Albatrosses Petrels & Shearwaters of the World

Field GUide to the

Albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters of the World

Derek Onley and Paul Scofield

Christopher helm london

Like so many ocean sailors, I have a huge respect for these incredible birds, which circle Antarctica over the most inhospitable oceans in the world. I hope that through the images and information in this book those of you who have felt the sheer presence of these birds can re-live it, and those who haven’t can begin to experience it. Dame Ellen MacArthur

Published 2007 by Christopher Helm, an imprint of A&C Black Publishers Ltd, 36 Soho Square, London W1D 3QY Reprinted 2008 Electronic edition 2010 Copyright © 2007 artwork by Derek Onley Copyright © 2007 text by Paul Scofield and Derek Onley The right of Derek Onley and Paul Scofield to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988. ISBN (print) 978-0-7136-4332-9 ISBN (e-pub) 978-1-4081-0877-2 ISBN (e-pdf) 978-1-4081-3579-2 A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage or retrieval systems – without permission of the publishers. Commissioning Editor: Nigel Redman Project Editor: Jim Martin Designer: Julie Dando, Fluke Art, Cornwall

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CONTENTS List of species and subspecies

4

Preface

11

Acknowledgements

11

Taxonomy and the species debate

12

The four families: characteristics and taxonomic relationships

14

Identification

19

Conservation

25

How to use this book

29

Seabird topography

31

Colour plates

32

Species accounts

122

Albatrosses

122

Fulmarine petrels

143

Prions

151

Bulweria and Psuedobulwaria petrels

157

Gadfly petrels

161

Procellaria petrels

187

Shearwaters

191

Diving-petrels

215

Storm-petrels

218

References

237

Index

238

LIST OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES the species within the families are generally listed in the same sequence as in dickinson (2003). however, a number of taxa treated as subspecies there have been raised to species level, bringing the total number of procellariiform species illustrated and discussed in this book to 137. The figure on the right shows the relevant plate in each case. For polytypic species, races are listed in small type. Abbreviated ranges are given for all taxa. subspecies are generally listed in order of publication. the order used here within the pterodromas and shearwaters is artificial and is designed simply to help identification.

Family DIOMEDEIDAE (albatrosses) a) Wandering albatrosses

plate no.

Diomedea exulans Snowy Albatross (Wandering Albatross)

1, 2

Diomedea dabbenena Tristan Albatross

1, 2

Diomedea antipodensis New Zealand Albatross

1, 2

Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on higher-latitude islands of southern ocean except new Zealand. tristan da Cunha and Gough i., ranging at sea through south Atlantic.

D. a. antipodensis (Antipodean Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on Antipodes i. and in small numbers on Campbell i. and Chatham is. D. a. gibsoni (Gibson’s Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on Auckland is.

Diomedea amsterdamensis Amsterdam Island Albatross

Amsterdam i. (indian ocean). ranges at sea across southern indian ocean.

1

b) Royal albatrosses Diomedea sanfordi Northern Royal Albatross

1, 3

Diomedea epomophora Southern Royal Albatross

1, 3

Circumpolar s hemisphere; breeds mainly on Chatham is. Circumpolar s hemisphere; breeds mainly on Campbell is., with smaller population on enderby i., Auckland i.

c) North Pacific albatrosses Phoebastria irrorata Waved Albatross

5

Phoebastria albatrus Short-tailed Albatross

4

Phoebastria nigripes Black-footed Albatross

4

Phoebastria immutabilis Laysan Albatross

7

Tropical E Pacific; breeding confined to the Galápagos Is.; range to adjacent seas as far as S America. NW Pacific. Breeds mainly on Tori-shima (Japan), ranges S and E. Central and western N Pacific. Most breed on NW Hawaiian Is. with some in S Japan. Ranges SE to equator. Central N Pacific and off Baja California. Ranges from Japanese seas N to Bering Sea, E to Pacific coast of n America.

d) Mollymawks Thalassarche melanophris Black-browed Albatross

7, 9

Thalassarche impavida Campbell Albatross

7, 9

Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on higher-latitude islands of southern ocean. Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding only on Campbell i.

Thalassarche cauta Shy Albatross

6

Thalassarche eremita Chatham Islands Albatross

6

Thalassarche salvini Salvin’s Albatross

6

T. c. cauta Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on islands off tasmania. T. c. steadi (White-capped Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on islands off new Zealand. S Pacific. The Pyramid in Chatham Is. provides sole breeding ground. Migrates to Chilean and Peruvian waters in winter. S Pacific. Breeds on Bounty and Snares Is., migrates to Chilean and Peruvian waters in winter.

Thalassarche chrysostoma Grey-headed Albatross

Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on higher-latitude islands of southern ocean.



8, 9

Thalassarche chlororhynchos Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross

8, 9

Thalassarche carteri Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross

8, 9

Thalassarche bulleri Buller’s Albatross

8, 9

Circumpolar s hemisphere, tristan da Cunha group and Gough i., ranging at sea through s Atlantic. Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeding on lower-latitude islands of s indian ocean.

T. b. bulleri (southern Buller’s Albatross) Circumpolar s hemisphere, breeds on the snares and solander around stewart is. T. b. ssp. nov. (northern Buller’s Albatross) Breeds on sisters and Forty-Fours in Chatham is. and on three Kings islands north of new Zealand. subspecies yet to be formally named.

e) Sooty albatrosses Phoebetria fusca Sooty Albatross

10

Phoebetria palpebrata Light-mantled (sooty) Albatross

10

Circumpolar s hemisphere, warmer subantarctic waters of s Atlantic and indian oceans. Circumpolar s hemisphere. ranges at sea in colder Antarctic waters as far south as ice edge.

Family PROCELLARIIDAE (petrels) a) Fulmarine petrels Macronectes giganteus Southern Giant Petrel

11

Macronectes halli Northern Giant Petrel

11

Fulmarus glacialis Northern Fulmar

12

Fulmarus glacialoides Southern Fulmar

12

Thalassoica antarctica Antarctic Petrel

13

Daption capense Cape Petrel

13

Pagodroma nivea Lesser Snow Petrel

13

Pagodroma confusa Greater Snow Petrel

13

Lugensa brevirostris Kerguelen Petrel

14

Halobaena caerulea Blue Petrel

27

Circumpolar southern ocean; restricted to Antarctic waters in winter. Circumpolar southern ocean; ranges to subtropics in winter. F. g. auduboni low Arctic and temperate n Atlantic. F. g. glacialis high-arctic n Atlantic. F. g. rodgersii Colder waters of N Pacific and Bering Sea. Circumpolar southern ocean; cold-water species of southern ocean and Antarctic. Circumpolar southern ocean; cold-water species of southern ocean and Antarctic. D. c. capense Circumpolar southern ocean; occurs in subtropics in winter D. c. australe new Zealand waters Antarctic waters, rarely far from ice.

eastern Antarctic waters, rarely far from ice.

Circumpolar southern ocean; a cold water species. Circumpolar southern ocean; a cold water species.

b) Prions Pachyptila vittata Broad-billed Prion

26

Pachyptila salvini Salvin’s Prion

26

Pachyptila macgillivrayi MacGillivray’s Prion

26

Pachyptila desolata Antarctic Prion

26

new Zealand and se Atlantic, in warmer subantarctic waters just north of subtropical convergence. Breeds SW Indian Ocean, occurs throughout cooler circumpolar waters except SE Pacific in winter. endemic to st paul is. range at sea unknown.

Circumpolar southern Ocean, in colder waters but rarely reported in central S Pacific.

Pachyptila belcheri Slender-billed Prion

Circumpolar southern ocean, dispersive in colder waters.

26 

Pachyptila turtur Fairy Prion

27

Pachyptila crassirostris Fulmar Prion

27

P. t. turtur Circumpolar species of warmer subantarctic and subtropical waters. P. t. subantarctica Breeds on Antipodes, snares and macquarie is. P. c. crassirostris Chatham is, the snares and Bounty is. P. c. flemingi heard and Auckland is.

c) Bulweria and Pseudobulweria petrels Bulweria bulwerii Bulwer’s Petrel

15

Bulweria fallax Jouanin’s Petrel

15

Pseudobulweria aterrima Mascarene Petrel

15

Pseudobulweria becki Beck’s Petrel

17

Pseudobulweria rostrata Tahiti Petrel

17

Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi Fiji Petrel (macGillivray’s petrel)

17

Tropical waters of N Pacific and N Atlantic. nW indian ocean, breeding on socotra is. and islands off southern oman. réunion i. in W indian ocean.

seas off new ireland and solomon islands. P. r. rostrata marquesa is. and society is. P. r. trouessarti new Caledonia. Gau i., Fiji and adjacent waters.

d) Gadfly petrels i) Cookilaria petrels Pterodroma axillaris Chatham Islands Petrel

23

Pterodroma nigripennis Black-winged Petrel

23

Pterodroma inexpectata Mottled Petrel

23

Pterodroma hypoleuca Bonin Petrel

23

Pterodroma leucoptera Gould’s Petrel

24

Pterodroma cookii Cook’s Petrel

22

Pterodroma pycrofti Pycroft’s Petrel

22

Pterodroma brevipes Collared Petrel

24

Pterodroma defilippiana De Filippi’s Petrel (mas a tierra petrel)

22

Pterodroma longirostris Stejneger’s Petrel

22

SW Pacific, breeding only on Chatham Is. Tropical and subtropical S Pacific.

Pacific Ocean; breeds in S New Zealand, foraging south to ice edge; migrates to NW Pacific. Subtropical west and central N Pacific.

P. l. leucoptera Cabbage Tree I., Australia; SW and C Pacific. P. l. caledonica (New Caledonia Petrel) New Caledonia; E Pacific. Hauraki Gulf and Stewart Is., New Zealand; migrates to NE and central E Pacific. N New Zealand islands; migrates to NE and central E Pacific. Islands of SW Pacific. Islands of E Pacific.

Alejandro Selkirk I. (Mas Afuera), Juan Fernández Is. Range at sea in Pacific poorly known.

ii) The large, subtropical Pterodroma petrels Pterodroma alba Phoenix Petrel

Tropical and subtropical central Pacific.

Pterodroma heraldica Herald Petrel Tropical and subtropical Pacific.

Pterodroma arminjoniana Trindade Petrel tropical W Atlantic and W indian oceans.



17 16, 17, 25 20, 25

Pterodroma atrata Henderson Petrel

16

Henderson Island, central E Pacific.

Pterodroma neglecta Kermadec Petrel

P. n. neglecta SW and central Pacific. P. n. juana Juan Fernández Is. and Desventuradas.

16, 20, 25

Pterodroma ultima Murphy’s Petrel

16

Pterodroma solandri Providence Petrel

16

Tropical Pacific.

lord howe and phillip i. (norfolk Is); migrates to N Pacific.

iii) Large black-and-white Pterodroma petrels Pterodroma cervicalis White-necked Petrel

18

Pterodroma occulta Vanuatu Petrel

18

Pterodroma externa Juan Fernandez Petrel

18

Pterodroma baraui Barau’s Petrel

20

Pterodroma sandwichensis Hawaiian Petrel

18

Pterodroma phaeopygia Galápagos Petrel

18

Pterodroma cahow Cahow (Bermuda petrel)

21

Pterodroma hasitata Black-capped Petrel

21

Pterodroma caribbaea Jamaican Petrel

21

SW Pacific Ocean. Breeds on Kermadecs and Phillip Island, Norfolk Is. SW Pacific. N Vanuatu.

Alejandro Selkirk I., Juan Fernández Is., dispersing over the tropical and subtropical waters of E Pacific. Central and sW indian ocean, breeding only on réunion i. Central N Pacific, breeds on higher Hawaiian Islands. Central E Pacific; breeds on higher Galápagos Islands. Breeds on Bermuda; moves n into the Atlantic.

n Caribbean and western n Atlantic. Breeds on higher C Caribbean islands; moves up Gulf stream as far as north Carolina. Jamaica. probably extinct.

iv) Pterodroma petrels with dark underwings Pterodroma macroptera Great-winged Petrel

14

Pterodroma gouldi Grey-faced Petrel

14

Pterodroma lessonii White-headed Petrel

19

Pterodroma magentae Magenta Petrel (taiko)

19

Circumpolar subantarctic and Antarctic waters except new Zealand. Warmer waters of new Zealand and tasman sea. Circumpolar in colder subantarctic waters. Chatham is. and surrounding seas.

Pterodroma mollis Soft-plumaged Petrel

P. m. mollis Colder waters of Atlantic and new Zealand. P. m. dubia Colder waters of indian ocean and tasmania.

14, 19, 21

Pterodroma feae Fea’s Petrel (Cape Verde Petrel)

21

Pterodroma madeira Zino’s Petrel (madeira petrel)

21

Pterodroma incerta Atlantic Petrel (schlegel’s petrel)

19

subtropical ne Atlantic. madeira is.

s Atlantic; breeds on tristan da Cunha is. and Gough i.

e) Procellaria petrels Procellaria aequinoctialis White-chinned Petrel

28

Procellaria conspicillata Spectacled Petrel

28

Circumpolar southern ocean; breeds in colder waters, moving north in winter. sW Atlantic, breeding only on inaccessible i. (tristan da Cunha is.).



Procellaria parkinsoni Parkinson’s Petrel (Black petrel)

29, 30

Little and Great Barrier Is., New Zealand; winters in E tropical Pacific.

Procellaria westlandica Westland Petrel

29

West coast of South Island, New Zealand; migrates E temperate Pacific.

Procellaria cinerea Grey Petrel

29, 32

Circumpolar in colder subantarctic waters.

f) Larger shearwaters Calonectris diomedea Cory’s Shearwater

33

Calonectris edwardsii Cape Verde Shearwater

33

Calonectris leucomelas Streaked Shearwater

33

C. d. diomedea (scopoli’s shearwater) mediterranean. C. d. borealis Subtropical W Atlantic Is. other than Cape Verde; migrant to S Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Cape Verde Is.

NW Pacific, migrating to central W Pacific, Indonesia and E tropical Indian Ocean.

Puffinus pacificus Wedge-tailed Shearwater Tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean.

15, 30, 32

Puffinus bulleri Buller’s Shearwater

Warmer waters of Pacific except SE Pacific. Breeds only on Poor Knights I. near New Zealand; migrates to N Pacific.

32

Puffinus carneipes Flesh-footed Shearwater

29, 30

Puffinus creatopus Pink-footed Shearwater

32

Puffinus gravis Great Shearwater

32

Subtropical Indian and SW Pacific Oceans; migrates to N Pacific and NW Indian Oceans. E Pacific; migrates to N Pacific.

Atlantic and indian oceans; breeds only on tristan da Cunha and Gough i. migrates north.

Puffinus griseus Sooty Shearwater

Circumpolar in warm and subantarctic waters; migrates north mainly into Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

14, 31

Puffinus tenuirostris Short-tailed Shearwater

31

Puffinus nativitatis Christmas Island Shearwater (Kiritimati shearwater)

30

Circumpolar in colder waters; breeds only in Tasmania; migrates north into arctic Pacific and Bering Sea. Tropical and subtropical Pacific.

g) Manx-type shearwaters Puffinus puffinus Manx Shearwater

35

Puffinus yelkouan Yelkouan Shearwater

35

Puffinus mauretanicus Balearic Shearwater

35

Puffinus opisthomelas Black-vented Shearwater

34

Puffinus gavia Fluttering Shearwater

36

Puffinus huttoni Hutton’s Shearwater

36

Atlantic ocean; breeds in cooler n waters and winters in C and sW Atlantic. Breeds throughout mediterranean except Balearic is., mostly migrating to Black sea. Breeds on Balearic is., dispersing into W Atlantic. Pacific off Mexico, dispersing NW.

northern new Zealand and tasman sea.

Central e new Zealand; migrates to Australia.

h) Little/Audubon’s Shearwater complex Puffinus elegans Subantarctic Little Shearwater

36, 37

Puffinus assimilis Little Shearwater

36, 37

Colder waters of SW Pacific, and Gough I. and Tristan da Cunha Is. in Atlantic. P. a. assimilis sW Pacific. Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island.



P. a. kermadecensis SW Pacific. Kermadec Island. P. a. haurakiensis SW Pacific. Islands off North Island, New Zealand. P. a. tunneyi se indian ocean. Amsterdam and st paul is. and W Australia.

Puffinus baroli Macaronesian Shearwater

35, 37

Puffinus lherminieri Audubon’s Shearwater

34–37

The Azores, Madeira, Canary Is., Desertas and Salvage Is. P. l. lherminieri Bahamas and West indies. P. l. loyemilleri Caribbean Islands to Venezuela P. l. boydi Central E Atlantic Ocean. Cape Verde Is.

Puffinus bannermani Bannerman’s Shearwater

37

Puffinus persicus Arabian Shearwater

37

Puffinus bailloni Tropical Shearwater

37

NW Pacific Ocean. Bonin Is.

P. p. persicus Arabian sea. P. p. temptator Comoros is., nW indian ocean. P. b. bailloni Central W indian ocean. mascarene is. P. b. dichrous Tropical S Pacific and Indian Oceans (except Mascarene Is.).

Puffinus subalaris Galápagos Shearwater Galapagos is.

34, 37

Puffinus newelli Newell’s Shearwater

34

Puffinus auricularis Townsend’s Shearwater

34

Puffinus heinrothi Heinroth’s Shearwater

30

P. n. newelli Central N Pacific Ocean. Main Hawaiian Is. P. n. myrtae rapa island in the Austral Group (possibly elsewhere in French polynesia). Eastern N Pacific. Clarión, San Benedicto and socorro is., revillagigedo is. Central W Pacific, W Solomon Is.

Family PELECANOIDIDAE (diving-petrels) Pelecanoides garnotii Peruvian Diving-petrel

38

Pelecanoides magellani Magellanic Diving-petrel

38

Pelecanoides georgicus South Georgia Diving-petrel

38

Pelecanoides urinatrix Common Diving-petrel

38

humboldt current.

magellanic current and extreme se Argentina.

Circumpolar southern ocean in colder subantarctic waters and stewart i. P. u. urinatrix n new Zealand and se Australia. P. u. chathamensis s new Zealand (not subantarctic) and Chatham is. P. u. dacunhae tristan da Cunha is. and Gough i. P. u. berard Falkland is. P. u. coppingeri s Chile. P. u. exsul remainder of subantarctic.

Family HYDROBATIDAE (storm-petrels) Subfamily OCEANITINAE (southern storm-petrels) Oceanites oceanicus Wilson’s Storm-petrel

O. o. oceanicus Breeds on high-latitude subantarctic islands; migrates to N Pacific and Atlantic. O. o. exasperatus Breeds on the Antarctic mainland; migrates to N Pacific and Atlantic. O. o. chilensis Breeds in Chilean fjords; may migrate to N Pacific.

Oceanites gracilis Elliot’s Storm-petrel (White-vented storm-petrel) O. g. galapagoensis (Galápagos White-vented Storm-petrel) Galapágos Islands. O. g. gracilis n Chile and peru.

39

40, 45

Pealeornis maoriana New Zealand Storm-petrel

45

Garrodia nereis Grey-backed Storm-petrel

40

new Zealand waters

Circumpolar subantarctic.



Pelagodroma marina White-faced Storm-petrel

P. m. marina s. Atlantic. tristan da Cunha is. P. m. dulciae sW indian ocean and tasman sea, southern Australia P. m. eadesi Central W Atlantic. Cape Verde Is. P. m. hypoleuca Central W Atlantic. salvages is. P. m. maoriana SW Pacific. new Zealand (other than Kermadec is.). P. m. albiclunis SW Pacific. Kermadec is.

44

Fregetta tropica Black-bellied Storm-petrel

41, 45

Fregetta grallaria White-bellied Storm-petrel

41, 45

F. t. tropica Circumpolar subantarctic. F. t. melanoleuca s Atlantic. tristan da Cunha is. F. g. grallaria tasman sea. F. g. leucogaster s Atlantic. tristan da Cunha is. F. g. segethi SE Pacific, Juan Fernández Is. F. g. titan Central Pacific. Rapa Is.

Nesofregetta fuliginosa Polynesian Storm-petrel (White-throated storm-petrel) Central S Pacific Ocean.

44

Subfamily HYDROBATINAE (northern storm-petrels) Hydrobates pelagicus European Storm-petrel

39

Oceanodroma microsoma Least Storm-petrel

42

Oceanodroma tethys Wedge-rumped Storm-petrel

40

Oceanodroma castro Madeiran Storm-petrel (Band-rumped storm-petrel)

39

n Atlantic; migrates to s. Atlantic.

Mexican Pacific coast; migrates south.

O. t. tethys (Galápagos Storm-petrel) Galápagos Is. O. t. kelsalli (peruvian storm-petrel) peruvian waters Tropical and subtropical Atlantic and Pacific.

Oceanodroma leucorhoa Leach’s Storm-petrel

O. l. leucorhoa N Pacific, N Atlantic and Pacific (except central NE Pacific). O. l. chapmani Central NE Pacific. Baja California. O. l. cheimomnestes Pacific Mexican coast. Guadalupe I. (winter breeder). O. l. socorroensis Pacific Mexican coast. Guadalupe I. (summer breeder).

Oceanodroma monorhis Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel NE Pacific; migrates into N Indian Ocean.

39, 40, 42, 43

43

Oceanodroma macrodactyla Guadalupe Storm-petrel Central NE Pacific. Guadalupe I., probably extinct.

Oceanodroma tristrami Tristram’s Storm-petrel

43

Oceanodroma markhami Markham’s Storm-petrel

42

Oceanodroma matsudairae Matsudaira’s Storm-petrel

43

Oceanodroma melania Black Storm-petrel

42

Oceanodroma homochroa Ashy Storm-petrel

42

Oceanodroma hornbyi Hornby’s Storm-petrel (ringed storm-petrel)

44

Oceanodroma furcata Fork-tailed Storm-petrel

42

NE Pacific. S Japanese Is.

Waters of humboldt current.

NE Pacific, Iwo Jima; migrates to N Indian Ocean. Central NE Pacific. Baja California.

Central NE Pacific. Islands off California coast and Baja California. Waters of humboldt current.

O. f. forcata n Kuril, Commander and Aleutian is. O. f. plumbea Alaska to n California.

10

PREFACE This book covers the 137 currently accepted species of the avian order Procellariiformes, ubiquitous denizens of the oceans of the world. the common name for the entire group is ‘tubenoses’, a reference to their external tubular nostrils, which are often very evident on the upper mandible. the order is usually divided further into four families: the albatrosses, diomedeidae; petrels and shearwaters, the procellariidae; the storm-petrels, hydrobatidae; and the diving-petrels, pelecanoididae. the procellariiformes are an ancient group that have been recognisable in the fossil record for more than 35 million years. the order includes some of the world’s commonest birds, such as Wilson’s storm-petrel. Yet the group’s very existence is scarcely known to the general public, due mainly to the fact that petrels and albatrosses are almost exclusively marine birds, spending the majority of their lives at sea and only coming to land in order to breed. Before the 1980s, observation and identification of petrels had been limited mostly to those who lived and worked at sea, and was hampered by the absence of a good field guide. The landmark publication of Peter harrison’s Seabirds: an identification guide by Croom helm in 1983 began the ‘rush to sea’. in recent years, the advent of ‘pelagic’ birdwatching trips and eco-tourism that reaches the poles and the southern oceans has seen the identification of seabirds become a frontier of birding. Many questions have been answered since the publication of Harrison’s guide, but a number of identification issues remain unresolved, and there are cases in this book where we had to admit that separation of a species at sea is extremely difficult or even impossible given our current knowledge of the group. indeed, even our understanding of what constitutes a species is still in a state of flux. Bird taxonomy cycles through periods of ‘lumping’ and ‘splitting’ of species. The current trend is to split, stimulated by enthusiastic use of genetic research, and nowhere is this more apparent than among the albatrosses; the 14 traditionally accepted species have been split, by some, into as many as 27 separate species. in this book we have tended to be conservative and have leant toward the adage that if you can’t recognise it at sea then don’t separate it. This book is for birders, birdwatchers and others who go to sea and who wish to find and identify the birds that they see there, whether flying alone through storms, feeding en masse in the sun with dolphins, tuna and gannets, or paddling around at the back of a boat waiting for a handout. It is aimed mainly at identifying flying birds and we concentrate on those aspects of plumage, moult, morphometrics and biology that help with this. For example, we include features such as egg-laying dates to give an indication of the time of year the species can be found near land, but we omit details of incubation shifts by males and females. At times we have to discuss plumage in some detail, but we do not go into the meticulous feather-by-feather detail that may enable identification of birds in the hand. We include descriptions of characteristic flight styles but rarely mention voice. most petrels are silent during the day at sea except when they congregate in groups; in our experience, voice is not useful in the separation of any species of albatross or petrel. We recommend that if you wish to find out more about the lives of albatrosses and petrels you take a look at Warham (1990, 1996) or Brooke (2004).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank the following people who helped in many ways, by providing such things as accommodation, money, cups of tea, pub lunches, information, photographs, references, permission, discussion, opinions and encouragement, and for doing so cheerfully and generously: sandy Bartle, Kevin Bartram, sharon Birks, mike Carter, George Chance, Joanna Cooper, robert prys-Jones, rose delany, euan dunn, david eades, Jim enticott, dominique Filippi, Brian Gill, Judy Grindell, mike imber, david James, robert Kirk, mary leCroy, douglas J. long, dick newell, Gary melville, Colin miskelly, Gwenda pulham, tim reid, Chris robertson, ilka soehle, paul sagar, sav saville, larry spear, Brent stephenson, paul sweet, Graeme taylor, Alan tennyson, Caz Thomas, Kath Walker, Dick Watling, Eric Woehler, and J. Weick; to all the others we are sure we have forgotten over the last six years, our apologies. special thanks to nigel redman and Jim martin at Christopher helm for their help and advice, and for guiding the book skillfully to publication; thanks also to editors tim harris and John Jackson, and to designer Julie dando. We would also like to thank the following museums and their staff for allowing us access to their collections and providing us with space in which to work: the museum of new Zealand te papa tongarewa; Auckland, Canterbury and otago museums, new Zealand; the natural history museum, tring; the California Academy of sciences, san Francisco; the American museum of natural history, new York; and Burke museum, seattle. We would like to point out that many texts in this book do not agree with the ‘conventional wisdom’ and contradict published identification texts that many birders accept as the ‘truth’. These differences of opinion are based on many hours of observation at sea and detailed examination of museum specimens. We may be wrong in some cases and we accept that any inaccuracies here are our own. We would love to hear from anyone (c/o the publishers) who disagrees with us and welcome a vigorous debate. That is the only way field identification can progress.

11

TAXONOMY AND THE SPECIES DEBATE The classification of birds is traditionally based on an assessment of similarities in morphology, with measurements and plumage being the main considerations, together with additional input from less conveniently studied aspects, such as behaviour, calls, distribution and even lice. those birds that exhibit the least differences are deemed to be the most closely related, and with the study of the fossil record conclusions are possible about their evolutionary history. Before dealing with criticisms of this approach, it should be remembered that for 95% of the time this gives a reasonably clear idea of what constitutes a species and of the relationships between them, and for many birders this is quite adequate.

GENETIC RESEARCH data of a molecular nature, mainly the analysis and comparison of nuclear and mitochondrial dnA, became commonplace about 15 years ago and have added to the information available from traditional methods. it should be stressed, however, that these molecular techniques do not mean that a researcher can clip off a bit of a bird, whether alive, recently dead on the tideline, or long dead in a museum tray, stick it in a machine and get a printout of the species. the technique essentially involves comparing genetic material, much as traditional taxonomists compared morphological data, and coming up with a measure of the degree of separation. then, employing some vigorously debated figures about the rate of molecular evolution, statistical techniques are used to arrive at a phylogenetic tree. or, to be honest, several trees; the techniques are a long way from being as cutand-dried as some biologists would suggest. however, genetic research has unquestionably made valuable contributions to our understanding of seabird phylogeny; we now recognise the importance of convergent evolution in the group, for example, where birds have evolved similar morphologies and behaviours in response to similar environmental cues, but do not share a recent common ancestor. it is also possible, using genetic material such as mitochondrial dnA that mutates at a known rate over the course of millions of years, to quantify the degree of genetic difference between two samples. This allows us to date with a degree of confidence major events in the seabird lineage, such as the divergence of the ancestors of modern storm-petrels and albatrosses some 10 million years ago. Both traditional and molecular techniques come up with measures of the degree of relationship between the birds in question. traditional taxonomists might arrive at what appears to be a complex array of features such as bill measurements, foot colour, and timing of moult and breeding, compared with the apparently neat percentage distances of molecular researchers (e. g. genetic distances within the genus Thalassarche range from 1.66% to 3.15%), but the next step is essentially the same; they have to decide on a degree of difference that will be used to define genera, species, super- and subspecies, and, indeed, whether they are even going to recognise all of these categories. At this point, having perhaps plodded through a number of user-unfriendly scientific papers in order to understand the intricacies of molecular techniques, it would seem quite legitimate for the ordinary birder to quietly despair or yell out loud in anger – biologists can’t even agree on what a species is!

SPECIES CONCEPTS there are several opinions as to what constitutes a species. perhaps the simplest in concept, if not in name, is the phylogenetic species Concept, as summarised by Cracraft (1983). it gives species status to any group of birds that are morphologically distinguishable. in this scheme of things the pale-faced subantarctic race of Fairy prion would become a full species, Pachyptila subantarctica, equal in status to the big, dark-billed Broad-billed prion P. vittata; but for its english name, all trace of the closer relationship with Fairy prion would be lost. thus the psC conceals a lot of useful information; several authors have tried to deal with this problem and subsequently added to the confusion. An alternative approach is the Biological species Concept, as advocated by ernst mayr, which maintains that ‘species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from one another’. At first glance, this seems a more sensible point of view as a statement of what everyone understands as a species; albatrosses are obviously different from storm-petrels. In molecular terminology, there is no gene flow between the populations. For the majority of cases the BSC works well. It does, however, run into difficulties with populations that have recently diverged and may still interbreed, or are morphometrically or genetically similar but have ranges that do not overlap, a frequent occurrence with albatrosses and petrels that nest on isolated islands. this problem led biologists to expand the BsC into a multidimensional Biological species Concept (mBsC), which allows the combination of similar populations into polytypic species. there is a ‘political’ element to this debate. in developed countries, conservation funding has been forthcoming for endangered species, especially if they can be shown to be endemic. For example, the promotion of the shy Albatross that breeds in Bass strait to full species status (as White-capped Albatross T. cauta) would allow the Australian government to fund research and conservation efforts. this is much less likely to happen if

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the taxon remains a subspecies of Shy Albatross, which also nests in New Zealand. According this taxon specific status would be an understandable and worthy move given the dearth of conservation funding, but it would not necessarily reflect well on scientific integrity, nor would it help our understanding of the debate. it was the adoption of the narrowest psC that led robertson and nunn (1998) to increase the number of albatross species from 13 to 24, and to happily accept nucleotide distances of less than 1% as indicative of specific species. Recent workers and reviewers, however, have tended to view the same albatrosses through fuzzier MBSC glasses, and have rejected any distances of less than 1% as indicative of specific status, ending up with 13 to 22 species. Even when there is agreement on the definition of a species, the criteria for raising a group of birds to species status vary considerably between authors. For example, for many years the Atlantic members of the genus Calonectris have been lumped together under the name Cory’s shearwater (C. diomedea). this despite the fact that the birds from the Cape Verdes are obviously a lot smaller, have slimmer, greyish rather than yellow bills, and breed later and entirely separately from the rest. Most authors now accept that Cape Verde Shearwater should be raised to species status (C. edwardsii), though Brooke (2004) is not entirely convinced. there are also differences between those populations of Cory’s shearwater that breed in the mediterranean and those that breed on the Atlantic islands; those from the mediterranean are smaller on average, with paler underwings and paler heads. Most authors accept that these populations warrant subspecific status, but only the most enthusiastic ‘splitters’ make a case for full species status. the only genetic work carried out so far on this group is by penhallurick and Wink (2004) and unfortunately they did not include the Cape Verde birds. They interpreted their results for the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations as not warranting specific status but other workers in the field have used what appears to be the same or even a lesser degree of genetic difference as evidence to support such status.

CONCLUSIONS there is no doubt that genetic work has added new information to the taxonomic debate, but interpretations of the data still remain a matter of opinion; some have been dogged by poor science, and are far from being the revolution that enthusiasts have claimed. the debate is not over, but it is also worth remembering that the taxonomic status of the majority of albatrosses and petrels had remained much the same for 70 years, and those that have changed have, in most cases, been recognised as different species or as a subspecies for some time. there have not been that many surprises! Amidst all this debate we had to make some broad decisions on taxonomy and on which taxonomic sources to follow – after all, field guides are about identifying birds to species. So for much of this book we have followed Brooke (2004), only departing substantially when we get to the smaller shearwaters, where we have adopted many of the recommendations of Austin et al. (2004).

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THE FOUR FAMILIES: CHARACTERISTICS AND TAXONOMIC RELATIONSHIPS A combination of evidence from molecular studies and the fossil record suggests that petrels emerged from a common ancestor (with penguins and divers) in the mid-eocene, some 40–45 million years ago, and the four modern families, diomedeidae, procellariidae, hydrobatidae and pelecanoididae, were present 10 million years later in the Oligocene. Storm-petrels diverged first, then albatrosses, so storm-petrels are thus rather surprisingly more closely related to the albatrosses than to the petrels, shearwaters or diving-petrels.

ALBATROSSES (DIOMEDEIDAE) Albatrosses are big, far bigger than all other procellariiforms bar the giant petrels. they weigh between 2 and 9kg and have wingspans of between 1.8 and 3.5m. Unlike the other three families, they have separate nostrils on either side of the bill. the long, narrow wings with low wing-loading (low weight-to-wing area ratio) are ideal for extended gliding flights, and they fly huge distances in search of food. Albatrosses feed by landing on the sea and grabbing prey at or near the surface, and all but the sooty albatrosses are attracted to fishing boats. Rather than occupying burrows, they nest on the surface.

Snowy Albatross

separate nostrils

Following molecular studies by nunn et al. (1996) and nunn & stanley (1998), it is now generally accepted that the albatrosses can be divided into four genera. These are the North Pacific albatrosses (Phoebastria), the great albatrosses (Diomedea), the mollymawks (Thalassarche), and the sooty albatrosses (Phoebetria). it is also generally agreed that the genus Phoebastria consists of four species, laysan, Waved, short-tailed and Black-footed Albatrosses, while Phoebetria contains just two, the sooty and light-mantled Albatrosses. however, the make-up of the other two genera is more contentious. robertson and nunn (1998) suggested increasing the number of species in Diomedea and Thalassarche from 10 to 18. this scheme was widely adopted despite the fact that supporting evidence remained unpublished for some time. in this guide we have accepted six species in Diomedea; snowy, new Zealand, tristan, Amsterdam island and northern and southern royal Albatrosses, and nine in Thalassarche: Black-browed and the very similar but yellow-eyed Campbell Albatrosses, shy, salvin’s and Chatham islands Albatrosses, and both indian and Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatrosses. however, we treat Buller’s Albatross and the darker-headed birds from the Chatham islands as one species. Grey-headed Albatross remains, as always, as one species.

STORM-PETRELS (HYDROBATIDAE) storm-petrels are the smallest of all the oceanic birds, weighing from 20g (a third less than a house sparrow) to just over 100g, with wingspans of 32–56cm. they have relatively short inner wings, a large area of primaries and a low wing-loading so they can glide well yet remain manoeuvrable. they feed by picking small prey off the surface of the sea, fluttering and swooping low over the sea, and often pattering their feet upon the surface. Most breed in natural holes and crevices rather than digging burrows, and all but the Wedge-rumped storm-petrel on the Galápagos visit their breeding grounds only at night.

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the family is divided into two subfamilies: oceanitinae (southern hemisphere), 8 species in 6 genera Wilson’s storm-petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) elliot’s storm-petrel (Oceanites gracilis) new Zealand storm-petrel (Pealeornis maoriana) Grey-backed storm-petrel (Garrodia nereis) White-faced storm-petrel (Pelagodroma marina) Black-bellied storm-petrel (Fregetta tropica) White-bellied storm-petrel (Fregetta grallaria) polynesian storm-petrel (Nesofregetta fuliginosa)

Grey-backed Storm-petrel

hydrobatinae (northern hemisphere), 14 species in 2 or 3 genera but with 13 species often placed in one genus, Oceanodroma european storm-petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus) least storm-petrel (Oceanodroma (Halocyptena) microsoma) Wedge-rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma tethys) madeiran storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro) leach’s storm-petrel (Oceanodroma leucorhoa) swinhoe’s storm-petrel (Oceanodroma monorhis) tristram’s storm-petrel (Oceanodroma tristrami) markham’s storm-petrel (Oceanodroma markhami) matsudaira’s storm-petrel (Oceanodroma matsudairae) Black storm-petrel (Oceanodroma melania) Ashy storm-petrel (Oceanodroma homochroa) hornby’s storm-petrel (Oceanodroma hornbyi) Fork-tailed storm-petrel (Oceanodroma furcata) Guadalupe storm-petrel (Oceanodroma macrodactyla)

Leach’s Storm-petrel

recent molecular data has supported the retention of all the species and the southern-hemisphere genera, but more work is required.

DIvING-PETRELS (PELECANOIDIDAE)

Common Diving-petrel

A group of four very similar, small, southern-hemisphere species that in many ways are more like the auks of the northern hemisphere than the rest of the petrels. they weigh between 100 and 200g, have two small nostril openings on top of the bill, and have small, rounded wings with a high wing-loading. They fly directly with rapid, whirring wings, and feed by diving, propelling themselves underwater with half-closed wings. Unlike many other petrels they tend to live and feed near their nesting areas and appear to have relatively short lifespans. diving-petrels dig burrows or nest in natural holes and only visit breeding colonies at night. there are four species in one genus, Pelecanoides. darwin, amongst others, wondered about their affinities with the auks but nowadays they are taxonomically uncontroversial.

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PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS (PROCELLARIIDAE) Compared with the other three families, the procellariidae are a rather diverse assemblage. the 80 or so species (there is considerable taxonomic debate) are usually divided into four subfamilies: the fulmarine petrels, the prions, gadfly petrels and shearwaters.

Fulmarine petrels

the fulmarine petrels are a small but diverse group ranging in size from the 250g Snow Petrel to the 5kg giant petrels, which are smaller only than the larger albatrosses. Fulmarine petrels exhibit a wide range of plumages, from the entirely white snow petrel, through the grey, gull-like fulmars and chequered black-andwhite Cape petrel to the variably brownish giant petrels. Fulmarine petrels all have prominent nasal tubes on top of the bill. they feed by landing on the sea and seizing prey near the surface. Northern Fulmars, Cape Petrels and giant petrels feed around fishing boats; uniquely among procellariiforms, giant petrels may feed on land, scavenging around seabird and seal colonies. snow petrels nest in crevices, but all the others nest on the surface or on cliff ledges, and all visit the breeding grounds by day. taxonomically, the Antarctic and Cape petrels and the two fulmars are relatively uncontroversial, although there is some debate over subspecies of the northern Fulmar, which exhibits several colour morphs and has separate populations in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. taxonomic debate continues as to whether the snow petrel should be split into two species, Greater and lesser, and whether it is more closely related to the Kerguelen petrel than to the fulmarines. the two giant petrels are normally recognised as distinct species

Prions

Northern Giant Petrel

Cape Petrel

the prions are a distinctive group of small, blue-grey petrels of the cooler southern oceans. they weigh between 90 and 240g. All have distinctive bills with fine filters called lamellae along the edge of the upper mandible, and a gular pouch. These are used to filter out plankton in the manner of a baleen whale. Prions feed by sitting on the sea or by flying low over the surface, often using their feet to bounce off waves not unlike a storm-petrel. At sea, all but slender-billed and Fulmar prions are often highly gregarious and can be seen in huge flocks, but they rarely follow ships or feed around fishing vessels. prions nest in burrows and crevices. Fulmar prions can be seen on the breeding grounds during the day but all others visit only at night. Slender-billed Prion most authors accept that Fairy and Fulmar prions form a separate grouping from the rest but taxonomists agree about little else. the situation is complex; morphometric measurements overlap a lot and each island population of the ‘same species’ is slightly different, so much so that earlier authors regularly named prions by the island the specimens came from. the situation may become clearer when good samples of genetic and morphometric data are available from known breeding birds on a wider range of islands, and more details of breeding biology (notably of hybridisation) are better known. For this book, we recognise seven species in one genus, Pachyptila, and mention Broad-billed Prion seven further subspecies.

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Gadfly petrels The term gadfly petrel has been used to describe a diverse group of longwinged, fast flying, medium-to-small, highly pelagic species of temperate and tropical oceans. All feed on the wing, and they can even catch flying fish. They also alight on the sea and scavenge or grab prey at or near the surface. species that breed in the cooler oceans tend to nest in burrows or crevices and visit their colonies by night, while those in the tropics are more likely to nest on the surface and be active at the colony during the day. Gadfly petrels rarely feed around fishing vessels. We have used the term gadfly petrel to refer solely to species in the genus Pterodroma but other authors also include the genera Lugensa, Pseudobulweria and Bulweria. the genus Lugensa consists of only one species, Kerguelen petrel, which, despite being only relatively recently removed from Pterodroma, appears to be quite distinct and with no obvious close affinities. the genus Bulweria has been recognised as distinctive for a fair while and contains two species, Bulwer’s and Jouanin’s petrels. Both are dark, long-winged and long-tailed tropical species that have characteristic bills with less obvious tubular nostrils than the Pterodroma petrels. like Bulweria, the genus PseudoTahiti Petrel bulweria occurs in warmer seas, and Bulwer’s Petrel its species are long-winged and longtailed, with deep, heavy bills. the genus includes four species, Fiji and mascarene petrels, the larger tahiti petrel, and the very similar but smaller Beck’s petrel. the genus Pterodroma contains 30–35 species, all of which have relatively short, strong bills with prominent nasal tubes and a hooked tip. they range in plumage from entirely dark, through several species that have dark and light phases, to a distinctive group that are white underneath and pale grey above with a dark m mark across the open wings. the smaller members of this distinctively marked group are often collectively called the cookilarias.

Great-winged Petrel

Stejneger’s Petrel

Barau’s Petrel Kermadec Petrel

the pterodromas, especially those from the warmer oceans, are neither well-known nor well-studied, and several new species have recently been ‘discovered’ rather than promoted purely on the basis of molecular and taxonomic re-evaluation. these include the henderson petrel, ostensibly a dark form of herald petrel but which breeds separately from all the light forms on henderson atoll in the pitcairn Group, and a small form of Whitenecked Petrel, Vanuatu Petrel, which was described from old museum specimens and a more recent storm-blown corpse from Australia. Current taxonomic discussion centres on the long-assumed relationship between the north Atlantic Fea’s and Zino’s petrels with the southern ocean soft-plumaged petrel (Fea’s actually seems to be more closely related to Cahow than Soft-plumaged Petrel), and the specific status of the polymorphic Herald/Trindade group that breeds on widely separated islands in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. We have accepted all the recent ‘splits’ and recognise a total of 35 species in the genus Pterodroma.

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Brooke (2004) includes the five members of the genus Procellaria among the shearwaters, but although they possess the ability to dive, their bills are deep and strong with large hooked tips and prominent nasal tubes, more like the pterodromas. the Procellaria are the largest of the burrowing petrels, ranging in weight from 600–700g for parkinson’s petrel to 1.5kg for White-chinned petrel.

Shearwaters

the two genera of shearwaters, Calonectris and Puffinus, are small to medium-sized shearwaters with relatively long, slim bills that have less prominent nostril tubes and shallower hooks on the tips than the pterodromas. the smallest shearwaters weigh 150g and the largest more than 1kg, with many species being in the 300–400g range. All dive for food to some extent; Cory’s shearwater rarely reaches 5m under the surface, but sooty and short-tailed shearwaters are capable of depths of 70m and swim well underwater, propelling themselves on half-open wings. those that dive well, especially the smaller Puffinus species, have compressed, water-resistant plumage, narrower, more streamlined bodies, flattened tarsi, and short, narrow wings with stiffer, stronger primaries. these adaptations all facilitate swimming and chasing prey underwater. the larger species, especially Wedge-tailed and Buller’s shearwaters and those in the genus Calonectris, have broader wings and longer tails, are much more manoeuvrable, and take much of their food on the wing or by shallow plunge-diving. many of the shearwaters feed around fishing boats. Shearwaters that breed in temperate areas dig burrows and visit colonies by night, but a few in the tropics nest on the surface and are present at colonies by day. Streaked Shearwater

Fluttering Shearwater

Flesh-footed Shearwater

A version of the smaller, manx-like, brown or black-and-white Puffinus shearwater occurs throughout the world’s temperate and tropical oceans, nesting on many oceanic islands and archipelagos and on islands on continental shelves. they have provided taxonomists with many hours of amusement, caused much constructive discussion and bitter controversy, and even generated a little in the way of research funds. one set of labels on a brownish, rather faded and admittedly intermediate looking specimen (in a well-known museum that should perhaps remain nameless) had no fewer than seven pencilled amendments culminating in ‘atrodorsalis?’. once everyone, more or less, agreed that there was a relatively easy-to-identify manx-type group of species, discussion moved on to centre around what became known as the little/ Audubon’s shearwater complex. the ‘little’ end of the spectrum was characterised by black upperparts, a short tail, white undertail, smallish Westland Petrel bill and steep forehead; the ‘Audubon’s’ end by brown upperparts, long tail, dark undertail, biggish bill and sloped forehead. it was the intermediates, notably from the Atlantic islands, plus poorly studied representatives from far-flung Pacific and Indian Ocean islands, distant from the centres of taxonomic debate in europe and the UsA, that caused the controversy. recent molecular studies, especially those by Austin et al. (2004), suggest that this emphasis on the characters differentiating little from Audubon’s was misleading, as were many of the island species and subspecies, and that the group was better looked upon as three biogeographic groups – from the north Atlantic, southern oceans including Australasia, and the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans respectively. Intriguingly, one of the consequences of this research is that little shearwater characteristics (black upperparts, short tail etc.) appear to have evolved separately and convergently in the northern and southern hemispheres, and are not an indication of a close relationship.

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The Little/Audubon group. Left – Little characteristics; centre – intermediate; right – Audubon’s. Genetic studies have shown that these morphometric characteristics do not truly reflect specific status.

We agree with many of Austin et al.’s (2004) recommendations; see the main text for details. We have decided to include a total of 10 species from the former little/Audubon’s shearwater complex. together with the manxtype group this makes 16 smaller Puffinus shearwaters, and 28 species of shearwaters in total (three in Calonectris and the rest in Puffinus).

IDENTIFICATION Away from their breeding grounds, from the shore or at sea, the usual view of an albatross or petrel is fleeting and in flight. Things get a little easier if members of the species are attracted to ships, and an outing on a fishing boat or, even better, a pelagic birding trip will bring many species in close enough to allow excellent views of birds in flight and on the water. This is especially true of many of the albatrosses and a fair number of the shearwaters, but many of the storm-petrels and gadfly petrels, especially those from warmer seas, are rarely attracted to ships and remain elusive. in the main text we mention those species that are attracted to boats and to ‘chum’, that enticing concoction of oily, smelly, fishy stuff thrown off the back of boats by pelagic birders to attract seabirds close enough to allow identification. In this guide we concentrate on the identification of birds in flight. This section deals with some of the problems and pitfalls associated with assessing a bird at sea. Identification of many albatrosses and petrels is not easy and there is no simple substitute for comparative experience. the best observers often identify a bird by jizz, a term birders use to describe the general impression created by a bird’s outstanding features, shape and relative proportions. it can be looked upon as the ‘arty’ side of birding. it is the aspect of a bird that allows an experienced birder to identify a species from a brief glance out of the corner of their eye without quite knowing how they do it. Equally, it allows the less scrupulous to mumble ‘jizz’ and claim an identification based on the most fleeting of glimpses and on the slightest of pretexts.

PHOTOGRAPHS AND vIDEO there is no doubt that photography, and especially the recent rapid rise of digital technology, has contributed enormously to our knowledge of seabird identification; it would have been much more difficult to produce the illustrations for this book without hundreds of reference photographs. looking over the day’s crop of photos and videos in the evening has even led to the discovery of rare and unusual species that were not noticed at the time among all the activity around the boat. The first indication that the New Zealand Storm-petrel was not long-extinct came from the discovery in this manner of an otherwise unnoticed, white-rumped storm-petrel in a set of photographs. on the other hand, photographs (especially single ones) can be very misleading. most birders realise that a single shot can capture a bird in an uncharacteristic pose; this is especially true of seabirds in flight and many birders are now aware of the problems of assessing size in photographs. Not only is there often nothing that can be used as a reference point in a closely cropped view of a bird, but photos taken through a telephoto lens create the impression that objects further away are larger than they actually are. telephoto images are now so commonplace that we automatically compensate for this compression of perspective, but look closely at many

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a picture of a flying albatross and you can see that the near wing is narrower and smaller than the far wing – not a natural state of affairs. Add to these difficulties all those related to weather and lighting (see below under Conditions) plus a camera’s shortcomings in faithfully reproducing colour and contrast, and those single photographs can result in many hours of entertaining yet often fruitless debate. the immediate reaction of seabird experts to mystery photos these days is to ask for more information. how big was it? What was its underwing, upperparts, rump like? How did it fly? Almost inevitably the information is not forthcoming and here we would like to make a plea. please, please take the time to observe the birds and take notes as well as looking through a camera lens. A few more seconds of observation of that mystery Pterodroma you photographed and you would have known whether it had a white rump, if that really was a pale nape or whether it was just a bright patch of light contrasting with the dark underwing shadow. photographs are helpful but they cannot stand alone and require good observation and documentation if they are to be really useful.

CONDITIONS Weather, lighting and sea conditions can alter the appearance of a bird. For example, in dull and rainy weather many seabirds will look dark against the sea and sky, even when your binoculars are not misted up. Bright sun increases the contrast between lighter and darker areas, shadows can appear as dark plumage features, and sunlight glinting on dark feathers, especially worn ones, can make them appear very pale. in bright sunny conditions, light reflecting off the surface of the sea can make all underparts look pale; this can make things especially difficult when trying to see the pattern on the underwing of a Pterodroma petrel. the diagnostic dark bars on the mainly white underwing of cookilaria petrels can be lost in a white glare and the subtle pale patches on the base of the primaries of murphy’s petrel can look almost as white as those on herald petrel. the direction of the light is also important. Back-lit birds will look darker, plumage details will be obscured, yet light may shine through spread wing- and tail-feathers and make them appear paler than Cook’s Petrel they actually are. light from the side or from behind the observer is usually best, but it can also wash out details and make everything look pale. Wind strength can dramatically alter the way a species flies, and diagnostic flight patterns may no longer apply. For example, in high winds the characteristic low, fluttering flight of the smaller shearwaters can turn into speedy, wheeling arcs, more Murphy’s Petrel like the typical flight of a Pterodroma; in calm conditions, a Kermadec Petrel can fly with strong wingbeats The same Cook’s Petrel, back-lit on the left, lit from the side on the right. Murphy’s not unlike a skua. Petrel with light reflecting off the sea.

SIzE The Procellariiformes are quoted as having the greatest range in size of any avian order. The smallest species, least storm-petrel, weighs a mere 28–34g and has a 32-cm wingspan, while the largest, snowy Albatross, weighs 11kg and has a wingspan of up to 3.6m. thus the largest is 25 times greater in wingspan and 274 times heavier than the smallest. despite this, and due to a lack of landmarks on the ocean surface, judging the distance an object is from a ship at sea is fraught with difficulty. Because of this, among many other reasons (not least of which is seasickness), even the most experienced of observers may have difficulty estimating the size of a bird at sea. If at all possible, the best thing to do is to compare an unknown bird to another identifiable species visible at the same time. Experienced observers often get an idea of size by a feeling for the flight style of a bird. Albatrosses, for example, wheel slowly above the horizon on motionless wings, while smaller species appear suddenly and disappear just as swiftly. Size often varies a lot within a species. Males are often considerably larger than females, and in the few species where size is a useful identification feature this can lead to errors. For example, exercise caution when using size to differentiate the wandering and royal albatross species and the black Procellaria petrels, as there is considerable interspecific overlap and intraspecific variation. Often it is the proportions, such as bill length, robustness of head, or overall length, that are more useful than length or wingspan alone. Size is often one of the first things inexperienced observers try to assess, but it is usually better to concentrate first on the plumage features, style of flight and proportions – almost anything else, in fact, apart from size – if you are to make the most of a fleeting encounter.

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PLUMAGE Plumage variation, phases and morphs twenty or so of the petrel and albatross species regularly show some from of plumage variation that can be easily seen in the field, but only half of these are usually considered to have distinct phases or morphs. those that show a wide range of plumages from light to dark with a full range of intermediates include one fulmarine petrel, the northern Fulmar; four gadfly petrels, the herald, trindade, Kermadec and Collared petrels; one shearwater, Wedge-tailed shearwater; and two storm-petrels, White-bellied and polynesian. examples of lesser degrees of variation include the Wedge-tailed Shearwater; light, intermediate and dark morphs. southern Giant petrel which has a relatively common white phase, all other variation in the dark phase being age-related. the soft-plumaged petrel has a very rare dark phase and there are a few intermediates in museum collections, but there have been no recent records of such birds at sea. museum specimens of Atlantic petrel also show a surprisingly wide range of plumages, including almost entirely dark birds but, as with soft-plumaged petrel, these are rarely recorded at sea nowadays. Both may be cases of selective collecting resulting in an over-representation of unusual birds in collections; alternatively, the specimens may have been taken from more variable populations that are now extinct. elliot’s storm-petrel comes in dark and lighter-bellied forms, but these are geographically separated and are usually regarded as subspecies, while the Pacific forms of Leach’s Storm-petrel show a cline of increasingly dark-rumped birds, correlated with the distance south that they breed along the American coast. From an identification point of view it is always necessary to be aware of the wide range of plumages among these variable species, but in only a few cases does identification become difficult or impossible. The dark phases of White-bellied, polynesian and leach’s storm-petrels have to be remembered when trying to sort out an all-dark storm-petrel, but range and jizz coupled with a fair amount of experience should allow identification. on the other hand, some intermediate phases of Collared petrel may not be distinguishable from Gould’s petrel; similarly, the henderson petrel does not appear to be distinguishable at sea from the dark phases of herald and trindade petrels.

Age-related plumage variation

From an identification point of view, age-related plumage changes are only really a problem among the albatrosses. the most extreme variation occurs juvenile in the short-tailed Albatross and in the wandering albatross group, where juveniles are almost entirely chocolate-brown on fledging and take several years to attain the paler and whiter adult plumages. the process is especially complex and variable among adult the wandering albatrosses. now that the group has been divided into a number of species, identification has become very difficult if not impossible. We have covered this complicated issue at some length in the main text. At fledging young mollymawks are superficially similar to the adults, but generally have scruffier heads, duller bills and, in a few cases, darker underwings. Identification involves careful observation and Plumage varies with age in Snowy Albatross. comparison of these features. Unlike many of the albatrosses, only the largest of the petrels, the northern and southern Giant petrels, have a markedly different juvenile plumage. like the Albatrosses they also take several years to attain adult plumage and go through a variety of intermediate plumages. some of the intermediate plumages make it more

21

difficult to distinguish between the two species but there are no difficult identification consequences, except that a wholly dark juvenile giant petrel may at first glance be confused with a variety of other dark petrels and albatrosses. Size and the distinctive giant petrel shape should soon distinguish them. immature or darker adult Northern Giant Petrel

adult Grey-headed Albatross

juvenile Northern Giant Petrel immature Grey-headed Albatross

Adult and young mollymawks, such as Grey-headed Albatross, have similar plumages. Giant petrels have a range of plumages, like the great albatrosses.

other petrels exhibit only minor differences between juveniles and adults. Juveniles of several species of dark shearwater and storm-petrel tend to have small white tips and narrow fringes to the feathers, especially of the upperparts. Juvenile Pterodroma petrels tend to have broader, paler fringes to feathers; cookilarias especially can look very pale, as can young prions. In general, juvenile plumage does not cause many identification difficulties at species level although the recent discovery that juvenile hutton’s shearwaters have a paler underwing that approaches that of the sympatric Fluttering shearwater suggests that further study may be warranted. Juvenile Little Shearwater

Juvenile Cook’s Petrel

Juvenile Fairy Prion

Juvenile Little Shearwater with white tips to coverts; pale juvenile Cook’s Petrel; juvenile Fairy Prion.

Fresh and worn plumages petrels are not brightly coloured birds; a dash of yellow on the neck of a few albatrosses is about all the deviation one sees from blacks, whites, greys and browns, so you would be right not to expect much difference between fresh and worn plumages. however, it is mainly because so many petrels have similar patterns of blacks, whites and browns that small changes in colour and pattern due to feather abrasion or the acquisition of fresh plumage can cause difficulties with identification. Few identification guides have dealt with these problems; in this guide we mention moult and wear cycles for most species, and many plates have examples of worn and fresh plumages. Below are some examples of the main changes in appearance that occur with feather wear. the state of plumage wear can also be used to age birds, even in the field, and such information can help with identification and contribute to our knowledge of these little-studied species.

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(A) Dark feathers become browner and paler most dark feathers are bleached by sunlight and abrasion and can even result in unusual pale patches and panels, especially on the upperwings. these rarely cause many identification problems but less extreme bleaching could make it difficult to separate the blacker upperparts of tropical shearwater from the browner tones of Arabian shearwater, for example.

fresh

worn

(B) Pale or white feather tips wear off in juvenile or fresh plumage several of the shearwaters and storm-petrels have narrow white fringes or tips to the dark feathers of the upperparts. in the case of shearwaters this (A) rarely causes any identification problems but in storm-petrels, especially those where identification relies on the extent and distinctness of the pale Fluttering Shearwater crescentic upper wingbar, this could cause confusion. Some of the greyer or paler phases of gadfly petrels can have broad pale fringes to upperpart feathers in fresh plumage, and this can make fresh birds appear very pale. Where identification includes assessment of subtle differences in colour and tone, as for example in the cookilaria group, these pale, often juvenile, birds can cause problems. worn Relying on narrow fringes to any feathers for identification is not recommended and can be misleading. For example, differences in the extent of white feathers on the scapulars can be diagnostic in diving-petrels; even the peruvian species with the most extensive white markings can lose them (B) completely with wear. (C) Grey feathers become darker and browner the pale grey feathers of many Pterodroma petrels become darker and browner with wear. the upperwing is especially likely to become dark and the diagnostic m mark across the open wing is often obscured, or disappears completely. Back and head feathers can take on a scalloped appearance and can cause Peruvian Diving-petrel identification problems, especially amongst such similar species as the small cookilaria petrels. The effect of wear can vary between individuals and flocks of the same species may show a wide variety of plumages. worn Cook’s Petrel fresh

Murphy’s Petrel

fresh

worn

(C)

(D)

Atlantic Petrel

(E)

fresh worn

(D) Dark feather tips wear off to reveal pale bases to feathers many petrels have white or pale bases to dark feathers, but in most species it is only in extreme cases of plumage wear that they are revealed as pale patches. A few species, such as the Antarctic petrel and the dark, immature wandering albatrosses regularly become pale and patchy due to this form of abrasion, but in only a few species, such as the odd pale-chinned Atlantic Petrel, is it likely to cause identification problems. (E) Greyish or silvery sheen on fresh dark plumage wears away in fresh plumage many pterodromas have a greyish or silvery sheen on the feathers, especially on the back, rump and scapulars. At sea these can appear pale and can contrast with darker feathers, resulting, for example, in a more obvious m mark across the upper wing. the sheen disappears with wear and the plumage may become browner with the m marking less distinctive.

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MOULT We have attempted to summarise published information. moult data for many petrels is lacking, yet in many cases detailed study of the moult of individuals of difficult-to-identify species may be helpful in separating them, especially when they are in wing moult at different times of the year. We believe that body moult is far more prevalent than most authors suggest, and many species begin body moult whilst breeding. in many cases the state of moult, and especially body moult, can be used to separate adult from immature birds, and subsequently assist with identification. In most species body moult, apart from occasionally resulting in a rather scruffy, mottled appearance, rarely causes identification problems. the speed with which wing and tail feathers are moulted varies between species. Generally speaking, those that rely on flight to search for food replace their feathers more slowly than those that dive for food. Thus albatrosses replace flight feathers in groups; up to five generations of flight feathers can be identified along the wings of a wandering albatross.

An immature Black-browed Albatross with old, worn outer primaries will be 36–47 months old.

Southern Giant Petrels in wing moult.

several of the mollymawks can be aged by close examination of old and new feathers. in some cases, immature Grey-headed and Black-browed Albatrosses, for example, the distribution of new and old feathers in the wing can aid identification. Giant petrels have such an extended moult of flight feathers that it can sometimes be difficult to see a bird with a complete set of wing feathers. At the other extreme, diving-petrels lose and replace almost all their wing and tail feathers within a few weeks. Pterodroma petrels like soft-plumaged petrel, and the broader-winged shearwaters like Cory’s, can have substantial gaps in their wings yet still fly, whereas the fulmarine Antarctic Petrel can look distinctly pale and scruffy and can be seen sitting around in flocks on the ice while moulting. Soft-plumaged Petrel Antarctic Petrel Elliot’s Storm-petrel

Cory’s Shearwater

The effects of moult on plumage.

From the point of view of identification, petrels in wing moult can cause confusion at first glance because they fly somewhat differently or look a different shape to normal.

2

those species that lose their feathers quickly can often show pale panels, especially on the upperwing where absent feathers have revealed pale bases or quills in adjacent feather tracts. the resulting pattern can be unfamiliar and a bird with areas of worn and new feathers and active wing and tail moult can look very odd at first glance. however, as with mollymawks, the presence of wing moult is more likely to assist than hinder identification, since several similar-looking species moult at different times of the year. For example, separating the all-dark Westland petrel from parkinson’s and White-chinned petrels is quick and easy if the birds are in wing moult.

Moulting Jouanin’s Petrel with pale crescent on upperwing like Bulwer’s Petrel.

White-faced Storm-petrel in moult.

CONSERvATION in terms of extinctions, the petrels and albatrosses appear to have fared relatively well in the 10,000 or so years since the last Ice Age. Studies of subfossil remains suggest that only around half a dozen or so have become extinct in that time; five shearwaters from the Canaries, St Helena and New Zealand, and a gadfly petrel from hawaii. in historical times only the Guadalupe storm-petrel has apparently become extinct (though the Jamaican Petrel is either extinct or very nearly so); given that storm-petrels are notoriously difficult to find and the potential breeding habitat is rugged and tropical, the Guadalupe storm-petrel may well ‘return’ like the recently rediscovered new Zealand storm-petrel. Compare this record with the extinction of 30–40 species of land birds since the arrival of polynesian peoples in new Zealand alone, plus a further nine species since the colonisation of the islands by europeans, and the petrels look to be survivors. Brooke (2004) gives the conservation status for 125 species of petrel and albatross based on the series of iUCn categories that assess the level of threat of extinction. Five categories range from ‘least concern’, which suggests everything is generally alright at the moment, to ‘critical’, which indicates imminent extinction (a category that interestingly includes Guadalupe storm-petrel). the criteria for these categories are complex and consist of considerably more than an estimate of numbers. For example, Black-browed Albatross is one of the commonest albatrosses with an estimated three million breeding pairs, yet it is classified as endangered because studies have shown declines of up to 17% over the last two decades, a level that will inevitably lead to extinction if not halted. table 1 below summarises the criteria for the three main categories of concern. Brooke uses two additional categories; ‘near threatened’, which is defined as those species that are close to qualifying for the threatened categories, and ‘data deficient’ which hopefully is self-explanatory, but unfortunately includes some of the more interesting species like Hornby’s Storm-petrel that occur in less accessible and less affluent parts of the world.

Rapid decline Small range fragmented, declining or fluctuating

CRITICAL

ENDANGERED

vULNERABLE

>80% over 10 years or 3 generations

>50% over 10 years or 3 generations

>50% over 20 years or 5 generations

Extent of occurrence <100 km2 or area of occupancy <10 km2

Extent of occurrence <5,000 km2 or area of occupancy <500 km2

Extent of occurrence <20,000 km2 or area of occupancy <2,000 km2

Small population declining

<250 mature individuals

Very small population

<50 mature individuals

Very small range

<2,500 mature individuals <10,000 mature individuals <250 mature individuals

<1,000 mature individuals <100 km2 or <5 locations

Table 1. IUCN criteria for threatened species categories.

2

Procellaria

Shearwaters

3

1

1

Endangered

7

6

Vulnerable

10

1

10

Near Threatened

2

1

3

2

9

1

Least Concern

6

6

21

8

6

33

Total

%

1

13

10

14

11

1

31

25

2

12

10

13

51

41

4

4

3

21

125

100

1 3

5

1

1 13

1

3

Data Deficient Total

Storm-petrels

Bulweria & Pseudobulweria

5

Diving-petrels

Pterodroma

2

Prions

Albatrosses

Critical

Fulmarine petrels

IUCN CATEGORY

6

5

21

4

Table 2. Conservation status of main groups of petrels and albatrosses (based on taxonomy of Brooke, 2004).

A quick glance at the summary of the conservation status of petrels and albatrosses (table 2) shows that far from being survivors, almost half are in trouble, and one in ten species are threatened with extinction in the near future if nothing is done. some groups seem to be faring better than others, though only one, the prions, seem to be doing well. on the other hand, 18 of the 20 albatross species are in the ‘vulnerable’, ‘endangered’ or ‘critical’ categories, and the other two are approaching the same status. Pterodroma petrels also seem particularly susceptible with two-thirds in the threatened categories. shearwaters and storm-petrels appear to be of intermediate concern, but there is little data for several species. What has brought these birds to this perilous state?

REASONS FOR DESPAIR Although they appear to have a number of adaptations to avoid predators on the breeding grounds, such as burrow-digging, cavity-nesting and nocturnal visiting times, there is little evidence to suggest that petrels and albatrosses have ever nested in large numbers in the presence of predators. A long lifespan, low reproductive rate due to single-egg clutches and biennial breeding in some cases, and lengthy incubation and chick-rearing times all indicate that they are not well-adapted to deal with nest predation. All evidence suggests that these birds have always preferred to nest on isolated oceanic islands and coral atolls that have never seen a mammal, or on inshore islands wiped clean by the last glaciation and never reinvaded by predators. Almost all of the oceanic islands were safe nesting sites until around 3,000 years ago, when polynesian peoples began to eat their way across the Pacific, finally arriving in New Zealand around AD 1000. remains of thousands of gadfly petrels occur in middens as far apart as Hawaii and the Chatham Islands. The Polynesians ate albatrosses and petrels and used their feathers for ornament and clothing, and also introduced the Kiore, the small polynesian rat, as well as dogs and pigs. even if the polynesians harvested the seabirds in a sustainable manner, taking only a small proportion of the chicks, the rats, dogs and pigs were never going to be as restrained. Combined with habitat destruction by fire and pigs, many seabirds suffered huge declines in numbers, although apparently only a few became extinct. The Portuguese reached the pristine Atlantic islands of Madeira, the Azores and the Cape Verdes in the 15th century and were in tristan da Cunha by 1506, but it was not until the 18th century that the seabird islands of the southern oceans were visited by whalers and sealers, pushed on by the demands of an increasingly urban and industrial western europe. they brought with them the Black or ship rat, which decimated the breeding populations of all the petrels and adversely affected the breeding success of albatrosses. settlers followed with their cattle, sheep, goats and cats, their grain and grass seed, european trees and european farming methods and, as often as not, the Brown or norway rat; today, at least one of these three species of rat occurs on an estimated 82% of the world’s island groups. tiny, remote seabird nesting-islands like Campbell island, halfway between new Zealand and Antarctica, were settled by sheep and cattle farmers, vegetation was eaten and burnt and burrows trampled; the few petrels and land birds that survived the rats and cats retreated to small offshore stacks and islets. on islands too small, remote or cold for settlement, castaway depots were built for shipwrecked sailors, with pigs, goats and even rabbits released as a source of emergency rations. surprisingly, some of the albatrosses managed to survive this onslaught, and in the 1970s on Campbell island, one of only two major nesting sites of southern royal Albatrosses in the world, you could take a photograph of an incubating royal

2

with rat holes in the side of the nest, cattle and sheep grazing in the background and a pile of cat scats in the foreground. many of the settlements on the smaller, more remote islands in the colder seas were abandoned by the depression of the 1920s but the rotting wharves and ships of the whalers remained, as did the cattle, sheep, rats and cats. On larger islands like New Zealand and in warmer tropical seas, settlements flourished and the remaining seabirds were further threatened by introduced predators. mustelids, for example, were brought into new Zealand to deal with the rabbit plague; they promptly turned to native birds. mongooses behaved similarly in the Pacific. More recently on the more “developed” islands like Hawaii, the few remaining petrels now have to deal with the consequences of affluence, urban expansion, roads, and lights that attract rare, newly fledged chicks at night. By the 20th century a safe, predator-free, island nesting site was very much the exception rather than the rule.

PROBLEMS AT SEA Compared with the land, the sea has, until quite recently, been a relatively safe and predator-free environment for an albatross or petrel. smaller species may be caught and eaten by gulls, skuas or the occasional roving falcon, and, judging by the loss of feet, perhaps predatory fish, and they also come off badly in encounters with larger species when competing for food. notwithstanding the occasional use of seabirds as bait and the small numbers of birds that were trapped in nets and drowned, the rise of commercial fisheries in the 19th century was beneficial for several species of seabird. Not only did fishermen clean and gut their catch at sea and toss the offal overboard, the large nets and lines also caught huge amounts of unwanted, unsaleable by-catch, which added to the fast-food supply for those seabirds that learnt to follow fishing boats. The well-documented spread of the Northern Fulmar through the North Atlantic in the first half of the 20th century has been attributed to the increase of food available from the fishing fleet, and it is clear that many seabirds, including some relatively ‘rare’ species like Westland and spectacled petrels and shy Albatross, obtain at least some of their food from around fishing vessels. it was not until the late 1970s and 1980s, when the combination of an increase in the worldwide demand for fish and the demise of traditional fishing grounds due to overfishing led to the adoption of large, industrial-scale fishing techniques, that seabirds began to be caught in numbers that affected their ability to survive. The first of these new techniques was drift nets, huge ones – and lots of them. Greenpeace estimated that about 50,000km2 of net were set each night in the North Pacific in the 1980s, and the number of birds caught was probably of the order of half a million per year, the estimate for 1992. drift netting in the open oceans ceased in 1992 but it was replaced by long-lining; this has become a serious threat to the survival of many seabirds, particularly albatrosses.

LONG-LINING Long-lining is mainly used to catch tuna, swordfish and Patagonian Toothfish. It involves setting thousands of baited hooks on lines up to 130km long. An estimated one billion hooks are set annually. Albatrosses and petrels grab the baited hooks as the lines are set or retrieved, become hooked and drown. tens of thousands of seabirds are killed in the southern ocean every year and in the new Zealand region alone approximately 65,000 albatrosses and petrels have been killed in the last 20 years. 6,000 deaths per year are estimated in Argentine waters, mostly Black-browed Albatross and White-chinned petrel. All the species of albatross have been recorded as killed by long-lines, and other species regularly caught include giant petrels, White-chinned, Grey and spectacled petrel, Cape petrel and sooty shearwater. there is now some international agreement on measures to prevent this slaughter but illegal fishing vessels, which are estimated to make up about one third of the world’s fishing fleet, do not abide by these rules, nor by those aimed at making the fisheries more sustainable. An estimate of the seabird by-catch from pirate fishing in the four years before 2000 was between 105,900 and 257,000 birds, a horrifying figure that includes 21,900–68,300 albatrosses, 5,000–11,000 giant petrels and 79,000–178,000 White-chinned Petrels. Some more recent estimates suggest illegal fishing accounts for up to 10 times more deaths than licensed vessels. With long-lived, slow-breeding birds like albatrosses, it does not take much of an increase in adult mortality to cause a slow decline in numbers that eventually ends in extinction. on Bird island, Croxall et al. (1990) found that the annual adult survivorship for Wandering Albatrosses need only fall 3%, from 96% to 93%, for a decline to extinction to start. the death of as few as a couple of hundred albatrosses is all it takes to send some island populations into decline. similar predictions have been made for Grey petrel and several of the mollymawks, where imbalances in the sex ratios due to differential mortality of males and females on long-lines have also contributed to the declines. in addition, there is evidence of a substantial reduction in the rate of recruitment of young birds into breeding populations. For example, the rate for Grey-headed Albatrosses fell from 36% per year in the 1960s to 5% in the 1980s.

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OTHER THREATS In addition to long-lining, fishermen also threaten albatross and petrel populations through overfishing, both directly by taking vast amounts of the birds’ prey species, and indirectly by taking species at the top (seals, whales, tuna) or near the bottom (small fish and squid) of the food web. Albatrosses and petrels have also suffered from other indirect effects of human activity. organochlorines have been implicated in eggshell thinning in Black-footed Albatrosses, while plastic debris has been found in the stomachs of prions, Antarctic petrels and even laysan Albatross chicks, but bigger problems are likely to arise with the effects of global warming on sea level, the ocean currents and ecosystems. opinions differ as to the scale of the consequences of warming, and predicting the effects on seabirds is complex. At the simpler end of the scale a rise in sea level is going to submerge seabird breeding sites on low atolls in tropical waters, but more serious effects are likely to arise from changes in ocean temperature, water circulation and plankton production. For example, an increase of 0.50C in the temperature of the California Current has led to a 70% reduction in plankton biomass. similarly, a 20C warming of the north sea in the last 20 years has led to a dramatic change in the plankton fauna, the likely cause of a dearth of sandeels and an almost complete failure of seabird breeding in the area over a number of years since 2000.

A FEW REASONS FOR OPTIMISM Although it may not seem so, the catalogue of the demise of albatross and petrel populations is in itself a reason for hope, for unlike 50 years ago it shows that we now know what is going on and understand at least some of the causes. And although population and commercial pressures are greater nowadays, there is also some commitment to conservation. two of the more encouraging initiatives are the restoration of seabird breeding islands, and international cooperation on the problem of seabird by-catch in the fishing industry. Island restoration has really taken off since the first attempts to remove grazing animals and predators and replace vegetation were shown to be successful in the late 1970s. earlier attempts were limited to the removal of predators such as cats, but rats remained a problem until it was found in the 1990s that they could be successfully eradicated by the use of the anti-coagulant poison brodifacoum. By 2000 there had been over 40 successful rat eradications and the size of the islands had also increased from the 32ha somes island in new Zealand to the 72ha ducie in the pitcairn group and the 800ha st paul in the indian ocean. in 2002 brodifacoum was dropped in cereal-based pellets by helicopter over the 11,300ha of Campbell island, 700km south of new Zealand. the eradication of rats from this island has recently been confirmed as complete. international cooperation on seabird by-catch has not been quite so encouraging with, for example, only six of the 18 countries that drafted the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and petrels in 2000 having ratified it by the first meeting of the body in Hobart in 2004. mitigation measures to prevent the capture of seabirds by long-lines have been adopted by some vessels. these include techniques such as setting lines at night, which is especially effective against the capture of albatrosses, and weighting the hooks so they sink fast and the birds do not get a chance to catch them. dying the bait blue and fitting tori lines (streamers at the stern of the boat where the lines are set, which scare off the birds or make it difficult for them to fly into the bait setting area) are also effective. In the Pacific it is claimed that the adoption of these avoidance techniques by the swordfish long-line fleet has reduced the by-catch of Black-footed and Laysan Albatrosses from 3,000 annually between 1994–99 to about 130 in 2005. Other fisheries have been far less successful and the illegal fishing fleet is still out there, of course.

WHAT YOU CAN DO ABOUT IT ●

support and join conservation organisations like Birdlife international as well as those in your own country.

●

tell everyone you know and meet about the problem – most people have no idea what is going on.

●

encourage awareness of the environment by taking kids, friends and even your relatives out birding.

●

Do not buy fish caught from an unsustainable fishery or in a manner that endangers seabirds.

●

Walk rather than drive, think local rather than global birding, and help reduce Co2 emissions, global warming and sea level rise.

●

have a holiday – volunteer to assist in an island restoration scheme.

2

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK Caption text

this gives key features as shown on the illustrations. each species on a plate is given a number (1–4, for example) and then further divided up by letters. the combination of numbers and letters corresponds with those on the plate opposite. two measurements are included in the species headers that may help with identification at sea. these are wingspan (WS) and total length (TL), given in centimetres. For a wider range of sizes see the main systematic text. the page number refers to the entry for this species in the systematic text.

PLATE 22: COOKILARIA PETRELS I Plates 22–24 illustrate a group of small fast-flying Pterodroma petrels often referred to as cookilarias. All are a similar size and shape. All are grey above with a dark M marking across the open wing and white below with a variety of dark markings on the underwing. several other species have similar patterns on the upperparts: White-necked, Juan Fernandez, Galápagos, Hawaiian, Barau’s and Vanuatu are large, long-winged versions; soft-plumaged, Fea’s, Zino’s and White-headed petrels have dark underwings, and mottled has a dark belly patch. Prions and Blue Petrel have white underwings and fly very differently. Cookilarias are not easy to tell apart. Identification depends on good views of the pattern on the underwings and small differences in head and tail patterns. With a lot of experience subtle differences in shape and flight may help. Published identification criteria have not always taken into account changes in plumage due to age and wear. in general, young and newly moulted birds have pale upperparts and the dark m is distinct (e.g. 22:1e). Birds in worn plumage are often darker or patchier (22:2c) and the upperwings can become very dark, obscuring the m shape (23:1b). other problems include individual variation (22:4bc), the effect of light or viewing conditions (22:1b and 23:5a) and the fact that some plumages and species are poorly known, e.g. de Filippi’s, Collared and Gould’s.

1. Cook’s Petrel Pterodroma cookii 1a

Note that it is difficult or impossible to separate juvenile, immature and adult plumages for most procellariiform species. therefore, the majority of plumages are simply labelled ‘underparts’ or ‘upperparts’. Where ageing is possible, the label is preceded by an indication of the age of the individual in the illustration. other information, such as sex, state of moult or plumage and phase, is included where relevant, as is subspecific nomenclature.

WS 66cm TL 30cm See p.166

long-winged and short-tailed with long, relatively thin bill. see also plate 23:5.

1b 1c 1d 1e

Underparts At all ages underwing white with narrow black trailing edge and tip and small black ‘tick’ mark at carpal;. crown and nape pale grey, not extending downwards as collar; small black eye-patch. Underparts, bright light At all ages cap can look quite dark; outer tail feathers white. Adult fresh plumage, upperparts head same pale grey as back; m mark conspicuous; dark tip to tail. Adult worn plumage, upperparts head darker than back; wings darker and m less obvious. Juvenile fresh plumage, upperparts Very pale with white fringes to feathers of upperparts.

2. Pycroft’s Petrel Pterodroma pycrofti

WS 53cm TL 28cm See p.167

relatively short-winged and long-tailed with rather small bill.

2a 2b 2c

Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s and slightly larger ‘tick’ mark; crown and nape grey, extending down onto side of breast as short collar; eye-patch black. Fresh plumage upperparts medium-grey with head, on average, slightly darker than back; dark tip to tail. Worn plumage upperparts Upperwings almost entirely dark with little trace of dark m; head darker than back.

3. De Filippi’s Petrel Pterodroma defilippiana

WS 66cm TL 29cm See p.169

Relatively short-winged with long, quite broad tail. Fairly easily identified by lack of dark tip to tail.

3a 3b

Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s and larger ‘tick’ mark at carpal. dark eye-patch joins to dark grey crown and is separated from partial grey collar by white crescent on ear-coverts. Upperparts Crown and nape slightly darker than back; rump and tail grey without dark tip.

. Stejneger’s Petrel Pterodroma longirostris

WS 66cm TL 28cm See p.169

relatively small and slim with narrow wings, long tail and small bill.

a

the caption text contains a number of crossreferences, allowing the reader swift access to possible confusion species. these are in the format of plate: image number; for example, this cross-reference (24:1e) takes the reader to Gould’s petrel, species 1 on plate 24.

Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s and larger ‘tick’ mark at carpal; crown and nape very dark with small dark grey partial collar separated from eye-patch by white crescent on ear-coverts. b-c Underparts, moulting Underwing varies from as light as Cook’s (22:1b) to almost as dark as Gould’s (24:1e); shape of collar and dark hood also variable. d Fresh plumage, upperparts Crown and nape much darker than back; broad, dark tip to tail; dark m obvious. e Worn plumage, upperparts much darker with less contrast between head and back and less conspicuous m.



Systematic text

these accounts are set out as follows: Name With a few exceptions the scientific names follow those used by Brooke (2004). For English names we give the most commonly used versions; we have not followed any particular authority. Other names We only include alternative english names that are currently in common use. We have made no attempt to trawl back through the literature to find obscure or apocryphal names. Taxonomy in many cases our approach to the taxonomy is outlined in the introduction to each group. We have generally followed the taxonomy of Brooke (2004) who uses an up-to-date, rational and reasonably conservative approach. The most significant deviation from this is in the Audubon’s/Little Shearwater group, which has recently been revised by Austin et al. (2004). Distribution Where possible, all known breeding grounds of each species are mentioned. in some widespread species a complete list is not possible; in these cases a summary of distribution is given. An indication of egglaying dates is given to indicate the period during which it is most likely that breeding birds will be near the breeding grounds. dispersal and migration are also described. Behaviour This includes foraging behaviours, flight patterns and flight characteristics (where possible in both high and low winds), and whether or not the species is attracted to fishing boats and ‘chum’, the concoction of smelly fish guts thrown overboard by pelagic birders to attract seabirds close enough to allow identification. Jizz this is a term birders use to describe the general impression created by a bird’s outstanding features, shape and relative proportions etc. We have tried to be objective and, for example, base our description “long-winged” on ratios of wing to tail, and our use of the adjective “stocky” on the ratio of weight to body length.

2

orange shading indicates breeding range, covering all main breeding islands.

Green shading is range at sea.

Map A distribution map is given for each species. Size We have given four standard measurements in order to give observers a rough idea of the size and overall proportions of each species. We have tried to avoid repeating the measurements given in other field guides and have returned to original sources wherever possible. TL in theory, total length is measured on live birds from the tip of the tail to the tip of the bill. in preparing these texts we have had to search much obscure literature to try and find this measurement. In many cases we are far from convinced that published total lengths are in fact from live birds, nor are we convinced that they are accurate. imagine trying to lay a live royal Albatross back-down on a tape measure. however, they do give a rough idea of total length and are better than nothing. We would encourage anyone handling live birds to take a small sample of accurate total lengths to help fill this gap in the published data. W We have tried to give wing measurements obtained using the least chord method; that is, the measurement from carpal joint to wing-tip on the closed wing with the wing flattened but not straightened. Researchers do not always record which method they use but standard wing length remains the most reliable measurement due to the ease with which it can be taken. WS in theory measurements of wingspan are made on live birds from wing-tip to wing-tip, but they suffer from the same problems as those of total length. in preparing these texts we have had to search much obscure literature to try and find this measurement. In many cases we are far from convinced that published wingspans are in fact from live birds or in some cases even correct. We would encourage anyone handling live birds to take a small sample of wingspans. WT procellariiform weights vary markedly throughout the breeding season, and between populations. Many published weights are of storm-wrecked or fledgling birds and do not reflect the true weight of adult birds commonly seen at sea. We have attempted here to give a range of measurements of typical adult weights but it is surprising for how many species this information is not available. Plumage The plumage texts are designed mainly to highlight significant and useful differences between species. For some groups of species, for example the ‘cookilaria’ petrels, a summary is given of standard plumage patterns. We have tried to point out the effect of the age of the feathers on the appearance of the bird. in many seabirds with similar plumages, wear of the feathers can make them look even more alike, for example, Cook’s and Pycroft’s Petrels. On the other hand, the state of feather wear may assist with the identification of similar species, for one may be in worn plumage while another is freshly moulted; see, for example, Westland and Whitechinned Petrels. For really detailed plumage descriptions and identification of birds in the hand we suggest handbooks such as that covering Australian, new Zealand and Antarctic Birds by marchant & higgins (1990). Moult and wear We have attempted to summarise published information of moult and wear of plumage. Moult data for many petrels is lacking, yet in many cases detailed study of the moult of individuals of difficultto-identify species may be helpful in separating them, especially when they are in wing moult at different times of the year. We believe that body moult is far more prevalent than most authors suggest and many species begin body moult whilst breeding. in many cases state of moult, and especially body moult, can be used to separate adults from immature birds, and consequently assist with identification. Identification A summary of tips for identifying the species in question.

Lastly, we would like to say that this book is no way the final word on seabird identification but is intended to promote open discussion and an exchange of information, preferably of a friendly and enthusiastic nature over cups of tea or a beer or two. We hope you will take this book into the field, write all over it, redraw the pictures, stick in extra sketches and contribute to a better edition in ten years time. And if you prefer to treat your books with a little more reverence, then maybe you can buy another copy for your bookshelf.

