An Archaeological Evolution

An Archaeological Evolution

An Archaeological Evolution

Stanley South South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina

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d~ Springer

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data South, Stanley A. An archaeological evolution/Stanley South. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-387-23401-2 (acid-free paper) ISBN 0-387-23404-7 (e-book) 1. South, Stanley A. 2. Archaeologists South Carolina Biography. Carolina--Antiquities. I. Title.

3. South

CCl15.$68A3 2005 975.7'0072'02 dc22 [B] 2004063224

A C.I.R Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-387-23401-2

e-ISBN 0-387-23404-7

Printed on acid-free paper.

©2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, Inc., 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed in the United States of America. 9

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Dedication

To my wives, my children, my grandchirdren, and my colleagues who have shared the groundhog hole with me.

PREFACE This book was written in response to a suggestion by my colleague, supervisor, and friend, Chester DePratter, Associate Director for Research, at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of South Carolina (SCIAA). He convinced me that others might be interested in what I might have to say about my career in archaeology. It was an interesting challenge and a pleasant assignment, and as the reader will discover, over 500 stories, songs and poems flowed into the computer as a train of conscious remembrance.

David, my oldest son is a professor at Auburn University, where he received his doctorate in forestry, and is a widely known specialist in forestry. He is a Fulbright scholar, having been invited to share his expertise with colleagues in Scotland, South Africa, India, New Zealand, France and elsewhere. He and his wife, Mary, gave birth to my first granddaughter, Stephanie, in 1987. More recently, in 1998, my son, Robert, who graduated from USC in Columbia, is a computer expert in Charlotte, North Carolina, and his wife Sheila, welcomed a daughter Ginger-Gabrielle Alexis [Gigi] to our family. Then, in 2000, they were joined by another grandchild, Austin Alexander [Alex], bringing more j o y to our lives. It was Sheila who suggested I write down some of my stories as a legacy for my grandchildren. In April 2003, as I write this, our daughter, Lara, who also graduated from USC, has just announced her engagement to marry James McKenna, a contractor, recently come to America from Ireland. She lives in New York and is working there in a legal firm. They were married on April 28, 2003 in Central Park and Janet and I, and Robert and his family, and my sister Marjorie Idol, flew to New York for the happy event that included a boat cruise around Manhattan. We enjoyed meeting James' parents and his brothers, and his Granny, Mary Catherine Donnelly, who came over from Ireland for the event. Over a year later, Lara called and told us she and James are expecting a child in 2004.

A Personal Family Note Throughout my career I have focused on archaeology, often to the inconvenience of my family. My wife Jewell Barnhardt, and our children, David, Robert and Lara were, during a critical time in their lives, often abandoned so I could focus on my archaeological projects. After Jewell died I married Linda Hunter, who had two children, Christy and Brent. I moved into her house when Robert and Lara were young teenagers, leaving them alone to live in their big home without the presence of a father---or a mother. It is obvious I have not always been the most nurturing father. After my divorce from Linda, I married Janet Reddy, who has helped me in recent years to broaden my perspective and pay some more attention to family ties. She is my wonderful companion in these latter days. She graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1991, with a doctorate in psychological counseling, specializing in career counseling. She carried out a private practice in Columbia until she began to experience the effects of Lyme disease and had to give it up. She was bitten by a tick in 1989 when visiting me on a dig and suffers from weakness, for which she has to take massive doses of antibiotics, which hopefully will some day improve her condition.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Acknowledgements I thank Chester DePratter for suggesting I write the stories told here. I also thank my fellow groundhog colleagues, Chester, Jim Legg, and Richard Polhemus for the role they played in my career. They, like me, sought to understand the past through archaeology, and in the process, found a home in earth's burrow. By way of acknowledgement, in the Appendix I have tried to list those field-crew members, volunteers and others who have worked with me through the years. I am also grateful for the help and encouragement provided by many other individuals and granting agencies too numerous to list in this book. However, I have acknowledged them in the many reports I have published and reacknowledge now their help in my career. A special thanks to Frank Horton and Bradford L. Rauschenberg who have long supported my research efforts. I also thank those individuals who are the actors in the stories I tell here. Having an aversion to reading computer manuals I can't understand, my use of the computer has been taught me by those who have had the misfortune to walk into my life when I was in need of help. These 22 excellent and patient teachers are listed in the Appendix, but I owe a particular acknowledgement to Tommy Charles, my colleague here at SCIAA, who has come to my rescue on many occasions during the preparation of this book. Thanks to those who have taken the time to offer their editorial comments and criticism on the manuscript of this book: my only friend

from my high school days, Walter Boone, my colleague, Chester DePratter, my brother-inlaw, John L. Idol, Jr., my sister Marjorie Idol, my wife, Janet R. Reddy (who hasn't read it), and my colleagues Jim Spirek, and R. P. Stephen Davis, Jr. Thanks also, to my longtime editor, Eliot Werner, now continuing his own publishing career through Eliot Wemer Publications, and to Teresa Krauss, my editor at Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers for her support in publishing this book. Thanks also, to photographers, David Brill, Hugh Morton and Sebastian Sommer for permission to publish photographs used herein. I am indebted to the supervisors who I have reported to during my archaeological career. They have given me the freedom from administrative distractions, allowing me to focus on archaeological research: Joffre Coe, Sam Tarleton, Bob Stephenson, Bruce Rippeteau, Albert Goodyear, and Chester DePratter, as well as the current Interim Director of the U. S. C.South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, Jonathan Leader. I owe special debt of gratitude to the doctors who have saved my life on several occasions by their expertise and quick action when my heart was crying for help: Stephen Lloyd and Frank Martin, Jr. They, and the surgeons and cardiologists involved in cutting me open and exposing that sucker to their carving and sewing skill, bought me a quarter century more time to enjoy life and archaeology than fate would have had it had they not intervened.

A Career Chronology for Stan South The North Carolina Adventures (Pp. 1-2t0) Chapter 1 Father: Austin Enoch South from NorthwesternNorth Carolina Appalachian Mountains Mother: MaeBelle Casey South from Rome, Georgia 1916 Parents arrive together in Boone in a covered wagon 1928 Born on GroundhogDay in Boone 1934 Toured the West with parents 1937 Sister killed herself 1941 Began voice training 1942 On a bicycle and hitchhiking tour of the Southeast 1944 At Appalachian State Teachers College 1945 Stationed in the Navy in Washington,D. C. 1946 In photographyschool in Dallas, Texas

Chapter 2 1946 t946-1949 1949-1952 1950-1952 1952-1953 1952-t 953 1953-1955 1955 1955

An introduction to evolution from David R. Hodgin Attended Appalachian State Teachers College Teaching school in Greensboro An archaeological survey--an introduction to archaeology Acting in an outdoor drama--blowing a "Horn in the West" Darkroom and studio photographerin Boone Chapter 3 Archaeological training under Joffre Coe in Chapel Hill My first paper, "Evolutionary Theory in Archaeology," is published My fast dig at Roanoke Rapids (Native American archaeology---4,000 B.C.-17th c.)

Chapter 4 1955-1958

Town Creek Indian Mound (Native American, Mississippian---A.D.1350)

1953-1976

The SoutheasternArchaeological Conference(SEAC)

Chapter 5 Chapter 6 1958-1968 1959-1960

Brunswick Town State Historic Site (British colonial town--1725-1775) Established the Conferenceon Historic Site Archaeology(CHSA)

Chapter 7 1960-1968 1960-1968

The art world--Poetry, painting, sculpture and potting Chapter 8 Fort Fisher State Historic Site (Civil War fort--1865)

Chapter 9 1962-1968 1963-1966 1965 & 1968

Many North Carolina sites explored Excavating the town of Bethabara (Moravian settlement--1752-present) Old Salem (Moravian settlement--1766-present)

The South Carolina Adventures (Pp. 211-360) Chapter 10 1968-1969 1969 2000-2001 1969-1973 1971-1973

Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site (British colonial settlement--1670-1680) Charles Towne (Mississippianceremonial center (ca. 1276-A.D. 1387.-eighteenth century) Charles Towne revisited (British colonial house 1670-1680) Chapter 11 Politics and potsherds Developing formula models for historic site data

1970-1971

Ninety Six National Historic Site (1751-nineteenth century)

1971-1974

Many South Carolina sites explored

1977

Method and Theory in HistoricalArchaeology textbook published Research Strategies in Historical Archaeology, edited and published

Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 1978-2003

Spanish Santa Elena ( 1566-1587) and French Charlesfort ( 1562)

Chapter 16 2001-2004

Beyond Santa Elena--John Bartlam at Cain Hey and the ATTIC Project in Georgia In Argentina, Canada, France, Mexico, Spain, Uruguay and more books published. Receiving honors: Doctor of Humanities, Order of the Palmetto, Lifetime Achievement

ix

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Stan South's Projects on a Map of the Carolinas

~e

BethabaraBoone

i Roanoke Rapids~-~

Old Soalem •

Chapel Hill

Greensboro AsheviUe ..... • ..... • Old Fort Charlotte • Murphy ~ - ~ - _ !~-~ ~ • " ~

\ ~. \

USC ~.AA ..... Columbia (~)

• ~., Ninety Six

Town Creek Indian Mound •

• (~) Raleigh Archives & Histor"

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e ~ o r t Moultrie e ~ c h a r l e s Towne

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Brunswick ~Town • •/Wilmington • ~" • / F o r t Fisher Florence ~ 1 - - - - - - ~ ...........

Ca~ H o v e / \

• Bath / - J

• Fayetteville Arsenal

Fort Moore ~,

• Halifax Jail

)Santa Elana/Charlesforl Indian Springs

/

Contents An Archaeological Evolution

Part I: The Formative Years Escaping the Groundhog Hole Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Appalachian Stories and After Chapter 3 UNC Stories

23 55

Part II: The Developmental Years Town Creek Stories Chapter 4 Chapter 5 SEAC Stories Brunswick Town Stories Chapter 6 Digging Art--And Life Stories Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Civil War Stories Tales From "A Loose Cannon" Chapter 9

67 95 107 145 161 187

Part III: The Fluorescent Years Chapter 10 Charles Towne Tales Chapter 11 Politics and Potsherd Stories Chapter 12 Ninety Six Stories "Loose" In South Carolina Chapter 13 Method and Theory Stories Chapter 14

211 227 239 267 279

Part IV: The Climactic Years Chapter 15 Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort Tales Chapter 16 Tales Beyond Santa Elena

293 335

Appendix Stan South's Archaeological Field Crew Members References Cited List of Figures Index

361 367 389 397

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Part I: The Formative Years Without stories there is nothing. Stories are the world's memory. The past is erased without stories. Life connects us...not artifice. ChaimPotok (2001:74) I find myself constantly drawn to biography-for absolutely nothing can match the richness and fascination of a person's life, in its wondrous mixture of pure gossip, miniaturized and personalized social history, psychological dynamics, and the development of central ideas that motivate careers and eventually move mountains. And try as I may to ground biography in various central themes, nothing can really substitute for the sweep and storytelling power of chronology. Stephen Jay Gould (2000:3)

Chapter 1 We need to tell our stories, that's all. What else connects us to each other but the tales we tell? AndrewKlavan(2001:80)

Escaping the Groundhog Hole Introduction I was born a mountain groundhog on February 2, 1928, in the Appalachian Mountains in Boone, North Carolina, and have been digging for a lifetime. Piled at the entrance of m y burrow is a crescent-shaped mound of refuse, consisting of stories of events shaping m y life since I first emerged to face the challenge of the world beyond the safety of the den. As I sit on the mound, I look to the horn of the crescent of science on m y right, and to that of artistic creativity on m y left. These polar points have, from time to time in my life, taken on the form of a dilemma. I have found, however, that if I sit up very still on m y haunches, risk the bullets of critics on either side, and focus on my peripheral vision, I can encompass both art and science, though this occurs rarely at the same time. k is certainly not a matter of one or the other, but an accommodation of different ways of viewing a common reality.

When I write as an objective scientist, I carefully weigh the facts against my subjective interpretation of them. When I write poetry proclaiming, "The crescent moon is me," I must remember that, "The probing mind is a morning glory vine, following the constant sun of inquiry into the mysteries of time." That is the scientific paradigm. My life has been an adventure into, "The joyful magic of science," and that involvement, "Brings dreams to fruit" (South 1978:3-5). In undertaking this book, I have excavated in the midden of m y life, and have revealed many stories buried within that stratified crescent moonshaped back dirt pile around m y groundhog hole. The deepest stratum I have dug revealed stories from my family and m y childhood, but those are only lightly touched on here.

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Hard-Headed Consequences--A Lesson However, some of those stories had lessons for me that served me well in later life, for example, one relating to the danger of being hard headed. There was an old man who used to come into Boone driving a buggy. He had one leg far shorter than the other, causing him to walk with a dramatic limp. His mouth was just a hole located off center because a part of his jaw was missing. One arm was askew from normal. I asked Daddy what had happened to the fellow. He said the old man had told him that when he was a teenager he had gone to the home of a girl he wanted to take out, and was met by the father standing on the porch with a rifle in his hand. The father threatened him and told him to stay away from his daughter. The young man said, "Whether I stay or go should be decided by your daughter." Her father shot him in the arm. When he recovered, he went back to the girl's house to ask her out, and was again met by the irate father, rifle still in hand. Words were exchanged and the youth was shot again--this time in the hip. Months later when he recovered he had a severe limp, but was still angry and returned to the house a third time. This time the father shot before words were exchanged, hitting the young man in the mouth, blowing away part of his jawbone. Then the old man said to Daddy through the little hole that served as his mouth, "At that point I began to realize that being hard-headed was a dangerous attitude and it occurred to me that the man didn't want me messing with his daughter-some lessons are learned the hard way." Stories such as this one influenced my future decisionmaking--pushing the envelope can have dangerous consequences.

An Evolutionary Tale The stories I tell here, however, dig but very little into that deepest stratum, but record the evolutionary changes involving my career as an archaeologist. These were the formative years,

developmental years, fluorescent years and the climactic years: the periods familiar to cultural evolutionists (Coe 1952: 303-308; Strong and

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Evans 1952; Willey and Phillips 1958: 39-40, 7177, 144-181). Tales of my formative years when my grandmother Bessie Gunlock Casey influenced me are here. Those from late in World War II when I entered the Navy are told. My photography school adventures and stories of my college days at Appalachian State Teachers College are remembered. And those from my days with the influential archaeologist and teacher Joffre Coe at the University of North Carolina are shared. These are stories of the .fluorescent and climactic days of my archaeological career in North and South Carolina. In my developmental layers, I relate stories about the years studying the Native American past at Town Creek Indian Mound, recovering scientific facts from the earth, and creatively interpreting them through reconstruction and historic site development for public education and entertainment. More recent developmental and fluorescent period layers reveal tales of my venture into method and theory in historical archaeology, where I recount incidents that occurred as I dissected British colonial sites in North and South Carolina. These are followed by tales of the climactic years when I excavated the Spanish colonial city of Santa Elena. This is also a book of stories some readers may find amusing or informative. They are written with the idea that "Life connects us...not artifice" (Potok 2001:252). The reality is that life is not thematically arranged, so some of the stories I tell here may not appear to connect with previous ones in an organized manner. I may be a scientist excavating a ruin one moment, and an hour later I may be flinging paint on a canvas or creating a piece of sculpture, and after that, telling stories and drinking in a tavern--that's life! I am fully aware of the point made in a cartoon, in which the question was asked of Dilbert, "Yon know what makes your work stories fascinating?" And Dilbert asks, "What?" and the reply is, "Nothing." (United Feature Syndicates, Inc., 6/22/02). Some readers may find that cartoon-bullet on target for this groundhog. My stories involve dirt and objects, for

Escaping the GroundhogHole which I seem to have a passion to explore. Why? I recently got a clue in a book, The Social Worm of Children: Learning to Talk. The authors observing two- year old infants, were fascinated at "how totally and immediately all of their senses are drawn to objects such as lint and water [and dirt and bugs], that adults no longer find interesting" (Hart and Risley 1999: 10). I am still drawn to details of objects, lint, dirt and water, holes in pipe-stems, temper in potsherds, and flake scars on stones. Perhaps it's a childhood passion I never outgrew enough to find them uninteresting as an adult. I focus with obsessive magnifying-glass eyes on details of objects, mundane things and b u g s - - o r colors in dirt. As a child growing up in the depression, I had a fascination with nature--the world we live in--with playing in the dirt with oatmeal box steam engines and "horse h o o f ' tin cans clamped to the heel of my shoes by stomping on them. Later generations would focus on their "feelings"--mine couldn't afford that luxury. When a people-person who no longer finds the "things" in life interesting, sees my interest-- my laser-beam focus, they sometimes ask, "Why? Who c a r e s ? " ~ like the one who answered "Nothing" to Dilbert. My answer is that perhaps like a child, "I do! - - I ' m interested!" And I've found that the archaeological colleagues I admire r nost are also. My obsessive focus has grown rather than diminished through the years to the point where I am most happy when I can shut out the world--the people and their "feelings," their needs and problems--and focus on a challenging task requiring intense concentration. That escapist--workaholic attitude has often not endeared me to others whose pleasure derives from emotional interaction. I am exhilarated by w o r k ~ r i v e n for fulfillment there--obsessed! In spite of my love for detail, as an archaeologist I have urged the use of a broad brush to explain archaeological remains in terms of the general processes that formed that record. However, often when that is done the result is so far removed from personal experience that reading it is boring. On the other hand, describing archaeological remains in detail from a "look at

what I found" perspective is also boring. To keep the reader's attention, somehow these polar perspectives must be brought together because both must be used in presenting the results of archaeological research. I have been obsessively driven to develop practical innovations to maximize data-recovery in the shortest period of time--motivated not by a hunger for profit, but by an appetite for refining archaeological method, often at the expense of cultural explanation of what the data were trying to tell me. A detail-fact-gathering, science-oriented person, as well as a generalizing, creative peopleoriented person tells the stories presented here. I hope that the reader will enjoy "reading the dirt" with me as I explore the stories about my archaeological evolution in my personal midden. As Rabun Taylor says: "The two cultures of science and humanities can be assimilated in interesting and refreshing ways (Taylor 2003: xvi). I hope that challenge has been somewhat met in this book. The stories and factual details are but steps in articulating the process involved in the archaeological evolution recorded in this volume. Fortunately for me, my personal evolution happened to coincide with the rise of the field of historical archaeology so my personal career has been augmented by that broader development. Storytelling has become popular in historical archaeology in recent years, with the Society for Historical Archaeology devoting an issue of its journal to archaeologists as storytellers (Michael, ed. 1998, 32[1])--an effort that combines objectivity with subjectivity, science and art. However, in my archaeological reports I don't normally combine science with a story of the time I shot the head off a rattlesnake with a pistol a crewman just handed me, or when I beat down a cottonmouth with a shovel, or when I was being chased by an alligator-those stories are real--not imagined. They are part of the archaeological experience usually left out of reports, but they are told here, not as archaeology, but as glimpses of the midden from my life as I have dug it, in and out of, my archaeological groundhog hole.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Figure 1.1 The covered wagon

in which my parents rode from Hickory to Boone North Carolina in September 1917. Left to right: My grandmaw, Bessie Gunlock Casey, holding my sister Virginia, my uncle Bill, my mother Mae Belle Casey South, and my uncle Morris. (Photo: Austin South, 11/4/1917)

Covered Wagon Days--My Parents Move To Boone from Atlanta My parents arrived in Boone in a covered wagon, in September 1917, from Hickory, 50 miles away. They had taken the train from Atlanta, where Daddy had been working in a railroad office and where he met Momma. Ben Brannock, the man daddy had lived with after his parents died when he was a child, had the wagon waiting for them at the train station. Momma's piano was loaded into it with other baggage and they began the two-day trip to Boone. Half-way up the mountain they stopped to spend the night. Momma (Mae Belle Casey South) insisted on sleeping in the wagon, not beneath it as daddy (Austin Enoch) had suggested. He had to off-load some baggage so she could sleep beside the piano, while daddy slept on the ground beneath. A few weeks later, on November 4 th daddy took a picture of momma and her two little brothers and his mother-in-law, Bessie Gunlock Casey, who was holding baby Virginia, my oldest sister, whom, as a teenager, would later have a strong influence on my developmental years--a story to be told later.

Grandmaw Casey--Old Home Places and Artifacts I Learn Pattern Recognition The earliest archaeological influence, I suppose, was when my mother said, "Go out to the clay bank and dig, make roads for your cars, or something, but don't go into the road!" I spent many hours at that activity, for what seemed like years of my childhood-cutting roads and garages for my little cars. Looking back she was probably just trying to get me out from underfoot, but she gave me my first digging push. I visited her mother oflen--my grandmother Bessie Gunlock Casey (my German and Irish side of the family), "Do you reckon Austin (my mountaineer--Scotch-Irish and horse thievingoutlawing side of the family) would take us to look at old house places on the Parkway this Sunday?" she asked--and Daddy did (South 1977b: xxvi.) As we approached the old standing chimney, she said, "Remember, there are always two paths--one upstream to the spring in the crotch of the hill and another to the privy downstream. We found the spring, "Watch out now! There'll be broke glass tumblers and dishes in there--don't get cut!" Sure enough, there was a broken butter dish with part of a scene in blue in the muck and

Escaping the Groundhog Hole

Figure 1.2. Grandpaw Tom Casey, and GrandmawBessie, at home. (Photo: South, 12/25/1949)

leaves in the bottom of the spring. "I told you so! - - I've seen enough of these springs to know they broke things whenever they got water. "I handed it to her and she said, "You see, when Mary came out of the house [she always used that name in her explanatory stories] she was carrying that very dish with molded butter wrapped in wax p a p e r - but as she took the lid off the crock, she dropped the rock that held the crock down into the water, and it hit the dish and broke it. You might find the rock down there too." Sure enough, I did, "I told you!" she said. "You see, her husband was sick, and she had just churned and molded the butter, and brought it out here when she came to get a cool drink of water for him, and do you know what he said when she told him she had

broke the dish? He looked long and hard at her and said.. 2' And so it went with each mined home place we visited. The scientist in her observed pattern and the humanist-told stories, and that helped to shape the way I view the past.

