Основы теории английского языка: Учебно-методическое пособие

ÌÈÍÈÑÒÅÐÑÒÂÎ ÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÍÈß ÐÎÑÑÈÉÑÊÎÉ ÔÅÄÅÐÀÖÈÈ ÂÎËÃÎÃÐÀÄÑÊÈÉ ÃÎÑÓÄÀÐÑÒÂÅÍÍÛÉ ÓÍÈÂÅÐÑÈÒÅÒ ÂÎËÆÑÊÈÉ ÃÓÌÀÍÈÒÀÐÍÛÉ ÈÍÑÒÈÒÓÒ (ôèëèàë) ÂîëÃÓ

Å.È. Ëèñòóíîâà

ÎÑÍÎÂÛ ÒÅÎÐÈÈ ÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÎÃÎ ßÇÛÊÀ Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèå äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ñòàðøèõ êóðñîâ ñïåöèàëüíîñòè «Ðåãèîíîâåäåíèå»

Âîëãîãðàä 2003 –1–

ÁÁÊ 81.2Àíãë-2ÿ73 Ë63

Ðåöåíçåíòû: êàíä. ôèëîë. íàóê, äîö. Å.Â. Áîáûðåâà (ÂÃÏÓ), êàíä. ôèëîë. íàóê, äîö. Ò.Ã. Ðåíö (ÂÃÈ ÂîëÃÓ) Ïå÷àòàåòñÿ ïî ðåøåíèþ ðåäàêöèîííî-èçäàòåëüñêîãî ñîâåòà óíèâåðñèòåòà

Ë63

Ëèñòóíîâà Å.È. Îñíîâû òåîðèè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà: Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèå äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ñòàðøèõ êóðñîâ ñïåöèàëüíîñòè «Ðåãèîíîâåäåíèå». — Âîëãîãðàä: Èçä-âî ÂîëÃÓ, 2003. — 144 ñ. ISBN 5-85534-829-6 Ïîñîáèå ïðèçâàíî ïîìî÷ü ñòóäåíòàì â ïðàêòè÷åñêîì îâëàäåíèè îñíîâàìè ëåêñèêîëîãèè, ôðàçåîëîãèè, ìîðôîëîãèè, ñèíòàêñèñà è ñòèëèñòèêè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ïðåäíàçíà÷àåòñÿ äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ñòàðøèõ êóðñîâ ïî ñïåöèàëüíîñòè «Ðåãèîíîâåäåíèå» (àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê) è ñòóäåíòîâ, ïîëó÷àþùèõ äîïîëíèòåëüíóþ êâàëèôèêàöèþ «Ïåðåâîä÷èê â ñôåðå ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîé êîììóíèêàöèè».

ISBN 5-85534-829-6

© Å.È. Ëèñòóíîâà, 2003 © Èçäàòåëüñòâî Âîëãîãðàäñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà, 2003 © Âîëæñêèé ãóìàíèòàðíûé èíñòèòóò (ôèëèàë) ÂîëÃÓ, 2003 –2–

ÂÂÅÄÅÍÈÅ Ïîñîáèå ïðèçâàíî ïîìî÷ü ñòóäåíòàì â ïðàêòè÷åñêîì îâëàäåíèè îñíîâàìè ëåêñèêîëîãèè, ôðàçåîëîãèè, ìîðôîëîãèè, ñèíòàêñèñà è ñòèëèñòèêè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Îíî ñîñòîèò èç íåñêîëüêèõ ðàçäåëîâ: ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ, ôðàçåîëîãèÿ, ìîðôîëîãèÿ, ñèíòàêñèñ è ïðàêòè÷åñêàÿ ñòèëèñòèêà àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ðàáî÷èé ÿçûê ïîñîáèÿ — àíãëèéñêèé.  ðàçäåëå ëåêñèêîëîãèè îòðàæåíû ñëåäóþùèå ýòàïû: ñëîâàðíûé ñîñòàâ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà, ðîëü çàèìñòâîâàíèé â ðàçâèòèè ñëîâàðíîãî ñîñòàâà, èíòåðíàöèîíàëüíûå ñëîâà, èñòî÷íèêè çàèìñòâîâàíèé.  ïîäðàçäåëå «The Morphological Structure of a Word» ðàññìîòðåíû ñïîñîáû ñëîâîîáðàçîâàíèÿ ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà è ïðåäñòàâëåíû óïðàæíåíèÿ.  ïîäðàçäåëå «The Vocabulary of a Language as a System» îñâåùåíû âîïðîñû ñåìàíòè÷åñêèõ ïîëåé è ñèíîíèìèè. Êðîìå áàçîâûõ ïîíÿòèé è òåðìèíîâ ñòóäåíòàì ïðåäëàãàþòñÿ óïðàæíåíèÿ. Ðàçäåë «Ëåêñèêîëîãèÿ» ñíàáæåí ðàçíîîáðàçíûìè êëþ÷àìè è óïðàæíåíèÿìè.  ðàçäåëå «Idioms and Idiomaticity» ðàññìàòðèâàþòñÿ îñíîâíûå òåðìèíû è áàçîâûå ïîëîæåíèÿ ñîâðåìåííîé ôðàçåîëîãèè. Ðàçäåë òàêæå ñíàáæåí ðàçíîîáðàçíûìè óïðàæíåíèÿìè ïî ôðàçåîëîãèè, ðàñøèðÿþùèìè ñëîâàðíûé çàïàñ ñòóäåíòîâ. Ðàçäåë, ïîñâÿùåííûé ìîðôîëîãèè, ïðåäñòàâëÿåò ñîáîé òåîðåòè÷åñêèé ìàòåðèàë î íåëè÷íûõ ôîðìàõ ãëàãîëà — èíôèíèòèâå, ïðè÷àñòèè íàñòîÿùåãî è ïðîøåäøåãî âðåìåíè, ãåðóíäèè, èíôèíèòèâíûõ, ïðè÷àñòíûõ è ãåðóíäèàëüíûõ êîíñòðóêöèÿõ, áîãàòî èëëþñòðèðîâàí ïðèìåðàìè èç àíãëèéñêîé êëàññè÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðû.  ðàçäåëå, ïîñâÿùåííîì ñèíòàêñèñó, ðàññìîòðåíû ÷ëåíû ïðåäëîæåíèÿ è ñïîñîáû èõ âûðàæåíèÿ â àíãëèéñêîì ÿçûêå, òèïû ïðåäëîæåíèé — ïðîñòûå, ñëîæíûå, ñëîæíîïîä÷èíåííûå, à òàêæå ñïîñîáû àíàëèçà àíãëèéñêîãî ïðåäëîæåíèÿ.  ðàçäåëå ñòèëèñòèêè ïðåäñòàâëåíû òåêñòû ðàçëè÷íûõ æàíðîâ — ïóáëèöèñòè÷åñêîãî, íàó÷íî-òåõíè÷åñêîãî, õóäîæåñòâåííîãî, àêàäåìè÷åñêîãî, äåëîâîãî, ïðèíàäëåæàùèå ê ðàçíûì ôóíêöèîíàëüíûì ñòèëÿì. Äàííîå ïîñîáèå ïðèçâàíî ñôîðìèðîâàòü ïðåäñòàâëåíèå î áàçîâûõ ïîíÿòèÿõ òåîðèè ëåêñèêîëîãèè, ìîðôîëîãèè, ñèíòàêñèñà è ñòèëèñòèêè àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà è çàêðåïèòü ïîëó÷åííûå çíàíèÿ ïðèëàãàåìûìè óïðàæíåíèÿìè è çàäàíèÿìè. Ïîñîáèå ïðåäíàçíà÷àåòñÿ äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ñòàðøèõ êóðñîâ ïî ñïåöèàëüíîñòè «Ðåãèîíîâåäåíèå» (àíãëèéñêèé ÿçûê) è ñòóäåíòîâ, ïîëó÷àþùèõ äîïîëíèòåëüíóþ êâàëèôèêàöèþ «Ïåðåâîä÷èê â ñôåðå ïðîôåññèîíàëüíîé êîììóíèêàöèè». –3–

LEXICOLOGY

Unit 1.

The English Wordstock

Topics for discussion: Language as a historical phenomenon. The diachronic and the synchronic approaches to the study of vocabulary. Semantic change (extension and narrowing of meaning). Borrowing. Loan translations. Hybrids and etymological doublets. International words. The sociolinguistic aspect of vocabulary changes. Neologisms and occasional words. WORKING DEFINITIONS OF PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS

1. Language, a semiological system serving as the main and basic means of human communication. 2. Vocabulary, the totality of words in a language. 3. Diachrony, the historical development of the system of language as the object of linguistic investigation. Diachronic, historical. 4. Synchrony, a conventional isolation of a certain stage in the development of language as the object of linguistic investigation. Synchronic, representing one conventional historical stage in the development of language. 5. Semantic, extension (widening of meaning), the extension of semantic capacity of a word, i. e. the expansion of polysemy, in the course of its historical development. 6. Narrowing of meaning, the restriction of the semantic capacity of a word in the course of its historical development. 7. Borrowing, resorting to the word-stock of other languages for words to express new concepts, to further differentiate the existing concepts and to name new objects, phenomena, etc. 8. Loan translations (calques), borrowing by means of literally translating words (usually one part after another) or word combinations, by modelling words after foreign patterns. –4–

9. Hybrid, a word different elements of which are of etymologically different origin. 10. Etymological doublet, one of a pair of (or several) words more or less similar in meaning and phonation, appearing in language as the result of borrowing from the same source at different times. 11. Sociolinguisics, branch of linguistics studying causation between language and the life of the speaking community. 12. Neologism, a word or a word combination that appears or is specially coined to name a new object or express a new concept. 13. Occasional word, a word which cannot be considered a permanent member of the word-stock: although it is, as a rule, formed after existing patterns, it is not characterized by general currency but is an individual innovation introduced for a special occasion. Cf. nonceword, ephemeral word. TASKS AND EXERCISES

I. Read the following passages and render in your own words Edward Sapir’s ideas on the subject. The gift of speech and a well-ordered language are characteristic of every known group of human beings. No tribe has ever been found which is without language and all statements to the contrary may be dismissed as mere folklore. There seems to be no warrant whatever for the statement which is sometimes made that there are certain peoples whose vocabulary is so limited that they cannot get on without the supplementary use of gesture, so that intelligible communication between members of such a group becomes impossible in the dark. The truth of the matter is that language is an essentially perfect means of expression and communication among every known people. Of all aspects of culture it is a fair guess that language was the first to receive a highly developed form and that its essential perfection is a prerequisite to the development of culture as a whole... Many attempts have been made to unravel the origin of language but most of these are hardly more than exercises of the speculative imagination. Linguists as a whole have lost interest in the problem and this for two reasons. In the first place, it has come to be realized that there exist no truly primitive languages in a psychological sense, the modern researches in archaeology have indefinitely extended the time of man’s cultural past and that it is therefore vain to go much beyond –5–

the perspective opened up by the study of actual languages. In the second place, our knowledge of psychology, particularly of the symbolic processes in general, is not felt to be sound enough or far reaching enough to help materially with the problem of the emergence of speech. It is probable that the origin of language is not a problem that can be solved out of the resources of linguistics alone but that it is essentially a particular case of a much wider problem of the genesis of symbolic behaviour and of the specialization of such behaviour in the laryngeal region which may be presumed to have had only expressive functions to begin with. Perhaps a close study of the behaviour of very young children under controlled conditions may provide some valuable hints, but it seems dangerous to reason from such experiments to the behaviour of precultural man. It is more likely that the kinds of studies which are now in progress of the behaviour of the higher apes will help supply some idea of the genesis of speech. Edward Sapir. Language. II. In the Introduction to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) its chief editor G. A. Í. Murray presents the princi ples on which the Dictionary is based. Following is a passage from it. Give examples to illustrate its main points. Language presents yet another undefined frontier, when it is viewed in relation to time. The living vocabulary is no more permanent in its constitution than definite in its extent. It is not today what it was a century ago, still less what it will be a century hence. Its constituent elements are in a state of slow but incessant dissolution and renovation. ‘Old words’ are ever becoming obsolete and dying out: ‘new words’ are continually pressing in. And the death of a word is not an event of which the date can be readily determined. It is a vanishing process, extending over a lengthened period, of which contemporaries never see the end. Our own words never become obsolete: it is always the words of our grandfathers that have died with them. Even after we cease to use a word, the memory of it survives, and the word itself survives as a possibility; it is only when no one is left to whom its use is still possible, that the word is wholly dead. Hence there are many words of which it is doubtful whether they are still to be considered as part of the living language; they are alive to some speakers, and –6–

dead to others. And, on the other hand, there are many claimants to admission into the recognized vocabulary (where some of them will certainly one day be received), that are already current coin with some speakers and writers, and not yet ‘good English’, or even not English at all, to others. If we treat the division of words into current and obsolete as a subordinate one, and extend our idea of the Language so as to include all that has been English from the beginning, or from any particular epoch, we enter upon a department of the subject, of which, from the nature of the case, our exhibition must be imperfect. For the vocabulary of the past times is known to us solely from its preservation in written records; the extent of our knowledge of it depends entirely upon the completeness of the records, and the completeness of our acquaintance with them. And the farther back we go, the more imperfect are the records, the smaller is the fragment of the actual vocabulary that we can recover. G.A.H. Murray. General Explanations. III. Study the following passage. In his fascinating, recent book, Studies in Words, Professor C.S. Lewis explains the steps by which even an apparently simple word like sad has radically changed its meaning over the years. It once meant ‘full to the brim’, ‘well-fed’; one could be thoroughly ‘sad’ with food and drink (sated, satiated, satisfied and saturated are etymologically related to it). From this it came to mean ‘solid’ as well; a good spear could be ‘sad’, and one could sleep ‘sadly’. This idea of solidness was then metaphorically applied to human character, and a person who was reliable and firm could be called ‘sad’. It is now easy to see how the chief modern sense could come into existence; a wellfed person may feel solid, heavy and dull, and thus be sober-faced on that, account: we must not forget the slang use of the expression fedup which offers something of a semantic parallel. Alternatively a person who is reliable and firm is a serious person, and serious is the opposite of light-hearted and gay. Randolph Quirk.The Use of English. IIIa. Below are listed the original meanings of some simple words. As you see these meanings are different from those the words have now. –7–

Trace the semantic development of these words and explain how they could have acquired their present meanings. bend, v — OE bendan = bind, fetter; strain bird, n — OE brid = nestling, fledgling book, n — OE bōc = beech (cf. Russ. áóê) camp, n — OE camp = battle, struggle, contest (cf. Lat. campus, ïîëå, ïîëå áèòâû) cheap, a — OE cēap, n = cattle; price; bargain deal, v — OE dælan = share; distribute; take part deer, n — OE dēor = animal, beast (cf. Ger. Tier) dwell, v — OE dwellan = lead astray; deceive; make a mistake fair, a — OE fæçer = beautiful; pretty, sweet fear, re — OE fær = sudden attack, danger (cf. verb fâran = frighten) fowl, n — OE fuçol = bird lord, n — OE hlāford = master (cf. hlãfweard = bread-keeper) silly, a — OE sæliç = happy, blessed, holy. IIIb. The word junk was originally a sailors’ word meaning ‘old rope’, now it means ‘rubbish, useless stuff — this is an example of extension of meaning. The word meat originally meant ‘food’, now it means one special type of food — this is an example of narrowing of meaning. Consult dictionaries and establish what kind of semantic change was involved in the development of the words. 1) To starve (original meaning ‘to die’); 2) gambit (chess: ‘an opening in which White offers a pawn-sacrifice’); 3) to disci pline (originally ‘provide disci pline, train, control’); 4) to refute (originally ‘disprove, confute’); 5) fowl (originally ‘bird’); 6) bird (originally ‘a young bird’); 7) deer (originally ‘beast’). IV. Read the following passage and give other examples to illustrate the point. ...Most changes take place because society changes — either in its attitude to life or in its formal institutions. ‘Parliament’ does not mean for us what it meant in the Middle Ages, because the institution which is the referent of the word has changed radically. Hamlet, talking about actors, refers to the ‘humorous man’ — not the comedian, but the emotional actor: the old theory of humours (the primary –8–

fluids of the body which, according to the proportions of their mixture, determined a man’s temperament) has long gone, but left this word behind to take on a different meaning. It is not long since atom meant what it meant to the Greeks — what could not further be divided. The word can no longer mean that, but we retain it. Inertia, conservatism will ensure that a word remains in the vocabulary, but change of meaning will be enforced by the non-conservative elements in man himself. Anthony Burgess. Words. V. Read the following extracts and discuss the changes in the meaning of the word ‘nice’. The Concise Oxford Dictionary: nice, a. & adv. 1. Fastidious, dainty, hard to please, of refined or critical tastes; precise, punctilious, scrupulous, particular (must not be too ∼ about the means). 2. Requiring precision care, tact, or discrimination (a ~ experiment, question, point, negotiation). 3. Minute, subtle (a ~ distinction, shade of meaning). 4. Attentive, close (a ~inquiry, observer). 5. Delicately sensitive, discriminative, or deft (a ~ ear, judgement, hand; weighed in the ~ st scales, lit. or fig) 6. (colloq.) Agreeable, attractive, delightful, well-flavoured, satisfactory, kind, friendly, considerate, generally commendable (often iron., as here is a ~ mess). 7. (and) satisfactorily, as the house stands ~ & high, car is going ~ & fast, this is a ~ long one... VI. Supply the following passage with a sufficient number of examples. Of the linguistic changes due to the more obvious types of contact the one which seems to have played the most important part in the history of language is the borrowing of words across linguistic frontiers. This borrowing naturally goes hand in hand with cultural diffusion. An analysis of the provenience of the words of a given language is frequently an important index of the direction of cultural influence. Our English vocabulary, for instance, is very richly stratified in a cultural sense. The various layers of early Latin, mediaeval French, humanistic Latin and Greek and modern French borrowing constitute a fairly accurate gauge of the time, extent and nature of the various foreign cultural influences which have helped to mold English civilization. The notable lack of German loan words in English until a –9–

very recent period, as contrasted with the large number of Italian words which were adopted at the time of the Renaissance and later, is again a historically significant fact. By the diffusion of culturally important words, such as those referring to art, literature, the church, military affairs, sport and business, there have grown up important transnational vocabularies which do something to combat the isolating effect of the large number of languages which are still spoken in the modern world. Edward Sapir. Language. VII. Read the following. Imbedded in our everyday speech are words that evidence the once pervasive influence of the predecessor of modern astronomy, astrology. The extent of these vestiges of old astrology is greater than we usually realize. The heavenly bodies have caused us to be jovial, mercurial, saturnine, martial and venereal (an ironic tribute to the goddess of love). Something of the original ‘value’ of some astrological terms is still maintained: disaster (an evil star) retains a superlative graveness, and consider (to be with the stars) still denotes a very high form of mental deliberation. Donald A. Sears and Henry A. Smith. A Linguistic Look At Aerospace English. VIII. Discuss along the same lines the contribution of modern science and technology (the technical language of trades and occupations) to the development of English, as exemplified in the following words or sets of words: blitz (our house was blitzed; a blitzed town); built-in (a built-in bookcase; fig. a built-in contempt for daydreaming; a built-in shortage of teachers); count-down (the pilots were in their places when the count-down began; whatever the future holds, there is no sign that a sinister, doomfraught count-down is in progress); polythene (they had everything in polythene bags); screen (coal is screened in the colliery when it has stone and other impurities removed from it; all the suspects were screened).

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VIIIa. The word amalgam appeared first in the vocabulary of mediaeval alchemy in the 15th century to denote the combination of some substance with mercury. Consult the dictionary and speak of-the modern meaning of the words ‘amalgamate’ and ‘amalgamation’. The word antibiotic is dated 1860 with the meaning ‘opposed to a belief in the presence or possibility of life’. Later (1892) it acquired the meaning of ‘(a substance) that destroys, or impairs living organisms, e. g. bacteria’. In general English usage, of course, this word has become known only in more recent times precisely because of the enormous extension of the treatment of disease by antibiotics. Consult dictionaries to find other medical or biochemical words in ‘anti-’ which have come into general usage. VIIIb. The impact of America on Britain may be observed in a wider currency of special terms in everyday speech. Read the following and tell it in your own words. One or two expressions hitherto regarded as being more or less confined to the vocabulary of lawyers have recently become more generally known because of their frequent occurrence in America. Assignment was simply the legal transference of a right, but nowadays it is well-known in the American sense of ‘task, mission’. For obvious reasons it is safe to assume that its transfer to the British vocabulary in this meaning has taken place by way of the cinema. A more picturesque case, though one which is rather less well-known than ‘assignment’, is mayhem or ‘the crime of inflicting bodily injury upon a person’ listed by the OED as belonging to the vocabulary of ‘Old Law’, though it quotes for the year 1894 an American example alluding to ‘literary mayhem’. During the last quarter of a century mayhem has slowly been making its way back into British use, doubtless because of American influence, since this word is relatively frequent in the U.S.A. As early as 1940 it is found in an essay by Dorothy Sayers, who in Unpopular Opinions speaks of an ‘act of mayhem’. It might possibly be objected that this might in fact stem directly from English legal terminology, in view of Miss Sayer’s wide knowledge of the language, and therefore not particularly from America in the present instance, but it can be seen elsewhere that she is not averse to using transatlantic images, as when she writes ‘allergic to long term planning’. Taken from an essay of 1943 included in the – 11 –

above-mentioned collection, this is a fairly early case of allergic being used in the American sense of ‘opposed, unsympathetic’. Originally a medical term meaning ‘hypersensitive’, it has thus comedo indicate virtually the opposite, i. e. ‘insensitive’, thus ‘I am allergic to the manner of William Saroyan’. Brian Foster. The Changing English Language. IXa. Below are listed some borrowings from English currently used in Russian. Do you know the original words? What do they look and sound like in English? Áèçíåñìåí, áèòíèê, áóòñû, áóëüäîçåð, êåìïèíã, êðóèç, ìîêàñèíû, ìîòåëü, ñåðâèñ, ñòðèïòèç, õåïåíèíã, õåïïèýíä, õèïïè, õèïñòåð, õîááè. IXb. What other English words borrowed into Russian do you know? Use dictionaries. Comment on the sociolinguistic aspect of these borrowings. X. The following is an extract from Brian Foster’s «The Changing English Language». List separately words of Germanic and Romanic origin in the text. Throughout its history the English language has always been hospitable to words from other tongues and while it is doubtless true to say that all forms of human speech have to some extent borrowed from outside models there are grounds for thinking that English is more than usually open to foreign influence as compared with other great languages. The French, indeed, have set up an organization whereby they hope to stem or at all events regulate the influx of foreign words into their vocabulary, but this would probably seem a strange idea to most English speakers, who seem to believe in a species of linguistic free trade and argue that if a term of foreign origin is useful it should be put to work forthwith regardless of its parentage. In this we are helped by the nature of the language itself which very conveniently allows us to use a word as verb, noun or adjective without any change of form, unlike the other major European languages.

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XI. The following are loan translations (calques). What do they actually mean in English? How and when are they used? Does the original (given in brackets) help you to fully understand their connotations? The moment of truth (Sp. el momento de la verdad); with a grain of salt (Lat. cum grano salis); famous case (Fr. cause célébre); Five-Year Plan (Russ. ïÿòèëåòíèé ïëàí); Master people (Ger. Herrenvolk); underground movement (Fr. le mouvement souterrain); fellow-traveller (Russ. ïîïóò÷èê); that goes without saying (Fr. cela va sans dire); castles in Spain (Fr. cháteaux en Espagne; cf. It. castelli in aria); word combination (Russ. ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèå). XII. Find in the following passage answers to the questions given below. So completely did the two languages [French and English. — E. Ë.] become one that we are not conscious of mixture when we couple such a word as the native wholesale with the Old French retail, and it is only after reflection that we realize that so John Bullish a dish as «the roast beef of Old England» bears a purely French name. Nor are we sensible of hybridism when we attach native suffixes to words of French origin, as in beautiful, artless, dukedom, courtship, falsehood, or vice versa, as in eatable, leakage, forbearance, oddity. The Franco-Latin dis- is freely used with English verbs, e. g. distrust, dislike, while the Teutonic un- is often prefixed to words of Latin or French origin, e. g. uncivil, unwarrantable, uninteresting. Ernest Weekley. The English Language. QUESTIONS

I. 1. What is theetymological composition of the words: avidly, countless, courtly, dauntless, faintness, fishery, goddess, hindrance, joyful, murderous, relationshi p, unquestionable? 2. Why are such words called hybrids? II. Using a dictionary compare the meaning of the following pairs of words and explain why they are called ‘etymological doublets’? Abridge — abbreviate, artist — artiste, captain — chieftain, card — chart, cavalry — chivalry, catch — chase, corps — corpse, egg — edge, gage — wage, hotel — hospital, hale — whole, liquor — – 13 –

liqueur, of — off, pauper — poor, raise — rear, senior — sir, scar — share, skirt — shirt, shade — shadow, whit — wight. III. What do you think, is the difference between the words in the following pairs? Nightly — nocturnal, yearly — annual, cloudy — nebulous, heavenly — celestial, womanly — feminine, brotherly — fraternal, bodily — corporeal, goodly — considerable, friendly — benevolent, homely — domestic, truthful — veracious, earthly — terrestrial. IV. Insert in the following sentences the stylistically correct word from the list above. 1. He gave me a ... answer. 2. The astronomers used an extremely elaborate ... map. 3. To enable the struggling authors to live Smith established a ... society. 4. New ideas were introduced both into the foreign and ... policy. 5. She looked at him, her eyes ... with sleep. 6. This specimen belongs to a species of ... animals. 7. She was in ... fear of the man. 8. The place had a ... air and the child soon quieted down. 9. This is an ... publication. 10. She looked very ... in her new dress. V. Give adjectives of Latin origin corresponding to the following nouns. Cat, dog, ear, egg, eye, father, hair, life, mouth, nose, sea, side, sight, son, star, sun, time, town, uncle, youth. Using a dictionary comment on the difference in the semantics of the nouns and adjectives in the previous exercise (16b). VI. There are in most European languages some words the meaning of which — no matter who says them, an Englishman, a Russian, a Frenchman, etc., i. e. allowing for the difference in pronunciation — is roughly speaking, identical. These ‘international’ words can be traced etymologically, that is to say they came into different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowing from one and the same source. Thus they are actually ‘national’. However they comprise a special stock common tî many countries and their etymology is a secondary actor. ‘International’ words differ from other borrowings in that they reflect the relations of a number of countries and not the – 14 –

relations between two countries as is the case with borrowed words. Neither should they be confounded with words of the common IndoEuropean stock. As a rule, ‘international’ words are either of political or scientific-technological nature. For example, party, labourist, democracy, capitalism, socialist. Soviet, etc., or telephone, microscope, photograph, antenna, antibiotics, cybernetics, etc. It has already been intimated that ‘international’ words are often confused with other words which ultimately come from the same source but have diverged in meaning. The notion of misleading words (false friends, or false cognates, as they are sometimes called) is generally used in respect to such pairs as, for instance, accurate and àêêóðàòíûé, conserves and êîíñåðâû, to instruct and èíñòðóêòèðîâàòü. Using dictionaries compare the meanings of these words and also of: accord and — àêêîðä, economy and — ýêîíîìèÿ, faculty and — ôàêóëüòåò, operation and — îïåðàöèÿ, to pretend and — ïðåòåíäîâàòü, relation and — ðåëÿöèÿ, romance and — ðîìàíñ, sentiments and — ñåíòèìåíòû, to stamp and — øòàìïîâàòü, to sympathize and — ñèìïàòèçèðîâàòü. VII. The following list contains ‘occasional’ — words and word combinations, and neologisms. Can you distinguish between them? How can you explain your classification? Aeroneurosis, airminded, to baby-sit, brinkmanshi p, canned, contact-man, discotheque, duffle-coat, gadgeteer, helibus, launderette, lobster dom, megadeath, mini-skirt, motorcade, para-di plomacy, paratroops, to pre-plan, polythene bag, population-stifled city, public relations, officer, retiree, robotics, rocketry, a sit-down strike, to space-call, super-digestible food, supermarket, teenager, televiewer, unbirdminded, vinyl, vital statistics. VIIa. Proceeding from the fact that neologisms are a historical category which of the neologisms from the list above have already come into everyday speech? VIIb. Discuss the forms of the words in the list above and the patterns they follow, giving examples of ‘usual’ words, formed after these patterns. – 15 –

VIII. Read the following passages and give further examples of neologisms which have appeared in the English language together with new achievements of science and technology. 1. Social, technical and economic conditions in Britain have changed at a tremendous rate since the ending of the first world war and indeed it is evident by now that science transforms man’s environment at a pace which is not merely rapid but swiftly accelerating. Throughout all the ages the elderly have lectured their juniors on the /happiness of the old days and the decadence of present/ manners, but nowadays change is so rapid that anyone out of the first flush of youth tends to feel slightly out of date. The tramcar belongs to a former age and the steam locomotive is already a living museum piece, while there are those who speak of ri pping up the railway lines altogether and replacing them by motorways. After the proud triumphs of the ear-phones and loudspeaker even wireless has taken on an old-fashioned air alongside the television set and is patronisingly alluded to as steam-radio — steam being a symbol of antiquity, one supposes. Brian Foster. The Changing English Language. 2. One of the most important aspects of twentieth-century vocabulary — the rapid extension of scientific vocabulary in recent times — has already been dealt with, but a feature of this has been the spread of what we may call semi-scientific words to general aspects of life, usually abstract conceptions; this is particularly noticeable in a group of words all of which end in -ize, and many of which have also a secondary form, generally with change of meaning, beginning, with de-; there are usually two forms at least, the verb in -ize and the corresponding abstract noun in -ization. Forms of this kind are not all very recent; Bentham, for example, used minimize, but there is a great increase in such forms in the nineteenth century, and the process continues today. The forms are often deceptive; actualize might strike a reader as being very recent, but it was used by Coleridge a hundred and fifty years ago. Among examples we may note scientific words, which are to be expected, as carbonize, a term in the woollen trade, and decarbonize, recognizable chiefly as a motoring term, decolourize, dehydrogenize, dehypnotize, demagnetize, deoxidize, and depolarize; demonetize still belongs only to the world of economics; deodorize and devitalize have spread from science to a more general application; among more general terms we have decentralize, decivllize, dehu– 16 –

manize, demobilize, denationalize, denaturalize; some forms seem unnecessary, and some are ugly, as dechristianize, depauperize, and desynonymize... The only argument in favour of some of these forms is that they allow us to do in one word what would otherwise require three or four and that seems to be a great virtue in the modern world. Two other groups of words, originally scientific, but which have spread into the common vocabulary, both show developments of modern science. One of the recent aims of the scientist has been to replace human labour by the efforts of the machine, and this is reflected in our vocabulary by a number of recent words with the prefix auto-, and of newly-formed compounds with the first element automatic... Man’s conquest of space, and his ability to perform certain actions over long distances, is shown in the large number of words containing the prefix tele-. J.A. Sheard. The Words We Use. 3. Now that the first steps in this direction [exploration of space] have been taken there exists already a whole technical vocabulary that is being created in answer to the demands of the new science of space travel, itself dependent on rocketry. The cosmonaut (a word invented by the Russians and displayed by them on placards and banners on the day of Gagarin’s first flight in 1961) travels in a capsule (like probe this is an old word put to a new use) blasted off from a launching pad. The space suit he wears had a name in science fiction even before it existed in reality. At present these spacemen have confined themselves to orbiting round the earth but they hope in due course to set up space platforms or space stations from which to conduct explorations of the moon and planets. All this vocabulary really forms a subject in itself ranging from the retro-rocket, which so to speak puts on the brakes for the space traveller, to the emotional indoctrination training which teaches him to endure both fear and endless boredom as he hurtles towards Venus or Mars. Brian Forster. The Changing English Language. IX. In works of Science Fiction we find many unusual formations (occasional words) which with the progress of science are likely to become neologisms and, with time, full-fledged members of the English word stock. Examine the following lists and explain the meanings of the words: – 17 –

1) space port, space-radio, spacecast, spacegram (cf.spaceshi p); 2) robotics, roboticist, robotic engineering, robopsychologist, roboticity (cf. robot); 3) planeteer, rocketeer (cf. privateer); 4) all when, downwhen, upwhen, everywhen, outwhen, homewhen, birthwhen (cf. anyhow, etc). X. Explain the meanings and structure of the words. in bold type in the following sentences. 1. You jet at five. You’re to jet there as soon as possible. We went as fast as the car can jet. Let’s jet. 2. Be sure to put this item in the next issue of newszine. And extend my subscri ption accordingly. 3. Of course he had seen all the films, audio-mags, and books concerning it. 4. If there could be teleportation or teleportage or whatever it is, surely there would have to be a transmitter and some sort of reassembly station. 5. The car would be parked in the carport alongside their cabin door. XI. Comment on the passage given below and discuss the additions to the English word-stock in the spheres of food, clothing, art. Fortunately for many millions of mothers there are some changes in the English language which mark a lightening of their daily burden. Gone are the days when Monday morning was marked off from all other mornings by the collective thumping and thudding proceeding from all the washtubs of the neighbourhood, and perhaps the time will eventually come when even the word ‘washtub’ will be listed as obsolescent in the dictionaries, ousted by washing machine. The humble Kitchen Sink, the very badge of feminine servitude, has become the title of a theatrical movement, leaving a gap to be filled by sink unit. ‘Unit’ is in fact a hardworking little word at the present time, doing service in unit furniture, garbage. disposal unit and accommodation unit. The spin drier, pressure cooker, immersion heater and deep freeze all cooperate to aid the housewife. Shopping is frequently done in a supermarket (the name comes from America) with its self-service. Brian Foster. The Changing English Language.