30

SEABIRD TOPOGRAPHY forehead

nostrils primary coverts

primaries

upper mandible

carpal secondaries

lores

lower mandible

secondary-coverts

sulcus

axillaries or armpit

undertail-coverts breast

vent belly

flanks

back or mantle uppertail-coverts

nape

rump

crown

tail

ear-coverts scapulars forehead

carpal

humerals

naricorn secondaries

nostril

secondary or greater coverts

culminicorn maxillary unguis

primaries primary coverts chin ramicorn

throat

latericorn mandibular unguis

31

Plate 1: Great albatrosses of the southern oceans Huge birds with very long, narrow wings and massive pale bills. Even the smallest are larger than all other albatrosses, with wingspans of 2.5–3.5m and bodies over 1m long. Flight is an impressive soaring glide with an occasional slow flap of the wings. In strong winds the wings are held arched well downwards and the wing-tips are angled back. As a group they are easily distinguished by size, shape and flight from all the smaller albatrosses but they are far from easy to tell apart unless details of the bill can be seen well.

1. Wandering albatross group

See p.122

The interpretation of genetic differences within this group varies. Three or four species have been suggested: Snowy Albatross Diomedea exulans breeds on South Georgia, Prince Edward Island, Crozier Islands, Kerguelen Islands and Macquarie Island; Tristan Albatross D. dabbenena breeds on Gough Island and the Tristan da Cunha group; and New Zealand Albatross D. antipodensis breeds mainly on Antipodes Island and Auckland Islands with a few on Campbell Island, New Zealand. Some authors also separate the New Zealand birds into two species: Antipodean Albatross D. antipodensis and Gibson’s Albatross D. gibsoni. All species fledge dark brown with white only on face and underwings and become paler as they age, resulting in a wide range of plumages. Almost every wandering-type albatross you see will have a different plumage. 1a-c show examples of the range of plumages. See Plate 2 for the full range and further discussion of identification. Close up, told from both royal albatrosses and Amsterdam Island Albatross by plain pink bill. However, a few mainly darker-plumaged birds from New Zealand and Tristan have a dark smudge on the bill at the tip of the lower mandible, which may cause confusion with Amsterdam. At a distance all darker birds are indistinguishable from Amsterdam Island Albatross. Paler birds are not easy to tell from Southern and Northern Royals.

1a Adult Snowy, upperparts Body white with a few vermiculations on the upperparts; tail with a few small

dark marks, especially towards centre; upperwing white with black only beyond carpal and towards trailing edge. 1b Adult New Zealand (gibsoni), upperparts Body white with thin brownish or black lines (vermiculations) on upperparts; tail tipped dark; upperwings mostly black with a white central panel. 1c Immature upperparts First moult after fledging, upperparts dark brown with white face and scruffy pale marking on neck. Underparts white with a dark breast-band. 1d Head All species in the group have plain pink bill with no dark line on cutting edge.

2. royal albatross group

See p.127

Recent genetic studies suggest that former northern and southern subspecies of Royal Albatross should be given full specific status. Southern upperwings become whiter with age; Northern upperwings remain dark. Young Southerns have dark upperwings like Northerns. Fledglings and immature Southerns can be difficult to separate Close up, distinguished from the wandering group and Amsterdam Island Albatross by plain pink bill with a thin black line along the cutting edge. Note, though, that this is not always easy to see. At a distance, royals of both species are not easy to tell apart from similarly patterned birds in the wandering group. See Plate 3 for a discussion of identification.

2a Adult Southern, upperparts White body and white on upperwing similar to adult Snowy. 2b Adult Northern, upperparts White body and dark upperwings. Some retain a few dark marks on the outer tail.

2c Head Both species have pink bills with thin dark line along cutting edge.

3. amsterdam Island albatross Diomedea amsterdamensis

WS 300cm TL 115cm See p.126

Recognised by most authors as a separate species. Very rare. Total population c.120. Breeds only on Amsterdam Island. Fledglings dark brown with white only on face and underwing, becoming a little whiter with age. Close up, told from similarly plumaged dark-brown albatrosses in the wandering group by bill with thin black line on cutting edge and dark tip. Note, however, that a few darker-plumaged Tristan and antipodensis New Zealand Wandering Albatrosses can have dark marks on the tip of the lower mandible. At a distance, when bill details cannot be seen, they are indistinguishable from darker birds in plumages A–C in the wandering-type group (see Plate 2:1–6).

3a 3b 3c 3d 32

Adult upperparts Mostly dark brown with variable amounts of white on neck and back. Adult underparts Paler bird with faint breast-band. Adult underparts Some birds retain a complete breast-band. Head Bill pale pink with thin dark line on cutting edge and darker tip.

1c 1a 1b

2a

1d 2b

2c

3a

3c 3b

3d

Plate 2: Wandering albatross grouP snowy albatross Diomedea exulans WS 250–350cm TL 120–135cm tristan albatross Diomedea dabbenena WS ? TL ? new Zealand albatross Diomedea antipodensis WS ? TL ? amsterdam island albatross Diomedea amsterdamensis WS 300cm TL 115cm

See p.124 See p.124 See p.125 See p.126

The plumage sequence of all species in the wandering albatross group is similar, fledging dark brown with white underwing and face, and becoming paler with age. Apart from newly fledged juveniles almost every wandering-type albatross you see will have a different plumage, but in each species a certain range of plumages will predominate. The result of all this variation is that it is almost impossible to assign an individual bird to a species, although you may be able to say what it is not, or what it is likely to be. Neither can you rely on distribution to indicate species. Although they are limited to a few islands for breeding, all species have occurred throughout the southern oceans. All are monotypic apart from New Zealand Wandering, which has two races (nominate antipodensis and gibsoni). See main text (pp.122–123) for discussion of plumages and identification of species but remember that you can rarely assign an individual bird to a species with any certainty. This plate depicts eight typical plumages based on museum specimens and photograhs from known locations. Note that although we have called the plumages A–H this series does not show the progression of an individual’s plumage from dark juvenile to whiter adult.

1–2 Plumage A juvenile Plumage shown by Snowy, both New Zealand races, Tristan, Amsterdam

3–4 5–6 7–8

9

10 11

12

Head, neck, body and tail entirely chocolate-brown except for striking white face. Underwing as adult except for wider dark margin between carpal joint and base of outermost primary and small chocolate-brown patch at base of inner leading edge of wing. Plumage B Plumage shown by Snowy, both New Zealand races, Tristan, Amsterdam Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck. Belly and flanks mostly white with broad brown breast-band and mostly dark undertail-coverts. Plumage C Plumage shown by both New Zealand races, Tristan, Amsterdam Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck, saddle, rump and uppertail-coverts. Belly and flanks mostly white with faint brown breast-band and dark on undertail-coverts. Plumage D Plumage shown by Tristan, both New Zealand races Head and neck mostly white except for brownish crown and mottling on sides of neck. Body mostly white with brown and grey vermiculations and blotches on saddle and rump. Some have brown shading on flanks and most retain indistinct breast-band. Tail white with black sides and tip. Upperwing mainly blackishbrown with variably sized white blotch on centre of innerwing. Underwing like plumage C; pre-axillary notch still present but may be paler. Plumage E Plumage shown by Snowy , New Zealand antipodensis  and gibsoni, Tristan Similar to D but head and body whiter and breast-band absent or made up of very faint vermiculations; tail whiter with dark sides and tips of outermost feathers usually retained. Upperwing mainly blackish-brown with more white, especially on centre of innerwing. Underwing similar to last but lacks pre-axillary notch. Plumage F Plumage shown by Snowy, New Zealand gibsoni, Tristan Similar to E but upperwing considerably whiter, especially distinct white patch on centre of innerwing. Plumage G Plumage shown by Snowy, New Zealand gibsoni , Tristan  Similar to F except head and body mostly white; tail mostly white, usually with dark outer feathers. On upperwing, white central patch behind elbow linked to white of back, forming white wedge extending from body into innerwing and leaving broad black leading and trailing edges. Underwing as plumage D but black leading edge between carpal joint and base of outermost primary thinner and not continuous. Plumage H Plumage shown by Snowy, Tristan  Head, neck and body white. Tail white; black tips to tail feathers retained on some. Inner upperwing predominantly white with black tips to entire trailing edge, and some dark-tipped feathers on central underwing close to body. Black on coverts increases towards elbow and outer upperwing predominantly black; some darker patches and mottling on outer half of inner wing-coverts, creating chequered transition between white inner forewing and dark trailing edge and outer wing. Underwing white with black flight feathers forming thin, dark trailing edge and large dark tip.

13 Adult male Snowy, head Bill entirely pink. Head white but close up some can be seen to still retain thin 14

34

dark vermiculations on neck and upper breast. Darker adult New Zealand, head Some young and darker-plumaged New Zealand, Tristan and possibly Snowy can have darker tips to pink bills that are likely to cause confusion with Amsterdam Island Albatross.

1

14

3

2

4

7

5

9

8 6

11

12

10

13

Plate 3: royal albatrosses 1. northern royal albatross Diomedea sanfordi

WS c. 320cm TL c. 115cm See p.127

Northern Royal is a large albatross that breeds in the Chatham Islands, with a few at Taiaroa Head, South Island, New Zealand.

1a Adult upperparts Upperwings black, scapulars patchy black and white; head, back, rump and tail white but some retain dark on outer tail feathers; underwing white as Southern.

1b Juvenile upperparts Upperwings dark with thin pale edges to feathers; body white with variable amounts of dark markings on crown, back, rump and tail; underwings white as adult.

1c Adult bill At all ages, pink with thin dark line along cutting edge. Some adults retain a few small dark feathers on the crown.

2. southern royal albatross Diomedea epomophora

WS c. 350cm TL 115cm See p.128

Southern Royal is the larger of the two royal albatrosses. It breeds on Campbell Island and on the Auckland Islands. Juvenile same as that of Northern. Bill same as Northern.

2a Adult upperparts Head, back rump and tail white; upperwings black with white on inner wing extending back from leading edge as triangle, broadest near body.

2b Adult underparts Underparts white; thin dark trailing edge and small dark tip to underwing; dark border on leading edge of underwing beyond carpal slightly variable.

2c Immature upperparts Upperwings black, some thin, grey wavy lines on scapulars, rest white. Very similar to adult Northern.

2d Immature upperparts Head, body and tail white, rarely retaining any dark feathering on crown or tail; upperwing in early stages of whitening with a few white feathers on innerwing.

A royal albatross with white on the upperwing is a Southern. Newly fledged juveniles of both species look very similar, but Northerns tend to have more dark markings on head, back and tail. However, there is much variation and they are inseparable in the field. Immature Southerns (2c) can have black upperwings like adult Northerns (1a); they are impossible to tell apart at a distance and even close up can be difficult. Birds with dark spots on crown or dark feathers in tail are likely to be Northerns. The scapulars and base of the upperwing tend to look scruffier on Southerns (2c) with more vermiculations than Northerns (1a). Birds with entirely white bodies, heads and tails and dark upperwings can be of either species, but with practice size may help. Southern Royals are larger than Northerns: bills 17.3cm (16.5–19.0cm) and 16.4cm (15.4–17.2cm), wing length 68.5cm (64.7–70.7cm) and 63.8cm (61.4–66.0cm), respectively. Note, however, that there is considerable variation within a species as well. The extent of the dark border on the leading edge of the underwing from carpal to primaries (2b) has been used to separate the two species. Northerns, it is suggested, have bigger dark margins. This feature appears, however, to be related to age and sex. This means that immature Southerns (2c), especially females, the very birds with dark upperwings you would want to distinguish from Northerns (1a), may have wide margins as well. A few hybrids nest at Taiaroa Head, New Zealand. They are indistinguishable from Northerns. For separation of royals from the many wandering-type albatrosses with similar plumage, see main text on pp.128–129.

36

1b 1a

1c

2d

2b 2c

2a

Plate 4: albatrosses of the north PacIfIc 1. short-tailed albatross Phoebastria albatrus

WS 210cm TL 89cm See p.130

Very rare, medium-sized albatross with a huge bill, short tail and long but relatively broad wings. Total population c.1,200, breeding mainly on two small islands, Tori-shima and Seikaku near Japan and Taiwan, respectively. Size and shape, huge pink bill, white underparts and smudgy-to-neat black-and-white upperparts unlike anything else in north Pacific. Dark young birds are similar to Black-footed Albatross but are easy to distinguish when bill has become pale. Recently fledged birds with dark bills are best told by longer, larger bill, head shape, dark feathering at base of bill (though a few show a trace of white) and dark around eye. Check also wandering group of albatrosses, which have a similar plumage progression (Plates 1 and 2).

1a Adult upperparts Head white with golden wash on crown and nape. Back and rump white, tail black. Upperwings black-and-white. Huge pale pink bill with bluish tip. Underwings white.

1b Older immature, upperparts Small dark cap; back and rump almost completely white; upperwing shows patchy version of adult pattern.

1c Immature upperparts Upperparts, crown dark; collar, back and rump mottled brown and white; upperwing dark except for white patch and few isolated coverts.

1d Immature underparts Underparts and underwing almost entirely white. 1e Younger immature, upperparts Entirely dark brown with pink bill. Become whiter with age, starting on the belly. Bill pale and feet and legs paler by this stage.

1f Younger immature underparts Underparts dark-brown, whiter on throat, around base of bill and belly. Underwing dark, lighter at base of primaries.

1g Juvenile on sea Newly fledged birds are entirely dark brownish-black and retain dark bill and legs for up to six months.

2. black-footed albatross Phoebastria nigripes

WS 220cm TL 81cm See p.131

A smaller, darker albatross, breeding mainly in the northwest Hawaiian group with small numbers on islands off Japan. Wings long and narrow, although they do not always look so! Normal adults are unlike anything else in the north Pacific, but the very rare pale birds can be confusing at first glance. Dark juveniles are best told from dark-billed newly fledged Short-tailed Albatrosses by head shape, shorter, stockier bill and white feathering at base of bill and behind eye.

2a Adult upperparts Rather scruffy grey-brown with white uppertail-coverts and paler face. Bill pinkishgrey.

2b Adult underparts Scruffy grey-brown with lighter belly and undertail-coverts. Underwing mainly dark, paler on bases of primaries.

2c Immature upperparts Dark as juvenile; bill paler grey. 2d Immature underparts Entirely dark brown as juvenile, slightly paler on flight feathers of underwing. 2e Pale bird, underparts Paler almost white head and underparts with darker collar or breast-band and pinkish bill. Rare. Unclear if plumage varies with age in these birds.

2f Juvenile on sea Entirely dark brown except for narrow whitish band at base of bill and spot behind eye. Bill and legs dark.

38

1d 1f 1a

1c 1b

1e

2b

2d

2a 2c

2e

1g

2f

Plate 5: albatrosses of the north and troPIcal PacIfIc 1. Waved albatross Phoebastria irrorata

WS 230cm TL 90cm See p.129

Medium-large albatross with a very long bill. Young birds have completely white heads. The only albatross regularly in the tropics around the Galápagos Islands and Ecuador coast. Unlikely to be confused with any other species.

1a Adult upperparts Upperwing and tail brown; back and rump brown, barred white increasing intensely towards tail; head white, washed golden buff on nape and back of crown.

1b Adult underparts Huge yellow bill; head white; lower breast and belly brown, finely barred white. Underwing dark on inner wing, paler, smudged brown on outer wing.

2. laysan albatross Phoebastria immutabilis

WS 220cm TL 80cm See p.131

Smaller, relatively slightly built, black-and-white albatross with a bill that appears rather long and slim. The commonest albatross of the north Pacific, breeding on many widespread islands. Juvenile very similar to adult but bill slightly duller and head lacks grey wash. Somewhat gull-like. Half as big again as the largest dark-backed gull, with a black tail, much bigger bill and strong gliding flight. Has occurred very rarely in the south Pacific. Distinguished from similar Black-browed (7:1), Campbell (7:2), Southern Buller’s (8:3), Indian and Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatrosses (8:1–2) by bluish-tipped pink bill, underwing pattern and dark on back which extends well down onto rump. See Plate 7:3 for comparison with Black-browed Albatross.

2a Adult upperparts White head with dark eye-patch and variable grey wash on cheeks; dark upperwings, the dark on the back extending down onto white rump; bill pinkish with a pale bluish tip.

2b Adult darker bird, underparts White except for a few dark feathers on undertail; underwing with broad dark borders and tip, white central panel with extensive dark patches and streaks.

2c Adult lighter bird, underparts White; underwing with larger, cleaner, white central panel.

40

1a

1b

2a 2c 2b

Plate 6: MedIuM-sIZed albatrosses of the southern oceans A group of three similar albatrosses, often called mollymawks, smaller than wandering-type albatrosses but noticeably larger than Black-browed Albatross. As a group they can be separated from the much larger royal and wandering-type groups by dark back and by shape, especially broader, shorter wings and smaller bill. They are larger and longerwinged than the other Thalassarche mollymawks and their white underwings have a very narrow black border.

1. shy albatross Thalassarche cauta

WS 255cm TL 99cm See p.134

The largest of the group. Breeds in Bass Strait, Tasmania and the New Zealand region. Some authors suggest that adults of the two subspecies, cauta from Australia and steadi from New Zealand, can be separated by cauta having more yellow on top of bill, but this seems to be a subtle and inconsistent difference.

1a Adult underparts White with a narrow black border to underwings, white bases to primaries; narrow black 1b 1c 1d 1e

border to the leading edge does not always join up with small black patch at base. Upperparts as immature (1b); head and rump white, wings dark and back paler, silvery grey, the dark rarely extending to the rump. Older immature, upperparts Upperparts and head as adult. Small dark spot on tip of lower mandible of bill is the last immature feature to go. Young immature, upperparts Grey on head extends to collar; bill grey with dark tip and lower mandible. Adult head White with dark eye-patch and very pale silvery-grey wash on cheeks and ear-coverts. Bill pale grey on sides, yellow on top and tip, no dark on tip. Immature head White with variable smudgy grey wash, bill grey with dark tip. Head becomes whiter and bill paler over several years.

2. salvin’s albatross Thalassarche salvini

WS 250cm TL 90cm See p.136

Slightly smaller than Shy, slightly larger than Chatham Islands Albatross. Breeds on Snares Is. and Bounty Is., New Zealand. Attains adult plumage over several years but not always in consistent sequence. Immatures can have pale heads with thin dark collars as 2b, or dark grey cheeks and paler hindnecks as 2d. Bill colour and pattern variable, even pinkish as 2d, but always dark-tipped.

2a Adult underparts As Shy but head pale grey; underwing has dark bases to primaries and narrow black border to the leading edge often does not quite join up with small black patch at base; back only slightly paler than wings, the dark often extending a little way onto the rump. 2b Immature upperparts Same as adult except for paler head with darker, scruffy grey collar and grey, dark-tipped bill. 2c Adult head Pale grey, whiter on forehead and crown, dark eye-patch; bill greyish, paler yellow on the top with a dark spot on the end of the lower mandible 2d Immature head Variably smudged with grey, bill variably grey with darker tip.

3. chatham Islands albatross Thalassarche eremita

WS 220cm TL 90cm See p.135

Smallest of the group. Breeds only on The Pyramid, Chatham Is., New Zealand.

3a Adult underparts As Shy but head dark grey, bill yellow; underwing with dark bases to primaries and narrow black border to the leading edge usually joins up with small black patch at base; back only slightly paler than wings, the dark often extending some way onto the rump. 3b Juvenile upperparts Similar to adult but head paler scruffy grey and bill very dark. 3c Adult head Dark grey, slightly paler on forehead and crown; bill yellowish with dark tip to lower mandible. 3d Immature head Paler than adult; bill dark grey with trace of more yellow adult colouring and dark tip to both mandibles. Immature plumages poorly known.

Adults are relatively easy to separate. Shy has a white head with barely noticeable pale grey wash on cheeks and pale bill. Salvin’s has a pale grey head and pale bill with dark tip. Chatham has a dark grey head and yellowish bill with dark tip. Birds of any age with pale bases to the primaries on the underwing will be Shy but note that others, especially Salvin’s, can show a trace of white, and birds with very worn, faded, brownish feathers can be a problem. Assessment of this feature needs good views and comparative experience. Young birds with scruffy greyish heads and greyish bills with dark tips are more difficult. Shy has pale bases to the primaries, back is paler than upperwings and the dark usually does not extend onto the rump. Both Salvin’s and Chatham have dark bases to the primaries. Further identification is often impossible unless there are some traces of adult bill colour. A small break in the underwing border next to the basal patch and dark on the back extending only a small way onto rump suggest Salvin’s; no break and dark extending onto the rump suggests Chatham, but both features vary. With practice, size can help: Chatham is noticeably smaller than Shy, less convincingly so than Salvin’s.

42

1a

3a 2a

3b

2b

1b

1d

1e

1c

2c

2d

3c

3d

Plate 7: sMaller albatrosses of the southern oceans I A group of half a dozen or so similar smaller, albatrosses of the cooler southern oceans, often called mollymawks, and now placed in the genus Thalassarche together with Shy, Salvin’s and Chatham Islands Albatrosses. All look smaller and more compact than the ‘shy’ group, and considerably more so than the great albatrosses. Genetic studies suggest that the forms of Yellow-nosed Albatross (Atlantic chlororhynchos, and Indian carteri), and of Black-browed Albatross (Black-browed melanophrys, and Campbell impavida) should be considered separate species. Evidence for dividing Southern and Northern Buller’s, which are relatively easily distinguished in the field, is inconclusive and recent studies of the Campbell/Black-browed group show a fair degree of hybridisation. As a group the adults are relatively easy to tell apar,t given good views of bill and underwing, but younger birds are more difficult (and are compared on Plate 9).

1. black-browed albatross Thalassarche melanophrys

WS 225cm TL 88cm See p.132

The commonest and most frequently encountered of the smaller albatrosses of the colder southern oceans.

1a Adult underparts Small, compact albatross with clearly defined black and white underwing; head white with small dark eyebrow; eye dark; bill yellowish-orange.

1b Subadult upperparts As adult except for dark spot on the bill tip, the last immature character to go. Adult plumage attained over 3–6 years.

1c Older immature underparts Underwing almost as white along centre as adult; faint grey collar and bill still pale pinkish with dark tip.

1d Older immature head White with even larger dark eye-brow and eye-patch; eye brown; bill pale pink with dark remaining on tip and behind nostrils.

1e Young immature underparts Underwing lightens along centre; variable grey collar; bill pale pinkish with dark tip.

1f Young immature head White with slightly larger dark eyebrow and eye-patch; eye brown; bill dark with variable paler patches, in this case on lower mandible and base.

1g Juvenile underparts Underwings dark; head white with variable amounts of patchy grey, usually forming a thin indistinct collar.

1h Juvenile head White with very small dark eyebrow and patch; eye brown; bill dark.

2. campbell albatross Thalassarche impavida

WS 220cm TL 80cm See p.133

Breeding restricted to Campbell Islands, but disperses widely; one of the commonest mollymawks in New Zealand waters. Juvenile and immature same as Black-browed. Campbell fledges with brown eyes, which slowly turn yellow. Most have at least a trace of colour by second year but it is often hard to see. Close up, adult Campbell Albatross is easily told from Black-browed by yellow eye, but young birds with brown eyes are indistinguishable. At a distance, the darker underwing of Campbell is not a useful ID character since immature Black-browed can have a similar pattern.

2a Adult underparts As Black-browed except for underwing darker and more untidy toward the base. 2b Adult head Bill orange and head white as Black-browed but eye pale yellow and dark patch in front of eye slightly larger.

Close up, adult Black-browed and Campbell Albatrosses are distinguished from all other mollymawks by orange bills. At a distance, adults of both species told from similar Indian and Atlantic Yellow-nosed and Buller’s Albatrosses (8:1–3) by broad, distinctively shaped border to leading edge of underwing, and from Grey-headed (8:4) by white head. Young birds with scruffy heads and dark underwings can be told from both species of yellow-nosed albatross and Buller’s Albatrosses by darker underwing, but are not easy to distinguish from young Grey-headed Albatross. Compare also larger Shy and Salvin’s Albatrosses (6:1–2), which both have narrow black borders to white underwings.

3. laysan albatross Phoebastria immutabilis

WS 200cm TL 80cm See p.131

Included here for comparison. A common small albatross of the north Pacific that has occurred a few times in the Southern Hemisphere. See also Plate 5:2.

3a Adult underparts Similar to Black-browed and Campbell Albatrosses, but slightly smaller, less heavily built, with slimmer pinkish bill tipped bluish-grey. Underwing is patchier black and white, and the dark on the back extends well down onto the rump.

44

2a 1a

1b

3a

1g 1e 1c 2b

1d

1f

1h

Plate 8: sMaller albatrosses of the southern oceans II A group of smaller albatrosses of the southern oceans, similar in size to Black-browed Albatross with dark upperwings, back and tail, white rump and underparts and black bills striped with yellow. Adults are relatively easy to identify by bill, underwing and head pattern. Young birds look different, are more difficult to separate and are dealt with on Plate 9.

1. atlantic yellow-nosed albatross Thalassarche chlororhynchos WS 200cm TL 76cm See p.138 1a Adult underparts Underwing white with narrow black border; upperparts as Indian Yellow-nosed (2a). 1b Adult head White, washed pale grey on the cheeks; obvious black eye-patch; bill black with one yellow line on top.

2. Indian yellow-nosed albatross Thalassarche carteri

WS 200cm TL 76cm See p.139

2a Adult upperparts Head and rump white. Back, wings and tail dark. Underparts as Atlantic (1a). 2b Adult head White with small black eye-patch; bill black with one yellow line on top. Close up, Atlantic Yellow-nosed told from Indian by larger black eye-patch and grey wash on cheeks. The shape of the base of the yellow stripe on the bill is not a reliable ID feature. Immature Atlantic birds with adult-looking bills can have white heads and small eye-patches similar to adult Indian. At a distance, Atlantic and Indian are indistinguishable unless grey wash on cheeks can be seen. Both told from Buller’s and Grey-headed by whiter heads, and from Black-browed and Campbell (7:1–2) by narrow dark borders to underwings. Yellow-nosed albatrosses look slim-bodied and small-headed with long, rather slender bills. Pale-headed individuals of the ‘shy’ group (6:1–2) have similar narrow black borders to underwing but are much larger, longer-winged and heavier-looking, especially around head and neck, and have pale bills. Compare also Laysan Albatross (5:2).

3. buller’s albatross Thalassarche bulleri

WS 210cm TL 79cm See p.140

Two subspecies, Southern Buller’s T. b. bulleri and Northern Buller’s T. b. ssp. nov. Close up, separated from both yellow-nosed albatrosses by two yellow lines on bill, and from Grey-headed by broader rounded base to the upper yellow line on bill. At a distance, dark leading edge of the underwing is narrower than Grey-headed and slightly wider than both yellow-nosed species. Buller’s is heavier looking than yellow-nosed and has a grey head, though this can be hard to see on paler-headed birds in some lights. Salvin’s (6:2) and Chatham Islands (6:3) Albatrosses, which also have grey heads, have very narrow black borders to the underwings and pale bills and are larger and longerwinged, though darker-headed Northern Buller’s can look very similar to Chatham Islands Albatross at first glance.

3a Adult Southern (nominate), underparts Underwing white with a black border, broader along the leading edge; head pale grey with white cap.

3b Adult Southern (nominate), head Pale grey with whitish forehead; bill black with yellow lines top and bottom, the top one broadly rounded at base.

3c Adult Northern (ssp. nov.), upperparts Head darker grey. Apart from a few scruffy-headed individuals, Northern birds are often distinctive even at a distance, but differences in bill pattern are not reliable ID features.

4. Grey-headed albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma

WS 220cm TL 81cm See p.137

Close up, separated from both yellow-nosed albatrosses by two yellow lines on bill, and from Buller’s by narrower base to yellow line on top of bill. At a distance, from yellow-nosed albatrosses and Buller’s by broad, dark leading edge to underwing, and from Black-browed and Campbell (7:1–2) by grey head. Grey-headed is slightly larger and heavier looking, especially around the head and neck, than both yellow-nosed species, less obviously so than Buller’s. Salvin’s (6:2) and Chatham Islands (6:3) Albatrosses, which also have grey heads, are larger and longerwinged and have very narrow black borders to white underwings and pale bills.

4a Adult underparts Underwing white with black border, broader and distinctively shaped on the leading edge; head grey.

4b Adult upperparts Head grey with small paler forehead; dark wings and tail; white rump. 4c Adult head All-grey; bill black with yellow lines top and bottom, the top one rounded and narrow at the base.

5. black-browed albatross Thalassarche melanophrys

WS 225cm TL 88cm See p.132

Included here for comparison. See also Plate 7:1.

5a Adult underparts Identified by underwing with broad black leading edge, white head and orange bill. 46

4a 3a 1a

5a

3c

4b

2a

4c

1b

2b 3b

Plate 9: younG, sMaller albatrosses of the southern oceans Albatrosses in this group take about 4–6 years to attain adult plumage. They all fledge with dark, dull-coloured bills and pale or greyish heads. Black-browed, Campbell and Grey-headed Albatrosses fledge with dark underwings that lighten with age, but Buller’s and both yellow-nosed albatrosses have white underwings bordered with black, like adults. They are not always easy to identify. Look at underwings first, then details of bill and head.

1. black-browed albatross Thalassarche melanophrys campbell albatross Thalassarche impavida

WS 225cm TL 88cm See p.132 WS 220cm TL 88cm See p.133

At fledging the plumages of these two species are almost identical, and both have brown eyes. Most Campbell eyes show some yellow by their second year, which is the only known way to tell them apart, but you need a good, close view to see it. Individuals attain adult plumage, white underwings and orange bills at different ages, and the state of moult is a better indication of the precise age of a bird. Told from Buller’s and both yellow-nosed albatrosses by dark underwing, but difficult to distinguish from Grey-headed. Black-browed and Campbell have paler heads than Grey-headed at fledging, but can look very similar in second year when both can have dark underwings with a dash of white, pale heads with darker collars and bills with dark tips. In these plumages they are often impossible to tell apart at a distance, but birds with whiter heads and narrow pale collars are likely to be Black-browed or Campbell and their bills are usually paler, brownish rather than blackish. Check for traces of adult bill pattern close up. Blackbrowed and Campbell bills are slightly longer and slimmer than Grey-headed, which look deeper at the base.

1a 1b 1c 1d

Juvenile underparts Underwing dark; head looks white with a trace of a greyish collar. Immature underparts Underwing whitens with age starting at the centre; scruffy collar can be marked. Juvenile head Bill dark grey or grey-brown with a darker tip; dark eyebrow and eye-patch small. Immature head Bill gradually becomes orange, the dark tip is the last to change; eyebrow and eye-patch increase in size.

2. Grey-headed albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma

WS 212cm TL 81cm See p.137

Told from Buller’s and both yellow-nosed albatrosses by dark underwing. At fledging, head usually much greyer with whiter cheeks than Black-browed and Campbell, but can look very similar in second year. See Black-browed/ Campbell above for discussion of differences.

2a 2b 2c 2d

Juvenile underparts Underwing dark; head looks grey with white cheeks. Immature underparts Underwing lightens with age starting at the centre; scruffy collar can become darker. Juvenile head Bill dark grey with a black tip. Immature head Bill remains dark, developing traces of adult pattern.

3. buller’s albatross Thalassarche bulleri

WS 210cm TL 79cm See p.140

Takes several years to attain adult bill and head pattern. Immature and intermediate stages are undescribed. Darkerheaded young birds may be of the northern subspecies but plumage not well-known, and probably inseparable until adult. Told from Black-browed, Campbell and Grey-headed by white underwing. Underwing pattern similar to both yellow-nosed albatrosses but has greyer head, more obvious dark eye-patch and paler bill with dark tip.

3a Juvenile underparts Underwing white with black border, wider along leading edge; head patchy grey. 3b Juvenile head Bill grey or brownish-grey with a darker base and tip; small dark eye-patch.

4. atlantic yellow-nosed albatross Thalassarche chlororhynchos WS 200cm TL 76cm See p.138 Indian yellow-nosed albatross Thalassarche carteri WS 220cm TL 76cm See p.139 Young of both species are similar and are dealt with together here. Young yellow-nosed albatrosses look alike and cannot be separated at sea. The size of the eye-patch does not help to distinguish between the two at these ages. At a distance, when you cannot see the bill details, they all look like adult Indian birds. Told from Black-browed, Campbell and Grey-headed Albatrosses by white underwing. From Buller’s by white head and black bill, but note that the underwing pattern in young birds can look like Buller’s because the dark leading edge is broader than in adults. Both yellow-nosed albatrosses are relatively slightly built, with smallish heads and rather long, thin-looking bills, and can be told at a distance by jizz.

4a 4b 4c 4d 48

Juvenile underparts Underwing as adult but border slightly wider and scruffier; head entirely white. Immature underparts Underwing as adult; head white. Juvenile head Bill black or very dark, black eye-patch very small or almost absent. Immature head Bill black with a trace of adult pattern; small black eye-patch.

1c 1b

1a

1d

2a

2c

2b

2d

3a

3b

4c

4a

4b

4d

Plate 10: sooty albatrosses Two medium-sized dark albatrosses with long thin wings and long, pointed wedge-shaped tails. Both species are easily told from everything else by size and distinctive shape, although one might just be confused by dark boobies. Dark colour and size only shared by young giant petrels (Plate 11:1–2), which have large pale bills, short tails, and look a lot less elegant in flight.

1. light-mantled albatross Phoebetria palpebrata

WS 215cm TL 84cm See p.142

Pale-backed albatross of circumpolar colder waters of the Southern Ocean.

1a Adult upperparts Wings, head and tail dark; back and underparts paler grey. 1b Juvenile upperparts As adult but pale grey back, and sometimes underparts, have dark patchy scalloping; thin line on sulcus is indistinct, black or grey.

1c Adult underparts, worn plumage or moulting Can have dark mask rather than completely dark head. 1d Adult head Bill black with a thin blue line on sulcus.

2. sooty albatross Phoebetria fusca

WS 205cm TL 85cm See p.141

Dark-backed albatross of the warmer Southern Ocean. Extremely rare in the Pacific.

2a Adult upperparts Completely dark brownish-black. 2b Adult underparts Completely dark with paler reflective base to primaries only in bright light. 2c Juvenile upperparts As adult but duller, less polished looking, with an indistinct, grey or black, thin line on sulcus. A few birds have paler scruffy collars.

2d Adult head Bill black with a thin yellow line on sulcus. Light-mantled told from Sooty Albatross by pale back. Even the scruffiest Light-mantled has a paler back than Sooty, and even the palest-collared Sooty has a dark back. Sooty Albatrosses are slimmer and have thinner wings and flatter foreheads than Light-mantled. In flight they look more angular, even reptilian, and with practice can be told from Light-mantled at some distance by jizz. Adults distinguished at close range by colour of line on bill.

50

1a 2a

1b 2c

2b 1c

1d

2d

Plate 11: Giant Petrels Two species of very large petrels, the size of small albatrosses, with large, bulbous, pale bills. Juveniles of both ­species­fledge­sooty-black­and­become­paler­over­several­years,­passing­through­a­variety­of ­plumages.­Easily­told­ from­ other­ albatrosses­ and­petrels,­ but­ not­ always­ easy­ to­ distinguish­ between­ the­ two­ species.­ Size­ and­ shape,­ especially­huge,­bulbous,­pale­bill­is­unlike­anything­else,­although­dark­young­birds­could­be­confused­with­sooty­ albatrosses­or­the­larger,­darker­petrels­at­first­glance.­Often­in­wing­moult,­so­wing­shape­varies­a­little.­Wings­are­ straight­and­somewhat­round-ended­in­light­winds,­and­more­pointed­and­angled­in­stronger­winds.

1. northern Giant Petrel Macronectes halli

WS 190cm TL 87cm See p.144

Circumpolar­bird­of ­northern­parts­of ­Southern­Ocean,­generally­with­distinctive­reddish­tip­to­bill.

1a Adult underparts­­Pale;­head­with­darker­cap;­underwing­usually­dusky.­ 1b Adult head­­Bill­pinkish­with­a­darker­reddish­tip;­eye­pale. 1c Immature or darker adult, upperparts­­Upper-­and­underparts­scruffy­grey-brown;­paler­on­face,­cheeks­

and­ throat,­ cap­ remaining­ darker.­ Most­ whiten­ first­ on­ face,­ cheeks­ and­ throat.­ One­ of ­ several­ variable­ plumages­attained­in­the­change­from­all-dark­juvenile­to­pale­adult. 1d Juvenile upperparts­­Completely­dark­brownish­black,­eye­dark­as­Southern;­bill­has­darker­reddish­tip.­ A­few­juveniles­have­entirely­pink­bills­as­illustrated­and­are­indistinguishable­from­Southern.

2. southern Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus

WS 195cm TL 87cm See p.143

Circumpolar­bird­of ­colder­Southern­Ocean,­generally­with­greenish­tip­to­bill.

2a 2b 2c 2d

Adult underparts ­Grey-brown,­mottled­paler;­head­completely­white;­underwing­usually­pale.­ Adult upperparts Dark,­mottled­paler;­head­white;­leading­edge­to­inner­wing­usually­whiter. Adult head­­Bill­pinkish-yellow­with­a­pale­greenish­tip;­eye­usually­dark­but­can­be­flecked­paler. White phase, underparts­­White­with­wide­variety­of ­darker­flecking;­eye­dark;­bill­and­legs­as­dark­phase.­ Impossible­to­separate­adult­and­immature.­Juveniles­also­white.­ 2e Albino phase, upperparts­­Completely­white­with­pink­bill,­legs­and­eye.­Very­rare.­­ 2f Older immature, underparts­­Underparts­and­underwing­dark­mottled­paler;­head­white­but­for­small­ dark­cap­separated­by­white­collar­from­dark­back;­face­and­throat­usually­lightens­first­and­small­dark­cap­is­ the­last­to­go­on­white­head. 2g Younger immature, underparts­­Entirely­scruffy-brown­except­for­paler­face­and­throat.­Very­similar­to­ Northern in this plumage but bill tip greenish. 2h Juvenile upperparts­­Completely­dark­brownish-black;­eye­dark­as­Northern;­bill­has­pale­greenish­tip.­A­ few­juveniles­have­entirely­pinkish­bills­as­illustrated­and­are­indistinguishable­from­Northern.­ Southern­white­form­unmistakable.­Close­up,­Northern­and­Southern­easily­told­apart­by­colour­of ­bill­tip­except­ for­a­few­dark­young­birds­that­have­plain­pink­bills­and­are­therefore­unidentifiable.­At­a­distance,­the­reddish­tip­ of ­a­Northern’s­bill­appears­dark­and­is­still­noticeable.­If ­the­bill­cannot­be­seen­well­then­birds­with­white­heads,­ darker­bellies­and­pale­underwings­are­likely­to­be­older­Southerns,­and­birds­with­paler­bellies­and­darker­caps­are­ likely­to­be­Northerns,­but­many­plumages­look­similar­and­some­birds­are­not­separable.

52

2f

2a 1a

2d 2g

1c 2e

2b

1d/2h

1b

2c

Plate 12: Fulmars Two species of medium-sized, pale, stocky, gull-like petrels, with narrow wings held stiff and straight while gliding. Juveniles similar to adults.

1. southern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides

WS 120cm TL 48cm See p.146

The only other petrels anywhere near as pale in the southern oceans are White-headed Petrel (19:1) and Grey Petrel (32:4). Southern Fulmar has white (not dark) underwings and a prominent white patch on the upperwing. It is more likely to be confused with gulls, but white patch on the upper wing and gliding flight on stiffly held wings are distinctive. Unlikely to be seen with Northern Fulmar as ranges do not overlap, but Southern is paler and cleaner-looking than light-phase Northern, and has a slimmer pink bill with a dark tip.

1a 1b 1c

Underparts White with very narrow dark border to underwing. Bill pink with black tip and blue nasal tubes. Upperparts White head, pearly grey back, rump and tail. Upperwing pearly grey with dark trailing edge and outerwing. White patch on inner primaries and coverts. Wheeling in distance Underparts look entirely white at a distance.

2. Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis

WS 105cm TL 48cm See p.145

Occurs in a wide range of plumages but most birds are pale. Three subspecies generally recognised: the nominate glacialis is restricted to high-arctic North Atlantic, auduboni occurs in the low Arctic and temperate North Atlantic, and rodgersii occurs in the North Pacific. North Atlantic birds of both races are pale or dusky bluish-grey, while rodgersii are more variable; whiter birds can have dark patchy markings and darker birds can be almost black. Pale birds look like gulls but have short stubby bills, pale patches on the outer wings and they glide a lot more on narrow, straight, stiffly held wings. At a distance darker birds can look like all sorts of petrels and shearwaters, and it is useful to learn to recognise Northern Fulmar’s stocky shape and stiff-winged flight.

2a

Pale phase (auduboni), underparts White with narrow dark border to underwings. Small dark patch in front of eye. Bill pale yellow tinged pink and blue with darker marks towards the tip. 2b Pale phase (auduboni), upperparts Head white; back, rump and tail grey. Upperwing grey with dark trailing edge and outerwing. White patch on inner primaries and coverts. Tail same colour as rump on Atlantic birds, darker on Pacific rodgersii. 2c-d Dark phase (nominate), underparts Washed a rather uniform dusky bluish-grey. 2e Dark phase (rodgersii), upperparts Often patchier than Atlantic races, with a darker tail. 2f Dark phase (rodgersii), upperparts Can be almost black with reduced white patch on upperwing. 2g Dark phase (rodgersii), on water Can be almost black. 2h Pale phase (rodgersii), on water Can have patchy dark markings.

3. Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae

WS 95cm TL 35cm See p.186

Included here for comparison. See Plate 21:5.

3a

54

Fea’s Petrel in distance This could be confused for a dark-phase Northern Fulmar in drizzle.

2a 1a 2c

1c

3a

2e

2d

2f 2b 1b

2g

2h

Plate 13: Distinctive fulmarine Petrels of the southern oceans 1. cape Petrel Daption capense

WS 85cm TL 39cm See p.148

Unmistakable, medium-sized stocky petrel. Juveniles like adults. Flight consists of short glides on stiff wings interspersed with brisk bursts of shallow wingbeats. The northern subspecies australe from the New Zealand region is possibly distinguishable at sea in fresh plumage. The only other petrel as boldly patterned is Antarctic Petrel. Cape Petrel is black rather than brown-and-white, and is chequered and spotty on the upperparts unlike Antarctic, which is dark brown with a clear-cut, well-defined white wing-bar, rump and uppertail.

1a Underparts (nominate) White with black head, dark tail and narrow black border to underwing. Looks white with a black head at a distance.

1b Upperparts (nominate) Distinctive black and white chequered pattern. 1c Upperparts (australe) In fresh plumage blacker on upperwing and back with more dark spots on the rump, but paler, more like nominate, when worn.

2. antarctic Petrel Thalassoica antarctica

WS I05cm TL 40cm See p.147

Unmistakable, medium-sized stocky petrel. Juveniles like adults. Flight consists of long glides on stiff wings interspersed with brisk bursts of shallow wingbeats. The only other petrel as boldly patterned is Cape Petrel. Antarctic is browner, less spotty and patchy, with a clear-cut white wing-bar, rump and uppertail.

2a Underparts White with dark head, dark tip to tail and narrow dark border to underwing. At a distance looks white with dark head.

2b Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark brown with clear-cut white wing-bar and lower rump. 2c Worn plumage or in moult, upperparts Can be very pale scruffy brown.

3. lesser snow Petrel Pagodroma nivea Greater snow Petrel Pagodroma confusa

WS 80cm TL 33cm See p.148 WS 90cm TL 38cm See p.149

Two almost identical, white, small-medium small-billed petrels. Juveniles like adults. Look long-winged and fly erratically, with brisk, shallow wingbeats and little gliding but can also look like fat, white domestic pigeons! The taxonomic separation into two species is subject to much debate and they are only separable at sea with some difficulty when present together. Greater is slightly larger, stockier, marginally whiter and tends to have slightly bigger (yet still small) dark patch around eye. However, identification as Snow Petrel is rarely a problem although single pale birds well north of usual range could be albino or leucistic forms of other species (Sooty Shearwater, 31:1, is perhaps the most likely, also Cape Petrel).

3a Lesser Snow Petrel, underparts All white. 3b Lesser Snow Petrel, upperparts All white, black bill, black eye and small black eye-patch.

56

1c 1b 1a

2c 2b

2a

3b 3a

Plate 14: all-dark Petrels 1. Great-winged Petrel Pterodroma macroptera

WS 97cm TL 40cm See p.182

A large, dark, long-winged petrel with heavy black bill. Very similar to Grey-faced (with which sometimes considered conspecific). Widespread throughout southern oceans but rare off southern South America. Juvenile similar to adult.

1a Underparts Entirely dark brown, slightly paler around base of bill with silvery wash over outer flight feathers, which can look like a pale patch in strong light.

1b Upperparts Entirely dark brown.

2. Grey-faced Petrel Pterodroma gouldi

WS 102cm TL 42cm See p.183

A large, dark, long-winged petrel similar to Great-winged (with which sometimes considered conspecific), nesting only in New Zealand. Grey-faced is slightly larger than Great-winged with a heavier bill, but unless the pale face is seen well it is very difficult to distinguish between the two. Juvenile Grey-faced has darker face like Great-winged, and is impossible to separate from that species unless age of bird can be decided upon by state of plumage or moult.

2a Adult underparts As Great-winged, with paler face. 2b Underparts, from distance All-dark except for slightly paler reflection from outer flight feathers. Adult not separable from juvenile at distance as pale face not discernible.

3. Providence Petrel Pterodroma solandri

WS 100cm TL 40cm See p.175

Included here for comparison. See also Plate 16:1.

3a Adult fresh plumage, underparts From Great-winged and Grey-faced by dark head, paler underparts, white patches on underwing and long wedge-shaped tail.

4. kerguelen Petrel Lugensa brevirostris

WS 81cm TL 34cm See p.150

Medium-sized, bull-necked and big-headed with steep forehead, narrow wings and squat body tapering to rounded or slightly wedge-shaped tail. Circumpolar in colder waters throughout southern oceans. Size, jizz and flight often the best way to identify this species. Close up, told from similar-sized dark-phase Soft-plumaged by longer, narrow, pale leading edge to inner underwing and more extensive silvery sheen on outer underwing.

4a Fresh plumage, underparts Dark slaty-grey, head often appearing darker than underparts; underwing

dark with thin white leading edge to inner wing and reflective silvery gloss to flight feathers, but whole of underwing often just looks dark. 4b Fresh plumage, upperparts Entirely dark, slaty-grey. 4c Worn plumage underparts, strong light Can look brownish with strong colour contrasts on the underwing. 4d Worn plumage, upperparts Brownish-grey; plumage wear and moult can result in pale patches on wing.

5. soft-plumaged Petrel Pterodroma mollis dark phase

WS 89cm TL 34cm See p.185

Small, stout-bodied, compact Pterodroma with short, rounded tail and short neck. Dark phase is very rare; although it has only been recorded from South Atlantic and Indian Oceans, it is likely to be found in both races. Illustrations are based on specimens of P. p. mollis from Gough Island. Similar to Kerguelen Petrel. Great-winged, the other all-dark petrel in range, is a larger, heavier, longer-winged bird. See Plate 19:4 for pale and intermediate phases of Soft-plumaged Petrel.

5a Dark phase, underparts Entirely dusky grey-black, usually with small pale patch around base of bill and ghostly trace of light-phase pattern

5b Dark phase, upperparts Dusky grey-black, usually with hint of dark M marking across open wings.

6. sooty shearwater Puffinus griseus

WS 94cm TL 43cm See p.199

Included here for comparison. See also Plate 31:1.

6a Upperparts Sooty Shearwater is larger, barrel-bodied with narrow wings, longer thinner bill and typical shearwater gliding flight, regularly interspersed with short bursts of brisk, stiff wingbeats.

58

2a

3a

1a

1b 6a

2b

4d

4c

4a

5b

4b 5a

Plate 15: dark buLweria and PseuDobuLweria Petrels 1. bulwer’s Petrel bulweria bulwerii

WS 67cm TL 27cm See p.157

A slim, long-tailed, dark petrel with pale crescent on upperwing, widespread in tropical regions. Best distinguished from all other dark petrels and shearwaters in range by all-dark, giant storm-petrel-like appearance and flight, stubby little bill and pale crescent on upperwing. Remarkably similar in jizz and coloration to Brown Noddy, which has longer, pointed bill, uniform, dark brown plumage, and lacks any pale bar on upperwing.

1a Upperparts Dark brown-black; prominent pale crescent on upperwing. 1b Underparts Entirely dark with paler silvery reflection off underwing only in bright light. 1c Head Small, slight, yet distinctive Bulweria bill.

2. Jouanin’s Petrel bulweria fallax

WS 79cm TL 31cm See p.158

A relatively large, long-winged and long-tailed, very dark petrel with a very large-looking bill, which is held pointing downwards in flight. Breeds solely on Socotra and islands off southern Oman, dispersing widely in Indian Ocean. Larger, heavier, longer-winged with a much bigger bill than Bulwer’s, lacking the pale crescent on upperwing except when plumage very worn. Mascarene has shorter, square-ended tail and paler underwing. May be difficult to tell from Great-winged (14:1) and experience of Jouanin’s long-winged, long-tailed, heavy-billed jizz may be necessary.

2a 2b 2c 2d

Fresh plumage, upperparts Almost entirely dark with only a trace of paler crescent on upperwing. Underparts, bright light Entirely dark with paler silvery reflection off underwing only in bright light. Worn plumage, upperparts Can have pale wing-bars in worn plumage. Head Large, heavy, distinctive Bulweria bill.

3. Mascarene Petrel Pseudobulweria aterrima

WS 88cm TL 35cm See p.159

Medium-sized, relatively long-winged petrel with short, robust, black bill. Tail shorter and more square-ended than Bulweria petrels. Confusable dark species in range include Jouanin’s Petrel, Wedge-tailed Shearwater, darker-phase Trindade (25:2) and possibly Great-winged (14:1) Petrels. Trindade has relatively well-defined white patches on outer underwings; Great-winged has longer wings, less silvery underwings, grey (not pink) legs, and in stronger winds flies in more typical, soaring Pterodroma manner.

3a Upperparts Entirely dark. 3b Underparts Dark except for silvery wash on underwing, more prominent than Bulweria petrels. 3c Head Bill heavy and black, similar to Bulweria bill (especially Jouanin’s).

4. Wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus dark phase

WS 98cm TL 46cm See p.194

Included here for comparison. See also Plate 30:2.

4a Dark phase, underparts Larger than Jouanin’s and Mascarene Petrels with broader wings, pale patch on underwing at base of primaries, slimmer bill and lazier flight, low over the water.

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1c

2d

3c

1a 2a

3a

1b

3b 2c

2b 4a

Plate 16: dark PTeroDroMa Petrels of the PacIfIc Even with experience, the darker phases of Pterodroma petrels can be very difficult to identify. There is no known way to distinguish between dark Herald and Henderson Petrels, and in many other cases lack of information about plumage variation plus the inevitably fleeting nature of many observations may make identification impossible.

1. Providence Petrel Pterodroma solandri

WS 100cm TL 40cm See p.175

A medium-large, dark petrel with a distinctive long, wedge-shaped tail, long, broad wings and large, stout bill. Best distinguished from other all-dark Pterodroma except Great-winged (14:1) and Grey-faced (14:2) by jizz, with distinctive long wedge-shaped tail, long, broad wings and stout, long bill. Great-winged and Grey-faced have dark underwings lacking Providence’s prominent white patch on outer wing. See also Plate 14:3.

1a Underparts Pale face; head darker than underparts; underwing dark with large pale patch on outer wing. 1b Fresh plumage, upperparts Back and rump have slaty-grey cast; indistinct dark M across open wings. 1c Worn plumage, upperparts More uniform grey-brown.

2. kermadec Petrel Pterodroma neglecta dark phase

WS 92cm TL 38cm See p.173

Medium-sized Pterodroma with long, broad wings, short squarish tail and relatively short, stubby bill. Easily told from everything else by pale bases to shafts of primaries on upperwing, but note that on the darkest of juveniles these may be hard to see. Can look like Arctic Skua at first glance. See Plate 20:3 for pale phase and Plate 25:3 for complete range of plumages. The two races, neglecta and juana, are not separable at sea.

2a Dark phase, underparts Head and body dark, usually paler around bill; underwing dark with large white patch on outer wing, paler panel on inner wing and narrow white line along inner leading edge.

2b Dark phase, upperparts Entirely dark except for obvious white bases to shafts and feathers of outer wing.

2c Very dark juvenile, underparts White patch on outer underwing reduced and similar to Herald Petrel; upperwing with white only on bases of shafts of 3–4 primaries.

3. Murphy’s Petrel Pterodroma ultima

WS 97cm TL 40cm See p.174

Medium to large, heavy-bodied petrel with relatively short, narrow wings and rather small-looking bill. Murphy’s Petrel is greyish rather than brown like many other dark petrels, shows an inconspicuous dark M across open upperwings and has dark underwing, although reflective nature of primaries may make it appear to have pale patches on outer wing.

3a Fresh plumage, underparts Greyish cast to dark plumage; underwing dark with somewhat paler patch on outer wing due to light reflecting off bases of primaries.

3b Fresh plumage, upperparts Greyish, almost scalloped cast to back; head often looks darker; indistinct dark M mark across open wings.

3c Worn plumage, upperparts Browner, more uniform, lacking M mark. 3d Underparts, in bright light Pale patches on outer underwings due to reflection can contrast strongly with rest of dark plumage.

4. herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica dark phase henderson Petrel Pterodroma atrata

WS 95cm TL 35cm See p.171 WS ? TL 35cm See p.173

Plumage of dark-phase Herald Petrel appears to be exactly the same as Henderson’s Petrel and there is no known way of telling them apart at sea. Medium-sized, slim, long and narrow-winged petrel with relatively long tail, usually held tightly closed in flight and appearing quite pointed. Both species are very similar to dark-phase Trindade Petrels (25:2) of Indian and Atlantic Oceans. Best told from Murphy’s by white patch on outer underwing; from Kermadec by lack of pale bases to primaries on upperwing; and from Providence by smaller size and bill, and slimmer jizz. See Plate 20:2 for pale phase and Plate 25:1 for complete range of plumages.

4a Underparts Head and body dark-slaty or chocolate-brown , usually paler on throat and lores. Underwing

dark with diffuse white patch on outer wing, greyish paler panel extending onto inner wing and narrow white line along inner leading edge. 4b Fresh plumage, upperparts Some have greyish cast to back, rump and secondary coverts, hinting at dark M mark across open wings. 4c Worn plumage, upperparts Entirely dark chocolate-brown.

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3d

1a

3a 2a

4a

3b

1b 2b 4c

1c

3c

4b

Plate 17: troPIcal PacIfIc Petrels 1. tahiti Petrel Pseudobulweria rostrata

WS 84cm TL 39cm See p.160

A medium-sized petrel with very long, narrow wings held straight and at right angles to body, with flight feathers appearing to curl up at wing-tips. Long body and long tapering tail, long neck and small head make heavy bill look especially large. In range, difficult to distinguish from Phoenix; could be confused with pale phases of Herald and Kermadec (20:3) Petrels and possibly with Wedge-tailed Shearwater (32:2). Tahiti is probably best distinguished from all by long, straight-winged jizz and distinctive flight. The two races, rostrata and trouessarti, are not separable at sea.

1a Underparts Head dark; breast, belly and undertail white, slightly scruffy around edges; underwing dark with slightly paler central panel, especially on innerwing.

1b Upperparts Dark except for slightly paler sides to rump and uppertail, especially obvious in worn plumage. 1c Head Large, deep and heavy bill characteristic of Pseudobulweria.

2. beck’s Petrel Pseudobulweria becki

WS ? TL 29cm See p.159

Medium to small Pseudobulweria, essentially a small version of Tahiti Petrel, known almost entirely from museum specimens.

2a Upperparts Dark except for slightly paler sides to rump and uppertail, especially obvious in worn plumage. Underparts as Tahiti.

3. Phoenix Petrel Pterodroma alba

WS 83cm TL 35cm See p.170

Medium-sized Pterodroma with similar plumage and range to Tahiti but Herald-like jizz and typical Pterodroma flight. In range difficult to distinguish from Tahiti; could be confused with pale phases of Herald and Kermadec (20:3) Petrels and possibly Wedge-tailed Shearwater (32:2). Herald and Kermadec have white patches on outer underwing; Kermadec has white flashes on upperwing; Wedge-tailed Shearwater is larger and broader-winged with lower, more leisurely flight. Magenta Petrel (19:3) from southern Pacific is very similar but is slightly larger and heavier and has whiter undertail-coverts.

3a Underparts Head dark with indistinct whitish throat; breast and belly white; undertail white, dark at tip; underwing usually looks dark but has thin white line along inner leading edge, somewhat paler bases to primaries and paler panel extending onto central inner wing. 3b Upperparts Entirely dark. 3c Head Standard Pterodroma type bill; white chin and throat.

4. fiji Petrel Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi

WS ? TL 30cm See p.161

Small, poorly known Pseudobulweria that probably looks like a small all-dark Tahiti Petrel with a shorter, squarer tail. Known only from Gau Island in Fiji. Smaller than any other all-dark petrel or shearwater in range except for Bulwer’s (15:1) and dark-phase Collared Petrels (24:2). Also known as MacGillivray’s Petrel.

4a Underparts Entirely dark with silvery sheen on underwing. 4b Upperparts Entirely dark sooty-brown. 4c Head Deep, rather heavy bill characteristic of Pseudobulweria.

5. herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica pale phase

WS 95cm TL 35cm See p.171

Included here for comparison. See also Plate 16:4 for dark phase, Plate 20:2 for pale phase and Plate 25:1 for a complete range of plumages.

5a Pale phase, underparts Can look very similar in jizz and plumage to Phoenix Petrel, less so to Tahiti, but has dark undertail and dark underwing with obvious pale patch on primaries and outer coverts.

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3a 1a 4a

4b

3b

1b

3c 2a 4c

1c

Plate 18: larGer Grey-and-WhIte PTeroDroMa Petrels of the PacIfIc A group of large, long-winged, long-tailed petrels with plumage similar to the cookilarias (Plates 22–24); grey upperparts with dark M of varying intensity across open wings; white underparts and underwings with distinctively shaped dark marks from carpals.

1. White-necked Petrel Pterodroma cervicalis

WS 97cm TL 43cm See p.176

1a Underparts White; underwing white with dark line from carpal extends about halfway towards body; bases of primaries pale in 90% of birds; underwing can look entirely white at a distance and in strong light.

1b Fresh plumage, upperparts White collar separates darker cap from pale grey back; broad white edges to feathers of back, narrower ones to tail and secondary coverts; dark M mark across upperwings reasonably obvious, much more so in some lights than others. 1c Worn plumage, upperparts Upperwings almost entirely dark; back darker, obscuring dark M mark; rump and uppertail-coverts can show white patches; collar can be a rather scruffy grey-white and crown very pale.

2. vanuatu Petrel Pterodroma occulta

WS 86cm? TL 39cm See p.177

2a Fresh plumage, underparts Underwing same as White-necked but bases of primaries dark.

3. Juan fernandez Petrel Pterodroma externa

WS 97cm TL 43cm See p.177

3a Underparts White; underwing white with very small dark line from carpal and a broken black line from carpal to primaries; underwing often looks entirely white.

3b Upperparts Pale grey back joins grey cap; upperwings mostly dark, dark M not obvious; amount of white on uppertail-coverts varies to the extent that some may almost appear to have white rumps.

3c Upperparts Upperwings can show dark M in some lights and plumages; back, neck and cap can be very pale, making dark patch behind eye stand out.

White-necked and Vanuatu can be distinguished from Juan Fernandez by white collar, except in a few cases of birds in very worn plumage when the larger dark underwing patch from the carpal should help. Note, however, that underwing of all species can look white at a distance and in strong light. Juan Fernandez has a heavier-looking bill. Vanuatu is 10% smaller than both and has dark bases to the primaries on the underwing. Note, however, that c.10% of White-necked do also, which would make size – rarely easy to judge – the only reliable criterion. All three species are paler and greyer than both Galápagos and Hawaiian, especially around the head.

4. Galápagos Petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia

WS 95cm TL 42cm See p.179

4a Underparts White, with most having some dark markings on the axillaries and flanks. Underwing white with

dark primaries and trailing edge and broad dark line from carpal extending well in towards body. Very dark head and sides of breast contrast with white forehead and throat, although all can vary. 4b Fresh plumage, upperparts At sea usually looks very dark but in fresh plumage feathers have a greyish sheen that can make the back and rump look paler grey. 4c Worn plumage, upperparts Very dark brownish-black; sides of rump and uppertail-coverts can show white patches.

5. hawaiian Petrel Pterodroma sandwichensis

WS 90cm TL 40cm See p.178

5a Underparts White; flanks and axillaries rarely have dark marks. 5b Fresh plumage, upperparts Back slightly paler than head and wings. 5c Worn plumage, upperparts Dark scruffy brown-black, often with whitish patches on rump and uppertailcoverts.

At sea both Hawaiian and Galápagos Petrels look dark above and white below with broad dark bar on underwing and dark hood. Separating them is not easy and is complicated by changes in plumage with wear and considerable variation in head pattern. Galápagos looks longer-winged and longer-tailed and has a heavier bill, and a bird with dark markings on the flanks is likely to be Galápagos. More knowledge of timing of moult might help separation of these species. In all states of plumage, both species look darker, more black-and-white than White-necked, Juan Fernandez and Vanuatu, and have very dark hoods.

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1a

4a

5a

1b 5b

4b

3b

4c

3c 2a 1c

5c

Plate 19: PTeroDroMa Petrels WIth dark underWInGs and WhIte bellIes 1. White-headed Petrel Pterodroma lessonii

WS 109cm TL 43cm See p.183

Large robust Pterodroma with long wings and long, wedge-shaped tail. Heavy-bodied with bull neck, stout bill and rounded head. White head and dark underwing unlike anything else, but check equally pale Mottled Petrel (23:4) and Southern Fulmar (12:1). Circumpolar in colder subantarctic waters.

1a Underparts Head and body white with black eye-patch and pale grey half collar; underwing dark with white line along inner leading edge and slightly paler bases to primaries and outer coverts.

1b Underparts At any distance looks basically white with entirely dark underwing. 1c Upperparts Pearly grey, dark on upperwings forming a poorly defined M mark across open wings.

2. atlantic Petrel Pterodroma incerta

WS 104cm TL 43cm See p.147

Large, heavy, long-winged Pterodroma with bull-necked appearance, rounded head, stout bill and tapering midlength, slightly wedge-shaped tail, and some variability in plumage. Also known as Schlegel’s Petrel. Endemic to Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island, dispersing widely in South Atlantic. Magenta very similar in plumage and jizz but slightly smaller with narrower tail and white (not dark) undertail-coverts. Soft-plumaged can look dark-headed in poor viewing conditions. Lighter phases of Trindade Petrel (25:2a–b) have white patches on outer underwing.

2a Underparts Head dark with whitish throat. Lower breast and belly white and undertail dark. Underwing entirely dark with the usual slightly paler bases to primaries, obvious only in strong light.

2b Dark bird, underparts A few birds are entirely dusky on breast and belly. 2c Worn plumage, underparts Pale bases to feathers can show through on upper breast and throat. 2d Upperparts Entirely dark.

3. Magenta Petrel Pterodroma magentae

WS 102cm TL 38cm See p.184

Medium-large bulky looking Pterodroma with proportionally long wings and quite long, slightly wedge-shaped tail. Very rare, breeding only on Chatham Island. Magenta looks very similar to Phoenix (17:3) but is slightly larger and heavier and has whiter undertail-coverts. See Atlantic Petrel for separation from that species.

3a Adult underparts Head dark with paler throat; breast, belly and undertail white with very few darker feathers at tip; underwing dark, paler and greyish on flight feathers.

3b Adult upperparts Entirely dark. 3c Juvenile head Some juveniles have small pale supercilium, and pale throat merging with white breast.

4. soft-plumaged Petrel Pterodroma mollis

WS 89cm TL 34cm See p.185

Small, stout-bodied, compact Pterodroma with short, rounded tail and short neck. Widespread in South Atlantic, southern Indian Ocean and southwest Pacific. More southerly nominate mollis generally has a paler face and neck and narrower breast-band than more northerly race dubia. In good light, combination of upperwing pattern and dark underwing diagnostic but mistaken for many other species in poor conditions – see text. Similar to Northern Hemisphere Fea’s and Zino’s (21:4–5), but most Soft-plumaged have complete grey breast-band. See text for exceptions. See Plate 14:5 for rare dark phase.

4a Pale phase, underparts (nominate) White with complete grey band across upper breast. Underwing

usually looks uniformly dark but close up in good light can be seen to have thin white line on inner leading edge and silvery wash to flight feathers and coverts. 4b Pale phase, underparts (nominate) A few birds lack complete breast-band. Wing moult can make dark underwing look patchy. 4c Intermediate phase, underparts (nominate) Dusky wash and mottling on head, flanks and undertail. Present in museum collections but there are no recent records at sea or from breeding grounds. 4d Pale phase, upperparts (nominate) Crown grey; small black eye-patch; grey upperwing darker with indistinct M marking across wings.

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2c 2b 2a 3a 1a

2d 1c 3b 1b

4b

4a

3c

4d

4c

Plate 20: larGer PTeroDroMa Petrels of the PacIfIc and IndIan oceans 1. trindade Petrel Pterodroma arminjoniana pale phase

WS 98cm TL 37cm See p.172

Medium-sized, long, narrow-winged petrel with relatively long tail, usually held tightly closed in flight. Slightly heavier and more robust than Herald. Kermadec has white flashes on upperwing. See also Tahiti, Beck’s, Phoenix (17:1–3) and Magenta (19:3). See Plate 25:2 for complete range of plumages.

1a Pale phase (Round Island form), underparts White; rather pale scruffy breast, flanks and undertail; underwing, forewing dark; large white patch on outer wing, paler panel extending onto inner wing; narrow white line on inner forewing.

2. herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica paler phases

WS 95cm TL 35cm See p.171

Medium-sized, slim, long- and narrow-winged petrel of the Pacific with relatively long tail, usually held tightly closed in flight and appearing quite pointed. See Plate 16:4 for dark phase and Plate 25:1 for complete range of plumages.

2a Pale phase, underparts Belly, throat and lores white; breast, flanks and undertail dark; underwing as Trindade, tending to be darker on the inner wing.

2b Pale phase, upperparts All but the very lightest phases are dark with grey cast in fresh plumage, browner when worn; a few show a trace of dark M.

2c Intermediate phase, underparts Darker on head and throat, but lores usually remain pale.

3. kermadec Petrel Pterodroma neglecta paler phases

WS 92cm TL 38cm See p.173

Medium-sized Pterodroma of the Pacific with long broad wings, short squarish tail and relatively short, stubby bill. Kermadec Petrel has the widest range of plumages of all the polymorphic Pterodroma petrels, each so-called phase or morph grading into the others. At all ages and in all plumages Kermadec is best identified by pale bases to primaries on upperwing. See Plate 16:2 for dark phase and Plate 25:3 for complete range of plumages. The two races, neglecta and juana, are not separable at sea.

3a Pale phase, underparts Palest birds have head and underparts almost entirely white except for pale brown

mottling on crown, collar and flanks, darkening on undertail; underwing variable but always has a large white patch on outerwing, paler panel extending onto centre of innerwing and narrow white line on inner forewing. 3b Pale phase, upperparts Palest birds have greyish-fawn scalloping on white back, darkening on rump; upperwings darker with prominent white bases to shafts and outer flight feathers. 3c Intermediate phase, underparts As pale phase but darker cap, breast-band, flanks and undertail; underwing variable, often similar to light phase. 3d Juvenile intermediate phase, underparts At all ages, intermediate phases are darker on head, breast and flanks. As illustrated, many (but not all) juveniles have less prominent and more poorly defined white patches on outer underwing, similar in shape to those of Herald Petrel.

4. barau’s Petrel Pterodroma baraui

WS 96cm TL 38cm See p.178

The medium-sized Indian Ocean representative of a group of otherwise large, long-winged, long-tailed petrels of the Pacific that includes White-necked and Hawaiian Petrels. Barau’s is the only large petrel with this underwing pattern in Indian Ocean. It is smaller than similar White-necked (18:1), Juan Fernandez (18:3), Galápagos and Hawaiian (18:4–5), with darker undertail-coverts.

4a Underparts White but for dark cap, greyish partial collar and some dark mottling on undertail-coverts; underwing white with dark mark from carpal extending about halfway to body.

4b Upperparts White forehead; black cap contrast with paler back; rump quite dark, only slightly paler than tail; wings mostly dark but usually paler on outer secondary-coverts.

4c Upperparts Some birds are paler on back and wings resulting in more definite M shape across open wings; rump usually remains dark so that M does not appear to join so obviously across lower back.

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4a 3a 1a

4b 3b

2b

3c 4c

2a

3d 2c

Plate 21: north atlantIc black-and-WhIte Petrels 1. black-capped Petrel Pterodroma hasitata

WS 95cm TL 40cm See p.181

Large, long-winged, long-bodied, heavy-billed, Pterodroma of tropical and subtropical waters of the western North Atlantic. White nape and rump unlike anything else. Scruffy birds may look a bit like Cahow.

1a Underparts White except for dark cap and small pale partial collar; underwing white with broad dark trailing edge and tip and prominent dark mark at carpal extending well towards body.

1b Upperparts Dark cap separated by white nape from dark back and upperwing with vague trace of dark M mark across open wings; prominent white rump and dark tail.

1c Upperparts Rarely nape and upper rump can be mottled dark, not unlike Cahow; in worn plumage upperwings and back more uniformly dark.

2. cahow Pterodroma cahow

WS 91cm TL 36cm See p.180

Medium-sized, long-winged Pterodroma of warmer North Atlantic, also known as Bermuda Petrel. Similar jizz to Black-capped but has smaller bill and weighs less. Black-capped has white nape and rump. Cahow may have a few paler, smudgy patches on rump similar to scruffy Black-capped but they are unlikely to be as extensive and nape is always dark.

2a Underparts White with dark cap joined to dusky almost complete breast-band; underwing as Black-capped with larger dark mark from carpal extending further towards body.

2b Upperparts Entirely dark, slightly paler on back and wings, enough in fresh plumage to show dark M mark; lower rump, uppertail may have a few paler patches.

3. Jamaican Petrel Pterodroma caribbaea

WS ? TL 40cm See p.181

Like a dark form of Black-capped but possibly shorter in wing and tail. Very rare, probably extinct, Jamaican endemic. Unlike anything else.

3a Upperparts Completely dark with pale somewhat variable rump.

4. Zino’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira

WS 83cm TL 35cm See p.186

Small Pterodroma with wedge-shaped tail, like a slightly smaller, slimmer Fea’s, with a finer bill. Very rare endemic to Madeira.

4a Underparts As Fea’s but dark eye-patch stands out more from paler head and underwing usually more uniformly dark.

4b Upperparts As Fea’s but with paler crown contrasting less with grey back and less distinct dark M.

5. fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae

WS 95cm TL 35cm See p.186

Small, heavy-bodied Pterodroma with wedge-shaped tail. Very similar to Zino’s and Soft-plumaged, but with a heavier bill.

5a Underparts White with pale grey partial breast-band adjoining dark eye-patch; underwing dark with triangle of white on inner leading edge and pale bases to primaries that show up as white patch in some lights.

5b Upperparts Small white forehead; dark cap to below eye contrasts with pale grey upperparts (with dark M across open wings) and darker tip to tail.

6. soft-plumaged Petrel Pterodroma mollis

WS 89cm TL 34cm See p.185

Included here for comparison. See Plate 19:4.

6a Underparts (nominate) Very similar to Fea’s and Zino’s but most have a completely dark grey breast-band, paler crown with consequently more obvious dark eye-patch, darker grey uppertail and tail that is rounded rather than wedge-shaped, making jizz more compact.

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1a

1b 2b 6a

1c

5b 4b 4a

5a

Plate 22: cookIlarIa Petrels I Plates 22–24 illustrate a group of small fast-flying Pterodroma petrels often referred to as cookilarias. All occur in the Pacific or Southern Oceans and are a similar size and shape. All are grey above with a dark M marking across the open wing and white below with a variety of dark markings on the underwing. Several other species have similar patterns on the upperparts: White-necked, Juan Fernandez, Galápagos, Hawaiian, Barau’s and Vanuatu are large, long-winged versions; Soft-plumaged, Fea’s, Zino’s and White-headed Petrels have dark underwings, and Mottled has a dark belly patch. Prions and Blue Petrel have white underwings and fly very differently. Cookilarias are not easy to tell apart. Identification depends on good views of the pattern on the underwings and small differences in head and tail patterns. With a lot of experience subtle differences in shape and flight may help. Published identification criteria have not always taken into account changes in plumage due to age and wear. In general, young and newly moulted birds have pale upperparts and the dark M is distinct (e.g. 22:1e). Birds in worn plumage are often darker or patchier (22:2c) and the upperwings can become very dark, obscuring the M shape (23:1b). Other problems include individual variation (22:4bc), the effect of light or viewing conditions (22:1b and 23:5a) and the fact that some plumages and species are poorly known, e.g. De Filippi’s, Collared and Gould’s.

1. cook’s Petrel Pterodroma cookii

WS 66cm TL 30cm See p.166

Long-winged and short-tailed with long, relatively thin bill. See also Plate 23:5.

1a 1b 1c 1d 1e

Underparts At all ages underwing white with narrow black trailing edge and tip and small black ‘tick’ mark at carpal;. crown and nape pale grey, not extending downwards as collar; small black eye-patch. Underparts, bright light At all ages cap can look quite dark; outer tail feathers white. Adult fresh plumage, upperparts Head same pale grey as back; M mark conspicuous; dark tip to tail. Adult worn plumage, upperparts Head darker than back; wings darker and M less obvious. Juvenile fresh plumage, upperparts Very pale with white fringes to feathers of upperparts.

2. Pycroft’s Petrel Pterodroma pycrofti

WS 53cm TL 28cm See p.167

Relatively short-winged and long-tailed with rather small bill.

2a 2b 2c

Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s and slightly larger ‘tick’ mark; crown and nape grey, extending down onto side of breast as short collar; eye-patch black. Fresh plumage, upperparts Medium-grey with head, on average, slightly darker than back; dark tip to tail. Worn plumage, upperparts Upperwings almost entirely dark with little trace of dark M; head darker than back.

3. de filippi’s Petrel Pterodroma defilippiana

WS 66cm TL 29cm See p.169

Relatively short-winged with long, quite broad tail. Fairly easily identified by lack of dark tip to tail. Also known as Mas a Tierra Petrel.

3a 3b

Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s and larger ‘tick’ mark at carpal. Dark eye-patch joins to dark grey crown and is separated from partial grey collar by white crescent on ear-coverts. Upperparts Crown and nape slightly darker than back; rump and tail grey without dark tip.

4. stejneger’s Petrel Pterodroma longirostris

WS 66cm TL 28cm See p.169

Relatively small and slim with narrow wings, long tail and small bill.

4a

Underparts Underwing white with, on average, slightly broader dark trailing edge and tip than Cook’s and larger ‘tick’ mark at carpal; crown and nape very dark with small dark grey partial collar separated from eye-patch by white crescent on ear-coverts. 4b-c Underparts, moulting Underwing varies from as light as Cook’s (1b) to almost as dark as Gould’s (24:1c); shape of collar and dark hood also variable. 4d Fresh plumage, upperparts Crown and nape much darker than back; broad, dark tip to tail; dark M obvious. 4e Worn plumage, upperparts Much darker with less contrast between head and back and less conspicuous M.

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4b 4c

2a

1a

3a

4a

1c

2b

3b

4d

1d 4e

1e

2c

Plate 23: cookIlarIa Petrels II 1. black-winged Petrel Pterodroma nigripennis

WS 67cm TL 29cm See p.163

Slightly larger and bulkier than most cookilaria petrels, with long, relatively broad wings, rather short, rounded outerwing and longish tail.

1a Underparts Underwing white with broad dark trailing edge and tip and prominent, broad dark tick mark

extending over halfway towards body; dark eye-patch merges into dark grey crown; grey collar extends well down onto upper breast. 1b Upperparts Typically, head darker than back; wings mainly dark with no prominent M; lower rump pale grey; tail with dark tip. 1c Upperparts Some, possibly young, birds are much paler on head back and wings and small dark eye-patch and dark M across open wings show up well. 1d Underparts, bright light Dark bar on underwing shows up well even at a distance in bright light.

2. chatham Islands Petrel Pterodroma axillaris

WS 68cm TL 30cm See p.162

Relatively long-bodied and narrow-winged.

2a Underparts Underwing has large dark bar extending to body on axillaries. Dark eye-patch merges with grey crown and nape; broad, grey partial collar.

2b Upperparts Head slightly darker than back; wings dark but paler inner primaries result in more of a dark M than many Black-winged; dark tip to tail.

3. bonin Petrel Pterodroma hypoleuca

WS 67cm TL 30cm See p.165

Relatively short-winged and long-tailed with slim bill.

3a Underparts Underwing has broad dark bar extending from carpal well towards body and a large dark patch on outerwing; very dark cap emphasises white forehead; short dark collar.

3b Upperparts Dark cap contrasts with pale grey back; upperwing dark, paler on secondaries and coverts generally and not showing distinct dark M; tail has broad dark tip.

Black-winged, Chatham Islands and Bonin Petrels are all best identified by extent and pattern of dark markings on underwings.

4. Mottled Petrel Pterodroma inexpectata

WS 85cm TL 34cm See p.164

Largest and most distinctive of the cookilarias. Best told by large size and dusky patch on belly.

4a Underparts Underwing has broad dark bar extending from carpal well towards body. Dusky patch on belly. Dark eye-patch joins dark grey crown that is variably mottled and flecked with white.

4b Worn plumage, upperparts Head darker than back, wings mainly dark; tail pale grey without dark tip. 4c Fresh plumage, upperparts Juveniles and freshly moulted adults have white tips to feathers of head back

and wing-coverts resulting in a very pale bird with small dark eye-patch and obvious dark M mark across open wings. 4d Dark-bellied individual, underparts Extent of dark on belly varies and looks different in different lights.

5. cook’s Petrel Pterodroma cookii

WS 66cm TL 30cm See p.166

Included here for comparison. See also Plate 22:1.

5a Underparts, bright light Underparts, especially underwing, can look almost entirely white from a distance. Proportionally longer-winged and shorter-tailed with longer, thinner bill than most cookilarias.

76

trinidade Petrel

trinidade Petrel

1a

2a

3a

1

1b

2b

3b

1c 4a 4b

5a

1d

4d 4c

Plate 24: sMall cookIlarIa Petrels of the troPIcal PacIfIc 1. Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera

WS c. 60cm TL 30cm See p.165

Two subspecies: nominate is very rare and breeds only on Cabbage Tree Island, off the south-east coast of Australia; P. l. caledonica (New Caledonia Petrel) breeds in the tropical west Pacific. Both are small and compact with relatively short, broad wings and long rounded tail. Flight in light winds reported as languid with more horizontal gliding than most cookilarias, but similar in stronger winds. The very dark hood extending unbroken to the sides of the breast distinguishes Gould’s from all other cookilarias except the whitest Collared Petrels. Both subspecies of Gould’s have rounder tails than Collared, and caledonica appears to have lighter bases to the primaries and whiter outer tail feathers. Pale Collared often has a hint of a white crescent behind the eye. These are fine distinctions and may not be useful in the field barring exceptional views. The two subspecies of Gould’s are unlikely to be separable at sea but on average caledonica seems to be paler than nominate, with a narrower dark tip to the tail, whiter underwing and more white on outer tail feathers. Recent work on Cabbage Tree Island suggests that the nominate may vary more than previously thought, so even these differences may not hold.

1a Underparts (caledonica) Dark hood extends unbroken from below eye to sides of breast; underwing white 1b 1c 1d 1e 1f

with broad dark trailing edge; distinct dark line from carpal extends almost to body; wing-tip dark; bases of primaries whiter. Tail (caledonica) White on two outer tail feathers. Underparts (nominate) As caledonica but often slightly darker, especially on bases of primaries. Tail (nominate) Whitish only on outermost tail feathers. Fresh plumage, upperparts (nominate) The broad dark M and dark head contrast with the grey back; dark tip to tail variable; caledonica similar. Worn plumage, upperparts (caledonica) Upperwing almost completely dark brown and contrast between head and back reduced. Nominate similar.

2. collared Petrel Pterodroma brevipes

WS c. 55cm TL 28cm

See p.168

A small, compact petrel with a wide range of plumages, relatively short, broad wings and rather long graduated, quite pointed tail. Bill looks short and slight. Birds with dark underparts or complete breast-bands are unlike any other cookilaria but compare Black-winged Petrel (23:1), which can have a prominent collar that nearly encompasses neck. Lighter birds are told from all but Gould’s by their very dark hooded heads. See Gould’s for differences.

2a Light phase, underparts Dark hood contrasts with white underbody; can have a hint of a white crescent 2b 2c 2d 2e 2f 2g

78

behind the eye but can also look like caledonica Gould’s; underwing on paler birds is white with a broad dark trailing edge, dark primaries and a distinct black line extending from the carpal almost to the body. Intermediate phase, underparts Dark hood extends as smudgy collar onto breast. Intermediate phase, underparts Complete breast-band and dark smudges on underparts. Dark phase, underparts Underbody completely dark except for throat; underwing suffused with pale grey or brown. Fresh plumage, upperparts The broad dark M and very dark head contrast with the grey back; broad dark tip to tail. All phases similar. Worn plumage, upperparts Upperparts, especially upperwing, much darker brown. All phases similar. Dark phase may always be as dark on the upperparts. Tail Outer feathers almost entirely dark. All phases similar.

1b 1d 1a 1e

1c

1f

2g 2b

2a

2e

2c

2f

2d

Plate 25: Variable Pterodroma Petrels This plate shows the range of plumages of the most variable of the Pterodromas: Herald, Trindade and Kermadec Petrels. See also Plate 16 for the identification of dark-phase birds and Plate 20 for lighter phases. Herald and Kermadec Petrels occur in tropical and subtropical waters of the south Pacific; Trindade Petrel occurs in the western Atlantic and south-west Indian Ocean around Mauritius and Réunion. Birds from the Indian Ocean (Round Island) are similar in size and plumage to the Atlantic birds but the two widely separated breeding populations may warrant subspecific status. Henderson Petrel (16:4) is the dark species breeding on Henderson Island. It is not separable by size or plumage from dark-phase Herald Petrel.

1. Herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica

WS 95cm TL 35cm See p.171

Smallest and slimmest of this group with long, narrow wings, long quite pointed tail and relatively short, slim bill.

1a Pale phase, underparts Underbody white with smudgy incomplete breast-band, barred undertail-co-

verts, pale lores, forehead and eyebrow; underwing dark with white patch on outerwing, slightly paler panel extends onto central inner wing and narrow white line on inner forewing. 1b Intermediate phase, underparts Belly, throat and lores white, breast, flanks and undertail dark; underwing similar to pale phase but pale patch on base of primaries tends to be slightly smaller. 1c Dark phase, underparts Body all-dark except for paler chin and lores; underwing can have a very small pale patch on base of primaries but retains thin white line on inner forewing; Henderson Petrel apparently identical. 1d Upperparts All but the very lightest phases are dark with a grey cast in fresh plumage, browner when worn. A few show a trace of dark M. 1e Head Bill shorter (c.26mm) and less robust than Trindade; lores pale.

2. trindade Petrel Pterodroma arminjoniana

WS 98cm TL 37cm See p.172

Similar shape to Herald but slightly larger and heavier built with broader wings and tail. A range of plumages similar to Atlantic birds also occur in the Round Island (Indian Ocean) population, but dark phase from Round Island appear to rarely, if ever, have pale throat. See also Plate 20:1.

2a Pale phase underparts, Atlantic Similar to pale phase Herald but lores usually darker and underwing has paler, almost white central panel to innerwing.

2b Intermediate phase underparts, Atlantic Most intermediates in museum collections are smudgier underneath than Herald, have dark lores and paler panel on inner underwing.

2c Dark phase underparts, Atlantic Entirely dark except for pale chin; underwing dark on innerwing with reduced pale patch on outerwing yet retaining thin white line along inner forewing.

2d Pale phase underparts, Round Island Breast-band faint, underwing very pale; upperparts have pale back and collar similar to pale phase Kermadec.

2e Dark phase underparts, Round Island Entirely dark body, including throat; underwing similar to dark phase from Atlantic.

2f Head Bill longer (c.31mm) and heavier than Herald; lores dark in all but the lightest birds.

3. Kermadec Petrel Pterodroma neglecta

WS l00cm TL 38cm See p.173

Relatively heavily built and long-winged with rather short, square-ended tail and short, stubby bill. Widest variation in plumage of polymorphic Pterodromas with full range of intermediates. The two races, neglecta and juana, cannot be separated at sea. Juveniles sometimes separable from adults.