Pioneer Days-Homesteading in a Log CabinSoddy I was influenced by another background-tohistorical-archaeology experience, when my parents took my sisters, Virginia, Elizabeth and me, to visit our uncle Blaine South in July 1934. Grandmaw Casey kept my baby sister, Marjorie, during the month we were gone.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Figure 1.3. UncleBlaine's log house in 1934, located near Malta, Mirmesota. My sister, Elizabeth, and our cousin ChristineEggers, with mommastandingin the doorway at the right, and UncleBlaine's cat. (Photo:AustinSouth, 7/1934)

Uncle Blaine lived in a log cabin-soddy combination on a prairie homestead claim near Malta, Montana, where he raised sheep. In her diary, Virginia called Uncle Blaine's young toeheaded sons "The Gold Dust Twins," the name of a popular washing powder at the time (South, Virginia 1937). When he first arrived there he found a springfed marshy place and unloaded his kitchen stove from his wagon. He then built his soddy around the stove from squares of sod he dug from the mosquito-filled marsh. Later he hauled in some logs from a great distance to complete the rest of the log cabin house, in which we slept on quilt pallets. One of the first things I noticed inside the original sod-walled kitchen room was a large square place on the wall where the mud was a different color. I asked Uncle Blaine about it and he said his old stove had given out and he had to knock a hole in the mud wall to get it out, and the new one in, because the doorway was too narrow. He then filled the hole with new sod. This original soddy had become his kitchen.

He made a sod dam and backed up water into a pond, and when it froze in the winter he used an ice saw and cut 125 blocks of ice, which he stored in a log icehouse covering them with sawdust. It was incredibly hot there in July, and we were suffering. Uncle Blaine opened the door to the log icehouse and my cousin, Margaret, and I went in there and played on the blocks of ice in the semi-dark, to cool off. A little light came from spaces between some of the logs where the chinking had fallen out. Soon, however, the humidity would practically smother us, and we would yell to be let out, with our pants soaked from sitting on the wet sawdust covering the blocks of ice. I was constantly reminded of the difference between the interior of our home in the cool mountains and this hot log cabin home. Guns hung from nails in the rafters overhead. There was a bed and the new iron cook stove, with pallets of quilts lying around the wall on which we slept. There was a box turned on the side holding canned goods, with a kerosene lamp sitting on it. There was the heavy smell of smoke and sod and logs. One box

Escapingthe GroundhogHole had a small wooden barrel with a spigot, holding water carried from the dammed-up pond. One comer had horse gear piled on the floor and hanging from the rafters and walls--harnesses, bridles, and an extra saddle for the horses. On July 4 th Uncle Blaine shot more fireworks than I had ever seen before as well as his pistol--I was impressed. At night he told stories, one about the time he shot at a claim jumper who was trying to move one of the comer markers for his claim Virginia and Lib went on horseback riding trips and on one of these they were galloping fast when one of the ranchers they met thought at first they were cattle rustlers. They saw buffalo skulls and took one to a man, who Uncle Blaine told me, took it to an old Indian living alone on the prairie who mounted horns as wall plaques. He mounted them on a shield-shaped plaque using red velvet and brass tacks and mailed it to Virginia. Throughout our trip to the Grand Canyon, the petrified forest, Carlsbad Cavems, Sequoia National Forest, Yosemite National Park, the Dakota badlands, and the Chicago World's Fair, Virginia's scientific focus glows from the pages of her picture-filled diary. She told of finding Indian arrowheads, fossilized fish, petrified wood, agate and observing a variety of birds, animals and plants. She observed the stars in a game she played with our sister, Lib. She also described a long-abandoned mining ghost town called Ruby, complete with ore-filled carts and abandoned equipment. She was good at describing detail (South, Virginia 1937).

A Big Game-Hunt One day in July 1934, Uncle Blaine took Daddy and the rest of us on a hunt. He carried a pistol on his hip, a long-barreled western sixshooter, but he had others, one for each of us in the car. As he drove along he would fire his pistol out the window at the incredible number of jackrabbits, prairie chickens, and pheasant disturbed by the car, as did my older sisters from their windows. Even I was allowed to shoot from my window behind the driver's seat. He claimed I hit one of the jackrabbits with one of my shots (he

7 shot the same time I did), but I knew a July snow job when I heard one. We filled the floor-well of the back and front seat of the car with the bodies of dead game until there was no room for our feet. When Uncle Blaine came to a barbed wire fence two of us would jump out and push down the wire and stand on it as he drove the car over it. This was possible because the ground-set posts were far apart because of the scarcity of wood, with little snags of wood between those posts just sitting on the ground like fake posts to fool the sheep and cows. You couldn't drive over fences that way back East. When we got back, there was a big cooking of game, and Uncle Blaine hung some of the meat on a frame to dry out in the sun to make pemmican, so he could later eat it after we left. Two years later, grasshoppers came and ate all the grass and his sheep began starving, so he had to shoot them--"The hardest thing I ever had to do!" he wrote Daddy. After five years of homesteading, he was short two years from the seven required before he could claim a deed to the land. He moved to Arizona to grieve the loss of his homesteading venture. How fascinating it would now be, to re-visit that short-term site to see what time, and the formation processes of the archaeological record, have done to it.

"When the Work's All Done This Fali"~My First Cowboy Song My uncle and his family accompanied us on our western trip. My cousin had learned a cowboy song, "When the Work's All Done this Fall," from listening to the radio. As we rode along together, he sang it and I soon learned it too. This cowboy tale, the first song I ever sang, became a symbol of our trip as we swallowed clouds of dust from the unpaved roads as we rode along traveling through the West that summer in 1934. That song was originally written in 1925 by Carl T. Sprague and had many verses. The version I learned began:

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION A group of jolly cow-punchers Discussing their plans one day, One said, "I'll tell you boys, Before I go away, I have a home in Dixie, A good one boys, you know, And I'm going back to see it When the work's all done this fall.

Many adventure-filled verses followed, and I learned them all. They told of a stampede and a dying cowboy thrown from his horse. Now the boy won't see is mother, When the work's all done this fall. They buried him near daybreak, No tombstone at his head, Only a little board, And this is what it said, "Charlie, he lies buried here, "He died from a fall, "Now the boy won't see his mother, "When the work's all done this fall."

valley" some miles away on the back of Rich Mountain, which loomed above their home on the edge of Boone. It was a place where wild flowers bloomed and grassy beds invited her to lie down. Here she could sit and stare at the distant blueridged mountains and eat her lunch. Here she could dream romantic dreams. Toward the end of the 30 day western trip, in 1934, she wrote a poem expressing her feelings (South, Virginia 1936). One of the verses says: I Want To Go Home I want to go back home When the robins begin nesting. I want to hear the bull frogs Tune up after resting. I want to smell the fresh tumed earth Just before the garden's birth, And see again familiar rocks, And climb to greening mountain tops. I want to go home.

That fall, when I entered the first grade, I sang that song for the class. For several years after that, my classmates would have me sing it to entertain them on special occasions--the ham-bug had bit me and I never recovered. Virginia--Butterflies and M o t h s - I Learn of Science and Poetry My sister Virginia was 10 years older than me, but in the years after our western trip, she took time to show me her collection o f butterflies and moths, which she mounted in large, flat boxes. They had pins stuck through their heads to corks glued in rows in the bottom of the box. She read stories to me, and listened to what I had to say. Others in the family had little time for me. The first child of Austin and Mae Belle, Virginia was a romantic poet. She spent much of her time climbing the mountains surrounding their home, picking flowers, collecting lichens from old logs, catching, labeling, classifying, and mounting butterflies and moths, with scientific rigor, and writing poetry to express the innermost feelings of her heart. She once found what she called "happy

J

Figure 1.4. Virginia, wearing chaps made from Uncle

Blaine's black sheep. (Photo: Mae Belle South, 7/1934)

Escaping the GroundhogHole From Virginia i absorbed the idea that the world of nature could be classified into types and varieties of things, as her boxes of butterflies and moths demonstrated, with shades of colors of one species blending from the top of the box to the bottom, with a description and Latin name of the species written in detail on the lid. Through her meticulous classification, she introduced me to the world of science. I also learned through her mentoring until I was nine years old, that the world of the meadows and woods was a beautiful place to be, a world she shared with me. She took the time to turn my attention to the smells, the colors, and the poetry she saw there. I learned from her that the world was made up, not only of factual variety, such as she organized in her collections, but also of subjectively absorbed feelings inspired by the beauty and wonder she felt within herself. I learned that she saw as an important part of her life the recognition of pattern in the classification and cataloging of nature, while translating romantic feelings into words through the art of poetry (South, Virginia 1936). From the age of nine until she was nineteen she wrote 79 poems, a fragment of one written on December 31, 1934, I quote here (South, Virginia 1936): Bury Me on a Mountain Top

Bury me on a mountain top Where winter snows have lain. Bury me on a mountain top Where falls the summer rain, Where grows the tiger lily tall And violet patches lie. Bury me on a mountain top When I die. The Romantic Art of Love and the Hard Science of Suicide When she was a senior in 1937, at Appalachian State Teachers College in Boone, and I was nine years old, Virginia fell in love with a first cousin who was living with us. He was one of several men, who at various times, Daddy had

9 helped through college. He paid their tuition and allowed them to live with us in return for their helping around the house. Our parents were not happy with her romantic attachment to a first cousin and tried to discourage the affair. In response, he didn't ask her to go to the JuniorSenior Prom, as he had promised, but asked someone else. Then too, she had recently learned she had leukemia. I was in the hall downstairs when I heard the sound of the shot, followed by his scream, "My God! Oh my God! She's killed herselfl" (She had stood beside the door just inside his room, called his name, placed the pistol to her heart, and, as he turned to her, she pulled the trigger.) I ran out of the house and around and around it several times, until the shock wore off somewhat, and I began to realize what I was doing. Then I ran to Grandmaw's house. She sat at her sewing machine, trying to sew to keep her mind off the shocking thing I had told her. I said, "Grandmaw, why do your knees shake so? . . . . Ah, child," she answered, "You ne'mine. I ' m just an old woman, and old knees shake." Suicide Bullet Her finger-twitch tight on blue steel, Triggers my trajectory slightly downward In a flash of fire and sound, Through flesh and heart Tearing forever childhood's innocence Dwelling there.

Trailing crimson essence in my wake, I stop life's throbbing clock And burst into the open air, To pierce a hole In heart pine wall as she stood facing him So he would see it happen, A searing iron forever burnt Into his brain as surely as though I was directly aimed at him.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION The essence of pine and human heart Trails as a comet in my wake Within the inner wall, A blend known to her in melancholy mood, As she wafted in the shadow world Beneath lofty pines in creative haze, Gestating poems, Heart-formed within her fertile mind. And then, into red heart of pine I bite again, And burst into the open air Beyond his bedroom wall, Where she had stood When she sent me on my way. My path was fated to fly between banisters, As was hers, torn between the lodestone Pillars of passion and duty, To again pierce the red pine heart of a door Like the one he closed to her. In my downward flight I emerge Into reality's somber bedroom, Striking with a glancing blow The linoleum rug, Leaving an oval dimple, Deflecting my trajectory upward. Slower now I fly Toward life's fragile window pane, With the screen of future years beyond, To shatter into bits that frail hymen Against which all my energy is spent, And I fall inert among the lifeless sherds. (South 1990b: 32-34)

Later on, alone, I entered my bedroom where she died. AS a forensic detective would do, I examined the clues to the tragedy that had taken place there. I saw the bullet hole in the wall beside the door; smelled the heart pine odor within the room; examined the hole, lower down, in Virginia's bedroom door across the hall; knelt on the floor inside it and put my finger in the dent where the bullet had hit the linoleum rug.

I smelled the sweet perfume of the spring night air coming through the empty window frame: saw bits of broken glass still lying between the window and the screen; felt the little dent in the screen where the deadly missile stopped to fall among the sherds of shattered glass, between the window and the screen. I marveled that it had not had the force to tear through the screen, as it had through her heart, her body, a wall, two doors, and a windowpane. But it had tom a large hole in my heart--scarring me forever. The bullet was gone. Daddy had removed it from among the sherds of glass, and carried it for years among the coins in his pocket as an artifact reminding him of the angel he had lost. "Oh Lost, and by the wind-grieved, ghost, come back again" (Wolfe 1929: 1).

Escaping the Seductive Hills--On a Bicycle Trip to the World Beyond Four years later I was 13, six feet tall, and had been riding my bicycle for many years. I was in good enough shape to walk the pedals up most mountainsides--a point of honor being never to get off and push. I rode from Boone to Mountain City, Tennessee, Hickory, North Carolina, and Hungry Mother Park, Virginia, and Mouth of Wilson--searching for a world beyond the seductive pull of that mountain groundhog hole. When I was 14, I wanted to go further and planned a trip to Gulfport, Mississippi, where my sister, Elizabeth lived. My parents rejected that idea, but agreed to let me go as far as Charleston to visit Magnolia Gardens. I got to Sumter and decided to hitchhike to Charleston, but instead caught a semi-rig going to Jacksonville. I took a bus from there to Gulfport. After visiting Lib and her husband, Jim Storie, I went back to Sumter and then rode the bicycle back to Boone. That trip did something to still the wanderlust for the moment, but that urge to get out of those seductive hills into the outer world still gnawed at my innards. I knew someday I would have to escape to the wider vistas beyond those mountain ridges, hollers, and the protective groundhog hole I knew.

Escaping the GroundhogHole My eagerness to escape was manifested in my high school days when I realized I could get out of that tedious routine a year sooner if I went to summer school--I did it for three years, graduating at the end of the 10 th grade in 1944.

Annapolis, West Point, and Appalachian--A Shaky Beginning By 1944, I was anxious to get into the military service as many of my classmates were, and through Daddy's connection to Congressman Robert L. Doughton, Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, i hoped to obtain an appointment to the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland. However, Doughton's appointment for that officer-training academy was filled, but he appointed me as a candidate for West Point. I failed the physical because of a punctured eardrum I received as a child. After that I enrolled in Appalachian State Teachers College ( A S T C ) - now Appalachian University. I signed up as a math and science major and made Ds all three quarters. I got the hint that math wasn't my strength. Before I graduated I had majored in history, music, and finally in elementary education, the whole time signing up for the professor who gave the highest grades for the least w o r k - - I was in love at the time. I found that a psychology professor was impressed by, and gave high grades to those who ran their mouth in class. I took a lot of psychology! I also experimented with economics, history, education and music. When I ran up against sight singing (too much like math), I dropped the class after the first day because I had no background in piano, and that was a must for the course. Near the end of my freshman year, during which I learned I could not handle algebra and Spanish, I turned 17 and joined the N a v y - - t o escape again---eager to do my part as were all the boys my age in that war, and many women. I hoped that somehow luck would be with me and the eardrum wouldn't keep me from joining the Navy as a seaman.

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"Go West Young Man"--I Take a Pre-Navy Journey to See America In the spring of 1945, at the end of my freshman year, I was scheduled to go to Bainbridge, Maryland, to take my examinations for the Navy. Before I went to boot camp, however, I wanted to visit my sister Lib, and brother-in-law, Jim Storie at the Navy base at Shumaker, California. I discovered that my orders told me to report to Bainbridge Maryland on a particular day. They didn't say what route I should take to get there! So, I checked at the Boone bus station and found that with my orders in hand I could buy a roundtrip ticket to California for $60, taking advantage of the discount for service men. My trip to Maryland was circuitous. I lived on the bus for four days, visited Reno and Las Vegas. Long lines were at every stop waiting to board, but with my orders I was given preference, along with uniformed military personnel. On one long run I sat with another passenger in the stairwell of the bus because there were no seats available and people were standing in the aisle. After four days and nights with my shoes on, I developed a dandy case of athlete's foot. I visited my sister and then reported for Navy duty in Bainbridge, Maryland. In The Navy Stories of my short experience in the Navy are unremarkable compared with those who served in combat, but details of the training I received remain remarkably clear after 58 years. Before I joined the serviceman's pay was $21 dollars a month, as it had been since World War I. Soon, however, Congress increased that modest sum. When I arrived, we recruits were taken to a mess hall and told to sleep on the tables. The next morning we had to fill out forms. When I turned mine in the boot-pusher [drill instructor] asked for those having college training to step forward. Those who did were to assist those recruits who couldn't read to fill out their forms. I was put to work immediately. I asked one recruit the question as to what he did before joining the navy, "Chopped cotton," he said. I then asked the question as to what he

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would like to do in the Navy--"Chop cotton!" he said. "I can't do nothin' else."--I asked him the question as to whether he had a preference as to where he would like to be assigned. "Stuttgart, Arkansas!" he answered. "Send me to Stuttgart and I'll show the Navy how to chop cotton! - - an' I'll be hoein' in the short rows!" he said. I filled out forms all day and became aware of the great gap between what I thought I knew and some of the unfortunate recruits who faced Navy duty in the months and years to come. I had to remind myself that until the time I entered the Navy I had not chopped cotton, but had driven cows twice a day, a quarter-mile up a dirt road to a mountain pasture, and that I was: "In the Navy now, not behind a cow, and I'd never get rich, pulling this hitch, I'm in the Navy now!" The next day after I filled out forms for other recruits, we stripped off all our clothes to be given our physical. I was concerned that I might be turned down because of nay punctured eardrum, as ! had been when I took my physical for West Point. We were standing in a long line almost completely around a gymnasium--a hundred or more recruits, "naked as jaybirds." One doctor had a rubber glove on his hand and had us bend over and grab our ankles. Another came up and looked into our ears, and I thought, "Uh oh, here is where I get thrown out--I hope they allow me to dress first." Just as he examined the man on my left a messenger came up and gave him a note. He read it and said something to the messenger, and turned to me and asked, "Where's the next guy?" and I pointed to the man on my right. He looked in that man's ear and then moved on without looking in mine--what a stroke of luck! Later, when I was stationed in the Navy Department on the mall in Washington, D.C., my ear began to bleed and the medic sent me to the sick bay. The doctor there looked in my ear, saw an infection, and said, "What are you doing in the Navy?" I was sent to Bethesda Naval Hospital where I was given a medical discharge ending my short career in the Navy. But I get ahead of my story.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

I Begin My Song--A "Deep River" of Solos-Exposing Myself to the Public Before I tell about my singing career in the Navy, a background note is necessary. Momma, Mae Belle Casey South, was a musician who played the organ at the Methodist church in Boone. She had met Daddy when she was playing the piano in a five and ten cent store in Atlanta for those people who were buying sheet music. Daddy always said "I Met My Million Dollar Baby In A Five and Ten Cent Store." When I was in the fifth grade I began playing the tuba and continued doing so in bands and orchestras through college. When I was 13, she decided I should take voice lessons. I did. Soon after, I was asked to sing for various women's clubs in Boone, belting out songs like "I Dream of Jennie with the Light Brown Hair," "Deep River," "Old Man River," and other light opera favorites--I was hooked. It had begun with "When the Work's all Done this Fall" in 1934, when I became addicted to the applause of my first grade class. I also began singing solos in the church choir. I continued taking lessons and singing wherever asked--once having a radio program sharing air time with now internationally famous, Doc Watson, a mountain neighbor from Deep Gap, near Boone. (Doc once told me that I sang "real" music while he only sang the mountain songs he had heard from others.) Look who became a millionaire singing! From that time on until I graduated from Appalachian State Teachers College---and after, I would sing at "the drop of a haft--but more of that (and more clich6s) later-after I sing my Navy song.

Boot Camp Tales--Mess-Hall Duty--Saved by a Song In boot camp in Bainbridge, Maryland our company was scheduled to work in the mess hall. We all dreaded that duty because of the grueling work and 12-hour days. Before we began, however, I went to the Chaplain's office and talked with the choir director about joining the choir. He gave me a tryout, and as soon as it was over, he said, "Okay, this Sunday you will sing a

Escaping the Groundhog Hole solo--The Old Rugged Cross--while the Navy choir will accompany you humming, and will join in with you on alternate verses." I said that was all right with me, but I was scheduled to work in the mess h a l l i b u t if he could get me released from that duty I could sing the solo for him. He said the chaplain was assigned only one assistant each week, and he already had one, but he would see what he could do about getting him two that week. We were gathered in the mess-hall listening to instructions from the boot pusher on what was expected from us on our first mess-hall duty, scheduled to begin that night, when a messenger came in and interrupted with a note. The boot pusher asked in a high-pitched, whiney voice, suggesting disdain "Is there a boot named South here? I stood up and he said, "It seems you have been pulling strings with the chaplain to get you out of mess-hall duty this week and you are to report to his office." I smiled, and left amid jeers and catcalls from the other boots present. As I neared the door, one of the recruits anxiously whispered to me, "Tell me how you did t h a t - - I want to get out of this too !" I hung out in the chaplain's office as a "second banana" that week, doing a little typing and reading from books in his office. In the weeks to follow his primary assistant did most of the work and I sung many solos with the Navy choir on Sundays. When I graduated from boot camp I was given a certificate of merit for my singing in the choir.

Asleep On Watch--Spared the Firing Squad One night I was standing guard duty at the PX (post-exchange building), assigned to walk back and forth in front of the door for what always seemed like forever. I took a moment to sit on a bench in front of the door, and before I knew it, I awoke with someone beating on me with a nightstick--the Chief Petty Officer assigned to police those of us on night duty. I jumped to attention and got royally chewed out, with his face a few inches from mine, with the threatening question: "Don't you know that sleeping while on

13 guard duty in war time is punishable by death by firing squad? I am in dereliction of my duty if I don't report this to my superior officer!" After some time of this, he agreed to spare my life and not to report me unless he caught me sleeping on duty again--and you can hurry up and believe I only slept on duty after that while upright-walking my beat.

