ss her elrallllS, ;\nci hems her tre1llhling Im-ers in her arlllS. Ine,itabh, I suppose, Dalwin depicts males of tire classes Dich· n
Orderillg :\'dture h1' Budding and Vull-I3reasted Sexuality
'I\\() knights before tl" fragrant altar bend, Adored Melissa' and h\O squires attemL ,\nd, for Tctradyn
C(//;,'()'s S\\'cct Sl11ile Dianthus proud ':1d1llires, f\nd gazing burns \\"ith unallmvcd desires; \Vith sighs ane! sorrO\\'s her compassion l11o\'CS, A11(1 lI'illS the damsel to illicit 100es, ;\s a final exalllPIe, Janel BrO\\Ilc notes that Dcullin, perluJls Illlconsciously, grants differcnt st;:ltus to pistils (fcmales) dcpcnding upon ho\\' many stamens grmv in the same flO\\'cr (or, inthc choscn metaphorical image, h",\ mall\ males fall under her control),VIO\\ers of the class \lonandria (one stamen and one pistil) arc llnited in monogamolls and connubial bliss; he IITites of Call11a, or Indian Reed, uneomfortabh transported from the tropics to cold Britain, but able to sl1r,i\e the chill I" the warmth of eommittedl",e: First the tall Call11a lifts his cnded brOil' ]l~rect to hea\'en, and plights his nuptial \'O\\"; The \'irtuous pair, in milder regions born, Dread the rude blast of Autumn's ic~' morn: Round the chill fair he folds his crimson ,est, ,\nd clasps the timorons beaut, to his breast. Daf\\in also treats "Imd," piants of the last class, Crsptogalllia, as silllilarh \'irtllolls, for at least the, hick "hate\cr the\ do, He e\ell sholls proper compassion in acknO\\'ledging that the short and the ugly can also enjoy sexual pleasure (more than Dislle~' \\'(H11cllater grant to his Sc\'cn Dllarfs), llc IITites of IIlldergrolllld tnlflles: Deep, in \\"ide C
. 1""" -n!
Dj'd)~.\l'R
j,\
.\
11.\)S"j\Cr..:
On siker~' beds, of soft ashestos \\·OH.', ::\lects her gnome-husband, and a\'O\\'s her 10\·e. ,\t all illtenllediar~' lllllllber of four to six stamens, Darwin iu\'okes a \'micty of images about pursuit, Just, ~lI1d coyness. t\Ldes arc depicted as \'igOfousiy coufting s\Y,-lins ,-mel beaux; females llla~' be flirtations Of tough, but they are 1I0t easily \\'(1Il:
\leac/ia's soft chaills fin' suppliant beau\: cOllfess, And hand in hand the laughing belle address; Alike to all, she bom \\ ith \\anton air, Rolls her dmk esc, and \\ascs her golden hair. A tougher sister exerts more control:
Wilh eharills despotic fair ChondriI/o reigns O'er the soft hearts of fis·e fraternal.",·ains; Ifsighs the changcf1111l\1l1ph, alike thClllloum; ,\nc1. if she smiles, \\'ith ri\'al raptures burn. But females accompanied h~'large lllllllbers of males (ten or more stamellS to one pistil) arc in\',uiably depicted either as InIly clislllissi\'c, or as fulll regal: Sweet hloollls Gcnista ill the Illyrtle shade, And ten fond brothers woo the hallghts Illaid.
With twents· males at her beck and call, the pistilillust be a po\\nfuJ goddess: \Vh ilc h\Tn t~ Priests the gorgeous .':ih ri lle Sll rroulld Cinctured \\·ith ephods, and \\ith garlands crowned, Contending hosts and tremhling Hations wait The firlll illlillutable behests of Fate.
We Illas laugh at these particular Daminian relnies, but the underlying theme of our tendency to impose a human social scheme UpOll supposedl~' objecti\"(::: natllre, especially 1n the charged domain of sex and gellder, teaches llS something important ahout the cultural cOllstruction of kllO\declge. I therefore close \\'ith a llother LillllaC
Ordering Nature by Budding a11d Fufl-Breasted Sexuafi/.Y the other elld of our COllYelltiollal taxonolllie laddcr. J klle\\" that LillnaellS had inyellted the terlll \Llllll11<.Ilia for our \"ertehrate class ill his S)'slenw ndlllfde of 17i8, but I thought tklt he had simply promoted all old \'crnacular \\"()rd to a nc\\' technical nleaning. 110\\"cycr, in an important article, \\Titfen in H)93, Londa Schicbinger shows that LinlIaCliS trnh imel1ted the \lord -al1d that 110 lal1guage had eler hefore referred to the group of \\"ann-hloodcd, hair-sporting, li\"e-hearing \"ertehrales as 111'-1l1l1lWls.
All prcyiolls s~"stel1ls had trC<Jted and ll,-lllled Ollr relatives differel1th. ,\ristotle established a ,'erlehrate grol1p called Quadrupedia, \I,ith a primary subdi\'ision into O\'iparia (scaly and egg-laying, including reptiles and some amphibians, and Vi\'iparia (hairy andli\"e-bearing, thus illcluding most mammals, but also excluding such creatures as hilts, wha les, a lld, most i lllporht llt-l~", Illllll
43<)
D]''dlS_\IIR
I'\,
_\
11.\)s']
\(:1>:
at a timc \\"hcn many naturalists still insisted Oil a separate Illllllan kingdom for beings \\"ith a soul and created in Cod's inwge_ Propagalldists ki\'e ah\-ays recognized that an adroit choice of llame call COllH'y great pO\\er of pcrsuasion. \iature has almost ill,'ariabl~ becn personified as fem,llc, ill
440
Ordering Nature hy Budding and Vull-Breasted Sexuality Andlcst \\'C continuc our old attcmpts to hlamc our \HHst traits upon hiological hcritagc, wc should also rcmcll1hcr that what wc call human natllre cmhodies milch potential for good ;'llllicl the tClldellcics \\'c might choose 10 bralld as c\'il:
For :\lcrc\ has
hlllllan hcmt,
Pity,
441
~\\ 34 I/~ Four Metaphors in Three Generations
My I'-IRS'I' 'tH11' to Crcccc bec
++2
Four :\/etCl/JllOrs ill Three Gel1erations
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
I
iLl... ,
The cluthor leom.,; the rneonillg ofstlsis ill Creece.
fore lll11mbo-jlllllbo to others. "Eso" mean "within" in Creek, and there-
fore becomes appropriate for domestic flights (thes onght to knc)\\, after all J, J also couldn't figure out "I,,' the area of a church set aside for candlcs and sotise offerings bore the apparentlv contradictory sign "anathelIlata," Bnt anathema, in Creek, is an offeTing (literally "a thing set up"), Greek churches still use the original sense of "an object desoted or consecrated to disine usc"; on Is later did the word acquire a restricted and nsnalls opposite meaning of "a thing dedicatcd to eS'il" (in ecclesiastical Latiu, an anathema is all excol1ll1ll1l1ieatcd person). One das', as 1 sat at an alfresco lunch spot enjosing a sic\\' of thc Acropolis, a slIlall truck pnllcd up to the curb and blocked the Parthenon, I "as aililosed at first, but later wonderfully amused as J watched the 1ll00·ing men deliver some furniture to the neighhoring
house, Their S',Ill said "metaphora," "Of course," I realized: /,flOr is the
44,
DI'\()S.\l'R 1,\ .\ H.\YST.\Ch:
verb for carrying, and meta- is a prefix Il1eaning "change of place, order, condition, or nature." A 1ll00ing tmck helps yon changc the order of something by carryiIlg it froill one spot to another-and is sHrely a Illetaphor. I then discO\'cred that all sorts of carriers arc Illetaphors, including the wheels for your airplane hlggage, shO\\'!l in the accompanyiIlg sIlapshot. Ho\\ Im·ely. In school, I \\as frustrated allllost to tears in struggling to grasp the diffcrcIlees <:llllong \",uious kinds ofimagcs: metaphors, siIniles, eponyms, metony-ms, synecdoches-and all this after Illastering the distinction behveen iambs and dae!\·!s. Ii learned these words, by the ",aI', at P.S. 26, QHeens, not somc fancy pri\'ate [To view this image, refer to school. The Ne\\' York Cih pnblic the print version of this title.] schools actllall\" tallght this stuff uot so long ago.) If onlv 1 had kno\\n about that little, concrete moving van! A metaphor carries you from one object (that Illay be difficnlt to understand) to another (Illore accessible, and thcrcforc hclpful, 10, anal()g~", in grasping the original c011cern). 1 love metaphors; luse them all the time in these essa~'s, and have (\'en writtcn a column or h\"() speeificallv on the subjcct of Illetaphors amI their uses. The human mind is a wondrously obtuse and circuitous instruillellt. \Ne think of ourselves as logical, as able to move in deduc\i,'c order through a sd of argumcnts from beginning to inclUdable conclusion. But \\'e almost 11C\"Cr \vork in such an idealizcd \\·(\V. \\lc always encolluter obstacles and ehasllls that rcquire a erea!i"e leap. And \\e nccd carriers, or metaphors, to lnake these imaginati"e jumps. ~vloreover, a scholar's ehoiec of Illetaphor usualh' provides our best illSight into the preferred modcs of thought and surrounding social circlllllstances that so influence all human reasoning, c\"cn the scicntific modcs often \'ie\\'cd as fllllv objective ill am Imtholog'.
444
J/our \/c[afJhors ill Three Generaliolls
But metaphors also present !llin dangers, literan and intcliecttl<11.