3a Pale phase, underparts White except for pale smudgy markings on flanks, sides of breast and cap. Undertail darker. Underwing has large white patch at base of primaries extending right onto outer primary, white leading edge to inner wing, dark axillaries, the rest of the coverts brownish, darker towards forewing. 3b Intermediate phase, underparts Head dark, whiter around base of bill; undertail and flanks dark; belly white. Underwing similar pattern to pale phase but darker. 3c Dark phase, underparts At all ages, head and body entirely dark; underwing mostly dark with white line retained along inner leading edge, and white patch on outer wing. Many (but not all) juveniles have less prominent white patches on outer underwing, similar in shape to those of Herald Petrel. 3d Intermediate phase, upperparts All but the palest phases are dark with pale bases to quills and feathers of outer primaries. Very pale birds have white heads and pale scalloped backs. Note that upperparts of all phases are very similar. 3e Head Bill looks short (c.30mm) and stubby.

80

1c

1a 1b 1d

1e

2b

2c

2a

2f 2e 2d

3c

3d 3a

3b

3e

Plate 26: PrIons WIth narroW dark tIPs to taIl – ‘WhalebIrds’ Prions are pale, zippy, flickering little birds that fly low, fast and erratically and are often hard to see against a rough sea, let alone identify. All are grey and white with a dark M mark across the upperwings in flight and a dark tip to the tail. Young and newly moulted birds are paler, though often with more contrasting dark markings, and birds in worn plumage can have a washed-out brownish-grey look with less obvious patterns. Head pattern and extent of dark tip to the tail are better field marks than general colour and pattern but identification is not always possible. Bill size and shape are also important but note that juvenile bills are smaller than adults and there is wide variation within and much overlap between species – almost every island’s population is slightly different. As few as three and up to seven species have been recognised. No useful DNA work has been done – yet. Broad-billed Prion is distinguishable at sea with practice by larger size and dark, big-headed look caused by huge bill and steep forehead. Salvin’s, MacGillivray’s and Antarctic are difficult if not impossible to separate at sea. A bird with a strongly-patterned head and definite ‘tabs’ extending down sides of breast is likely to be Antarctic. Slender-billed should be relatively easy given good close-up views. Thin bill, white-faced look and paler, less wellmarked upperparts together would suggest Slender-billed. Fairy Prions of the race subantarctica and young of the nominate (27:1c,f) can look similarly pale, but are separable by broad dark tip to tail.

1. broad-billed Prion Pachyptila vittata

WS 60cm TL 28cm See p.152

Largest prion; huge black bill and steep forehead obvious even at some distance.

1a Underparts At all ages underparts and underwing very white; extent of grey collar on sides of breast varies.

1b Adult fresh plumage, upperparts Head strongly marked; forehead, crown and ear-coverts very dark; small white supercilium; all ages have well-defined dark M on upperwing; narrow black tip to tail.

1c Bill Very broad and black; length 3.4cm, width 2.1cm. 1d Juvenile head Paler than adult, bill with a slightly bluer cast. At all ages lamellae show at base of bill.

2. MacGillivray’s Prion Pachyptila macgillivrayi

WS 58cm TL 28cm See p.154

Smaller than Broad-billed, slightly larger than Salvin’s but not noticeably so in the field. Plumage and blue bill like Salvin’s.

2a Bill Broad and blue, lamellae show at base; length 3.1cm, width 1.8cm.

3. salvin’s Prion Pachyptila salvini

WS 56cm TL 28cm See p.153

Slightly smaller than Broad-billed, head less heavy looking and paler; bill blue. See also Plate 27:3.

3a Worn plumage, upperparts At all ages, M on upperwing brownish from wear; forehead and crown grey; ear-coverts dark; obvious white supercilium.

3b Bill Broad and blue; length 3.0cm, width 1.7cm. 3c Juvenile head Paler than adult; at all ages lamellae show at base of bill.

4. antarctic Prion Pachyptila desolata

WS 56cm TL 27cm See p.154

Similar to Salvin’s but bill smaller. All ages similar.

4a Underparts White, with grey collar on side of breast often dark and well-defined. 4b Upperparts Head usually well-marked with dark eye-patch and ear-coverts and clear white supercilium. Well-defined dark M on upperwing; narrow black tip to tail.

4c Bill Blue, broad at base but not strikingly so; length 2.7cm, width 1.4cm. 4d Head Lamellae barely visible at base of bill.

5. slender-billed Prion Pachyptila belcheri

WS 56cm TL 26cm See p.155

The smallest and palest of the prions with narrow black tips to tail. All ages similar.

5a Underparts Underparts and underwing white; looks very pale, with indistinct collar. 5b Upperparts Head appears pale with a broad, long white supercilium and a narrow black eye-patch; crown and forehead pale grey but adults darker than juveniles; M shape on upperwing relatively faint.

5c Bill Blue, looks narrow and straight-sided from above; length 2.5cm, width 1.1cm. 5d Head Lamellae not obvious at base of bill.

82

1c

1b

1d

1a

2a

3a 3b

3c 4c 4b 4a

4d

5b

5c

5a 5d

Plate 27: PrIons WIth broad black tIPs to taIl and blue Petrel 1. fairy Prion Pachyptila turtur

WS 56cm TL 25cm See p.155

Smaller prion with small, rather rounded head, short, stubby bill and broad dark tip to tail. Juveniles paler than adults. Southern birds (race subantarctica) paler than northern ones of nominate race.

1a Underparts Very pale underneath; grey around head and sides of breast merges softly into white underparts. Underparts of races and similar.

1b Adult upperparts (nominate) Pale grey above; dark M well-defined; broad dark tip to tail; dark eye-patch; small white supercilium and dusky forehead and crown.

1c Juvenile upperparts (nominate) Very pale blue-grey; many feathers tipped white; head especially pale, dark limited to small patch in front of eye.

1d Adult upperparts (subantarctica) Dark tip of tail extends onto outer tail and to almost half of central tail feathers.

1e Adult head (nominate) Dark eye-patch and ear-coverts; small white supercilium; dusky forehead and crown.

1f Adult head (subantarctica) Very pale, blue-grey and white head, dark confined to small patch in front of eye; looks like juvenile nominate.

1g Bill Length 2.2cm, width 1.1cm. Races similar.

2. fulmar Prion Pachyptila crassirostris

WS 60cm TL 28cm See p.156

Smaller prion, very similar to Fairy Prion, although slightly bigger with a heavier bill. Juveniles and newly moulted adults paler. The two races, crassirostris and flemingi, are not separable at sea.

2a 2b 2c 2d

Underparts Very pale with more than half having a pale blue-grey wash over belly and undertail. Upperparts Similar to northern Fairy Prion; size of dark eye-patch varies. Head Bill deeper than Fairy Prion. Bill Heavier, with a larger tip than Fairy Prion; length 2.3cm, width 1.3cm.

Fairy and Fulmar Prions are separated from all others by larger amount of black in tail (compare 1d and 3a), which is reasonably obvious at sea even in poor conditions. Separating Fairy and Fulmar Prions at sea is very difficult and usually impossible. The heavier bill of Fulmar Prion is apparent in the hand but very good views and considerable practice are required at sea. Extent of pale wash on undersides difficult to assess at sea due to light. Distinctive ‘barrel roll’ flight of Fulmar Prion when approaching ship and habit of sitting on the sea near floating objects may help.

3. salvin’s Prion Pachyptila salvini

WS 56cm TL 28cm See p.153

Included here for comparison. Larger, with heavier head and bill than Fairy and Fulmar Prions. See also Plate 26:3.

3a Upperparts Small dark tips only to central tail feathers.

4. blue Petrel Halobaena caerulea

WS 66cm TL 29cm See p.150

Small fulmarine petrel; looks similar to larger prions. Juvenile similar to adult. White-tipped tail makes identification easy when compared with the prions.

4a Underparts Underparts and underwing white, contrasting with dark head and collar on side of breast. 4b Upperparts Pale grey above with obvious dark M mark, contrasting dark head and white tip to tail; bill slim and black.

4c Upperparts Note dark head and white tip to tail.

84

1b 1c

1a

1e

2a 1g 2b

1f

2d

2c

4b 4a

1d

3a

4c

Plate 28: ProceLLaria Petrels I 1. spectacled Petrel Procellaria conspicillata

WS ? TL 55cm See p.188

Large, heavily built, long-winged Procellaria with stout bill. Feet project slightly beyond rather short, slightly wedgeshaped tail. Easily identified by white on head. Endemic to Tristan da Cunha.

1a 1b 1c 1d

Upperparts Sooty brown-black with variable white spectacles. Underparts Sooty brown-black with slightly paler, greyer outer underwing. Worn plumage, on sea White spectacles very variable. Head Bill slightly less robust than White-chinned with variably dark tip. White can be reduced to small patches on forehead and ear-coverts. 1e Head Whitest-headed birds can have small white chin.

2. White-chinned Petrel Procellaria aequinoctialis

WS 140cm TL 55cm See p.188

Large, heavily-built, long-winged Procellaria with stout bill. Feet project slightly beyond rather short, slightly wedgeshaped tail. Best identified by pale tip to bill. Circumpolar throughout Southern Ocean.

2a Fresh plumage, upperparts Upperparts entirely sooty-black; white throat often reduced to a few feathers and not always visible at sea.

2b Fresh plumage, underparts Underparts dark, browner in brighter light with a slightly paler outer underwing.

2c Worn plumage, underparts Browner; legs and feet dark. 2d Head Bill robust with large pale tip; small white chin typical of Atlantic birds. 2e Head A few birds have whiter throats but these are usually irregularly shaped and do not reach up around eye like Spectacled.

86

1d

1a 1e 2a

2d

2e

1b

2c

2b

1c

Plate 29: ProceLLaria Petrels II and flesh-footed shearWater 1. Parkinson’s Petrel Procellaria parkinsoni

WS 115cm TL 46cm See p.189

Smallest of the dark Procellaria petrels but due to longer neck and smaller head, bill can look large. Some juveniles separable from adults when details of bill can be seen well. Endemic breeder to New Zealand, dispersing to eastern tropical Pacific.

1a 1b 1c 1d

Upperparts Entirely sooty-black. Underparts Sooty-black; slightly paler, silvery wash on outer underwing. Adult head Bill dirty yellow with a darker tip; shorter (3.9–4.4cm) than Westland; nostrils relatively long. Juvenile head Bill whiter than adult with paler tip but still usually darker than White-chinned (28:2).

2. Westland Petrel Procellaria westlandica

WS 137cm TL 53cm See p.190

Large, heavily built, long-winged Procellaria with stout bill. Some juveniles separable from adults when details of bill can be seen well. Endemic breeder to New Zealand, migrating to coastal Chile.

2a Upperparts Entirely sooty-black. 2b Underparts Sooty-black; slightly paler, silvery wash on outer underwing. 2c Adult male head Large, robust yellowish-white bill with darker tip. Longer (4.5–4.9cm) than Parkinson’s, with shorter nostrils.

2d Juvenile female head Bill smaller and whiter than adult with black tip. Only slightly larger than Parkinson’s.

3. flesh-footed shearwater Puffinus carneipes

WS 115cm TL 47cm See p.196

Included here for comparison. A large all-dark shearwater, slightly smaller than Parkinson’s with smaller head, slimmer body, narrower wings and thinner, longer-looking bill. See also Plate 30:1.

3a Underparts Dark brown with pink legs and feet. 3b Head Bill thinner, pinkish with dark tip. Parkinson’s and Westland Petrels and Flesh-footed Shearwater are distinguished from White-chinned (28:2) by dark tip to bill, and from Spectacled Petrel (28:1) by lack of white patches on head. Parkinson’s Petrel and Flesh-footed Shearwater are c. 10–15% smaller than Westland and White-chinned Petrels, and jizz is different. Parkinson’s is more slightly built with a more slender head and neck, while Flesh-footed Shearwater has a smaller head, slimmer body, longer, thinner bill and narrower, shorter wings. Westland moults wings Oct–Jan, all others Apr–Aug. Parkinson’s is difficult to separate from Westland even under the best of conditions as both are all-dark and have pale bills with dark tips. Parkinson’s is smaller, longer-necked and less bulky, and sits lower and less erect on water. However, size can be hard to judge as juvenile Westlands, especially females, can be barely 5% larger. Shape of bill is useful, Parkinson’s having longer nostrils and a shorter latericorn. Flesh-footed Shearwater can be distinguished from all Procellaria petrels by pink (not black) feet. Flesh-footed’s bill looks longer and slimmer, with smaller nostrils, and is pinkish-yellow with a darker tip.

4. Grey Petrel Procellaria cinerea

WS 122cm TL 50cm See p.191

Included here for comparison. The other stout-bodied, long-winged member of the genus Procellaria. See also Plate 32:4.

4a Underparts Dark cap, undertail and underwing; white chin, breast and belly.

88

1c

1a

1d

2a 2d

2c

3b 1b

2b 3a

4a

Plate 30: dark shearWaters of the PacIfIc and IndIan oceans 1. flesh-footed shearwater Puffinus carneipes

WS 115cm TL 47cm See p.196

A large, all-dark, rather heavy-looking shearwater with long, quite broad wings, rounded tail and long, stout bill. Looks more like dark Procellaria petrels than many of the shearwaters. When seen, colour of bill and feet diagnostic. Heavy build, for a shearwater, and dark underwing useful for separation from Wedge-tailed, Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters (31:1-2). Difficult to tell from dark Procellaria petrels (see plate 29 for comparison).

1a Underparts Dark brown with paler, reflective bases to flight feathers that may give the appearance of whitish patch in strong light; legs pink but not always visible as often tucked up in belly feathers.

1b Upperparts Dark brown; bill pinkish with a dark tip.

2. Wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus dark phase

WS 98cm TL 46cm See p.194

Medium to large polymorphic shearwater with long, broad wings, long, wedge-shaped tail and slender bill. Flight leisurely, low over the sea. Best recognised by slim build, tail shape and flight. See Plate 32:2 for lighter phases.

2a Dark phase, underparts Dark brown with paler, reflective bases to flight feathers that may give the appearance of whitish patch in strong light; bill and legs dark.

2b Dark phase, upperparts Dark brown.

3. christmas Island shearwater Puffinus nativitatis

WS 77cm TL 37cm See p.201

Compact, small to medium, dark shearwater with relatively short, rounded wings, slender bill and short, rounded tail. Smaller than Sooty (31:1) or Short-tailed (31:2) with underwings generally darker than Sooty and lighter than Short-tailed. Smaller and shorter-tailed than Wedge-tailed; larger than Heinroth’s with no white on belly and dark legs. Also known as Kiritimati Shearwater. Breeds widely in tropical and subtropical Pacific.

3a Underparts Dark brown-black with underside of flight feathers and coverts washed with white showing in flight, in strong light, as silvery flash; bill and feet dark.

3b Upperparts Dark brownish black.

4. heinroth’s shearwater Puffinus heinrothi

WS 55cm TL 27cm See p.215

Very small, short-tailed shearwater with long, very slender bill and somewhat variable plumage. Much smaller than all other dark species in range. Darker underparts than similar-sized Tropical Shearwater. Endemic to Bismarcks, Bougainville and Solomons.

4a Pale phase, underparts Dusky black-brown with paler chin and belly. Underwing dirty white, dark on tip, trailing edge and axillaries. Darker birds usually retain paler throat but underwing and especially belly much duskier brown. Bill dark; legs and feet pinkish. 4b Upperparts Uniform sooty-brown in both darker and paler birds.

5. Parkinson’s Petrel Procellaria parkinsoni

WS 115cm TL 46cm See p.189

Included here for comparison. Smallest of the dark Procellaria petrels. See Plate 29:1.

5a Adult upperparts Larger and more heavily-built with a stouter bill than the dark shearwaters. Bill pale yellowish with darker tip.

90

5a

2a 1a

2b

1b

4a

3a

3b 4b

Plate 31: sooty and short-taIled shearWaters 1. sooty shearwater Puffinus griseus

WS 100cm TL 43cm See p.199

Medium-large, bulky-bodied shearwater with long, narrow wings, and feet barely projecting beyond tail in flight. Separable from all other dark shearwaters and petrels by silvery flash on underwing, jizz and flight, although a few Short-tailed Shearwaters may also have pale underwings. Widespread in all oceans.

1a Underparts Dark, chocolate-brown with paler panel on underwing formed by whitish coverts; legs and feet pinkish-black.

1b Underparts At a distance looks to have silvery flashes on underwing. 1c Upperparts Entirely dark chocolate-brown; paler in some lights or when worn. 1d Fresh plumage, upperparts Greyish tone to brown plumage can make young or freshly-moulted adults look darker.

2. short-tailed shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris

WS 97cm TL 42cm See p.200

Medium-sized shearwater with long, narrow wings that look slightly rounded at tips; feet often projecting beyond tail in flight. All but the few birds with whitish underwings are separable from Sooty Shearwater by the dark underwings. Dark-billed and smaller and less bulky than the dark Procellaria petrels and Flesh-footed Shearwater (30:1). Larger with darker underwing than Christmas Island Shearwater (30:3). Shorter-tailed, narrower- and straighterwinged than dark-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater (30:2). Jizz and flight often the most useful features. Breeds in southern Australia; transequatorial migrant to north Pacific.

2a Underparts Dark chocolate-brown, often darker on head; underwing dark, with coverts only very slightly paler; legs and feet pinkish-grey.

2b Underparts A few birds have paler panel on underwing like Sooty Shearwater. 2c Upperparts Entirely dark chocolate-brown; in worn plumage cap and collar look darker. 2d Fresh plumage, upperparts Greyish tone to brown plumage can make young or freshly moulted adults look darker and blacker.

92

2b

1b

2a

1a

1c 2c

1d 2d

Plate 32: larGer shearWaters and Petrels WIth lIGht underParts 1. buller’s shearwater Puffinus bulleri

WS 98cm TL 44cm See p.195

Medium-large shearwater with long, broad wings, very long wedge-shaped tail and leisurely flight. Breeds only in New Zealand; widespread in Pacific.

1a Underparts White; underwing almost entirely white, strikingly so at sea. 1b Fresh plumage, upperparts Blue-grey with distinct brown M marking across wings and back, darker tail and cap.

1c Worn plumage, upperparts Usually browner, darker and less neat in worn plumage.

2. Wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus paler phases WS 98cm TL 46cm See p.194 Medium-large shearwater with long, broad wings, very long wedge-shaped tail and leisurely flight. Occurs in pale, intermediate and dark phases. Best told from all but Buller’s Shearwater by long-tailed, broad-winged jizz and leisurely flight. From Buller’s by darker underwing, lack of dark M mark on upperwing and generally less neat, scruffier plumage. See Plate 30:2 for dark phase. Widespread in tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans.

2a Pale phase, underparts Mainly white but with dusky undertail and short collar. Underwing white with broad dark trailing edge and tip and variable amounts of dark feathering on inner wing.

2b Pale phase, upperparts Mostly grey-brown with broad pale fringes to feathers resulting in scalloped effect,

especially on back and scapulars. Dark cap and tail. Dark border to wing but no obvious dark M mark across open wings. 2c Intermediate phase, underparts As pale phase but duskier on underparts and more dark markings on underwing.

3. Great shearwater Puffinus gravis

WS 112cm TL 48cm See p.198

Large, heavy, big-headed, long-tailed shearwater with broad, long wings and long, slender bill. Combination of dark belly patch, dark cap and pale collar, and white rump patch diagnostic. Breeds South Atlantic; transequatorial migrant to North Atlantic.

3a Underparts White with variably dusky belly patch and darker undertail-coverts. Underwing mainly white with dark border and characteristic complex pattern of dark feathering on innerwing. Bill black.

3b Upperparts Small dark cap separated from brown back by pale collar. White U-shaped patch on lower rump–uppertail. Pale fringes to feathers in fresh plumage.

4. Grey Petrel Procellaria cinerea

WS 122cm TL 50cm See p.191

Robust, heavy-bodied, almost podgy bird, with wedge-shaped tail; very long, narrow wings usually held stiff and at right angles to body. Dark underwing and shorter, stubbier bill separate Grey Petrel from the large Buller’s, Great, Cory’s (33:2) and Pink-footed Shearwaters. White-headed Petrel (19:1) has dark underwings but is smaller with dark M mark across upperparts and stout black bill. Circumpolar in colder southern oceans.

4a Underparts White with grey undertail. Underwings uniformly dark grey. Bill olive-yellow with dark tip. 4b Fresh plumage, upperparts Pale sooty-grey with darker tail, forehead, crown and area around eye. White fringes to feathers of back and rump.

4c Worn plumage, upperparts Darker, lacking white fringes to feathers.

5. Pink-footed shearwater Puffinus creatopus

WS 114cm TL 47cm See p.197

Large, stocky, big-headed shearwater with long, broad wings and round-ended tail. Plumage variable. Paler birds have similar scruffy, brown plumage to Cory’s Shearwater (33:2), but Cory’s has yellower bill and white undertailcoverts. Cape Verde Shearwater (33:3) is smaller and slimmer with a greyish bill. Pale-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater has longer tail and shorter, broader wings more angled back from carpal. Widespread in eastern Pacific.

5a Paler bird, underparts Mainly white with scruffy brownish edges to dark cap; dusky undertail and underwing with dark border and tip, and variable dark feathering on innerwing; legs and feet pink.

5b Darker bird, underparts Darker and smudgier, especially on throat, upper breast and flanks; broader dark margins to underwing.

5c Upperparts Grey-brown; darker on head, tail and wings. Pale fringes to feathers of back, rump and scapulars in fresh plumage. Bill pink with dark tip.

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1a 4a 2a

3a

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1b 2b 4b 3b

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1c

Plate 33: caLonecTris shearWaters A small, distinctive group of broad-winged, scruffy brown-and-white shearwaters with a rather distinctive flight, especially in calmer conditions. Most authors recognise three species; Cory’s is usually considered to have two subspecies that are often separable in the field.

1. streaked shearwater calonectris leucomelas

WS 122cm TL 48cm See p.193

The western Pacific member of the group. Large, broad-winged shearwater with small head and long neck. Similar to Cory’s in flight and jizz but head smaller and neck longer; upperparts more scaly and head distinctly whiter.

1a Underparts White body and undertail. Head basically white, variably streaked dark brown becoming

increasingly heavy towards the neck and hind crown, highlighting white eye-ring. Underwing mainly white with broad dark trailing edge and tip, and some variable dark markings on coverts. 1b Upperparts Mostly grey-brown with broad whitish fringes to feathers resulting in scalloped effect. Head distinctly pale and streaked. Tail and flight feathers darker with a trace of dark M across upperwings in fresh plumage. Bill horn-coloured with darker tip.

2. cory’s shearwater calonectris diomedea

WS 113cm TL 46cm See p.192

Large, heavy-bodied, broad-winged shearwater with large bill. Two subspecies: larger borealis breeds in the Atlantic; the nominate diomedea breeds in the Mediterranean. White underparts and large yellowish, dark-tipped bill best distinguishing features. Most borealis can be told from diomedea by larger dark tip to underwing and darker head.

2a Underparts (borealis) White with smudgy edges to cap. Underwing white with broad dark trailing edge and large dark tip due to dark bases to primaries.

2b Upperparts (borealis) Rather scruffy, pale grey-brown with whiter fringes to feathers; darker head,

especially around eye; dark tail with narrow whitish patch across base; indistinct dark M mark across open wings. 2c Head (borealis) Bill pale yellow with darker tip. 2d Underparts (nominate) White as borealis with smaller dark tip to the underwing due to paler bases to primaries. 2e Upperparts moulting (nominate) Similar to borealis but usually paler on the head and small dark eye-patch. Moulting birds can have strange-looking patterns of dark on light on upperwings with pale, bleached coverts and patches of new dark and old pale flight feathers.

3. cape verde shearwater calonectris edwardsii

WS ? TL 34cm See p.193

Medium-sized shearwater with quite broad wings, longish wedge-shaped tail and long, slim bill. Smaller and slimmer than Cory’s with greyish bill.

3a Underparts Similar pattern to nominate Cory’s with slightly more, darker markings on underwing and undertail.

3b Fresh plumage, upperparts Head dark-capped in fresh plumage, quickly becoming pale brown, much as rest of upperparts and similar to nominate Cory’s.

3c Head Bill slim compared with Cory’s and greyish with darker tip.

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Plate 34: sMall black-and-WhIte-shearWaters I Plates 34–37 illustrate 16 species of smaller, narrow-winged shearwaters with dark upperparts and white underparts that have caused much discussion amongst taxonomists and are, with few exceptions, often difficult if not impossible to identify at sea. We have followed recent DNA work by Austin et al. (2004) so some of these species divisions are new and different from most recent publications. Please read the introductions in the main text to the Manx (p. 202) and Little/Audubon’s groups (p. 206).

1. black-vented shearwater Puffinus opisthomelas

WS 79cm TL 36cm See p.204

Medium-small shearwater mostly occurring off the west coast of Central America, with comparatively long, rounded tail, stout bill and short neck. In flight, feet frequently project beyond the tail. In range relatively easy to identify by scruffy brown and white plumage and no obvious white patches extending up onto sides of rump.

1a Underparts Underparts mostly white with brownish undertail, almost complete brownish breast-band,

white throat merging into darker head. Underwing mostly white with broad dark trailing edge and tip and variable dark smudging on inner wing. A few darker birds have dark head and neck, and (more rarely) underparts washed pale grey. 1b Upperparts Dull brown, slightly darker on head.

2. townsend’s shearwater Puffinus auricularis

WS 79cm TL 33cm See p.214

Small shearwater of the west coast of Central America, intermediate in size and jizz between larger Manx-type and smaller Little-type shearwaters.

2a Underparts White throat and underbody with dark undertail. Division between white underparts and dark

head slightly blurred. Underwing white with dark border and tip, and black lines on inner wing often more extensive than illustrated. 2b Upperparts Black rather than brown, with obvious white patches extending up onto sides of rump.

3. newell’s shearwater Puffinus newelli

WS 79cm TL 33cm See p.214

Smaller shearwater of the tropical Pacific, very similar to Townsend’s (with which considered conspecific by some authorities). Townsend’s tends to have more dark markings on underwing and a shorter tail with more uniformly dark undertail-coverts. Newell’s has more white on the centre of the undertail. Facial pattern more sharply demarcated in Newell’s with more prominent white crescent, curling up behind eye. Adult Townsend’s moult wings September–November, Newell’s in December–February. It is not known how the two races, the nominate newelli and the recently reassigned myrtae, differ.

3a Underparts (nominate) White throat and underbody with dark undertail, whiter in the centre. Division between white underparts and dark head is sharp. Underwing white with dark border and wing-tips, and a few variable black lines on inner wing. 3b Upperparts (nominate) Black rather than brown with white patches extending up onto sides of rump.

4. audubon’s shearwater Puffinus lherminieri lherminieri

WS 71cm TL 30cm See p.210

A small, long-tailed, roundish-winged shearwater of the Caribbean. Some variation in darkness of plumage, especially on head and underwing. See Plate 37 and text (p. 206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification.

4a Underparts (nominate) White with dark undertail; underwing white with broad trailing edge and tip and variable darker markings on inner wing.

4b Upperparts (nominate) Dark brown; small white patches curl up to sides of rump. 4c Head Dark cap reaches to eye but is streaked white on ear-coverts; lores white; prominent white eye-ring is wider in front of eye.

5. Galápagos shearwater Puffinus subalaris

WS 63cm TL 30cm See p.213

A small, shortish-tailed, round-winged shearwater with some variation in darkness of plumage. See Plate 37 and text (p. 206) for identification and taxonomic status.

5a Underparts (with collar) White with dark cap to below eye; broad dark collar; dark undertail; underwing white with broad trailing edge and tip, and variable darker markings on inner wing. Similar to Audubon’s (4a).

5b Underparts (without collar) White with dark cap to below eye; almost no collar; dark undertail; underwing dirty-white with broad trailing edge and tip, and variable smudgy markings on inner wing.

5c Head Cap typically solid dark, extending well below eye and cleanly defined from white throat; lores dark. 98

3a

2a 1a

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2b 1b

4b 4c 4a

5c 5a

5b

Plate 35: sMall black-and-WhIte shearWaters II 1. Manx shearwater Puffinus puffinus

WS 82cm TL 34cm See p.202

Small, long-winged shearwater with comparatively long, stout bill and long tail. Breeds North Atlantic, wintering in central and southwest Atlantic.

1a Underparts White, including undertail. Demarcation between dark cap and white throat quite sharp; small

white crescent curls up behind eye. Underwing mainly white with darker trailing edge and tip, and variable dark feathering on the inner wing. 1b Darker bird, underparts Dark cap under eye adjoins partial smudgy collar without white crescent behind eye. More dark marks on inner underwing. 1c Fresh plumage, upperparts Brown-black. White patches do not extend far up onto sides of rump. 1d Worn plumage, upperparts Paler brown; secondary coverts become especially pale.

2. yelkouan shearwater Puffinus yelkouan

WS 80cm TL 33cm See p.203

Close relative of Manx from central and eastern Mediterranean. Slightly smaller with pot-bellied jizz. Toes project beyond shorter tail in flight.

2a Underparts White as Manx but with dusky undertail, smudgier division between dark cap and throat, and more dark marks on inner underwing.

2b Upperparts Browner than Manx.

3. balearic shearwater Puffinus mauretanicus

WS 88cm TL 36cm See p.204

Close relative of Manx from western Mediterranean, dispersing into Atlantic. Slightly larger with pot-bellied jizz. Toes just project beyond shorter tail in flight. Some variation in darkness of plumage.

3a Underparts Scruffy white, darkest on sides of breast, flanks and undertail. Underwing similar, darkest in ‘armpit’.

3b Darker bird, underparts Underparts almost entirely dark, paler on belly and central underwing. 3c Upperparts Brown; paler than Yelkouan.

4. Macaronesian shearwater Puffinus baroli

WS 71cm TL 30cm See p.210

Macaronesian Shearwater is the small, round-winged, short-tailed shearwater of the eastern North Atlantic, formerly regarded as one of the Little Shearwater group. See also Plate 37 and text (p.206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification.

4a Underparts White; dark cap reaches just to, or just above eye; underwing very white with narrow dark border and pale bases to primaries; bill bluish; forehead rounded.

4b Upperparts Black rather than brown; in worn plumage secondary coverts show as paler wing-bar.

5. audubon’s shearwater Puffinus lherminieri boydi

WS 71cm TL 30cm See p.210

P. l. boydi is the small, long-tailed shearwater of the Cape Verde Islands, which has long been the subject of taxonomic debate. Following Austin et al. (2004) we have included it in an assemblage of the small shearwaters of the Caribbean and North Atlantic under the name Audubon’s Shearwater, P. lherminieri. See also Plate 37 and text (p.206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification.

5a Underparts (boydi) White except for dark on undertail-coverts. Underwing with broader dark border and tip than Macaronesian Shearwater. Dark cap reaches below eye.

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2a 4a 3a

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2b

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1d

Plate 36: sMall black-and-WhIte shearWaters III 1. fluttering shearwater Puffinus gavia

WS 76cm TL 34cm See p.205

Small, short-bodied shearwater of Australasian seas with rather short wings and bill and rounded forehead. Some juveniles identifiable in fresh plumage with good views.

1a Underparts White, including undertail, with short, rather smudgy partial collar; underwing white with narrow dark border and tip and a few smudgy dark marks on inner wing.

1b Upperparts Dark blackish-brown; white patches extending up onto sides of rump more obvious in some than others.

1c Worn plumage, upperparts Pale brown with bleached, patchy appearance, often with pale panel in wing when in moult.

1d Juvenile, fresh plumage, upperparts Upperparts blacker with narrow white fringes to upperwingcoverts.

1e Darker birds, underparts Darker birds have more extensive dark collar and more dark markings on inner underwing, not unlike young Hutton’s.

2. hutton’s shearwater Puffinus huttoni

WS 75cm TL 37cm See p.206

Small to medium-sized shearwater of Australasian seas with long neck and body. Flat-headed with long slim bill. Moderately long wings and broad tail with feet projecting well beyond tail tip. Some juveniles and immatures separable with good views.

2a Underparts Head dark with paler chin and almost complete breast-band. Rest white except for smudgy brown thighs and edges of undertail. Underwing white only in centre with broad dark borders and tip, and most of innerwing and axillaries dark. 2b Upperparts Dark brown. Some juveniles and immatures paler (see 2d). 2c Worn plumage, upperparts Can become very scruffy pale brown with bleached coverts that look like pale wing-bar. 2d Juvenile and immature, underparts In some birds, underparts, especially head and underwing, can be paler than adult, not unlike darker Fluttering. Upperparts as adult.

3. little shearwater Puffinus assimilis

WS 63cm TL 27cm See p.209

A small, compact, short-winged, short-tailed shearwater of the southern Pacific Ocean. See also Plate 37 and text (p.206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification. Four races recognised, the nominate assimilis, tunneyi, kermadecensis and haurakiensis. All are similar but some birds separable by small variations in pattern of white on head.

3a Underparts (kermadecensis) All races mostly white; underwing white with narrow dark border and tip. Dark cap extends down just to eye in race kermadecensis.

3b Upperparts Slate-black in all races. 3c Head (haurakiensis) North Island, New Zealand. Most have a little white above eye visible only at close range.

4. subantarctic little shearwater Puffinus elegans

WS 64cm TL 28cm See p.208

A small, compact, short-winged, short-tailed shearwater of the subantarctic Pacific and southeast Atlantic Ocean. Plumage very similar to Little Shearwater; distinguishable mainly by pattern of dark on face. See also Plate 37 and text (p.206) for discussion of taxonomy and identification.

4a Upperparts Slate-black with narrow white fringes to coverts and feathers of back. 4b Head Dark cap extends to just below eye.

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1b

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1c

3c

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2d 4b 1e

Plate 37: lIttle and audubon’s shearWater coMPlex Identification of this group is very difficult and depends mainly on small differences in shape of wings, tail and head, and details of plumage of undertail, underwing and head. See main text (p.206) for discussion of ID. See also Plates 34–36.

1. little shearwater Puffinus assimilis

WS 63cm TL 27cm See p.209

1a Underparts In all races, undertail white; underwing white with narrow dark border; slight dark collar; legs bluish with pink webs.

1b Head (kermadecensis) Dark cap barely reaches eye; lores white. In all races bill short, forehead rounded.

2. subantarctic little shearwater Puffinus elegans

WS 64cm TL 28cm See p.208

2a Head Dark cap extends below eye but lores mainly white; bill more robust than Little; forehead rounded.

3. Macaronesian shearwater Puffinus baroli

WS 65cm TL 28cm See p.210

3a Underparts Undertail white; underwing white with narrow dark border; not much of a dark collar; legs blue and black.

3b Head Dark cap does not or barely reaches eye; lores white; bill short and slim; forehead rounded.

4. bannerman’s shearwater Puffinus bannermani

WS 71cm TL 30cm See p.211

4a Underparts Undertail white, darker towards tip; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark marks on inner forewing; some with extensive dark collar others with little (as illustrated); legs blue.

4b Head Dark cap does not or barely reaches eye; short white supercilium; lores white; bill short; forehead rounded.

5. audubon’s shearwater Puffinus lherminieri 5a 5b 5c 5d 5e

WS 70cm TL 29cm See p.210

Underparts (nominate) Undertail dark; underwing white with broad dark border and variable amount of dark markings on inner wing; dark collar absent; legs pink and black. Paler form (nominate, Bahamas), head Cap just reaches eye; lores white; white eye ring wider in front and over eye; bill long and robust; forehead flatter. Darker form (nominate, Bermuda), head Cap extends well below eye but streaked white below and on ear-coverts; lores mostly dark; thin white eye ring. Underparts (boydi) Undertail mainly dark; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark marks on inner forewing; dark collar relatively large and apparently blue legs. Head (boydi) Dark cap reaches below eye; small white crescent curls up behind eye; lores mostly white; bill short and robust; forehead squarer than Macaronesian Shearwater.

6. tropical shearwater Puffinus bailloni

WS 69cm TL 31cm See p.212

6a Underparts (dichrous) Based on a specimen from Samoa. Undertail dark; underwing white with broad

dark border and variable but extensive dark markings on inner wing; dark collar quite pronounced. Undertail can be white in Réunion birds, partly dark in Aldabran; legs blue and black, webs pinkish. 6b Head (bailloni) Black cap extends well below eye but streaked white below and on ear-coverts; lores dark; thin white eye-ring; bill long and slim; forehead flatter.

7. Galápagos shearwater Puffinus subalaris

WS 63cm TL 30cm See p.213

7a Paler form, underparts Undertail dark; underwing white with broad dark border and some dark markings on inner wing; dark collar small and smudgy; broad white eye-ring; legs pink and black.

7b Darker form, underparts Undertail dark; underwing with broad dark border and variable but extensive dark markings and brownish wash; flanks smudgy-brown; dark collar quite pronounced.

7c Darker form, head Solid dark cap reaches well below the eye; lores dark; thin white eye-ring and small white crescent curling up behind eye; bill long and quite robust; forehead flatter.

8. arabian shearwater Puffinus persicus

WS 69cm TL 33cm See p.212

8a Underparts (nominate) Undertail dark; underwing with broad dark border and variable but extensive dark markings and, often, brownish wash; flanks smudgy-brown; small, smudgy collar; legs pink.

8b Head (nominate) Solid, medium-brown cap reaches well below the eye; lores dark; very thin white eye-ring; bill long and robust; forehead flatter.

9 Shorter, rounded tail of P. assimilis, P. elegans, P. baroli and P. bannermani. 10 Longer, wedge-shaped tail of P. lherminieri, P. bailloni, P. persicus and a shorter form in P. subalaris. 104

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4a 9

5d 5e 5b

5a 5c

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Plate 38: dIvInG-Petrels Small, compact birds with short wings and tail, and straight, whirring flight. Easily distinguished from all other petrels and shearwaters, but it is not easy to separate the four species.

1. common diving-petrel Pelecanoides urinatrix

WS 35cm TL 22cm See p.217

Medium-sized, comparatively slim diving-petrel with short, rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs may trail behind tail. Circumpolar in southern oceans.

1a Underparts Dull white with smudgy border between dark cap and whitish throat and dusky collar. Underwing dusky-white with broad grey trailing edge and tip.

1b Upperparts Black with thin white fringes to tips of scapulars forming broken line down back. 1c Fresh plumage, upperparts Sides of face and ear-coverts dusky-grey, merging with black cap. Thin white fringes to tips of scapulars, flight feathers and coverts.

1d Bill, underside Base with parallel sides and rounded arch.

2. south Georgia diving-petrel Pelecanoides georgicus

WS 32cm TL 20cm See p.217

Small, comparatively slim diving-petrel with very short rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs do not trail beyond tail. South Georgia Diving-petrel is extremely difficult to separate from Common. South Georgia has whiter underwing, more obvious white crescent behind eye and, in fresh plumage, more obvious white stripes down both sides of back, easiest seen when the bird is sitting. Common is, on average, duskier around face and sides of breast. In the hand, shape of underside of bill diagnostic.

2a Underparts White with quite sharp demarcation between dark cap and white throat; short, wide dusky collar; underwing white with pale grey flight feathers.

2b Fresh plumage, upperparts White crescent curling up behind eye; white borders to scapulars form two distinct lines down back; white fringes to tips of inner flight feathers and coverts.

2c Bill, underside Base with converging sides and relatively pointed arch.

3. Peruvian diving-petrel Pelecanoides garnotii

WS ? TL 22cm See p.216

Large, fat diving-petrel with very short, broad, rounded wings, comparatively short tail and short, stout bill. Legs long often held hanging below body and may trail behind tail.

3a Underparts White with dark cap; dusky ear-coverts and short dusky collar; underwing white with grey flight 3b 3c 3d 3e

feathers. Fresh plumage, upperparts Black with prominent white stripes on scapulars. Worn plumage, upperparts Entirely brownish-black. Fresh plumage, upperparts Prominent scapular stripes formed by long white tips to feathers. Bill, underside Base with converging sides and relatively pointed arch, but longer than other species.

4. Magellanic diving-petrel Pelecanoides magellani

WS ? L19cm See p.216

Small, short, compact diving-petrel with short, broad, rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs rarely trail behind tail. Magellanic, which may overlap with Peruvian in central Chile, has a distinctive white crescent extending up from throat, behind eye, to rear of crown. Magellanic is also noticeably smaller with shorter wings, proportionately longer tail and feet rarely trailing beyond tail.

4a Underparts White with sharp demarcation between dark cap and white throat and conspicuous white crescent that extends well up towards back of neck.

4b Worn plumage, upperparts Entirely dark brownish-black with white scapular stripe worn away. 4c Fresh plumage, upperparts White tips and outer webs to scapulars and some back feathers forming mottled white stripes down both sides of back; white fringes to tips of inner flight feathers and many coverts.

4d Bill, underside Base with converging sides and relatively pointed arch like South Georgia Diving-petrel.

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4d

Plate 39: all-dark Storm-PetrelS with white rumPS 1. european Storm-petrel Hydrobates pelagicus

WS 37–41cm TL 15–16cm See p.226

Small storm-petrel with short, narrow wings. Flight fluttering and busy. Widespread in Atlantic Ocean.

1a Upperparts Dark sooty-brown, lacking obvious pale crescentic wing-bar; white rump. 1b Underparts Dark sooty-brown with white wrapping down around the sides of rump towards the vent; underwing dark with broad, whitish central panel.

1c Pattering Whilst pattering on sea surface wings held up in a steeper V than Wilson’s.

2. wilson’s Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus

WS 38–42cm TL 15–19cm See p.219

Small, long-legged storm-petrel with comparatively narrow wings and square or slightly notched tail. Feet project beyond tail in flight. The three races, nominate oceanicus, exasperatus and chilensis, are not separable at sea. Widespread, mainly in Southern Hemisphere.

2a Upperparts Dark brown, with paler, crescentic wing-bar and white rump which wraps down around the sides almost to the vent.

2b Underparts Dark brown except for white sides to rump; wings short from body to carpal. 2c Pattering When foraging wings held horizontally or in a shallow V; yellow webs of feet diagnostic but rarely visible at sea.

3. madeiran Storm-petrel Oceanodroma castro

WS 44–49cm TL 19–21cm See p.228

Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel with quite broad wings and square tail. Feet do not project beyond tail in flight. Also known as Band-rumped Storm-petrel. Widespread in Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

3a Upperparts Dark sooty-brown with pale crescentic wing-bar not reaching forewing, and white rump broader than it is long.

3b Underparts Dark sooty-brown, white extending down sides of rump. 3c Worn plumage, upperparts Paler brown; wing-bar more obvious.

4. leach’s Storm-petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa

WS 46cm TL 20cm See p.229

Medium-sized, long-winged storm-petrel with long, forked tail. Four races are recognised: nominate leucorhoa is widespread in Northern Hemisphere in both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; chapmani, cheimomnestes and socorroensis occur off Pacific coasts of North and Central America. Atlantic birds have white rumps varying only in extent of dark central stripe. See also Plates 40:1, 42:5 and 43:2 for Pacific and dark-rumped birds.

4a Upperparts (nominate, Atlantic) Dark blackish-brown, paler on back; broad pale crescentic wing-bar reaches forewing at carpal; white rump longer than it is broad.

4b Upperparts (nominate, Atlantic) White rump often divided by dark line. 4c Underparts (nominate, Atlantic) Dark blackish-brown, white not extending far down sides of rump.

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Plate 40: PacIfIc storM-Petrels and Grey-backed storM-Petrel 1. leach’s storm-petrel oceanodroma leucorhoa

WS 46cm TL 20cm See p.229

Medium-sized, long-winged storm-petrel with long, forked tail. Four races are recognised: nominate leucorhoa is widespread in northern hemisphere in both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; chapmani, cheimomnestes and socorroensis occur off pacific coasts of North and Central America. Extent of white on rumps of Pacific nominate, cheimomnestes, and socorroensis variable but most are white; chapmani mainly dark-rumped. See also Plates 39:4, 42:5 and 43:2.

1a Upperparts (nominate, North Pacific) Dark blackish-brown, paler on back; broad pale crescentic wingbar reaching forewing at carpal; white rump longer than it is broad. Broad dark central stripe on rump.

1b Dark phase, upperparts (chapmani) Rump dark; pale crescentic wing-bar prominent; slightly smaller, shorter, rounder wings and tail than white-rumped birds.

2. Guadalupe storm-petrel oceanodroma macrodactyla

WS ? TL 23cm See p.231

Large, fork-tailed storm-petrel; almost certainly extinct. Stockier than Leach’s with broader wings and shorter, forked tail. Most likely to look like a large, fork-tailed Madeiran Storm-petrel. In the hand has longer, stouter bill than Leach’s but due to overall larger size this may not be a useful character at sea.

2a Upperparts Blackish-brown or slaty-black; white rump extends to lateral tail-coverts and onto underside towards vent, and is divided by variable greyish or pale-brown central stripe. Feathers of lower back and uppertail-coverts thinly tipped white. Scruffy pale upperwing bar does not extend to carpel. Blacker specimens may be in fresh plumage.

3. elliot’s storm-petrel oceanites gracilis

WS 35–37cm TL 14–17cm See p.220

Small delicate, square-tailed and long-legged storm-petrel found mainly in tropical and subtropical Humboldt Current. Feet extend beyond tail in flight. Two races are recognised, nominate gracilis and galapagoensis. See also Plate 45:4. Also known as White-vented Storm-petrel.

3a Upperparts Dark sooty-brown with small paler crescentic wing-bar and white rump. Upperparts of the races very similar.

3b Underparts (galapagoensis) Dark with small smudgy pale patch on belly and lighter sides to rump; underwing dark with paler central panel.

3c Underparts (gracilis) Paler than galapagoensis; paler, better-defined belly; narrow dark line joining dark flanks to undertail.

4. Wedge-rumped storm-petrel oceanodroma tethys

WS 37cm TL 19cm See p.227

A small to medium, robust storm-petrel of the eastern tropical Pacific, with slightly forked tail and short legs that do not extend beyond tail in flight. The two races, nominate tethys and kelsalli, are not separable at sea.

4a Upperparts Sooty-black with small pale crescentic wing-bar and large white rump that extends almost to tip of tail and down around sides towards vent.

4b Underparts Sooty-black except for prominent white sides to rump.

5. Grey-backed storm-petrel Garrodia nereis

WS 39cm TL 16–19cm See p.222

Diminutive, short-winged, broad-tailed storm-petrel with short legs that protrude slightly beyond tail in flight. Circumpolar in the subantarctic.

5a Upperparts Black, with grey wash across back and upperwing-coverts; grey rump and uppertail. Narrow white fringes to wing-coverts and feathers of back and rump.

5b Underparts Dark head, clean white underbody with barred undertail. Underwing white with broad dark border and tip.

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3b

3c

3a

5a 5b

Plate 41: WhIte-bellIed and black-bellIed storM-Petrels 1. White-bellied storm-petrel Fregetta grallaria

WS 46cm TL 20cm See p.224

Medium-sized, compact storm-petrel of subtropical regions of the Southern Hemisphere, with relatively short, broad wings, square tail and feet rarely projecting far beyond tail. Plumage very variable, but most are light phase; darker birds mainly from Lord Howe. Four races are currently recognised – nominate grallaria, segethi, titan and leucogaster – but taxonomy is controversial. See Plate 45:2 for another form of intermediate phase with streaks on underparts, similar to New Zealand Storm-petrel (45:1).

1a Pale phase, upperparts In all races, dark with white rump, slightly paler crescentic wing-bars and thin whitish fringes to feathers of back and scapulars in all but very worn plumage.

1b Pale phase, underparts In all races, head dark, neatly demarcated across upper breast from clean white 1c 1d 1e 1f 1g 1h

underparts. Undertail dark, feathers with white tips. Underwing has clear white central panel with only a few dark marks on outer primary-coverts. Pale phase, underparts In all races, underwing white, cleaner than Black-bellied Storm-Petrels with pale bellies (2c). Intermediate phase, upperparts (nominate) Dark except for smudgy white rump and paler fringes to feathers on back. Intermediate phase, underparts (nominate) Smudgy, broad dark tips to feathers especially on flanks and vent. Underwing with dusky wash. Dark phase, upperparts (nominate) Entirely dark on upperparts with a few paler fringes to feathers, especially on rump. Dark phase, underparts (nominate) Dark except for slightly paler panel on central underwing and belly. Upperparts (titan) Larger with more prominent white fringes to feathers of back and secondary-coverts in fresh plumage. Otherwise as pale phase.

2. black-bellied storm-petrel Fregetta tropica

WS 45–46cm TL 20cm See p.223

Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel of the Southern Hemisphere, with relatively short, broad wings, square tail and feet usually projecting beyond tail. Variation limited to extent of dark on central belly stripe and duskiness of underwing. See also Plate 45:3 for another form of intermediate plumage, with streaks on the underparts, similar to New Zealand Storm-petrel. Two races are currently recognised – nominate tropica and melanoleuca – but taxonomic status of melanoleuca is controversial; the races are not separable at sea.

2a Upperparts Sooty black with white rump and faintly paler, crescentic wing-bar, limited mainly to secondary coverts. Any white tips to fresh feathers quickly wear off.

2b Underparts Head dark with pale, mottled throat. Broken black line down centre of white belly joining dark

undertail to dark breast. Underwing white in centre with broad dark borders and tip and coverts on outerwing smudgy black-brown. 2c Paler bird, underparts No dark central belly stripe. Underwing duskier than in White-bellied (1c). 2d Darker bird, underparts Central belly stripe broader and more complete, underwing duskier. Flanks tend to remain white. Black-bellied can often be difficult to distinguish from paler White-bellied because it is difficult to see whether there is a dark belly stripe when birds are flying or foraging low over the sea. Black-bellied has duskier, less clean-cut underwing, and the division between dark breast and pale belly is consistently lower on the breast than in Whitebellied. The extension of the feet further beyond the tail in Black-bellied is not always helpful as it seems to vary between populations, and birds often fly around with their feet tucked up in their belly feathers! Darker forms of White-bellied tend to have darker flanks and paler bellies, whereas darker Black-bellied have the opposite; dark belly and pale flanks. See Plate 45 for comparison with New Zealand Storm-petrel.

112

1d

1g

1h 1e

1f

1b 1c 1a

2c

2b

2d

2a

Plate 42: dark, fork-taIled storM-Petrels I Five species of all-dark storm-petrels commonly occur in the warmer eastern Pacific. Least is relatively easy to identify but the others – Black, Ashy, Markham’s and the dark form of Leach’s – are difficult. Look out for size and flight style, along with the extent and contrast of the pale crescent on the upperwing, but note that in all species this becomes larger and paler as feathers wear. The other four all-dark species, Swinhoe’s (43:1), Matsudaira’s (43:3), Tristram’s (43:4) and the dark form of Polynesian (44:3), have not been recorded in the area but are possibilities.

1. black storm-petrel oceanodroma melania

WS 50cm TL 23cm See p.234

A large all-dark storm-petrel with a forked tail, very similar to Markham’s. Flight in calmer conditions relatively slow with deep wingbeats and long glides; when feeding, twists and dips down to surface of the water like a marsh tern.

1a Upperparts Dark, sooty-black. Pale crescent on upperwing does not reach leading edge at carpal. 1b Fresh plumage, upperparts Pale wing-bar narrower, confined to pale tips of secondary-coverts. Some birds have white bases to the primary shafts.

1c Underparts Entirely dark, sooty-black becoming browner with wear. Underwing dark, can look paler and greyer on primaries in strong light.

2. ashy storm-petrel oceanodroma homochroa

WS 42cm TL 19cm See p.235

A medium-sized, all-dark storm-petrel with a forked tail; smaller than Black with which it often associates, about the same size as Leach’s. In sustained flight wingbeats shallow, wings barely raised above the horizontal. In worn plumage, at any distance and in many lights, looks completely dark like Black and Least, and is best identified by size and flight.

2a Upperparts Dark, ashy-grey, darkest on primaries, becoming browner with wear; pale crescent on upperwing reaches leading edge at carpal; sides of rump can look paler.

2b Fresh plumage, upperparts Pale wing-bar narrower; primaries paler. 2c Underparts Dark, ashy-grey becoming browner with wear; centre of underwing paler grey.

3. least storm-petrel oceanodroma microsoma

WS 34cm TL 14cm See p.226

A tiny, all-dark storm-petrel with a wedge-shaped tail and narrow pointed wings. Flight bat-like with constant, deep, quick, wingbeats; rarely glides. Relatively easily identified by size and flight.

3a Upperparts Dark with a small pale crescent on upperwing. 3b Underparts Entirely dark; barely lighter at base of primaries.

4. Markham’s storm-petrel oceanodroma markhami

WS 51cm TL 23cm See p.232

A large all-dark storm-petrel with a forked tail, very similar to Black. Flight in calmer conditions more fluttering than Black with shallower wingbeats and long glides. In higher winds, like Black with deeper wingbeats. The best distinguishing feature between Black and Markham’s appears to be the extent of the pale crescent on the upperwing.

4a Upperparts Dark, sooty-black becoming browner with wear. Pale crescent on upperwing reaches forewing at carpal. Reported as browner than Black, but this is unlikely to be a useful ID feature due to the effects of plumage wear. A few birds have white bases to the primary shafts.

5. leach’s storm-petrel oceanodroma leucorhoa dark phase

WS c. 44cm TL 20cm See p.229

O. l. chapmani is the mainly dark-rumped race of Leach’s Storm-petrel from the southern part of the species range in the eastern Pacific. Most chapmani are completely dark. Medium-sized and fork-tailed. Flies with wings angled back, but smaller than other Leach’s and flight may not be as strong and bounding – more fluttery and erratic with quicker wingbeats. See Plates 39:4, 40:1 and 43:2 for other races and plumages.

5a Upperparts (chapmani) Dark with pale crescent on upperwing that reaches forewing at carpal and becomes more prominent as plumage wears. Rump all-dark.

6. fork-tailed storm-petrel oceanodroma furcata

WS 46cm TL 21cm See p.236

A medium to large, stocky looking, pale grey storm-petrel of the northwest Pacific. Flight quite direct with rather shallow wingbeats. Easily identified and more likely to be confused with phalaropes than storm-petrels.

6a Upperparts Pearly-grey; large pale wing crescent contrasts with darker flight feathers and forewing. 6b Underparts Pearly-grey; darker on underwing-coverts and dark patch around eye. 114

2c 3b

1c

2a 3a

1a

5a

6b

4a

2b 1b 6a

Plate 43: dark, fork-taIled storM-Petrels II Four all-dark storm-petrels occur in the west and central Pacific: Swinhoe’s, Matsudaira’s, Tristram’s and the rare dark form of Polynesian (44:3). Polynesian is simple to identify by wing shape and feeding behaviour, but the others are difficult. Look for size and flight style, white bases to outer primary shafts, and the extent and contrast of the pale upperwing crescent; note that in all species moult and feather wear can affect the appearance of these features. Five more all-dark species (Black, Markham’s, Ashy, Least and Leach’s dark phase, Plate 42:1–5) occur in the eastern Pacific; they have not been recorded in the west but are possibilities. Matsudaira’s and Swinhoe’s also occur in the eastern Indian Ocean; Swinhoe’s has been recorded from the North Atlantic. Compare Bulwer’s Petrel (15:1).

1. swinhoe’s storm-petrel oceanodroma monorhis

WS 46.5cm TL 20cm See p.230

A medium-sized, all-dark storm-petrel with a moderately forked tail. Smaller than Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s, about the same size as Leach’s. In flight looks long, yet rather broad-winged. The wings are not angled back as far as Leach’s and the wing-tips are rounder. The wingbeats are deep and the shortish tail is usually held closed. Close up, the bill is short and heavy and the white bases to the primary shafts may be visible, sometimes as a faint pale patch. Underparts similar to Matsudaira’s, completely dark, becoming browner with wear. Where size is difficult to assess may be difficult to tell from other all-dark storm-petrels. Check wing and tail shape, relatively heavy bill, indistinct pale crescent on upperwing and, close up, white bases to primary shafts.

1a Fresh plumage, upperparts Plumage dark, brownish-black. Pale crescent on upperwing not prominent, not reaching forewing at carpal. Most birds have white bases to the primary shafts but these are only visible close up and are unlikely to be useful for identification at sea at any distance. 1b Worn plumage, upperparts Plumage as 1a but browner with a larger and paler crescent on upperwing. 1c Head Bill relatively short and heavy.

2. leach’s storm-petrel oceanodroma leucorhoa dark phase

WS c.44cm TL 20cm See p.229

A medium-sized, all-dark storm petrel with a moderately forked tail. Dark-rumped individuals may be present in all four races of Leach’s Storm-petrel that occur off the Pacific coast of North and Central America (nominate leucorhoa, cheimomnestes, socorroensis and chapmani), but they are rare in all but chapmani. Bird illustrated is a dark-rumped bird of unknown race from the south of the range. Leach’s is smaller than Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s, similar in size to Swinhoe’s. Dark-rumped birds have not been recorded outside the eastern Pacific, but are likely to be hard to tell from Swinhoe’s. Look for flight style, pale crescent on upperwing and thinner, longer bill. See Plates 39:4, 40:1 and 42:5 for other plumages.

2a Upperparts Dark with pale crescent on upperwing that reaches forewing at carpal and becomes especially prominent as plumage wears. Bases to the shafts of the outer primary feathers dark, but note that a few whiterumped birds have white shafts, so they could possibly occur in dark birds as well! 2b Head Bill thinner and slightly longer than Swinhoe’s.

3. Matsudaira’s storm-petrel oceanodroma matsudairae

WS 56cm TL 24cm See p.233

A large, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail, larger than Swinhoe’s and Leach’s, about the same size as Tristram’s but lighter. In moult or worn plumage the bases of the primary shafts of other species of all-dark stormpetrels can be revealed and may look like the pale patch on Matsudaira’s, but most Matsudaira’s can be identified by the prominent white bases to the primary shafts and smaller, not particularly prominent pale upperwing crescent.

3a Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark, becoming browner with wear. Pale crescent on upperwing not prominent. White bases to the primary shafts usually present, showing as small pale patch, even at a distance.

3b Worn plumage, upperparts Pale crescent on upperwing larger and paler, not reaching forewing at carpal. 3c Underparts Completely dark, becoming browner with wear.

4. tristram’s storm-petrel oceanodroma tristrami

WS 56cm TL 24cm See p.231

A large, long-winged, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail, larger than Swinhoe’s and Leach’s, about the same size as Matsudaira’s but heavier. Bill relatively small and slight. Flight is a mixture of fluttering wingbeats, steep banking turns and periods of gliding, wings held slightly angled back in flight and in a slight upward V when foraging. Feet do not extend beyond tail. Underparts similar to Matsudaira’s, completely dark, becoming browner with wear. Relatively easy to identify in fresh plumage, more difficult in worn plumage. Look for large prominent pale crescent on upperwing, vestiges of pale sides to rump and relatively small bill.

4a Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark with large pale crescent on wing reaching forewing at carpal. Greyish back is paler than head resulting in a hooded appearance. Sides of rump usually paler.

4b Worn plumage, upperparts More uniform dark black-brown with less contrast between back and head but larger, paler upperwing crescent.

116

3c

1a

3a

4a

1b

1c 3b 4b 2a 2b

Plate 44: PIed storM-Petrels 1. hornby’s storm-petrel oceanodroma hornbyi

WS ? TL 22cm See p.235

A large, distinctive, fork-tailed storm-petrel of the eastern Pacific. Unmistakable. Also known as Ringed Stormpetrel.

1a Upperparts Grey back and rump; dark cap, tail and wings, with prominent pale crescent on wings. 1b Underparts White with clear-cut dark breast-band and dusky underwing.

2. White-faced storm-petrel Pelagodroma marina

WS 42–43cm TL 18–21cm See p.223

A large, common storm-petrel of the temperate and subtropical seas of the Southern Hemisphere and central Atlantic. Combination of face pattern and white underparts unlike anything else. Wing shape distinctive. Six races are recognised; they vary slightly in size and rump coloration, but are unlikely to be separable at sea due to the confusing effects of moult and wear.

2a Fresh plumage, upperparts Dark cap and eye-stripe, white supercilium. Dark flight feathers and tail.

Upperwing and back grey-brown; rump grey, feathers narrowly tipped white. Whitish tips of secondary coverts form thin pale crescent on upperwing. 2b Worn plumage, upperparts Generally browner. White tips to feathers of rump, back and upperwing lost. 2c Moulting, upperparts Pale, almost white patches on rump and very pale crescent on upperwing. 2d Underparts White except for dark flight feathers and tail.

3. Polynesian storm-petrel nesofregetta fuliginosa

WS 52cm TL 23–25cm See p.225

The largest of the storm-petrels, also known as White-throated Storm-petrel. A rare and poorly known stormpetrel of the tropical Pacific. Plumage variable. Most birds from the north are pied and most of the darkest birds come from Samoa and Tahiti, but melanism occurs in all populations. A full range of intermediate birds occur. In all phases, size, flight and foraging behaviour distinctive. Pied phase combination of white underparts with dark breast-band, white rump and white on underwing unlike anything else. Dark birds similar to other large, dark storm-petrels, although rarely in same range, and best identified by size, flight and foraging behaviour.

3a Pied phase, upperparts Dark cap, flight feathers and tail. Back and wing-coverts paler brown with white crescent on wing and white rump.

3b Pied phase, underparts White with dark breast-band and undertail. Underwing white with dark flight feathers and leading edge.

3c Intermediate phase, upperparts Darker overall; no pale collar; white rump with central dark streak. 3d Intermediate phase, underparts Dark breast-band broader, dark streaks extending onto flanks and lower breast; more dark coverts on underwing.

3e Dark phase, underparts Entirely dusky brownish-black.

118

1b

2b

1a

2a

2c

2d

3c 3e

3b 3d

3a

Plate 45: black-and-WhIte storM-Petrels WIth WhIte ruMPs 1. new Zealand storm-petrel Pealeornis maoriana

WS ? TL 15–19cm See p.221

A small to medium-sized, slim-winged, long-legged storm-petrel not unlike Wilson’s in jizz, flight and foraging behaviour. Formerly known from only three 19th century museum specimens collected off New Zealand, until recently rediscovered in the Hauraki Gulf, North Island, New Zealand. Smaller than Black-bellied; slimmer and longerlegged than both Black-bellied and White-bellied, with a different distribution of dark streaks on underparts. Larger and less smudgy underneath than Elliot’s.

1a Upperparts Dark with white rump and inconspicuous paler crescentic wing-bar. Feet extend well beyond tail.

1b Underparts Museum specimens: dark streaking confined to breast, flanks and thighs. Undertail, dark feathers tipped white. Underwing with dark smudgy centres to coverts on outer wing.

1c Underparts Birds recently sighted in Hauraki Gulf have wide variations in amount of dark streaking on

underparts. On some, dark streaking extends over belly from breast to undertail, and underwing duskier with darker secondary coverts. 1d Head Museum specimens have pale, mottled chin and throat. 1e Breast feathers Feathers forming streaks on breast have dark centres on tips.

2. White-bellied storm-petrel Fregetta grallaria

WS 46cm TL 20cm See p.224

Medium-sized, compact storm-petrel with relatively short, broad wings, square tail and feet rarely projecting far beyond tail. Illustrations are of smaller museum specimen with some streaking on underparts from off the coast of Chile; probably segethi, but other races likely to have similar forms. See also Plate 41:1.

2a Underparts Clear demarcation between dark and light on upper breast. Dark streaking mainly extends towards flanks. Undertail, dark feathers with white tips. White on underwing relatively clean-looking with darker centres only to outer primary-coverts. 2b Head Head larger and forehead steeper than New Zealand; bill slightly deeper; chin and throat dark. 2c Breast feathers Feathers forming streaks on breast have dark bases or subterminal spots.

3. black-bellied storm-petrel Fregetta tropica

WS 45–46cm TL 20cm See p.223

Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel with relatively short, broad wings, square tail and feet usually projecting beyond tail. Broader-winged, stockier and slightly larger than New Zealand Storm-petrel with dark streaking on underparts mainly on centre of breast and belly. Legs, especially toes, rather short but usually extending beyond tail in flight. See also Plate 41:2.

3a Paler bird, underparts In all races, head and upper breast dark with pale, mottled throat. Dark streaking

mainly confined to centre of upper breast and belly. Undertail dark, feathers with white tips. Underwing relatively scruffy with many of the outer coverts dark-centred. 3b Paler bird, underparts In all races, dark streaking on belly can be hard to see, yet underwing can look very dusky.

4. elliot’s storm-petrel oceanites gracilis

WS 35–37cm TL 14–17cm See p.220

Small, delicate, square-tailed and long-legged storm-petrel found mainly in tropical and subtropical Humboldt Current. Feet extend beyond tail in flight. Smaller and smudgier underneath than New Zealand Storm-petrel. Note that separation of races at sea is very difficult and their non-breeding ranges overlap. Allocation of illustrations (which were based on photographs: 4a off the Galápagos, 4b off the coast of Arica, Chile) to race is probably correct but not certainly so. See also Plate 40:3. Also known as White-vented Storm-petrel.

4a Underparts (galapagoensis) Head, undertail and flanks dark with smudgy edges; whiter lower breast and belly. Underwing mostly dark, paler in centre.

4b Underparts (gracilis) Moulting birds can look paler and patchier.

120

2b 1d

1e

2c

1a

1b

2a

1c

3b

4a

3a

4b

albatrosses Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences (Nunn et al. 1996; Nunn & Stanley 1998) indicate that the albatrosses comprise four major groups, which are best recognised as genera: the great albatrosses (Diomedea), the North Pacific albatrosses (Phoebastria), the mollymawks (Thalassarche) and the sooty albatrosses (Phoebetria). The same studies indicate that the sooty albatrosses are most closely related to the mollymawks. Here we have chosen to use the species limits originally suggested by Robertson & Nunn (1998) as modified by Brooke (2004) and by Burg & Croxall (2004).

Wandering albatross

Following Brooke (2004) and Burg & Croxall (2004), we recognise four species: Snowy Albatross Diomedea exulans; New Zealand Albatross D. antipodensis; Tristan Albatross D. dabbenena; and Amsterdam Island Albatross D. amsterdamensis. Two subspecies of New Zealand Albatross are recognised: D. a. antipodensis (Antipodean Albatross) breeding on Antipodes I. and in small numbers on Campbell I. and Chatham Is.; and D. a. gibsoni (Gibson’s Albatross) breeding on Auckland Is.

Wandering albatross plumage descriptions

Members of the wandering albatross group’s plumages are variable and complex, though as a general rule plumage becomes whiter with age. In the past, when all wandering albatross were considered a single species, two schemes were developed to try and describe individuals; Harrison’s ‘seven stages’ and Gibson’s ‘plumage index’ were developed to describe the appearance of individuals and to help explain the way plumage changes with age. These schemes vary in their execution: Harrison’s tries to ‘pigeonhole’ an individual into a particular category whilst Gibson’s attempts to provide a framework to describe an individual’s plumage quickly and in detail.

Harrison’s seven stages

This scheme, first published by Harrison (1979) and used in Harrison’s Seabirds: an Identification Guide (1985) is still widely used by pelagic observers. It was based on the idea that plumage gradually becomes paler with age and that all wandering albatross populations may attain the white ‘snowy’ plumage with age. The scheme is also somewhat stylised with few birds ever as clear cut as the illustrations in Harrison suggest. More importantly, the new taxonomy of the group is based in part on the facts that not all populations achieve the snowy plumage and females rarely become as white as males. Furthermore, not all species progress in a linear sequence through the stages, with New Zealand and Amsterdam Island Albatross populations never attaining Stage 7 plumage and Snowy missing some stages altogether. For these reasons we do not recommend using Harrison’s method.

Gibson’s plumage index

In the mid-1960s Doug Gibson, together with members of the New South Wales Albatross Study Group, derived a system for describing Diomedea plumages. Now known as the Gibson Plumage Index (GPI) or Gibson Code, 1 to 6 numerical values were assigned to particular degrees of coloration on the back, head, inner wing and tail (originally outlined in Gibson 1967; formalised in Murray 1989 and slightly expanded by Jouventin et al. 1989). We believe this method (right) is still useful in recording individuals in the field and is more helpful than Harrison’s seven stages. The descriptions attained when using this method may help assign an individual to species when combined with information on size, moult and jizz.

a new method for describing wandering albatross plumages

As the complexity of the Gibson Plumage Index might suggest, almost every wandering-type albatross you see will look different. Despite this, we believe that there is an inherent pattern to this variation and that Harrison was on the right track in attempting to pigeonhole wandering albatross plumages. For this reason we illustrate eight typical plumages that we believe will aid in separating the wandering albatross taxa.

122

The Gibson Code, as modified by Jouventin et al. (1989).

Plate 2 attempts to depict these eight typical plumages, based on museum specimens and photographs from known locations. Note that although we have called the plumages A–H this series is not meant to indicate the linear progression of an individual’s plumage from dark juvenile to whiter adult. A) Plate 2: 1–2 Juvenile Head, neck, body and tail entirely chocolate-brown except for striking white face. Underwing, as adult except for wider dark margin between carpal joint and base of outermost primary and small chocolate-brown patch at base of inner leading edge of wing. B) Plate 2: 3–4 Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck. Belly and flanks mostly white with broad brown breast-band and mostly dark undertail-coverts. C) Plate 2: 5–6 Like juvenile but with white mottling appearing on hindneck, saddle, rump and uppertailcoverts. Belly and flanks mostly white with faint brown breast-band and dark on undertail-coverts. D) Plate 2: 7–8 Head and neck mostly white except for brownish crown and mottling on sides of neck. Body mostly white with brown and grey vermiculations and blotches on saddle and rump. Some have brown shading on flanks, and most retain indistinct breast-band. Tail white with black sides and tip. Upperwing mainly blackish-brown with variably sized white blotch on centre of inner wing. Underwing like previous plumage; pre-axillary notch still present but may be paler. E) Plate 2: 9 Similar to D but head and body whiter and breast-band absent or made up of very faint vermiculations; tail, whiter with dark sides and tips of outermost feathers usually retained. Upperwing mainly blackish-brown with more white especially on centre of inner wing. Underwing similar to last plumage but lacks pre-axillary notch. F) Plate 2: 10 Similar to E but upperwing considerably whiter, especially distinct white patch on centre of inner wing. G) Plate 2: 11 Similar to F except head and body mostly white; tail mostly white, usually with dark outer feathers. On upperwing, white central patch behind elbow linked to white of back, forming white wedge extending from body onto inner wing, leaving broad black leading and trailing edges. Underwing as D but black leading edge between carpal joint and base of outermost primary thinner and not continuous. H) Plate 2: 12 Head, neck and body white. Tail white; black tips to tail feathers retained on some. Inner upperwing predominantly white with black tips to entire trailing edge and some dark-tipped feathers on central area, close to body. Black on coverts increases towards elbow and outer upperwing predominantly black; some darker patches and mottling on outer half of inner wing-coverts, creating chequered transition between white inner forewing and dark trailing edge and outer wing. Underwing white with black flight feathers forming thin dark trailing edge and large dark tip. As mentioned above the five taxa do not all attain the whitest plumage, nor do they all pass through every stage. Below is a summary of the typical plumages attained by the different species and subspecies of wandering albatross. Note that every population examined appears to show exceptions to these rules; for example, a female in plumage 11 has been found breeding on Antipodes Island. This suggests that some gene flow still occurs between these species. In all species males are whiter than females of the same age. PlumaGes

a

b

C

D

e

F

G

H

ImaGes

1&2

3&4

5&6

7&8

9

10

11

12

snowy

 &

&

?

& breeding 

tristan

 &

&

& breeding 

?breeding & breeding 

New Zealand (Gibson’s)

 &

&

& breeding 

breeding  breeding  breeding  & & & breeding  breeding  breeding  breeding 

breeding  breeding  & & breeding  ?breeding  breeding  breeding 

breeding  breeding  & & breeding  breeding  breeding 

New Zealand (antipodean)

& breeding 

amsterdam Island

breeding  breeding  breeding  & & & breeding  breeding  breeding 

& breeding 

breeding  breeding  & & breeding  breeding 

123

snowy albatross Diomedea exulans

Plates 1, 2

otHer Name Wandering Albatross taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Breeds on islands in higher latitudes

of the Southern Ocean except for New Zealand where it is replaced by D. antipodensis. Breeds biennially when successful, (eggs December–February) on South Georgia I., Prince Edward Is., Marion I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard I. and McDonald I. Birds on Macquarie I. may be hybrids. Circumpolar, travelling great distances even whilst raising chicks. May be found anywhere in the southern oceans south of 22°S, less commonly in New Zealand waters and a rare vagrant north of the equator. beHavIour Flies by use of dynamic soaring; wings angled further back and down in rough weather. Commonly follows ships, sometimes for great distances; attracted to trawlers and easily attracted to chum. JIZZ The largest seabird; huge, robust albatross with extremely long wings and short, gently wedge-shaped tail; bill huge and pink with bulbous tip. Feet generally project well beyond tip of tail in flight but are sometimes tucked forward into belly feathers. sIZe TL 120–135cm; W  66.4cm,  68.4cm; WS 250–350cm; WT 6.35–11.3kg. The largest ‘wanderer’. Most females are smaller than males. PlumaGe Bill huge, with bulbous tip to upper mandible; usually pale pink with slightly yellowish tip, becoming deeper pink during courtship as do legs and feet. Nostrils small, on sides of bill, opening slightly upwards. Rarely, individuals have traces of a black cutting edge to the upper mandible. Eyes brown, legs and feet flesh-pink tinged blue, claws horn-coloured. Up to 75% of breeding adults (especially males) have pink staining on the ears. Snowy attains plumages A, B, F, G, H (see p.123), breeding in plumages F, G and H (females also possibly in E). Although Snowy traditionally assumed to become gradually whiter, evidence from moulting bird in museum collections suggests they go straight from browner plumage B to black and white plumage F and only look like the scruffy New Zealand or Tristan birds for a brief time when in moult. White feathers of breast and belly less likely to be vermiculated (with thin dark parallel lines) than other wandering albatrosses. The rate that plumage whitens with age appears to vary between populations; South Georgia males, for example, are whiter than Crozet males of the same age. moult aND Wear In younger birds, dark chocolate-brown becomes paler and patchier with wear, and in older birds black feathers become duller and browner. Moult well studied and complex. Biennial moult of primaries, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during breeding season but body moult assumed to be more extensive during non-breeding years. IDeNtIFICatIoN Largest and heaviest ‘wanderer’ with the most massive bill, longer than all other species. Large size may enable separation from other species with direct comparison, but note that males of all species are larger than females of the same species. Juveniles probably impossible to distinguish from juveniles of other wandering albatross species except perhaps Tristan (which see). A bird with almost completely dark upperwings and a predominantly white body is unlikely to be this species. Darker immature stages distinguished from Amsterdam Island Albatross and adult separated from royals by absence of black cutting edge to upper mandible. Southern Royals with similar amounts of white on upperwings have whiter leading edges to upperwing than Snowy. All but the oldest male Snowys have some dark flecks in the tail, and most have obvious dark edges and tips to inner tail feathers, whereas Southern Royals with similarly white upperparts almost invariably have entirely white tail.

tristan albatross Diomedea dabbenena

Plate 2

taxoNomy Formerly considered a subspecies of wandering group but molecular work suggests it is sufficiently

distinct to warrant specific status (Burg & Croxall 2004).

DIstrIbutIoN Fewer than 2,500 pairs breed biennially in the Tristan da Cunha group (Inaccessible, and formerly

Tristan da Cunha) and Gough I., ranging at sea through South Atlantic (between at least 23°S and 42°S) to west coast of South Africa and to within c.300km of the coast of Brazil, although as yet there are only six records for the latter country. Also recorded from south-west Indian Ocean and once from southeast Australia. beHavIour Similar to other wandering albatrosses.

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JIZZ Similar to Snowy but smaller, more compact and less robust. sIZe TL ?; W  63.2cm,  65.4cm; WS ?; WT ? The Tristan Albatross is smaller than the Snowy in all measurements but very similar in size to published measurements of New Zealand Albatross. Female smaller than male in all measurements. PlumaGe Range and sequence of plumages undescribed but photos and museum specimens suggest that it occurs in plumages A, B, C, D, E, F and G (see ? pp.122–123) and breeds in C, D, E, F and G. May also occur in plumage H. Bill and legs similar to Snowy but a few, mainly darker-plumaged, birds have dusky tip to bill. Only a few breeding birds have pink patch on ear-coverts. Juveniles tend to have paler, greyer tone to dark chocolate-brown plumage, whiter throat and foreneck and more smudgy white behind ear than juveniles of other wandering species. moult aND Wear Undescribed but probably similar to other wandering albatrosses. IDeNtIFICatIoN Juvenile Tristan may be separable from juveniles of other ‘wanderers’ by paler, greyer (not chocolate-brown) plumage and whiter face, throat and foreneck. Plumage otherwise not helpful and inseparable at sea from all other species although really white birds are more likely to be Snowy. Range often the most useful indication, overlapping only with Snowy off eastern South America where direct comparison or experience may allow separation by Tristan’s smaller size and shorter bill with less bulbous tip. Dark birds with dusky tip to bill have been mistaken for Amsterdam Island Albatross.

New Zealand albatross Diomedea antipodensis

Plates 1, 2

otHer Names New Zealand Wandering Albatross.

Race gibsoni is known as Gibson’s Albatross, antipodensis as Antipodean Albatross. taxoNomy Two subspecies recognised: D. a. antipodensis (Antipodean Albatross) breeds on Antipodes I. and in small numbers on Campbell I. and Chatham Is.; D. a. gibsoni (Gibson’s Albatross) breeds on Auckland Is. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic. Breeds (biennially if successful) from mid-January (mid-February on Campbell I.). D. a. antipodensis mainly Antipodes I. with small numbers on Campbell I. and recently colonised Chatham Is. (Main I. and Pitt I.), ranging at sea in non-breeding season east to Chile and probably the Patagonian Shelf, and west to the Tasman Sea. D. a. gibsoni on Auckland Is. (Adams I., Main Auckland I., Enderby I.) and during breeding season females range at sea to Tasman Sea and males northeast to the mid-Pacific and slightly west at lower latitudes. beHavIour Large Diomedea albatross. Flies by use of dynamic soaring; wings become more curved downward and backward in rough weather. Routinely follows ships, sometimes for great distances; attracted to trawlers and easily attracted to chum but generally shyer than Snowy when they are competing for food. JIZZ Smaller wandering-type albatross that appears slighter, less barrel chested, shorter winged and smaller billed than Snowy or royals when seen alongside. sIZe D. g. gibsoni TL ?; W  63.5cm,  65.9cm; WS ?; WT 5.5–11.0kg. D. g. antipodensis TL ?; W  64.3cm,  66.4cm; WS ?; WT 5.84–7.46kg. Females average smaller than males in all measurements and weights, but considerable overlap. PlumaGe Bill and legs similar to Snowy except that the bill of a small number of antipodensis, especially immatures and females, has a dusky tip to the lower mandible and can even appear to have a dark cutting edge to the upper mandible, like Amsterdam Island Albatross, especially when strongly backlit. In general adults have less prominent pink ear markings than Snowy. Juveniles of both species indistinguishable from Snowy except (perhaps) when sitting on the water based on size comparisons. Birds in stage B and C plumage less likely to have any white in upperwing than comparable aged Snowy or Tristan (very few Snowies attain stage C plumage). D. a. gibsoni attain plumages A, B, C, D, E, F and G (see p.123), breeding in C, D, E, F and G. Clear

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sexual dimorphism in breeding pairs, with majority of females having streaks on back, more vermiculations on underparts and a dark cap (similar to plumage D), whilst males are whiter bodied and have just a few streaks on the head (plumage E). D. a. antipodensis attain plumages A, B, C, D and E, breeding in A, B, C, D and E. Typical breeding male is plumage C with dark brown crown cap commonly extending to ears and very little white on upperwing, whilst female commonly breeds in plumage B. moult aND Wear Dark chocolate-brown of fresh plumage becomes paler with wear and can look disordered and blotchy due to pale bases of feathers being visible. Moult poorly studied, but assumed to be similar to Snowy. IDeNtIFICatIoN By far the majority of birds in New Zealand waters are this species. There are no simple plumage features to distinguish New Zealand Albatross from other ‘wanderers’ but a very white bird (plumage H) is unlikely to be a New Zealand and a bird with almost entirely dark upperwing and whiter body (plumages E and F) is unlikely to be Snowy. New Zealand Albatrosses usually have some vermiculations on white plumage whilst Snowy, even those in plumage E and F, have fewer vermiculations and much cleaner demarcation between white and dark areas. New Zealand Albatross best distinguished from Snowy by smaller size and shorter bill with less bulbous tip. This is especially useful for birds on the water behind boats but is convincing only with direct comparisons and experience. On the whole antipodensis and gibsoni impossible to tell apart at sea although paler birds are more likely to be male gibsoni. Tristan probably indistinguishable as is a similar size and occurs in many of the same plumages. See Tristan, however, for possible differences in juvenile. Amsterdam Island Albatross, similar to darker-plumaged New Zealand Albatross, is only identifiable at close range by dusky tip and thin dark line along cutting edge of bill. Note, however, that a few New Zealand Albatrosses have darker bill tips and can have or appear to have dark lines to cutting edge of upper mandible. Whiter birds with all-dark upperwings look like Northern Royals at a distance but closer up can be seen to have more vermiculations on body, darker tail and often dark smudgy markings on head, back and rump – unfortunately not unlike juvenile royals! Juvenile royals rarely have a pronounced dark cap, are whiter underneath, have less dark in tail, a thin dark line on bill and a different jizz.

amsterdam Island albatross Diomedea amsterdamensis taxoNomy Described as a species in 1983 and

Plate 1

generally regarded as a ‘good’ one; probably closely related to New Zealand Albatross. DIstrIbutIoN Amsterdam I. (Indian Ocean). Breeds (biennially when successful, eggs February–March) on central plateau at 500–600m, with a population of c. 120 birds, of which no more than 15 pairs breed annually. Ranges at sea across southern Indian Ocean. Unconfirmed records from Tasmania and New South Wales, Australia. ? beHavIour Similar to other wandering albatrosses. JIZZ Smaller wandering albatross similar to darker New Zealand Albatross from Antipodes I. sIZe TL 115cm; W  63.6cm,  65.6cm; WS 300cm; WT 5–8kg. On average both sexes smaller than Snowy in measurements and weight. Measurements are apparently similar to antipodensis New Zealand Albatross. Female smaller than male in all measurements but this dimorphism less than in other great albatrosses. PlumaGe Attains plumages A, B and C (see pp.122–123), breeding in A, B and C. Large pink bill, deeper pink during breeding season, with thin black cutting edge to the upper mandible, and dusky tip to both upper and lower mandibles. Legs and feet pale. Looks like dark plumages of all other younger wandering albatrosses but underwing reported as having more brown on leading edge, and broader dark trailing edge. moult aND Wear Undescribed but probably similar to other wandering albatrosses. IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from antipodensis New Zealand Albatross, as demonstrated by a bird seen in 1999 off Sydney, New South Wales, which appeared to have dark cutting edge and tip to bill. Identification of a single bird outside its normal range may be impossible. Plumage appears to be little help and much depends on the dark line and dusky tip on the bill. Unfortunately some darker plumaged Tristan and New Zealand Albatrosses can have darker tips to the bill and some antipodensis New Zealand Albatrosses, especially females, can appear to have a similar black cutting edge to upper mandible especially in strong light. And just to round things off, a very few Amsterdam Island Albatrosses may lack the dark cutting edge!

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royal albatrosses

Two species of distinctive Diomedea albatrosses.