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XII. How can you explain the fact that three different dictionaries list not only a different number of words in ‘aero-’ but also present them in a different way?

XIII. Establish the semantic development of the words ‘class’, ‘agriculture’, ‘artist’ and comment on its sociolinguistic aspect. XIV. Give examples of borrowed words that brought with them to Englishspeaking people the knowledge of new concept objects, phenomena, etc.

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TEST QUESTIONS

1. How can it be proved that language is a historical phenomenon? 2. What is meant by diachronic and synchronic approaches to the study of vocabulary? 3. What types of semantic change do you know? Give examples. 4. Is semantic change socially conditioned? 5. What is the etymological composition of Modern English? 6. What social aspects of borrowing can you illustrate with examples? 7. What are the characteristic features of hybrids? 8. What pair of words are called ‘etymological doublets’? 9. Why are certain units called ‘international’ words? Is the qualification ‘international’ justified here? 10. In what layers of language are ‘international’ words especially numerous? 11. What is the difference between neologisms and occasional words?

Unit II.

The Morfological Structure of a Word

WORKING DEFINITIONS OF PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS

1. Word-formation, the process of forming words by combining root and affixal morphemes according to certain patterns specific for the language. 2. Derivation, such word-formation where the target word is formed by combining a stem and affixes. 3. Conversion, a special type of derivation where the word forming means is the paradigm of the word itself. 4. Abbreviation, the process and the result of forming a word out of the initial elements(letters, morphemes) of a word combination. 5. Clipping, the process and the result of curtailing (the cutting of a part) off a word to one or two, usually initial syllables. 6. Blending, combining parts of two words to form one word. Blend, (blended,or portmanteau, word), the result of blending. 7. Onomatopoea, formation of words from sounds that resemble those associated with the object or action to be named, or that seem suggestive of its qualities.

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TASKS AND EXERCISES

I. Basic (English) is derived from ‘British (and) American Scientific International Commercial (English)’, V.I.P. is an abbreviation of the word combination ‘very important person’. Do you know what the following abbreviations stand for? BBC, COD, FBI, JP, R.A.F. IIa. Speaking of cli ppings J.A. Sheard says that they are a popular method of forming new words but by no means a new one. Read the following passages and retell them adding examples you have discovered in your home-reading. This process, which differs from those just discussed in that only one word is shortened, is still an active one, and there are today many words generally accepted in the standard language which are shortened forms of the words they have displaced. Few people, apart from a certain type, would use pianoforte rather than piano; curio, with a restricted meaning, is more popular than curiosity; an unmarried lady is miss, not mistress, and one asks for gin, never for Geneva or Genievre; indeed, many names of drinks are abbreviations, an obvious convenience when long words have to be used frequently: example are brandy (for brandy wine), grog (for grogman), hock (for hockamore, Hochheimer), port (for Oporto), rum (for rumbullion), and whisky (for usquebaugh). It is not easy to be certain when the shortened form is fully accepted in the standard language — possibly it is when only pedants use the full form; e. g. exam., maths, matric., pub. are not yet standard, but hardly anyone talks of going to the Zoological Gardens, though why zoo should have met with general approval, yet one always says botanical gardens, and never bot., is not clear. Both words are equally convenient, and it may be that zoo has a better sound than bot, and is also in more frequent use., thereby popularizing the abbreviation. Bus is now accepted — hardly anyone says omnibus, and the apostrophe which used to be common at the beginning of the word has almost disappeared — and bike, photo, and pram are becoming accepted, at any rate in conversation. Trike — a common term before the tricycle gave way to the bicycle — is still frequently used in families where there are young children, though it is today – 21 –

little used elsewhere. A more recent formation is Prom, or the Proms, for the Promenade Concerts now so popular in London. All these relatively late forms are recognized as abbreviations, even if the full-stop is omitted, as indeed it was — deliberately — in some of the examples in the preceding paragraph, but some are not so obvious, and are rarely recognized as shortenings; for example, sport (for disport), cab (for cabriolet), consols (for Consolidated Annuities), chap (colloquially, from chapman), hack (for hackney), taxi (for taxi-cab < taximeter-cabriolet, a cab with a meter to register the ‘tax’, or fare, as distinct from a bus or tram, where one takes a ticket in advance), wig (for periwig), and even the recent fan, all that now remains of fanatic. Perhaps very few people now use bicycle rather than cycle as a verb, though it is equally common as a noun, and certainly cycling is almost unchallenged... Abbreviations may vary with classes, groups, or occupations, certain ones being peculiar to and rarely heard outside their own groups. The sportsman has pro., ref., rugger, soccer; the young lady has her hair perm, or ‘has a perm’, her mother vacs the carpet — I believe the American housewife even percs her coffee — film stars are mobbed by their-fans, and our young men are demobbed from the Services. Doctors and scientists have their own abbreviations, as does the schoolboy with his hols., matric., prep., school certif., and trig., and the university student with his vac., and in the entertainment world the theatre provides rep., and radio has given us mike and racing has tote, a much more convenient and pronounceable form than totalizator. These will probably remain class-types, and are hardly to be considered as standard English, though certain forms, e. g. rugger and soccer, are widespread and may eventually find a place in the language; both are eminently suitable for adoption, and if soccer were to be adopted as a far more convenient form than Association Football — a term which is rarely heard now except as the introduction to a B.B.C. sports commentary — rugger would soon follow as a related analogous terms... J.A. Sheard. The Words We Use. IIb. The following pairs are the original word and acli pping.Using a dictionary explain their meanings. Acute — cute, alone — lone, amend — mend, assize — size, attend — tend, defence — fence, defender — fender, example — sample. – 22 –

III. Classify the following units according to type of word-formation (abbreviation, cli pping, blending) and supply the corresponding full words or word combinations. A.B.C., A-bomb, ad, a.m., Anzac, auto, B.A., beaut, Bros,, bus, cab, Capt., chap., comfy, D-day, Dec., D.M., doc., dorm. Dr., Hanky, G.P., I.O.U., lab, laser, Lat., mike., Mon., M.P., MS, NATO, N.Y., p., para troops, pep, perm, Ph. D., P.O.W., Prof., pub, b.r.a., radar, sub, tec, tend, tram, U.N.O., U.S.S.R., V-day, Wed., zoo. IV. Read the following passage. Compounds... usually keep the full form of both elements.but in some cases a part of one or both words may be lost, as in PORTMANTEAU WORDS, or ‘BLENDED’ WORDS as they are sometimes called. Lewis Carroll had a particular aptitude for composing such words, so we may perhaps accept his definition of circumstances which call forth such creation. In the Preface to The Hunting of the Shark he says: «This also seems a fitting occasion to notice the other hard words in that poem, Humpty-Dumpty’s theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words ‘fuming’ and ‘furious’. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first. Now open your mouth and speak. If your thoughts incline ever so little towards ‘fuming’, you will say ‘fuming-furious’; if they turn, by even a hair’s breadth, towards ‘furious’, you will say ‘furiousfuming’, but if you have that rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say ‘frumious’.» «Supposing that, when Pistol uttered the wellknown words — ‘Under which king, Bezonian? Speak — or die!’ Justice Shallow had felt certain that it was either William or Richard, but had not been able to settle which, so that he could not possibly say either name before the other, can it be doubted that, rather than die, he would have gasped out ‘Richiam!’» Of these formations Jespersen says: «Blendings of synonyms play a much greater role in the development of language than is generally recognized. Many instances may be heard in everyday life, most of them being immediately corrected by the speaker, but these momentary lapses cannot be separated from other instances which are of more permanent value because they are so natural that they will occur over and over again until speakers will hardly feel the blend as anything else – 23 –

than an ordinary word. L. Bloomfield says that he has been many years conscious of an irrepressible desire to assimilate the two verbs quench and squelch in both directions by forming squench and quelch, and he has found the former word in a negro story by Page...»* In spite of the work done on the subject the process has not yet been fully investigated, the periods of formation have not been ascertained, the part played in the development of vocabulary has not yet been made clear, and we know little of the proportion of forms which have managed to survive and have become accepted in the standard language. This state of affairs arises largely from the difficulty inherent in the investigation of these blended forms. They can be traced most easily in the modern period, where we have the evidence, in the form of the original components, before us, and, the process can be seen at work. A. Sheard. The Words We Use. V. Following are some examples of the way blends are used in speech: He drove a Studillac (Studebecker 4 + Cadillac, make of car). Los Angeles is proposing a big, offshore seadrome (sea + airdrome). I should sweep all these hideosities away (hideous + monstrosity). Nowadays we have moved, it would seem, from a ‘Society’ Society to a kind of Celebrity Society, or, as I have called this strange new combination of publicity and Society — a Publiciety. *Determine the original components of the following blends. Absotively, airtorial, brunch, cablegram, cameracature, cheeriodical, chortle, cigaroot, crocogator, dipward, dognapper, dumbfound, flush, glumpy, guesstimate, infantici pate, mingy, newtopia, oilitics, posilutely, smog, twinight, twirl, uffish, windoor, wordfacturer. VI. Are all the words listed above stylistically identical? Classify them according to their stylistic properties. VII. Pick out all types of abbreviated units from the sentences below, comment on their formation and give the corresponding full units. 1. Write a composition «What I did in the Hols», Keep it bright, brief and descri ptive. 2. She had an interpreter’s job as well as doing Sim. Tran. 3. It’s a wonderful house, Doc., All mod cons. 4. «What’s the – 24 –

gen?» Adam asked, using an old Army word. 5. The case was in turn being referred to that patron saint of all Army snafus, the Judge Advocate. 6. If he did take a few thou under the rose, he took’em off the Huns. 7. The prop., according to the printed menu, was John Masilikos. He turned out to be cook, as well as prop. 8. He had this fab smile. 9. The girl rubbed out the painter’s masterpiece with turps. 10. Miss Flynn is the only human being I have ever known who could talk not only in itals but, on occasion, could make her silences sound as meaningful as asterisks. 11. I get my quarter’s allowance at the end of the month, but there’s the vac. to get through. 12. It was meant, under less ghastly circs, to celebrate The Dolphin’s first six months.13. He got the D.F.-C.on the third tri p of his second tour of ops. 14. They had some smoked salmon for brek. VIII. Discuss the stylistic value of the units picked out from the sentences above. IX. The words ‘gas’, ‘kodak, ‘nylon’ are examples of original coinage. Give more examples of the same type. X. Read the following passages and add examples of your own, such as, for instance names of units formed on names of scientists, names of fabrics formed on place-names, etc. Many proper nouns have been formed from common nouns, e.g. Chapman, Sadler, Taylor, Turner, Walker, Webster, and very many others. But the process has also worked in reverse, and not only nouns, but also verbs and other parts of speech, have been formed from the names of individuals. One of the earliest from names of people is perhaps doily, from the name of a man who, in the seventeenth century, sold fine material suitable for the table napkins, and so gave his name to the table mat made from such material. These formations are of all kinds, some merely slang or nicknames others perpetuating the achievements of famous men, and they come from all sources, including history, science, trade, and literature. These words probably retained the capital letter at first, but many have now reached the final stage of acceptance in the language, as common nouns, with a small letter... – 25 –

We may see examples in names of garments, as bloomers, bowler (first advertised by Mr. Bowler of St. Swithun’s Lane in the Daily News, 8th August, 1868-a family reunion was held recently. NED says from bowl), cardigan, mackintosh, spencer (once a short coat, but now a woman’s garment), Wellingtons, and one which is perhaps now almost a noun, though its main use is adjectival — raglan. Pants, a shortened form of pantaloons, derives its origin from the character in the pantomime. A bowler is also known as a billycock, said to be a corruption of Billy Coke, as the hat was first made for William Coke, later Lord Leicester. Among other garment names are Dolly Vardon, Derby and Stetson hats, tarn o’shanter, Jemimas, Ìàå West (lifebelt), plimsolls, Sam Browne belt, belcher (a kerchief), burberry, Gladstone, Vandyke and Byron collars, Dolman jersey, and Joseph (a multicoloured coat), and perhaps we may include, as ornament, albert — a watch-chain. Other examples are sandwich, explained as the device adopted by the Fourth Earl of Sandwich, whose only refreshment during an uninterrupted spell of twenty-four hours at the gaming-tables is said to have been slices of cold beef laid between slices of toast... Personal names come also to be used as verbs, for example, boycott (from the persecution of Capt. Boycott, of Lough Mask House, Co. Mayo, by the Irish Land League in 1880), which has proved so popular — and it is indeed a most useful word — that it has passed from English into several European languages, for it is found in Dutch, French, German, and Russian. We find also to lynch, from the name of the American Judge Lynch, so far unidentified with certainty, but who is supposed to have started, or sanctioned, the practice, hence ‘Lynch’s Law’. A furher development of this verbal use is the addition of the suffix -ize, as in bowdlerize. mercerize, mesmerize, macadamize, pasteurize... J.A. Sheard. The Words We Use. XI. Read the passage below and answer questions following it. Perhaps few, even among professed students of language, are aware how large a portion of the English vocabulary has, in the ordinary sense of the word, no etymology at all. We do not mean merely that there are many words the origin of which is and will always remain unknown because of the imperfection of our means of – 26 –

discovery. This is no doubt quite true. But there are also many words which were neither inherited from Old English, nor adopted from any foreign language, nor formed out of any older English or foreign words by any process of composition or derivation. It is to instances of this kind that the name of ‘root-creation’ may be fitly applied. One of the princi ple forms of root-creation is that which is known by the name of Onomatopoeia. The word is Greek, and literally means ‘name-making’. It was used by the Greeks to express the fact (common in their own as in other languages) that a noise, or the object producing it, sometimes makes its own name: that is to say, is denoted by a word formed in imitation of the sound. The number of ‘echoic’ words (as they have been called by Dr. Murray) which have arisen in Middle and Modern English is very considerable. We may mention as examples bang, boo, boom, cackle, cheep, fizz, gibber, giggle, hiss, hum, mumble, pop, quack, rumble, simmer, sizzle, titter, twitter, whirr, whiz, whip-poor-will... The imitation of inarticulate by articulate sounds can never be accurate...the so-called ‘imitative’ word represents an inarticulate noise not so much by way of an echo as symbolically. That is to say, the elements composing the sound of the word combine to produce a mental effect which we recognize as analogous to that produced by the noise. Henry Bradley. The Making of English. QUESTIONS

I. 1. Do all lexical units have etymology? 2. Why may original coinage of words be called ‘root-creation’? 3. Henry Bradley speaks of onomatopoeia. Can you cite other types of ‘root-creation’? IIa. Give sentences to illustrate the usage of the words adduced by H. Bradley as examples of onomatopoeia. IIb. Find Russian equivalents to these words. IIc. Give English equivalents to the Russian verbs: àõàòü, áîðìîòàòü, âîðêîâàòü, êóêîâàòü, ìÿóêàòü, ìû÷àòü, óõàòü, õíûêàòü, øàìêàòü, øóðøàòü.

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The Vokabulary of a Language as a System Unit III.

WORKING DEFINITIONS OF PRINCIPAL CONCEPTS

1. Parts of speech, classes into which words of a language are divided by virtue of their having a) a certain general (abstract, categorial) meaning underlying their — concrete lexical meaning; b) a system of grammatical categories characteristic of this class; c) specific syntactic functions; d) special types of form-building and word formation. 2. Context: a) the linguistic environment of a unit of language which reveals the conditions and the characteristic features of its usage in speech; b) the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase). 3. Semantic field, part (‘slice’) of reality singled out in human experience and, theoretically, covered in language by a more or less autonomous lexical microsystem. 4. Lexical set: 1) a group of words more or less corresponding in their main semantic component, i. e. belonging to the same semantic field; 2) a group of words having the same generic meaning. 5. Synonymy, the coincidence in the essential meanings of linguistic elements which (at the same time) usually preserve their differences in connotations and stylistic characteristics. 6. Synonyms, two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in some contexts. These words are distinguished by diffeent shades of meaning, connotations and stylistic features. 7. Ideographic synonyms, such synonyms which differ in shades of meaning, i. e. between which a semantic difference is statable. 8. Stylistic synonyms, such synonyms which, without explicitly displaying semantic difference, are distinguished stylistically, i. e. in all kinds of emotional, expressive and evaluative overtones. 9. Antonymy, semantic opposition, contrast. 10. Antonyms, a) words which have in their meaning a qualitative feature and can therefore be regarded as semantically opposite; b) words contrasted as correlated pairs. – 28 –

SEMANTIC FIELDS

In recent years, there has been, a good deal of work devoted to the investigation of lexical systems in the vocabularies of different languages, with particular reference to such fields (or domains) as kinshi p, colour, floraand fauna, weights and measures, military ranks, moral and aesthetic evaluation, and various kinds of knowledge, skill and understanding. The results obtained have conclusively demonstrated the value of the structural approach to semantics, and have confirmed the pronouncements of such earlier scholars as von Humboldt, de Saussure and Sapir to the effect that the vocabularies of different languages (in certain fields at least) are non-isomorphic: that there are semantic distinctions made in one language which are not made in another; moreover, that particular fields may be categorized in a totally different way by different languages. This fact is expressed in Saussurean terms by saying that each language imposes a specific form on the a priori undifferentiated substance of the content-plane. John Lyons. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics TASKS AND EXERCISES

I. Arrange the following units into three lexical sets — feelings, parts of the body, education: academy, affection, arm, back, belly, body, bone, book, brow, calf, calmness, cheek, chest, classes, classmate, coaching, college, contempt, contentment, correspondence, course, curriculum, daystudent, delight, don, drill, ear, education, elbow, encyclopedia, enthusiasm, envy, erudition, excitement, exercise, exhilaration, eye, face, faclty, finger, foot, forehead, frustration, grammar, hair, hand, happiness, hate, head, headmaster, heel, homework, ignorance, impatience, indifference, indignation, instruction, jealousy, joint, kindness, knee, knowledge, knuckle, learning, lecturer, leg, lesson, library, limb, love, malice, master, neck, nose, passion, pedagogy, primer, professor, rapture, reader, relief, restlessness, satisfaction, scholar, schoolboy, schooling, science, scientist, seminar, shock, smattering, student, sympathy, teacher, teaching, staff, temple, tenderness, textbook, thigh, thrill, thumb, toe, torso, training, tuition, tutor, undergraduate, university, unrest, waist, wrath.

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II. Read the following passage. How differently the raw material of experience is elaborated by various languages can be seen even in such a preeminently concrete field as the scale of colours. The spectrum is a continuous band, without any sharp boundaries; the number and nature of colour distinctions is therefore largely a matter of habit and convention. The Greeks and Romans had a poorer palette than our modern language; there was, for example, no generic term for ‘brown’ or ‘grey’ in Latin: modern Romance forms like French brun and gris are borrowings from Germanic. There is no single word for ‘grey’ in modern Lithuanian either; different words are used to denote the grey colour of wool, of horses, cows or human hair. Colour terms employed in other languages will often appear more differentiated, or less differentiated, than our own, although it would be more correct to say that the field is divided up on different principles. Thus Russian distinguishes between sinij ‘dark blue’ and goluboj ‘sky blue’; conversely, the Greek has a wide range of applications, some with and some without a notion of colour: ‘gleaming, silvery; blush-green, light blue, grey’. Oddly enough, there is a somewhat similar accumulation of meanings in a Japanese colour adjective, awo, which can mean ‘green’, ‘blue’ and ‘dark’; it can be used when speaking of ‘green vegetable’ the ‘blue sea’, or ‘dark clouds’. Elsewhere, the discrepancies are even more marked. The Navaho Indians, for example, have two terms corresponding to ‘black’, one denoting the black of darkness, the other the black of such objects as coal. Our ‘grey’ and ‘brown’, however, correspond to a single term in their language, and likewise our ‘blue’ and ‘green’. Stephen Ullmann. Language and Style. III. Classify the units in the following poem into lexical sets and, further, synonymic series. The Cataract of Lodore (fragments) by Robert Southey Here it comes sparkling, And there it lies darkling. Here smoking and frothing, Its tumult and wrath in, – 30 –

It hastens along, conflicting strong; Now striking and raging, As if a war waging, Its caverns and rooks among. Rising and leaping, Sinking and creeping, Swelling and flinging Showering and springing, Eddying and whisking, Spouting and frisking, Turning and twisting, Around and around; With endless rebound; Smiting and fighting, A sight to delight in, Confounding, astounding, Dizzying and deafening the ear with its sound. Receding and speeding, And shocking and rocking. And darting and parting, And threading and spreading. And whizzing and hissing, And dri pping and ski pping, And brightening and whitening. And quivering and shivering. And glittering and flittering, And foaming and roaming, And working and jerking, And heaving and cleaving, And thundering and floundering, And falling and crawling and sprawling, And driving and riving and striving. And sprinkling and twinkling and wrinkling, And sounding and bounding and rounding, And bubbling and troubling and doubling, Dividing and gliding and sliding, And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling, And clattering and battering and shattering, And gleaming and streaming and steaming and beaming And rushing and flushing and brushing and gushing. And flapping and rapping and clapping and slapping, And curling and whirling and purling and twirling, – 31 –

Retreating and meeting, and beating, and sheeting, Delaying and straying and playing and spraying, Advancing and prancing and glancing and dancing, Recoiling, turmoiling, and toiling, and boiling, And thumping and plumping and bumping and jumping, And dashing and flashing and splashing and clashing; And so never ending and always descending, Sound and motions for ever and ever are blending; All at once, and all o’er, with a mighty uproar, — And in this way the water comes down at Lodore. IV. Keeping in mind that problems such as meaning equivalence should be approached on the basis of ‘gradience’ because there are comparatively few clear-cut cases, find in the following list of words synonymic series and classify them into three groups: a) synonyms which display an obvious semantic difference (ideographic synonyms); b) synonyms which display an obvious stylistic difference (stylistic synonyms); c) synonyms more or less equally displaying both differences: ailing, arrogant, battle, begin, behold, bicker, brawl, bright, callous, clever, commence, conflict, conquest, consume, cruel, defeat, devour, diseased, dispiteous, dumb, easy, eat, engorge, facile, fatuous, fight, food, grub, hard-boiled, haughty, high-hat, hoitytoity, horse, ill, inept, ingest, intelligent, light, mandicate, obdurate, pace, proud, quarrel, sagacious, see, shrewd, snobbish, snooty, squabble, steed, stride, stroll, stupid, supercilious, tiff, walk. V. Find words synonymous with the following units and use them in sentences: event, feast, fellowshi p, manage, mendacious, temporal, thorough, thrive, withdraw, zeal. VI. With the help of dictionaries explain the meaning each member of the synonymic series given below: bystander — spectator — looker-on; cry — weep — shed tears — sob — snivel — wail — whimper; distinguished — illustrious — famous — noted — eminent — celebrated.

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VII. Read the following two passages and discuss the difference between the two points of view on synonymy. 1. R. Jakobson. Selected Writings. In any language instances may occur where two words are synonymous, i. e. semantically coinciding or rather NEARLY coinciding with each other, while differing in their phonemic constitution (though cases of total semantic coincidence and unrestricted permutability within the same code are most uncommon, and often close semantic approximation is mistaken by students for a complete identity). It is obvious that as a rule a distinctive feature in any language serves to differentiate words (or their grammatical constituents) which are semantically distinct; and, above all, language has no other way to convey a semantic difference than through the distinctive features. 2. John Lyons. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. ‘Total Synonymy’ and ‘Complete Synonymy’ It is a widely-held view that there are few, if any, ‘real’ synonyms in natural languages. To quote Ullmann: ‘it is almost a truism that total synonymy is an extremely rare occurrence, a luxury that language can ill afford’. As argued by Ullmann this view rests upon two quite distinct criteria: ‘Only those words can be described as synonymous which can replace each other in any given context without the slightest change either in cognitive or emotive import’. The two conditions for ‘total synonymy’ are therefore (I) interchangeability in all contexts, and (II) — identity in both cognitive and emotive import. We will discuss the validity of the distinction between ‘cognitive’ and ‘emotive’ sense presently. For the moment we may take it for granted. The condition of interchangeability in all contexts reflects the common assumption that words are never synonymous in any context unless they can occur (and have the same sense) in all contexts. We have already referred to and rejected this assumption. Like all sense-relations, synonymy is context-dependent: we will return to this point. The main objection to the definition of synonymy proposed by Ullmann (and others) is that it combines two radically different criteria and prejudges the question of their interdependence. It will be helpful to introduce a terminological distinction at this point. Granted the validity of a distinction between ‘cognitive’ and ‘emotive’ sense, – 33 –

we may use the term complete synonymy for equivalence of both cognitive and emotive sense; and we may restrict the term total synonymy to those synonyms (whether complete or not) which are interchangeable in all contexts. This scheme of classification allows for four possible kinds of synonymy (assuming that only two values are attributed to each of the variables): 1) complete and total synonymy; 2) complete, but not total; 3) incomplete, ‘but total; 4) incomplete, and not total. It is complete and total synonymy that most semanticists have in mind when they talk of ‘real’ (or ‘absolute’) synonymy. It is undoubtedly true that there are very few such synonyms in language. And little purpose is served by defining a notion of ‘absolute’ synonymy which is based on the assumption that complete equivalence and total interchangeability are necessarily connected. Once we accept that they are not, and at the same time abandon the traditional view that synonymy is a matter of the identity of two independently-determined ‘senses’, the whole question becomes much more straightforward. VIII. The following pairs of synonyms are as a rule used in combination with different words, i. e. in different contexts. Consulting dictionaries give examples to show their usage. Frequent — haunt; gleam — glitter; high — lofty; life — vitality; suitable — fitting; sulky — sullen; vivacious — lively.