On thL structural side, some mChlpilors ~lre so silly or obtuse t-iwt we clld up laughing (or scratching OHr heads) rather Ihall gaining cnlightcl1111clli. Among famoHs cxamples, I \HHlld submit thc opcning \'crse of Psalm +2: "As the hart pantcth after the "ater brooks, so pantcth ml soul after thee, () Cod," (I had particular resenations about this image because 1 first
h_'
H.'rsions of me. neHT) On the cOllceptual side. lll
'I 'he distinction of mctaphors, bet\\"een useful and ineffective, brilinsightful and dismally misleading, therefore becomes an important consideration ill making or e"aluatillg allY complex intellectual argulllent. But hO\" shall \"c set up a catalog of criteria? ) \"ill 110t adliantl~"
dress this I'ital snbject in the abstract, but \I'i1l demte this essa, instead to prO\iding matched examples-in the hope that "e might extract
sOllle general guides. 1 \\"i11 discuss h\-o cclcbrated and related autiIors, separatcd b~" gCller
of C\"Olutioll hy ll
L
SI<0l'I,','-.'II.\J, I'I:KI'II,I/.\TI()'\" I'-. Cum/os.\,\'-I) 1'1110; Sl'IClI)I', 01
\i1:"()'-.\
so'\". C;lorio.<w helongs to 1,innael1s's class 1lex
DI'\·OS_\I:R 1,\ .\ 11.\)S'I.\CI(
nlens for a single pistil in each flO\\-cr. In D
Four ,\JelaIJhors ill Three Generatiolls 2. SI'RI \j)I\.(: SI-:I
Dan\'ill \Hites exactly fOllr lines onim/)dticlls, the tOllch-mt'-Ilotdescribing hem this plant, iftonched "'hen the seeds me ripe, "snddenh folds itself into a spiral forlll , , , and disperses the seeds to a great distance," Damin follo,,'s "ith three pages on I
doned her for the daughter of King Creon, The comparison \"ith lm/Jc1liens seeills <m-fully forced, for Im/)(ftiem/s seeds arc fertile, and \\'hat-does grrming a plant hold in COlllillon "ith killing children-cxccpt that l\Icde,J thre\\' her slain offsprill~ to the ground, just as 1m/Julien!> tosses seeds siolenth- to earth, \!orem'er, "ith f01lf lines OIl 111l1)(Jtiells, and three pages Oil i\Icclca, olle mllst- suspect that l)an\'ill is usillg hotallY as all excuse for retelling the gory details of Euripedes' tragic figure, rather than iln'oking the hUll1,lI1 stor~' to illuminate the plant, as <1(h-ertised:
Thrice "ith pareh'cllips her gniltlcss babes she press'd, ,\nd thrice she elasp'd thelll to her tortu"d breast; A"hile ,,'ith "hite nplifted es'es she stood, 'I 'hell phlIlg'd her trelllhlillg pOlliards in their hlood. "Co, kiss ~'ollr fire! go, share the hriclallllirth!" She cry'cl, and hurl'el thcir qui\'cring limbs 011 earth. ), PI.,\"IS '1'1 I.\'I
j)ISI'I'Jl.SI,'
1'111':IR SI",I':I)S BY \\'1'\1),
\,\'1) i\lo:\T-
COI.l-'!J-:R's B,\!.!,()()~,
At the beginning oEllis second cal1to, Darwin descrihes se\'er,-11 plallts with \\'illdhlO\\'ll seeds. Just as \\'C kne\\' the c~citcillellt of hllll1anit~'s first llights into space, and Ollr grandparents fel t the th rill of (l\'ia tion 's carl iest da~'s, 1< rasillus Dan\i n 's generation experieneed the ebtion of om first eielation ahose the earth's sllffaeethe diseOle" of balloollillg, The brothers \iuntgolfier in France, the great pioneers of this art, hecallle cultural heroes he\'olld the 'Vright brothers, bes()nd I,indbergh, besond "Ieil Armstrong's giant leap for mankind, Dan\'in rcally \\",-lI1tcd to \\-rite about his great contemporaries, and one fcels again th,-lt the plants scn'e as an excuse to describe the hUlllan achie\'clllcllt, 110t \'iee \·ersa as his metaphorical method supposedlY ach-ocatcs. Dar\\'il1 \\'axes particular'" lYrical ill describing the Hight of ~lolltgolfier's halloon abO\'(, the eOS1110S-S0 111uch so that \\'c \\'ililleec! S01l1e footnoics (10 be gi\'en after the citatioll) to sort out the tlO\\"er~· images: So Oll the shoreless air the intrepid Caul Llllneh'd the ,'ast conea"e of his bllOlant ball
++7
DJ:\()S.\lIR J:\ _\
H_\YS'I_\('J...:
jOllrnesing on high, the silken castle glides Bright <-IS a mcieor through the azure tides; . Rise great \lontgolfier! urge th~- \"enturous flight Iligh o'er the Moon's pale iee-rcflcctedlight; lIigh o'er the pearls Star, \\hose beam, horn Hangs in the cast, ga~- harbillger of lllOrll; I.C
\h
(:nlll\I~IIC (hlt'll (;ill~cri('h, dislill~lli"IIl'd Ili,loridll of d~lrcliIOIIlI. c;illnllljl dlill
chililcd Illl' prill'. I trinl tn C\phill 111<111 11<1l1 ;I(hdIKl'd IIIl' c-lldll('II!.;(, In h\ r(:;I(I("I>;. Il
he
\lllIlld knOll! Bill 11(' ('OITU-th- rcplinl tlldll h;I(IIII;l(k 110 "Ilell ('''pli('il 'pl"('ific'llioll.
tlldt r II'(lIdd 11<11l' In P;I\-. ,tlld tlldl hl" \1;llllcd d ('lllTk 10 ~II(I\\-lli\ hiellck Ilot d ('oil I Ililil diIOIIIl'l (;('on,:..(III IIIL' "hell].," "idc_ \\L'II. 1 dlll;1 IlIdll (If 11U11(lI-S() Il'()\\~IlL'd \\jl li\\1 ,II IV;lst 111;lll' Illl' ,;lti,if,ldioll ,,1f:Jil ;1',llLllllT tl\;lllll" "ill't ~()\III;I (.1,11 till' Illill<; i ('I'ell If Ill' l'lllhm;l\\V'o IIIL' hI 11;lII~ill<; it (Ill 111(' II;dl
I
rour
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\IICI(lII"C I'I.\YIS I'Rml'l III
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ill Three Celleratlcms
BIRIII or :'d()SIS[() IIII
\[l()I.1-
'l'hc cnd of the third eanto featurcs Dar\\'in's most c\:tended and farfetched metaphor. lie speaks first of :\meriean plants \yhosc seeds call cross the AtL.lIltic alld still germinate in Europe: I'ID' <)Ii SI,,\\T:I{"I.
\Vlll'!e sast Ontario rolls his brineless tides,
And feeds the trackless forests
Ol1
his sides,
Fair Cdssio trembling hears the hO\ding \yoods, :\nd trllsts her tas\'l1S' ehildrell to the floods. Soft hreathes the gale, the eurrcnt gentl~' I11O\'es, I\nd hears to ~Of\yay's coasts her infant 100·es. The comparison to \loses seems ob\'ious enough, for the great prophc1 was placed into the ~ilc in a basket and flo:lted to safety: \\'ith paper-flags a floating cradic \\'C:lves, And hides the smiling bos in I,ohls-Ieaves: CiYes her \\"hite hosom to his C<.lger lips, TIle salt-Iears lllillglillg \\'itll Ihe lllilk he sips; \Vaits on the reed-erO\\ll'tl hrillk \\'ilh pioLis guile, :\nd tfllStS the seals lllollSters of the :'sJile. The transition to slmen is a bit forced. \Ioses liftcd the soke of his nation ("let 111\ pcople go" and :111 that), \\hile s\:rses, jllSt like seeds, arc transported across oeC<.lIIS. E'en no\\', e'ell 11O\\' , on yonder \Vestern shores \Veeps p;.dc Despair, and \\Tithing Anguish roars: 1':'ell 1I00Y ill Afric's groves \vitii hideous yell Fierce Slasers stalks, and slips the dogs of hell. But England's leaders ha\'e pO\\'er to end this scourge: Yc hand,) of Sellators! \\'liose suffrage s\va~'s Britannia's real1lls, \\'IiOI11 eilher Ind obeys; \\ill() ricrLI Ill(' inillrt,(l ~l1Hl n'H'~lr(11111' hPH'f'
,. " " "b'" "''- " " ' ' ' ......... , ""'-' ''-''''''"' ''''- """'-,
Strctell ~'ol1r S~rollg ;.mIl, for ye iIa\"c pO\\"{.'r to Si.l\"e! . J le"r irilll, se Sellalcs' ire"r tiris tTllth sllblillle, "I Ie, \\·ho alhms oppressio1l, slli.lrcs tIle cri1l1c." ,\dlllirabic selltilllellts, forecfnlh (if" bit noridhl C'I)fcsscd- bnt ql1ite a stretch from floatillg seeds.
+1')
IJI'()S\(II{ I '
\
II\lS'1 \(:K
Charles Dam ill, so unlike his grandfather, made llO attempt at h rical \\Titing" I Ie e01llposed the Origin ofSfJecies (lH59) as a genLT~Il \\ork for a literate public, not as a technical treatise for scientists. Still, Darwin's prose, while clear, tends to be dry andllle~lsured. \111eh of till' Origin is a list of supporting fad,r.; for e\"()llltion" "olletheless, Charles Darwill ullderstood that cliffiellit alld eOlltro-
\usial concepts could not he gr1lg argulllcnt"") Dc.ln\"ill also sellsed that illlager~" alldlllelaphor lllusl he used as illdispe1lsahle lools in Ille arl ofpersuasio1l. ,AI sc\"eral erucialmollleilis inlhe hook, he thereforc introduces ke~"mctaphors to illuminate esscntial point.," I h
Charles's strateg~" is so differcnt from his gralldfather's. l
Sl'ITRI.'ICI.\J. ,\PIT,\R"\'.U:,S
,\,\1)
DI:I:,PI-'.R RI<\I.ITI1:S 01.' :'\"\Tl;RI':"
Dan\"ill faecd thc s\lbstalltic.ll prohlclll of reoriclltillg his p\lblic's flllldalllc1lli.ll c01lcepl of llalure's order. ;\')osl pcoplc \"ic\\cd naturc as hasiealls bene\oicnt, created in perfection 10\ a Iming Cod andlargels for human benefit. Darwin's theory reqllired a stullning re\"crsal-to a world dc\"oid of ill trill sic purpose, c1c\"elopillg lilllitcd order only c.1S a side COllSCqllCllCC of Ilatllrc's trllc e<'lllsality: thc StTllggle c.llllOllg orgallisllls for perso1lal reprodllctiH' Sllccess" To facilitate this flip ill pcrspecti\·e, Daf\\'in de\doped a brilliant metaphor to contrast e\ternal appearanccs with internal realih": We behold the E1ee of nature bright \I ith gladness, \I e oftell sec superabundanec of food; \\"c do not scc, or \\"c forget, that the birds \\"hich ,HC idl~" singing rolllldus mostly li\"c on insects or seeds,
4S 0
\YC
forgel
hO\\"
l"our \leto!J!lOrs ill Three CellerdtiolJs
largely these songsters, or their eggs, or their nestlings, arc destroyed by birds and beasts of prey'. 2. '1'111: [)I{J\'J '\c H mC[·: 01· CO\ I PI-:" JTl ]()\. J'\ .\ CR()WI W.I) \ \'ORL[). For natural se\cction to \mrk relentlessly, the \\mld Illust be full of eO\npetitors; otherwise, the ill-adapted might li\'e [ore\'er by nlo\"ing to SOllle prc\;iously unoccupicd real estill'. At J crucial point in his JrgU1l1Cnl, Dar\\in first states the iclea of perennial eOlnpctition clirecth, and then reinforces his ke~" poillt \\"ith a mctaphor about Ilatural umHlillg: Ile\\" forills ca n onl~' ell ter a full terra in by d ri\·i ng oth us ou t (Ile\\' \\'edges iIlsinnate themsch-es at their thin edges-to cite allother com mOil illlage-alld e\"ellhwlly force others outl.