New Teeth for "A Fish Out Of Water" Another poignant incident I remember from boot camp involved a very innocent and naTve country boy from Texarkana, Texas. He was a happy-go-lucky guy telling stories of hunting rabbits and squirrels, and of his joyous life on the farm back home. His family had been so poor that he had unsightly cavities in virtually all his teeth. When he returned from the dentist one day the cavities had all been drilled out and his incisors and other teeth in front had only the leading edge remaining on narrow pedestals connecting to a part of the tooth near the gum. He was happy he was going to have porcelain fillings so he could be proud of his looks. He spoke lovingly of his girlfriend back home and how happy she would be when she saw him without his cavities. His innocence was his undoing. Some of the other boys in our company began kidding him about his girlfriend, saying she was probably sleeping with someone else while he was in the Navy, and pretended they had gotten letters from one of the guys she was sleeping with. Suddenly, his happy personality changed to a saddened joyless worrier, obsessed with imaginings of what his girl friend was doing back home. I tried to cheer him up, explaining that those telling him those lies knew nothing about his girlfriend back home, but my efforts did no good to relieve his depression. Some of us chipped in to pay for a phone call for him to call to talk with her and prove all was well--she begged him to come home to be with her. One day we heard that one of the boots in another barracks had been sent home because of bedwetting. Before long my friend began wetting his bed. He gave me one of his now

14 rare smiles as he explained that he had found a way to get sent home. I told him the psychiatrists would be able to see if he was doing it intentionally or not and would put him in the brig if they discovered his trick. He was not disillusioned and soon he was sent to the hospital for examination. I dreaded hearing that he had been caught in his subterfuge, but to my surprise, the last I heard of him was that he had been sent home with a medical discharge (no pun intended). I later heard he had written a letter to a friend, and that he was married to his girl who loved his new teeth. "All's well that ends well!" I Give "Chicken" a Finger Another character in our barracks was a farm boy from Chesnee, South Carolina. He told stories about his life on the farm--hunting in the woods, trapping squirrels to eat, and he would regale anyone who would listen, about the good Southern life. We called him "Chicken" because of his stories of his sexual prowess with pigs, cows, and chickens. One day we were standing in line waiting our turn to practice on the 20mm antiaircraft guns, when "Chicken," who had completed his turn, instead of going down the steps leading up to the gun, put his hand on the platform rail and vaulted up and over it, landing on his feet beside me. As he did he let out a cry and I heard a metallic sound hit the ground. When I looked down I saw a class ring rolling around at my feet--beside it lay a finger! "Chicken" stared at his hand with the finger missing. He calmly took out his handkerchief and held it over the bleeding stub. He explained that when he jumped, his ring had caught on a nut sticking from the top of the rail, and the weight of his body had jerked off his finger. I reached down and picked up the ring and finger and handed them to him. He thanked me, wrapped it in the handkerchief, and looking at the sick bay across the street, said, "I guess I better go over there and get this thing sewn on again. I'll see you guys later--looks like I ' m out of the Navy." He waived and walked toward the sick bay for treatment.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Later, I was in the barracks when he came in to get his things. A group of us crowded around him and listened as he complained that his injury had not qualified him to be discharged, but would have to wait until the finger healed before completing boot camp. He said he had tried to get the doctor to sew the finger on upside down so he could be discharged, but the doctor refused. An Introduction to Phosgene, Mustard Gas and Fire Control The next day we were taken to a little bunker building, and, as we put on gas masks and entered, phosgene gas was introduced. We were then ordered to take off the mask for a few moments "to get used to the smell," and the door was unlocked and we were allowed to go outside retching and throwing up our lunch. Later, we had to repeat the performance with mustard gas, to prepare us in anticipation of the possible use in the war. We practiced entering a burning metal shed, kept burning by kerosene sprayed from vents around the wall and overhead. We went in, crouched behind the protection afforded by a fire hose spraying a water-and-foam mixture designed to put out the fire. As my squad waited our turn (I was a squad leader because I was the tallest), the team currently putting out the fire cut off the hose before backing out of the shed after the fire was extinguished. Suddenly, there was an explosion as the heat of the metal re-ignited the kerosene. The men on the hose were blown out the door. The first guy on the hose was hit in the face with the blast of flame, singeing off his eyebrows and the hair from the front of his head--burning his face a bright red color. The boot pusher used their example emphasizing, that to prevent such blowbacks, we needed to keep the hose going, even after the fire is extinguished, until the hose crew is out of the area. This training was practice needed to put out fires in the hold of ships. Fires below-deck sometimes resulted from Japanese kamikaze planes flying down the smokestacks of our ships.

Escaping the GroundhogHole Don't Lose Your Head over Fire Control Safety Part of our fire control training involved a demonstration of how to dispose of the oxygenproducing canisters worn on the chest of fire fighters so they could fight fires in smoke-filled rooms below deck. These canisters, however, when used up, and disposed of in a mixture of oil and water, would violently explode. We were told that in the excitement of a below-deck fire there was a temptation to simply discard the old canister when a fresh one was inserted into the breathing apparatus--No! No! When in the presence of oil and water, both found under foot below deck during a fire, there would be a deadly explosion. In order to emphasize the necessity of this lesson being remembered, in case any one of us were assigned to a fire fighting unit on board a vessel, a field demonstration was given to each group of boots. To do this, we were lined up on the edge of a large drill field to watch. Then a bucket containing a mixture of oil and water was placed in the center of the field. A boot pusher then, after giving an appropriate lecture to us on the need to properly dispose of the empty canisters in a water and oil-free environment, pulled a string attached to a canister, dropping it in the bucket. We waited the seconds and minutes needed for the reaction to take place. As we watched, suddenly there was an explosion like a shotgun blast as the canister exploded and shot 300-feet into the a i r - - a v e r y impressive demonstration. We were then told that on the previous day a boot pusher was killed. He had waited a long time for the explosion to take place, and--becoming impatient--walked over and looked down into the bucket as the canister exploded and blew his head off--good demonstration--bad timing! I Get Tied in a Navy Knot Another interesting training phenomenon we got was the knot-tying procedure. We stood for hours, day after day, learning to tie knots in a rope at a long rail into which pegs were attached, around which we were instructed on tying a multitude of knots. I couldn't imagine why this

15 discipline was considered so important. It was difficult for me to conjure up a situation where such detailed knot-tying would be needed in the modem Navy on board a battleship, destroyer or cruiser. I was not aware of the many times the knowledge of knot tying was used on Navy vessels. I had the temerity to ask the boot pusher what the function of learning that skill might be beyond qualifying for a Boy Scout merit badge. He was outraged and took the occasion to ridicule me for asking such a stupid question. He shouted to the others who were tying away, valiantly attempting to memorize the multitude of "running bowlines, reef knot, slip knot, square knot, sheet bend," etc., etc., "Hear this! This knucklehead is asking why I am making you learn knot tying! For hundreds of years sailors have tied knots--an honorable tradition going back to sailing vessel days--when your life depended on knowing how to tie the very knots I ' m struggling against great odds to teach you dummies how to tie! This skinhead thinks he knows more than the admirals who run the Navy! They think knot tying is one of the most important training functions we perform on this base--and so do I! Now get to it! Forget why--yours is to 'do or die!'" Playing with Toy Guns and Avoiding Sunstroke At this time of the war, in 1945, there was a shortage of guns, so we didn't learn how to assemble and disassemble a Springfield rifle that had previously been used in training. Instead of the real thing, we were issued wooden guns to conduct our maneuvers on the parade ground-knot tying was obviously important--expertise in using real guns was apparently not. One of the parade ground memories I have is of our drilling with our toy guns in the heat of August and three of our company passed out. We began trying to avoid stepping on our fallen comrades as they came in view. The boot pushers, however, shouted that we were to step on them and not break our stride as we marched, so we trampled over the bodies beneath our feet. When we finally arrived at the edge of the drill

16 field and were standing at attention, we cut our eyes to watch those three bodies lying on that asphalt in the hot sun. "Eyes front!" the pusher shouted as some of us tried to see if anyone went to the relief of those lying there. As we marched back to the barracks those guys were still lying there. I suppose they eventually recovered consciousness and came on back to the barracks on their o w n - - o r died of heat stroke! That treatment of heatstroke victims in 1945 was quite different from that I witnessed at the Parris Island Marine Corps Recruit Training Depot a half-century later. Today, Marine Corps recruits in training are accompanied by an ambulance and attendants to care for those who might pass out from heatstroke--a dangerous condition at times. On marches Marines even pick up those lagging behind because of painful blisters--a procedure unheard of in 1945. The Marines also use real guns. Hand To Hand C o m b a t - - t h e Navy versus the Marines On one occasion, after we were back in the barracks after our knot-tying routine, some of our company took it on their own to go over to the 3 rd Marine Division located some distance away from our Navy training area, to verbally and physically attack the Marines. I learned why later from those involved. This verbal assault would, of course, bring out the Marines in numbers, resulting in a general melee of fistfights and cussing matches. Some of our people showed up the next day with black eyes and cuts and bruises of various sorts as trophies of their encounter--one had to be taken to the sick bay. I learned that this type raiding between Navy and Marine trainees was a tradition that must be upheld. During the remaining time in training we expected at any time, to be raided by a similar retaliatory Marine Corps unit from across the w a y - - a l l good training for future personal combat in war, I gathered. Indeed, without personal combat training one would be at a distinct disadvantage against an opponent well versed in street fighting. The resentment on the part of the Navy personnel, as I understood it, came from the fact

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION that the captain of each vessel in the Navy was guarded by a Marine, like a policeman at the d o o r - - a long tradition when sailors sailed ships and Marines were trained to fight on land. If Naval personnel wanted to see the captain they always had to go through a Marine Corpsman--a point of contention. This was my introduction to the friction between Navy personnel and Marines. Later, President Harry Truman, reflecting this traditional enmity, entered the fray when he made a comment that the Marine Corps was simply the police force of the Navy, which caused quite a stir when Marine Corps generals objected to that definition. I don't believe Harry apologized. I Watch the Discipline of Duck-Walking One night, after the call for "lights out" had been given, the barracks across the street kept its lights on for a few minutes longer. I occupied a top bunk, so I could see down onto the street and see what was going on. We could hear the bootpusher from that barracks yelling, "Fall out, you dumb scumbag skinheads! I'll teach you what 'Lights out' means!" The company fell out with their skivvies on and lined up in the street. The yelling continued, "Hurry! Hurry! You no-good bastards !" Finally, when all were assembled, the order was given to duck walk down the street. "I'll teach you what to do when I say, 'Lights out!'" They duck walked back and forth, back and forth, until their muscles began cramping and some of them collapsed in agonizing pain, not being able to continue that squatting, duck walking, muscle binding, ordeal any longer. The boot-pushers-there were three of them now, along with the Chief Petty Officer in charge of the barracks-would begin kicking the men who were lying in pain on the ground. Some, perhaps those whose cramps were less serious, would get back into the duck walking position trying to continue. This routine went on for a very long time until there were only three duck walkers left. They continued among the writhing and groaning bodies around them, until even the boot-pushers were impressed with their ability. Finally, when it seemed those three would be able to continue

Escaping the GroundhogHole duck walking all night, the order was given for them to come to the front of the group--which they did limping. The Chief Petty Officer then instructed the groaning mass to look at those three - - " L e t this be a lesson to you. These three men are obviously in far better shape than the rest of you. Maybe I should let them duck walk you every night until you get in as good condition as they are--would you like that? Huh? Huh? Huh? If I ever hear a peep out of you, or a glimmer of light from that barracks after lights out, I'll have you out here every night for a week! I hope you get that! Just try me!" For the rest of the training period the barracks across the street was the "earliest to bed and earliest to rise" of any in the regiment-lesson learned. I wonder if such lessons are still taught that way in military channels in 2003--they certainly were in 1945.

Graduation Day Review--My Company Is Outclassed The Navy at that time was segregated, with the black sailors serving primarily in mess companies. Boot camp training was also segregated. The only time we saw a black company was on the graduation review day, when the companies showed off their marching ability, and awards were given for the best performance. We thought we did fairly well, but when the black companies marched onto the field we knew we were viewing the best--they won all the awards! Their precision was outstanding--with creative commands shouted by the boot- pusher marching beside the company. One of the most intricate commands usually given, and one most easily ending up in chaos if not executed with great precision, was "double to the rear," which involved executing a 180 degree reversal of direction of the company, with each row of men enfilading the adjacent row. The black companies, however, executed that maneuver with the command "double to the rear with a slight hesitation," making the move more complex, and a j o y to witness. The judges loved it. That "slight hesitation" was a beautiful innovation executed flawlessly, compared to the plodding performance

17 our company had stumbled through. Shortly after that the Navy became an integrated force.

The "A-Bomb" Drops I was standing in one of the long mess hall lines on the drill field on August 6, 1945, when a loudspeaker announced that an atom bomb had been dropped on Hiroshima, Japan. "What's an atom bomb?" we asked each other. To my surprise, one of us, no doubt a physics maven, explained about the theory of the harnessing of the energy in the atom to create a highly destructive bomb. He spoke of the theory that if an atom could be split it would give off tremendous energy, splitting the adjacent atoms--apparently no longer a theory. A group crowded around him to listen to this new information. We knew the war would likely soon be over before we could really get into it because of the "A-bomb".

OGU--I Assign Myself to Washington After boot camp I was sent, along with others in my company, to OGU (Outgoing Unit) to be assigned to aircraft carriers, destroyers, naval bases, and other naval duty. Because I had been soloist in the Navy Choir in basic training, I went to the person in charge of the OGU assignments and asked if there was an OGU choir. He looked at me and smiled and shook his head in disbelief at my question before answering that no one stayed there long before being assigned to some duty station somewhere. I thanked him and as I turned to go he asked how much schooling I had had and I told him one year of college. He said that he had one opening for someone in OGU, and asked if I had ever run an Addressograph machine. "What's that?" I asked. "Apparently not," he said. "But I ' m willing to learn," I quickly ventured. He showed me how packs of hole-punched cards were fed into the machine that sorted them into smaller coded groups of people assigned to various duty stations to which they were to report. I quickly picked up the process and for some weeks I operated that machine. My instructions were in the form of a notice that 25 people, for instance, were to report to the Navy Yard in

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Newport News, to be assigned to an aircraft carrier, etc. After I had done this for a period of time and most all of my company had been assigned to some duty station, my supervisor told me I would soon need to pick out an assignment for myself and slip my personal card into that stack of cards. I began looking closely at each assignment group and when I saw one stating that Seaman Second Class clerks were needed at the Navy Department in Washington, D. C., I slipped my card onto the pack. Thus it was that it was not by accident that I went to Washington.

stations. There was obviously a lack of communication between the officers as to the process involved in their reimbursement for travel, and the Navy Department. Perhaps they had never been told to simply submit a copy of their travel orders and they would be reimbursed on the basis of a fixed per diem amount. It appeared to me that transferred officers were spending an awful lot of their time collecting all that documentation when it was simply not relevant to the reimbursement check they were to receive.

The Navy Department in Washington--a TooSweet "Piece of Cake" I worked in the Navy Department, located in long drab-colored buildings, flanking the Washington mall. The room I worked in was as large as two gymnasiums, with about 10 rows of desks, with as many desks per row--some had typewriters--others did not. My job was to remove from the basket on my desk the envelopes containing the applications from officers for reimbursement for moving expenses when ordered to transfer from one place in America to another. I was to remove all receipts, carefully collected by the officer, and staple them all together. They were never to be looked at again, but mailed back with the reimbursement check. Then I looked at the orders attached to the application--"from: New York to: Boston" for instance. Then I looked at a large mileage table beneath the glass, giving the distance between New York and Boston. I multiplied that mileage by the standard per diem travel allowance, and wrote the monetary product on a blank place on a card. I stapled that to whatever the officer had sent in the package. Some officers had gone to great lengths to collect receipts, statements from waitresses to whom they had given tips, a list of the nanles (and sometimes photographs) of family members, receipts for movies, plays, and taxicab drivers, and sometimes notarized statements of expenses. However, all the government wanted to know was how many miles there were between the two duty

OopsI - - SIRI - - I Crash Into an Admiral In my coming and going in the war-time Navy Department I ran into many high-ranking officers in the halls. On one occasion I literally r an into an admiral coming up the steps as I was making the turn from the hall into a stairwell. We crashed into each other pretty vigorously, whereupon I said, "0ops!" (being a raw skinhead). He stepped up into the hall, noticed I had failed to salute, stared at me a moment, and it was at that point I said, "Hey." and he said, "Hey! Oops! What?" And, flustered by now, I remembered to salute, and answered, "Oops! SIR!" He stared at me a moment, obviously deciding whether to chew me out further, then smiled, shook his head at my lack of protocol, or stupidity, or both, and moved on as I heard him mutter--"Oops!" followed by a chuckle. Government Waste It was in fulfilling my easy job in the Navy Department that I came to realize the tremendous waste there was in other aspects of the process of which I was a simple part. For example, we were to report to the front gate of the Navy Department at 8:00 a.m. (however, no later than 8:30, to avoid being put on report), so you can imagine the crowd that gathered at the gate shortly before 8:30. We were supposed to be at our desks at 9:00, for an hour of work before the 10:00 break--then a mass exodus to the drink machines where a crowd gathered to socialize until 10:30. Then we worked another hour until 11:30, when there was the exodus for lunch, but we had

Escaping the Groundhog Hole to report back by 1 P.M. for two hours of work until 3 P.M. At that time the afternoon break lasted until 3:30. Theoretically, quitting time was at 5 P.M. It was a long walk up the mall from many offices to the exit gate beside the reflecting pool. We were told that if everyone crowded the gate at 5 P.M. it would slow down the checkingout process. The rule was that we could check out no earlier than 4:30 p . m . - - a tough five-hour work-day for those who made the most of the system. And many did! I was appalled by such a lax system allowing so little production to be called a day's work. At the beginning of the day, at 8:30, and during breaks, ! was often alone in the vast room with only two or three other workaholics who refused to join the crowd. Most days I was able to complete my work by 11:30, and sometimes when I came to work there would be nothing in the basket on my desk. I asked my supervisor why that was, and was told that the person who brought the applications to my desk would be gone on vacation, or was on sick leave for a week. He said there would be nothing coming until he returned. "What am I supposed to do? Can't I go and pick up the applications myself?." I asked. "What! You're complaining?" He asked, "What's the matter with you? Are you trying to cause trouble? Why don't you read a book, or whatever?" Then he quickly added, "But I didn't say that!" So, I did. I read a lot of books in those days. I resolved that when I got out of the Navy I would never accept employment with the United States Government. What a waste of human energy resources! Years later, after I became an archaeologist, when John Griffin offered me a job with the National Park Service, saying that within a year or so I could move to a G12 position, I thought of my experience during the war, and turned down the offer. Then too, there was the other matter we discussed. I asked John if I worked on an excavation project and wrote a report whether my name would appear on the work I had done. He said policy didn't allow personal names to appear on reports published under government

19 sponsorship. I couldn't see how a reputation in archaeology could be built if all the work you did was published anonymously under a government agency's name. I was ego-centered enough, and disenchanted enough with my wartime experience in Washington government, to gladly pass up a far larger salary than I was making, to maintain some autonomy and recognition for the work I did. Some of us are remembered for the stories we tell, but for me, publication of the work I have done is nay immortality. More money was never sufficient reward for me. Now, of course, perhaps government waste of human resources is not so blatant as it was when I observed it almost 60 years ago. Perhaps all that has changed and those spending their careers with that employer are able to put in eight hours work for eight hours pay, and receive personal satisfaction beyond mere cash for having done so. I wonder. In any case, names do now appear on some government publications--such as the summary of the site of Ninety Six, South Carolina by Guy Prentice (2002) - - more on the many forts at Ninety Six later.

I Sing for My Supper--Drink Booze in a Cathedral--a New Experience When I was discharged from my position at the Navy Department, I decided in 1946, to attend the Southwest Photo Arts Institute in Dallas, Texas. To keep my voice in shape, in my spare time, I studied voice under an ex-Metropolitan Opera baritone, Glenn Booher. He helped me get a paid choir position with the Episcopal St. Matthews Cathedral, where I was paid $10 a w e e k - - a big boost to the $105 a month subsistence I received from the G. I. Bill. I was a religious skeptic, but hey--the pay was good so I compromised my personal non-conformist belief and went along for the money! This was a high-church cathedral, with the choir marching from each side near the front, around the outside aisle of the pews while singing, then joining in the vestibule, then down the central aisle toward the alter, still singing. We were led by trumpeters, the priest, acolytes carrying banners, the cross, etc. in a very formal

20 procession, quite unlike the church I knew from childhood. We rehearsed in the basement of the cathedral on Friday nights, and during rehearsal some of the choir members would go to the refrigerator and refresh themselves from the store of beer kept for that purpose. That was also quite a different cultural practice from the churches in Boone. We would meet for another rehearsal on Sunday morning before the service, during which time the refrigerator was again raided by some of the choir members, to "wet their whistle," or rather their voices. One Sunday morning the assistant pastor, who we seldom saw, made an announcement that the minister himself, who had never before met with the choir, wanted to have a word with us. I thought, "Uh oh! I'll bet he's going to complain about the choir drinking beer on Sunday morning." Not so! He said he understood that some members of the choir enjoyed having a beer on Sunday morning, but there had been complaints from some of the parishioners that when the choir came singing down the aisle they were blowing fumes, causing the church to smell like a brewery. "O.k. maybe I was right after all," I thought. Not so! The priest said to avoid that complaint in the future, he had placed some breath fresheners in the refrigerator, and asked that when we got a beer we would also get something to freshen our breath. So that was the solution to the problem of the choir smelling like a brewery as we went singing down the aisle of the church. Quite a liberal church-that.

