Active, Passive & Impersonal Constructions of Classical Sanskrit

nits Action and irectly perceived, or more objects of various objects words, the action jone through two

miC;fu I

m -c;cn:fu. I

,~

(The king gives a cow to a brahmin).

Bhartrhari uses the terms Sadhya and Sadhana for the action and. the participants. Sadhya is an action - that to be accomplished and Sadll,,'nas arethe accessories - the means in the accomplishment of the action. There are two states of objects in a sentence - static and Dynamic. Both of them are realized througr VRt. Sanskrit grarnmarians do not differentiate between the Action an'if the State. The object~ are tii~ means" . the accessories in::ihe accompliihment of the

actio~ as well as the State.

e.g. In
CR+J:

is understood in a particular way, i.e. we infer its existence at present, and in
SKRIT GRAMMARIAN5. ..

(Ma<;lhavya 'eats sweets),

"';

",":

.

.";.'.

SOMEVIEWSOFSANSKRITGRAMMA~IANS . .:». ..;·

... ~.

.

" 9,' . ",

','

The Word Meaning:

of objects and con,

Sanskrit grammatical tradition classifies the words into classes such

upon as seperate f

as Noun (;n+r), Verb (3'l 1'!Jll 1(1) Indeclinables (:wm:r) and Particles (f.:r:mrl.

it can only be infE

fu;m is a p roce~

They discuss the general meaning of each class. The discussion of the meanin.g of ther Nouns and the Verbs is

sequence. They c example the actic

focw;;sed here.

(1) igniting the stc The meaning of a verb :

change which hap

Compared to what is there, what is yet to be is more important.

the above sequen

According to Katyayana 's definition "ekatiQvakyam' also, the verb is

as 'cooking' (~

more important in a sentence. The verb has two categories VRT (Dhatu)

sequentially throu!

and the suffix (tiQ). The VRt is conceived as the most significant part

speaker cognises

of the sentence.

he has acquired if action.

Nagesha starts his discussion with the words 31"1.1" ~ - ~~ - "kl<4l<:;, ~ ~'('l14il I ~

(on ~

Rum

Bhartrhari say

in

TfI1~~{q'Qa: ~

'Tc'fl1. )

~ !A'IlR
[The meaning of the VRt (verbroot) which is the root of all the words-

. [The sequenti;:

will be described]

of the parts havin!

The meaning of the Vrt (Verbroot) :

The word

Yaska says ~ 3'lIMkFl, I [(The verb (has action (as) its main (meaning)] and Patafijali says RP'QlqlG:l ..il UI<j,: I (VRT denotes Action). According to Nagesha the

'Q\,,:H1Q;ill ill141{: ~ I (on

'T'
the action. Suppose on one part and the

mcmf Ruh:r

Nagesha has s

in 'Tc'fl1.) [The meaning of a root is an action (
q
meaning of VRt is

lflC'ili'J!Ml

some result.] The meaning of a VRt is not mere action, but that action which has some result (G1C'i").

tp('f

is a change of state of the concerned

object caused by an action. This result (G1C'i") may ·be actually brought about or imposed. e.g. in

tm: ~ (God stays), there is nothing which

is brought about by the State oftm... According to, Sanskrit grammatical tradition, the characteristics of an Action (~) is as follows.

[The totality c1 considered as an c

An Action is not perceptible. The means ar~:visible, but the means

It is said -

are not actions. The speaker absiractsthe actionthrough various states . ;:.'-::

,"

.. 'j 6.' '.:

~?MEVIEWS OF SANSKRrr GRAMMARIANS..,

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRrr'

"', L>: ' . .

of objects and conceptualizes its meaning of Action. The action is looked upon as seperate from the means. Action cannot be seen just like means,

into classes such I Particles (R
it can only be inferred.*3

fsnm is a process having parts. These parts are arranged in a temporal

s. ~nd

sequence. They do not go simultaneously, they 'do not coexist. For

the Verbs is

example the action of cooking can be said having following parts. (1! igniting the stove (2) putting the vessel with rice on it (3) and the change which happens in the corn. These various actions performed in more important.

the above sequence are unified in one act of cognition and is known

also, the verb is

as 'cooking' ('Mfu). Th'e sub-aclions of a main action are extracted

)ries VRT (Dhatu)

sequentially through various states or actions of objects involved. 'The

3t significant part

speaker cognises the whole process only by one word ~; because he has acquired· it in a unity. The unity or the collection of parts is called action. Bhart(hari says-

n ~·Rum in

TfUfl"lij{Cl'llQ: -::l C\

wm

,t of all the words-

=, " •. ';"'"

Slili,lF""Hlli... I

!A'f)R
"

('i:fT.1:f.fWm ~~T-'f)In:'f)1 Ii)

.. [The sequential distinction imagined by the speaker in the totality of the parts having same characteristics is known as· an action.]*4 The word ~ can also be used for. one of the parts of the totality of the action. Suppose, the igniting of wood. Here the whole action is imposed

1d Patafijali says

on one part and the word ~ is used for that single part only.

to Nagesha the

(orh.n~ Ruh:r

Nagesha has said

hich brings about In, but that action of the concerned , actually brought is nothing which ,skrit grammatical 9

1{~'f){i:J'lla-sfq- ~~ql{(qlC; 31R;P$l'llUI'f)IM-sftr ~,

'Mfu

~ ,?lIl ~re

~ ~ ~tf M If"uct I: " (on ~

f.!u\
in Y'Wi. Pg.140)

[The totality cp.n be imposed on the single part and it can be considered as an action.

as follows.

It is said -

Ie, but the means 19h various states

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARJAN~::. :...; 11

ISKRIT GRAMMARIANS.• ,

.,,-. ',.,

C/.,._.

",

,

"

.

..: '."

.

,

--.-------

'Action' can be considered in the action of 'cooking' in totality or one of its parts, because they remain th!3 same by nature.] Another charecteristic of &-m is that all the concerned Karakas get involved with it (&-m). Patafijali has said - ~1Oli l'I'1fflfcl:ijcr: &-m [Action (fui<:rr) is a particular mode of behaviour on the part of the

(The karaka wi the particular nurr According to B modifies that actie

accessories.] Action is Sadhya i.e. to be accomplished. It requires

Paoini introdl number of allomor

something in its acomplishment. What it requires are the medns (the

Lakara. Accordin£

Sadhanas, the Karakas). It is a speciai mode of behaviour of the Karakas,

'f>r<"Tfu~N

to get involved with an action. In a unified or a collected sentence all

p,244) Suffix tio (L

the Karakas get involver:! with the action (&-m) according to the role

particular moment

they have (their 'hWt>t
a particular karaka

~

w,m

'151 @11l

I' [An action is that in which all the distinguishing

Karakas get involved]. (on ~ in

p.140). Here the word

qc;r+f.

;:ref shows all the Karakas are for the accomplishment of the action and so all the Karkas get involved with an action (fu;<:rr). All the Karakas have their subordinate actions. They are independent for their subordinate actions, but as soon as they enter into the main action, they loose their independence and play the role required in the main action. The object: have th'e potentiality to get involved with ari action in their different Karaka:

roles. Nagesh says that Karaka is the Producer'(~). of Action (fu;<:rr) and action is produced (~) by it. So they require some linkage as ~-~ and so (&
- the VRt denotes Action. - Action is invisible, it can only be inferred. It is a process having parts arranged in a temporal sequence. All the Karakas get involved with an action (&-m). ~",'

is Time('liTC'f). Time is a mear be measured in

0

particularizes th.at that which has sel ~-m::a ~ ~

~~

This sequence , to Time and action and the distinction:

Tense : (q;n;r)

The meaning of the suffix (tiO) :

".\

The suffix (tiO) qualifies the action. Nage~ha says mr ffii'i;
~<.nfuP-iT"C'f>lT 'f>rcrT~'q cm1:ffi"-ftr~T1Sf~ p.130)

One of the thr,

[Oi8\i, prastha, [ as the tense is CI distinguishes all.]

Thus according to Sanskrit grammatical tradition

'Wfl'f.

-

.

J

I "(on

J"'

:.·~./\~5~~:~: "'. -

.

~:ofRuf;;r in

-,

The Sanskrit G Tense. The mood i: from their definitio seperately, The 1·

..:-;,:"

./5;/;' . . '>\"i· >,SOME'VJEWS OF SANSKRrr GRAMMARIANS ... '.,' :'.',; :,. . :,",

.-

.~:

~ .- ~.: " ~

SOMEVIEWS OFsANsKRn

:ing' in totality or

the particular number; and the tense are the adjective of action.]

nature.] 'ned Karakas get

l'I'ifTlfil~k PsPm I the part of the lhed. It requires !

(The karaka which is denoted by the suffix til! and which also shows

the medns (the

According to Bharjrhari Vrt denotes action in general and suffix (til!) modifies that action.*5 Pal!ini introduced lakara as an abstract morpheme to denote a nUi!1ber of allomorphs. til! is a substitute (i',r' - ,~~T). in the place of Lakara. According to Nagesha til!

(i"TR:m

means ;n' '1~~41 fu~T"I

ur of the Karakas,

~~'t"I - 4i1{4ifi1~~ ~~lljlo;H~ ;mt I (on "r4iT,:r~ in

:ted sentence all

p.244) Suffix til! (Ladesh) denotes a particular number (~ Ptr~'t"I), a

·rding to the role

particular moment of time (~~'t"I) (which also includes Moods (:acl')

d {144i1 {4i Hl&lil 1-

a particular karaka (i.e.(4iill or

4i1l-

Wf+l'.

4i1{4ifil~N) or mere action (~).

1e distinguishing I. Here the word of the action and All the Karakas

One of the three categories of the meani'ng denoted by the suffix is Time(4iTC'f).

their subordinate

Time is a means of measuring Action. An action is abstract, it cannot

, they loose their

be measured in other ways. VRt denotes action in general, but 4iTC'f

:tion. The object:

particularizes that action. It has already been discussed that action is

r different Karaka

that which has. sequence.

of Action (PsPm) . some linkage as

~

\~

,«'''''-~ {!
~0;..",-,....,.-.4

1--,<1";«,<1

"PC"1\1

I

~ 4i1('1{,P'lii,,,!]:41 ~ ~ /I (in 4i1('1{l'i~~T. in crr.
~I

[Dis\i, prastha, gold ecl. are considered to distinguish the statues, where as the tense is considered to distinguish an action, while number. distinguishes all.] Iporal sequence.

(PsPm).

This sequence is of the various states of the objects, but it is attributed . to Time and action is inferred as having temporal sequence. Time is one, and the distinctions like past, present and future are imposed on it. Tense : (
" .

"

fh~

1ys (1?T

Rt ~<:jj"ai

~~Ruf<-T

in

Sanskrit Grammatical tradition gives 10 different meanings of Tense. The mood is·,noHreated seperately. However, it can be inferred from their definitions':tha1 they consider Tense (4iTC'f) and Mood (:acl') seperately. The 10 e,f1ieg~ri~~ are illustrated as under: -

. lKRIT GRAMMARIANS ...

:,~..

.... :-:,~.. ~}:?;.:

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARilfNS:';:'l:t: .:}:.

-""""

~- ..

-.,,-

.~ :":·~f~·::~.?::;~~~:\/ ," . ...... ,~..

.

The Past Tense :

The Suffix

1------------

(~)

The action whit

I

Tense,

is realised through

Mood

Nagesa says -

3r"r

I Subjunctive

I

~ l:f

Imperative

Potential

Conditional

(01'rvrP-h

(fuIlp,l-J

(ISf.41Irlq't'a4)

(~)

([;,'''l')

(<W

"


in 'BlT. p.260) [The past is tha (~) at the'

Past

Present

There are three

Future

(~)

, (WI)

the Remote_

I

I I. AOrlst

(a) The SimplE

"

Remote

Simple

Periphrastic

(~)

(
(Indefinite or

(~)

(~

(~)

General

(0j,C)

siJple

(:;rnwr) (~i;')

The Present Tense :.

The simple p, day. This past tens two. From the usagE in general. e.g, - ~ (b) The Aorist Traditionall}

The action which has begun and not yet completed but is continuous· is realized ·through pre'sent tense* 6

to particular time. I

'1T~~

Nagesa says :

(c) The Remot, mn:1.TT -1:rm-p'TTt.{-Tftn l;TT 1:wT~-m{-<'T"'T, I (on p.248)

The remote pa! its utterance or rath

[The action which has been started and not yet completed is considered having present tense.J

to the forest]. The Future Tense

e.g.- ~cKd: ~ [Devadatta goesJ. It is also used for what is true for all time

e. g. mt1 .; '<1 H""1 i Rfh ~ CI ct (i"i ( f'lp:n crt £11" "ffl"i ~~ I [In the North (there is) a king of mountai~*:(baving) divine soul, named '," .. HimalayaJ

The action whic Nagesha hasg "'(Clu("<4

'q q

. . . ~; .. ~

. .'·1~. ,....

'

SOMI'vtEWSOFSANSKRITGRAMMARIANS...

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT'

-----------------

The Past Tense : The action which has been completed at the time of its utterance

l

is realised through Past tense.

Jod

Nagesa says ,tial

Conditional

'-b

(f*.~lf(1q~«f)

, ii

(~

~

t[

Clct'ii'icrR:r - >lfAl1lfil - f.;bI11q(ij~~ , (on <;~~

in '«111; p.260) [The past is that which is denoted by the action which is destoryed (Clct'ii'i<JR:r) at the time of its utterance.]

Future

There are three past tenses in Sanskrit - the Simple, the Aorist &

~J

the Remote.

I

(a) The Simple Past Periphrastic

)r

(~)

(~)

(~)

:

The simple past denotes the action done previous to the current day. This past tense became more frequent in usage, than the other two_ From the usage, it can be said that this past denotes the past tense in general. e.g, - ~ "i'~I'in,"! ~ I [Devadatta went to Bombay].

_ut is continuous

(b) The Aorist (3:rocFf) : Traditionally, the Aorist refers to the past without any reference

to particular time.-It is not frequently used as the simple past (e.g.) "IT ~ ~T

«i

3m<1:

m"m:

<.1'"lI: I

(c) The Remote Past: ·m~<'T"~

I (0n The remote past denotes past action done previous to the day of its utterance or rather in the remote past e.g. Ul1:
completed is

;Jf1T111

[Rama went

to the forest]. The Future Tense:

.

ed for what is

The action which is yet to be started is realised through future tense.

m~1 ne soul, named

Nagesha has give_n its definition as

'l'IICl GQ"\"
Irr GRAMMARIANS ...