In looking at "\aturc, it is most necessary ... Ile\'u to forget that e\'er~' singlc organic being around us may be said to be stri\'ing to the utmost to increase in numbers: that each lin_'s b~' a struggle at sOllle period of its life; that he
The affinities of "lithe beings of tire sanlc class Ira\e sornetinles been represcnted as a great tree. 1 belie\'e tllis silllile largel~ spcaks the truth. The grccn and budding h\"igs llla~' represellt
-1,1
I)I '()~ \1 R I '
\
II \ )
~· I \(:t...;
t'x btillg species; alld those produced during <:,1<.:11 fonller ~"c
The: limbs di, id cd into great hran ches, and these into lesser and lesser bmll(;hes, ""tTl' thclllseh-es Oilce . H"hen thc tree was small, l)l]dclil1 ~ twigs; ,-llld this conncction of the fonner and prescnt buds by r
:\ s buds gi,"c rise b~ " grO\\"Ih to fresh buds. and these, if , "igo rous, branc h Ollt <md (J\"(:' rtop 011 all sid es l11i.11 1~ " a feehler bran c h. so I,,· !;Clle r'ltioll I helie,'e it has bel' II ,,·ith th e l;rca t Trec of Life, ,,·hie h fill s" ilh its dead alld broken hrallc hes the c rust of thc carlh , alld ('m"lTS the surface with its (;\"(: r br'.lIl<:ilillg and beautiful r;lmifi C<.ltiolls,
+
1}\I{\\ T\'s Cl-: ,\"]'!Z,\l. \Re[I\II",,\ '1 IS H"\SI .'. [ ) 0\ "\,\' "\I,OCY, ,\OJ ])1-
The precedillg three llletaphors me helpful illlages, deto c1;nil\ 1I11fall1iliar-c\'cll socially objectiollahle-collcepts crucial to the ,rcecptanee of natural se lection, Bllt 1),11win clllplO\s Illetilphor in il ll1l1 c h deeper "-elY hy rooting hi s elltirc ,Jr~ Il111 e Jlt in '-I flllldaill clll"tli ;lIJalog~", Darwill begi1ls hi s book b~" discl1ss in g dOlllestic pigeolls,
si~ll(:d
{,2
j,'our ;\letd/Jhors ill Three Ceneratiolls process that Dar\l innamed, by analo~\, natural selection, Our little bllt p,lipahlc \\'orld of domestication and agriculture thcrefore becomes ;1 metaphoricalmicrocosll1 for nature's unobseryablc grandness: As lllall can producc and cert-ainl~' has produced a great result h~' his methodical and uliconscioliS nleallS of selcctioll, \\·hat Illa\- not n,-lhlfC effect? '\Lm can ad onl\- on e:-.Jcrn~tl ,-llld ,-is ihIe ciwracters: llature cenes llothillg for appcarallces ... She call ,Jct 011 cycry illicrllal orgall, OJl c\"cr~- shade of constitutiollal differcncc, on thc \\'hole lllachincr~' of life ... limy flcetillg arc the \\'ishes and efforts of man! hO\\" short his time! and consequelltly 11m\" poor \\"ill his products bc, comparcd with thosc acCllllllIi,Jted b~- llature durillg \\"hole geologic,-ll periods. If \\T ask \\"h~" I':rasllllls's Illetaphors SCCIll so unhelpful, c\"cn obtrusi\"c, and \\"h~' Charles's arc so apt and uscful, two major diffcrcnccs stand out: First, Erasllllls's compariso1ls secm either forcecl (expulsion ofllll/)atiens seeds to i\·'Iedea's lllurdered children, seeds floating to 0;or\I ado ~ loses sa iI i ng dO\\ll the 1'\ ile), or pedestrian (aeria I seeds to ~ lontgolficr's balloon); and the linkage therefore doesn't help l1S to lIlldersLllld the hiologicd exalllplc-\\-here<1s Charles's imagcry illumillates his science (the tree of life as both dynalllic and genealogical, artificial selcction as an extellded analogy to \\·hat natllre might do to greater cffectl. Second, II~rasl1111s's halances seClll out of ,,·hack if the met,lphors Otlt plallts, alld olle StlSpects that hotall~- iJ;,IS hecollle all cxcuse for florid \'CfsifieatiOil ahout classical tragedies alldlllOdcrll triulllphs (though \\'e thought that the \'crses wcre meant to illuminate the flowers). Charles's metaphors, on the other hand, arc short and pUllgent. often only a phrase ill lcngth ('"thc face of nature hright \\"jth gl'-ldness"),
}JI\()'-;\ll< 1\.\
fl
\'1.'-; I.\(:f..:
pletsl: the three prose illterludes, placed bebcell the four ealltos "fthe hooks,
l1
t\-uy
kind of
theorclic distribution of them adds to our knO\\ledge by developing sOllle of their allalogies." But, ill the first Illterlude, the poet thell dri\'es a \\'edge bet\\'een poetry and sciencc by banishing the loose illlagery of metaphor from scieIlce, where logic IIlllS\" hold sway, \\'hile defcndillg sl1ch \Trbal pictures for poetry, whose purpose Dar\\"ill cOllcci\-es as prilllaril~- visual- "hringing ohjects hefore the e~T, or expressing sentimcnts ill the language of \"ision": "Science." ~'~raslllus writes, "is hest c1eli\"crecI in Prose, as its mode of reasoning is frol1l stricter analogies than metaphors or similes." jl:rasl1l11s then tells us that his poctic images arc not eyell intended to clari(\- his botany, but arc iIlH.'lltecI for hH) other purposes. jl'irst, j
Fin,dh, the poet hs it OI( the line \\!Jcn tile bookseller asks, "Then a si1l1iJc shoulclllot \'ery accurately resclllhle the suhject?" ~o: it \\,otdcl then hecoll1e a philosophical analogy, it \\"(Hllcl he ratiocinatioll instead of poctr~-; it nced olll~- so far rescmble the
-jl-j
r()lIr ;\lete/phors ill Three eel/ere/liolls
su bjeet, as poetn itscl f ough t to resem ble nature, It should h,,, e so lllueh sublimity. be<1ut~-, or novelty. as to interest the reader; and should be e'\pressed in picturesque language, so as to bring the secliery before his e~'e; and should lastly hear so llluch \'erisilllilitudc as 1I0t h) cl\\"akcll hilll I)\" the \'iolcllce of illlprohahilit~· or illcollgruity.
\Vith such <.1 \\'edge clrivell he1\\"ecll the re<.lsOllillg of sciellee <.llld the \'isual illlagery of poetry, \\T siIould llOt he surpriscd tiIat 11~raSllll1S Dar"ill'S metaphors (e'plieitk situated ill his I'isual rather than his philosophical "orld) do Ilot enlighten his botanical e,amples, Charles, unencumbered b, such an aesthetic theon, llSed all the Iitcran del ices at his COllllllclllcl, illclucli ng lllet<.lpllOf. to <.lch-
455
!)I,\'O;';_\I It 1,\
,\
II,\Y;';'I,\CI\:
,\s sllch experilllents lllight llatllrally ,-lppem childish to Ill,-lll~", I lllay he perlllitted to prelllise that they have a dircet hearillg 011 a \'cry i1ltercsting prohlem, ... Ilalllel~-, \\'hcthcr the same organic being has hecn createel at olle poi1lt or 011 sc\-eral Oil the face of O\lf globe.
D
"I
scries of c\pcrimclit
water has been made artifieialh \\ith salt proe\lfed from \1r. Bolton. which has been tested by better chcmists than mell, llalllcl~·, by n11lllerolls sea alli1llals alld algae h;J\'illg lived in it for llIore thall a ~'ear." J Ie immersed eighh-se\en different kinds ofseeels ,mel founel that neach three f011rths of the species \\"(Hllel still germinate after a hventy-eightday bath. Peppcr seeds sUf\'i\'eel best. for thirty of fifty-six seeds "germinated \\'cll after 1)7 da~'s imlllersio1l." Dan\'ill thcn consulted a book of oceanic currents and determined that seeds could float the requisite thousands of miles alld grm\ 01l distallt contillellts, But still Darwin \\'(mieel.IIe eonlel keep the seeels ali\e long enough ill \\-at-cr, bllt they sank too S001l, alld tllcrefofe couldllot float Ilnaided to t[1 eir putative destinatiolls. So he began a sccond series of experiments and obscrvations, ill his llsuall~" thorough, almost obsessi\'c way. \Vhat natural rafts, floats, or airhornc c!e\'ices l11igllt carr~' a seed the rcquired distancc? D
FOllT
,\/ elaphor.l;
ill T hree C:cl1crdfi(JII s
[To view this image, refer to the print version of this title.]
The doggr:rr:1 verse writ/ ell hy (/ Q!lccm hu.~' c/rin'r iI/ {he: dll lh(Jr >,~ clutograph h()IJ/.: Ill/rtr-eight yean- agl/,
of adult eOllllllllte rs "'
.>\
~ ,,\l:I rl\- I~Ll / i ~
ti" ll.
d il,tI a fCII IL';lr, ,H;O, hut Ilcn:il"t,cI
Jml fL' i lIf()!'ci ..~ lll ~
ll I C llw ri('~ of
1 00d~
noll' fro111 hi, VIII Ih
h h f: l lhcr ' ~ litl' 11)1lt; ,lilt!
jJl'n ,1,iH' lill dlll' ~~
457
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- - l H5t). ()1 1 the
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(//I({
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\\'estenl Cil'i/i.::atiol1. I ,olldoll: S i ( I~\\' ick ;111(1 Jac ksOiL
Dc Sa lle, R .. j . (; alcS\',
\y ,
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fossil termite in Oli g{)-~ liocell e ;llllhcr a11 d I he i r ph y l ()~cllch c illlplic<.ltiolls, SciclH:e 2=){: HJB- ")(l.
frOlIl
i.l
de Vrics , \ \ '. 1t)7+ Caribbeall hllld molluscs: notes 0 11 Cerio n id 'lc. Stlldiel' FCllllUi Cu rac.:'(/(J ,/lid other Ca ,.ihhecl/1 Islallds 45 : H I~)17'
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J
\V,lSllill ~t()lI.
FO<,:illol l. Ilcnri H)69 . The )'ear woo. :\c..'''' York: Frederi ck Ullgar. Ca Il IO\\·.
,1. (~ ilbcr t .
Ceon;c
:'\ C\\-
H;'+O . .\1 r. '["OIlIpbl1s York: \hKll li ILl1 .
ill \ \/O/l
Or. Storieh' of C. C. alld
\ I. 191)0 . The / J()l()cdn~ t. I ,o lld oll: Collills.
Cillispie, C . C . 11)7K. Llp\acc. Dictionary o{Sticllli{ic Bi()graIJh)',
plL-lIlcnt 1. "\;c\\· York: Cha rlcs Scribncr's
\ '01. \:\.,
SliP-
SOli S.
Cillgcrich, P. D .. '\ . . \ . \veil" I). I':. 1\1I.>scli , and S . .\ 1. Ihra hill l Shah H)H, . O ri gill of " 'hales ill cpicolltille:lJt;11 H..'IIlIl<Jllt .'.e;Js. Scic.mcc 220: 4 0 -:;- (1. Ci ll~cri c h .
P. D .. B. II. S11lith , ,l!lel K I .. Simons H)90 . Hilld lill1bs of I '~ oe:cnc Belsi/o.'wllms: c,"ielL-lice of feet in ,,·h'IIt;S. Science 2..fl) : IS4-'7.
C illgcri ch. P. D., S. \ I. Ra J,a. j\ -J. .-\rif. i\ I. .\11 \\"<11". ,lIld X. Zholl HN ~. Partial skeictOll of Il1docetu s flIllUlI!i (:\l;lIll 111<1\ ia. Cet ~!l'C
or
- --
H)l)+ Nc,Y \\'ha lc from th e I':oeellc of Pakista n alld th e origin of
Cd'H.:Ctl ll S,,·i lll llli ng. ,\'aillre 16~: H-+4-47. 1)1I ~lIie 1(8 ) . Emlulion: Th e Challell ge of the j.'(Jssil Hecord. San Di ego : Creati on I.,ife l)llblicati Ol\s.
Cish.