Idioms and Idiomaticity Idiomaticity is important for this reason, if for no other, that there is so much of it in every language. (Weinreich 1969: 23) GLOSSARY

Ad hoc Ad hoc pieces of language are ‘one-offs’ appropriate to the varying language requirements of different partici pants and situations. They exemplify the working of the open-choice princi ple. – 34 –

Collocation Collocation is used in the sense J.R. Firth used it: ‘the company words keep’. Put differently, words generally co-occur in groups that conform to grammatical and semantic usage, e.g. strong/weak/black/ Ceylon, etc. tea (Adj + N). While the majority of collocations in a language are ad hoc, some are habitual in that they recur. These latter, along with idioms, exemplify the idiom princi ple Discourse In this book, discourse is used to signify an organized piece of language, spoken or written, functioning at a level above the units of grammar, though composed of these units at the micro-level. An extract from a complete discourse, the macro-level, can also be referred to as a discourse as it comes from the same continuous piece of language. Iidiom This term exemplifies the form of the headword of this item in dictionaries. It is used in this book in two senses: 1) A conventionalized multiword expression, often, but not always, literal. Idiom in this sense is very close to the OED definition; 2) Idiom is also used to refer to the structural design of a language, for example, the extent to which deletions are acceptable in locutions, spoken or written, as well as conventionalized, but non-canonical, idiosyncrasies peculiar to a given language. This second sense of idiom is the same as that given by the OED definition. There are, of course, idioms such as nothing loath or for better or worse to which both of the OED definitions apply, as they are expressions which, though idiosyncratic, are conventionalized. Idiomatic This term signifies conformity with the usage of a language. Register Register is used in the Hallidayan sense: a specific register is created when a choice of forms, lexical, grammatical, and discoursal, dictated by field, or subject matter, tenor, or partici pant relations and mode, or channel of communication, is made. Legalese is a strong example of a register, journalese a less strong one, not being governed as legalese is by the rigorous language conventions of an institution such as the law. Rrestricted collocation This term refers to a group of words which co-occur with each other only in limited ways, e.g. shrug one’s shoulders, addled eggs/brains. – 35 –

INTRODUCTION

Idioms, or conventionalized multiword expressions, often but not always non-literal, are hardly marginal in English, though they have been relatively neglected in lexical studies of the language. This neglect is especially evident in respect of the functions of idioms. One of the aims of this book, accordingly, is to account for the ubiquity of idioms by analysing what they do in different discourse types, both spoken and written. Bread and butter, red herring, spill the beans, bless you, go to hell, on the contrary, and in sum are idioms put to different functional uses. Bread and butter ‘livelihood’ constitutes a package of information, a specific experiential representation, working together with the other packages of information carried by its co-text to convey a message, for example. It was a simple bread and butter issue, part of the text fragment cited below. Bless you signalling conviviality and go to hell signalling conflict, on the other hand, are expressions indicating a speaker and addressee, usually physically present, in an interpersonal exchange. In sum and on the contrary are different again, performing as they do a relational role between the parts of a discourse, the conclusion to a text in the first instance and a denial of the preceding statement in the second. It is, however, useful to preface this discussion with the most frequently mentioned features of idioms: 1. Compositeness: idioms are commonly accepted as a type of multiword expression (red herring, make up, smell a rat, the coast is clear, etc.) though a few scholars (Hockett 1958; Katz and Postal. 1963) accept even single words as idioms. 2. Institutionalization: idioms are conventionalized expressions, conventionalization being the end result of initially ad hoc, and in this sense novel, expressions. 3. Semantic opacity: the meaning of an idiom is not the sum of its constituents. In other words, an idiom is often non-literal. The widespread occurrence of these three features in common word combinations has resulted in many types of multiword expressions identified by some other term such as slang, proverbs, allusions, similes, dead metaphors, social formulae, and collocations also being identified as idioms, a practice evident in the works discussed below.

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IDIOMS AND IDIOMATICITY

Idioms and idiomaticity, while closely related, are not identical. The basis of both is the habitual and, therefore, predictable cooccurrence of specific words, but with idioms signifying a narrower range of word combinations than idiomaticity. Idioms are indivisible units whose components cannot be varied or varied only within definable limits. No other words can be substituted for those comprising, for example, smell a rat or seize/grasp the nettle, which take either of these two verbs but no others: thus grab is unacceptable. Nor are the words of an idiom usually recombinable. All idioms, of course, show idiomaticity. However, all word combinations showing idiomaticity, for instance, habitual collocations such as rosy cheeks, sallow complexion, black coffee, or catch a bus, etc., are not idioms for they are relatively unrestricted in their adjectival and nominal variants: rosy / plump cheeks, rosy dawn, and a sallow skin are all possible. Similarly, we can have strong coffee and catch a tram. All these variations yield idiomatic expressions exemplifying idiomaticity, but they are not idioms. Idiomaticity is exemplified not only in idioms and conventional ad hoc collocations, but also in conventional lexicogrammatical sequencing most apparent in longer text fragments: those smooth, plump, rosy cheeks will one day be shrunken, shrivelled, and withered. This ad hoc sequence of adjectival modifiers preceding and following cheeks exemplifies idiomaticity in both selection and sequencing, but there are no combinations within the sequence qualifying as idioms. Such an ad hoc sequence can be compared with tall dark and handsome, an idiom both lexically and sequentially fixed. That conventionalized co-occurrence is the usual basis of idiomatic expressions is evident in the unacceptable sequencing of «‘butter and bread issue, *rosy, plump, smooth cheeks, or «‘little, three adorable girls. More strikingly, Chomsky’s famous* Colourless green ideas sleep furiously illustrate a different kind of unacceptable co-occurrance, a semantically unconventional collocation. All idioms are not grammatically regular, a fact already established in section 1.3. Non-canonical conventionalized word orders and semantics are possible as in nothing loath, footloose and fancy free, beside oneself, curry favour, etc.

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Idioms I. Pure idioms invariant, non-literal a. devil-may-care, backlash, chin wag, red herring, make off with, spick and span, smell a rat, the coast is clear, etc. Restricted variance, non-literal b. pitter-patter/pit-a-pat, take/have forty winks, seize/grasp the nettle, get/have/cold feet, etc.

Habitual collocations

II. Semi-literal idioms invariant a) drop names, catch fire, kith and kin, foot the bill, fat chance you’ve got, etc. Restricted variance b) chequered career/history, blue film/story/joke/gag/comedian, good morning/day, etc.

I. Restricted variance, semi literal explode a myth/theory /notion/idea/belief, catch the post/mail, thin/flimsy excuse, etc.

Ill. Literal idioms invariant a) on foot, one day; in sum; in the meantime; on the contrary; arm in arm; very important person (VIP); potato crisps; tall, dark and handsome; waste not, want not; happy New Year, etc. Restricted variance b) opt in favour of/for, for example/order that/to, happy/merry, Christmas, etc.

II. Restricted variance, literal addled brains/eggs, in-the-notinstance, in too distant past /future, for certain/sure, potato/corn/wood, etc.chips, etc. III. Unrestricted variance, semi-literal catch a bus/plane/ ferry, etc. train, run a business company, etc. theatre, by dint of hard work/patience/repetition, etc. – 38 –

IV. Unrestricted variance, literal beautiful/lovely, etc. Sweet woman, smooth/plump, etc. glowing/rosy cheeks, etc. Literal idioms IV. Restricted variance, optional elements abstain (from), (even) worse, worse (still), develop (from) (into), etc.

V. Restricted, variance, literal, optional elements shrug (one’s shoulders), nod (one’s head), clap (one’s hands), etc.

Idioms yield three sub-classes: pure idioms, semi-idioms, and literal idioms. A working definition of a pure idiom which is adequate for the present is ‘a type of conventionalized, non-literal multiword expression’. Spill the beans, for example, has nothing to do with beans. In contrast to its literal counterpart meaning ‘letting fall leguminous seeds’, a non-literal meaning is imposed on the idiom as a whole: ‘commit an indiscretion’. A semi-idiom (Weinreich 1969; Cowie 1981) has one or more literal constituents and at least one with a non-literal subsense, usually special to that co-occurrence relation and no other: drop has the meaning ‘overuse’ only when it co-occurs with names. Other examples are catch one’s breath ‘check’, foot the bill ‘pay’, etc. Some of these semi-idioms, like their kin, restricted collocations with specialized subsenses, permit lexical variation, for example, blue ‘obscene’ film/joke/gag/story/comedian. Literal idioms (on foot; tall, dark and handsome; waste not, want not; on the contrary; a (very) happy birthday; a merry Christmas and a happy New Year, etc.) meet the salient criterion for idioms: invariance or restricted variation. They are, however, less semantically complex then pure and semi-idioms. Some collocations, like idioms, show a habitual co-occurrence of words but these are multiword expressions which permit lexical alternatives as a matter of course, either restricted or unrestricted: addled eggs/brains, in the-not-too-distant past/future (restricted); by dint of hard work/perseverance/repetition/application/patience/ persistence, etc. catch a bus/train/tram, etc. (unrestricted). The last example is the most unrestricted collocation of the cited examples, but this is only in relation to the others. Catch in the context of items signifying public transport has the specialized subsense ‘be in time – 39 –

for’, as it does with the post (catch the post). New forms of public transport can be added to the set of possible alternatives (e.g. hydrofoil/hovercraft), but some restrictions exist as with ship, though not with boat. Catch does not generally co-occur with forms of private transport (bicycle/car/yacht/dinghy/helicopter, etc.) though taxi (catch a taxi) is an exception. Although catch is unrestricted in relation to restricted collocations such as those cited above, it is relatively restricted itself when compared with some other habitual cooccurrences such as Adj + coffee: strong/weak/black/white/Irish/Turkish/Brazilian/hot/iced/sweet/bitter, etc. coffee. However, numerous a& are the adjectives that can co-occur with coffee, there are limits: coffee can be strong but not powerful or vital, weak but not limp, Irish ‘coffee laced with whisky’, but not British, and so on. Despite such limits, the generous openness of this collocation apparent in the wide range of possible adjective options it has, places it at the lower end of a scale of idiomaticity in contrast to smell a rat, white lie, catch fire, etc., which are lexically invariant and nonliteral, completely or partially. It is difficult to maintain a strict division between pure idioms, semi-idioms, literal idioms, restricted and unrestricted collocations. The range of alternatives that can co-occur with blue ‘obscene’ (film/joke, etc) may lead to this expression being seen as both a semi-idiom like white lie and a restricted collocation like explode ‘debunk’ a myth/theory/ notion/idea/belief, especially as both have specialized subsenses; ‘obscene’ and ‘debunk’, which are non-literal. Consequently, semi-idioms and restricted collocations can be regarded as overlapping as in Cowie (1981). However, explode a myth because of its several options has less unity as a multiword expression than the invariant catch one’s breath ‘check’ or catch fire ‘ignite’, ‘be enthused’. Looked at in this way, explode a myth, etc. belongs more with catch a bus, etc., the chief difference being that the first is relatively restricted, the second relatively unrestricted. A pure idiom such as get cold feet can take two other options (have/give), a flexibility which establishes links between it and restricted collocations. This kind of fuzziness afflicts taxonomies in every area of language. The elements of a language cannot all be lumped together — differences do exist — nor can they be inflexibly categorized, as shared features are also present. What we have in the linguistic universe, as in the material one, is a mix of pure breds and hybrids. Following other scholars, I have already suggested a graduated scale as the best means of – 40 –

accommodating such diversity. A scale enables us to discuss lexical types such as collocations, which show some of the features of idioms, without being idioms themselves. Idiomatic expressions and conventionalized multiword expressions are the terms of widest general reference in this book, being cover terms for idioms and habitual collocations of all types. This phrase refers to a prescribed expression or expressions such as a spell, marriage vows, or parts of the preamble to a will couched in the unvarying form necessary for such speech acts to be valid. The invariant form of formulaic discourse also makes the phrase synonymous with another, namely language routines, both having connotations of predicability. TASKS AND EXERCISES

I. Definitions. Match up the definitions on the left (1—16) with the correct idiom on the right (a-p) 1) clever, intelligent a all thumbs 2) inquisitive, curious b bedridden 3) rich, wealthy c bigheaded 4) cruel d black and blue all over 5) stupid, unintelligent e brainy 6) young, inexperienced f cheeky 7) old (of a person) g hair-raising 8) very clumsy, awkward h heartless 9) impudent i keyed up 10) stubborn j long in the tooth 11) too weak to leave one’s bed k nosy 12) terrifying 1 off colour 13) conceited, vain, boastful m pigheaded 14) tense, excited n thick 15) ill, not well o well off 16) covered with bruises p wet behind the ears II. Choose the idiom. Choose the word or phrase which best completes each sentence. 1. I really must go and lie down for a while; I’ve got a ... headache. a cutting b splitting c ringing d cracking – 41 –

2. Stop ... about the bush, James! Just tell me exactly what the problem is. a rushing b hiding c beating d moving 3. I usually buy my clothes ... It’s cheaper than going to a dressmaker. a off the peg b on the house c in public d on the shelf 4. David’s leaving on Friday. I suggest we all ... and get him a going-away present. a dish out b chi p in c pass the buck d pay on the nail 5. The sky got very dark and soon it began to ... down. a roar b bath c bucket d pouring 6. My father ... when he found out that I’d damaged the car. a hit the roof b saw pink c made my d brought elephants blood boil the house down 7. If you want a flat in the centre of the city you have to pay through the ... for it. a teeth b back of c nose d arm your head 8. I caught the last bus by the skin of my ... a mouth b leg c neck d teeth 9. Because the owner wanted a quick sale, the house went for ... — only £30 000. a loose change b a song c a loaf of bread d a smile 10. You didn’t think I was being serious, did you, Brian! It was a joke! I was pulling your ... that’s all! a thumb b hair c toe d leg 11. The accident was caused by a taxi driver ... the traffic lights. a rushing b missing c jumping d beating 12. Lend me £20, please, John. I’m ... at the moment. a broke b down the drain ñ stuck up d a bit thick 13. She would do anything for her youngest son. He was the ... of her eye. a plum b centre c star d apple 14. I always get. ... in my stomach before visiting the dentist. a worms b butterflies c crabs d hedgehogs 15. Those second-hand Walkmans are selling like ... If you want one, you’d better buy one now before they’re all gone. a shooting stars b fresh bread c hot cakes d wildcats

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III. Choose the animal. Fill in the missing words from the sentences below. Choose from the following, using plural forms where necessary. bird crocodile goat lion bull dog goose pig cat donkey horse rat cow fish kitten stag 1. Turning up half an hour late for the interview really cooked his... 2. We were hoping to keep the wedding a secret, but my mother soon let the ... out of the bag. 3. You’re flogging a dead ... trying to get Harry to change his mind!. 4. I don’t think I’d recognise her now; it’s .... ‘s years since I last saw her. 5. Harold has really gone to the ... since his wife died. Looking at him now, it’s hard to believe he was once a successful barrister. 6. It’s not that I mind giving her a lift home every Tuesday, but what gets my .... is the fact that she’s never once offered to pay for the petrol. 7. As I had to go to Swansea on business, I decided to kill two ... with one stone and visit my old school as well. 8. Although he had only known her for two weeks he decided to take the ... by the horns and ask her to marry him. 9. She loved tennis and could watch it until the ... came home. 10. You’re upset now, I know. But you’ll soon forget her — after all, there are plenty more ... in the sea. 11. That’s the last time I invite Steve for a meal. He really made a ... of himself last night. 12. Don’t be fooled. She’s not a bit sad; they’re just ... tears. 13. When their grandfather died, Robert and his sister got the ... ’s share of his money. 14. After years of commuting from Brighton to London, he decided to get out of the ... race and buy a small farm in Wales. 15. When I tell my parents that Paul and I have decided to call off the wedding they’re going to have ... 16. We’re off to a ... party tonight — David’s getting married on Saturday.

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IV. Choose the part of the body. Fill in the missing words from the sentences below. Choose from the following, using plural forms where necessary. arm bone cheek foot heart nerve back brain chest hair leg stomach blood breast finger hand mouth tooth 1. Being retired, he suddenly found himself with lots of time on hi ... but with little to do to occupy it. 2. You need to have a strong ... to work in a slaughterhouse. 3. He got up very late this morning and then had the ... to complain about his breakfast being cold! 4. She had a sweet ... and couldn’t resist buying chocolates and cream cakes. 5. None of the students liked Mr Baker. In fact, everyone was glad to see the ... of him when he left to teach in Italy. 6. I think I’ll go and stretch my ... I’ve been sitting down all morning and I’m feeling a bit stiff. 7. I’ve got an essay to write on the history of computing. Unfortunately, I don’t know anything about it, so do you mind if I pick your ..? 8. He used to love mountain-climbing, but when a friend of his was killed in the Himalayas he lost his ... and never went climbing again. 9. The viewers were up in ... when the television station announced it was going to change the time of the evening news broadcast from 9 o’clock to 9.30. 10. There’s something wrong somewhere. I can’t put my ... on what it is exactly, but something just doesn’t feel right. 11. The cruel way some owners treat their pets makes my ... boil. 12. «Hurry up, Dorothy! The taxi’s waiting!» «All right, keep your ... on! I’m coming.» 13. Getting a problem off your ... is the first stage to being able to solve it. 14. She decided to make a clean ... of everything and confess that she was the one who had stolen the money. 15. You’d better be careful what you say to Samantha. You know how sensitive she is to criticism — she takes everything to ... 16. I think there’s going to be trouble at the meeting tonight; I can feel it in my. – 44 –

17. David and the new boss seem to have got off on the wrong ... Poor David! There go his chances for promotion. 18. Stop putting words into my ..! I never said opera was boring, I just said I preferred musicals, that’s all. V. Complete the proverbs. Complete the following proverbs by choosing an ending from those marked a-p. Then try to explain what each proverb means. 1. Absence... 2. Beauty... 3. First come... 4. When the cat’s away... 5. No news... 6. A miss... 7. One good turn... 8. A bird in the hand... 9. A bad workman... 10. Charity... 11. Practice... 12. Necessity... 13. A new broom... 14. One man’s meat... 15. Too many cooks... 16. Where there’s a will... a) ...is worth two in the bush b) ...begins at home c) ...is as good as a mile d) ...spoil the broth e) ...is the mother of invention f) ...makes the heart grow fonder g) ...always blames his tools h) ...sweeps clean i) ...there’s a way j) ...is only skin deep k) ...the mice will play l) ...deserves another m) ...first served n) ...makes perfect o) ...is good news p) ...is another man’s poison – 45 –

VI. Choose the colour. Complete the idioms below with a suitable colour. (You wili need to use some words more than once): black green red blue grey white brown pink yellow 1. In most countries, goods that are scarce are usually freely available on the .... market-provided you have the money to pay for them. 2. You can argue with her until you’re ... in the face, but once she’s made up her mind she won’t listen to you, no matter what you say. 3. After several weeks of discussions, the group were given the ... light, and could finally go ahead with the new project. 4. There’s no point in asking my boss for a day off next week. I’m in her ... books at the moment so she’s bound to say no. 5. She had only recently had lunch with her cousin, so the news of his death came as a bolt from the ... 6. Although we got a lot of nice wedding presents, we also got one or two ... elephants. 7. There is a common prejudice that girls who are very beautiful must automatically be lacking in ... matter-so-called ‘dumb blondes’. 8. Next Friday is a ... -letter day for my sister and her husband; it’s their 25th wedding anniversary. 9. After sunbathing for two hours every day, Joanna was as ... as a berry. 10. The managing director’s reference to the forthcoming sales conference was a ... herring. He just wanted to get off the subject of this month’s poor sales figures. 11. She went as ... as a sheet when she heard about the accident. 12. If there was a war, I don’t think I’d fight. I’ve got too much of a ... streak. I’d be terrified of getting killed. 13. I’m sorry, James, I refuse to believe it unless you can show it to me in ... and ..! 14. Ever since Tom got that huge order with Saudi Arabia he’s been the boss’s ... -eyed boy. 15. Don’t mention the present government in front of my father; it’s like a ... rag to a bull. 16. I was ... with envy when my neighbour drove up in a brandnew Jaguar.

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17. By the way, Joyce, my husband was tickled ... at your asking him to judge the flower show. 18. For some reason, Swedish films are often synonymous with ... films, which is very strange as there is relatively little pornography in Sweden. 19. Sometimes it is better to tell a ... lie than to hurt someone’s feelings. 20. My wife always goes bright ... whenever she gets embarrassed.

Keys to the Exercises Unit I. The English Wordstock IIIb. 1) narrowing; 2) extension; 3) narrowing; 4) narrowing; 5) narrowing; 6) extension; 7) narrowing. IXa. Businessman [‘biznisman]; beatnik [‘bi:tnik]; boots bu:ts]; bulldozer [‘bu!,douza]; camping [‘kaempig]; cruise [kru:z]; moccasins [‘makasmz]; motel [mo(u)’tel]; service [sa:vis]; stri p-tease [‘stri pti:z]; happening Chaspanin]; happy end [‘haspi ‘end]; hi ppie Chi pi]; hi pster [‘hi pstaj; hobby [‘hobi]. Unit II. The Morphological Structure of a Word V. Absotively: absolutely + positively; airtorial: air + editor ial; brunch: breakfast + lunch; cablegram: cable 4- telegram; cameracature: camera + caricature; cheeriodical: cheer + periodical; chortle: chuckle + snort; cigaroot: cigarette + cheroot; crocogator: crocodile + alligator; di pward: di phteria + ward; dog napper: dog + kidnapper; dumbfound: dumb + confound; flush: flash + blush; glumpy: gloomy + grumpy; guesstimate: guess + estimate; infantici pate: infant + antici pate; mingy: mean + stingy; newtopia: new + utopia; oilitics: oil + politics; posilutely: positively + + absolutely; smog: smoke + fog; twinight: twilight+ night; twirl: twist + whirl; uffish: uppish + selfish; windoor: window + door; wordfactufer: word + manufacturer. – 47 –

VII. 1) holidays; 2) simultaneous translation; 3) doctor, modern conveniences; 4) general information; 5) situation normal — all fouled up (= state of complete confusion); 6) thousand; 7) proprietor; 8) fabulous; 9) turpentine; 10) italics; 11) vacation; 12) circumstances; 13) Distinguished Flying Cross, operations; 14) breakfast. Unit III. The Vocabulary of a Language as a System I. 1. Feelings: affection, calmness, contempt, contentment, delight, enthusiasm, envy, excitement, exhilaration, frustration, happiness, hate, impatience, indifference, indignation, jealousy, kindness, love, malice, passion, rapture, relief, restlessness, satisfaction, shock, sympathy, tenderness, thrill, unrest, wrath. 2. Parts of the body: arm, back, belly, body, bone, brow, calf, cheek, chest, ear, elbow, eye, face, finger, foot, forehead, hair, hand, head, heel, joint, knee, knuckle, leg, limb, neck, nose, temple, thigh, thumb, foe, torso, waist. 3. Education: academy, book, classes, classmate, coaching, college, correspondence, course, curriculum, day-student, don, drill, education, encyclopedia, erudition, exercise, faculty, grammar, headmaster, homework, ignorance, instruction, knowledge, leaning, lecturer, lesson, library, master, pedagogy, primer, professor, reader, scholar, schoolboy, schooling, science, scientist, seminar, smattering, student, teacher, teaching staff, textbook, training, tuition, tutor, undergraduate, university. IV. a) walk — pace — stride — stroll (÷); fight — battle — brawl — conflict (n); defeat — conquest (n); ill — ailing — diseased (a); easy — facile — light (a); b) begin — commence (v); see — behold (v)’; horse — steed (n); cruel — callous — obdurate — dispiteous (a); stupid — inept — fatuous (a); food — grub (n); c) intelligent — shrewd — clever — bright — sagacious (a); eat — ingest — consume — devour — mandicate — engorge (o); quarrel — squabble — bicker — tiff (n); arrogant — supercilious — haughty — proud — snobbish’ — high-hat — snooty hoity-toity (a); fatuous-dumb (a); callous — hardboiled (a). – 48 –

Idioms and Idiomaticity I. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

e rainy k noisy o well off h heartless n thick p wet behind the ears j long in the tooth a all thumbs

9) f cheeky 10) m pigheaded 11) b bedridden 12) g hair-rising 13) c bigheaded 14) i keyed up 15) off colour 16) d black and blue all over

II. 1) b splitting (the person has a very painful or severe headache); 2) c beating (If you «beat about the bush» you tend to avoid saying directly what you mean); 3) a off the peg (This is the opposite of being measured up for a dress, jacket. Off the peg clothes usually come in standard sizes only); 4) b chi p in (This means to contribute money — usually to get a present for someone); 5) c bucket (To «bucket down» is to rain very heavily); 6) a hit the roof (He got very angry); 7) c nose (To’ pay through the nose’ for something is to pay far more for something than it is really worth); 8) d teeth («By the skin of «one’s teeth» means the person only just caught the last bus, he or she almost missed it); 9) b a song (If something goes for a song «it is sold very cheaply); 10) d leg (To pull someone’s leg» is to tease someone); 11) c jumping (The taxi driver pulled away before the traffic lights had changed completely to green); 12) a broke (The person doesn’t have any money); 13) d apple (Her son was very precious to her); 14) b butterflies (This means you get nervous); 15) c hot cakes (They sell very well or very quickly). III. 1) goose (It really put an end to his plans, hopes); 2) cat (My mother told everyone the secret); 3) horse (You are wasting your time); 4) donkey (It’s a long time since I last saw her); – 49 –

5) dogs (Harold no longer takes care of himself); 6) goat (What makes me angry, what annoys me); 7) birds (I decided to make use of one occasion to do two things); 8) bull (He decided to take the bold step immediately of asking her to marry him); 9) cows (She could watch it for long periods of time without getting bored); 10) fish (There are plenty of other people for you to meet and have arelationshi p with; used to try to comfort someone who has just lost a boyfriend or girlfriend); 11) pig (He ate far too much); 12) crocodile (his tears are not real); 13) lion (He and his sister got the largest share); 14) rat (The «rat race» is the constant struggle for success in business or in one’s job); 15) kittens (They are going to be in a state of panic); 16) stag (A «stag party» is given when a man about to get married has a party for his male friends). IV. 1) hands (He found himself with lots of free time); 2) stomach (You need to be able to see blood, dead bodies, etc. without feeling sick); 3) cheek (nerve) (He then dared to complain about his breakfast being cold); 4) tooth (If you have a sweet tooth, you like eating sweet things); 5) back (They were glad to see him leave); 6) legs (I’ll go for a walk); 7) brains (Do you mind if I talk to you in order to get information to use for my essay?); 8) nerve (He became frightened and could no longer climb mountains); 9) arms (The viewers were very angry); 10) finger (I can’t say exactly what is wrong); 11) blood (It makes me very angry); 12) hair (Keep calm! Don’t panic!); 13) chest (When you get a problem off your chest, you tell someone else about it); – 50 –

14) breast (She decided to confess); 15) heart (She takes every criticism personally); 16) bones (I can feel it strongly); 17) foot (Our relationshi p started badly); 18) mouth (To «put words into someone’s mouth» is to pretend that someone has said something that he or she has not actually said). V. 1) f, 2) j, 3) m, 4) k, 5) o, 6) c, 7) l, 8) a, 9) g, 10) b, 11) n, 12) e, 13) h, 14) p, 15) d, 16) I. VI. 1) black, 2) blue, 3) green, 4) black, 5) blue, 6) white, 7) grey, 8) red, 9) brown, 10) red, 11) white, 12) yellow, 13) black; white, 14) blue, 15) red, 16) green, 17) pink, 18) blue, 19) white, 20) red.

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MORPHOLOGY

Unit I.

The Infinitive

The infinitive is historically a noun derived from a verb stem. In Old English the infinitive had two separate forms: a) a simple infinitive representing the nominative and accusative of the verbal noun (drincan) and b) an infinitive preceded by to representing the dative case of the same noun (to drincenne). The preposition to denoted direction or purpose (to drincenne = for the purpose of drinking). In the course of time both suffixes (-an, -enne) were dropped and we have now one form — drink. In Modern English the infinitive with to is. much commoner than the bare infinitive. In most cases the datival meaning is lost and the preposition to has become merely the sign of the infinitive. But to is even now not always formal; in some cases it has preserved its full force: Janet had gone away to get the bath ready (Dickens) (= with the purpose of getting the bath ready). The door was partly open to admit air (Dickens). The old gardener came with a little basket to feed the doves (Galsworthy). Although the infinitive was originally a verbal noun, in the course of its development it has acquired some characteristics of the verb and is at present intermediate between verb and noun. Verb-Characteristics of the Infinitive The infinitive has the following verb-characteristics: 1. It distinguishes aspect: common and continuous. Common: to write, to have written, to be written, to have been written. Continuous: to be writing, to have been writing. Common: I want you to give me some information (Londîn). She must have seen a change in my expression (Snîw). Continuous: It was pleasant to be driving the car again (Braine). – 52 –

2. The infinitive has tense-forms: indefinite and perfect. As has already been stated the tenses of the infinitive comprise relative time indication. Common aspect: Indefinite Infinitive: to write, to be written Perfect Infinitive: to have written, to have been written. Continuous aspect: Non-Perfect Continuous Infinitive: to be writing Perfect Continuous Infinitive: to have been writing: a) The indefinite infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive is simultaneous with the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence: I saw a lizard dart on that rock (Lawrence). I’ve often heard him tell the tale (Jerome). She hears him catch up his hat and cloak, and hurry out into the rain... (Kingsley). Ben had tried once before... to show the boy how to fly a plane (Aldridge). He helped me to alight from the carriage... (Bronte). In connection with the present tense of such verbs as to expect, to hope, to intend, to want, etc. the indefinite infinitive refers to an action in the future: I want you to give me some information (London). He wanted to tell her of the incident... (Cronin). I wish you to be happy... (Dickens). I promised to obey... (Bronte). When associated with modal (defective) verbs and their equivalents (± o have or to be followed by an infinitive), the indefinite infinitive may also refer to a future action: I must go and see him in a day or two (Conrad). May I come again...? (Eliot). ...You must come and see his work (Galsworthy). What am I to do? (Dickens). Let’s have tea-she has to catch a train (Galsworthy). The non-perfect continuous form of the infinitive shows an action in its progress at the time when the action expressed by the finite form of the verb takes place: Irene’s li ps moved; ‘she seemed to be saying: «Where shall I go?» (Galsworthy). She seemed to be listening (Galsworthy). It’s extremely funny for me to be consoling you (Snow). b) The perfect infinitive shows that the action expressed by the infinitive precedes the action indicated by the finite form of the verb: I’m very glad to have seen you again, Mrs. Vidler (Cronin). I’m sorry to have been of so little assistance (Shaw). ...An age seemed to have elapsed since the day which brought me first to Lowood... (Bronte). – 53 –

In Russian this form of the infinitive is often rendered by a finite form of the verb: ß î÷åíü ðàä, ÷òî ïîâèäàë âàñ îïÿòü. Ìíå æàëü, ÷òî ÿ òàê ìàëî ïîìîã âàì. When a perfect infinitive is associated with a modal (defective) verb the infinitive indicates: 1) Either that the action took place in the past; then the infinitive is equivalent to a past: Why did she go away so early last night? She may have been ill (perhaps she was ill). You must have been very tired if you went to bed so early (probably you were very tired...). 2) Or the infinitive indicates that the action is already accomplished at a given moment and is viewed from that moment; then it has the meaning of a perfect (present perfect or past perfect): Why doesn’t she come? She may not have arrived yet (perhaps she has not yet arrived). Let us go, it must have stopped raining (probably it has stopped raining). She may have gone before they arrived (perhaps she had gone before they arrived). He must have locked the door before he left the house (certainly he had locked the door before he left the house). The perfect continuous form of the infinitive shows the anterior duration of an action still continuing; it is equivalent to a present or past perfect continuous: We must have been walking for two hours; let us have a rest (probably we have been walking for two hours...) For a quarter of an hour I must have been writing by a glow of firelight reflected on to my desk (probably I had been writing...); it seemed to me the sun of summer (Gissing). After the modal (defective) verbs should, could, ought, might (subjunctive II) and the past indicative of the verb to be (when used as a modal equivalent) the perfect infinitive is used to show that an action considered desirable or planned was not carried out (a rejected action): You should have phoned me at once... (Gordon). I ought to have done it (Locke). The yellow leaves came down about those two walking the mile and a half which Soames had traversed so often in those long-ago days when he came down to watch with secret pride the building of the house which was to have been the home of him and her from whom he was now going to seek release (Galsworthy). After the past tense of verbs expressing hope, expectation, intention, the perfect infinitive is used to indicate that the action was not carried out: – 54 –

I meant (thought or intended) to have written a line to you. I quite expected you to have been here before six o’clock. This is a speech which I meant to have delivered at the annual meeting of our society. He hoped to have come. - /intended to come leaves the question open as to whether or not the intention was fulfilled. 3. The infinitive of transitive verbs has voice distinctions: Active: to write, to have written. Passive: to be written, to have been written. Active: I’m glad to hear you say so (Bronte). I want you to give o me some information (London). Passive: ...He caused it [the dining-table] to be removed... (Galsworthy). There is only one thing to be done (Cronin). Compare: I cannot trifle or be trifled with (Dickens). Note. — At first the infinitive had only one form (active or indifferent) which had either an active or a passive meaning. In the course of time a passive form of the infinitive developed. Traces of the old indifferent form with a passive meaning are still found in the following sentences: They were not to blame (= to be blamed). The reason is not far to seek (= to be sought). There is a lot to see there (= to be seen). The house is to let (= to be let).