"Learning A Few Tricks"--From A Metropolitan Opera Baritone After I graduated from photography school in 1946, I left Dallas and returned to Appalachian to begin my sophomore year. I resumed my voice lessons with Virginia Wary Linney, who was impressed with the progress I had made studying with Glen Booher ("Boo"). She wanted to know what he did to so dramatically improve my singing ability.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION I told her he would meet me at the door to his studio in his home, and begin a fast-pace walk while vocalizing using bursts of air blowing from our lungs as we gasped for air from our exertions. By the time we had practically jogged around the block we were both panting and exhaling with loud vocalizations. That exercise did a lot to build up my lung capacity to sustain notes. Then, too, he trained me to breath from my diaphragm rather than from my lungs alone, and to project my voice so it could be heard clearly from the back of the auditorium. To do this, he required that I stand beside him as he accompanied me on the piano, and if I lapsed into singing without using my diaphragm to force the air from my lungs, he would suddenly hit me in the gut, forcing spontaneous blast of air against my voice box. Upon which event he would shout, "That's it! You've got it! So, to avoid that surprise shot to the solar plexus, I learned to use my diaphragm. That way I could control the sound that would project loud and as long as needed, to belt out an aria, without having to be hit to produce quality sound. That training would serve me well when I began to sing in operettas when I returned to Appalachian--but more on that in the next chapter.

Photography School--I Drive for a Made Man While in Dallas I took lessons with "Boo" on Saturdays, sang with the choir on Sundays, and on weekdays attended photography school in the afternoon. In the mornings [ augmented my income by working for a different photography school on the other side of Dallas, where I worked from 6 p.m. until midnight. I soon learned that the director of the school who I worked for was reputed to be a mafia wise guy--he certainly looked the part from my stereotype gained from movies. He wore a fedora and a pin-striped suit, just like the gangsters I had seen in James Cagney movies. After working for this man in the morning, going to photography school in the afternoon, I reported again to him from six to midnight to act as a courier. In that capacity, I delivered and picked up, envelopes and small packages to and

Escapingthe GroundhogHole

21

from individuals and nightclubs where he had connections. Doing this I drove his 12-cylinder Cadillac and on occasion I chauffeured attractive young women from one club to another, or to his place, or to other addresses, returning later to pick them up. On one of these trips to pick up a young lady, when I got across Dallas the Cadillac steamed over, though there had been no warning that it was laboring under stress. I raised the hood, and found that all six wires on one side of the engine had been pulled from the plugs. I called my boss and he said it had likely been done by one of his enemies, and he thought he knew who might have done it. I simply plugged the wires back onto the plugs, waited until the thing cooled, added new water, and was on my way again. I was totally impressed that the car functioned so well that it could run on only six of its 12 cylinders. I resolved to some day own one of these fine cars-but I never did.

"Air Conditioning" In Dallas The darkroom where I worked, in the houseconverted-to-a-photography-school, was "cooled" by wet excelsior inside a double-layered chickenwire box mounted in a window. Inside the box was a fan blowing into the darkroom. This was an early "air conditioner," in wide use at the time. Ola the lO0-plus temperature days in Dallas, the humidity inside the darkroom was smothering, to say the least. I always used ice in the developing trays, which diluted the chemical, and even then the emulsion would sometimes reticulate and begin sliding off the film, creating some wonderfully extemporaneous art when these negatives were printed, but it didn't make the boss very happy. But that was a hazard of photography in Dallas at the time.

The Switch-Blade's Envelope"

Edge---"Pushing

the

Speaking of hazards, one of the businesses my boss was involved in was taking pictures in various Dallas nightclubs. A female photographer would go from table to table taking pictures of the customers, and would then bring the film holder

to me to develop quickly. I would slop the film through the chemicals, dunk it in a crock of water, slap it in the enlarger, and print two 5 by 7 inch prints. After running them through the same process, I would squeegee them on to a ferrotype tin mounted on a box in which photoelectric bulbs were mounted, causing the tin to become as hot as a stove. When I would squeegee the prints onto this hot surface they would sizzle, and in a few seconds begin popping offwith a glossy surface. I then put them in a couple of cardboard frames and the girl would deliver them to the customer about fifteen minutes after she had taken the picture. Sometimes the girl would wink at me as she left after work accompanied by one of the customers from the bar, but I was not involved in her transactions. My boss required that I collect the photography money from the manager of the bar and bring it to him in an envelope each day. When I asked the bar man for my boss's money from the pictures, he said he would deliver the money to him personally. I suspected that my boss would never see the money, so, hard headed as I was, I insisted he give the money to me. He told me to get lost. I made some comment about a tip-off, when suddenly he sprang over the bar and landed in front of me in a flash (I remember thinking, "Just like Superman in movies"). I heard a snap, and looked down and saw a switchblade knife in his hand. I took that as a hint I needed to moderate my position somewhat, which I did, humbly explaining to the man that I must have misunderstood my instructions. That incident helped me learn the limit to which I might push another using my mouth as a weapon--unlike the crippled old man with his jawbone blown away, I learned quickly. As I began backing across the room he whipped out an envelope and thrust it out at me, saying, "I don't want to see you in here again!" That seemed like a good suggestion to me. When I reported the incident to my boss he laughed and said, "Yeah, Tony has tried that shakedown on me before, but you don't want to cross him. I won't send you to that club again." That was entirely o.k. with me. From that I learned not to "push the

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envelope" too far. Determining what is "too far," is one of those lessons life might depend on at times. I graduated from photography school with honors, with skills that would serve me well later when I became a professional photographer, and later on, an archaeologist. At 18, I returned to Boone to begin nay sophomore year at Appalachian. Inspiration from a Mountain Man Before I returned to Appalachian, however, I was inspired by a mountaineer who had bought a pasture from daddy, paying far more money than anyone who saw him ever guessed he had, judging from his appearance. He had saved it through the years by selling milk from his cow to the local dairy and depriving himself of much. He lived with his wife and teenage son and daughter on the back of the mountain behind our home. When the children graduated from high school, he insisted they go to college. To allow them to do this, so they could walk to classes at Appalachian, he had purchased the land from daddy. He cut trees on the property and built a log cabin home for his family of four. I sometimes talked with him as he made his daily trips to Boone carrying a large milk can on his shoulder. That was how I learned of his determination to deprive himself to save enough to buy clothes for his two children so they could attend Appalachian. They both worked while they were in school and graduated--the boy becoming a teacher and the daughter a librarian. Talking with this mountaineer, and hearing of his ambition for his children and the values he held, in spite of great adversity, was an inspiration for me.

Figure 1.5. A hardworking, inspiringmountain man who put two children through college. (Photo: South, 4/1952)

Chapter 2 Appalachian Stories and After Cultural Anthropology and EvolutionA Theoretical Foundation After nay groundhog days in the Navy and in photography school, my formative years continued when I enrolled as a sophomore in 1946 at Appalachian State Teachers College (ASTC), now Appalachian University. There, David Hodgin, my inspiring English professor introduced me to evolutionary theory. It had never been mentioned at Appalachian High School, or during my freshman year at college. Hodgin was a Socrates to me. He opened the door to life through questioning received dogma. Here is a short gem he imparted to those of us who knew and learned from him (Hodgin 1952:11): Life, to modem man, is dynamic and self-creative, with ever-unknown potentialities-every new vista opening to others as yet unconcealed. Hence truth can never-in the very nature of thingsbe a formula to be accepted as absolute and sacred, for truth itself must evolve. He introduced us to other aspects of cultural evolution through Erich Fromm, Clyde Kluckhohn, Karl Marx, Lewis H. Morgan, E. B. Tylor, Charles Darwin and others. One of the others I latched onto like a hobo to a freight train was Frazer's The Golden Bough (1922), the classic study of comparative folklore, magic and religion, superstitions and taboos, in relation to Christianity. I devoured it because it coincided with questions I had been asking since before the age of 12 when I realized I was a stranger here. Others, expressing what I had come to believe earlier on were, Ingersoll's Greatest Lectures (1944), and later on, The Immense Journey by Loren Eiseley (1957). The books Hodgin had us

read, and our discussion of them in the weekly meetings I had with him, for several years, were valuable in shaping my life's trajectory. He introduced me to stories from Greek mythology through the Iliad and the Odyssey and discussed them as though he were there when they unfolded.

The Ghost of Scopes--Teaching Evolution Suppressed One day he was called to the President's office and told that he must not mention the word "evolution" in his classes. The president told him that most of the students Hodgin taught were from conservative backgrounds, and the administration had received complaints from parents about his teaching about the concept of evolution. Hodgin argued that he was primarily introducing students to cultural evolution and anthropology. He was told that anthropology was not taught at that institution for good reason, and that Hodgin was not to teach any kind of evolution. He was to teach English literature not anthropology. Teachers, he was told, did not need to know about evolution because it offends those who have another view of the creation of the universe. He could either stifle his teaching of evolution or go elsewhere to teach. Shades of the Scopes trial!

Teaching Evolution Underground Although upset at the stricture on his academic freedom, he said he needed to keep on teaching, and made an announcement explaining his encounter with the President, and suggested that those students who were interested in cultural or biological evolution, could meet with him once a week at his apartment, to discuss those taboo subjects he was not allowed to teach. At first, there were a dozen of so of us who gathered there, but after two or three meetings the group was 23

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reduced to my friend, Walter Boone, and myself. Later my brother-in-law, John Idol, joined our weekly sessions with Hodgin. Our meetings at his home went on for a decade, long after I graduated in 1949, and were a major influence in my formative years. Evolution in a Free and Open Inquiry Beyond Appalachian Later on, when I was a graduate student at the University of North Carolina, the importance of evolutionary theory in archaeology would hit me like an epiphany, resulting in my first professional paper on that topic (South 1955a). My general background for evolutionary theory, however, was laid in the formative years with David Hodgin at Appalachian. The topic of evolution as to "believers" and the "non-believers" is still with us a half-century later as beautifully illustrated recently in the "Doonesbury" cartoon, which I quote here (Trudeau, Garry 2003):

You know, it's hard to believe we have a president who doesn't believe in evolution. It means the leader of the free world has closed his mind to vast areas of human experience and knowledge! Rejecting evolution requires him to repudiate the core tenets of entire fields of study...such as biochemistry, genetics, ecology, paleontology, anatomy, physics, astronomy, geology, cosmology, history and archaeology! Whew...leaving what, gym and band? Pretty much explains all those C's doesn't it? Student or Colleague?--Formal Versus Informal Address A friend, Ellis Kerley, a physical anthropologist, began going with me to my Friday night weekly sessions with Hodgin, who I had always referred to in person as "Mr. Hodgin." In the discussions of symbolism and themes in poetry, politics, international relations, psychology, religion and current events (only part

of the repertoire of subjects covered in these sessions), I was surprised to hear Ellis call Hodgin by his given name, David, which seemed awfully forward to me. And, as I observed, I noticed that David appeared to respond to Ellis more as a colleague than it appeared he did to me. I remarked to Ellis that it was difficult for me to call Hodgin, David, because he had been my professor some years before. What Ellis said has served me well through the years. "As long as you call him by the title 'professor,' or 'Doctor,' he will always see you as the student using a respectful title, and that establishes the relationship between you. If you call him David, however, that places you on an equal footing, and he will respond to you as a colleague." I began doing that, and found I was a colleague--a student no longer. More about Ellis, and why he was in Boone--later "I Play Football!" I Hodgin on the Carpet David was called before the College President on another occasion, this time as a result of having failed a football player in my Sophomore English class. Whenever that sports figure was asked any question in class the answer always was, "I play football!" That was the only words any of us in class ever heard him utter. Hodgin gave him a lecture on a couple of occasions, but it did no good. It got so that when he was going down the roll, asking questions about the assigned lesson for the day, and marking grades according to the answer given, when he got to the sports jock, he would call his name, and then Hodgin and the jock would answer in unison, "I play football!" When the failing grade was filed for the sports hero, Hodgin was again summoned to the President's office where he was questioned about the failing grade. Hodgin explained that no assignments were ever received from the jock, and repeated the three words of the athlete's litany when asked a question. The President explained that the man was at ASTC on an athletic scholarship and that it would not look good if be didn't receive an average grade, at least. Hodgin

Appalachian Stories and After answered that the failing grade would stand, and told the President, "If you want a passing grade given you will have to give it yourself," and turned and walked out of the office, worried that he might be fired. Later on, Hodgin was curious as to what grade had become final on the transcript for the campus hero, and saw where his grade of F had been erased, and a C substituted. So, teaching evolution was not the only problem with which Hodgin had to deal. True scholars, who are also athletes, have had a stereotypical-stigma-cross to bear, resulting from such abuse of athletic scholarship programs by athletes and administrators who say, in one way or another, "I play football!" - - and get away with it. A Hermit Scholar in a Mountain Shack

I had first met Hodgin when he came to Boone when I was a child. He was from Buffalo, New York, where he had taught. He had become disenchanted with the fast pace of his lifestyle there, where his wife had a somewhat different worldview, as we learned from her occasional trips to Boone, when she stayed as a visitor in our home. Hodgin remodeled a slab shack, once used by a sawmill crew on the backside of Rich Mountain looming above the town, and lived like a hermit, and as nay parents told me, he was writing a book on Greek mythology and religion. [Years later, after I graduated from Appalachian, I typed the manuscript copy of his book for him, with the original title "The Harm That Good Men Do," but which became "Religion and the Modern Mind" (Hodgin 1952)]. It was never published because it challenged traditional received knowledge - - too controversial - - too straight to the point. My first memory of him was the bitter cold winter of 1935, when I was seven years old. He showed up on our back porch, and I watched as he knocked snow from the burlap bags he had wrapped around his boots to keep his feet warm, as he struggled off the mountain through the deep snow. I saw the tremendous footprints in the

25 snow--the type the later Sasqnatch was famous for making. I soon learned that he didn't abide fools, or children who asked foolish questions, when I asked him why he had wrapped his feet in burlap bags, something I had not seen before. His abrupt, angry-sounding reply, "What kind of stupid question is that?" told me I had to think twice before I asked him another question. Momma gave him a cup of coffee and fixed him breakfast, which he ate with great relish. He then left his burlap bags on the back porch and went to the library at Appalachian. That afternoon he came back by the house carrying two large heavy Santa Claus type bags on his back, one containing groceries, with the other one filled with books. He ate lunch with us, and rewrapped his boots with the burlap bags and trudged off again, leaving his giant footprints in the snow--as he later did in my life. The Environmentalist

The second time I met h i m was when I was 12. I was on the early leg of one of my Childe Harold pilgrimages traversing and camping on the tops of the Appalachian mountains from Howards Knob, across Rich Mountain, Tater Hill, The Bald, and Snake Mountain near the Virginia border. Daddy met me near the ruin of the log cabin where he lived as a child, near where the states of North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee meet--the "neck of the woods" in the holler where Daddy grew up. On the first leg of that trip, I neared the gap between Howard's Knob and Rich Mountain, above the town of Boone, I saw Hodgin on the 45 ° slope of an abandoned eroding field. I climbed up the steep slope to where he was working on planting pine seedlings at paced-off intervals in the broom-sedge-covered field. I had learned to think before I spoke to him (I thought), and asked what he was doing. "Can't you see I'm planting pine trees?" he asked. "Here I stand, with a pine seedling in my hand, a bucket of plants in that bucket, a bag full of pine seedlings lying there, and I ' m digging holes with my walking stick to

26 put the seedling i n - - a n d you ask what I'm doing?" I thought I was used to his abrupt Northern ways, but I always blushed when he spoke that way to me, making me feel so stupid. But, I persevered stubbornly, and asked why he was planting trees on a hillside some miles away from where I knew his shack to be, when the "woods were full" o f trees. Through a series of what he likely considered stupid questions, I learned that although this was not his land, and he didn't know who owned it; he was planting the trees because he saw that the steep field was abandoned, and beginning to erode, and needed trees to help hold down the soil. Because the mountain was primarily hardwood forest, he thought it would be a nice contrast to see, in the distant future, a pine forest against this piece of the mountain--a pleasant prospect as you came down the road through the gap facing this field. He thought it would improve the esthetic view of the mountain from that vantage point! Such a motivation was an entirely new concept for me, and as I tried to understand it, I continued to ask questions to determine if there was another motive for the work he was putting into the strange project--but I found no other than esthetics. I remarked that it seemed awfully strange that he would be planting more trees with the mountains covered with them "as far as the eye could see." At that, he snorted at my question and said, "Who else in the world is going to plant trees here on this eroding mountainside to replace the scar some farmer made during the depression to grow a few cabbage? Sometimes you do things simply because they need doing! If you aren't going to help me, then I've got to get back to work." With that I went on my way. But I thought about that lesson long after that moment on the mountain. Sixty years later I again traveled that same road, improved considerably now from the one-lane version I once traveled on, and my throat tightened as I saw a grand green pine forest where that field had been. Hodgin's dream of a pleasant contrast with the usual mountain foliage had long

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION ago been realized through a magnificent pine grove held against the breast of the mountainside in the gap between Howards Knob and Rich Mountain. Through his trips to replenish his supply of books at the library at Appalachian, he met the librarian--a beautiful woman named Allie. By that time he was divorced from his first wife, who didn't like the isolation of mountain life. When he became a professor at Appalachian, teaching English literature, he married Allie, and my mother kidded him that it was so he could be closer to his beloved books.

Figure 2.1. Mountain man, environmentaIist,poet, scholar,

professor, David Hodgin. My Appalachianmentor, with his wife, Allie. (Photo: South, 1950). The third time I met him was when I signed up for his English class at Appalachian and entered a new and wonderful world searching for knowledge. Forty years after I had seen him planting trees on the side of the mountain ! wrote my University of North Carolina graduate school classmate, Lewis Binford on December 15, 1975, sending him one of my woven pieces called "Four o'clock." In that letter I spoke of Hodgin and his

AppalachianStories and After

impact on my life. I present abstracts from that letter here

A Christmas Letter to Lew Binford-Remembering Hodgin--the Poet Scholar December 15, 1975 Dear Lewis, In a week or so we will be going up to Boone, in the mountains, for Christmas. That is always a melancholy trip for me since I feel such vibrations in returning to the cradle of those hills that it is frustrating to be there and then have to leave. Last Christmas we walked up the side of the mountain as I did when a boy and was pleased to see as little change taken place in the woods, especially since I had watched the new houses being built each year all over the mountain tops and against the sides of the hills by "flatlander touristers" whom we were always glad to see leave when summer was over. Now they are moving in and building houses everywhere. We saw a fox den with a midden of bones spilling down the outer face of the dirt pile it had dug beneath an overhanging rock. This was rewarding since I had assumed all foxes had long since been killed out. In walking up the side of the mountain, far removed from any sign of civilization, we suddenly found a roll of nine one-dollar bills lying among the fall leaves--a weird experience. We were saddened last year by the news that David Hodgin, an old friend from my sophomore days at Appalachian State Teachers College, had a heart attack. They thought it was the end for him, but he rallied and is back on his feet now, and just yesterday we received a poem from him as his contribution to the season. We named our son David for him since he was more like Socrates to me than any teacher I have ever known.. Christmas is depressing to me as a rule, and I usually

27 go into a mood of thinking heavy thoughts, but this year I feel better about it than usual. I guess it is all part of getting older. What bothers me is that the season of Christmas can be filled with gift giving, getting together with family and friends, but still be a very lonely time to make us aware just how alone we usually are. What I miss in the season is some sharing of ideas, something that is not usually done in the loud, boisterous, gettogethers of Christmas. If the reality of the present could be as romantic as my memory of the past, I think I would be found in a far better mood than I usually am in around this time of the year. I usually fantasize a scene where I am having a beer with friends and talking and drinking into the early morning hours, but on holidays ! never see such a mythical person. I think it all has to do with going home again, something we can't do. My body is there but my mind is in a dream world of a past long gone and a future clothed in romantic aura of things yet to be, neither of which are real, yet the dream is more vivid than the immediacy of the present. I suppose you might call this phenomenon the ' Charlie Brown Syndrome,' since Charlie and I seem to share much of the same pessimism about the season. I think Lara (7 years old now) really got at where it is at when she was writing her grandmother this week and wrote a poem to go with a little card she had made: Christmas, Christmas What are you? I love the one I'm writing to. She was asking the same question I ask each year through my poems, but she had the simple, positive answer. Hodgin and I are still asking the question and lacing it with pessimism. Here is his poem:

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

SLUM C H I L D - - CHRISTMAS 1975. David R. Hodgin It is no Christ, but I who carry the cross of the world. Conceived in desperation, deprived from the womb, born to hunger, with rats in my manger of straw and fear of the unknown beyond the door. My rights of Man; to hide, thieve, hate, run from authority, granted a show of Law after nights in jail but not to buy justice or a paying job or bread for me and my own young, while millions gorge and purge as their bellies bulge and seduce one another with the motley media, then prepare for wars to clean the stables or expunge their breed.. Dope to forget, or church on Sunday. HIS village was clean. One MAN, HE moved softly to a quick death and glory and praise; I fester and rot. And I am millions knowing no end to crucifixion... Perhaps we are not as pessimistic as realistic. I think that is why I am into a poem each year, to try to bring a note of realism to all the sham. You can tell from our poems that we have a lot in common regarding our worldview, and I suppose that is what drew me to Hodgin as a teacher and thinker. He was trying to lay on us concepts I had already arrived at independently, and so we got along because we shared a worldview. He pushed toward cultural anthropology throughout the time I knew him, though his field of teaching was English his worldview, however, is that of a philosopher and critic, a questioner of the world man has made.