Clcll. \\ 'illi.1I1I l')lh. The Hoad to !drcJ millo. Stanford, Ca lif.: Stanford Unin;rsih- Press. -
The ,\ Iass 1,;.Yti1lC.:tiol1 Debates: HOH" Science \\'orks in (/ Crhis . Stall ford , Calif. : Stlllford U lli\"crs jt~ · Press.
- - H)<)+
C oilo. K R. h/n. Pdp il1me17 lu Textboo k. .-\rllba: De \\'it. Colcllbcrg. I':. \ I. , D. E. C ialln",i, :\1. T . C legg, C. ). SlIli le-. 1\ 1. Dllrhin. D. Henderso n . and C . Z!H,l\\"ski IY90 . Chloroplast J):'\:\ scqut llce from
T he origin alld fUllctioll of "bizarre: " siructlll"es: ;mtlc:r siJ.t: ilnd skllil size in the "Irish elk," :\ legaloceros gigallteus. Em/lltiol1 2H: 191-220.
-
- - l l)!+
-
-
- 1l)77. El'er ~ilJ(:e Danvil1. :'\C\\· York: \\' . \V. l\'o rtoll.
BIHII O CI{\ I'IIY
-
-
- H)HL
The .\lisIIU!(/surco!":\hlll. "\'t:\\ York: \\'. \V. :\'ortOll.
- - - H)~tf' CO\';lria ll CC sc.:ts
atic 'I.oo/ogr )): 217-,7. - - - Il)H,. The FIe/filiI/go's Smile. :'\C\\· York: \\ '. \\ '.
~orto ll .
- - - H)Hy. \ Vom/crlit! l,i{e: The H!lrges.~ Shale (/l1d the Xatllre ()j" H ,storr :'\C\\
York: \\'. \\'. ~nrto ll . -
-
-
1l)l)1.
-
- - 11.)1.)").
Bully fo r BmJl(()St fllmlJ S. Ne\\" York: \\ '. \\'. 0J or!OIl.
Fight Uttle Piggies. "\'C\\ York: \\ '. \\'. '\'ortoo .
Cre\\", NehclIliail lof)" ;\/llseUlII reg,(J {is so<.:ietdfis. or a descriptio/l oj" the /1<1 1ural and artificial rarifies hehHlging to the Royal Sociel~'. whereunto i.~ .wh;o.l'l1ed th e cOil/Para tire lIlI alo ll/.r of stom(/ch.'i ({/l d gu ts. I ,() lld oll: \ V. R,l\\·Ii IlS. Haldane. J. B. S. \\ 'indus.
1l)2j.
Possible \\'orlds and Other E.~,'im·s. I ,(J l1doll : C lwlt o
- -- H)")2. The Ca llses oj" L mfutitm. Ne\\" Yor k: Ilarpcr ,mel Brothers. (Ll}"\\"ood, .\l
Hitle r, .\d olf 1 9 ~1). \} (!ill Kalll f)f, cOlllplcte ilnd unilbridged. fully illlllotltcd . I
Society 4"):
101 - 1.).
H till lI1lel ilH.:k, P. \v.
011 the l(lIIl/eI no. ) .
Il)-l.O , \
loll llsks of th e g(, llcr;l Ceriol1 alld 'I'm/ora. Studie.s Antha. BO/Jaire, lind the Vel1e:uelal1 Islands,
of Cura~lIf).
IlUSSOIl ..-\.1\1 .. il nd L. H. lIolthllis 1l/6g. O n the typl..' of All fifope leucofJ/wea Pallas, 17 j6, prescn ed ill the colk:<:tio ll of the RijkslIlIIse11111 ,',1I1 '\aluIlrlijke lli .~ l o r ic Leidcn. Zoo!ogiljche .\ lededelillge/J ++= '47- 5j ,
- - - 19i5 . ' I'he e;ul ies t fir;urc::i of the Bhl
kind s of anima ]...;? AlI1ericdll ;\ ·"turali . . t 9, : 145-;'-)·
H u'\ley. '1'holl l;.1s I k llry II-;SO. The Crarfish: , \/1 Ill trociliction to the Stud." uf7.(J ~ %gy. Lond O!l : C. Ke~all Paul.
B I H I.I()t:1I \l' l i '
- - -
I X9~. l ','l"o /litio ll
(/l1cll':,ilics. I ,olJ(loll: \lal'lllilhlli ilnd Co.
Jall ze n .
n. JeJ7 /'
\\ 'hat
(bndcli oJ)", ,l1ld
II I :
:;~ 6-~l) .
Ord
Jore[;lll, 1)<)\"lel Sl
or
York: World Books Co. Keye s, Iblph Il)9~ . ;\'ice (;11),,-; Fillish Sel'cll lh: Valse Phra.~es, S/Jllriolfs Sc/yill gs alld Vall/iliar ;\ li.<;qlf()tctti ()II.~·. \:c" York : I-brpcr.
KIlll hc1. \\'. II. . D. C. Joll
Kuhn, Tholll,lS S. 11)02 . The Structllre orSciel1lij/(: I{cl'o[uliolls. Chic<'go: UniYc rsi ly (lfClli c
Jf.
\(N~. JII ~ec: t di\'c r~ih ill
th e
ros~ il
record .
Scie llec 261: ";10- 15.
Llp LlCc. IliclT(: Si mon r; <)6 (:\11 IV ). l';Xf)o.... ilioll du srslc1I1c ell! momle. P
- - - IRI2. 'J'h corie analytiqlle des prolulbilites. Pilris: \'c. Coufcicr. Lillll '!l'US , Ca rolm 1730. hmdamcllta holo niGa. Aillstcrd
- - - !iSH. Syslcl/U1 nail/we per regil d Iria Iidl ufae. sec1IIIdu I1I cldsse.~ , or· dines, gener" , specie. . , Gum dwracferihll.\", ditlcre/l lii.~·. syl1o/l.\" lIIi . . , loch'. Stoc:khollll: 1.. Sa h-ii. l,orell"., K. 197 1 { ori f:;ill all~' p1lbli shed ill 19;01. Pari and pa rcel ill a nilllal a lld hlll11<111 societi es. In Sluclies III;\lIimol (il/cl i JUIl1CIII He/w l'Ior. \"01. 2 . 11 ; - <):;. Call1hridgc, i\ I'ISS. : I LlIY
I ,yel l, C harles I H 10-1 H~~. Prill ciples
or Ceolog.'".
~
\'() ls. l ,(llldoll: John
\ltHr~I\·.
\I" oDonald. ). D .. 1(. fl. Pike. and D. I. Willi",,,,o,, 195i . Lan·,," of th e Hrih, h Spc.:clL'S o r I)iogell es. Pagurus, ;\I1ClfJaglirus
-
Robert !'1.lqH l) . .-\n illOrdillilk fo nd!I <.: .. s rora nt s. XCl tllre 'H1 : 3H6--B7.
- - H)tl9. High tahle 1<11<.::-.. i'\atllTe H I : 61.)::;.
;\ krca ti . \l ic h ~I CI 1 7 19 . ,\ l ela/loth ec.:a l"lJliC(1I1C1. Edi ted by ]. \ I. 1,"ll c i ~ i . Rom e:: ]0 . .\lcJriillll S'lki olli .
BllllIUC1\\l'1!~
\ Icrtoll, Rohcrt K. lY():;. On the S/lOulclers of Ciants: ,.\ Shal7dedl1 Postcri/Jt. Nc\\ York: hTC Prc,~,~. :\h'~'cr<;,
Jeffry 1l)92. r;dgar ;\//0/1 Poe: Ilis Life alld LcgaC\',
~C\\'
York: Charles
Scribner's Sons. i\lohr, I
Pare~·.
i\ 1011111, Jcffrcy 1i., S t
Doellilc HiS(). Carbon ~lllcl O\ygCII isotopc stratis;raphy of the l Jpper \ laasIriehtian, :;:nJlla~'a, Spain: a reeorel of oceanographic ,mel hiologic ch;]nge~ at the elld of the Crcb.l('eollS Perioci. Pa/aios 1: f);-
H):;(),
Heclho)'elJ f<:llcyc!o/Jeciid.
]\IC\\"
York: Philosophic]ll ,ibrar~·.
:\ ikLls, K. J" R. .\ I. Brm\ n Jr., ,1ml R, S<.\Iltos 19K::;. LJ Itrastructural \tc.Jtcs of prcser",llioll in Clarkia .\llgiO\pcrm lcaf tissllc\; illlplicatiollS on modcs of fos,~il i/,al iOll ill laic Cell%ie It islor~' of tlie P<'leifie. III Charlcs J. Slllilcy (cd.), I ,CI/e Cello,zoic , Tislory of/ he Pdci/IC. San Francisco:, \lllcrican ,\ssoeiatioll for the ;\el"<.I1ICClllCllt of Science, 14:;-::;9, Richard lyKK. Sclllls\cr.
:\\\011,
I<)<jlf
Victory \\'ithout
"'(Jr.
1':e\\' York: SilllOil alld
crRiorclall, C. I':. H)k"). The 0."a(u((Ifl-Ih;tw:' .\/uselllll, Duhlin. Dllblin: Stationer\' Officc. Osborn, IIcnry F,lirficld Il)2+ Three llC\\' Theropo
Pallas, Petcr Simoll 1"766, \liscellallea .::(}olo~ica quihus IlOl'ae imprimis (/tque ohscu ((Ie (/ II i11/(/ IiUIII spec ies desc ri hUll t1l ret o/Jsen '(/ t h)/ I i hus iron ihznque i flus/r(lII/lir. The Hague: p, \',lll Cll'Cf. 22+ Poe,
Fd~~H ;\Ibll
liS")l). The COl1ch%gist's I"irst Hook: or, a System ofTes/aceous .\Ia/oc%gy Arranged Lxpresslr for the Use Schools. Philadelphia: 1bs\\'cll, Barrington alld Ilas\\'cll.
or
Roberts, \I
---10-+6. The Progress u{Credfioll. 1,ondon: Slllith, l':lcler and Co.
or 1-f isfory. (hforcl: lin i\'crsit) Pre';s. Russell. Her! rami 1(/i;. The l\II{o/Jiogra/Jh)' or Hertra ncl H..usse//. Hmton: I ,iltle. Rupkc, \: icobas :\.
H)0"),
The Creal Chain
Bre)\n\.
Russell,
J.
B.
UNl.
llll'entill£, the Iilat J-<arth. :\c\\' York: Pracger.
Schiebinger, I ,oncicl 1l)91, 'I 'he pri\
H I H I . l()C :H \I'l l~
it.r: Cender and Scientific Enquiry ,/80- HJ..I5. \le\\ York: Oxford ll nin:r;-.ity Press. l21--n.
- - - H)<13. \\,h~'1l1 aI\1I 11
Scilla. Augostino 17-f:. De c()r/JOrihll,~' /1/(u;lIi.,; la/)ide~ceJ1tilms. Ruheis.
ROl1le:
.\!lIOll ii
Sh ee hall, P. H, D. /<: , /o'asimsk R. C;, 11offll "Ill II , C. [), Ikr~halls , "lid I), I .. (~;lbricl H)91. Sllddc ll <.::\1illct i(Jll of lilt, dil1os,lllrs: I ,;,1!c C rC'ta ecOl ls. Upper ere . l! Pbills, U.S ..-\.. Science ='-5-t= g~::;- :;l). \i
She ll ey,
Signor. P. \V ..
Slater, .\. F. H)S!. Biologica l proble11ls of Sp.1C C flight.