"q

Cl ct '"J1'i >I j;''>l' q>lhl 111\1,

~~~in-q'~~:;P-252) .....'.'

RP
SOMEVIEWSOF sANSKRrrGRAMMARIANS:.: ..·· '15: - _-,-.0 .

- ..... , ..

,

. - - - - - - - - - - - _.. -._.-

.. _- ... --._ .. _-"---_ . .

----~

·-.------~

[The future is that which is denoted by the action which is not present (1WT'm<:r) at the time of its utterance.] There are two types of future-

simple

(~)

and periphrastic

(~'11qct"').

Periphrastic future

(~H.Jct'1

'l'Ifi1ISQ<'t) resembles simple past (
does not take place on the day of its utterance, while the action of simple future (
~,!ff JIIi'llSQl'ii Devadatta will go to Bombay). The periphrastic future

Sanskrit grammaticc also denotes agreemen is shown by~, e verb also takes the sum, between the Karaka al

is not frequently used as the simple future. Moods (-31~) : Sanskrit grammatical tradition involves moods in tense. So <'!>1C'lfq~'j-q also means :;H~fu~Tl;f. There are four moods. The sUbjunctive: It was used only in the Vedas.

In active

'lXlt and the verb and

il the agreement betwee

The Imperative: It is used in the second person in the sense of command or gentle advice. In the second or the third person it is also used as Benedictive or Blessings. e.g. ~.sor

,!fuR: ~

~ ~

,I [Mayall the people be happy]

The Potential: There are two kinds.of Poteniial (ftrfui-the pot~ntial and the Benidictive (:m~ft;)* 7

~

Thus, the VRt take Karakas. If the karaka

c

is taken; if it denotes,

The most general application of the potential is in giving commands, in laying down precepts etc. The Benedictive Mood is always used in

'§
I. [a

'i@fiIA ~

and ~~ '1.-m'1: ~ I [may your paths be auspicious]

giving Blessing (e.g.

sentence~

~T +i~ I)

The Conditional: In the {i" ~ ~ ~ f'$plllhlqct'l. (pa.3.3.131) the word 31Rlq'dl denotes that "When the action is not performed'. It is used for the. . past ('I1(f) as well as the future ('l"1~&j(j). It denotes• C\ ._ •. .~

the action in the past or the future where the nqn-performance of the

plurality, the plural torn suffix (tilJ) which quali Nagesa says : (f5[

fu-&:

~~TWffit~RO\t\

~

in

t[(il

[The number deno denoted by the suffix

action is implied. , Thus qm;r

(including 31~) is one of the meanings of the suffix.

th~e;;po"Y.lrs:·~t ~~ i.e 'I>TC'f~rft:p Metaphysically. H'eJhr~kS f~at the whole world is

According to Bhartrhari it is one of He has discussed it

<'!> I{ili~ ~'j-q

As has been discus denoted by VRt. <'!>df~~~. result of the VRt e.g: 1

its manifestation. *8 . ,'\",

~"

.:. ': ......

1:6

'.:.:'.

.

.~

·...SOMEVIEWSOFSANSKRITGRAMMARIANS...

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRITGRA

ction which is not present are two types of future-

Sanskrit grammatical tradition considers +I~ I as number. But ~

'iphrastic future (
also denotes agreement. The agreement between Karaka and the verb

a sense, that the action

I

is shown by +I~I, e.g. If the karaka (~) is in singular, then the

"'hile the action of simple

verb also takes, the suffix of singular and thereby denotes the agreement

same day. (e.g. ~CRn:

!

between the Karaka and the verb. e.g .

. The periphrastic future [a person goesJ tion involves moods in

[two persons go] and

ere are four moods.

[(more than two) persons goJ;

Vedas.

!

In active sentences the suffix (til)) shows the agreement between

gmt and the verb and in the passive sentences the suffix (tii)) demotes

person in the sense of 3

the agreement' between ,~ and the verb e.g.

third person it is also

[a bO,ok is being read] )Ie be happyJ 3

'3;,!"(l<'hIH ~

be auspicious]

I [books are being read].

Thus, the VRt takes the til) suffix according to the number of the Karaka's.lf the Karaka dE)notes singularity, the singular form of the suffix

~ial (ftrr'1r)-the potential

is taken; if it denotes duality the dual form is taken and if it denotes plurality, the plural form is taken. Thus, the agreement is shown by the

s in giving commands,

suffix (til)) which qualifies K~raka

)od is always used in

Nagesa says :

~ ~R oc;~-%'MI Oc;cl-~ fu~T1SfUT1'!: I (on G~IC'1<'h1{10HO\'4 in 1:ffi1i. p285)

)'4IRl'isil· (pa.3.3.131) is not performE)d'. It

(f?[

(ll~~(l). , It denotes l-performance of the

[The number denoted by the sufix til) is an adjective of the tense denoted by the suffix til).] <'hIN)Pcl~N

anings of the suffix.

As has been discussed above, Action and Result (
'~~ i.e <'hTC'Hrfu>

It the whole world is

result of the VRt e.g:fctin· -~dlflir:J the sentence ••

'

'.'.'

'.

..

:

.

SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS...

::.. :

-',

. ,.'.~

..

•• '. L

:':',,"

:k..:. . . . ,'... ~l..:,:.:.••' :~.'

<, 'iF' ,:,," '..

SOMEVIEWSOFSANSKRITGRAMMARiA"l:S.• ',::'

",.

,',

.';

:,", ..... .

•

......;..;.

'4~G'i1: ~ q--ofu

I

-------~---------'-'-

[Yagnadatta reads. a book] denotes the action of Yagnadatta. denotes Agent (~) i.e. it is Active (~mw) while in ~

fu

~ (1:fG)

qq:l:ffi

Bhartrhari says that

[a book is being read], the sutfixdenotes the result 1:!lc'f of the action

it is said that the midd

of reading ':JCFf 64IYI{. Thus the suffix denotes either agent (~) or object (cp-,:f) i.e. Agent (~) in the Active sentences and Object (cp-,:f)

the action acrues to thE Active voice (4{{J'tqC;) is

in the passive sentences. Sometimes it denotes neither Agent nor Object

person other than the

but only action (i.e. mer ) In the sentences like
only Action. Thus, the suffix til) denotes Agent (~) or Object (cp-,:f) and sometimes only Action (i.e.mer)

it is

m

(sacrifies for

(the host) then it is 'j,{ITh for the host)

Comment: This is not the primary function of the suffix. It shows only person and number. It grammatically agrees with the Agent (~) or the Object (~~ of the sentence and that is how ('IiC!f) or(cp-,:f) can be inferred through its,utterance e.g.

When the performe

rrm-fu [(he) goes] can be inferred

Thus, according te denotes (a) ~, ~, mer

¥q

and ~

as having an Agent which is different from 11'<\j1f1i [(I) go] and ~fu

(b)

[(you) go]. Thus, (~) or (~) can be inferred through til). til) does

The meaning of tl

not denote them.

The nouns are the action. The noun-phras

According to Bh<;lrtrhari, person is als9 involved· in ladesa (tir:i), directly

The stem is called '1T"

or indirectly. There are three persons in Sanskrit. According to Pal)ini

The meaning ofm

they are 3l'PH{i'l'"l: I (pa.1.4.107)(i.e. the first person), '!~~

rt IlllR I (-A 'noun' has Skanda Swami in his

~ {·:?uf.:t~fq 1Wl'1: I (pa.1.4.105)(Le.the Second person)

and ~N ~~ I (pa.1.4.1 08) (i.e the third person). All the three persons have different suffixes to express them. The first person is used when the action of the speaker is denoted and the third person is used for In thea-ctive and the passive sentences the\ierb takes the person according to q;nf or ~ and it can take any o(the persons, while in

nQ~·object(~) and only action is denoted, th~re is no questioff1ift~king the first or the second

. impersonals as there is neither AgentJ
person. So it always takes the third pe'fsbrr.That is why Pal)ini has said I so that all

thad~maj1i~'C:9meinto '

,

•..•.,. '..

the third person.*10

''''',,',.:. ,"

- -_.-.- . ----- _...

_.

;;nfu - ;:;ffin : According to, San~l and particular or Individ primarily and in others. is denoted primarily ar

'. .

-~.'"

,.,:: .. ' '::-18' .. SOMEVIEWSOFSJlNSKRrrGRAMMARIANS...

........ -

[The appropriateni is object (U"i
all that remains.*9

~N ~~

P("I~l/{'l~:at(l: "

__ ..

_.. _-',

.' :o.r,lEVIEWS OF SANSKRrr GRI

!

._--------_._.. _ . _ . _ - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

ction of Yagnadatta. ) while in 'i~ ·esult

tp('f

fu

"Rl:<:Rf

of the action

either agent (~) or mces and Object ('li+f) leither Agent nor Object , like 7T~7m:Tt (:JF-l":) the people J. It denotes

(~) or Object ('li+f)

Bhartrhari says that voice (q<;) is also denoted by the suffix. Formerly it is said that the middle voice (31I("1~qc;) is used when the result of the action acrues to the doer or the performer of the action, while the Active voice (quJ\qc;) is used when the result of the action goes to the person other than the doer. e.g.


&

<:N!fu

When the performer performs the sacrifice for his own sake, then it is ~ (sacrifies for his own self) and if he performs for the £j.'iPiH (the host) then it is '1,fift'><1: £F,.PiHli:i ~ (the priest performs a sacrifice for the host)

of the suffix. It shows , with the Agent (
.ow (~)

or('li+f) can

goe.sJ can be inferred

f1:r [(I) goJ and ~fu through til). til) does

Thus, according to Sanskrit grammatical tradition, the suffix til) dEmotes (a) (b)

'RIf,

'li+f, mer, {i~"li-i:il

~q

and 'Ilf0

and 1'TII& (directly or indirectly)

The meaning of the Noun Phrase: The nouns are the means (sadhana) in the accomplishment of the .

.

.

action. The noun-phrase (~) has two constitutents- stem ands·uffix. in IMesa (til)), directly .. According to Panini person), 'i~~ .the Second person) All th~, three persons )erson is used when j

person is used for

· The stem is called ;n
Skanda Swami in his commentary on Nirukta r",ls·JI{is:Mi:il: '{'fc;'mcr: ~ ~... I "'\ "". .... ~IH

[The appropriateness for the relationship with gender number etc. is object (~), where it is predominant, it is called

lrb takes the person 1e persons, while in )ject('li+f) and only

("iTl1).J

mfu-~:

According to, Sanskrit grar:nrnarian~ ("iTl1) denotes both Universal

"Ilfu

first or the second

and particular or Individ~al ~j~pj'r.i'Some cases, Universality"llfu is denoted

why Pal)ini has said

primarily and in others secondarily; while in. some cases Individuality.

e third person. *10

is denoted primarily and in:9thers

9

•

•

•

••

8~pppdarily. *11 •

to'

c.' ",' >'~

... "\;.~.'.'," .

.~:,- ," ;l\NsKRrrGRAMMARIANS....

· SQMEVIEWSOFSANSKRrTGRAMMARIANS.,.'·

19"'::

"A;::: ',.'

~ ~ instead of

According to Bhartrhari direction (~) and properties(lJ"f) are the two

of Devadatta, even wit

attributes of objects (SfClf). Every object is analysed from temporal and

According to Bha

spatial dimensions. As has been discussed that Sadhya and Sadhana together brings about the completeness of meaning and as Sadhya denoted

i.e. to express and to

by the verb shows the temporal dimension the object denoted by;:n11 must

the light itself as well

have to show the spatial dimension, So direction (~) is an attribute of

~ and

an individual which delimits the universal for the situation in which it is uttered.

and to be expressed.

Nagesa approves Bhart~hari's view quoting Patafijali and Paoini,and

ser'les, ~, 31T, 'll and

m<'\. Words t

its, ~,
adds other three meanings to ;:w:r. They are Gender (~) Number

meanings cannot be '

(fl~"iiA I)

meaning and so the

and Karaka.

are not primarily altai

The Gender:

meaning cannot be (

Words mayor may not have overt suffixes denoting gender for example

~~. That is why

tal or iiI denoting feminity and so on. And yet,we know its gender such as /wakl and Idikl are feminine, though there is neither I a I nor /i/. So Nagesa says that gender is one of the meanings of;n+r, though it is denoted by the suffixes. R1~:'ll1rq "'fTliT~ I

i tilctili@<1, I (on ~ in

$I(i1<j ['1

tIWT.

understand thEl word, Nagesha also ap accepts the form of It i.e. Secondarily.

P-388)

;:rriT~T says ~~T<:fO ~~I""iql"i'lOl~"i':

[The Gender is one of the meanings of;:w:r, it is denoted by the .suffix.]

Thus ;:w:r denote:

The Number:

(1) Both ;;orrfu (un

Just like gender, Number is also the meaning of;:n11 and it is denoted by the suffix. In the sutra 311~~@: (pa. 1.3.5) ~ has the meaning of plural

(~

If,

and yet it takes singular

(W

instead of plural

(~

(2) ~'T (Gendel .

we

(3) ~TOG (word fon

take it in the sense of plural.

The meaning of the

mteA1N ~ I

The suffix/sup/de

~ oalctiliiill
The Gender and thE

[Number is also one of the meanings of;n+r, it is denoted by the case

There are three!

suffix.]

The Karaka:

.

.

,"

.

.;:"::.,

Except the first anc '.

and the Neutral are t

Just like ihe gender and.JJle number, the ilil:r
There are three nur

and not in the case-suffix;:thdiJgh::i!'ls'denoted by it. If someone says ....... ,:. . ,

"

,

,

.',

-: .

,

:SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT (

':';, :,-....

20' " 'SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS,.. ;:' , .

. . _- -...

~.-

... ,.-.--- ..

---~-.-~.-

...,,-.,

.

.

, ;

perties(TT) are the two

~

led from temporal and

of Devadatta, even without any sup suffix.*12

Sadhya and Sadhana

1R3fu

instead of ~ :

lRI3fu the

listner understands the,' i5,-q

According to Bhartrhari the word has two powers

~

ar·d

CIlWP

and as Sadhya denoted

i.e. to express and to be expressed. Just like a light of a torch shows

ct denoted by;n+:r must

the light itself as well as the thing it lits in the same way, words convey

r~) is an attribute of situation in which it is

~ and ~. Words have two powers as ~. and crRI"fi

to express

and to be expressed. The word Rama means an object which denotes its,

"lTfu,

~, ~, ·(1'$:&41, ~

and which is expressed by a

.tanjali and Pal)ini,and

series, "

nder (~) Number

meanings cannot be conveyed. The words are uttered to convey some

311, l'f and so on, without which the above mentioned five

meaning and so the particular series of the letters are utter~d which are not primarily attached with the meaning part but without which the ng gender for example know its gender such lither / a / nor Ii/. So

meaning cannot be conveyed. So it is one of the important factors of

~1I
l'f, though it is denoted

accepts the form of the word in the meaning of the word as its adjective

wt .in qc;p:r.

i.e. Secondarily. P-388)

jenoted by the suffix.]

~~T says ~~140I(1l:11 ~TOGl~ftr ~~ mWr' I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~1Q ~

3lRfur ~ ~ I

.

Thus ;n+:r denotes ;n+:r and it is denoted

(1) Both ;;rrfu (universal) and. (Individual)

rPc;- has the meaning

(2) ~1T (Gender) f!~&41 (number) and ~

d of plural (~ we

(3)

~T
(word form) secondarily

The meaning of the suffix (sup) : The suffix/sup/denotes gender-number and kiiraka.

'-391 ) denoted by the case

The Gender and the Number: There are three genders-the Masculine, the Feminine and the Neutral. Except the first and the second Case, the suffixes of the Masculine

also remains in;n+l it. If someone says ANsKRIT GRAMMARIANS,.. ;

and the Neutral are the sa~e.Ttie·~f~.minine gender has different suffixes. There are three

numbers-the$ing~lar!-fhe Dual and the Plural. All the . '.. '.".', ,

" ·.·.SOMEVIEWSOFSANSKRITGRAMMARIANS;:,. 21 . ' .","' .. '

- - - -------_._-----\

numbers have different suffixes. The number of the case is seven. Each

Grammarians believ

case denotes different Karakas. The concept of Karaka : The case suffixes are joined to -;wr according to the Cf51'Nli
Bhart~hari

says-

fsp4 10 11<1 \1=i

Ha:rJl

.::Ill

t

objects to whom they are joined. The way in which the speaker cognises

Every object is a

the world and he represents it in a sentence is responsible to decide the

Bhartchari's view in the f( in terms of its capacity 1

if,I"-hi
to the way the speaker relates the objects to the action. The Cf51{Cf5i<1 can be said as the relation between the objects and the action. Etymologically, "Cf5T&l means doer Cf)"{rfu {j«hI'Cf5'"! that which brings about. Pal)ini has not defined . Nagesha says

fui-m

Ht54Ie:
i!31{Cf5i<1,"! [That which helps in the accomplishment of the action is "Cf5T&lj. .' . . Bhartrhari uses the word ~ (means) for Kiiraka.

~ction, while everything all actions and processE . powers of the ultimate r' with powers to producE object is a bundle of pOI That is why the obj~cts differently. One and th

There are six
different powers as 'iIC

the instrument (Cf5<:UT) the Recipient (w:qqR) the Point of departure

water through pot] ~ action of seeing, a pov

(~) and the Abode (~). These are the six Karakas.

The Karakas are, as such, the Agents Cf5nf of some action-main or subordinate: The Karakas

have some process or other and the totality

carrying, a power·of be of pouring, a power 01

of the process is cognised as the main action of the sentence. As
tielieves that the ~.

and ~ express the similar meaning that of 'doer', the difference is

this

that all the Kiirakas are the Agents as far as their subordinate action

the objects:

is concerned; but when different processes are cognised in one act of cognition, then these agents are considered as different doers as the Agent q;nf the Object q;-,f the Instrument Cf5
'1"T

I

is also a powe

In Pataiijali's wore '1>"1<'11<;14: ~

different processes e.g. In the process ~ (kills) <JI1, mrur, 0fCUT, ~

According to Sam

etc. a~e the karakas (doers) and the
They are described a

trJ;r: ~ (Rama Kills) mrur: ~ (RavalJa is killed),

The Agent ~ :

0fTUTll:

~ I (arrow

kills), ~: ~. (the battle-field kills) etc. But when they all come in one sentence like <JI1: m-uT ~ ~~: I (Raina kills RavalJa with an arrow in the battle field). the-il·they are .looked upon as different Karakas. Thus, the objects gain . Cf5IWi
Panini says~ the K~rakas is <mr\"-t

~-mT.s~ Cf5
in the sentence. /~'.

-.'

·22:

: SOMEVIEWSOFsANSKRrrGRAMMARIANS ... ..•.

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRrr GI

he case is seven. Each

Grammarians believe that the power that lies within the object is qmqi"

Bhartrhari says-

Ncr

g to the
~
the speaker cognises ;ponsible to decide the

Every object is a bundle of powers, Subramania Iyyer shows

1

, joined to;wr according Iction. The
""'l:

I (Va.III.7.1)

Bhartrhari's view in the following words "Any object in the word is defined in terms of its capacity to participate inthe accomplishmentof various action, while everything in the universe, all living beings, all objects and all actions and processes are the products of theworking of the infinite

that which brings lays w,m f.:I tSq I q
· powers of the ultimate reality, these products in their turn, are em:lowed

of the action is
· object is a bundle of powers, The power within the objects is the means.

with powers to produce various kinds of effects (Bhartrhari' P23). An That is why the objl:)cts which have fixed characters can be presented

cIT)

the object (1f),

Point of departure ;ix Karakas. 1

f some action-main ::Jther and the totality· e sentence. As
differently. One and the same object can be manifested through its different powers as '<1i 'l~
this

'!"T

is also a power which is a distinguishing mark (~ amongst

the objects. In Pataiijali's words

according to their

mur, O!TUT,

n=.,.l'+,. ~"<";l,'"

) in the sentences

~ ~ I (arrow 'len they

all come

Rama kills RavaQa I upon as different the role they play

According to Sanskrit grammatical tradition, there are Six Karakas. They are described as follows:1 The Agent ~ : PaQini says~ q;af (Pa.1.4;S4) thai which is independent amongst· the Karakas is
ISKRITGRAMMARIANS•.•

"

moijva\~9 object (~1
... ,

.:.:::.;:

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS.,:· ·:23:;· .

..

"

.'

'.'~-.:

.'~'

is independent is cncIT. If the action of the bowl is intended by the speaker through the VRt., then we get a sentence ~

According to Sansk

~ is viewed

(1) Product (f.rcl

as independent. If the action of Devadatta is independent then we get a sentence ~ ~ ~. Here ~ is not independent.*14

(2) Modificatior

tRffir.

KauQcjabha!\a (following Patafijali) says 'Wld;;;;Q

'q

~~

that which is the performer of the action of the said VRt is independent ~ That Karaka becomes Agent

<not

(3) destination

The~~ il

whose action is being told by

has it, it is not to bE

the VRt. So.~, :s.rfT.:r, dO¥I: are the <not of ~ ~ 31fl';r: ~ and, d 0o/1l: ~ Nagesha gives the definition of ~ as d;r ~

the material cause i:

-'1lT<1-~-&l141{1~ 'ti1<:fUTl'! in~. pg. 316) [That

action cannot be SE

$

(He cooks rice) Her

(Agentivity) which is the performer of the action of

'1JI:(lfwclRI I (he gOE

the said VRt.] He quotes Bhartrhari's view to support his definition as

of the original sente

m~ R«f ~ $

~ I (on 'ti1#R't>41'1l'l:. in tW111'. pg.

Par:Jini has made

316) [The Agentivity is expected of that Karaka whose action is. represented through the saidVRt.] According to Sanskrit grammarians,

~l"OCf-¢11 \'ti.J'ti 1°1111 fa 1

(object) has

the $ is told (~) by the verb. So the noun which represents q;o\- becomes i'lIRli'lR'ti and gets W-l'1T (first case suffix) according to the aphorism i'lIRl4R'ti10R<1ifI4fl:liI0ICl'i'Hlil~ ~ I (pa~ 2.3.46). When is not directly told by the verb then it gets ~ (third case the $ . suffix) according to the apho':is~ (31'1]<"1\)
l!>Sf)'I{"4d@llj, (pi eg. ~ftCE :w>T 'T ll'1<1@ I [Lord Krish there are two typel intransitive. Nagesa folloWS.:

The Object ¢If : PaQini has given the definition of (ifilt) as <6
'·T<6l-fq;«.T "-T q ~~&I 141{Cl 1'Cl'tiii'l'l

m q-~l:Ifu I (Janaka sees a picture).

[When two mea

Janaka is the Agent i.e. he is the performer of the action of seeing, but some object must be required to be seen in the fulfillment of the

Ka rakas then it is ~ one i'!>Ri'!> only then i

action of seeing. In that respect, 'chitra' is the most desired object which is be'ing seen by the Agent. So N:r is the object or the ¢f\¢I# of

¢+\fOi fu<\1m (pa 2.: case suffixes.

this sentence. Iyyer in 'Bhartrhai' says that 'The Object is what the main agent seeks most to attain by hisaction.(P.301) Nagesha says th.e

The Instrument (q;

an action)] e.g. in the sentence ~

definition of Karma as ~ ... ~... ~.~ &l141'Iwil"'"l ~ 'WlT'lI'1ii'1lj,

m«Rf

2~~~ I [Thaikaralql. which is produced directly by the

Panini has said which is the most u~

main meaning (~~.cm'l"8""~)f~.aciion and which is expressed through the subordina,te\tiQ1meaning 9ffne said '1lT<1is known as <6+f.]

as q;<:OT-or instrumel

24

SOMEvrEWS OF SANSKRIT G

.SOMEvrEws OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS...

1tended by the speaker

According to Sanskrit grammarians

qqfu. ~ is viewed iependent then we get

(3) destination

lid VRt is independen; tction is being told by fIC'ft qqfu ~ qqfu

<not

as ffif

(~)

The ~ q;4 the effect of the

wpn

'lC'nr. pg. 316) [That

action cannot be seen or inferred. e.g. ~ (he studies vedas), '1Jl{liQ~lqRt I (he goes near to a city etc.) In causal sentences the Agent

rmer of the action of port his definition as 1'6Q ol'J, in \:J('f11.pg.

of the original sentence becomes - an object of the causal sentence. p):j'oini has made two aphorisms for this lTft.T~lfU-T"Tr<"-T<.THFTT~f ~~-<'I>'"I\<'I>4<'1>lol/'"IfOl 'if ult I (Panini 1.4, 52) and

ka whose action is tnskrit grammarians, In which represents suffix) according to (pa. 2.3.46). When ,ts ~ (third case

(!>Sl'lF!1ct{f i.e. transitive .and ~q; i.e .. intransitive. Nagesa gives the definition of ~ and ~ as . . follows.:


Hq; ..fq;r<"-T ~T tp~Ti'.<'TRTq;~T<'''TT''TT"{('TT~Tq;«'FT "

1e Agent (to perform

I and tp~T-"H"TFTT ~-6QIQI{qloq<'l>«1'J, ::Ij<'l>4<'1>«1"t I (on ~ in ~. pg. 148)

:tka se.as a picture). l action of seeing, e fulfillment of the lsired object which Ir the <'I>4<'1>1~<'I> of

[When two meanings of ~-~ & ~ reside in two different Karakas then it is ;g<'l>+\<'I> transitive and when both of them reside in one q;T{q; only then it is ~-intransitive.] According to Panioi 's sOtra q;+\<'I>I{<'I> takes\"i;;<1I
rcaddl'i 'Plf (1.4.49)

I

(~Tq;T<.t)

(2) Modification

?!"i'q~~

of

of three types:

(1) Product(~)

not independent. *14

1

'Plf is

~t is what the main

Jagesha says th.e

~wpn-~

L

The Instrument

Panini hasSaid~~{The most efficient accessory}. That . .. . . .. which is the most usefoFill.the·accQmpiishment of an action is known .. . . , ' '. . . as ~-or instrument·· ." -

ld directly by the thich is expressed is known as 'Plf.] 'SKRITGRAMMARIANS•••

(~)

'

-

,"

""

,"

~'

,::

'.'

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS... . 25

,'"

,"

become an adobe of iIIT or object is known as : rice in the pot in (his) hOI '
Bhartrhari gives its definition as f$r;UIUI: qj):Rtl1fft~ ~ ClIIQI{lct ~;:hH,"! I fuq~~

(RT

~ II (Va.1I1.7.90)

The action is accomplished with the help of various means. But the action is accomplished immediately after the activity of one of the Karakas. That Karaka, immediately after whose activity, the action is accomplished. is known as ~-instrument. Nagesa defines it as ~ - ClIIQI{IClIq~ - ~ - 1"ltl1Ic;'l'liCl 'l'l{OliClli I (on 'l'll{'l'l '"l'(iqup:[ in 1:fi"P1.

.

~.

.

~

.

The Recipient (UPAGI"1 Compared to other and ~ are weakel q;{Uf

and ~ becG

pg. 345) [The instrumentality is that after whose own activity the action is acomplished without any interference].

actions as ~ ~ dependence mixed wit! and~. In ijil&lOll4

e.g. W1: mo'R mrut ~ I (Rama kills RavaQa with an arrow). Here immediately after the activity of the arrow (0[l1JT) the action of ~ to kill"

is not able to become meaning is changed.1

is accomplished. The 'l'l{OliCl is expressed through wf\m Pcn:rfu; according to the sOtra '1'11<'h{oI41{<jc1l41 (Pa. 2.3.18), This third case denotes both

karakas ? There is ar that which helps in the Recipient ({iPA<;I'1) an

(Agent) and ~ (instrument) In u*r mo'R CfRifr W: (Vali is killed by Rama with an arrow). Rama is an Agent and arrow (q]Uf) is an instrument


The Recipient (~

after whose activity the action is accomplished. The Abode

~~

: PaQini has given the definition of

~

as ~Sfu'l'l":UI,"! I (1.4.45). The abode is called ~ What is the abode? That which is the abode of the action remained in Agent (
Panirii has givel (p§.1.4.32)That whict' is the recipient. Tradit of giving. ~ ~ The Action of giving h

m

e.g u;;:rr ~ G< the action of giving, 1 given and the perso much more restricted

<'R; ~ (sits on the mat) and ~ ~ (cooks in the bowl)

According to Bhartrhari the abode does not hold the action itself but holds the Agent or the Object which expresses the Action (C4T'ffi) or Result (of T:fXif) the Action. ~'15 Nagesa gives tlie definition of ~ as omf 'l'l+f &'R'fi - ~' - ~ 3'!fu'l'l{OfiCl'i T (on'l'lI;j¢~W{UJ<J: in 1:fi"P1. pg. 366) [To ;.:. . -. . ..

, 26"'"

as Karaka,

"s6MEVIEWSOFsANSKRrrGRAMMARIANS, ..

to only one action-th has made other SOt liked, and its synony sweets) So the mWU" !>!IU"1101: I (1.4.32) of 'H l'>;\ <; 1'1 '"! as USM 1'1 '"! I (on

?sn '<'f)i<

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRrr (

--------~--~.---~----.~----

become an adobe of

tlI"[1:[R"

(action) and 1:P<.'f (Result) through the Agent

or object is known as ~] e.g. ~ ~

11.7.90) rious means. But the ~tivity of one of the

rice in the pot in (his) house). According to Pal)inian sOtra ~ ~

~ (P.a.2.3.16) the ~ takesqmq; ~ or the seventh case-suffixes. The Recipient ({14J>l~1'1) - & The Point of departure (:014I~I'1) Compared to other karakas (Le.

Ictivity, the action is a defines it as ~ , I(<j) R'b q-.rp::[, in 1:f(¥f. In

activity the action

lJ%" ~ (he cooks


~ & ~) f14J>1GI'1

and 31"GTGH are weaker. It is defined above that


d«(il,(<j)+t So ~,

~ and 31Ti~ become

actions as :~ ~


dependence mixed with independence. That is not the case with f14J>1GI'1 and 31"GTGH. '111. i11liU olI
is not able to become

) action of ~ to kill

meaning is changed. Then, how {14J>1GI'1 and

1m' ~ ac;ording


as ~: ~ (Brahmin gives). The whole ~,

karakas ? There is another definition. of qmq;

rnxrr

case denotes both

R4ct
ft W:

Recipient ({14J>lGI'1) and the point of departure (~) are considered

(Vali is killed

iITUf) is an instrument

as

are considered as

as Karaka. The Recipient (,(14J>l~1'1) :

!finition' of ~

~

Wh<;lt is the ned in Agent ('Pi1t) d the object must hat something on )wn as toe Abode. .-,,-,.

Pal)ini

has given its definition as ",;IGI'1'"!,

(pa.1.4.32) That which is meant to be reached with the' help of the object is the recipient. Traditionally {P>;IGI'1 is taken in the sense of the action ~ ~ ~ {f(f'¢1'(¢"1 {l<>;(GI'1"1 ~ ~ of giving. ~ , " ~IO The Action of giving has been done for whose sake is known as {l<>;(GI'1+t e.g

U;Jff

fmrr<:r 11i

~ [A king gives a cow to

a brahmin].

Here in

the action of giving, three participants are needed, the giver, the thing given and the person to whom it is given. The Karaka f1<>;(GI'1+t has much more restricted sense than any other Karaka, because it is applied to only one action-the action of giving. To extend its application, Pal)ini e action itself but . 'ction (Cl/T1ffi) or

has made other Sotras to include in {l<>;(GI'1+t for the root

~

to be

liked and its synonyms e.g. i111((loim .~ ~ (The brahmin likes sweets) So the iIIT((l1lT becomes {l lO>;iG 1'1 "I according to the sOtra.~~~

q;.:f Im

!Jl;(G 1'1"1 as @;£II"1 I ~ q;<=f

thi;,N~geSh f(""l'q..£:IT£("

has given the definition . ~
{l<>;(GI'1+t I' (on ¢1{¢R'b'1Ul1'r.in ,t(Bl1; pg;347}. KRITGRAMMARIANS...

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARIA.~S::.··27:

'

,

[That Karaka which is meant to be reached through the 'Object' of any action (RP<1llil';1 and not only by the action of root GT) is known as

,

+l+>;ic;H'"!j e.g. in ~1i.llUII<1 'Ii c;c;rfu I ~ is meant to be reached by the object
in senSe. So in,l'.frCfil: ·3 from the running horse] ,

~ [Chaitratells a story to Maitra] if-;r is meant to be reached by

it is stable or '1iCf'J: in It are a:r~. aod WlT: fr' horse. The action of fal

the object "CiTi!l. of the action of telling ('I>'<0i"1RP
is the starting pOint of t of its being running. Nag,

+l +>;ic;I'1'l is that which is '!leant to be reached by the object, then

q;1· ~(1

how can it be in intransitive roots, which have no object at all, and even then, +l+>;ic;I'1"( is found in intransitive roots like ~ ~ I [He

(on q;WBf.1i4U1"( in '«' action «(1(1, - (1(1, - fi.F;
prepares for the battle]. In such cases Patafijali says 'that even action (i.e.

&
- q;iJO~lli (111) and that wh

can be

":nc-
looked upon as an object (q;4) in the technical sense (PsMIlt1 . ~

~ (2.:3.28) 3i4l'GT'1' gl

stages. (1) seeing (2) Mentally desiring (3) deciding and (4) resolving to do it. Each previous act becomes a technical Karma (~q;4)

~fq:

for the succeeding one, So in the visible act of getting ready is intended (~) for the battle, so it becomes 'H+>;ic;H according to its. original

The function of the! them to come to a sin£ . i.e. all the remaining CI

definition. For such cases, Nagesha gives another definition as ~ RP;ic;H(i:i"( (on q;1~q;f.1{i~ in tWrli". pg. 351) [Th~t which

doers. They are directl between the objects ar

is meant to be reached 'by ~ or intra(1sitive actions is known as +l+>;ic;H.] He gives its illustration as ~~m I' ~~~ '11~q;I

..m.r:

relation betwen two obj down) There are more t

I (on q;1~f.1'6qul,"! in tWrli". pg. 351)

from which ~-~,

By this definition, the over expansion of the four mental stages in transitive actions, too, is restricted. So there will not be any :ilC;'1I<1

Patafijali says ~Tq me &
for 31Tc;;t ~ That +l+>;ic;H lc;I~ (pa. 2.3.13)

4"Ifu

There the Karaka relat Patafijali ~N means nOI it is not q;n:q) it follol

The Point of Departure (alQIGI'1) : PMini has given its definition ~qliQlil.sQlc;H"(1 (Pa.1.4.24) that· which is stable in the action of seperation is called quf

~QIc;H,"!

e.g.

is why it is counted as

<J:~-1Rl:

mr.

~ (the leaf falls dow~ from the tree). The action of departure

inactive. This stable object is the starting pOintef the action of seperation.

28

ifi~Ctjv~~hould not be taken

~.

implies a

Agent and Recipient, b is implied is ~fq. The pi

is accomplished by the two partiC:ipa~ts, from whJch one is stable or The starting point which is ~tablE~ or

but that wh

of seperation is known c

q;4). He thinks that all the actions are preceded by four purely mental

~]
<1
lingers somewhat. in p

rigidly

·sOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS...

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRA

L.

._._ . _____ -....11

,

--~-----~-

in senSe. So inmcRf: .3'[m<J: ~ 3l~: [The horse-rider falls down from the running horse] 3l'lI gets 31q\c;I'i~ though 3l'lI is mcRf: (running), it is stable or ~
action «f(f - (f(f - fit;~) which is related to the Agent (~ - ~ -
but that which is the performer (3lT~T<:[) of the action

of seperation is known as 31q\C;I'i~l. According to PaQinian Sutra ~ ~ (2.3.28) ~ gets ~ ~ -or the fifth case suffixes.

liN: The function of the sixth case are many and it is difficult to generalize them to come to a single definition and hence PaQini has said ~ liN i.e. all the remaining come under the sixth case. The karakas are· the doers. They are directly related to the vefb. The Kiiraka is a relation between the objects and the action whereas the Genitive denotes. the relation betwen two objects e.g.
Patanjali says ~T1Sf means ~~-TT e.g. in mT:~: there can be a ~ 'I1TQ. Instead of saying uw WTll c;qrfu it is said mT: W: . There the Karaka relation is not intended (~10). So according to Patanjali ~N means-nan-intention of showing ~ relation. Though it is not it follows or rather it involves a relation, that is why it is counted as a seventh Karaka.*17

mT: ~: implies a previous relation: of master and servant as the Agent and Recipient, but it is not meant;ilo is not implied at all. So what status offit;
.

-

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRrr GRAMMARIANS..

-29

.

.-----

so it is looked uflon as Karaka. Otherwise its relation with the action is remote.·'18 A.ccording to Nagesa ~is <:f5RC!> !>IITdqfc;ChI:a- - 6QTdfu£: «r-~ "fG~;q:

t[1i3<:IT


(on Chj{Chf.'!'(;'l"l'! in "IBl'f. pg. 373)

[The re.lation apart from the meanin'g of I'IIR1qR;Ch and
~<'W'(In=t'l'lTif etc. is denoted by ~ the Genitive.] He considers geniiive different from the Karaka. Thus, the sixth case stands for the relation between two objects which is remote as far as the action is concerned. The motivation of the Speaker: The motivation of the speaker is one of the imp'ortant aspects of the Deep Structure. It decides the role of the object in the sentence. The way . .in which the speaker cognises. tbe action and the way he represents it in a sentence is an important factor to .determine the ChI{Ch<"q of the object. A grammarian 'q~,i\f'i'"i says fuq~f1a: ChI{<'hllUl

mrRr I [The karakas (take

place) according to the motivation of the speaker]. It depends upon the. mode of cognition of the speaker and his intention to present it. These two the mode of the cognition and the intention of the speaker-determine the domain-the range of the objects to move in the predicate. fuq~-lT means ~ ~ (Speaker's desire). PaQini has not used

the word fuq~ but from its sGtras, it seems, that he knows how fuq~-lT affect on the Syntacticlevel.·~has used the word fuq~-lT in its primary sense. All the karakas are the Agents -{<'hOt) of their minor (own) actions. They are independent as far as their minor(own) actions are concerned, but as soon as they enter into the main action they are dependent on the main action. The change of the independent Karaka depends upon the speaker's will. .If he chooses '
~ qofu. [(He) reads a ~6bk}a!1d ~ ~

[a book is (being) read].

So which object is tobeJQcussedor which object is going to become an Agent is

depend~ritonthe ~pe~ker"s 'rri6tivaticin fuq~-lT. *19 •

....... :." ••

~

'"0

:.

. '

,-

.'

.·-30'" i$OI!olEV1EWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS...

,I.

I

ation with the action

~~'IT and ~ goes together-3li1:r'UFf means agreement. The

lRlR'di: «r-~

word with whom the verb agrees becomes ~ (directly told). The speaker has to give independence (+
Jg, 373}

wants to

~ and Cf5Rq) as e considers genitive 3nds for the relation action is concerned,

make~.

it is a grammatical relation-concord of the suffixes

of person, number and gender.*20 ~~{f or the motivation lies in the mind of the speaker. The case-

suffixes help to convey the motivation to the listener. It can be said that the word with whom the verb agrees is a motivated independent (.~) object. In~: ~

mant aspects of the e sentence. The way ty he represents it in ~

of the object. .

e:CfGTI and

~ shows that

e:CfGTI:

tRIfu I the agreerllent between

e:CfGTI is motivated as 31'tcR: ,~ I ~ is not

is 31f~.

an independent (~) one. But in ~qq~'1

a motivated object. So it is 31~ Thus N
I [The karakas (take

of the motivation of the speaker, When the speaker wants to focus on the Agent, he uses active type of construction, and where he wants to focus

t depends upon the

on the object he uses passive type of construction.

to present it. These !

speaker-determine predicate ..

IQini has not used e knows how fuq~{f I fuq~{f in its primary

Comment: ,

Jns are concerned, are dependent on aka depends upon mt q;nf of Qd'1R!>"1I lad) but if not then . In the same way lk is (being) read]. ; going to become fuq~{f.*19 NSKRrr GRAMMARIANS...

.

four types of fuq~ The nominative case (g~) in Sanskrit indicates subjects. Any object which the speaker wants to make subject of a sentence, takes nominative case

inor (own) actions.

'

According to Sanskrit Grammatical tradition, it seems, that there are

(g~)

(~1""ql'1)

So the 'object having any relation (except the Recipient

and the point of departure (~) which are already discussed

above in detail]. can become the subject of the sentence according to the speaker's motivation. e.g. ~: 31fu';n fu;:ffir I [Devadatta cuts with a sword] can also be said as 31fu: fu;:ffir [the sword cuts] if the speaker wants to make 31fu the subject. The Karakas have heirarchy aCCQrdingio.the salience they have in the sentence. The agent is the highest one., It is called

'I>ill in

Sanskrit. ,

Then comes the object ~q;if). The othe'rsarejhe Indirect object, the

"'/

. : .' :. . . , .: ...... ,..:

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRrr GRAMMARIANS~i. ,'31'·', ' '

Recipient {iP1"i1'1 and then the oblique object, the Instrument (~),

The order can be seE

the abode and the paint of departure (dlQI"iI'1). Sometimes the Agent

(1) (2)

~

(3)

~~

So the Object is promoted to. fill the place of the Agent and is made

(4)

~~

the subject e.g. ~: ~ qofu

(5) (6)

:mmU5~

(7)

~:

is not motivated and it is demoted. The PassivEl constructions are the best examples of the demotion. The Agent is demoted to oblique object. (Devdatta reads a book) and ~:

. ~ ~ (A book is being read by Devadatta), Sometimes the Agent is demoted upto ~Tq (Genitive) e.g. ~BT ~ This process can be said as the demotion of the karakas. The karakas can be demoted according to the motivation of the speaker. As against this, the other process is of the promotion of the karakas.

<J;'l'1Qlil.~

"i

ill

I

Moreover, there is a First of all, Pa(1ini gi g 'U'l'1Qlil5Qlql'1'1... e.. is (31YIQI'1+j). ~

The karakas can be promoted according to the speaker's motivation. T[qf
'It

1:!
q'Mlq I (Milch the cow (for) the milk)

In causal sentences too the motivation of the speaker plays an important role e.g. ~: 1:f"'i'lfu I (Devadatta cooks) and ~: gm I (Yagnadatta makes him to do so) ~: ~ ql'
e.g.~~:(1. 'protection from danger called ~l Then for the VRts , case of· the verb ~ . unbearable, is called " . Lastly for some pre [And that karaka v

performer of the action.

of the special relation~

The system of Sanskrit grammar:

/

Then he gives anol'

First of all he giv,

There is a typical order of karakas in Pa(1ini's Grammar. According

VRts. and then he giv

to the metarule (~) ~ .. \'<1'N 'It ~ the succeeding aphorism is more powerful than the preceding one. As has already been seen above,

given rules according'

that the point of departure (dlQI"iI'1) and the recipient flP1QI'1 are the

suffixes are connecte

weaker karakas in a sense, that they are not directly involved with an action. They cannot become ~ (directly told) by the motivation

dimensions : (i) The role the obj

of the speaker. So the karakas are in the following order. The point of

(ii) The motivation

departure. (3NIGR") ill). . The Abode (~) < The Object (q;+f)".< .The. ....Agent .

(iii) The conventi,

.

The objects are re

used in the ~

,"

32··

·S.OIV!EVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS... ..

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRIT GI

le Instrument (~),

The order can be seen here:

). Sometimes the Agent 'e' constructions are the mated to oblique object. the Agent and is made lads a book) and ~:

(1 )

~

(1-4-23)

(2)

y;cPlql~ dlqlqH'l, I

(1-4-24)

(3)

~ ~ fI" W'>IqH'l, I.

(1-4-32)

(4)

~~I ,

(1-4-42)

(5)

(1-4-45)

(6)

:ommTo~ I <'!l4{l \1;(@1 sj <'!l'f I

(7)

~:qmfl

(1-4-54)

), Sometimes the Agent cnfu This process can irakas can be demoted

(1-4-49)

Moreover, there is a special order in the rules of karakas. First of all, Pa(1ini gives a general semantic rule.

amotion. of the karakas.

e.g. ~cll"lqliloqlql'1'l, (That which is stable in the action of seperation

speaker's motivation. can also be said as

!

is (31QlqH'l,». .. Then he' gives another sOtra according to the meaning of some VRt. e.g. ~ ~: (1-4-25). [In the case of words implying 'fear' and 'protection from danger' that from which the danger or fear proceeds is

the speaker plays an (s)and~: ~ I

called

ql'
~j

Then for the VRts alongwith the prefix e.g. Q{I;jj{{11: (1.4.26) [In the

r I (Yagnadatta makes a be looked upon as an' 'f the action of cooking wants to represent the

case of the verb ~ to be tired to weary of that which becomes unbearable, is called 31"Cf[Cl'R} Lastly for so'me process, if any e.g. ~. (1-4-51) (for causal) [And that karaka which is not spoken at as coming under anyone of thespecJal relations of oblation etc., is also called karmaj. First of all he gives general rules, which can be applied to many VRts. and then he gives rules for some special VRts. Thus, Pal)ini has given rules according to the meaning and constructions.

Grammar. According ;ucceeding aphorism ~dy been seen above, )ient fi"'AqH are the ctly involved with an

The objects are related to the action with case-suffixes. These casesuffixes are connected to the objects according to the following three dimensions:

:I) by the motivation . ~ order. The point of l·lnstrument (~) <

(i) The role the objects 'play in the performance of the action (Karaka) . (ii) The motivation of the Spaker (fcrq~1T) (iii) The conventional rules applied according to the lexical items

!hi (q;af).

used in ttie sentence.· (~ ~)

,ANSKRrr GRAMMARIANS:.. . .

SOMEVIEWS OF SANSKRrr GRAMMARIANiL. .

... L

33 .

r "

The Kiiraka Principle:

qtl:S
The role the objects piay in the performance of an action (~) is

us~d in the sentence, th

al ready discussed in detail. The Karaka concept is based on the cognitive

to the object e.g. ~

~ "1+"!{0<'f):(l1
process of the human brain and its representation into the sentence.

~ [Swaha to AgniJ

Pal)inihas not discussed its theoretical back-ground in detail, but the later grammarians like Pataiijali,

Bhart~hari,

illustrations.

Nagesa etc. have described

Sometimes the ~

and discussed in detail.

also allow some particul

The concept gives general rules: (2) <'f)'1'~R'-"1 <1 iFI.

,

<'f)11

<'f)<=f I promotes the ob

(1.4.49)

I

(1 ) ~: qm\-I

(1.4.54) }

(3) ~~I

(1.4.42)

(4)

iliA

0 !liPi

fmifu {"! 11'11<-; H11

(1.4.32)

~

fu:iftm

I

in lR': ~ ~'tif [Lord r

(2.3.2)

in ~: ~ui 3ifu~Rf I <'f)~<'f){UI'41qd')'41

'~m (W,w'!

that the original root sJigt

(2.3.18)

meaning aspect, is cone

(2.3.13)

Karaka relation with tI to the "1T'i (1-4-46). Ac

(5) 'J>q+iql~6qlqH,"! I

(1.4.24)

~~

(2.3.22)

(6) ~6fu<'f){UI'l, I

(1.4.45)

A~

(2.3.36)

which can be treated as

This principle (i.e. Karaka (concept) has the greatest field of application . . The motivation of the speaker: . The concept of f
.'

.. :. : ".

>~/). '. '" ,-34. \s6MEViEWSOFSAN;S!
"

....

'

.

....

SOME.vI~WS OF SANSKRfr-GRA

... - - - - - - -

q~&
an action (&
)und in detail, but the

used in. the sentence, then invariably the fourth case suffixes are joined to the object e.g. ~ ;:r1'[: [pay obeisance to Indra], otherwise it is ~ "1Ji",:q;",lfct [he worships Indra] ~ ~ [Vasat to Indra], ~ ~ [Swaha to Agni] ct-il"'R.f: «r'aT [Swadha to Gods] etc. are its

sa etc. have described

illustrations.

based on the cognitive ion.into the sentence.

Sometimes the ~s or the prefixes which are joined to the VRt also allow some particular case suffixes only. The rules like m~~

q;-.f I promotes the object like ~I

in (R": ~ ~lit [Lord resides in the Vaiku(ltha]. and becomes object

(2.3.2)

in lR':

'Q1~in'Ql

(2.3.18)

FW-;I~

(2.3.13)

~~UQ which are otherwise 3lfuq;~

ft'§ui

3lfu~ra- I [Lord resides in the. Vaiku(ltha] It is probable

that the original root slightly differs from the root having prefix as far as the . meaning .aspect. is concerned and that different root requires different

(2.3.22)

Karaka relati.on with. the object. Thus the case suffixes are joined to the ""1ll1 (1-4-46). According to ~ ~ - the exceptional cases

(2.3.36)

which can be treated as conventional rules.

he greatest field of

speaker is aiready

•

uctionof a sentence. represents it in the cess of sentencing. to the object which

to the conventional .",

11 items used in the

:

«r~~nm:qmc;t

INS!
'".

. SOME.VlfJlYS()FSANSKRfl'GRAMMARi..;ils;.. ,.:35'.::-'

'·. • 1·:······

.

REFERENCES:

1 Bhartrharisays -

&1{'"lqtlJ\f!l tlli'i:'"l<'1l"ti fq~R'H('1,"! I ~ {~4~iil"tl'"lfufuti- WPT~ffi II (
;or ~

Psn
~w I\t;('1
9

:mq-

~ RB4 Iii1 Pc! fi'l WsR'l1

l

He says

I

wrmr 1:R'm
m~~ ~1:II'W'41 I
¥

Bhartrhari has

the second persons.

~ '1lil4'"lr
m

8

;n;JO(ICl41 ~
3 In Patafijali 's words -


~RJi<';(OII"l;o;jOI

rrc;:

2 ~"q' "fcifrfn'lIJIJI('1Sb'1TlJ.l'ifur 311@m\lM~m ~

7

[Thus the first and t

'l'lClfu

~.l

~ I.

10 In (ij"J,W"t;I'l ,,'lii ~ r& tI'
4 In its ~ it is said ,Sb'"l tI rl i ~1 UII"t I il li{\'1J'i i l.'l~"W l.'l "l1\t;~
,11

Patafijali

has

~~ '1Gl

Yaska hal) also said

0li' ~

cJ,c:rfqft~<'i 'HTC[lfT~'-TT(-T"l ~r'<.T~

crqf'rT

I

~ ",I I'd ~~T ~CTSb11'YT~fu

31qqJfq4~ I

5

Bhat!oji in his ~m"
Cfi(ij&llqH
RIB: 'f1flT:

I

13 Bhartrhari has

q;c;f mwi &llql{fu1:s'~ fu~~ II 6

Patafijali

UIt>4i4 UWPi4

says for the present tense -

!>I'J"t1f!lI~{lil ~1I\.flrl&l1 ,~'I '

(~ is an oid terminology for the present tense).

SOMEVIE;WS OF SANSKRrfG,R

36 ,. ' SOMEVJEWS O~ SANSKRIT GRAMMARIANS ...

. '1',' '

ifRi ~ffi4iFI I

WPT~m

II

7