I used to meet with him at his home with a small group of students once each week, then one by one they all dropped away except for me and I continued this pattern for years. We discussed the work of Tom Wolfe, the classics, Swift, the psychologists and anthropologists, and any other topic he might be into at the time. It was quite an education and an experience basic to my becoming, as I know from students of yours, their contact with you has been for them. With your white beard you resemble how I remember Hodgin. The first time I saw him I thought he was old, though he was probably no older than thirty at the time. The winter, of 1935 was a cold one. It was just before

AppalachianStories and After

Christmas. I was sitting in the wood box beside the hot Majestic range dreading the prospect of going out to the woodshed to bring in enough wood to fill the box. I suddenly heard my mother urging someone to come out of the cold and into the kitchen, away from the howling Appalachian mountain blizzard raging outside. Suddenly a large figure entered the kitchen, and his presence seemed to fill it. He had a white beard, and was so bundled up with layers of clothes he appeared much like the blown-up Santa Clause seemingly filled with air, like a large balloon. The most remarkable feature, however, was his feet. They were huge bundles of burlap covered with frozen ice and snow. He sat in a chair before the stove and placed the huge masses of burlap and ice on the open oven door to thaw out. As I watched I was surprised to notice that his beard was actually black, not white, but the frozen ice and snow- had made it white when he first entered. It was thawing now, and I watched the ice turn to drops of water on a black hairy face. There was something abrupt and impatient about this man, and so I remained quietly in the wood box, and neither he nor my mother took any notice of me. They talked of friends they knew, and she asked many questions about whether he was doing all right in the cabin he lived in on the backside of Rich Mountain. He had run out of food and had to walk out to get something to eat, otherwise he would not have come out in such weather. "Then too," he said, "I ran out of books." I thought about this puzzling statement as I watched him peel off layer after layer of burlap sacks wrapped around his feet, finally revealing a handsome pair of brown boots. I had never seen such a fine pair of tightly fitting boots, and thought of the fact that I

29 had heard that he had come from New York City to live on the mountain to think and write, and I knew that the boots must have come from New York. He took off his overalls, then another pair, then a pair or two of pants finally revealing a pair of what I knew as jodhpurs, a type of riding pants worn only by rich flatland "touristers" who came to Boone in the summer and rode horses for fun. I knew these too, must have come from New York City. He then went over near the door and brought over a large tow sack into the kitchen with him, but which I had not seen until this moment. It looked just like the kind of sack old Santa carried, I thought, and I wondered if he had brought so many presents with him. He opened the sack and peered inside. Then suddenly a look of anger came over him and he said, "Dammit to hell, the damn things got wet!!" This was a complete shock to me since my mother would not allow any word stronger than. heck in her house, so I halfway expected to see her grab the man and wash his mouth out with soap. Instead she just blushed and uttered a small cry of protest and spoke the man's name. "Mr. Hodgin!" He muttered an apology after looking up at her in an irritated, impatient manner, all the while pulling book after book from the sack. My mother handed him an old sugar sack to use to dry off the books, which he did among mutterings and more swearing beneath his breath, allowing me only to catch a fragment of a "damn" once in awhile. It was apparent that those books meant an awful lot to this man. He was concerned too, about the reaction the librarian at the college would have to the wet books. My mother fixed him a cup of coffee, and as they talked and he thawed, I tried to understand why this man had come from New York to live away from people on the

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION back side of Rich Mountain, five miles or more from the nearest neighbor. I imagined him surrounded by piles of books, reading and writing his book. My mother had asked the same question, and I could see that it irritated him to have to answer. "To get away from people and to find myself," he said. My mother answered in a high whining voice she used when she wanted to say more than she actually was saying, a voice implying criticism by its tone, "Well, my goodness, I would certainly think you could find yourself somewhere a little closer to civilization." His eyes flashed quickly at her and his eyebrows lowered, and I could see that her response had angered him. "You miss the whole point. You can't understand!" he shot back quickly, then "Have you a dry sack around here I could use to put these books in?" It was clear to me he wanted to change the subject and to get out of there. I could feel the friction between them, and thought again about his use of cuss words not allowed by my mother and thought that might be the reason. It was also apparent that this was an angry man. My mother left the kitchen to look for a sack, and I felt uneasy at being left alone with this strange, fascinating man. I hoped he had not seen me sitting in the box beside the stove, but he suddenly looked over at me for the first time and said gruffly with a note of criticism in his voice, "I suppose you are looking for Santa Claus!" I was caught by surprise at the unfriendly tone and question that was thrown, not merely asked. "I guess so," I said meekly. "You guess so!" he boomed. "You guess so! Either you are or you're not! Don't be wishy-washy about it boy! Don't 'guess' anything! Know!" My expression of surprise and concern probably got to him for he suddenly took on a more friendly tone and said, "Well,

you can't be expected to know anything yet. But you can know something--if you will, and it's right there!" he said, as he smacked the stack o f books he had placed on the table. "Read boy, read! For God's sake read! You must if you are going to escape from the damn mountains! There's your key to freedom!" he said as he again pounded the stack of books with his fist. My mother entered again with a tow sack and he immediately began loading it with the books. " I heard you two talking when I was on the back porch. I forgot Stanley was in here," she said as she noticed me in the wood box. "Yes," Mr. Hodgin said, "We were talking about Santa Claus." He left without another word to me, and when he returned that afternoon with a sack packed with books and a few groceries my mother forced on him some of her canned goods as well, commenting that he had more books than food. "Why, if you don't take more food than that you will starve to death. Why don't you leave some of them here so you can carry more food?" Again the fire flew from his eyes, and I knew my mother had said the wrong thing. "Leave my books, madam? There's more food in them than in all your canned goods!" Then suddenly, as he had done with me earlier, he backed down, took a suddenly more gentle tone, and with a half smile said, "If I run out of food I'll just eat the books." By now he had two sacks, one filled with books, and the other with food and groceries. He tied their tops together, stooped down with the tied knot across his chest, and staggered to his feet under the load with the sacks hanging down each side of his back. "You will never make it back to the cabin," my mother said. "I'll make it! I'll make it I ' m too stubborn and ornery not to make it."

AppalachianStories and After I watched as he disappeared again into the blizzard. He had once again donned his many layers of clothes, wrapped his feet again in the burlap, and. pulled his toboggan down over his ears against the cold. I only saw him occasionally in the years to follow. He came down off the mountain and married the librarian He began teaching English courses at the college in the valley where the librarian worked, though his classes were far broader ranging than any English course most of us ever see. The books he had carried to the backside of the mountain had served him well. All those who were fortunate enough to pass his way were enriched by those tow sacks filled with books. He indeed did devour them, and they provided nourishment for many generations of students who knew him and benefited from his enrichment of their lives. Those students were often subjected to his admonition that I first heard in the kitchen on that winter day in 1935 - - "For God's sake read! It's your key to freedom!" I'll be seeing him over the Christmas holiday, forty years after that first meeting. I know that, as always, he will be deeply into his books and anxious to share his discoveries with those o f us who come to spend a few moments with him. He will be expressing concern for the shape of the world, the mess it is in, and how we managed to screw it up so magnificently. He will ask about books I should read in order to find out where the latest thinking is on some particular subject, as he always did - - always encouraging reading, forever proffering the key to the door of freedom. Well, this is what is on my mind as this Christmas season arrives--vivid memories of Christmas past. Stan

31 Post WW II Legacy--the American Red Cross and the Salvation Army When I returned to Appalachian for my sophomore year and was taking Hodgin's class on English literature, many veterans had" returned from the war in recent months. Attendance at chapel each day in the auditorium of the administration building was mandatory, so announcements could be made, along with a short presentation of some kind--often a local minister. At one Chapel meeting an announcement was made that a representative of the American Red Cross would be speaking. As soon as that announcement was made, recently discharged servicemen began standing and walking out. Soon their friends joined them and there was a general exit of males, some probably as curious as ! was as to what had triggered such a dramatic reaction. Meanwhile, the faculty member who was to introduce the speaker was appealing to those walking out to sit down--to no avail--then called for the monitors to check the seats and report those not in their seats. I joined the exodus, not knowing why the walkout had occurred. I walked among those milling around in the lobby, and discovered that some of the veterans had served in Europe and some in the South Pacific. They told me the Red Cross was known to stay behind the lines in battlefield areas--where officers were located. They reported the Red Cross sold the packs of cigarettes, donated by American tobacco companies for service men overseas, at inflated prices--higher than cigarettes were selling for in the United States. On the other hand, I learned, there was the Salvation A r m y - - a b o u t which there was only praise--and free cigarettes. One of the veterans told me, "I was in a foxhole with Jap shells falling all around us, and bullets flying, when a guy with a pack on his back came falling into my hole, practically on top of me. He reached in the pack and pulled out a carton of Camels and handed it to me--'Courtesy of the Salvation Army!'" he said, then crawled out of the hole to pass out more cigarettes under fire--that, my friend, is serving the serviceman! I

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never saw the Red Cross on the front lines. That's why we walked out," he said. The Salvation Army guys were always there, day after d a y - with free cigarettes." I got a similar story from other veterans in explanation for the general walkout that spontaneously happened that day immediately after World War II. I suppose all that has been forgotten by now. Observing a One-Room African American School In order to graduate with a BS Degree in Education at Appalachian, observation of teaching, as well as student teaching was required. The choice of what school in Watauga County you observed was left up to the student. In my senior year my faculty advisor was surprised, to say the least, when I chose the Watauga School, the African American high school in Boone. I was the first Appalachian student ever to choose to observe at that one-room high school that served all of Watauga County. Grades eight through 12 were located in a single room on the first floor, with all elementary grades in a room on the second floor. The school was located in the middle of the African American "Colored Town," as it was known then, on a hillside just three blocks north of the main street in Boone. Another "Colored Town" was located further up the slope of Howard's Knob, where the folks there enjoyed a beautiful view of the mountains and the town at their feet. The school served this community as well. Total segregation was in effect then, and I learned more about teaching there than I learned from all my classes in education method and theory. Both teachers were female African Americans and their methods were outstandingly effective. I had never been in a one-room school, so the process of teaching high school students from five grades in the same room was a unique experience for me. There was no such thing as a discipline problem. The students quietly read or worked at their desks, while the teacher addressed the eighth grade students, discussed their lesson, had each one stand to answer questions from her, or recite

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

the memorization assignment. Then she would assign work to be done, to be reported on later in the day, when she again returned to the eighth grade lesson. Then she would call the attention of the ninth grade students, telling them to turn to their math lesson. Each student stood in turn to be questioned and be graded on the degree to which they were able to memorize the details of the assignment - then on to the tenth grade biology class. The 11 th grade chemistry class had been required to memorize formulas, and if an error was made the teacher gently reminded the student, went on to another formula, and then returned to the one missed earlier to see if her correction had been made in the student's mind. This was serious business-this learning process. And so it went throughout the day, with the students at their desks working on their projects having to listen to all the lessons from the other classes while concentrating on their own. What a challenge to focus that was for them! When it came to the only 12ta grade student, a girl, her assignment had been to memorize the entire table of chemical elements and the letter symbols for each one! I was totally impressed and was glad that I hadn't been given such difficult assignments when I was in high school or college. She needed correcting on only a few of the symbols. Then back to the eighth grade students to begin another cycle in the process. This 12th grade student later won a college scholarship to North Carolina State for her science skills in the state competition in Raleigh-I was not surprised. I reported to my education professor on my month of observation in that school. I made the point that, if all of my classmates could be required to observe that outstanding teacher at work, they would learn more there in one month than from all the education courses they would be exposed to during an entire quarter. I got an A on my report, but no comment on my suggestion. Years after I graduated from Appalachian and was living away from home, Momma wrote and told me that she had discovered that for want of a

Appalachian Stories and After teacher those two rooms of African American students were not being given musical training. She contacted the principal and volunteered to come and conduct a singing class for the students. When she was scheduled to hold her class, the elementary and high school grades were combined to take advantage of her instruction. One of the students had such a wonderful singing voice Momma contacted her parents and made arrangements for her to come across the hill to our home. There Momma gave her individual voice lessons. Her student won in a countywide music competition. That entitled her to compete in the statewide competition in Raleigh, where she won a blue ribbon. The African American community and the Music and Art Club of Boone combined to raise money to send the girl to Raleigh for the event. She later went on to major in music in college---something I suspect she would never have done without the inspiration provided by Momma. The school choir she directed sang at other schools and also won praise for their musical ability.

Gender Segregation by Doorway--A Watchdog President At the administration building at Appalachian, the left wing ground floor door had "BOYS" deeply engraved into the lintel over the door, with "GIRLS" over the entrance to the right wing. We students didn't pay much attention to which door we entered, thinking that was a leftover mechanism for keeping the sexes separated. However, one day as I was hurrying to class, I entered the entrance marked "GIRLS" and was going up the stairwell steps two at a time, when I saw Dr. B. B. Dougherty, founder of Appalachian and President of the College, at the head of the landing. He said, "Young man, are you a student here?" I answered that I was. "Can you read?" he said. I laughed, and said I could. "Then why did you ignore the sign over the door you came in, marked "GIRLS?" I told him I was in a hurry to get to class, and had never paid attention to the gender signs over the doors. "We put them there for a reason," be said. "We can't have girls and

33 boys climbing the steps together. That's why we separated them with those words over the door. In the future I hope you pay attention to those signs." But I didn't. On another occasion I was sitting on the Library landing with my girlfriend, Marilyn Johnson, and she said she needed a pencil in her next class, grabbed mine, and held it out beyond my reach. I reached over behind her neck to try to retrieve it. Later that morning I saw Dr. Dougherty at the landing at the head of the steps near his office. He saw me and said, "Young man, would you step into my office for a minute?" I went in and sat down opposite his desk. He lowered his chin and peered at me for a long time over his glasses, a typical pose of his. Finally, he said, "Young man, I suppose you are very popular with the ladies here on campus." I said that I didn't think so, and he said, "Well I saw you putting your ann around a young lady at the library." Then I understand that he had seen me reaching for the pencil. "We can't have young men touching young women on campus. That's why we do all we can to keep them separate. Do you understand?" I told him that I did, and explained that I was reaching for the pencil, and not being romantic with the girl. He said, "Ummm!" Then he said, "I hope you take this as a warning, and in the future, try to keep your hands off our young women students. I replied, "I'll do my best, but sometimes that's hard to do." "Well, I hope you understand that as President of this college, I have a responsibility to see that our rules are followed," he said. Again, one bright morning I was coming into the building whistling a merry tune, when again, I saw him standing at the head of the steps. "Young man," he said, "Would you step into my office?" Again, I sat before him while he peered at me over his glasses with that intense presidential stare. "Young man, you have been in here before, haven't you?" I said that I had. "Well," he said, "This time you are here because you were whistling when you approached the building." I admitted that I had been, because I

34 was happy, and it was a nice day. He said, "Do you know we have classes in this building as well as administration?" I replied that I knew that. "Do you think that professors, trying to teach, and students trying to learn, want to hear your whistling?" I said I suppose not. "I hope that in the future you will try to refrain from disturbing our classes." I said that I would. I hadn't realized that whistling was outlawed on campus--but obviously it was.

Gender Segregation at Meals The cafeteria on campus was also segregated by gender, with the women on the west side and the men on the east. The students called a strike against the administration in an effort to force gender integration so that males could eat with female students. The students refused to attend class, hoping that would get faculty support, because it was the faculty who were required to report gender-separation violations. The thought was that perhaps they would appeal to the administration to relax the no-mixing-by-gender rule during meals so they wouldn't be required to report infractions. I believe the board of trustees had to meet to make the change in the rules prompted by the student boycott. The strike lasted slightly over a week, as I remember, at which time the administration agreed that students would no longer be punished if males were seen consuming cafeteria food in the presence of females. After word was received, there was no rush to integrate, with the majority of females choosing not to be offended by having to watch the boorish behavior of males while eating, so they continued to eat on the west side. But gender integration gradually came about at Appalachian in the years I was there--I suppose it is rampant by now--enough to have shocked Dr. Dougherty. Antonakos--Lured by the Muse of Photography When I was in the fifth grade (age 9, 1937), I decided I wanted to learn photography. The only person I heard of who taught photography was

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Professor Antonio Antonakos, the physics and math teacher at Appalachian. I went to him and asked if he would teach me how to take pictures and develop film. I had heard that he was a very difficult man to get along with, so I approached him with some fear and trepidation. The word was that he did not abide fools. He seemed bemused that I wanted to learn photography. He said the first thing I needed to do was: take some Bristol board, cut pieces from it, tape them together into two boxes, one sliding inside the other; punch a dent, not a hole, in a thin sheet of metal with a phonograph needle; sand around and around on the dent until a small round pinhole appeared. Then he showed me how to use a microscope to measure the diameter of the hole, and from that to compute the f-stop, which was fstop .405. From that, using tables he gave me, I determined how many seconds I would have to wait after pulling the slide over the pinhole, to make an exposure, given the film speed of the cut film I loaded into the camera. In that way I not only made the pinhole camera, but took some good pictures with it as well. I must have passed this test, because after that he was always friendly to m e - - I thought I had passed the test. He also taught me to develop roll film using chemicals in enamel trays in the dark, with his hands on mine to demonstrate the moves that had to be made under those conditions. From his instruction I was off and running. His personal interest at the time was three-color-separation negatives, for which the temperature had to be exactly controlled so that the emulsion on all three negatives would shrink at exactly the same rate. He used 11 by 14 inch film for this work, and dyed each of the three black and white negatives the basic colors, cyan, magenta, and violet. He then would use a potassium ferricyanide reducer to remove the silver iodide emulsion, leaving only the dye. Then he would expose each dye negative separately, onto special 11 by 14 experimental paper supplied to him by Eastman Kodak, making sure all three exposures were in exact register, and the result of all this exposing and developing was

Appalachian Stories and After

a color print, some of which were hanging around his laboratory w a l l - - a rare sight at the time. He was thus, a pioneer in experimenting with color photography before it was commercially available years later. He explained all this to me, but because it was cutting edge photographic science, he never allowed me to get involved in that process beyond observing him. I listened to his explanation of what he was doing, and the problems of control he faced in trying bring together so many variables. I learned by watching the exacting nature of his work that science can be an exciting and rewarding adventure.

"The Mad Greek"--Lured by Thespis Antonakos taught physics at Appalachian, and directed plays for the Playcrafters Club. When I was in high school in 1943, he sent word that he was looking for males to try out for a part in a play because there were so few male students interested in drama, most having gone into the service. I was the only one who answered, and g o t the part of "The Skull, in a play by that name." I wore a skull mask, and at the climax of the play, I was to suddenly appear on the stage and fire a shot from a pistol, and utter the line "You'll never tell!" after which I would fire the shot at one of the actors. For many rehearsal nights I had simply said, "Bang!" after I pointed my gun and said my line. On dress-rehearsal night I decided to actually fire the shot, as I would do when the play began. So, without telling anyone, I pulled the lead bullet from Daddy's 38 Smith and Wesson Police Special pistol, borrowed for the play, and put a wad of cotton in its place. Antonakos had had trouble night after night at having the recipient of the bullet to show appropriate response at being shot by falling on the floor and looking dead. This night, however, when I pointed the pistol on the darkened stage and pulled the trigger, there was a loud explosion, and a flame of fire shot out from the barrel, as the wad of cotton struck the chest of the victim. He jumped about a foot off the ground and fell dramatically onto the floor as if dead. Indeed, he later told me that when the cotton ball hit him in

35 the chest, he did think he had been shot, and almost died of a heart attack. Antonakos jumped up from the seat in the auditorium shouting "Beautiful! Beautiful! That was perfect! Do it just like that when the play opens!" He told me later that the surprise almost gave him a heart attack as well. In the next few years I continued to take roles in plays offered by the Playcrafters. Mrs. Linney, my voice teacher, worked with Antonakos in producing Gilbert and Sullivan musicals, in which I had leading roles. In 1947, I was the pirate king in "The Pirates of Penzance," and a bald-headed attorney in "Trial by Jury," so my desire to deliver ham on center stage was fulfilled through these efforts, and the applause was music to my ears. Antonakos' reputation as "The Mad Greek" came from his emotional outbursts when directing a play. He was a true artist, demonstrated by the fact that when a play called for a painting of a Rembrandt over the mantelpiece, he simply painted one that was a remarkable copy of the original. In another play a marble sculptured bust was called for, so he got a block of marble and chiseled a beautiful Greek bust. He had been born in Greece and had aspired to be a sculptor. However, his parents had died, and he was left to raise his siblings while completing his education, so he had to abandon his dream for the responsibilities of the moment. In the "The Pirates of Penzance," A. J., the main male lead, was a student who had difficulty striding in a masculine manner across the stage, sweeping the female lead in his arms, bending her over backward, and planting a kiss on her lips. He did this business so delicately that it infuriated Antonakos. He shouted from about a third of the way back in the auditorium, "God damn it! Walk like a man and grab her!" Finally, when the student went mincing across the stage again, trying to carry out the directions to be more forceful, Antonakos lost it, and was transformed into "The Mad Greek." He came storming down the aisle, bounded up the steps to the stage, shoved the actor out of the way, almost knocking him down, then with a

36

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Figure 2.2. Ham actor, lawyer in

the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta, "Trial by Jury" at Appalachian. (Photo: Antonakos, 1947).

forceful stride crossed the stage toward the waiting maiden, whose eyes were wide, revealing a touch of fear. He grabbed her violently, and racked her back against his arm, and flat-planted a kiss on her cheek, saying, "That's the way I want it done, but don't miss her lips!" We were frozen in place like statues on the stage. No one dared move or speak. When he returned to mid-auditorium he said, "Now do it!" Poor A. J., looked drained of blood, and we could see he was shaking with apprehension. He tried again to stride cross the stage in a forceful manner, but resulted only in repeating his previous efforts. Suddenly a great scream of anguish came from the auditorium, as though a banshee had been loosed amongst us--Aaaaahga! Antonakos was jumping up and down in the aisle, waving his arms about like a windmill, and tearing his hair. In a frenzy, he looked around as though searching for a weapon, and spied his feet. He reached down and snatched off one of his shoes and, winding up like a pitcher in a baseball game, flung it at A. J. with all his strength--then he snatched off his sock and flung that, but it didn't make it to the stage. A. J. saw it coming and was

able to dodge the shoe, but he stomped off the stage, followed by the leading lady. That ended rehearsal that night. The next day, the rumor was that both the leads had quit the play while demanding an apology from Antonakos. They reported the incident to the administration, but I don't know what that reaction was. In any event, the apology was apparently made, for "the play must go on," which it did. It was something of a hit, and A. J. must have practiced a lot, because his business improved immensely. After graduating, A. J. made a profession of performing in nightclubs in New York, I believe, and then ended up in the Bahamas, where he performed professionally for many years. I heard A. J. was such a popular entertainer the Duke and Duchess of Windsor dubbed him an honorary knight. From that time on he was known as "Sir Judson." Antonakos' wife became ill and they returned to Greece. He was one o f the most creative and inspirational artist/scientists I have ever known. He taught advanced calculus and physics. He was a workaholic, and often as I passed the science building late at night, I would see the light

Appalachian Stories and After

on in his laboratory-the only one in the building. He was known for requiring a great deal of his students, and seldom gave high grades. Word was Antonakos never gave an "A" because "No student I've ever met deserved an "A" on anything." A group o f students who usually made "A" on their papers in other courses went to the student council and to the administration in an attempt to force Antonakos to give an "A" grade. However, the administration backed him up for fear of interfering with his academic freedom. The students protested, "What about our academic freedom?" The students felt betrayed by the system. One night, after an Appalachian football game in which our team had been defeated, a group of disgruntled students upset over the lack of high grades, rioted beneath his window. They wrote, "Fire the Mad Greek" on the sidewalk and threw rocks and bottles at his third floor window. The campus police had to break up the demonstration. He may have been a mad Greek, but he was a wonderfully outstanding and inspirational genius of a mad man. I never took a course from him because I didn't think I was smart enough to pass his course, not to mention making an "A." Because of the shortage of men during the war, and my fifth grade interest in photography, he accepted my acting and singing efforts in his plays.