/011 I"IIcI I of th e
British 111 ·
ter/)/m letmy Sodet~' 10: IS-J-::;R.
Smith . :\.1. I ,.. j . \-. Bruhn ,;md J. P. Andcrson 1992. The fun gus ,\nllilldriCi 1m/hose/ is illllo ng thl.' bn;e.~t and olde~t li\'ing org;lllisllls. Satllre i5(): -J2H-)l.
Snltis, P. S., D. E. Soltis. alld C. J. Smiley 199='-. ,\11 rbel seq lle nce frolll a l\ lioCCJl <: 'I'l.Ixodi!l11l (bald c~vrc~sl. Proceedings ofthe \'atiol1a/ /\cadelll ,r of Sciellce lIS,\ R'r +jt)- ; l. Stolleking. \tlfk 199i. /)0."A and reccllt human C\·OllltiOIl. 1';l'(j/litioIWI), /\11lilro/m/ngy 1: 6o-7~' Slork. :,\igel E. 19RH. Imccl di\·C T;-. jt~·: t;H.' ts, fictioll .llld specllhlt ioll. Bi%giccd /oll1"1wl o{the Lilll/eU/1 Society 3'::;:: V1-' 7.
or
a TlIh. \\"rillell If)r the l/lIil'cr.wllllII/J(()l'emellt or :\ 11I IIki Il(I. '/'0 \ \ 'lliell is Added, (/Ii A(."cou III of HattIe Betlreen the Alltiellt (/Ild ;\.]odem Books ill Sf. Jam es Lihrar~,'. Londoll : ) . :\utl.
S\\'ift, JOllathan 170+ A Tale
Symolls. Jlliian It)7~1 The 'fell-'j'lI/e Il earl: Th e [,;(e al1d \\'orks o{t'dgar AI/all Poe. 1'\C \\" York: "Lnpcr & RO\y. 'I'cl1n ~'son, Al fred,
Lord 1H50. III :\lel11or;um. Boston : Tickno r, Reed
~lIld
Fields_ 'l'IIC\\'issc n, J. C . ,\1.,
hC;Jr in~
in
B III I
!()(; It \ I' ! !Y
- - - and t\1. ,\ri;1109+ Fo~~ i! l'\ id c ll tc for th e o rigin of aqlwtic loco1l1otioll ill aTchaeocc\c \\- halt.~, Science 2 (1 ~ : 210- 12 , 'l'hOlIlP:-'(l\! . D. \\ '. \(;)42. On Cmll'th (/lid FOri/I. Call1hrid;;c: Cambridge U ni-
\·cr:-.it\"
Prcs .~,
\ ';11 1VaJcll, I ,cif;h 1l)6(), Dc1btlicridia, ;1 Ill'H" ordcr of 1ll<.llllllUb. Blllletill of/he
AI1U!ric£l1I Al wWlIl1I o(X(/tllra{ '-lil> /or'!: \12 : 1-
\26.
\-\'a lmsck, Dicier. a[Jd Kbtls J. .\liiller H)l)+ PClItastolllid parasik o;, fro m tilt.: I ,oncr Paleozoic of S\\T,(h.;Il. 'I'ranwu;lions th e /{o)'(d Society Edinbllrgh , Fara, ScielJce H:;: 1- 17.
or
-
-
R. \1. Kri slellScll H-}<)+ ,\
or
titall half ,I bi llio n \"(..',1rS old slc l1lgroup tard i ~rad e frolll Sihcri;l. Proceedings of th e Sixth intemaLiolJal S)'I11/Josium Oil '/·(/rdigrac!cl, Ccllllbricige, Ellgl;ll 1
Illore
\\'ard, Petcr I<)Hi. Th e cxtillctinll of the ;lJIlIllOllitcs. Scientific .America/] 2-1'->= Il (>-47· -
Oil .\/eth wielah 's Trail: 1,irillg fossils clnd the (;reat " l:n· York: \\'. II. Freeman.
- - 1l)l)2 .
\Vl' i s~l1la ll . P'1I11 H-}9+
lllre
~7 o:
Exlil1 cti otl.~·.
CmJld Shor.:IJlah:r-l.c,"~ · 9: the big fizzle is cOlllin;;. \'(/ -
<-)--I--9 S,
\\'hc\\d l, \\'il1i illll IHV. Re\·ic\\· of Prillci/)/es of eeology hy Ch arles Lyell. Quarterly Herielr --I-T IOi-F. - -- IH")/ , History uffhc iJlduclire Sciences: From thc I-<~ (Irliesf to th e Prescnt
Times. Londoll: J. \V, Parker. \\'hitc, Andre,,· Dickso n ,b9(). A /-listory of the \Var/llfe o{Sciellcc with Theology ill Ch ristelldo1ll. Nc,,· York: ;\pplctoll.
\Vhitlley, \\' illi ,llll 1)\\ i ~ht 11)7::;. l.ire aI/(/ Gro wth or I .l1lJglldge. Illtcmalioll'li Sck'lltific Se ri es. Ncw York: D . .\pplclo l1 ,ll1d Co. \Villialll s, Ib ~·lllOll(l ll)b,. The r ear .woo. " en· York: P'11ltheoll Books.
\ \,il~OIl, I":. O. 19<)2. The Diversit)' of l ,i{e, Cam bridge, 1\ Ia s~,: J laT\-ard 1JlIi\"C r."i t\· Press. \\'olff, 'l'orhell H/H. !)tscripli o ll of;'1 rl'llwrbblc dec p sea hermit {'rab, \\ ith nol l'S 011 th e.. : t\"(l llltion of the Paguridea. Calc/thea Heport --1-= 11- ")2, Z lllllbach. F. '1'. 1<)86. Fdgar :\Ibn Poe: 1':illC Biograp ltic. Verlag.
~ llllli c h :
\Vinkkr
Index
\bbott, R. TucKer, 217 ;\bt.,lc. Lam, 11-;, lllJ-2() :\dams, John. 429 adaptation llllliliplc adapti\'c peaks, r I ill Roberh's bOOK olllllo1111SKs, 19S Aesop, S I \friea, human ()fi~im ill, 101-i. 10)-~ ,\fricalL':>, £;enc1ic \:Hialio]] :llllOlll.;, 106 \~,mi/, I ,olli~, 24-2).46,47 :\Ihert I prillce cOlL'>ort, FlI~Lllld), ()() .\ldrm·'IIldi, t:lis~c, 210,421 \Ic\.'lllcler I (CJ:ar, Rmsi
22'3 fo~~illll,lllllllah
Iwlb of, 249-S9
,1ll1llIOllilcs, 1 ::;)-SS
,lllah-si~
of \;niam:c, 2t)7 \lIebrslriilIl, Jakoh JOhdlI, 41-;, 41 X :\nclcrson. J.P" 1i6, 1i,1lI~impc]']m {IlO\\'erilll.; pLods I, lJS-J 00,
.\qllinas. Thollla) (~
.\rchac()jJtcn'x, )()O
\rif. \
r::;_'7() ')l),41,42, S::;,22 (),.2::;l), ,)44,
(Ukllllllld(l, j(l),
,\ri~lotlc,
4,)lJ Annil/aria hu/ho,W1 (rllll~llsj. ,))fl-40, H) ;\nll\troll~, \:ei1. I () I :\riemia ,,'aliI/a (brine ~hrilllpL j9), 196 .\r\iJropod~, 11~,
116
:\S
.\,r"". 1l,J. 1411
;].':>trc)ll()lll\ comet 'Shoclllakcr-I ,e\'\' 9, 160-62, 16S,lh0:-6LJ CopCmiC
29-')-; (.apJacc's celc,,:>\ial IlH.'ciJanics, T-2() ~obr
eclipscs, 4-lO ohject ,mel, 16-;-6~ \\'()lllCll ill, 1::;9-(1()
Tllll~\lsb
\Icbballiall ,<,bl~C. 9-;
Amcll\\i\z {Poland), ill ;\ldra/()jJilhec1IS, I is, 14:; Australo/Jithecus a{arensis, 1')0:-44 :\wlnifopilhcclIs rdlnidu.~. I jl)ll
;]utapOIllorphics,2::;f;. A)'shcaia. 11 i
III; Allllill£;. \\ar:-. 1St)
WI (lntclopcs, hhllm-boek (blile
272, 2-;::;-SI \11\\',lr, \iohalllll1ael. i6fl, ')-;::;--;() apartheid. ) I) ,lphid~, 140-41
BaCOll, Sir Francis, ~.\ -<), S I-x:':, S::;, 12::;. IlJ9 Bacon. Ro~cr, 42, 4; BaC()lliall paraelm. 7S-S2. bS BaeL Karl Lrm\ \011. 262 Baker, Il.B., )S) ballooning. 44-;-48
+6')
l:\nl.\' bamboo
\t~)\k-, "))9
Brachiosauru.~ IdillO\
Itnber, I Xllll, 19()
fhnlll1lll, PT., ltnollio,
~~::;
Ce~ar(:', 2()-~1
/1am.wwnJ.<; (dino~aur\), 221
bascldl, ")4") /1mi/osdurus, ")()::;-()6, ")6l) Bcde (\~lilll; Venerable liedel, ")S-")9, +2, .-H, 49 bec\, W:; Bcethon'll, I ,ud\\'i!; \",111,264-66 hcetle.,> I LdcLllle Oll, ")-8-82 \pccic~ of, ")h2-S~ Besr;, Colin B., 12::; BeJ/ec. ") II BCIlth,lll), krelll\, -:-S--:-9 Berlill, k)\c .\.,12::; BemaL I.D., lSI Bihle a,c;e of e
BrO\\"ll, R.~l.,
Jr., 4()~
Bnmll, Thol11a~, 1-;--.)-!-)2 Br()\\"ll(', lanel, 4H, 4")-:-
BrO\\"I1c, \ Lllcohll \\""., 1()2 J.i\., ")")(1, :;:;7 Hrl\~C
Hm~c~s Shall', 11") Buri'den, John, 42 Burke, I':dlllllll(l, "ii, 1))", 197-9t-\ Bl1~~, I.co \Y., :;9::;
Hiitt11cr, ).\\'.F,., .26,)
2-;-::;-SI bL\ck bC, ") I
Cain, A)., ")f)O Caillbrian np[osioll, CJ6-l)!-), J(J), 104, liN-I i. II~, II'!. 1211 ('<11 leer, 194 ~mokinl; ,mel, 29-:--")0.2, ")()-;-s Cano, R.J., 225 ClllSCCO, Josc, :;-f:;
rape allHllll;, 4")")
species of, ")~n Birgus {atm (crab), 194-9::; blaa\l\\"buek Iblm' ank-Iopei, 272.