~~~ I

8

3lUllmctC'1i T('1"~~ '1I"'11C;41 RlI{I:

(C!T.~.n\l)

~ ~ ~ II

9 Bhartrhari has used the word ,

(va.1 :3)

w:lUif and ~ for the first and

the second persons.

p;rr

~

(pa.3.3.161)

&;
Rl p.q f
He says

I

>flWT 1+l oIl: I

ct
.raFIl-i141 II (in 'F~T of

CIT.q.lfhl ~)

IR its commentary it is said that

~I{flliHI~
1f.J 10 In C'1>foN;;I",ii5\~ it is stated 'l1l"C!T ~ "fIT ~C'1I~oliiQcl UtSliC;PiC;.m {lIl'lHIR.l{o
....

i!

f')fl;'""Ci.I""lm'llTll,\1di::Tcl::l-;:\ fl; i.I "
q OJ '€I OJ il OJ ::I (fj ,Iii: I

11 Patafijali has said:

~ ~ ~. I·

f
~['<>""
~~~~~'!Ol~ctll 12

"I" ~ ¢11lr
:mq

~ T.f
13 Bhartrhari has said.Ult;4i
Ult;
m:rr

I

~ ~~TOGRt 1:fcl" ~ ~ II (Va.1.55)

lent tense).

SANSKRfTGRAMrilARIANS...

SOMEviEWSOFSANSKRfl'GRAMMARIANS;.,.

...L....._... _

37·.

14 In Pataiijali's words

\ref ~

<m
~


q;-~ ~ W
~ Q{iI""Il

.z

(with special n

(q;-IN'I~q;-'1)

The best way of 100 The way in which they di of a sentence has three can be three different r

15 Bhartrhari says =l"'\1

CHAPTER-2 ~

[

q;+f &lClR;
3qq>4i1 lSB
m c:cnfu

~ ':;1'1lSB
ll't

~ ijilt;J 0 ll C;HlSB
'
(1)

The Lexical IV

~ ~ ~';jcnd41: ~ ~~'q I (on q;-1{q;-f;t'6~

(2)

The Propositi!

(3)

The Contextu

16 Nagesa says-mIT ijil&\Oll4 ~

cmfr

The three dimensi(

in G"Wf. pg. 347)

The Lexical Meaning 1'7 Bhartrhari says

A speech commur ground makes the spec manner according to th knowledge forms a "e: through 'Generic' conc need. This.Generic can a cow as having four its qualities as it gives distinguishes it from tl some what similar .fei 'Generic' concept.

~ ~ortr: ~- cmq; - ~ I 'l!'"'14Ili~

err

lSB414i .mo~ II

and also @<wi>I{¢'i4¢:> ~ q;mf; &ll'€l<\?. ~~

fil
tpr

18 Pataiijalisays am tg mr: ~1;f! l~ {'q-~..crrRmcnPc; {'flO<.i..£:f' ~m ~

W,:c.III),'l'IIClICl4ClICl;qftl14ICl,jjr4J1"1¢1<;1 ~

mmr - Jlriilfl':

G"GTfu -

-

~ ~IPcl¢I{¢,<{li'HICl{:al;qllicqi'lilfl:JRl ~ ~~ ¢@1.

The Propositional N

19 Bhartrhari in his ,mHflli~~T says-

A sentence code

~1ftt>lil';jIf11gf!1 ~~ I fl
"

~"" , ,

" ..." "

RnP-o-'qq:

(1) a situation ar

m-~-«
(2) The participa . e,g, In a sentenc process of'running;in \ The information 90 q

......•...........

. participants conn~d;

.....

: ,:

'.

.'"

.

",

THE MEANING OF TH ,'.

. ;.;

CHAPTER-2 THE MEANING OF THE PASSIVE

I

(with special reference to Sanskrit Active & Passive constructions) The best way of looking to the Passive is to contrast it with the Active. The way in which they differ in meaning and form is significant. The meaning of a sentence has three different dimensions, and these three dimensions can be three different meaning spheres.

.11' 3.4}

~ CfI'iPsn'QICfi+ffW rf1nmr-~ : I

llT

The three dimensions are -

'<'hIT

'~'q I (on CfiHCfif.l'6Qul'"!

(1)

The Lexical Meaning

(2)

The Propositional Meaning

(3) . The Contextual Meaning

The Lexical Meaning :

A speech community has a common cultural background. This background makes the speaker perceive and represent objects in some specific manner according to the culturally-shared knowledge. This cUlturally-shared forms a "Generic'concept. The speaker cognises the object, knowledge . . through 'Generic' concept and analyses and represents it according to his need. This Generic concept is the lexical meaning e.g~ The speaker cognises a cow as having four legs, a taU etc. with its physical features and with its qualities as it gives milk, and so on. But, at the same time the speaker distinguishes it from the other objects like horse, donkey etc. Which have some what similar features. So he distinguishes 'cowness' which is the 'Generic' concept. '

~mm tf~IT: t:mf:' R.T', ~m

- rnmr -

ftrw

<m<:r: I "1 "'"11 Pc; -

~;i;~hr: CfiI~Cfi'"l,

The Propositional Meaning:

A sentence codes specific information which involves two aspects(1) a situation and

Va.III.7.2)

.;

(2) The participants. e,g, In a sentence 'the Car is.running ~n'fhe:,road' the situation is a process of'running; in which the participants'theca;;a,nd 'the road' participate. The information ~dcled into a S~f)~€lr:Jce.~bou!some situation and the ". participants conneci8:d:jo, it is knoWn ;;lSP'roPQsitional meaning. . . <' . ... ". . "'. . ' .. ~

,,".,

INSKRIT GRAMM~RIANS...

.

r

The contextual Meaning:

The controlled static situation is 'State'.

The contextual meaning of an utterance covers a range of various The controlled Dynal

information regarding the status of the utterance, the status of the speaker

situation is 'Process'

and the listener, and the attitudes of the speaker.

The Objects: ,

The syntactic contrast between the Active and the Passive to an extent, reflects discourse functions. This has been seperately treated in the IVth chapter.

'I

I

The Propositional Semantics :-

The above mentione . which participate in t h aI and abstract -e.g.

The function of the propositional semantics is to analyse a proposition

(1) The horse runs

which is syntactically known as a sentence. A sentence codes inf.ormation

(2) Devadatta offer

which involves two aspects of a proposition. (i)

The concrete object:

Its charecterization as State, event or action (the term 'situation' covers

are always dependent fe

these different terms), and

(ii)

The characterization of the participants (arguments, case roles) in the

in a sentence. Sometin by animate objects. Th,

proposition as to their semantic roles vis-a-vis the predicate.

dependent. The object

(Syntax' Vol-1 by T. GivQn.1984 1?31) The Situation :

Asentence ·represerits some·situation. There are only objects in the world. The Situation· is abstract. It is a totality of the various states of one or more objects. e.g. when a sentence is spoken as 'A leaf is falling down

I"

from the, tree' the situation is a process of 'falling down' in which there

Animal

are two participants- 'A leaf and 'the tree'. The 'Situation' can be analysed on two dimensions. Dynamism and control. Independent

Situation

I

Controlled

The static control

I

has slept] The lion h

Static

Dynamic

I

I Uhcontrolled

Controlled

its' position. The stalic uncontr

Uncontrolled'

I Position

State

Acfion '40'

, " Being yellow is

I

Process THE ·MEANING·c\F tHI

THE"MEANII~G o.i=JHE PASSIVE,

,-..", . . ....:_-'- . "

, i

The controlled static situation is 'Position', The uncontrolled static situation is 'State'.

s a range of various status of the speaker

The controlled Dynamic situation is'Action'The uncontrolled Dynamic

i,

situation is 'Process'

~:

Passive to an extent ,

The Objects ; ,

Iy treated in the IVth The above mentioned situations are perceived through various objects which participate in that situation. The objects are of two types concrete and abstract -e.g. tnalyse a proposition ~e

(1) The horse runs (horse-conrete) .

codes information

(2) Devadatta offers prayers (prayer-abstract) erm 'situation' covers

The concrete objects maybe animate or inanimate. The inanimate object are always dependent for a change in their state. Their states are described

ltS, case roles) in the

in a sentence. Sometimes they are made to pass through some process

the predicate.

by animate objects. The animate objects may be independent as well as dependent. The objects can be analysed as follows. Object

I !

only objects 'in the Concrete

arious states of one

Abstract,

\ leaf is falling down Jwn' in'which there )n' can"be analysed

,Animate

Independent

Dependent

Inanimate

Dependent

The static controlled situation is position e.g.

I

ft:W:

~ I [The lion

has slept] The lion has control over sleeping. He is sleeping so,

ynamic

I

~

is

its position. The static uncontrolled situation is 'State' ftw

Uncontrolled'

.fur:

I [The lion is yellow]

Being yellow is not controlled by ,lion. So yellov"ness is its State. Process G o.FTHE PASSIVE

·.i:

...-

f

The controlled Dynamic situation is 'Action'.


r

[Yagnadatta makes [

!

Sometimes because

,i

fut;-o 'T.fRfu I [The lion walks] The lion can control the act of walking. So ~ is an action. The uncontrolled dynamic situation of the object is 'Process' fm;:'~ I [The lion falls down] The lion cannot ~ontrol his being

fallen nown. So the situation.denoted by 1:f<'Ifu is a process.

~ ~

,I

I

. f

super-imposed on' inanir

.

e.g. '{~ ~ I

'~

31fu: fu;:!fu

I I

i

The Participant-Roles:

The Object:

If a sentence has t\O

When the objects participate in a situation they have specific semantic

must be an object. The)

functions.' The functions are known as participant-roles.

The object is that on whi

They are also known as semantic-roles. According to Sanskrit

is the goal of some acti

Grammatical Tradition they are Karakas.

action process. Bhartch:

They are Apent, Neutral, Patient, Result, Attribute, Goal, Source,

(product), ~(modific

Positioner, Location, Instrument, Benefective, Affected. Receipient, Direction,

has given three types a~

Experiencer etc.

more than one objects

We will describe the situation one .by one and taking . the participants . part in it.

Affected:. That entity which gE

The Action:

function of affected.

~' 'iG'1I'1<1n

If an action has only one participant, then that participant must be an Agent.

[A potter brings cI

The Agent:

W1: '{lCI'Tf ~ I

The Agent must be an animate controller, who controls the situation

[Rama kills Ravar,

or who has a power to manipulate other objects to bring about certain

Goal:

expected results. The Agent is independent. According to modern theories the Agent has 4 qualities (1) Control (2) Animacy, (3) Intentionality (4)

That entity to whi,

Responsibility. (J. Lyons 'Semantics Vol II P483) . e.g

function 01 Goal.

~ ~'qcfu I [Devadatta reads a book]

e.g., '

Devadatta has control over the act of reading. He 'reads intentionally. and he is in the

"~,' , :

respori~'ible for the acrof reading. His Agentivity.is not focused

foliowing~en'iEinc€', though .

'~';:-,;',

~~",

he

is the pe~drmeC9fthesame a~tiQn. '. . . ', ";.

42 '

#:fEr.1EJ\.NiNGO~THE PAssiVE

,:r#rni;

Gq~~;. :b'~~ .. ~:

[beVad~ttan ..

'.

":'",

'

.

, "'l'" . ". . ,

.

'".

.:. ,

":...:.:r ': ~':.. ': ,.

<141G"<1: ~ ~ qld<1kl I

[Yagnadatta makes Devadatta read a book]

'rc'lfcr

is an action.

3ct is 'Process' lnot control his being a process:

Sometimes because of the motivation of the speaker, the animacy is super-imposed on inanimate objects to project them as an Agent. e.g.

,-mffi


31fu: fu';,fu

I [The sword cuts]

The Object: lave specific semantic roles. :cording to Sanskrit

If a sentence has two-place proposition then, the second participant must be an object. The Agent and the object are the .nuclear participants. The object is that on which some action or process is performed,or which is the goal of some action or which is brought about as a result ofcsome

ibute, Goal, Source , Receipient, Direction ,

action process. Bhart(hari has given three types of objects ('Plf) as ~ (product), ~ (modification) and

>ITQf (Destination,

Goal). Modernlinguists

has given three types as Affected, Goal and Neutral. A Sentence may have more than one objects together.

Ie par,ticipants taking

Affected: That entity which gets transition, as a result olan action has a semantic participant must be

function of affecled. ~. 'iG'11'14Ri

[A potter brings clay] ontrols the situation bring about certain J to

modern theories

W1:~~1

[Rama kills Ravar;ta]

Goal:

:3) Intentionality (4) That entity to which the action is applied by the Agent has semantic function 'of Goal. look] .e.g ... 'reads intentionally. tivityJs· not focused

~ClG"<1: ~ ~ I

9fth8'$~rn'e action.

[DEivadattareadsc a bookj'

G OFr:THE PAssiVE -: -,

..,-:

.43

The Location : [Mahesha tells a story]

The entity where rests has a semantic fl

Neutral:

too. That entity which is not directly involved in the performance of an action but that which is the part of the meaning of the VRt has a semantic function of Neutral. e.g

mor

e.g.~~ [Devadatta readE

~;r\C;"Ii: ~~t

wi" f+;:ttuRl I

[Yagnadatta cool

[Sita loves Rama] ;q;t1C;"Ii: ~ ~

3'

The source:

I.

The entity from'

[Yagnadatta worships Indra].

of source

When an action has three place proposition, the third participant may have any of the semantic functions of Instrument, Recipient, Location or Source.

The Instrument:

[Rama went to 1

That entity, after whose activity, the action is accomplished has a

~m:~~.

semantic function of Instiument e.g. . "{fl1: ~

ucrut

[sankara broug~

~ 1

An action predi( [Rama kills RavalJa with an arrow]

Participant-role

~~'Ii~1

(1) The Agent

[A potter makes a pot with a wheel]

The Recipient:

(2) The Agent,

Tt"le entity to which an object is transferred has a semantic function (affected)

of Recipient. e.g. -u;;rr ~

iff. Gc;"Tfu

3)

I

The Object

[The king gives a cow to a brahmin]

4)

The Age[lt The Object

[Chaitratells a story to Maitra] 44

The Agent,

THE.

TI:lI; MEANING OF.. THE PASSIVE ."

:

MEAN!NG OF T

,

The Location :

~ lli1

The entity where the performer of the action or the thing performed rests has a semantic function of location. It may come in two-place predicate

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -....- •.•.._.

~ ,~

I

formance of an action s a semantic function

too.

I

e.g. ~qqft: ~

% 'ldfu

. [Devadatta reads a book in (his) home] 4;I1qft:

~~t .:w.ft tRfu I

[Yagnadatta cooks a chapaii in fire] The Source: The entity from which something is removed has semantic function third participant may ~cipient, Location or

of source e.g . .Ul'1: ~~~ (ils·CfiIJOf ~, I "

[Rama went to Lanka from Avadha] ccomplished has a

.~~ ~... Jls·JIlJOf 3lqctctl~ .I ... ",-

[sankara brought down the Ganges from the heaven] An action predication has following participant roles. Participant-roles

Illustrations

(1) The Agent [Devadatta Runs] I

(2) The Agent, The Object - ~qC;ft: ~ ~ I

semantic function

(affected) 3)

4)

l

The Agent,

.·L.

.

.

--~-

-- -

-~-

mt

~I

(Devadatta studies· Vedas]

The Agent,

~qC;ft: ~ ~ I

THE MEANING OF THE PASSIVE

.

- ~qC;ft:

The Object (Goal) .

. The Object.(Neutral) .

:> OF. THE PASSIVE

[Devadatta cooks rice]

[Devadatta worships Krishna]

45

5)

(6)

The Agent, The Object,

~~ ~ ~ ~ I

(affected) Instrment

[Devadatta cooks rice with fire]

The Particip'Int rol The Positioner

(2)

The Positioner,

The Agent, The Object, - ~q,rcl: 4'i1~'\114 ~ ~ I Recipient

[Devadatta gives rice to Yagnadatta]

(7) . The Agent, The Object, - ~q<:;'\1:

The Location

'JJ;!

The Location

~.~ ~

The Process:

[Devadatta cooks rice in the

The uncontrolled C

poVin his house] (8)

(1)

participate in a proces

The Agent, The Object, - ~qC;'\1: ~ I{)(TIIH il1"R
[Devadatta bought fruits from the forest)

The Position: .

differentiate the proces. category of the action t literature) it seems that from the action. It is n

-\

an Agent-less constru

The Position is a controlled static situation. It needs an animate controller.

participant gets the SE If the position predication has only one participant, then the positioner e.g.

takes place. The Positioner is that entity which controls the situation.

tluT ~

I

[A ·Ieaf. failS de

e.g fut;: ~ I.

~ d(t\
i

[The lion has slept]

I [The dust lifts The two place pre

[The hermits are awakened]

participant viz.force. T If the position. has a second participant, then it indicates location,

which is the cause of e function, 'Force'. II is diffl e.g. ~ qui-

[The lion has slept in the forest)

'f14'

crn1

[The leaf failS dOli

(jq)q~ ~ I

[The hermits are awakened in the hermitage) The position-p;ed,ication has following participant~r.oles: '.~

.: ..~ ..

~

. i , ..

[The cloud .IQbks t .

. The

.... :.

.~ .':. . .~. .~.~..:< . '. .

.

-',

,,'

.

',.

.

.

~

fOrCerr;~y~taf

..:'; ::.:".:' : -:,: "

. >THS·MI;ANINGOF::J.'\:I¥. .'

.,

'

,-.:'

"';~".- ;~.

.~

","

............