37 for me. I was a stranger there. After that I walked away from music Before I walked out the door, however, I later sang the role of Antonio with the Greensboro Opera Association's performance of "The Gondoliers" (Greensboro Opera Association Program 1950 7, 18) another Gilbert and Sullivan operetta in addition to the starring roles I had had in "The Pirates of Penzance," and "Trial by Jury," sung while I was at Appalachian.

Photography School Pays Off In my junior year, I put in a proposal to take all the photographs for the yearbook, called The 1948 Rhododendron. To my surprise, I got the contract, the first ever awarded to a nonprofessional photographic studio. It was my first professional photography contract. I had underbid the professional companies in Charlotte on the project. That year I was elected "Most Valuable" among campus superlatives (Lantz, ed. 1948:118, 125). In 1949, my senior year, I again was awarded the contract to take the photographs for the annual

I Had a Song to Sing--Opera Was My Dream Just before my senior year I dropped my major in voice, but I performed my senior recital anyway, on April 29, 1949. I sang arias from Handel's "Messiah," "Di Provenza il Mar" from "La Traviata," by Verdi, "Largo al Factotum," from the "Barber of Seville," by Rossini and my favorite, "Glory Road," by Wolf, as well as songs by Schubert, Schumann and others. I was pleased to see a packed house for the performance, with people standing around the walls of the auditorium to hear me sing. I ate it up like the ham I was! But my swan song had been sung because the mathematics of music was too much Figure 2.3. The Appalachian Rhododendron 1948 yearbook

photographer at work. (Photo: Austin South, 1948)

38

Rhododendron of 1949. That year I was elected "Most Versatile" among the campus superlatives (Graham, ed. 1949:116). At Appalachian I took courses in art, weaving, band, voice and theatre. But I believe it was my photography and singing that provided the exposure to receive that superlative designation. If you are an actor, there's no limit into what office you may be elected.

The Rat's Den--Moving into the System Through my association with Antonakos in plays, I learned that one of the classrooms on the ground floor of the Administration Building, filled with old stage sets, had unused space. I asked him if I could move some of the sets aside to make space to photograph students for the Appalachian yearbook, and he said I could. When that was done, with the help of Walter Boone and J. R. Brendell, two o f my friends, we took over most of the space for a study room as well. I put a hasp and padlock on the door and gave Antonakos a key. J. R., the artist, made a drawing of a rat and we posted it with an official looking sign saying, "Rat's Den." We had taken over personal possession of a large space in the Administration Building! One day, J. R. came to me in a great hurry and said, "Gimmie the keys to your car! I can't explain! I'll be back soon," so I tossed him the keys to my 1929 Chevrolet sedan. He retumed an hour later and returned the keys and I asked him what the great panic had been. He said he had found a large ring of keys a professor had left in his door lock while teaching a class. J. R. had rushed to the Watauga Hardware store and had duplicates made. I said, "J. R., isn't that illegal?" He said, "Duh!" and left to replace the keys in the door. I didn't want to know what he was going to do with the set he had. Toward the end of the quarter, at exam time, I was in the Rat's Den around 11 p.m. with Walt Boone studying, when J. R. came in laughing hysterically. We asked him what was so funny. He said he needed a copy of the exam he was to take the next day in the course taught by the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION professor from whom he had duplicated the keys. He was having difficulty telling the story, because he was laughing so hard tears were coming into his eyes. He decided to use the office door key to get into the office to get an advance copy of the examination so he could be assured of a good grade. He unlocked the door and just as it opened he saw someone in the room, in a panic, suddenly scramble out the window and onto the hedge below. He thought it was the professor who had been lying in wait for just such a happening, but then he realized that the professor wouldn't have dived out the window. He ran to the window and heard cussing as the student who had fallen into the bushes untangled himself and ran across the grass. Some student had had the same idea that J. R. had! J. R. saw that a file cabinet was open, and when he looked with his flashlight, he saw a folder containing a packet of exams to be given the next day, and rescued one. The next day when the professor was passing out the exams for his last class--the one J. R. was in, he didn't have enough. He knew then what must have happened, and said, "Could some of you use your copy of the exam, I seem to have run out." Later J. R. told me that the guy who had jumped out the window had taken a hand-full of exams and did a brisk business selling them in the dorm until they ran out, leaving him with his illgotten gains. Once the professor became aware of what had happened, he announced to his classes that the final exam was invalid. He gave a tough pop-quiz instead of a printed one, saying that on the next exam he would simply announce that his door was unlocked in case anyone wanted to try that trick again, but he was taking the examinations home with him.

College Wrestling--Not Theatre I never participated in sports beyond parallel bars in high school. I became peripherally aware of college wresting, however, when Ben, the cousin Virginia had fallen in love with, shared my room when he lived with us. He would tell me

Appalachian Stories and After about the training, the dieting before a match, and of the great adrenaline rush that came after pinning an opponent to the mat. He sometimes dreamed he was wrestling and I would have to wake him up to remind him he wasn't in a match. The Appalachian wrestling team was famous for its record of success in defeating the teams it faced. I knew of the strict regimen Coach Watkins imposed on his wrestlers. He had a difficult time scheduling meets since no other team coach wanted to face his wrestlers, because it seemed they were invariably defeated. His strategies involved specifically detailed instruction, I learned, when I watched the practice sessions, because I was interested, not because I was a wrestler. Watkins was down on the mat on his knees watching the position of two of his wrestlers locked in combat. Then he said, "Stop!" at which time neither moved while he examined closely who had hold of w h a t - - w h e r e - - a n d how. He then reached under the opponents and touch a hand and said, "When you have your opponent in this hold, move this hand from where you have it, and place it back here," and he moved the hand to the new position. Then he said, "When you move your hand to that position the opponent will assume it's a false move on your part, and will make a move to your left. The minute he does that he will be off-balance and you can then flip him over using leverage from the new position of your hand." Then he said, "Now try it." In that manner he would stop, instruct in great detail the holds each man had, and explain how they could work to advantage or how to defend against it. There is no comparison between college wrestling and professional wrestling, which is simply a theatrical performance. Real wrestling is college wrestling--an elite sport depending on mental concentration as well as muscle. One of the strategies Watkins used took place long before the meet. For several days before the official weigh-in, when the weight of a wrestler was used to match opponents within a weight-range, Watkins wrestlers starved themselves by strict diets to force their weight down.

39 For instance, if a lightweight range was from 100 pounds to 120 pounds, he would have his middleweight wrestlers, usually weighing five or more pounds above the 120 limit, on a strict diet before the weigh-in. That way they would weigh-in at less than 120 and be qualified as a lightweight. The weights were usually recorded the day before a meet. After the weigh-in there was always a rush to eat a steak, potatoes, bananas, and other good stuff to recover strength for the bout the next day. This strategy ended up pitting his middleweights against the opponent's lightweights, giving the Appalachian men an upfront advantage. A point system was used, and Coach Watkins went to great lengths to emphasize how to use that to your advantage when you were outclassed by an opponent.. Judges of matches sat at a table near the mat and awarded points as they saw them. A bout might appear to the observer as a tie, but to the skilled eye of the experienced judges, the point system determined the winner. For example, if your opponent had your back down on the mat, almost putting both your shoulders flat down to win the match, and you broke his hold and jumped to your feet, you received points for that move. If, when you were standing at the beginning of the match, and you suddenly dropped, grabbed a leg, and threw your opponent to the mat, you gained points for that.

Wimpy versus Atlas--Courage The most dramatic and inspirational example of mind over muscle occurred when I watched our overweight, oval-shaped, flabby-looking, heavyweight, Bolo Pardue, matched against an opponent who looked like Charles Atlas (with lots of highly developed muscles), in a match to determine the state championship. The contrast between those opponents was almost comical. Our team and the opposing team were tied on points, with this heavyweight match determining the championship. The "Atlas" wrestler stood up before the match flexing his muscles like Bluto in Popeye cartoons, prancing around, bouncing up and down, and looking confidently menacing

40 toward Bolo, who on the other hand, looked soft and unsure of himself, like Wimpy in Popeye cartoons, appearing to be defeated before the match began. In the first part of the match "Atlas" almost pinned Bolo on several occasions, but Bolo was able to jump up and add to his point score, frustrating the attempt. In the last round of the match, the coin was flipped, and "Atlas" won the advantaged position above Bolo on their knees as the bout began. I should say here, if the wrestlers ever crossed the foul line at the edge of the mat they had to break and move again to the center of the mat. The one having the advantage at the time the foul line was crossed then had the superior position as the bout began again. As the referee slapped the mat to begin the bout, Bolo would begin crawling toward the foul line because he simply did not have the muscle strength to withstand a long period of struggle against "Atlas." This forced "Atlas" to not only try to turn Bolo over, but to try to prevent him from reaching the foul line at the edge of the mat until he could get him turned over. Occasionally Bolo was able to catch his opponent off guard as he struggled with Bolo's blubber attempting to roll him over. Then Bolo would suddenly use all his strength to stand to his feet to gain a point. And so it went, with the entire end of the bout devoted to Bolo courageously crawling toward the foul line Of course, in the stands we were cheering Bolo on, totally impressed with the valiant struggle he was making against a superior foe. Finally it became a matter of clock-watching, with "Atlas" putting on his best effort against the blob of Bolo face down on the canvas. Finally, the buzzer sounded and the match was over. Bolo lay still on his belly on the mat with his eyes closed suddenly able to relax after his ordeal. Meanwhile "Atlas" stood up, raised his arms up with his hands together in a gesture of winning, bounced up and down on his toes, giving the back of his neck a toweling-off by pulling it back and forth-and smiled a victory smile. He waved to his admirers in the audience.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Back on the mat, Bolo was still lying on his face. Attendants rolled him over, and put smelling salts beneath his nose to help him regain consciousness. When it was realized that he was out cold, the crowd sat, quietly watching and waiting to see when Bolo was going to come to. Then an announcement came over the loudspeaker asking if there was a doctor in the house. A doctor walked out from the bleachers to the mat and knelt down beside Bolo--out cold on his back. Then, the judges handed their scores for the opponents to the referee. He went to the ring and stood by the inert form of Bolo. "Atlas, stood beside him, still waving to the crowd. In a loud voice, the official announced the scores, but not the names. Then he said, "And the winner is...!" and he bent over, reached down, picked up Bolo's hand from the mat, and held up his arm in the traditional winner's signal. Bolo had won the match on his skillful use of his mind, courage and tenacity over superior muscular opposition! The entire gym exploded in a tremendous standing ovation for the most exciting bout any of us were ever to witness. Then, just as suddenly, as they began to roll Bolo onto a portable stretcher, the crowd again became silent. Four men carried him from the mat toward a wheeled stretcher being rolled in by ambulance attendants. Then, as they placed the stretcher onto the gumey, Bolo moved. As we watched, he sat up on one elbow on the gumey, waved to the crowd, and received another ovation. Tears were streaming down the faces of many in the crowd that night. The next day and in the days to follow, Bolo was the hero of the campus and Appalachian had won the state college wrestling championshil>--thanks to Bolo's heroic effort against great odds. Watkins and his team had done it again. College wrestling is one-onone character building for those who participate--as well as for those who only watch such display of courage.

Appalachian Stories and After

Jewell--Struck by Cupid's Arrow During my senior year I passed a group of three freshmen girls as I approached steps leading to the bookstore. One was so striking that half way up I was struck dumb, stopped, turned around, and watched as they moved away from me. As I stood there watching, the beauty looked back at me, and smiled--she had noticed me! That made my day, and as it turned out, that moment played a major role in my life. When I saw her again, I turned to the nearest person I saw, and asked if they knew the beauty's name. "Jewell something," was the reply. Because I was taking the photographs for the Appalachian yearbook, I had a list of all the students registered that fall quarter. I began looking down the list of 2,000 or so students until I found a "Jewel"-Jewel Key, It was my responsibililty to post throughout campus the appointment schedule for each of the students to have their picture taken by me for the yearbook. The students whose names began with A and B were scheduled for the first day. However, because I was anxious to meet the beauty I had seen, i scheduled Jewel Key at the end of the Bs for the first day of shooting. This last appointment of the day would allow me plenty of time to meet her and ask her for a date. But--the best laid plans . . . . I was photographing student after student, with a line waiting in the hall to have their picture taken. Suddenly, in the busiest part of the afternoon, the beauty walked in. I was surprised, and said to her, "You are early, aren't you?" She replied that she was right on schedule, at 3 p.m. I asked her to take a seat on the posing stool, and went to the desk to see who had been scheduled for 3 p.m. There I found that her name was Jewell Barnhardt, scheduled for 3 p.m. There were two freshmen named Jewell! I had missed this Jewell when I looked over the list. In spite of the long line waiting, I took my time, and took several poses of this woman. My assistant noticed that I took more than the usual two shots, and said, "You went a little overboard on that one didn't you?" And I replied that I had been flat-bowled

41 over. Needless to say, the timing wasn't right for me to try to get more acquainted with her. By the end of the day I had forgotten all about Jewel Key. The line was gone, and the last person in line came into the camera room and said, "I don't understand why I was scheduled with the "B" names, my name is Key - Jewel Key. I had never seen her before. I burst out laughing, and she looked concerned and asked, "What did I say?" I had to explain to her why I kept smiling and giggling at my mistake, and she joined in my laughter. In the months to follow, when I would pass her on campus, we would speak and smile at the secret we shared. I called Jewell Barnhardt at her dorm that night and asked her for a date, and as they say, the rest is history. We were married the next summer, and had three children, David, Robert, and Lara. She joined in my archaeological interest and became a valuable professional assistant, as well as a beloved companion in life.

"I Never Killed A Man Didn't Need Killing!"-A Lesson in History and FolMore When I was a junior at Appalachian in 1948, I had become interested in writing the story I had heard from Daddy about my Potter kinfolks who had quite a reputation for violence in Northwestern North Carolina, particularly his cousins Clarence and Daniel Boone ("Boonie"). When I lost my temper as a child Daddy would say, "Now don't let your Potter blood rise!" What he was referring to was the fact that around the turn of the century Clarence and Boonie were charged with murder (with Clarence sentenced to hang in 1903). They were related to the South family because my great-grandfather Stephen South married "Polly" Potter (South 1996a: 4). As a result of my interest Daddy and my sister, Marjorie and I visited "Booger" Enoch Potter, the oldest of the Potters living at that time, and got him to tell about what he knew about Boonie and Clarence Potter around the turn of the century, In the 1890s until the early twentieth century, some members of the Potter family were known as moonshiners, outlaws and bushwackers,

42

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

probably in part because they favored the side of the North during the Civil War (South 1996a: 2733). I had thoughts of writing a novel based on the Potter story, but what I learned from "Booger" Enoch was not enough to help much in that direction (South 1996a: 27-33). I would wait until a decade passed before I would again pick up my interest in the Potter story and decades more before I would publish the story--not a novel (South 1996a). I was a stranger to the world of the novelist. A fact I discovered after three attempts, "Decision for Love," "Cuz," and "Groundhog B o y " - - a l l miserable efforts. Two o f those efforts attempted to address the Potter story. Because of their reputation, many people feared the Potters (including the Sheriff), and they steered clear o f the Tamarack community where the Potters lived. In 1891 a newspaper reported that, "The sheriff has had out a posse o f 200 men after the Potter crowd, but at last accounts had not succeeded in getting them" (South 1996a: 24). That same article, referring to a shoot-out between the Potters and a man named Jerrals, an incident known to people in Boone as "The Jerrals War," said (South 1996a:24):

War" (South 1996a: 45-50). He had been shot in the spine as he tried leaping a fence during an escape when he and Clarence had been arrested for shooting up the town of Boone (South 1996a: 49). "That slowed him down some," as Clarence once said about one o f the men he killed. My last two years at Appalachian were so filled with activity that I didn't follow up on the Potter story. Then, one day in 1958, Daddy told me that Clarence was still alive but had recently been sick, and was living in Tennessee. Jewell and I visited Clarence at his home where he lived alone, to interview him about his past. He had difficulty getting around and while Jewell and I sat on the porch with him, I asked Clarence how he managed to catch a chicken for his dinner. He reached into the bib of his overalls and pulled out a small pearl-handled pistol, and said, "I just say, 'Here diddle, diddle, diddle!, chickee, chickee, chickee!' and they come and I just blow the head

To begin with, it seems that this Potter crowd is a lot of desperate fellows, numbering 12 or 15. They are said to be related and in communication with the Kentucky Potters, famous in connection with the Potter-Hatfield feud. These fellows have for a long time been trafficking in liquor, occasionally coming over into the mountains of Wilkes [County] for supplies, in defiance of revenue or state laws. I also met and interviewed Sam Trivette, a millwright, who built a boat for me, called "Sally Jewetl," to use on Tater Hill Lake---on the bank of which our family weekend cabin was located. Sam had been the gunsmith for Boonie and Clarence Potter, keeping their guns in good operating condition a decade after the "Jerrals

Figure 2.4. Clarence Potter on his porch with his dog.

(Photo: South 1958) off of one of 'era. I crawl out there after it quits flopping around, and dress it, and pop it in the oven, or sometimes I fry it." That incident scared Jewell so badly she refused to return later for

Appalachian Stories and After

another visit. But, the years passed and still no muse had paid me a visit to allow me to work all the information into a novel. Finally, to my surprise, my sister, Elizabeth Storie (1990), published her Potter story mentioned above, and I decided that the muse of fiction had passed me by, so I put together the notes I had and in 1996, I published a book with a title given me by Clarence, as he talked about the eight men he had killed (South 1996a: 60): "Why is it, I wonder, that back in the days when those people ran around wearing them arn [iron] suits--what were they called?" "Knights?" I offered, "Yeah! Knights! Why was it they could go around protecting some woman's honor and they got rewarded for it, but if you do it now a-days they put you in the pen" There ain't no justice! I'll tell you one thing, though, I never killed a man didn't need killing!" Using documents and interviews with the primary characters in this tale, and photographs I took when I visited Clarence Potter, I used Clarence's words to compile a book called I Never Killed a Man Didn "t Need Killing! The dream I had at Appalachian in 1948 was finally realized--not as a fictional novel, but as a story told from documents and interviews (South 1996).

Graduation-"Five Ds and an E in Algebra Equals a Passing Grade in Biology" When graduation from Appalachian was almost near each Senior had to check with the Registrar to make sure all requirements had been met to graduate. When Mr. Eggers looked at my record he said, "You can't graduate! You've never taken biology and that's a basic requirement before you graduate." I admitted I hadn't because it required a full afternoon of laboratory work in addition to the classroom schedule. I had been busy, busy, b u s y - - t o o busy to "waste" that much time from my other involvements. I always

43 thought I would sign up for it next year. He said, "Well, let's see what I can do about that," as he looked at my grade record. Then he noticed that I had taken two years of algebra and had made Ds the first five quarters and an E on the last quarter. He said, "You didn't catch onto math very well did you?" I said that was an understatement. Then he made my d a y - and my BS degree. He said, "Five Ds and an E in algebra equals a passing grade in biology, don't you think?" With great relief I laughed and agreed wholeheartedly, as he checked the box indicating I had had biology. What a nice man! I thanked him for that and he said he could justify that checkmark, because I was graduating in elementary education, a field dominated by females, and male teachers were highly sought after at the time.

After Appalachian Flat-Earthers--On the Carpet for Teaching the Earth Is Round I taught science and social studies to eighth graders at Proximity Junior High School in Greensboro in 1949-51. I decided then that teaching high school students who didn't want to learn was the hardest work ever devised. My "teaching" involved giving classroom assignments that would keep them busy, while I read Will Durant's book series on philosophy and the humanities, The Story o f Civilization. Later, when I quit teaching, I continued reading until I had read 10 of the 11 volumes to see how it all came out. Good background for later years. One day my principal called me to the office and reported that the Superintendent of Greensboro schools had called and asked that he set up a meeting to answer a serious complaint against my teaching. The superintendent didn't know what the complaint was, but said I should be prepared to defend myself at a meeting with the parents of one of my students. I couldn't imagine what I had said that would call for such a high-level hearing. We met in the principal's office, where I was introduced to the parents and the superintendent.