Northern royal albatross Diomedea sanfordi

Plate 3

taxoNomy Royals are treated here as two separate species: Northern Royal Albatross Diomedea sanfordi and Southern Royal Albatross Diomedea epomophora, following Brooke (2004). DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic. Breeds, biennially if successful (eggs late October to early December) mostly on Sisters, Forty Fours, Chatham Is. A small mainland colony of c. 30 pairs, including some hybrids, nest at Taiaroa Head, Dunedin, and there are mixed Southern/Northern pairs on Enderby I. in the Aucklands. Ranges widely whilst feeding chicks and can be found at any time of the year throughout Southern Ocean. Commonest in subantarctic between 30°S and 52°S. Majority of population winter off east and west coasts of southern South America. Non-breeding birds may circumnavigate the globe several times and are recorded increasingly commonly in Indian Ocean, in South African and Australian waters. Not recorded definitely in Antarctic waters. beHavIour Generally solitary; less regularly attracted to fishing boats and chum than Southern Royal but groups may congregate at food sources. Shyer than Southern Royals when foraging behind vessels. JIZZ Flight similar to wandering albatrosses but appears humpbacked due to raised crest of flesh along upper back. Tail appears longer, narrower and more strongly wedge shaped than ‘wanderer’. Feet rarely extend beyond tail in flight. See Southern Royal for comparison with that species. sIZe TL ?; W 61–67cm; WS c. 320cm; WT 6.53–6.8kg. Averages smaller than Southern in most measurements and weight but some overlap. Females considerably smaller than males. PlumaGe Massive bill, pinkish-flesh with black cutting edge to upper mandible. Eye dark brown. Legs and feet pale greyish-pink. Bare parts become redder during courtship due to increase in blood flow but fade during chick-rearing. Immature and juvenile bare parts similar but paler. Hybrids with Southern Royal known from Enderby I., Auckland group, but unclear how these differ in plumage. Plumage of hybrid birds at Taiaroa Head indistinguishable from Northern but dates of egg-laying differ. Adult Head, body, rump and tail white. Upperwing black, except for very small white area at base of leading edge. Underwing white with black primary tips, narrow black trailing edge and narrow black leading edge from carpal to wing tip. A few birds have small dark tips to some tail feathers, and a small number of females have a few dark feathers visible on the crown, especially immediately after body moult early in the breeding season, and vermiculations on scapulars, lower back and rump. Juvenile Similar to adult, white with small dark-brown tips to some feathers of the crown and some darkbrown streaks and spots on lower back and rump; upperwing dark with white tips to coverts at fledging, but these quickly wear away. Tail white, with variable dark markings forming indistinct dark tip. When on nest or water no white is visible at the bend in the wing. Immatures Mantle, back and tail become white at first moult. Wings and tail frequently appear brown and worn due to delays in moulting. moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with age. Wing-moult poorly described but probably similar to wandering group. IDeNtIFICatIoN Northern Royal from wandering albatrosses: Adult separated from all ‘wanderers’ by combination of entirely black upperwing, pure white body and black cutting edge to upper mandible. Juvenile Northern Royal can look very similar to some plumages of New Zealand Albatross. In general, however, ‘wanderers’ with upperwings as dark as Northern Royals are much scruffier looking as they have a lot more brownish markings and vermiculations on head and body. A feature often claimed to distinguish Northern Royal from Snowy is the presence of a pure white tail but quite large numbers of Northern Royals have some black-tipped rectrices and some Snowys have no black in the tail. Northern Royal never has ear-coverts pink like Snowy. The dark mark on the leading edge of the underside of the outer half of the wing beyond the carpal is slightly broader on adult Northern Royals than ‘wanderers’. With practice, jizz often the best way to separate the species. Northern from Southern Royal: A royal with white patches on the upperwing is a Southern. Newly fledged juveniles look similar, but Northerns tend to have more dark markings on head, back and tail. However, there is much variation and they are inseparable in the field. Immature Southerns can have black upperwings like adult Northerns, when they are impossible to tell apart at a distance and separation can be difficult even close up. Most

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Southerns have some white on the upperwing especially on the fringes of the inner upperwing-coverts around the elbow region. The scapulars and base of the upperwing tend to look scruffier on Southerns with more vermiculations than Northerns. Birds with dark spots on the crown or dark feathers in the tail are likely to be Northerns, but birds with entirely white bodies, heads and tails and dark upperwings can be either species. However, with experience the slighter build of Northern Royal (see Southern jizz) allows identification of most birds seen in New Zealand. Southern Royals are larger than Northerns; note though that there is considerable variation within the species and some overlap. The extent of the dark border on the leading edge of the underwing from carpal to primaries has been used to separate the two species. Northerns, it is suggested, have broader dark margins. This feature, however, appears to be related to age and sex, which means that immature and especially female Southerns, the very birds with dark upperwings you would want to distinguish from Northerns, can have wide margins as well. The few hybrids nesting at Taiaroa Head, New Zealand, are indistinguishable from Northerns, but there is no information on the small number nesting elsewhere.

southern royal albatross Diomedea epomophora taxoNomy Royals are treated here as two species:

Plate 3

Northern Royal Albatross Diomedea sanfordi and Southern Royal Albatross Diomedea epomophora, following Brooke (2004). DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic. Breeds, biennially if successful (eggs late November– December) mostly on Campbell Is., with smaller population on Enderby I., Auckland Is., which is slowly growing. Ranges widely whilst feeding chicks and can be found at any time of the year throughout southern oceans, commonest in subantarctic between 36°S and 63°S. More frequently found in South Atlantic and Indian Ocean than Northern Royal. Non-breeding birds may circumnavigate the globe several times and are increasingly commonly recorded in Australian waters. Has reached 18°S off Chile. A few records from Antarctic waters. beHavIour Generally solitary; regularly attracted to fishing boats and chum and groups may congregate at food sources. Shyer than ‘wanderers’ when foraging behind vessels. JIZZ Flight similar to wandering but appears humpbacked in flight due to raised crest of flesh along upper back. Tail appears longer, narrower and more strongly wedge shaped than ‘wanderer’. Feet rarely extend far beyond tail in flight. Southern Royal tends to be even more humpbacked than Northern and also appears thicker necked. Northern Royal is noticeably smaller and narrower winged and less heavily built than Southern Royal, the body appears relatively small compared to the wings, and the neck is narrower and shorter. Thus Southern Royal looks more like a ‘wanderer’ than a Northern Royal which in silhouette looks more like Shy Albatross. These differences are not that obvious and require experience and practice. sIZe TL 110–122cm; W 65–70cm; WS c. 350cm; WT 6.52–10.3kg. Averages larger than Northern in most measurements and weight. Female smaller than male. PlumaGe Massive bill, pinkish-flesh with thin, black cutting edge to upper mandible. Eye dark-brown. Legs and feet pale greyish-pink. Bare parts become redder during courtship due to increase in blood flow but reddish-pink fades during chick-rearing. Immature and juvenile bare parts similar but paler. See Northern for discussion of hybrids. Matures slowly becoming gradually whiter on upperwing. Adult Body white with black and white upperwings. Diagonal demarcation between white leading and dark trailing edges of inner upperwing. Outer coverts dark sooty grey with paler edges; flight feathers brownishblack. Scapulars generally dark tipped and usually the only feathers in adult with broad wavy vermiculations. As birds age a triangle of white along leading edge becomes increasingly large and extends further down wing towards elbow. Tail usually pure white but some, especially younger birds and females, may have dark flecks especially to the tips of feathers. Juvenile Similar to Northern. Body white with small dark-brown tips to some feathers of the crown and some dark-brown streaks and spots on lower back and rump; upperwing dark with white tips to coverts at fledging but these quickly wear away. Tail white, with variable dark markings forming indistinct dark tip. Immature Body becomes entirely white. Wings gradually become whiter with more extensive white edges to wing-coverts of inner wing. Tail slowly looses any dark feathers.

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moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with age. Wing-moult poorly described but probably similar to wandering albatross group. IDeNtIFICatIoN See Northern Royal for separation from that species. Southern Royal from wandering albatrosses: Juvenile and immature Southern Royals with dark upperwings can look very similar to some plumages of New Zealand Albatross. In general, however, ‘wanderers’ with upperwings as dark as these Southern Royal plumages are much scruffier looking as they have a lot more brownish markings and vermiculations on head and body. However, adult Southern Royal Albatrosses can look very similar to the whiter plumages of the wandering albatross group. When you can see the bill clearly there is no problem. Royals have thin dark lines along the cutting edge, ‘wanderers’ do not. As a general rule, Southern Royals have whiter bodies than ‘wanderers’ with similar patterned upperwings. All but the whitest of ‘wanderers’ retain thin wavy grey or black lines (vermiculations) on the scapulars back, rump and hindneck and in darker birds these can even form a pale band on the sides or across the breast. Similarly, dark marks on the crown are likely to persist, as are dark marks on the tip of the tail, especially on the central feathers. The white on the upperwing of Southern Royals extends back in a triangle from the leading edge of the wing, unbroken except for a few, if any, small black feathers. A bird with a line or two of small black feathers extending along the leading edge breaking up the white will be a ‘wanderer’, as will one with an obvious patch of white surrounded by black. The most difficult birds to tell apart are Southern Royals and ‘wanderers’, particularly Snowy Albatrosses, with large areas of white on the upperwing. The dark on the upperwings of ‘wanderers’ often looks like a fine checkerboard pattern, whereas that of Southern Royals has a more uniform look. Birds with virtually white inner wings and almost all of the secondaries white are likely to be Snowys, since Southern Royal’s inner wings never become as white, some dark always being present on the secondaries and secondary coverts. With practice jizz may be the best way to identify royals. In flight royals have a hunchbacked look with a longer, more wedgeshaped tail. Royals’ wings are slightly broader than ‘wanderers’ especially towards the base, and the proportions (e.g. body to carpal, carpal to tip) are different as well. This makes ‘wanderers’, especially the large Snowys, look relatively longer and thinner winged. Royal bills look slightly longer and straighter than those of ‘wanderers’, less bulbous at the tip and tending towards yellowish rather than rosy pink. None of these differences are particularly pronounced and it requires a lot of experience to tell the groups apart by jizz alone.

North Pacific albatrosses

These four albatrosses comprise the genus Phoebastria.

Waved albatross Phoebastria irrorata

Plate 5

otHer Names Galápagos Albatross. taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN The only tropical albatross, confined

to the Galápagos Islands and adjacent seas. Breeds annually on Española (Hood I.), Galápagos, with c.15,000 pairs, and small numbers breed on Isla La Plata off Ecuador. Feeds over the continental shelf of Peru in breeding season, as well as scavenging off the Galápagos Islands. Dispersal east to coast of Ecuador and Peru, generally 4°N to 12°S, occasionally south to Mollendo, Peru. Juveniles remain in Humboldt Current, returning to breed after at least three years. beHavIour In the light winds of the tropics, flight resembles boobies and gannets with deep flapping strokes, rarely dynamic soaring. Does not follow ships; apparently not attracted to trawlers and generally shy at sea. Often seen feeding in flocks of diving Blue-footed Boobies Sula nebouxii. JIZZ Medium-sized albatross, similar in jizz to great albatrosses with combination of monstrous bill and short rounded tail. Humpbacked appearance and unusually long neck most similar to royal albatrosses. Relative to body size, has the largest bill of any albatross. Feet project beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 89cm; W 49.1–55.5cm; WS 230–240cm; WT 2.04kg. PlumaGe Massive bill custard-yellow; eye dark brown; legs and feet pale fleshy blue. Adult Base colour of head white; crown and nape suffused with striking lemon-yellow which extends onto nape. Chin, throat and upper and lower breast white, heavily criss-crossed with grey vermiculations, especially on sides of breast and flanks. Belly chocolate-brown. Upperbody chestnut-brown, with greyish

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vermiculated pattern on hindneck, rump and uppertail-coverts. Paler lower rump patch, still heavily vermiculated, contrasts with chocolate-brown tail. Upperwing chestnut-brown without vermiculated pattern, but with prominent lemon-white shafts to primaries. Undertail chocolate-brown. Underwing has dark edges and armpit, white centre and fine grey-brown vermiculations on armpit and white coverts. Juvenile and immature Like adult but juvenile head white without yellow wash and wider, darker (almost black) vermiculations, especially on back. Vermiculations narrow with age and yellow wash increases on head. Bill horn-coloured with dusky tip becoming yellower with age. moult aND Wear Yellow wash on head fades during breeding season. Dark plumage becomes browner with age. Wing moult poorly described but probably similar to wandering group. IDeNtIFICatIoN Generally unmistakable in range. As vagrant could be mistaken for Laysan but combination of massive yellow bill, dark underbody and darkish rump diagnostic.

short-tailed albatross Phoebastria albatrus taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Extremely rare northeast Pacific

Plate 4

breeder. Breeds annually (eggs October–November) mainly on Torishima I. (Izu Is.) with smaller number on Minami-Kojima (Senkaku Is.) and 1 or 2 pairs on Yome-jima I. (Ogasawara Is.) and Midway Atoll. Occurs farther east in northeast Pacific during August–January as far as Bering Sea and western USA. Commonest south to 20°N but has been recorded at albatross breeding islands of French Frigate Shoals and Laysan I. (Hawaiian Is.), Guadalupe I. and San Benedicto Is. off Baja California. beHavIour Flight, dynamic soaring. Heavy-bodied, thus often becalmed in light winds. Not readily attracted to fishing boats or chum. JIZZ Recalls larger great albatrosses rather than smaller Thalassarche. Heavy-bodied with large, long bill. sIZe TL 89cm; W ?; WS 215–230cm; WT ? PlumaGe Complex. Passes through a series of stages similar to that of wandering-type albatrosses. All-brown juvenile gradually becomes whiter, passing through several mottled plumages to mainly white adult with yellowish head. Juvenile (Plate 4: 1b) Newly fledged juveniles are uniform sooty-brown. Most are dark around base of bill, a very few have thin white stripe. Bill dark, legs bluish flesh. Juvenile/immature (Plate 4: 1c–d) Chocolate-brown. Bill pale flesh with bluish tip. Legs pale flesh to bluish. Underwing mostly dark, paler at base of primaries. Paler plumage develops first on chin, base of bill and belly. Immature (Plate 4: 1e–f) Head whitish, but hindcrown, nape, hind neck and sides of neck sepia; this does not join across the throat, so it forms a dark cap. Upperparts patchy sepia and white, with buff and white vermiculations to uppertail-coverts. Base of tail white, tip of tail blackish. Underparts white, with pale brown markings on flanks, thighs and vent. Upperwing sepia, with white patch developing on inner central coverts. Underwing mainly white, dark tip and trailing edge with some dark tips to wing-coverts. Bill and legs as adult. May breed in this plumage. Older Immature (Plate 4: 1g) Head white; crown and sides of face yellowish-brown, becoming browner on nape. Upperparts mainly white, with buffish-brown vermiculations on back and rump. Underparts white with browner vermiculated flanks, thighs and vent. Upperwing beige-brown with white patches. Underwing progressively whiter on coverts. Tail black with white base. May breed in this plumage. Adult (Plate 4: 1a) Head white, shading to yellowish on crown, nape and, on some, across throat. Upper body white from nape to tail base, tip of tail black. Underparts white, some with yellow wash, especially to breast. Upperwing black with large white triangular patch on innerwing almost joining white scapulars and mantle. Underwing white with narrow blackish margin. Large pink bill with blue tip; iris blackish; legs and feet bluish-white. Some breeding adults retain brown nape and flecks of brown on mantle and back. moult aND Wear Begins wing-moult on non-breeding grounds (late June–mid-October). IDeNtIFICatIoN Adult is only white-bodied albatross in north Pacific with huge pink bill and distinctive upperwing pattern. Juvenile resembles juvenile Black-footed Albatross, but differs in greater size and more massive bill. Newly fledged Short-tailed has dark bill, like Black-footed, and a very few also have a narrow white stripe around base of bill. Older juveniles easily recognised by pink bill.

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black-footed albatross Phoebastria nigripes

Plate 4

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN North Pacific. Commonest albatross

in the northeast Pacific. Most of population breeds on northwest Hawaiian group, especially Laysan, Lisianski, Pearl and Hermes Reef, Midway and French Frigate Shoals, with some on other island of the archipelago. Small numbers on Torishima (Izu Is.), Muko-jima Islands (Bonin Is.), Kita-ko-jima (southern Ryukyu Is.). Ranges at sea from 30°N to 56°N, from China north to Bering Sea and east to Baja California; the only albatross seen regularly off the Pacific coast of USA and Canada. During the breeding season, sighted at sea between 112° W to 170° E and 15° N to 53° N, including Sea of Okhotsk. Common off Japan in July and in the southern Bering Sea during June to August; off coast of California may occur at any season, but most numerous June to August. Pelagic range of breeding birds most restricted in February when feeding small nestlings; range expands as chicks increase in size. Single historic, Southern Hemisphere record from New Zealand. beHavIour Flight dynamic and soaring. As Black-footed flaps wings more frequently than other albatrosses, it is often able to fly in very light winds when other seabirds are becalmed. Follows ships and is readily attracted to fishing boats and chum. JIZZ Relatively small albatross with large bill and slim, scimitar-like wings typical of Phoebastria. Flight very buoyant and dashing for an albatross, with wings held bent at the wrist. Feet generally extend beyond tail in flight and are used as rudder. Only in the strongest winds are feet tucked up into belly feathers. sIZe TL 64–74cm; W 50–52cm; WS 193–216cm; WT 2.8kg. Generally larger in all measurements than Laysan, except that in individuals of same sex head wider but bill shorter than comparable Laysan. On average, heavier than Laysan. Males slightly larger than females, with longer beak. PlumaGe A small, dark albatross, the immature plumages of which do not differ as much from the adults as those of other Phoebastria albatrosses. Adult Head and neck black-brown, with variable but narrow white area at base of bill extending from lower forehead to upper chin; some may show white crescent below eye that extends back to ear. Mantle, back and tail, black-brown; lower rump and uppertail-coverts usually white but may be speckled brown. Underparts brown with grey wash and somewhat paler than upperparts, especially breast and belly; in c. 10% of population vent and undertail-coverts white. Upperwings uniform black-brown, with white shafts to outer flight feathers. Underwing dark brown, paler on bases of primaries. Bill generally dark blackish-brown but in some individuals lighter; eye blackish-brown; legs and feet black. Small proportion of population considerably paler; head pale with dark flecking, underparts pale grey or white rather than brown, contrasting with brown breast band; underwing paler; bill and legs pink or yellow. Upperparts as normal birds but paler with dark flight feathers. Some hybridisation between Black-headed and Laysan in Hawaiian Group but little published information on appearance of these individuals. Juvenile Plumage entirely sooty-brown with narrower area of white at base of bill than adult, dark lower rump and uppertail and dark shafts to outer primaries. Whitish areas on head, belly, and uppertail-coverts increase in size with each successive moult, at least until first breeding at approximately 6 years of age. moult aND Wear Begins wing moult on non-breeding grounds (late June–mid-October). IDeNtIFICatIoN Easily distinguished from all other north Pacific albatrosses by its dark colour, apart from juvenile Short-tailed. See Short-tailed for separation.

laysan albatross Phoebastria immutabilis

Plate 5

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Commonest albatross of north Pacific. Breeds Laysan, Midway and other northwest Hawaiian

islands (Kure east to Kauai, Niihau, Nihoa, Moko Manu); Torishima (Izu Is.); Ogasawara Is. (Muko-jima). Small numbers on Guadalupe I. and Revillagigedo Is. (Clarion, San Benedicto, Rocas Alijos) off Baja California. At sea ranges from 28°N–55°N from Japanese seas north to Bering Sea, and east to Pacific coast of North America, where regular but rare. Southern limit poorly defined. Non-breeders wander widely over much of north Pacific,

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including Marianas Is. and Caroline Is. Recorded infrequently from Southern Hemisphere (Solomon Is., Australia, New Zealand, and Indian Ocean). beHavIour Will follow ships. JIZZ Relatively small, long-necked albatross that has slim scimitar-like wings typical of Phoebastria but a relatively small bill. Feet extend just beyond tail in flight but are often tucked up into belly feathers. sIZe TL 79–81cm; W 47–50cm; WS 195–203cm; WT 2.4kg (1.9–3.1kg). PlumaGe Small, relatively slightly built black-andwhite albatross, with immature plumages similar to those of the adult. Adult Head, neck and underparts white. Greyblack eye-patch begins in front of the eye and extends as a thin line back to ear; lower eye-lid white. Upperwing, mantle, back and scapulars and upper rump dark sooty-brown with slightly paler edges to the feathers. Lower rump and uppertail-coverts white, forming narrow white U-shaped area between dark upper rump and black-grey tail. Outer flight feathers black with white primary shafts. Under surface of tail paler grey-black. Underwing variable, perhaps whitening with age; predominantly white with broad black leading edge, wing-tips and large black patches in armpits near the base. Darker birds have alternate rows of black and white underwing-coverts forming a series of narrow parallel lines on the underwing. Bill yellowish-pink in nonbreeding season, becoming pinker whilst courting, with smudgy bluish tip; eye dark; legs and feet pale flesh. Juvenile Similar to adult but bill slightly duller and head lacks grey wash. moult aND Wear Moult flight feathers (late June–mid-October) on non-breeding grounds in southern parts of range after breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Amongst the north Pacific albatrosses, easily distinguished from Black-footed at all ages by the latter’s uniformly sooty plumage. Much rarer Short-tailed is larger, with a much more massive bill; adults are white backed with white patches on the upperwing and nearly pure white underwing. Immatures with dark upperwings and whiter bodies similar to Laysan will always appear scruffier with dark patches on head, back and rump. In the Southern Hemisphere strongly resembles several white-headed smaller albatrosses, especially adult Black-browed and Campbell Albatrosses and the two yellow-nosed species, from which it can only be separated given good views if one is unfamiliar with distinctive jizz of Laysan. Laysan is slim winged, long necked and has a slim, pale, pinkish bill. Underwing pattern is darker and smudgier than both yellow-nosed but similar to Blackbrowed and Campbell. Laysan, however, tends to have a more prominent large dark patch in centre of hand on underwing, and the dark back extends further down onto the rump.

smaller albatrosses or mollymawks

Members of the genus Thalassarche are often called mollymawks.

black-browed albatross Thalassarche melanophrys otHer Name Black-browed Mollymawk taxoNomy Black-browed Albatross taxonomy used

Plates 7–9

here follows Brooke (2004), based on Burg & Croxall (2001) which separated the traditional Black-browed into two species, Black-browed T. melanophrys and Campbell Albatross T. impavida. More research into the relationships of these forms is clearly required as they hybridise on Campbell I. Following Burg & Croxall (2001), T. melanophrys is now considered to consist of two distinct populations, with those on the Falkland Islands exhibiting genetic differences from other populations. No field marks are known that distinguish between these two populations, they have no formal status and the species is considered monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN The commonest albatross, with a circumpolar range in the southern oceans. Breeds (eggs late September–mid-November) in southern Chile (Islas Diego Ramirez, Ildefonso, Diego de Almagro and Isla

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Evangelistas), Falkland Islands (12 sites), South Georgia, South Sandwich Is., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is.; Heard I. and McDonald Is., Macquarie I. and Bishop and Clerk Is.; Antipodes I., Campbell I., and Snares Is. Forages generally north of breeding islands. Disperses northwards from breeding colonies to continental shelf waters off Australia (to 28°S on west coast and 24°S on east coast), New Zealand (to subtropical waters N of 46–48°S), South Africa (to 15°S on west coast) and South America (to 20°S on eastern shelf). The commonest vagrant southern albatross in Northern Hemisphere, recorded from the Faeroes, Britain, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Ireland, USA and North Africa. beHavIour Gregarious at sea, often in vast numbers behind trawlers and fishing boats. Readily attracted to chum. JIZZ Medium-sized albatross with comparatively long wings, short tail and short neck. Broader-winged and longer-necked than Grey-headed, Buller’s or Pacific but not as long-necked as either species of Yellow-nosed. sIZe TL 80–96cm; W 50–56cm; WS 210–250cm; WT 2.9–4.6kg. Considerably smaller than the ‘shy’ albatrosses but larger than any other dark-backed Thalassarche albatross except Campbell. Female averages smaller than male in most measurements and overall weight, but considerable overlap in all of these. PlumaGe Medium-sized, black-and-white, pale-headed albatross with dark back and black-and-white underwing on which the extent of white varies with age. At all ages, eye blackish-brown. Hybrids with Campbell recorded on Campbell I. but not known how these may differ in plumage. Adult White with black upperwings, back and tail. Prominent black eyebrow which does not reach base of bill. Underwing white with broad black leading edge, narrow trailing edge and dark wing-tip. Fully adult bird has only a few dark feathers in the outer underwing-coverts. Bill yellowish-orange, redder at tip during breeding. Legs and feet blue-grey, tinged pinkish. Juvenile Predominantly white-headed with small grey-brown eyebrow, some smudginess around eye (but little on lores) and distinctive grey nape and collar formed by dark feather tips to the sides of the neck and upper breast. Collar becomes dusky-brown and is reduced or even lost with wear. Underwing mostly black, appearing entirely so at a distance, but close up a paler central panel is visible in the inner wing, which is formed by broad grey edges to central coverts. Feather edges become paler grey-brown with wear, making pale panel more obvious. Bill at fledging mostly dark, grey-black, becoming paler over the first 18 months; variable horn-coloured and brownishyellow patches develop at base and on lower mandible, but the cutting edges and tip remain dark. Immature Following post-juvenile moult, similar to worn juvenile, but central panel of underwing becomes increasingly white. By 4th year extent of white on underwing can be similar to adult but with some dark streaks in the centre of inner and outer wing formed by dark centres and tips to coverts. Any grey wash on head or collar lost. Dark eyebrow increases in size, extending onto lores to become similar in size to that of adult. Bill similar to older juveniles but by 3rd year paler and yellower at base. Older, pre-breeding birds separable from adults by duller yellow bill, usually with some black smudginess on tip of upper mandible and a few more dark feathers on underwing. moult aND Wear Black feathers of adult become browner with wear. Grey wash on neck and nape of juvenile and immature either becomes dirty brown or is lost. Wing-moult complex and with study many immature birds can be aged. Not all flight feathers moulted in a single year. Adults that successfully raise a chick retain considerably more flight feathers than those whose nests fail. IDeNtIFICatIoN It is often helpful with the smaller mollymawks to try to establish the age of an individual before trying to decide upon the species. Adults can be separated from all other mollymawks except Campbell Albatross by combination of white head, black brow, orange bill and white underwing with broad dark borders, especially along the leading edge. Adults separable from Campbell by dark not yellow eye, larger dark eye patch and darker inner underwing, although the last should be used with caution as immature Black-browed can also have similar pattern to underwing. Range is useful as Campbell is rare outside New Zealand waters. Young birds separable from similar-sized Buller’s and Yellow-nosed and larger Shy, Salvin’s and Chatham by dark underwing. Juvenile and immature impossible to separate from Campbell. Young Black-browed with darker underwings, darker bills and scruffy greyish collars can be difficult to distinguish from young Grey-headed (for which see). See also Laysan.

Campbell albatross Thalassarche impavida

Plates 7, 9

otHer Name Campbell Mollymawk taxoNomy See Black-browed. DIstrIbutIoN One of the commonest mollymawks of New Zealand waters. Breeding (late September–early

October) restricted to main Campbell I. and Jeanette Marie I. in the Campbell group. Has been recorded ashore on Kerguelen Is. In non-breeding season disperses through the south Pacific, the Tasman Sea and Ross Sea, mainly between 24–48°S; one record from the Indian Ocean. beHavIour Gregarious at sea; likely to forage in large numbers behind trawlers and fishing boats. Readily attracted to chum. JIZZ Same as Black-browed Albatross. Medium-sized albatross with comparatively long wings, short tail and short

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neck. Broader winged and longer necked than Greyheaded, Buller’s or Pacific but not as long necked as either species of Yellow-nosed. sIZe TL 78–90cm; W 49–54cm; WS 210–246cm; WT 2.2–3.8kg. Very slightly smaller on average than Black-browed but larger than any other dark-backed Thalassarche and considerably smaller than the shy group. Female averages smaller than males in most measurements and overall weight, but overlap is considerable. PlumaGe Medium-sized, black-and-white, paleheaded albatross, with dark back and underwing on which the extent of white varies with age. Adult eye straw-coloured. Hybrids with Black-browed recorded on Campbell I. but not known how these may differ. Plumage as Black-browed, differing only in larger triangular black eye patch, which extends farther in front of eye and nearly reaches base of bill, and darker underwing. The coverts, especially of the the centre of the underwing are darker and virtually separate the continuous white central strip found on Black-browed into two distinct panels. Bill may have an orange, not reddish, tip to the upper mandible. Juvenile and immature as Black-browed. moult aND Wear Black feathers of adult become browner with wear. Grey wash on neck and nape of juvenile and immature is either lost or becomes dirty brown. Moult not studied but probably identical to Black-browed. IDeNtIFICatIoN Adults very similar to Black-browed, only confidently separable by Campbell’s yellow eye. Juveniles and immatures not separable from Black-browed. See Black-browed for further discussion of separation of adults from that species and also for separation of young birds of both species from other immature mollymawks.

shy albatross Thalassarche cauta

Plate 6

otHer Names Shy Mollymawk. Race cauta known as Tasmanian Albatross; steadi as White-capped Albatross. taxoNomy For the shy albtrosses we have chosen to use the species originally suggested by Robertson & Nunn (1998) as modified by Brooke (2004). Generally considered polytypic with two subspecies, T. c. cauta, breeding on the islands of Tasmania, and Whitecapped Albatross T. c. steadi, breeding on the islands of New Zealand. Recent (still incomplete) work (see ? Abbott & Double 2003) has suggested that these taxa may be reproductively isolated and constitute separate species, but the difficulty of separating the taxa at sea and the lack of any formal taxonomic recommendation for such a split in these authors’ papers means we treat the two here as poorly defined subspecies. DIstrIbutIoN Nominate breeds (eggs early September–mid-October) on Albatross I., in Bass Strait, and Mewstone and Pedra Blanca, south of Tasmania. Forages near Tasmania whilst breeding. Dispersal poorly understood due to difficulty in identification but probably throughout Southern Ocean between 15–60°S. Banding recoveries from South Africa, Namibia and New Zealand. Race steadi breeds (eggs November–December) on Disappointment, Auckland Is., Bollons I., Antipodes I., with one pair on Forty-Fours, Chatham Is. Foraging range during breeding unknown but common off southern and eastern South Island, New Zealand, during summer. Disperses throughout southern oceans between 10– 65°S. Common off western South America, especially central and southern Chile, in winter; rare in South Atlantic; increasingly commonly recorded south of South Africa and in southern Indian Ocean. Birds of uncertain origin recorded recently around Amsterdam I. and St Paul I. in June and one record from the Pacific off North America. beHavIour Flies by use of dynamic soaring, wings becoming more curved in rough weather. Gregarious at sea, often in large numbers behind trawlers and fishing boats. Readily attracted to chum. JIZZ Large, heavily-built albatross with long, broad wings and massive bill. A single bird in silhouette can easily be mistaken for a great albatross. sIZe TL 90–100cm; W 53–62cm; WS 210–260cm; WT 2.6–5.3kg. Largest mollymawk, intermediate in size

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between great albatrosses and the smaller mollymawks. On average female smaller than male in all measurements. T. c. steadi averages larger than the nominate in most measurements, but weights overlap considerably and only males are consistently heavier. PlumaGe Black-and-white albatross with black upperwings and tail, paler greyish-black back and white underparts and underwings. Underwing the whitest of all mollymawks with all ages having only narrow black leading edge and tip and very narrow trailing edge. Small black round patch, or ‘thumb mark’, where front of underwing meets body; black wing-tip relatively small compared to other ‘shy’ albatrosses, with large amounts of white visible on bases of primaries. Striking narrow line of bright orange skin at base of bill, especially on sides of upper mandible and along gape, visible when feeding. When birds agitated this orange gape line is visible under the white cheek feathers. Legs and feet fleshy blue-grey, becoming reddish on land during breeding season due to vascular dilation. Adults, juveniles and immatures differ only in head and bill colour. Adult Head white with silvery-grey wash on ears extending to below eye and sides of face, sometimes as far as crown but never on forehead and throat. This grey wash is always present but in strong light may be difficult to see. Dark eye highlighted by prominent black eyebrow that begins at eye and extends in a narrow triangle nearly to bill. Sides of bill horn-coloured with bright yellow tip to upper mandible. The only difference between the two subspecies said to be colour of bill: New Zealand birds said to have fairly uniformly horn-coloured bill with less intense yellow tip to upper mandible; Tasmanian birds have a pale yellow dorsal plate which is especially intensely coloured near base and yellowish cutting edge to upper mandible. Some adults of both subspecies may have a darker, smudgy tip to the lower mandible, usually considered a feature of immatures. Juvenile At fledging head, nape sides of neck and lower throat pale grey extending onto crown and forehead, resulting in collared, hooded appearance. Grey on forehead and sides of neck wears off rapidly and becomes mottled and ill-defined but always has more grey than adult. Dark tip to underside of wing often slightly more extensive than adult, but bases of primaries rarely as dark as Salvin’s or Chatham Islands Albatrosses. Bill at fledging varies; usually virtually black with even darker tip to upper and lower mandible, but others are lighter brown with smudgy black tip. Immature Maturation a process of gradual lightening of the grey on the head and development of colour on the bill. Greyish-horn bill colour develops in patches during 3rd or 4th year, though tips of both mandibles remain black until almost adult. moult aND Wear Grey on head becomes less prominent with wear in birds of all ages. Moult poorly understood but appears to be similar to great albatrosses with a biennial moult of primaries, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during breeding season and body moult may begin during chick-rearing. IDeNtIFICatIoN Shy easily separated from all other mollymawks by considerably greater size, mostly white head and underwing and paler grey, not black, back. Separated from wandering and royal albatrosses by smaller size, grey (not white or mottled) back and grey (not pink) bill. Adult Shy distinguished from Salvin’s and Chatham Islands Albatrosses by pale bill, lacking dark tip (though note exceptions), and white head. Features useful at all ages are slightly larger size (quite distinctive with experience) and whiter bases to primaries, resulting in smaller dark tip to underwing. Shy is more likely to have a gap in the narrow dark leading edge to the underwing just above the ‘thumb mark’, and less likely to have grey of back extending far down onto rump. In some lights even adult Shy may appear dark headed, and tip of underwing should always be used in conjunction with head coloration to clinch identification. Probably only possible to distinguish between adult breeding nominate and steadi, and then only by direct comparison at close quarters, an unlikely event as foraging ranges of breeding birds do not appear to overlap. On average nominate has a smaller bill and body and during courtship most have yellow wash at the base of the bill, especially on the dorsal surface. Fewer breeding nominate have any dusky tip to the lower mandible. Non-breeding, immatures and juveniles of two subspecies indeterminable at sea.

Chatham Islands albatross Thalassarche eremita

Plate 6

otHer Name Chatham Islands Mollymawk taxoNomy Status of Salvin’s and Chatham Islands Albatrosses periodically alters based on taxonomic trends.

Sometimes considered a subspecies of Shy Albatross. Given the differences in biology and recent molecular work, we have chosen to treat these taxa as separate species following Brooke (2004). DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic (eggs August–September), migrating to Chilean and Peruvian waters in austral winter. Sole breeding ground is The Pyramid (Chatham Is.). Adults seen ashore on Albatross I., Tasmania and unsuccessful breeding attempt on the western chain of Snares Is. During breeding mainly forage between 38–48°S in waters south and east of the Chatham Is. but may travel as far west as Tasmania and are increasingly commonly seen in New Zealand off Kaikoura and rarely in outer Hauraki Gulf. Majority of population winter in mixing zone between the Humbolt Current and the Magellanic Current off central

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eastern Chile but may be seen as far north as southern Peru. Two recent South African records suggest some wintering birds may return to the Chatham Is. via the Indian Ocean. beHavIour Flies using dynamic soaring; wings becoming more curved in rough weather. Not overly gregarious at sea except around The Pyramid breeding site and rarely seen around fishing boats on Chatham Rise, probably due to competition with commoner, slightly larger, more aggressive Salvin’s Albatross. ? ? JIZZ Medium-sized ‘shy’ albatross with long, broad wings, short thick neck and comparatively short tail. Bill large but not as proportionately massive as that of a great albatross; feet may extend beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 90cm; W 54–59cm; WS 220cm; WT 3.1–4.7kg. Slightly smaller in all measurements than other ‘shy’ albatrosses but significantly larger than all other mollymawks. Female generally smaller than male, especially in bill measurements. PlumaGe Dark-headed mollymawk with strongly contrasting white underparts. Underwing similar to other ‘shy’ albatrosses. ‘Thumb mark’ present at junction of forewing and flanks is, like Salvin’s, smaller than Shy. Relatively broad dark wing-tip, the outer two-thirds of each primary dark with little of the paler bases showing. Legs and feet fleshy blue-grey. Adult Uniform medium grey head and neck that fades only slightly between moults and whose appearance changes little with lighting, forming obvious hood that joins to dark brown-grey mantle and is cleanly demarcated from white underparts. Although dark eyebrow present, virtually impossible to see except at close quarters due to lack of contrast with dark grey hood. Bill bright yellow all over with well-defined semicircular black spot on tip of lower mandible. Striking bright orange skin at base of bill, especially on sides of upper bill and along gape, visible when feeding. When birds agitated this orange gape line is visible under the white cheek feathers. Juvenile and immature Plumage sequences poorly known. At fledging, head pale grey and scruffy looking, lacking any well-defined paler parts or collar effects; bill dark olive-brown with darker tip to both upper and lower mandible. Head becomes darker and bill yellower but details not known. Retains dark on upper mandible longer than Shy and some breed with this feature. moult aND Wear Dark hood may become paler as feathers age but grey never lost entirely, unlike other ‘shy’ albatrosses. Moult unknown, thought to be similar to Shy. IDeNtIFICatIoN Adult Chatham easily distinguished from all other mollymawks by combination of dark grey head, white underwing with thin black border and yellow bill. Around breeding site, Northern Buller’s has a similarly dark head but wider black borders to underwing and black and yellow bill. Young of both Chatham and Salvin’s separable from Shy by smaller size, darker tips to underwing and, usually, more grey on head. Separation of young Chatham and Salvin’s may not always be possible. Chatham is very slightly smaller; the dark back extends further down onto the rump as a small triangle of darker feathers; the forehead is likely to be greyish rather than white; and there is unlikely to be a break in the thin dark border to the leading edge of the underwing just above the ‘thumb mark’. At all ages Chatham is the only ‘shy’ albatross with a grey, not white, forehead.

salvin’s albatross Thalassarche salvini

Plate 6

otHer Name Salvin’s Mollymawk taxoNomy Sometimes considered a subspecies of Shy Albatross. Given differences in biology and recent

molecular work we have chosen to treat these taxa as separate species following Brooke (2004).

DIstrIbutIoN Majority breed on Bounties (eggs early to mid-November) with smaller numbers on western

chain of Snares Is., where they breed one month earlier; a few pairs on Crozet Is. and isolated pairs have attempted to breed on Chatham Is. and Kerguelen Is. Forages north of breeding islands. Disperses throughout southern oceans but majority appear to winter off central Chile, possibly slightly further north than Chatham Islands Albatross. Recorded in southwest Indian Ocean, east to western South America at 14–50°S, where very common, and rarely into South Atlantic. beHavIour Flies by use of dynamic soaring; wings become more curved in rough weather. Gregarious at sea, and vast numbers seen around fishing boats on Chatham Rise. Attracted to chum at Kaikoura. JIZZ Medium-sized ‘shy’ albatross with long, broad wings, short thick neck and comparatively short tail; bill large but not as proportionately massive as that of a great albatross; feet may extend beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 90cm; W 55–60cm; WS 250cm, WT 3.3–4.9kg. Averages larger than Shy Albatross in most mea-

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surements. Slightly larger than Chatham Islands Albatross but not significantly so. On average female smaller than male in most measurements. PlumaGe Grey-headed mollymawk with contrasting white underparts. Underwing similar to other ‘shy’ albatrosses. ‘Thumb mark’ at junction of forewing and flanks is smaller than on Shy. Relatively broad dark tip to underwing, the outer two-thirds of each primary dark with little of the paler bases showing, like Chatham. Legs and feet fleshy blue-grey. ? Adult Medium-grey head and neck, forming an obvious hood merging into darker brown-grey mantle. Hood variable due to extent of white on forehead and demarcation of grey neck from white underparts. Head looks paler in bright sunlight. Black triangular eyebrow typical of ‘shy’ albatrosses, broader in front of eye. Bill dirty olive-grey with dull yellow on dorsal surface and along lower edge of lower mandible. Semicircular dark mark always present on tip of lower mandible, and in virtually all adults there is a smudge of black on the curved bill tip of the upper mandible. Striking narrow line of bright orange skin at base of bill, especially on sides of upper mandible and along gape, visible when feeding. When birds agitated this orange gape line is visible under the white cheek feathers. Juvenile Plumage sequences poorly known. At fledging, head smudgy grey with scruffy collar generally extending onto breast and dark sooty-brown bill with dark tip to both upper and lower mandibles. Head becomes darker and dorsal surface of bill yellower but details not fully known. At all ages bill generally darker than that of Shy of similar age with more conspicuous black tip formed by black marking on both mandibles. Darkness of grey wash on head varies individually and with plumage wear, usually becoming paler and slightly patchy, but still covering all of head except for white forehead, most of neck and upper throat and in many cases forming a darker half-collar. moult aND Wear Hood may become paler as feathers age but grey never lost entirely. Moult unknown but thought to be similar to Shy. IDeNtIFICatIoN Adult easily separable from all mollymawks except immature Shy Albatross by combination of pale grey head with white forehead, white underwing with thin black border and pale, olive-grey bill with dark tip. Some immature Shy can have similar grey wash on head and pale grey bill with dark tip from which Salvin’s best distinguished by darker bases to primaries on tip of underwing and smaller size. Separation of young Salvin’s from Chatham not always possible. See Chatham Islands Albatross for discussion of differences.

Grey-headed albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma

Plates 8, 9

otHer Name Grey-headed Mollymawk taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar species of high latitude

southern oceans. Breeds (biennially with eggs in late September–October) on Diego Ramirez and Ildefonso in southern Chile, South Georgia, Prince Edward I., Marion I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Macquarie I. and Campbell I. Forages south of breeding islands during breeding season, when rarely seen north of South Polar Front. Disperses north in winter, rarely north of 45°S except off Chile where in cold water of Humboldt Current occasionally reaches 15°S off Peru. Immatures likely to range further north. Single record from Tahiti. beHavIour Flies by use of dynamic soaring; wings become more curved in rough weather. Shy at sea; rarely seen around fishing boats, probably due to competition with other commoner, slightly larger mollymawks. JIZZ Medium-sized mollymawk with comparatively long narrow wings, short tail and short neck. Wing differs from Black-browed in having shorter and slimmer outer wing. Grey-headed has less steep forehead and shorter and stockier neck than Black-browed and in flight bill seems to face downward more than Black-browed. sIZe TL 70–85cm; W 48–55cm; WS 220cm; WT 2.6–4.35kg. Smaller bodied than ‘shy’ albatrosses but wing a similar length. Similar size to Black-browed, slightly larger than Buller’s, though rarely noticeably so at sea. Noticeably larger than both species of yellow-nosed. Female averages smaller than male in most measurements.

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PlumaGe Black-and-white mollymawk with grey hood; underwing dark at fledging, lightening with age, similar

to Black-browed; eye brown with white lower eyelid; legs and feet flesh-coloured. Adult Hood grey, sharply demarcated from white underparts with marginally paler forehead and crown, small black triangle in front of eye and white ‘teardrop’ behind and below eye. Back, mantle and upperwing uniformly black-brown, merging with hood. White shafts to outer primaries show on upperwing. Rump and uppertail-coverts white, contrasting with dark grey tail which also has cream or white feather shafts. Underwing with white central panel framed by broad black leading edge with diffuse streaked pattern on greater primary-coverts and elbow region, large dark wing-tip and narrow black trailing edge similar to Black-browed. Bill glossy black with yellow dorsal surface and narrow yellow line three-quarters of way along base on lower edge of lower mandible. Reddish tinge to hook of upper mandible most noticeable in breeding season. Juvenile Hood paler than adult, usually with whitish cheeks; eyebrow smaller and less conspicuous; and white tear drop behind eye indistinct in paler face. Underwing mostly black, with slightly paler grey central panel to inner wing. Bill dark blackish-grey with dark tip Immature Head paler and scruffier than adult, often with face, forehead and crown wearing to white, but hindneck darker with mixture of brown and grey feathers extending as collar to throat and upper neck to form a pattern similar to immature and juvenile Black-browed. Underwing gradually lightens to adult pattern. Bill darkens with age apparently rather variably. In some, tip becomes pale first, followed by dorsal surface of bill and finally narrow yellow line along base of lower mandible. In others, dorsal surface and base of line on lower mandible lighten first and tip remains dark. Intermediates between white-faced immature and dark-hooded adult have not been recorded, suggesting moult into adult head pattern happens rapidly. moult aND Wear With wear grey hood of adult becomes paler, especially on face. As biennial breeder moult similar to wandering albatrosses, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during breeding season and body moult assumed to be more extensive during sabbatical years. IDeNtIFICatIoN With experience, stocky, narrow-winged jizz distinctive, even at distance. Adult combination of black, yellow-striped bill, grey hood and broad dark borders to underwing different from all other mollymawks. Young birds separable from similar-sized Buller’s and the two yellow-nosed, and larger Shy, Salvin’s and Chatham Islands Albatrosses by dark underwing. However, immature and juvenile difficult to distinguish from similar-aged Black-browed and Campbell, which have similar dark underwings, dusky bill and scruffy greyish markings on head and neck. At fledging, Grey-headed tends to have a darker grey head than Black-browed and Campbell, with white cheeks. Older 2nd- or 3rd-year birds with some white on underwing, dusky collar and dull bill with dark tips are the most difficult to identify. Moult can help but is complicated. For example, birds with three outer primaries freshly moulted (and black) contrasting with the brown inner primaries are probably Grey-headed as Black-browed and Campbell moult all flight feathers annually. Grey-headed tends to have darker, broader collar and darker bill, while Black-browed and Campbell are paler-headed and start to attain an orange tinge to bill earlier. Older birds with more white in underwing tend to have bill approaching adult colours – black in Greyheaded and yellowish in Black-browed and Campbell.

atlantic yellow-nosed albatross Thalassarche chlororhynchos

Plates 8, 9

otHer Name Atlantic Yellow-nosed Mollymawk taxoNomy Formerly considered part of a polytypic species, with nominate T. c. chlororhynchos on Tristan da

Cunha and Gough replaced by T. c. carteri in the Indian Ocean. Recent molecular studies have considered this form sufficiently distinct to warrant specific status and this view followed here, following usage of Brooke (2004). DIstrIbutIoN South Atlantic. Breeds (eggs mid-September–early October) on Tristan da Cunha group and Gough I. Foraging during breeding season near breeding islands or to shelf off western coast of South Africa. Some disperse north to 15°S off West Africa, others west to east coast of South America, where common along coast of Uruguay and Argentina to 45°S. Second commonest vagrant albatross in North Atlantic after Blackbrowed, reaching Canada, USA, Norway and Bay of Biscay. Occasionally found in Indian Ocean and Australasia. Single record of a bird ashore on Chatham Is., New Zealand. beHavIour Gregarious in vicinity of breeding islands and may follow ships but shy and less likely to forage behind fishing boats due to competition from larger albatrosses. Frequently seen foraging amongst shearwaters and cetaceans. JIZZ Small, slender albatross with slender neck, small square head, slim body, long narrow bill and narrow pointed wings. sIZe TL 71–82cm; W 45–52cm; WS 180-200cm; WT 1.87–2.84kg. Marginally larger than Indian Yellow-nosed but not obviously so at sea. The yellow-nosed albatrosses are the smallest southern albatrosses in all dimensions and weight. Female probably smaller than male in most measurements.

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PlumaGe Black-and-white mollymawk with underwing pattern that does not vary with age. Legs and feet pale pinkish bluish-grey. Adult Ear-coverts, sides of crown, feathers around bill and nape washed with pale grey, whiter on forehead and throat. Grey may extend onto lower neck, especially when freshly moulted. Large dark eyebrow and triangular eye patch in front of eye with white ‘teardrop’ just behind and below eye. ? Underwing white, bordered by the narrowest of dark trailing edges, narrow black leading edge that is relatively clearly defined but may be smudgy on inner wing, and comparatively large, black wingtip. Bill glossy black with narrow bright yellow dorsal surface, rounded demarcation where bill plate meets feathering and prominent orange-red tip. Juvenile Similar to adult but head white, only rarely having dirty grey collar typical of other immature mollymawks. Dark eye patch much smaller than that of adult, often barely distinguishable from dark eye. Bill entirely black for first year. Underwing much like adult’s but may have more dusky smudging on elbow and along leading edge of inner wing. Immature Grey on head more extensive than on juvenile but still patchier and scruffier than adult. Eye patch becomes larger. Dorsal surface of bill becomes dull brownish-yellow, then creamy; tip of bill becomes yellow but often dark subterminally; adult plumage acquired before adult bill colour. moult aND Wear Black wings become browner with wear and grey wash on head of adults fainter, though rarely lost entirely. Moult unknown but thought to be similar to other mollymawks that breed annually. IDeNtIFICatIoN Adults and young of the two yellow-nosed albatrosses are relatively easy to tell from other small mollymawks but can be very difficult to tell from each other. Small, slim jizz with small head, longish neck and slim-looking bill often distinctive enough to separate both species of yellow-nosed from all other Thalassarche, even at a distance. Adult Atlantic with pale grey hood most likely to be confused with Buller’s, Grey-headed or Salvin’s. Best separated by slender build, combined with distinctly clear-cut black leading edge to white underwing, narrower than Buller’s but broader than Salvin’s. Adults of both species have black bill with only one yellow stripe (along the top), whilst Buller’s and Grey-headed have yellow stripes on lower mandibles as well. Young birds of both species are usually separable from young of other small mollymawks by combination of white underwing with narrow dark border, white head and black bill. Adult Atlantic separable from Indian Yellow-nosed by greyer head and larger black eye patch. The shape of the base of the yellow stripe on the top of the bill tends to be more rounded in Atlantic than Indian but this does not appear to be a reliable identification feature. Juvenile and immatures of both species have white head, black bill and small dark eye patches and are inseparable. At a distance, when details of the bill cannot be seen, white-headed adult Indian birds are inseparable from young of both species.

Indian yellow-nosed albatross Thalassarche carteri

Plates 8, 9

otHer Name Indian Yellow-nosed Mollymawk taxoNomy For discussion see Atlantic Yellow-nosed.

Some authors argue that T. bassi should be used instead of T. carteri, but T. carteri used here based on taxonomic precedence. DIstrIbutIoN Southeast Indian Ocean. Breeds (eggs mid-September–early October) on Prince Edward I., Crozet Is., Amsterdam I., St Paul I. and Kerguelen Is. One pair recently found to breed in Pacific on ? Chatham Is., New Zealand. Forage during breeding season near breeding islands and disperse during winter into warmer waters north and east throughout southern oceans. Outside breeding season abundant off south and east coasts of South Africa, common off western and southeast Australia and occasional off eastern New Zealand. beHavIour Gregarious in vicinity of breeding islands and may follow ships but shy and less likely to forage behind fishing boats due to competition from larger albatrosses.

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JIZZ Small, slender mollymawk with slender neck, small square head, slim body, long narrow bill and narrow pointed wings. sIZe TL 200cm; W 45–50cm; WS 176cm; WT 1.75–2.93kg. May average smaller than Atlantic Yellow-nosed, but data limited. PlumaGe All ages similar to Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross. Adult Head mostly white, any grey wash confined to cheeks, dark eye-patch small. Juvenile and immature Similar to Atlantic; head white, dark eye-patch very small; bill black at fledging, becoming yellow on top over 3 to 5 years. moult aND Wear Dark back and wings may become browner as feathers age. Moult unknown but thought to be similar to other mollymawks that breed annually. IDeNtIFICatIoN Adults and young of the two species of yellow-nosed albatross are relatively easy to tell from other small mollymawks but can be very difficult to tell from each other. Small, slim jizz with small head, longish neck and slim-looking bill often distinctive enough to separate both species of yellow-nosed from all other Thalassarche even at a distance. Adult Indian with whiter head most likely to be confused with Black-browed and Campbell. Best separated by slender build, combined with narrow dark border to white underwing. Adults of both species have black bill with only one yellow stripe (along the top), whilst Buller’s and Grey-headed have yellow stripes on lower mandible as well. Young birds of both species are usually separable from young of other small mollymawks by combination of white underwing with narrow dark border, white head and black bill. Adult Indian usually separable from Atlantic Yellow-nosed but young birds almost identical. See Atlantic Yellownosed for discussion of differences.

buller’s albatross Thalassarche bulleri otHer Name Buller’s Mollymawk taxoNomy Two subspecies: Southern Buller’s T. b.

Plates 8, 9

bulleri and Northern Buller’s T. b. ssp. nov. (not platei). The epithet platei was first applied to an immature bulleri and thus the two are synonymous, with platei being junior, leaving the northern taxon currently unnamed. Recent molecular studies have suggested these forms may be sufficiently distinct to warrant specific status. However, the lack of distinctive field characters to separate populations and the lack of convincing biological data do not convince us to treat the two separately. Thus we follow the usage of Brooke (2004) and retain them as subspecies. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic. T. b. bulleri breeds (eggs late December–late February) on Snares Is. and Solander I., around Stewart Is. T. b. ssp. nov. breeds (eggs late October–late November) on Sisters and Forty-Fours in Chatham Is., and 15 pairs recently found on Three Kings Is., north of New Zealand. Pelagic in subtropical and subantarctic south Pacific. Northern Buller’s apparently comparatively sedentary, although some disperse across the southern Tasman Sea, whilst Southern disperses eastwards across the south Pacific towards South America. Recorded in the South Atlantic in Falklands and recently off South Africa. beHavIour Will follow ships and regularly feeds around fishing boats. JIZZ Smaller, slightly built mollymawk with relatively slim bill. sIZe TL 76–81cm; W 49–54cm; WS 200–213cm; WT 2.05–3.35kg. Northern averages slightly smaller than Southern in most measurements and weight. Female generally smaller than male in most measurements. PlumaGe Black-and-white mollymawk with grey hood. Underwing pattern does not vary with age, being predominantly white with broad, black leading edge, widest near body, narrower dark trailing edge and large dark wing-tip. Legs and feet pale pinkish bluish-grey. Adult Hood varies between subspecies. Medium-grey in Northern and pale grey in Southern with whiter forehead and front of crown less prominent in Northern and more so in Southern. Eye patch and eyebrow black, similar to other mollymawks. Adult has the yellowest bicoloured bill of the mollymawks: mainly glossy black with wide, bright yellow dorsal plate to upper mandible and broad yellow base to lower mandible nearly reaching the tip. Base of tip of the lower mandible yellow in adult separated from rest of yellow along the base of the lower mandible by yellow-black smudge. Juvenile Similar to adult, but hood duller with mainly whitish crown, throat and upper neck, generally with grey-brown collar that reaches mantle and contrasts with white breast; eyebrow smaller and smudgy. Bill pale greyish-yellow with prominent black semicircular marks on tips of both mandibles and dark marks around

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nostrils. Underwing as adult but may have slightly more smudgy black, especially on outer wing. With wear grey hood becomes whiter, especially on crown and face, until almost white-headed. Immature Not well known. Likely to be similar to juvenile but grey hood closer to adult in colour and uniformity, and any collar less pronounced. Like juvenile, wear makes crown and face whiter thus making collar more prominent. Bill slowly becomes darker on sides, and pale yellowish-brown dorsal surface to upper mandible develops first. Yellow line at base of lower mandible last colour to show, usually in fifth year. moult aND Wear Dark back and wings may become browner as feathers age and grey hood may fade slightly. Moult poorly described but thought to be similar to other annually breeding mollymawks. IDeNtIFICatIoN Only adults of two subspecies separable at sea, and then only if seen well. Adult Northern has dark grey hood and indistinct white forehead, compared with medium bluish-grey hood and white cap of Southern. Darker head of Northern most prominent on lores at base of bill, where some appear sooty-grey. Separation of worn birds is difficult and only birds in fresh plumage regularly separable. Some cannot be identified in the hand. Measurements indicate that Northern has deeper bill and, in most, the yellow stripe on lower mandible is narrower. Variation in plumages makes separation of young impossible. Adult Buller’s may be confused with other grey-headed mollymawks, especially Grey-headed which has similar bill pattern and is best told from all by underwing pattern; white with broader, tidy, dark leading edge and narrow trailing edge. Grey-headed has shorter neck and tail and deeper bill than Buller’s with much broader, scruffier dark leading edge to underwing. Close up sitting on the water, Buller’s has wider yellow stripes on bill, especially at base of top. Immature Grey-headed, Black-browed and Campbell provide the greatest challenge but all have dark or partially dark underwings; Buller’s underwings are neatly white with black border at all ages. Most are also separable, with experience, using the distinctive jizz of each species. However, remember that juveniles can look slimmer and less typical than adults of the same species. However, when sitting on the sea there are very few features to distinguish them although shape and colour of bill and pattern of grey on head and collar can help. Buller’s bill looks relatively long and thin and is never completely black but mostly dull greyishyellow with darker tip. Black-browed and Campbell usually have much whiter head than Buller’s and Greyheaded, often developing white cheeks on otherwise scruffy grey head. All three, however, can have a varied array of dusky collars. A feature that has been mentioned is that juvenile Buller’s may have distinctive pale, scaly fringes to scapulars and inner upperwing-coverts, but this feature may simply be true of the fresh plumage of any newly fledged mollymawk and we recommend that more study is needed before relying on this. Some ages of Shy, Salvin’s and Chatham Islands Albatrosses can appear to have bicolored bills and have scruffy dark hoods like immature Buller’s but are distinctly larger and longer-winged than Buller’s and have much narrower dark borders to underwings. Both yellow-nosed are noticeably smaller, more lightly built and slimmer-billed, with whiter heads and narrower, dark borders to leading edges of underwings.

sooty albatrosses

These two dark albatrosses comprise the genus Phoebetria.

sooty albatross Phoebetria fusca

Plate 10

taxoNomy Monotypic. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences have suggested that Atlantic and Indian Ocean populations may be cryptic species (Robertson & Nunn 1998). However, without corroborating evidence from biology or morphology any change in taxonomy is unlikely. Here we follow Brooke (2004). DIstrIbutIoN Generally warmer subantarctic waters of South Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Breeds (biennially, eggs July–August) with majority of population on Tristan da Cunha group and Gough I., Prince Edward Is. and Marion I. and smaller numbers on Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Amsterdam I. and St Paul I. Forages during breeding season south of 33°S, travelling up to 1,200km; rare on shelf or shelf break waters and commonest along Subantarctic Convergence. Disperses westward to continental waters of eastern South America and eastward to Australian waters, where commoner than Lightmantled Sooty in winter. Individuals recorded on Antipodes I. and Macquarie I., and vagrants recorded 64°S in south-west Indian Ocean, at Cape Horn, and around Mauritius, Réunion and New Zealand. beHavIour Solitary, though occasionally in small groups and occasionally with other albatrosses, shearwaters and terns. Also associates with cetaceans. Rarely attracted to boats or fishing vessels. When courting, pairs fly around

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cliffs of breeding islands, and sometimes at sea, in astonishing tight formation, inches away from one another. JIZZ Medium-sized albatross with small, slender body, long, narrow wings and long, pointed, wedge-shaped tail. Along with Light-mantled, most accomplished and manoeuvrable fliers of all the albatrosses; flight effortless, rarely flapping wings. sIZe TL 84–89cm; W 49–54cm; WS 203–207cm; WT 1.8–3.03kg. Sooty smaller than Light-mantled in most measurements. Similar size and wingspan to giant petrels but considerably lighter. PlumaGe Uniform sooty-brown albatross. Eye brown; legs and feet greyish-flesh, sometimes with blue shade. Adult Dark chocolate-brown with uniform dark-greyish wash in fresh plumage and sides of face and ear slightly darker but never contrasting strongly with back and underparts like Light-mantled. In strong light, contrast enhanced, but in cloudy conditions or at any distance appears uniformly dark. In very worn plumage slightly paler areas – especially nape to upper mantle – may be bleached paler and browner. Partial white eyering, broken only in front. Conspicuous straw-white shafts to outer primaries and tail feathers, visible even at distance. Bill black with narrow orange ‘racing-stripe’ along sides of lower mandible (sulcus). Juvenile and immature Similar to adult, but, when fresh, feathers of nape and mantle have ghostly pale edging resulting in a dappled effect. Bill, including sulcus, entirely grey-black; eye-ring pale brown or grey; and shafts of outer primaries and tail brown. Due to pale feather bases, some immatures in heavily worn plumage have distinct paler collar from nape onto neck-sides which may extend to upper mantle. Sulcus gradually lightens, becoming orange by 5th year. moult aND Wear Fresh dark brown feathers fade to chocolate-brown. Heavily worn immatures may have distinct paler collar. Moult poorly documented but probably similar to other species that breed biennially, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during breeding season and body moult assumed to be more extensive during sabbatical years. IDeNtIFICatIoN In most cases easily distinguished from Light-mantled by dark, not light, grey body. See Lightmantled for further discussion. May be confused with immature giant petrels, which are also uniformly dark. However, Sooty Albatross is dark-billed and considerably less heavy with long, narrow wings, whilst giant petrels have massive pale bill, massive bodies, and are bull-necked with short tails. In light winds giant petrels have flapping flight typical of petrels and in strong winds, although they soar, giant petrels’s flight never appears as effortless as Sooty Albatross.

light-mantled albatross Phoebetria palpebrata otHer Name Light-mantled Sooty Albatross taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in southern oceans,

Plate 10

mostly in Antarctic and subantarctic waters close to Antarctic Convergence. Breeding (biennially, eggs September–October) on South Georgia, Prince Edward Is., Marion I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard I. and McDonald I., Macquarie I., Auckland Is., Campbell I. and Antipodes I., with largest numbers on South Georgia, Kerguelen Is. and Auckland Is. During breeding season forages great distances, often to edge of Antarctic pack ice. Dispersal generally south of 35°S and usually more southerly than Sooty. Regular off Australia and Tasmania, rare off South Africa and South Island, New Zealand, but frequent to 20°S in Humboldt Current off Chile. Recorded as far north as 12°S off Brazil, also Rodrigues I. and Marquesas Is. and once to California. beHavIour Similar to Sooty Albatross. More often seen following ships but rare behind fishing vessels. Courting pairs fly around cliffs of breeding islands, and sometimes at sea, in astonishing tight formation, inches away from one another. JIZZ Medium-sized albatross with small slender body, long narrow wings and long, pointed, wedge-shaped tail. Most accomplished and manoeuvrable flier of all albatrosses; flight effortless, rarely flapping wings. sIZe TL 78–90cm; W 48–57cm; WS 180–220cm; WT 2.5–3.7kg. Light-mantled larger than Sooty in most measurements. Similar size and wingspan to giant petrel but considerably lighter. PlumaGe Sooty-brown albatross with grey body; legs and feet greyish-flesh, sometimes with blue shade; eye brown. Adult Head, nape and upper neck blackish sooty-brown. Uppertail black. Hindneck, mantle, back and rump ashy-grey, palest on mantle and back; feathers edged with brown on lower back, rump and uppertail-coverts. Underparts pale brown-grey. Tones vary with light, e.g. close by, especially in strong light, contrast between paler and darker areas more obvious, whereas in cloudy conditions or at a distance can appear darker and

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more uniform, with paler parts difficult to pick out. Individuals vary; some are slightly darker, tinged browner and less contrasting. As plumage wears, pale areas, especially nape and neck to mantle, bleach paler and buffer. Upperwing dark slate-brown, primaries darker, outer primaries and tail with straw-white shaft. White eye-ring broken only in front of eye. Posterior part of eye-ring broad and noticeable at moderate distances. Bill black, with bluish sulcus on sides of lower mandible. Juvenile and immature Similar to adult, but some juveniles have darker, scalloped markings on back. Bill, including sulcus, entirely grey-black; eye-ring pale brown or grey; and shafts of outer primaries and tail brown. As feathers have pale bases, some heavily worn immatures may have paler collar from nape onto neck-sides but never as extensive or as obvious as Sooty Albatross. Sulcus gradually lightens, becoming blue by 5th year moult aND Wear Fresh dark brown feathers fade to chocolate-brown. Some birds in very worn plumage can have a dark ‘bandit’ face mask, paler throat, nape and crown. Moult poorly documented but probably similar to other species that breed biennially, alternating moult of outer primaries one year with inner primaries the following year. Moult continues during breeding season, and body moult assumed to be more extensive during non-breeding years. IDeNtIFICatIoN Given good views and in duller light easily separated from Sooty Albatross by contrast between pale body and dark head and wings. In strong light, contrast between body and wings may be difficult to judge but jizz often useful. Sooty Albatross has shorter, thinner looking wings and flatter forehead than Light-mantled. In flight Sooty looks more angular, even reptilian. Close up, colour of sulcus diagnostic but difficult to see and only present in full adults. A few immature or moulting Sooty Albatross have paler, scruffy collars but even the palest-collared Sooty has a darker back than Light-mantled, and even the scruffiest Light-mantled has a paler back and underparts than Sooty. May be confused with giant petrels, which can look similar in some plumages. Light-mantled is dark-billed and considerably less heavy with long, narrow wings whilst giant petrels have massive pale bill, massive bodies, and are bull-necked with short tails. In light winds giant petrels have flapping flight typical of petrels and in strong winds, although they soar, giant petrels never appear as effortless as Light-mantled.

FulmarINe Petrels The two species of giant petrels, along with the Northern Fulmar and seven species of petrels from the Southern Hemisphere, form this distinctive high-latitude group, which is believed to be most closely related to the albatrosses. They are distinguished from all other petrels by their prominent nostrils, most noticeable in the giant petrels. In general they are stocky with long narrow wings and tails and large bills. The exact relationship of the snow petrels is debatable and it is possible they are more closely related to the Kerguelen Petrel. Blue Petrel is included in this group but some studies suggest it is more closely related to prions.

southern Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus

Plate 11

taxoNomy Monotypic. Population breeding on Gough I. appears to be of hybrid origin with features of both Southern and Northern species. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar cold-water species of southern oceans and Antarctic. Breeds (eggs August– October) on the Antarctic Peninsula, ice-free areas of the Antarctic coast (Adelie Land, Windmill Is. and Enderby Land), islands of southern Chile, Falklands, South Georgia, South Sandwich Is., South Orkney Is., South Shetland Is., Bouvetoya I. (?), Prince Edward Is., Marion I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard I. and Macquarie I. Breeding adults do not travel far. Disperses widely south of equator, as far north as 20°S in winter. Most banding recoveries of Indian Ocean breeding birds have been in Australia and New Zealand. Two records from Northern Hemisphere (France and Hawaii). beHavIour Usually feeds alone or in small groups but may form large flocks behind fishing boats. Readily attracted to anything thrown from a boat. Often follows ships for offal. Forages on corpses of elephant seals, defending them from other giant petrels with wings held out. May climb right into corpses, coming out covered in gore from head to toe. Hunts for weak chicks in penguin colonies, killing more than they can eat. Common on beaches in subantarctic but never come ashore in temperate areas in winter.

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JIZZ Massive, barrel-bodied, albatross-sized petrel, with protruding neck and humpbacked appearance, relatively short tail and narrow pointed wings. Huge, bulbous bill with remarkable single nostril tube. Typically flies with stiff wings. sIZe TL 85–100cm; W 46.0–57.7cm; WS 150–210cm; WT 3.8–5.0kg. Larger and heavier than Northern Giant Petrel. Female smaller in most measurements and weight. PlumaGe Polymorphic: albino, white and typical grey-brown phases. Typical phase fledges entirely dark, becoming progressively paler and more mottled over many years. Juveniles of white phases similar to adults. Eye generally dark but with paler iris (similar to Northern) in some adults. Bill yellowish-horn with greenish tip. Legs and feet dull flesh-grey. Hybrid population on Gough I. apparently has similar plumage to Northern except for greenish bill tip. Typical phase adult Mainly mottled grey-brown with paler, almost white throat, face, nape, forehead and crown, resulting in a white-headed appearance contrasting with darker underparts. Diagnostic white leading edge to inner upper- and underwing. Incorrectly assumed to be variable due to lack of knowledge of plumage differences with age and sex. Full adult plumage may not be attained until as late as 13th year; males of similar age are considerably whiter than females. Juvenile Uniformly glossy grey-black but with wear and sun-bleaching quickly becomes brown; bill palehorn or pinkish-yellow, with indistinct pale green tip. A few birds have bill entirely pinkish-yellow, lacking greenish tip. Eye dark and legs mainly grey. Immature With each moult slowly becomes a paler, heavily mottled grey-brown. Becomes especially paler around head, commencing on face and throat. Often breeds in immature plumage. White phase Uncommon (10% of birds fledged on Macquarie I.). Entirely white with exception of a few scattered dark brown feathers on body, wing and, rarely, flight feathers; juvenile and immature indistinguishable from adult except for those adults with paler eyes. Albino Very rare (c. 1% of birds fledged on Macquarie I.) and possibly fatal as only immatures are known. All-white with uniform pink bill and pink legs and feet. moult aND Wear Body moult prolonged; all plumages can look heavily mottled with worn brown and fresh grey feathers. Adults begin wing moult while raising chicks. Moult rapid after leaving breeding grounds with some individuals having only 2–3 outer primaries during July. IDeNtIFICatIoN Size and jizz, especially huge bill, usually identifies birds as one of the giant petrels. White and albino phases unmistakable though could possibly be confused with extremely white adult male Snowy or Southern Royal Albatross, both of which have broad, dark trailing edge to upperwing. Separation of all but a few juvenile Southern from Northern simple if colour of tip of bill is seen: Southern is greenish, Northern reddish. The bill-tip of a few young birds, especially those just fledged, can lack any greenish tinge and they may not be separable from Northerns. The contrast between Northern’s pink bill and dusky, red bill-tip is visible at surprisingly long range compared with Southern’s greenish bill-tip. At a distance, when bill details cannot be seen, adult Southern has a white head, mottled belly and white leading edge to inner upperwing and underwing whereas Northern retains darker cap to head but has a paler belly. Younger Southern just developing white face may not be separable from Northern until it develops white leading edge to inner upperwing and underwing in 3rd or 4th year. For separation from sooty albatrosses see those species.

Northern Giant Petrel Macronectes halli taxoNomy Monotypic. Population breeding on

Plate 11

Gough I. appears to be of hybrid origin with features of both Southern and Northern species. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar throughout temperate waters of southern oceans. Breeding (eggs August– September) on South Georgia, Prince Edward Is., Marion I., Crozet I., Kerguelen Is., Macquarie I., Auckland Is., Campbell I., Antipodes I. and islands off Stewart I. (where may no longer breed) and FortyFours and Sisters in Chatham Is. Forages farther from breeding islands than Southern with those on Chatham Is. reaching the New Zealand coast. Disperses mainly north through subantarctic and subtropics with most from Indian Ocean populations spending winter in Australia and New Zealand and those from New Zealand going to central Chile. Vagrant to southern Brazil, Amsterdam I. and St Paul I. beHavIour More gregarious than Southern and forms large groups behind fishing boats. Readily attracted to

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anything thrown from a boat. Often follows ships for offal. Where the two species breed together Northern not commonly found feeding on seal corpses due to competition with larger, more aggressive Southern and diet seems to be more pelagic. Whilst common on beaches in subantarctic, never comes ashore in temperate areas in winter. JIZZ Massive, barrel-bodied albatross-sized petrel, with protruding neck and humpbacked appearance, relatively short tail and narrow pointed wings. Huge, bulbous bill with remarkable single nostril tube. Typically flies with stiff wings. sIZe TL 80–95cm; W 47–56cm; WS 150–210cm; WT 3.8–5.0kg. Smaller and lighter than Northern Giant Petrel. Female smaller in most measurements and weight. PlumaGe Single dark morph. Fledges entirely dark becoming progressively paler and more mottled over many years. Bill pinkish-horn with dusky-red tip. Legs and feet dull flesh-grey often with bluish tinge. Iris brown at fledging, pale yellow in many adults. Hybrid population on Gough I. apparently has similar plumage to Northern but greenish tip to bill. Adult Mottled brown crown and nape with ill-defined whitish face (especially white around bill) and throat. Feathers immediately surrounding eye often remain dark, resulting in a spectacled appearance and white throat often appears to be bordered by sooty collar. Rest of underparts mottled silvery grey-brown, paler than scruffy, grey-brown upperparts. Never has white inner leading edge to upperwing, and underwing usually relatively dark. Juvenile Uniformly glossy, grey-black but with wear and sun-bleaching, quickly becomes brown. Bill pale horn or pinkish-yellow, with indistinct red tip. Bill-tip colour usually stronger, contrasting more with rest of bill than Southern; thus if colour on bill-tip difficult to see then bird is more likely a Southern. A few birds have entirely pink bills and are therefore indistinguishable. Eye dark and legs mainly grey. Immature Similar to adult. Throat first area to become paler. Throat, face and belly become paler with successive moults, taking about 7–8 years to attain adult plumage. moult aND Wear Body moult prolonged and at all ages can look heavily mottled with worn brown and fresh grey feathers. Adults begin wing moult whilst raising chicks and once breeders leave breeding grounds moult becomes rapid with some individuals only having 2–3 outer primaries during July. IDeNtIFICatIoN Very similar to Southern Giant Petrel. Northern has dusky-reddish tip to bill, no white leading edge to inner upperwing and does not develop as white a head. See Southern for further discussion of differences. Best told from all other large petrels and albatrosses by size and jizz, and especially the massive, bulbous bill.

Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis

Plate 12

taxoNomy Three subspecies generally recognised, based on morphometrics and prevalence of colour morphs. Nominate F. g. glacialis restricted to high Arctic North Atlantic, mainly darker-plumaged with short bill; F. g. auduboni restricted to low Arctic and temperate North Atlantic with a mixture of morphs (mostly pale in the south) and intermediate to large bill; and in the Pacific, F. g. rodgersii with a wide range of colour phases. Recognition of the two Atlantic subspecies not universally accepted because of overlap in characters. DIstrIbutIoN High latitude north Pacific and North Atlantic breeder (eggs June–July) in at least 34 colonies in North America (Alaska, British Columbia, Arctic and eastern Canada) and about 20 colonies in Russia (Kuril Is., north Sea of Okhotsk, Commander Is., and Bering Sea coast north to Cape Stoletiya, Chukchi peninsula). Colonies in Arctic Atlantic (some above 80°N) include northern Greenland, Jan Mayen I., Bear I., Svalbard, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz Josef Land. Temperate colonies primarily in Iceland, Faeroes, Britain and Ireland, with small outposts on European mainland (Norway, Germany, France). Forages close to colonies during breeding season. Disperses south in winter. In Pacific most numerous north of 35–40°N but young birds especially may disperse south to Japan and Baja California. In Atlantic, disperses south to c. 34°N off north-east American coast and Bay of Biscay; stragglers south to New England and Madeira. May be found throughout year on Grand Banks off Newfoundland, Canada. beHavIour Gregarious during breeding season and a habitual ship-follower with vast numbers around trawlers. Surface feeder but will dive to shallow depth. Scavenges on carrion. Easily attracted to chum. JIZZ Medium-sized, stocky, polymorphic fulmarine petrel with typical petrel flight. Extremely high forehead, rounded wing-tips and long square tail. Flight a mixture of shallow, stiff-winged fluttering and long dynamic glides.

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sIZe TL 43–50cm; W 30–33cm; WS 101–117cm; WT 450–1,000g. Similar in size but heavier than Flesh-footed and Pink-footed Shearwaters. Smaller than larger gulls and Great Skua. PlumaGe Polymorphic petrel with dark and light plumage phases and a range of intermediates. Ratios of light to dark and intermediate morphs vary between populations. Pacific Northern Fulmars show a wider range of light and dark phases than Atlantic populations. Bill variable; mandibles yellow-grey or blue-grey; tips of both mandibles yellow; nasal tubes generally darker than rest of bill. Dark blotches common on bill, especially in darker-plumaged individuals. In dark-morph all-black bills recorded. Light morph Head and neck white, with small dark patch in front of eye visible at close range. Rest of upperparts slate-grey, tail darker in Pacific birds. Outer upperwing bordered by diffuse dark grey trailing edge with blackish outer primaries and tips of secondaries; inner primaries mostly white, forming a diagnostic pale patch contrasting with the black outer primaries. Underwing predominantly white with back tips to outer primaries and faint black trailing edge, especially to outer underwing. Dark morph Uniformly dark smoky-grey; pale wing patch absent in darkest individuals. Intermediate morphs In reality, variation is continuous from lightest to darkest morphs, yet the following system of four categories is widely used to classify Northern Fulmars in the hand and at longer range: LL (double light): Head, neck, and underparts white, except for small dark patch in front of eye; white on head may be tinged with yellow in Atlantic. L (light): Crown of head, nape, and hindneck grey, grading into grey of mantle. Breast white; remainder of underparts may be white, light grey, or flecked with grey. D (dark): Head, neck, and underparts light or medium grey; breast in most cases lighter, but never white. DD (double dark): Almost uniformly dark or very dark grey; wings almost as dark as their tips. There is little change with age but juvenile feathers can be narrowly fringed paler, especially on mantle and inner upperwing-coverts. Immatures and failed breeders moult earlier so will appear worn early to mid-summer and freshly moulted by late summer. moult aND Wear Crispness of grey and black plumage lost with wear and bleaching, black becoming brown. Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult during late chick rearing. Undergo rapid primary moult at end of breeding season which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so. IDeNtIFICatIoN At a distance, lighter morphs may be confused with grey-backed gulls, but stocky jizz and stiffwinged flapping and gliding flight close to sea surface should identify most. Darker morphs at a distance may be confused with Pink-footed or Flesh-footed Shearwaters among other species. However, should be distinguishable from all petrels at close to moderate range by jizz and stubby, yellowish bill, although this may be dark in darkest individuals. Pale window on primaries diagnostic in light and intermediate morphs.

southern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides otHer Name Antarctic Fulmar. taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar throughout colder waters

Plate 12

of Southern Ocean. Breeding (eggs early December) on Antarctic continent, Antarctic peninsula and on islands close to the continent: South Sandwich, South Orkney, South Shetland, Bouvetøya, Elephant Island, Bouvet, Balleny Island, Peter the First I. and in coastal and insular Antarctica. Forages during breeding season close to pack-ice and rarely recorded north of Antarctic Front. Disperses north after post-breeding moult as far as 30°S. Vagrant recorded as far north as Ecuador and Brazil. Increasingly common in New Zealand and South Africa but rare in Australia. beHavIour Gregarious during breeding season but vagrants at northern end of wintering range generally solitary. Surface feeder but will dive to shallow depths. Not a habitual ship-follower but curious, investigating ships and trawlers and feeding on offal and rubbish. Easily attracted to chum. JIZZ Medium-sized, stocky petrel with typical petrel flight. High forehead, rounded wing-tips and long square tail. Flight mixture of shallow, stiff-winged fluttering and long dynamic glides. During post-breeding moult may only have 2–3 primaries and becomes flightless or has to flap rapidly to fly. During this period huge congregations often seen on icebergs, sometimes with Antarctic Petrels. sIZe TL 45–50cm; W 31.5–36.0cm; WS 114–120cm; WT 700–1,000g. Largest of the smaller fulmarine petrels, approaching the size of the larger Southern Hemisphere gulls.

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PlumaGe Single gull-like colour morph. White underparts and head, and pale blue-grey upperwing and back. Outer upperwing bordered by broad black trailing edge with black outer primaries and tips of secondaries; inner primaries mostly white, contrasting strongly with the black outer primaries and forming a diagnostic pale patch on outer wing. Underwing predominantly white with black tips to outer primaries and faint black trailing edge (especially to outer underwing). Eye large and dark. Bill bicoloured, with pinkish mandibles with black tips, and nasal tubes blue-grey. Legs and feet greyish-pink. Little change with age but juvenile may have feathers narrowly fringed slightly paler, especially on mantle and inner upperwing-coverts and will appear worn early in summer. Immatures and failed breeders moult earlier, thus appearing worn in mid summer and many freshly moulted by late summer. moult aND Wear Crispness of grey and black plumage lost with wear and bleaching, black becoming brown. Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult begins during late chick rearing. Undergo rapid primary moult at end of breeding season, which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so. IDeNtIFICatIoN Similar to Northern Fulmar. Although never recorded together should be separable on bill and rump coloration. In Antarctic waters the only large, predominantly grey-and-white bird. On wintering grounds may be confused with smaller grey-backed gulls at distance, but stocky jizz, petrel-like flight and bill colour should identify most.

antarctic Petrel Thalassoica antarctica

Plate 13

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in cold waters of southern

oceans. Breeds (eggs late November) at more than 35 colonies, up to 350 km inland, on Antarctica. Whilst breeding does not travel far from colony and rarely seen far from icebergs and pack-ice zone. Disperses widely in southern oceans to Antarctic Convergence. Less prone to vagrancy than Southern Fulmar and mainly recorded as beach wreck during storms. Recorded at Bouvet, Prince Edwards, Crozets, Kerguelen and Heard Islands, South Georgia, Falklands, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand. beHavIour A bird of pack-ice and surrounding iceberg zone. Extremely gregarious during breeding season, often in tight flocks, but vagrants at northern end of wintering range generally solitary. Surface feeder but will dive to shallow depths. Not a habitual ship-follower, rarely behind trawlers and not readily attracted to chum. During post-breeding moult may only have 2–3 primaries and become flightless or have to flap rapidly to fly. During this period huge congregations often seen on icebergs sometimes with Southern Fulmar. JIZZ Medium-sized petrel with typical petrel flight. Wings long and pointed and tail long and slightly wedgeshaped compared to other fulmarine petrels. Flight a mixture of long dynamic glides and shallow, stiff-winged fluttering, but flaps wings less than Cape Petrel or fulmars. sIZe TL 40–46cm; W 29.2–33.1cm; WS 100–110cm; WT 675g. Considerably larger than Cape Petrel. Female very slightly smaller. PlumaGe Dark brown and white. Plumage varies little with age. Sexes alike. Bill olive-brown; eye brown; legs and feet flesh-grey; head, neck, back, and rump chocolate-brown. Upperwing brown except for broad white wing-bar on secondaries and inner primaries. Underparts white except for underwing with broad, dark brown leading edge and narrower trailing edge. Tail white with broad brown tip. When freshly moulted, brown back and wing feathers have pale edges, crown and face blacker, and chin may have white spots. Chocolate-brown fades to patchy lighter brown, especially on nape and hindneck, which may become white enough to form a pale collar, isolating the brown head from mantle. Throat may also become white. Juvenile plumage similar to adult in fresh plumage, but with a black bill. Immature similar to adult, but immatures and failed breeders moult earlier and appear brown and worn, with pale collars, early to mid-summer and freshly moulted by late summer. moult aND Wear Crispness of brown plumage lost with wear and bleaching, brown becoming pale or even fawn. Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch, and primary moult begins during late chick rearing. Undergo rapid primary moult at end of breeding season, which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so. IDeNtIFICatIoN Usually unmistakable but given poor views may be confused with the smaller, more roundwinged Cape Petrel. However, Antarctic has all-dark back and very different wing pattern with a clear-cut, broad, white wing-stripe, as opposed to Cape Petrel’s chequered back, rump and wings.