~~~~~~~~~~~--------------

The Participant roles (1)

)ks rice with fire]

Illustration

The Positioner (Devadatta stands]

S

(2)

rice to Yagnadatta]

Brf·~~ (s rice in the

The Positioner,

~ ~ 34Ri«:::, I

The Location

[Devadatta has sat in the chair]

The Process : The uncontrolled Dynamic situation is the process. The objects that participate in a process cannot control it. Sanskrit grammarians do not differentiate the process from the action. They consider the process in the

'ruits from the forest]

category of the action but from the speaker's intuitions (or rather from the literature) it seems that the Sanskrit speakers viewed the process different from the action. It is not controlled so it has no' Agents. It can be said

n animate controller.

an Agent-less construction. If it has one place predication, then, the participant gets the semantic function of affected.

then the positioner

e.g. -quf ~ I

rols the situation.

[A leaf falls down]

[The dust lifts up] The two place predication in the process situation, has the second ldicat\is location,

participant viz.force. The entity which does not control the situation but

}

L.

which is the cause of or which instigates the situation, gets the semantic function, 'Force' .It is different from the instrument. It is a natural phenomenon.

e. g. ~. 'l"f 1:f
lies.: .

[The cloud,.lQoks beautiful because of the lightfining] The force may. take place in one"place predication of the process . .>~: ;""~'" ~~~,.; ~:-' "~

. ':'. : '

. .:'

•.

'4;'7' . •• :. '.'

.--"-----._.. - .

_ ..

J, .

',0'.

." ..

., .'

) ..•. :.

r ,

e.g.

l=R''!

2. The Object (Affect

~ I

The force

[The wind blows]

3. The Object (Affec

The Direction

[The lightening lights]

4. The Object (Affec The third participant of the three-place predication may be asigned to The Location

the' semantic function of the Direction,. the location or the source;

5. The Object (Affec

The Direction :

The Source

The entity towards which something is moved has a semantic function

The State:

of the Direction. e.g. ~

"I'1TfR

The uncontrolled sta

~ ~ -

to' control the situation. !

[The leaves fall down to the earth because of the wind]

remain Neutral. Sometim or by a noun with an al

The Location :

The one-place pred has semantic function ' in the sky because of the .lightening]. . [The Cl9ud lookS beautiful ..' .

.

. . ifu!>t,

e.g. ~

' . '

The Location may take place in two-place predications, too.

I

[A flower is yelkiw]

~~I: ~':r (3Tfur) [The lightening looks beautiful in the sky]

[Ramesh (is) handi

The Source:

The Staie-predicati

The Participant rc 1. The Neutral (ob

fA leaf falls down from the tree because of the wind]. Thus, the process predication has following participant roles.

Participant roles

Illustration

I,

The Ambient: There aresor;ne si

1. The Object (Affected)

"."

which no specific.parti ," . .

[Grass growsJ. ..

as Ambient [(Chaffe)j . .. . . ~

.. 48

..."' '

TI"EM)::Af'lINGb.F.: THE PASSIVE

'"to"

..... THE

MEANING~F.THE'

1 I -~

~ . if!

h

~ation may be asigned to .

tion or the source;

;

2. The Object (Affected) [The trees tremble because of the wind]

The force 3. The Object (Affected)

- .;fR ~

I

[Water comes down to the earth]

The Direction

4. The Object (Affect.ed) [The grass grows on the earth]

The Location

5. The Object (Affected)

-

~~¥wmr I [Plant comes out from the seed]

The Source

has asemanticfunction

31IJI'iBUl

The State: The uncontrolled static situation is 'State'. The participants are not able to control the situation. At the same time they are not affected by it. They

of the wind]

remain Neutral. Sometimes, the State is denoted by a past-passive participle or by a noun with an auxilliary which is 110t mentioned in the sentence. The one-place predication of the 'State' situation has an object which has semantic function 'Neutral'

:e of the lightening].

e.g.
·edications, too.

[A flower is yell'Ow]

'l.ll~1: ~'r (3lfur) [Ramesh (is) handicapped]. .,

The Stale-predication has following participant roles .

'1e wind].

The Participant role

Illustration

1. The Neutral (object)

•

ariicipant roles.

, (

• ....

The Ambient:

«P: I

[The sun is red]. .

~-

There are some situations, generally natural processes or State with which no specific:participant roles are connected.This sijuation is known as Ambient: [(Chaffe)]. There is neither any 'Agent, nor ~ny 'under goer' .. . .. ~

~INGbF. THE PASSIVE.

....'..

..... THE MEANING; OF "rHE;:PASSIVE '.

49

r

------------

[Devadatta cooks rice]

[Rice is cooked]

I};

of the speaker. The perspe

l

event decides the dec rea!

i:':

Some Views on the mea,

4'1\c\'<1: ~ 'i->l4k1 I

The proposiiional mea

[Yagnadatta worships a God]

[A God is worshipped] has a

the Passive. One view emp

~.I (Rama kills RavaQa ), but it takes one

the Active and the Passiv

The valency of a verb is augmented in causals. The verb valency of 2 in

wr:

mot

the Passive constructions.

more participant in its causal form as <.fun-

<Jl'tur mot ~

~

I [Sita makes

meaning difference. In fac constructions is the sarr

Rama RavaQa kill]. The effect of augmentation increases the valency ofVRt by 1 and thus

particip'ants differs.

makes the intransitive verbs transitive. The transitive verbs are also

G. Stein quotes Pou',

augmented by the valency of 1 in causals. Examples are as' follows:

"From the ,above ob!

The Active

that an active sentence ar

The Causal 3P"e!T1l' 31'lT U 1<1<1 k1 I

[The horse runs]

[The horse-rider makes the horse run]

~I: om;f '[The child cries]

"Qcrrfu

I

qld4Rl I

[Ramesh reads a book]

[Mahesha makes 'Ramesha read a book]

4i!1Gct: ~ 'i->l4k1 I

~ClGfI: ~,~ 'i->l4Rl I

, [Yagnadatta worships god]

to the two participants il in which the object of It ('Studies in the func

, [Suresh'makes the child cry]

_ "g~1: ~~t ~

there being distinct differ>

[Devadatta makes Yagnadatta worship god]

In the following two (1) John eats swe' (2)

Sweets are

the process is of 'e of the process, 'sweets sentences is the sam

, The verb valency is based on the perception of situation by the speakers.

circumstances. The op

Augmenting valency of verb is also perception based as an extra Agent

" ................ but altl

(Causer) is perceived by the speaker. But when the speaker reduces the

voice transformation its

valency he is not perceiving reduction of agent because reduction is in

and 'Mary was kissed I

the mind of the speaker and not in the actual situation. What makes the

of the actIOn.

speaker to reduce the valency of a verb? The answer lies in the,· understanding of an expression of a situation perceived 'by the, speaker. o

•

'." .

52

.

. Ii

('Studies in the fu

. . " . . .

The decreasing,iJ.nd the augmenting of valency is bas'ed,on the motivation .•.~,.' .

.

Jesp~rsenstresSE

~I cooked]

of the speaker. The perspective under which the speaker represents the event decides the decrease of the augmenting of the valency.

f

Some Views on the meaning of Passive :

I

; worshipped]

The proposiiional meaning remains the same in the Active as well as the Passive constructions. There are two views regarding the meaning of

,als. The verb ~, has a vaQa ), but it takes one

rcrut ~

I [Sita makes

the Passive. One view emphasizes that there is meaning difference between the Active and the Passive constructions and the other view denies the meaning difference. In fact, the propositional meaning underlying the two constructions is the same. But the prominance given to the different

ncy ofVRt by 1 and thus lnsitive verbs are also nples are as' follows :

participants differs. G. Stein quotes Poutsma in the following words : "From the above observations it follows that it is a mistaken' notion

n:rfu

I

makes the. horse run]

. I he child cry] qld~Rl I

Ramesha read a boOk1,

,!Zi1 ;qRl I ; Yagnadatta

that an active sentence and its passive conversion are identical in meaning, there being distinct difference in the prominence assigned by the speaker to the two participants in the action, and in the degree .of Passiveness in which the object of the activity is represented" . ('St!Jdies in .the function of Passive' - G. Stein (1979.P.34)) In the following two sentences; (1) John eats sweets; and (2)

Sweets are eaten by John.

the process is of 'eating'. It is performed by 'John' and as a result of the process, 'sweets' is affected. So the meaning underlying the two sentences is the same but it is expressed differently under certain

Jation by the speakers. ;ed as an extra Age~t !speakerreducesthe cause reduction is in tion: What makes the ) answer 'Iies in the ,ived by the. speaker. sedan the motivation ING OF. THE PASSIVE'

circumstances. The opinion of Quirketal differs from Poutsma. He says " ................ but although the structure of a sentence c'anges under voice transformation its meaning remains the same. In 'John kissed Mary' and 'Mary was kissed by John"'John' is in both the voices the 'performer' of the action." ('Studies in the function of Passive' -G Stein (1979 P'35)) . Jespersen stresses both the aspects

.' niE MEANIN~OF THE

PASSIVE

-

:- .

53

-

'--,-

.

..

having + animacy and + the objects having- anim

'Tom beats John' (active) and'John was beaten byTom' mean essentially the same thing and yet. they are not in every respect synonymous, and it is therefore not superfluous for a language to have both turns and thus

the world has a word-ol

be able to shift the point of view. As a rule the person or thing that is

.

.

The Vividness :

the centre of interest at the rnoment is made the subject of the sentence, and therefore the verb is in some cases put in the active,in others in the pas~ive:'

The words whose processed more quickl~

(Studies in the function of Passive-G. Stein. (1979 P.34/35»

These views of the scholars are based on two d"itferent approaches.

The motivation of the

According to the truth value there is no meaning difference but according

The Motivation 6f th

to the perspective or the circumstances under which they are selected they

of the sentence. That ob

have different meanings. They are context-bound and no two different utterances mean the same in the same context. According to G.Stein.

comes earlier and bec(

.''The meaning relation we sense between the active and the passive

the3rd principle i.e. Th

the Active and the Pa:

voice is based on extra.-linguistic knowledge of how actions are performed, of how events can ha.ppen, of how situations arise. In language reality the

speaker.) The Sentence Produl

active as well as the passive formulation of one and the same extra linguistic

The Sentence pre

situation occur very rarely in the same speech act." (Studies in the function

. producing an utteranci

of Passive-G. Stein (1779-P'36»

thought that he wishe

From the above mentioned views of the Scholars, it can be concluded that the Active and the Passive constructions are two.different.realiZations

is then organized.into s of propositional meani

of the sarne propositional meaning under different perspectives.

The situation is requir

The comparability olthe propositiona.l meaning olthe Active and the Passive

perspective is selectE

Voice is based on the perception of the speaker. The speaker represents the event which he has perceived through the worldly objects. His knowledge of

processes like active This choice of persp

worldly objects helps him in the production of the sentence. His knowledge remains the same whether he produces active or passive utterances. According

When a situation the speaker will rnake

to C.E.Osgood, the speaker produces the sentence through three principles-

conception of the act (1) The Naturalness (2) The Vividness and (3) The .motivation of the,.

object, a place and til . spe~k of all the pari

speaker

anda given context r

The Naturalness':

sh~1I overlooksorne

It is but natural for a huin.an. being to perceive an'imaJe:'objeclsa'rid . ... ". ',.'

'

the objects havingfiioverilents. So while producing the sent~n¢e;th:e'cibjects

. '~":<~

"."

. " ".:",

. . n'·

54

THE

.~

'

.. .

..• " .:\. :: .;:

• .theciii~CQ~isElte~t. ar .. ." .. '

.. ";".- ..",,.' '. . '

..

", ...

ME";".rijN~.:()f';):~. ....- . . , PASSI'JE ..•.. ," .. ",

,

-

-- .,>. ' - ' . } ! ) ~,:g/

",

.

..

"

", .>' .:'.; ":'"': .," ~. --.

---------~----

'Tom' mean essentially ect synonymous, and

..

-.--~

... ---.

-------_._--

.-

------~.----~--

having + animacy and + movement are natural to be uttered earlier then the objects having-animacy and-movement. That is why no language of

e both turns and thus arson or thing that is bject of the sentence,-

the world has a wOrd·order which has object prior to subject. The Vividness :

lctive, in others in the

The words whose meaning have dominant affective features are

in. (1979 P'34/35))

processed more quickly so they are expressed earlier in the sentence.

different approaches. erence but according

The motivation of the Speaker: The Motivation of the speaker plays an important role in the production

:hey are selected they and no two different \ccording to G.Stein.

of the sentence. That object to whom the speaker wants to give prominence comes earlier and becomes a subject. (for the purpose of understanding the Active and the Passive, we will take into consideration the 1st and

:tive and the passive ctions are performed, 1 language reality the

the3rd principle i.e. The principle of naturalness and the motivation of th,~

~

The Sentence Production :

speaker.)

same extra linguistic

.tudies in the function

The Sentence production is an encoding process. The process of producing an utterance begins with th.e speaker formulating some idea or thought that he wishes to communicate:the idea which is unorganized

:, it can be concluded different realizations Jerspectives.

is then organized into some sentence construction:The idea has one aspect of propositional meaning in which some situation of an object is conveyed. The situation is required to be projected with particular perspective. This

Active and the Passive

perspective is selected and automatically chains of reactions (Sentence

Jeaker represents the cts. His knowledge of

processes like active/passive, agreement, case suffix etc.) take place. This choice of perspective is a choice of subject.

:ence. His knowledge utterances. According

When a situation, for example an action

n

(to Kill) is to be coded

the speaker will make selection of the participant roles. His perception and

Jugh three principles-

conception of the action

·he motivation of the,.

~

(to kill) will have an agent, an instrument, an

object, a place and time of the action. But tl:1e speaker will not necessarily . speak of all the participant roles in his utterance. In a given discourse .anda given coritext lie will give prominence to some participant roles and

3.ni~ate;objf~Cts·.a,rtd·. se'ntence,the.objects

.-

,"'

..

'

",

:

".'

'.

stikll overlook. some ofthem. While producing an utterance, the context, .

.,

"...:

-,'

'

"

:\

.

the discQurse' text. and the motivation. of the speaker'play a major role in ~, ..... ,':~ . ~( .... .. :..... ..••.

"

-.:.

'r,', :"., "

• ' •. ~.

_~;_f

.

55

Agent Focussed -

overall surface shape of sentences. If propositional meaning of given sentences is same then one has to look for other features- that are the

In other words we

motivation of the speaker, the text and the context of discourse. (1)

~ '1\ll(~~

"{j+f:"

perspective of the Agi

uquf. ~ I

by the Active sentence and the verb.

[In the noon, Rama Killed RavaQa in the battle-field) (2)

"{j+f:"

~ ~ ~ I

According to the t

.

basic. It has an animl

[Rama'killed RavaQa with an arrow) (3)

"{j+f:"

In other words, it mainl

uquf ~, I

This Agent has an agn

[Rama killed RavaQa) (4)

subject is denoted b~

ucrrr: Wlw ~ I

. The selection of .

[RavaQa was killed by Rama) (5)

ucrrr:

m til:

The Naturalness Pri

. o·

I

(6)

~

e.g. ~

~ I

wruIT

onuR :U
ucrrr:

~

'1'<


I

[Yagnadatta eats

[RavaQa was killed by Rama 's arrow] (8)

31lcR

[Devdatta cooks

[RavaQa was killed with an arrow]

(7) . WR'
r

If the action is

[RavaQa was killed by Rama)

The action of coo so the Agents are s' participant which is

I

[RavaQa was killed] The propositional meaning of all these sentences is the same.

Affected ~

~

[A Leaf falls dOl

(Action transitive) - Agent, Object, Instrument, Location, Time.

It is easy to understand the dropping of location and Time. They are peripheral roles of the predication. Even if the instrument is dropped the

l "

1:!"f

i.e. when the proc the subject.-

sentence structure is not changed. But when the Agent is dropped or not

e.g. ftrg: ~

focussed upon the sentence has different shape than that when the Agent

[the Lion .has s~

is not dropped and focussed upon. "{j+f:"

uquf

iRr

'!

If the State is ~

I (~)

aCjC;-d:

(Rama kills {killed) RavaQa)

.. 56

'

,..

~
[De~adattais b

THE~EANiN$(>f,T( . .. '

'."

(- - - - - ---

,,

-~---

~--

---

al meaning of given

Agent Focussed -

eatures- that are the

In other words we can say that the proposition is expressed with a

t of discourse.

perspective of the Agent. On surface level this perspective is signalled by the Active sentence type and the Agreement is between the Agent noun and the verb.

Jattie-field]

According to the Naturalness Principle of C.E. Osgood, the Active is basic. It has an animate controller (Agent) which controlls the situation. In other words, it mainpulates other objects in the fulfillment of the situation. This Agent has an agreement with the verb and is made subject. In Sanskrit subject is denoted by the grammatical agreement with the verb . . The selection of the subject depends upon the following rules. f,

The Naturalness Principle If the action is predicated, then the Agent becomes the subject, e.g. ~q<;'\1: ~.~ I [Devdatta cooks rice] 'H1<;'\1:

~~t ~

I

[Yagnadatta eats 'chapati] The action' of cooking and eating are predicated which needs controller, so the Agents are subjects here. If the process is predicated then, the participant which is affected become subject. ;es is:the same.

Affected - ~

ent, Location, Time.

[A Leaf falls down]

1

I

i.e. when the process is predicated the patient orthe under goer becomes the subject.-

and Time. They are

Jment is dropped the

e.g. fu-g: q-;l ~

ent is dropped or not 1 that when

'1
the Agent

[the Lion has slept in the forest]. If the State is predicated Neutral becomes the Subject. ~ CjC("i1:. ~l:lTl1: I'

[Devadatta is black] ..

.

IIN(>,QF"HIE PASSIVE

'THE MEA/IIil'l~. ofTHg;PASSIIiE

.::.'~.

... ...• . . . . . . . . . . • '>'("

57

, i

The Motivation of the Speaker :

There are some otl

[

looked upon as the Ag

How the speaker cognisesthe event and how he represents it in a

as an Agent (by the \\

sentence is important in the process of selection of the subject. If the

Ul'f:' ~-;:r

. Action is predicated, according to the naturalness Principle, the Agent is

[Rama kills with a

selected as the subject. If the speaker does not want to emphasise Agent's

. orrot: t:fu I

Agentivity for some specific r.eason, he demotes the Agent and represents .

it as an instrument in the performance of an action. In such cases, speaker

[The arrow kills]

selects object as the subject of the sentence.

~tlGu: ~

Let's see the way Sanskrit grammarians look at it. They describe two aspects of Action <1lT1:fK and qz;r (Process or the change of state and its result). The participants join tile action during the accomplishment of the action. Some join during ~ (Process) stage and 5{)me join during '«'f (Result)· stage. The Agent and the Instrument join during the <1:IT'ffi' stage and the Object and the Recipient join during the Result stage. The

I

~

\I

[The pot cooks]

" i ii

redundant, and we ha is not passivised. Bec1 Instrument once prom( ~ C( c;i1:

/ Process

(~)

~~~

&
[The pot cooks rit

(~)~4

\ Result (~)

[Rice is cooked \

\

/

,

Object (q;l=j')

Agent (q;m)

Location (31f\:!'!'i{UI)

The location is 10 roots)

/~\

Instrument (~)

m:~~m

Recipent (ld+>lcW\)

[Lord stays in Va

m:

Source (314\c;H)

. -:

~) the~ the Agent bec~mes the subject andlHhe result part is in focus, theobje2t~ecom~s the subject. .. If

t~e

..

,\

",

.

".

-': ... <

~'~~T .

' . '

proce.;,s part js in focus ( .--~.

:itc;:;:f ~

[Devadatta cooks

in the following diagram.

I

<::Rffu I

If the instrument is I

of the Action. TheY are two .end points. That's why they se.em to be related with both the aspects, yetthey are peripheral. The relations can be illustrated Action (

'C['i

'. [Devadatta cooks I

Location and the source are not directly involved in ~ or'«'f aspect

...

t:fu .1

. ,',"

. .. ~

.[L~rdstays at) V

";heR~ciPient i~ "',

. .",

.

----------~-----"------.-----

..- - - .

---

There are some other processes by which the lower participants are he represents it in a )f the subject. If the

looked upon as the Agent or the Object. The Instrument is looked upon as an Agent (by the way of ( ~{Ulf u+1:

o emphasise Agent's

[Rama kills with an arrow]

such cases, speaker

as in

onUt
rinciple, the Agent is

\gent and represents

)

. mur: t\"Rr

I

[The arrow kills]

~qc;-'<1: ~ ~ it. They describe two

.[Devadatta cooks with a pot]

change of state and

~~I

.. ~ accomplishment of ~nd

some join during

oin during the c;qr:rnhe Result stage. The . c;qr:rn- or tpQf aspect

iy seem to be related ions can be illustrated

[The pot cooks] ·If the instrument is looked upon as an Agent, the original Agent becomes redundant, and we have the new Agent as the subject. But the sentence is not passivised. Because inthe passive an Agent becomes oblique. The Instrument once promoted as an Agent, if passivized, becomes redundant. ~qC;"\1: ~ ~ q-;;rfu I

[Devadatta cooks rice with a pot] ~~.~I

[The pot cooks rice-Devadatta redundant]

(~)~~·I '1") [Rice is cooked with /by a pot] The location is looked upon as an object (by way of change in verbroots)

:ipen!

(H +>;j c; 1'1)

[Lord stays in Vaikun\ha]

···mt~··~~~.1 . the Agent becomes ~ecomes the subject.

• ··.[Lordstays ~t) VaikuQthal 'T>TheReciPieni

..

.

i~ "iookedLipon as an object. In gq'qI1~; the person to

~1~~ti~";''''.'il~t".:,.~S~P,!frft...~_ "

.

.i' . .. . . . .. ,.

"

..

whom something is said is used as an object instead of Recipient. e.g. ~ Slc;l 'HF1~ <:11 f
Group-A

(1)

(Saraswati told Savitri)

~~ [In the alternl

(Instead of <:1{f<1~ ~ it is used as <:1H
(2)

The oblique object Instrument can be promoted as an Agent, and the

wr: mvt

0[1'

[Rama killed

indirect obi.ect location and the oblique object Recipient can. be promoted

(3)

as the dir(3ct object.

wr: wrrt

31:

[Rama killed

Thus, basically Sanskrit has two types- the Active and the passive.

Group-B

By naturalness principle, the Agent is selected as the subject and by

(1)

demoting the Agent we have the passive type. The Agent and the object

[Ravaoa wa;

are nuclear participant roles connected with two aspects of action "ilfI11R" and q;c;r/. The other non-nuclear roles can not be selected as subject unless they. are looked upon as an Agent· or an object. (by Way" of

Group-C

B~fUiT)

propositional meaning is also selected. If the participant the 'Agent' is

I

selected as a subject then the Agent takes nominative and agrees with

i

The Impact of subject selection on the surface structure of a sentence. Once the subject is selected the perspective of expressing the

.. the verb,. and the active type.. of. sentence is constructed.

~ WfUI:

i

(1)

~ WfUI: [Ravaoa wa!

(2)

-.rruR

WfUI:

[Raval)a wa:

(3)

u+Wl"

~

[Ravaoa wa

e.g. 4W";tI: ~ ~ I

(4)

(Yagnadatta worships Krisoa)

o

If the object is selected as the subject, the object (~) becomes the subject and takes nominative and the verb becomes passive. The Agent is demoted and looked upon as an instrument in the performance of an action. e.g ~ 4'i1G-ct'1 ~ I (Krishoa is being worshipped by Yagnadatta) One of the two participant roles the Agent and the object may be selected as the Subject. These two (the Agent and the object) are the nuclear Participant roles. The way of conveying the situation depends upon the selection of one of them. How the speaker cognises the situation and how· he represents. it selects the focus of the sentence and thereby selects the type of the co~struction. The following 3 groups show and the group :'C' have an object as its subject: .

60

th;;tiJh~.Group

'B'.

uqur: ~ I

[Ravaoa wa These three grou constructions, Group has passive particip constructed alter dec Band C has the same the verbal and the meaning.(The differ Participial) is alread:' The procedure ( . followingdiagram ...

f ,ad of Recipient. e.g.

[In the afternoon Rama killed RavaQa in the battlefield]


(2)

as an Agent, and the lient can. be promoted

WIT wrrf ~

[Rama killed RavaQa with an arrow] (3)

WIT uqut

s the subject and by

Group-B

Agent and the object ;pects of action t.!fft!R"

(1)

cted as subject unless by way of ('f~{UIT)

Group-C

I

~"WfUI: ~ I [RavaQa was killed by Rama]

(1)

ucture of a sentence.

ative and ag reeswith trueted.

3Wl
[Rama killed RavaQa]

:tive and the passive.

'e of expressing the tieipant the 'Agent' is

3Wl
~. ~ -gO: I

[RavaQa was killed by Rama]

(2)

~"WfUI: -gO: I

[RavaQa was killed with an arrow]

. (3)

~ ~ "U'f'lT:

-gO:

I

[RavaQa was killed with Rama 's arrow]

(4) !et ('J'll'T) becomes the passive. The Agent is 1orma:nee of an action.

object may be selected lject) are the nuclear on depends upon the ; the situation and how nd thereby selects the lOW

that th~ Group 'B'

"U'f'lT: ~ I

[RavaQa was killed] These three groups have different surtace shapes. Group Ahas Active constructions, Group 'B'. has passive (verbal) construction and Group 'C' has passive participial constructions. The sentences of Group 'A' are constructed after deciding the undergoer as a subject. Though the group Band C has the same subject. i.e. object, they differ on the surface structurethe verbal and the participial constructions. They do not differ in the meaning.(The difference between these two constructions (Verbal & Participial) is already discussed in Chapter 111.) . The procedure. of two 'differentconstructions can be seen from the following diagram ...

61

..

'

5·>

.. ,

CHAPTE] THE SANS] R6

Q)

Ie ::>

r--

c Q)

>--

'"

~~

Z

C:

i

(ij

'0. '5

'0. '-'0

a:

~

.,.

Q)

~

.t-- U ::>

~

two alternative constl

Ii

will be based mainly 01

!

C

types. The comparisl

1aU

simplicity between t~

0

f--

0

z

i

.3

E 2

r--

'-- U; E

r--

~

c:

(ij

a..

~

complexity particular well 'as the verbal fc

~

22:§ C

'"a..z

form the structure ca is simple in nature. :

i

.c

>

If a semantic or·,

i

"E Q)

1i.iC C Q) -"":"E

Sanskrit has two n

'" :11-

-'"

The passive is uni study of the overall VE passive construction.

i

0

(f)

0.

13 Ql t-- :0 0

0.

'"Z

a..

Ql

>

~

'w

-:::::I"@ c~_ Q)-c

-

0).

'" '--

a..

z

•

-

ti .- Q) Q) E > ....... 0 ~

(ij

Oz,.~.

'0. r - '5

'" ~

.~

The verabal type . Sanskrit Grammaric

~

represents an obstn

a..

~

~

u.; 1ii

c

.E.EE

Ol

~- -

-

U

«

'"a..z

(3

-

:l

L-(ij

~

Ql

.~g ~

c3«m

«

c::z

E .-

~

i

(TIM) + Person-Nunr

.,

.~

0

:g

(VRT) + Formative a

Q)'

.c

«

can be further divide

:l:l-

'"a..z c

be discussed first.

i

>.

"E Ql

and the patricipial, e.~ gatawan/. They functil

[

Q)

«.E~

'" a..

-

UJ

Q)

1!1§£

s:

~

«z~

I til C

o ~ o

e

c.

CL

""U

g>

'2 '"
~

:' .. ',:,:

C

o

ti


". Jl

.~

.0

(f):::J

0)'.:

VRt

-.

...... " c

o

....2·..

::.'.

CU'

.. :' ,.

o .':~ . "" · '.:g. :5"" · .'0;' . -(I>

oW'.

..... :.:

-:S- ,.,;"::

. f:' .. '

> .'

CHAPTER·3 THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE SANSKRIT VERBS & PARTICIPLES If!, The passive is universally looked upon as a form of the Verb. A detailed study of the overall verb-phrase is necessary before embarking upon the passive construction. The focus will be on the comparison .between the .

t

(ij

'i'i

r-':g

i

two alternative constructions-the Active & the Passive. This comparison will be based mainly on the constitutents and the structure of these sentence

£ ~

types. The comparison is aimed at bringing about complexity vis-a-vis simplicity between these two types.

'[ (ij

.a

~~

~

If a semantic or a pragmatic function is realised in regular linguistic

t

form the structure can be said to be simple. In fact, no linguistic structure issimple in nature. Sanskrit lang~age shows a great deal of structural complexity particularly in its Inflectional system; in both the nominal as

i

~

:lg - " E !oc: c:

well as the verbal forms. Sanskrit has two major types of constructions in the verb-ph rase-the verbal

:2 g

, - c: ,:.E '" E" :

0-

and the patricipial, e.g./agachhatiin/ramab agachhatiand/gatawan linlramab

[

Q)

•· 0 E.~ : z, ~

(ij

'i'i r-:~

to:

'"

0.

gatawan/. They function as the head of the verb-phrase. The verbal type will

. be discussed first. .

t

The verabal type of the construction has two constitutents-Base + Suffix. Sanskrit Grammarians call them dhatu and lakar respectively.(Lakar represents an obstruct morpheme which has various realisations.) They

.~

~

can be further divided into five constitutents.The base into the Verb-Root

:l ....

i

·;

c: Q)

~

1i)

; .E E

,,-~

,,' : :::l Q)

' o.~

....

~

• 0-

:« m : .-

;

Q)

(VRT) + Formative and the Suffix into the Voicesign (VOG) + TenselMood

(

(TIM) + Person-Number~(P.N)

t

Verb

I

.~

E.~

~ ~ 1ti · c:

~ I

.C

g. .

. .'

i - ... ;.

.

VRt .

I Form

-

lal ' ..'.

PASSIVE

I

"THErvI.ORPHOL.q~r ~~::;.;,

/; ','··.':;~\;!ih:;;:~:<~·(· :. " '. ____ .. :'~~:;~.

Voc 1

lvYadi

'". "1? ) .

~INa :OFTHE

I

·<1·.·.•. " .. '...

0

Q)

.. S·

~ )

.

Suffix

Base

101

PN

TIM

I

1 . •!

Iti!

101

/wadatir ..•..

'

..:

The Active Verbform : .

MoreoverVerb-Roc • Group A: Iparas

The Active verb-form has five constitutents (VRT + Form) + VOC +

(whict

TIM + PN. These constituents are described in detail.

The Verb-Root:

Group B:

The Verb-Roots are divided into ten groups. They are grouped acco~ding to the formative suffix (c6njug.alional suffix) they take. These groups are

Group C : IUbhay<

latma

lataml

called conjugations (or GaQa as the Sanskrit Grammarians call them). They

The Iparasmaipadf

are as follows :

is treated as the middl.

Group-A:

this distinction was se

Sanskrit Name

assumed that the fruit,

Example

in the case of the pare

1. bhwadi GaQa

bhO, wad, path, has, gam

accrues to the person

2. diwadi GaQa

diw, n(t, nas, bhram, sram

e.g.~~[D'

3. . tudadi GaQa

tud, i$, likh, sp(sa, k$ip

4. churadi GaQa

chur, kath, bhak$, chi nt,

'!ilPc;d: 4"1'11'114


This distinction tt

by the speakers. It i parasniaipada only ar .

Group-B:

5.. adadi GaQa

used in Ubhayapada (

as, i, rud, duh, lih.

distinction. explained a . hu, bhT, bh(, ma, da,

but it is not so. This

7. sWadiGaoa

ap, sak, as, chi, su

not a semantic one.

8. rudhadi GaQa

rudh, chhid, bhid, hins, bhuj

9. tanadi GaQa

tan, k(

10 kryadi GaQa

krT, gandh, manth, g(h, jna

6. juhotyadi GaQa

o

I

The VRTs are dill Some roots tak

I gami$yati I. They fo I apsyati I. This is anc which take I i I optio

The group-A is having its bases ending in/-a/while the basis of the Group B do not end in I-a/. These two· groups are based on the grammatical

Sometimes, the r

condition because they take different PN suffixes (in some 2nd Pr: Dual

Igaml ,gachha I I d(:

and plural and 3rd pro Dual.).

.....

.":

the passive c.onditions

"

the Rociti\self is chan

I - I mru/lnTI-)i 64

THE MORPHOLQ(iY. Of . :.,

•

:

:.

:,~

, .:" .

.,- ,

··:!L~)···

.

".-"

.

;-~-..I

MoreoverVerb-Roots can be further divided fnto three types of groups .

•

IIRT + Form) + VOC +

Iparasmaipadalgenerates ac~rtain series of PN allomorphs

Group A:

(which will be explained in due course).

jetail.

latmane padal generates another set of PN allomorphs.

Group B:

Group C : IUbhayapadaigenerates the sets of Iparasmaipada/or

( are grouped acco~ding :ake. These

grou~s

are

latamnepadaloptionally:

narians call them). They

The Iparasmaipadalis treated as the Active voice and the latmanepadal is treated as the middle voice by some western scholars. It appears that this distinction was semantic in nature. In the case of atmanepada ,it is assumed that the fruit of the action accrues to the performer himself while in the case of the parasmaipada it is assumed that the fruit of the action

has, gam

accrues to the person other than the performer. ' e.g. ~

Iram; sram

q{lf$<1:

sa, ksip

q


[Devadatta performs a sacrifice for his own sake] and


I [The priest performs a sacrifice for the host].

This distinction though a semantic one, was no longer put to use

:s, chint,

by the speakers. It is difficult to understand why some roots have parasmaip'ada only and some have atmanepada only. Very few roots are used in Ubhayapada(Le. both the voices). If the roots follow the semantic

lih.

distinction explained above, then all the roots should have both the padas, I,

da,

but it is not so. This distinctions has remained only a lexical one and not a semantic one.

, su j,

The VRTs are divided into other 3 groups.

hins, bhuj

Some roots take iii before taking any particular suffix e.g.

I gamisyati I. They form one group. Some roots do not take I i I, 'e.g. th, mh, jna Iwhile the basis of the

I apsyati I. This is another group and the third group has the verb-Roots which take I i I optionally.

sed on the grarTune.tical

Sometimes, the root itself has more than one allomorph, such as

(in some 2nd Pr: Dual

Iganil cgachha I I drs / - I pasya I where I g'am I & / drs I are used in the passive c,onditions while I gachha I & I Pasya I in the Active. Sometimes the Root itself is changed on account of morpho-phonemic rules e.g. im(

I - I mru/ I nTt - 'nay I. IE MORP'HOLOGY OF .... :

>~.

THE MORPHOLQ!W' OF,',,':.. . .. ;,-.-

."

~ -~---~---

' 65

r iI

The Formative: The formative is used with a VRT to form a BASE of the verb. In the active verb forms, the conjugation signs of the VRT are taken as formative.

The Voice-Sign :,

They are as follows : it

1.

I - a I - (/wadl + I a I) in I wadati I

I,i

The active constr construction. Generally, verb form does not ha

II

Theallomorphs of Tel

i

(lPath I + I a' I) in I Pathati I

2.

I - ya I - (nrt I + I I ya I) in I nrtyati I (/diwl + I ya I) inl dTwyatil

3.

/ a /-

(/tud I + I a I) in I tudati! ,i

(/Iikhl + I a I) in I likhati I

4.

I aya I - ( I kath I + I I aya I) in I kathayati / (lbhak$ I + I aya I ) in I bhak$ayatil

Group - B '

'5.

! 0 I (/ as I + I 0 I) in lasti I

(I ichh I + I 0 I ) in { ichhati'l 6..

requplication of the first syllable (/ da I ,: I da /) in I dadati I

inu

i or I

Transition from the v by the reduction of the moods. They were cond, moulding of vedic into reduction trend (as San! and more lormal langw, and the simple future ar of the remaining two Pi they g'raduallylost thei reduction trend. The su the subjunctive) were c( potential became domir . arid the Imperative. ' All the tenses and

( I bhT I + I bhT I ) in I bibheti I 7.

These conjugation ~ the Imperfect past, the in other tenses and m(

1.

no I ( ! ap I + I nu I ) in I apnuhi I

e.g. (VRT + I

(I wad I + I .

( Isak I + I no I ) in I saknoti!

8.

Tile present t

I wada I + I

I -n- I ( I bhid I + I n I ) - I bhinat I in I bhinatti / . (I bhuj I + I n I ) - I bhunaj I in . I bhunakti I

9.

2.

I u I or I 0 I - ( I kru I + I u I ) in I kurute I

The fi rst lutu e.g. (I ap I -

( I tan I + I

0

I ) in I tanoti I '

10. Ina I or I np ( I kri I + I oa I ) in I k(fO~tT I ,,',' ' .. .. ,

..r . ,

( I krT I + I 01 I ) in' krT01$'wa I ..

:-

'

:,:"

-': .. ".

'.•

"

.",

THEM01'jP,~OLOd;OF .

::..

~

,

"".

":,

..

'.'

."

r--'--

'~----~~---~

-------~----------

!

These conjugation signs are linked with the VRT only in the present, the Imperfect past, the Imperative and the potential. They do not occur in other tenses and moods.

:;E of the verb. In the 'e taken as formative.

The Voice-Sign : The active construction is universally accepted as the basic construction. Generally, the basic forms are left un-marked. So the' active verb form does not have any voice sign.

The aliomorphs of Tense/Mood ':

yati /

Transition from the vedicto the classical Sanskrit is distinctively marked by the reduction of the functional distinction in the six tenses and four moods, They were condensed in three tenses and two moods. The gradual moulding of vedic into the classical sanskrit necessitated the structural ' reduction trend (as Sanskrit was becoming less and less spoken and more and more formal language). The imperfect past amongst the past tenses and the simple future amongst the future tenses became stronger. The use of the remaining two past tenses and one future tense was reduced and they gradually lost their position. The moods were also affected by this reduction trend. The subjunctive and the Injunctive (slightly different from the subjunctive) were completely lost. The conditional was rarely used. The potential became dominant. There remained only two moods- the potential 'and the Imperative.

;

lyati/

/ da /) in / dadati /

All the tenses and the moods had their own ailomofphs.

bhT / ) in / bibheti /

1.

The present tense has / I/J / aliornorph

luhi /

e.g. (VRT + form) + VOG + T / M + PN

knotil

(I wad / + / a / ) + / I/J / + / I/J / + / ti /

bhinatti /

/ wada / + / I/J / + / I/J / + / ti / wadati /

/ bhunakti /

2.

lte /

e.g. (/ ap / + / I/J / ) + / ta / + / I/J /

Jti /, ~tT

I

$wa I

....

.

3.,

'

. . '.

;

..

"

.

.

.

'The second f.uture has / sya / allomorph. /) + / I/J I + I sya I +- I ti I

' . '

,

"

'

..

..

/ ,apta /

e.g,>ljap)+ I I/J

.

-' .. ....

.....

. ,

-

The first future has / ta / aliomorph.

..,

' '

...

.'

, :':·:.,'j;apsyati I

-~~-~~~~~----------~--~--~

,

T'iE 'Mol'IPHOL()G¥ ,QF .... ' 6 7 .' "

"

-

,

, 4. . The Imperfect past has I a- I allomorph. e.g

The Person Number:

I a I ( Ikath I + I aya I ) + I 0 I + I t /

I akathayat I 5:

The Aorist has I a- I in prefix position, but sometimes it"also takes

I i I and / s I or I

~

I

(It has seven types which take different PN suffixes). e.g.

L i

There are three m singular is used for a si

, !:

I al (/ gam 1+ I 0 I ) +·1 at I

.1

than two. Amongst ther it was lost in the midd

I agamat I I al (/ gam I +1 01) + 0 +/ as I

Though ihe persor categories, they are re, conditions the other ar

!-agarnas I

6.

The perfect past does not h~ve / a 1 but instead it has the reduplication of the first syllable of the Root as its allomorphic realisation. This reduplication follows. morphophonemic rules.

There are three pel first person indicated in ownself. The Second ·F used for a person or 2

,.,

e.g. llikhamil Ilikhl + Form + V(

e.g. 1 gam I + . ( I gam !-+ I 0 I ) + 1 0 1 + 1.0 I.

llikhl + fal + 101 -

1 jagama 1

The PN suffJxes

0

7.' Amongst. the moods, the imperative has 101 allomorph.

e.g..

'(/wad/+/a/) + /01.

+ .101 + I

tu I . 1st pro

I wadatu 1 . .

8.

.

2nd pro

The potential has I-T/ and I-yal allmorphs e.g.

(/kathl+laya/) + I 0 ./ + / i I + I t 1

3rd pro

I kathyet I In addition to thei conditioned by-

and (/krl + 101) + 101 + Iyal + It!

. I kuryat I 9,

IPadai condil

(1)

The conditional uses I a-I of past and I-sya-I of Future

lal + (/kru/+/0/) + 101 syal + Itl (2)· Tense/Mood

I akari$yat I As. there remained only 3 tenses and 2 Moods in .classical Sanskrit, there remained only 4 allomorphs of TIM as 'follows: .. 1)

The present & the imperative - 101

(2) Th~

3)

The futurEi. I - syal

(4) The Poientia.1

'-

past: /a- /

....

i-

1/ .

'

•• ' '",£.

68

..

THE .r,I·qRPHOLOGY OF .... .

. , '."

THE MORPHOLOiiy,.QF

. ·:·L>·

. .___~

---.------c-~---------------

..

The Person Number Suffix: -

i

There are three persons and three numbers in classical Sa[1skrit.The first person indicated in an utterance shows that it is used for the speaker's ownself. The Second Person is used for the listener. The third person is used for a person or a thing other then the speaker and the listener.

ll

~,

om"'im" il·al" lak" .

-~.----

~;

t

+I t I

I

...- -.. -.... --... -.. - ..--.. --.- .........

,

There are three numbers-the singular, the Dual and the Plural. The

PN suffixes).

singular is used for a single object, the dual for two and the plural for more than two. Amongst them the dual was structurally very weak. That is why it was lost in the middle Indo-Aryan languages.

sI

Though the person a:nd the Number are the two separate semantic categories, they are realized through one suffix in Sanskrit. Each category conditions the other and 9 allomorphic variations are emerged.

'ut instead it has the oot as its aliomorphic

e.g. llikhamil

phophonemic rules.

llikhl + Form +

0/+1.0/.

Ilikhl + /al + 101 + 101 + Imil (1 st Pro singular).

vac +

Present + PN

The PN suff.ixes of Present tense (parasmaipada) are as follows:

101 allomorph.

Sing.

Dmil

' Plural

.1 st pro

lmi I

I was I

I mas I

. 2nd pro

I si I

I thas I

I tha I

3rd pc

I ti I

..

L

tI

Itas

f

I anti I

In addition to their own conditions PN suffix allomorphs are further conditioned by -

(1)

;ya-I of Future

(2)

IPadal condition -

Tense/Mood condition -

in classical Sanskrit,

's : Ie past: I a- I

(a)

I pa,rasmai pada I

(b)

I atmanepada I

(1)

Present-Future

(2)

Past

(3)

Imperativ!3

(4)

Potential;... "

~

Potential /- T I .~:

".

J',1QRPHOLOGY OF ....

.' T,HE MORPHOLOGY'9F ....

. . .

·,::.L~ __ .· ~_' __'__ '"

..

-: ~.

..

:;.f.

69

..

, i' \

Thus to generate a PN suffix one has to take into account the Verb-

The active verb

Root (whether it is IParasmaipadTI or I atmanepadT I as well as Tense and Mood. Thus Sanskrit has following allomorphs of PN suffix. (The present and the future tenses have identical PN suffixes) TIM

Almanepada

Parasmai Pada

--- --r--Sing.

r--'-

Dual

f-- -

-- -

Plural

1----'- r--- f - - -

-

-

(The VRT First 01 it takes the voice sign

.

-

-

-.-

Sing.

Dual

Plural

For an examplE

-_.- - - - ---

Present 1st pr

I mi I

I was I I mas I

1st pr

I e I

I wahe I

Imahel

Future

2nd pr

I si I

I thas I I tha I

2nd pr

I se I

I ithe I

Idhwel

3rd pr

I ti I

I tas I

3rd pr

I te I

I ite I

lantel

I anti I

(VRT + Form) +

following procedure: (VRT + Form) +

( I pac I + I a I

I paca I + I ti I Sing.

Dual

Plural

1st pr

!aml

I wa I

I ma I

1st pr

2nd pr

I s I

I tam I

I ta I

2nd pr

I thas I lithaml

Idhwaml

3rd pr

I t I

I tam I

I an I

3rd pr

I ta I

I anta /,

r--'-

Sing.

Dual

Plural

I Pacati I

- - 1---- - - - - - - --.- --.- - - I i I

I wahi I

I mahi I

The structu ral

Past

--~-.--.----.

Sing.

.Dual

Impera- 2nd pr ive

3rd pr

the following diagrar

- - - - - _ --. - - - - - - ..

Sing.

Plural

--- - - - - - -_.- - - - ' - - , 1st pr

I itam I

CI

Dual _.

--

Plural _.

-.-

I ni I

I wa I

I ma I

1 st pr

I ai I

I wahai I Imahail

I 0 I

I tam I

I ta I

2nd pr

I swa I I tham I

Idhwaml

I tu I

I tam I

I ant'; I

3rd pr

I tam I

lantaml

I itam I

-------------------~-----

Dual

Sing.

Plural

Sing.

Dual

Plural

I wahi I

I mahi I

-_. - - - - - - - - - , - - - - --.-

--- - 1st pr

I am I "wa I

I ma I

1st pr

I a I

2nd pr

I s I

I tam I

I ta I

2nd pr

I thas I I atham I Idhwaml

3rd pr

I t I

I tam I

I us I

3rdpr

(ta I

Poten-

tial

.-

I atam I

".

.J 70

..J

"-::'.

ran I'

. .

.

",""

•.

::: ,.

"

",".

;"~MOR;:~OG' o,"t~ '"'M"':~ru"Y:

I i::

, into account the VerbTI as well as Tense and "N suffix. (The present )

The active verb is generated thus :

(VRT + Form) + VOC + TIM + PN c'

~

, I~

Atmanepada

-------Dual Plural _.- -_.- -_.-

Ing. e I

I wahe I

Imahel

se I

I ithe I

Idhwel

te I

I ite I

Ian tel

(The VRT First of all takes the formative and prepares the base, then it takes the voice sign and the allomorphs ofT/M and then takes PN suffix.). For an example, the verb/pacati/ can be generated through the following procedure: (VRT + Form) + VOC + TIM + PN

( I pac I + I a I ) + I 0 I + I 0 I + I ti I.

-------Ing. Dual Plural _.- -_.- -_.i I

I wahi I

I paca I + I ti I I Pacati I

I mahi I

thas I flthaml

Idhwaml

ta I

I anta /.

I itam I

The structural complexity of the active verb form can be seen from the following diagram.

-------Ing.

Plural

Dual

_.- ----

ai I

-'--

I wahai I Imahail

swa I '/ tham I

'-

Idhwaml

.

tam I .Fitam I

lantaml

--_._---Ing.

Dual

Plural

a I

I wahi I

I mahi I

-- -_.- --'-.

thils I I atham I Idhwaml ta I

I atam I .

I ran I" .

.

.' "

:':..,:~

",

.

......

..

".

'.. ...

<• • , .;"

. ·THEMORPHOCOOy'OF .... •

•

,

"/.>

71

The Passive Verb-forr

THE ACTIVE VERB-FORM THE BASE VRt

THE SUFFIX

Formative . Voc . ,

TIM (pp)

1st 'pr. 10 I

of

.3-I-al

Verb-

4-I-ayal

Roots

5-i-ri"

(AP)

,,--s

',--·s

Allom- 1-/-al orphs . 2-I-ya,1

D

D

nd

pro

2

D

pro

D

3~ pr..

7-I-null.-nol 8-I-n-1

~s

31d pro

D

D

-p

'---- p

.--S

~s

1 51 pro

The Formative :

D

-la-I

2nd pro

D

-p

'--5 31d pro

D

D

-p

P

-s

-s

1 \ pro

1st pro

D

S

D

I gam I + I

-5

,--s

I ni I + lye

D

I dr$ I + I I I budh I + I

2nd pro

D

'---- P

P

-5 31d pro

,-S 3"" pro

D

D

-po

'---- p

-S 1 sl pro

1

51

P

-:-- s

'-s

,D

2nd pr. .

According to ther of TIM and PN suffi: The Allomorphs of This remains thE. The PN Suffix : '

-p

----.:, 5

. '-5:. . 0 .,:: .", :P:. ,c· \ ,

3rt!

D., '

:'

"

D

~P'

"

I ram I + I

r.

D

pro

-p

31d pro

I

-5

D

2nd pro

72

e.g

-p

1.0 /

..

This I - yaJ is tre1 it takes the place of th to the VRT and prep~

-p

2nd pro

'l-il

The passive verb· indicates passivity. Th is joined to all the Vf

p

-s

Potential

The Voice-sign :

2nd pro

D

31d pro

Imperative

~S

D

~s

Past

L....:.... P

,The passive verbgeneration of the vert

1 sl pro

-p

10-I·nall-nil

The different grou while preparing the pc take formative. DifferE useless here.

L....:.... P

-s

·I-syal

The Verb-Roots :

'--.S nd

-p

Future

(VRT + Form) + "

'r--- P

,--s 2

9-I·ull-01

. pl·pr.

P

Present

.. ·1-0 I

6-1-01

The parallel passi' Imperative and the Po' passive verb-form rem form of the verbal type

PN

p .. ;

p'r,

...

,"

.'

.

,-".

"

As has been see tHree persons and t~ (pp.da) condition Le. t '~~trnanapad~). p

The

,':' . ..c.· 'rf\.ltM6RPHOL6~yt ",

The Passive Verb-form : 'FIX

The parallel passive forms af the present, the Imperfect past, the Imperative and the Patential are faund. In ather tenses and maads, the passive verb-farm remains the same as that af the Active/atmanepadaJ farm af the verbal type. The farmula far gen'erating the verb is the same.

PN (AP)

s 0

(VRT + Farm) +

p

S

The different groups af the VRTs are nat meant to be remembered while preparing the p'assive Verb-farms because passive farm daes nat' take farmative. Different canjugations and their canjugatianal signs are useless here.

P

S 3" pro '---1-_ 0 P

The Formative :

S

.--1--

,The passive verb-farm daes nat take any farmative. It simplifies the generatian af the verb.

0

P

·s

The Voice-sign :

2'" pro f---I-- 0

The passive verb-farm takes I-ya-I as the Vaice sign. This I - ya - I indicates passivity. The striking characteristic af passive is I - ya I which is jained to. all the VRTs to. farm a passive verb-farm.

p

S 3" pro '---1-_ 0

This I - ya I is treated as, a farmative by traditianal Grammarians. So. it takes the place 6f the Active canjugatian sign in the passive. It is jained to. the VRT ?nd prepares a base.

P

S st

1 pr.

r--i-- 0

e.g

P

P

S

r'-+--

d(~

I

budh I + I ya I - I budhya I

I + I ya I + I

d(~ya

I

S

According to. them when the base is prepared, it takes the allamarphs af TIM and PN suffix:

0

The Allomorphs of TIM: '

P

This remains the same as that af the Active.

S

The PN Suffix: , '

2'" pro ,f--+-- 0 P

,.

S·

3" pro

I

I ram I + I ya I - I ramya I

0

P

1st pro

I gam I + I ya I - I gamya I I nT I + I ya I - I nTya I'

S 2'" pro f---I-- 0

3 11l pro

PN

TheVerb-Roots :

. 2'" pro f---I-- 0

,1 st pro

vac + TIM +

'-'-+----,- '0

,'p,

As has been seen in the farmatian af the Actiye Verb-Farm, there are , . three persons and three .numbers. They a're further conditianed by vaice ., (Pi3.da) conditian i.e. the active Vaice (Parasmaipaqa) and the Middle vaice " " (~tmanapada). The passive verb-form discard'the parasmaipada. So. there ::: :,

'.'

. .

."

.

,. TfutMoRPHOL6~YbF .... .-, :

"':1, ",'.., ,-

.~.'

~."

:-',

...---.-~-~--.-.- .... - -"-~--------'"

73

~I

remains only one pad a viz. latmanapada I. The PN suffix is also conditioned . by the allomorphs of Tense or Mood. Thus the PN suffix of the passive verb-form has only 36 conditions as against the active which has 72 conditions.

THE BASI

i

VAl

Forma

\

. Following are the allomorphs of PN suffix for generating the passive verb-form: Atmanepada

TIM

. Dual

Sing. Present/Future

Past

Potential

Imperative

Verb/0

Roots

Plural

1st pr

I eI

I wahe I

I mahel

2nd pr

I se I

I ithe I

I dhwe I·

3rd pr

I te I

I ite I

I ante I

Sing,

Dual

Plural

1st pr

I i I

I wahi I

I mahi I

2nd pr

I thas I

I itham I

I dhwam I

3rd pr

I ta I

I itam I

I anta I

Sing.

Dual

Plural

1st pr

I aI

I wahi I

I maili I

2nd pr

I thas I

I atham I

I dhwam I

3rd pr

I ta I

I atam I

I ran I

Sing.

Dual

Plural

1st pr

I ail

I wahai I

I mahai I

2nd pr

I swa I

I tham I

I dhwam I

3rd pr

I tam I

I itam I

I antam I

The passive verb is generated thus : (VRT + Form) + VOC + TIM + PN

T+ I ya I + I

( I pac I + I 0 I

Y--·

0 I + I te I ....

,.

I pac I + I ya I +- I 0 /.!f. I te I I pacyate/

,

.:

::: .~.:-. . . . ,. The formation caM be seen from the loJjb:Wlng:diagPCim-:':. '

..

. ",

,

..... , •...

'J •

"; ~ .

•

'-. -.

: ".:"

.' ,

.'.

.

;'-:

,"

.·TfI~;~~Reii6L6G

.' -" . • ~!",

74 :,:~

"",

. :.~ ... ' '~'.

I ,f' ,

;uffix is also conditioned N suffix of the passive 3 active which has 72

THE PASSIVE VEHB-FOHM THE BASE VRI

THE SUFFIX

Formative

Voe

TIM

PN

r-S

generating the passive

1st pro

D

L--p

Present - 1-0 I

pad a

Plural

'ahe /

/ mahe/

he /

10 I

Roots

I-ya I

D

p

Future

r-S

I-syal 3rd pro

D

-/ dhwe /

e /

L--p

/ ante /

al

r-S 1st

Plural

ahi!

Past

D

r-S 2nd pro

D

la-I

/ dhwam /

/

pro

p

/ mahi /

lam / ~m

r-S 2nd pro

Verb-

al

~p

/ anta /

r-S 3«1 pro

31

Plural

ahi /

/ mahi I

ham /

D ~p

r- S 1$\ P,r.

/ dhwam /

am /

D

L--p

/ ran /

,----S Imperative

II

Plural

3.hail

/ dhwam /

m/

/ antam /

2nd pro

D

1-0 I

~p

-S

/ mahai /

3m /

(AP)

3rt! pro

D

p ,---- S pi pro

p

:

. :i

Potential I-il ,

D

-'---- S

2'":.:p'-

D ~p

,

'."

'---'S .'.

diagram-: . -,,',

I; ,.

. '.~"

'.

j::-

. .. ." ':.. "-; . -"

3«1 PI-

.--,

; '"

. -_•. ...., <' :;"~'.::;; .

- ....

~'p

.::

.~


D

f::

.

75

:. -.

-.--.--~--~-~.---,-.

,

TIM -Theallomorr

The Causal Verb-form :

and the Passive.

The causal forms are formed thus : The PN Suffix: (VRT + form) + VOC + TIM + PN

Looking to the cli

The Verb-Roots:

Iparasmaipada/.. lnsol

The VRT takes its allomorphic form. This allomorphic form inoludes

It discards the pr

gUQa, Vrddhi or the lengthening 6f penultimate vowel. This allomorphic form

The verb-form of

is considered as a derived form by traditional Grammarians. e.g.

VRT

allomorphic forms for the causal

/ bhG I

/ bhaw /

/ budh I

/ bod/1 /

/ wah I

/ wah /

/ wis I

I wes I

mri /

/ marj /

(VRT + Form) + (/ bhaw I + I

(2)

I bhaw I + I aya

I bhawayati I The conditions 1 following diagram.

I

The formative : The' causal verb-form does not beget any formative. :

The Voice"sign :

.

.~

.

The causal. verb-form gets / - aya - I as a voice sign. This / -aya- I indicates causality. The striking characteristic of Causal is / -aya- / which . is joined to .all the VRts to form a Causal verb-form. (VRT + form) + VOC ( /bhaw/ + / . ( /bodh I + I

(2) / ) (2)

I )

+ I aya / - / bhawaya I

+I

aya / - I bodhaya /

( Iwah I + I

(2)

. ( /we€; I + I

(2)

I ) + I aya I - I wesaya (

( Imarj / + I

(2)

1-):+ I aya./ - I marjaya/ . ..... ..... TH~ MORPHOLOGY.OF.:.L: .•. . 76

I )+ /aya I - / wahaya I ":.'

~

, ..

--

~~

..------~.- ..

",

.'

.

..

".':':-~-,-,---~

THE'rJlORPHOLOGY 0 , .... . .. ,-

'

, TIM -The allomorphs ofTense/Mood are the same as that of the Active and the Passive.

The PN Suffix: Looking to the classical usage it appears that the causal uses only· Iparasmaipada/.lri some exceptional cases only it takes the latmanapadal rphic form inoludes