4. In common with the finite verb, the infinitive may have an object; if the verb is transitive, it has a direct object: He saw Irene come in, pick up the telegram, and read it (Galsworthy). 5. The infinitive is modified by an adverb: He saw her pause irresolutely at the door... (Dickens). At this moment a striking incident made the boys pause suddenly in their walk (Eliot).

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Noun-Characteristics of the Infinitive The infinitive has the following syntactical characteristics of a noun: a) It may be used as the subject of the sentence: ...To tramp for three hours through fluffy snow exhausted him (L. Sinclair). To talk of those merry school-days makes one young again (Dickens); b) It may have the function of an object: ...She had promised to take Florrie with her... (Cronin). He helped me to alight from the carriage (Bronte). I’m sorry to keep you up so late (Voynich). The Particle to before the Infinitive

1. In Modern English the infinitive is usually preceded by the particle to. Formerly this to was a preposition which was put before the infinitive (then a noun in the dative case) to indicate direction or purpose. In the course of time to lost its meaning of direction or purpose, and became merely the sign of the infinitive. But in some cases it has still preserved its old meaning of purpose. Compare: I like to read. I went to the library to read (purpose). I want to stop here. Everything was done to stop (purpose) the fire. He wandered back to the house to look for his mother (Lawrence). She had turned her head to speak to her boy... (Galsworthy). 2. The infinitive is used without to in the following instances (instances «b», «c», «d», «e» refer to cases when the infinitive is part of a complex object): a) After the auxiliary and modal (defective) verbs shall, will, do, may, can, must: I must go and look at the flowers at Hampton Court. Will you come? (Aldington). «May I have a cigarette?» he asked (Conrad). But after the modal (defective) verb ought the infinitive is always used with to: I ought to have done it (Locke). You ought to see her (Lawrence). b) After some verbs expressing physical perceptions: to hear, to see, to feel, to perceive: ...They felt the boat shudder as its speed slackened (Cusack). ...He heard a blackbird sing (Galsworthy). He saw Irene come in, pick up the telegram, and read it (Galsworthy). – 56 –

Note. — If the verb to feel expresses mental perceptions, to is used before the infinitive: I felt this to be true... (Dickens). c) Aafter the verbs to watch, to notice, to observe; to let, to make (çàñòàâëÿòü), to bid; also after the expression / won’t have: He turned on Florence¾ and bade her leave the room (Dickens). He stood¾ beside a bush of pale Michaelmas daisies, watching the last bees crawl into the hive (Lawrence). A few light taps upon the pane made him turn to the window (Joyce). Andrew observed her hurry off... (Cronin). Note. — All the verbs in b) and c) require an infinitive with to when they are used in the passive voice: He was heard to open the door. He was seen to drive the car at great speed. He was made to come. d) After the verb to know in the sense of to experience, to observe: Have you ever known me tell a lie? I had never known him ask a favour of this kind before (Snow). I had never known her pretend (Snîw). e) After the verb to help the infinitive is often used without to: I helped Mrs. Thompson take off her coat (Braine). I want to help you keep him (Galsworthy). I’ll help you dry up... (Cusack). But also: Fanny helped Miss Helsone to put away her work... (Bronte). f) After the following expressions: had better, had best, would have, would rather (...than), would sooner (...than), cannot but (can but), does nothing but.., need scarcely (only, hardly): She does nothing but grumble. You need only give me a few hints. I cannot but agree with you upon that subject. I need scarcely tell you how important it is. I would rather not go (Bronte). «We’d better take shelter,» said she (Maugham). Would you have me tell her a lie (Sheridan). g) The particle to is dropped in special questions beginning with why when the infinitive has the force of a predicate: Why not go to the cinema? Why not start earlier? But why not tell them? (Galsworthy).

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Repetition of to before Several Infinitives

1. When there are several infinitives with the same or similar function to is put only before the first infinitive. But if emphasis or contrast is intended, to is repeated before each infinitive: ...It was his delight to run into the garden after a shower of rain and shake the rose bush over him (Mansfield). To be or not to be — that is the question (Shakespeare). 2. In colloquial speech the particle to is often used without the infinitive if the latter is clearly understood from the preceding context. This construction is used with verbs expressing actions: «You can laugh if you want to,» she said. «I know it’s comic» (Snîw). «You must come and have dinner with me.» — «Thank you, uncle Jol yon, I should like to!» (Galsworthy). Jago has sacrificed himself for the college, just as every college officer has to (Snow). Split Infinitive The particle to is sometimes separated from the infinitive by an adverb or an emphatic particle; the construction is called a «Split Infinitive»: They were seen to just touch each other’s hands (Galsworthy). ...She seemed to really like her grey old bonnet better... (Leacock). It had been impossible to seriously confide to June his conviction... (Galsworthy). He was unable, however, to long keep silence (Galsworthy). The working masses of Russia were the first to decisively storm capitalism, the first to take the path to Socialism. Sometimes this separation of to from the infinitive is necessary to avoid ambiguity. If in the sentence They were unwilling to wholly manufacture new goods — wholly is put in front of the to, it tends to adhere to unwilling; if it is placed after manufacture, it attaches itself to new, and the meaning is changed. The Subjective and the Objective Infinitive The action expressed by the infinitive may refer either to the subject or to the object of the sentence. When the action expressed by the infinitive refers to the subject of the sentence, the infinitive is a subjective infinitive: – 58 –

I promised to obey, and went upstairs with my message... (Dickens). «We’d better take shelter,» she said (Maugham). I am glad to hear you say so (Bronte). ...You must come and see his work (Galsworthy). When the action expressed by the infinitive refers to the îbject of the sentence, the infinitive is an objective infinitive: You will allow me to see you again...? (Dickens). I want: you to give me some information (London). He begged her i not to go... (Dickens). Minny made Sarah sit in the one‘: comfortable chair close to the fire... (Mazo de la Roche). The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence The infinitive is used:

1. As subject: For the Soviet people, to live means to create, to go forward constantly. To hear the wind getting up out at sea, to know that the fog was creeping over the desolate flat outside, and to look at the fire and think that there was no house near but this one, and this one a boat, was like enchantment (Dickens). When the subject of the sentence is an infinitive phrase, it is sometimes placed after the predicate. Then the sentence begins with the pronoun it, an introductory word called the anticipatory it: it is necessary to..., it is important to..., it is good (better) to..., it is bad (worse) to..., it is useless to..., it is (of) no use to..., it is not much use to..., it is little use to..., it is impossible to..., it is quite possible to..., it is quite natural to..., if is difficult to.., it is hard to..., it is easy to..., etc. It was sufficient to sit there, to breathe, to look at the river and trees, simply to exist (Braine). ...She sang delightfully: it was a treat to listen to her (Bronte). It was pleasant to observe the fresh flowers in the room (Dickens). It had been Penny’s idea to invite the mother and daughter... (Mazo de la Roche). 2. As predicative: His next step was to speak to Llewellyn (Cronin). Her greatest joy was to receive letters every week and to write long replies (Gordon). All I had now to do was to obey him in silence... (Bronte). To wage an active struggle for peace means constantly to expose plotters of a new war, to foil their schemes and to rally more and more millions of people to the defence of peace.

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3. As part of a compound verbal predicate (see «The Compound Verbal Predicate»). The subjective infinitive is used in this function combined with: a) Modal (defective) verbs: can, must, may, ought, shall, will, need, dare, also to have and to be used as modal equivalents: She must speak now or not at all (Cronin). Perhaps he ought to have answered her like that (Joyce). Is there a stream where we could bathe? (Galsworthy). We were to go in a carrier’s cart which departed in the morning after breakfast (Dickens). b) Verbs which do not express actions (or states) but denote modality (intention, determination, desire, etc): to intend, to try, to fail, to hope, to expect, to wish, etc. The child wanted to slip down from its mother’s lap on to the floor of the car... (Bennett). And yet, though he tried very hard to convince himself, his heart was not in his work (Cronin). I’d like to have a look at that part of the world (Galsworthy). He wanted to tell her of the incident, longed suddenly to end their period of strife (Cronin). c) The combinations to be obliged, to be compelled, to be willing, to be ready, to be eager, etc. which have modal meaning: I am eager to hear your story. I feel half inclined to tell him so. She is ready to help us. We were compelled to spend the night at Winchester... (Doyle). Is she determined to start instantly? (Kingsley). All this time, I was deeply anxious to know what she was going to do with me... (Dickens). d) The construction to be going to.., which has often modal force (ñîáèðàòüñÿ ñäåëàòü ÷òî-òî): What are you going to do with it? (Galsworthy). e) The following phraseological combinations: had better (best), had rather, would rather, would sooner, would have which impart modality to the action expressed by the infinitive: You’d better go to bed, Phil; it’s been a long day (Greene). I would rather not go (Bronte). f) Verbs denoting the beginning or the duration of an action: to begin, to continue, etc. The constructions used to + infinitive and would + infinitive which express repeated actions in the past also belong here: Hardly had we left town, when it came on (began) to rain. She suddenly began to speak (London). Now and again Mrs. Narracombe or – 60 –

the girl Megan would come and ask if he wanted anything, and he would smile and say: «Nothing, thanks» (Galsworthy). I used to see you looking at the flowers and trees, and those ducks (Galsworthy). Notice the combination of the verb to come with the infinitive in which the verb to come imparts perfective meaning to the action expressed by the infinitive: Soon after my mother’s death, I came to know you (Gaskell) (came to know = óçíàëà). At last the kettle came to boil (Dickens) (came to boil = çàêèïåë). In a number of cases it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation between the function of the infinitive as an object and that of a part of a compound verbal predicate. 4. As object. The objective infinitive is primarily used in this function, sometimes the subjective. a) The objective infinitive is used as object to verbs expressing order, request, permission, etc. such as: to order, to bid, to beg, to ask, to implore, to allow, to permit, to help, to assist, to persuade, to advise, etc. These verbs have usually two objects: a noun or pronoun (the first object) and an infinitive (the second object) (He helped me to do the work). I begged and prayed my aunt... to befriend and protect me for my father’s sake (Dickens). She taught him to sit up at table and not put his elbows on it (Maugham). ...Florence entreated him to take her to some neighbouring shop... (Diñkens). You will allow me to see you again...? (Dickens). She begged to be excused from having any dinner (Maxwell). b) The subjective infinitive is used as object to verbs expressing mental perceptions and emotions such as: to forget, to remember, to learn, to prefer, to promise, to love, to like, to hate, etc.: Also after can’t bear which is emotionally coloured (I can’t bear to see her cry = the sight of tears gives me pain): He liked to imagine this... (Dickens). It was Saturday forenoon and she had promised to take Florrie with her when she set out to do her shopping (Cronin). ...He could not bear to hurt a fly (Maugham). Note. — To like in the meaning of «to want» forms a compound verbal predicate with the infinitive that follows it: Would you like to meet Michael, Jon, and see my infant? (Galsworthy). In emphatic speech to love may be used with the same meaning: If he wouldn’t mind. I should love to come (Maxwell). c) The infinitive (subjective infinitive) may be used as object to some adjectives and adjectivized participles such as: happy,glad,pleased, delighted, sorry, afraid, etc.: – 61 –

I’m glad to hear you say that. I was always sorry to think they disagreed (Galsworthy). 5. As attribute: He was always the first to enter the dining room and the last to leave it... (Mansfield) (the first who entered). The Vaughans were the first to arrive... (Mazode la Roche). Mary thought of Alice’s longcherished, fond wish to revisit the home of her childhood... (Gaskell). When the infinitive is used as an attribute it often has modal force: It is the only thing to do (that can be done). I’ll buy you some magazines to read on the journey (which you may read). I have no time to lose (Bronte). There is only one thing to be done (Cronin). She had tasks to learn, and needle work to do... (Dickens). We made a list of things to be taken... (Jerome). The Russian equivalent for this construction as a whole attributive clause with a modal compound verbal predicate: It is a chance not to be missed. — Ýòî ñëó÷àé, êîòîðûé íå ñëåäóåò óïóñòèòü. It is an article to be typed at once. — Ýòî ñòàòüÿ, êîòîðóþ íàäî ñåé÷àñ æå íàïå÷àòàòü. An attributive infinitive often retains the preposition which is used in a construction where the same verb is followed by an object or adverbial modifier: It is not a thing to trifle with (Compare: One must not trifle with such things). The boy had no friends to care for, or to care for him (Dickens). ...He had no one to go with (Wells). ...There was something now to live for (Galsworthy). What a night to wander out in! (Galsworthy). The same with phraseological units (to have a chat with..., to take care of..., etc.): The stout old lock-keeper, or his cheerful-looking wife, or brighteyed daughter, are pleasant folk to have a passing chat with (Jerome). 6. As an adverbial modifier; Of purpose: Young Jolyon rose and held his hand to help his father up. (Galsworthy). She strained her ears to catch the words. (Mazo de la Roche). Annie was now studying to be a teacher. (Lawrence). The door was partly open to admit air... (Dickens). Mrs. Pratt had driven to Winster to see her mother... (Jerome). An infinitive of purpose may be preceded by in order to: One had to pass through the scullery in order to get from the kitchen into the yard (Bennett); – 62 –

The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of purpose may be introduced by so as: a) Mother had kept back the dinner so as to have it just nicely ready and hot for us (Leacock). She changed her dress, so as to look as if she had been in some time, and ran to the gallery (Galsworthy); b) Of result or consequence, especially when the demonstrative pronoun such or the adverbs enough, so, too are used in the sentence. After so and such, as to is generally used: It was too dark to distinguish anything (Lawrence). Ben was too busy to hear him now... (Aldridge). The rest of the conversation is not important enough to be here related (Fielding). His tone was such as’ to allow no contradiction. Also in: Savina glanced back to find Arnie shaking Erik’s hand (M. Wi1sîn). That night there was a storm and I woke to hear the rain lashing the window-panes (Hemingway). He shouldered and urged them forward to where he had set his valises, only to find one of them gone (Norris). For the use of the infinitive in the function of a secondary predicate in complexes see «The Accusative with the Infinitive», «The Nominative with the Infinitive», and «Constructions with the Subject of the Infinitive Introduced by for». For the use of the infinitive in the function of a secondary subject (the nominal part of a complex) see «The Use of the Pronoun It as an Object». Accusative with the Infinitive

1. Some transitive verbs are followed by an object (a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case) with an infinitive attached to it: I see the boy (him) run. The relation between the noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive is similar to that of subject and predicate. In this function the infinitive may be called a «secondary predicate» (âòîðîñòåïåííûé ïðåäèêàò) and the noun (or pronoun) a «secondary subject» (âòîðîñòåïåííûé ñóáúåêò). Thus in the sentence/see the boy (him) run two things are predicated (stated, asserted): the first predication (ïðåäèêàöèÿ) is made about the subject of the sentence/and is expressed by the predicate of the sentence see, a verb in the finite form; the second predication – 63 –

refers to the object of the sentence boy (him) and is expressed by a secondary predicate — the infinitive run. The two elements — boy and ran — are closely connected and form’ syntactically a complex object. What I see is the boy in the process of running (= ÷òî ìàëü÷èê áåæèò). This construction is called the «Accusative with the «Infinitive» (from the classical «Accusativus cum Infinitive»). 2. The «Accusative with the Infinitive» is used: a) With verbs expressing a perception of the senses, as to hear, to feel, to see; also with verbs expressing observation as to notice, to observe, to watch: ...He felt Wilson take hold of his arm (Hemingway). Old Jolyon... saw his brother’s face change... (Galsworthy). I am glad to hear you say so (Bronte). No one had noticed him leave the room, no one knew where he was (Jerome). Andrew observed her hurry off... (Cronin). He watched the rain stream and hiss against the leaves... (Galsworthy). He heard a blackbird sing (Galsworthy). Note. — When the verbs to hear and to see express mental perceptions, to hear meaning to learn, to see meaning to understand, they cannot be followed by an «Accusative with the Infinitive», but require an object clause: I hear you have had awonderful tri p (Hemingway). b) With verbs expressing permission, request, intention, order, compulsion such as: to allow, to permit, to let, to suffer, to order, to command, to compel, to force, to cause, to make, to induce, to persuade, to request, to get, to mean, to intend, etc.: The sunlight was making the pink cliffs glow in the most wonderful way... (Galsworthy). She caused a telegram to be sent to him (Galsworthy). She made Shelton pull into the reeds... (Galsworthy). Why did you get me to do that settlement...? (Galsworthy). «You know,» she said, «I realise that they don’t mean us to be friends» (Galsworthy). The verbs to order, to command, to recommend, to beg, to promise, etc. are often followed by two independent objects — a noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive: He ordered the cabman to drive on (London). My mother bent her head, and begged her to walk in (Dickens). The noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive usually form a complex when the noun (or pronoun) expresses an inanimate thing or when the infinitive has a passive form: – 64 –

I really cannot allow this matter to go any further without some explanation (Dickens). We allowed a little time to pass before we went in... (Galsworthy). I won’t suffer this barrow to be moved another step (Dickens). c) With verbs expressing liking or disliking, as to want, to wish, to desire, to like, to hate, etc.: Do you wish me to ’be at home earlier? (Bronte). I can’t bear you to be unhappy (Galsworthy). My father doesn’t want us to know each other... (Galsworthy). Would you like me to stay? (Galsworthy). ...She and Val would love Jon to live with them (Galsworthy). «I want Florence to come for me,» said Paul (Dickens). Also with the expressions: won’t have..., would you have..?: Would you have me wait? (Voynich). I won’t have you do such things. d) With verbs of mental perceptions, such as: to expect, to know, to believe, to acknowledge, to understand, to admit, to assume, to deny, to prove, etc.: We’ve got a right to expect you not to desert our side (Snow). ...They had believed me to be without any friends save them... (Bronte). She had never seen my mother, but she knew her to be not yet twenty (Dickens). Nîte. — If the action of the finite verb and that of the infinitive refer to the same person or thing a corresponding reflexive pronoun must be used: Slowly, economically, he got dressed and forced himself to walk (Lawrence). 3. Some intransitive (objective) verbs, such as to listen, to rely, are followed by a prepositional «Accusative with the Infinitive»: ...The phone began to ring. She lay motionless, listening to it ring for several minutes (Caldwell). 4. The infinitives to be, to look, to become, etc. are often used with the force of link-verbs and are followed by predicatives: A figure appeared in the distance before long, and I soon knew it to be Emily... (Dickens). He had never seen her to look prettier... (Galsworthy). 5. The «Accusative with the Infinitive» is rendered in Russian by means of a subordinate object clause: I heard the bell ring. — ß ñëûøàë, êàê çàçâîíèë çâîíîê. I want him to come as soon as possible. — ß õî÷ó, ÷òîáû îí ïðèøeë êàê ìîæíî ñêîðåå. – 65 –

With the verbs to make, to cause, to get the «Accusative with the Infinitive» is rendered in Russian by a noun (or pronoun) in the accusative case and an infinitive (if the infinitive in the English construction is in the active voice): He made me wait. — Îí çàñòàâèë ìåíÿ æäàòü. We got him to come. — Ìû çàñòàâèëè åãî ïðèéòè. But: He ordered the doors to be locked. — Îí ïðèêàçàë, ÷òîáû äâåðè áûëè çàïåðòû. Nominative with the Infinitive

1. The subject of a sentence is sometimes expressed by a noun (or pronoun) and an infinitive which follows the predicate. Although the noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive do not stand together, they are closely connected and form one syntactical unit — a complex subject. The relation between the noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive is that of a secondary subject and secondary predicate. In the sentence The girl was seen to leave the house The girl... to leave the house is a complex subject to the predicate was seen. What was seen is the girl in the action of leaving the house. Although the predicate of the sentence agrees only with the noun (or pronoun) — The girl was seen to leave the house. The girls were seen to leave the house — it actually refers to the whole complex (the girl... to leave the house). This construction is traditionally called «The Nominative with the Infinitive» (from the classical «Nominativus cum Infinitive»). 2. The «Nominative with the Infinitive» is used: a) With verbs expressing permission, request, intention, order, compulsion such as to allow, to permit, to suffer, to order, to command, to compel, to force, to make, to request, to mean, to intend, etc.: Her aunt must be made not to tell her father that she knew (Galsworthy). The fountains were once more made to throw up their sparkling showers (Irving). They were requested to be ready by 7 o’clock. They were ordered to enter the cell (Macaulay). Mrs. Pullet’s front-door mats were by no means intended to wipe shoes on... (Eliot). b) With verbs expressing perception of the senses, as to hear, to see, to feel, etc.: They were seen to leave the house early in the morning. The garden-gate was heard to bang (Lawrence). Those windows would be seen by daylight to be of brilliantly-stained glass... (Bronte). – 66 –

c) With verbs of mental perceptions, such as to expect, to know, to believe, to deny, etc.: What evenings, when the candles came, and I was expected to employ myself, but not daring to read an entertaining book (Dickens). Philip Bosinney was known to be a young man without fortune (Galsworthy). Two months are supposed to have elapsed (Henry). Mr. Rochester had left for London three, weeks ago, but was then expected to return in a fortnight (Bronte). He was believed to have a bedroom at the back (Galsworthy). d) With verbs of saying and reporting, such as to say, to report, etc.: The pilot is reported to have started on his flight early in the morning. Mr. Qilp could scarcely be said to be of any particular trade or calling (Dickens). The Bennets were speadely pronounced to be the luckiest family in the world (Austen). These islands are said to have been discovered as early as 1762 (Ðîå). e) With such verbs as to seem, to appear, to happen, to prove, to chance. Here the predicate is in the active voice: Also with to be sure (certain, likely): This morning’s sunshine faded amid slow-gathering clouds, but something of ifs light seems still to linger in the air, and to touch the rain which is falling softly (Gissing). He appears to be Very strong (Dickens). I just happened to be passing, so I dropped in (Gordon). ...I should think he is very likely to stay a week or more (Bronte). He is sure to come back (Doyle). 3. The meaning of a sentence with a «Nominative with the Infinitive» may be rendered by using the antici patory it: It was reported that the expedition had landed safely (synonymous to The expedition was reported to have landed safely). It is expected that he will arrive at two o’clock. It seemed that they were satisfied with the results of the experiment. It is said that six million tons of stone were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid... (Stanley). It was said that he was a marvellous chauffeur, at once daring and prudent (Bennett). 4. With some verbs, such as to make, to know, to see, to hear, to order, to allow, to permit, etc. both the «Nominative with the Infinitive» and the «Accusative with the Infinitive» may be used: The fountains were once more made to throw up their sparkling showers (Irving) (Nominative with the Infinitive). A few light taps upon the pane made him turn to the window (Jîóñe) (Accusative – 67 –

with the Infinitive). Philip Bosinney was known to be a young man without fortune (Galsworthy) (Nominative with the Infinitive). She had never seen my mother but she knew her to be not twenty (Dickens) (Accusative with the Infinitive). 5. In Russian the «Nominative with the Infinitive» is usually rendered by asubordinate object clause depending on aprinci pal clause with an indefinite subject implied (íåîïðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íîå ïðåäëîæåíèå), such as — ãîâîðÿò, ñîîáùàþò, îæèäàþò, etc.: He is said to be very ill. — Ãîâîðÿò, ÷òî îí î÷åíü áîëåí. The expedition is reported to have reached the Pole. — Ñîîáùàþò, ÷òî ýêñïåäèöèÿ äîñòèãëà ïîëþñà. — She was not expected to reply, but she did. — He îæèäàëè, ÷òî îíà îòâåòèò, íî îíà îòâåòèëà. Constructions with the Subject of the Infinitive Introduced by for (for-Phrases) In a number of cases the preposition for introduces a construction in which a noun (in the common case) or a pronoun (in the objective case) has an infinitive attached to it: It is necessary for us to start immediately. The relation between the noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive is that of secondary subject and secondary predicate (for us to go there = that we should go there): «Perhaps it is better for me to stay,» she thought (Conrad). It’s out of the question for you to go again just now (Voynich). It was really warm for May, and still light enough for him to see his cows in the meadow beyond the river (Galsworthy). Compare the following two sets of sentences: 1. The subject of the infini2. The subject of the infintive is the subject of itive (secondary subject) is the sentence: introduced by for: We are sorry to leave the We are sorry for you to leave seaside so soon. the seaside so soon. I have closed the window not I have closed the window for to catch cold. you not to catch cold. I bought a book to read it I bought a book for you to on my tri p. read it on your tri p.

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In this construction a shifting in the relation of words took place: formerly the noun or pronoun with the preposition for was connected with the preceding word, later it began to be associated with the following infinitive as its subject: It is necessary for you || to go there. It is necessary || for you to go there. These for-phrases present syntactical complexes which have various functions in the sentence. A for-phrase may be used as: a) A complex subject: For you to come here is impossible... (Galsworthy). A complex subject is often introduced by the anticipatory it: It was very difficult for me to believe that there was a gap of full two months between my return to Salem House and the arrival of that birthday (Dickens). ...I still thought it might be worth while for me to go round to Gay’s (Snîw). It’s extremely funny for me to be consoling you (Snow). b) A complex predicative: Then the best thing will be for me to go home and settle everything now... (Vîóniñh). That is for me to decide, is it not? (Dîólå). c) A complex object: ...He had longed for me to say it without prompting... (Snow). She had wanted to wait for the moon to rise... (Galsworthy). ...I would like for you to know her (Henry). d) A complex attribute: Eppie was a suitable child for them to take into their home (Eliot). There was milk in the ice-chest for her to drink... (Cusack). Here is a new companion for you to shake hands with, Tulliver... (Eliot). e) A complex adverbial modifier of 1) purpose or 2) result: 1) Purpose: I left something under your door for you to read it (Carter). So he ran in to Mrs. Inges, next door but one, for her to talk to him (Lawrence). Mr. Peggotty stopped for us to join him (Dickens). 2) Result: «Dear,» she said, «are we not friends enough by now for you to trust me a little bit?» (Voynich). But five minutes was enough for them to understand one another (Cronin). The tide is still low enough for you to get round the cliff to the village (Locke). ...He tried to persuade Gay that it was too chilly for him to stay there in the open (Snow). His home was too far west for anyone to come to meet him (Cusack). – 69 –

Infinitive Phrases

1. Infinitive phrases introduced by conjunctive adverbs (when, where, why, how), conjunctive pronouns (who, what, which) and by the conjunction whether, are used in the sentence as subject, predicative, object or attribute: What to do was beyond him (Dreiser) (subject). Walter’s chief difficulty was, how to break the change in his affairs to Uncle Sol (Dickens) (predicative). I did not know what answer to make to his question... (Bronte) (object). Ben had tried once before... to show the boy how to fly a plane (Aldridge) (object). She... knew no one with whom to trust the little girl (Lawrence) (attribute). 2. The infinitive also forms parenthetical phrases, (phraseological (set) expressions) such as: to tell the truth, to be sure, to be quite plain, to be more precise, to resume the. thread, of the story, to cut a long story short, etc. To speak truth, sir, I don’t understand you at all... (Bronte). «To be sure,» rejoined his brother, «it would be a thousand pities to throw away such a chance of fun» (Bronte). To cut a long story short, we at length entered an immense cavern (Irving). Infinitive Sentences

1. Infinitive sentences are usually one-member sentences in which the princi pal part is expressed by an infinitive. Infinitive sentences may be declarative or interrogative and, being always emotionally coloured, are usually exclamatory. The infinitive in this type of sentence is used either with the particle to or without it: Leave grass like this! ...Leave his job before it had begun! (Galsworthy). Blame her with justice! ...No! I am not as blind as that (Dickens). To be lonely and grow older and older yearning for a soul to speak to! (Galsworthy). How tell him! (Galsworthy). Besides, how keep definite direction without a compass, in the dark? (Galsworthy). 2. Sometimes the subject of the infinitive is expressed by a pronoun (or noun), then the infinitive sentence is a two-member sentence, the infinitive having the function of the predicate: «I quarrel?» cried Jasper (Conrad) (×òîáû ÿ ññîðèëñÿ?). But Dot? I hope and pray that I might learn to love you? How you talk! (Dickens). His son, his eldest son, descend to this! (Norris). – 70 –

The Infinitive in Analytical Verb-Forms The infinitive is used to form: a) The future and future in the past: I’m afraid you will miss the last bus... (Aldington). They told me Julia would return directly (Sheridan). b) The analytical forms of the oblique moods: What would have been her thoughts if she had known that he was steadily regarding her (Dickens) (conditional mood). She proposed that we should go upstairs and see my room. (Dickens) (suppositional mood). c) Negative and interrogative forms of the present and past tenses (common aspect) and the negative imperative: I don’t care about it mother... (Bronte). How do you feel? (Bronte). What does she want? (Bronte). I didn’t mean that (London). Why did I never hear of this? (Brînte). Don’t come near me! (Dickens).