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Cape Petrel Daption capense

Plate 13

otHer Names Cape Pigeon, Pintado Petrel taxoNomy Two subspecies: Nominate capense, the

Antarctic Cape Petrel, breeding on coastal Antarctica and islands below Antarctic Convergence; and Snare’s Cape Petrel D. c. australe, breeding on the subantarctic islands of New Zealand and Chatham Is. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in Antarctic and subantarctic seas. Breeds (eggs November–December) on icefree coast of Antarctic mainland, Antarctic peninsula and on South Georgia, South Sandwich Is., South Shetland Is., Elephant I., South Orkney Is., Bouvetoya I., Crozet I., Kerguelen Is., Heard I., Balleny Is., Peter I., Chatham Is., Snares Is., Auckland Is., Campbell I., Antipodes I. and Bounty Is., and coastal Antarctica. As birds from Antarctic population rarely seen around pack-ice they probably travel considerable distances to feed. Disperse widely. Commonly reported as far north as 25°S and farther north in the cold waters of Benguela Current and Humboldt Current. Vagrants reported off West Africa, Vanuatu, Galápagos and southern Ecuador, St Helena, Kenya, Mauritius, Reunion and Marquesas. Northern Hemisphere records from California and Mexico. D. c. australe, which breeds in subantarctic New Zealand, is not generally the commonest of the two races in New Zealand waters, even in the summer, when non-breeding Antarctic birds are still present there. beHavIour Forages on surface, rarely diving. May surface-patter similar to storm-petrels. Vast, noisy flocks common sight behind Southern Hemisphere fishing boats in winter. Often attracted to carrion. Readily attracted to chum and oil poured on sea surface. During post breeding moult in late summer and autumn, huge congregations often seen on icebergs. JIZZ One of the most familiar southern-ocean seabirds. Pigeon-sized, round-headed, small, stocky petrel with comparatively stout short bill and round wings. Flies with rapid, shallow stiff wingbeats and short glides. Highly manoeuvrable. sIZe TL 35–42cm; W 24–28cm; WS 80–91cm; WT 440g. Smaller than all other black-and-white fulmarines. Female smaller and lighter. PlumaGe Distinctive black-and-white chequered upperparts and white underparts. Eye dark; bill, legs and feet black. Head, throat and neck black. Mantle and back are spotted, blotched or striped white. Rump and uppertailcoverts predominantly white with variable numbers of distinct black spots formed by dark tips to most feathers. Upperwing mainly dark but highly variable with distinctive white patches in the outer flight feathers. The whitest nominate race Cape Petrels can have broad, ragged white wing-stripes similar to Antarctic Petrel, while in darker birds white is restricted to spots, streaks and small irregular patches and the white panel at the base of primaries is more prominent. White underwing has broad black leading and narrow black trailing edges, slightly broader near wing-tip. Tail predominantly white with broad black tip. Subspecific differences: race australe has darker upperwings and back and more spots on rump. Nominate race always has some white feathers across the central upperwing whereas in australe dark feathers separate the white into two distinct areas. Note that these features are affected by moult and wear and subspecific identity of individuals not always possible to determine. Juvenile and immature similar to adult but appear more brown and worn early in summer as they moult earlier. Worn birds in mid summer or freshly moulted birds in late summer likely to be immatures or failed breeders. moult aND Wear Crispness of black plumage lost with wear and bleaching, with black becoming brown and many black tips lost to wear, making birds appear whiter overall. Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult begins during late chick rearing. Undergo rapid primary moult at end of breeding season which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so. IDeNtIFICatIoN Usually unmistakable but given poor views may be confused with the larger, more pointedwinged Antarctic Petrel. However, Cape has chequered black-and-white back and wings.

lesser snow Petrel Pagodroma nivea

Plate 13

taxoNomy Subject of considerable debate. Treated here as separate from Greater Snow Petrel based on dif-

ferences in size, weight and behaviour that are greater than between many other forms of petrel regarded as a single polytypic species. The two forms hybridise in eastern Antarctica. DIstrIbutIoN Breeds on coasts and up to 300km inland in Antarctica, the Peninsula, South Georgia and

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islands of Scotia Group. Pure Lesser colonies (eggs Dec) known from Bouvetøya, South Georgia, South Orkneys, South Shetlands, Davis, Cape Denison and Svathamaren, Forages in open pack ice. Disperses north at sea during non-breeding season but never seen alive far from pack-ice. Vagrant to Macquarie I. in years of extensive pack-ice; other records from Heard and Kerguelen probably this species. Mixed colonies at Pointe Geologie Archipelago, Terre Adelie, Peterson Is, Ardery I. Status of those at Proclamation P. confusa I, South Sandwich, Cape Hallet and Cape Hunter confusing. Behaviour Solitary or in small foraging groups, occasionally in mixed species flocks. Feeds among pack-ice floes primarily by surface-seizing, but sometimes by foot-pattering like storm petrel. Commonly seen sitting on icebergs and probably roosts there (unlike any other petrel). During moult, in late summer and autumn, flocks congregate on icebergs, but rarely with other species. Jizz Medium-sized petrel with long, narrow wings and long, slightly wedge-shaped tail. Flight distinctive among petrels in Antarctica, being erratic and buoyant with rapid, jerky, shallow wingbeats and frequent changes of direction without long periods of gliding. Often flies very close to the water, like a giant storm-petrel. In stronger winds may arc way up into air similar to Kerguelen or gadfly petrels. Size TL 30–35cm; W 24.5–27.8cm; WS 75–84cm; WT 200–378g. Lesser apparently smaller than Greater in all measurements, without overlap. Females smaller than males in weight and most measurements. Hybrids intermediate in measurements. Plumage All-white petrel with prominent black eye and bill. A scattering of dark feathers immediately behind the eye and dark shafts to the outer primaries are more prominent in Lesser. Fresh plumage tinged slightly grey with upperwings and upperparts finely vermiculated, but virtually impossible to see except in the hand. Vermiculations probably more prevalent in Lesser Snow Petrel and less likely to be lost with wear. Juvenile and immature may appear greyer and it is sometimes possible to see fine vermiculations in the field. moult and wear Adults begin body moult when chicks hatch and primary moult begins during late chickrearing. Undergo extremely rapid primary moult at end of breeding season, which may leave individuals flightless or nearly so. Tatty-looking birds in midsummer likely to be immatures identiFiCation Always near ice. Records elsewhere likely to refer to albinos of other species. Known to have been mistaken for Albino Cape Petrel, from which very difficult to separate. Within range only likely confusions are Arctic and Antarctic Terns, from which separated by completely white plumage, wider and rounder wings and more petrel-like flight. Lesser and Greater separable in flight when present together by size difference. Greater more barrel chested, stockier and longer-winged, with stouter bill and more prominent dark feathering around eye. Greater generally looks whiter as faint grey vermiculations on plumage less extensive than Lesser.

greater Snow Petrel Pagodroma confusa

Plate 13

taxonomy Subject of considerable debate. Treated here as distinct from Lesser Snow Petrel, based on differences in size, weight and behaviour that are greater than between many other forms of petrel regarded as a single species. The two species hybridise in eastern Antarctica. diStriBution Coastal eastern Antarctica. Pure Greater colonies (eggs Nov–Dec) known only from the Balleny Is. Status of those at Proclamation I., South Sandwich, Cape Hallet and Cape Hunter confused. Forages in open pack-ice. Disperses north at sea during non-breeding season but never seen alive far from pack-ice. Mixed colonies at Pointe Geologie Archipelago, Terre Adelie, Peterson Is., Ardery I. For map see Lesser Snow Petrel above. Behaviour As Lesser Snow Petrel. Jizz As Lesser but more barrel-chested, stockier and somewhat longer-winged with stouter bill. Size TL 35–40cm; W 28.5–31.1cm; WS 84–95cm; WT 317–570g. Lesser apparently smaller than Greater in all measurements without overlap. Females smaller than males in weight and most measurements. Hybrids intermediate in measurements. Plumage As Lesser but small dark patch immediately behind the eye slightly larger, and dark shafts to the outer primaries less prominent. Faint grey vermiculations on plumage less extensive. moult and wear As Lesser Snow Petrel. identiFiCation See Lesser Snow Petrel.

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Kerguelen Petrel Lugensa brevirostris

Plate 14

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar

in colder waters throughout southern oceans. Breeds (eggs October) on Gough I. and islands of Tristan da Cunha group, Prince Edward, Marion, Crozet Is. and Kerguelen group. During breeding, forages south of breeding grounds and is common along ice edge. Disperses north and south throughout southern oceans from pack-ice north to 40°S, but less common in south Pacific and south of South America. Irregular vagrant to South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Records from off Brazil (24°S), Somalia and Red Sea. beHavIour Solitary, very rarely following ships. Never seen behind fishing boats and not attracted to offal or chum. In stronger winds, flight unique, flying up to 30 m above water in wide, effortless arcs. Often glides well above sea facing into the wind, maintaining position with slight jerks of the wing almost like a Kestrel Falco tinnunculus or other falcon, and quite unlike any other petrel. In lighter winds, soars like other petrels but still adjusts position with slight jerks of the wing and can alter flight direction abruptly like storm-petrel. JIZZ Remarkably similar to snow petrels. Medium-sized petrel, bull-necked and big-headed with steep forehead, extremely large eye and long, narrow wings. Squat little body tapers to rounded or slightly wedge-shaped tail. sIZe TL 33–36cm; W 246–272mm; WS 80–82cm; WT 357g. Marginally smaller than Soft-plumaged but a fair bit smaller than all other dark petrels and shearwaters in southern oceans. Female slightly smaller than male. PlumaGe Head, upperparts and upperwing dark slate or sooty-grey; back, mantle and underparts slightly paler than wings and tail. Appears black or dark brown at a distance. Underwing slate-grey, similar to underparts, but with pale white leading edge to inner wing formed by pale fringes to feathers. This white patch is widest at point where wing meets body and tapers to elbow. Flight feathers and coverts of outer wing have silvery sheen, appearing as a pale wing-tip in bright light. Darker feathers around eye may appear like a mask and in strong light whole head may appear hooded. In worn plumage, white bases of feathers of chin and throat may show. Bill black; eye brown; legs and feet brown to grey. Young birds may be recognized by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer. moult aND Wear Slate-grey feathers wear to greyish-brown. Body moulted during chick rearing, flight feathers immediately following breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Rare, slightly larger dark-morph Soft-plumaged Petrel likely to look very similar; the rarity of reports of dark-morph Soft-plumaged may be due to misidentifications as Kerguelen. With experience, jizz and bizarre flight pattern useful but Kerguelen does not always fly in the ‘diagnostic’ manner. Kerguelen’s stouter and shorter bill, pale leading edge to inner underwing and more extensive silvery sheen on underwing helpful but only visible in good viewing conditions. Great-winged Petrel and other dark petrels and shearwaters all much larger and heavier; Kerguelen appears grey rather than brownish except in very worn plumage and has a bullnecked appearance with steep forehead. In general Kerguelen flies higher above water than the other species although Great-winged is also prone to fly high; dark shearwaters usually fly much lower.

blue Petrel Halobaena caerulea

Plate 27

taxoNomy Monotypic. Affinities of genus debatable. Given similarities in appearance to prions status as close

relative seems plausible, but other studies suggest a close relationship with the fulmarine petrels.

DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar throughout colder waters of southern oceans; generally found south of the Ant-

arctic Convergence. Breeds (eggs September–October) on South Georgia, Prince Edward, Marion, eastern islands of Crozet group, Kerguelen, Macquarie, and Diego Ramirez and Cape Horn group in southern Chile. Forage near breeding grounds during summer. Non-migratory but in winter may disperse northward as far as 20°S to southern Australia, New Zealand and southern South America where common to 40°S in Chile and southern Argentina. Also occurs in southern Peru and South Africa in winter. beHavIour Gregarious, often in flock with prions and occasionally other species. Occasionally follows ships but rare around fishing boats and difficult to attract to chum. JIZZ Looks like large prion with small petrel-like bill. Flight similar to Broad-billed Prion but, unlike prions, soars like a gadfly-petrel. sIZe TL 26–32cm; W 19.8–23.3cm; WS 62–71cm; WT 152–251g. Slightly larger than Broad-billed Prion and

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thus noticeably larger than all other prions. Significantly smaller than any other blue or grey-and-white petrel of southern oceans. Female marginally smaller than male in some measurements. PlumaGe Grey-blue upperparts with white-tipped tail highlighted by very narrow black subterminal band. Forehead, face throat and ear-coverts white. Black crown extending around eye, dark nape and broad half collar give white-throated appearance. Distinct, dark M marking across upperwing. Underparts and underwing white. Eye dark; bill mostly black with blue lower mandible; legs and feet blue with flesh-coloured webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer. moult aND Wear Grey-blue feathers wear to bluish-brown. Body moulted during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately following breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Easily separated from all prions and petrels by white tip to tail, which may be visible in poor light even at a distance. If tail not seen well then separated from prions by combination of white forehead, dark cap without any white around the eye, black bill and pure white undertail. Smaller than any cookilaria petrel, with pure white underwing.

PrIoNs Relationships between prions are unresolved and require further study. Here we have recognised seven species, but DNA work has yet to done and opinions are likely to change. Prions are easily distinguished from all but Blue Petrel by diagnostic plumage pattern, unique jizz and behaviour. However, they are one of the most difficult groups of petrels to separate at sea and in many cases, even with perfect views, identification to species may not always be possible.

a generalised description of prion plumage

All species have a distinctive plumage of virtually pure white underparts and blue-grey upperparts, with broad darker markings on wings and rump forming an M across extended wings in flight. Prions always have a black tip to the tail, but the width of this varies with species. Broadly speaking, prions can be separated into two groups, the Fairy and Fulmar Prions with a broad dark tail-tip, and the ‘whalebirds’, which have a narrow black tip. Facial patterns also vary between species but all have a white supercilium and white patch below and in front of the eye. All species have an unusual bill structure, which is modified to each species’ particular foraging techniques. In general, the bill is broader than other petrels at the base and becomes pointed at the tip, appearing triangular from above. The hooked bill-tip, so characteristic of other petrels, is very small, and the nostrils are almost an afterthought. All species have a ridge of lamellae, similar to that of a baleen whale, along the cutting edge of the upper mandible, which filters plankton. This is most developed in Broad-billed Prion and least so in Fulmar Prion. All prions also have a skin pouch (a gular pouch similar to pelicans) at the base of the bill that may be used during the filtration process. Eyes are always dark and legs and feet are bright blue with grey or flesh-coloured webs. Bill colour varies with species and is an important identification feature.

the general prion jizz

Prion wings are shorter than those of most petrels and always appear pointed. They are held out stiffly from the body and are slightly bowed, even during gliding. The tail is exceptionally long for a petrel and is generally said to be gently rounded or wedge-shaped, but in some individuals appears square.

a quick reference key for prion identification 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

a) Dark tail-tip more than 1/5 of tail length b) Dark tail-tip less than 1/5 of tail length a) Face pale, undersides may be washed blue; flight erratic often high b) Face darker, flight typical a) Face pale with distinctive dark line through eye and thin bill b) Face mostly dark with prominent dark blue collar a) Bill massive and black b) Bill blue a) Bill very wide, face and collar dark b) Bill less wide, face relatively pale, collar less obvious

2) 3) Fulmar Prion Fairy Prion Slender-billed Prion 4) Broad-billed Prion 5) Salvin’s/MacGillivray’s Prion Antarctic Prion

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Salvin’s and MacGillivray’s are indistinguishable in the field, but the bill of MacGillivray’s is intermediate in size between Salvin’s and Broad-billed Prions. Thus this key summarises what an observer should do with every prion they see: ‘look at the tail first, then the face and then the bill’. With this mantra, prion separation becomes a lot easier! However, there are still some pitfalls: The tail-tip is not always easy to see. The broad dark tail-tip of Fairy and Fulmar Prions is readily separable from the narrow tail-tip of the whalebirds, but this feature is difficult to assess in swiftflying birds, and when the tail is in moult may be impossible to determine. Unfortunately wintering prion flocks off New Zealand, Australia and South America contain mostly moulting birds, thus separation is problematic. Some races of some species differ significantly. Fairy Prions of the race subantarctica are more similar to Fulmar Prions than commonly believed, and some may have blue on undersides. Appearance varies depending on distance and light conditions. The apparent darkness of the collar varies with light conditions. A collar that appears dark in dull light may be virtually invisible in strong light. Also, light does not always allow the bill colour to be seen. Only exceptional views (or proximity to breeding islands) will allow whalebirds to be confidently identified.

Prion bill measurements In the hand, bill measurements can be helpful in separating the species but note that there is considerable overlap and that, on average, measurements are smaller for old, dried museum specimens and for juveniles, the birds most often found storm-driven or dead on beaches. sPeCIes Broad-billed Slavin’s MacGillivray’s Antarctic Slender-billed Fairy Fulmar (nominate) Fulmar (flemingi)

male

Female

length

width

length

width

27.6–32.8

13.4–17.4

27.1–32.0

13.5–17.0

24.5–1.0

11.5–15.5

25.2–30.0

11.0–15.5

20.4–24. 3 22.4–24.2 20.4–23.4

9.2–10.0 11.4 10.5–10.8

19.4–23.4 22.2–23.0 19.0–22.7

9.0–10.3 11.4 9.9–10.3

unsexed length width 31.3–37.4 18.7–24.3 29.5–32.5 24.7–30.1 23.0–27.3 20.3–23.9

15.7–19.2 11.5–13.5 9.3–12.5 10.6–12.5

Bill measurements in mm.

broad-billed Prion Pachyptila vittata otHer Name Broad-billed Dove-petrel taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand and south-east Atlantic

Plate 26

in warm subantarctic waters just north of Subtropical Convergence. Breeds (eggs August–September) on Snares Is., Chatham Is., islands off Stewart I. and South Island of New Zealand, Gough I. and the Tristan da Cunha group. Forage close to the breeding islands and some birds remain all year round in New Zealand waters. Dispersal poorly understood. Would appear most in New Zealand disperse into Tasman Sea but rarely reported from Australia and rare south of Subtropical Convergence. In south-east Atlantic some remain all year, while others disperse as far as 10°S (off Angola) and into western Indian Ocean. Vagrants recorded on Falkland Is, Madagascar and Réunion. beHavIour Gregarious but rarely follows ships. Large flocks may fly across a ship’s bow, ignoring it completely. May play in a large ship’s bow wake, soaring on air pushed up by ship’s forward movement. Rarely attracted to fishing vessels or chum. JIZZ Largest prion with large, wide, duck-like bill. Head larger than all other prions and large bill accentuated by steep forehead, resulting in ‘baseball cap’ appearance. Flight, though still swift, is generally slower and lumbering, less erratic and with more glides than other prions.

152

Size TL 25–30cm; W 18.1–22.5cm; WS 57–66cm; WT 170–237g. Largest of all prions, only slightly smaller than Blue Petrel. No significant difference in sexes. Plumage Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151). Narrow black tip to tail may extend onto outer tail feathers. Undertail white with blackish central streak. Darker head than other prions, with only narrow white supercilium above and behind eye. Hind-neck bluish-grey, extending to sides of neck and sides of upper breast and forming a broad partial collar. Prominence of collar and limited amount of white on face add to darkhooded appearance. Young birds paler on head. Huge bill is broad, deep and duck-like; sooty-grey, appearing black at sea. Baleen-like lamellae may be seen given exceptional views. Young birds may be recognised by comparatively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted plumage in late summer. moult and wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. identiFiCation Blue Petrel has white tip to tail. Distinguished from other prions by combination of larger size; large head; massive all-dark bill unlike any other prion; steep forehead giving baseball cap-like appearance; darkhead; pronounced collar and narrow dark tail-band (broad in Fairy and Fulmar Prion). Salvin’s/MacGillivray’s most difficult to separate and probably only possible given exceptionally good views. Look especially for blue, not black, bill; otherwise range helpful during summer. With practice by far the easiest of the prions to identify by size, flight and large-headed jizz. See also key and bill measurements above.

Salvin’s Prion Pachyptila salvini

Plate 26

other nameS Medium-billed Prion, Lesser Broad-

billed Prion

taxonomy Monotypic. diStribution Southwest Indian Ocean breeding

endemic, found throughout cooler circumpolar waters except southeast Pacific in winter. Breeds (November– December) on Prince Edward I. and Marion I. and on Crozet Is. Forages near breeding islands during breeding season. Disperses widely through subantarctic waters outside breeding season, regularly reaching subtropical waters off Africa, Australia and New Zealand. behaviour Highly gregarious, forming vast flocks when feeding or waiting to fly ashore at night. Rarely follows ships; large flocks may fly across a ship’s bow, ignoring it completely, but may play in large ship’s bow-wave, soaring on air pushed up by ship’s forward movement. Rarely attracted to fishing vessels or chum. Jizz Flight erratic, glides interspersed with rapid wingbeats, wings usually bowed. Shorter wingspan than either Broad-billed or Antarctic Prion but flight similar to that of Antarctic Prion. Bill wide at base, intermediate in width between Antarctic and Broad-billed, and wider than MacGillivray’s. Size TL 27–28cm; W 17.6–21.0cm; WS 57cm, WT 130–210g. Same size as MacGillivray’s. Smaller than Broad-billed but larger than Antarctic, Fairy and Fulmar Prions. Slightly smaller than Blue Petrel. No significant difference in sexes. Plumage Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151). Blue-grey upperparts and sides of upper breast, forming semi-collar (though less obvious than Broad-billed or Antarctic Prion); broad white supercilium above and behind eye, and extensive pure white lores, highlighting dark eye-stripe and giving white-faced appearance. Narrow black tip to tail generally extends to include outer feathers. Undertail with blackish central streak often extending nearly to vent. Underwing white with indistinct narrow greyish trailing edge. Bill blue-grey with black on dorsal surface, considerably narrower at the base than that of Broad-billed Prion but longer and broader than Antarctic. Baleen-like lamellae only visible in the hand. Young birds recognised by worn plumage and white patchy appearance during early breeding season; they are paler on the head and may wear to be paler and browner than adults, with virtually invisible dark M marking. moult and wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. identiFiCation Easily separated given good views from Fairy or Fulmar Prion by narrower black tip to tail, but often very difficult to tell from Broad-billed and Antarctic. Slightly smaller, paler-headed with smaller and paler collar than Broad-billed. Collar usually paler and less prominent, and bill slightly longer and wider than Antarctic, but rarely separable with any confidence even with good views. Range during breeding season helpful. See also MacGillivray’s Prion.

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macGillivray’s Prion Pachyptila macgillivrayi

Plate 26

otHer Name St Paul Prion taxoNomy Often considered a subspecies of Broad-

billed or Salvin’s, but differences in bill size and colour suggest that it is best treated as a separate species; the three may well best be considered a superspecies. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to La Roche Quille off St Paul I. and recently found to be recolonising St Paul I. after rat eradication. Range at sea unknown, with no confirmed records from Australia or New Zealand. sIZe W 19–21cm. Little data available; wing within size range of Salvin’s and Broad-billed Prions. IDeNtIFICatIoN Typical prion (see introduction to group on p.151). Appears to be intermediate between Salvin’s and Broad-billed, with plumage probably inseparable from Salvin’s at sea; bill the size of a small Broad-billed but blue like Salvin’s.

antarctic Prion Pachyptila desolata

?

Plate 26

otHer Names Dove Petrel, Banks’ Dove Petrel,

Icebird, Whalebird

taxoNomy Three races sometimes recognised: P. d.

desolata (Crozet, Kerguelen and Macquarie I.); P. d. alter (Auckland and Heard Is.); and P. d. banksi (Antarctica, southwest Atlantic, South Georgia, South Sandwich and Scott Is.) but we do not accept their validity. P. desolata sometimes considered a race of P. vittata. DIstrIbutIoN Most southerly of all prions. Probably circumpolar, but rarely reported in central south Pacific. Principally found south of the Antarctic Convergence. Breeds (eggs December) on South Georgia, South Sandwich Is., South Orkney Is., Elephant I., South Shetland Is., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard I., Macquarie I. and Auckland Is. May breed on Bouvetøya I. and Balleny Is. Status in Antarctica uncertain; may breed on Scott I. and Cape Denison. Disperses from pack ice to 35°S. In winter common off southeast Australia, New Zealand, southern South America (where it reaches 12°S off Peru and 24°S off Brazil) and South Africa. beHavIour Highly gregarious, often feeding in thousands; only follows ships infrequently. JIZZ Flight erratic, brief glides interspersed with rapid wingbeats, wings usually bowed. sIZe TL 25–27cm; W 17.1–20.9cm; WS 58–66cm; WT 95–224g. Male marginally larger than females. PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151–152). Blue-grey upperparts and sides of upper breast forming partial collar; moderately broad white supercilium above and behind eye, and extensive pure white lores highlight dark eye-stripe. Narrow black tip to tail not always extending onto outer feathers. Undertail has blackish central streak, often extending nearly to vent. Underwing white with indistinct narrow greyish trailing edge. Bill bluegrey with black on dorsal surface, considerably narrower at the base than Broad-billed Prion and, on average, slightly shorter and narrower than Salvin’s/MacGillivray’s. Baleen-like lamellae only visible in hand. Young birds recognised by worn plumage and white patchy appearance during early breeding season, and may wear to be paler and browner than adult with dark M marking virtually invisible. Adult and juvenile freshly moulted in late summer. moult aND Wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult bleached upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Easily separated given good views from Fairy or Fulmar Prion by narrower black tail-tip. Greatest identification difficulties come in separating other wide-billed prions with narrow dark tail-tips and prominent dark collars. Given good views, bill noticeably less massive than Broad-billed and blue (not slate-grey), and forehead not as high. Face, especially forehead, usually paler than Broad-billed. Probably not reliably distinguishable from Salvin’s at sea, but on average Antarctic’s bill smaller and collar darker. Range during breeding season helpful, but even then identification only reasonably reliable within sight of breeding islands. In our experience the only Salvin’s reliably separated from Antarctic at sea in Australian waters was sitting exhausted on the water, allowing an approach to within one metre!

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slender-billed Prion Pachyptila belcheri

Plate 26

otHer Name Thin-billed Prion taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Southern oceans cold-water species.

Breeds (eggs November) on Falkland Islands, Isla Noir (off southern Chile) eastern islands of Crozet group and Kerguelen. Convincing evidence of breeding on South Georgia and Macquarie Is. lacking. Forages during breeding season south to pack-ice. Most dispersive of all prions, commonly found in Humboldt Current off Chile and Peru (to 15°S), and in waters off Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil; reasonably common in mid-winter around New Zealand and south and south-west Australia, but rarer off South Africa. Indications from banding that Falklands population disperses westwards, Indian Ocean population eastwards. Single record from Java. beHavIour Less gregarious than other prions, often seen singly around edges of flocks of other prions. Never follows ships, rarely seen behind fishing boats and difficult to attract using chum. JIZZ Slightly smaller than other whalebird prions or prions with narrow dark tips to tail. The most slender of all prions with the slimmest bill. Flight distinctive, usually low over surface and extremely fast, with mixture of fluttering wingbeats and short glides. With wings held out at right angles from the body, acrobatically rocks from side-to-side in the most erratic flight of any prion; jerky motion and frequent changes of direction not unlike a storm-petrel. sIZe TL 25–26cm; W 16.6–19.1cm; WS 56cm; WT 115–180g. Intermediate in size between whale birds and Fairy and Fulmar Prions. Male averages larger than female. PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151). Pale faced, with broad white supercilium, whiter and longer than any other prion. Narrow, short dark eye-stripe. M marking on upperwing poorly defined and in worn birds may be virtually absent. Narrow dark tip to tail usually confined to central tail feathers; outer tail feathers pale, often appearing white. Undertail with blackish central streak extending nearly to vent. White underparts have diffuse pale grey sides to the breast. Underwing frequently duskier than other prions with distinct smudgygrey trailing edge. Bill blue-grey with black on dorsal surface, considerably smaller than all other prions. Baleenlike lamellae only visible in hand. Young birds recognised by worn plumage and white patchy appearance during early breeding season, and may wear to be paler and browner than adult with virtually invisible dark M marking. Adult and juvenile freshly moulted in late summer. moult aND Wear Upperparts usually wear to duller grey, and M fades to brown or almost disappears; prior to moult bleached upperwing may appear to have white patches that can be especially prominent in this species. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN The most recognisable of the ‘whalebirds’. Generally solitary on non-breeding grounds and often identified as ‘something different’ based on being a lone bird with a different flight pattern. Given good views, separable from all other prions by combination of slender bill; white face with distinct dark line running through the eye; pale upperparts with indistinct M on upperwing; narrow dark tail-tip usually confined to central tail feathers; and diffuse, pale grey sides to the breast rather than distinct collar.

Fairy Prion Pachyptila turtur

Plate 27

taxoNomy Paler subspecies P. t. subantarctica described from Antipodes I., Snares Is. and Macquarie I., but status uncertain. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar species of warmer subantarctic and cooler subtropical waters. Breeds (eggs October–December) on islands off Victoria and Tasmania, south-east Australia, islands off North and South Islands (including Stewart Is.), New Zealand, Chatham Is., Snares Is., Antipodes I., Macquarie I., Falkland Is., South Georgia, Marion I., Prince Edward I., St Paul I., Kerguelen Is. and Hog I. (in Crozet group). New Zealand birds present all year but cold-water populations disperse north as far a 30°S. Rare vagrant to South Africa, Namibia and South America.

155

beHavIour Very gregarious but rarely follows ships. Large flocks will fly across a ship’s bow, ignoring it completely, yet may play in large ship’s bow-wake, soaring on air pushed up by ship’s forward movement. Rarely attracted to fishing vessels or chum. JIZZ Small-billed prion with low, rounded forehead, short, broad, round-tipped wings and long, rounded or wedge-shaped tail. Flies close to surface of sea with wings held at right angles to body, quick, flickering indistinct wingbeats and sudden changes of direction. When foraging, faces into wing with wings slightly bowed, jumping from wave to wave with legs dangling down. In strong winds, flies by dynamic soaring but usually lower to the water than gadfly petrels. sIZe TL 23–28cm; W 16.8–18.9cm; WS 56–60cm; WT 88–175g. Smallest of all prions. PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and a broad dark tail-tip that extends a third to halfway up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, with short, white supercilium and short, often indistinct dusky eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of upperbody. With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white with indistinct pale grey-blue sides to breast that are lost with wear. Some individuals (especially those in subantarctic New Zealand) may have blue wash on parts of underside and even underwing. Underwing generally white with indistinct grey trailing edge. Black undertail mark obvious and may be more pronounced at tip, forming T-shaped undertail marking. Bill pale blue and rather stubby looking with relatively larger tip than all other prions except Fulmar Prion. Juveniles and subantarctic birds are paler, especially around the face. moult aND Wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Smallest prion. Broad dark tail-tip most useful identification feature, but combination of small size, short stout bill, blue upperparts, indistinct collar and pale head, and in some cases almost white face, separate it from most other prions, except Fulmar Prion. Separation from Fulmar Prion difficult but the latter has bizarre flight pattern (for which see) and generally has a combination of longer, more massive bill, especially the tip. Fulmar Prion upperparts often reported as lighter, M as less distinct, tip to underside of tail darker and black tail band broader, but these are subtle, if correct, differences and may be due to geographical or age variations. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and vent, but some Fairy Prions of race subantarctica in New Zealand waters also have this feature and it is also very difficult to observe at sea.

Fulmar Prion Pachyptila crassirostris

Plate 27

taxoNomy Two subspecies recognised: P. c. crassirostris on Chatham Is. (sometimes called P. c. pyramidalis), Snares Is. and Bounty Is.; and P. c. flemingi on Heard I. and Auckland I.; flemingi has a smaller bill, different tail pattern and possibly more conventional diet. Status of this subspecies requires examination, as in many ways it resembles a large-billed Fairy rather than a true Fulmar Prion. Fulmar Prion sometimes considered a race of Fairy but significant differences in biology warrant separation. DIstrIbutIoN Two subspecies from distinct populations: P. c. crassirostris on Snares Is., Bounty I. and Chatham Is.; P. c. flemingi on Heard I., MacDonald I. and Auckland Is. Probably largely sedentary as rarely washed up dead on New Zealand beaches and only one confirmed record from Australia. beHavIour Generally in small foraging groups but may form small flocks near breeding grounds. Single birds, or sometimes two or three, often seen sitting on water beside floating objects such as buoys, and feeding on goose barnacles, a staple food. Often plays in a large ship’s bow-wake, soaring on air pushed up by ship’s forward movement, but otherwise rarely attracted to fishing vessels or chum. JIZZ Short, stout-billed prion with low, rounded forehead, relatively short, broad, round-tipped wings and longish, rounded tail. Flies close to surface of sea with straight wings, shallow wingbeats and occasional erratic manoeuvres. When ‘playing’ in ship’s bow wave, flight bizarre and unlike any other seabird with extraordinary ‘loop-the loop’ flights high into the air, sometimes even flying upside down! sIZe TL 24–28cm; W 15.6–19.0cm; WS 60cm, GWT 102–185g. Smaller than most whalebird prions but larger than Slender-billed and Fairy Prions.

156

PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and a broad dark tail tip that extends way up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, generally with smaller white supercilium than Fairy and indistinct blue-grey eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of upperbody. With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white with indistinct pale grey-blue sides of breast that are lost with wear. Many individuals have blue wash on rear underside, on extreme examples extending onto underwing. Underwing mostly white with indistinct greyish trailing edge. Black undertail mark obvious, often extending a third of way up undertail, often more pronounced at tip, forming Tshaped undertail marking. Bill short, stout and pale blue with proportionally the largest tip of any prion. moult aND Wear Upperparts may wear to duller grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Most easily recognised by bizarre loop-the-loop aerobatic play flights, unlike any other prion, but unfortunately they do not always do this. Separation from Fairy Prion difficult, generally only reliably separable if stouter bill can be seen. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and vent, but some subantarctica Fairy Prions also have this feature, and it is very difficult to observe at sea.

BuLweria aND PseuDoBuLweria Petrels This loose assemblage of six long-winged and long-tailed tropical species with distinctive bills is poorly understood taxonomically. Until recently the two groups had not been closely linked, and members of what is now regarded as Pseudobulweria were included within Pterodroma. Similarities in behaviour, breeding cycle and jizz suggest they should be considered as a group.

bulwer’s Petrel Bulweria bulwerii

Plate 15

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN A species of tropical waters. Breeds

(eggs generally May–June) on islands of eastern North Atlantic, Indian and Pacific between 10°S and 40°N. In main Hawaiian Is. breeds on islets off Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau: Hulu, Kaeoi, Kaohikaipu, Kapapa, Kaula, Lehua, Manana, Moke’ehia, Mokolea Rock, Moku Lua, Moku Manu, Mokuho’oniki, Molokini, and Popoi’a. In north-west Hawaiian Is. breeds on Pearl and Hermes Reef, Lisianski I., Laysan I., Gardner Pinnacles, French Frigate Shoals, Necker I., and Nihoa I. On islands off coast of southern China and from Bonin Is. south and east to Marquesas Is. Possibly also islands off Taiwan, Phoenix Is., Ryukyu islands in East China Sea and Marshall Is. In central North Atlantic, breeds on Azores (Graciosa and Santa Maria), Madeira Is., Desertas, Great Salvage I., Canary Is. (mostly on Tenerife, La Palma, Gomera, Hierro, Lanzarote and islets off Lanzarote), and Cape Verde Is. Unconfirmed on St Helena. Recently discovered breeding on Round I. off Mauritius. Forages near breeding islands during breeding season. Disperses during tropical winter but movements poorly known: Pacific birds probably move south to central and eastern Pacific waters and to Indian Ocean west to Maldives; Atlantic birds move mostly into western and South. Atlantic. Vagrants recorded in Caribbean and off east coast of USA, British Isles, Italy, Spain, France, South Africa and northwest Australia. beHavIour Generally seen at sea alone or in pairs. Does not usually follow ships. Seizes food from surface, flying in wide circles over the water, fanning wedge-shaped tail as it manoeuvres in flight. JIZZ Like a giant storm-petrel. Wings long and pointed, tail long, wedge-shaped, and thick at base, appearing bluntly pointed in flight. Bill short and stout, with small, round nostrils directed forward; nasal tubes approximately one-third of length. Legs short and rarely visible. Flight bat-like or storm-petrel-like: buoyant and erratic, zig-zagging, and quickly altering height and direction. In stronger winds, flies close to water, alternating short series of shallow wingbeats with brief, twisting glides. sIZe TL 26–28cm; W 18.3–21.4cm; WS 67cm, WT c. 100g. Intermediate in size between gadfly petrels and storm-petrels. Larger than any completely dark storm-petrel. Male tarsus and bill longer than female but similar in other measurements. PlumaGe Sooty-brown above with pale band across greater wing-coverts usually visible up to 250m away; at greater distances, wings appear uniformly dark above. Dull, sooty-brown below; chin and face sometimes paler.

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beHavIour Very gregarious but rarely follows ships. Large flocks will fly across a ship’s bow, ignoring it completely, yet may play in large ship’s bow-wake, soaring on air pushed up by ship’s forward movement. Rarely attracted to fishing vessels or chum. JIZZ Small-billed prion with low, rounded forehead, short, broad, round-tipped wings and long, rounded or wedge-shaped tail. Flies close to surface of sea with wings held at right angles to body, quick, flickering indistinct wingbeats and sudden changes of direction. When foraging, faces into wing with wings slightly bowed, jumping from wave to wave with legs dangling down. In strong winds, flies by dynamic soaring but usually lower to the water than gadfly petrels. sIZe TL 23–28cm; W 16.8–18.9cm; WS 56–60cm; WT 88–175g. Smallest of all prions. PlumaGe Typical prion (see introduction to group, p.151) with bluer upperparts than whalebird prions and a broad dark tail-tip that extends a third to halfway up tail. Head pale and poorly marked, with short, white supercilium and short, often indistinct dusky eye-stripe. Feathers of face and crown similar colour to rest of upperbody. With wear, eye-stripe can be virtually lost, giving very white-faced appearance. Underparts white with indistinct pale grey-blue sides to breast that are lost with wear. Some individuals (especially those in subantarctic New Zealand) may have blue wash on parts of underside and even underwing. Underwing generally white with indistinct grey trailing edge. Black undertail mark obvious and may be more pronounced at tip, forming T-shaped undertail marking. Bill pale blue and rather stubby looking with relatively larger tip than all other prions except Fulmar Prion. Juveniles and subantarctic birds are paler, especially around the face. moult aND Wear Upperparts usually wear to dull grey and M fades to brown; prior to moult, bleached upperwing may appear to have white patches. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Smallest prion. Broad dark tail-tip most useful identification feature, but combination of small size, short stout bill, blue upperparts, indistinct collar and pale head, and in some cases almost white face, separate it from most other prions, except Fulmar Prion. Separation from Fulmar Prion difficult but the latter has bizarre flight pattern (for which see) and generally has a combination of longer, more massive bill, especially the tip. Fulmar Prion upperparts often reported as lighter, M as less distinct, tip to underside of tail darker and black tail band broader, but these are subtle, if correct, differences and may be due to geographical or age variations. Fulmar Prion more likely to have blue wash on underparts, especially on undertail and vent, but some Fairy Prions of race subantarctica in New Zealand waters also have this feature and it is also very difficult to observe at sea.

Fulmar Prion Pachyptila crassirostris

Plate 27

taxoNomy Two subspecies recognised: P. c. crassirostris on Chatham Is. (sometimes called P. c. pyramidalis), Snares Is. and Bounty Is.; and P. c. flemingi on Heard I. and Auckland I.; flemingi has a smaller bill, different tail pattern and possibly more conventional diet. Status of this subspecies requires examination, as in many ways it resembles a large-billed Fairy rather than a true Fulmar Prion. Fulmar Prion sometimes considered a race of Fairy but significant differences in biology warrant separation. DIstrIbutIoN Two subspecies from distinct populations: P. c. crassirostris on Snares Is., Bounty I. and Chatham Is.; P. c. flemingi on Heard I., MacDonald I. and Auckland Is. Probably largely sedentary as rarely washed up dead on New Zealand beaches and only one confirmed record from Australia. beHavIour Generally in small foraging groups but may form small flocks near breeding grounds. Single birds, or sometimes two or three, often seen sitting on water beside floating objects such as buoys, and feeding on goose barnacles, a staple food. Often plays in a large ship’s bow-wake, soaring on air pushed up by ship’s forward movement, but otherwise rarely attracted to fishing vessels or chum. JIZZ Short, stout-billed prion with low, rounded forehead, relatively short, broad, round-tipped wings and longish, rounded tail. Flies close to surface of sea with straight wings, shallow wingbeats and occasional erratic manoeuvres. When ‘playing’ in ship’s bow wave, flight bizarre and unlike any other seabird with extraordinary ‘loop-the loop’ flights high into the air, sometimes even flying upside down! sIZe TL 24–28cm; W 15.6–19.0cm; WS 60cm, GWT 102–185g. Smaller than most whalebird prions but larger than Slender-billed and Fairy Prions.

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mascarene Petrel Pseudobulweria aterrima

Plate 15

otHer Name Réunion Black Petrel taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Critically endangered endemic of

Réunion I. in western Indian Ocean. Eggs probably laid in early spring as fledglings found in February. Occasionally seen southwest of Réunion. beHavIour Solitary and pelagic. JIZZ Medium-sized, relatively long-winged petrel with short, robust, black bill. Tail shorter and squarer? ended than Bulweria petrels but still longer than most Pterodroma petrels. In light winds, glides low over sea, rising and banking into the wind with deep, slow wingbeats. In stronger winds, flight higher and arcing with brief bursts of shallower rapid wingbeats, unlike speedy high arcing flight of many pterodromas. sIZe TL 33–36cm; W 23.5–25.0cm; WS 88cm; WT 212–232g. Considerably larger than Bulwer’s Petrel, slightly larger than Jouanin’s, but smaller than Wedge-tailed Shearwater. PlumaGe Completely blackish-brown except for paler primary and secondary coverts and silvery edges to flight feathers of underwing which may look especially pale in strong light and contrast with dark forewing. Worn individuals may have pale feathers on chin and upper throat. Bill black; eye dark; legs pink; feet bicoloured, pink with black webs and black tips to toes. moult aND Wear Wings probably become browner with wear. Moult probably occurs after breeding season from February onwards. IDeNtIFICatIoN Similar to Jouanin’s but has shorter, squarer-ended tail and pale, silvery wash on underwing. Similarly sized dark-phase Herald Petrel, which may occur in same area, has longer wings and relatively welldefined white patches rather than silvery wash on underwings. Wedge-tailed Shearwater considerably larger and longer-winged with much narrower but longer bill. Given suitable lighting conditions presence of silvery underwing should separate Mascarene from most dark petrels and shearwaters, although Great-winged known to be a problem. Great-winged has longer wings, less silvery underwings, grey (not pink) legs and in stronger winds, flies in more typical, soaring Pterodroma manner. Nevertheless comparative experience still useful.

beck’s Petrel Pseudobulweria becki

Plate 17

taxoNomy Sometimes considered a subspecies of Tahiti but given the considerable size difference (greater than subspecific difference in any other petrel) it can only reasonably be considered a full species. DIstrIbutIoN Known from only two specimens, taken at sea by Rollo Beck, one east of New Ireland and north of Buka, Papua New Guinea (1928), and the other northeast of Rendova I., Solomon Is. (1929). There are a number of recent records of Tahiti Petrel from the Solomons, off Wuvula (northeast New Guinea), off Admiralty Is. and in the Bismarck Archipelago which may prove to be this species. A wellpublicised record from the Coral Sea in 2006 has many features at odds with published descriptions, and unconfirmed records from Australia also sound more hopeful than likely. beHavIour Probably similar to Tahiti Petrel. Likely to be solitary at sea. In flight, banks and towers more than shearwaters, on straight wings, swept slightly up and back at tips. JIZZ Likely to be similar to Tahiti Petrel with proportionately smaller bill. In flight, banks and towers more than shearwaters, on straight wings, swept slightly up and back at tips. sIZe TL 29–31cm; W 24cm. 25% smaller than Tahiti. PlumaGe Not known to differ from Tahiti Petrel. moult aND Wear Unknown, probably similar to Tahiti. The Coral Sea 2006 bird had lighter underwings than Tahiti Petrel and a pale chin – features more indicitive of a small version of Phoenix Petrel.

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IDeNtIFICatIoN As plumage is so similar, Beck’s may not be distinguishable in the field from Tahiti unless seen together, or with another petrel species when the difference in size may be assessed. Beck’s is quite small. At 29cm long it is a similar size to Black-winged Petrel, though longer-winged and only slightly larger and much longer-winged than Heinroth’s Shearwater, both of which occur in the same area. Tahiti Petrel, however, at 39cm is slightly larger than Phoenix Petrel. See Tahiti Petrel for plumage differences from those species.

tahiti Petrel Pseudobulweria rostrata

Plate 17

taxoNomy Two subspecies recognised: P. r. rostrata throughout Pacific, except New Caledonia, where P. r. trouessarti has been described. DNA work may show that the Samoan population is genetically distinct but no known way of separating that population in the field. DIstrIbutIoN Petrel of the tropical Pacific. Breeds (eggs March–October) in the Nuku Hiva, Hiva Oa and ? Tahuata (Marquesas Is.); Tahiti and Moorea (Society ? Is.); Mangareva, Akamaru and Manui (Gambier Is.); Gau (Fiji group); Ta’u and Tutuila (American Samoa) ? and Grand Terre, New Caledonia and 11 offshore islets. May breed on Ua Pou, Ua Huka and Fatu Hiva (Marquesas Is.), Bora Bora (Society Is.), Taveuni, Kadavu (Fiji group), Vanuatu, Rarotonga, Cook Is. and possibly elsewhere. Forages near breeding islands during breeding season and disperses widely as far as Mexico, Peru, Kiribati and Taiwan. Increasingly commonly recorded off Australia and in tropical Indian Ocean, even in the west. Single New Zealand record. beHavIour Highly pelagic; rarely seen near land. Solitary, very rarely following ships. Not attracted to fishing boats or chum but may be seen in association with cetaceans. JIZZ Long, narrow wings held at right angles to body with flight feathers appearing to curl up at wing-tips. Wings are not held angled forward like Phoenix Petrel. Long body and long tail which gradually tapers to rounded tip. Long neck and small head makes bill look larger. Flight usually low over water with slack wingbeats, wings held straight with only slight bend in the inner wing when gliding, like other pseudobulwerias. In stronger winds, languid, unrushed dynamic soaring, reminiscent of much larger mollymawks. sIZe TL 39cm; W 27.8–30.9cm; WS 84cm; WT 300g. Similar size to Herald Petrel. Slightly larger than Phoenix but still smaller than Wedge-tailed Shearwater. PlumaGe Head, chin, throat, upper breast and rest of upperparts, including upperwing, uniform dark chocolatebrown with grey or brown wash across outer feathers of lower rump and uppertail-coverts, contrasting with dark central rump and tail-tip. Lower breast, belly, and vent white. Demarcation between dark head and white breast clean, but variable amount of brown feathering on flanks extending onto thighs and as a very narrow dark brown border to white undertail. Underwing dark brown, usually appearing uniformly so at a distance, but in bright light or close by a narrow, pale, silvery central pane is visible on inner underwing. Bill black; eye dark brown; legs and feet flesh and black. moult aND Wear Becomes lighter brown with wear, especially on the tail and rump. As breeding season varies widely, moulting birds can be seen at any time of year. IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from Phoenix Petrel, which overlaps in range in central Pacific. Jizz of slightly smaller Phoenix diagnostic with experience; in flight wings held angled forward, strongly bent at elbow, not straight as Tahiti, and flight feathers do not curl upwards at tip. Phoenix has less stout, shorter bill; darker virtually black upperparts without pale edge to rump; and a darker underwing with a diagnostic narrow white leading edge to inner wing. Pale panel in centre underwing of Tahiti diagnostic but note that in strong light Phoenix may show paler underwing due to silvery reflection from flight feathers, and Tahiti’s underwing can look entirely dark at a distance. Close up, Phoenix generally shows pale or white chin and throat. Poor views may cause confusion with similarly sized light-morph Herald and Kermadec Petrels but both look shorter-winged, are browner overall and have white patches on outer underwing. Kermadec also has white shafts and bases on outer upperwing. Pale-morph Wedge-tailed and other white-bellied shearwaters distinguished by flight syle and white underwing.

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Fiji Petrel Pseudobulweria macgillivrayi

Plate 17

other name MacGillivray’s Petrel. taxonomy Monotypic. Distribution Critically endangered petrel of Fiji

known only from Gau I. where breeding may occur ? throughout year. Recorded at sea near Gau and from 200km north of Gau but believed to disperse to pelagic waters far from the island. behaviour Solitary and highly pelagic. Jizz Small all-dark Pseudobulweria that probably has similar jizz to a small, squarer- and shorter-tailed Tahiti Petrel. size TL 30cm. Larger than Bulwer’s and similar in size to Collared but smaller than any other dark petrel or shearwater occurring in range. Plumage Dark chocolate-brown all over, perhaps darker around face. Silvery sheen to flight feathers and outer wing-coverts gives pale lustre to underwing in bright light. Newly fledged juveniles and possibly fresh-plumaged adults blacker, sooty-brown. Black bill; dark eye; pale blue tarsi; feet mostly black with pale blue patch on centre of inner web. moult anD wear Undescribed; probably similar to Tahiti Petrel. iDentiFiCation Smaller than any other dark petrel or shearwater occurring in range except Bulwer’s and dark-phase Collared Petrels. Bulwer’s has pale crescents on the upperwing surface and flies low over the sea with characteristic storm-petrel-like, erratic flight. Fiji probably flies more like a typical petrel with dynamic soaring and arcing flight. Dark-phase Collared Petrel has typical rounder-winged, small-billed, cookilaria jizz, paler underwing (either white or washed pale brown), and (usually) pale forehead and throat. Black Anous minutus and Brown A. stolidus Noddies are similar in size and colour to Fiji Petrel but have white caps and different flight.

gaDFly Petrels A monophyletic group of small to medium-sized, mainly tropical and subtropical seabirds with the following features in common: short, comparatively deep-based black bills; long, relatively rounded, narrow or relatively broad-based wings; tapering, slightly wedge-shaped tails. Plumage of many characterised by dark brown or black primaries and median/greater coverts, which in flight form an open M that continues across the lower back and rump. The underparts are largely white and the underwings variable. They fly with carpals held well forward, and in moderate to strong winds typically have a remarkable, highly manoeuvrable flight consisting of rapid, towering arcs and strong glides, appearing almost to bound through the air. They breed mainly on undisturbed offshore islands and remote islets. Gadfly petrels are amongst the most truly oceanic of birds, coming to land only to breed. Given the complexities of identifying Pterodroma petrels, we have tried to limit our discussions to the principal characters visible in the field, and have especially attempted to emphasise each species’ most pertinent and diagnostic characters and point out pitfalls and problems, in the hope that observers can use these in order to build their own storehouse of impressions of the different forms. The difficulties of identification at sea should never be underestimated; differences in face and underwing markings are often difficult to see as birds fly past rapidly and erratically, often at distance and sometimes in unhelpful weather and lighting conditions. The appearance of upperwings and upperparts varies considerably according to light, distance and angle of view, plumage wear, bleaching and state of moult. Structural or jizz differences are also difficult to appreciate because flight patterns vary in response to wind direction and strength. Variation related to sex and age can be even more difficult to assess, as information is decidedly incomplete for many forms and several species. Even measurements of a bird in the hand cannot always be reliably used to sex or even identify some of these taxa, there being very considerable overlap in many measurements. In summary, nothing compensates for time spent gaining field experience with this group.

Cookilaria petrels

These 10 (or 11) small to medium-sized gadfly petrels are so similar in plumage that here we have chosen to give a generalised description of a typical member of the group and then highlight distinctive differences in the plumage text. Identification of this group poses similar challenges to that of separation of the prions, and in many cases, especially with less than perfect views, identification may only be possible to group. Range is useful in separating some species but be aware that due to the difficulties in identification, vagrancy is poorly known. Taxonomy of this group is also poorly understood, with the tropical species being especially confusing.

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a generalised description of cookilaria plumage All species have a similar plumage, the main features of which are as follows: pale forehead and lores; darker crown and neck collar; medium-grey upperparts with a darker M marking visible across upperwings and rump in flight; underwing white, with variable pattern of dark markings, though all have a dark trailing edge to the outerwing; dark wing-tip and some dark extending from the elbow to the centre of the armpit. All but darkphase Mottled and Collared have pure white underparts. Uppertail mainly grey, often with a darker tip and paler webs to outer tail feathers. All species have fairly uniform dark bills typical of pterodromas, that vary only slightly in depth and width so are rarely useful for identification. Eyes are always dark; legs and feet are flesh-coloured or blue-grey with grey or flesh-coloured webs and variable amounts of black on the toes.

the general cookilaria jizz

Compared to other petrels, wings are relatively short, and appear rather rounded. They are held stiffly out from the body and are slightly bowed, even when gliding. The tail is long for a petrel and is usually described as gently rounded or wedge-shaped, but in some individuals appears square. Flight typical of Pterodroma petrels with high sweeping arcs, rhythmically rocking from side-to-side in a pendulum motion. In strong winds, flight fast and swooping on bowed, angled wings. Even in good light and calm conditions distinguishing features can be difficult to ascertain in fleeting sightings of these fast-flying species. Experience and an ability to pick out the critical identification features quickly are helpful. Things to look for when identifying cookilarias, in order of priority: • • • • • • • •

Underwing pattern Crown and neck pattern Forehead pattern Comparative tail length Presence or absence of dark tail-tip Presence or absence of pale feathers on outer margin of tail Conspicuousness of M marking across wings Presence or absence of white supercilium

Much has been written about the comparative size differences of the 10 species, but with the exception of Mottled, which is much larger, overall size is rarely much help in identification. However, the relative measurements of, for example, tail to wing can often give an idea of jizz and shape which in some cases, for example long-winged, short-tailed Cook’s, is a relatively easy way to identify a species. Comparison of size and proportions in the table below are mostly from Marchant & Higgins (1990). SPECIES Chatham Is. Black-winged Bonin Mottled Gould’s New Caledonia Cook’s Pycroft’s Collared DeFilippi’s Stejneger’s

TOTAL LENGTH (cm)

WING (cm)

WINGSPAN (cm)

WEIGHT (g)

TAIL LENGTH (cm)

30 28–30 34–35 30 30 32 25–30 28 30 29 26–31

20.0–22.0 21.5–23.6 24.2–27.1 21.6–23.7 21.3–23.8 21.8–23.2 22.3–24.5 20.7–22.9 20.3–21.8 22.9–24.1 19.8–22.0

65 63–71 85 63–71 70–71

165–231 170–200 315 204 (152–308) 134–220

9.1–9.8 9.9–10.5 10.1

65 53 71 66 53

175 (112–250) 127–201

Chatham Islands Petrel Pterodroma axillaris

8.5–10.2 9.2–9.6 8.7–9.3 8.8–10.2 9.3 10.1 9.7–10.7

Plate 23

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endangered petrel endemic to Chatham Is. Breeds (eggs December) only on South-East I.

although recently attempts have been made to reintroduce it to adjacent Pitt I. Probably forages southeast of Chathams during breeding but not known whether migratory or dispersive. beHavIour Probably solitary and highly pelagic. JIZZ Medium-sized cookilaria. Jizz said to be similar to Black-winged but this is probably incorrect. Chatham is relatively longer-bodied with shorter, narrower wings than Black-winged and is likely to look different at sea.

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Size TL 30cm; W 20–22cm; WS 63–71cm; WT 165– 231g. Male probably slightly larger than female. Plumage Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily in underwing pattern, having striking black armpit covering much of innerwing-coverts and axillaries, leaving only narrow mottled white patch along the leading edge of underwing. Black extends to the elbow in a broad, dark, diagonal line and continues onto outerwing along leading edge. Undersides of outer ends of flight feathers dark grey, forming indistinct black wing-tip. ? Has dark M but this is indistinct since much of the upperwings are dark. Darker feathers of M often extend well down onto upper rump. Tail has broad dark tip. Crown and broad collar slightly darker than rest of upperparts. Prominent black eye-stripe beginning at ear and extending just forward of eye. Traces of a white supercilium usually visible over front of eye. Stout black bill, bluish-pink legs and feet with variable pink and black webs and mostly black toes. Young birds recognised by relatively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted plumage in late summer. moult and wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown and M on upperwing becomes even less distinct. Adults moult body during chick-rearing and moult flight feathers immediately after breeding. identiFiCation Easily told from all other pterodromas if black armpit is seen. If underwing not seen well, Black-winged (which also breeds on Chatham Is.) difficult to separate.

Black-winged Petrel Pterodroma nigripennis

Plate 23

taxonomy Monotypic. diStriBution Tropical and subtropical south Pacific

Ocean. Breeding (annually, eggs December–January) on islands off New Caledonia; islands off Lord Howe I.; Philip I. (Norfolk Is.), Cape Maria van Dieman, Portland and East Is. (North Island, New Zealand), all islands of Kermadec group, Three Kings, SouthEast, Mangere, Star Keys (Chatham Is.), Tubuai, Rapa (Austral group) and probably off northeast Queensland and New South Wales. Probably forages near breeding islands during summer. Disperses through south central Pacific west to northeast Australia, north to 31°N southeast of Japan, east to Baja California and Central America, and south to Galápagos and Peru. Behaviour Gregarious but rarely follows ships and not readily attracted to offal or trawlers. Flight similar to other pterodromas but comparatively rapid and strong; will soar extremely high and hang motionless, head into wind. Jizz Long-tailed, slim-bodied, medium-sized cookilaria with long, relatively broad wings and rather short, rounded outer wing. More manoeuvrable than other cookilarias, in strong winds rocking erratically and rapidly from side to side. Size TL 28–30cm; W 21.5–23.6cm; WS 63–71cm, WT 170–200g. Larger and bulkier than Cook’s and Pycroft’s, but smaller than Soft-plumaged. Male probably larger than female. Plumage Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily in having broad black triangular mark on inner underwing from elbow nearly to armpit. Upperparts somewhat variable. Typically, crown darker grey than body; dark eye-stripe shorter and less obvious than in other species as colour similar to crown, but some have pale grey crown and obvious dark eye-patch. Reasonably prominent collar often nearly encompasses neck. Most show obvious white supercilium extending nearly to bill where it becomes more indistinct due to dark flecks generally present in front of eye. M marking on upperwings and back can be prominent, highlighted by paler secondaries, or indistinct in almost completely dark upperwing. Extension of M marking across back may extend down onto rump. Rump and uppertail same or paler than back. Distinct dark tail-tip. May show white edges to outer tail feathers when tail spread. Young birds recognised by relatively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted plumage in late summer.

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moult aND Wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown and head colour becomes similar to rest of body. M

marking on upperwing becomes less distinct. Adults moult body during chick-rearing and moult flight feathers immediately after breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark mark on underwing longer and broader than on other cookilarias except Chatham Islands, Bonin and Mottled Petrels. Chatham Islands Petrel has considerably larger dark patch on armpit, and when underwing pattern seen well separation of two species is simple. For further features see Chatham Islands Petrel. Bonin Petrel has a large, dark patch on outer underwing as well as inner and blacker head. Mottled is considerably larger with a dusky belly patch. If the underwing is not seen well Cook’s and Pycroft’s may, with practice, be identified by smaller size, narrower wings and shorter tails; De Filippi’s may be identified by longer tail lacking dark tip; and Gould’s and Stejneger’s Petrels by much darker heads.

mottled Petrel Pterodroma inexpectata taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to New Zealand. Breeds (eggs

Plate 23

late December) on islands off Fiordland, Solander Is., islands in Foveaux Strait, islands around Stewart I. (including Big South Cape group, Titi Is., Codfish, and islets in Port Pegasus) with small numbers on Snares Is. On the mainland, a small number remains on an island in Lake Hauroko, Southland. May forage as far as ice edge during breeding season and majority of population may disperse to Indo-Pacific Antarctic ice as far east as Prydz Bay in late summer to begin moult. Transequatorial migrant in non-breeding season, spending boreal summer in far north Pacific and Gulf of Alaska, generally along central subarctic front, though also numerous in Bering Sea. Recorded California, Oregon, Washington state, British Columbia, Galápagos, eastern tropical Pacific, Chile (south to Drake Passage and Tierra del Fuego), with a recent record southeast of Falklands. Accidental to southeast Australia. beHavIour Strictly pelagic, rarely seen near land. Large flocks of tens of thousands seen foraging along ice edge. Occasionally seen following boats but never behind trawlers. JIZZ Very large robust body yet comparatively short-winged and short-tailed. Typical cookilaria flight but more direct and less aecrobatic and manoeuvrable due to larger size. sIZe TL 34–35cm; W 24.2–27.1cm; WS 85cm; WT 315g. Largest cookilaria, intermediate between rest of cookilarias and large black-and-white pterodromas of tropics. Only slightly smaller than Great-winged and White-headed Petrels and Sooty Shearwater. PlumaGe Least typical cookilaria (see group account on p. 161–162). Differs from other cookilaria species primarily in having dusky patch on belly, and upper breast which sometimes appears almost sepia coloured. Dark patch may wear off during breeding season, especially from upper breast, but is never lost completely. Underwing has narrow dark margin to trailing edge and tip with wide dark boomerang-shaped mark from carpal onto inner wing. Small white patch on forehead with variable amount of dusky flecking and short, indistinct white supercilium. Dark mark principally behind eye; rest of face and chin white. Crown and nape slate-grey, merging into paler, medium-grey mantle. All feathers of upperparts scalloped with white fringes when fresh. Broad black M across upperwing and lower back. In fresh plumage juveniles and immatures have more conspicuous white edges to grey feathers than adults, less white mottling around face and a more variable dark patch on underparts. moult aND Wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown and head colour becomes similar to rest of body. M on upperwing becomes less distinct as whole of upperwing darkens. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Some flight feathers moulted in Antarctic waters immediately following breeding then moult suspended until completion of migration to north Pacific. IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark belly diagnostic in southern oceans. Width and shape of dark, boomerang-shaped mark on underwing also distinctive. Black-winged underwing is similar but marking is triangular, becoming gradually thinner, whereas Mottled’s is square, although this is not important since if you can see this you should also be able to see belly! Surprisingly, the biggest identification problem at any distance is with Whiteheaded Petrel, which has similar upperparts and jizz and is easily mistaken for Mottled when flying away. Also, Mottled has so much white on the face that in bright light it can look very white-headed. Whiteheaded is slightly larger and has all-dark underwing. The only other Pterodroma with a dusky belly, the darker form of Collared, may overlap in distribution during Mottled’s migration. Collared is considerably smaller

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and narrower-winged, with more buoyant, jerky flight; a dark cap that contrasts with grey mantle; and much less obvious, narrower dark mark on inner underwing. Other than belly patch, useful distinctions from other cookilarias include size and flight.

bonin Petrel Pterodroma hypoleuca

Plate 23

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Subtropical western and central north

Pacific. Breeds (eggs January–February) in Northwestern Hawaiian islands, from French Frigate Shoals to Kure Atoll, except for Gardner Pinnacles; also, Volcano and Bonin Is. south of Japan. Disperses widely over central and western Pacific to about 35–40°N from July through April. Hawaiian population move northwest towards Japan whilst majority of Japanese population apparently moves north to waters off Sanriku and east Honshu. Vagrants in north Mariana Is., Taiwan, Japan and Sakhalin. beHavIour Solitary and pelagic; does not follow ships. JIZZ Typical cookilaria flight, fast and erratic on downcurved wings with slightly bent elbows. sIZe TL 30cm; W 21.6–23.7cm; WS 63–71cm; WT 152–308g. Intermediate-sized cookilaria similar to Blackwinged in dimensions but on average slightly heavier. Male slightly larger than female. PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily by having underwing with distinctive triangular, smudgy-black patch on leading edge of the outerwing. The underwing has comparatively broad black trailing edge and comparatively short black bar extending diagonally from elbow inward across inner underwing. Forehead and front of crown generally mainly white, merging into grey-black crown, nape, hindneck, and sides of face. Dark grey extends down sides of breast, forming partial collar. Rest of upperparts dull blue-grey, feathers narrowly fringed white, creating faint scaly effect. In fresh plumage, back appears silverygrey with sooty-grey head, neck and flight feathers. Upperwing darker than back, and M mark on wings difficult to discern on dark wing. Black patch across lower back extends in obvious V on upper rump. Rump and tail usually entirely blackish-grey, though in some as pale as back with darker tip. Legs and feet pink and black. Young birds can also be recognised by relatively worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted plumage in late summer. moult aND Wear Grey feathers wear to greyish-brown, and head and wings becomes closer to rest of body in coloration. Adults moult body during chick-rearing; flight feathers moulted immediately after breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinctive underwing pattern of broad black bar across inner wing and black patch on outer wing, plus black crown, generally distinguish Bonin from other cookilarias. In addition, Black-winged has light grey collar that extends further down breast; Chatham Islands Petrel has black underwing bar extending to base of wing and axillaries; significantly larger Mottled has dark grey belly. Paler forms of Collared could look very similar and best separated by underwing pattern. Cook’s, Stejneger’s and Gould’s are smaller, have relatively narrow black borders to white underwing, bluer-grey feet, and different head patterns. Galápagos is much larger, darker above, with longer wings and narrower black border to white underwing. Hawaiian Petrel is larger, with longer wing and browner upperparts lacking M mark.

Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera

Plate 24

taxoNomy Two subspecies. Nominate leucoptera breeds in very small numbers off southeast Australia; race caledonica, the New Caledonia Petrel, in New Caledonia. Separation at sea very difficult but differences in biology suggest that they may well be separate species. DIstrIbutIoN Southwest Pacific Ocean migrating to central eastern Pacific. Nominate leucoptera breeds (eggs Oct–Nov) only on Cabbage Tree I., New South Wales, though chicks have recently been transferred to nearby Boondelbah I. Race caledonica breeds (possibly throughout year) only in the mountains of Grand Terre, New Caledonia (at least six breeding sites of 100–200 pairs are known between Mts Dzumac and Poya, at 400–650m) and perhaps Vanuatu. Probably forages south huge distances from islands during breeding season, as seen in Tasman Sea to 45°S, south of Tasmania in summer and east as far as South Australia. Migrates into tropical Pacific after breeding to 10°N and east to 90°W, south of Galápagos.

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beHavIour Solitary or in small loose groups. Does not follow ships. JIZZ Medium-sized short-tailed cookilaria. In stronger winds, flight appears slower than other cookilarias but still typically nimble and erratic with rapid banking turns, long periods of gliding and dynamic soaring up to 10m. sIZe TL 30–31cm; W 21.3–23.8cm; WS 70–71cm; WT 134–220g. Slightly smaller than Black-winged. Male slightly larger than female. PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily in black-brown crown, nape, area above eye, sides of neck and breast, and upper mantle, forming a distinctive half-hood that is cleanly demarked from a white face and forehead. Some nominate Gould’s have a complete collar joining narrowly across foreneck while caledonica does not. Both subspecies have a white forehead and face beneath eye and throat. Upperparts and upperwing medium brownish-grey, paler grey on mantle, upper back and outer secondaries but dark M across spread wings not particularly prominent. Hood and rump to tail usually appear much darker than greyish mantle and upper back. Short, rounded tail with dark tip. Outer tail feathers mostly dark in nominate, whiter in caledonica. Underwing with typical cookilaria tick-mark, though this is neither particularly prominent nor indistinct. moult aND Wear In worn plumage upperparts more uniform greyish-brown. Adults moult body during chickrearing, flight feathers immediately after breeding. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer. IDeNtIFICatIoN Population on Cabbage Tree I. tiny, thus majority of birds seen in Tasman Sea must be of race caledonica. On average, slightly larger caledonica is paler than nominate, with less extensive dark hood and less contrast between hood and back, a narrower dark tip to the tail, whiter underwing and more white on outer tail feathers. Given exceptional views inner web of outer tail feathers are white in caledonica and speckled grey in nominate, thus caledonica more likely to show noticeable white edges to tail. Dark head of Gould’s should allow easy separation from other cookilarias in southwest Pacific, but may be confused with Stejneger’s in eastern Pacific. Black-winged smaller and slighter with much more obvious tick-mark on underwing, whilst Cook’s is paler blue-grey on top with a prominent M, and is slightly larger and bulkier, broad-necked and large-headed, with proportionately broader, longer wings. Pycroft’s is never as black-hooded as Gould’s, and De Filippi’s is a much paler bird in all respects. Separation from Stejneger’s is difficult and many are probably not separable. Stejneger’s is paler on the wing and blue-grey rather than dusky-grey. The M marking on Stejneger’s is more prominent than on either Gould’s race, and the demarcation between the hood and back is less abrupt. Jizz is more important than any other identification feature. Stejneger’s is long tailed with comparatively long wings whilst Gould’s is short-tailed. For separation from Collared see that species.

Cook’s Petrel Pterodroma cookii taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic.

Plates 22, 23

Majority of population breeds (eggs October– December) on Little Barrier I., with small population on Codfish I. off Stewart Is. Unsuccessful breeding attempts on Great Barrier I. During breeding season majority of population forages in subtropical New Zealand waters, flying across North Island to forage in Tasman Sea. During summer occasionally recorded off New South Wales. Individuals (presumably) from Codfish I. population seen in south Tasman Sea and along Otago coast and Chatham Rise. Migrates to north Pacific to at least 34°N north of Hawaii, and to 46°N off Aleutian Is. In the eastern Pacific occurs between Baja California and Chile, apparently most common off Peru. beHavIour Generally solitary but vast flocks seen in Hauraki Gulf leaving Little Barrier I. in early morning. Flight typical of cookilarias, flying in high arcs with short bursts of rapid wingbeats. In strong wind flight may

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be erratic, with sudden sharp changes in direction, steeper arcs and less gliding. May land briefly around pelagic tour boats in calm weather but generally does not follow boats. Not attracted to trawlers JIZZ Medium-sized, short-tailed, long-winged cookilaria. Body stout and bulky, with a short, wide neck and large head. sIZe TL 30cm; W 22.3–24.5cm; WS 65–66cm; WT 220g. Larger than Pycroft’s and smaller than caledonica Gould’s. Female smaller than male. PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from other cookilaria species primarily in uniformity of upperpart coloration with pale blue-grey head merging into similarly coloured back and rump. M marking obvious and highlighted by pale flight feathers. Upper rump has some dark feathers but rarely as prominent as other species. Neck collar indistinct, rarely reaching any distance down sides of neck. Indistinct variable narrow white supercilium may extend from behind eye nearly to lores. Most have small dark eye-patch around, below and behind eye, but earcoverts pale as rest of crown. Tail has dark tip to central feathers that may be lost with wear, and inner web of outer tail feathers is whitish, causing sides of tail to appear pale in some lights and at some angles. Underwing has variable, but usually small, short black tick-mark at carpal. Legs and feet fleshy, tinged blue, with black toes and darker webs. Newly fledged juveniles are very pale blue-grey, and young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer. moult aND Wear M marking across back becomes less prominent as upperwings darken. Grey feathers of head and back become greyish-brown and in some birds crown can become darker than back. Adults moult body during chick rearing, flight feathers immediately following breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN In northern New Zealand, separation on water from Pycroft’s problematic. Typical freshplumaged Pycroft’s has dusky-grey head, nape and mantle whilst the head and mantle of Cook’s are generally paler and have a distinctly blue tone. In worn plumage both species can have crowns darker than back. However, plumage colour and tone varies with light conditions, plumage wear and moult and should never be used as the sole source of separation. Pycroft’s is slightly smaller overall with a shorter, less robust bill than Cook’s. Close up, Pycroft’s can be seen to have a larger, more prominent white forehead while Cook’s is more likely to show a white supercilium and on the water, at very close range, it may be possible to distinguish Cook’s pinker legs from Pycroft’s bluish-flesh legs. Pycroft’s usually has a more noticeable dark eye-patch that extends further below and behind the eye. Pycroft’s collar is generally darker than Cook’s and extends further down the sides of the neck. In flight, jizz is useful: Pycroft’s is 2–3cm shorter than Cook’s and has shorter, slightly more rounded wings. However, the most significant structural difference is in tail length: Cook’s averages about 90mm; Pycroft’s is nearer 100mm on a smaller bird, thus – relatively – Pycroft’s gives the impression of being ‘all tail’. Cook’s best separated from slightly larger Black-winged by underwing pattern. On migration, Cook’s overlaps with most other cookilarias; see those species for separation.

Pycroft’s Petrel Pterodroma pycrofti

Plate 22

taxoNomy Monotypic. Sometimes regarded as a race of Stejneger’s. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic. Breeding (eggs November–December) on Poor Knights Is., Hen and Chicken Is., Mercury Is., Stephenson Is., all off northeast New Zealand, and recently introduced to Cuvier I. Migration and dispersal poorly known mainly due to identification problems. Has been reported in equatorial Pacific east to 110°W. Banded bird recently reported from northern New Guinea. beHavIour Solitary, though often in small groups on sea near breeding islands. Flight typical of cookilarias, flying in high arcs with short bursts of rapid wingbeats. In strong wind, flight may be erratic, with sudden sharp changes in direction, steeper arcs and less gliding. May land briefly around pelagic tour boats in calm weather but generally does not follow boats. Not attracted to trawlers. JIZZ Small to medium-sized, long-tailed cookilaria. Body rather stout and bulky, with a short, wide neck and large head, and narrow, slightly rounded wings. Pycroft’s appears to sit lower on the water with less of underparts exposed than Cook’s, and somehow the darker hood gives it a more compact appearance. sIZe TL 28cm; W 20.7–22.9cm; WS 53cm; WT 127–201g. One of the smaller cookilarias. Female probably slightly smaller than male. PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Very similar to Cook’s, differing mainly in having darker grey head merging into

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similarly coloured back and rump. White forehead usually prominent and supercilium, if present, very short and narrow. Neck collar reasonably wide, extending a little way down sides of neck but never complete. Very narrow white supercilium above eye. Small dark eye-patch around, below and behind eye merging into ear-coverts which are variable but usually paler, occasionally forming a pale notch. Upper rump usually has small triangle of black feathers. Tail dark-tipped, and inner web of outer tail feathers smudged grey so that outer tail is less likely to appear as pale as Cook’s. Underwing has small, black tick-mark at carpal, which on average is slightly more extensive than Cook’s. Legs and feet fleshy blue with variable fleshy markings, and black toes and webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer. moult aND Wear M marking across back becomes less prominent as upperwings darken. Grey feathers of head and back become greyish-brown and in some birds crown can become darker than back. Adults moult body during chick-rearing and flight feathers immediately following breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN For separation from Cook’s see that species. For differences from De Filippi’s and Stejneger’s, both of which may occur in same areas on migration, see respective texts. Both Chatham Islands and Blackwinged Petrels are larger, have more obvious grey collars and far more extensive black markings and broader dark trailing edges to underwings.

Collared Petrel Pterodroma brevipes taxoNomy The most confusing of all the cookilarias.

Plate 24

Sometimes considered to form a superspecies with Gould’s and New Caledonian (which is raised to specific level); sometimes considered a subspecies of Gould’s. Treated here as a separate tropical cookilaria species. A larger form of Collared may exist in the Solomon Islands. DIstrIbutIoN A very poorly known cookilaria found only in central eastern Pacific. Known to breed (dates uncertain) only in Fiji on Gau and Kadavu. May breed on Ovalau and the main islands of Fiji, in Western Samoa, Tau (American Samoa), Rarotonga (Cook Islands), south Vanuatu and Makira (Solomon Is.). The specific identity of a small colony on Raivavae, Austral Is., is unclear; location of this colony would suggest it is likely to be Collared but appearance and vocalisations suggest it is Gould’s. Probably forages near breeding islands while raising chicks. Some populations may be sedentary but probably disperse along the South Equatorial Current and Equatorial Counter Current between 10°N and 10°S as far east as Galápagos Is. Possible record from Phoenix Is. beHavIour Solitary; does not follow ships. JIZZ Medium sized, polymorphic cookilaria, probably with relatively short, broad wings and rather long graduated, quite pointed tail. Bill looks short and slight. sIZe TL 30cm; WS 71cm. Similar to Gould’s PlumaGe Polymorphic with light and dark forms and a range of intermediates. Legs and feet vary with phase from light grey to intense blue, distally black. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in late summer. Pale phase Typical cookilaria. Very similar to Gould’s. Palest Collared has pale crescent extending up into dark collar behind eye but others have hood like nominate Gould’s. Has slightly wider black leading edge to outer underwing, larger black tick-mark on elbow of underwing and dark inner webs to outer tail feathers. Extent of dark on trailing edge and tip of underwing is slightly greater. Intermediate phase Like pale phase except extent of dark brown on underparts varies. Some only have slightly more dark on collar or complete rather than partial collars whilst others have smudgy-brown belly, flanks, vent and undertail. In all, underwing markings slightly more ill-defined, being smudgy at edges. Dark phase Uniformly dark chocolate-brown underparts with prominent white throat. Upperparts slightly darker. Pale underwings usually similar to intermediate phase, but darker examples may have dusky wash across white covert feathers. moult aND Wear Dark-grey feathers of head and back wear to greyish-brown, and M on back becomes less prominent. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing, and flight feathers moulted immediately following breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark-phase birds not likely to be confused with anything in range due to small size, presence of white throat and predominantly white underwing. Intermediate phases separable from all cookilarias except

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some Black-winged by complete brown collar, but Black-winged has larger dark tick-mark on underwing. Some browner-bellied birds may be confused with Mottled but latter is considerably larger with paler upperparts and large boomerang-shaped marking on underwing. Intermediate phases of Herald and Kermadec easily told by pattern of underwing. Pale phase very difficult to separate from Gould’s but Collared has wider black trailing edge to underwing, smaller black tick-mark on elbow of underwing and dark inner webs to outer tail feathers.

De Filippi’s Petrel Pterodroma defilippiana

Plate 22

otHer Name Mas a Tierra Petrel taxoNomy Sometimes considered a subspecies of

Cook’s but given different biology, winter breeding and morphology this is incorrect. DIstrIbutIoN Chilean breeding endemic. Breed (eggs May–June) San Ambrosio and San Félix (Des Venturadas Is.) Santa Clara Is. and islets off Robinson Crusoe (Mas a Tierra) in Juan Fernandez Is. It ranges at sea in the nearby Humboldt and Peru Currents, south of Galápagos Is. beHavIour Solitary. Entirely diurnal on breeding grounds. Does not follow ships and not attracted to chum or offal. JIZZ Small to medium-sized cookilaria with relatively long, wedge-shaped tail. Remarkably adept flier and around breeding grounds maybe the most manoeuvrable of all pterodromas. Less bull-necked than Cook’s and Pycroft’s, and tail unusually broad and often splayed during manoeuvres. sIZe TL 26–29cm; W 22.9–24.1cm; WS 66cm; WT ? Female marginally smaller than male. PlumaGe Typical cookilaria. Differs from Cook’s in the following features: tail uniformly grey without dark tip. Bold white forehead, lores and short supercilium that does not extend behind the eye. Large black eye-patch (like a burglar’s mask) often made more obvious by white ear-coverts and well-developed grey collar. Inner webs of outer tail feathers have grey spotting on predominantly white background. Underwing has slightly broader dark trailing and leading edges and larger black tick-mark at carpal than Cook’s. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late winter moult aND Wear Grey feathers of head and back wear to pale sooty-brown and M on back becomes less prominent as upperwing darkens. Adults moult body during chick-rearing and flight feathers immediately following breeding. IDeNtIFICatIoN De Filippi’s is best distinguished by long, relatively wide, wedge-shaped tail that lacks a dark tip, facial pattern and well-developed grey collar. The statement that De Filippi’s has a deep-based bill in some descriptions is based on a small non-representative samples of measurements. In fact, the bill is a similar depth to Stejneger’s and thus, as it is longer, De Filippi’s bill looks less stout (not more so). It does not have a chunky or robust appearance (contra Shirahai 2004) but is in fact amongst the slightest of the cookilarias. Because it is relatively short-winged and long-tailed it is closer in jizz to Pycroft’s, Stejneger’s and Gould’s than to longer-winged and shorter-tailed Cook’s.

stejneger’s Petrel Pterodroma longirostris

Plate 22

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Chilean endemic breeder. Only breeding (eggs November–December) at high altitude on Ale-

jandro Selkirk I. (Mas Afuera) in the Juan Fernandez group. Probably confined to area around Juan Fernandez and adjacent Chilean coast (south to 49°S) during breeding. Migrates to north-east Pacific in April–June. There may be a clockwise movement through the north Pacific in late summer and autumn, with birds recorded off California. Vagrant to New Zealand but no Australian records. beHavIour Solitary, rarely following boats and not attracted to chum or offal. JIZZ A small to medium-sized, long-tailed, small-billed cookilaria with relatively short, narrow wings. Flight reported both as being the fastest of the group and also languid, having a slower and less erratic flight pattern than De Filippi’s. sIZe TL 28cm; W 21.6–23.0cm; WS 66cm; WT ?. Similar size to Pycroft’s; smaller than Black-winged and Cook’s.

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Plumage Typical cookilaria. Differs from others

by combination of extensive white, sparsely flecked forehead that generally reaches back to just above the eye. No white supercilium. Dark dusky black eye-patch merges into dark cap and nape, resulting in dark-headed appearance contrasting with paler dark bluish-grey upperparts. Most have white notch that curves up into dark hood behind eye, but in a few the demarcation between dark cap and white throat is straighter. In fresh plumage black M marking across upperwings is comparatively prominent, but dark smudge on upper rump indistinct. Underwing variable but usually relatively white with narrow dark trailing and leading edges and tip and small, short black tickmark at carpal, similar to Cook’s, although broader and longer in some. Tail dark greyish-blue with prominent dark tail-tip and little white on inner webs of outer tail feathers. Legs and feet pale flesh, legs with dark smudging at joints; black toes with flesh or flesh-grey webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and freshly moulted appearance in late summer. moult and wear Grey feathers of head and back wear to paler sooty-brown and M marking on back becomes less prominent as upperwing darkens. Whole of upperparts can look quite dark. Adults moult body during chickrearing and flight feathers over a long period following breeding and migration (April–September), IdentIFICatIon Probably best identified by combination of smaller dark markings on underwing, prominent white forehead contrasting with dark cap and short-winged, long-tailed jizz. Most have white crescent between dark eye-patch and strongly marked collar, but these features and the extent of dark markings on the underwing are variable. Most likely to look very similar to paler-phase Collared but has more prominent white forehead, smaller dark markings on underwing and ranges are not known to overlap.

the large, subtropical Pterodroma petrels

These six medium-sized gadfly petrels have similar plumage and jizz. Herald, Trindade and Kermadec Petrels have pale phases. Identification of this group poses similar challenges to that of separation of the cookilarias, but as long as the key features mentioned below are seen, then identification to species is possible: • • • • •

Do they show white primary shafts in upperwing? Where are the white patches on the underwing? Is there any white visible on the face and where is it? Is an M marking visible on the back? How long is the tail, and what shape is it?

SPECIES Phoenix Herald Trindade Henderson Kermadec Murphy’s Providence

Phoenix Petrel Pterodroma alba

TOTAL LENGTH (cm)

WING (cm)

WINGSPAN (cm)

WEIGHT (g)

35 34–39 37–40 35 38 40 40

26.5–29.1 26.5–30.0 27.5–30.9 28.0 27.6–30.9 26.5–29.0 29.6–32.3

83 88–102 95–103 ? 92 97 95–105

269 287 (260–320) 393 (287–460) ? 405 (310–590 375–435 500

Plate 17

taxonomy Monotypic. dIstrIbutIon Tropical and subtropical central Pacific Ocean. Breeds (annually, no fixed breeding season) on

Canton I. (Phoenix group), islets of Ua Pou, Fatu Huku and Hatutaa (Marquesas group), Kiritimati (Line Is.), Ono I. (Pitcairn group.). Status on Tuamotu and Tonga uncertain. Disperses into equatorial Pacific, north to 25°N north of Hawaiian Is. and south-west to Kermadec group. A few sight records from Fiji, Kermadec group. and near Galápagos Is.

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JIZZ Similar to the Pseudobulweria petrels Tahiti and

Beck’s in plumage, but with Herald-like jizz and typical Pterodroma flight. sIZe TL 35cm; W 26.5–29.1cm; WS 83cm; WT 269g. Medium-sized Pterodroma, similar in size to Herald with marginally shorter wings, but smaller than Magenta. PlumaGe Uniform chocolate-brown head, neck, upper breast, upperparts, upperwing and tail. Mottled white may be visible on chin and throat and become more visible with wear. White lower breast sharply demarcated from head, with white belly and undertail, though tip of undertail often has some dark flecking. Flanks white or variably and patchily marked darker. Underwing mostly dark brown, with thin white leading edge to inner wing that may reach carpal. Paler bases to flight feathers and coverts visible as pale crescent on outer wing, sometimes extending onto inner wing as paler central panel. Dark eye; black bill; fleshpink legs; feet pink proximally, black distally. Separation of immatures from adults by differing moult schedules not possible as there is no fixed breeding season. moult aND Wear Chocolate-brown feathers wear to paler sooty-brown. With wear white on chin and throat becomes more obvious. Adults moult body feathers during chick-rearing and flight feathers at any time of year following breeding and dispersal. IDeNtIFICatIoN Plumage similar to Tahiti and Magenta Petrels. For separating Tahiti see that text. Magenta is larger and heavier, dark grey-brown, not chocolate-brown, above with a larger bill and a longer, wider, wedgeshaped tail. Magenta more likely to have white on face and even show a short, white supercilium. Underside of outer flight feathers of Magenta more silvery and reflective, appearing as pale flash on outer underwing. Similarly plumaged intermediate-phase Kermadec and Herald Petrels have more white on the underwing, especially on the outerwing, and tend to have dark undertail-coverts. Kermadec has white primary shafts on the upperwing.