.It discards the PN suffix of atmanapada.

'lis allomorphic form llarians.

The verb-form of the causal is generated thus :

causal

[

(VRT + Form) + VOC + TIM + PN (I bhaw I + I I/J I ) + I aya I + I I/J I + I ti I

l bhaw /

+.t

aya I + I I/J.I + I ti I

. I bhawayati I

-

. The conditions for the causal verb-form can be seen from the following diagram.

:ive.

sign. This I -aya- I al iSl'-aya-1 which

.',

THE MORPHOLOGY OF.- :.....

77

"

The Verb-forms of the

THE CAUSAL VERB-FORM THE BASE VRt

The Causal also

THE SUFFIX

Formative

TIM

Voc

PN

Present

Allomorphic

1-0 /

form of

2nd pro /':aya I

10 /

F:Jture

Verb-

VRT

-p

/ bhQ /

-S

/ budh /

D

/ wid / / diw /

-S 3 R1 pr.

Roots

e.g:

D

p

I-sya/.

ha~

The causal passive

(PP)

-s 151 pro

I

D

/ mrs /

-p

There are some casl -S pI pro

of the causal passive ar

D

of such cases can be f

',-p Past

The formative :

-S 2nd pro

la-I

D

It does not take any fl

-p

causality.

-S 3 R1 pro

1 \ pro S

The Voice-Sign :

D

-P

As the characterisH

~S

passive forms. It is join verb.

D

-P Imperative

TIM:

-s 2nd pro

1-0 /

The TIM allomorp~

D ~P

The PN Suffix :

-s 3rd

pro

As passive takes (

D

the PN suffixes of / Pi

-P

The verb-form of t

-s 1 sl pro

(VRT + Form) + V

D

-p Potential

2nd pro

I- i I

::'.:: , :-':"

···t~'··

. . . ' , -':-- P '",

.

I bhawyate / . ,the c,onditiohS of. .....

,:

frO[i1the;toliowing (jia( ".'

.

. ',,"

( bhaw i,,+ / ya /

D

,--p.

'3,,1 pr

" -~

'. :( / bhaw / + / 0 I

---:- S

"'..

.•..-:

.",

is'

'!

The Verb-forms of the Causal Passive: The Causal also has a passive variety (PP) !

The causal passive takes the allomorphic form of the VRT.

-E~

VRT

The Allomorphic form

I bhO I

I bhaw I

-E~

I budh I

I.bodh I

I wid I

I wed I

-E~

I diw I

I dew I

I mes I

I mars I

,

e.g:

P

P

p

There are·somecases where the forms of the simple passive and that of the causal passive are identical e.g. I gamyate I. The causal passivity of. such cases can be known from the context alone.

-E~

The formative:

-E~

It does not take any formative. The allomorphic form of theVRT indicates

p

causality.

-E~

The Voice-Sign :

p

As the characteristic features of the passive, I - ya I occurs in causal 'passive forms. It is' joiried to" the allomorphic form of the VRT to form a ' verb.

-E~

TIM:

-E~

The TIM allomorphs remain the same as that of the Active.

p

The PN Suffix:

-E~

As passive takes only I atmanapada I the causal passive discards the PN suffiXeS of I Parasmaipada I.

p

l ,<

The verb-form of the causal passive can be generated thus :

-E~

-E

(VRT + Form) + ,:..

s

,.

p'

/ + I ya I + I ,0 I

+I te I

. -.'

/. bhawyate / '

-E~ ,

PN

, " :( I bhaw I + I 0 I ) + I ya I + I 0 I + /te I

J bhaw

,~,D

vac + TIM +

.. , ....::

,the conditions ollhe verb-form of the causar~p'q;ssive can be seen frorrj tMeJollowing tjiagrar.n._.

, p,

'.

bRPHOl;OGY qF,.; .. .. :':-.,' 'i"

-:

.

. .:

".,

. :~

,"

..

".

.....

.~,

.

THE CAUSAL-PASSIVE VERB-FORM THE BASE

The Participles :,

THE SUFFIX

The second type of

.'

VRt

Formative

Voc

TIM

PN

I gatawan I in I ramal) gal

,-S 1sl pro

~p

Present

Allomorphic

r--- S

1-0 I

lonn

2nd pro

01

10 I

I-ya I

Verb Roots

It conveys the meaning c q{{q{OI ~1;:Hi'i:(q1 ;;no: I

D

Future

I-syal 3 rt1 pro

. According to V.S. Aptt

D p

participation or sharing i

,-S

the noun" (P.93). Excep'

D

participles are regarded;

'--p

because they agree with t

--S 1st pro

they qualify.

D

The construction of

'--p Past

2

la-I

nd

pro

r--S

the present participle, n

D

suffix is direclty added te

~p

the verbal forms. They 1

r-S 3ft!

pro

D

(VRT + Form)

-I

~p'

.

All other participles.

-S l,st

!Jr.

.'

D

VRT

-p

The VRTs:

-S Imperative

2nd pro

1-0 I

31d pro

151 pro

D -p

The Participles do nt

,--S

their different formative

D ~p

The Participative Suff

r-S

The Suffix is directl

D

potential participle has

p

one suffix_

-S

..

Potential

2nd pro

I -i J

GNC:

D

---'-'-' p

. " ~. .'.3:td

'" .:.

...

'.

+ Participi.

pr::,

'.' '.' Whenparticiple'isal . '. .. . .

r---.S :: .. j) .. '. "

suifix8s of the

[1O.un

t6

p

.:':THEMORPHOEOGYOF/::;' . '.'" "

..•. -

1'" ~O"""'OG' o~ •

FORM

The Participles :, The second type of the verb-phrase is the participial construction.

PN

I gatawan I in I ramal) gatwan I functions as the head of the verb-phrase.

s

It conveys the meaning of an action just as the verbal type e.g. ~ q{{q~ol 411'1{~l'1ql ;;mr: I ~ ~'1q,qcp:l'O:lIfuct'4+j, I

,..--+-- 0. P

S

.

1-+--'0.

According to V.S. Apte "They are called 'Participles' from the supposed

P

participation or sharing in the functions of the verb, the adjectives, and,

s

the noun" (P.93). Except the indeclinables and the absolutives all the

'--+-- 0.

participles

p

a~e regarded as the adjectives by the traditional G~ammarians

because they agree with the Gender; the number and the case olthe nou.ns

s ,..--+-- 0.

they qualify.

P

The construction of the participle is simplerthan the verbal. Except

S

the present participle, none of them take any formative. The participial

I--+-- 0.

suffix is direclty added to the VRT. The present participles are formed like

p

the verbal forms, They follow the formula of the verb-forms i:e. '

S

'--+-- 0.

(VRT + Form) + VOC + TIM + PN.

p'

All othe.r participles ,are formed thus:

s ,..--+-- 0.

VRT

+ Participial

Suffix + GNC

P

The VRTs :

s Ic-+-- 0.

The Participles do not take any formative.So different verb-groups and

p

their different formative signs are not required;

S

'--+-- 0.

The Participative Suffix:

p

.-+---

s

The Suffix is directly joined to the VRT.lt has no variation. Only the

0.

potential participle has three variants. Where as all the participles have

p

one suffix.

s I-+-- 0. "

GNC: ,

P

' '

When participle Isalreadyformed it takes the Gender-Number and case . ...' .... . .

S ~+--o.

,

.

,

-'.

suffixes cif the no.iJn to which it agrees.'

0'

p

, .,~

"

.

. ';.

EMORPHOLOGY OF,"::"

.~f

'THE, MORPHOLOGY' OF ;:.:",. , .

__ L-'

0:

,"': . . . . " ' . . . " . .

.

""

:

,

Types of Participles: There are three types of participles - The Active, The Passive and The I ndeiclinables. The Passive

The Active 1. The Present

The Indeclinables

1.The Present 1.The Indeclinables or ·the Absolutives

l!

In the present partie change does not occur. I the base does not end

·l

( I su I + I nu

\

I

I sunu I + I (/)

f

I Sunwat I)

f

2. The Past

2.The Past

3. The Perfect

3.The Future

4. The Future

4.The Potential

2.The Infinitives

(VRT + Form)

(ii) I atmanapada is I mana I or I in I a (i.e. th I ana I is adde

r

The Indeclinables : The Indeclinables do not function as the head of the verb phrase. So

They are gene

their analytical study is irrelevant to the chapter.

(a)

The Active and The Passive Participles :

(I

Following is the procedure to generate a participial form.

I gaQa;

(b)

As has already been said above, only the present participles are formed like a verbal one.

(VRT·

( I su

vac +

I sunu

TIM + PS

I sunw

The Active Present Participle: The Active present participle is formed in two padas. (i)

I Parasmaipada I -The p'resent participative suffix oi I parasmaipada/

l

vac + TIM +

The Present passive The suffix of the I It is generated thl

is I at I. It is generated thus : (VRT + Form) +

ga~

I gaoa

The Present Participles : .

i.e. (VRT + Form) +

(VRT ,

(VRT + Form)

PN

( I gao I + I \

( I gao I + I aya I ) + I(/)I + I(/)I + I at I

I gao

I gaoaya I + I(/)1 + I(/)I + I at I'

+ I ya

I gaoyamariai

I gaoayat I 82

i

L

,

i---,----------------------

:

, The Passive and The

l i

In the present participle when base ends in I a t, the Morphophonemic change does not occur. Instead of being Igaoayat/ it remains Iganayat/, when the base does not end in I a I, the morpho-phonemic change occurs e.g. (VRT + Form) + VaG.+ TIM + PS

nables

( I su I + I nu I ) + I(/)I + I(/)I + I at I

les or -the Absolutives

I sunu I + I(/)I + I(/)I + I at I I Sunwat 1) (ii) I atmanapada 1 : The suffix of the I atmanapada I of the present is I mana I or I ana I. The I mana lis added to the verb ending in I a I (i.e. the verb Root which belongs to group (A), while

I ana I is added to the remaining verbs oj Group (8). )f the verb phrase. So

-i

They are generated thus : (a)

(VRT + Form) + VaG + TIM + PS

( I gaoa / + I aya I ) + I 0 I + I(/)I + I mana I ~ipial

form.

I gaoaya I + I(/)I + I(/)I + I mana I I gaoayamang I . (b)

participles are formed

(VRT + Form) + VaG + TIM + PS

( I su I + I nu I ) + I(/)I + I(/)I + I ana. I I sunu I + I(/)I + I(/)I + I ana I I sunwana I The Present passive participle:

padas.

The suffix of the present passive participle is I mana I.

jffix of I parasmaipada/

It is generated thus : (VRT + Form) + VaG + TIM + PS

( I gao I + I

It I

r gao

I/)

I ) + I ya I + I(/)I

-I'

I mana I

I + I ya I + I(/)I + I mana I

I gaoyamana /

MORPHOLOGY OF....

~

i.

_ ..___L

THE. MORPHciLOGY

__

OF .. :.

83

,

~

-

r

The Examples from the classical Sanskrit:

The Past Participles

~) . ~qlgq;'j
The Active:

~ g{~'IIfl't<1I+jCfi;(j1 I (Raghu. V1I1.1) f{ I fl;,"Hl'n\'lCfi61 I Pc! tl '1:

'<)


m~1T{q"W

@<;;""fq ~

31 ~ I{"l '1f.1 \'I '14 i

~1'i1C;'t""'
mrm Pc! 'lit ¥

'1 il '1 q I\):(1!;1 f{ {: I

I'tRl~'a\'l: II

VRT 4- PS +

1 gao 1 + 1 tE

I

q~i;w\

trot

It is the same in

l

'ii§\'4
f

It I

1 gal)itawat 1 The Passive : It ha: VRT + PS +

(Sii.l)

1 gao 1 + 1 t1

The Future Participles: The future participles are simpler than the present participles. They do not take any formative neither in the Active nor in the Passive. It hq.s

I

Igaoha 1 + (

I

In the past passi' (i.e. 1 In 1 or 1 n

!3uffix IsyatJ in the Iparasmaipadal and Isyamana! in the latmanepada!.

rr a

VRT + PS + G)\

The .passive is the same as that of the 1 atmanepada I.

Iram/+lt The Active Parasmaipada

1 rata 1 + Gt

VRT + PS + GNC

1 nam 1 +J'

1 gao 1 + 1 syat 1 + GNC

1 nara

1 gaoi!?yat 1 + GNC .

r+

G

1 han 1 +

rt

1 hata 1 + G The 1 atmanepada 1 & Passive,

The Participles of t

VRT + PS + GNC

As the characteri: form of the VRT, w~

1 gao 1 + 1 syamana 1 + GNC

(i)

L

/ gaoisyamaoa 1 + GNC

The 1 Par . VRT

Examples from classical Sanskrit.

.~)

'<) .

Cfi\):I\Q+jIGI:~~rt ~1{if{'1'"!. I (Raghu. III. 52)

~)

~ C;~TR:t\S1O{Ih4+j1r<11; i

4fc:: ~r ~ L;pii'1I.1!+ q \):<4-iP1o~ '.«rm. ..

.......•.

1 jagaowa

,

_

.. _ - - - - ' -

(;i)

r

The 1 atrr .VRT

." :

+ P:

.. '/ jagao 1

I.

. . 1 jagaOan ..

84

P~

1 jagao 1

q;:qIf.:
'

+

"

,.\. .

rHEMdRj:>HOLOG~(OF....

.

l~

TH~.MOBPHOLdGY ( . . '"

",."

I

The Past Participles : The Active:

It has suffix I tawat I.

It is the same in both the padas. VRT

+ PS

+ GNC

. I gal) I + I tawat I +GNC I gal)itawat I +.GNCc The Passive : It has suffix I ta I as its participial suffix . . VRT + PS + GNC

sa.l)

I gal) I + I ta 1+ GNC Igal)ha I + G.ND lsent participles. They

In the past passive participle when the VRT ends in / m I or/r)/, they (i.e. I In I or I n f) are elid{.: .

. in the Passive. It has . in the latmanepadaJ.

VRT + PS + GN;:;

pada I.

I ram I + I ta I + GNC'

I rata I + GNC I nam I +J ta I + GNC I nata I + GNC . I han I +

r ta

I +" GNC

I hata I + GNC' The Participles of the Perfect Past: As the characteristic features of the perfect past, it takes the allomorphic form of the VRT, which has the reduplication of its first syllable. L

(i)

The I Parasmaipada I - It takes the suffix I was I . VRT + PS + GNC

I jagal) I + I was I + GNC (Ragh. 11.8)

I jagaQwas I + GNC; (;i)

52)

The I atmanepada I: It has lana I as. its participative suffix. . VRT + PS +GNC

. I jagal) I + I am~;~ GNC .

I

.

""

.

. • I jagal)~na I + GNC .' . ,",'

E"MdRPMOLOGY' . .' . OF'-...... '

. 85

Examples from the classical Sanskrit. ~)

=If'1T''li"
-3'!Ri'1ctl;:1C;'4~iRdlor ..:l

~

IT
,~


~) ~,'f IUJlfH: ~-sm ";f:"

1FI '1 en

~ 1'!' "i1 <"11

"'q"

fl f{¢;q 1

fl"Il'1 <1 '«ffi"l '10 i ~ .

~ ~

~)

:rr

'Tn: l'l"llqRi: II

~ Hqlo;q\'UWIj!'l«1 I

(58.15)

e

We will compare

(Ragh. v.34)

and then the verbal a

The Potential Passive Participle: Compared to the t

It is also known as the verbal adjective in traditional Grammar. It has '3 aliomorphs I tawya I, I anTya I & I ya I. It had one more aliomorph viz. I elima I in vedic but it is not used in the classical Sanskrit.

Verbal forms have lot: than one variants. Thi

I tawya I formations VRT + PS + GNC

I The

I gao I + I tawya I + GNC

I

Igaoitawya 1+ GNC

I anTya I formations VRt

VRT + PS + GNC

I

I gao I + I anTya I + GNC

1,2, ... N

IgaOanTya I + GNC

I ya I f()rmations VRT + PS + GNC

I

I gao I + I ya I + GNC

The

Igaoya I + GNC

Examples from the classical Sanskrit. . . ,

~)

i

.~

VRt

;

~ ~ My;i)'1''ll-SU ~. I '1

tITti- ,!~~-S~'1
"".,.,

-,.,---~

I
1

(uttar.4)

THE MORPHOLOGY-OF ....

L

THE MORPHOLOGY 'OF . -. . .. ,

~m;: >her

~)

dlF1H11~

Kif1l:

II (Raghu. VI. 77)

'1 &'<1'1 Ii'id m1T ~ I'!' 'f1(i\[

(i:I<:[T

Rlpq
'icl 'll fl:1
'11tl4 141-t '1 i1: ~)

(Sa.15)

I itional Grammar. It has 1e more allomorph viz. . cal Sanskrit.

.~ ~ ~

@,.,lH'I [ft q [ft

r

y;wpi'll

tIt

~ 't~m

;f ~

"q

~

-

-


('ql.'ff .

i1"i!: ~ ~

II

(sa.4)

ql'cll@41 '1&'<1'11<'4 m1T I (Raghu.XIV-61)

We will compare and contrast the verbal forms of Active and Passive and then the verbal and the participial forms. Compared to the Active, the Passive has less complexities. The Active Verbal forms have lots of variants. Most of the constitutents have more than one variants. This can be seen from the following diagrams . The Active Verb

I The Base

The Suffix

I [

Voc

Form

VRt

TIM

PN

[

[

4

72

",

[

o

,10

1,2, ... N

The Passive Verb

I The Suffix

The Base [


(uttarA)

VRt

Forni

I

I .0'

1

: MORPHOLOGY. OF. ....

THE .MORPHOLOGY 'OF . . - . . ,

.... ...L._, _ _~

....

'87

\.. -

Voc

TIM

I

I

I

... 1

4

36

PI\!

The VRTs : (a)

As the Active verb-forms take formative, the different groups of the verb roots are to.be remembered while forming the verb. The passive verb-form does not take formative s.o different groups of the VRTs are not required to be remembered,

(b)

The Passive verb is formed only in I atmanepada I . (even thqugh the root may belong.to I parasmaipada I only). This simplifies the formation ofthe passiv~ verb. On account of this, different padas of the VRTs are not required to be remembered.

Thus, tl}e verb fe complex on account ( (viz. VRT, formative, T The passive construe verb grou'ps are not t( and the PN suffixes The most compie are ten different veri formative. Moreover, : conjugation signs e.(

. The Formative :

I nu I - I no I ,

To form an active verb, ten groups of the VRTs are essential to be remembered because they have different conjugation signs. These '. conjugation signs are used as formative in the Active Verb-forms. So the different conjugation signs are also to be remembered. Moreover, 10 different formatives of Active undergo many morphophonemic changes. It adds to the complexity of the total verb-form. As against this, the passive verb is formed without any formative. This simplifies the formation of the passive verb.

The Voice-sign.: As Active is considered as a basic one, it is left unmarked. The passive . verb-form takes I - ya / as a voice-sign. On account of this, the Passive verb has one more constitutent. But the addition of I -. ya- I is simple. It has no variants. It does not compell any morphophonemic change. It is simply added to the VRT. This addition does not, as such, add to the complexity of the verb-formation.

TIM: The auxilliary allomorphs of Tense & Mood remain the same in both . theconslructions, so they do not contribute either in simplifying or in complexifying any of the construction.

The PN suffix <.: The Activeverb-forms have both thEi padas i.e. the I parasrnai I a,nd . .. the I. atmaneIwhe~eas. the passive verb-forms .dis6ardthe I parasmaipada·I.:t~us, the'passive,verb-formsha~e only allomorph$ of PN suffix whei:eas the'ACtive v~rb;forms have 72 variants'.ofPN~uifix:· .

3,6

"-'",

88

;,:~'.

',

..

THE MORPHOLOGyOi= .. ;: .' .

This diversity of. total verb-phrase. M( during the formation VRTs belonging to It to the group B. Bec morphophonemic ch changes are there, It consonant. changl e.g. I bibheti nro I bhuj I. Thus, while verb-form, the spea change, which area In the active COl does not depend on more or less convenl which may prove to b every now and ther seems, forced the sl of structural simplicit to that of the active c to opt for the pass The com parisI ..th~preserit particif ........ ,VRT+ PS . . ...... . .:~

.

.<'

~.~

:.'

- ...-

- . - ... -------.------,-----~------------ . . . .

the different groups of l forming the verb. The 1 s.o different groups of ered, epada I. (even thQugh lly). This simplifies the of this, different pad as llbered.

-s are essential to be Jgation signs. These ve Verb-forms. So the . Moreover, 10 different lic changes .. It adds to :his, the passive verb rmation of the passive

Thus, the verb formation of the Active construction, in Sanskrit is complex on account of the allomorphic variations. The four constitutents (viz. VRT, formative, TIM and PN suffix) have more than one allomorphs. The passive construction is simpler compared to that of tlie Active. The verb grou'ps are not to be remembered, the formatives do 'not take place, and the PN suffixes of the I parasmaipada / are discarded.

!

i

The most compiex part of the Active verb-form is its formatives. There are 'ten different verb-groups having .ten different conjugation signs as formative. Moreover, some of the ten groups have more than one different conjugation signs e.g.

I

I I

/ nu I - / no I,

r

I!

or I u / - / 0 I, or / na / - I ni I.

This diversity of .the conjugation signs .adds to the complexity of the total verb-phra~e. Moreover, the morphophonemic change which occurs during the formation of the Base also adds to the structural complexity. VRTs belonging to the group A are easier compared to those belonging to the group B. Because their ,bases end in I ~ a I and they have less morphophonemic changes compared to the Group B. Moreover, whatever, changes are there, they are the vowel changes which are simpler than the consonant changes. The group B ha~ consonant changes too e.g. I bibheti I,from the root I bhT I and Ibhunaktil from the root . / bhuj I. 1hus, while preparing the base for the generation of the active verb-form, the speaker has to remeniber the rules of morphophonemic change, which creates a lot of strain. '

r:

nmarked. The passive 1t of this, the Passive of / -. ya- I is simple. lphonemic change. It , as such, add to the

In the active construction, the selection from the various allomorphs does not depend on any regular phonetical or grammatical condition. It is more or less conventional.The learner has to remember all these conditions which may prove to be tiresome. The morphophonemic changes Which occur every now and then also adds to the complexity. These complexities, it seems, forced the speakers towards the reduction and to achieve the goal of structural simplicity. The verb-formation of the passive is simpler compared to thai of the active construction. This seemst~ have motivated the speakers to opt for the passive verbal forms .

;.,';."',

lain the same in both r in simplifying or in

. The' comparison of the verbal and:·theparticipi~lforms : Except ·.·the present participles all the p.articipfeshave three constitutents :

. the / parasmai / and. forms .discard the.· e only 3.6allomorphs variantsofPNsuffix: .

. .; ....... ::. ':VRT'+ PS·+·'GNC : ...:

.-;. . . "

.

·MORPHOLOGV.OF .. ;; ....

": ,:

.'

'~',:'" :.

".;..

....:.; - .'

'..:'.. '

..::: "

'

. ::

.;l ,.,

.

While the verbal forms have five consitutents : (VRT + Form) +

vac +

CHAPTER-

o

TIM + PN.

The present participle is not frequently used i.e. it is not used more than the verbal forms of the present. There is no other simplicity in present participle except the PN suffix. It takes the formative in the active and the voice-sign in the passive. So the present participle is not more convenient than the verbal-form to the speaker. The Present participle, as such, did not replace the verb as the head of the construction as the past participle did. Amongst the participles the construction is very simple. They do not take any formative suffix. . The PN Suffix-The participial construction do not take any PN Suffixes. To find an appropriate PN allomorph, the learner is required to know the . group of the VRT and the pada ofthe ·VRT. The participial suffix is directly joined to the VRT. When the VRT belongs to the group which takesli I before participial suffix, then it takes I i I otherwise, the suffix is directly joined. When the participle is already formed it takes the Gender-Number and the Case suffix of the nOun to which_ it qualifies. The complexity and the simplicity of the verbal and the participial forl')1s can be seen from the following diagram.

I

I

e~

According to Malinows of language in use. S of action shapes its E The Context :

The context effects of Discourse ' : 1983) language only in contE created problems for Longacre these probl "Among these pr pronominalizatiori anc understanding of tem _ temporal and spatia dislocation, and othe

in connected context where to use and whe

The Suffix

I

I -Form

I

some message, to

other sequence sign<

The Base

VRt

social actions. It is a lin

and other focus pher

The Passive Verb

I

Language being a

Voc

TIM

I

PN

I

I

of 'The Grammar

0

These problerr

Active-1,2, .. , N

10

0

4

72

morphological and sl is able to fulfill that

Passive 1

o

1

4

36

an utterance accura

Participle1

V •

90

_

....- - - - - - - - - - ' - -

10

The utterances GNC

a structural series, 1 theinterpreia,tion of

-tHE III\ciRPHOlOGY OF .:.• :

-THE PRAGMATI6-"FU~

..

----.~~------

I

,f'

CHAPTER - 4 THE PRAGMATIC FUNCTION OF SANSKRIT PASSIVE

l

it is not used more lr simplicity in present :ive in the active and is not more convenient :lrticiple, as such, did as the past participle 9.

{ simple. They do not

i

i I

J

[, ,

Language being a means of communication, is able to create unified social actions. It is a link in concreted human activity. It is uttered to convey som~ message, to express some feeling and to g~t something done.

I

According to Malinowski Pragmatic functions stand very near to the heart

,i

of language in use. So the pragmatic use of speech within the context

I

I

I, ,

take any PN Suffixes. required to know the

of action shapes its structure. The Passive is one of such structures. The Context : . The context effects much to the language in use. Longacre (The.Grammar of Discourse' : 1983) dedicates his book to the thesis that language .is language only in context. The study of utterances without their context has

Vhen the VRT belongs fix, then it takes / i /

created problems for correct understanding of utterance. According to Longacre these problems are. "Among these problems have been deixis and the use of articles;

Gender-Number and

. pronominalization and other anaphoric ways.referring to a partiGipant; better understanding of tense, aspect, niode and voice in verbs; use ofopticinal

d the participial forms

,

temporal and spatial expressions; the function of .extra-position, leftdislocation, and other such features; subject selection, object selection and other focus phenomena; the function and thrust of conjunctions and other sequence signals; and the function of mystery particles which occur in connected context in some languages, which the native speaker knows

l Suffix

where to u'se and where not to use, but which defy translation:' (Introduction

I ~

of 'The Grammar of Discourse' 1983)

PN

These problems need much more information apart from the

I

morphological and syntactic structure of the utterance and only the 'context'

72

is able to fulfill that need to enable us to explain the given structure of

36

'an utterance accurately. The utterances are not spoken at random but are strung together in

GNC

a structural series, the background knowledge plays an important role in the interpretation of the utterances. Ac'cording to Brown & Yule (Discourse

M.ORPHOLOGY OF

.~,:

L'"'

,"AG"':"'O'C"o,o:"_"

The Intonation & ThE

Analysis: 1983) "Doing 'Discourse Analysis' certainly involves 'Doing syntax and semantic' but it primarily consists of 'Doing Pragmatics' (P.26). As

As the spoken fo

Brown & Yule believe that it is necessary to know who the listner is and

examination it is difficL

also the time and place of the prod.uction of discourse. The study of pragmatics

the stress variants. Mu

is based on the Use of language in context. Therefore, it is concerned with

tradition pertains to tt

the relationships between the speaker and the utterance and not amongst

phonemes. Sanskrit ~

th~ utterances themselves.

on clause level. So it i and stress as the packi

As the background knowledge plays an important role in the

The Placement:

understanding of an utterance, it shows that each and every utterance contains some known matter and some new matter which is to be informed

Sanskrit has basi

by that utterance. This information needs some linguistic packaging or the

Any order other thar

conveyance from the originator to the receiver. The informer (or the speaker

placement or rather th

or the originator) has to select 'such a packaging. variant so that his

variant of Sanskrit. It is

information can be received accurately and effectively and should be

or for directing the di

sufficiently potential to express the intentions and attitudes of the originator.

t!

The Packaging Variants :

used for (1) The topi Following are the (1)

In the selection of the different packing variants for different pragmatic perspective conversational maxims play ·an important role. According to

i

~ -~!'i5i i "ct-<

Grice they are the'Conventional implicatures' i.e. the conventional meaning

[DUrmClkh,

of the words used'. (as quoted by Brown & Yale in 'Discourse Analysis

i

spy]

P.31:1 9"85) They are supported by'Quality', 'Quantity', 'Relation' and 'Manner'.

The object

The selection of the packaging devices of information depends upon the (ii)

common knowledge of the originator as well as the receiver of the utterance.

Another eXe last act the

The social relations, the social roles and the social status of the originator and the receive, cause to select packaging variant. The pragmatic use of

In the first

J.

speech within the context of action shapes the surface structure of an utterance.

Udayana. l-

.mituT

~

-'1'

[Usually, th' have zest].

There is a wide range of syntactic option available for packing information. . They are.

(1)

The Intonation & fhe" Stress

(2)

The Placem~nt

(3)

The :Constr~ctiQnofthesedtence ..•

..

'-

_ .. _-----'-

{

.

Instead of he speaks'

\. ..

"

,:.".

". fortopi9alh . .;

.-

.. -_.. _---- ...

__ .. _.. __ ._----_._... __ ._. __ .. _.. _-_ .. -._._..

-------

The Intonation & The stress :

( involves 'Doing syntax Pragmatics' (P.26). As

As the spoken form of the Sanskrit language is not available for

who the listner is and

eKaminationit is difficult to consider the packaging by the intOnational and

rhe study of pragmatics

the stress variants. Much of the phonetic work done in Sanskrit grammatical

-e, it is concerned with

tradition pertains to the phonemic level i.e. Pronunciation and sandhi of

ance and not amongst

phonemes. Sanskrit grammars do not provide Intonation and Stress rules

.

.

on clause level. So it is difficult or rather impossible to analyse intonation .

.

and stress as the packaging variant as far as classical Sanskrit is concerned.

nportant role in the

r

and every utterance (hich is to be informed

The Placement: Sanskrit has basic SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) type of construction.

listic packaging or the

Any order other than this is to convey some additional meaning. The

Ormer (or the speaker

placement or rather the displacement is also one of the syntactic packaging

1 variant so that his

varia·nt of Sanskrit. It is employed for catching the attention of the participants

:ively and should be

or for directing the·discussion in a particular direction. The placement is

udes of the originator.

used for (1) The topicalization and for (2) the End-focussing. Following are the examples of dislocations for Topicalization.

)r different pragmatic

(1)

nt role. According to .

"U+1:-~.f.Si I"d '
onventional meaning 'Discourse Analysis elation' and 'Manner'.

In the first act of Uttara Ramacharitam, Rama speaks-

W:,

<.l l111T

eft '(;it I'1 q ~ IX! q:a c\:

~ I

[Durmukh, a man of good character was appointed by me as a

.•

spy] The object is left-dislocated for topicalization.

n depends upon the ·iver of the utterance.

(ii)

Another example is from the Swapna-Vasavadattam, where in its

ItUS of the 6"riginator

last act the chamberlain conveys the message of Mahasena to

1e pragmatic use of

Udayana. He says-

ace structure of an

.m
~*' fll('HI%~q ~ I

[Usually, the wealth of the kingdom is enjoyed by only those who have zest].

packing information. L. !

Instead of. having . {41(;HI%h ~*' ~ I " . he speaks ~m:{~l(,(il~q

~.IHere; the object is forwarded

. for.topicalisation .... r."

'

... ;

le~UNCTION

of...:: .

......... .

.

. . THEPRAGMATICfU~CT10N OF. ..•. ·

93·

..•. ,

(iii)

. ~ "l4Iqi'!>\1I, ;:r

'q

m.:mr

I

*IT

[The girl was kidnapped but not protected by me.] The object is left dislocated for topicalization. . Following are the example of End-focussing a certain object that is directing the

0)

The Active:

Again, in the same act and play Udayana says-

atten~ion

on a particular object.

In the fourth act of Pratimana\akam, a door-keeper named 'Nandinika' says

I I

The Active type I Following are some of tl type. of construction is

\

(1) In the second ( Cheti and Vasavadatta

i

f

1 i

PadmavatT is a prince: coriversation is inform, so neither officialdom

\ qIW\;;'<\1

- ;:r' ~

~

[Friend, Prince Bharat was seen by us with eagerness] Instead of saying ~ ~ ~ she says
:w:tf:

q '>11 q <11

-

qj{~q;;'al

- ~

end-focussing. (ii)

In the first act of

sakuntalam, Sotradhara says to Na\L

~, ~~ qfM~4i I [Lady, this assembly is composed of learned men] [Padmavati - 0 ~ jeel

This is also an example of right-dislocation to focus on the Parishad, the Object. (iii)

Again, in Uttara Ramacharitam,

Vasvadatta - No

Vasanti asks Rama

100

ilRf):JC;"l"liI£['i1R1R8
Padmavati - Go Vasvadatta - All

focussed.

Ma

The construction of the sentence: .

The constructi.on of a sentence is also cine of the important packaging variants. The effed of the fact depends upori how it is' represented. San::;krit has two types of construction (1) The Active and (2) The Passive;

94

-

"." .~--.~--.--.-

..

'--

... -. _.....-

-

THE PRAGMATIC FUNCTION ·OF. .••.

I

Padmavati ' Wt

\I

, Vasvadatta - P n he

1 !

M;'i.id

. - Th

THE.PRAGM,ATW FUN

I

says-

,

The Active type of construction is used in informal situations. Following are some of the examples of informal Situations, where the active type. of construction is used.

by me.] ion. I a certain object that )ject. joor-keeper named

(1) In the second act of Swapna. the dialogues between Padmavati, Che\i and Vasavadatta (in the disguise of Avantika) are informal. Though

I r

eagerness] Instead .~ '+R
The Active:

PadmavatT is a princess and Vasavadatta belongs to a higher level their conversation is informal. They are young girls playing with each other, and so neither officialdom nor formality necessitated.

-

ql@c;'t11

- '1

f4>fliC;lrtl '1i'1%f{i(!fliq ~

ft;

'1

ft; I ~, ~ ~mm

.~ ~

it ~ 1T~{

I

q'ill
-~! ~ '11,!qgf( I ,

qI {Nc;'t1I

- q<:!lf{"1 ,);w\1¢1 '<'lRl"4"'1t>ioil'1q~

q 'ill
- q;

q 1@C;'t11

- 3H<'{'iiI [{.j rt~,,:j'l mIT ~ .."..,

of the sentence for

says to Nati.

:mit

Q"lI<1ct1

1:f"f

'1 t> Ioil

'1l .."..,

I

~ €!MqR'1l olf.11-a '1t>I:il'1 ~ I

eo men] lcus'on the Parishad,

,~

- '<'l1 ~

:m

~ ~

I.

[Padmavati - 0 Noble lady, why are you looking at me as if you are jeering?

.:'t:

'orthy work done by

Vasvadatta - No '" No ... Oh. ! You look gorgeous today, and I feel looking at it from all angles.

ated. To focus Rama

Padmavati - Go away, Please ! Don't ridicule me.

;anti.asks Rama ~;,'"

t dislocated or End-

Vasvadatta - All right, I will keep mum. 0 Future Queen of Mahasena! Padmavati - Who is that Mahasena ?

nportant packaging !presented. Sanskrit ) The Passive.

Vasvadatta - Pradyota, the King of Ujjain, is known as Mahasena as he commands a vast army. Maid

rIC FUNCTION OF.....

'- The Princess does not wish him as her husband.] . ' : . . !i5