Unit II.

The Gerund

Origin and Development The gerund is a descendant of the Old English verbal noun and the present partici ple; hence its double nature and its noun and verb characteristics. In the Old English period the verbal noun had the endings -ing, -ung; in Middle English the ending was -ing(e). The present participle in Old English had the ending -ende which in Middle English was replaced by -inge as the result of a confusion of constructions with the verbal noun and the partici ple. Thus the verbal noun and the partici ple became merged into one form -ing(e), the modern -ing. As the result of the blending of the two forms, the verbal noun in -ing began to develop verbal characteristics under the influence of the partici ple. In constructions where in Middle English and in Early Modern English the verbal noun, like any other noun, was preceded by the definite article and followed by the preposition of (He thanked him for the saving of his life. Compare: He thanked him for the preservation of his life), the article as well as the preposition of were gradu– 71 –

ally dropped, the ing-form taking the.noun following as its direct object (He thanked him for saving his life), thus crystallizing into a new form, the gerund. The following examples show the gradual transition from the verbal noun to the gerund; the ing-noun still retains the article, but the preposition has already disappeared: Nothing in his life || Became him like the leaving it (Shakespeare). With the finding the little infant (Fielding). Later on the gerund, becoming more and more verbal, developed tense distinctions and the passive voice, and preserving still its syntactical characteristics of a noun assumed to a great extent the dynamic force of a verb. The gerund has both verb and noun characteristics. Verb Characteristics of the Gerund The gerund has the following verb-characteristics:

1. It has tense forms — indefinite and perfect. The tenses of the gerund comprise relative time indication. Indefinite: writing, being written Perfect: having written, having been written: a) The indefinite gerund expresses that the action denoted by the gerund is simultaneous with the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence: ...She enjoyed sitting in the sun... (Harraden). I was tired of reading and dead sleepy... (Dickens). Jolyon stood a moment without speaking (Galsworthy). The indefinite gerund may also refer to the future when it depends on such verbs as to intend, to insist, etc.: I intend going there to-morrow. She insists on starting at six o’clock. I rely on his doing it properly. b) The perfect gerund indicates that the action of the gerund precedes the action of the finite verb in the sentence: He did not remember ever having seen her in black. (Galsworthy). He was conscious of having acted very fairly... (Eliot). The indefinite gerund is commonly used instead of the perfect gerund after the prepositions on (upon) and after because the meaning of the preposition itself indicates that the action of the gerund precedes that of the finite verb: ...I paused outside the parlour door, on hearing my mother’s voice (Dickens). ...My mother, after vainly trying to restrain herself, began to cry (Dickens). That was what she did this morning on reach– 72 –

ing the attic (Eliît). After taking her elder cousin across, Fleur did not land at once... (Galsworthy). But the perfect gerund may also be found after on and after: My bed at night was under another haystack, where I rested comfortably, after having washed my blistered feet in a stream, and dressed them as well as I was able, with some cool leaves (Dickens). The indefinite gerund is also often used after the verb to remember to indicate an action prior to the action of the finite verb: Don’t you remember your coming to the coach to meet me, and my having breakfast here, and our riding out to Blunderstone together...? (Dickens). ...I can still remember running down the sandhills in the morning (Cusack). But also: He did not remember ever having been in that room (Galswîrthy). 2. The gerund of transitive verbs expresses voice: Àñtive: writing, having written Passive: being ‘written, having been written. Active: He was on the point or resuming his promenade... (Galsworthy). The rain showed no sign of stopping (Maugham). Passive: ...The need of being loved, the strongest need in poor Maggie’s nature, began to wrestle ‘with her pride... (Eliot). I felt very brave at being left alone in the solitary house the protector of Em’ly and Mrs. Qummidge... (Dickens). As the passive voice is of later development, we still find in Modern English instances when the active form of the gerund is passive in meaning; those constructions are survivals of the time when one and the same form was used with active and passive meaning. The gerund is always used in the active form with passive meaning after the verbs to need, to want, to require, to deserve; also after the adjective worth: The car needs repairing (= being repaired), ...the house wants painting (Galsworthy). We... saw all the plays that were worth seeing (Dickens).

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3. In common with the finite forms of the verb, the gerund is modified by an adverb: Jon had a passion for birds, and an aptitude for sitting very still to watch them... (Galsworthy). ...Another thought, too, kept him from seriously contemplating any desperate act (Hardy). He gathered up a handful of pebbles and began snapping them carefully into the creek (Norris). 4. It may have an object; if the verb is transitive, it has a direct object: She began cli pping the flowers and arranging them in a vase (Vîóniñh). After talking to us for a moment he left... (Crînin). She wondered at his caring for things like that... (Mansfield). Noun-Characteristics of the Gerund

1. As a noun, the gerund is used as the subject or object (direct or prepositional) of the sentence. When used as an attribute or adverbial modifier, the gerund also clearly shows its nominal character; it is always preceded by a preposition, which is a formal mark of the noun: Crossing the river was a hard task (subject). ...She enjoyed sitting in the sun... (Harraden) (direct object). Excuse me for interrupting you, Mr. Winterbourne (Aldington) (prepositional object). Mark was in the habit of so saying... (Kingsiey) (attribute). On reaching the bedroom, we heard the voice of Miss Scatcherd... (Bronte) (adverbial modifier). 2. Besides, when the gerund is associated with the doer of its action (forming a complex), the noun or pronoun expressing that doer is used grammatically as an attribute (possessive) to the gerund, and this attributive relation strengthens the noun character of the gerund: At first I was in daily dread of his taking my education in hand again, or of Miss Murdstone’s devoting herself to it... (Dickens). The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence The gerund is used:

1. As subject: Swimming against the current was difficult. Learning rules without examples is useless. Watching and ministring Kit was. her best care (Galsworthy). Avoiding difficulties is not my method (Snow). – 74 –

When the subject of the sentence is a gerundial phrase, it is sometimes placed after the predicate. Then the sentence begins. with the antici patory it: It had been just splendid meeting you here (Galsworthy). It was no good worrying (Galsworthy). It’s no use crying over spilt milk. Nîte. — The gerund may be used as subject in the construction there is no...: When she took a thing into her head there was no stopping her (Galsworthy) (...åe íåëüçÿ áûëî îñòàíîâèòü). ...There’s no denying the fact, says he... (Jerome). 2. As predicative: Deciding is acting. Her aim is mastering English in the shortest time possible. His first job was getting her tea (Cusack). 3. As part of a compound verbal predicate, associated with the finite form of verbs denoting the beginning, the duration or the end of an action, such as to begin, to start, to burst out, to go on, to keep (on), to continue, to stop, to leave off, to finish, to give up, to have done (= to finish), etc. Also with some verbs which have modal meaning, such as: to intend, to try, to attempt, and with can’t help. The verbs to begin, to start, to continue, to intend, to try and to attempt may also be followed by an infinitive (see «The Infinitive»). A cuckoo began calling from a thorn tree (Galsworthy). And do leave off worrying about him, papa (Conrad). It was by this time halfpast five, and the sun was on the point of rising... (Bronte). Anthony finished cutting and buttering the rolls (Gordon). She went on sketching, I went on thinking (Bronte). He looked up and burst out laughing (Voynich). ...The frost kept snapping the little twigs on either side of them, as they passed... (Wilde). I can’t help feeling the parting with him... (Kingsley). Stop talking! Have you done writing? Note. — When to stop is followed by an infinitive, the latter has the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose: He put down the flowers and stopped to pat the dog (Voynich). Here the old gentleman stopped to laugh; and having done so, to his heart’s content, presently resumed... (Dickens). 4. As direct object: a) To verbs associated only with the gerund, such as: to avoid, to delay, to put off, to postpone, to mind (negative and interrogative forms), to excuse, to fancy, to want (= to need), to require, to need: – 75 –

Avoid making mistakes. They postponed giving a definite answer. Don’t put off preparing your lessons. Excuse my interrupting you. This bookshelf needs mending. I delayed breaking the news... even to George... (Snow). «Fancy having to go back to-night,» said Marion (Snow). ...The house wanted painting (Galsworthy). «You won’t mind carrying my bag?» Adam lightly asked me... (Cronin). b) To the adjectives like, busy and worth: It seems like years since anyone made me feel like laughing (Wilson). We... saw all the plays that were worth seeing (Dickens). ...Ada was busy writing... (Dickens). c) To verbs which may be associated with both the gerund and the infinitive, such as to neglect, to omit, to like, to dislike, to hate, to detest, to prefer, to enjoy, to regret, to remember, to forget, to propose. Also with can’t bear, can’t afford: She likes sitting (or to sit) in the sun. I hate being bothered (or to be bothered) with silly questions. I regret having said (or to have said) all this to her. She preferred staying (or to stay) at home on such a wet day. He proposed starting (or to start) at daybreak. She neglected tidying (or to tidy) her room. I forget doing it (= that.1 did it). I forget to do it (= that I must do it). I remember going there (= that I went there). 1 remember to go there (= that 1 must go there). I hate being idle (or to be idle). I dislike wasting (or to waste) time on trifles. I can’t bear seeing (or to see) the child cry. «I remember, gentlemen» said Mr. Pell, «dining with him on one occasion» (Dickens). I greatly dislike being contradicted (Shaw). She couldn’t bear being read to any longer. (Shaw). ...She enjoyed sitting in the sun... (Harraden). 5. As prepositional object: a) To such verbs as to think (of...), to persist (in...), to rely (on...), to depend (on...), to object (to...), to thank (for...), to prevent (from...), to insist (on...), to succeed (in...), to devote (to...), to assist (in...): Our work is devoted to building Communism in our country. I begin to pride myself on knowing every road and lane, every bridle path and foot-way for mile? about (Gissing) They talked of going somewhere else afterwards... (Dreiser). I invited him to my room, but he made an excuse for going home (Snîw). b) To such adjectives and participles II (used mostly predicatively) as fond (of...), tired (of...), proud (of...), ignorant (of...), used (to...):

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He was never tired of talking to me about her, and I was never tired of hearing (Galsworthy). I am well used to trav. elling... (Dickens). I was always fond of visiting new scenes and observing strange characters and manners (Irving). Silvii was overjoyed at receiving an early reply from her mother... (Mackenzie). c) To nouns derived from verbs and adjectives such as hope, intenfion, difficulty, necessity, possibility, etc.: ...She felt a strange certainty of being watched, and turning saw Irene in the open doorway (Galsworthy). ...She had corn for good, and had no intention of ever going again (Dickens). There was no possibility of taking a walk that day (Bronte). 6. As attribute (always with a preposition, mostly of) such nouns as habit, idea, risk, method, way, custom, etc.: ...She begged the favour of being shown to her room... (Dickens). There was an old door in this play-ground, on which the boys had a custom of carving their names (Dickens). I am getting into your involved habit, Watson, of telling a story backwards (Dîóle). 7. As adverbial modifier (always with a preposition): On arriving at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the view. (Galsworthy) (time). ...After talking to us for a moment he left to get his train on the other side (Crîïin) (time). Maggie soon got out of breath with running... (Eliot) (cause). The rain poured down without ceasing (Maugham) (manner). For the function of the gerund as secondary predicate in a gerundial complex see «Constructions (Complexes) with the Gerund». For the function of the gerund as the nominal part of a complex object with an objective predicative see «The Use of the Pronoun It as an Object». The Infinitive and the Gerund The gerund is of a more general, abstract character than the infinitive: She does not like going there (in general). — Îíà íå ëþáèò õîäèòü òóäà. She dues not like to go there (on a certain occasion). — Åé íå õî÷åòñÿ èäòè òóäà. I like skating (in general), but I do not like to skate today (on such a cold day). The infinitive often serves to indicate a perfective action: the gerund, an imperfective:

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He likes to smoke (âûêóðèòü) a cigarette and then to go for a walk. He likes smoking (êóðèòü) a cigarette by the fireside. The action of the infinitive often refers to the subject of the sentence, whereas the action of the gerund used in the same connection is not necessarily associated with the agent expressed by the subject of the sentence, but may also refer to some other agent: She does not like to trifle with serious things (= herself). She does not like trifling with serious things (= either herself or when somebody else does it). Constructions (Complexes) with the Gerund

1. Sometimes the gerund is preceded by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case: I insist on Mary’s (her) going there. In this construction the relation between the noun (or pronoun) and the gerund is that of secondary subject and secondary predicate (Mary’s [her] going = ÷òîáû Ìýðè [îíà] ïîøëà òóäà). Such a construction may have the function of a complex subject, predicative, object, attribute or adverbial modifier. Jim’s coming to that fishing village was a blessing... (Conrad (complex subject). I began to picture to myself ...my being found dead in a day or two, under some hedge... (Dickens) (complex direct object). She wondered at his caring for things like that... (Mansfield) (complex prepositional object). There was little likelihood of his meeting anybody at that time (Jîóñå) (complex attribute). How did you get out without his seeing you? (Voynich) (complex adverbial modifier). A gerundial complex used as subject is often introduced by an antici patory it: It was quite unexpected his coming back so soon. It is not worth while your going there today. It’s not much good my coming, is it? Perhaps it’s of no use my mentioning it at present (Eliot). It was not of the least use my trying to look wise (Dickens). 2. If the noun which precedes the gerund cannot be used in the possessive case, the common case is used: He did not recollect such a thing having happened to him before (Galsworthy). Meanwhile, the rain came down in steady torrent, and the lower part of the town was under watel owing to the river having overflowed (Jerome).

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In Modern English there is a tendency to use the common case even with such nouns which may be used in the possessive case, and to use the objective case of personal pronouns: I remember my brother-in-law going for ashort seatri p on(for the benefit of his health (Jerome). On Mr. Brown calling to him to come in, he found himself in a little back room (Dickens). You must forgive me coming at such an hour (Galsworthy). The umbrella strained and pulled and I felt driving along with it (Hemingway). The ing-form when preceded by a noun in the common case a pronoun in the objective case has a function intermediate between that of partici ple I and the gerund /rely on John (him) doing it in time.On the one hand this construction is closely connect in meaning with the gerundial construction/rely on John’s (hi doing it in time; on the other hand it reminds us of the partici p construction («Accusative with the Partici ple»):/saw John (him) doing it. Such an ing-form may be called a half-gerund. 3. The gerund of such verbs as to be, to get, to become, to remain, etc. is often used with the force of a link-verb and is followed by a predicative: Just before dinner he was told of Mrs. Stormer’s not being well... (Galsworthy). «Won’t you sit down?» she said. You must forgive our being at work (Galsworthy). ...You’ll excuse my being busy (Dickens). Rendering of the Gerund in Russian The gerund may be rendered in Russian by an infinitive, a noun, or a whole subordinate clause: They got into the habit of going to the cinema together, Learning rules without examples is useless.

Îíè ïðèâûêëè õîäèòü âìåñòå â êèíî. Çàó÷èâàíèå ïðàâèë (çàó÷èâàòü ïðàâèëà) áåç ïðèìåðîâ áåñïîëåçíî. Don’t you remember meeting me Ðàçâå âû íå ïîìíèòå, ÷òî in Leningrad? âñòðå÷àëè ìåíÿ â Ëåíèíãðàäå? When the gerund is used as an adverbial modifier it is often rendered in Russian by «äååïðè÷àñòèå». On returning home I found the Âîçâðàòÿñü äîìîé, ÿ íàøåë doctor there. ó ñåáÿ äîêòîðà. – 79 –

Complexes with the gerund are usually rendered in Russian by whole subordinate clauses: Excuse my interrupting you. — Ïðîñòèòå, ÷òî ÿ âàñ ïåðåáèâàþ. I insist on your going there immediately. — ß íàñòàèâàþ íà òîì, ÷òîáû âû ïîøëè òóäà íåìåäëåííî. Our missing the train was most vexing. — Áûëî êðàéíå äîñàäíî, ÷òî ìû îïîçäàëè íà ïîåçä. You will discuss it after my leaving. — Âû ýòî îáñóäèòå ïîñëå òîãî, êàê ÿ óéäó (or: ïîñëå ìîåãî óõîäà). The Gerund and the Verbal Noun In the English language besides the gerund which is half-verb. half-noun, there is a pure verbal noun ending in -ing. Let us draw a parallel between these two forms: The Gerund The Verbal Noun 1. The gerund has no plural. 1. The verbal noun may be used in the plural: But all the sayings and doings and thinkings, being un known to Mr. Swiveller, affected him not in the least (Dickens). 2. The gerund has tense and 2. The verbal noun has naturally voice forms: neither tense nor voice forms. The pleasure of seeing her again was intensified extraordinary by the welcome in her eyes... (Cronin). He did not remember ever having seen her in black (Galsworthy). She couldn’t bear being read to any longer (Shaw). 3. The gerund has no article: 3. The verbal noun may have The rain showed no sign of an article (definite or in definite): stopping... (Maugham). At the same moment a clapping of hands... told that the waltz had ended (Joyce). He was interrupted bythe ringing of the telephone (Cronin).

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4. Thegerund is modified by an adverb: ...I was tired of sitting still in the library through a whole long morning (Bronte). 5. The gerund of a transitive verb has a direct object: He was on the point of resuming his promenade... (Galsworthy).

Unit III.

4. The verbal noun is modified by an adjective: The early coming of spring in this happy Devon glad» dens my heart (Gissing). 5. A verbal noun formed from a transitive verb cannot have a direct object, but takes an object preceded by the preposi tion of: The getting of Sophia’s ticket to Bursley occupied them next (Bennett).

The Participle

1. The partici ple is intermediate between verb and adjective (it is a verbal adjective) and partially between verb and adverb (then it is a verbal adverb). As an adjective the partici ple is connected with anoun-word in the sentence, either as an attribute or as a predicative: Dr. Maephail looked at the falling rain (Maugham) (attribute). ...A broken child’s toy lies upon the floor... (Dickens) (attribute). ...The pigeons were perched, quite still, on the edge of the dove-cot... (Galsworthy) (predicative). In its attributive or predicative function the English partici ple corresponds to the Russian ïðè÷àñòèå: The rising sun. — Âîñõîäÿùåå ñîëíöå. The book-cover is torn. — Ïåðåïëeò êíèãè ðàçîðâàí. 2. But as the English partici ple (as all Modern English adjectives) has lost its forms of agreement with the noun with which it is connected, and is no longer formally bound to that noun, it is sometimes attracted by the verb, thus assuming the force of an adverbial modifier. In such cases it corresponds to the Russian äååïðè÷àñòèå: Having finished my lessons I went home. — Îêîí÷èâ óðîêè, ÿ ïîøeë äîìîé. Having no time I could not get there. — He èìåÿ âðåìåíè, ÿ íå ìîã òóäà ïîéòè. – 81 –

The adverbial force is especially felt in partici ple I perfect: ...Having taken the key from the lock, she led the way upstairs (Bronte) (adverbial modifier of time). And Michael, having paid the driver, looked at her lighted up in the open doorway (Galsworthy) (adverbial modifier of time). 3. In many cases two interpretations are possible. In such sentences as: the children rushed into the room laughing loudly, laughing may be considered as an adverbial modifier of manner to the predicate rushed, or as a predicative to the subject the children. In the Russian sentence — Äåòè âáåæàëè â êîìíàòó, ãðîìêî ñìåÿñü, ñìåÿñü (äååïðè÷àñòèå) is connected only with the verb âáåæàëè. If it were ñìåþùèåñÿ (ïðè÷àñòèå) it would be connected only with the subject äåòè. Thus in Russian where we have two distinct forms. ïðè÷àñòèå and äååïðè÷àñòèå, their syntactical functions are clear-cut. 4. As averb, the partici ple has distinctions of voice and tense. The partici ple has also other characteristics in common with the finite verb: a) It may be modified by an adverb: His son saw him gravely hanging up his coat... (Galsworthy). The captain walked up and down looking straight before him (Conrad); b) It may have an object; if the verb is transitive, it has a direct object: ...She heard Justine starting a fire in the kitchen (Caldwell). She sat plying her needle, and singing to herself (Dickens). Participle I and Participle II

1. There are two partici ples in English: Partici ple I (traditionally called the Present Partici ple) and Partici ple II (traditionally called the Past Partici ple). 2. Partici ple I has tense distinctions: non-perfect: writing perfect: having written The tense-forrns of the partici ple similar to those of the infinitive and the gerund comprise relative time indication — they denote that the action of the partici ple is either simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb or priîã to it.

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The non-per feet form of Partici ple I usually expresses that the action of the partici ple is simultaneous with the action of the finite form of the verb (in the present, past or future): ...I see Mr. Rochester entering (Bronte). ...No moving form is visible, no coming step audible... (Bronte). ...The fresh air, flowing through my open window cooled and composed me (Collins). The last soft light of the setting sun had fallen on the earth... (Dickens). He heard the soft snow falling from a branch... (Hemingway). He found her sitting at the breakfast table (Hardy). I spent the morning on the cliff reading, and watching the sun-sparks raining on the sea (Galsworthy). Depending on its syntactical function (attributive or adverbial) Partici ple I non-perfect is rendered in Russian by äåéñòâèòåëüíîå ïðè÷àñòèå íàñòîÿùåãî âðåìåíè or äååïðè÷àñòèå íåñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà: The last soft light of the setting sun... — Ïîñëåäíèé ìÿãêèé îòáëåñê çàõîäÿùåãî ñîëíöà... I spent the morning on the cliff reading... — ß ïðîâeë óòðî íà ñêàëàõ, ÷èòàÿ... Sometimes partici ple I non-perfect expresses an action of ageneral character in the present, past or future (depending on the time indicated by the finite verb): On the terrace was a broad wooden bench running round the walls (Voynich). Yesterday I passed by an elm avenue leading to a beautiful old house (Gissing). Partici ple I non-perfect may occasionally express present time absolutely without any reference to the time in dicated by the finite verb: The tower looming in the distance was built in the XV century. Partici ple I non-perfect of terminative verbs (ïðåäåëüíûå ãëàãîëû) such as to arrive, to enter, to close, to open, to pass, to crobs, etc., used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time usually indicates that the action of the partici ple is prior to the action of the verb-predicate. In these cases the action of the verb-predicate closely follows that of the partici ple: Arriving at home and going upstairs, we found that my guardian was out... (Dickens). He went upstairs again... and entering his room, switched on the light (Galsworthy). Passing into the ante-room, he sat down on the edge of a chair... (Galsworthy). It was Soames, who, crossing from the shady side of Piccadilly... had suddenly appeared alongside (Galsworthy). When participle I non-perfect of aterminative verb expresses priority, it is rendered in Russian by — äååïðè÷àñòèå ñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà. – 83 –

Passing into the ante-room, he sat down on the edge of a chair... (Galsworthy). — Ïðîéäÿ â ïåðåäíþþ, îí ñåë íà êðàé ñòóëà... Sometimes partici ple I non-perfect of terminative verbs expresses simultaneousness with the action of the finite verb: Coming down the stairs, he was full of happiness (Snow). Crossing the street to catch his bus, he saw her drive by in her smart twoseater (Gordon). Partici ple I non-perfeñt always expresses simultaneousness when it is introduced by the conjunctions when and while: While emptying the buckets at the back of the house he could hear an animated conversation in progress within-doors (Henry). In those cases partici ple I non-perfect is rendered in Russian by — äååïðè÷àñòèå íåñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà: Ñïóñêàÿñü ñ ëåñòíèöû, îí âåñü ñèÿë îò ïåðåïîëíÿâøåãî åãî ñ÷àñòüÿ... The perfect form of participle I denotes that the action of the participle precedes the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence: One day he came in having just received some letters... (Gaskell). I am going the same day myself having been detained here two days by the flood (Goldsmith). Having crossed the marsh, I saw a trace of white over the moor (Bronte). Partici ple Imperfect is rendered in Russian by äååïðè÷àñòèå ñîâåðøåííîãî âèäà: One day he came in having just received some letters. — Îäíàæäû îí ïðèøeë, òîëüêî ÷òî ïîëó÷èâ íåñêîëüêî ïèñåì. 3. Partici ple II has no tense-forms.It expresses either that the action of the partici ple precedes the action of the finite form of the verb, or that it is simultaneous to the action of the finite form. This difference depends on the lexical character of the verb. With terminative verbs (see «Terminative, Durative and Mixed Verbs») Participle II expresses an action already completed, that is, an action which precedes the action expressed by the finite form of the verb in the sentence (broken, opened closed, translated, built, made, written, etc.): A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this stream (Irving). A few early fallen oakleaves strewed the terrace already... (Galsworthy). Andrew lay with closed eyes... (Cronin). ...A broken child’s toy lies upon the floor... (Dickens). But depending on the context, partici ple II of aterminative verb may lose its perfective meaning and indicate an action which is simultaneous to the action of the finite form of the verb: – 84 –

Give me some words written with a final ó in English (= êîòîðûå ïèøóòñÿ). With durative verbs (see «Terminative, Durative and Mixed Verbs») partici ple II has no perfective meaning and denotes an action simultaneous to the action of the finite form of the verb: The time was coming when I should see him loved, trusted, admired... (Conrad). I was highly amused (Conrad). The participle of atransitive verb expresses voice: active and passive: Participle I: active: writing; passive: being written. Participle II: passive: written. Partici ple II is the only synthetic passive form in the conjugation of the verb in English. There is no corresponding active partici ple in English. Thus the Russian partici ple construction with apast partici ple active must be rendered in English by a whole subordinate clause: ×åëîâåê, íàïèñàâøèé ýòî ïèñüìî, çàõîäèë óæå äâàæäû. — The man who wrote this letter has already called twice. Active: ...Soames saw Bosinney watching her... (Galsworthy). She walks off swinging in her rounded hand a little strap-full of books (Galsworthy). Passive: They went into the parlour my mother had come from, the fire in the best room on the other side of the passage not being lighted — not having been lighted, indeed since my father’s funeral (Dickens). Before the cottage-door in the sunshine, a great fishing net was drying, fastened to two wooden stakes (Hitchens). Transitive Verbs

Intransitive Verbs

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The Functions of the Participle in the Sentence

1. When connected with some nîun-wîrd in the sentence, the partici ple is used: a) As a predicative: A window of the hotel was lighted; he saw a shadow move across the blinds (Galsworthy). We were compelled to spend the night at Winchester... (Doyle). ...The dark woods were touched here and there with red and golden leaves... (Chesterton). James grew more and more alarmed (Galsworthy). b) As an attribute: ...And so he passed from babyhood to childhood, and became a talking, walking, wondering Dombey (Dickens). The last soft light of the setting sun had fallen on the earth... (Dickens). It was the 1st of August — a perfect day, with a burning sun and cloudless sky... (Galsworthy). The frozen ground was hard as stone... (Dodge). He had been a loving lovable little chap! (Galsworthy). 2. When an attributive partici ple phrase follows the noun which it modifies, it is synonimous to an attributive clause: On the terrace was a broad wooden bench running round the walls (which ran...) (Voynich). ...This plant, hidden from the light, has kept its flowers till the autumn» (which is hidden...) (Kingsley). ...The cottage gardens, crowded with flowers of every rich and beautiful tint, sparkled in the heavy dew... (Dickens). Later she sent Justine to the kitchen for some bread and potatoes left over from breakfast (Caldwell). The wind rustling among trees and bushes flung the young leaves skywards... (Galsworthy). The valley was full of corn, brightening in the sun (Lawrence). 3. Partici ple I and II used as attributes and predicatives, correspond to ïðè÷àñòèå in Russian: Here is a letter announcing his arrival. — Âîò ïèñüìî, èçâåùàþùåå î åãî ïðèåçäå. The cup is broken. — ×àøêà ðàçáèòà. Participle II in the function of adetached attribute (îáîñîáëåííîå îïðåäåëåíèå) may have an additional adverbial meaning and thus refer both to the noun (or pronoun) which it modifies and to the predicate of the sentence (see «The Detached Parts of the Sentence»): seen now, in broad daylight, she looked tall, fair and shapely... (Bronte).

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4. Sometimes partici ples used as attributes or predicatives lose their verbal character and become mere adjectives: Her hands, gloved in french grey, were crossed one over the other, her grave, charming face held to one side... (Galsworthy). The old woman’s face was wrinkled... (Dickens). Traversing the long and matted gallery, I descended the sli ppery steps of oak...(Bronte). 5. Partici ple II of intransitive verbs has usually no independent function in the sentence but is used as an element of the analytical forms of the perfect: For more than a week my pen has lain untouched... (Gissing). They had hardly gone when Aunt Julia wandered slowly into the room (Joyce). I’m sorry to have been of so little-assistance (Snow). Partici ple II of intransitive verbs may be used as an independent element of the sentence (attribute or predicative) only when the verb expresses an action which results in creating a certain state as quality: Attribute: a faded flower, a withered leaf, a retired sea captain, a deserted island, a grown-up girl. The fallen leaves, with which the ground was strewn, gave forth a pleasant fragrance (Dickens). ...The withered leaves came showering down (Dickens). Predicative: The rose is faded. You look rested. The bunches were withered (Galsworthy). He is not a schoolmaster now, Traddles. — He is retired (Dickens). Therefore a partici ple construction (ïðè÷àñòíûé îáîðîò) in Russian with a past partici ple of an intransitive verb is usually rendered in English by a subordinate attributive clause: ×åëîâåê, ïðèåõàâøèé ñ þãà, ðàññêàçàë ìíå ýòî. = A man who came from the south told me this. Note. — Partici ple II of an intransitive verb which governs its object by means of a preposition (to look for..., to stare at..., to talk about, etc) when used attributively retains the preposition (which then turns into an adverb). The combination is often written with a hyphen: An unlooked-for circumstance. An unhoped-for pleasure. Things never heard of before A book quoted from. A man stared at, or talked about. A child properly looked after. It is an unhoped-for pleasure to see you with us again. It is a book much talked about, ...a most unlooked-for incident occurred... (Dickens).