Herald Petrel Pterodroma heraldica

Plates 16, 17, 20, 25

taxoNomy Herald and Trindade are extremely similar in appearance and have been the subject of considerable taxonomic debate. Taxonomic resolution has been hampered by the considerable plumage variation – both are polymorphic and occur in dark and white-bellied morphs, as well as intermediate forms. To further complicate matters birds previously identified as dark-phase Herald Petrels on Henderson I. have been described as a separate species. DIstrIbutIoN Breeds (eggs mostly Mar-Sep) on Raine Island and possibly other small cays in the Coral Sea; Chesterfield Reefs (New Caledonia); Tau I. (Samoa); Hunga Gp, Tonga; Ua Pu, Tahuata (Marquesas Is), Gambier I.; Easter I.; Ducie, Henderson (Pitcairn Is.). Possibly breeds on Niuafoou (Tonga), Rarotonga (Cook Is.). Forages near breeding islands during breeding season. Disperses mostly south of the equator to 30°S but rarely, Oct-Jan, north to 40°N in central Pacific. Vagrant to Hawaii and Solomons. beHavIour Solitary, rarely follows ships not attracted to chum or offal. JIZZ Medium to large Pterodroma with large bill, narrow wings and long outerwing. In calmer conditions flight is floating. In strong winds flies with steep, high arcing dynamic soaring, flapping wings up to four times between soars. In higher winds wings become bowed. sIZe TL 34–39cm; W 26.5–30cm; WS 88–102cm; WT 287g (260–320g). PlumaGe Polymorphic, occurring in light, intermediate and dark phases, the ratios varying between populations. Although plumages of Herald are possibly complicated by partial albinism, the variety of intermediate plumages appears to be less in Herald than Trindade, at least in museum collections. Pale morph Head and neck mainly dark chocolate-brown, with variable amounts of whitish smudgy patches on forehead and near bill but lores, chin and throat white. Dark of head and neck extends to sides of upper breast, forming variable collar which may isolate white chin and throat from white underparts, and extends narrowly along sides of breast to flanks. Central undertail white, outer coverts blackish with

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white tips. Mantle and back dark, ash-brown, with paler greyer edges visible to feathers at close range; tail blackish brown. Upperwing darker than mantle, grey-brown, with faint M across wings and back only in fresh plumage; primary shafts dark. Underwing dark brown and grey, with whitish patch on outerwing formed by pale bases to primaries and coverts. Small dark crescent formed by tips to primary coverts varies in size and sometimes absent. Extension of pale panel onto innerwing varies with paleness of greater coverts and inner flight feathers. Thin white line on leading edge of inner underwing extending almost to carpal. Bill black, eye dark brown and legs and feet pinkish and black. Intermediate morph Generally as pale morph, but with darker head, upper breast and undertail-coverts, and variable amounts of brownish-grey mottling and smudging on lower breast and belly but with relatively clean-cut look and pale lores. Dark morph M mark on upperwing rarely visible except on immatures and juveniles when slightly darker M may be visible in certain lights. Head and body slate or chocolate-brown. Underwing usually darker with dark innerwing and reduced, more broken pale patch on outerwing. Thin white line along leading edge of innerwing still present. Legs and feet black. Throat usually patchy white and lores often still pale. moult aND Wear Chocolate-brown feathers wear to paler sooty-brown. With wear, white on chin and throat of darker birds becomes more obvious. Adults moult body feathers during chick-rearing, flight feathers at almost any time of year following breeding and dispersal. IDeNtIFICatIoN Separation of Herald from Trindade problematic but probably only an issue in western Indian Ocean. Trindade is a larger, heavier, less delicate-looking bird with a deeper, more robust bill, but assessment of such differences would require lots of experience. Lores, in all but the lightest Trindade, are usually dark, but pale on Herald. Paler forms of Trindade tend to have more white on the innerwing than Herald. See plumage above for other possible differences. It has been suggested that pale-morph Trindade has dark legs while Herald does not, but this feature need further examination. In tropical northeast Pacific dark-phase birds are just as likely to be Henderson as Herald. They are the same size and there are no known plumage differences. In all plumage phases, all three species are distinguishable from Kermadec by the lack of white primary shafts on upperwing, more delicate shape, longer and more pointed tail and more buoyant flight. Dark phases are blacker than Murphy’s with obvious white patch, rather than reflective gloss on outer underwing. Dark phases are also similar to Providence and Great-winged. Providence Petrel is considerably larger with a wedge-shaped tail, is grey-brown rather than chocolate brown, and has a paler face yet often appears dark-headed or hooded. Greatwinged is much larger and longer-winged with entirely dark underwing, though in bright light reflection from primaries may give the impression of pale patches. In light winds, when not soaring in typical Pterodroma fashion, dark morph Herald (and Henderson) can be mistaken for Sooty Shearwater or dark-morph skua, but absence of Sooty’s distinctive pattern of white on underwing and skua’s white on outer upperwing should separate them. See also Kerguelen and dark-morph Soft-plumaged Petrels.

trindade Petrel Pterodroma arminjoniana taxoNomy See discussion under Herald Petrel. DIstrIbutIoN Breeds on Round Island, near Mau-

Plates 20, 25

ritius in the Indian Ocean, and Trindade Island and Martin Vaz Rocks in the South Atlantic. Possibly breeds on North Keeling Island. Forages near the islands during breeding season and disperses throughout surrounding seas, possibly mainly north of the equator. Regularly seen off North Carolina (late May–late September). May reach Azores. The two widely separated breeding populations may warrant specific status. beHavIour Solitary; rarely follows ships and not attracted to chum or offal. JIZZ Medium to large Pterodroma with large bill, narrow wings and long outerwing. In calmer conditions flight is floating. In strong winds flies with steep, high arcing dynamic soaring, flapping wings up to four times between soars. In higher winds wings become bowed. sIZe TL 37–40cm; W 27.5–30.9cm; WS 95–103cm; WT 393g (287–460g). PlumaGe Polymorphic like Herald, occurring in light, intermediate and dark phases, the ratios varying between populations. Possible that intermediate plumages of Trindade are now, or maybe always were, rare, especially as a majority of birds recently seen off North America have been of the dark morph. Pale morph As Herald but Trindade may have dark legs. All but the very lightest birds have darker lores

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than Herald yet appear to have more white on inner underwings and bases of primary coverts. Intermediate morph As Herald but Trindade tends to have smudgier underparts and dark lores. Dark morph As Herald but Trindade tends to have dark lores and pale throat, although dark forms from Round I. appear to have entirely dark throats. . moult aND Wear As Herald Petrel. IDeNtIFICatIoN See Herald Petrel.

Henderson Petrel Pterodroma atrata

Plate 16

taxoNomy Birds previously identified as dark-phase Herald Petrels on Henderson I. have been described as a separate species, based on the fact they mate assortatively while dark- and light-morphs of French Polynesian populations of Herald Petrel interbreed. Recent genetic studies support specific status of Henderson Petrel. DIstrIbutIoN Breeds on Henderson Is and possibly elsewhere. Distribution at sea unknown, mainly because there is no known way of separating them from dark Herald at sea. beHavIour Solitary, rarely follows ships and not attracted to chum or offal. JIZZ Medium to large Pterodroma with large bill, narrow wings and long outerwing. In calmer conditions flight is ‘floating’. In strong winds flies with steep, high-arcing dynamic soaring, flapping wings up to four times between soars. In higher winds wings become bowed. sIZe TL 35cm; W 28cm; WS ?; WT ? PlumaGe Only occurs in dark phase, and it is not known how plumage differs (if at all) from dark morphs of Herald and, presumably, Trindade. Head and body slate or chocolate-brown, usually with patchy white throat and small pale patch on lores. Underwing dark with reduced, somewhat broken pale patch on outerwing. Thin white line along leading edge of innerwing. M on upperwing rarely visible except on immatures and juveniles, when slightly darker M may be visible in certain lights. Legs and feet black. moult aND Wear Not known but wear likely to be similar to dark phase Herald. IDeNtIFICatIoN In tropical northeast Pacific, dark phase birds are just as likely to be Henderson as Herald. They are the same size and there are no known plumage differences, so they may never be separable in the hand, let alone at sea! See identification of dark Herald Petrel for separation from other dark tropical Pterodromas.

Kermadec Petrel Pterodroma neglecta

Plates 16, 20, 25

taxoNomy Two subspecies are recognised: P. n. neglecta from south-west and central Pacific and the slightly larger P. n. juana of Juan Fernandez Is. and Desventuradas. DIstrIbutIoN A tropical south Pacific species. Breeds (eggs all year round, peaks in November and May) in Pacific on Santa Clara, Morro Juanango, Morro Verdugo (Juan Fernandez Is.); San Ambrosio and San Félix; Easter I.; Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, Oeno (Pitcairn Is.); Raoul, Macauley, North and South Meyer Is., Napier I., Nugent I., Dayrell I., North Chanter, South Chanter, West Chanter, Hazard, Curtis, Cheeseman, L’Esperance Rock (Kermadec group); Phillip I. (Norfolk group) Lord Howe I., Ball’s Pyramid (Lord Howe group); Ata (Tonga), Rapa, Mangareva and Morane (Austral and Tuamotu group) and in Indian Ocean on Round I. Probably forages near breeding islands whilst breeding and disperses to north Pacific, generally north of equator. Vagrant to mainland New Zealand and east coast of Australia and several records for Hawaiian Is. Unknown where small Round I. population may forage or disperse too. beHavIour Solitary pelagic; never follows boats. JIZZ Medium-sized Pterodroma with long broad wings, short squarish tail and relatively short, stubby bill. In light

173

winds, flight unhurried with deep wingbeats and long unhurried glides, banking in broad arcs. In stronger winds, develops classic Pterodroma dynamic soaring, often high into air. sIZe TL 38cm; W 27.6–30.9cm; WS 92cm; WT 370–590g. Smaller than Providence but larger than Herald or Henderson Petrels. PlumaGe Polymorphic with pale and dark morphs and a wide variety of intermediate plumages. All morphs show: white skua-like flash on outer upperwing formed by white shafts and bases to flight feathers; grey-brown underwing with eye-catching white patch at base of outer flight feathers; and narrow white leading edge to underwing between carpal and body. Pale morph Head pale, with forehead, crown and nape variably mottled dirty white and light brown; some have darker eye-patch. Mantle and back light brown with white edges to fresh feathers; tail blackish-brown. Underparts white, with variable brown partial collar on sides of upper breast. Underwing variable but in palest birds white can extend well down centre of wing towards dark armpit. Upperwing blackish-brown with no M mark; flight feathers, other than white flash, black. Bill black; eye brown; and legs flesh-pink with variable pink and dark feet and black toes. Intermediate morph Continuous progression between light and dark morphs. Mantle and back darker and more uniform brown. Upperwing as pale morph but underwing with more dark coverts. Underparts variable, from white with dirty brown breast-band, through rather clean-cut dark breast and undertail and white belly, to patchy grey-brown and white or entirely dark greyish-brown. Dark morph Plumage entirely dark brown except for whitish scalloping on forehead, base of bill and chin. Underwing darker, often with reduced white patch divided by dark tips to coverts; white patch especially likely to be less prominent in juveniles. Legs and feet dark. moult aND Wear Chocolate-brown feathers wear to paler sooty-brown. Any white tips to fresh feathers of pale morph lost with wear. In dark morphs white on chin and throat becomes more obvious with wear. Adults moult body feathers during chick-rearing and flight feathers at any time of year following breeding and dispersal. IDeNtIFICatIoN White flash on upperwing the best way to identify all morphs of Kermadec, but note that in a few dark, especially young, birds this flash may consist of little more than a few white feather shafts. White patch on outer underwing reaches the forewing at base of primaries, except in young birds, and is larger and more eye-catching than in all other similar petrels. Palest Kermadec has much whiter head than Herald or Trindade. Long, broad-winged, square-tailed jizz reasonably distinctive with experience. Dark morph resembles many other dark petrels and shearwaters and is best identified by white flash on upperwing.

murphy’s Petrel Pterodroma ultima taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Tropical Pacific. Breeds (eggs May–July)

Plate 16

on Henderson, Oeno, Ducie (Pitcairn group); Mururoa and Fangataufa (Tuamotu group), islets off Rapa (Austral group) and Manui in Gambier group; possibly also Cook Is. Probably feeds around breeding islands during breeding season. Dispersal poorly understood but mostly north as far as northwest Hawaiian chain in west yet most frequently seen in eastern tropical Pacific as far as Californian Current. Vagrant to North American Pacific coast as far as 54°N. beHavIour Solitary and does not follow ships. Fast, buoyant flight even in calm conditions; generally steep dynamic soaring followed by long glides; in stronger winds flight more like a shearwater. JIZZ Heavy-bodied, medium to large Pterodroma with large head and comparatively small bill. Wings relatively narrow and short, especially compared to Providence or Kermadec. Tail rounded. sIZe TL 40cm; W 26.5–29.0cm; WS 97cm; WT 375–435g. Heavier than Kermadec and Herald. Body similar size to Providence, slightly smaller than Great-winged but wings short. Female only slightly smaller than male. PlumaGe Uniform grey-brown, with indistinct M across upperwings. White flecking to throat, base of bill and forehead, especially when worn, but throat always whiter than forehead. Head and nape slightly darker and in strong light can look hooded; back slightly paler than wings with grey wash when fresh, becoming browner with wear; rump and tail uniformly brownish-grey. Underparts uniform, medium dark grey. Underwing generally dark, with bases of underside of outer flight feathers silvery and reflective, not white like Kermadec or Herald. Bill black; eye dark; legs and feet flesh-coloured with black toes and outer webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season.

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moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and M marking on back becomes less

prominent. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Flight feathers moulted following breeding and migration (September–January). IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark-phase Kermadec and Herald Petrels brown, not blackish-grey, and both have white patches on the underwing, Note, though, that Murphy’s underwing can look pale in bright light due to reflective nature of silvery underwing. Kermadec has white skua-like flash on outer upperwing. Providence also has white patches on outer underwing, is larger, longer-winged and has a wedge-shaped tail and robust bill. Range of Great-winged luckily rarely overlaps as very similar to Murphy’s, and both have mainly dark underwings. Greatwinged is larger, has especially long wings, browner plumage and different flight. Range of Kerguelen not known to overlap but separated by significantly smaller size, pale leading edge to underwing, distinctive jizz and flight.

Providence Petrel Pterodroma solandri

Plates 14, 16

otHer Names Bird of Providence, Solander’s Petrel. taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Tasman Sea endemic. Breeds (eggs

May) on south Lord Howe I. and Phillip I. (Norfolk Is.). During breeding season mostly forages in south Tasman Sea as far as Tasmania but appears to be rare in New Zealand waters. Migrates to central northeast Pacific from December–April as far north as Bering Sea. Regular east of Japan; fewer in Gulf of Alaska and rarely near shore. Most recent Californian records are June–December suggesting immatures or non-breeding birds are involved. beHavIour Steadier flight than Murphy’s or Herald Petrel. In light winds, slow easy flaps and long glides. JIZZ Distinctive long, wedge-shaped tail, long, broad wings and stout, long bill, larger than that of Murphy’s, Kermadec and Herald. sIZe TL 40cm; W 29.6–32.3cm; WS 95–105cm; WT 500g The largest of the dark tropical pterodromas. Male marginally larger than female. PlumaGe Head and neck grey-brown, with slightly darker patch in front of eye; forehead, cheeks and chin speckled white, similar to Grey-faced Petrel, but scaly on forehead and chin. Rest of underparts slightly lighter than head, giving impression of a completely dark hood, and may have whitish tips to belly feathers in worn plumage. Mantle mottled slaty grey-brown, especially so in fresh plumage, merging into darker brownish-grey rump and uppertail. Tail grey-brown. Upperwing darker brown than back and mantle. Flight feathers black without obvious white shafts. Indistinct dark M mark across open wings in fresh plumage. Underwing dark grey, with white bases to outer flight feathers and outer underwing-coverts forming a conspicuous white patch. Bill black; eye brown; legs and feet greyish-black. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season. moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and dark M becomes even less prominent. Adults moult body feathers during chick-rearing and flight feathers during December–April following breeding and migration. IDeNtIFICatIoN Best distinguished from other all-dark pterodromas by jizz, with distinctive long wedge-shaped tail, long, broad wings and stout, long bill. Grey-faced has similar face pattern, but Providence is greyer on back and has obvious white patches on underwing. Murphy’s is greyer, has white mainly on throat, a dark underwing and shorter, narrower wings. Dark-phase Kermadec is smaller and has prominent white flashes on upperwing. Herald is smaller and slimmer, has a less stout bill and a narrower less wedge-shaped tail.

large black-and-white Pterodroma petrels

These nine medium-to-large gadfly petrels pose similar identification challenges to those of separating the cookilarias, but in most cases identification to species is possible. Range is useful in separating most species as all are dispersive rather than migratory and ranges rarely overlap. Things to look for when identifying large black-and-white pterodromas in order of priority: • • • • • •

Underwing pattern Head pattern Darkness of collar Comparative tail length Presence or absence of dark tail-tip Conspicuousness of M marking across wing

175

SPECIES White-necked Vanuatu Juan Fernandez Barau’s Hawaiian Galápagos Cahow Black-capped Jamaican

TOTAL LENGTH (cm)

WING (cm)

WINGSPAN (cm)

WEIGHT (g)

TAIL (cm)

43 40 43 38 43 41 36 (35–38) 40 40

30.3–32.3 28.2–29.3 30.9–33.6 27.7–29.9 23.3–37.4 31.0–31.8 26.0–26.2 28.0–29.5 26.7–28.4

97–100 ? 97 96 98 102 90–91 95 ?

445 (380–545) ?300–350 495 400 448 (330–629) 408–421 ? ?278 ?

12.9 (12.1–14.0) 12.5 13.6 12.2 13.9 14.5 12.2 12.7 117

White-necked Petrel Pterodroma cervicalis Other name White-naped Petrel. taxOnOmy Sometimes treated as conspecific with

Plate 18

Juan Fernandez Petrel. Recently described Vanuatu Petrel considered conspecific by Brooke (2004). DistributiOn Southwest Pacific. White-necked Petrel breeds (eggs Dec-Jan) on Macaulay I., Kermadec group and Philip Island, Norfolk Is. During breeding season White-necked may be found in Tasman Sea and east coast of Australia north to Fiji and Tonga, though only vagrant to coastal New Zealand. Migrate (May-Sept) to central and north Pacific between Equator and Hawaii, occasionally further east to 110°E. One record from off Crozets (Indian Ocean). behaviOur Solitary, pelagic and rarely attracted to ships. Flight effortless and graceful with few wingbeats, slower than that of cookilarias; typical Pterodroma flight in stronger winds. Jizz Large, big-headed Pterodroma with long, broad wings, a massive bill, and a proportionately long tail. size TL 43cm; W 30.3–32.3cm; WS 97–100cm; WT 380–545g. Similar size to Galápagos and Hawaiian. Female marginally smaller than male. Plumage Crown, nape, sides of head and area around and immediately below eye dark brown-black, forming conspicuous black cap; forehead, area in front of bill, cheeks, chin and throat white; hind neck white, sometimes with grey wash, forming the diagnostic complete white collar highlighted by grey sides to lower foreneck. Mantle, upper back and scapulars medium grey, when fresh feathers have pale fringes giving scalloped appearance. Back and rump dark brown becoming black with wear. Upperwing brown-grey, with dark outer flight feathers and inner wing-coverts forming, in fresh plumage, prominent M, continuing across lower back and upper rump. Lower rump and tail medium-grey; tail has paler outer edges and sometimes a dark tip. Underparts white with narrow dark tip to undertail. Underwing very white with narrow black trailing edge, a narrow but conspicuous dark tip and small, indistinct black tick mark around the carpal. Bill black, eye dark, legs pinkish-flesh with pinkish inner webs and darker outer webs and toes. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season. mOult anD Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M. The tail may also darken. White neck collar may become wide and shabby when very worn, especially in immatures. Moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers following breeding and migration (May–Sept). iDentiFiCatiOn Separated from similarly sized Juan Fernandez by dark cap, white hindneck collar and more uniformly grey rump, but plumage wear can blur these distinctions. White-necked, Vanuatu and Juan Fernandez have the whitest underwing of all pterodromas. Barau’s is considerably smaller with a grey, not white, hindneck, a darker underwing and smudgy undertail. Hawaiian and Galápagos have darker underwing and uppertail and considerably longer tail, giving different jizz. Buller’s Shearwater has different jizz and flight, dark forehead and whiter underwing.

176

vanuatu Petrel Pterodroma occulta

Plate 18

taxoNomy Recently described from museum specimens; not accepted by Brooke (2004). DIstrIbutIoN Southwest Pacific. Rare and poorly known. May breed on Mere Lava and possibly other islands in northern Vanuatu. No confirmed records at sea but storm-wrecked bird found in eastern Australia. beHavIour Solitary, pelagic and rarely attracted to ships. Flight effortless and graceful with few wing beats, slower than that of cookilarias; typical Pterodroma flight in stronger winds. JIZZ Smaller and probably less bulky than Whitenecked with relatively longer tail and larger bill. sIZe TL 40cm; W 28.2–29.3cm; WS ?; WT 300-350g. Slightly smaller than very similar White-necked but still considerably larger than cookilarias. PlumaGe Similar to White-necked. However, the outer underwing is dusky and the black leading edge of underwing slightly broader. moult aND Wear Moult not known. Worn birds darker on upperparts similar to White-necked. IDeNtIFICatIoN Vanuatu likely to be very difficult to separate from White-necked at sea. Smaller size and darker tip to underwing may be helpful. Slightly longer tail may result in a different jizz. A small proportion of White-necked can have similar dark tip to outer underwing and these may only be separable by size, jizz and range. Museum specimens of Vanuatu also have slightly broader, dark leading edge to the outer underwing and proportionately larger bill than White-necked.

Juan Fernandez Petrel Pterodroma externa

Plate 18

taxoNomy Sometimes treated as conspecific with White-necked Petrel. DIstrIbutIoN Chilean breeding endemic. Breeds (eggs October–November) only at high altitude on Alejandro Selkirk I. (Mas Afuera) in Juan Fernandez group. Probably forages around island and in Humboldt Current south to 50°S during breeding. Transequatorial migrant, dispersing over the tropical and subtropical waters of the eastern Pacific, generally between equator and 20°N. Regularly seen off Mexico, off the Galápagos and to 170°W. Occasionally north to Hawaii with vagrants recorded in New Zealand and eastern Australia. beHavIour Solitary, pelagic and rarely attracted to ships. Flight effortless and graceful with few wingbeats, slower than that of cookilarias; typical Pterodroma flight in stronger winds. JIZZ Similar to White-necked with slightly shorter tail and wing, and heavier bill. sIZe TL 43cm; W 30.9–33.6cm; WS 97cm; WT 495g. Similar to White-necked. Females average smaller than males. PlumaGe Forehead, area in front of bill, cheeks, chin and throat white. Crown, nape, sides of head and area around and immediately below eye dark brown-grey, forming brown cap. Hindneck medium-grey. When fresh, feathers of mantle, upper back and scapulars have pale fringes giving scalloped appearance. Back and rump dark brown becoming blacker with wear. Upperwing chocolate-grey, with dark outer flight feathers and inner wingcoverts forming prominent M marking that continues across lower back and upper rump. Uppertail slate-grey with white feather bases that when worn can show as white U-shaped mark on rump. Tail medium-grey with paler outer edges and a dark tip. Underparts white with narrow dark edge to undertail. Underwing very white with narrow black trailing edge, a narrow but conspicuous dark tip and indistinct black tick-mark around the elbow. Bill black; eye dark; legs pinkish-flesh with fleshy outer webs and dark outer webs and toes. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season.

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moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M, and the tail may also darken. White U-shaped mark on rump becomes increasingly prominent with wear. Moults body during chick-rearing and flight feathers following breeding and migration (May–September). IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguished from similar White-necked by absence of white collar and smaller dark tickmark on leading edge of underwing. For separation from other species see White-necked Petrel.

barau’s Petrel Pterodroma baraui

Plate 20

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Reunion I. Nests (eggs

November) at high altitude (c. 2,700m) on the Massif of Piton des Nieges. Pelagic in tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean. Whilst breeding, forages south to subtropical convergence, although one record from near Heard I. Disperses northeast through tropical and subtropical Indian Ocean towards Western Australia, Sumatra and Christmas I. (off Java). Not recorded in northwest Indian Ocean or New Zealand. Has been recorded in southwest Australia. beHavIour Generally solitary at sea, rarely following ships. Typical Pterodroma flight, slower than that of cookilaria petrels; wings bowed more in strong winds, flying in broader arcs. Less sturdy flier than Soft-plumaged or Great-winged Petrels. JIZZ Smallest and lightest of group with proportionally long wings and tail. sIZe TL 38cm; W 27.7–29.9cm; WS 96 m; WT 400g. Smallest of the large black-and-white pterodromas. Sexes very similar. PlumaGe Forehead, feathers around bill and cheeks white. Crown and nape grey-black, forming dark cap that extends below and slightly in front of eye, where darker still. Back and sides of neck medium-grey, forming narrow half-collar. Mantle, upper back and scapulars medium grey-brown; when fresh, feathers have pale fringes, giving scalloped appearance. Back and rump dark brown becoming blacker with wear. Uppertail medium-grey with darker tip. Underparts white; undertail has narrow dark border and may show dark smudges or tips to feather. Upperwing medium-grey with black-brown outer flight feathers and inner coverts forming narrow M that does not extend strongly across back Underwing predominantly white, with sharply defined, narrow, dark trailing edge to the inner underwing that becomes broader, but less defined towards the tip. Smudgy moderately wide dark leading edge to outer underwing and moderately large black tick-mark. Bill black; eye dark; legs pinkishflesh with fleshy outer webs and dark outer webs and toes. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in late summer. moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M. Tail may also darken. Moults body during chick-rearing and flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (May–September). IDeNtIFICatIoN Only Pterodroma with cookilaria-like underwing pattern known to breed in Indian Ocean. Barau’s has long-winged, long-tailed, small-bodied jizz. It is the only Pterodroma with smudging on undertail and the only Pterodroma where dark M marking on the upperwing does not continue prominently across the lower back.

Hawaiian Petrel Pterodroma sandwichensis

Plate 18

taxoNomy Sometimes considered subspecies of Galápagos Petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia but differences in biology

and morphology warrant separation (see Brooke 2004).

DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to larger islands of Hawaii. Breeds (annually, eggs Apr–May) at Pu‘u Kole (southeast

Mauna Kea, Hawaii); southwest slope of Mauna Loa; in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park; Kumoa Gulch (Läna‘i I.); Wailau Valley & Pu‘u ‘Öhelo (Moloka‘i I.); Waimea Canyon, (Kaua‘i I.), Haleakalä National Park (Maui I.) and almost certainly elsewhere. Forages in Hawaiian waters (from South Point, (Hawaii) to French Frigate Shoals in northwest Hawaiian Is. (May to Oct). Absent from Hawaiian waters about Nov to April. Disperses to pelagic equatorial waters of eastern tropical Pacific generally between 20°N and 10°S. In spring found to 25°N; in Jul and Aug to 50°N in southern Gulf of Alaska but few between 120°W to 130°W and south of 10°N, suggesting little overlap in at sea ranges of Galápagos and Hawaiian. W of 120°W presumed Hawaiian

178

found south to 3°S. Vagrants (Apr to Oct) in Oregon, California, Philippines, Moluccas, northern Honshu, Japan. Those in western Pacific possibly juveniles. beHavIour Generally solitary but may be gregarious when feeding, joining mixed-species flocks and often with cetaceans. Typical Pterodroma flight, flapping less in high winds. JIZZ Very large Pterodroma with long pointed wings and proportionately longer tail than other black-and-white pterodromas. Longer-bodied and heavier with shorter wider wings, shorter, deeper bill and proportionately shorter tail than Galápagos. sIZe TL 43cm; W 23.3–37.4cm; WS 97–98cm; WT 448g (330–629g). Among the largest Pterodroma. Little sexual dimorphism. PlumaGe Forehead, feathers around bill, lower cheeks, chin and throat white. Forehead clean white with a black hood extending from crown to below eye to sides of neck, forming smudgy tabs on sides of breast. In fresh plumage back grey, contrasting with black head and darker rump, upperwings very dark, paler secondaries and triangle on inner leading edge forming prominent dark M across open wings. With wear upperparts quite quickly become more uniform dark, greyish black. Uppertail and rump may appear uniformly black. Uppertail when spread may show narrow white edges. Underbody white with narrow black edges to tail. Underwing mostly white with broad dark trailing edge and comparatively large dark tip. Leading edge of the outer wing dark with large dark ‘tick-mark’ extending from elbow half way to armpit. Bill black, eye dark, legs and feet flesh-pink, the distal two-thirds of the webs black. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in late summer. moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M. Tail may also darken. Black plumage of breeding adults acquires a brownish tinge late in breeding season due to abrasion. Moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers following breeding and dispersal. IDeNtIFICatIoN Hawaiian and Galápagos difficult to distinguish at sea. Hawaiian is longer bodied, heavier, and has shorter but wider wings, shorter but deeper bill and entirely white forehead, while Galápagos usually has dark speckled forehead, although a few are all white. Galápagos often (but not always) has dark wash or mottling on flanks near where the trailing edge of the wing meets the body, while Hawaiian can have more-prominent M and a darker rump. Juan Fernandez and White-necked paler overall, best distinguished by whiter underwings with smaller dark tick mark and white collar in White-necked. Range of smaller Barau’s unlikely to overlap but it is paler, appearing less black-and-white, and has less black in underwing with shorter tick mark that does not extend as far onto inner wing. Bonin Petrel is smaller, lacks strikingly white forehead, has dark patch on outer underwing, has thicker, darker tick mark and broader dark trailing and leading edges to underwing. In Hawaiian waters, Newell’s Shearwater is smaller, has all dark forehead and has typical shearwater flight close to water with occasional rapid wingbeats, rather than the dynamic soaring of a Pterodroma.

Galápagos Petrel Pterodroma phaeopygia

Plate 18

taxoNomy Hawaiian Petrel sometimes considered a subspecies of Galápagos Petrel but differences in biology and morphology warrant separation (see Brooke 2004). DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Breeds (eggs Nov–Aug) at high altitude on Santa Cruz, Floreana, Santiago, San Cristobal, and Isabela and possibly elsewhere. Mainly found southeast of Galápagos to 17°S. Dispersal poorly understood due to misidentification with Hawaiian. Occasional to western Mexico, southwest Ecuador and Peru. beHavIour Generally solitary but may be gregarious when feeding, joining mixed-species flocks and often with cetaceans. Typical Pterodroma flight, flapping less in high winds. JIZZ Very large Pterodroma with long pointed wings and proportionately much longer tail than the other black-

179

and-white pterodromas. Has slightly different proportions than Hawaiian, which is longer bodied and heavier, with shorter wider wings, shorter, deeper bill and a proportionately shorter tail. sIZe TL 41cm; W 31–32cm; WS 102cm; WT 408–421g. Amongst the largest of the pterodromas. Little sexual dimorphism. PlumaGe Forehead, feathers around bill, lower cheeks, chin and throat white. Forehead generally mottled with dark feathers. Black hood extends from crown to below eye to sides of neck, forming smudgy tabs on sides of breast. In fresh plumage back grey, contrasting with black head and darker rump, upperwings very dark, paler secondaries and triangle on inner leading edge forming dark M across open wings less conspicuous than Hawaiian. With wear, upperparts quite quickly become more uniform dark, greyish black. Uppertail and rump rarely appear uniformly black. Uppertail when spread may show narrow white edges. Underbody white with narrow black edges to tail. Often has dark mottling on flanks near armpit. Underwing mostly white with broad dark trailing edge and comparatively large dark tip. Leading edge of the outer wing dark with large dark tickmark extending from elbow halfway to armpit. Bill black, eye dark, legs and feet flesh-pink, the distal twothirds of the webs black. Long breeding season makes ageing using moult and wear differences impossible for Galápagos. moult aND Wear Darker feathers of head wear to paler sooty-brown and the upperparts become darker with wear, showing less scaling and less conspicuous M. Tail may also darken. Black plumage of breeding adults acquires a brownish tinge late in breeding season due to abrasion. Moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers following breeding and dispersal. IDeNtIFICatIoN See Hawaiian Petrel.

Cahow Pterodroma cahow otHer Name Bermuda Petrel taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endangered Bermudan endemic.

Plate 21

?

Breeds (eggs December–January) on rocky islets in Castle Harbour, Bermuda. During breeding rarely seen in waters surrounding Bermuda, and feeding areas poorly known. Dispersal also poorly known, probably moving north into Atlantic Ocean, following the warm waters on the western edges of the Gulf Stream. Confirmed records off the coast of North Carolina and Azores. beHavIour Solitary, never approaching ships. Dynamic soaring flight typical of Pterodroma. JIZZ Medium-sized, long-winged Pterodroma. Wings and tail proportionally similar to larger Black-capped but Cahow lighter with smaller bill. sIZe TL 36 (35–38)cm; W 26.0–26.2cm; WS 90–91cm; WT ?. Noticeably smaller than Black-capped. Sexes similar. PlumaGe Forehead white with some dark mottling; feathers around bill, cheeks, chin and throat white. Crown, nape and hindneck brownish-black with dark eye-patch extending to ears. Some have narrow, pale, smudgy supercilium. Upperparts dark grey-brown, darker on upper rump; pale lower rump and inner tail may form smudgy ill-defined white patch. Outertail dark brown. Underparts white, with dusky sides to upper breast, which may form complete breast-band; tip of undertail dark. Upperwing blackish-grey with paler gloss to feather fringes when new so that M on wings and back only visible in fresh plumage. Underwing white, with comparatively broad black trailing edge, extensive dark tip and well-marked black tick-mark extending over half way down inner underwing towards armpit. Bill black; eye dark; legs and feet pale pink, with dark toes and inner half of both webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in late winter. moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to paler brown with even less conspicuous M and a paler rump. Like many other species may show a pale wing-bar during moult due to exposure of the white bases to wing-coverts. Moults body feathers during chick-rearing and flight feathers following breeding and migration (May–September). IDeNtIFICatIoN In outer Caribbean and along US coast most difficult to distinguish from larger Black-capped. Cahow has larger dark underwing markings, darker head, and collar on sides of breast, whereas Black-capped has a small, separate, black cap. Given good views of upperside, Black-capped has a complete white collar, absent in Cahow, and well-defined U-shaped white rump, whilst Cahow has a smudgy, poorly defined white patch. A few Black-capped have dusky collars and scruffy rumps. In North Atlantic could also be confused with members of the Soft-plumaged group but has distinctive black and white patterned underwing.

180

black-capped Petrel Pterodroma hasitata

Plate 21

taxoNomy Jamaican Petrel is sometimes thought to

be a melanistic race of Black-capped but differences in biology and morphology warrant separation (Brooke 2004). DIstrIbutIoN Caribbean endemic. Breeds (eggs JanFeb) in Massif de la Selle and Massif de la Hotte (Haiti); Sierra de Baoruco (Dominican Republic) and in Cuba (Sierra Maestra) and possibly in Dominica. Forages north of the breeding islands during breeding season in tropical and subtropical water masses in the western North Atlantic Ocean between 10° and 40°N, closely associated with the western edge of the Gulf Stream from Cape Canaveral, Florida, to North Carolina. Although most disperse out of the Caribbean in winter, records from south of the Greater Antilles to near the coasts of Venezuela indicate some remain. beHavIour Solitary, never approaching ships. Typical Pterodroma dynamic soaring. JIZZ Large, long-winged, long bodied Pterodroma. sIZe TL 40cm; W 28–29.5cm; WS 95cm; WT ? PlumaGe Nape, upper-crown to below eye and ear-coverts black, forming distinct black cap. Forehead, feathers around bill, chin and throat and hindneck white. Upperparts dark brown, shading to blackish on lower back; rump and uppertail white, forming broad V. Tail dark brown. Underparts white with dusky partial collar on sides of breast; tip of undertail black. Upperwing dark brown, with slightly dark flight feathers, but no M mark. Underwing white, with comparatively broad black trailing edge, dark wing-tip and narrow outer leading edge and relatively well marked black tick-mark extending 1/3 way down inner underwing towards armpit. Bill black, eye dark, legs and feet pale pink, with dark toes and inner half of both webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in spring. moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to uniform blackish brown on upperparts, and white rump becomes larger and scruffier. May show a pale wing-bar during moult due to exposure of the white bases to wing-coverts. Moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers following breeding and dispersal. IDeNtIFICatIoN Best distinguished from Cahow by white hindcollar and large clean white U-shaped rump patch. A small number of Black-capped photographed in US waters have reduced white collar and smaller white rump, whilst others have much darker markings on underwing. Conversely, some extremely worn Cahow may show paler neck collar and large white rump. In these cases Black-capped’s larger size, heavier bill and less extensive black markings on underwing may help identification. In North Atlantic may also be confused with members of the soft-plumaged group but Black-capped is larger, has white on the underwing and a longer tail.

Jamaican Petrel Pterodroma caribbaea

Plate 21

taxoNomy Sometimes considered to be a melanistic race of Black-capped but differences in biology and morphology warrant separation (Brooke 2004). DIstrIbutIoN Critically endangered, possibly extinct Jamaican endemic. Possibly still breeds in Blue and John Crow Mountains and also north-eastern end of Jamaica, possibly also Guadeloupe and Dominica. Nothing is known about the species’ range at sea but there was a recent possible sighting west of the Bimini Group, Bahama Islands. beHavIour Solitary, never approaching ships. Typical Pterodroma dynamic soaring. JIZZ Large, long-winged, long-bodied Pterodroma. Similar length to Black-capped but has significantly shorter wings and tail. If true, jizz may be distinctive. sIZe TL 40cm; W 26.7–28.4cm; WS ?; WT ? Largest of the dark Atlantic Pterodroma. Sexes similar. PlumaGe Uniform sooty brown with white or cream-coloured uppertail. Bill, eye, legs and feet black. moult aND Wear Not known. IDeNtIFICatIoN Entirely dark with pale rump, unlike any other Atlantic Pterodroma.

181

Pterodroma petrels with dark underwings

This disparate group includes four large species (Grey-faced, Great-winged, White-headed and Atlantic) and members of the soft-plumaged group of four small to medium-sized species. Similarities in flight and call suggest that Magenta is more closely related to Soft-plumaged than Grey-faced, to which it has previously been aligned. Things to look for when identifying dark-underwinged Pterodroma petrels (in order of priority): • • • • •

Head colour Extent of collar Presence of white chin Colour of undertail-coverts Comparative tail length

SPECIES Great-winged Grey-faced White-headed Magenta Soft-plumaged Fea’s Zino’s Atlantic

TOTAL LENGTH (cm)

WING (cm)

WINGSPAN (cm)

WEIGHT (g)

TAIL (cm)

38–40 40–43 40–46 38 34 35 35 43

29.3–32.0 29.6–33.2 29.1–33.2 29.8–30.8 23.3–26.3 26.1–27.3 24.1–25.4 30.7–34.3

97 102 109 102 89 95 83 104

440–680 595–740 580–810 423–507 250–380 275–355 175–231 440–595

12.3 13.2 11.7 12.9 10.8 10.6 10.5 13.8

Great-winged Petrel Pterodroma macroptera Taxonomy Great-winged often considered con-

Plate 12

specific with Grey-faced, but different range and biology suggests they should be separated. DisTribuTion Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic waters. Breeds (May) on Nightingale I. and Inaccessible I. (Tristan da Cunha group), Gough I., Prince Edward and Marion Is, Crozet group, Kerguelen and islands off south-west Australia. Disperses across south-east Atlantic and Indian Ocean between 30°S–50°S. Less frequent in Pacific Ocean east of New Zealand, rare in south-west Atlantic and off western South America. Regular off South Africa and southeast Australia but no confirmed records from New Zealand. behaviour Solitary, sometimes doing a ‘fly-by’ of trawlers and pelagic birding boats but rarely stopping. Occasionally follows ships. Graceful flier, using typical Pterodroma dynamic soaring, flying incredibly rapidly, apparently directly into wind. Prone to making high arcs up to 20m into air where it may hang stationary, facing into the wind for short periods. Flaps wings reluctantly. Jizz Compared to other dark petrels relatively heavily built, bull-necked and large-headed with long, wedgeshaped tail and very long, relatively broad wings. Very slightly smaller, lighter and shorter-winged than Greyfaced with smaller bill, especially at tip. size TL 38–40cm; W 29.3–32.0cm; WS 97cm; WT 440–680g. On average smaller than Grey-faced in all dimensions. Slightly smaller than Providence with longer wings. Similar in size to Kermadec and larger than Kerguelen. Females slightly smaller than males. PlumaGe Almost entirely dark brown, with small area of paler feathers around base of bill. In strong light, underwing shows indistinct silvery wash on outer flight feathers and bases of inner coverts. Bill, legs and feet black; eye dark. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in spring. moulT anD wear Upperparts wear to paler chocolate-brown. Moults body feathers during chick-rearing and flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (October–November). iDenTiFiCaTion Medium-sized, long-winged, all-dark petrel with completely dark underwings. See Grey-faced

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for separation from that species. other dark pterodromas separated by uniformity of Great-wing’s plumage, long wings, heavy bodied, bull-necked jizz and rounded head, powerful soaring flight and stout black bill. In bright light, silvery flashes on underwing due to reflection can look like white patches of other species. Kerguelen best eliminated by its smaller size, distinctive jizz and flight, overall silvery wash and pale leading edge to inner underwing.

Grey-faced Petrel Pterodroma gouldi

Plate 14

taxoNomy Grey-faced often considered conspecific with Great-winged but different biology and range suggests they should be separated. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand endemic. Breeds (eggs June–July) on islands mainly off north-east coast of north island, new Zealand. Forages during breeding north-east of new Zealand and in tasman sea. disperse mainly to tasman sea but have been reported well east of Chatham Is. beHavIour Solitary, sometimes doing a ‘fly-by” of trawlers and pelagic birding boats but rarely stopping. Occasionally follows ships. Graceful flier using typical Pterodroma dynamic soaring, often flying rapidly into wind. may make high arcs and hang stationary facing into the wind for short periods. Flaps wings reluctantly. JIZZ Compared with other dark petrels is relatively heavy, bull-necked and large-headed with long, wedgeshaped tail. long narrow wings and small palm. slightly larger, heavier and longer-winged than Great-winged with stouter bill, especially at tip. sIZe TL 40–43cm; W 29.6–33.2cm; WS 102cm; WT 595–740g. Larger than Great-winged in all dimensions; larger than Kermadec and much larger than Kerguelen; similar size to Providence with longer wings. Females slightly smaller. PlumaGe Similar to Great-winged but has ill-defined and variable pale grey face patch that generally includes forehead, chin and base of bill. may appear to have a darker eye-stripe. Juveniles may have very little white on face when they fledge. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season and may appear freshly moulted in late spring. moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to paler chocolate-brown. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing, and adults moult flight feather following breeding and dispersal (November–January). IDeNtIFICatIoN medium-sized, all-dark, long-winged petrel with completely dark underwings. With practice, slightly larger size, stouter bill and longer wings as well as presence of paler face should eliminate Great-winged. However, absence of white on face of fledgling Grey-faced makes distinction from Great-winged virtually impossible in tasman sea in summer. other dark pterodromas can be separated by Grey-faced’s uniformity of plumage, especially all dark underwings as well as heavy bodied, long-winged, bull-necked jizz, rounded head, powerful soaring flight and stout black bill. In bright light silvery flashes on underwing can be confusing, looking like the white underwing patches of other species. Kerguelen best eliminated by its smaller size, distinctive jizz and flight, overall silvery wash and pale leading edge to inner underwing.

White-headed Petrel Pterodroma lessonii

Plate 19

taxoNomy monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in colder subantarctic waters. Breeds (eggs November–December) on Crozet I.,

Kerguelen Is., Macquarie I., Auckland Is. and Antipodes I., and perhaps Prince Edward I. and Campbell I. Forages south of breeding grounds in summer to the ice edge. disperses north throughout southern oceans to 30°S but commonest in south Pacific. Rare South Africa and western Australia, more numerous in south-east Australia, new Zealand and southwest south America. beHavIour Solitary; may do a ‘fly-by’ of boats, approaching them briefly to investigate, but rarely follows ships or is attracted to trawlers. Strong, slow flight with typical Pterodroma dynamic soaring and frequent short mollymawk-like glides even in strong breezes.

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JIZZ Large, robust Pterodroma with similar jizz to Great-

winged and Grey-faced. Very long wings and proportionally long, wedge-shaped tail; heavy bodied with bull-neck and extremely stout bill and rounded head. sIZe TL 40–46cm; W 29.1–33.2cm; WS 109cm; WT 580–810g. Largest Pterodroma with dark underwings. Males slightly larger than females. PlumaGe Most of face white with ill-defined small, dark eye-stripe extending only a short distance in front of and behind eye. Back of crown and hindneck variably light grey in some, forming an indistinct partial collar down the sides of the neck which merges with mottled grey mantle and uniformly grey back and inner upperwing. Rest of upperwing darker brownish-grey with poorly defined darker M marking. Underwing uniformly blackish-grey, appearing black at distance; base of outer flight feathers slightly lighter. Bill black; eye dark; and legs and feet fleshy-pink with dark outer webs and toes. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season. moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to uniform blackish-brown. Adults moult body feathers during chickrearing and flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (May–September). IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of white head and dark underwing unique. Most likely to be mistaken for equally pale Southern Fulmar which should be easily distinguished by white underwing and dark tips to upperwing. At a distance, Mottled Petrel has so much white on the face that in bright light it can look very white-headed. It also has similar back coloration and jizz, especially when flying away from boat. White-headed is slightly larger and has all-dark underwing.

magenta Petrel Pterodroma magentae otHer Name Chatham Island Taiko taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Critically endangered New Zealand

Plate 19

endemic. Breeds (eggs December) on southwest main Chatham I. Probably forages southeast of island during breeding season. Migration or dispersal not known. Unverified records off central Chile. beHavIour Solitary, pelagic. Flight undocumented ? though probably intermediate in character between strong, slow White-headed and aerobatic Softplumaged. JIZZ Intermediate between the stout White-headed and Grey-faced Petrels and the lighter Soft-plumaged with proportionally long wings and long slightly wedge-shaped tail with a rounded tip. Body relatively bulky; neck broad and short; head generally large and rounded. sIZe TL 38cm; W 29.8–30.8cm; WS 102cm; WT 423–507g. Intermediate in size between White-headed and Soft-plumaged. Males slightly larger than females. PlumaGe Head, neck and upperparts, including tail, upperwing and underwings sooty-brown. Slightly darker eye-patch extends in front of eye. Underparts white with sharp demarcation between brown neck and white breast although some fledglings have paler breasts and throats. Some have small amount of smudgy-brown on flanks. Undertail-coverts may have a little dark flecking. Variable white flecking on forehead, chin and feathers near bill with some juveniles having short, pale supercilium. Undersides of flight feathers slightly paler grey than forewing. Stout black bill, and pink legs and feet with black toes and webs. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season. moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to uniform blackish-brown. Adults moult body feathers during chickrearing, and flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (May–September).Tail moult may be unfinished in adults returning to breed. IDeNtIFICatIoN With poor views, likely to be inseparable from Phoenix except by those with experience of jizz of both species, though ranges unlikely to overlap. Close up, Phoenix has thin, pale leading edges to inner underwing, more extensive dark flecking on undertail and no white on forehead. Magenta is larger and heavier,

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dark grey-brown (not chocolate-brown) above, with a larger bill and a longer, wider wedge-shaped tail. Magenta more likely to have white on face and even show a short, white supercilium. Underside of outer flight feathers of Magenta more silvery and reflective, appearing as pale flash on outer underwing. Atlantic easily recognised by dark undertail. Soft-plumaged may look dark-hooded in poor light but is smaller, more compact and has grey upperparts with dark M marking across open wings.

soft-plumaged Petrel Pterodroma mollis

Plates 14, 19, 21

otHer Name Soft-plumed Petrel taxoNomy Two subspecies recognised: P. m. mollis in

Atlantic and New Zealand; and P. m. dubia in Indian Ocean and Tasmania. Formerly considered conspecific with Fea’s and Zino’s of northeast Atlantic. DIstrIbutIoN Southwest Pacific, South Atlantic and southern Indian Ocean. Breeds (eggs November– December) on Tristan da Cunha group, Gough I., Prince Edward Is., Marion, eastern Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Antipodes I. and Maatsuyker I. (Tasmania) and possibly Macquarie I. and Amsterdam I. Forages in waters around breeding islands and to the south during southern summer. Disperses north as far as 35°S. Rare dark morph appears to only occur in waters of South Atlantic and Indian Oceans. beHavIour Flight highly aerobatic even when gliding or arcing high in strong winds; in moderate winds performs lower arcs, with short glides and some zig-zagging. JIZZ Small, stout-bodied Pterodroma with short, rounded tail and short neck, giving overall compact shape. Wings frequently held bent at elbow, emphasising comparatively slight outer wing. sIZe TL 32–37cm; W 23.5–27.6cm; WS 83–95cm; WT 279–312g. Similar in body size but with longer wings than Kerguelen. Smaller than all other pterodromas with dark underwings. PlumaGe Polymorphic with slight differences between subspecies. More southerly P. m. mollis generally has paler face and neck and narrower collar than northern P. m. dubia. Pale Morph Chin, throat white; forehead dark with variable amounts of white mottling. Crown grey. Black eye-patch rarely extends far from eye and is bordered by indistinct white supercilium. Underparts white with obvious grey collar across upper breast that is generally complete, though may meet narrowly at front and becomes less distinct with wear. Upperparts grey; upperwing darker with indistinct M marking across wings and lower back, though with wear wings become almost entirely dark. Underwing appears uniformly dark in poorer light but has white feathers on very innermost leading edge of wing. In strong light, silvery wash to outer flight feathers and secondary coverts may look like a paler panel. Bill black; eye dark; legs and feet fleshy-pink with black outer webs and toes. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season. Dark morph Rare. Entirely dusky grey-black, underparts a shade paler than upperparts with darker crown and collar and slightly paler chest and throat a ghostly trace of pale phase pattern. A few scruffy intermediates (Plate 19: 4c) are in museum collections but there are no recent records at sea or from breeding grounds. moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to uniform blackish-brown with paler face, less distinct collar and more obvious eye-patch and forehead. When extremely worn may show pale wing bar due to exposed pale bases to flight feather on upperwing. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Adults moult flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (May–September). IDeNtIFICatIoN Uniformly dark underwing, white undertail, presence of M on upperwing and grey collar diagnostic in range. In poor light may appear entirely dark-hooded, thus could be confused with Magenta and Atlantic Petrels but both are considerably larger. Atlantic has dark undertail, Magenta has a longer tail and heavier bill with darker upperparts without any M. Outside usual range birds without complete grey collar similar to Fea’s and Zino’s but Soft-plumaged has more compact shape, rounder tail and, usually, paler head with small dark eyepatch. Rare dark morph most likely to be confused with Kerguelen, Great-winged or Grey faced Petrels, but a trace of distinctive M marking on upperwing is usually still visible in all but the darkest Soft-plumaged. Grey faced and Great-winged are both larger, brown not grey, with longer tails and wings and larger, heavier bills. Similar-sized Kerguelen has shorter, narrower wings, is large-headed with steep forehead and squat little body tapering to rounded tail. In good light longer, pale leading edge to inner underwing and more extensive silvery sheen on outer underwing should be visible on Kerguelen. Jizz and flight of Kerguelen distinctive with practice.

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Fea’s Petrel Pterodroma feae

Plate 21

otHer Name Cape Verde Petrel taxoNomy Formerly considered a subspecies of

Soft-plumaged Petrel. Subtropical north-east Atlantic. Breeds (eggs July–August) on Fogo, Santo Antão, São Nicolau and São Tiago (Cape Verdes group), Bugio (Desertas Is., Madeira) and probably Azores Is. Probably forages near breeding islands during summer. Disperses across North Atlantic, with records from eastern USA, Canada, Britain and Ireland. beHavIour Solitary or in small groups but may form flocks more than of 200 birds when foraging over tuna. Not attracted to boats. Frequently sits on sea in calm weather. In light winds, flight low and gliding with occasional bursts of up to eight rapid wingbeats; in high winds, dynamic soars with wings held in characteristic sickle shape. JIZZ Small, heavy bodied Pterodroma with wedge-shaped tail. Like Soft-plumaged, short neck gives an overall compact shape, though more pointed tail makes it look longer. Wings frequently held bent at elbow. sIZe TL 35cm; W 26.1–27.3cm; WS 95cm; WT 275–355g. Marginally larger than Zino’s. PlumaGe Grey upperparts with darker primaries and dark M shape across spread wings. Pale forehead, dark crown to below eye and dark hindneck that contrasts with paler back. Rump and uppertail pale grey with slightly darker tail-tip. Underparts white, pale grey collar rarely extending far onto upper breast. Underwing dark with triangle of white on inner leading edge, and pale bases to primaries that show up as white underwing patch in some lights. Bill black, relatively heavy and short. moult aND Wear Upperparts wear to more uniform blackish-brown with paler face, less distinct collar and more obvious eye-patch and forehead. When extremely worn may show pale wing-bar on upperwing due to exposed pale bases to flight feathers. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Adults moult flight feathers following breeding and dispersal. IDeNtIFICatIoN Soft-plumaged is similar but most have a completely dark grey collar, paler crown with consequently more obvious dark eye-patch, darker grey uppertail and tail that is rounded rather than wedge-shaped. A few Soft-plumaged Petrels do not have complete breast-band. Zino’s is very similar; see that species for differences. DIstrIbutIoN

Zino’s Petrel Pterodroma madeira otHer Name Madeira Petrel taxoNomy Formerly considered a subspecies of

Soft-plumaged Petrel.

DIstrIbutIoN Critically endangered species, endemic

Plate 21

?

to Madeira. Breeds (eggs May–June) in mountains of ? central Madeira. Distribution at sea and dispersal poorly understood due to confusion with Fea’s. beHavIour Solitary, not attracted to boats. JIZZ Smaller and lighter than Fea’s with shorter wings and a shorter, slimmer bill. sIZe TL 35cm; W 24.1–25.4cm, WS 83cm, WT 175– 231g. PlumaGe Differs from Fea’s in more uniformly grey crown and hindneck merging gradually into back and in indistinct M on darker upperwing. Underwing generally dark with white triangle at base of forewing but fewer pale areas elsewhere than Fea’s. moult aND Wear Probably similar to Fea’s. IDeNtIFICatIoN Specific identification may be possible if Zino’s and Fea’s are seen together in similar light. Then, Zino’s should look smaller, slimmer, shorter-winged and finer-billed. Zino’s has less contrast between dark crown and pale back than Fea’s and more uniformly dark upperwings and underwings. However, these differences are subtle, requiring experience, and may not in any case be consistent in all states of plumage wear. See Fea’s for comparison with Soft-plumaged Petrel.

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atlantic Petrel Pterodroma incerta

Plate 19

otHer Name Schlegel’s Petrel taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Tristan da Cunha group

and Gough I., Breeds (eggs June) Tristan da Cunha and Gough I., possibly with small numbers on Inaccessible I. During breeding season recorded between 20°– 50°S in SE Atlantic as far north as Namibia. Disperse west towards South America with a few recorded off Cape Horn and one record off Brazil. Rare in Indian Ocean and vagrant to Eilat in Red Sea. beHavIour Solitary and pelagic. Approaches ships and trawlers but generally does not follow them. Unusual among pterodromas in high frequency of wing-flaps, even during dynamic soaring. JIZZ Large, heavy Pterodroma with bull-necked appearance, rounded head, stout bill and tapering mid-length, slightly wedge-shaped tail. Wings long and relatively broad, with small outerwings. sIZe TL 43cm; W 30.7–34.3cm; WS 104cm; WT 440–595g. Similar size to White-headed, with longer wings and tail. Larger than Magenta Petrel. Considerably larger than Soft-plumaged Petrel. PlumaGe Upperparts entirely dark brown. Head and upper breast dark brown. Slightly darker eye-patch evident in stronger light and, in good views, white mottling visible on chin. Rest of underparts mostly white with mottled brown flanks near armpit and dark brown undertail. There is some variation in underparts, a few birds being entirely dusky and some being much paler on upper breast and throat. Underwing entirely dark with silvery bases to outer flight feathers giving appearance of pale panel in strong light. Legs and feet fleshy-pink with black outer webs and toes. moult aND Wear Upperparts become browner with wear. When very worn, white bases to flight feathers may show through. Feathers of head have pale bases that show through in worn plumage giving pale appearance to face that may extend to throat and even neck. Adults moult body during chick-rearing and flight feathers following breeding IDeNtIFICatIoN Larger than Soft-plumaged but may be confused in poor light when Soft-plumaged appears entirely dark-hooded. Atlantic is larger with comparatively longer wings and is uniformly dark brown, not grey, above without any M. Soft-plumaged has a compact jizz, aerobatic flight, short tail, complete dark collar and white throat. Magenta very similar in plumage and jizz but slightly smaller with narrower tail and white, not dark, undertail-coverts. Range may overlap with smaller Trindade in South Atlantic, but given good views Atlantic should be separable by relatively uniform dark underwing, lacking the white in the underwing pattern. Birds with dusky underparts probably best identified by combination of entirely dark underwing, jizz and flight.

ProCeLLaria Petrels The five species of Procellaria petrels are generally considered intermediate between the Calonectris shearwaters and Pterodroma petrels, and have features common to both. Grey Petrel is the only member of the group with white underparts and is readily identifiable by a combination of grey-brown upperparts, white underparts and dark underwing. The identification of the other four ‘black’ Procellaria petrels is more problematic; they are difficult to distinguish from other all-dark petrels and shearwaters, and separation from each other and from Fleshfooted Shearwater is often very difficult, especially when details of head and bill cannot be seen. Separating ‘black’ Procellaria petrels from other petrels and shearwaters Both Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters have longer, thinner bills and long, narrow, stiffly-held wings. Typical flight consists of short bursts of rapid wingbeats between glides. Sooty has pale flashes on underwings. nostril or nares Grey-faced and Great-winged Petrels have stout, dark bills and, close naricorn up, the pale face of Grey-faced is diagnostic. Separation at a distance culminicorn depends on recognising the high arcing flight of the two dark Pterodroma petrels and their longer, sickle-shaped wings. Dark subtropical Pterodroma petrels are separable by the presence of white flashes in the outer upper- or underwing. maxillary unguis Separating “black’ Procellaria petrels from each other and Flesh-footed Shearwater At a distance, Parkinson’s Petrel and Flesh-footed Shearwater are c. 10–15% smaller than Westland and White-chinned Petrels. Spectacled is the same size as White-chinned but may look slimmer. Parkinson’s

collectively ungues sulcus latericorn mandibular unguis ramicorn

187

more slender head and neck may allow recognition, as may Flesh-footed Shearwater’s smaller head, slimmer body, longer bill and narrower, shorter wings. Close up, Spectacled is easily distinguished by white patches on head, although in some birds these are small. White-chinned can be separated by pale tip to bill. A few Parkinson’s and Westland Petrels can have very little dark on the bill-tip, but they very rarely look as pale as White-chinned’s bill-tip. When present, white on the chin is diagnostic but most White-chinned in the south Pacific have little or no white on chin. Parkinson’s is difficult to separate from Westland even under the best conditions; Parkinson’s is smaller, longer-necked and less bulky, and sits lower on water. Shape of bill is useful, Parkinson’s having longer nostrils and a shorter latericorn. On average, Parkinson’s has more yellow on the distal edges of the ungues, so there is often a yellow patch between them, creating the appearance of a black tip, rather than a black upper bill surface. Flesh-footed Shearwater can be distinguished from all Procellaria petrels by pink (not black) feet; bill looks longer and slimmer with smaller nostrils, and is pinkish-yellow with a darker tip.

White-chinned Petrel Procellaria aequinoctialis

Plate 28

taxoNomy White-chinned and Spectacled have

recently been split. White-chinned has two as-yet unnamed subspecies, which are morphometrically separable in the hand. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar throughout Southern Ocean. Breeds (eggs Nov–Dec) on Falklands, South Georgia, Prince Edward, Marion, Crozet, Kerguelen, Auckland, Campbell and Antipodes. Forages south during breeding season as far as 65°S. Disperses at sea north to northern New Zealand, east and west South America (to 6°S in Humboldt Current) and Africa as far as subtropics (12°S). beHavIour Gregarious; frequently follows fishing boats and forages in the wake of trawlers, sometimes in vast flocks. Flight in calmer conditions powerful and heavy with forceful wingbeats, occasional low glides on slightly bowed wings. In stronger winds flies quickly, alternating long arcing glides with very few lazy wingbeats. JIZZ Large, heavily built, long-winged Procellaria with stout bill. Feet hardly project beyond rather short, slightly wedge-shaped tail. sIZe TL 51–58cm; W 35.5–41.5cm; WS 134–147cm; WT 1.28–1.39kg. White-chinned is the largest all-dark petrel, smaller only than giant petrels. PlumaGe A uniformly brownish-black petrel that usually has a small white chin-patch, varying in size; sometimes reduced to only one or two white feathers, especially in New Zealand populations. White chin can normally only be seen with excellent views. In strong light appears blacker on head and neck. Underwing has pale, silvery, reflective flight feathers and inner coverts that may look pale in bright light. Bill entirely horn-yellow or creamy white, eye dark, legs and feet mainly black. The partial albinos that may make up to 10% of population in Indian Ocean most frequently have white patches on belly. moult aND Wear Plumage, especially upperparts, becomes browner and paler with wear. When very worn, white bases of flight feathers may show through. Feathers of head have pale bases that are revealed with wear, giving pale appearance to face that may extend to throat and even neck. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Adults moult flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (May-Sept). IDeNtIFICatIoN For recognition of other dark procellarias see introduction to Procellaria petrels on p.187. Separation of Spectacled Petrel from White-chinned Petrel generally straightforward if white head pattern visible. Partially albino White-chinned never show white spectacles, but may have extensive white on chin and throat, and white on the nape.

spectacled Petrel Procellaria conspicillata

Plate 28

taxoNomy Spectacled Petrel has recently been split from White-chinned. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Tristan da Cunha, breeding only on Inaccessible I (eggs October). Some remain in

the area year-round. Disperse to southeast South America as far north as central Brazil and Benguela Current of Namibia and southwest South Africa. Vagrant to Indian Ocean, where reported from Amsterdam I. and Australia. beHavIour Gregarious; frequently follows fishing boats and forages in the wake of trawlers, sometimes in

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vast flocks. Flight in calmer conditions powerful, heavy and forceful wingbeats, occasional low glides on slightly bowed wings. In stronger winds it flies quickly, alternating long arcing glides with very few lazy, wingbeats. JIZZ Large, heavily built, long-winged Procellaria with stout bill. Feet hardly project beyond rather short, slightly wedge-shaped tail. sIZe TL 55cm; W 36.9–39.7cm; WS ?; WT 1.01– 1.31kg. Similar size to White-chinned but lighter, with less heavy bill. PlumaGe Like White-chinned but with striking head pattern of two broad white bands that extend from chin to ears towards the hind-crown and from chin up across the forehead. There is significant individual variation in width, length and shape of bands. The white can be scalloped with brown crescents and can be limited to small patches on the forehead or ear-coverts. Bill pale with variable amount of dark on tip. moult aND Wear Plumage, especially upperparts, becomes browner and paler with wear. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Adults moult flight feathers following breeding and dispersal. IDeNtIFICatIoN See introduction to Procellaria petrels on p.187. Separation of Spectacled from White-chinned generally straightforward if white head-pattern visible. Partially albino White-chinned never show white spectacles, but may have extensive white on chin and throat and white on nape. The dark bill tip of Spectacled is similar to Westland and Parkinson’s, but neither of these has any white on the face.

Parkinson’s Petrel Procellaria parkinsoni

Plate 29, 30

otHer Name Black Petrel taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic.

Breeds (eggs November–December) on Little and Great Barrier Is. Majority of population migrates to the eastern tropical Pacific during the non-breeding season. Immature birds may spend a number of years in waters of the Peru Current before returning to New Zealand to breed. Between November and June most commonly seen in the outer Hauraki Gulf, in the Bay of Plenty, and off East Cape. Although they are regularly seen off Kaikoura, they are rarely reported in the colder waters further south. There have been a number of records from the east coast of southern Australia between November–March. beHavIour Most commonly observed at the shelf break or in deep water. Generally alone or in small mixed species groups. Readily attracted to chum or offal, frequently landing and taking items from the water. Low incidence of by-catch in domestic tuna long-lining suggests not as aggressive in mixed flocks as other species. In the eastern tropical Pacific mainly seen in association with dolphins and small whales, often in mixed-species flocks, most frequently with Galápagos Storm-petrels. Very rarely associated with tuna schools. JIZZ Deep chest gives the appearance of a heavy bird, though less so than Westland. Intermediate in jizz between Westland and Flesh-footed Shearwater. Long narrow wings. Flight in calm conditions a lazy low glide with more frequent heavy wing beats than Westland. In stronger winds flies quickly, alternating long arcing glides with occasional wingbeats. sIZe TL 46cm; W 32.6–35.9cm; WS 115cm; WT 680–720g. No more than 10% larger than Flesh-footed Shearwater, many appearing similar in size. Considerable variation in size; males larger than females, juvenile female especially small. On average, male bill larger and heavier than female’s, juvenile bills smaller than those of adults PlumaGe Uniform dark brown-black; the undersides of the primaries are reflective, making the end of the underwing appear pale from a distance in some lights. Bill essentially pale with dark tip (see bill diagram on p.187). Adult has golden-yellow latericorn, ramicorn and nostrils, with black tips to ungues and dark edges to sulcus, culminicorn, naricorn and nostrils. Black on nostrils variable. Juveniles fledge with ramicorn and latericorn very pale creamy white, ungues black, and bill plate-edges suffused with a variable amount of pale

189

yellow, especially on proximal edges of ungues. Some juveniles have so little black on bill-tip that they are difficult to tell from White-chinned. Ungues, sulcus and culminicorn gradually darken with age. moult aND Wear When plumage is worn in June–August, some individuals can appear two-toned with variably brown coverts contrasting with darker flight feathers. Adults moult after breeding, immatures probably moult 2–4 months earlier. IDeNtIFICatIoN See introduction to Procellaria petrels on p.187.

Westland Petrel Procellaria westlandica

Plate 29

taxoNomy Monotypic. Formally considered to be

subspecies of Parkinson’s.

DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand breeding endemic. Only

breeds (eggs May) in the seaward Paparoa Ranges, South Island, New Zealand. Majority of the population migrates to the west coast of Chile and the south Patagonian coast of Argentina between November and March. Immature birds may spend a number of years in the waters of the Humboldt Current before returning to New Zealand to breed. During breeding, birds are most commonly seen in South Island waters, especially Cook Strait, off Kaikoura, and in the commercial fishing grounds south of their breeding colony. Small numbers of moulting birds remain in New Zealand waters between January. and May, especially off the east coast of South Island. They are rarely reported in New Zealand subantarctic waters but there have been a few recent records from seas around the Chatham Is., and they have been recorded from the east coast of southern Australia during most months of the year. beHavIour Most commonly observed in shelf and littoral waters. Readily attracted to chum or offal, generally flying past fishing boats and pelagic boats, giving good views, but rarely landing and taking chum from the water. Huge flocks follow hoki trawlers along the continental shelf edge south of the breeding grounds. During the winter large flocks sit on water just south of Punakaiki in the evening, waiting until it is dark enough to fly in to the colonies. Birds leave the sea in the half-light and swirl in dense flocks gaining height before flying inland 200–300m above ground. In South America they enter the Chilean fjords and the Beagle Channel, where they form small flocks, occasionally with White-chinned Petrels, especially during moult. Whilst in moult they spend long periods sitting on the water and are reluctant to fly even when approached very closely by shipping. JIZZ High forehead and deep chest give the appearance of a large bulky bird. Long wings. Flight in calmer conditions a lazy low glide with heavy wingbeats and a distinctive, droopy winged posture. In stronger winds it flies quickly, alternating long arcing glides with a few lazy wingbeats. sIZe TL 50–55cm; W 36.2–40.0cm; WS 135–140cm; WT 1.2. Similar size to White-chinned Petrel but larger than Parkinson’s Petrel and Flesh-footed Shearwater. Considerable variation in size, with males larger than females and juvenile females especially small. On average, male bill larger and heavier than female’s, juvenile bills smaller than adult’s. PlumaGe Uniformly dark black-brown. However, undersides of outer flight feathers reflective, making end of underwing appear pale from a distance in some lights. Bill basically pale with a dark tip. Adult has creamy-yellow latericorn, ramicorn with black sulcus, culminicorn, naricorn and variably dark edges to nostrils (see diagram on p. 187). Ungues black variably marked greyish but looking distinctly dark. Juvenile bill smaller in all dimensions than adult; fledge with ramicorn and latericorn very pale cream-yellow (almost pearly-white) and black ungues and bill plate edges suffused with a variable amount of pale yellow, especially the proximal edges of ungues. A few birds of any age can have so little black on the bill-tip they are difficult to tell from White-chinned. moult aND Wear Becomes browner and paler with wear. When plumage is worn during October–December, some individuals can appear two-toned with variably brown coverts contrasting with darker flight feathers. Adults moult after breeding, immatures probably moult 2–4 months earlier. IDeNtIFICatIoN For separation from other dark procellarias see Procellaria introduction (see p.187). State of plumage wear and moult useful for identification. Due to breeding schedule large dark procellarias in worn plumage or wing moult in New Zealand and eastern Pacific in spring and summer (November–January) are almost certainly Westland. Similarly, large dark procellarias in very fresh, very dark plumage in the austral summer (January–April) off Chile are likely to be juvenile Westland Petrels. Large, dark procellarias in New Zealand or the eastern tropical Pacific in the Austral winter are almost certainly Westland Petrels.

190

Grey Petrel Procellaria cinerea

Plates 29, 32

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in cold waters of southern

oceans. Breeds (eggs March–April) on Tristan da Cunha group, Gough I., Marion I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Campbell I., Antipodes I., and possibly St Paul I. While breeding, forages north of breeding grounds as far as 25°S. Disperses south during austral summer as far as ice edge. beHavIour Solitary; attracted to fishing boats but shier than White-chinned Petrel. Flight direct, effortless mollymawk-like glide with only occasional shallow wingbeats. Dynamic soaring only in strong winds. JIZZ Robust, heavy bodied, almost podgy, bird with very long narrow wings, comparatively slender shearwater-like bill and moderately long wedge-shaped tail. Wings usually held stiff and at right angles to body. sIZe TL 50cm; W 29.0–36.4cm; WS 115–130cm; WT 0.76–1.52kg. Slightly smaller than Westland, Whitechinned and Spectacled Petrels; slightly larger than Cory’s and Streaked Shearwaters. PlumaGe Pale sooty-grey upperparts with darker tail, forehead, crown and area around eye. Underparts white with grey undertail. Underwings uniformly dark grey. Bill olive-yellow with dark tip; eye dark; and feet and legs flesh-grey. moult aND Wear Upperparts become browner with wear. Body moult occurs during chick-rearing. Adults moult flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (October–January). IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of grey upperparts, white underparts and dark underwings diagnostic. Possibly confusable with similarly dark underwinged White-headed, but the latter has mostly white head, dark M marking across upperparts and is smaller, more compact with a short, stout, dark bill. The large shearwaters – Buller’s, Great, Cory’s and Pink-footed – often cause the greatest problems. All four have pale, not dark, underwings but in poor light or when birds are flying away this feature may not be visible and identification may be difficult due to similar jizz. Buller’s has distinct dark M marking across upperparts, Great has a white rump patch and neck collar, and Cory’s and Pink-footed have uniformly brown, not sooty-grey, upperparts.

sHearWaters larger shearwaters

The large shearwaters are separated into two genera, Calonectris and Puffinus. When seen well, Calonectris shearwaters can be separated readily from all other shearwaters and petrels by the combination of scruffy brown plumage, pale underwing and undertail and presence of yellow or horn-coloured bill. Calonectris are most likely to be confused with Grey Petrel, pale-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater, and Pink-footed, Great and Buller’s Shearwaters, though ranges of some of these species do not overlap. The anomalous, medium-sized Christmas Island Shearwater is tentatively included in this group. SPECIES Cory’s diomedea Cory’s borealis Cape Verde Streaked Wedge-tailed Buller’s Flesh-footed Pink-footed Great Sooty Short-tailed Christmas Island

TOTAL LENGTH (cm)

WING (cm)

WINGSPAN (cm)

WEIGHT (g)

TAIL (cm)

c.46 48 34 48 46–47 43–46 46–48 46–48 46–51 40–46 40–45 35–38

33.9–35.2 35.8–38.0 29.8–32.1 29.3–32.4 27.3–31.0 28.5–30.9 30.9–34.0 32.1–34.2 32.1–34.2 26.0–31.8 26.1–28.8 24.0–26.0

113 125 – 122 97–99 96–102 110–120 110–117 108–115 94–105 95–100 71–81

– 605-1060 – 468–538 320–510 385–490 533–750 720 715–950 650–950 480–800 354

11.5–13.0 12.1–14.0 11.3–13.1 13.2–13.7 11.9–14.5 11.9–13.7 10.6–11.2 11.4–12.2 10.9–12.6 8.6–10.1 7.4–9.1 8.8–9.5

191

When details of head, bill and feet cannot be seen, the large dark shearwaters are very difficult to tell apart and can also be confused with the dark Procellaria petrels. With experience, the shearwaters have a different jizz, being slighter and more likely to fly in graceful arcs in heavy winds, or shear low over waves in moderate winds.

Cory’s shearwater Calonectris diomedea

Plate 33

taxoNomy Cape Verde Shearwater is sometimes

included as a subspecies of Cory’s Shearwater (e.g. Brooke 2004). Cory’s is regarded as having two subspecies, with the nominate race diomedea in the Mediterranean and borealis on islands of subtropical western Atlantic Is., with the exception of the Cape Verde Is. These are sometimes considered separate species. DIstrIbutIoN NE Atlantic. C. d. diomedea breeds (eggs May-June) on Balearics, Sardinia, Malta, and the Mediterranean islands of France, Spain, Algeria, Tunisia, Italy, Greece and Croatia. C. d. borealis breeds (eggs May-early June) on Berlengas (Portugal), Madeira, Desertas, Salvages, Azores and Canary Is. Forages in local waters during breeding season. Race borealis transequatorial migrant to south Atlantic and Indian Oceans (Nov-May). In southwest Atlantic occurs off Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, but majority off southwest South Africa. Vagrant to Indian Ocean as far north as Israel and Oman, east to Amsterdam and St Paul Is. and south to 49°S. One record from New Zealand. beHavIour Sometimes gregarious, occasionally follows ships; readily attracted to offal and seen behind trawlers. In light winds Cory’s flight lethargic but powerful: 2–4 wing beats then a long glide on slightly bowed wings that are generally held slightly bent at elbow; in stronger winds flight small albatross-like with dynamic soaring, unlike other shearwaters. JIZZ Large, heavy-bodied, broad winged shearwater with large bill sIZe diomedea TL 46cm; W 33.9–35.2cm; WS 113cm; WT ?. borealis TL ?; W 33.8–39.1cm; WS ?; WT 605– 1060g. Females of both races smaller in all measurements (but especially weight). PlumaGe

Race diomedea (Mediterranean) Forehead and crown, area around eye and ear, dark grey, mottled white around edges. In fresh plumage and in some lights looks to have distinct cap contrasting with hind neck and back, but when plumage worn or light poor cap may not be apparent. Hind neck, sides of neck and sides of breast, light sooty-grey brown. Chin and throat white with grey wash in fresh plumage. Mantle, back, scapulars and uppertail grey-brown, scapulars with paler fringes when fresh; lower back, dark grey brown; uppertail invariably has traces of pale U-shaped mark formed by pale tips to uppertail-coverts in fresh plumage and pale bases to coverts that become more prominent in worn plumage. Tail dark brown. Underparts including undertail white; dark tail feathers contrast with white undertail-coverts. Upperwing has darker flight feathers; in fresh plumage, coverts may have pale fringes and an indistinct, dark brown M across open wings grows more obvious. Underwing mainly white, with broad, dark trailing edge and dark wing tip with paler bases to the primaries. Bill is horn-yellow with dark tip; eye dark brown; legs and feet variable, dark to fleshy pink. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season (May) and may be freshly moulted by November. Race borealis (Atlantic) Darker on mantle and head than diomedea, usually looks dark capped. Underwing, larger dark tip caused by dark bases to primaries. moult aND Wear With wear, pale tips to feathers of mantle and wings lost, collar becomes less prominent and brown plumage becomes lighter. When extremely worn may show pale wing-bar due to exposed pale bases to flight feathers on upper wing. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (Nov–Mar). IDeNtIFICatIoN Cape Verde Shearwater is smaller than Cory’s, with a slighter build and more shearwaterlike jizz. Bill slighter and darker showing less contrast between tip and rest of bill, appearing uniform grey at a distance. Cory’s of the nominate race diomedia are slightly smaller than borealis with a less extensive dark tip to the underwing, and usually a paler head. Great Shearwater has a faster wing beats, more obvious dark marks on underwing, well defined dark cap, dark patch on belly and darker bill. Streaked Shearwater looks similar but has a paler mottled head and grey bill, and its range rarely overlaps with Cory’s Shearwater. All other shearwaters with white underparts are much smaller and darker on the upperparts. Immature gulls can look similar but fly higher above the water and, in all but high winds, constantly flap wings.

192

Cape verde shearwater Calonectris edwardsii

Plate 33

taxoNomy Cape Verde Shearwater sometimes included as a subspecies of Cory’s (e.g. Brooke 2004). DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Cape Verde Is. Breeds (eggs Jun–Jul) on Brava, Branco, Raso, Santiago, São Nicolau, Sal and Boavista, and possibly Santo Antão. Forages in local waters whilst breeding, with large numbers seen off Raso. Migration/dispersal poorly understood. Absent from Cape Verdes area in winter, Small proportion of population of unknown status feed in Senegalese waters in late breeding season. Unconfirmed records from North Carolina, and single records from central Brazil and Argentina. beHavIour Sometimes gregarious, occasionally follows ships, readily attracted to offal and seen behind trawlers. Has much more typical ‘shearwater’ flight than Cory’s; alternates a few wingbeats with a long glide on slightly bowed wings that are generally held slightly bent at elbow. JIZZ Smaller more slightly built than Cory’s, with slighter bill, longer tail and shorter wings. sIZe TL 34cm; W 29.8–32.1cm; WS ?; WT ? Distinctly smaller than Cory’s. PlumaGe Similar to Cory’s but differs primarily in greyish, dark horn or pink bill with dark tip. Upperparts similar to borealis Cory’s but head pale brown, though can look dark-capped in fresh plumage. Thin broken white eye-line makes dark eye stand out. Underwing mainly white with variable amounts of pale brown smudging, dark trailing edge and dark tip with pale bases to primaries. Feet apparently bright pink. moult aND Wear With wear, pale tips to feathers of mantle and wings lost, collar becomes less prominent and brown plumage becomes lighter. When extremely worn may show pale wing-bar due to exposed pale bases to flight feathers on upperwing. Adults moult body during chick-rearing, flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (Nov–Mar). IDeNtIFICatIoN Cape Verde Shearwater is smaller than Cory’s with slighter build and more shearwater-like jizz. Bill slighter and darker showing less contrast between tip and rest of bill, appearing uniform grey at a distance. Great Shearwater has faster wingbeats, more obvious dark marks on underwing, well-defined dark cap, dark patch on belly and darker bill. The larger Streaked Shearwater is similar but has paler mottled head, and ranges rarely overlap. All other shearwaters with white underparts are smaller and darker above.

streaked shearwater Calonectris leucomelas

Plate 33

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN North-west Pacific. Breeds (eggs May–

June) on islands between Ryuku Is. in south through Izu, Ryuku, Daito and Senkuku groups to islands off Hokkaido in north, with major concentration on Izu Is., Japan. Also on islands off eastern China, Korea and south-east Russia. Forage near breeding islands during breeding season. Absent from seas off the breeding grounds in boreal winter; migrate to tropical south-east China Sea, Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Coral Sea and Indian Ocean as far as Sri Lanka and Maldives and Abrolhos Is. Recorded in eastern and western Australian waters but not New Zealand. Vagrant to South Africa, eastern Pacific off California, USA, and Eilat and Aqaba in Red Sea. beHavIour Generally gregarious, sometimes forming vast flocks. Attracted to fishing vessels and chum. Flight similar to Cory’s but even lazier, more direct and mollymawk-like, with dynamic soaring in strong winds. JIZZ Long, slim bill, small head, long neck, and long broad wings with elbows held angled well forward. In light winds wings held in slight downward bow whilst gliding.

193

sIZe TL 48cm; W 29.3–32.4cm; WS 122cm; WT 468–538g. Marginally larger than Cory’s. PlumaGe Head variably streaked brown. Base colour of head white with brown streaking becoming increasingly

heavy towards the neck and hind crown, highlighting white eye-ring. Chin, throat and foreneck mostly white, rarely streaked. Mantle, back, scapulars, rump and uppertail dark brown with white tips to feathers in fresh plumage; uppertail has traces of pale U-shaped mark formed by pale bases to coverts that become more prominent with wear. Tail dark brown. Underparts white, with variable dark brown partial collar from hindneck onto sides of neck and upper breast; undertail white with narrow blackish tip. Upperwing has dark brown flight feathers and paler coverts with white fringes and indistinct darker brown M when fresh. Underwing mainly white, with black-brown flight feathers, dark smudge on leading edge of outerwing and broad dark tip. Bill, horn with smudgy-grey tip; eye dark; legs and feet flesh-pink. Young birds may be recognised by worn plumage during early breeding season (May) and may be freshly moulted by November. moult aND Wear With wear, pale tips to feathers of mantle and wings lost, and brown plumage becomes lighter. When extremely worn may show pale wing-bar due to exposed pale bases to flight feathers on upperwing. Adults moult body during chick rearing, flight feathers following breeding and dispersal (November–March). IDeNtIFICatIoN Resembles Cory’s Shearwater in jizz and plumage but weighs less and has longer, narrower bill. Only in very poor views would separation be a problem as recognisable by paler head and pale fringes to the feathers of the upperparts giving a greyer, scaly appearance. Diagnostic dark smudge on palm of the underwing (white in Cory’s). Buller’s Shearwater may occur in the same area but is recognised by slightly smaller size, distinct M across back, lack of any dark markings on underwings and dark bill. Immature gulls can look similar but fly higher above the water and, in all but high winds, constantly flap wings.

Wedge-tailed shearwater Puffinus pacificus

Plates 15, 30, 32

taxoNomy Sometimes considered to form super-

species with Buller’s Shearwater.

DIstrIbutIoN Nests throughout tropical Pacific

and Indian Oceans. Breeding season varies considerably throughout range with southernmost birds in Kermadec Is. breeding October–May, those in Hawaii breeding April–November and some equatorial populations apparently having two peaks, with individuals having either Northern or Southern Hemisphere schedules. Weakly migratory, absent from breeding islands during non-breeding season; probably migrates to central northern and eastern Pacific but migratory route poorly documented. beHavIour Most commonly observed on shelf break. Feeds solitarily or in small groups, diving to up to 30m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill. Rarely attracted to chum and seldom observed behind fishing trawlers. Very leisurely ‘shearwatering’ flight pattern of flap-flap-glide ... flap-flap-glide. Flight more leisurely than most other shearwaters, more like that of Procellaria petrels. JIZZ Head appears slightly rounded with a pronounced forehead joining a slender, comparatively long, dark bill. Long broad wings, which appear to be slightly rounded at tips. Tail looks long and distinctly wedge-shaped at tip. Dark feet occasionally show outside plumage or projecting beyond tail but more often than not they are tucked up in feathers so identification using foot colour is impossible. sIZe TL 46–47cm; W 28.5–30.6cm; WS 97–99cm; WT 320–510g. Moderately sized shearwater with similar dimensions to small dark-headed gulls. Male on average only slightly larger than female but measurements overlap considerably. PlumaGe Dimorphic. Dark morph Dark brown all over. Freshly moulted birds and juveniles may appear almost black. All ages have faintly reflective surfaces to underside of flight feathers that, from a distance in strong light, may look like pale underwing feathers of Sooty Shearwater. Pale morph Brown above with indistinct brown M across wings and back, darker on tail and cap. Upperparts can have broad paler edges to feathers or appear almost uniformly dark brown. Underparts white with some darker smudging under tail. Underwing white, broad dark trailing edge and darker tip with variable smudgy markings in centre. Intermediate birds with dark smudgy sides to head, upper breast, flanks and undertail also occur. Adult bill mostly dark brown with dark horn base to lower mandible. Flaking on nostrils and bill tip can make these areas appear paler from a distance. Immature bill same as adult but usually smoother with slightly paler edges to lower mandible. In hand, bill of fledglings can appear blue at base.