~~~--.---~~~~~-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.-~~~~~~~~~--~~~-

This dialogue contains all the utterances in the active type of construction.

[Priyamwada - Dear

It is far from formality. It is a casual talk between friends, void of their respective social statuses.

sakuntala

- Wha1

Priyamwada - For, \

(ii) Another dialogue is from the third act of Pratima, which has taken place between two servants, viz.Sudha~ara & Bhata.

- ~. ~ ''f'f! Rtiflic;I"I"i
-

~

+IT,

- "f!lfuf e
pose sakuntala

;or ~ ?

Henc

(iv) Another examplE

~ lW( I

Rama and Sita - a husb,

~ C!>\1:<SQfu I

is uneasy because .her Ul1:

- ~ l111 C!>ictQi4'81 "'i!3'Hi3"ii ;orrfur I - "'i!3*1$~Oi ~ ~ ?

-~~,"l.1 WRT~

- C
mm - 1"11 r'i ;jj

'>!"C:

- ~ ~ 'f'f ! . ~ .rr~-mf1:r I

[Bhata

- Ah, you whore's son! Why don't you attend to your duty now? .

Sudhakara Bhata

"i
.

Beat me, Beat me ..

. [Rama - Oevi' Vaide~ They are OUI

- Beaten, what will you do ?

The agniho

Sudhakara - Unfortunate me I have' not got a thousand arms like Kartavirya. Bhata

~

performanc Sita

- What have you to do with a thousand arms ?

- I know, My causes mis

Sudhakara - I will kill you

Rama - It is true. P

Come on, you whore's son! I. will leave you only when (you are) dead.]

and having

(iii) Another example is from sakuntalam act I. The talk is between sakuntala & Priyamvada.

These'dial<

Bhata

heart get ro situations. j'

The Passive:

I

'-,

..•...

~i,!,'f10i

~;Q'1C;i

'~'(q41Cjlict~i

-

. ':~'

.0di:(i'1i<:f

.:

....

{:

.. :

"

90 .. THE

.. -".'

.~~~ht.~1

....... . .

->.

. :. Thisist~e'mos\P[\

,,:....

'"

the.. Passive de~iCisttiE '. ... , .. ..

.

,"

PRAGMATI({PlmCTI()N :OF••.•~>·

1

_.

"

".',

.T~EPhAGMAtrcE0·"l¢JI

··'·L······· "

.~:.

,-,--'~";.,.'..;..::..,:-,-",:,.,-'",,'.,....~:

"

.

'""

,. ",

1

the active type of [Priyamwada - Dear sakuntala, Just stay there only for a moment.

1 friends, void

of their

Priyamwada - For, with you near, this kesara-tree appears as though posessed of a creeper!

ima, which has taken ~ta.

;::r ~

What for?

sakuntala

sakuntala

?

Hence, indeed, you are called Priyamwada.]

(iv) Another example is from Uttara-Ramacharitam The talk is between

Rama and Sita - a husband and a wife, where Rama.consoles Sita, Who is uneasy because .her father has left. :

rrfur

'WI:

I

.~~,
RP «11<Sj 1'1 f.1 ('Q «i

I
T'i'T

;::r ~1
Rp:il W'"R'"lI1, I

,4 Ict ;""Fl q 'li ~ fd

~. i;
<.fTctT . '-'11'11 f''i ~,

'-'11'11 fli I ~ ,HI q 'li IRu 11 ~'-'1 OJ R1 >l

m"II

~I

t you attend to your

'WI:

. Qq~ct\'l, I

1fif fg

(ii'wFif'c0c;: ~

ih:
~

'(iq\'I'lI'1{U,q m'llIRlki 'l··m-qul: I

[RamS. C Devi Vaidehi, Please be calm f They are our respected elders and are not capable of leaving us. The agnihotri gentiles experience many difficulties and the

thousand arms like'

performance of the daily rituals shackles their free.dom. Sita

sand:'arms ?

- I know, My Lord, I Know it. But separation from. the relatives causes miseries.

Rama - It is true. People, therefore, having relinquished their desire leave you only wr,en

and having been repulsed by things mundane which peers the heart get respite in the forest.]

The talk is between

These dialogues show that the situations.

active is used in informal

The Passive: '-.~

. ",.

'.•" Thisistlle'mostpreferred paGkaging variant onh~.crissical Sanskrit.' the PasSive depiCi$the:(ormalerivirorirnenf. Ifi~.inbrefrequent[y used in .'. .. . . . . .

",:.'

"

':

l

·.T:H~

PRAGMA1"ICFVN¢T'laNoF,;.:, . 97...... ':"

~---'--

. . . . . . . . ._........... GIIiIiIIIiiiOi.:1

..

.

'- ..

... '

.' -.,

..:.:"

>'

When both the spea

the formal context than in the informal one.The Classical Sanskrit language is used more frequently in Royal conferences than in casual talk. The utterances are passivized to suit the formal surroundings. Sanskrit had not rem.ained a spoken language. It had become a language of royal conferences and scholastic debates. The classical literature has characters of higher levels. The audience of the plays as well as the readers of the Mahakavyas also belonged to the upper levej of the society. The Characters of some of the plays of Sanskrit literature are listed in the Appendix. The list includes the works of Bhasa, Kalidasa, SQdraka and BhavabhOli. This list shows that the characters belonged to the upper social level or to the lower social level. The middle class was not at all represented. . The heroes of the plays are the king, the queens, the princes, the princesses or a minister or a brahmin. There are other characters of lower level as doorkeeper ( !>lRi!5({1 ) chamberlain ( (",.-qq,~(4 ) charioteer (¥ )servants and maids, to serve the heroes of the upper level. The story element also belonged to the royal court happenings. Even in M(cchakatikam whose hero is a poor brahmin and who is loved by a courtesan, a simultaneous story of the royal happenings is created so that the interest of the people may not decrease. Moreover, the male characters are more than the female characters. The males from the lower level speak·Prakrit, and the ladies' from any class us'e prakrit. Sanskrit is not used as a spoken language but it is used for royal court proceedings· and in formal surroundings. The Passive suits the formal surroundings better than the Active. The Passive is the most preferred packaging variant of the classical Sanskrit literature.

when the surrounding is illustrations : (1) In the one act pI;

I, \

salya is interesting. Bot

-

1Jf:

- ~ I

~~

- ~it>UT

q;ut

- rr ~ I

'.

,I !

" 31.{Q;'Lf;

'f"fuq ({.t!i

I

rI

[salya

o

Kall)a

By whOrl

salya

By Indra

Karl)a

Not at al

As has been seen the passive is used in the formal situations. Sanskrit literature is full of formal situations. Most of the dramatic persons belong to the Royal courts. So, the Passive is more natural than the active. The formal situation is formed on two grounds (1) It depends upon the participants, their social status and their role in the utterance and (2) The circumstances under which the utterance has taken place.

King 0

gratified I in innum destroys' hard by I

i

Both Kan (ii)

The Passivization :

m ~
~~

The follow

The talk is between

DUI

and sakuni:the King's

I

The Social status & the role at the participants : . The social status of the speaker or the listener plays an importantrole in the packaging of iniormation. Following are the .situations where the passive takes place".· '.' '.. . .... . . . . . ..... ::", '.-,'

98'

.

- 3W

, ,::.

THE PRAGMATic FuNcTION OE ....

THE PRAGMATIC FUNCi

;ical Sanskrit language

When both the speaker qnd the listener have higher social status &

in casual talk. The

when the surrounding is formal the Passive takes place. Following are the

In

Jndings.

illustrations :

lad become a language

(1) In the one act play of KarQabharam, the talk between KarQa and

:Iassical literature has

salya is interesting. Both of them have exalted position.

; as well as the readers

m ~~,

leJ of the society. The tu re are listed in the

~l(rl.<:

-

g;11t

- ~ I

:alidasa, SOdraka and

~l(rl.<:

-

q;uf:

- -;or ~ I ~TSll:' 'l'flfT ~ I

ged to the upper social ; not at all represented. Jrinces, the princesses

r

,,

o

[salya

he story element also ~(cchakatikam

whose

esan, a simultaneous interest of the people

~~

¥

"3F·TCP<-T~H~('mft.Tit f&~: ~uf?;'n-"~ ·CiT,'[ct~m>;'ffil -,:p:rr ~ ~ 1:fl'l)~m.:r;'1: II"

:ters of lower level as lrioteer (¥ )servants

~ ~ ~

King of the Angas, you are indeed cheated;

KarQa

- By whom ?

salya

- By Indra

KarQa

more than the female )rakrit, 'and the fadies l

Not at all, Indra is cheated by me because I have indeed gratified Indra who is propitiated by the Brahmins with offering in innumerable ·sacrifices. Who is friend to Arjuna, who

s a spoken language

destroys the hosts of demons and whose fingers have become

nal surroundings. The

hard by patting the celestial elephant.J

Ie Active. The Passive cal Sanskrit literature.

Both KarQa and salya are the kings of some provinces.

\al siiUations. Sanskrit

The following dialogue is from the play DOtagha\otkacham. (ii) The talk is between Duryodhana the King, DUQsasana- the King's brother

natic persons belong

and sakuni-the King's maternal uncle.

II than the active. The

~~.

';;'1'''''.''

, upon the participants,

-

Cl('{1

~: ~rn:r.1

!

.<mITo~

:2) The circumstances

RmoT

~

~ ~ I'I'
lays an important role

3O+JMctloW C\

'q

~ l=I1'T{lCi<"l{4 . C\ .,~

,

.situations where the

I ATIC FUNCTION OF.....

THE PRAGMATIC FUNCTION OF;.:..

99

'.-.:

(i~

qIO"§;'tj,iil

~

~~iiI cil '1IS1iR1

Rlf"q lfu~

,

". ~~

!

~mj(f~VH61\ilil.s~

\

I

m~'Cf "'FH II" 'If) "'1 q i1 '11 <; {'JOU f'i '(-U I15
~floi;~ffi'


'fi1T ~

i~ H1I'~11 M Mil r+"1 c{h>~

-.