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6. When connected with a verb in the function of an adverbial modifier the partici ple expresses relations: a) Of time: Coming near, I found the door slightly ajar... (Bronte). Reaching her room, she turned on all the lights (Galsworthy). Being asked to sit down he laid his hat and stick on the table... (Conrad). At last, having seen all that was to be seen, he came out again at the door where he had gone in... (Galsworthy). b) Of cause: Finding him so very friendly and companionable, it was then that I asked for the pen and ink and paper, to write to Peggotty (Dickens). ...I thought I should sleep well being tired; but I didn’t (Jerome). Seeing clearly that it would be useless to pursue their point, the gentlemen withdrew (Dickens). c) Of manner or attending circumstances: He stood on the porch sunning himself... (Mazo de la Roche). Still they worked on, taking turns and whispering cheerfully to one another (Dodge). Little bare-legged children ran about him, playing on the grass... (London). I brought the boat gently along the bank di pping my blades noiselessly (Cronin). Partici ple phrases expressing time or cause may be replaced by an adverbial clause: Arriving at the cottage he went up its mossy stones and through the wicket-gate (Galsworthy) (= when he arrived at the cottage...). Partici ple phrases expressing manner cannot be replaced by subordinate clauses. The action expressed by apartici ple in the function of an adverbial modifier always refers to the subject of the sentence (cp. with the Russian — äååïðè÷àñòèå). 7. Adverbial partici ple phrases may be introduced by subordinative conjunctions. In such partici ple phrases not only partici ple I but also partici ple II may be used. Partici ple phrases introduced by conjunctions express: a) Time: ...While working so hard he needed sea air... (Galsworthy). When travelling I have now and then watched the sunrise... (Gissing). When dressed, I sat a long time by the window, looking out over the silent grounds and silvered fields... (Bronte). – 88 –

b) Comparison: Through the door in the hall leading to the basement he called «Hssst!» several times, as though assisting the cat’s departure... (Galsworthy). I did as requested (Bronte). c) Condition: Nobody spoke unless spoken to... (Dickens). If necessary, I shall come tomorrow. I am sure you would have acted in the same way if in my place. d) Concession: The meal continued and Atkinson soon partook in it, though remaining aloof from the conversation (Amis). He is extremely well read though very young. 8. As has already been stated, there are instances where the syntactical function of the partici ple may be interpreted in two ways. For example in: The wind rustling among trees and bushes flung the young leaves skywards (Galsworthy), the partici ple rustling may be considered’ either as an attribute to the subject wind (øåëåñòÿùèé) or as an adverbial modifier of manner to the predicate flung (øåëåñòÿ). The Participle in a Compound Verbal Predicate Partici ple I non-perfeñt of verbs expressing motion such as to run, to dance, to pour, etc. combined with the verb te come in the past tense forms a special type of a compound verbal predicate. The participle is the notional part of the predicate denoting the action performed by the subject; the lexical meaning of the verb to come is greatly weakened. In some cases to come serves to impart perfective meaning to the action denoted by the partici ple: The little maid came running down (Galsworthy) (= ñáåæàëà). Peggoty came running in... (Dickens) (= âáåæàëà). ...Tom said, in a loud whisper, «Look, look, Maggie!» and came running to prevent her from snatching her line away (Eliot). She didn’t put it (her apron) on up-stairs, but came dancing down with it in her hand (Dickens). In other cases the action expressed by the partici ple has imperfective meaning and the function of the verb to come approaches that of an auxiliary verb: The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole (Dickens) (= was pouring in). ...The stream which worked the mil) came babbling down in a dozen rivulets (Galsworthy). The evening air was sharp, and sleet showers came whirling from those bright clouds (Galsworthy). – 89 –

Accusative with the Participle 1. With verbs expressing physical or mental perception, wish, etc., the construction «Accusative with the Partici ple» may be used: I saw the children (them) playing in the garden. The reltion between the noun (in the common case) or the pronoun (in the objective case) and the participle is that of secondary subject and secondary predicate (the children playing — «êàê äåòè èãðàëè â ñàäó»). The syntactical function of this construction is that of a complex object: ...Soames saw Bosinney watching her and smiling to himself (Galsworthy). In the dark the old man could feel the morning coming... (Hemingway). He found her sitting at the breakfast-table... (Hardy). ...I note some neighbours looking at my mother, and at me, and whispering (Dickens). ...I strolled in here and found the place deserted (Dickens). «I want my photograph taken,» I said (Leacock). «I want this typed, if you please,» said Lally (Coppard). In the perfect calm that had fallen, I heard breakers murmuring softly upon the beach (Gissing). The verb to listen is followed by a prepositional «Accusative with the Partici ple»: He listened to his uncle talking to him... (Hemingway). She listened to her father going round the house... (Greene). 2. The construction «Accusative with the Partici ple» is rendered in Russian by a subordinate object clause: ...He did not wish it mentioned (Galsworthy). = Îí íå õîòåë, ÷òîáû îá ýòîì óïîìèíàëîñü. 3. With verbs expressing physical perceptions (to hear, to see, to feel, etc) the «Accusative with the Partici ple» and the «Accusative with the Infinitive» may be used. The difference between these two constructions is as follows: the infinitive merely states the fact of an action taking place: /saw him walk along the street. — ß âèäåë, ÷òî îí øeë ïî óëèöå; the partici ple views the action in its progress: /saw him walking along the street. — ß âèäåë, êàê îí øeë ïî óëèöå. She heard the door closing (Galsworthy) (Accusative with the Partici ple). I’ve often heard him tell the tale (Jerome) (Accusative with the Infinitive). She liked to watch him doing things however commonplace (Mazo de la Roche). He watched her ring the bell, he watched the maid come in (Galsworthy). He could see the tiny trout moving round and round the stones... (Galsworthy). Old Jolyon watching from his corner saw his brother’s face change, and the brooding, worried look deepen on it (Galsworthy). – 90 –

4. The verb to have may be followed by a complex object, a noun or pronoun with partici ple II attached to it. This construction either a) expresses that something is done or made by someone else for the benefit of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence, or b) has the meaning of to experience, to witness. a) «These are bathrooms,» he said, «...I’ve had them tiled» (Galsworthy). ...I will have some photographs taken... (CaIdwell). ...I shall have this girl educated for two years... (Dickens). «Maggie,» said Mrs. Tulliver... «go and have your hair brushed, — do for shame» (Eliot). Such sentenses are rendered in Russian as follows: I must have my shoes cleaned. — Íåîáõîäèìî, ÷òîáû ìíå ïî÷èñòèëè áîòèíêè. She has her dresses made here. — Åé øüþò ïëàòüÿ çäåñü. b) I had my window-pane broken yesterday. He had his horse killed under him in the battle. How stand I then, that have a father kili’d, a mother stain’d (Shakespeare). The verb to get is also found with this construction: I’ve got your drawing framed and hung above my bureau... (Galsworthy). ...Get this prescription made at the chemist (Cusack). The auxiliary do is used in questions: By whom did you have your exercises corrected? Where did you have your watch mended? Note: — To get a person to do, or make something for you means that you ask him to do it or you persuade him to do it for you: I got him to help me. We got him to play the piano for us. Nominative with the Participle With verbs expressing physical perception the construction «Nominative with the Partici ple» may be used as well as the «Nominative with the Infinitive»: The children (they) were seen running to the river. In this construction the relation between the children (they) and running is that of secondary subject and secondary predicate and the whole construction the children (they) ...running is the complex subject to the predicate of the sentence were seen: He... could be seen following her with his eyes (Galsworthy). ...At the same moment the carriage was heard rolling up the gravelwalk (Bronte). From time to time their voices could be heard uplifted in clamorous argument (Norris). – 91 –

The Participle Construction Introduced by with (without) The «Partici ple Construction Introduced by with (without) comprises anoun (or pronoun) followed by apartici ple. The relation between the noun and the partici ple is that of a secondary subject and secondary predicate. Both partici ple I (non-perfect) and partici ple II may be used in this construction: ...He fell asleep with his candle lit... (Bronte) (= while his candle was lit). This construction is used as a complex adverbial modifier of attending circumstances: With the moon rising so high, the stars now were but a pricking of the grape-colours sky... (Galsworthy). Impatient for the light of spring, I have slept lately with the blind drawn up, so that at waking, I have the sky in view. (Gissing). By twelve o’clock, with the sun pouring into the room, the heat became quite oppressive... (Jerome). The «Partici ple Construction Introduced by with (without)» may also be used as a complex attribute: At a distance was a neat hamlet, with the smoke from the cottage chimneys hanging over it (Irving). A wide river with naked children splashing in the shallows, glided into sight and was gone again (Mansfield). Farther on he beheld great fields of Indian corn, with its golden ears peeping from their leafy coverts... (Irving). There are also constructions (complexes) introduced by with (without) which comprise no partici ple. In such cases the noun (or pronoun) is followed by an adjective, a noun with a preposition or an adverb in the function of a) a predicative orb) an adverbial modifier: a) He sat with the outer door open, all times... (Dickens). ...and flying upstairs for a needle and thread, (she) came flying down again with her thimble on... (Dickens); b) Peggotty always went to sleep with her chin upon the handle of the basket... (Dickens). Fleur suddenly stood up, leaning out at the window with her chin on her hand (Galsworthy). These constructions similar to «Partici ple Constructions Introduced by with (without) may have the function of a complex adverbial modifier of attending circumstances o r attribute:

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It’s grand up there with the gorge all round... and now and then a young hawk overhead (Galsworthy) (adverbial modifier). He... gave up wine and cigars, drank a special kind of coffee with no coffee in it (Galsworthy) (attribute). Nominative Absolute

1. The subjects of the action denoted by the partici ple is usually expressed by some noun or pronoun in the sentence. He strolled along the streets looking in the shop windows (Mazo de la Roche). She heard a voice calling her (Lawrence). But sometimes the participle has asubject of its own expressed by a noun (in the common case) or a pronoun (a personal pronoun in the nominative case). Such a construction is called the «Nominative Absolute». The rain having rained my hat, I had to buy a new one. Here the noun rain is not the subject of the predicate had to buy; it stands independently (it is absolute, i. e. independent) and denotes the subject of the action expressed by the perfect partici ple having ruined. Thus the relation between the noun and the partici ple is that of secondary subject and secondary predicate. Although the «Nominative Absolute» is formally independent of the sentence, it is logically connected with it, serving as an adverbial modifier to the predicate: the rain having ruined my hat (adverbial modifier of cause = as the rain had ruined my hat), /had to buy a new one, The «Nominative Absolute» is chiefly used in literary style. The «Nominative Absolute» usually expresses a d verbial relations (time, cause, condition, manner or attending circum stanñes): a) Time: A private sitting room having been engaged, bed rooms inspected, and dinner ordered, the party walked out to view the city (Dickens). This being done, they set off with light hearts (Irving). b) Cause: Fleur having declared that it was simply impossible to stay indoors, they all went out (Galsworthy). ...It being found impossible to awaken Mr. Pickwick from his torpore, some discussion took place... (Dickens). Martin had to carry his water from the kitchen, there being no tap in the room (London). c) Condition (rare): Weather permitting, we shall start tomorrow. – 93 –

d) Manner or attending circumstances: After supper they sat on the narrow porch, facing the dark whispering stream, the night pouring into the deep, still valley (Hergesheimer). On the back of a wave the boat came riding in, the ears stretched out, their point tipping the water. Away go the two vehicles, horses galloping, boys cheering, horns playing loudly (Dickens). Sometimes, the «Nominative Absolute» expresses attributive relations: Tall trees, their barks covered with lichen and moss, shut out the sun (Gordon). Near by... lies an old, old hamlet, its brown roofs decked with golden lichen... (Gissing). 2. The «Nominative Absolute» is usually synonymous to a subordinate clause: ...My eyes being very heavy, I lay down again, and slept... — (as my eyes were very heavy...) (Dickens). This being done, they set off with light hearts (Irving). (When this was done...). ...That business having been performed, he occupied himself with other matters... (Eliot) (= when that business had been performed). 3. When the «Nominative Absolute» expresses manner or attending circumstances (ñîïóòñòâóþùèå îáñòîÿòåëüñòâà) it is usually synonymous to the «Partici ple Construction Introduced by with (without), sometimes to a clause introduced by while (See «Adverbial clauses»): Andrew lay with closed eyes, his head resting near her. (Cronin) (with his head resting near her). ...She had the window opened, and sat looking out, the feeble sun shining full upon her (Hardy) (...while the feeble sun was shining full upon her). 4. There are «Nominative Absolute» constructions without a partici ple.In such cases the noun er pronoun is followed by an adjective, a noun with a preposition or an adverb in the function of a) a predicative or b) an adverbial modifier: a) And so the days of early June went by, each finer than the last (Galsworthy). Dinner over, Mr. Hartley and Anthony withdrew to the study... (Gordon). Blanchard tapped the pencil on the table several times, his mind deep in thoughts (Caldwell). b) They sat leaning forward, their elbows on the counter (Hemingway). Then she sat down and waited, her hands on her lap (La Mure). They were seated in the boat, Nick in the stern, his father rowing (Hemingway). – 94 –

5. The «Nominative Absolute» is usually rendered in Russian by means of a subordinate adverbial clause; sometimes by a co-ordinate sentence: The dinner being at length quite ready, Captain Cuttle dished and served it up (Dickens). = Êîãäà îáåä áûë îêîí÷àòåëüíî ãîòîâ. ...The conference over, he feturned to the office (Gordon). = Êîãäà êîíôåðåíöèÿ çàêîí÷èëàñü. ...They sat on the narrow porch..., the night pouring into the deep, still valley. = Îíè ñèäåëè íà óçêîì êðûëüöå, à íî÷ü âëèâàëàñü â ãëóáîêóþ òåìíóþ äîëèíó. The Absolute Participle Construction Sometimes aparticiple grammatically not connected with any member of the sentence stands independent without having its own subject expressed by a noun-word (as is the case in the «Nominative Absolute»). Such aconstruction is called an «Absolute Participle Construction». Reference to the subject of the partici ple may be found outside the construction in some secondary part of the sentence or it is clear from the context or situation. «Absolute Partici ple Constructions» have either adverbial meaning or are used parenthetiñalló: Staring into the stilly radiance of the early morning and at the little gold and white flowers on the lawn, a thought came to him (Galsworthy). This afternoon, riding with her for the last time, the silence was almost unnatural, and she did not even look at him (Galsworthy). Entering the gate and passing the shrubs, the silhouette of a house rose to view (Bronte). In his hand he held a great brown club or walking stick; ...And striking this upon the floor, it fell asunder, and became a chair (Dickens). Thus occupied and mutually entertained, days passed like hours, and weeks like days (Bronte). «Absolute Partici ple Constructions» are rendered in Russian by subordinate clauses. This afternoon, riding with her for the last time, the silence was almost unnatural... (Galsworthy). = B ýòîò äåíü, êîãäà îíè åõàëè âåðõîì íà ëîøàäÿõ ïîñëåäíèé ðàç, ìîë÷àíèå áûëî ïî÷òè íååñòåñòâåííî... A number of «Absolute Partici ple Constructions» with generalized meaning have become parenthetical modal phrases: Generally speaking, this novel is not very interesting. Judging by the reports she’s well on the way of getting better (Cusack). Compare with similar Russian expressions: ãîâîðÿ âîîáùå, ñóäÿ ïî..., etc. – 95 –

SYNTAX

The Simple Sentence. Structure of the Sentence. Principal Parts of the Sentence THE SUBJECT

1. The subject and the predicate are the two princi pal parts of a two-member sentence. The subject is grammatically independent of any other part of the sentence.The second princi pal part of the sentence-the predicate agrees with the subject in person and number. 2. The subject is expressed by a noun-word denoting the thing (in the widest sense of the word) characterized by the predicate as toils action state or quality: The train stopped... (Galsworthy). They walked on for some time... (Dickens). The snow turned into a cold rain (London). The sky was starry (Galsworthy). Owing to the scantiness of inflexions for person and number in the verb, the subject is, as a rule, expressed in the English language: Shall you come to see me to-morrow? — Yes, I shall. Compare with corresponding sentences in Russian where the subject is often omitted: Ïðèäåòå êî ìíå çàâòðà? — Äà, ïðèäó. Occasionally the subject may also be omitted in colloquial English: Pleasant youth, young Lennan; hope he won’t bore us out there (Galsworthy) (The subject I is omitted here). Haven’t seen you for ages (Galsworthy). 3. The subject may be expressed by: a) A noun in the common case: ...The gardens glow with flowers... (Gissing). A little lighthouse began to shine (Gissing). – 96 –

b) A pronoun: This is the valley of the Biythe (Gissing). She remained silent for a time (Conrad). c) A numeral: Two were indeed young, about eleven and ten (Galsworthy). The first was a tall lady with dark hair... (Bronte). d) A substantivized adjective or partici ple: The grey of earth and sky had become deeper, more profound (London). The wicked always think other people are as bad as themselves (Scott). The besieged passed an anxious night (Macaulay). e) An infinitive: To dress in the cold shanty and to wash in icy water was agony... (L. Sinclair). To prolong doubt was to prolong hope (Bronte). f) A gerund: Walking is a healthy exercise. Watching and ministering Kit was her best care (Galsworthy). g) any other word when it is substantivized: And is a conjunction. A is the first letter of the English alphabet. h) A syntactical word-combination (íåðàçëîæèìîå ñèíòàêñè÷åñêîå ñëîâîñî÷åòàíèå): Twice two is four. How to do this is a difficult question. Here also belong such cases when, a noun is connected with another noun by means of the preposition with which indicates that ‘the predicate refers to both nouns jointly: A young woman with two children is coming up the street. The house with its gardens occupies a whole block. We may also consider that the subject is expressed by a whole group of words when a noun (usually of number, quantity or weight) is joined to another noun by means of the preposition of: A number of books have been published this year. A lot of people were present. A quarter of an hour has passed. A score of eggs were put in the basket. There was a great deal of shouting and laughing (Maugham). The middle of the room was occupied by two square tables... (Joyce). Also with pronouns and numerals: ...None of you ever heard of him (Joyce). The four of them had just finished their midday meal... (Maugham). Neither of my friends was there... (Murray). Most of the morning was spent in the open air (Bronte). One of her pupils had given a pass (ïðîïóñê) for Mignon (an opera) (Joyce). – 97 –

Compare with the Russian: Íåñêîëüêî ÷åëîâåê ñèäåëî çà ñòîëîì. Îäèí èç âñàäíèêîâ ðàçìàõèâàë øàïêîé. Ïÿòü ñòóäåíòîâ ïîøëè â áèáëèîòåêó. Íè îäèí èç âàñ íå âèíîâàò. 4. A complex subject. The subject of a sentence may be expressed by an infinitival, gerundial or partici pial complex. The infinitival or gerundial complex is often introduced by the antici patory it: Two months are supposed to have elapsed (Henry). She seemed to be listening (Galsworthy). It is out of the question for you to go again just now (Voynich). On still evenings he could be seen sitting in his boat in the Manor pool... (Galsworthy). ...Her coming up to look for me, an hour or so afterwards, awoke me... (Dickens). Personal and Impersonal Sentences

1. Depending on the character of the subject, sentences are classified into personal and impersonal. A personal sentence contains a subject which denotes,a certain person or thing or some abstract notion: I woke and looked at my watch... (Gissing). The may flower, both pink and white, was in full bloom (Galsworthy). Life at the farm goes on as usual (Galsworthy). Personal sentences are divided into: a) Definite-personal (îïðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íûå) and b) indefintepersînal (íåîïðåäåëåííî-ëè÷íûå). 2. The subject of a definite personal sentence is a noun or a nounequivalent which names some definite person or thing, some process or abstract notion: Little Em’ly looked at me, and laughed and nodded: «Yes» (Dickens). ...At last they reached the outskirts of the forest... (Wilde). ...To tramp for three hours through fluffy snow exhausted him (L. Sinclair). 3. An indefinite personal sentence contains a subject of vague or general meaning. An indefinite group of people: They say we shall have a warm spring this year. Any person, people in general: One must do one’s duty. The indefinite subject is expressed in English by the following pronouns: – 98 –

a) They — meaning an indefinite group of people: They say that the hills on each side of the stream here once joined and formed a barrier... (Jerome). They say I am like my father, grandmother (Dickens). In corresponding Russian sentences the subject is not expressed: Ãîâîðÿò, ÷òî ÿ ïîõîæà íà îòöà, áàáóøêà; b) We, you, one — meaning any person, people in general: You learn more quickly under the guidance of experienced teachers (Maugham). We learn to restrain ourselves as we get older (Eliot). We could never have loved the earth so well if we had no childhood in it... (Eliot). Here one could wander unseen (Bronte). Compare with corresponding Russian sentences: We must not allow children al- Ìû íå äîëæíû ðàçðåøàòü ways to do what they please, äåòÿì... One is always pleased to meet Âñåãäà áûâàåøü ðàä old friends, âñòðåòèòü ñòàðûõ äðóçåé. In some cases the passive form is used when the subject of the action is indefinite: Children must not be allowed always to do what they please. 4. An impersonal sentence is a sentence whose predicate does not refer to any person or thing. In English the pronoun it is used as subject in impersonal sentences, but this it is practically meaningless, it does not indicate any person or thing and is a purely grammatical formal subject. In the sentence It is raining we do not associate the process of raining with any actual agent, we think of it as going on by itself, as a spontaneous process (ñòèõèéíûé ïðîöåññ). Verbs like to rain, to snow had originally no subject. But in the course of time the pronoun it was introduced as subject to make these sentences comply with the usual type of sentence in English. The corresponding impersonal Russian constructions have no subject whatsoever: It is early. — Ðàíî. It was very warm. — Áûëî î÷åíü òåïëî. It is drizzling. — Ìîðîñèò. It is far to the railway station. — Äî ñòàíöèè äàëåêî. The impersonal it is used in sentences denoting: a) Natural phenomena: It was a soft spring night dark and starlit (Voynich). In among the apple trees it was still dark... (Galsworthy). It was glorious spring weather (Gissing). By this time it was getting dark and snowing pretty heavily (Dickens). It was October, drizzling and dark... (Galsworthy). – 99 –

Sometimes an impersonal construction is used side by side with the construction there is: It was still raining... (Cronin). There had been rain the night before... (Galsworthy). It is snowing even now (London). There had been snow some hours... (Dickens). Some impersonal sentences in English have no corresponding impersonal sentences in Russian. Compare the following: It was early spring. — Áûëà ðàííÿÿ âåñíà. It was a warm summer evening. — Áûë òåïëûé ëåòíèé âå÷åð. These Russian sentences have a personal subject. b) Time: It was a little after nine o’clock (Gissing). It was early m November... (Seton-Thompson). It was now late... (Seton-Thompson). It was almost two o’clock and the night was dark (Joyce). c) Distance: How far is it to any town or village? (Dickens). It is a long way to Ireland, Janet... (Bronte). «Is it far to Eagle Road?» I asked (Braine). d) State of things in general: «It’s all over, Mrs. Thingummy!» said the surgeon at last (Dickens). Note. — In sentences denoting a state of things in general we often find the plurals: things, matters and occasionally affairs which are no more definite than the impersonal it: How stand matters between you and your brother? In the days that followed things grew worse (Gordon). Sentences with the Anticipatory It When the subject of a sentence is an infinitive, or a gerund (often forming complexes) or a whole clause, it is placed after the predicate and the sentence begins with the pronoun it which is called an antici patory it.

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It is a great joy to live in the land of Socialism. ...It was his delight to run into the garden and shake the rose-bush over him (Mansfield). It was a heavy disappointment to Maggie that she was not allowed to go with her father in a gig... (Eliot). «It will be necessary for us all to meet together,» he said (Snow). It had been just splendid meeting you here (Galsworthy). It was not of the least use my trying to look wise (Dickens). Into Russian those sentences are translated as follows: It is difficult to translate this article. — Òðóäíî ïåðåâåñòè ýòó ñòàòüþ. It is no use going there so early. — Íåçà÷åì èäòè òóäà òàê ðàíî. Occasionally the pronoun ýòî is introduced. — Ýòî ïðîñòî íåâîçìîæíî ïåðåâåñòè òàêóþ ñòàòüþ â îäèí äåíü. Sentences with the Demonstrative It The pronoun it has a demonstrative force when it is used to point out a person or thing expressed in the sentence by a predcative noun: It was his next-door neighbour Mr. Tandram... (Galsworthy). Having crossed the marsh, I saw a trace of white over the moor... it was a road or a track... (Bronte). It was a prettily furnished room... (Dickens). Compare with the Russian where the demonstrative pronoun ýòî is used in similar constructions: Ýòî áûë åãî ñîñåä... Ýòî áûëà äîðîãà... The Various Uses of the Pronoun It as Subject (Review) Summarizing the different uses of the pronoun it as subject, we see that it may be used: 1. In its ordinary meaning of a personal pronoun serving to replace a noun of neuter gender: I had a book in my hand and began to read it by the firelight (Gissing). ...The room looks cheerful now. It was awful gloomy before (Jerome). 2. As a formal subject in impersonal sentences: It was midsummer, very stifling and warm... (Maurier). It was dark, but many stars shone now (Galsworthy). It was sundown... (Galsworthy). 3.With the function of an antici patory it: ...It was necessary to tap before one could enter (Galsworthy). ...She sang delightfully; it was a treat to listen to her (Bronte). – 101 –

4. With the meaning of a demonstrative it: It was a little lattice window, about five feet and a half above the ground... (Dickens). Is it Jude? Yes it isl (Hardy). It was a cold, cheerless room... (Dodge). The Construction There is When the subject of the sentence is indefinite (a book, books, some books), it is often placed after the predicate verb and the sentence begins with the introductory particle there. The word there (formerly the adverb of place there) has no stress. It has lost its local meaning, which is shown by the possibility of combining it in the sentence with the adverbs of place here and there: ...There was a gate just there, opening into the meadow... (Bronte). There’s a good spot over there (Cusack). Sentences with the introductory there may serve to assert or deny the existence of something. In sentences with the introductory there the predicate verb is usially the verb to be: occasionally some other verbs are found, such as to live, to occur, to come, etc., which, similarly to the verb to be, indicate to exist or have the meaning of to come into existence: There was a little pause (Voynich) (there — an introductory particle; was — a simple verbal predicate; a pause — the subject; little — an attribute). ...There is the rustle of branches in the morning breeze; there is the music of a sunny shower against the window; there is the matin song of birds (Gissing). There is only one cloud in the sky... (Bronte). There sounds the laugh of a woodpecker (äÿòåë) from the copse in younder hollow (Gissing). There came a laugh, high, gay sweet (Galsworthy). ...There came a scent of lime-blossom (Galsworthy). There soon appeared, pausing in the dark doorway as he entered, a hale, greyhaired old man (Dickens). Once upon a time, in a very small country town... there lived alittle man named Nathaniel Pi pkins (Dickens). Note. — Negative constructions are formed as follows: a) There are not any mistakes in your dictation (There aren’t any mistakes...); b) There are no mistakes in your dictation. There were no trees, ne bushes, nothing but a grey sea of moss... (London).

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THE PREDICATE

1. The predicate is the second, princi pal part of the sentence.It serves to assert something about the subject and has a definite grammatical structure. It is characteristic of the English language that the predicate, even a nominal one, always comprises a verb in the finite form, denoting the categories of person, mood and tense by means of which predication is expressed: the forms of person connect the predicate with the subject; the mood-forms show in what relation to reality the speaker places the action or state expressed by the predicate; the tense-forms refer it to a definite period of time. With regard to its meaning the predicate expresses either a) processes developing in time orb) a qualitative characteristic of the subject. Accordingly there are two main types of the predicate: a) verbal and b) nominal. a) A cheerful fire was blazing on the hearth (Dickens). Captain Musgrave entered the room swiftly (Chesterton). He walked up and down the room (Maugham). Snow is still falling (Gissing); b) It was a warm, still night (Hitchens). He was... a huge, strong fellow of six feet high... (Dickens). The breeze was light from the southeast... (Galsworthy). With regard to its structure the predicate may be simple or compound. 2. A simple predicate is such a predicate in which both the primary lexical meaning and the additional grammatical meanings (person, mood, tense, etc.) are expressed in one word: I saw her stop (Galsworthy). My mother was sitting by the fire... (Dickens). No dew had fallen... (Galsworthy). 3. A compound predicate is such a predicate in which the primary lexical meaning is expressed in one word — a notional word, and the additional grammatical meanings (person, mood, tense, etc) are expressed in another word — a semi-auxiliary (ñëóæåáíîå ñëîâî): «...My father was a fisherman... (Dickens). She was to arrive by train at half past, twelve... (Galsworthy). After a while they began talking over their plans (Gaskell). 4. The meaning of the predicate is closely connected with its form. The verbal predicate is primarily simple, but it may also be compound: ...I cried myself to sleep (Dickens). My mother immediately began to cry (Dickens). A nominal predicate is always compound: The Dodsons were certainly a handsome family... (Eliot). – 103 –

Verbal Predicate The Simple Verbal Predicate 1. The simple verbal predicate expresses an action performed (active voice) or suffered (passive voice) by the subject: A white mist hides the bay sometimes (Maurier). In those days I travelled much... (Setîn-Thîmpsîn). Someone had knocked at the door (Hemingway). What time will you return, Robert? (Brînte). The door was thrown open (Dickens). I was wired for (Doóls). If the verb denotes a state (to sleep, to lie, etc), the state, as far as it is expressed by a verb, is conceived as a process developing in time: For more than a week my pen has lain untouched (Gissing). ...She had been sleeping for six hours... (Eliot). 2. A simple verbal predicate may be expressed by a phraseological unit consisting of a verb with a vague meaning and a noun which usually expresses an action (a group-verb). In this combination both elements are so closely connected as to form one sense unit and may be regarded as an intransitive verb (to have a swim — to swim: to have a smoke — to smoke; to take place — to happen, to occur; to pay a visit — to visit): Burton gave a kindly little chuckle (Maugham). I made him a bow (Dickens). I took leave of Prawle... (Galsworthy). Clare gave him a swift look (Galsworthy). ...Tom caught sight of something in rapid movement in the water... (E1iît). Good-bye, my boy; take care of yourself (Galsworthy). Of all that Jonny took no notice (London). And now we’ll have a look at my state-room... (Conrad). ...He went to the servicemen’s hostel and had a bath and a sleep (Cusàñk). The Compound Verbal Predicate The compound verbal predicate consists of two parts: notional and semi-auxiliary (ñëóæåáíàÿ ÷àñòü). The notional part expressed by an infinitive or gerund (rarely a partici ple) denotes the action performed or suffered by the subject. The semi-auxiliary part comprises a finite verb which besides expressing the grammatical categories of person, mood, tense, etc. imparts by its lexical meaning a modal or aspective character to the action denoted by the infinitive or gerund. Accordingly there are two types of compound verbal predicates: modal and aspective.