194

moult aND Wear Majority undergo leisurely moult of flight feathers one at a time during non-breeding season. Therefore, seldom show large steps or gaps in flight feathers. Plumage wear and stage of moult useful to age individuals and indicate their breeding areas. During non-breeding period, non-moulting, fresh-plumaged birds would be juveniles, birds moulting their flight feathers adults. Birds late in their 1st year appear worn when breeders are in fresh plumage. For example, in the Kermadec population birds in worn plumage in period September–November would be juveniles, whilst those that are in active wing-moult in February–April would be 2nd-year birds from this or other populations that follow the Southern Hemisphere breeding schedule. IDeNtIFICatIoN Dark morph Among dark shearwaters and petrels most readily recognised by slight frame and long wedge-shaped tail. Flesh-footed Shearwater readily distinguished in good light, even at a distance, by pinkish bill and close up by flesh-coloured legs. Sooty Shearwater distinguished by silvery flash on underwing and both Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters separated by shorter, less pointed tails and narrower, straighter wings. However note that in strong light, like many other dark petrels and shearwaters, undersides of flight feathers of Wedge-tailed Shearwater do reflect light, so care must be taken with this character. Typical Pterodroma flight patterns can distinguish species such as Bulwer’s, Grey-faced, Great-winged and Kerguelen Petrels. The greatest identification challenge is separating dark-morph Wedge-tailed from Christmas Island Shearwater. Christmas Island Shearwater is slightly smaller than Wedge-tailed with short, rounded tail, a shorter, stubbier bill and proportionally longer, narrower wings. Pale morph Best told from Buller’s Shearwater by absence of well-defined M on back, smaller size with proportionately longer bill, and dark trailing edge and tip to underwing. Great Shearwater has not been recorded in same range but has well-defined dark cap, smudgy marking on underwing and belly and white crescent on upper tail. See also Pink-footed Shearwater.

buller’s shearwater Puffinus bulleri

Plate 32

taxoNomy Sometimes considered to form a superspecies with Wedge-tailed Shearwater. DIstrIbutIoN Pacific Ocean. Breeds (eggs November) only on Poor Knights Is., New Zealand, but a single pair recently found on Simmonds Is., off Houhora in Northland. Generally forages in New Zealand waters during breeding season but occasionally east to Chile and west to New South Wales and Victoria, Australia. Transequatorial migrant to north Pacific Ocean as far north as Japan and Alaska and common off Californian coast, USA, especially late in northern summer. Vagrant to west Atlantic Ocean off New Jersey, USA. beHavIour Most commonly observed inshore. Feeds solitarily or in small groups, diving up to 30m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill. Attracted to chum and commonly observed behind recreational fishing boats. Very leisurely ‘shearwatering’ flight pattern of flap-flap-glide ... flapflap-glide. Flight more leisurely than most other shearwaters, more like that of Procellaria petrels. JIZZ Head appears slightly rounded with a pronounced forehead joining a slender, comparatively long, blue-grey bill. Long, broad wings, which appear to be slightly rounded at tips. Tail appears extremely long and distinctly wedge-shaped at tip. sIZe TL 43–46cm; W 28.5–30.9cm; WS 96–102cm; WT 385–490g. Moderately sized shearwater with similar dimensions to small dark-headed or Silver Gulls. PlumaGe Blue-grey above with distinct brown M across wings and back, darker tail and cap. Upperparts usually browner, darker and less neat in worn plumage. Underparts white. Underwing almost entirely white, strikingly so at sea. moult aND Wear Majority undergo leisurely moult of flight feathers one at a time during non-breeding season. Therefore seldom show large steps or gaps in flight feathers. IDeNtIFICatIoN Most difficult to tell from slightly smaller, pale-morph Wedge tailed Shearwater. Buller’s has white underwing, lacking broad, dark trailing edge and dark wing-tip of Wedge-tailed. Could be confused with larger Pink-footed and Great Shearwater, but both lack an obvious M across upperwings and have more dark on underwing. Juan Fernandez Petrel has similar plumage pattern but with dark mark on elbow of underwing, dark heavy bill, white forehead and different jizz and flight.

195

Flesh-footed shearwater Puffinus carneipes taxoNomy Sometimes considered to form a super-

Plates 29, 30

species with Pink-footed Shearwater of western South America. DIstrIbutIoN Indian and Pacific Oceans. Breeds (eggs November–December) on St Paul I. in southern Indian Ocean, islands off southwest and southeast Australia as far north as Lord Howe and islands off North Island of New Zealand. Forage around breeding grounds in summer. Majority of population appears to migrate to Northern Hemisphere between May and September. Most fly to waters off Japan in June, waters off Gulf of Alaska in July, and into central Pacific in August on return to Southern Hemisphere. Indian Ocean population apparently migrates to Arabian Sea via waters off Mascarene Islands and Seychelles. beHavIour Most commonly observed in littoral waters, often in quite shallow water in bays and entrances to harbours. In New Zealand waters frequently feeds with Buller’s Shearwater. Readily attracted to chum or offal. Feeds alone or in small groups, diving up to 50m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill. JIZZ Large shearwater with very leisurely ‘shearwatering’ flight pattern of flap-flap-glide ... flap-flap-glide. Flight considerably more leisurely than any other large, dark shearwater and more like that of Procellaria petrels. Head appears slightly rounded with a small forehead joining a pale, stout, comparatively long, heavy bill. Long, broad wings look slightly rounded at tips. Tail moderately long and round-ended. Pale feet rarely visible, usually tucked up into belly feathers, making identification using foot colour impossible. sIZe TL 46–48cm; W 30.9–34.0cm; WS 110–120cm; WT 533–750g. Large shearwater with similar dimensions to larger gulls but slightly less bulky. Male on average only slightly larger than female, measurements overlapping considerably. PlumaGe Dark brown all over. Freshly moulted birds and juveniles may appear black. All ages have reflective surfaces to underside of flight feathers that from a distance in strong light give the appearance of paler underwings. Adult flesh-pink bill plates contrasting with dark brown bill tip. Nostrils variable, either mostly flesh-pink or mixture of flesh-pink and dark brown. However, flaking on nostrils and bill tip can make these areas appear paler from a distance in some lights. Some suggestion that birds from Western Australia and Indian Ocean may have darker pink bills. Pink tones of bill are generally paler at fledging with some appearing almost white. and dark areas at tip and on nostrils are generally smaller than adult and gradually darken with age. moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight-feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of feathers lost at once, creating large steps or gaps in trailing edge of wing and severely compromising ability to fly. In the northern summer, non-moulting, fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers will be adults. Birds in worn plumage in the period September–November and those that are actively in wing moult in February–April may be 2nd-year birds. Timing of moult may be useful in separating adult Fleshfooted from White-chinned and Parkinson’s Petrels. Flesh-footed Shearwater moult body plumage during chick rearing in January–March whilst the two Procellaria species moult later. Thus birds with mottled body plumage January–March are more likely to be Flesh-footed, and those with mottled body plumage in May–July are more likely White-chinned and Parkinson’s Petrels. IDeNtIFICatIoN Among dark shearwaters and petrels instantly separated from all by combination of pale bill and feet when these features are visible. Unfortunately it is rare to be able to see leg colour, but in good light pale bill is visible from a surprising distance. At a distance, dark underwing separates Flesh-footed from Sooty Shearwater, but as in most dark shearwaters and petrels, shiny surfaces to flight feathers and coverts can look like pale patches in strong, contrasting light. Thus care should be taken to observe same individual for as long as possible to clarify nature of any pale patches on underwing. Dark-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater can be recognised at a distance by its slighter build, angular wings, long neck, wedge-shaped tail and – with better views – long, narrow bill. Typical Pterodroma flight patterns can distinguish possible confusion species such as Grey-faced, Great-winged and Kerguelen Petrel. The greatest identification challenge is separating Flesh-footed Shearwater from the three dark Procellaria petrels: White-chinned, Westland and Parkinson’s. At a distance, with experience, stouter jizz and broader wings of dark Procellaria petrels are helpful features. Close up in good light, yellowish-horn bills of dark Procellaria petrels should be distinguishable from pale pink bill of Flesh-footed.

196

Pink-footed shearwater Puffinus creatopus

Plate 32

taxoNomy Sometimes considered to form a superspecies with Flesh-footed Shearwater of southwest Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean. DIstrIbutIoN Eastern Pacific Ocean. Breeds (eggs December–January) on Robinson Crusoe I., Isla Santa Clara (Juan Fernandez group) and Isla Mocha, off central Chilean coast. During breeding season forages mainly in confluence of Humboldt and Magellan Currents. Transequatorial migrant (April– November) to western North America north of 10°N, from Mexico to British Columbia, occasionally to Gulf of Alaska and south Bering Sea. Vagrants recorded Hawaii, Kiribati, Australia and a specimen from the Atlantic coast of Argentina. Now regularly reported in summer in New Zealand, especially off Kaikoura. beHavIour Pelagic. In US waters frequently feeds in loose association with Buller’s and Sooty Shearwaters. Can be attracted to chum or offal. Feeds solitarily or in small groups, diving to significant depths in pursuit of fish, squid and krill. JIZZ Large, stocky shearwater with very leisurely ‘shearwatering’ flight pattern of flap-flap-glide ... flap-flapglide. Considerably more leisurely than any other bicoloured shearwater and similar to Procellaria petrels. Large head appears slightly rounded with a small forehead joining a stout but comparatively long, heavy bill. Long, broad wings appear slightly rounded at tips. Tail moderately long and round-ended. Pale feet are rarely visible and are usually tucked up into belly feathers, making identification using foot coloration impossible. sIZe TL 46–48cm; W 32.1–34.2cm; WS 110–117cm; WT 720g. Similar in all dimensions to Flesh-footed but slightly heavier. PlumaGe Variable rather than dimorphic. Chin, throat and lower face, white, washed with grey-brown. Rest of head and hind-neck dark brown. Upperparts other than head, grey-brown, slightly paler when fresh with narrow, whitish fringes on mantle, back and scapulars giving scaly-backed, darker-capped appearance, but this effect lost with wear. Tail brownish-black. Underparts mainly white with variable amounts of brown barring or mottling on sides of neck, upper breast and flanks, extending to thighs and undertail. Undersides of feathers of tail dark brown. Upperwing: inner feathers have white edges in fresh plumage; flight feathers generally darker than rest. Underwing: dark flight feathers form broad dark trailing edge and tip; rest of underwing white with variable amounts of brown streaking. In extreme examples, underwing almost entirely dark or very white with small dark triangle of feathers in inner underwing reaching armpit. Bill pink with dark tip; iris dark brown; legs and feet pink. Suggestions that variability in darkness due to age seem without merit. Young birds may be recognisable due to moult cycles. moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight-feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of feathers lost at once, creating large steps or gaps in trailing edge of wing and severely compromising ability to fly. Non-moulting fresh-plumaged juveniles recognisable during northern summer whilst adults are moulting flight feathers. Birds in worn plumage in September–November and those that are actively in wing moult in February–April may be 2nd-year birds. IDeNtIFICatIoN Cory’s has a similar, rather scruffy, pale brown plumage to lighter forms of Pink-footed but Cory’s has a yellow – not pink – bill and is paler on uppertail-coverts. Darker Pink-footed has significantly more dark on flanks, chest and undertail than any of the Cory’s group. Paler Pink-footed can look very similar to smaller, lighter Cape Verde Shearwater that may overlap in range off Argentina, but has pink, not duskyhorn or greyish bill. Wedge-tailed, though similar length, has different jizz with much shorter wings and longer narrower tail, giving it a more buoyant flight with wings that are bent at the elbow and held forward. Timing of moult may be useful in separating Southern Hemisphere-breeding Pink-footed from Northern Hemisphere breeding pale-morph Wedge-tailed, Streaked and Cory’s. Birds with big gaps in flight feathers and moulting, mottled body plumage in January–March are likely to be Pink-footed; Northern Hemisphere species do not moult body plumage until May–July. Smaller, slighter Buller’s Shearwater has entirely white underwing and obvious M on paler grey upperparts. Great Shearwater has well-defined dark cap, white collar, pale crescent on uppertail-coverts and distinctively marked underwing. Black-vented Shearwater noticeably smaller, with darker upperparts, quicker wingbeats and shorter glides.

197

Great shearwater Puffinus gravis

Plate 32

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Breeds

(eggs November) on Nightingale I. and Inaccessible I. (Tristan da Cunha group), Gough I., Kidney I. (Falklands). Forages in South Atlantic and southwest Indian Ocean while breeding (c. 38°S–50°S), and may get as far east as 65°E in Indian Ocean. Transequatorial migrant to North Atlantic (April–October), moving north-west to South America, up to Canada, past Greenland and into the northeast Atlantic before returning south in October–November to the breeding islands. beHavIour Pelagic and gregarious; regularly follows ships and trawlers, diving to some depth for food. Flight strong, usually with stiff, rapid wingbeats followed by long glides low to water. In strong winds may dynamic soar, similar to mollymawks. JIZZ Large, heavy, big-headed, long-tailed shearwater with broad, long wings and long, slender bill. Wings held straighter than Cory’s though still slightly bowed. sIZe TL 46–51cm; W 32.1–34.2cm; WS 108–115cm; WT 715–950g. Similar size to Pink-footed and Cory’s. PlumaGe Chin, lower face, throat and front of neck white, sharply demarcated from blackish-brown forehead, crown, nape and ears, which form blackish cap extending below eye. White sides of neck extend narrowly across back of neck, forming partial collar separating dark cap from brown mantle. Rest of upperparts dark greybrown with pale tips to feathers in fresh plumage. Lower uppertail-coverts white, forming U-shaped mark immediately above blackish tail. Underparts white with indistinct, brownish-grey partial collar and variable brownish mottling or wash on belly, both of which can be gradually lost with wear. Greyish-brown rear flanks, blackishbrown undertail-coverts and undertail. Upperwing has darker flight feathers and leading edge, and paler central panels with narrow white fringes to feathers. Underwing mainly white with black flight feathers forming dark trailing edge and tip; narrow dark border to leading edge wider on outer wing; two diagonal, parallel dark lines extending from base of trailing edge across lesser coverts towards elbow, the anterior line being generally less prominent. Variable dark markings also present in armpit. Bill and eye dark; legs and feet fleshy-pink. Stage of moult can be used distinguish immature birds during summer. moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight-feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of feathers lost at once creating large steps or gaps in trailing edge of wing and severely compromising ability to fly. In the northern summer, non-moulting fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers will be adults. Birds in worn plumage in September–November and those that are actively in wing moult in February–April may be 2nd-year birds. IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of dark cap, white collar and dark belly patch diagnostic. White collar may cause confusion with White-necked Petrel but Great Shearwater has shearwater jizz, pale rump patch and different underwing pattern. Best separated from Cory’s group by Great’s black bill, well-defined cap, and diagonal parallel bars on underwing as well as dark belly patch. Audubon’s much smaller but can look similar when size difficult to assess, as it often can be at sea. Audubon’s generally has thin and weak-looking bill, less pronounced cap, cleaner underwing and sharper demarcation between vent and tail. See also other bicoloured shearwaters: Pink-footed, pale Wedge-tailed, Buller’s, Cory’s and Cape Verde.

separation of short-tailed and sooty shearwaters Most Sooty Shearwaters can be separated from Short-tailed by silvery flashes on underwing. However, a few Short-tailed have whiter underwings and the silvery flash on Sooty is not always easily visible so identification can be more difficult than generally realised. Under good conditions when both species are present, or in the hand, the following checklist may enable Sooty Shearwaters to be separated from Short-tailed. Without comparative experience, and under suboptimal conditions, separation is not always possible. Sooty Shearwater

198

Short-tailed Shearwater

sooty shearwater

short-tailed shearwater

Larger and heavier-bodied with deeper ‘barrel’-shaped chest

Comparatively slight with shallow chest

On average longer-bodied with TL to WS ratio of approx. 4.5

Short, squat body with short tail, TL to WS ratio approx. 4

Long, narrow, pointed wings

Proportionally shorter, more rounded wing

Comparatively long, slightly wedged tail

Stumpy tail with square or slightly rounded tip

Proportionally longer, slender bill

Short, stubby bill

Flat-headed appearance

More rounded head with higher forehead

Longer, narrower neck

Short-necked with an almost hunchbacked appearance

Head has a more uniform, less hooded appearance

In strong light has a darker hood and collar

Mostly white primary underwing-coverts

Primary underwing-coverts suffused with variable brown speckling

3 parallel brown-and-white stripes along secondary underwing coverts

Greater secondary underwing-coverts mostly brown contrasting with thin line of pale median and lesser secondary underwing-coverts

Invariably darker axillaries contrast with other brown feathers on underwing

Axillaries same pale brown as rest of brown feathers on underwing

Adults with moulting, mottled body plumage Jan–Mar

Adults with moulting, mottled body plumage May–July

sooty shearwater Puffinus griseus

Plates 14, 31

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Ubiquitous in all oceans. Breeds

(eggs November–December) on temperate and subantarctic islands of New Zealand, south-west South America, Falkland Is., Tristan da Cunha group and Australia. Forages from breeding grounds along South Polar front. Transequatorial migration (May to September); majority of population apparently flies to waters off Japan in June, south of Aleutians in July and the Californian Current in August, although numbers at the last may be lower than in former years. Small numbers, possibly from Falklands and Staten Is. migrate to North Atlantic, reaching 60°N. beHavIour Most commonly observed in shelf and littoral waters, sometimes feeding in wave break. However, also found in huge flocks along subantarctic frontal zone. Not generally found in colder Arctic or Antarctic waters, the majority of dark shearwaters in Bering Sea being Short-tailed, and early records of huge flocks along the Antarctic ice edge also likely to have been Shorttailed Shearwaters. Readily attracted to chum or offal, descending in large flocks on fishing trawlers. Huge flocks are seen around breeding islands, especially in morning and evening. Feed in packs, leap-frogging one another in noisy, frantic chaos and diving up to 60m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill. JIZZ Medium-large, dark shearwater with typical ‘shearwatering’ flight pattern of flap-flap-flap-glide – down into a wave trough then up out again – then flap-flap-flap-glide. Wingbeats brisk. Head appears angular and flattened with no obvious forehead adjoining long, narrow bill. Long but narrow wings make body appear bulky. In flight, feet rarely project beyond slightly wedged-shaped tail. sIZe TL 40–46cm; W 26.0–31.8cm; WS 94–105cm; WT 650–950g. Deceptively large shearwater with similar dimensions to larger gulls but less bulky. Male on average only slightly larger than female but considerable overlap in measurements.

199

PlumaGe In worn plumage predominantly chocolate-brown with a slightly darker brown cap and collar. Freshly

moulted birds and juveniles have a greyish tone to dark brown plumage. All ages have pale panel on underwing, mainly made up of white on primary-coverts and bases of outer secondary-coverts. Tips to secondary-coverts are variably marked with brown giving appearance of three parallel brown stripes that join up with mostly dark axillaries. Some authors have speculated that variation in amount of white on underwing may be due to age but large sample of freshly fledged birds from Snares I. turned out to be similar to adults. Adult bill mostly dark brown with dark-horn base to lower mandible. Flaking on nostrils and bill tip can make these areas appear paler from a distance. Immature bill same as adult but usually smoother with slightly paler edges to lower mandible. In hand, bill of some fledglings may look blue at base. Legs and feet, pinkish-black. moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight-feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of feathers lost at once, creating large steps or gaps in wing and severely compromising ability to fly. In northern summer, non-moulting fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers will be adults. Birds in worn plumage in September–November and those that are actively in wing moult in February–April may be 2nd-year birds. Timing of moult can be useful in separating Short-tailed from Sooty Shearwater. Adult Sooty Shearwaters moult body plumage from January–March during chick-rearing whilst Short-tailed Shearwaters wait until they reach the Northern Hemisphere in May. Thus birds with moulting, mottled body plumage during January–March are more likely to be Sooty Shearwaters and those moulting body plumage May–July are more likely to be Short-tailed Shearwater. IDeNtIFICatIoN Among dark shearwaters and petrels instantly separated from all but the few Short-tailed Shearwaters with whitish underwings by pale underwing flashes. See table for separation from Short-tailed. Some individuals of Heinroth’s Shearwater may also have mostly dark underparts and pale underwings but this species is only half the size of Sooty Shearwater. In most dark shearwaters and petrels, shiny surfaces to otherwise dark underwing flight feathers and coverts can look like pale patches in strong, contrasting light. It is a good idea to watch a bird for as long as possible to ensure that an apparently pale underwing is not just caused by reflection. In good light, pale bill of Flesh-footed Shearwater and dark Procellaria petrels should be visible at considerable distance; otherwise for dark procellarias, stout body and broad wings are helpful. At great distance flight pattern can distinguish species such as Grey-faced, Great-winged and Kerguelen Petrel. Dark-phase Wedge-tailed Shearwater can be recognised by long, narrow bill, long neck, wedge-shaped tail and dark underwings.

short-tailed shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Pacific and southern Indian Oceans.

Plate 31

Breeds (eggs November) only in southern Australia, mostly in southeast Australia and Tasmania. Transequatorial migrant to north Pacific from May–September; majority of population apparently flies to waters off Japan in June, the Bering Sea in July, and on to the central Pacific during August on the way south again. beHavIour Commonly observed in shelf and littoral waters, and huge flocks also found along Arctic and Antarctic Frontal Zone. The majority of dark shearwaters in Bering Sea and huge flocks along Antarctic ice edge are Short-tailed Shearwaters. Birds feeding chicks in Tasmania have been shown to commute to ice edge to gather food. Readily attracted to chum or offal, descending in large flocks on fishing trawlers. Huge flocks are seen around breeding islands especially in morning and evening. Feed in packs, leap-frogging each other in noisy, frantic chaos and diving up to 50m in pursuit of fish, squid and krill. JIZZ Medium-sized shearwater with ‘shearwatering’ flight pattern of flap-flap-flap-glide ... flap-flap-flap-glide. Somewhat less graceful than Sooty Shearwater; flight appears hurried and sometimes quite erratic, similar to jerkiness of a Slender-billed or Fulmar Prion. Head appears a little rounded with a slight forehead joining a comparatively short, thin, yet stumpy, bill. Long, narrow wings appear to be slightly rounded at tips. Feet occasionally project beyond square-ended tail. sIZe TL 40–45cm; W 26.1–28.8cm; WS 95–100cm; WT 480–800g. Moderately sized shearwater, slightly larger than smaller gulls but with similar bulk. Male on average only slightly larger than female but considerable overlap in measurements. PlumaGe In worn plumage predominantly chocolate-brown with darker brown cap and collar. Birds in fresh moult and juveniles may have a slight greyish tone to dark brown plumage. Underwing mostly dark, paler

200

primary-coverts suffused with variable brown speckling, and greater secondary-coverts variably marked brown. A few birds have white on median and/or lesser secondary-coverts so underwing looks pale like Sooty. Bill dark brown; legs and feet pinkish-grey. moult aND Wear Majority undergo flight feather moult in Northern Hemisphere with large numbers of feather lost at once, creating large steps or gaps in wing and severely compromising ability to fly. In northern summer, non-moulting fresh-plumaged birds will be juveniles; those moulting flight feathers will be adults. Birds in worn plumage in September–November and those that are actively in wing moult in February–April are likely to be 2nd-year birds. Timing of moult can be useful in separating Short-tailed from Sooty Shearwater. Adult Sooty Shearwaters moult body plumage from January–March during chick-rearing whilst Short-tailed Shearwaters wait until they reach the Northern Hemisphere in May. Thus birds with moulting, mottled body plumage during January–March are probably Sooty Shearwaters, while those moulting body plumage in May–July are more likely to be Short-tailed Shearwater. IDeNtIFICatIoN All but the few birds with whitish underwings are separable from Sooty Shearwater by dark underwings. See table above for separation from Sooty. There are many other similar, all-dark petrels and shearwaters with dark underwings, and it is worth learning Short-tailed’s jizz: narrow-winged, stumpy-tailed and short-billed, with gliding flight interspersed with short bursts of brisk wingbeats. Short-tailed is dark-billed, and smaller and less bulky than the three dark Procellaria petrels and Flesh-footed Shearwater. Dark-phase Wedgetailed is longer in bill and tail, has broader wings held angled back at carpal and a more leisurely flight. Christmas Island Shearwater tends to fly lower, is smaller with slightly broader wings and paler wash to flight feathers of underwing, yet may be difficult to distinguish when ranges overlap in central Pacific.

Christmas Island shearwater Puffinus nativitatis

Plate 30

otHer Name Kiritimati Shearwater. taxoNomy Monotypic. Genetic studies by Austin

et al. (2004) have suggested that P. lherminieri subalaris, the Audubon’s-type shearwater from the Galápagos, is closely related to Christmas Island Shearwater. DIstrIbutIoN Tropical and subtropical Pacific. Breeds on offshore Hawaiian islands of Moku Manu (O‘ahu), Ka‘ula, and Lehua (Ni‘ihau), the northwestern Hawaiian islands from Nihoa (23°N, 165°W) to Kure Atoll (28°N, 178°W), except Necker I. and Gardner Pinnacles; Johnston Atoll, Ducie and Oeno (Pitcairn group); Motu Tabu, Motu Upua; Ile de Paques (Society Is.), Marquesa Is., Tuamotu, Tubuai (Austral group), Phoenix and Marshall groups. Sala y Gomez and Motu-Nui off Easter I. Also possibly Curtis I., Kermadec group. Probably remains close by tropical colonies throughout year, but subtropical colonies vacated in non-breeding season. Occurs in eastern Pacific between 25°N and 25°S off coasts of Central and South America (Mexico to Peru and northern Chile) to Nayarit (22°N, 78°W), Guatemala (14°N, 91°W), and at 24° to 27°N, between Bonin Is. (145°E) and Minami Torishima. One record from Tuvalu and one from mainland New Zealand. beHavIour Highly pelagic and either solitary or in small compact flocks. Often seen close to breeding islands; associates with multi-species flocks. Flight buoyant, generally more flapping on stiff wings, with less gliding than Sooty, Short-tailed or Wedge-tailed Shearwaters, usually very low over sea surface. In light winds, flight direct with rapid stiff wingbeats followed by long glides close to surface. In stronger winds flies at intermediate height between the skulking, low-flying Wedge-tailed and the more aerial Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters. JIZZ Compact, medium-sized shearwater with relatively short, rounded wings, slender bill and short, rounded tail. sIZe TL 35–38cm; W 24–26cm; WS 71–81cm; WT 354g. PlumaGe Wholly dark brown, thin inconspicuous white eye-ring. Underparts generally slightly paler brown than upperparts. Underside of flight feathers and coverts washed with white, showing in flight, in strong light, as silvery flash. In fresh plumage, chin feathers fringed with white. Bill polished black; eye brown; legs and feet grey-brown with black lines down outer sides and greyish black webs. moult aND Wear Moult at sea after breeding season. No evidence that adults begin moult before breeding is completed. IDeNtIFICatIoN Most difficult to tell from Sooty and Short-tailed Shearwaters. Christmas Island smaller and underwings generally darker than Sooty and lighter than Short-tailed. Wings look slightly broader and

201

less pointed than Short-tailed. In stronger winds, flight lower than Sooty and Short-tailed which fly in higher, careening arcs. Differs from dark-morph Wedge-tailed by smaller size; darker brown overall plumage, narrower wings with shorter tail; and stiffer, rapid wingbeats. In stronger winds Christmas Island flies higher than Wedgetailed which keeps close to surface of sea. Best separated from mostly dark Heinroth’s Shearwater by larger size, dark underwing, absence of any white on belly and dark (not pink) legs and feet.

manx-type shearwaters

Slightly larger than the Little/Audubon’s group, these medium-sized shearwaters have brown upperparts (darkest in Manx), white or scruffy pale brownish underparts and relatively small, inconspicuous white tabs that reach up onto the sides of the rump. Newell’s and Townsend’s are sometimes considered members of this group, as they have pinkish, not blue, legs, but we have included them within the Little/Audubon’s group as, in fresh plumage, they have more prominent white tabs on the sides of the rump and blacker upperparts. Range can help to identify members of this group: Subtropical north Pacific = Black-vented Subtropical, temperate south Pacific = Fluttering and Hutton’s Atlantic, other than subantarctic = Manx and Balearic Mediterranean = Yelkouan and Balearic In order of importance, the most useful features for identification of the species in this group are: • • • • •

extent of dark on underwing extent of dark on undertail and underparts relative wing length relative tail length darkness of back

Size is not overly useful as measurements often overlap, but length of wing and tail relative to each other and to body length can be helpful: SPECIES

TOTAL LENGTH (cm)

WING (cm)

WINGSPAN (cm)

WEIGHT (g)

TAIL (cm)

30–35 30–36 34–38 35–38 32–37 36–38

22.6–24.3 22.0–24.3 23.4–25.4 23.1–25.2 18.0–22.1 20.3–23.3

71–83 73–88 83–93 82 76 72–78

350–575 330–485 472–565 332– 545 230–415 242–378

7.5 7.3 7.2 8.0 6.2 6.5

Manx Yelkouan Balearic Black-vented Fluttering Hutton’s

manx shearwater Puffinus puffinus

Plate 35

taxoNomy Previously included Yelkouan and

Balearic Shearwaters as subspecies.

DIstrIbutIoN Atlantic Ocean. Breeds (eggs April–

May) in Iceland, France, Wales, England, Faeroe Is., Ireland, Scotland, Channel Is., Azores Is., Madeira and Canary Is. Recently established in eastern North America (Newfoundland, Labrador, Gulf of St Lawrence to Gulf of Maine and Massachusetts). Forages near breeding grounds whilst breeding. Generally absent from waters around breeding sites in winter. Transequatorial migrant (July–March) wintering in central and southwest Atlantic (10°S–40°S) and commonest off Brazil and Argentina but spread across Atlantic with small numbers in South Africa. In Pacific, vagrant to Australia, New Zealand, Washington state (USA) and California. beHavIour Gregarious; rarely follows ships and does not seem to be attracted to chum. Swims and dives for food in huge flocks, birds leap-frogging each other whilst foraging. In calm conditions, flight low with long glides

202

on rigid, straight wings, interspersed with short bursts of brisk flapping; during each flap wings usually rise above the body. In strong winds flaps less and dynamic soars to 10–15m above waves. JIZZ Long-bodied, long-winged shearwater with long, relatively stout bill and comparatively long tail. sIZe TL 30–35cm; W 22.6–24.3cm; WS 71–83cm; WT 350–575g. PlumaGe Forehead and crown brown-black, the dark colour extending to below eye and to base of bill, merging seamlessly with dark upperparts, which contrast sharply with pure white underparts. Juveniles and fresh-plumaged birds blacker. Chin, throat and lower cheeks white, usually with small white crescent extending upwards into black behind ear. Small black thigh patch and thin, dark rim to undertail. When rump and uppertail are worn in late summer, white may appear to extend upwards onto sides of rump, but rarely as noticeably as white tabs of Audubon’s. Underwing entirely white except for indistinct, somewhat variably sized, triangle of dark feathers on inner wing. Sexes similar though breeding adults, especially males, can have small white feathers in neck, crown and nape (filoplumes). Bill black with lower mandible paler, greyish, or bluish-grey; eye dark; legs and feet pale flesh and black. moult aND Wear Dark plumage less prone than other members of the group to fade to brown, but adults still browner than newly fledged juveniles. Adults begin slow wing-moult after transequatorial migration (September–October) and finish by January–March. Immatures begin moult earlier and can be easily recognised by fresh plumage during breeding season. IDeNtIFICatIoN Greatest challenge is separating Manx from Balearic and Yelkouan. Balearic is slightly larger with shorter tail and projecting feet but is best separated by browner upperparts, smudgy-brown on underparts, dark undertail, dusky inner underwing and dark partial collar. Yelkouan is intermediate in plumage between Manx and Balearic and best separated from Manx by browner upperparts, dusky undertail and more distinct dark triangle on inner underwing. In tropics Audubon’s may cause difficulties. Pure white undertail of Manx usually diagnostic, but some Caribbean Audubon’s may show a pale undertail. Audubon’s usually shows white ‘tabs’ where the white of the undersides encroaches onto the rump. Only in worn Manx does this feature show and it is rarely as prominent. Manx is about 10% larger with a proportionately shorter tail and longer wings, has slower wingbeats, with longer periods of gliding and banking. Macaronesian Shearwater, the range of which overlaps in parts of the eastern Atlantic, has a shorter bill and wings and more flapping flight, very low to the water with wings held slightly bowed, rarely rising above body. Macaronesian also has white face.

yelkouan shearwater Puffinus yelkouan

Plate 35

taxoNomy Sometimes included with Manx, or lumped with Balearic Shearwater Puffinus mauretanicus as a single polytypic species, the Mediterranean Shearwater P. yelkouan. DIstrIbutIoN Mediterranean. Breeds (eggs Mar-Apr) on islands off France, Italy, Malta, Greece, Albania, Croatia and Turkey. May breed in Bulgaria, Turkey and Tunisia. Disperses northeast through Bosphorus into Black Sea; dispersal west sporadic and apparently eruptive. No proven records outside Mediterranean. beHavIour Similar to Manx Shearwater. JIZZ Shorter than Manx but a similar weight, giving an overstuffed, pot-bellied jizz. Neck longer and tail shorter. Toes often project slightly beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 30–36cm; W 22–24.3cm; WS 73–88cm; WT 330–485g. Similar in size or slightly smaller than Manx but only marginally lighter. PlumaGe. Superficially similar to Manx. Upperparts browner. Pale birds are very similar to Manx Shearwater with pale underparts and underwing. However almost always has some dark mottling on undertail and duskybrown wash on inner underwing. The dark diagonal bar across the inner underwing is darker than Manx. There may also be some smudgy, brownish shading on the flanks. moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults begin slow wing-moult after dispersal (July-Aug) and finish by Dec-Jan. Juvenile and immatures begin moult earlier and can be recognised by fresh plumage during breeding season. IDeNtIFICatIoN Yelokouan is noticeably smaller (c.15%) than Balearic. Both share a rather pot-bellied and bulky appearance compared to Manx, although this is less pronounced in Yelkouan. Both have a longer neck and shorter tail than Manx and toes generally project slightly beyond the tail. Undertail-coverts of both are dusky but Balearic is scruffier looking than the clean-cut Manx. When gliding the wings of both Balearic and Yelkouan are held straighter than Sooty Shearwater.

203

balearic shearwater Puffinus mauretanicus

Plate 35

taxoNomy Sometimes included with Manx, or

lumped with Yelkouan Shearwater as a single polytypic species, Mediterranean Shearwater P. yelkouan. DIstrIbutIoN Mediterranean. Up to 70% of the population breed (Feb–Mar) on cliffs on Formentera and surrounding islets, also on small islets off Mallorca, Cabrera, Menorca and Ibiza, and possibly northeast Spain. Disperses west, moving along northeast Spanish coast with large flocks between Valencia and Catalonia (Nov-Feb) and onwards into Atlantic; regular off Channel Is. and southwest England. Occasionally reaches Scotland and Scandinavia, and recorded south to Madeira and Atlantic coast of Morocco; vagrant to South Africa and Senegal. beHavIour Similar to Manx Shearwater. JIZZ Larger, heavier and more pot-bellied than Manx with longer neck and shorter tail. Toes sometime project slightly beyond the tail, unlike Manx. sIZe TL 34–38cm; W 23.4–25.4cm; WS 83–93cm; WT 472–565g. Similar in size or slightly larger than Manx. PlumaGe. Variable. Generally browner above than Manx, although this varies between individual birds and depends on light and wear. Underparts, sides of breast, undertail and vent variably mottled smudgy-brown. Border between dark upperparts and pale underparts diffuse. Underwing darker still than Yelkouan, armpit often very dark. Some birds may look almost entirely brown, but are usually still somewhat paler on central belly and outer underwing. moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults begin slow wing-moult after dispersal (July-Aug) and finish by Dec–Jan. Juvenile and immatures begin moult earlier and can be recognised by fresh plumage during breeding season. IDeNtIFICatIoN Balearic is noticeably larger (c.15%) than Yelkouan and closer in size to Manx. Balearic and Yelkouan share a rather pot-bellied and bulky appearance compared to Manx; both have a longer neck and shorter tail than Manx and toes generally project slightly beyond the tail. Undertail-coverts of both are dusky; Balearic is scruffier looking than the clean-cut Manx. Dark Balearic’s may be confused with larger Sooty Shearwater but Balearic usually has some white on the central belly, slightly broader and more rounded wings and a more pot-bellied appearance. When gliding the wings of both Balearic and Yelkouan are held straighter than Sooty Shearwater.

black-vented shearwater Puffinus opisthomelas taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic Mexican breeding species.

Plate 34

Breeds (eggs March) on islands off Pacific Coast of Baja California, Mexico (Islas Natividad, San Benito, Cedros, San Martin and Guadalupe). Forages in vicinity of breeding grounds during summer. Disperses north, reaching central California, USA, and rarely British Columbia, Canada. A warm-water species that only disperses northwards in large numbers during years of high water temperatures in east Pacific. Present in Gulf of California but not commonly recorded south of breeding grounds although there are historical records north of Galápagos Is. beHavIour Gregarious; occasionally follows ships and may be attracted to trawlers. Swims and dives for food in flocks of several hundred, birds leap-frogging each other whilst foraging. Flight generally low and fast, with quick wingbeats interspersed with short glides. JIZZ Medium-sized shearwater with comparatively long rounded-tail, stout bill and short neck. In flight, feet frequently project beyond the tail. sIZe TL 35–38cm; W 23.1–25.2cm; WS 79cm; WT 332–545g. Larger than Galápagos and slightly larger than Townsend’s Shearwater, both of which may occur in same area.

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PlumaGe Dull brown on crown and forehead extends below eye, merging with pale brown chin, throat, ears, sides of neck and upper breast forming partial or occasionally complete collar or breast band. Dark head merges seamlessly with dull brown back, upper wing, rump and uppertail. Underparts mostly white with brownish undertail-coverts and variable amounts of brown mottling on flanks. Darker birds may show completely brownish breast band, dark head and neck, and more rarely, underparts washed uniform, pale grey. Underwing mostly white with broad dark trailing edge and tip formed by dark flight feathers and a narrower dark leading edge. Armpit variably smudged brown with dark line running from inner hindwing towards elbow. Bill black; eye dark; legs and feet light yellowish-flesh with paler webs. moult aND Wear Brown plumage becomes paler and scruffier with wear. Breeders begin moult mid-May, most in moult by mid-June and July. Non-breeders and immatures moult earlier and have fresh plumage during breeding season. IDeNtIFICatIoN Townsend’s and Newell’s are black- not brown-backed, with strong, neat demarcation between upperparts and pure-white underparts and prominent white flank patches. Like Black-vented, Galápagos does not have prominent white flank patches but can be recognised by smaller size and jizz: shorter, rather rounded wings, longer wedge shaped tail and more fluttering flight. Manx rarely occurs in same range, is darker backed with cleaner white underparts and whiter undertail.

Fluttering shearwater Puffinus gavia

Plate 36

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic New Zealand breeder.

Breeds (eggs September–October) in small numbers on virtually all smaller New Zealand offshore islands without rats. Larger colonies are found in Three Kings group, Moturoa group, Motuharakeke (Cavalli Is.), northwest Chicken Is., Bream I., Mokohinau group, Channel Is., Mercury group, Aldermen group and Trio Is. and many other islands as far south as Cook Strait. Forages near breeding grounds and some may visit all year round. Large post-breeding flocks moult in Hauraki Gulf and outer Marlborough Sounds then disperse west to southeast Australia and north to New Caledonia. Vagrant to Vanuatu. beHavIour Gregarious and commonly found inshore, often inside harbours, forming huge flocks in Hauraki Gulf and outer Marlborough Sounds. Flight mostly low, fast and direct with deep, fast (fluttering), wingbeats and short glides. In stronger winds, aerobatic, dynamic soaring. JIZZ Medium-small, short-bodied shearwater with rounded head and relatively short bill. Wings appear narrow and are held stiffly. Tail short, feet projecting only just beyond tail tip. sIZe TL 32–37cm; W 18.0–22.1cm; WS 76cm; WT 230–415g. Similar size to Manx but with shorter wings and bill. PlumaGe Upperparts dark brown, becoming paler and more mottled with wear, when dark flight feathers may stand out from paler coverts. Chin and throat and area immediately below ear white. Generally shows wide, ill-defined brownish collar that is lost with wear. Underparts, including undertail, white with dark brown thigh patch. Underwing pattern relatively uniform with mostly white coverts and dusky undersides to outer flight feathers forming darker outer trailing edge and tip. Some smudgy-brown markings in armpit with an ill-defined line running from inner hindwing towards elbow but rarely getting more than half way. White ‘tab’ markings encroaching from flanks onto rump vary in size and occasionally look prominent. Darker newly fledged juveniles can have pale tips to upperwing-coverts. Bill dark grey with paler lower mandible; eye dark; and legs and feet pinkish brown with dark webs. moult aND Wear Brown plumage becomes paler with wear. Breeders moult rapidly, usually in New Zealand, beginning in February with most in moult by March. Large gaps present in wings during March–April cause birds to become virtually flightless, especially in calmer waters such as Marlborough Sounds. Non-breeders and immatures moult earlier and are in fresh plumage during breeding season. Birds moulting in Australia are likely to be non-breeders. IDeNtIFICatIoN Hutton’s occurs in the same flocks as Fluttering. It is slightly longer and skinnier with a less rounded head, noticeably longer bill, darker face, darker collar and duskier underwings. Note, however, that young Hutton’s has paler underwings similar to darker Fluttering. Tropical, which may overlap in range in Melanesia, is smaller and black, rather than brown above and has white ‘tab’ markings that encroach up onto the rump. Beware

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that Fluttering’s dark thigh patch, or moult, can make it appear as though it has white tabs at a distance. Little and Subantarctic Little are smaller and blacker above, with shorter, stubbier, rounded little wings, a short tail and flight more like diving petrel, regularly flapping wings and gliding short distances.

Hutton’s shearwater Puffinus huttoni

Plate 36

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand endemic, breeding (eggs

late October–December) only in northern South Island in two colonies between 1200–1800 m. in the Seaward Kaikoura Mountains. Forages in waters off Kaikoura and in Cook Strait during summer but virtually absent in winter, when most migrate to southeast Australia and Tasmania. Records from Northern Territory and Coral Sea suggest birds may circumnavigate Australia but firm evidence lacking. beHavIour Off Kaikoura almost always in huge, noisy flocks, birds leap-frogging each other whilst foraging. In Australia usually in small groups and more pelagic than Fluttering. Flight less hurried than Fluttering but otherwise similar. JIZZ Medium-sized shearwater with long neck and body and flat-headed profile. Moderately long wings and broad tail with feet projecting well beyond tail tip, when not tucked up under belly feathers. sIZe TL 36–38cm; W 20.3–23.3cm; WS 72–78cm; WT 242–378g. Longer-bodied than Fluttering with shorter wings. PlumaGe Upperparts blackish-brown becoming paler and more mottled with wear when dark flight feathers may stand out from paler coverts. Chin and throat white with wide, dark brown collar that becomes less prominent with wear. Underparts, including undertail, white with dark brown thigh patch. Some have small amount of brown mottling on tips of some white feathers of undertail. Underwing pattern variable, young birds often paler than adults but dusky undersides to flight feathers always forming darker trailing edge and tip. Outer underwing can be predominantly white or mostly dark with only pale wash to palm on forewing. Inner underwing usually mostly dusky brown with smudgy dark line running from inner hindwing to elbow. Bill and eye dark; legs and feet pink with dark grey webs and toes. moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with wear. Breeders moult rapidly, generally in Australia, beginning in May with most in moult by June. Non-breeders and immatures moult earlier and are in fresh plumage during breeding season. IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to tell from Fluttering, but combination of slightly larger size, longer neck and body, less rounded head, longer bill and narrower, more pointed wings should allow separation, especially when the two species are together. Hutton’s has a darker, more substantial collar, can look almost completely dark-headed from some angles and darker-crowned in some lights. However, feather wear may make both species look very similar, especially late in breeding season. Hutton’s underwing usually darker than Fluttering, much duskier in darker individuals. Note, however, that young Hutton’s can have paler underwings similar to darker Fluttering. Tropical, which may overlap in range in Melanesia, is smaller and black, rather than brown, above and has white ‘tab’ markings that encroach up onto the rump. However, beware that Hutton’s dark thigh patch, or moult, can make it appear as though it has a white tab at a distance. Little and Subantarctic Little are smaller and blacker above, with shorter, stubbier, rounded little wings, a short tail and flight more like diving-petrel – with regularly flapping wings and shorter glides.

the little/audubon’s shearwater complex

The classification of this group has been one of the great problems in petrel and shearwater taxonomy. Traditional taxonomies have been based on the extent of dark on the undertail-coverts, extent of dark on the face, morphometrics (tail length in particular) and leg colour. Austin et al. (2004) provided a new molecular phylogeny that we have chosen to follow in the most part. However, there are some exceptions. Contra Austin et al. we have chosen to recognise Subantarctic Little Shearwater Puffinus elegans as a separate species, due to its different biology and appearance. We also recognise Macaronesian Shearwater P. baroli based on the most recent ruling by the BOU. Austin et al.’s finding that Galápagos Shearwater P. subalaris may be more closely related to Christmas Island Shearwater P. nativitatis is surprising, given the traditional taxonomic view that subalaris is a subspecies of Audubon’s. This taxon unquestionably deserves full specific status, but we include it here among the Little/Audubon’s Shearwaters due to the similarality in jizz of this species to the members of this group.

206

Manx group, including P. newelli newelli and P. n. myrtae (formerly a race of Audubon’s) Bannerman’s P. bannermani P. bailloni dichrous (including nicolae, colstoni, polynesiae) Tropical P. bailloni bailloni Arabian

P. persicus persicus P. persicus temptator

Heinroth’s P. heinrothi Macaronesian P. baroli Audubon’s

P. lherminieri lherminieri P. lherminieri boydi P. assimilis tunneyi P. assimilis assimilis

Little

P. assimilis kermadecensis P. assimilis haurakiensis

Subantarctic Little P. elegans Townsend’s P. auricularis Christmas Island P. nativitatis Galápagos P. subalaris

The phylogeny of the Little/audubon’s shearwater group that we have adopted.

Thus we recognise: Puffinus elegans Subantarctic Little Shearwater Pacific and Atlantic. Bollans Is., Antipodes I. and Star Keys, Chatham Is., New Zealand; Gough I., Inaccessible I., Nightingale I., Tristan da Cunha group. P. assimilis Little Shearwater Pacific Ocean P. a. assimilis – Lord Howe I. and Norfolk I. P. a. kermadecensis – Kermadec Is. P. a. haurakiensis – Islands off North Island of New Zealand. Indian Ocean P. a. tunneyi – Amsterdam I. and St Paul I. and Roche Quille, as well as the Abrolhos group and other islands off western Australia (in Leeuwin Current). P. baroli Macaronesian Shearwater Atlanctic Ocean – Azores, Madeira, Canary Is., Desertas, Salvage Is. P. lherminieri Audubon’s Shearwater Caribbean/North Atlantic P. l. lherminieri – Bahamas and West Indies P. l. loyemilleri – Caribbean Islands to Venezuela Atlantic Ocean P. l. boydi – Cape Verde Is. P. bannermani Bannerman’s Shearwater Pacific Ocean – Bonin Is. P. persicus Arabian Shearwater Arabian Sea P. p. persicus Indian Ocean P. p. temptator – Comoro Is.

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P. bailloni Tropical Shearwater Indian Ocean P. b. bailloni – Mascarene Is. Pacific and Indian Ocean P. b. dichrous – Fiji, Phoenix Is., Marquesas, Vanuatu, Amirantes, Seychelles, Maldives, Chagos, Aldabra P. subalaris – Galápagos Shearwater Pacific Ocean – Galápagos Is. P. newelli Newell’s Shearwater Pacific Ocean P. n. newelli – main Hawaiian Is. P. n. myrtae – Rapa I. in the Austral group P. auricularis Townsend’s Shearwater Pacific Ocean – Clarión, San Benedicto, and Socorro Is., Revillagigedo Is. P. heinrothi Heinroth’s Shearwater Pacific Ocean – Solomon Is.

separating little/audubon’s shearwaters

All are very similar; small, basically black-and-white shearwaters with thin, long, dark bills, white tabs on the sides of the rump and short, relatively rounded wings. Range is helpful for identification: Tropical Pacific = Newell’s, Tropical, Galápagos, Townsend’s Subtropical North Pacific = Newell’s, Townsend’s, Bannerman’s Subtropical South Pacific = Newell’s, Little, Heinroth’s Tropical Indian = Tropical, Persian Subtropical Indian = Little, Persian Atlantic (other than subantarctic) = Audubon’s, Macaronesian Subantarctic = Subantarctic Little Once the presence of white tabs on sides of rump is established, useful features in order of importance are: • extent of dark on undertail • extent of dark on face • tail length • leg colour Size is not overly useful in the field but relative measurements of tail length to total length may help: SPECIES Subantarctic Little Little Macaronesian Audubon’s Bannerman’s Arabian Tropical Galápagos Newell’s Townsend’s Heinroth’s

TOTAL LENGTH (cm)

WING (cm)

WINGSPAN (cm)

WEIGHT (g)

TAIL (cm)

25–30 27–28 28 29–31 30 33 31 29–31 32–35 34–36 27

17.0–19.7 17.1–19.5 17.0–19.0 18.0–21.6 20.6–21.9 20.0 18.7–21.3 18.1–20.3 22.3–24.9 22.0–23.8 19.0

58–67 58–67 58–67 69–73 71 69 69 63 77–82 72–78 –

226–275 220–260

6.3–7.3 6.6–7.0 6.7–7.8 8.7 7.8 6.9–7.4 7.4–8.6 6.3–7.7 8.2–8.4 7.6 –

subantarctic little shearwater Puffinus elegans

197–301 (130 fledgling) 210 168–217 123–225 342–425 290–358 –

Plates 36, 37

taxoNomy Sometimes considered conspecific with Little Shearwater. DIstrIbutIoN Subantarctic New Zealand and southeast Atlantic. Breeds (annually, eggs September) on Star

Keys and Little Mangere (Chatham Is.) and Antipodes I. and Gough I. and Tristan da Cunha group. Forages

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near breeding grounds during breeding season with large numbers seen near Bounty Is., New Zealand. Dispersal not documented. Unclear if birds captured off Chile represent unknown Chilean population or vagrants. beHavIour Solitary and largely pelagic; not commonly seen inshore. Flight similar to Little; if anything, even more like diving-petrel. JIZZ Small, very compact shearwater reminiscent of a large diving-petrel with short, broad, rounded wings ? sIZe TL 25–30cm; W 17.0–19.7cm; WS 58–67cm; WT 226–275g. Heavier, with shorter wings and slightly more robust, longer bill than Little. PlumaGe Similar to Little but with distinctive face pattern reminiscent of Audubon’s: dark of crown extends down to surround eye. Demarcation between black and white on face very clean. Small dark partial collar on sides of breast generally present. Underwing also darker with slightly wider trailing edge to underwing and dusky armpit. Generally shows some white tips to feathers of back and upperwing. moult aND Wear Black plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults moult January–February. Non-breeders and immatures may be recognised by earlier moult. IDeNtIFICatIoN Distribution exclusively in cold waters combined with dark face diagnostic. Smaller and shorterwinged than Audubon’s and lacks dark undertail. Given poor views, timing of moult useful with Subantarctic Little being the only Audubon’s/Little species likely to be moulting in January–February.

little shearwater Puffinus assimilis

Plates 36, 37

taxoNomy Sometimes considered conspecific with Subantarctic Little. Four subspecies recognised here: P .a. assimilis of Norfolk I. and Lord Howe I.; P. a. kermadecensis of Kermadec group; P. a. haurakiensis of northeast New Zealand; and P. a. tunneyi of south-west Australia and central Indian Ocean. DIstrIbutIoN New Zealand and south-west Australia and central Indian Ocean. Breeds (annually, eggs June–August) on Philip and Nepean Is. in Norfolk group and Lord Howe and Roach Is. in Lord Howe group (P. a. assimilis); on Herald, Macaulay and Curtis in Kermadec group (P. a. kermadecensis); on seven island groups down north-east coast of North Island, New Zealand (P. a. haurakiensis), and on Amsterdam I. and St Paul I. and islands off Western Australia (P. a. tunneyi). Probably forages near breeding grounds. Dispersal poorly understood with few records far from breeding grounds. beHavIour Solitary, generally avoiding ships but may occasionally investigate (but not follow) ships. In calm conditions flap and glide flight very low over waves, only shearwatering in strong winds. Forages by diving and frequently seen taking off from water after foraging. JIZZ Small, very compact shearwater reminiscent of a large diving-petrel with short, broad, rounded wings. sIZe tl 27–28cm; W 171–195cm; WS 58–67cm; WT 220–260g. The smallest shearwater. PlumaGe Chin, throat, cheeks, ears and feathers around lower bill white. Forehead, crown, nape and hind-neck slate-black with demarcation above eye, giving a white-faced appearance. When seen well, mottling visible and most show indistinct dark eye-stripe. Indistinct greyish collar lost with wear. Upperparts, including upperwing and tail, slate-black with pale tips in fresh plumage becoming browner with wear. Edges of uppertail may appear white. When plumage worn may show white streaks in wing due to flight feathers having white inner webs. Undersides white, with extension of white flanks up onto sides of rump (white tabs). Undertail white with dark edges due to dark tail feathers. Underwing white, with narrow dark trailing edge and tip and very narrow dark leading edge. Bill greyish or brownish-black with bluish base to upper mandible and often entirely blue lower mandible however appears black at sea. Eye dark brown; legs and feet bluish with dark edges and toes and pink webs. moult aND Wear Black plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults moult November–December. Nonbreeders and immatures may be recognised by earlier moult and fresh plumage during breeding season. IDeNtIFICatIoN Most difficult to tell from other members of Little/Audubon’s group, though range does not

209

regularly overlap, except possibly with Tropical. Tropical is slightly larger and heavier with longer bill, wing and tail, darker face, slightly browner (though still blackish) upperparts, dark undertail and a duskier underwing with a broader dark trailing edge. Subantarctic Little can only easily be separated at close range, by darker face and (usually) larger, dark collar.

macaronesian shearwater Puffinus baroli

Plates 35, 37

taxoNomy Monotypic, but see Audubon’s. DIstrIbutIoN Tropical and subtropical Atlantic.

Breeds (year round) on Azores, Madeira, Desertas, Salvages and Canary Is. Probably mainly sedentary but dispersal poorly understood due to identification issues. Unconfirmed records on eastern seaboard of USA but large numbers of records of this species in Europe especially August–September. May reach Ascension I. beHavIour Generally solitary when searching for food. Often seen on water. Not attracted to ships and rarely attracted to offal or chum. In light winds, flight consists of 4–6 or more stiff, brisk wingbeats followed by a short glides low over sea; in stronger winds, glides more often and flies higher above surface. Flaps wings more than Manx and Audubon’s Shearwaters. JIZZ Short and broad wings with comparatively short neck and tail. Feet do not project beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 28cm; W 17–19cm; WS 58–67cm; WT ?. Smaller than Manx and Audubon’s, slightly larger than Little. PlumaGe Forehead, crown and hind-neck blackish-brown; throat and cheeks white. Limit of dark cap traditionally said to be above eye, causing eye to show up in white face but, in fact, there is often some dusky shading on cheeks and ears, and the extent of the white supercilium is variable. Small, dark, partial collar. Upperparts, including tail, blackish-brown, becoming lighter and brownish-grey with wear. Underparts white with small black thigh patch and small extension of white flanks up onto sides of rump. Undertail mainly white with a few small dark feathers on edges and tip. Upperwing blackish-brown, with slightly darker outer flight feathers and when worn whitish wingbar between flight feathers and coverts on innerwing (caused by paler bases to flight feathers showing through). Underwing mainly white, with narrow dark trailing edge and wing-tip formed by dark flight feathers, and narrow dark leading edge. Bill grey with blue at base of both mandibles; legs predominantly blue and black. moult aND Wear Browner when worn. As apparently breed all year, moult not useful in distinguishing immatures. IDeNtIFICatIoN May be mistaken for Manx Shearwater, whihc is larger, with proportionately longer, narrower wings, brown rather than black-brown upperparts and more relaxed flight style with fewer, slower wingbeats. Macaronesian is smaller and more compact with shorter, rounder wings, slighter bill and more rounded head. Audubon’s has longer tail, dark undertail-coverts and broader, dark border and duskier centre to underwing.

audubon’s shearwater Puffinus lherminieri

Plates 34–37

taxoNomy See discussion above. We recognise three subspecies: P. l. lherminieri in north Caribbean; marginally distinct P. l. loyemilleri in south and south-west Caribbean; and P. l. boydi on Cape Verde Is. Given the similarity of boydi to nominate and loyemilleri, its inclusion within Macaronesian as suggested by Sangster et al. (2005), based on Austin et al. (2004), is not recommended. See discussion above (p.206). DIstrIbutIoN Tropical and subtropical Atlantic. Breeds year round. P. l. lherminieri breeds on Bermuda (Bahamas), Saba Key, Virgin Is., Guadaloupe, Diserade, some Leeward Is. Rocher du Diamant, Martinique, Bird Rock, Barbados, some smaller islets of the Grenadines (Lesser Antilles) and islets off Porto Rico. P. l. loyemilleri breeds year round on southwestern islets on Caribbean coast of Panama; islets off Providentia I., east of Nicaragua, and Los Roques Is. off Venezuela. P. l. boydi breeds year round on Cape Verde Is. Probably mainly sedentary but may move north and northeast into Atlantic. Recorded with increasing regularity off eastern seaboard of US whilst records from Europe controversial. beHavIour Generally solitary when searching for food but can form large foraging groups diving for prey. Often seen on water. Not attracted to ships and rarely attracted to offal or chum. In light winds, flight 4–6 stiff wingbeats followed by a short glide low over sea. In stronger winds, glides more often and flies higher above surface.

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JIZZ Short and broad wings with comparatively long neck and tail. Feet do not project beyond tail in flight. sIZe lherminieri TL 29–31cm; W 18.6–21.6cm; WS 69–73cm; WT 197–301g. boydi TL 28cm; W 18.0– 19.3cm; WS 69cm, WT 220g. Smaller than Manx, larger than Macaronesian or Little. loyemilleri maybe slightly smaller than lherminieri but data incomplete. PlumaGe Forehead, crown and hindneck blackish brown, throat and cheeks white, usually with whitish patch behind ears. Black of crown extends from base of bill, just below eye, to behind ear. Generally shows white eye ring. Small partial dark collar. Upperparts including tail blackish-brown, becoming lighter and brownish-grey with wear. Underparts white with small black thigh patch and small extension of white flanks up onto sides of rump. Upperwing blackish brown, with slightly darker flight feathers. Undertail mostly dark with some white feathers at edge. Underwing mainly white, with broad dark trailing edge and wing tip, formed by dark flight feathers, narrow dark leading edge and variable darker markings on innerwing. Bill grey with significant amounts of blue at base of both mandibles. Legs of adults in Caribbean, pink with black edges and toes. Legs said to be blue in boydi birds but as colour has been shown to be age-dependent in related Tropical Shearwater more work may be needed. moult aND Wear Browner when worn. As apparently breeds all year, moult not useful in distinguishing immatures. IDeNtIFICatIoN In North Atlantic only likely to be mistaken for Manx and Macaronesian. Macaronesian is more like Little, with more flapping, whirring flight and more compact jizz and has whiter face, whiter underwing with very narrow dark border and white undertail. Manx also has white undertail-coverts and a whiter underwing with narrower dark trailing edge and is larger, with proportionately longer wings and shorter tail. Members of Manx group are larger and generally do not show tabs of white on sides of rump, but beware that dark thigh patches may give appearance of white tabs especially in worn plumage. Yelkouan and Balearic are considerably browner than Audubon’s and may have dark undertail, but undertail rarely entirely dark and if dark undertail present, Yelkouan and Balearic are browner than Audubon’s and may have dark undertail. However, undertail rarely entirely dark and belly and flanks of Yelkouan and Balearic will also be dark, unlike Audubon’s.In South Atlantic boydi may overlap with Subantarctic Little. Jizz and upperpart coloration are very similar but boydi has dark undertail, wide dark trailing edge to underwing and longer tail.

bannerman’s shearwater Puffinus bannermani

Plate 37

taxoNomy Sometimes included within Audubon’s. DIstrIbutIoN Japanese endemic. Breeds on Bonin I.

and Volcano I. (Ogasawara group). A fledgling recently collected on Chichi-jima. Very poorly known, with no breeding grounds identified. Probably sedentary. beHavIour Solitary. Flight probably similar to Macaronesian. JIZZ Similar to Macronesian but slightly longer-winged. sIZe TL 30cm; W 20.6–21.9cm; WS 71cm; WT 130g (fledgling). PlumaGe Like Macaronesian but with darker underwing and undertail. Slaty-black upperparts, white face with white supercilium, and light grey mottling around eye and ears. In fresh plumage, white tips to feathers of back and wings. Some have strongly marked dark collar extending low onto sides of breast; others appear to have little or no collar. Underwing white with broad dusky trailing edge and tip formed by dark flight feathers, leading edge comparatively broad and innerwing variably mottled black on inner wing. Undertail predominantly dark with pale central feathers. Bill grey with blue base to both mandibles; eye dark; legs and feet blue with dark edges and toes and pink webs. moult aND Wear Not recorded. IDeNtIFICatIoN The combination of typical Little Shearwater jizz and white face with Tropical Shearwater-like darker underwing and undertail are diagnostic.

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arabian shearwater Puffinus persicus

Plate 37

taxoNomy Formerly considered a subspecies of

Audubon’s but different appearance and biology suggests it warrants full species status (see Austin et al. 2004). Two subspecies recognised: Nominate persicus in Arabian Sea, and temptator in Comoro Is. DIstrIbutIoN Eastern Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden and southern Red Sea and around Comoro Is. P. p. persicus breeds (eggs June) on the Halaaniyaat Is. (Oman) and Socotran group (Yemen) and it is likely there are other undiscovered breeding sites in the north Indian Ocean. P. p. temptator breeds on Moheli I. (Comoros Is.). Nothing known about movements of Comoro population. During breeding season (May–September) persicus is mostly in southern Oman. Probably dispersive, as large numbers present November–April in Gulf of Oman. Has been reported in western India. beHavIour Solitary and pelagic, generally ignoring boats. Frequently seen on water in small groups pattering, surface-seizing and diving for up to 20 seconds at a time. In light winds, flies with slower wingbeats than Tropical, in manner reminiscent of Manx, with flaps interspersed with low shearwatering glides; in stronger winds, glides rise and fall rhythmically. JIZZ Small, compact shearwater with relatively long, broad, rounded wings, very long tail and a comparatively long, stout bill. sIZe TL 33cm; W 20cm; WS 69cm; WT 210g. Smaller than Manx, larger than Tropical. PlumaGe Similar to Tropical except blackish-brown or even chocolate-brown rather than black upperparts. Underwing usually darker with broader dark leading edge and darker armpit than Tropical, the dark feathers of inner underwing forming a triangle reminiscent of darker members of the Manx group (e.g. Balearic). Central underwing panels are often washed with brown. Bill grey with paler base to mandibles; eye dark; legs pink with black edges and toes. Birds with darker, unbleached plumage during breeding season likely to be immature or juvenile. moult aND Wear Browner, often quite pale when worn. Adults moult November–January, generally in Gulf of Oman. IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of Aududon’s/Tropical jizz, dark face with dark feathering along edge of upper mandible (lores), dusky flanks, and dark underwing diagnostic in region. Difficult to distinguish from Tropical but the latter’s upperparts (in all but very worn plumage) blacker, the underwing likely to be lighter and the flanks usually white. Could be very difficult to separate from Galápagos, except perhaps by jizz and timing of moult, but fortunately ranges unlikely to overlap. Both Tropical and Galápagos can have dark lores.

tropical shearwater Puffinus bailloni

Plate 37

taxoNomy A group of two subspecies, formerly seven, considered in the past to be either Audubon’s or Little Shearwaters. P. b. bailloni found in Mascarene Is., and P. b. dichrous found in rest of tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans. See discussion on p.206. DIstrIbutIoN Tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. Breeds all year round, P. b. bailloni on Réunion and Europa Is. in south Mozambique Channel; P. b. dichrous on Tahiti, Palau, Marianas Is., Nauru, Fiji, Phoenix, Samoa, Tonga, Line Is., Marquesas Is., Gambier Is., Vanuatu, Anirantes, Seychelles, Maldives and Chagos and Aldabra. Probably sedentary but vagrants to Durban, South Africa, and Eilat, Israel. Birds with features of Tropical have been photographed in Bonin Is., suggesting that either Polynesian populations may move north to Bonin waters, or a previously undocumented population occurs, maybe sympatric with Bannerman’s.

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beHavIour Solitary and pelagic, generally ignoring boats. In light winds, flies with slower wingbeats than Little,

interspersed with low ‘shearwatering’ glides; in stronger winds, glides rise and fall rhythmically.

JIZZ Similar to Audubon’s. Small compact shearwater with relatively short, broad, rounded wings. sIZe TL 31cm; W 18.7–21.3cm; WS 69cm; WT 168–217g. Smaller than Manx, similar to Audubon’s, slightly

larger than Little with comparatively longer wings, tail and bill. PlumaGe Forehead, crown, hind-neck, mantle, back, rump and uppertail uniformly sooty-black. Black on head extends to just below eye and includes dark feathering on ears and feathers against upper bill. Upperparts mostly well demarcated from white underparts, but grey mottling on lower ear-coverts. Fore-neck, throat, breast and flanks white with dark thigh patches and usually comparatively substantial mottled, black collar. Upperwings black with white tips to feathers in fresh plumage lost with wear. Undertail colour variable within populations; can be either entirely white (Réunion) or entirely dark (majority of population on Seychelles) or intermediate with paler central undertail (e.g. Aldabra). Underwing white, with dark trailing edge and tip due to dark flight feathers, comparatively wide, slightly smudgy leading edge and variable dark markings on centre of inner wing. Bill grey with blue base to upper mandible and mostly blue-grey lower mandible; eye dark; inner leg and toes blue; rest of legs and feet black with pinkish webs. moult aND Wear Browner when worn. Due to lack of breeding season, moult may be seen at any time of year and thus not useful for ageing. IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from Arabian but Tropical’s upperparts, in all but very worn plumage, blacker, underwing likely to be lighter, and flanks usually white. Individuals with white undertail most difficult to distinguish from members of the Manx group but smaller with shorter, rounder wing, blacker upperparts and more prominent white tabs that reach up onto rump. Black of crown surrounds eye giving darker-faced appearance than any species in Manx group. Especially good views may allow Tropical’s bluish legs to be seen. Those with partially dark undertails may be difficult to separate from Newell’s, but Tropical is smaller, rounderwinged with darker leading edge to underwing and more prominent collar. Those with dark undertail are smaller and rounder-winged than Townsend’s but very difficult to distinguish from Audubon’s. Tropical has blacker upperparts, except when plumage very worn, and dark face with dark feathering along edge of upper mandible. However, exceptionally good views are required and in many cases individuals may not be identifiable. See Galápagos for separation off Mexico.

Galápagos shearwater Puffinus subalaris

Plates 34, 37

taxoNomy Sometimes considered conspecific with Audubon’s but genetics suggest more closely related to Christmas Island Shearwater. DIstrIbutIoN Galápagos endemic. Breeds (on 18monthly cycle; eggs laid year round with summer and winter peaks) on islets off Santa Cruz and Hood, Wenman, Champion and Indefatigable in Galápagos group. Largely sedentary but may disperse as far north as Mexican coast. beHavIour Gregarious, often feeding with other shearwaters, noddies and boobies. May be attracted to offal on waters surface. Flight low over water, rapid and fluttery with 4–10 brisk, stiff wingbeats interspersed with undulating short glides. In stronger winds, rise higher above sea and prolong gliding. JIZZ Compact small shearwater with short, rounded wings, long slender bill and short, wedge-shaped tail. Feet extend beyond tail in flight. Not unlike a smaller black-and-white Christmas Island Shearwater. sIZe TL 29–31cm; W 18.1–20.3cm, WS 63cm; WT 123–225g. Marginally smaller than Tropical Shearwater. PlumaGe Similar to Tropical, except upperparts blackish-brown … rather than black and variable, generally much duskier underwing. Leading edge is invariably broader than Tropical and central panels may be extensively washed with brown. Bill grey with blue base to both mandibles; eye dark; legs pink with black edges and toes. moult aND Wear Dark plumage becomes browner with wear. Moult may be seen all year round. IDeNtIFICatIoN Most difficult to tell from Tropical, which may occur in same waters off Mexico, and especially so as both vary in darkness of underwing and extent of collar. Tropical’s upperparts blacker, except when plumage very worn, with longer tail and feet that rarely protrude beyond tail in flight.

213

Newell’s shearwater Puffinus newelli

Plate 34

taxoNomy Sometimes considered conspecific with

Townsend’s. Two subspecies now recognised: P. n. newelli on Hawaii and P. n. myrtae on Rapa I. DIstrIbutIoN Tropical Pacific. Breeding (eggs June) on main Hawaiian Is. with the largest population on Kauai. Also on Molokai, Hawaii, and probably O‘ahu, Maui, and Lanai. Second tiny population on four islets off Rapa I. During breeding season occurs at low densities a short distance west and north of Hawaii (to about 25°N). Occurs year-round in eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, especially in Equatorial Counter Current, from near the portion of the equator lying south of Hawaiian Is. east to about 120°W and north to (and around) main Hawaiian Is. (22°N). Isolated records of Newell’s Shearwater from central and southern Pacific as far west as Mariana Is. (Saipan, Guam), Wake I., and Johnston Atoll and south to Marquesas Is., Samoa and Australia. It is now unclear whether these records are of the Hawaiian or Rapa form. beHavIour Solitary except off breeding grounds. Never follows ships and not attracted to offal. Flight generally low and fast, with rapid wingbeats and very little gliding. JIZZ Intermediate in jizz between the comparatively long, narrow-winged Manx-type shearwaters and the shorter, rounder-winged Little Shearwater. sIZe TL 32–35cm; W 22.3–24.9cm; WS 77–82cm; WT 342–425g. Largest of Little/Audubon’s group, approaching Manx in size. PlumaGe Chin, throat and lower cheeks white. Forehead, crown, ears, area immediately below eye to base of upper mandible and nape blackish-brown without a collar but with a prominent white crescent curling up behind the ear. Dark head merges seamlessly with blackish-brown upperparts, upperwing and tail. Underparts white, with black thigh patch; white on flanks extends as narrow tabs up onto sides of rump. Undertail blackishbrown; centre and area around vent tend to be white, sides and tip dark. White fringes to dark undertail-covert feathers in fresh plumage. Underwing mainly white, with broad dark trailing edge and tip formed by dark flight feathers, narrow black leading edge and a few indistinct darker lines on inner underwing. Bill and eye black; legs and feet pink with black edges and toes. moult aND Wear Black plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults moult December–February. Nonbreeders and immatures may be recognised by earlier moult and fresh plumage during breeding season. IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from Townsend’s. See that species for discussion of differences. Palemorph Wedge-tailed is larger, has browner, less uniform upperparts and leisurely flight.

townsend’s shearwater Puffinus auricularis

Plate 34

taxoNomy Sometimes considered conspecific with

Newell’s.

DIstrIbutIoN Mexican endemic breeder. Breeding

(eggs January–March) on Clarión, San Benedicto, and Socorro Is. (Revillagigedo Is.). Apart from birds rafting to fly into breeding grounds in evening, rarely seen near Revillagigedo Is. Forages along continental slope off western coast of southern Mexico and northern Central America in the waters of Costa Rican Current during breeding. Disperses north to southern Baja California (24°N) and south to El Salvador (12°N). beHavIour Solitary except off breeding grounds. Never follows ships and not attracted to offal. Flight generally low and fast, with rapid wingbeats and very little gliding. JIZZ Intermediate in jizz between the comparatively long, narrow-winged Manx-type shearwaters and the shorter, rounder-winged Little Shearwater. sIZe TL 34–36cm; W 22.0–23.8cm; WS 72–78cm; WT 290–358g. Intermediate in size between members of Little/Audubon’s group and Manx group.

214

PlumaGe Chin, throat and lower cheeks white. Forehead, crown, ears, area immediately below eye to base of upper mandible and nape blackish-brown with short, wide, mottled collar. Head merges seamlessly with blackish-brown upperparts, upperwing and tail. Underparts white, with black thigh patch. White on flanks extends as narrow tabs up onto sides of rump. Undertail blackish-brown with variable amounts of white around vent and white fringes to feathers when fresh. Underwing mainly white, with broad dark trailing edge and tip formed by dark flight feathers, narrow black leading edge and narrow, indistinct dark diagonal bar in centre of underwing. Bill and eye black; legs and feet flesh with dark edges and pink webs. moult aND Wear Black plumage becomes browner with wear. Adults moult September–November. Nonbreeders and immatures may be recognised by earlier moult and fresh plumage during breeding season. IDeNtIFICatIoN Difficult to distinguish from Newell’s. Townsend’s tends to have more dark markings on underwing and has a shorter tail with more uniformly dark undertail-coverts. Newell’s has more white on the centre of the undertail. When seen well, facial pattern more sharply demarcated in Newell’s with prominent white crescent curling up behind eye and no dark collar. Moult also useful, with adult Townsend’s in wing moult September–November whilst Newell’s moult wing December–February. Tropical Shearwater of the north-east Pacific is smaller with short, rounder-winged jizz and in fresh plumage has white fringes to dark feathers of upperparts. Black-vented is slightly heavier and thus more podgy-looking, lacks the white rump tabs, and is much browner and scruffier on head, breast, undertail and underwing. Other members of Manx group lack the white flank patches or tabs, have whiter undertail and slightly browner upperparts. Pale-morph Wedge-tailed is larger, has browner, less uniform upperparts and leisurely flight. Pink-footed is much larger, also has browner, less uniform upperparts and longer, broader wings.

Heinroth’s shearwater Puffinus heinrothi

Plate 30

taxoNomy Sometimes included with Audubon’s. DIstrIbutIoN Endangered shearwater of Bismarck

group, Arawa on Bougainville and Rendova and Kolumbangara in Solomons group. Historic specimens from Watom in New Britain suggest breeding there, but no recent records. Few recent records at sea: up to 20 birds in the Bismarck Sea and around Bougainville and one flock of 250 between Buka and Kieta. Probably sedentary and may breed all year round. beHavIour Solitary except off Kolumbangara I. in the evening when small groups gather to fly inland. JIZZ Bill very long and slender; tail short; wings relatively long and narrow. sIZe TL 27cm; W 19cm, WS ?; WT ?. One of the smallest shearwaters. PlumaGe Variable. Head, neck and upper breast sooty-brown with white mottling or wash on chin and throat. Upperparts and upperwing uniform sooty-brown. Underparts variable with darkest birds entirely sooty-brown only slightly paler than upperparts; paler birds have white central patch, dark bar from carpal to armpit and broad dark trailing edge and tip formed by darker flight feathers. Bill black; eye variable from brown to bluish; legs and feet light brown or flesh coloured with dark toes and outer webs. moult aND Wear No data; probably similar to Audubon’s. IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguished from Sooty and Short-tailed by smaller size, larger pale panel on central underwing and, in most birds, indistinct white patch on belly. Smaller than dark-morph Wedge-tailed, with narrower wings, shorter tail, darker brown upperparts, head and breast but whiter underwing and, in most, pale belly patch. Best separated from all-dark Christmas Island Shearwater by smaller size, paler underwing, pinkish (not dark) legs and feet and, in most, pale belly patch.

DIvING-Petrels Diving-petrels are short, compact birds with very dense plumage. The tail and wings are short, and the latter are rather paddle-like, presumably an adaptation to propulsion under water. Inshore, rather than pelagic, birds. Seen at sea either singly or in small groups. At rest, float high on the water. In flight, they whirr along in straight lines close to the water, travelling straight through waves without hesitation. Wingbeats faster than Little Shearwater. When disturbed either dive or make a short flight then dive. Only likely to be mistaken for Little Shearwater. Best recognised by extremely compact jizz and diagnostic flight which is described as like that of a bumblebee, with constantly flapping, whirring wings.

215

Whilst size can be helpful for identification, four other features are usually more useful: • • • •

underwing colour pattern of white behind ear shape of white scapular stripes (only in fresher plumage) tail length and projection of feet beyond the tail

SPECIES

TOTAL LENGTH (cm)

WING (cm)

WINGSPAN (cm)

WEIGHT (g)

TAIL (cm)

UNDErWING

SCAPULAr STrIPES

Peruvian

22

13.0–14.4

?

202

3.7

Light grey

Broad – long, white feathers

Magellanic

19

12.0–13.4

?

160 (145–163)

4.0

Light grey

Mottled – broad white feather tips and outer webs

South Georgia

20

11.2–11.9

32

118 (104–130)

3.8

White

Narrow but well defined – white feather borders

Common

23

11.2–13.2

35

154 (136–168)

4.0

Grey

Faint – narrow white feather tips

Peruvian Diving-petrel Pelecanoides garnotii

Plate 38

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to waters of the inshore

Humboldt Current. Breeds (December–March and March–October) from Isla Lobos de Tierra, Peru (6°S), in north to Coronel, Chile (37°S), in south. Breeding islands poorly known but reported from Islas San Gallán, Islas La Vieja in Peru and Isla Chañaral (where now extinct), Isla Choros, Isla Pan de Azúcar, Isla Chañaral in Chile. Probably sedentary but recorded off Isla Chiloé, Chile. beHavIour Generally solitary except off breeding islands. Flies low and fast on whirring wings. Excellent swimmer and diver, commonly diving when approached by boats. JIZZ Large, fat diving petrel with very short, broad rounded wings, comparatively short tail and short, comparatively stout bill. Legs longer than other diving-petrels, often held hanging below body and may trail behind tail. sIZe TL 22cm; W 13.0–14.4cm; WS ?, WT 202g. The largest, heaviest diving-petrel. PlumaGe Forehead, crown, feathers around bill and eye blackish-brown. Ear-coverts and small wide collar dusky. Rest of upperparts, including upperwing, black with long white feathers and feather tips to scapulars forming obvious white stripes down either side of back, though these are lost as plumage wears. Underparts dull white below. Underwing white with broad, pale grey trailing edge and tip formed by darker flight feathers. Bill black, eye dark, legs bright blue, webs black. moult aND Wear Becomes browner with wear; white scapulars and any white tips to inner flight feathers lost. Moult recorded August–October, but this is inconsistent with breeding schedule. IDeNtIFICatIoN Magellanic, which may overlap with Peruvian in central Chile, is noticeably smaller with shorter wing, proportionately longer tail and feet rarely trailing beyond tail. It has a distinctive white crescent extending up from throat behind eye to rear of crown and, in fresh plumage, more white tips to feathers on upperparts but a less distinct white stripe on scapulars. See also Common and South Georgia, though both are unlikely to occur in range. In the hand, shape of underside of bill helpful.

magellanic Diving-petrel Pelecanoides magellani

Plate 38

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Endemic to Chile and southern Argentina. Distribution and population very poorly known but

probably breeds (eggs November–December) on small islands in Chilean fjords.

beHavIour Generally solitary except in Chilean fjords where small flocks may form. Flies low and fast on

216

whirring wings. Excellent swimmer and diver, commonly diving when approached by boats. JIZZ Small, short, compact diving-petrel with short, broad, rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs rarely trail behind tail. sIZe TL 19cm; W 12.0–13.4cm; WS ?, WT 160g. Intermediate in weight and wing length between Common and Peruvian. PlumaGe Forehead, crown feathers around bill and area around eye, blackish-brown. Ear-coverts have conspicuous white crescent that extends well up towards back of neck. Dark does not extend far down sides of neck towards upper breast. Upperparts, including upperwing, black. In fresh plumage, white tips to many wing-coverts and inner flight feathers and white tips and outer webs to scapulars and some back feathers, forming mottled white stripes down either side of back. Underparts dull white. Underwing white with broad pale grey trailing edge and tip formed by darker flight feathers. Bill black, eye dark, legs bright blue, webs black. moult aND Wear Black becomes browner with wear, white tips to feathers and scapular stripe lost. Moult recorded April–June. IDeNtIFICatIoN Differs from other diving-petrels in conspicuous white, crescent-shaped half collar. In the hand, shape of underside of bill helpful.

south Georgia Diving-petrel Pelecanoides georgicus

Plate 38

taxoNomy Monotypic, but genetic evidence suggests that populations in New Zealand and Indian Ocean may differ at subspecific level from those in South Atlantic. DIstrIbutIoN Three distinct populations. Breed (eggs December) on South Georgia and surrounding islets, Prince Edward I., Marion I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., McDonald I., Heard I., Codfish I. (off Stewart I., New Zealand). Probably mainly sedentary but records from Australia and south of Cape Horn suggest some dispersion. beHavIour Generally solitary except off breeding islands in evening when small flocks may form. Flies low and fast on whirring wings. Excellent swimmer and diver, commonly diving when approached by boats. JIZZ Small, comparatively slim diving-petrel with very short rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs do not trail beyond tail. sIZe TL 20cm; W 11.2–11.9cm; WS 32cm; WT 160g. Lightest diving-petrel with, on average, the shortest wings. PlumaGe Forehead, crown, feathers around bill and area around eye, brownish-black. Ear-coverts and small, wide dusky collar extend a short way onto sides of breast. Upperparts, including upperwing, black with narrow white borders to scapulars forming narrow but distinct white stripe down either side of back. This feature is most easily seen when bird is sitting or swimming. Underparts dull white. Underwing predominantly white. Bill black, eye dark, legs bright blue with black line down back of tarsi and black toes and webs. moult aND Wear Becomes browner with wear; white feather tips and scapular stripe lost. Moult recorded April to June. IDeNtIFICatIoN Extremely difficult to separate from Common and only possible in exceptional circumstances. Best distinguished by South Georgia’s whiter underwing, more obvious white stripes down either side of back (especially visible when sitting) and more obvious pale ear patch. Common on average duskier around face and sides of breast. In the hand, shape of underside of bill helpful.

Common Diving-petrel Pelecanoides urinatrix

Plate 38

taxoNomy At least six subspecies recognised: P. u. urinatrix in northern New Zealand and southeast Australia;

P. u. chathamensis in southern New Zealand (not subantarctic) and Chatham Is.; P. u. dacunhae on Tristan du Cunha group and Gough I.; P. u. berard on Falklands; P. u. coppingeri in southern Chile; and P. u. exsul in rest of subantarctic.

217

DIstrIbutIoN Circumpolar in southern oceans.

Breeds (July–December, later in southern colonies) on numerous small islands off New Zealand, the Snares; all the islands of the Chatham group; small islands off southeast Australia and Tasmania; unknown locations in southern Chile; Tristan da Cunha group and Gough I.; South Georgia and surrounding islands; smaller islands of Falklands; Marion I., Prince Edward Is.; Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard I., McDonald I., islands off Macquarie I., smaller islands of Auckland group, Antipodes I. and islets off Campbell I. Generally thought to be sedentary but huge numbers found far from land in southern Indian Ocean in early summer. beHavIour Generally solitary except off breeding islands in evening when small flocks may form. Flies low and fast on whirring wings. Excellent swimmer and diver, commonly diving when approached by boats. JIZZ Medium-sized, comparatively slim diving-petrel with short, rounded wings and comparatively long tail. Legs may trail behind tail. sIZe TL 20–23cm; W 11.2–13.2cm; WS 33–38cm; WT 154g. Larger than South Georgia Diving-petrel and slightly smaller on average than Peruvian. PlumaGe Forehead, crown, feathers around bill, ears and area around eye dark brownish-black. Generally has distinct dusky collar extending onto upper breast. Upperparts including upperwing black, with very narrow white tips to scapulars forming narrow white stripe down either side of back that is lost with wear. Underparts dull white; birds in Chilean fjords often dusky on flanks. Underwing dusky white with broad grey trailing edge and tip formed by darker flight feathers. Bill black, sometimes with blue base to lower mandible; eye dark; legs bright blue with black toes and webs. moult aND Wear Becomes browner with wear; white feather tips and scapular stripe lost. Moulting birds recorded January to October are probably adults. IDeNtIFICatIoN Extremely difficult to separate from South Georgia Diving-petrel and generally only possible in exceptional circumstances. Moult may be useful in cold waters with birds moulting in January to March either Common or immature South Georgia. Common has duskier underwing, less obvious white stripes down either side of back, dark ears and duskier face and sides of breast. Common more likely to trail legs behind tail than South Georgia Diving-petrel. In southern Chilean fjords occurs with Magellanic which is easily separated by its conspicuous white, crescent-shaped half collar and by the dusky (not white) flanks of Chilean population of Common. In the hand, shape of underside of bill helpful.

storm-Petrels The texts for the tropical storm-petrels were difficult to prepare. Neither author has extensive experience in the northern Pacific and most available information seems to be a rehash of previously published material. Many ‘facts’ appear to be based on hearsay and some oft-repeated information is definitely wrong. Photographs in the major books on seabirds are frequently incorrectly assigned to species and many photographs on the web are either definitely wrongly identified or are simply ambiguous as to likely species. In particular, photos of the ‘white-rumped’ storm-petrels off the Galápagos and the dark ‘forkedtailed’ storm-petrels of the western Pacific are frequently spuriously identified. Many rare bird committee files were examined whilst preparing these texts, and we consider that there are a number of incorrectly identified species of storm-petrel on many national lists, and a number of records where the local rare bird committee has made judgments where we feel there is simply not enough information currently available to make an informed opinion.

Key to black and black-and-white storm-petrels

At first sight these small storm-petrels present a bewildering array of similar, completely black birds, black ones with white rumps and blackand-white ones with white, or maybe black, rumps! These summaries may help. They did in the preparation of this book.

218

Dark-phase Leach’s Petrel.

Dark (or grey) rump Large

small

Least

square-tailed Hornby’s White-faced

Fork-tailed

White belly

Large

Swinhoe’s Markham’s Matsudaira’s Tristram’s Ashy Black Leach’s (dark phase)

Fork-tailed

black belly

White rump small

Leach’s Guadalupe

Wedge-rumped

Madeiran

Wilson’s European

Polynesian Black-bellied White-bellied

Grey-backed

square-tailed

New Zealand Elliot’s

summary of storm-petrel identification features (the pearly-grey Fork-tailed storm-petrel has been excluded from this table).

Species

TOTAL WINGSPAN WEIGHT LENGTH (cm) (g) (cm)

TAIL SIZE

TArSUS (cm)

LENGTH (cm)

FOrK DEPTH (cm)

Wing bar reaches carpel?

Birds with white shafts to primaries?

Ashy

18.9

41.5

39

Med.

2.3

Med.

8.3

2.3

Moderate

Sometimes

None

Swinhoe’s

20.0

46.5

41

Med.