Black-tollc, T\.\\'., ")')::;
eareiuizatioll, )94
Blake, Willialll, IH. 2112, 4T, 4411-41
Carli.,>lc, Lord, 2.)l)
B"II.i\, :- . Lnt\·, .+::;-:hIm' \\-h
C,)w)n,
Hoclc. 1.1>:., HS
("atastrophi~lll,
BOl.,;art, Iltllllphre:-,
C;1TToll. I ,c'\\-is, "i\'
rs
Borr,1(bi!c, 1,.:\., ")94
Botanical Socicl\' of I.icldleld, 4") I Bot.mic
471l
2Hm
Brac!l\ma, ")91, ")9:; brain.,>', latu,diJ:atioH of. 12fl Bra~iu, Clin:, :;:;k-:;l) Bride oj" 1,'rollkell,~1eill, The (film, I (j)S I, ::;4, :;() Briti\h llllcrpbllct,lr:- Sm.-iet:-, ")81
n., ")f):;-S6 16:;-69
eele~tiaJl11cch,ll1ies,
r
-2LJ
Centigradc temperature scale, ")() Cerioll (/;lIld ~nail), 204, 261, ")::;2 Cerioll 11)'0 (lanel snail), )46, :;::;2-::;4,
42::;-2h Ceruti, .\1.. 21 (i Cetacea (\\ Idc.'> <Jll(l dolphin_,», ")fl2,
ro
Chambcrlain, Joli1\, :; 12 Chamberlain. \'alcric, 40") Ch,lUccr, (:eoffrc\-, 44() Chckhm, _\llltH), ')4, CIll'llll1\o, :; 11
cllilclrCl1 Burbank OJl, ~92-l)4 Fi~hcr 011, ")():; chil1lp
Chri~tianih
Illt carth theor~' and, -H-4:; see aho religion clnollolo.s;y. i~~IlC~ ill Baconian p,Jr;ldo\, "7K-H2, S::; cilcillge ill millennia, I :::-~") cli\-icling hi~tor~- illto pcriod,\, ")l.)-40 cli\i~i()11 hel\\(:t'll B.C, ancl_\.n., 18-")l.) cladi~tics, 2:;4. 1S9 cladoq,llm, 2:;4 CLlrk, ;\kilJ, l(i() CIMkl', A,rthur c" 22, 2")2 CLlrkialakl' hcd~ (JcLtho), 4())-IO cLL,>s, I·'isller·s c\l~cllics <1ml, ~()j-"7 Clc~g, ~dikc, "III" "II Coatcs, AntllOm- C" 129-") I Colbert, :\ecl, 2"::;:2-54 Coleridge, S,lllluci Taylor, 429 CoiJlTllhm. Christophcr, 19, 41-41,
21:; Willet Shoellukcr-Lcn 9, I ()()·-fi2, I():;, I ()S-h9 . COllllllllni<;1 I}arty (So\'iet Union), I S7 competitioll, 4::; I C;(JI)ch%gis/'" First Boo" i Poc), I "7 ")-S(] eOllc11oI0~~
Poc on, 1-:-;-S6 l\ohcrh 011. IlJ 1-2()() ("onodonh, 119 C()1l\'('f~l'llt C\'OllltioI1, 11--1 S Corncll, I':a,l, 4::; Cor1l\\'allis, Charlcs, ()1 Cmlll,l~ IndicoplellStes, 42--+), 47 CO\H:.ol, _\,,12::; C()\\'l'll, I-tc., 142 crabs, 1l)()-4()() crcationism, 161-h). 4()9, 410 crcole bllijll
I :;I-:;S. I ()2-h), Ih::;, );2 Crichto1\, '\lichacL 22::;-2S, 2)2, n::; crll~ta(Tan,\, 11-; cr: ptohiO\i~, 114--1:; culturc. IHllllaH c\'olutioll ~mcl, 1j-; -j8 CI111llill~ham, C.W., ;9::; Cm
[)a,k\~t'"
,HI
D~H\\'ill, Charl('~,
;-;,62. I ;;,
19~,
198,
"211 011 hlack bcars, ;::;9-(]O, j6; OIl COC\'()llltioll of pbllts alld imccls, l)S c\'()lutioll llot im'clltcclln', 4;() j·'reud Oil, 12:; gr
1"~-"0
J),llwill, J-:ra~nllls, "iii, "i" 428-") I , ,illllacll~ .1Ilc\. 41 j- j::; L()m~ oj'the Plallt.~ b\', 41:;-jk, 44:;-49 i\bn Shclk\- ()]l, hl-62 mcl;lphors \1'scd h~-, 4::;j-::;() J)am ill, Robert. 42k l)alwillislll COlIAic! hct\\(:,CII rcli~ion and ~eicllec
"'
see als() c\'olutioll J),l\'iclsOIl, Ke,IY, 142 D,l\'i), P., 1(12 dcBem, J.C., 22 J)cclpocla (crah~. lob~tl'r~, ,lllci
~llriIllp),
Nl Dc Salle. R., 22:; dCtcTlllilli'>1l1, Laplace\, 26-29 Dc \' ric~, IlllgO, 2Y 1-92 ell' \'ric~. \\'" V;), ~)-f Dil()fJh()sal1nL~' (dillo~am), 22611 DimetrodolJ (dinosaur'l. ~::;6
471
!':\[!i1l£;, rtllph, -;-; --;S
dill(jsal1r~
C()I1I111Crciali/.atioll ill 111l1\Cll1l1\ of. !.i)-')() Crcta('cotl~-'['ertian-
nl;l\S oJinctioll
of,IS(l-SK Cl1rrellt p()pl1larit~- of. 222-2) n\illctioll of, 111-12 a~ llldlphor, 50 IIII\SClIlli di~plan of, 2:;2 popular portrayab o( 222 portrayed il] Jura.~sic Park, 225-1) see al.m paic()lltolof;: Di(j,s;ell(c~, 144 [)i()1l\'si\\~ I<:'..iglills, 1:;-1-:-,1\)-2) D1'\.\ lelcoxyrihOIlllckic ,\ciell of (Crah~, ')9:;
of clillm,lllrs, 22:;/1 from fmsillca\'c~. -1-0:;-11 ]llitocholldri,d 1)'\'.\, IOJ. J()h, 1')K [)orit, Roh, I ()~ Draper, John \\'., -H-4S [)rnlcn, Johll, -;6--:--; Duh[ill \[Il\Clllll of:\';lturallli\ton. 21S-4-:Dl1bli1l :-lucich'. 2)~ I )urochcr, l,co, rs
earlh bihlical c,llclliatiom of ,I::;C of. I) Bllffoll 011 elC\'(;loplllelll of, )6 tbt H'NI~ mlllltL -1-1-49 [':a~lcr, )(), 49 Eberhard, \\'.C., ))1 eel ip\e~, -l--I () l
+72
cllsenlc~
Bmhallk Oil. 2S(J-9) Fishcr\ \lIpport for, ,o:.:-s ~\(>ri!i/.aliom for, Z-4 of\\')S-S<J, ,)9S pll11etll,llcci cl[uilihrilllil theory of. 12-:--)0, j))-)(l <;pill doctorillS: of, )2S-1-1in 'I CI1llno]\ \ /n ,\le1l1orialll,
011.
n" ))
of cli11m;1\lr\, 1-:;2 of raill-fore,',1 ~pc{'ie~. 'I)) ill TellIlnoll'~ In.\[enwria/ll,-7 see aho ;n;\\\ c"tinctions ntratcrrcstrial illlP,lCt thcOl'\' of lll
hm/u,
FallSlo-StcrIillS:, ,\lIlle, 12(J
1<'<1\\"(TIL 111'l1r\', H~ f<:lIl~lle~
llllllll,lll), 'iee \\'0111Cll h.'rc\ill'lllci \' {killg, Ca~lile allci ,\ra~()ll), -11.42 Fdehit, Stepill, 199 hscher, Collhelf IJohallll Cotlhclf h~('h<:r \"Oil \\'aldllcilll), _\ii, :-.:iii, 2fil-~1 fl~h,
1S9 I"i~her, Sir ROllalclA\'lmer, 2lJ~-10:-; nO\n.'rill~ plants {allgiospcnm), 9S-1 (){), III; 1.'1\']])), Jallles 'I '., 2fi";'-69 h;eilloJ}, 1icmi, 2() fo~~il~
frolll Call1hri,lll period, 9";', IOlJ-I::;, II ~ 1)]\;\ fro1ll, 22fi-2-: hUlllan, 11k--n ()fill~Ccls, 9()-]O(), 10::; lack of ill!cnlledi,m fortll~ ill, 16() Ic,1\ 'CS, -+0-+-1 I ' of lllil1lllllah, al.\1llcric:lll \ltl~l'lllll of :\',ll1nallldon-,2-+9-::;9 1ll,I~'> ntillcliom 'pla\'~ of, 2::;2 OfPl'llt,lsirlllll\\,II";,-19 Pllllctuatcd ell'Iilihrillll1 thcon' <111(1, 12~-2l)
Vaticall collcdioll of, 2()9 of \\-h<de~, ")fi")-";,O fraclal geolllctr~-, ")::;) Frallcis ()f_\\~isi {saint). 10 hallk, ;\II11C, 2";,4 l'"ranhem/eill {Fillll, ]Y")II, )")-)7, )9, 611 j(rdl1kel1stein Illmd, Shcllc\'L ::;-+-fi2 Fr,l1lklin, Bcnj
Calileo, 1, 10, -+7, I)"), ")2(), -+1) Callo11, Sir Fr,lUcis, 1()() C<111IO\\', Ccorgc, 2-+9 gC1lCS cll1hr~'Ol1ie clc\'cloPlllC11t ,lIld, n.-;-II properlie,\ of. 142 \',niation ,llllOng hlllllCl1l raccs (Jf, 111;-6
gellc1ics eugellics and, 10~ Fisher's ellgenic.\ and, ")()2 of fungi, ))k :-"lcllllcliall,291 POPllbtioll ~ellctic~, 2()7 prcdi.~positioll for sll1okill~ in, 101 gCIICb,140 genocide, j()LJ-l~ (;eologieal Socid\' of London, 1-+7 --+x, ISS geolog~
Callibriall period in, 96-llS Fischer's onlcrillg of time ~c<Jic of, 2(] I in Tcnll\-~(ln\ III \/ellloriam, -()-~2 Illcon ;\;ld oh~elyali(]ll linkcd ill, I-! ~ --IS 111\ iform ila ria II i~ III \'er~ I J.\ cat
C:ot! ch,l1lcllgecl in Franh!lls/ein, ))-::;4,61 Fimkin on, )S";, fOlldnes,\ for bcctle\ of, ~7S~S2 imoked ll\' :\('\\1011, :::)-26 ill /uwssi(: Park (film, 1(9)),212 [,illllacu~ (Ill, -+22-24 ill llatmal thcolog~, ")~7-~S in Roherts',', hook 011 IllOIIIL,>b, 19)-l)(1, 199-2(){) Cocthe, Johann \\'olfgallg \'011, )(]) Coilo, L.R., 14K, H9 Coicll!Jl'rg, I':. \ I., 4()(), -+0-:C())lld, John, IS9 ~radmli'"1, I)"", ill 011, 1;(1 (:r,]\', .\sa, 1S9 Creecc, 442--+-+ en.''', :\'ehcllliah, 20:;-K Criffiths, \irs. \.\\'., ISCJ-90
1'\])1-::\
!lot thc rC\Il!t of l'\"()iutioll
progrl'~~,