44 He reported that the parents were very disturbed about something I had been teaching, and had asked for this hearing so that the superintendent could hear the charges, and take any needed action that might result. He then turned the meeting over to the spokesman for the parents. The father of the student said I had been teaching things that went against the Bible and they wanted something done about it. He had brought his Bible along with a passage marked. He said that the Bible said that an angel stood at each comer of the earth holding it up. He said that that was clear evidence that the earth was flat, and I had been teaching that the earth was round, which was clearly against the Bible. "If the earth is round, as Mr. South claims, how can an angel hold up each corner? " he asked. "We want that kind of teaching stopped!" he told the superintendent. I looked at my principal and raised my eyebrows in question, and glanced at the superintendent, and stifled a smile, as I noticed his face begin to turn a darker shade of pink as he wiped the surprise from his face. He then did a masterful piece of explaining--I had not meant to go against religious beliefs. I was only teaching what a number of science books were saying, and shouldn't be blamed for that. He tried manfully to pour oil on the troubled waters on our flat earth, as the parent kept returning to the theme that my teaching was in violation of what the Bible said, and what their church taught. I took great pleasure in watching this exchange. It was all I could do to keep a straight face, as the discussion continued between the superintendent and the parent. Then the mother spoke up for the first time, saying that I also was teaching evolution, and their church was strongly against that teaching, which went against the Bible. She said, "If Adam and Eve were created by God in the Garden of Eden, as the Bible says, then evolution didn't happen." She said I should be instructed not to teach evolution. Again, I watched as the superintendent tiptoed through that Scopes' field of tulips, pointing out that the Textbook

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Commission chose the science textbooks, and evolution was a theory discussed in those texts. He suggested the parents might want to take that up with t h e m - - a neat cop-out. I was elated that he had to defend my teaching over such issues, and not some problem with my methods. He had brought the situation on himself because he had not inquired more fully into what the charges against me were before he set up the hearing. After the parents had gone the principal quickly apologized to me as the superintendent escorted the parents to their car and then quickly disappeared in his own.

"Teaching" School--Baby Sitting As I mentioned above, teaching those determined not to learn is a thankless and difficult undertaking for which no education course prepared me. Sometimes the noise level was so high from the math class across the hall that I pitied the poor teacher who was trying to deal with the chaos. Through force of voice and bearing I was able to nip in the bud those who caused disturbance. I determined that behavior would not be allowed in my classroom. I soon discovered that I had no success in connecting children to ideas--children who didn't want to learn. If that was an indicator of success, I was not a very good teacher. When I was the same age as my students I had been driven to absorb all the received knowledge available to me to share with others. But to have a room full of learning-resisters was anathema to me. Consequently, I never got to know the students, nor their families. I assigned reading from the textbook during class (I had discovered that almost none ever read at home), and gave exams and discussed the reading the following day. That allowed me to maintain quiet so I could read Will Durant's volumes on the history of civilization. In terms of interacting with students I was simply a baby sitter keeping a room full of hormone-driven kids quiet. I was anxious to escape this hell. So after two years of that I walked away from teaching.

AppalachianStories and After It wasn't until 30 years later, when I would teach graduate students interested in learning about archaeology, that I found the real j o y of teaching that comes from exchanging ideas with young students eager to learn.

Imposing Discipline In the Greensboro school system in 1950, teachers were backed by a strong system of control over discipline problems. If a student disrupted the class three times the principal was notified, and if the student had caused trouble in another class, corporal punishment was administered. One of my students was determined to upset the class with c/owning for the audience, shouting across the room, standing up on his chair and gesturing obscenely, etc. The principal closed the door to his office, and told the boy to drop his pants and lay his chest across a chair. He then took a razor strap from his desk and administered three solid whacks to the boy's behind that was protected only by his underwear. The blows made my hair stand on end. The boy was tough, however, and although tears flowed from his eyes he did not cry. That was a lesson to me as well as to him. I never took another one to the office. When that treatment was not enough of a cure, the principal simply called the police and they came and arrested the boy and put him in jail, where his parents had to bail him out. This stepped-punishment process was effective in allowing the principal to maintain control and provided strong discipline support for the teaching staff. I believe such teacher-support from school administrators is virtually unheard of a half century later.

Learning from Students One of my students, who often disrupted class through his comedic antics, always had a smile on his face as though we had just shared a joke. This was in spite of the fact he often had to stay in detention with me after school for his disruptive laugh-provoking comments during class. He did none of the assignments and seemed to like me in

45 spite of my efforts to quiet his disruptive behavior. I checked the records and found his I.Q. was less than 50 and he could not read the eighth grade textbook. I told him to go to the library and bring back a book he could read. When he returned he brought a story about Dick and Jane and Spot. I asked him if he would like to read that kind of book when others were reading the textbook. He flashed me a wide grin and we had an agreement. He was to copy the title and author of the books he read onto a list. Periodically I would quiz him on the titles with the book in my hand. To my amazement I discovered he virtually had total recall, describing in detail each story. When he occasionally paused he would ask me to show him the picture on that page and that would then prompt his reciting of the story. I was impressed, and by the end of the year he had read and reported to me on 54 books at the third and forth grade level, but his attitude had totally changed and he was like a scholar in class each day, concentrating on reading his stack of books. The discipline problem was solved--with an important lesson to me regarding work assignments in conformity with the learning level of the student--it changes attitude. He had never passed a grade since the third, but for "socialization reasons" he had moved on through the system, but that year, because of his willingness to work hard at the level of his capability, he passed my class. Later, at a PTA meeting his parents sought me out and enthusiastically shook my hand and thanked me, saying they were so proud of their son for the grade I had given--all others being Fs. Another student absolutely refused to read the textbook or take any of the examinations I gave, so I was recording only Fs for him. I checked his records and found he had an I. Q. of 140, and was making all "A"s in his other classes. I tried the same strategy on this boy, telling him if he didn't like the textbook he was free to read other sources dealing with the same subject--to construct his own schedule of study in relation to my course, and to be excused from class to go to

46 the library to obtain the science books he might want, at the level of his capability in lieu of the textbook (the one I was required to use was published 22 years before, in 1928, the year I was born!) Still he defiantly refused to produce anything on which I could assign a grade. I spoke to the principal about the problem and he said if the boy wouldn't complete assigned work then he would have to live with the grade he would receive as a consequence. Clearly his attitude problem was not one I could solve. He received an F for my class--a genius hoist on his own petard of stubborness.

Blowing a "Horn in the West"--Lured By the Footlights After two years of teaching I resigned, and in the summer of 1952, I was working as a photographer, negative-retouch artist, and darkroom man in Palmer's Photo Shop in Boone. I saw an announcement for try-outs for the opening season of Kermit Hunter's outdoor drama of the southern Appalachian highlands, "Horn in the West." With my acting experience at Appalachian as background, I thought I had a chance to get a part. As it turned out, I got three parts in the drama: I played the part of the Cherokee Chief Atakulla (stage name for the historic Attacullaculla, known as "The Little Carpenter"). After playing Atakulla, I would change into a colonist, then after another change, I became a British soldier fighting at the Battle of Alamance, a pre-Revolutionary War event. A portent? - - for later, as an archaeologist, I would excavate Native American sites, colonial household sites, and British military sites--I had played the role o f each. As Chief Atakulla the dialogue called for me to speak in Cherokee. Kermit Hunter had obtained authentic Cherokee translation of the words he had Atakulla speaking. I memorized these and at the first rehearsal the dialog I spoke was so long that as I was going on and on in Cherokee, which no one, including myself, understood, the director shouted out, "Enough! Enough! We'll rewrite t h a t ! " - - I shut up."

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION In the future rehearsals the same thing happened--each shortening of the Cherokee made the scene more comical. Finally, when a question was addressed to Atakulla, I would say only a dozen or so Cherokee words, followed by the translation into English by a character acting the part of a British trader. The few words I spoke would be translated as a long diatribe--at which some in the audience always laughed at the amount of Cherokee I spoke compared to the long translation into English by the trader. It was not supposed to be a funny scene. This suited me fine because it meant that what had started out as a whole page of Cherokee for me to memorize, ended up with only a few words. That was a lesson in the serious compromises demanded when reality is transposed into art and storytelling. I was in "Horn in the West" for three seasons, during which I sometimes carried black and blue bruises throughout the two-month season. This resulted from the scene in which I played a British soldier at the Battle of Alamance. The first bit was that a group of us soldiers rushed on stage firing rifles at a group of colonists on the opposite side. My business was to run up the side of a four-foot high fiberglass rock, hunker down, and fire my rifle. One night as I ran up the side of the rock during a performance, I tripped and fell, doing a complete flip in the air, landing on my back, half stunned. After that scene the director came into the dressing room as I was removing my makeup, and said that Kernlit Hunter happened to be in the audience that night, and when I did the fall he was excited at the realism it brought to the attack, and had asked that I repeat that fall every night of the performance. I reluctantly agreed to do it. The only sport in high school, in which I had participated, was gymnastics, so I knew how to flip my six-foot body around in the air upon occasion. However, as I did my flip, after being shot as ! climbed the fake fiberglass rock, I would often land so hard flat on my back that it would knock the wind out of me. I would lie there

AppalachianStories and After

47 On another occasion I was sitting on the sloping bank in the front yard, and beside me was an eroded pockmark in the mowed grass, and there I saw a black v~axy arrowhead that in later years I would identify as a Palmer projectile point. The black chert, I discovered, was likely from Western Virginia, where outcroppings of such stone are found. These discoveries reminded me that Indians once lived on the place I called home. I didn't get any more excited about these worked stone discoveries than I did about finding the cocoon of a cecropia moth, or one of the luna moths we would see each summer flying around the front porch light as we sat and enjoyed the mountain air on a summer evening--they were all a fascinating part of nature.

In the out door drama "Horn in the West," I was a British soldier in the battle of Alamance. (Photo: Jewell South, 1952) Figure 2.5.

while the battle raged on around me, trying to recover from the blow to my body. As a result I spent that summer nursing bruises, but it also toughened me, I thought--as an afterthought. My "brilliant" professional acting career came to an end, however, when in 1954, I left Boone to enter graduate school at Chapel Hill to become an archaeologist.

The Naturalist Collector--Following the Ghost of Virginia As a child in Boone, North Carolina, my parents expected me to work in the garden behind our house, hoeing weeds out of rows of corn, onions, radishes; mounding up ridges of soil around rows of Irish potato plants, and weeding lettuce and asparagus beds. In doing this I once found an arrowhead that I added to my collection of rocks and minerals, butterflies, and other natural things, such as moth cocoons and butterfly chrysalises hung on the walls of my room. We lived in a large two-story home at the foot of the mountain called Howard's Knob that towered as an Appalachian background to my growing up.

Hooked By a Hardaway Point--on the Native American Past It wasn't until I was teaching science in 1950, at Proximity Junior High in Greensboro, North Carolina, that I became more seriously interested in artifacts left by American Indians on the sites they once occupied. I was using the 1928 science textbook supplied by the school system to teach eighth graders. A social science unit required by law, but not in the textbook, was on Indians in North Carolina. Having no textbook on that subject, I decided to use as visual aids some arrowheads that I might find in the fields around Greensboro. It was for this purpose that Jewell, and I, on a Saturday, went on a field trip in my 1935 Plymouth. We reasoned that Indians might have had to move along the riverbank to look for game that had come to the water to drink. We also theorized that they might have camped at the point of land where fresh water streams entered the river. We got a county map and found such a place, where a bridge crossed a small stream, and there we saw a small cornfield with the rows of brown stalks rustling their leaves in the morning breeze. We walked up and down the rows looking at the rainwashed ground beneath our feet. It was there I found, not by accident this time, a thin arrowhead that I was to later learn, was not an arrowhead but

48

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

a spear point, commonly called a projectile point by archaeologists at the time. It had little protruding notched ears on the side, reminding me of ram's horns. This was an exciting discovery to us because we had "proved" our theory as to where such objects could be found. I took it to show to the students in my classes and explained my reasoning and the discovery that followed. In order to learn more about what I was supposed to be teaching, but about which I knew little, I bought a copy of The American Indian in North He lived in Carolina, by Douglas Rights. Winston Salem, which was on the road between Greensboro and Boone, so I called him and told him about our find and described it to him. He said it was sometimes called a "ram's horn spear point," but that he would have to see it to be sure. I made an appointment with him the next time we visited my parents in Boone, to show it to him and to learn more about it.

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Figure 2.6. The Hardaway projectile point that shot me into archaeology. (Photo: Daryl Miller 11/2003)

Dr. Rights received us cordially, and in introducing himself he told us he was a Moravian

minister, having been trained in a Methodist theological school, after which he began ministering as a Moravian. He said that Moravians didn't train their own ministers and jokingly said, "Thank the Lord for the Methodists! Without them there would be few trained Moravian ministers." When I showed him the projectile point we had found he was excited. He said, "Joffre Coe, at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, is the man you should see. He's calling this type 'ram's horn' point 'Hardaway', named for the construction company owning the site where Coe found such points." He also told us that Coe was the only archaeologist in North Carolina, but he was not the most receptive to amateur relic collectors because they dug on sites and destroyed the archaeological record. But because the point we had found was so early, he thought Coe would be glad to talk with me and look at the point. I asked how early he thought it might be. He said that the general thinking in recent years was that American Indians had been on the North American continent no longer than 2,000 years, but recent evidence suggested that Indians had come into America around 8,000 B.C. At the time he had published his book, a few years before, he had said that: "Investigations thus far in North Carolina give little evidence of great antiquity for Indian residence in this state" (Rights 1947:xi). However, he explained, Professor Coe was among those few who were saying that the Hardaway point probably dated as early as 8,000 B.C. When I called Professor Coe he said he would be glad to look at the Hardaway point I had found. When we met in Chapel Hill he verified what Dr. Rights had told me, and explained what was taking place at the Research Laboratories of Anthropology at UNC. As a result of finding the Hardaway point Jewell and I had begun looking for sites in Watauga County. Professor Coe emphasized the need to record carefully the location of the sites we found--I told him I was already doing that.

AppalachianStories and After After our visit, at every opportunity in 1951 and 1952, Jewell and I, with our young son, David, in a car seat carrier hanging from my shoulders on my back, conducted an archaeological survey of sites in Watauga County (South 1952). I was guided in this by reading archaeological reports by Clarence Webb on sites in Kentucky as well as the Bureau of American Ethnology reports I had read.

Archaeological Site Survey--"Ferreting Phantom Footsteps Fast Fading Forever" By 1952, Jewell and I had completed our survey of sites in Watauga County and I had prepared a report that I took to Chapel Hill for Dr. Coe to place on file there (South 1952). We found that Archaic Period projectile points (which we were later to learn were known as Savannah River, Guilford, Halifax, Kirk, and Morrow Mountain types) were to be found in the gaps between mountains, or on exposed hilltops, but pottery was to be found on the small bottomlands adjacent to the rivers. We recorded and drew sketch maps of 27 sites, including a steatite outcrop at which we found a number of unfinished, oval soapstone bowls with lug handles (WtX25), one of which was still attached to the bedrock from which it was being carved when work on it stopped. I took photographs of it and the quarry site, and made measured drawings of each vessel. We found a wide variety of pitted "nutting" stones in the ridge top fields. Even grassy ridge tops contained many of these stones lying on top of the grass. On one such field our son, David, who was just learning to walk at that time, found a mole running across the grass, which he chased with his toy hoe. We filmed his adventure with the mole on 8mm movie film, as we did the discovery of projectile points, atlatl weights, and other artifacts as they were discovered. I held the camera in one hand and filmed my other hand picking up the objects as I saw them. From this footage I edited an 8mm movie called, "We Three," which documented our survey.

49 The sites in the bottomlands produced what I was to later learn was steatite tempered Burke Complicated Stamped pottery (Moore 1999: 102, 2002). Not having been trained in methodology at the time, but knowing that it was important to put the site number and specimen number on sherds, I assigned a separate number to each individual sherd, rather than simply a group provenience number. I also photographed the artifacts in detail, made tables of sherds using 25 attributes and recorded lithic specimens using nine stone types. I drew rim profiles of pottery, and produced tables showing the percentage relationships--all good self-training for a future career in archaeology. This survey was done at lunchtime when I was working in the photography shop. Jewell would show up with a packed lunch and we would drive out of Boone for a two- hour hunt for archaeological sites. To make up for the extra lunch hour, I worked overtime in the darkroom in the late afternoon. Our dedication was such that one occasion we were walking the rows in an old tobacco field when it began to snow. We continued to pick up sherds until the ground was so white we had to abandon our survey for the day. Word got out in the community of our activities and I was invited to give a talk to the Boone Lions Club on our search for the Native American past in Watauga County. This was my first slide talk on our archaeological survey. I was asked to give the title of my presentation for the program. I had laughed at the title of a nineteenth century article on site surveying I had read in one of the BAE reports, I believe, entitled, "Ferreting Phantom Footsteps Fast Fading Forever." I thought it would be a suitable title for my first talk on our search for information on the first inhabitants of the area. I was going to explain the title in my talk, making the point that such carefully recorded surveys needed to be made before plowing and other activities erased forever the data that was to be found lying around relatively undisturbed in the valleys and ridges around Boone. However,

50 when the talk was over and we were at dinner, I suddenly remembered that I had not explained the title and that the audience had gone away thinking that the title was a serious one - - which it was in the sense that it is an expression of what archaeologists are up to. Now, over a half-century later, thousands of public service archaeologists nationwide are still "ferreting phantom footsteps fast-fading forever," and the need is greater now than ever that the ferreting continue.

Using Politics in Archaeological Research-BAE Reports As I became involved in the site survey of Watauga County I needed to learn all I could about the American Indians so I contacted the Bureau of American Ethnology and asked about ordering copies of their bulletins. The spokesman told me that in order to get older back issues I would have to go through my Congressman. Robert L. Doughton, Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, who had, in 1944, at Daddy's request, nominated m e as a candidate for attending West Point. I asked Daddy if he would write Congressman Doughton requesting the Bureau of American Ethnology to send me back issues of their annual reports and bulletins-that I was interested in archaeology and needed these government publications for research. One day, a couple of months later, on a visit to my parents, I found three large heavy boxes sitting on the porch. They contained enough BAE reports to keep me busy reading for months to come. This reading was influential in helping me to understand what was going on in ethnology and archaeology as revealed in those volumes. Reading these books and those published by the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of Kentucky were a good introduction to anthropological archaeology that would help prepare me for my later graduate school days at the University of North Carolina. Before I joined the Navy in 1945, after my punctured eardrum kept me out of West Point, my parents took me to Washington where we visited

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Congressman Doughton's office. He showed us around the capitol building and he and daddy talked politics at some length. Later Daddy told us what Doughton had told him about his strategy in getting through Congress, the National Blue Ridge Parkway down the top of the Appalachian Mountains from Maine to Georgia. He said he knew that it would cost an enormous amount of money to do that and to introduce such a costly bill would have meant instant defeat in Congress. So, he laid out the idea in a bill, but asked for only a small amount of money for a few miles of road. This bill passed. Then in each subsequent session he asked for another short section and in so doing, through the years, the Parkway was eventually completed. A visitor center named for Doughton is located on the parkway.

Geology--An Archaeology Companion-Finding A River on Grandfather Mountain During the time Jewell and I were conducting the archaeological survey of Watauga County I realized I needed to know more about the stone the Native Americans had used to make their tools. I contacted Dr. Julian Yoder, who taught geology at Appalachian, and asked if he would take me as a student. He said no one else had signed up for the course that quarter but he would teach me anyway if I could come to his home for our sessions. Jewell and I had sought out places where garnets were found in Ashe County, where limonite pseudo-morphs-after-pyrite crystals two inches on the side (large ones with excurvate sides) in Rockingham County, and we even found zircons in a farmer's field. We were leaming by collecting specimens directly from the sources. I had always been told that Grandfather Mountain near Boone was the oldest mountain range, far older than the Rockies (only 60 million years). But I wanted to know why that was. What evidence was there that allowed that statement to be made? I read what was available and Dr. Yoder told me that somewhere on the upper slope of the Grandfather there was

AppalachianStories and After

conglomerate [river-worn rocks, pebbles and sand turned to stone] from an old river system through which the Appalachian Mountains had thrust up, leaving the river-worn rocks pushed up near the top of the mountain. The ancient age of the mountain was attributed to the fact it had thrust up, hundreds of millions of years ago, through solidified conglomerate of boulders from a river system so old that it had turned to stone before the Appalachian mountains were formed--now that's some old! I wanted to see this evidence for a river on top of a mountain that had resulted in it being labeled as the oldest mountain in the Appalachian range--a grandfather of mountains. Jewell and I set out from Foscoe, a little settlement near the base of Grandfather Mountain, where a marked trail went up the side. We set out to find the trail and soon came to a hole in the side of the mountain where a mine once operated searching for gold, but all that had been found was iron pyrite crystals, some of which we collected before continuing on up to intercept the trail, marked with the bottoms of tin cans nailed to trees along the way. When we approached the first ridge's crest, to our left, we saw a rock outcrop a hundred yards off the trail and went to check it out. We couldn't believe our luck when what we were looking at was a 20-foot high deposit of conglomerate filled with smoothly worn river pebbles, surrounded by the once molten igneous rock that had pushed the river deposit up when the Appalachian Mountains were formed! I took a photograph and we went back down the mountain. Our search for empirical evidence for the oldest mountain was over. But not quite--I wanted to read about what we had found. I went to the Library at Appalachian and searched through everything I could find on the Appalachian range, but was never able to find a description by a geologist of the deposit we had seen. The nearest I found were vague statements such as, "It is said that Grandfather Mountain is the oldest mountain in the Appalachian range." It was statements such as that that I had set out to

51

verify. Perhaps by now, 50 years later, there are excellent descriptions of what we saw, complete with photographs to demonstrate the evidence. At mid-century, however, why Grandfather Mountain was considered old was like a rumor floating around. Zircons-"The Yellow Corn Borer" My need to understand rocks and minerals increased as an auxiliary to my archaeological interest. An acquaintance told me about a farmer's field in the Piedmont where zircons could be found. He said the bad news was the farmer was so tired of zircon hunters tromping through his fields he was using a shotgun loaded with rock salt. He thought that surely the farmer wouldn't see him at night. He knew zircons glowed yellow in the dark when a black light was shined on them, so he thought he would go zircon hunting at night. He was using a black light and crawling up and down cornrows looking for the yellow zircon glow. Suddenly, when he got to the end of a row he saw the barrel of a shotgun in his face. The farmer asked what he was doing crawling up and down in his cornfield. Thinking fast he answered, "I'm with the U. S. Department of Agriculture and I'm searching for the yellow corn borer," and he began shining his black light up and down the cornstalks beside him. "What's that?" the farmer asked. "It's a worm that glows yellow in black light so we have to look for them at night. So far I haven't seen any in your field." "Well, I hope you don't," the farmer said. "Keep up the good work." Not being a very fast thinker I have high admiration for those who can invent yellow corn borers when suddenly stimulated by a shotgun in the face. "Santa Claus Is A Sham"--Richard C h a s e - - A Different Drummer In the mid-50s I met Richard Chase, a folklorist who had gone to the mountains of Western North Carolina to record folktales. He was so captured by the culture he never escaped.