2.3

Med.

7.5

1.6

Moderate

No

All

Leach’s (dark)

19.0

45.0

45

Med.

2.4

Med.

8.0

1.6

Shallow

Yes

None

Markham’s

23.0

51.5

53

Large

2.4

Short

9.0

3.2

Deep

Yes

Few

Black

23.0

50.5

57

Large

3.2

Long

8.5

2.5

Moderate

No

Few

Matsudaira’s

24.0

56.0

62

Large

2.7

Med.

9.9

3.2

Deep

No

All

Tristram’s

24.0

56.0

86

Large

2.8

Long

10.3

3.6

Deep

Yes

Very few

This table gives morphometrics and identifcation criteria for all-dark storm-petrels with forked tails.

southern storm-petrels Wilson’s storm-petrel oceanites oceanicus

Plate 39

taxoNomy We recognise three subspecies. O. o. oce-

anicus breeds on high-latitude subantarctic islands; O. o. exasperatus breeds on the Antarctic mainland; and O. o. chilensis breeds in the Chilean fjords. They vary in measurements, breeding season and habitat. DIstrIbutIoN The common storm-petrel of high latitude subantarctic and Antarctic Ocean from November–April. Migrates north in May, returning in October–November, and during migration may be found at any latitude in Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. ‘Overwinters’ in central north Pacific and North Atlantic (as far north as 77°N) and northern Indian Ocean. Chilean race possibly disperses northward rather than migrating to Northern Hemisphere. Breeds throughout circumpolar southern oceans at high latitude and in the Chilean fjords. Breeding recorded from Antarctic continent (sometimes considerable distances inland), Cape Horn Is., Falklands, South

219

Georgia, South Sandwich Is., South Orkney Is., South Shetland Is., Bouvetøy I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Heard I., Macquarie I., Balleny Is., Scott Is. and Peter I. beHavIour Most frequently seen foraging on the surface of the ocean, pattering with long dangling legs, but also flies fast and swallow-like (though rarely for any distance), pausing frequently to patter. Often in groups, easily attracted to boats using fish oil; sometimes seen behind fishing vessels hauling nets. JIZZ Small, long-legged storm-petrel with square or slightly notched tail. Feet project beyond tail in flight. Wing comparatively narrow and often described as sickle-shaped due to bend of wing being close to body. In fact, the wing’s trailing edge appears straight in calm or in light winds, becoming more sickle-shaped as wind increases. Whilst pattering on sea surface, wings held over back in a shallow V, never angled as steeply upwards as European Storm-petrel. sIZe TL 15–19cm; W 13.6–16.2cm; WS 38–42cm; WT 28–50g. Small Oceanites storm-petrel. In the Southern Hemisphere smaller than White-bellied and Wedge-rumped Storm-petrels, noticeably larger than nominate Elliot’s but similar size to Galápagos subspecies. In the Northern Hemisphere slightly larger than European Storm-petrel but noticeably smaller than Leach’s and Madeiran Storm-petrels. PlumaGe Dark brown, with paler, crescentic wing-bar on upperwing and obvious white rump, which wraps down around the sides almost to the vent. Some individuals, especially those seen around Chile, can have smudgy white patches around vent and even on lower belly. When seen from above, white on rump is V- or U-shaped with black feathering of back intruding onto upper rump. Bill black. Legs and feet black with yellow webs. moult aND Wear Grey wash over wing-coverts in fresh plumage. Pale bar on upperwing-coverts present all year round but becomes more obvious in January–March due to plumage wear. Extensive wing moult seen April–Aug usually in northern wintering grounds. IDeNtIFICatIoN Other confusable, small, dark storm-petrels with white rumps and mostly dark underparts are European, Madeiran, Leach’s, Wedge-rumped and Elliot’s. Wilson’s combination of yellow webs and dark toes is diagnostic but usually impossible to see in field. European is smaller, lacks obvious pale crescentic wing-bar on upperwing but has whitish central panel on underwing and holds wings in more acute V when feeding. Madeiran and Leach’s are both larger. Leach’s has a forked tail and larger pale crescent on upperwing. Leach’s also has white rump that is longer than it is wide that does not extend down sides towards vent, and often has a dark central streak. Madeiran is best told by shorter legs, which do not extend beyond tail, longer wings from body to carpal, steadier flight and different foraging behaviour. Wedge-rumped has a larger white rump, short legs that do not extend beyond tail in flight and the wings are a different shape, longer from body to carpel but shorter from carpal to tip. Elliot’s can be difficult to separate from Wilson’s, especially off northern Chile where some Wilson’s are more likely to have smudgy pale patches on underparts. Elliot’s is small and slim, usually has slightly paler panel on underwing and close up can usually be seen to have more scruffy white on the underparts. Nominate Elliot’s likely to moult wings in southern summer and autumn, earlier than Wilson’s.

elliot’s storm-petrel oceanites gracilis

Plates 40, 45

otHer Names White-vented Storm-petrel, Lowe’s

Storm-petrel.

Race galapagoensis, the Galápagos White-vented Storm-petrel, is sometimes considered a separate species. However, the overlap in measurements and lack of consistent distinguishing features suggest it should be retained as a subspecies of O. gracilis. DIstrIbutIoN A rare storm-petrel found only in the cool waters of the Humboldt Current between 2° and 33° S. Most abundant near the Galápagos Islands. Breeding has recently been proven on two small islands in northern Chile, but no nests have ever been found on the Galápagos Is. although birds in breeding condition have been recorded, indicating that breeding probably does occur there. At sea rarely seen more than 100km from shore. beHavIour Most commonly observed within sight of land, feeding solitarily or in small groups, pattering feet on surface of water. Great numbers have been recorded feeding in the oily wake of feeding whales and they are attracted to boats when refuse is tossed overboard. Likely to be readily attracted to fish oil although nominate has not been recorded around fishing vessels. Apparently attracted by lights and susceptible to coming on board boats in foggy weather. JIZZ When feeding, patters feet in typical storm-petrel manner with wings held up in sharp V. Wings narrower taxoNomy

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and more sickle-shaped than Wilson’s, and the combination of relatively thin, long wings and longer body make this species appear more delicate and slender-bodied, especially whilst feeding. In sustained flight has rapid wingbeats, feet extending well beyond square ended tail. sIZe TL 14-17cm; galapagoensis: W 13.0–14.6cm; WS 35-37cm; WT 17g; gracilis: W 11.7–13.2cm. Small, delicate Oceanites storm-petrel. Nominate gracilis on average slightly smaller than Wilson’s and Wedge-rumped, and considerably smaller than White-bellied Storm-petrels, all of which occur in the same waters. The larger Galápagos subspecies is a similar size to Wilson’s and Wedge-rumped. PlumaGe A small black-and-white storm-petrel with a white rump. Underparts vary. Most have a pale belly; a few are entirely dark. Nominate Upperparts mostly sooty-black, darkest on crown, lower back, rectrices and remiges, fading to dark brownish black when worn. White uppertail-coverts and some white tips to feathers of upper rump form a well defined semicircular patch of white across the uppertail. Upperwings brownish-black with a paler crescent consisting of a greyish stripe formed by the paler tips of the median-secondary coverts present all year, and a more obvious pale brown patch developes by late summer due to wear, especially of the secondary coverts. Juveniles and freshly moulted adults have small white tips to upperwing coverts and retrices. Underwing smokygrey, slightly paler in centre. Throat, chest, upper breast, sides of lower breast and flanks a pale brownishblack. Centre of lower breast, belly and vent white. Thigh patches brown, forming a narrow, well-defined line between the white of the belly and rump. Boundaries between white and brown on the underside relatively crisply divided except on the vent, where some birds may be smudged brown. Undertail-coverts brown, outer ones streaked or smudged with white. Feet black with indistinct yellow patches on the centre of each web. O. g. galapagoensis White belly patch usually smaller and smudgy around the edges, especially on the flanks. Some birds have almost entirely dark underparts. Specimens in collections are generally a paler brown than the nominate race but this may only be due to plumage wear. In both races, comparatively small bill similar in dimensions to Wilson’s, with prominent nostrils typical of Oceanites. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults. moult aND Wear

Nominate moult not recorded but, as a late winter and spring breeder, adults are likely to moult in summer and immatures in spring. O. g. galapagoensis Probably breeds in late autumn and winter so birds moulting wing and tail between November and January are likely to be adults, whilst immatures would be moulting in spring. IDeNtIFICatIoN One of the smallest storm-petrels, regularly occurring in the Humboldt Current and waters of the Galápagos, where it can be confused with Wedge-rumped, Madeiran, White-bellied and Leach’s Storm-petrels. Except for the darkest birds, the pale belly should be visible even at a distance and the combination of pale belly, dark underwing with slightly paler central panel, square tail and small, slender appearance should be diagnostic – with practice. Some White-bellied Storm-petrels from the Tasman Sea and New Zealand Storm-petrel may show similar patterns on underparts, but none have been recorded from the eastern Pacific. See those species for identifcation. A few possibly, worn or immature Wilson’s have whitish vents and belly markings and could look like darker birds of the Galapagos race. Jizz, season and timing of wing-moult may help distinguish such individuals.

New Zealand storm-petrel Pealeornis maoriana

Plate 45

taxoNomy Until the recent spate of sightings, considered by the majority of authors to be a pale form of Wilson’s. Evidence from lice suggests it belongs to a monospecific genus distinct from Oceanites. DIstrIbutIoN An enigmatic storm-petrel until recently known from three specimens collected off eastern New Zealand in the 19th century. Recent sightings near the Mercury Is. and in the Hauraki Gulf, North Island, New Zealand, were thought by many to be this species and the capture of several birds (January 2006) has confirmed this. beHavIour Recent sightings in the Hauraki Gulf have mostly been of birds attracted to pelagic birding boats by chum, with up to 20 birds seen at once. Other behaviour at sea and breeding unknown. JIZZ Medium-small, long-legged storm-petrel with square or slightly notched tail. Feet project beyond tail in flight. Wing comparatively narrow and pointed, more like Wilson’s than Black-bellied in shape. Foraging and flight similar to Wilson’s, pattering on sea surface with wings held almost horizontally or in a shallow V.

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sIZe Hauraki Gulf: TL 17.1–18.7cm; W 14.5–15.4cm; WS 37.4–38.0cm; WT 30–36g. Medium-small Oceanites-

type storm-petrel. Smaller than Black-bellied and White-faced Storm-petrels, larger than Elliot’s and probably slightly larger than many Wilson’s. Similar size to the smaller of the White-bellied Storm-petrel subspecies. PlumaGe Museum specimens: Head, breast and upperparts dark sooty-brown, with paler crescentic wing-bar on upperwing and obvious white rump. Chin and throat white with dark tips to feathers. Underparts white with variable amounts of dark streaking concentrated on lower breast, flanks and thighs. Pattern of dark and light on breast feathers that forms streaks is different to Fregetta storm-petrels. Undertail-coverts dark with white tips. Underwing white with broad dark leading edge, dark flight feathers and dark-centred, smudgy coverts, especially on the outer wing. Bill black. Legs and feet black with dark webs. The birds observed and photographed in the Hauraki Gulf are considerably more variable in the amount of dark streaking on the underparts than the three museum specimens. moult aND Wear Not known. Pale crescentic bar on upperwing likely to become more obvious with wear, like Wilson’s. IDeNtIFICatIoN At any distance would appear similar to darker-bellied White-bellied and paler Black-bellied Storm-petrels. New Zealand has jizz, flight and foraging action more like Wilson’s than the two Fregetta stormpetrels; slimmer build, longer, narrower wings and longer legs projecting well beyond tail in flight. Close up, the distribution of the streaks on underparts, breast, flanks and thighs rather than central belly separates even the darkest of birds from slightly larger Black-bellied. Separation from the darker forms of the polymorphic Lord Howe White-bellied Storm-petrels likely to be extremely difficult. White-bellied usually has some white fringes to the dark feathers on the back and scapulars, except when plumage is very worn. White-bellied has border between dark breast and lighter belly, even in the darkest birds with the most ragged division, higher up on breast toward throat than New Zealand. Legs, and especially feet, of White-bellied are shorter and more robust and toenails are broad, flattened, and spade-shaped rather than long and thin. Jizz and foraging behaviour may well be the easiest way to separate the two. Elliot’s is also long-legged, slim and rather Wilson’s-like but is smaller with darker underwing and smudgier dark markings on underparts.

Grey-backed storm-petrel Garrodia nereis

Plate 40

taxoNomy Considered by some to be congeneric

with Oceanites.

DIstrIbutIoN Uncommon storm-petrel of the sub-

antarctic and Antarctic. Subantarctic circumpolar breeder on South Georgia, Gough I., Crozet Is., Kerguelen Is., Auckland Is., Antipodes I. and Chatham Is. Suspected of breeding in Falklands, on islands around Stewart I. (New Zealand) and also in southern Chile. Movements unknown; possibly sedentary. beHavIour Most frequently seen pattering very low to the water on the ocean surface. Flight fast and undeviating but may appear butterfly- or bat-like due to the short rounded wings and fluttery shallow wingbeats. Short glides rarely sustained, pausing frequently to patter. Does not bound from side to side or jump from ocean surface like other storm-petrels. Never seen in groups and generally avoids boats. JIZZ A diminutive, short-legged, short-winged species. Short wings make it appear smaller than it actually is. Wings held in a shallow curve whilst pattering very close to the sea surface. In sustained flight small wings make the square tail (which is actually rather short), appear long and broad. Rarely spreads tail. Feet protrude slightly beyond tip of tail in flight. sIZe TL 16–19cm; W 12.4–14.0cm; WS 39cm; WT 21–44g. Small Oceanites-like storm-petrel. About same size as Wilson’s and considerably smaller than White-faced Storm-petrel. PlumaGe Black, white and grey storm-petrel with distinctive hooded appearance. Upperparts black, with grey wash across back and upperwing-coverts and grey rump and uppertail. White tips to upperwing coverts and rump in fresh plumage. Black tip to square tail. Underparts, black to upper breast, white on belly and flanks, and grey and white undertail. Underwing, including base of primaries, pure white with distinctive contrasting broad black leading edge and dark secondaries. moult aND Wear White tips to feathers of upperparts lost. Pale bar on upperwing-coverts most obvious in January–March and indicative of wear. Birds in wing moult rarely seen as wintering grounds poorly known, but probably occurs April–June. Tail has dark tip that when worn or during tail moult can look like the central dark tail marking of one of the ‘whalebird’ prions. IDeNtIFICatIoN Only likely to be confused with Fregetta storm-petrels but easily separated by grey, not white, rump. The much larger grey-rumped White-faced Storm-petrel has bicoloured upperparts and pale face.

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White-faced storm-petrel Pelagodroma marina

Plate 44

taxoNomy Six subspecies recognised, varying in minor differences in size and rump coloration. Slightly larger, white-rumped P. m. albiclunis of the Kermadec Is. is considered by some to be a separate species. DIstrIbutIoN Common storm-petrel of the temperate and subtropical seas of the Southern Hemisphere and central Atlantic Ocean. Summer breeder on Salvage Is., Canary Is., Cape Verde Is., Tristan da Cunha group, Gough I., islands off west Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales, North Island and South Island of New Zealand, Kermadec Is., Auckland Is. and Chatham Is. Recently seen near Juan Fernandez Is. May still breed on St Helena and Amsterdam Is. Dispersive to at least 5°N in eastern Pacific and into north-central temperate Atlantic, but movements poorly known. beHavIour Most frequently seen pattering on the ocean surface, long legs dangling. Flight similar to prions with erratic banking and short glides on stiff, bowed wings, pausing frequently to patter. Often in very large groups and easily attracted to boats using fish oil; sometimes seen behind fishing boats hauling nets. JIZZ Although large, long, rounded wings and very long legs make it appear slender and elegant. Tail squareended or slightly forked. Generally uses feet to push off the sea surface with wings held in shallow curve, but in strong winds will face into the wind with wings held straight using feet to steady body. Frequently spreads tail to steady body. In flight, feet extend well beyond the tail-tip. Bill appears unusually long for a storm-petrel. sIZe TL 18–21cm; W 14.5–17.3cm; WS 42–43cm; WT 40–70g. Large storm-petrel, slightly smaller than Hornby’s and considerably smaller than Polynesian Storm-petrel. PlumaGe Distinctive white face, forehead and supercilium, and dark brown eye-stripe. Grey crown and neck. Rest of upperparts bicoloured, with paler grey wash across upperwing-coverts, and dark flight feathers. Grey or smudgy white rump and uppertail-coverts contrasts with dark tail. Underparts white. Underwing white with dark primaries and secondaries. Dark plumage becomes browner with wear. moult aND Wear White tips to feathers of upperparts lost. Upperwing-coverts become increasingly worn and brown as breeding season progresses. Trailing edge of very worn coverts may appear as a pale wing-bar in some individuals. Birds in wing-moult rarely seen, as wintering grounds poorly known, bbut records from April–June in southern hemisphere. IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of large size, bicoloured upperparts, white face and greyish rump make confusion unlikely throughout most of range. Hornby’s in Chilean waters is slightly larger, has dark underwing, forked tail and dark breast-band. Polynesian is considerably larger, has broad dark breast band and in paler forms, pure white rump.

black-bellied storm-petrel Fregetta tropica

Plates 41, 45

taxoNomy Two subspecies recognised; F. t. tropica

(circumpolar, colder Southern Ocean) and F. t. melanoleuca (Tristan da Cunha and possibly Gough Island). However, the taxonomy of Tristan and Gough birds is poorly understood. DIstrIbutIoN Abundant storm-petrel of the subantarctic. Summer breeder, with breeding recorded from South Georgia, South Orkney, South Shetland, Bouvetøya, Prince Edward, Crozet, Kerguelen, Auckland, Bounty and Antipodes Is. Disperses north in winter as far as the equator. beHavIour Forages with wings held flat, one foot sliding through the water as body pivots; also rebounds off sea surface, hitting it with breast and bouncing off using feet. Flight erratic and indirect; moves in a zig-zag pattern as it quarters the ocean. Often in small groups and easily attracted to boats using fish oil; sometimes seen behind fishing boats hauling nets.

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JIZZ Medium-sized, stocky storm-petrel; wings broad at base, short and moderately rounded with a straight trailing edge; tail square with feet normally projecting beyond tail in flight. Feet relatively short with spade-shaped toes typical of Fregetta. sIZe TL 20cm; W 15.4–18.3cm; WS 45–46cm; WT 43–63g. Medium-sized storm-petrel, slightly larger on average than White-bellied, smaller than White-faced and larger than Wilson’s. Grey-backed Storm-petrel is considerably smaller. PlumaGe Head black with variable whitish throat. Upperparts, breast, central line down belly to vent and undertail sooty-black. Fresh dark feathers of back and upperwing-coverts may have pale tips, which quickly wear away, unlike White-bellied. Pale crescentic upperwing bar present but only really obvious in birds in very worn plumage. Rump and flanks white. Underwing dark with white central panel and some dark coverts making it appear rather scruffy. Demarcation between the black breast and white belly low down on breast and irregular. Black belly stripe variable, broader in some birds, patchy or even absent in a few. moult aND Wear Juveniles and some adults may have pale tips to fresh coverts and back but these wear off quickly and are rarely as extensive as on White-bellied. Secondary coverts on upperwing may wear pale brown, causing pale crescentic wing bar to become more obvious. Wing-moult occurs May–July in subtropical wintering grounds. IDeNtIFICatIoN Very similar in size and jizz to White-bellied; black belly stripe not always easy to see, and sometimes absent. White-bellied also has dark-bellied forms! See White-bellied for differences. The common names of the Fregetta storm-petrels are not helpful as presence of dark markings on the belly of a Fregetta stormpetrel is not diagnostic of Black-bellied. Bulkier than Wilson’s and Elliot’s Storm-petrels, with whiter, though somewhat smudgy underwing and more white on flanks and belly. For separation from New Zealand Stormpetrel see that species.

White-bellied storm-petrel Fregetta grallaria taxoNomy Four subspecies recognised: F. g. grallaria

Plates 41, 45

in the Tasman Sea and F. g. segethi in the southeast Pacific and Juan Fernández Is.; status of the larger forms on Rapa, F. g. titan, and Tristan da Cunha, F. g. leucogaster, uncertain as these populations seem to be morphometrically closer to Black-bellied Stormpetrel whilst having white belly. Population on Lord Howe is polymorphic. DIstrIbutIoN A rare storm-petrel of the Southern Hemisphere subtropical region. Breeding protracted October–April. Recorded from Juan Fernandez Is., San Felix and San Ambrosio (segethi); Admiralty I., off Lord Howe & Kermadec Gp (grallaria); Rapa (titan) and St Paul, Amsterdam and Tristan da Cunha (leucogaster). Movements poorly understood but probably sedentary. beHavIour Forages with wings held flat, one foot sliding through the water as body pivots, also rebounds off sea surface, hitting it with breast and bouncing off using feet. Flight highly erratic and indirect; moves in a zigzagging pattern quartering the ocean. Tends to glide more often than Black-bellied between foraging bouts. Usually solitary, not attracted to boats. JIZZ Medium-sized, compact, stocky storm-petrel; wings short, broad at base and moderately rounded with a straight trailing edge; tail square and legs rarely projecting beyond tail, except when tail in moult. Legs and especially feet relatively short with spade-shaped toes typical of Fregetta. sIZe TL 18–22cm; W 14.6–18.8cm; WS 46–48cm; WT 45–74g. Subspecies titan: TL 25cm; W 18.6cm. Medium-sized storm-petrel; slightly smaller on average than Black-bellied, smaller than White-faced and slightly larger than Wilson’s; Grey-backed Storm-petrel looks considerably smaller; titan is considerably larger than other races. PlumaGe Upperparts, head, throat, breast and undertail sooty-black; belly, vent, rump and central underwingcoverts white, quite sharply demarcated from dark flight feathers and leading edge. Demarcation between the black breast and white belly sharp and straight. Dark feathers of undertail, back and upperwing-coverts generally have white tips but only very worn individuals show much sign of a pale crescentic wing-bar. Birds on Admiralty Is. off Lord Howe I., and perhaps elsewhere are polymorphic with a significant proportion of the Lord Howe population either mostly dark or with variable amounts of dark streaking on the flanks and belly and smudging on white rump. moult aND Wear Juveniles and most adults may have white tips to fresh coverts and back. As coverts and back wear, white tips may become less prominent but rarely totally lost. Greater wing-coverts may become paler and

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browner forming an indistinct pale upperwing panel. Wing moult occurs after protracted breeding season, thus may be seen any time between February–August. IDeNtIFICatIoN Similar in size and jizz to Black-bellied, which is usually distinguishable by presence of black line down central belly to black vent, but this can be surprisingly difficult to see at sea and some Black-bellied have white underparts. Black-bellied feet usually, but not always, project beyond tail in flight; throat often whitish; upperparts lack white feather tips but pale upperwing bar likely to be more obvious; white underwing-coverts smudged brown. Demarcation between black breast and white belly on paler Black-bellied is further down breast than White-bellied and usually slightly smudgy. Those darker forms of White-bellied confusable with Black-bellied are usually dusky on flanks rather than central belly. Range can be useful: White-bellied is never found in subantarctic waters and Black-bellied is only present in subtropical waters in late autumn, winter and early spring. Separation of darker forms of White-bellied and New Zealand Storm-petrel dealt with under those species. White-bellied is bulkier than Wilson’s and Elliot’s Storm-petrels, with whiter underwing and usually an entirely white belly.

Polynesian storm-petrel Nesofregetta fuliginosa

Plate 44

otHer Name White-throated Storm-petrel. taxoNomy Currently no subspecies are recognised

but birds from Samoa and Tahiti are larger and the rate of melanism is higher, suggesting that at least two forms may deserve recognition. DIstrIbutIoN A rare and very poorly known stormpetrel of the tropical Pacific, found from Sala y Gomez in the east to Vanuatu in the west. Recorded at sea between 25°N and 30°S but most abundant in the waters of Kiribati. In recent years breeding has been confirmed on Line and Phoenix Is., Austral Is., Society Is., Gambier Is. and Marquesas Is., New Caledonia and Sala y Gomez. Historically known to have bred on Vanuatu, Samoa and Fiji. It is found year-round at Christmas I. and in the waters off New Caledonia and Vanuatu, which suggests it is non-migratory. beHavIour Non-breeding birds may be highly pelagic but breeding birds occur close inshore, even, at times, feeding in atoll lagoons. Generally solitary and not attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks. Breeds throughout the year on Christmas I. and may do so elsewhere judging by its year-round occurrence. JIZZ A large, heavy storm-petrel with a moderately forked tail. Foraging action is similar to White-faced stormpetrel but more forceful, gliding for 20–30 seconds before using their strong legs and long paddle-like feet to propel themselves off waves or the surface of the sea with considerable force, erratically changing direction after each kick. The broad, rounded wings are held rigid and horizontal, rarely bent. This behaviour can continue for long periods in both the open ocean and quiet lagoons. Sustained flight is typically fluttering, rarely fast or direct, and they apparently prefer flying into or across, rather than with, the wind. Feet extend well beyond the tail. sIZe TL 23.5–25cm; WS 51.5cm; WT 56–86g. The largest storm-petrel, considerably larger than Swinhoe’s and White and Black-bellied and slightly larger than Tristram’s. PlumaGe Plumage variable. Most birds from the north are pied and most of the darkest birds come from Samoa and Tahiti, but melanism occurs in all populations and there are many intermediates. Pied Phase Dark cap extends from the centre of the nape, down below the eye to the chin. Palest birds have chin, throat and even lores white but most have these areas partly or entirely dark. In fresh plumage upperparts sooty black-brown, palest on back and central wing, with a white rump and pale crescent on upperwing formed by broad white tips to the greater coverts. Upperparts become much browner and paler as plumage wears. Underparts white with a dark breast-band, variable in width. All but the palest birds have a few dark flecks on the edges of the breast. Undertail-coverts dark, tipped white in palest birds. Underwing white in centre with a broad dark border on forewing, dark primaries and secondaries and variable amounts of smudgy brown on the primary coverts. Intermediates Throat, breast and belly become more flecked and darker from the edges. Dark cap merges with back. Rump becomes darker from centre outwards. On Phoenix and McKean “every conceivable colour variation between the normal form and totally dark individuals may be found”. Dark phase A specimen from Samoa had underparts and upperparts entirely sooty-black, lacking a white rump and upper wing-bar; however, others may retain white wing-bar and rump. Adult bill extremely robust, all-dark, unusually deep at the base for a storm-petrel with very prominent high nostrils, similar to Fregetta. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults.

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moult aND Wear Where studied, breeds all year round, indicating that moulting birds may be found at any

time of year.

IDeNtIFICatIoN.In all phases, size, flight and foraging behaviour distinctive.

Pied phase The combination of size, white underparts with dark breast-band, white upperwing bar and rump, and broad forked tail should make identification easy, even at some distance. Confusion is only likely with the similarly patterned Hornby’s Storm-petrel where they occur together in the far eastern Pacific. Hornby’s is smaller with narrower, pointed wings, a grey rump, dark underwing and more of a contrast between the paler grey back, black head and wings. Intermediates As for the pied phase but the smudgy underparts are also a helpful feature. Dark phase The rare, completely dark phase may be difficult or impossible to tell from the other large, all-dark, fork-tailed storm-petrels of the Pacific (Black, Markham’s, Tristram’s, Matsudaira’s and Swinhoe’s), but Polynesian’s larger size, broader, more rounded wings, highly distinctive foraging method and habit of holding wings horizontally should all be helpful. In sustained flight, especially at a distance, the large Tristram’s Storm-petrel may be the most difficult to tell apart but its flight is likely to be more purposeful, less fluttering and its feet do not project feet beyond the tail.

Northern storm-petrels european storm-petrel Hydrobates pelagicus

Plate 39

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN The common storm-petrel of tem-

perate northeast Atlantic. Breeds (April–September) on rat-free islands off Norway, Faeroe Is., Iceland, Britain, Ireland, in the Mediterranean and the Canary Is. Disperse southwards in boreal winter to South Africa, as far west as Natal and up to 200 miles south of Cape Agulhas. Rare in waters of America and Canada. beHavIour Most frequently seen pattering on the ocean surface, long legs dangling. May fly low with a flapping direct, bat-like flight, but rarely for long, pausing frequently to patter. Often in groups. Easily attracted to boats using fish oil and sometimes seen behind fishing boats hauling nets. JIZZ Small storm-petrel with short, narrow wings. Flight fluttering and busy. Whilst pattering on sea surface wings held up in a steeper V than Wilson’s. In calm conditions or light winds, the trailing edge of the wing appears straight, becoming more sickle-shaped as wind speed increases. Square tailed, short-legged, feet never protruding beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 15–16cm; W 11.6–13.2cm; WS 32–36cm; WT 23–43g. Slightly smaller than Wilson’s, noticeably smaller than Leach’s and Madeiran Storm-petrels. PlumaGe Plumage dark sooty-brown, becoming browner with wear. White rump wraps down around the sides towards the vent. Lacks obvious pale crescentic bar on upperwing, although juveniles have pale tips to greater coverts. Underwing dark with broad, whitish central panel. moult aND Wear Wing moult begins before chicks fledge in September–October and continues over winter. Juveniles, first-year birds and possibly non-breeders recognisable by earlier onset of moult. IDeNtIFICatIoN Usually identifiable by small size and white blaze on underwing. Leach’s is larger, has forked tail and more determined, less fussy flight. Madeiran is larger, more solid. Wilson’s is slightly larger, holds its wings more horizontal when foraging and has yellow webs.

least storm-petrel oceanodroma microsoma

Plate 42

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Subtropical eastern Pacific Ocean. Breeds in boreal summer along coast of Baja California only on

Islas San Benito. In the Gulf of California, where it is the most abundant seabird, probably breeds on all rat-free islands. Majority disperse south to Central America, as far as Colombia, Ecuador and as perhaps down to northern

226

Peru. A few move north and are found in the large stormpetrel flocks of Monterey Bay in August–October. beHavIour In moderate winds Flight bat-like with constant, deep, brisk wingbeats. Often found with Black and Ashy Storm-petrels, sometimes in large flocks. Wings held in steep V when feeding. Often seen sitting on water, where it feeds by propelling itself forwards, splashing breast against waves. Said by some authors not to patter feet on water surface as much as others. JIZZ Very small size, with comparatively short, rounded wings, and short wedge-shaped or rounded tail make it look like a miniature bat. Feet do not extend beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 13.5–15cm; W 11.8–12.5cm; WS 32–36cm; WT 20g. Very small Oceanodroma storm-petrel. The smallest procellariiform. PlumaGe Entirely blackish-brown on head, upperparts, underparts and tail, with greyish-brown greater-coverts forming paler crescentic upper wing-bar. Upper mantle may be slightly paler greyish-brown. moult aND Wear Pale bar on upperwing-coverts present all year round but most obvious in late summer and indicative of wear. Extensive wing moult seen October–December usually in southern wintering grounds. IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguishable from all other dark storm-petrels by small size, short, wedge shaped, unforked tail and flight.

Wedge-rumped storm-petrel oceanodroma tethys

Plate 40

taxoNomy Two well-defined subspecies: Galápagos

Storm-petrel O. t. tethys and Peruvian Storm-petrel O. t. kelsalli. DIstrIbutIoN An abundant eastern tropical Pacific storm-petrel found from north-central Chile to as far north as southern California and as far east as 120°W. Most abundant from central Peru to Costa Rica during winter breeding season, dispersing north to waters between 10°S and 20°N. Only confirmed breeding on three islands in Galápagos group (Isla Pitt, Roca Redonda and Isla Genovesa) and off the Peruvian coast (Isla San Gallán, Isla Los Vieja, Isla San Lorenzo and Islas Pescadores). Nests have recently been found on a small island in centralnorthern Chile (Isla Grande). beHavIour A pelagic species frequently seen far from land. Rarely seen inshore off South America but more commonly so off Galápagos, where the population is diurnal on the breeding sites. Usually feeds solitarily or in small groups, pattering feet on surface of water. Recorded as attracted to refuse tossed overboard. Probably readily attracted to fish oil though not recorded around fishing vessels. JIZZ Robust Oceanodroma storm-petrel. When feeding, patters feet in typical storm-petrel manner with wings held more horizontally than Elliot’s. Flight erratic, bat-like with quick, deep wingbeats and little gliding except in stronger winds; less laboured than Madeiran; less buoyant than Leach’s, twisting and erratic over land during the day. Wings pointed, angled back at carpal; proportionately longer than Wilson’s from body to carpal and shorter from carpal to tip. Body solid looking, stouter than Elliot’s and rather short. Square-ended or slightly notched tail looks like a small dark appendage to the large brilliant white rump patch. In flight feet do not extend beyond tail. sIZe Race tethys: TL 19cm; W 12.7–14.1cm; WS 37cm; WT 21–33g. Race kelsalli: TL 17cm; W 11.9–12.8cm. Race kelsalli smaller than nominate; nominate slightly larger than Wilson’s and considerably larger than Elliot’s that occur in the same waters. Madeiran and Leach’s Storm-petrels, although similar in dimensions, are up to 10g (25%) heavier than nominate. PlumaGe A medium-small, black storm-petrel with a broad white rump. Very similar in appearance to European Storm-petrel but with a forked tail. No known plumage differences between subspecies. Upperparts and underparts mostly sooty-black with a silvery gloss when fresh, fading to dark brownish-black. Darkest on crown, lower back, rectrices and remiges. White lower rump and uppertail-coverts form a well-defined white wedge

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extending almost as far as the notch in the slightly forked tail. Some white rump feathers have black shafts. Rest of the tail is black. Upperwing brownish-black with pale white tips to coverts in fresh plumage and in juveniles. Paler crescentic upperwing bar not very prominent but more so as secondary coverts wear to paler brown by late summer. Underwing dark with bases of primaries only occasionally reflective, rarely giving a silvery effect in strong light. Feet, toes and webs black. Heavy black bill similar in dimensions to European Storm-petrel with less prominent nostrils typical of Oceanodroma. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults. moult aND Wear Upperparts and most of underparts have a silvery gloss when fresh (fading to dark brownish black). Recorded moulting July to October. As nominate is an early winter breeder, immatures likely to be moulting in early winter and adults later. As kelsalli breeds earlier, in late autumn and winter, birds off South America may have finished moult in spring and there is some evidence that wing moult may begin whilst nesting is underway. IDeNtIFICatIoN In range, the combination of white rump, dark belly, and medium size should eliminate all but Wilson’s, Madeiran, Leach’s and darker-bellied forms of Elliot’s. Wedge-rumped has a larger white rump patch than all four. Wilson’s has a distinctive foraging, foot-trailing habit. Madeiran is heavier-bodied and squarertailed; Leach’s is heavier, longer-winged with a more deeply forked tail; Elliot’s is smaller and slighter, and even the darkest birds usually have some trace of white on the underparts.

madeiran storm-petrel oceanodroma castro otHer Name Band-rumped Storm-petrel. taxoNomy Currently there are no accepted sub-

Plate 39

species, but the disjunct distribution suggests that subspecific status may be warranted for the Atlantic and Pacific populations. In the Azores specific status has been suggested for birds differing slightly in size, but otherwise identical in appearance, which breed on the same island at different times of the year. DIstrIbutIoN An abundant storm-petrel with a remarkably wide yet disjunct distribution, occurring in the Atlantic and Pacific in both tropical and subtropical waters. Breeding in the Pacific is confirmed on Hide-jama in Japan, Kauai in Hawaii, and at 15 colonies in the Galápagos. It has been recorded at sea or as a beach wreck in the eastern Pacific from southern California to Peru and west to Hawaii and Japan, but there are no records in the western Pacific south of the equator. Breeding in the Atlantic is confirmed from islets off St Helena, Boatswainbird I. (near Ascension I.), 10 islands in the Cape Verde group, Anagu rocks off Tenerife (Canary Is.), Desertas Is., Salvage Is., islets off Porto Santo in Madeira, 13 colonies around the Azores, and on the Berlengas and Farilhoes islets off Portugal. Numerous other breeding populations are suspected or likely. In the Atlantic recorded as a storm wreck from England south to the Gulf of Guinea and Sao Tomé. Frequently recorded off northern Brazil and recorded as far north as Newfoundland in Canada. beHavIour A pelagic species frequently seen far from land and rarely seen inshore except shortly before dark and at dawn. Commonly feeds solitarily or in small groups, pattering feet on surface of water. Attracted to refuse tossed overboard from boats and likely to be attracted to fish oil although they have not been recorded around fishing vessels. On some islands (Galápagos, Madeira and Azores) most breeding occurs in two peaks (mainly June–September and October–December) whilst in others breeding is unimodal i.e. October–January (Ascension I.); mid-January–May (Cape Verde Is.); and July–September (Salvage Is.). In the North Atlantic the timing of breeding varies considerably between islands. JIZZ Wings quite broad, held less angled back at the carpal than Leach’s and straighter along the trailing edge. This, combined with short, stocky body and almost square-ended tail, gives it a more solid, less rakish look than Leach’s. In light winds flight is steady with slow rhythmic wing beats and little gliding. When feeding, patters feet in typical storm-petrel manner but in a somewhat laboured and heavy fashion, wings held horizontal rather than at a slight angle like Wedge-rumped and Leach’s or in a sharp V like Elliot’s. Often progress in zig-zag pattern low over the sea. Feet do not extend beyond tail. Bill relatively long and heavy. sIZe TL 19–22cm; W 14.8–17.0cm; WS 44–49cm; WT 33–67g. Robust Oceanodroma storm-petrel, a similar size to Leach’s, slightly larger than Wilson’s, Wedge-rumped and Elliot’s storm-petrels that occur in the same waters. PlumaGe Medium-sized dark storm-petrel with a relatively narrow white rump that looks wider than it does long. Upperparts and most of underparts sooty-black with a plumbeous gloss when fresh, fading to dark brownishblack when worn. Darkest on crown, lower back, rectrices and remiges. The white uppertail-coverts have variable

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amounts of black on the tips and form a white semicircular band that extends onto the underparts and edges of the vent almost encircling the tail. Bases of outer tail feathers white. Pale crescentic bar on upperwing not particularly prominent. Underwing dark but sometimes secondary underwing-coverts can be paler brown, forming a paler stripe. All-dark, comparatively long, heavy bill with less prominent nostrils typical of Oceanodroma. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults. Feet, toes and webs black. moult aND Wear As plumage wears the secondary wing-coverts become browner forming a distinct palebrown crescent but this rarely extends as far as the forewing. Moult begins near the end of the breeding cycle, probably 2–3 months after the eggs hatch and is generally completed before the following breeding season although some birds may have incompletely grown P10 whilst incubating. With all the variation in timing of breeding, plus immatures moulting a few months earlier than adults, it is possible to see a Madeiran Storm-petrel at any stage of moult at any time of year. IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of white rump and dark belly should eliminate all but Wilson’s, Leach’s, Wedgerumped, European and the dark-bellied forms of Elliot’s and White-bellied. Whilst feeding, Madeiran holds it wings more horizontal than Wilson’s, Leach’s and Wedge-rumped. Wilson’s is slightly smaller, shorter in the wing from body to carpal, and the feet extend beyond the tail in flight. Leach’s is longer-winged, has a forked tail, a more prominent pale crescent on the upperwing which usually extends to the carpal, and the white rump is longer, does not extend down around sides towards underparts and often has a dark central stripe. Wedgerumped has a larger white rump. Elliot’s is smaller and slighter and even the darkest birds usually have some trace of white on the underparts. The rare, darker form of White-bellied has a different wing shape and flight.

leach’s storm-petrel oceanodroma leucorhoa

Plates 39, 40, 42, 43

taxoNomy Revised by Ainley (1980). Nominate O.

l. leucorhoa is widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, usually white-rumped, with individuals from the North Atlantic indistinguishable from those in the northern Pacific. The subspecies O. l. chapmani differs from leucorhoa in smaller size, subtle differences in proportions, and in being mainly dark-rumped (few nominate are dark-rumped). May differ in foraging habitat; all differences appear clinal with intermediate birds seen off central and southern California. Two other populations nest on Guadalupe Island off Mexico: a winter breeding population (O. l. cheimomnestes) and a summer breeding population (O. l. socorroensis). DIstrIbutIoN Abundant northern Pacific and Atlantic storm-petrel. Breeds in southern Greenland (unconfirmed); eastern Canada: southern Labrador (Gannet Is., St. Peter Is.) and adjacent Quebec (Wolf Bay, St. Mary’s Is., and off Sept-Iles); Gaspé peninsula (Bonaventure I.); Magdalen Is.; islands off eastern and southern coasts of Newfoundland, with the largest colonies off Avalon and Burin peninsulas (especially Baccalieu I.); eastern seaboard of United States: St. Paul I., Bird Is., Long I. (Clam Bay), Pearl I., Mud I., and Bon Portage I., Grand Manan archipelago, Brothers Is., islands in Muscongus Bay, Penikese I. Iceland: Westmann Is.; Faeroe Is.; Scotland: St. Kilda, Flannan Is., North Rona, Sula Sgeir, Foula; Norway: Lofoten Is.; formerly Ireland; Alaska: huge colonies along coast; western Canada: islands off eastern and western coasts of Queen Charlotte Is., Queen Charlotte Sound, Queen Charlotte Strait, and western coast of Vancouver I., Britich Columbia (Rodway 1991); western seaboard of United States: islands off the Pacific coast of Washington between Cape Flattery and Point Grenville; islands along the coast of Oregon;Castle Rock, Little River Rock, Trinidad Bay rocks in north, Farallon Is., Fish Rocks off Anchor Bay, Prince I., off San Miguel I., Channel Is., California; Mexico: Los Coronados Is., San Benito Is., Guadalupe Is., Baja California; Russia: Commander Is.; Japan: Kurile Is., northern Hokkaido. Small recently formed colony on Dyer Is. off southern coast of South Africa. Prospecting birds have been found elsewhere, including on Chatham Is., New Zealand. Spends non-breeding season in tropical Atlantic and in tropical waters of central and eastern Pacific, especially off west Africa but scarce off Namibia and South Africa; vagrant to east Africa. Large numbers in European waters in September–October. Stragglers widespread throughout winter in cooler north temperate waters. Off southern Greenland in December and April (as far north as 72°30’N). Common off Brazil and in Caribbean in winter. Most common storm-petrel in Hawaiian area October–March. beHavIour Erratic, hanging flight with deep wing-strokes similar to marsh terns, zig-zagging and banking steeply. Occasionally glides. Also flies low over water, feet sometimes touching the surface when feeding. May foot-patter. Does not usually follow vessels, but at times can be attracted to chum. Rarely gregarious at sea. In breeding season mostly offshore and over cooler waters of continental shelf within 200km of nesting colonies.

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JIZZ Medium-sized but long tail can make Leach’s look large when seen with other storm-petrels. In flight long wings usually held angled back at carpal. Even in calm conditions or light winds, the wing’s trailing edge rarely appears straight. Has unusually long inner wing bones giving the wing tip a hooked appearance. When foot-pattering, wings held out at shallow angle (10–20°). Strongly forked tail not always obvious as often held closed in flight. Feet do not extend beyond tail. sIZe TL 18–22cm; W 14.0–16.7cm: WS 45–48cm: WT 38-50g. Medium sized Oceanodroma. Larger than European, smaller than Black. PlumaGe Medium-sized, dark storm-petrel with prominent white rump that is usually longer than it is broad and does not extend under the body. Dark blackish-brown, back often slightly paler; flight feathers and tail slightly darker. Upperwing has prominent, broad pale crescentic wing-bar formed by greater secondary-coverts reaching forewing at carpal. White rump usually, but not always, divided by variable median ‘smudge,’ which becomes more prominent in populations further south in Pacific, with completely dark-rumped birds common in populations off California and Mexico. Dark-rumped individuals absent from Atlantic. Bill strongly hooked, black; legs and feet black. moult aND Wear Fresh sooty-grey feathers of mantle and coverts become browner with wear. Primary moult begins after adults leave colonies, usually in August and continues at least until April. Non-breeders collected in central and eastern Pacific showed primary moult beginning earlier in July and ending October–December. IDeNtIFICatIoN Distinguished at sea from Wilson’s and European Storm-petrels by significantly larger size; more bounding, less fluttery flight; longer, more pointed wings with relatively longer inner wing giving outer wing hooked appearance; somewhat lighter brown back contrasting less with white rump; and long forked tail concealing the short legs, resulting in longer, more slender appearance. White rump does not extend as much onto undertail-coverts as in Wilson’s and European Storm-petrels. Whilst feeding both Wilson’s and European hold wings in a higher V. Distinguished from Madeiran by longer white rump that does not extend down around sides towards underparts, and often has smudgy dark median line, more obvious pale wing-bar, longer, more deeply forked tail, longer, narrower, more angular wings and more erratic, bounding flight with deeper wingbeats and fewer shearwater-like glides. Larger than Wedge-rumped with a considerably smaller white rump patch. Dark-rumped forms of Leach’s nesting off California and Mexico can be difficult to distinguish from the other all-dark species in the region: Ashy, Black, Markham’s and Least. Distinctive erratic, bounding flight may be helpful but the smaller, dark rumped forms may not fly in so characteristic a way. Leach’s is smaller than Black and Markham’s, larger than Least and a similar size to Ashy which has pale underwing coverts. In east Asian waters, Leach’s is only common storm-petrel with white rump, but if present, dark-rumped birds likely to be almost indistinguishable from Swinhoe’s Storm-petrel. Swinhoe’s bill is shorter and heavier; base of outer shafts of flight feathers are often white; flight may be slower, less swooping and worn birds show slightly paler underwing-coverts. All dark Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s are larger with longer, deeply-forked tails.

swinhoe’s storm-petrel oceanodroma monorhis taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN An enigmatic, migratory species only

Plate 43

known to breed (eggs July) on islands of Japan, Korea, and the Russian Islands in the Sea of Japan. Migrates September–April to northeast. Indian Ocean. Recorded widely at sea from Vladivostok to Somalia and the Red Sea and once off north-west Australia. Since 1983 there have been a few records from the North Atlantic: Salvage Is., England, Spain, France, Italy and Norway. beHavIour Non-breeding birds may be highly pelagic but during breeding season can be seen inshore. Generally solitary and not attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks. JIZZ A medium-sized, comparatively slim all-dark storm-petrel with relatively large, broad wings and moderately forked tail, usually held closed in flight. Flight reported as more direct and less erratic than Leach’s. Feet do not extend beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 18–21cm; W 14.6–16.5cm; WS 45–48cm; WT 65–78g. A medium-sized storm-petrel, smaller than all other all dark fork-tailed storm-petrels except Ashy and dark-rumped Leach’s. PlumaGe Entirely sooty-black except for slightly paler, crescentic wing bar. Most birds have white bases to shafts of outer primaries on upperwing but these are unlikely to be very obvious at sea. All dark, typically robust Oceanodroma bill is relatively short and deep, with small indistinct nostrils. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults.

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moult aND Wear As plumage wears all feathers become browner, and pale crescentic wing-bar likely to become more obvious. Likely to moult on wintering grounds in Indian Ocean. IDeNtIFICatIoN. In Pacific and Indian Oceans range overlaps with two all-dark storm-petrels, Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s. Both are larger than Swinhoe’s with more deeply forked tails. Tristram’s has a larger paler crescentic wing-bar and Matsudaira’s has more prominent white bases to the primary shafts, which can be seen relatively easily at sea in good conditions. The all-dark storm-petrels of the eastern Pacific – Black, Markham’s, Ashy, Least and dark-rumped Leach’s – have not been recorded in Swinhoe’s range. Black and Markham’s are larger, Least much smaller, and the similar-sized Ashy is greyer with paler panel on underwing. Dark-rumped Leach’s is likely to be most similar but it has more prominent pale wing-bars, a longer, slimmer bill and is likely to have more erratic, dashing flight.

Guadalupe storm-petrel oceanodroma macrodactyla

Plate 40

taxoNomy Sometimes considered a form of Leach’s. DIstrIbutIoN Formerly bred commonly on Gua-

dalupe Island off Mexico. Last recorded breeding in 1912. Used burrows in pine-oak and cypress groves at the northern end of the island. Feral cat predation is thought to be the main cause of extinction. Possible ? that a few remain on some poorly explored part of the rugged island. Distribution at sea not known. beHavIour Not known. JIZZ A large, fork-tailed storm-petrel possibly resembling Madeiran Storm-petrel in jizz. Stockier than Leach’s Storm-petrel with broader wings and shorter, forked tail. In the hand has longer, stouter bill than Leach’s but due to overall larger size this may not be a useful character at sea. sIZe TL  22.8cm,  22.2cm; W  17.2cm, .7cm; tail max. 8.5cm, to fork 6.4cm; bill 1.8cm. Female smaller than male in all measurements. Larger than Leach’s Storm-petrel. PlumaGe Blackish-brown or slaty-black overall with a white rump and scruffy, pale upperwing bar that does not appear to extend to carpel. Underwing dark brown (not paler than Leach’s as mentioned by some authors). The white on the rump is divided by a variable greyish or pale brown central stripe and extends onto the lateral tailcoverts and underparts towards the vent. Adjoining feathers of lower back and uppertail-coverts thinly tipped white. Blacker specimens may be in fresh plumage. moult aND Wear Not known IDeNtIFICatIoN Likely to look larger and more stocky than Leach’s with broader wings and a shorter yet noticeably forked tail. White rump extends further down sides of tail-coverts towards vent than Leach’s. From Madeiran, which it may resemble in jizz as well as plumage, by forked tail and dark central dividing stripe on white rump.

tristram’s storm-petrel oceanodroma tristrami

Plate 43

otHer Name Sooty Storm-petrel. taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN A moderately abundant but poorly

known northern Pacific storm-petrel, found in northwest Hawaiian group and islands off southwest Japan. Recorded at sea between northern Japan and 9°N but most abundant in the waters of northwest Hawaiian islands. Single record from waters off Sydney, Australia probably more likely dark-phase Leach’s or Polynesian Storm-petrel. In recent years confirmed breeding only in northwest Hawaii, on Nihoa, Laysan, Pearl and Hermes. Historically known to breed on Lisianski and Kure Is. in northwest Hawaiian group and Izu and Bonin Is. in southwest Japan. May once have bred on Marianas. Both pelagic and inshore. Breeds northern winter, possibly dispersing north after breeding.

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beHavIour Non-breeding birds may be highly pelagic but during breeding season can be seen inshore. Generally solitary and not attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks. JIZZ A large, heavy, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail. Foraging action consists of a pattering of feet on the surface of the ocean similar to Wilson’s but not sustained for long periods, unlike other storm-petrels. Very long sickle-shaped wings generally held slightly bent in flight and at slight very angle when foraging. Feet do not extend beyond tail in sustained flight. Flight is a mixture of fluttering wingbeats, steep banking turns and periods of gliding. sIZe TL 24–26cm; W 17.2–19.2cm; WS 56cm; WT 70–112g. The heaviest storm-petrel, considerably larger than all other all-dark storm-petrels except dark-phase Polynesian. Slightly larger and considerably heavier than Markham’s. PlumaGe Head, nape and neck black; rest of upperparts and underparts sooty-black with shiny greyish cast in fresh plumage, especially apparent on back. Darker head gives distinct hooded appearance. As plumage wears all feathers become browner and hooded appearance lost. Lighter greater secondary coverts form a broad, pale, crescentic wing bar from the carpal to the base of the trailing edge of the wing. Some birds may have white shafts to base of primaries but in those examined this was indistinct and may not show up as a field mark. Rump generally paler than surrounding feathers and contrast becomes more obvious with wear. All-dark, typically robust, Oceanodroma bill shorter than most species, with small nostrils that reach a third of the way down the bill, unlike Markham’s, which has an unusually long nasal tube that extends down half of bill. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults. moult aND Wear Where studied, breeds in winter; thus birds likely to moult in northern spring and early summer (immatures several months earlier), but the timing may be different in unstudied populations. IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of large size, dark plumage and forked tail is far from unique but when seen well in fresh plumage Tristram’s is reasonably distinctive with its dark-hooded appearance, greyish back and paler sides to the rump. The pale crescent on the upperwing is the largest and most obvious of the all-dark stormpetrels but in worn plumage or in poor conditions Tristram’s can still look completely dark, similar to the three other large all-dark storm petrels that occur in the central or western Pacific: Matsudaira’s, Swinhoe’s and the dark form of Polynesian. Identification can be difficult. Dark-phase Polynesian is large and bulky with broader, more rounded wings, feet projecting well beyond the slightly forked tail and a very distinctive foraging flight, kicking off the water with its huge feet. Swinhoe’s is slightly smaller, the pale crescent on the upperwing being less obvious and not reaching the forewing at the carpal, and the tail is less deeply forked although this is often hard to discern at sea. Close up, the bill should look relatively robust and deep and on most birds the bases of the primary feather shafts are white, but again this may be difficult to see in the field. Matsudaira’s is a similar size and shape to Tristram’s but the pale panel on the upperwing does not reach the forewing and most birds have white bases to the shafts of the primaries, at times distinct enough to appear as a white patch just beyond the carpal. A few Tristram’s also have white shafts but these are unlikely to be as obvious at sea. There are five other all-dark storm-petrels that occur in the eastern Pacific which should perhaps be considered: Markham’s; Black, Ashy, Least and the dark form of Leach’s, chapmani. Least is tiny with an unforked tail. Ashy is small, tending to greyish-black, especially in fresh plumage, and has pale underwing-coverts. The dark form of Leach’s is slightly smaller than Tristram’s and is likely to fly in the fast, bounding erratic style of the Leach’s group, but it does have slightly shorter and rounder wings than most and its flight may not be as distinctive. Both Black and Markham’s are large and dark with forked tails and although slightly smaller than Tristram’s are likely to be difficult to separate. The pale crescent on the upperwing does not reach the forewing at the carpal on Black but does so on Markham’s. In the absence of any clear information about flight and jizz the only way of separating Markham’s from a dark, worn Tristram’s would seem to be less obvious pale panel on the upperwing, slightly larger bill and slightly smaller size. Check also Bulwer’s Petrel.

markham’s storm-petrel oceanodroma markhami

Plate 42

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN A very poorly known, but apparently abundant, storm-petrel of the southeast Pacific, found from

central Chile to Baja California. Recorded between 13° N and 26° S but commonest in cool waters of Humboldt Current. Only confirmed breeding ground is Paracas peninsula, southern Peru, but given the abundance of the species many other sites must exist. Except when visiting breeding grounds, entirely pelagic. Breeds southern late winter and early spring (eggs late June–August) possibly dispersing north after breeding. beHavIour Highly pelagic but during breeding season can be seen inshore especially in evenings. Generally solitary but has been seen in mixed species flocks with Wilson’s, Elliot’s and Wedge-rumped Storm-petrels. Not attracted to ships but may be attracted to fish oil slicks. JIZZ A large, slim, all-dark storm-petrel with a deeply forked tail. Tail generally held closed or partially closed. Feet do not extend beyond tail in flight. In calm conditions, flight slow, with relatively shallow wingbeats, fre-

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quently lifting to a metre or more above the ocean then gliding downwards. sIZe TL 21–23cm; W 16.3–18.1cm; WS 49–54cm; WT 53g. Same size as the heavier Black Storm-petrel, slightly larger than Swinhoe’s. Slightly smaller than Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s and smaller than Polynesian. PlumaGe In fresh plumage upperparts and underparts black with plumbeous gloss on head, neck and mantle and white tips to scapulars especially in immatures. As plumage wears all feathers become browner. Uppertail-coverts grey at bases with white shafts for basal half of their length. Upperwing dark with paler greater secondary coverts forming a greyish or whitish wing-bar extending from the leading edge of the wing at the carpal to the base of the trailing edge. It is not clear how many birds have white bases to primary shafts on upperwing. All-dark, typically robust Oceanodroma bill shorter than most species, with an unusually long nasal tube that extends along half length of bill. Nostrils of juveniles and immatures are less prominent than adults. moult aND Wear In colonies that have been studied breeds in southern winter months thus moulting birds are likely to occur in southern spring and early summer whilst immatures are likely to moult several months earlier. IDeNtIFICatIoN Combination of large size, dark plumage and forked tail is far from unique and in many cases poor views will not allow positive identification. Range likely to overlap with very similar Black – see that species for discussion of differences. Possibly overlaps with Ashy, which is smaller, has pale underwing-coverts and distinctive flight. Swinhoe’s is slightly smaller, has a less prominent wing-bar and less deeply notched tail. Tristram’s is larger with a more prominent pale wing-bar and, in fresh plumage, greyer back and rump. Dark-phase Polynesian Storm-petrel is much larger and heavier and feet project beyond tail in flight. Dark-phase Leach’s may be difficult to separate but smaller size and fast, bounding, erratic flight style may help. Matsudaira’s has white shafts to the base of the primaries that are often prominent enough to confirm identification. Some Markham’s, like Swinhoe’s and a few Black’s, may also have this feature but it is unlikely that it would appear as obvious in the field.

matsudaira’s storm-petrel oceanodroma matsudairae

Plate 43

taxoNomy Monotypic. Believed by some to be a race of Tristram’s Storm-petrel. DIstrIbutIoN Northwestern Pacific Ocean, dispersing to northern Indian Ocean. Breeds (January– June) on Iwo Is. and Bonin group (Kita-iwo-jima and Minami-iwo-jima), south of Japan. Disperses southwest through Indonesian islands and Timor Sea to winter in northern Indian Ocean around Seychelles Is., off Kenya and Somalia, generally within 5° of equator. Some may winter off northeast New Guinea. Now regularly reported in far northwest Australia. Vagrant to South Africa. beHavIour Normal flight slower than Swinhoe’s, with flap-and-glide progression and occasional periods of rapid acceleration; also longer, more continuous flapping flight. Feeds by landing on surface with wings raised. Readily follows ships. JIZZ Large, long-winged, dark storm-petrel from Pacific and Indian Oceans with square-headed appearance, slow, deliberate flight and feet that do not project beyond tail when flying. Long, deeply forked tail is often held closed in flight and is not always visible sIZe TL 24cm; W ?; WS 56cm; WT 62g. Although similar in measurements, published weights suggest it weighs only half as much as Tristram’s. PlumaGe Head and neck, mantle, back, scapulars, rump and uppertail-coverts dark brown. Tail blackish, long and deeply forked. Underparts are dark brown. Upperwing-coverts dark brown, shading to a paler brown on greater coverts, forming paler diagonal bar – often of only a relatively limited extent – on inner wing from carpal to trailing edge. Primary coverts, primaries and secondaries blackish-brown, with whitish

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bases to shafts of outer one to seven primaries forming small but diagnostic white patch on leading edge of wing between carpal and wing-tip; underwing uniformly dark brown. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet black. moult aND Wear In fresh plumage likely to have pale tips to feathers of upperparts typical of Oceanodroma. Breeds in northern summer so wing-moult likely to occur after breeding during October–January. IDeNtIFICatIoN Range overlaps with two other all-dark species, Tristram’s and Swinhoe’s. Distinguished from Tristram’s by white bases to primary shafts, often visible when flapping wings as well as when banking; less obvious upperwing bar; and lack of Tristram’s grey wash on upperparts. From Swinhoe’s by larger size and slower, more deliberate flight. Swinhoe’s usually has pale bases to shafts of primaries, as do a few Tristram’s but they are rarely as distinct as Matsudaira’s. See also Black Storm-petrel and Bulwer’s Petrel.

black storm-petrel oceanodroma melania taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Nests on

Plate 42

islands of Baja California, including Islas San Benito (where present in vast numbers), small islands off Islas Los Coronados; also on islands in Gulf of California, including San Felipe I,. Cardinosa, I., Cardinosita, and Islas San Luis, Islas Tres Marias (?), and possibly others. In southern California, breeds on Santa Barbara I., Sutil I. and other southern California Channel Is., including Prince I., Anacapa I., and San Clemente I. Forages north to 39°N off northern California (especially May–December), south to 15°S off southern Peru (especially October–May). Abundant in Gulf of Panama in November where present until June. Plentiful off southern Mexico (March–May). beHavIour Found along the shelf, shelf break, and continental slope. Normal flight slow and deliberate, with very deep wingbeats interspersed with occasional short glides and shallower wingbeats similar to marsh terns or bats. Usually in flocks; occasionally follows ships. JIZZ Large, long-winged, all-dark, long legged storm-petrel of northeastern Pacific with long, deeply forked tail. Legs may project beyond tail in flight. sIZe TL 23cm; W 16.3–18.6cm; WS 43cm; WT 60g. Larger than Ashy and Leach’s, much larger than Least, similar in size to Markham’s and slightly smaller than Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s. PlumaGe Head, neck, upperparts from mantle and scapulars to uppertail-coverts blackish-brown Tail blackish; underparts warm blackish-brown. Primaries, primary coverts and secondaries blackish, darker than mantle. Rest of upperwings blackish-brown as mantle, but greater coverts whitish, forming pale diagonal bar or crescent. Underwing blackish-brown with no obvious paler central coverts. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet blackish. moult aND Wear Unlike other Oceanodroma storm-petrels, reported to change little with wear although may lose slight sooty gloss on head, neck, and mantle present in fresh-plumaged birds, especially immatures. Adults moult after breeding. Moult found to be starting in specimens collected June–August. In wing-moult off California in August–September. IDeNtIFICatIoN Black’s range overlaps with Ashy, Least, and dark-rumped Leach’s and may overlap with Markham’s in Central American seas. Distinguished from Ashy by greater size, proportionately longer wings, browner cast to plumage, dark underwing-coverts, and deeper wingbeats. Distinctly larger than Least with forked tail. Larger also than Leach’s but flight can be similar, i.e. long glides between several wingbeats. Glides of Black Storm-petrel, however, are longer. Markham’s is very similar in size and shape and difficult to distinguish. Most useful character appears to be pale bar or crescent on upper wing of Markham’s usually extends to leading edge of wing; but on Black normally stops short of leading edge. Markham’s reported as uniformly browner than Black, especially above. However the brownness of plumage and paleness and extent of wing-bar vary in both species with plumage wear, and both characters should be used with caution. In especially good views or photographs it may be possible to see that Black has all-dark uppertail-coverts whilst Markham’s has uppertail-coverts greyish basally with white shafts for half their length and that Black has tarsus and foot of similar length whilst Markham’s has tarsus considerably shorter than foot. In calm conditions Markham’s has shallower, butterfly-like wing strokes; Black has deeper wingbeats and glides less than Markham’s. In higher winds, flight similar; in both species glides become longer and wingbeats deeper. Unfortunately both species moult wings at the same time, July–October. The two similar, large, dark storm petrels outside Black’s usual range are Matsudaira’s and Tristram’s.

234

Matsudaira’s has relatively obvious white shafts at base of outer primaries but this feature is also present, though usually less conspicuously, in a few Blacks, Markham’s and Tristram’s. Tristram’s has a prominent pale wing-bar extending to leading edge of wing and often appears paler on the back and sides of the rump.

ashy storm-petrel oceanodroma homochroa

Plate 42

taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN Northeastern Pacific Ocean. Cali-

fornia: majority breed on southeast Farallon Is., but also on San Miguel I., Santa Cruz I., Anacapa I., San Celmente I. and Islas Los Coronados (Baja California). Occurs year-round in waters of the continental slope near breeding islands but most abundant during breeding season (April–August). Large numbers in Monterey Bay in October–November. Outside breeding season disperses northwards. beHavIour Uses feet to push off sea surface and make rapid changes of direction but does not footpatter as much as some storm-petrels. Generally found in small flocks except during moult when forms very large rafts. JIZZ Medium-sized, dark, forked-tailed Oceanodroma storm-petrel of the northeast Pacific Ocean with short legs that do not extend beyond tail in flight. Flight distinctive and butterfly-like with wings barely raised above the horizontal before each downstroke. Wingbeats become deeper in stronger winds. sIZe TL 20cm; W 13.3–15.2cm; WS 42cm; WT 36–40g. Smaller than Black, similar size to dark-rumped Leach’s and larger than Least. PlumaGe Head and neck sooty-brown. Mantle, back, scapulars and rump, especially sides, slightly lighter and greyer. Tail blackish. Upperwing blackish-brown; greater coverts whitish, forming a pale diagonal bar from carpal to trailing edge of wing; primary coverts, primaries and secondaries blackish, darker than mantle. Underwing blackish-brown with indistinct paler central coverts. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet blackish. moult In fresh plumage, especially in newly fledged juveniles, scapulars and wing-coverts are edged with light, pearly-grey, but this quickly darkens with wear. Adults begin moult of flight feathers in late July and some may continue until early April. Immatures moult earlier, starting body moult in April. IDeNtIFICatIoN Other dark storm-petrels in range are Black, Least and dark-rumped Leach’s. At sea, size differences and tail shapes are difficult to distinguish, and colour varies with light conditions, so that all of these storm-petrels may just appear dark. In these conditions Ashy can be recognised by distinctive butterfly-like flight, shallow wingbeats with wings barely rising above the horizontal. Other storm-petrels in range raise their wings much higher. With better views distinguished from Black by smaller size; from Black, Leach’s and Least by greyer, ashy cast to back and paler panel on central underwing; and from Least by larger size and forked tail. See also Fork-tailed Storm-petrel.

Hornby’s storm-petrel oceanodroma hornbyi

Plate 44

otHer Name Ringed Storm-petrel taxoNomy Monotypic. DIstrIbutIoN South-eastern Pacific Ocean. Breeding

grounds unknown; but likely to be in the Atacama Desert of Peru and northern Chile. Observed and collected as far south as central Chile (to 35°S, JulyNovember.) and north to Ecuador (to O°, AugustDecember). beHavIour Rarely observed far from coast; often gregarious at sea. JIZZ A large, distinctive, fork-tailed and grey-backed storm-petrel of eastern Pacific. Has a distinctive high erratic flight with slow, deep wingbeats and a gliding, flap-free flight, reminiscent of a swift, often with legs dangling below body. Feet do not extend beyond tail in flight.

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sIZe TL 24cm; W 15.7–16.9cm; WS ?; WT ?. Considerably larger than all other black-and-white stormpetrels. PlumaGe Crown and nape blackish, extending to just below eye and across ear-coverts. Throat, chin and forehead white and thin white collar across upper hindneck. Mantle, back, scapulars, rump and uppertail-coverts grey, rump and uppertail-coverts can have paler tips to feathers. Uppertail blackish. Underparts white from dark greyish-black breast-band to undertail. Upper inner wing-coverts dark greyish-brown; greater coverts whitish, forming a conspicuous diagonal bar on upperwing from carpal to inner trailing edge; primary coverts, primaries and secondaries blackish, enhancing diagonal bar. Underwing dark greyish-brown with no obvious paler central coverts. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet blackish. moult aND Wear Adults likely to moult rectrices in Ecuadorian waters during August–December. IDeNtIFICatIoN Unmistakable, and in good light the white collar is visible at great distance. Only likely to be confused with similarly patterned Polynesian, which has yet to be recorded in the same range.

Fork-tailed storm-petrel oceanodroma furcata taxoNomy Two subspecies recognised, but the dif-

Plate 42

ferences between them appear clinal. Northern race furcata has lighter plumage, is slightly larger and occurs more inshore. Southern race, plumbea, is smaller and generally more gregarious. DIstrIbutIoN Northern Pacific Ocean, from Bering Sea south to tropics and from Japan to California. Northern summer breeder on Kuril Is., Commander Is. In Alaska: c. 60 colonies, 39 of these in the Gulf of Alaska; throughout Aleutian Is. east to islands off west Alaskan peninsula; breeds on most Aleutian islands, e.g. Buldir I., Round I., Shumagins Is., Castle Rock, Barren Is., Sud I., Sugarloaf I., East Amatuli I., West Amatuli I., Wooded Is., Fish I., St. Lazaria, Sealion I., Timbered I and Graves Rocks, Petrel I. British Columbia: islets off northwest Queen Charlotte Is., islands in Queen Charlotte Strait. Washington: Bodelteh I. Carrol I., Flattery Rocks group, Tatoosh I. and Alexander I; Oregon., Hunter I., Goat I., Haystack Rock, Three Arch Rocks (?); California: Castle I., Green Rock, Tepona Rock, Pewetole I. (?); Prisoner Rock and Split Rock; Little River Rock. Wide non-breeding range, wintering much farther north than other storm-petrels. Commonly seen at the ice edge in winter in the Bering Sea and as far south as central California. beHavIour Usually seen foraging in small groups at shelf break, rarely forming large rafts. Will follow ships and may be attracted by lights at night. JIZZ Distinctive, medium-sized storm-petrel of northern Pacific Ocean and the only grey storm-petrel to occur in that region. Flight in light to moderate winds low to water, similar to Leach’s, but less erratic, with shallower wingbeats interspersed with stiff-winged gliding. In flight, legs do not extend beyond tail. sIZe TL 22cm; W 14.6–16.7cm; WS 46cm; WT 49–79g. Alaskan birds tend to be larger. Similar in size to Ashy and on average larger than Leach’s. PlumaGe Crown, nape and neck pale sooty-grey with small, black facial mask extending from in front of the eye to ear. Mantle, back, rump and uppertail-coverts blue-grey; scapulars darker grey. Tail blue-grey, white tips to feathers lost with wear. Underparts, including chin and throat, whitish; sides of upper breast pale bluish-grey, becoming paler towards lower belly and vent; undertail grey. Marginal and outer upperwing-coverts dark sootygrey joining with inner wing to form a dark leading edge; greater coverts paler grey-white, forming pale centre to inner wing; primary coverts, primaries and secondaries dark greyish. Underwing-coverts and axillaries black, with white tips to feathers of the central underwing; undersides of flight feathers blue-grey, with darker tips to primaries. Bill black; iris dark brown; legs and feet black but may appear pinkish in strong light. moult aND Wear White tips to coverts and tail lost due to wear. Darker feathers of wings become brown late in breeding season. Northern populations moult after breeding season at sea; some completing moult by October– November. Southern resident populations may visit land whilst moulting. IDeNtIFICatIoN Pale blue grey plumage usually very distinctive. However Ashy, which is sympatric in northern California in winter and has a similar flight action, may appear quite pale in bright light especially when plumage is worn. Furthermore, Ashy underwing may reflect light and create a contrasting pattern with dark underwingcoverts, similar to that of Fork-tailed. Ashy, however, is smaller and distinctly brown. All Leach’s have a white rump in the region where they overlap with Fork-tailed. Fork-tailed also generally found more in inshore waters over shelf breaks than Leach’s. Pale, winter-plumaged phalaropes could look similar on a bad day at a distance!

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reFereNCes Abbott, C. & Double, M. 2003. Genetic structure, conservation genetics and evidence of speciation by range expansion in shy and white-capped albatrosses. Molecular Ecology 12: 2953-2962. Abbott, C. & Double, M. 2003. Phylogeography of Shy and White-capped Albatrosses inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences: implications for population history and taxonomy. Molecular Ecology 12: 2747-2758. Ainley, D. G. 1980. Geographic variation in Leach’s Storm-petrel. Auk 97: 837-853. Austin, J. J., Bretagnolle, V. & Pasquet, E. 2004. A global molecular phylogeny of the small Puffinus shearwaters and implications for systematics of the Little-Audubon’s Shearwater complex. Auk 121: 847–864. Bailey, S. F., Pyle, P., & Spear, L. B. 1989. Dark Pterodroma petrels in the North Pacific: Identification, status, and North American occurrence. American Birds 43: 400-415. Brooke, M. de L. 2004. Albatrosses and Petrels across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Burg, T. M. & Croxall, J. P. 2004. Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex. Molecular Ecology 13: 2345–2355. Cracraft, J. 1983. Species concepts and speciation analysis. Current Ornithology 1, 159–187. Croxall, J. P., Rothery, P., Pickering, S. P. C. & Prince, P. A. Reproductive performance, recruitement and survival of Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans at Bird Island, South Georgia. Journal of Animal Ecology 59: 775-796. Gibson, J. D. 1967. The wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans): results of banding and observations in New South Wales coastal waters and the Tasman sea. Notornis 14: 47–57. Harrison, P. 1979. A code for scoring Wandering Albatross. Australasian Seabird Group Newsletter 12: 32-41. Harrison, P. 1985. Seabirds: an identification guide (Revised edition). Croom Helm, Bromley, Kent. Jouventin, P., Martinez, J. & Roux, J-P. 1989. Breeding biology and current status of the Amsterdam Island Albatross Diomedea amsterdamensis. Ibis 131: 171–182. Marchant, S. & Higgins, P. J. 1990. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol 1. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Murray, D. 1989. The Gibson Code. Corella 13: 104. Nunn, G. B. & Stanley, S. E. 1998. Body size effects and rates of cytochrome-b evolution in tube-nosed seabirds. Molecular Biology and Evolution 15: 1360–1371. Nunn, G. B., Cooper, J., Jouventin, P., Robertson, C. J. R. & Robertson, G. G. 1996. Evolutionary relationships among extant albatrosses (Procellariiformes: Diomedeidae) established from complete cytochrome-b gene sequences. Auk 113: 784–801. Oliver, W. R. B. 1955. New Zealand Birds (2nd edition). Reed, Auckland. Penhallurick, J. & Wink, M. 2004. Analysis of the taxonomy and nomencalture of Procellariiformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene. Emu 104: 125–147. Robertson, C. J. R. & Nunn, G. B. 1998. Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses. In G. Robertson & R. Gales (eds), Albatross Biology and Conservation, pp. 13–19. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton. Robertson, G., & Gales, R. 1998. Albatross Biology and Conservation. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton. Sangster, G. S. 2005. Taxonomic recommendations for British birds: third report. Ibis 147: 821–826. Warham, J. 1990. The Petrels: Their Ecology and Breeding Systems. Academic Press, San Diego. Warham, J. 1996. The Behaviour, Population Biology and Physiology of the Petrels. Academic Press, San Diego.

the following were also extensively used

Austin, J. J. 1996. Molecular phylogenetics of Puffinus shearwaters: preliminary evidence from mitochondiral cytochrome-b gene sequences. Molecular and Phylogenetic Evolution 6: 77–88. Bourne, W. R. P. 1983. The Soft-plumaged Petrel, the Gon-gon and the Freira, Pterodroma mollis, P. feae, and P. madeira. Bulletin of the British Ornithologist’ Club 103: 52–58. Brinkley, E. S. & Patteson, B. J. 1998. Gadfly petrels in the western North Atlantic. Birding World 11: 341–354. Howell, S. N. G., Webb, S. and Spear, L. B. 1996. Identification at sea of Cook’s, DeFilippi’s, and Pycroft’s Petrels. Western Birds 27: 57–64. Howell, S. N. G, Spear, L.B. & Pyle, P. 1994. Identification of Manx-type Shearwaters in the eastern Pacific. Western Birds 25: 169–177. Kuroda, N. 1954. On the Classification and Phylogeny of the order Tubinares, particularly the shearwaters (Puffinus), with special consideration on their osteology and habitat differentiation. Published by the author, Tokyo, Japan. Nunn, G. B. & Anderson, D. J. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships among Pacific Pterodroma petrels. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Pacific Division 18 (1): 72. Porter, R., Newell, R., Marr, A. & Jolliffe, R. 1997. Identification of Cape Verde Shearwater. Birding World 10: 222–228. Pyle, P., Spear, L. B. & Ainley, D. G. 1993. Observations of Dark-rumped Petrels off Oregon and California. Western Birds 24: 110–112. Roberson, D. & Bailey, S. F. 1991. Cookilaria petrels in the eastern Pacific Ocean: identification and distribution, part I. American Birds 45: 399–403. Roberson, D., & Bailey, S. F. 1991. Cookilaria petrels in the eastern Pacific Ocean: identification and distribution, part II. American Birds 45: 1067–1081. Shirihai, H. & Jarrett, B. 2002. A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife: The Birds and Marine Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and Southern Ocean. Alula Press, Degerby, Finland.

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INDex References to main text entries are in roman script, while plate pages are given in bold. Albatross, Amsterdam Island 32, 34, 126 Antipodean 125 Atlantic Yellow-nosed 46, 48, 138 Black-browed 44, 46, 48, 132 Black-footed 38, 131 Buller’s 46, 48, 140 Campbell 44, 48, 133 Chatham Islands 42, 135 Galápagos 129 Gibson’s 125 Grey-headed 46, 48, 137 Indian Yellow-nosed 46, 48, 139 Laysan 40, 44, 131 Light-mantled 50, 142 Light-mantled Sooty 142 New Zealand 34, 125 New Zealand Wandering 125 Northern Royal 36, 127 Salvin’s 42, 136 Short-tailed 38, 130 Shy 42, 134 Snowy 34, 124 Sooty 50, 141 Southern Royal 36, 128 Tasmanian 134 Tristan 34, 124 Wandering 124 Waved 40, 129 White-capped 134 Bird of Providence 175 Bulweria bulwerii 60, 157 fallax 60, 158 Cahow 72, 180 Calonectris diomedea 96, 192 edwardsii 96, 193 leucomelas 96, 193 Daption capense 56, 148 Diomedea amsterdamensis 32, 34, 126 antipodensis 34, 125 dabbenena 34, 124 epomophora 36, 128 exulans 34, 124 sanfordi 36, 127 Diving-petrel, Common 106, 217 Magellanic 106, 216 Peruvian 106, 216 South Georgia 106, 217 Dove-petrel, Broad-billed 152 Fregetta grallaria 112, 120, 224 tropica 112, 120, 223 Fulmar, Antarctic 146

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Northern 54, 145 Southern 54, 146 Fulmarus glacialis 54, 145 glacialoides 54, 146 Garrodia nereis 110, 222 Halobaena caerulea 84, 150 Hydrobates pelagicus 108, 226 Icebird 154 Lugensa brevirostris 58, 150 Macronectes giganteus 52, 143 halli 52, 144 Mollymawk, Atlantic Yellow-nosed 138 Black-browed 132 Buller’s 140 Campbell 133 Chatham Islands 135 Grey-headed 137 Indian Yellow-nosed 139 Salvin’s 136 Shy 134 Nesofregetta fuliginosa 118, 225 Oceanites gracilis 110, 120, 220 oceanicus 108, 219 Oceanodroma castro 108, 228 furcata 114, 236 homochroa 114, 235 hornbyi 118, 235 leucorhoa 108, 110, 114, 116, 229 macrodactyla 110, 231 markhami 114, 232 matsudairae 116, 233 melania 114, 234 microsoma 114, 226 monorhis 116, 230 tethys 110, 227 tristrami 116, 231 Pachyptila belcheri 82, 155 crassirostris 84, 156 desolata 82, 154 macgillivrayi 82, 154 salvini 82, 84, 153 turtur 84, 155 vittata 82, 152 Pagodroma confusa 56, 149 nivea 56, 148 Pealeornis maoriana 120, 221 Pelagodroma marina 118, 223 Pelecanoides garnotii 106, 216 georgicus 106, 217 magellani 106, 216 urinatrix 106, 217

Petrel, Antarctic 56, 147 Atlantic 68, 187 Banks’ Dove 154 Barau’s 70, 178 Beck’s 64, 159 Bermuda 180 Black 189 Black-capped 72, 181 Black-winged 76, 163 Blue 84, 150 Bonin 76, 165 Bulwer’s 60, 157 Cape 56, 148 Cape Verde 186 Chatham Islands 76, 162 Collared 78, 168 Cook’s 74, 76, 166 De Filippi’s 74, 169 Dove 154 Fea’s 54, 72, 186 Fiji 64, 161 Galápagos 66, 179 Gould’s 78, 165 Great-winged 58, 182 Greater Snow 56, 149 Grey 88, 94, 191 Grey-faced 58, 183 Hawaiian 66, 178 Henderson 62, 173 Herald 62, 64, 70, 80, 171 Jamaican 72, 181 Jouanin’s 60, 158 Juan Fernandez 66, 177 Kerguelen 58, 150 Kermadec 62, 70, 80, 173 Lesser Snow 56, 148 MacGillivray’s 161 Madeira 186 Magenta 68, 184 Mas a Tierra 169 Mascarene 60, 159 Mottled 76, 164 Murphy’s 62, 174 Northern Giant 52, 144 Parkinson’s 88, 90, 189 Phoenix 64, 170 Pintado 148 Providence 58, 62, 175 Pycroft’s 74, 167 Réunion Black 159 Schlegel’s 187 Soft-plumaged 58, 68, 72, 185 Soft-plumed 185 Solander’s 175 Southern Giant 52, 143 Spectacled 86, 188

Stejneger’s 74, 169 Tahiti 64, 160 Trindade 70, 80, 172 Vanuatu 66, 177 Westland 88, 190 White-chinned 86, 188 White-headed 68, 183 White-naped 176 White-necked 66, 176 Zino’s 72, 186 Phoebastria albatrus 38, 130 immutabilis 40, 44, 131 irrorata 40, 129 nigripes 38, 131 fusca 50, 141 palpebrata 50, 142 Pigeon, Cape 148 Prion, Antarctic 82, 154 Broad-billed 82, 152 Fairy 84, 155 Fulmar 84, 156 Lesser broad-billed 153 MacGillivray’s 82, 154 Medium-billed 153 Salvin’s 82, 84, 153 Slender-billed 82, 155 St Paul 154 Thin-billed 155 Procellaria aequinoctialis 86, 188 cinerea 88, 94, 191 conspicillata 86, 188 parkinsoni 88, 90, 189 westlandica 88, 190 Pseudobulweria aterrima 60, 159 becki 64, 159 macgillivrayi 64, 161 rostrata 64, 160 Pterodroma alba 64, 170 arminjoniana 70, 80, 172 atrata 62, 173 axillaris 76, 162 baraui 70, 178 brevipes 78, 168 cahow 72, 180 caribbaea 72, 181 cervicalis 66, 176 cookii 74, 76, 166 defilippiana 74, 169 externa 66, 177 feae 54, 72, 186 gouldi 58, 183 hasitata 72, 181 heraldica 62, 64, 70, 80, 171 hypoleuca 76, 165 incerta 68, 187 inexpectata 76, 164

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lessonii 68, 183 leucoptera 78, 165 longirostris 74, 169 macroptera 58, 182 madeira 72, 186 magentae 68, 184 mollis 58, 68, 72, 185 neglecta 62, 70, 80, 173 nigripennis 76, 163 occulta 66, 177 phaeopygia 66, 179 pycrofti 74, 167 sandwichensis 66, 178 solandri 58, 62, 175 ultima 62, 174 Puffinus assimilis 102, 104, 209 auricularis 98, 214 bailloni 104, 212 bannermani 104, 211 baroli 100, 104, 210 bulleri 94, 195 carneipes 88, 90, 196 creatopus 94, 197 elegans 102, 104, 208 gavia 102, 205 gravis 94, 198 griseus 58, 92, 199 heinrothi 90, 215 huttoni 102, 206 lherminieri 98, 100, 104, 210 mauretanicus 100, 204 nativitatis 90, 201 newelli 98, 214 opisthomelas 98, 204 pacificus 60, 90, 94, 194 persicus 104, 212 puffinus 100, 202 subalaris 98, 104, 213 tenuirostris 92, 200 yelkouan 100, 203 Shearwater, Arabian 104, 212 Audubon’s 98, 100, 104, 210 Balearic 100, 204 Bannerman’s 104, 211 Black-vented 98, 204 Buller’s 94, 195 Cape Verde 96, 193 Christmas Island 90, 201 Cory’s 96, 192 Flesh-footed 88, 90, 196 Fluttering 102, 205 Galápagos 98, 104, 213 Great 94, 198 Heinroth’s 90, 215 Hutton’s 102, 206 Kiritimati 201

240

Little 102, 104, 209 Macaronesian 100, 104, 210 Manx 100, 202 Newell’s 98, 214 Pink-footed 94, 197 Short-tailed 92, 200 Sooty 58, 92, 199 Streaked 96, 193 Subantarctic Little 102, 104, 208 Townsend’s 98, 214 Tropical 104, 212 Wedge-tailed 60, 90, 94, 194 Yelkouan 100, 203 Storm-petrel, Ashy 114, 235 Band-rumped 228 Black 114, 234 Black-bellied 112, 120, 223 Elliot’s 110, 120, 220 European 108, 226 Fork-tailed 114, 236 Galápagos 227 Grey-backed 110, 222 Guadalupe 110, 231 Hornby’s 118, 235 Leach’s 108, 110, 114, 116, 229 Least 114, 226 Lowe’s 220 Madeiran 108, 228 Markham’s 114, 232 Matsudaira’s 116, 233 New Zealand 120, 221 Peruvian 227 Polynesian 118, 225 Ringed 235 Sooty 231 Swinhoe’s 116, 230 Tristram’s 116, 231 Wedge-rumped 110, 227 White-bellied 112, 120, 224 White-faced 118, 223 White-throated 225 White-vented 220 Wilson’s 108, 219 Taiko, Chatham Island 184 Thalassarche bulleri 46, 48, 140 carteri 46, 48, 139 cauta 42, 134 chlororhynchos 46, 48, 138 chrysostoma 46, 48, 137 eremita 42, 135 impavida 44, 48, 133 melanophrys 44, 46, 48, 132 salvini 42, 136 Thalassoica antarctica 56, 147 Whalebird 154