:;27 I hleLmc, J.B.S., "iii, ~-+ 011 bedlc\, ~'7k-0:~, ~0h-B7 I !allam, ,\rllmr, ():;-()(), -;-1. -:-1-';":; llu{fucigenia, 111 I bmmarsijiild, na~, 4n-2+ I Lllldc1, Ceor~e Frederick, ~+()-+7 I brian, ]{., 16:; I I
IS-;--SS 1l,III)cd hy l.illn'lClls, 4 IS, 422
47-1
place of origill of, 101-'3, 10)-'; portr;l~
])CJ-:;f-; -'>tlldies of differcllcc~ bdm-,cll scxcs in, 12h J IUlllholdt, :\le\:,llIdcr \'()]J, 2()2 I-Iulllillelinck. P.\\'., :;::;~, 1::;4 lli!~~ai!l, ST., 164, :;CJ() IlllSSOI1, :\, [\ I" 2-:-9-S() llnlchimol!, C. En'lm, :;';~, :;SO J Ju'\lcy, Tholll;lS J lCI;r~, 4S, I HS, ~79, :;SO on ilIlloralih- of !la/mc, 29::; Oil scielltifi~' progrc~s, -+ I S-lY Oil 'i'c1l11\'son, h:;-6+, i) h~-dridiJ:atiolI, 290
Ibrahim Sh,lh, S.\1., ')()+ i1l1111igratioll, 2S8, :;():;-6 illdi\ idu,llity of organi~Ills, :;:;7-42 IlIcI(Jcelll,~' ranwni (cark \\'hale), '3(J()-()7, 1()9, 1~1, 1~:; illfl'rti1ih -' '3():;-() In .\[ell/oriam (pOCIll, 'I'cnn~\on), 6)-';::; imceh aphids, HO--+ I bcetles, ,)S2-k,;" eo('\ ollltiOIl \\-ith pbnts of, 98-1 () I , IIH-i Irisll clb, nc;, ~·HI Ir\'il1l;, \\'a~hi1lglon,-+1 IsabclL! I (qucen, Caslile alld ,\ras.;o1l), 41,42 1/\lIni, \lr., :;r
Jalllc~, Willialll, 4:;) JaIlZCIl, Dilll, '3-1-0-4 I Jc:am, j,lllIC\, :; Jefferso1l, '1'llOmas, I S~, 16:;,41:;,429,
H,
Jcsm Christ, 2::;0 ('.\tinwtecl datc of birth of, 1::;-16 in miltellariallihinkillg, Ii silencl' of, In je\\ s of Cllfa~'
Johamon, Donald C., l1H--+O jordan, [J,wid Starr, 24-25 IO\n:tL Bcnjamin, j~l)-HO jO\Te, Jaml'~, lOS, 1 jl-j2 Ju'pitcr (planet!. I GO-62, 169
Jurassic Park Uihll, 19(1), :;::;, 222, 22"3, 22:;-j-;lura,<;sic Pork (IlO\"(.'l. Crichton), 22::;, 22S-29. 2j I, n2 jura~\ic period, 226n Kallt, illllll'lllllC1. 29-jO, 14K, 1+9 Karloll H()ri~, ::;j, :;::;, S6 Kch"ill, Lord (\\'illidm ThOlmoll), 21 KellH)Il, III I., 162 Kerr·ll'H,:k. Kellncth, jS I-S2 Ke\'cs, Ralph, 17S Khru.'>hehe\', ;\ikila, I fC Kicllh,lllm, Francis, 4(H-4 Kiellballlll, \'ickie, ·+tn-4 Killlld, \\'illiamll., ns, l+O, 1++ Kin,;, \larlin Luthcr, Ir" 2-:-4 kill.'; cr,lbs, NO-9j, j():;-99 King Kong (film, 19"B), 222 Kill'<;~lc.:\', Ch,nlcs. -;-2, 19() Kltickner, j.C, 2S0 Klli~ht, Charles K, 2:;j Kolh, Peter, :Z-:;-~6 Korn, Erik, 24:;-4h Kristcmell, It.\ I., II, Kuhrick, Stanle\', 22, 2"32 Kuhn, Thomas ·S., 9:;
I,aJ,al1
I.eidl'll (i\ctherhl1l(b), Hatmal II istor\' 1l1ll~eHlll ill,
274--;-::;, r9-S1
I .ellclm. ~inOll de, -+4C) l.el1nep, j,C. Syh-ills \',lIl, ~SO I .coHdrdo cia \;inci, 175 Len', D~I\'id, 1()(1-61 I .c\\·'ontin, Richard, 1";"1 lichcm, -+2S-")O, 4j, l.ichte1l\\('in, I L, rc) Lincoln, ,\bra1l<11I1, lOS, 120. , I S I.innaell~. C,lfoIHs, xi\, H, I MO, I S I , 2-+4,262 boblIlical taxOllOIll\' of, 4")()-,:;, 44:; Ceri(J1I tlra (Iaml snail! named I)\', )::;, .\bml1lalia coined 1)\', -+,9-40 . on migration of secc(" froll! \Illcrica to ;-.JOf\y'l\', -+5:; on Palla< r7 portrayed Oil S\\'l.xlish Cl1rrCIlC~, 41 i-Iii ~alc of collcctions of. 42, hXOnOl11\ of, 419-24 LiIlIle
;()--S lungfish, ;1s9 Lutra (rin'f ottcr), r2 I.~'cll, Sir Charle~, 6~, 72, 16;,
16::;-6~
i\\ac[)ollakL j.1.)" 39") :\ Iadi.\on, j,IIlle:::', 1S2
,\/agrwfio (tree), 40::;, 406 _\/ogllofiu /utohellsis (tree), 4()6 \/dgIlO/iU /IJacroIJh!-1la (trec), 40.\lai~trc, joscph dc, 2GS Ill
blaall\\'!Jock Iblile antelope), 2";",-SI coincd 1w Linllaem, -+")9-40 fossils or: at :\llleric,lll \lllSCUIll of \J,lhnall listory, 249-59
475
marine, ,)()2 prilll
lllollllsb Poe Oil, l-:-j-Sh
trallsilion frOlll rcptiles 10, j() 1
Roberh\ hook
\\'h,lic~,
.'iCC
;6')--;-(J \lanabl"
\Llr\:, KnL ')4A lll
e_"tinctiom, l-+l)-~l CrdaccOlls-Tcrlian-, I 51-5h, ';;2 c:\tratcrrc~tri,d illlp;~ct theory of, 1A2-A5 PerJui,lll, I m;!~~ media
un
Oll
Cilmbriall cxplosion,
9f)
Oil coc\"oilllion of imects and pJanh,
III; dil)OSam~
portr,l\"cd ill,
2n
on discmcry ofhurnan fo-,,~ib, 1-+2 011 c\"ollltion, ;2S-H Frankensteil1 (film, pp, I L ))-::;9 Oil
191-20()
\ JaIHoc, Jalllcs, 1k2 .\iontaignc. \[icill'l dc, ix _\/ontastraca, 129-j I :\lontgolficr brothers, 4-f;-4S mor,llill", j 1:-; .\Iorc, '-I 'hom as (saint I, In \ [orclawl, ~ bntan, 199 .\ [orrison, Philip, 9 \JmcO\\ (Icbhol. -+01-2 i\lo~cs Ibiblic,d). +4() :\[o/,arL \\'olfg
[)uhlin\,
11I11l1an origim, 102
Oil,
~ll
2-;S-4~
/ura,%ic Farl: (film, ]99')),221-;-;OIl lll
gift shops ill, 22h
on turn of CCllt1l1Y (lklJ9-llJOl).
r'!-kl \loscO\\'\ 26:;-64, 2()h--;-1 Peter Ihe Crcat's (St. Pdcf.\hurgl,
21-2)
"
\[ay, Bob, ')-;-9, ,)kO
\/egaccros gigallteus i1rish clb), 2;9, 240 i\[cmlel, Cr<:~or Joha!lIl, 2lJI \lendcli,lll g,cllctic~, 291. 2lJ-; \1creali, \Iichele, 20S-9, 216 \Ierioll, Robcrt K., -::-S-SO
++;-4:; dino\
lllcLlplwrs,
4:;;~:;()
.\/eta.~eqlloia
(da\\ll rcdIHlOd trcel, 4U:;,
411b \1c~"crs, Jeffry, 176
Leic\cII\ (;"\etherbnds), 27+-75,
'\,lpolcoll I)OIl,lpartc (clllperor, Francc), 25, -;0,264, 2AS ;'\apo]eon III (cmperor, ],'r,lIlCC), -f 1-;I\atioll, Cam', natural hist()~\ booh In \\:omcll Oil, 190-2()O funding for, 2-:-() TII.I-Iu:\lcYOl),41lJ see d/sO IllllSl'l1m"~ of Halmal histOlY
n
\Iiehcl, Helen, 1:;1-:;2 \liddle .\gc,. 411 III iddle C;H bOl}(,'"~, :2 :;CJ. ;() I llIillenni,l, chall£;c of, 12-1;. 1()-2:; \Iiller, Jonathan, 2-f~-4CJ minor ph~ b, lOi)-20 \Iitehcll. \\;!rid, 15lJ, IhO
H,lilmd ~clcctioll, -f~:; a(h-cllltage~ 10 illdi\'idllal~ in, {?9 c\ idcnec for, ')()O Fishcr\ t'll~cnics and, -;04
\litehcll, \\'illiam, J()()
see d;.)() C\ olUtiOll naturallhcology, :;-::-;-:-~ ll
lllitocilOllclri<11 [);\_\, 10], 4116-~
i\lohr, [':m;l, TS, 219 \ lollllsc,l, 1SO
476
also
we), :;-;8,
Hitler
Oil, ,)1~
illdil idual orgalli~1l1~ ill, H 1-42 in \\"dllmcc Protocol, :; I :;-le)
nebular ~t'IIL
h~p()thcsis,
P,wl, 2()()
:;1-:;,), '):;, ;6
:".... C\\-Irlll, Sir Isaac, ~:;-2S, ~4, 79, 8(), 41:; :\c\\" York. Cih- of, ;27-28 \olar cclip~~ ill, 4-10 l\iklas, K,nl J., 40:;-7 I\i:"..()]I, Richard, 22
ohjccti\'ih', 148-4l) O'Briell, \Villi~, 222 obsen;ltion, 214 thcory lilllt'd \\ith, 1+7-4l) O'Casc\", Scan, 1 ~ I Oldcll, Ilellf\", ():;-()() On~ chophor:l (\ eh-ct \\-OflllS), li2-J ~ Orc~llIc, ,\ichoia~,
42
2:;6 Pcntaslolllicla (IOllgUC \\'Oflll~), liU-12,
1H-cll Permian ntinctioll, IOU, 1-+9-50 Peter lithe' Creal; (".rar, Rms),)), 2(1l-()2 pholo,;rapll\', 2 I ~ pich;ill lall':;llCl,o:;es, ~4S, ~:; I Pinncpcdi;l, ;()2 Pim IX (pope; Pio '\ono), 4() placcntas, 2:;4, 2:;-;plants Burbank's \\"()rk \\-ith, 2S:;-92 COC\"Oilltion of imcch \\-ith, \)S-I 01,
1114-; Er
O'Rio]"(llll, CE., ::;9, 240 Orstcn fcw,ils, 117, 11 Ii Oshorn, I Ic 11 IT Fairchild, 221-22, 2~() olh:r~ (/ ,utra
Pag!lr!l,~
pclycm~llm,
(cTab)' ;9()-l)9