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• The Modal Compound Verbal Predicate The modal compound verbal predicate consists of an infinitive or gerund combined with a verb in the finite form which expresses that the action denoted by the infinitive or gerund is considered as obligatory, desirable, doubtful, etc. There are the following types of modal compound verbal predicates: 1. A modal (defective) verb or a modal verb equivalent (to have and to be) combined with the infinitive (a subjective infinitive): He could hear two persons talking in the pantry (Joyce). He knew, he must go (Lawrence). You need not pain yourself by entering into that part of the story (Doyle). ...I might give a little dinner next week — just for you and Denny and Hope (Cronin). She was to arrive by train at half past twelve... (Galsworthy). Also with phraseological units (grou’p-verbs): ...And if you like you shall have another walk with me after breakfast (Meredith). 2. One of the following verbs which do not denote actions but express various modal meanings (intention, determination, attempt, desire, hope, etc) combined with the infinitive (a subjective infinitive): to intend, to resolve, to decide, to plan, to mean, to desire, to attempt, to try, to endeavour, to fail, to strive, to seek, to hope, to long, to expect, to wish, to want, etc. The verbs to intend and to try may also be combined with the gerund. The combination cannot (can’t) help + gerund also forms a compound verbal predicate: ...I was trying to learn German... (Maugham). He longed to recall to her those moments... (Joyce). When he went out on his round she attempted to go on with her work in the house (Cronin). He did not want to speak, not to anyone (Lawrence). His bumpy landlady never failed to favour me with a little conversation (Galsworthy). I couldn’t help smiling (Maugham). Also with phraseological units (group-verbs): So you intend to have another ride to-day? (Meredith). 3. Combinations of a link-verb with a predicative (adjective or partici ple) which have no independent lexical meaning and do not give the subject any qualitative characteristic but only i m-part various modal meanings (obligation, readiness, ability, etc) to the action expressed by the infinitive with which they are associated: to be obliged, to be compelled, to be Inclined, to be eager, to be anxious, to be ready, to be glad (= ready), to be able, to be unable, etc.:

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Every minute or so he was compelled to rest (London). The apples are... ready to fall (Galsworthy). He was only anxious to forget (Greene). He was determined to proceed with discernment in everything he did (Cronin). ...She was only too inclined to take advantage of his weakness (Galsworthy). And children were always willing to play cricket with him... (Galsworthy). 4. The expression to be going + infinitive which has often modal force (to intend to do something): I’m not going to stand this sort of thing any longer (Dickens). At breakfast next morning he asked her what she was going to do that day (Coppard). 5. The following phraseological units: had better, had best, had rather, would sooner, would rather, would have combined with the infinitive (a subjective infinitive): How are we going to sit? I’d better get up by the driver (Mansfield). «I had rather be a child,» replied Paul (Dickens). There’s a storm coming on. We’d better go home (Galsworthy). And what would you have me say to him if I did manage to see him? (Trîllîðe). The Aspective Compound Verbal Predicate The aspective compound verbal predicate comprises an infinitive or gerund (rarely apartici ple) combined with the finite form of averb which indicates the beginning, duration or end of the action denoted by the infinitive or gerund, such as: to begin, to continue, to keep, to go on, to stop, etc. Also the combinations: would + infinitive, used to + infinitive which express repeated, habitual actions in the past. The rain began to descend heavily (Dickens). He continued blinking his eyes and trying to smile... (Joyce). His eyes kept questioning her face... (Galsworthy). Bessie had now finished dusting and tidying the room... (Bronte). Gabriel had known her when she was a child and used to sit on the lowest step nursing a rag doll... (Joyce). ...He would lie on the bank, gazing at the cluster of dog-violets... (Galsworthy). For the use of the partici ple in the function of the notional part of acompound verbal predicate see «The Partici ple». Sunshine came spilling upon us (Cronin). ...A little girl came running up the lawn (Bronte). ...The wind came moaning on across the flat... (Dickens). In some cases the verbal predicate may be both modal and aspective: You must begin to study properly. •

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The Nominal Predicate The nominal predicate denotes a certain state or quality of the subject, it is a qualifying predicate: The spring was late that year (Greene). She was a brilliant and original teacher... (Cronin). The nominal predicate is always compound in its structure, it consists of a predicative and a link-verb. The significant part of the compound predicate is the predicative expressed by a noun (or a noun equivalent) or by an adjective. The predicative serves to characterize the subject. The link-verb has no independent meaning, its function is to connect the subject with the predicative and to express all the grammatical categories of the finite verb. that is: person, number, mood, aspect, tense and voice. When a verb is used as a link-verb, it loses its primary lexical meaning and acquires the abstract meaning of being in a certain state (He is a student), of passing into a new state (He became a teacher) or of remaining in a certain state (He remained silent). Accordingly, there are three kinds of compound nominal predicates: compound nominal predicates of being, becoming, and remaining. Sometimes the link-verb has modal force, it shows the attitude of the speaker to the predication: You seem tired (= it seems to me that you are tired) When he saw me, he appeared surprised (= it seemed to me that he was surprised). In this case we speak of a fourth type of the compound predicate — the compound nominal predicate of seeming or appearing. The most typical link-verb is the verb to be which is practically devoid of meaning and only serves to connect the predicative with the subject. All the other link-verbs are not entirely devoid of meaning. Compare the following: The milk was sour. The milk turned sour. The milk tasted sour.

He was pale. He looked pale. He became pale. He remained pale. He seemed pale In Russian the link-verb áûòü is not used as a rule in the present, the predicative being connected with the subject by a zero-link (íóëåâàÿ ñâÿçêà): Îí ñòóäåíò. Îíà ìîëîäà. – 107 –

a) The nominal predicate of being. The most typical link-verb of that type is the verb to be, but there are also some other verbs of this kind, such as: to feel, to look, to smell, to taste, etc.: The sky was blue to the very horizon... (Galsworthy).It was a warm, still night... (Hitchens). The woman did not look gay... (Galsworthy). The hall door... stood open (Bronte). ...His tone sounded sorrowful (Dickens). «The weather looks settled,» he said (Galsworthy). b) The nominal predicate of becoming. The verb to become is the most typical link-verb of this kind. Some other verbs are also used as link-verbs of becoming, such as: to grow, to get, to turn: The sleet has become snow... (Galsworthy). Outside it was getting dark (Hemingway). The night had gone colder... (Snow). The snow turned into a cold rain (London). Over the gloomy sea the sky grew red (Lawrence). It grew lighter and lighter. The sparrows became busy in the streets, and the city waxed denser around them (Hardy). c) The nominal predicate of remaining. The most typical linkverb of this kind is the verb to remain. Some other verbs also serve as link-verbs of remaining: to continue, to keep, to stay: ...The sea, blue and profound, remained still, without a stir, without a ri pple, without a wrinkle... (Conrad). The winter continued damp and wet (Cronin). The weather kept obstinately hot and dry (Wells). d) The nominal predicate of seeming or appearing: The landlady seemed a good, rough woman (Galsworthy). ...He did not seem in the least tired (Snow). ...He seemed so much older than his years as Dodoappeared younger than hers (Benson). The Predicative The predicative is expressed by: a) A noun in the common case: The kitchen was a white-washed room with rafters (Galsworthy). It was a perfect morning (Lawrence). b) A pronoun: «Who’s there?» — «It’s me», she said (Greene). The house was no longer theirs (Dickens). c) A noun or a pronoun with a preposition: The steps and banisters were of oak... (Bronte). ...Mowers and haymakers were at work in the meads (Hardy). A part of this door was of glass (Dickens). – 108 –

d) A numeral: We were only three at table... (Conrad). She was seventeen then... (Galsworthy). Bigg’s boy was the first to come round (Jerome). e) An adjective or apartici ple: The spring was late that year (Galsworthy). I’m sorry to have been of so little assistance (Shaw). The sky is still warm with the afterglow of sunset... (Gissing). «You look tired,» he said (Joyce). The street was deserted (Snow). f) An infinitive: Our intention is to help you. To prolong doubt was to prolong hope (Bronte). ...The first thing of all would be to get a grammar (London). g) A gerund: Our aim is mastering grammar. Seeing is believing. h) An adverb (such as in, out, up, over, so-so, etc.; also the interrogative adverb how): ...My guardian was out... (Dickens). The sun was off, dew falling (Galsworthy). ...All the lights were out (Dickens). How is your mother? (Galsworthy). Our lesson is over. Our time is up. An adverb used as a predicative loses its adverbial meaning and begins to indicate state. Compare: She speaks English so-so (an adverbial modifier of manner). How are you? — I am so-so (a predicative). Note. — The pronouns it, and such and the adverb so are used to replace a preceding predicative: «I am very much obliged to you,» said my aunt; «and so is he...» (Dickens). His niece looked just the same. So did Topper when he came (Dickens). He was a very learned man but he didn’t look it... (Maugham). He is honest and you will always find him so (such). i) A whole syntactical word-combination: They were all above the average height (Maugham). She was thirty-one years old... (Lawrence). j) a complex predicative» Sometimes the predicative is expressed by an infinitival or gerundial complex: That is for me to decide... (Doyle). The greatest trouble was our not knowing all the details. The Modal and Aspective Nominal Predicate Similar to the verbal predicate the nominal predicate may also be associated with verbs which impart to the predicate a modal or aspective character. Accordingly the nominal predicate may be a) modal, or b) aspective. – 109 –

a) The modal nominal predicate: «It must be getting late,» he said, «what’s the time?» (Gordon). It must seem very funny to you (Galsworthy). That must have been a pleasant experience (Voynich). Surely I ought to have been aware of that simple fact... (Gissing). «You needn’t be afraid,» he answered smiling (Voynich). b) The aspective nominal predicate: ...The apple-trees were stri pped of fruit and their leaves beginning to go yellow and fall (Galsworthy). I began to be afraid you would never come back again (Austen). It was just beginning to be daylight... (Hemingway). ...She began to grow impatient (Hardy). The Double Predicate In the sentence The moon rose red we have on the one hand a verbal predicate expressed by the verb rose — a verb of full meaning which denotes a certain process performed by the subject; on the other hand we have the adjective red which qualifies the subject in the same way as a predicative qualifies the subject in a nominal predicate: The moon was red. Thus in the sentence The moon rose red we have a special type of predicate which presents a crossing of two predicates — a verbal predicate and a nominal predicate: The moon rose red = The moon was red when it rose. Such a predicate may be called the double predicate. The verb rose performs here the role of a link-verb connecting the subject moon with the predicative red. Thus we see that the function of connecting the subject with the predicative may be performed not only by a verb which has lost its lexical meaning but also by a verb of full meaning. But performing the function of a link-verb, a verb of full meaning may easily undergo a weakening of its lexical meaning and may eventually become a mere link-verb. This weakening of meaning takes place when our attention is concentrated on the predicative which puts the verb, so to say, in the shade. There are different gradations in the weakening of lexical meaning which verbs undergo when used as link-verbs. In some cases the verb has its full lexical meaning and our attention is equally divided between the verb and the predicative. In such a case we have a double predicate: She went away quite a child; she returned a grown-up woman. In other cases the verb weakens its meaning – 110 –

and we have an intermediate instance between a double and nominal predicate: In that part of Africa the natives go naked all the year round (we do not mean to say that the natives permanently move about; and yet it is not by chance that the verb go is used here. Compare with the Russian: ß ñèäåë äîìà öåëûé äåíü. — We do not say: ß ëåæàë äîìà or ß ñòîÿë äîìà, we take the action which is most characteristic in a given situation). And finally there are cases where the verb is a mere link-verb, entirely devoid of its primary meaning; in such cases, we have a compound nominal predicate: At this idea he went mad = he became mad. Here are some more examples of double predicates: Around and around the house the leaves fall thick... (Dickens). She flushed crimson... (Galsworthy). ...Soames stood invisible at the top of the stairs... (Galsworthy). ...The sun shone out bright and warm... (Dickens). They [carnations] arrived perfectly fresh (Mazo de la Roche). Dusk had gathered thick (Galsworthy). ...The poplar tops showed sharp and dense against the sky... (Galsworthy). In this type of predicate with verbs expressing motion such as to go, to come the predicative is often introduced by as: Lombard had come out to East Africa as secretary to a Government Commission... (Buchan). In Modern English there is a strong tendency towards the development of double predicates. Compare the modification of a simple (verbal) predicate by means of an adverb (adverbial modifier) with the association of a link-verb with an adjective-predicative: The sunrose brightly (London). The sun was shining bright and cold. (London). The moon shone peacefully (Bronte). The sky shone pale... (Mansfield). But there are also cases where both interpretations are possible: ...The moon hung low in a clear sky (Hitchens). (Low is either an adverb in the function of an adverbial modifier of place or an adjective in the function of a predicative).

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The Complex Sentence 1. A complex sentence formed by subordination consists of a princi pal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The subordinate clause may either follow or precede the principal clause. If the subordinate clause follows the princi pal clause, both clauses are uttered with the falling intonation: It was ‘dinner ‘time be’fore they had ‘finished. If the subordinate clause precedes the princi pal clause, the subordinate clause has the rising intonation and the princi pal clause — the falling tone: ‘As I was in a ‘hurry, I took a ‘taxi. 2. The functions of subordinate clauses are similar to those of the parts of a simple sentence. Accordingly, subordinate clauses are classed as subject, predicative, object, attributive and adverbial clauses: What I am about to do is very agreeable to me (Mazî de la Roche) (subject clause). This was why he had thought of Bosinne (Galsworthy) (predicative clause). She thought that the open air might do her good... (Maxwell) (object clause). The valley was full of a lustrous dark haze, through which the ripe corn shimmered... (Lawrence) (attributive clause). The town was asleep when I entered it (London) (adverbial clause). The similarity of the functions of subordinate clauses to those of the parts of a simple sentence is stressed by the existence of synonymous constructions: I forgot to post the letter which I wrote yesterday. — I forgot to post the letter — written by me yesterday. He told me how he had lived at the seaside. — He told me about his life at the seaside. We met where the roads crossed. — We met at the crossing of the roads. Subordinate clauses may be connected by means of co-ordinative conjunctions with some parts of the sentence as homogeneous members, which also shows that their functions are similar to those of the parts of a simple sentence: I thought of the fifty guineas, and of how very useful they would be to me (Doyle). The relation of asubordinate clause to some part of the princi pal clause may be indicated by means of the same prepositions which are used in similar function before the parts of a simple sentence: – 112 –

Didn’t mother say anything about when she’d be in? (Walpole) (compare: Didn’t she say anything about it?). He told no one of where he had been (Galsworthy) (compare: He told no one of it). In some cases subordinate, clauses are associated with particles which are used with the parts of a simple sentence: Just as she was opening the door to run there and observe him from the corner of the barn Waldo walked into view (Caldwell) (compare: Just at that moment she saw him). We always slept with the windows open, even when it was cold (Ñompare: even in cold weather). ...…She wanted Tom to forgive her because he loved her, not because his father told him (Eliot) (Compare: not because of his father’s order). But although the functions of subordinate clauses are similar to those of the parts of the sentence, subordinate clauses cannot be identified with the parts of the sentence. By means of subordinate clauses we may express our’ thoughts in a more complete, a more detailed manner. Compare the following: He told me of their arrival. 1. He told me that they had arrived. 2. He told me that they would arrive. He was exhausted for want of sleep. He was exhausted because he had not slept the whole night. In this complex sentence the first subordinate clause is subordinated directly to the princi pal clause (1st grade of subordination) while the second clause is subordinated to the first subordinate clause (2nd grade of subordination). I am glad to know that my mother cried too, and that I felt her heart beat against mine (Dickens). In this complex sentence there are two homogeneous subordinate clauses (two object clauses) connected by the copulative conjunction and. Homogeneous subordinate clauses may be connected with each other by the same co-ordinative conjunctions that connect the homogeneous parts of a sentence (and, or, but, etc.). Her bright calm face lighted up with pleasure as she went to meet him, and as they came in, hand in hand (Dickens).

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SUBJECT CLAUSES

1. Subordinate subject clauses have the function of the subject to the predicate of the princi pal clause.They are introduced by: a) Conjunctions: that, whether, if; b) Conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which; c) Conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, why. That they were in truth sisters was clear from the facial resemblance between them (Bennett). ...Whether she ever tried or no, lay hidden in her own closed heart (Dickens). Who steals my purse, steals trash (Shakespeare). What she loved best in the world just then was riding (Galsworthy). Now what you want is plenly of exercise (Cusack). ...Wherever you are is my home — my only home (Bronte). 2. When a subject clause is placed at the end of the sentence, it is introduced by the antici patory it: It was evident that he did not understand... (London). It was surprising how little the district had changed (Bennett). Subject clauses are not separated by a comma. PREDICATIVE CLAUSES

1. Subordinate predicative clauses have the function of a predicative. The link-verb is in the princi pal clause. The predicative clause together with the link-verb forms a compound nominal predicate to the subject of the princi pal clause. 2. Predicative clauses are introduced by: a) Conjunctions: that, whether, if, as, as if; b) Conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which; c) Conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, why. My dear boy, the difference between you and me is that you give too easily (Cronin). That was what she did this morning on reaching the attic... (Eliot). This was why he had thought of Bosinney (Galsworthy). He looked just as he had looked ten years before (Snow). What 1 am not quite sure about is how you are to get across (Voynich). Predicative clauses are not separated by a comma.

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OBJECT CLAUSES

1. Subordinate object clauses have the function of an object to the predicate of the princi pal clause. Object clauses may also refer to some verbals in the function of their objects: «I’ll tell you why I asked you to come,» said Gilbert (Henry). «I wonder what he’s writing to me about,» remarked Nevada, listlessly (Henry). He dispatched a messenger to the stables to inquire whether the coachman was there... (Dickens). Hans looked up anxiously dreading lest his mother should grow agitated, as usual, when speaking of the lost money... (Dodge). 2. Object clauses are introduced by: a) Conjunctions: that, if, whether, lest; b) Conjunctive pronouns: who, what, which; c) Conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, why. I felt certain now that I had seen him somewhere (Maugham). I wonder if he likes his job? (Braine). He wondered whether Steve knew or understood what had happened (Gordon). I don’t know what you are driving at (Mazo de la Roche). I did not see how that was possible... (Jerome). I should like to see where you live, Jon (Galsworthy). 3. Object clauses may be preceded by prepositions: ...He began to think of what presents he would like to take home to the others (Mazo de la Roche). He was ñåãtainly displeased by what had occurred that day... (Bronte). ...I’m sorry for what I said to you the other day... (Maugham). 4. Object clauses may be joined to the principal clause asyndetically: «But I am afraid I trouble you too much,» said Mr. Dombey (Dickens). I see you are an early riser (Bronte). Are you not glad we came? (Maurier). Both constructions / I think it is late and / think that is late) have developed from independent sentences joined asyndetically as follows: / think: it is late. I think that: it is late. In the second construction the word that was the demonstrative pronoun. Later on it weakened its stress and came to be felt to belong to the subordinate clause instead of as originally to the preceding sentence i. e., it became a conjunction. That is used in those cases in which the mutual relation of the two clauses is not quite clear without the conjunction. But when no doubt can arise, the construction without that is preferred in conversation and easy literary prose; that is used in scientific writing. 5. Object clauses are not separated by a comma. – 115 –

• Object Clauses Introduced by the Conjunction That As the object generally follows the verb, an antici patory it would be superfluous; but there are a few verbs that require it before a clause (to fake, to owe, will have, etc.). The difficulty of joining an object clause to certain verbs may also be evaded by inserting this, that, the fact, the circumstance, to which the clause is added in apposition. Such object clauses are introduced by the conjunction that: I take it that he gives his consent (Jespersen). He owed it to his first teacher that he had a good pronunciation. I am afraid that you overlook the circumstance that you have been requested to do it immediately. Prepositional Object Clauses. Sometimes the verb which governs the subordinate clause requires a preposition. In former times prepositions were freely used before the conjunction that: after that,before that, till that, etc. (Compare with the present-day usage in Russian: ïåðåä òåì, êàê; ïîñëå òîãî, êàê). But in the course of time that was dropped and the prepositions after, before, etc. became conjunctions. In Modern English there are few prepositions used before the conjunction that: except that, save that, but that: Then he listened... for what should follow. Knowing nothing yet, but that they spoke of Meg (Dickens). He forgot every thing but that he was near her (Galsworthy). She knew nothing except that the people now shopped at Hanbridge (Bennett). In some cases the use of a clause after a preposition is rendered possible by the insertion of if, this, that, the fact or the circumstance. The fact and the circumstance are chiefly used in scientific prose: You may rely on it that I shall give you a full account (Dîóle). Depend upon it that there is some mistake (Austen). I must reconcile myself to the fact that my company will distress him for a long time to come (Snow). At these words Hollins became suddenly alive to the fact that some crisis was at hand (Fletcher). When the word fact or circumstance acquires more independent meaning, the subordinate clause may be regarded as an appositive attributive clause to the noun fact or circumstance (see «Appositive Attributive Clauses»): He pointed to the fact that those plants are easily harmed by frost, a fact entirely overlooked before.

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In Russian the use of an object clause after a preposition is made possible through the insertion of the pronoun òî: Âû ìîæåòå ïîëîæèòüñÿ íà òî, ÷òî ÿ âàì äàì ïîäðîáíûé îò÷åò. Âñå óêàçûâàåò íà òî, ÷òî åãî íåò â æèâûõ. Very often prepositions which would be indispensable before nouns are not used before object clauses: I insist he should come up with us (Bennett) (on). ...I am going to be careful what I do (Hope) (of). It all depends how you handle him (Bennett) (on).

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STYLISTICS

Text A Read the Text. Define the Register 2000 EDMUND S. MUSKIE/FREEDOM SUPPORT ACT GRADUATE FELLOWSHIP PROGRAM: FIELD DESCRIPTIONS

The information provided below is intended only as a general guideline, providing broad descri ptions of the eleven fields of study offered under the 2000 Muskie/FSA Program. It is important for applicants to understand that within the United States, a wide variety of graduate programs are offered in each major field described below. The curricula, course content, types of degrees offered, and the lengths of degree program vary greatly at different U.S. universities. Because a number of factors are involved in placing fellows at host universities, finalists are not guaranteed their preferred program length. The university that may be deemed most appropriate for a. particular finalist may not offer the length of program for which the applicant has applied. It is critical that each applicant select his/her field of study carefully and his/her specialization within that field thoughtfully. Applicants are encouraged to further research these fields, and the different graduate programs offered by U.S. universities in these fields before selecting a field of study on the application. Information is available at local U.S. educational information centers, on the Internet, and through other resources. It is the responsibility of the applicant to select the appropriate field of study and specialization within that field. The selection committee makes placement decisions based on information provided by the applicant, therefore it is in the applicant’s best interest to research thoroughly that field and to write a statement of purpose which accurately reflects his/her understanding of, and interest in the field. Business Administration — Prepares individuals to plan, organize, and direct the operations of a firm’s or organization’s resources, including personnel, money, materials, and technology. Generally includes instruction in management theory, financial management, – 118 –

human resources management and behavior, accounting and other quantitative methods, purchasing and logistics, marketing, and business decision making. Economics — The study of the production, conservation, and allocation of resources in conditions of scarcity, together with the organizational frameworks related to these processes. The analytical skills of economics are useful in evaluating alternative methods of achieving society’s goals and objectives and in formulating strategies and policies that v/ill help to achieve these objectives. Education — Primary or Secondary School Teaching and Curriculum provides a set of courses geared toward the preparation of primary or secondary school teachers. Areas of focus include pedagogy, curriculum design, and educational assessment. These programs often include practicum teaching under the supervision of a master teacher. Secondary school teachers must indicate their subject area (history, mathematics, etc). Primary or Secondary School Administration focuses on the management and leadershi p of primary or secondary schools. Coursework can include budgeting, facilities management, planning, organizational theory, leadershi p, strategy, negotiations, and fundraising. Special Education, generally a specialization for those intending to work in primary or secondary education, provides educators with special skills for the instruction of children who are mentally or physically challenged and do not perform at the average of their age group. These programs often include a practicum teaching under the supervision of a master teacher. Higher Education Administration provides a set of courses which prepares individuals to work in a variety of administrative positions at an institution of higher education. Courses may include budgeting, finance, history of higher education, and student personnel administration. International and Comparative Education provides students with coursework related to the international and transcultural dimensions of education. Students in this specialization may be required to further narrow their comparative study of education through subspecialization in an academic disci pline (economics, history, philosophy, etc) or professional educational field (adult education, bilingual education, higher education, etc), or by focusing on a particular geographic region. – 119 –

Environmental Management — Includes analysis of the effects of human activities on the environment from the perspectives of the natural and engineering sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities. Includes instruction in environmental, natural, and social sciences: biology, chemistry, geology; environmental economics; and regional, national and global environmental problems. Environmental Management encompasses a wide variety of possible specializations including environmental engineering which prepares students to plan and design environmental management structures and systems such as pollution control facilities; natural resource management which provides instruction on how to manage, utilize and protect valuable natural resources; and environmental policy which prepares students to analyze, form and implement governmental, private, or non-governmental policy related to the environment. International Affairs — The study of international politics and institutions and the conduct of di plomacy, trade, and foreign policy. Includes multi-disciplinary coursework which examines peoples, events, movements, institutions, societies, cultures, and issues, with instruction in history, international economics, law, politics, sociology, anthropology, and political geography. Journalism and Mass Communications — The study or journalism and mass communications encompasses all types of modem mass communications media — newspapers, magazines, publications, periodicals, books, radio, television, photography, corporate video, and satellite transmission As a diversified field of study, journalism and mass communications attracts individuals interested in reporting or editing for publications, wire services, radio and television; advertising; photojournalism; public relations: production, direction, and editing for television and film; writing in special fields such as business, economics, education, medicine, politics, and science; radio broadcasting and production; broadcast sales; audience research; and administration and management of the editorial, advertising and business functions of publications, broadcast stations and other mass communications services. Law — The law degree program offered through the Muskie/ FSA Program leads to an LLM degree (Master of Law), which offers lawyers an opportunity to engage in extensive specialized study and research in a particular area of law. Students undertake intensive analysis of issues with specialists in the field and are provided with addi– 120 –

tional skills necessary to practice or teach that area of Law. An undergraduate degree in law is a prerequisite for application to this field. Library and Information. Sciences — Library and information science is the study of the organization, storage, dissemination, and management of information in a variety of formats, such as books, documents, manuscripts, machine-readable databases, and filmed and recorded materials. A graduate program in library and information science imparts the skills necessary to deal with an increasing diversification of electronic sources of information, as well as the more traditional print forms. Public Administration — Prepares individuals to serve as managers in the executive branches of local, state, and federal government, as well as in private and non-profit organizations, such as museums, foundations, and charities which serve public interests. The field of public administration is based on the social sciences and draws on economics, political science, and sociology. It includes coursework which trains individuals to analyze, manage, and deliver public programs and services. Public Health — Prepares specialists to monitor and evaluate potential and actual health hazards, and to plan and manage health programs. Public health can be defined as population-based health. Public health professionals assure the conditions necessary for people to live healthy lives through community-wide prevention and protection programs. They prevent epidemics and the spread of disease, protect against environmental hazards, prevent injuries, promote and encourage healthy behavior and mental health, respond to disasters and assist communities in recovery and assure the quality of health services. Public health professionals include epidemiologists, biostatisticians, health policy specialists, health planners, environmental health specialists, health program administrators, nutritionists, health educators, and behavioral scientists. Public Policy — The systematic analysis of public policy issues and decision-making processes. Includes instruction in the role of economic and political factors in public decision making and policy formation, microeconomic analysis of policy issues, resource allocation and decision modeling, cost/benefit analysis, and statistical methods. Public policy analyzes the content and effects of policy with the goal of improving it or developing new policy.