!

[ (King - Is this kr

:-

Ji'1,(<:14j ~.rrc;'lfi'{ II

~.

tI

Here, the King ani

'f

The second situati

I

'MJW ~~WPT "

Yaugandharayal)a

person who belongs te that the high personm

~ *i~'1IS1R1ti ~ lHi: II

that they use passive

[Duryodhan<\ - Dear DUQsasana

out of such formal

By Abhimanyu's death, our enmity is firmly established,

(i)

victory is attained and our enemies have been dispersed

In the first ac!

'J:if, 'i'( li 'i'11

in panic. Kri$l)a's pride is up rooted; and I have to day won both success and fame.

[(Ghariotear, v..

Oh ! to be sure.

Dul)sasana

SUI

This line is not spo~

The Pal)davas were engaged by Jayadratha's forces

and also spoken to only,

overcoming the forces at enemy, when Subhadr.a's son

so.

- second Arjuna - was slain by the discharging of a .

00

'. hundred·shafts. We, who through Bhi$ma's fall suffered many calamities have today, in this battle, planted sharp darts of sorrow into their hearts by killing their son.

Similarly, in Pre <:fl'\:-3ft ~

;::rp:[1plT~

, [It was while we Jayadratha displayed very high valour on the battle-

sakuni

If>

ceremony of the fathE

field today, beyond the expectations of the kings; for in the fight he forcibly robbed them at once of their

This is a casual t used.

son and their unequalled fame.) This dialogue has taken place in the midst of the battle-field after the

The passive cons

death of Abhimanyu. All the three participants have higher social status,

i.e. the person about v.. social status. The thire

otherwise the context is not a formal one . . '.' (iii) In the last

~ct of theplay Swapna~th~ talk between the kingUdaYana

and his Minister Yauganclharayal)a·js tci.be:i;E?eriWhenthes~$pense of Vasavadattais disclosed,

... .

t)1~:King .i;lSks~.· .- .

;.

........

.'

-,',.', . ..... .

.'

-'<:"" ~ .... '.';.

",

.'"

. (i). In: the sixth a' Dasaratha,he says·: .. -'- ..... ..

..... ....

some bf the example

'

" . -::., '.. ,"

-

~ ~l'f1JC!ill

-

{
'1 , ~

I

ffi(fll

I

ffi(fll,

[ (King - Is this known by Rumarwana ? ·YaugandharayaQa - Lord, it is known by all.) ) Here, the King and YaugandharayaQa have higher social status. The second situation is where the speaker uses the passive with the person who belongs to the lower level, in the informal situations. It seems that the high personnels are so much habituated with the formal speech that they use passive only because of their habit, even though they are out of such formal surroundings. , is firmly established, (i)

; have been dispersed

In the first act of sakuntalam, Du:;;yanta says to his charioteer.

~,

ed; and I have to day

'i{"I

1'1 1 ~>To-r


I

[(Chariotear, we have been drawn far by this antelope)). This line is not spoken in a royal conference but in the interior of the forest . Jayadratha's forces

and also spoken to only a charioteer, but because of the habit, Du:;;yanta speaks

vhen Subhadra's son

so.

:he discharging' of a

(iQ

Similarly, in Pratima. When Rama shows the place to Sita, he says :

-. 3hi:;;ma's-fall suffered battle, planted sharp by killing .their son. 'alour on the battle·

ms

of the"kings; for

Ul1;-3:r;r 3H"'Ilr"1:

"1ll1'fll~ · [It was while we were sitting here thinking of the performance of the ceremony of the father, that the 'Golden sides' deer was seen.) This is a casual talk between a husband and a wife, yet passive is

em at once of their

used. battle-field after the

The passive construction is found to be used when the third person

ligher social status

i.e. the person about whom the conversation is going on, is having a higher

.

'

3n t~e king UdaYana 9n the suspense of

social status. The third person is looked upon w,ith respect. Following are some of the examples.: ',."

· (i). In the s.ixth act • '1

.'

. '

ofPratrm~.WhenSuman·tra fells Bharata about ..'

•..•.

: •• '

0

-

•

• • • • • •

,oa.s aratha, he s a y s - : . . . ' :.' '.

;

••

'"'"""'0' 0,,,; . .1 .. ,,;,, "AGM'''i '",or,"~.,~;"..;,;· .." .

_~_

. _ _ __ ._.~'v _n';

- ..

0_ _ . ,

-'.-

-.,'~:'

0·.· .'-:

,

';I,

q;c;r~T

Though Arjuna is a I

q {
respect and was talkec

- I{I'll'1 ~'<Ti!

mfu

~RuT ~q,-,!'q~ ~ -q-~:M:ID ~d'1i11 ~ I

l

[Sumantra - [Prince, Please listen, Formerly, a sageboy who was the eye of an eyeless great sage, was killed by the great king

(iv)

Similarly, ir

are talking about Bhari normally expected in tl

gone out a hunting with an arrow hitting the mark following

-l'ffi-;f

its sound throygh the mistake that it was a wild elephant, it (the mistake) being caused by the sound resembling that

>lRi'1Ill

he

of a wild elephant, as

1Ffl1TJ

(the sage boy) was filling a pot

r

(with water) in a certain lake].

(ii) In \he first act of Swapna. when Brahmachari comes to the hermitage and describes what has happened in LawalJaka and tells him how the king behaved on hearing the death of Vasavadatta and

r

YaugandharayalJa. He says~ til 'q 1{\

- em:

Hft.T~TCFT:

u;rTT

~
[Brahmachari

.cnftr:"

er~ ~TT~T

muTT<J:

ll-F'c.TT

'1kR
- ~

~

-~

'1kR
-

~

-~,

~

c

'l11

~ ~ ~

eT<'TT:

qf{C'4'\t'
~R-T

I,

-

~

,

~+m:"

~

The king having returned from the hunting trip on

,l

, hearing the news of the death of boih wanted to

1

immolate himself but was, prevented by the ministers

-~!.

[Vijaya

from doing so' with great difficulty.]

Frien Bhar; head

, The Brahmachari is full of awe and respect for the king so whatever

Hom

he speaks for him he uses passive only.

Nandinika

- Frier

the time of the battle of Kuruk!;>etra. When his son Abhimanyu has been .

Vijaya

- How

killed by the Kauravas, a servant is sent to know how Arjuna is influenced

Nandinika- How at hi

(iii) Another example is of Arjuna, who was not having high post at

by that event. A servant Bhaia informs them in the following sentence in the play Dotaghatoikacham. 'l1G: - "'l'f~I'<1lRiR"i'ih ~

T-f, ~~~

Vijaya

qf{f(j'i'lj

and

Zi1'1I~'1lq>1\f.(4~'1 1'lR1~I
brot , , The .' '. her.

[Retuming afterhe was ehticed away bytheSamsaptakahords, Arjuna " put his dead son in his lap and wetted hirnwith his tears, bu"tbeihg reproved . . . '.

,"

, by Kri!;>lJa he madea v o w ] . ' "

"

..

.

. :--, ",

- Whc

,,"

,":'

...•

Of

~~ mfu 'l>R~T

Though Arjuna is a mere warrior he was looked upon with tremendous'

'R"'m~~'l'
Ri:IT itfurr:

respect and was talked of in passive to show that respect.

I

(iv)

Similarly, in the fourth act of Pratima. When two maid servants

sageboy who was the

are talking about Bharata and KaikeyT they use passive; Passive is not

killed by the great king

normally expected in their casual talk.

ting the mark following

mm

it was a wild elephant, . boy) was filling a pot

~Rll1l~i ~

f!

sound resembling that

~

r

'fr:.

- lic'!T '1~R~ 'l'fUT 'l'fUT ! :o:rq <6\{1041 ~ ~ 3M1:

~ 'l1
'lft: (!'f &R- fum I

'1RR'li1

- ~ ¢-5~ 'l1
mm

- ~ <;!'l1l{UI fcp

'iRR'li1

- fcp '<'1fbld+'l, ? ::ilq611~
mm

-

31"i

'q .

!

lachari comes to the iwaQaka and tells him )f Vasavadalla and

,i

t-

;mit

'l1fUrnT

?

::il
<;!'4<'41i"i'11 ~i4l1l~<e"l, I ~-5ftr ~~T llfl1d"l, I

~ ~ I 'IT'fCi;"

:m~f ~Fc.TT rT~Ti': 'Tl1: q f{<'4'W 'Ii I"f1 -51ffiit

..,.-RR-iliT . - ~ ~

mfurr


I ~~ ~ ~HlO'i'1 Mdcnq;1

rrn:

'§"I'!lT: I n the hunting trip on

-~!.~ 'lil:.~ I '1RR~, ,

:h of boih wanted to [Vijaya

mted by the ministers :ulty.]

'WT'ti"

~ 't.~l:f[q:! .

- Friend Nandinika, tell, me,. tell me. It is said that prince Bharata was seen to day by all the ladies of the harem headed by Kausalya, when they had been to see the Statue

the king so whatever

: havin'ghigh post at ~bhimanyu has been

, Arjuna is influenced

House. I, am unfortunate creature, remained at the door. Nandinika

- Friend, prince Bharata was seen by us with eagerness.

Vijaya

- How was the queen add'ressed by the prince ?

Nandinika

- How addressed ? The prince did not wish even to look

I

L

allowing sentence in

at her. Vijaya

- What a great calamity? By her, covetous of the kingdom .and making Rama deprived of the realm, widow-hood WaS brought upon herself;' even the people were led to ruin.

3.ptaka.. hords, Arjuna

. The queen is indeed cruel. A sin has been committed by ". her.

), butbeing reproved

-'\: . .:- .:.>.~ -'. p9 FUNCTION

"

of..;:.

. .._------- ... -.-.... _

,-:"

_._.- .....

'"

. .':' "< "

.,

. Nandinika

- Friend, listen leaving aside the consecration arranged by

(ii) Following is an

the subject, the prince went away to Rama's penance grove.

play when A$\avakra c(

Vijaya

(Sorrowfully) Hum !Thus went the prince! Nandinika, come

Rama. 3lI:G~:

on; we will see the Queen.] This discourse is going on between two maid servants. Here active

[A$\avakra - Bha~ has I

and the prince, and that is why the passive is employed. Another pragmatic function of the passive is 'conveying a message'.

her:

Messages are always being driven by some third person and they are mostly

The message is fOI

carried for the persons who have usually higher- social status. They are in the passive type of construction. Following are some of the

concerns to Rarna.

examples: (i)

¢ ,. "Tf'".-
could have taken place, but it is· about KaikeyT and Bharata, the queen

deliv~red

-

(iii) Immediately It

In the well-known drama -of sakuntalam when Kaova sends his

daughtersankuntala to DU$yanta he sends some message to him with his two disciples - N>'ih11iQ4m ~ I

mTI

-~~W: -

. [Mtava,kra - Anc ha~

~ '4'14i~~i ~ 'r~ 'Wli'j,Q4i«l
¥

pre

......... .

ent witl

d\'C;C;if.'l+1I4;;JRii'li j;jfct'Jiilcti ~'11"q,oii~m I. [King

What does his holiness command ?

sarogarava

That by niutual agreement you married the daughter of mine ... that ("our action) has been approved of by me who love you both.Why ? ............ ..

This is a persona conveyed or not-they ~ therein, and hence, (iv) Another exar there must be some rr and he carries the n

Therefore, let her who is expecting a child, be received to the jOint discharge of religious duties.] Here, the message is conveyed.tothe king,and.the message is of the sage Kaova. It was acusto:m th~t ines~ag~swere cQRveyed in formal

'.'

tone, and the passiveisagbdd iTiediiJii, to convey the same . ....... ,:;~<...... : .. . ':.<

.-------.. -------~---

.

_

.. .;'-':"

onsecration' arranged by

(ii) Following is an example from Uttararama. In the first act of the

o Rama's penance grove.

play when A$\avakra conveys the message of ArundhatT and others to

prince! Nandinika, come

Rama. ~ L

~T:

Hf';-",z

t

d servants. Here active

'q WICl('41

" i' 'l'n.T{-~H-~n:

3Ri;q('4T.

W-5 Cl"~ lPi f':l ~ I "'"1 i'i fl:l (1 &l

.1

~nd Bharata, the queen ~mployed.

~ I

'[A$\avakra - Bhagavati ArundhatT, dowager Queen mothers and santa has repeatedly conveyed a massage that whatever be

'conveying a message'.

her ~ desires should be promptly fulfilled.]

rson and they are mostly

The message is for all and not for a particular person though it mostly

social status. They are

concerns to Rama.

lowing are some of the

(iii) Immediately thereafter A$\avakra conveys a message to Sita. when KalJva sends his

.. ~ 1:f<m

nessage to him with his

'11 '11 e1l R1 I

'q

$m:

W-G"C 1GQ -\.~ ituT..

cmI,

'lid] ~J I itffi

~o ~ wr"@'i
(1"i';(,!olfct1~JI'lIliiSljJf

'q

sr~~ ~ I

. [A$tavakra - And brother-in:law 8u$y.asrnga has conveyed that you have not been called as y6u are in the last stage' of pregnancy. Even Ramabhadra has' been kept there to entertaim you and we wish to see yot,! a longlived one with a son in your lap.] land? . This is a personal message to Sita. Good wishes conveyed-whether J

marriE!'Cl the daughter

conveyed or not~they are there. There is neither any formality nor officialdom

, .s been approved ofby

therein, and hence, it is relayed in active.

?. ..............

(iv) Another example is from DOtavakyam. The title itself suggests that

e received to the joint'

there must be some message to convey. Here, Lord KrishlJa is the messanger and he carries the message of Yudhi$\hira to Duryodhana.

mdthe mei>sageis of ,re conveyed in formal

~ .. ~'.~. ~ffit~ ~ ,!,~I0'H1l14

)

r

~

_'. feiili q<1f:n 'if{j«3I{1C;<1: qI "Sq (~

ey the same. ..... "

'q

.....

'.,

>, .

_~ . . . _. n__ ~.. .:n_~_ifC\);,I"{jFi

THE

.·~,:t~~;,;":J:;" ", .

PRAGMiTICFuf:.lc.ribNOF ...... . -,"

".'<:.. .

105: ' ..

:

,':~-'" ~

~:.

:

II

,"

.

.",

[Vasudeva

Yudhi!?tira and the PaQdavas after inquiring about your welfare regarding your person and your kingdom convey 'q

that they have experienced great miseries and their

ClI{NC;"ct'

~ fil";('h<:'

period (of exile) is over. (Please, therefore,) give unto us whatever share is due to us in accordance with law.]

[Dhatri - The queen Mahasena

This is totally an official message from ?ne sovereign to another and

palaka.Yol

it is also carried in an official rr:anner. 11 is spoken in a royal conference.

without the

So the passive is in a keeping with the occasion. The whole conversation'

you, under

is going on in a highly formal manner.

account of (v) Another example is from Swapna. In the Last act of the play. the

performing

message of Mahasena is being brought to Udayana when he regained his

a portraa 0

lost kingdom.

the marria! get peace

The dialogue is :

The circumstance

- N>lilil1lq4M ligH~'1: - ~ cil:{q (lI'i

.m
<wnJ 11-51:£j"~TWT

"f1:

!'I (iq l;:fl ct ~ Rl I

¥

important to decide the

I

circumstances.

err '1il'(\l~'1> ~ I

If two unknown per

~ ft; ~sfu 'Illl'(\l~~cl .~·II

fon~al situation is creal

[Kin·g -What Mahasena commands?

. putto use for the pUrpOSE from classical Sanskril

Chamberlain - Fortunately you have regained the kingdom which was userped by others because those who are

In the first act of

cowards and weak have no zeal. Usually wealth of the

s;

introduction, she uses

kingdClnl is enjoyed only by those who have zest.] (vi) Again, the message of his (Mahasena's) Queen is also interesting.

'-

She reminds Udayana the whole episode of his marriage to Vasavadattaher daughter, and sends a picture of hers and conveys good wishes to

[The confidence c

obtain mental peace after her death. So the whole episode is described

to speak- which royal

in passive and lastly good wis.hes which is informal and pregnant with

country has its popula,

maternal instinct is convE3yed in Active;. -

qp;ft-

-

reason has yourself, th(

~ ~-' ~ C(1<;IClC;"ct11 "Il1 cIT litm~+("T:Q"l-i+ff\n;rcrT o-TFmiful '

106 -.

THE- PRAGMATIC

..

~

of

a visit to the p.ena!

.

, THE PRAGMATICFUN~'

FUNCTION OF.,:" •. .,","

:

.~ .. '

"."-:-

.

!r inquiring about your

q<1~f+i'\1'i,,""1fl:l<jl'1l<jl<1: I ~'"I[1'"1{11~,* qiGII64q~~R G'\1T I

I your kingdom convey

~~'€lq0i11l10Pi4<1fcJqle;%.IM 1;fCf lTi1: I ~ ~

at miseries and their

'q q@l <;'\1 III ~'q !;i

therefore,) give unto

1ft <['I'd

fi'j "I Cf)M iii I IlI'1lfCite;q

~ fi'j"lCf)0'll1 ocr ~~t ~ I

accordance with law.]

'«IT

~~.;q

(fq"

fucmiT Rt
I

'li4" I

[Dhatri - The queen conveys-Vasavadatta is no more. To me and to

ireign to another and

Mahasena you are as dear a son-in-law as Gopalaka and

1 a royal conference.

Palaka. You were brought to Ujjain for that reason and even

l

whole conversation'

without the presence of fire Vasavadatta was entrusted to you, under the guise of giving her lesson in ViQa playing. On

i

account of your fickle-minded ness you went away without

st act of the play the

performing the marriage ceremony and thereafter we (two) got

vhen he regained his

a portrait of yourself andVasavadatta painted and ce.lebrated the marriage. I am sending you that canvas, looking at which get peace of mind.]

r

The circumstance under which the utterance takes place is also

!,

important to decide the type of construction. Following are some of the circumstances.

If two unknown persons come face to' face for the first time,.a highly formal situation is created. In such situations the Passive construction is i

putto use for the purpose oi introduction. Following are some of the examples

1.

1e kingdom

from classical Sanskrit.

ause those who are In the first act of sakuntalam, where Anasuya asks DU$yanta for his

Jsually wealth of the

introduction, she uses the following words :

:e who have zest.]

~ -

n is also interesting. ~ge

~ 'l1'i'(iMlq"1Pictl ~

+rt

'1<';\<\(\
-q~TI0MW<\il, . ~
to Vasavadatta-


ays good wishes to

'0>1'li I {(H10j'q

(lQ1 q'"l'I'1'"1 q[{'>l'i f41(+l I 4<;1 q 410:1

pisode is described

(The confidence created by your honour's sweet words prompts me

and pregnant with

to speak- which royal dynasty has .been adorned by yourself. ? Which country has its populacepi~ing through separation (from you) ? For what

'1iOml'"lBT
\r,hn

reason has yourself, though extremely delicate,been subjected to the fatigue of a vi~it to the p.enance-grove?] .

~~ft

"fFfTiTf'cr I

.

'ICFUNCTION OF." .. .,'."

... ~.

:

..

THE PRAGMATIC. FUNCTION OF:·.... . 107

(i)

[Manager-Noble lady

In the first act of Swapna. Yaugandharayaoa asks Brahmachari,

of learned men. Today,

an unknown new-comer, he says~-m

¥

W

sakuntalam by name, th

;;:{(lI+=4d, qq ~, qq 3TIU'
Kalidasa. Let, therefore,

[0' from where you are coming? Where you are going to ? Which is'

Actress: By reason c

your residence ?]

representation nothing a (ii) The SOtradhara c

(iii) Similarly, in the second act of Uttararama. Vanadevata asks Atreyee :

4'1~q(1I:-3'!Tlf ~, ¥

tfiRt>IJIR1d ? ~ lllOlh ..ii· c; GsC!5I'(U4!,('

'll$lIGI\'l:\
~
[Lady Atreyee, where are you coming from? What is the purpose of (your) moving in the forest of DaQQaka ?]

(l

. [Let us enact UttaraR

Here, in all the three illustrations, Passive is used forthe sake of formality

the versatility of whose

alone, as addressees are unknown as far as their social status is concemed.

(iii) There is anothe Sotradhara and he is a

. The SOtradharas of Sanskrit dramas have also to face a formal situatien.

{1~\:m

The purpose of his dialogues is to introduce the theme, te welcome the

mm~

: -

~

audience, and to give a symbolic suggestion of the story element. While the SOtradhara addresses the heroine, what he speaks is meant fer the audience. The SOtradhara does not address a particular individual in the

[Aye, Aye! truth lov

auditorium butthe entJre audi.ence as a whole. F.orthe SGtradhara, the whole

have te pay attention't(

audience is a cellection of persons. None knews the other personally. He

and that which is purifyil

has to begin in an extremely formal way. The SGtradhara who oCcupies

after comprehending It

an exalted position is talking with the Nata or the Nat! who are of a lower

Thus, th,e SOtradh~

status and hence the active censtruction would be more in tune. But as

put in a formal situation t

he is on the stage, in the midst of unknown persons, the whole dialogue

Scholastic deb a

is in the passive constructien.

construction is found n

(i) As an iliustration, we might scan the following dialogue from Abhijnana

in prepounding a propo

sakuntalam.

The written records of ~Tcr1 CP-rftrTGTH

,

l:.T\);T<:Tc.H-f1 "TTf\.T~TFH Tt~ "':TcrFTP:'T'<-Tc.T "T "Tc.T "r"TTe
II I I,

'l"f'1ffi; - ;;:{"p:r ;;:{"f\.n; q~lfl:T15<3"T q~TPc;£.Pl I

3n:r

~ .1. '~''''''TftCmtim:
,!~mrmJI(1<114*'l3

f4il4fq

:~~J.;.

" >

,

to be found in the pas: the Agent is cjempted : constructions, "

......'.

ares~'meofthe:,e~~iT passi0~ type':9('
',-

,-.',

.'", . . :;.

"

':'. .

, . ' , ' . 108

th~ ge,~E

,,"

• ",.,' ," .•••.

.

,"

'~""

": '.:'.:.':.:'~);\::/.' ;, . • >.

, . •;-;, ••. ;:.- ,.-.

. .... ", -:.,~<::.~:::.- : -.: :.",' : ." '. .... ~:':~::~

·,;::THE ",

~

PRAGMATIC. l'u~F' ~-

,

Qa asks Brahmachari ,

f

l re going to ? Which is'

adevata asks Atreyee :

-;iT

<;u:S'l>i{U'l!,{'ClI{:

?

[Manager-Noble lady! This assembly is for the most part composed of learned men. Today, we have indeed to offer a new drama, Abhijnana sakuntalam by name, the plot of whose has been strung together by Kalidasa. Let, therefore, (your) effort be bestowed on every actor.

!I

Actress: By reason of your honour's having well-done (i.e.studied) the representation nothing at all will be wanting.] (ii) The SOtradhara of UttaraRamacharitam says


"

r

Ihat is the purpose of

§I(:llulfl1
d'ilt

[Let us enact UttaraRamacharitam which has been written by a brahmin, 'or the sake of formality

the versatility of whose tongue has awed Goddess SaraswatT.] ,

al status is concerned.

{iii) There is another drama within the play Uttararama, it also has a

face a formal situation.

SOtradhara and he is also, introducing in the same way.

eme, to welcome the

{~~\'m

story element. While

'liT 'liT

~~ !,{1-il('1{1: "{~lq'01iil:I[li "1'I<;I~lq'lRt­

'l~<;'i{""1I~UT 'I'Nhq l<;ql'1ld CLlfl1Rl I

3aks is meant for the ~ular individual in the

[AYe, Aye! tn.)th loving God Prachetas orders the physical world 'you

SOtradhara, the whole !

-

have to pay attention'to that which we have created by our divine sight

other personally. He

and that which 'is purifying and which contains KaruQa and Ad bhOta rasas

Idhara who occupies

after'comprehending the majesticity of its inner form].

IT who are of a lower more in tune. But as

Thus, the SOtradhara of the Sanskrit dramas uses Passive as he is

:, the wholE{dialogue

put in a formal situationto introduce the drama written by some other person. Scholastic debates and Generic construction- The passive construction is found more useful for emphasizing a point by sastrakara

wing dialogue from

in propounding a proposition which the sastrakara propounds as his thesis. The written records of such sastras for the benefit of posterity is usually

31'-1" ~T(r! Cf1TWT<;"T<.'T

l' ;'T

to be found in the passive construction. Because, in such constructions,

;'Tc.T ;'T;'TTc
the Agent is demoted and sometimes deleted too. These are the generic

•.:i:rR; I

!i
",

.

constructions, tti~ genera:li~ati6ns applied to each arid el(erybody. Following ares~~e, ~f the'ex§.mp{es'tak~~irornthe traditional', sastras where the' pa$si~~type'~i,~~nstn;ctio~' ~secL', ,.' ", ' , " ' . '

-,"

is

: .. :... . .

"

,-.,

:~'.

<: . :-.

.:

". ',:~. ::.:. ,"':

TIC

FUNCTION

': -.

:~

-""

c',,'

.: ~ ..

;

OF.,L:)·,' ":'";.'.

"

.."

': . .,.'

...'. .. y

, ' ....ifi:.c.' ' ~-.....,.".' .S ._ .... _. ___ .~ ___ ., ________ ~_~"'_ _ _ _ _ _~~_

____'__

(iii) The Alankarasi

(i) NagojibhaHa of Paribha$endu sekhara, after paying homage to

Ii iva and Amba starts his book with the following words:

'1'i~1'(t\ qU

I'll -.:ll '1 tl ;q Ict> <: 0 I(1 ;;if ell 'tl R ct> I ;;;q 'j{ q I fl'l '11 t\ (1 ;;if ~ I q ct> '4 I ;q fu 'i; I R "l1"4 ellfftct>;qlR
~'llfUT


mR

R"l l61i ct>1<:w;j , '"

C>Q1&11'4~ I .

% f(;: ~1

mWT q{Oct> I {Cf> (14IM't

[ (In this work) are exiplained the metarules which in the works of the

>T~i{':IT"r-=rRrr'f<'4T~:r,

older grammarians were given as SOtras but are in this grammar of Panini's

mWTq~4i I {Cf> ;PM '1

(mostly) established by Jnapaka,s and Nyayas, provided they are contained

"{«\).''i;4 Cffil

in the Bha$ya and the Vartikas].

I

He does not say ~ ~'llfUT C>QIMII11"4lfli but he says

(ii)

mR

~1:!TftrT ~ C>QIMI'4rct I

I

In the same way, Pataiijali in Karakanhika says\

~ crn
f