Pagllr1ls hemhardll.~ (hermit cmb), ;9; Pakicetus ((jldc~l \\"Ide), )64-6:;, '369, ;-;:; pabllltology, 94-9:; h~chcr\ coining of, 2() 1 fUlldillg for, 2H lllllllan, I '3f)-44 illlportallce of Call1hrian nplmion to, 1II') of imceh, l)9-i 00 llla~~ cxtinctioll:' ill, 149-:;S, i()'3 pIlllChlaled eqllilihril11l1 thcon Ill, IT-"30, J)S-'3() Roberts on, 200 lilllill,s;ofCalllbrianl'Xpimion in, l)()-l)h \\'OlllCll ill, 1 ~l)-<)() see a/.w; dillo:.aurs
fo.,>~illcaycs,
4(H-11
Linn,lcm\ cb~siflCltioll of. 424, 4'3()-):; ~cqlloia trccs, '3 ~(J sC"llalih' of, 4~9 ((sed ,I:' -\ubs, ;;:; platc tectonics, 164-6:;, )2~ I)lato, -;-7, H4 Plill\"lhc Elder, )()) phll~l~, 2H() Poe, Ed,s;ar .-\1Lin, _xiii C()nch{)l()gi,~t\ First Bo()k h~, 17;-S() Po\l~idae,
)98-99 .\in
ine\"ollltioll,2:;()-:;1 ;SS-S9, W7, )9S publicatioll hi~lS, 12 :;-2~ plIllciu
i\ilc\-, \\'illi;Jlll, ;-;7
P,<1L;" Peler Simoo, 2(,2, 27~ -~O P,lpi,IIllClltll iI
i:;:;-)(),1:;2,442 ;:;2,
'3:;4
"
on IlIllll;Jn c\-oilltioll, 142-44 Pytha,s;oras, I H
lXlf
Porafithodes camtsclwticd ~9(),
par,l~itcs,
(kill£; crah L
'396 11 ()
parillcllo£;cnc~i.),
HO-4 I Pascal, Bbise, 2\):;, H4 Pu\'(} crista/liS I peacock), H; pc,lcocb, )'3(), H2-4; Pcirce, C.S., 94
T;JCC Burh;mk on, 28k-klJ Fi~IH:r\ (,(I~cllic~ ;m(l, ;04 gcnetic \",Hiatioll ,1l1lOIl,s;, iO:;-6 Ilitleron, :;i2 \\-,lllllsce Prolocol Oll, :; 1:;-14 rain f()rc~h, )S)-S:;
477
Rak, Yocl, 11S, HII rmuds, j j9-40 rape, -t))
R;wencL I-:dlllllllcl, 1-::-::; I\;)y, john,4,Y Ra~a, S . .\lallllloocl, ,66, r::;-76 Ra/lllllO\'~ky,
.\lcbci KirillO\'ich, xii, "iii,
264-65, Z(i7--;-1 Ra/ulllO\-~k~,
;\ndrci Kirillm ieh (prince,
Rm~ia), 26::;-6~,
270, 271 Ra/lilTlO\'sky, Kirill Crigon.'\-ich, 26; reli~iOll \,1)" ik-,9 earth theon- ;md, -+ )--!-::; millellnia] thil;kin,q; in. 1)-14 science in conllic.:t \\'ith, -f::;-)() ill TCllllYSOll's In ,\lemoriarn, 72-7:;, 7::; Remher£icr, 8()~ce, 14-2
(hisioll bchn.'cll 11,(:, ,llld A~lt
rcprodllctioll h~
'HO--f I 16 ill naf\\iIli~lll, HZ b\' fungi, ))7-i?-; b\' hlllll,lllS, liishcr on, :;(n-7 D,]f\\'iII 011, :;
iIl(hidllai ;]th-;\lltagcs ill, :; :;()-) I
In
lllJlllllUh,
2::;-+
b~' pbnls, -HZ-i), +FJ--fh sc:\.ual, c\'Oiulioll
I 14-1 ::;
tr,lIlsition to mammals from,
;6\ R'\,\ (ribonucleic
\C1CnCC ae<;liJctic judgnlclll ill, l)1-94 Freud on rcmlllliom in, ;21-27 fll1lding for, 2H, 2-;'() '1'.11. Iluxlc\' on progress in, -+ 18-19
llloralih' amI, ; I S Il1ul!i p I'c discm-er: ill, -;-9-S0
IICg
rcligioll ill cOIlAiet \rith, 4;-SO te,]chill£; of, 9 in Tcnnyson's In .\/emoriam. 66--;'1,
;1-;-+ thcof\ anel oh\cn
147-49 thcorr in, 419-20 \\'(JllICIl nc\udecl frolll, 1S8-l)O ,\cicntific method, 94 Scilla, _\ugoslino, nO-II Scrope. CY., I G() Seneca, ;44 Sepko.ski, j;Jck~~l)-IO(). lOS \eqllOla lrecs, ))6 SC\\'all, S,llllllCI, 11-12, Il) .\ex differellCes in hllIIlan fossils, ];l) sludie\ of, 126 scxll
429-H of pl
\\'illi'lIll, 12;, nl, 221, ;]9, ;-;2 Shechan, Petcr, 1:;6-::;7 Shclll'\, \1;ln \\'olhtonccraft, ::;4-62 SIIOcll'Jakcr, C:arolillc, 160-61 Shocmaker, (;CllC. 16U-6 I Siegesheck, Johann, 4:; I Sigllor, Phil. I:; I Signor-Lipps effect, 1 SI, I S2
Sacb, Oli\'cr, :Z4S-4h
SilllOm, F.L., ;6S-()() Sinclair. Da\-id. 1-6 Sircllia. ;()2. ro Si'Xtus I (popeL 20S Si_'\!tlS \' Ipopcl, 2m; Slater, .\.1<., lkl
Santm. Ie 40-; SciJicbingcr, Lowla, -+H, 4N, -+40
sb\'c~ ancl ~Ll\er:, H-:- -4S, -H9 Slll('Cllk, Cllfi\, 2-:-:;, 2-:-9
R""dl, DE. 164 RlISsell, ).Il., 411-4i RI\S\ia, 2fd -G2, 2G4, 26 -;' -69
47R
Schlegel, II, 2SIl-K I Sclmar!7, IIillel, 12, ]-;" 19-21
Sl1lik\-, Ch:1fks j. (j:lckl, "-HH--:-, 411 Smith', ,\Cblll, :;29 Sl1lith, B.II., 1())-66 Smith, Cyril, 211 Smith, j,OI1CS E(hard, 425 Smilh, \1.1.., 'B()-1h ~l\lokinf::;, 2Y-:--1()2, 1()~-1)
TalaH:ra, I-icmanclo de, 42 TardiW<1tb (\\',ltcr be<1r~J. 112-1:; TdxodiulII (hald e~pres~ trecL 406, 40b
~naih
I
Ccrioll !l1"[ (Lwei snail I, H6, 1)2-54, +25-26 Cre\\' 011, 20)-k :-"1ercati Oil, 2UK-l) 1-:-1-b() ill! l~tr
OIl,
re\-er~ecl
Smwm, jlliian, \-:--6 ~\"napsid opcllillf::;, 2:;6
Lillll;l~m\. 419-~4 of planh, I ,illll,lcm 's, -+ ')()-1:; 'l'chaikO\'sb-, PnJtr !lich. 264 Teleosti (higher hony fi.\hcsL 2)2 'l'cI1!1\-\On, Lord .\Ifrecl, \),1 :;1,1:;4 In \Iernoriarn I)\', (d--::-:; tercdm I\\'ood-horin,; CI
~pCCIC~
of bcdlcs, 1S2-S";' of imcch, % I ,apLlce on, :;:; Linll,lell\\ laVJllOlllY of, 419-24 Il,l!lICS f::;iYclI to, :;():; in natural scleetion, 129 places oforigil' of. 102 pllllelllated eljllilihrilllll Iheory of Cklll!;C in, I 27-1{), 11)-16 in TCllll\'SOIl's III _\Iernoriarn, 69--;-0 "1\ pc" 'ipccill1cll of, Z";,9 Spielhcrg, Stcn.'ll, n:;, no, nl, 2H-:;) Stalin, joseph, I b-;sl:1pc\ (car bOllCI, 2:;6, 2:;-;\tltistics, 124-2:; correlatioll ,1m] cl11~alih ill, Z96 Fi\hcr\ :l1l<1IY\i~ of \-ari,incc in, 20-;Stcillhrcllllcr, (:cor!;C, 2)() stcri Iiza ti OIlS [orced, ill U,S., 2";,4, 25";' \\'<11111SCe Protocol on, 114, :;1-:Stnem, William K., )12-)1 Stork, Nigel K, 1S2, 11):; Sulli\"lll, Sir ,\rthur S" 9:;, I ";'l), :201 Sulzhcrger, _ \rtllm OelL'-" :;:;4 Suprcme Court IlISI, 2-:-4, 2?C, ')1-;S\\eclCIl, 41 :;-1-;S\\'ift, JOllatklll. SI-S-f. S6-Ss\\-immins, h\ mammals and h\ fish,
:;-o--:-z
Thomp~()n,
D·.-\rc:' Wentworth. :;, lO:; C.P., 27() timc, sce chron()los~, i\\!Il's ill TOlllIllotialI st
Thllllbcr~,
nl 'I)TclIllWWUnlS
rex (clillo\aml, 22(m,
\lllif()nllilaria[]i~[]l,
2)()
161-6l)
llr:lllm (planet), 44S
\'an \'alen, Lei£.;h, 161 eloc i ral)tor /Jumgo/ ie)J.sis (d i ]H))(1 t 1r L \
f
221-22,
no
Vcrdi, Cimeppi, 41-:-1 S \'ictmia (quecn, hlgLlI1dl, 66, 111 Victorian architecture, =41-41 \ ·olt:lirc. ')26,446 \'rha, Ebahclh, l-B-·1-4
WadIO\\, Rohert. :;:;";' \Vagner, 1':.1':.,12)
\\'aldhcilll, Johallll Cotthdf I,'i~chcr \'on, see I"ischcr, Cotthclf \Vallacc, .\Ifred l{11S~cL 426 \Valossek Dieter, III-I:;, 117-19 \ \'allmce Protocol, ~ I (J-17 \\'arc!, Peter, I :;4-)k \\'a:,him.;toll, Ceor~e, ::7:: \\'dch, 1{,lqllCI, 24k
lI'elL, ,,\,\, leA \\'hale, Jalllc~, 55 \\ halc,\, ~k9 Ambu/(Jcetlls 110tOW;, i6K--;; bltle \\ hale~, i i6 creationists Oll, ;(11-62 Daf\\in Oil origillS of, :;:;9-61 eli\Cm-C1T of olelc\t fo~,\il~, ;6')-6:; fmsil hi!~d limbs of, i6:;-6S Hodhocetus kammi, :;-;1--;6
transition to, )()2-6; \\,hC\H.'11. \\'illialll, 42, 71, 16:;-66, 16k \\'hite, _\ndrc\\- Dickson, 44-47 \\'hite, K.R., 12:; \Vhitchc
')·n
480
\\'ilkim, _\dam, 227/1 \\'il1i
274 \\'illi,lIllS, l{,\\'1l1Oll(1, 22 \\'il~on, I
+1,
e_\.clllded frum accounts ofhulll(ln Cyolutioll, I S--:-SS l':\,clllded from scicncc, ] Sk-90 LillllaCll:, Oil ed\lcation for, 4H lung (,;lIlccr in, ')O() natura] hi~ton bool~ In, 190-96 \\'ords\HHth, \\:;lli,1111, :\\-: 1-+4, 154,
429 \\'~att,
Tholllas, 17::;, 177-8:;
Y-ChrolllO:,OlllCS, 106-7 ~-o-yo~, 224 ZhOll, XiaoHl,m, )()6, rS-7h Zlllllhach. F.'\"., 1-6, 1-k