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2000 EDMUND S. MUSKIE/FREEDOM SUPPORT ACT GRADUATE FELLOWSHIP PROGRAM: PROGRAM DESCRIPTION

The Government of the United States is pleased to announce the 2000 Edmund S. Muskie/Freedom Support Act (FSA) Graduate Fellowshi p Program, which was established to encourage economic and democratic growth in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. The Muskie/FSA Graduate Fellowshi p Program places citizens from the countries listed above in graduate level programs in business administration, economics, education, environmental management, international affairs, journalism and mass communications, law, library and information science, public administration, public health, and public policy. Academic programs will begin in the summer or early fall of 2000. Fellows will be placed at academic institutions throughout the United States to take part in graduate programs that are one year, eighteen months, or two years in length. Many programs lead to a master’s degree or certificate from a U.S. institution, depending on the field of specialization, type of program, and the needs of the candidate. The Muskie/FSA Program is a program of the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State, and is administered in 2000 by the American Councils for International Education: ACTR/ACCELS and the Open Society institute (OSI). Muskie/FSA fellows will be enrolled in U.S. academic institutions according to their academic interests and professional goals. Fellows may not select their U.S. host universities. Independent applications to U.S. universities neither disqualify applicants from consideration for the Muskie/FSA Program, nor do they enable participants to select their host universities, if they are chosen for the Muskie/FSA Program. During their term of study, Muskie/FSA fellows must meet the academic standards and requirements of the Muskie/ FSA Program and their U.S. host universities. Fellows may have the opportunity to partici pate in twelve-week summer internshi ps for practical training in their fields of specialization. Under the terms of the grant and laws governing the J-1 visa required for partici pation in the Muskie/FSA Program, Muskie/FSA fellows must return to their home countries immediately upon completion of their fellowshi ps for aperiod of at least two years. Fellows – 122 –

may not continue for Ph.D. or other studies, and are not eligible for extended practical training or employment in the United States. NO requests for visa extensions, waivers, or transfers will be granted under any circumstances. Eligibility Requirements The Muskie/FSA Graduate Fellowshi p Program does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, sex, religion, national and ethnic origin, or disability. Competition for the Muskie/FSA Graduate Fellowshi p Program is merit-based and open to anyone who is: * A citizen of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, or Uzbekistan. * Residing in one of the 15 partici pating countries at the time of application and during the selection process. * Under the age of forty (40) at the time of application. * The reci pient of an undergraduate degree (five- or four-year program) by June 2000. Degree must be in law in order to apply to the Muskie/FSA Program in the field of law. * Proficient in spoken and written English at the time of application. * Able to demonstrate professional aptitude and leadershi p potential in the field of specialization. * Able to begin the academic exchange program in the United States in the summer of 2000. * Able to receive and maintain a U.S. J-1 visa. * Committed to returning to their home country after completion of the program. Individuals in the following circumstances are NOT eligible for the Muskie/FSA Program: * U.S. citizens and permanent residents of the United States, or citizens and permanent residents of countries other than the 15 partici pating countries. * Spouses of U.S. citizens and permanent residents of the United States, or spouses of citizens of countries other than the 15 participating countries. * Individuals currently partici pating in academic, training or research programs outside the 15 partici pating countries. * Individuals currently residing or working outside the 15 partici pating countries. – 123 –

* Individuals who have partici pated in a program sponsored or funded by the U.S. government (e.g. USIA/USIS or other U.S. government agency) since October 1997 for a period of more than six weeks. * Individuals who have applied for an immigrant visa to any country or who have requested political asylum in any country. This includes individuals who hold or have applied for a U.S. «green card», or who have applied to the U.S. Diversity Immigrant Visa Lottery. Selection Process Competition for the Muskie/FSA Fellowshi p Program is merit-based and selection will be made on the basis of academic excellence, knowledge of English, professional aptitude, and leadershi p potential in the field of specialization. Since funding for the Muskie/ FSA Program is limited and the program is highly competitive, not all qualified applicants will receive awards. Completed applications for candidates meeting the eligibility requirements will be reviewed by teams of U.S. specialists in each of the fields of study. Semifinalists will be tested and interviewed in their home countries as part of the selection process. Assistance is available from the Muskie/FSA Program to help cover the cost of transportation to and from the testing and interviewing sites for semifinalists with financial need. All semifinalists will be required to take the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Many U.S. universities have a minimum TOEFL score required for admission. While these scores vary by institution, the Muskie/FSA Program will support intensive English language preparation during the summer for any finalist scoring below a 550. In addition to taking the TOEFL examination, semifinalists in Business Administration will be required to take the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT); semifinalists in Economics, Environmental Management, Journalism and Mass Communications, Library and Information Science, and Public Health must take the Graduate Record Exam (GRE). The cost of the TOEFL, GMAT, and GRE examinations for semifinalists will be covered by the Muskie/ FSA Program. The results of all examinations and interviews will be forwarded to U.S. selection committees for consideration when reviewing the application files. The U.S. committees are made up of representatives – 124 –

from universities partici pating in the Muskie/FSA Program. Candidates will be notified of final decisions in May 2000. Financial Terms of the Fellowship Funding will be applied towards the cost of tuition, room, board, sti pend, textbooks, international transportation, professional enrichment activities, and accident and sickness insurance. For fellows in eighteen-month or two-year programs, the amount of funding provided by the Muskie/FSA Program during the 2001—2002 academic year will be adjusted according to the fellows’ internshi p salary in the summer of 2001. No financial support for dependents is provided by the Muskie/FSA Program. Participant Responsibility Finalists must attend a mandatory predeparture orientation and may be designated for a summer English-language program. Muskie/FSA fellows must uphold the academic standards of the host institution and undertake full-time study for the duration of the program. Applicants should be aware that graduate students in the eleven areas of specialization must adhere to the established curriculum of the U.S. host university. Fellows will not be able to undertake independent research and will not be permitted to change their field of specialization once accepted to the Muskie/FSA program. During the practical training period, fellows must uphold professional standards and meet the expectations of the organization sponsoring the internshi p. Failure to maintain academic and professional standards will result in dismissal from the Muskie/FSA Graduate Fellowshi p Program.

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Text B Read the Resume. Write down your own according to the Model PRESLAVA NENOVA

139, 8 Primorski polk St., bl 38/3, apt 81 9010 Varna, Bulgaria Tel: +359 52 882662 Nationality: Bulgarian Date of Birth: 9.11.76 Academic Experience EDUCATION Sept. 1995 to present University of National and World Economy (UNWE), Sofia University of Lincolnshire & Humberside, UK—Joint Program in European Business Administration. 1990—1995 Varna School of Humanities, Bulgaria. Emphasis on understanding and appreciating ancient cultures and languages; exploring and interpreting the world social, political and historical processes. 1990—1995 English Language School, Vama, Bulgaria. INTEREST AREAS: Efficient transition to democracy and market economy. Competition and Regulation. Models of Competition. HONORS, GRANTS, A WARDS 1997 — A scholarshi p for Economics — Interna tional Foundation «St. Cyril and St. Meth odius». 1995 Di ploma with Honors — VarnaSchool of Humanities. GPA: 6.0 out of 6.0. May, 1984 Second Prize in the contest for Bulgarian National Cup for Artistic Gymnastics. SKILLS Modern Languages: English — fluent, written and spoken. Five years of study at the English Language ‘School, Varna. GPA: 5.60 out of 6.00. French. Eight level course at the French

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Ancient Languages:

Computer MEMBERSHIPS 1997-

1982—1988

Institute, Sofia. Russian. Six years of study in secondary and high school. Latin. Four years of study at Varna School of Humanities. Ancient Greek. Two years of study at Varna School of Humanities. Ancient Bulgarian. Three years of study at Varna School of Humanities. Word Processing; Word for Windows. International Foundation «St. Cyril and St. Methodius» — Academic Club «Dr. Ilko Eskenazi». -I am an active partici pant in discussions on economic problems; I demonstrate personal views, ideas and opinions. Project on regulation and deregulation. Sports Club «Spartac» Varna — artistic gymnastics -I had a leading role since I won the first prize in several local contests and was among the few from the club, chosen to partici pate at a national level.

Leadershi p Experience 1996—1997 University of National and World Econo my, Sofia -I am the leader of working group presentations; I motivate my colleagues and take the initiative for the accomplishment of the tasks. 1985—1989 Secondary School «G. S. Rakovski», Varna, Bulgaria -I was the class representative and was re sponsible for organizing and coordinating the out-of- class activities. REFERENCES: Ginka Nikova-Togel, Ph.D., Assist. Profes sor in Management, UNWE. Petia Tanova, Ph.D., Associate Professor in Economics, UNWE.

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Text C Read the Text. Define the Register MATERIALS SYSTEM SPECIFICATION

01-SAMSS-031 Product Marking For Pi pe Of Less Than Six Inch Nominal Size

1 December, 1996

Piping Standards Committee Members Chu, K.S., Chairman Al-Sannaa, M.A. Al-Sharif, T.M. Baghabrah, M.A. Finman, L.S. Hoyden, DM. Kim, S.U. Moore, E.M. Mullen, M.A. Poe, D.C. Youngblood, A.D.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards Table of Contents 1. Scope. ................................................2 2. Conflicts And Deviations. ....................2 3. References. .........................................2 4. ProductMarkings. ................................2 5. Coatings. ............................................3 Previous Issue: 25 March, 1996 Next Planned Update: 1 April, 1999Revised paragraphs are indicated in the right margin Page 1 of 3 – 128 –

DOCUMENTT Responsibility: Pi ping Issue Date: 1 December, 1996 Next Planned Update: 1 April, 1999

1. Scope This specification defines the minimum mandatory marking requirements for API 5L steel pi pe having anominal diameter of less than six inches. 2. Conflicts And Deviations 2.1 Any conflicts between this specification and other applicable Saudi Aramco Materials System Specifications (SAMSSs), Engineering Standards (SAESs), Standard Drawings (SASDs), or industry standards, codes, and forms shall be resolved in writing by the Company or Buyer Representative through the Manager, Consulting Services Department of Saudi Aramco, Dhahran. 2.2 Direct all requests to deviate from this specification in writing to the Company or Buyer Representative, who shall follow internal company procedure SAEP-302 and forward such requests to the Manager, Consulting Services Department of Saudi Aramco, Dhahran. 3. References The selection of material and equi pment, and the design, construction, maintenance, and repair of equi pment and facilities covered by this specification shall comply with the latest edition of the references listed below, unless otherwise noted. 3.1 Saudi Aramco References Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedure SAEP-302 Instructions/or Obtaining a Waiver of a Mandatory Saudi Aramco Engineering Requirement 3.2 Industry Codes and Standards American Petroleum Institute API 5L Specification for Line Pi pe 4. Product Markings 4.1 The pi pe shall have all of the API marking specified in API 5L except the symbol ERW shall be substituted for the symbol E. 4.2 The pipe shall be marked Saudi Aramco, followed by the destination, Purchase Order number, and the Saudi Aramco Materials System (SAMS) Catalog designated stock number. If there is no assigned SAMS stocknumber, the pipe shall be marked with the item number of the order. Page 2 of 3 – 129 –

DOCUMENTT Responsibility: Pi ping Issue Date: 1 December, 1996 Next Planned Update: 1 April, 1999

4.3 The marking per the above shall be applied as follows: a) for pipe of nominal size 2-inch and above, the markings shall be on the outside of the pi pe and located approximately 300 mm from the end of each joint. The area of pi pe to be marked shall be clean and dry. The marking shall be paint stenciled using a white alkyd enamel or equivalent paint; b) for pi pe smaller than 2-inch nominal size, the marking shall be embossed on metallic tags. The tag shall be attached to each bundle at one end. 5. Coatings Pi pe shall be supplied without mill coating unless specified otherwise in the Purchase Order.

1 December, 1996

Revision Summary Editorial revision to convert document to new format

Page 3 of 3

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Text D Speech Illustrations SPEECHES BY DISTINGUISHED POLITICAL LEADERS (EXCERPTS) LET US BEGIN EXCERPTS FROM THE INAUGURAL ADDRESS OF JOHN P. KENNEDY

January 20, 1961 Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans, born in this century, tempered by war, disci plined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage, and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world. To those nations who would make themselves our adversary, we offer not a pledge but a request: that both sides begin anew the quest for peace, before the dark powers of destruction unleashed by science engulf all humanity in planned or accidental self-destruction... ...Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms, and bring the absolute power to destroy other nations under the control of all nations. Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors. Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths and encourage the arts and commerce. PRESIDENT REAGAN’S REPORT TO THE U.S. CONGRESS ON THE GENEVA SUMMIT

Washington D.C. November 21, 1985 I have just come from Geneva and talks with General Secretary — Gorbachev. In the past few days we spent over 15 hours in various meetings with the General Secretary and the members of his official party. Approximately five of those hours were talks between Mr. Gorbachev and myself just one-on-one. That was the best part — our fireside summit. There will be, I know, a great deal of commentary and opinion as to what the meetings produced and what they were like. There were over 3,000 reporters in Geneva, so it’s possible there will be 3,000 opinions on what happened. So, maybe it’s the old broadcaster in me but I decided to file my own report directly to you. – 131 –

We met, as we had to meet. I had called for a fresh start — and we made that start. I can’t claim we had a meeting of the minds on such fundamentals as ideology or national purpose — but we understand each other better. That’s key to peace. I gained a better perspective; I feel he did, too. It was a constructive meeting. So constructive, in fact, that I look forward to welcoming Mr. Gorbachev to the United States next year. And I have accepted his invitation to go to Moscow the following year. We arranged that out in the parking lot. I found Mr. Gorbachev to be an energetic defender of Soviet policy. He was an eloquent speaker and a good listener. Our subject matter was shaped by the facts of this century. Where do we go from here? Well, our desire for improved relations is strong. We’re ready and eager for step-by-step progress. We know that peace is not just the absence of war. We don’t want a phony peace or a frail peace. We did not go in pursuit of some kind of illusory detente. We can’t be satisfied with cosmetic improvements that won’t stand the test of time. We want real peace. As I flew back this evening, I had many thoughts. In just a few days families across America will gather to celebrate Thanksgiving. And again, as our forefathers who voyaged to America, we traveled to Geneva with peace as our goal and freedom as our guide. For there can be no greater goal than the quest for peace — and no finer purpose than the preservation of freedom. It is 350 years since the first Thanksgiving, when Pilgrims and Indians huddled together on the edge of an unknown continent. And now here we are gathered together on the edge of an unknown future — but, like our forefathers, really not so much afraid but full of hope and trusting in God, as ever. PRESIDENT REAGAN’S TELEVISED NEW YEAR’S DAY ADDRESS TO THE SOVIET PEOPLE

January 1, 1986 Cood evening. This is Ronald Reagan, President of the United States. I am pleased to speak to you on the occasion of the New Year. This is a time for reflection — and for hope. As we look back the year just concluded, and on the year that is to come I want to share with you my hopes for the New Year, hopes for peace, prosperity and good will that the American and Soviet people share. Just over a month ago, General Secretary Gorbachev and I met for the first time in Geneva. Our purpose was to begin a fresh chapter in the relations between our two countries and to try to reduce the suspicions and mistrust between us. – 132 –

I think we made a good beginning. Mr. Gorbachev and I spent many hours together, speaking frankly and seriously about the most important issues of our time: reducing the massive nuclear arsenals on both sides, resolving regional conflicts, ensuring respect for human rights as guaranteed under international agreements and other questions of mutual interest. A safe and lasting peace also requires finding peaceful settlements to armed conflicts, which cause so much human suffering in many parts of the world. I have proposed several concrete steps to help resolve such conflicts. It is my hope that in 1986 we will make progress toward this end. I see a busy year ahead in building on the foundations laid in Geneva. There is much work to be done, Mr. Gorbachev will visit the United States later this year, and I look forward to showing him our country. In 1987 I plan to visit your country, and hope to meet many of you. On behalf of the American people, I wish you all a happy and healthy New Year. Let’s work together to make it a year of peace. There is no better goal for 1986, or for any year. Let us look forward to a future of chistoye nyebo, blue skies, for all mankind. Thank you. SPEECH BY MIKHAIL GORBACHEV

Esteemed Mr. President, Esteemed Mrs. Reagan, Ladies and Gentlemen, Last summer it took one brave American by the name of Lynne Cox just two hours to swim from one of our countries to the other. We saw on television how sincerely friendly was the meeting between our people and Americans when she stepped onto the Soviet shore. She proved by her courage how closely to each other our peoples live. It is, of course, true too that our systems are different and our ways of life are, too. We hold different views on many issues. And this will apparently continue to be so for a long time. But without belittling great political and ideological distances, we are going to look for, and to find, ways of drawing closer together, where this is vital to us and to you, and to all humanity. This is why we are here... ...«Although man is not eternal, what is humane is», wrote our celebrated poet Afanasy Fet. In the name of eternal humanity we accomplished today a very significant act. And my first toast is to that. It is dear to our peoples and that is why I congratulate the Soviet and American peoples whose will is expressed in this agreement. – 133 –

Text E BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

J. WHITE & CO. LTD. Photographic Supplies

Capetown 7 May 1978

James Scott Photographic Dealer Durban

Dear Mr Scott Many thanks for your letter of 5 May. We are interested to hear that you saw our advertisement in the Camera Review and appreciate your interest in the DERVIEW products we stock. We are enclosing our Terms of Business, where you will find details of our quarterly discounts, and our price list for the complete range of DERVIEW products. As you will see, we can grant special terms for orders of the value you mention. I will be in Durban myself on 17 May, and will be happy to call on you at any time in the afternoon. Perhaps you would like to let me knew whether this is convenient. I will, of course, bring the complete range of DERVIEW colour transparencies, which are described in the catalogue we have sent you today. I am looking forward to meeting you

Yours faithfully

Dick Richardson

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The Excelso Company Ltd. Directors: J.Corner, B. Edge

Specialists in Modern Resign

High Wycombe, Bucks Telephone: 0494 6130 Our Ref: H/f l50 Your Ref: JR/ph

3 February 1978

Attention Miss Jennifer Ring, Overseas Dept: A.B. White & Co. Ltd.567 Queen Street: London EC4 8YH

Dear Sirs We thank you for your enquiry of 31 January, and can confirm our telephone conversation of yesterday, in which we informed you that we can deliver part of the goods required from stock, in accordance with the enclosed detailed offer. For the balance we would require approximately three weeks from the date of receiving your confirmation that this arrangement is acceptable. Prices as quoted are f.o.b. London. Packing in wooden cases. Delivery as specified above. Payment against documents, by banker’s draft. We hope your client will find our terms and delivery dates satisfactory, and we can assure you that you may count on our full co-operation and attention in this matter.

Yours faithfully

Simon Javior

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Text F LETTER OF INQUIRY 18240 Magnolia Place Baton Rouge. LA 70803 April I, 20xx Mr. John Sampson Vice President, ABC, Inc. 2301 Walnut Grove Lane Raleigh, NC 27695

identify objective

refer to resume point out qualifications and special interests

arrange for an interview

Dear Mr. Sampson: I am seeking a position in materials evaluation at a hightechnology company such as yours. I am aware from researching your firm that you have a training program for physicists and engineers. As you will note from the enclosed resume, I have majored in physics and have partici pated in significant research. This background, as well as several business courses, has prepared me to combine an interest in motivating people with a desire to work in a technical environment. I would like to learn more about your trainee position, and I will contact your officethe week of April 15lh to arrange an appoint ment at your convenience. Sincerely, Karen E. Jones Enclosure – 136 –

Text G Read the Text. Define the Register BRIDGET JONE'S DIARY

Monday 20 March 9st, alcohol units 4 (getting into mood), cigarettes 27 (but last day before giving up), calories 2455. Have decided to serve the shepherds pie with Chargrilled Belgian Endive Salad, Roquefort Lardons and Frizzled Chorizo, to add a fashionable touch (have not tried before but sure it will be easy), followed by individual Grand Marnier souffles. V. much looking forward to the birthday. Expect to become known as brilliant cook and hostess. Tuesday 21 March: Birthday 9st, alcohol units 9*, cigarettes 42*, calories 4295*. *If can’t splash out on birthday, when can I? 6.30 p.m. Cannot go on. Have just stepped in a pan of mashed potato in new kitten-heel black suede shoes from Pied a terre (Pied-a-pommede-terre, more like), forgetting that kitchen floor and surfaces were covered in pans of mince and mashed potato. It is already 6.30 and have to go out to Cullens for Grand Marnier souffle ingredients and other forgotten items. Oh my God — suddenly remembered tube of contraceptive jelly might be on side of washbasin. Must also hide storage jars with embarrassing un-hi p squirrel design and birthday card from Jamie with picture of little lamb on front which says ‘Happy Birthday, Guess which one is you?’ Then inside, ‘You’re the one over the hill.’ Humph. Schedule: 6.30. Go to shop. 6.45. Return with forgotten groceries. 6.45—7.00. Assemble shepherd’s pie and place in oven (oh God, hope will all fit). 7.00.—7.05. Prepare Grand Mamier souffles (Actually think will have a little taste of Grand Marnier now. It is my birthday, after all). 7.05—7.10. Mmm. Grand Marnier delicious. Check plates and cutlery for tell-tale signs of sluttish washing-up and arrange in attractive fan shape. Ah, must buy napkins also (or is it serviettes? Can never remember which one is common). 7.10—7.20. Tidy up and move furniture to sides of room. – 137 –

7.20—7.30. Make frisse lardon frizzled chorizo thing. All of which leaves a clear half-hour to get ready so no need to panic. Must have a fag. Aargh. It’s quarter to seven. How did that happen? Aargh. 7.15 p.m. Just got back from shop and realize have forgotten butter. 7.35 p.m. Shit, shit shit. The shepherd’s pie is still in pans all over the kitchen floor and have not yet washed hair. 7.40 p.m. Oh my God. Just looked for milk and realized have left the carrier bag behind in the shop. Also had the eggs in it. That means... Oh God, and the olive oil ... so cannot do frizzy salad thing. 7.40 p.m. Hmm. Best plan, surely, is to get into the bath with a glass of champagne then get ready. At least if I look nice I can carry on cooking when everyone is here and maybe can get Tom to go out for the missing ingredients. 7.55 p.m. Aargh. Doorbell. Am in bra and pants with wet hair. Pie is all over floor. Suddenly hate the guests. Have had to slave for two days, and now they will all swan in, demanding food like cuckoos. Feel like opening door and shouting, «Oh, go fuck yourselves.» 2 a.m. Feeling v. emotional. At door were Magda, Tom, Shazzer and Jude with bottle of champagne. They said to hurry up and get ready and when I had dried hair and dressed they had cleaned up all the kitchen and thrown away the shepherd’s pie. It turned out Magda had booked a big table at 192 and told everyone to go there instead of my flat, and there they all were waiting with presents, planning to buy me dinner. Magda said they had had a weird, almost spooky sixth sense that the Grand Marnier souffle and frizzled lardon thing were not going to work out. Love the friends, better than extended Turkish family in weird headscarves any day. Right: for coming year will reactivate New Year’s Resolutions, adding the following: I will Stop being so neurotic and dreading things. I will not Sleep with, or take any notice of, Daniel Cleaver any more.

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Text H Read the Text. Define the Register TOEFL READING COMPREHENSION CIRCLE THE LETTER OF THE CORRECT ANSWER TO EACH QUESTION QUESTIONS 1—9

Spiders produce three basic types of webs. The sheet web is a twodimensional layer of threads seemingly laid out at random. The space web is a three-dimensional, wispy structure. The orb web, by far the most Line familiar, is the two-dimensional cartwheel pattern. Of the 30,000 spider species, some 6,000 are orb spinners. For three decades Dr. Peter N. Witt has studied orb spinners, especially a species called Areneiis diadematus, and their webs. Witt is a Germanborn medical doctor and self-taught arachnologist, whose passion is to understand the ways of spiders. Witt has delved deeply into the behavior of spiders and and vastly expanded our knowledge about orb spinners and their webs. Some of his findings have even amazed other arachnologists. «We have actually compared human building activities to spider building, and we find an enormous amount of parallel between the two,» Witt says. For one thing, just like their human counterparts in the building trades, orb spinners erect a form of removable scaffolding as they weave their webs. Orb spinners are solitary creatures who dwell one to a web. The web is home, food source, and mating ground, and it is guarded aggressively. When amale arrives at mating time, the courtshi p ritual is an intricate set of advances and retreats until the female is finally won over and no longer tries to kill her would-be lover. Orb spinners each weave a new web every day, working in the predawn darkness and executing the distinctive pattern of concentric circles and radial lines in a half hour or less. «There is nothing as important as web building, because without the web there is no food,» Witt says.

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1. The topic or this passage is 5. The word «their» in line 14 refers to (A) spiders (A) humans who build (B) different types of webs (B) other arachnologists spiders make (C) Witt and his associates (C) Dr. Peter N. Witt (D) orb spinners (D) orb spinners and their webs. 6. According to the passage, 2. According to the passage, web-making by spiders and the difference between the human building activities are sheet web and the orb web is (A) both dependent on (A) the pattern removable scaffolding (B) the size (B) hard to compare (C) the texture (C) simple to analyze (D) the length of threads (D) lengthy procedures spun by the spiders 7. The word «it» in line 18 refers to 3. The phrase «at random» (A) the web in line 2 is closest in meaning to B) the food source (A) arbitrarily C) the female spider (B) quickly (D) the mating ground (C) deftly entrap food (D) incongruously 8. We can infer that the female orb spinner 4. We can infer from the passage (A) hard-working that an arachnologist is (B) cautious (A) a photographer (C) solitary (B) a medical doctor (D) easily wooed (C) a person who studies spiders 9. We can conclude from the passage (D) a person who intensely that the purpose of webs is dislikes spiders (A) to initiate courtshi p of spiders (B) to engage spiders in useful activity (C) to provide a way for spi ders to (D) to display artistic talents of spiders.

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ÑÏÈÑÎÊ ÈÑÏÎËÜÇÎÂÀÍÍÎÉ ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÛ 1. Chirta F. Idioms and idiomaticity. Oxford: OUP, 1996. 2. Watcyn-Jones P. Test Your English Idioms. Penguin Books, 1990. 3. Mednikova E. Seminars In English Lexicology. M.: Vyssya skola, 1978. 4. Ganshina M., Vasilevskaya N. English Grammar. Higher School Publishing House, 1964. 5. Mahnke M.K. & Duffy C.B. TOEFL Preparation Course. Macmillan, 1998. 6. Fielding H. Bridget Jone's Diary. Picador. England, 1996. 7. Shachbagova J. & Grafova L. A Businessman's Treasure-Trove. M.: RIMEKS, 1992. 8. King F. & Cree D. English Business Letters. M.: Vyssya skola, 1994. 9. Collins English Dictionary and Thesaurus. Harper Collins Publishers. Oxford, 1999. 10. Biber D. [et. al.] Longman Grammar Of Spoken And Written English. England, 2000.

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ÑÎÄÅÐÆÀÍÈÅ

Ââåäåíèå .................................................................................................. 3 LEXICOLOGY ......................................................................................... 4 Unit 1. The English Wordstock ............................................................... 4 Working Definitions of Princi pal Concepts ....................................... 4 Tasks and Exercises ............................................................................. 5 Questions ........................................................................................... 13 Test Questions ................................................................................... 20 Unit II. The Morfological Structure of a Word .................................... Working Definitions of Princi pal Concepts ..................................... Tasks and Exercises ........................................................................... Questions ...........................................................................................

20 20 21 27

Unit III. The Vokabulary of a Language as a System ........................... Working Definitions of Princi pal Concepts ..................................... Semantic Fields ................................................................................ Tasks and Exercises ...........................................................................

28 28 29 29

Idioms and Idiomaticity ........................................................................ 34 Glossary ............................................................................................. Introduction ...................................................................................... Idioms and Idiomaticity ................................................................... Tasks and Exercises ...........................................................................

34 36 37 41

Keys to the Exercises ............................................................................. 47 MORPHOLOGY .................................................................................... 52 Unit I. The Infinitive ............................................................................. Verb-Characteristics of the Infinitive ............................................... Noun-Characteristics of the Infinitive ............................................. The Particle to before the Infinitive .................................................. Repetition of to before Several Infinitives ........................................ Split Infinitive ................................................................................... The Subjective and the Objective Infinitive ...................................... The Functions of the Infinitive in the Sentence ............................... Accusative with the Infinitive .......................................................... Nominative with the Infinitive ........................................................ Constructions with the Subject of the Infinitive Introduced by for (for-Phrases) ...................... Infinitive Phrases .............................................................................. Infinitive Sentences ........................................................................... The Infinitive in Analytical Verb-Forms .......................................... – 142 –

52 52 56 56 58 58 58 59 63 66 68 70 70 71

Unit II. The Gerund .............................................................................. Origin and Development ................................................................... Verb Characteristics of the Gerund .................................................. Noun-Characteristics of the Gerund ................................................ The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence ................................. The Infinitive and the Gerund ......................................................... Constructions (Complexes) with the Gerund ................................. Rendering of the Gerund in Russian ................................................ The Gerund and the Verbal Noun ....................................................

71 71 72 74 74 77 78 79 80

Unit III. The Partici ple ......................................................................... Partici ple I and Partici ple II ............................................................ The Functions of the Partici ple in the Sentence .............................. The Partici ple in a Compound Verbal Predicate ............................. Nominative Absolute ........................................................................ The Absolute Partici ple Construction ..............................................

81 82 86 89 93 95

SYNTAX ................................................................................................. 96

The Simple Sentence. Structure of the Sentence. Princi pal Parts of the Sentence .......................................................... 96 The Subject ........................................................................................ 96 Personal and Impersonal Sentences (98). Sentences with the Antici patory It (100). Sentences with the Demonstrative It (101). The Various Uses of the Pronoun It as Subject (Review) (101). The Construction There is (102).

The Predicate .................................................................................. 103 Verbal Predicate (104). The Nominal Predicate (107). The Predicative (108).

The Complex Sentence ........................................................................ 112 Subject Clauses ................................................................................. 114 Predicative Clauses .......................................................................... 114 Object Clauses .................................................................................. 115 STYLISTICS .......................................................................................... 118 Text A. 2000 Edmund S. Muskie/Freedom Support Act Graduate Fellowshi p Program: Field and Program Descri ptions ..... 118 Text B. Preslava Nenova ................................................................... 126 Text C. Materials System Specification ........................................... 128 Text D. Speeches by Distinguished Political Leaders (excerpts) .... 131 Text E. Business Correspondence ................................................... 134 Text F. Letter of Inquiry ................................................................ 136 Text G. Bridget Jone's Diary ............................................................ 137 Text H. TOEFL Reading Comprehension ....................................... 139

Ñïèñîê èñïîëüçîâàííîé ëèòåðàòóðû ............................................. 141 – 143 –

Ó÷åáíîå èçäàíèå

Ëèñòóíîâà Åëåíà Èâàíîâíà

ÎÑÍÎÂÛ ÒÅÎÐÈÈ ÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÎÃÎ ßÇÛÊÀ Ó÷åáíî-ìåòîäè÷åñêîå ïîñîáèå äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ ñòàðøèõ êóðñîâ ñïåöèàëüíîñòè «Ðåãèîíîâåäåíèå»

Ãëàâíûé ðåäàêòîð À.Â. Øåñòàêîâà Ðåäàêòîð Î.ß. Ëåñèíà Òåõíè÷åñêèé ðåäàêòîð Î.ß. Ëåñèíà Õóäîæíèê Í.Í. Çàõàðîâà

Ïîäïèñàíî â ïå÷àòü 30.12.03. Ôîðìàò 60½84/16. Áóìàãà îôñåòíàÿ. Ãàðíèòóðà Òàéìñ. Óñë. ïå÷. ë. 8,4. Ó÷.-èçä. ë. 9,0. Òèðàæ 100 ýêç. (1-é çàâîä 60 ýêç.) Çàêàç . «C» 148. Èçäàòåëüñòâî Âîëãîãðàäñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâåííîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà. 400062, Âîëãîãðàä, óë. 2-ÿ Ïðîäîëüíàÿ, 30. – 144 –