52 He published Jack Tales (Chase 1943), and Grandfather Tales (Chase 1948), and they brought him national recognition. When I knew him he was living in an old trailer near the home of the Harmon family. Jewell and I took our son, David, into the trailer, where Richard took him on his lap and told him about Jack and the giants. A week or two before Christmas each year the Harmon family would hold a party for the community at their home. Richard invited us to attend. Many families in the community had little to share with their children over the holidays, but Richard, through his contacts in New York, had spread the word and gifts and money flowed in. The Hannons bought clothes and toys, and made boxes labeled for each family, with the gifts and clothing sizes earmarked for each family member. One isolated group of folks living in another community further up the mountain felt strongly that "Santa Claus is a sham," and did not participate in the gift giving or receiving. They believed Christmas day should be spent in prayer. Richard and the Harmon family worked on the parents of the children in that community to convince them to allow their children to attend the Christmas party so they could funnel gifts to those poor families. Finally, they agreed that their children could attend and take home gifts, as long as they weren't tied to Santa Claus. Richard convinced them that his New York friends had sent the gifts simply to enrich the lives of others. The evening began with some of the community boys shooting fireworks from the top of the mountain ridge above the valley where the Harmons lived, and where Richard's little antique trailer was parked. After that we went into the house where there was picking and singing, and where Richard told Jack Tales. There was an entire room filled with gifts from New Yorkers and other friends of Richard and the Harmons. It took several hours to pass out that room full of boxes. The adults then were given bags of flour and rice and other commodities to be loaded in their cars. Richard told me that it was ironic that the isolated families, who believed that Santa Claus

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION was a sham, readily believed in the goblins, ghosts, witches, devils, giants and boogers inhabiting those mountain coves--those tricksters that the mountain boy Jack so cleverly outwitted in the tales. Those people saw a difference between the birthday of Christ and Santa Claus, whom they saw as a secular impostor ursurping a holy d a y - - a "holi-day."

Town Creek Indian Mound--an Inspiring Visit When I visited Dr. Coe in Chapel Hill in 1952, to deliver my report on the archaeological survey of Watauga County (South 1952), he suggested I visit Town Creek Indian Mound and talk with Ernest Lewis, the archaeologist excavating the site at that time. Jewell and I did that and Ernest introduced us to Ed Gaines, who was on his knees troweling a ten-foot excavated area beneath a photographic tower, revealing the dark spots from postholes and burial feature outlines. Something clicked as I watched Ed trowel to reveal the soil discolorations, and I had a strong desire to get into the square with him, to take part in this wonderful process. (Five years later I spent two rewarding years working closely on my knees beside Ed, troweling as he was that first time I saw him, but more of that later.) Ernest then took me inside the CCC building and showed me the triangulated plots of the tenfoot squares they were revealing, and explained the process of gluing together the photographs of each of the squares to produce a mosaic of the disturbances into the red clay subsoil that had taken place when the Indians used the site. I was totally taken with this process of obtaining information about the past in this way. Ernest invited me to visit the Research Laboratories of Anthropology in Chapel Hill where he would show me the mosaic in progress. As Jewell and I drove back to Boone we talked about how wonderful it would be to get paid for being involved in such a fascinating challenge. I was inspired, but I returned to my photographic work in Palmer Blair's shop, and

AppalachianStories and After closeted myself in the darkroom--but I couldn't forget that visit to Town Creek Indian Mound. From time to time Palmer would hire a small single-winged airplane to take aerial photographs of some mountainous tract of land for real estate developers. He told me about the method he used to get shots looking straight down onto the property. The pilot would bank the plane onto the side to fly into a circle so the centrifugal force would hold Palmer against the side of the plane with the open door below him, then the pilot would cut the engine to cut out the vibration. Palmer would shoot out the open door using his Speed Graphic camera, and then the pilot would cut the engine in again. It sounded dangerous to me so I never offered to take those pictures for him. Years after I left the darkroom, I received word that on one of those photographic trips, the plane had hit a pocket of dead air, dropping it into the mountainside, killing Palmer and his pilot.

An Amateur Forester--Planting Pine Seedlings On a later visit to Town Creek Indian Mound in 1953, Howard Sargent had replaced Ernest Lewis, and I arrived after heavy rains had drenched the soil the day before. I found him slogging in the mud with a bucket filled with little pine seedlings. Great gobs of red clay were clinging to his boots as he walked the rows of what had been a plowed field. He would stomp a boot heel into the mud, throw a pine seedling into the hole it made, then cover the lower half of the seedling with another stomp of his boot. I followed his Sasquatch footprints down the field and accumulated similar gobs of clay on my boots. I introduced myself and told him of my interest in archaeology. He handed me a bucket of seedlings and said, "This is all the archaeology you are going to see here today." So, as we talked, we stomped a lot of trees into the mud before I left. Several decades later, I again visited the site and was flabbergasted to see the tall pines on the site that grew from those little seedlings. Joffre Coe was there and we had our picture made together with the pines.

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Figure 2. 7. With my mentor, Joffre Coe, and some of the

pine trees I planted 42 years earlier. Rippeteau, 8/29/1995)

(Photo: Bruce

An Epiphany-A New Direction One day, after my "ferreting phantom footsteps" talk, I was sitting on a stool in the darkroom at the Omega enlarger, slopping prints through the developer. I began thinking about what I would be doing in ten years if I stayed in photography. I didn't like the answer. I knew I would still be doing the same thing! Then I asked myself what I would most like to do if given the chance, and I suddenly realized the answer w a s - "ferreting phantom footsteps!" I couldn't wait to get home that afternoon to tell Jewell of my decision to go to graduate school and study with Dr. Coe. I knew I would have to wait until after she received her degree in home economics at Appalachian State Teachers College, but that would only take a couple of years. I called her to tell her that I had made a major decision for our future, but I didn't tell her what it was. When I got home she had coffee ready, and we sat down on the couch, and I told her of my plan. She was as excited as I was, because she had shared with me the finding of the Hardaway point, the visit to Dr. Rights, and to Town Creek, and she had eagerly taken part in our site survey. She also recognized we were moving toward a future that

54 would begin by my studying under Joffre Coe at the University of North Carolina. So I walked away from my long-planned career in photography.

Ilsa Koch: the "Bitch of Buchenwald" Before I did, however, around 1952, a customer came into the photography shop saying he had just retired from the army. His company was the first to enter Buchenwald in the mid1940s. He took photographs of the shocking things he saw there, but soon his group was ordered to move on. As they were leaving, the guards at the gate searched everyone for cameras, because the Army wanted no photographs taken. He had to show his camera, and opened it, but he had stuck the roll of film in his pack and later mailed it to his wife. In the years to follow he had kept the roll undeveloped for fear it might cause him trouble. But he was now discharged and felt safe to have it developed, which I did for him. What I saw were pictures of the open fuxnace doors with the rib cage bones of partially burned victims inside; starved skeletal-victims, skin-andbones, still standing, wearing striped prison pants; a large pile of many dead victims awaiting the furnace maw; a pile of bodies among partially burned logs, where an attempt to speed up the cremating process had been made by the Germans - - all strong Holocaust evidence. There were flayed chests of men tattooed with the portrait of a woman wearing a large hat i to become macabre lampshades? These photographs are vivid evidence for the Holocaust as it played out at Buchenwald through administrators like Ilsa Koch and others. I made a copy of some of the pictures, and decades later, when my children came home from school saying they had learned the Holocaust never happened, I showed them proof that it had - - testimony to man's inhumanity to man!

Too Many Old Folks--Physical Anthropology in Watauga County Shortly after the big career decision in the darkroom, about 1952, a customer came into the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION photography shop and told me he was a physical anthropologist. I told him of my newly discovered pathway to the future and my desire to get a degree in anthropology/archaeology Ellis Kerley was a physical anthropologist in Boone for a couple of years on a grant through the Bowman Gray School of Medicine in Winston Salem. A donor had read that Watauga County had the highest percentage of older people in the world outside of Polynesia and had given the money to discover the cause of this. In order not to look a gift horse in the mouth, Ellis had been sent, with a partner who was to gather socio-psychological data from the subjects, while Ellis took a battery of physical measurements of their bodies. A problem Ellis had was getting permission from rural residents in the isolated hollers of the mountains to take measurements of their bodies. Some weeks he would be able to measure only a single cooperative family. Ellis sometimes could not get beyond the front door. As time went on, it became more difficult to find willing subjects. One of his interesting cases regarded inbreeding among a mountain family. A man had a child by his daughter, and when that child was a teenager, he had a granddaughter by her. Then, in recent days, his granddaughter had given birth to a great-daughter by him - - as close a case of inbreeding as one might find. He had then been arrested and charged with incest. This was when the newspapers, the court, and Ellis became interested in the situation. Ellis measured the family, but I never did learn from him the results of the study. Ellis and I left Boone about the same time. He went on to get his doctorate at the University of Michigan and then on to Japan to identify skeletal material dating from World War II. Jewell, David and [ went to Chapel Hill, where she taught home economics in Hillsborough, and I studied at the University of North Carolina, receiving my M. A. Degree in Anthropology under Joffre Coe, to become an archaeologist.

Chapter 3 UNC Stories Jewell and I moved to Hillsborough, a few miles north of Chapel Hill, where she had a job teaching Home Economics in the high school. We had bought a 28 foot house trailer in Boone and lived in it during my graduate school days at the University of North Carolina.. It was one of the trailers built for the construction crews building the "bomb plant" in Aiken, South Carolina, that came cheaply on the market after that facility was completed. I found a job working for Ross Scroggs in the photography laboratory at the University of North Carolina. My photography school and Appalachian yearbook contracts during my undergraduate days paid off for me in obtaining that job and that extra income helped keep us in groceries.

Evolutionary Theory in Archaeology My formative period continued in graduate school where I studied under Joffi'e Coe with the goal of becoming an archaeologist. 1 was guided to the writings of Franz Boas, James Ford, Robert Lowie, Lewis H. Morgan, Julian Steward, E. B. Tylor, Walter Taylor, and particularly, Leslie White. In the liberal environment of UNC, it was good to be able to learn of cultural evolution without the strictures that were imposed on Hodgin during my undergraduate days. Having been introduced to evolutionary theory in Hodgin's private, underground sessions, under Joffre Coe I came to understand that evolutionary theory is the underpinning for all archaeology. While there I read Phillip Phillips and Gordon Willey (1953 and 1955), and discovered that (South 1955a: 15):

The current trend in archaeological theory is to use this evolutionist approach, and then hasten to make reservations and apologies for the resemblance between the developmental sequences "newly arrived at" and those of Morgan. Phillips and Willey (1955:788), outlined "Historical Developmental Stages" but apologized by saying: ...let us make it very clear that we are under no illusion that it is anything remotely resembling a "natural" evolutionary system. I saw a pattern of archaeologists refusing to acknowledge the role of evolutionary theory. This disturbed me as a student, resulting in my publication of an article, "Evolutionary Theory in Archaeology" in 1955, in which I criticized those who were concerned about the use of the concept and terms of evolutionary theory, while obviously basing their archaeological research on it. In that paper I said (South 1955a:21-22): American archaeology is now in a period of transition. It is breaking out of its Boasian shell of fact gathering and is beginning to emerge as a science based upon a theoretical foundation. Gradually more and more archaeologists will come to realize the importance of a theoretical framework for their profession. And, slowly, they will begin to admit, how deeply the roots of archaeological theory lie within the evolutionary theory outlined by Tylor and Morgan.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION There is no desire here to appeal for a return to the evolutionary concept as developed by Tylor and Morgan, nor is there a claim for perfection on their part. It is felt, however, that archaeologists should not apologize when they find their monographs are influenced by evolutionary theory - but to apologize or categorically reject evolutionary theory and its influence on modern cultural theory, and at the same time utilize its basic assumptions, is to bite the hand that has fed them their theoretical food.

Upon publication of my 1955 paper in 1957, I mailed reprints to a number of people. The paper stimulated interest and correspondence from many leading figures in archaeology and ethnology. My paper sometimes struck a harmonic, or a discordant chord on the piano of archaeological theory at that time. I learned a lot from letters from those who took the time to comment on a graduate student's first paper. These were: J.O. Brew, Douglas Byers, Joe Caldwell, John Cotter, James Ford, John Gillin, John Gulick, Carol Irwin [Mason], Jessie Jennings, Guy Johnson, Weston LaBarre, Robert Lowie, Charles McNutt, Carroll Riley, Hale Smith, Albert Spaulding, Matthew Stirling, Julian Steward, Walter Taylor, Raymond Thompson, Ruth Underhill, Robert Wauchope, Steve Williams, and Gordon Willey (South and Green 2000:2-4)--but more about that in a later chapter. With the theoretical foundation provided at Appalachian through David Hodgin, and through the influence of Joffre Coe, I was ready to undertake fieldwork when the opportunity arose to conduct a survey of the Roanoke Rapids River basin in northeastern North Carolina. The fieldwork there would provide the data that was to be reported in my master's thesis currently under preparation for publication (South 1959).

Training With Joffre Coe at Chapel HilI--A "Do It Yourself" Strategy Studying under Joffre Coe was sometimes a frustrating experience in that we students had to

pump information from him, rather than having him pour the fountain of his knowledge forth as archaeological aqua vita. Any student who studied with him knows what I am saying. Because of this we learned that we had to take the initiative to dig the information, not only from Joffre, but from the published work of others. His method o f teaching was to point out the failures of others so that we would know what n o t to do when we were excavating our own sites. From this do-it-yourself teaching strategy, those of us who were his archaeology students at that time learned that it was up to us to make a place for ourselves in the field of archaeology. My classmates in 1954 were: Lewis Binford, Hester Davis, Margaret Van Dorsleer and John Walker, all of whom have made their unique marks. As students we made a field trip to Town Creek Indian Mound where Ed Gaines demonstrated the methods being used to record data at that Mississippian temple mound site. Ed trained a number of archaeologists who were sent his way by Coe. There we learned the methods being used to recover data (Coe 1995:xviii).

My First Archaeological Proposal--VEPCO With my course work behind me, in 1955, Joffre asked me if I would like to write a proposal for conducting an archaeological survey of the Roanoke Rapids basin, soon to be flooded by water to be backed up behind a dam. I did indeed. He submitted it to the Virginia Electric Power Company (VEPCO) for consideration for funding. At a meeting Joffre and I attended with the VEPCO officials, they agreed to provide $1,200 contingent upon a preliminary basin-walking site survey to demonstrate that further funding was necessary. That survey was conducted on weekends in April 1955, while school was still underway. Later, we spent two weeks in May completing the survey. This was done at no cost to VEPCO. In the survey, Lewis Binford, Jewell, and I recorded 74 sites, after which the funds were forthcoming for a continuation of the project. When Joffre told me the check had been received from VEPCO, I asked him how much of

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it I would be able to budget for conducting the survey. He looked at me surprised, and said, "Why, all of it, of course." I had thought he might reserve some of it for his use at the Research Laboratories of Anthropology, but he generously gave it all to the project. I hired Jewell and Lew Binford for 75 cents an hour, and with a tent in the trunk of my 1939 Ford, and a canoe on top, and our infant son, David, turned over to Jewell's mother, the official field project began in June 1955, and continued for a month. When we returned, David turned away from Jewell to her mother, and it took some time for her to again gain his recognition. She said she would never again spend so long away from a child so young. During our six weeks camped in the basin, we bathed in the river, and occasionally drove out to get food. On these occasions we took a muchwelcomed shower at the home of the Glenn L. Fulcher family in Roanoke Rapids, who often invited us to have a real meal with them. Their kindness to a bedraggled group of archaeologists was most appreciated.

Publication of My Report Is Promised--Long Delayed Our 1955 written agreement with VEPCO provided that, when my thesis was completed, the publication of the report on our work at Roanoke Rapids would be financed by VEPCO through additional funding.. When it was completed in 1959, I urged Joffre to again contact VEPCO for funding to publish it, and I provided him a copy for that purpose. He never did do that, however, but five years later, he published a synopsis of the Gaston Site from my thesis in his dissertation (1964:84-126). I am now in the process of preparing my thesis for publication (South 1959a).

An Important Discovery--the Gaston Site (HxV7)

Stratified

I selected the Gaston Site (HxV7) for excavation, as well as the Thelma Site (HxV8), because the surface finds suggested these were major sites likely to contain abundant data. At the Thelma Site we excavated an ossuary burial (South 1959a: 396-418), and Jewell took a

photograph of Lew Binford and me with the mass of bones he had helped us excavate. Joffre, on his visit to the Gaston Site, had me show him where we had found a Savannah River projectile point in a bulldozed cut leading down to the river from the high sand bottomland where the pottery had been found. Before he left he said, "Dig until you hit water." I later discovered in talking with Sally Coe, that he had told her when he came back from the visit that he thought we would find a stratified site because the bulldozed cut was the only place on the site where we had found an Archaic Period projectile point. That told him that it was likely bulldozed from a buried stratum. He said nothing to me about his thoughts on it, however, allowing me to find it on my own without his help. That was typical of his method of teaching. He led by standing behind you and simply pointing the way. I tell this story in a poem I read at Joffre's funeral many years later (South 2001a: 13(1): 7). A stratified site is indeed what we found at the Gaston site when we cut the profile down the side of the flood-laid sand to the river, just as Joffre had told Sally I would. My discovery of the stratified site emerged from the method I used to obtain the most data from the site in the shortest amount of time. We cut 25 five-foot squares randomly over the site to gain a feeling for the concentration of pottery and to obtain a good sample from the 18-inch thick midden deposit on the site we interpreted as a village. During this process we discovered a row of palisade postholes representing a village compound. We then cut slot trenches at various distances in order to follow the palisade. We then used controversial excavation tools at the time - - a motor grader and a bulldozer, to remove the pottery-bearing layer to allow us to see more of the features intruding into the subsoil sand. Doing this we were able to locate many large pit features filled with pottery, burials of humans, as well as dogs. In the process of excavating the large pit features we noticed that often in the bottom of the pit, about four feet down from the surface, that the pit walls we cleaned were darker near the bottom. In order to get the last bit o f d a r k s o i l from the

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Figure 3.1. The ossuaryburial at the ThelmaSite, with Lew Binfordat the lower right. (Photo: Jewell South, 1955)

bottom of these pits we would undercut the wall to find any artifacts that might be in that darker zone. In doing this we noticed that in that dark "belled out" part of the pit there would be an Archaic projectile point. After we had recorded this observation in Our notes for several pits we began to wonder why, in the bell of the "bellshaped pits" containing Woodland Period pottery, an Archaic Period projectile point was sometimes found. After a time we had found more such points in the edge of the belt than we had in the pits themselves. Lew Binford and I pondered this as the data tried to tell us something. Finally, one Sunday morning I awoke early and was thinking about the Savannah River points in the side of the features, in what appeared to be yellow, or slightly stained subsoil sand. Suddenly it hit me! If the site had a stratum some four feet deep, containing Savannah River Archaic Points, any deep pit dug by the later pottery-making people on the site, would cut into that stratum and when we removed the contents of the pit we would see the stained soil from the buried stratum. As we cleaned out the "bell" we would actually be

cutting into an Archaic Period layer buried by later flood sand. When that interpretation hit me about four o'clock in the morning, I elbowed Lew Binford on one side of me in the tent, and Jewell on the other side, and excitedly poured out to them my "revelation," my realization of what the data must be trying to tell us. We sat around discussing what we would do now, and we decided that it was time to cut a shaft on the bank of the river down to the level of the Roanoke River, just as Joffre had said I should do. About five o'clock we couldn't stand it any longer. We had our work cut out for us. We lit the Coleman lanterns and went out into the dark and began excavating the shaft on the edge of the riverbank! When we reached the four-foot level we saw a darker soil color appear in the bottom of the shaft. We sifted that layer hoping to find a Savannah River Point, but none was there. Once we had dug through the one-foot thick darker stratum we could clean the profile and then we saw the dark layer in profile. We were disappointed that no Savannah River point showed up, but we kept on digging.

UNC Stories About mid-morning we were down into the clay-rippled sand below the darker layer. Then we found a white quartz side-notched projectile point we had not seen before and our spirits rose. Not only was the site stratified it apparently had a

59 In it we found a pile of stones with the base of a Savannah River point among them, with charcoal radiocarbon dated to 2,325 B.C. In the layer below that we found three hearths of stones with Halifax points lying beside them. Charcoal from these deeper hearths was radiocarbon dated 3,485 B.C. (South 1959; Coe, from South 1964:84-119).

Pottery Seriation--Measuring Culture Change through Time Before we discovered that the Gaston site was stratified, the focus was on the pottery taxonomy (Krieger 1944:9:271-288). I defined three pottery series found in the clark humus in the top two feet of the site: Vincent, Clement (Coe added an s) and Gaston (South 1959a 6t-129; and in Coe 1964: 84-107). Using the seriation method of pottery analysis (Phillips, Ford and Griffin 1951, 1952, and Ford 1962), and superposition, I was able to place these types in the order in which they evolved (South 1959:107, Figure 8; 333, Figure 38). In the seriation I used 24 sites and over 100 pit features from the Gaston site (South 1959:230, Figure 16; 333, Figure 37; see also Coe 1964:100, Figure 94). The results I was able to achieve using the seriation technique, taught me that this is an effective way to move analysis from simple description, to measuring changing form through time. This understanding served me well in the future when I applied this concept to historic site ceramics, resulting in the creation of a dating technique known as the Mean Ceramic Date Formula (South 1977:217-271). But, more later. Figure 3.2. The stratified profile, showing the dark Savannah River Archaic period layer in the middle, and the dark, Clement/Gastonpottery zone at the top. The Halifax points and hearths were in the lighter soil below the Savannah River stratum. (Photo: South, 1955) Savannah River stratum overlying a non-stained deposit o f sand with a white quartz point I named the Halifax point. The stratified site Coe had thought might be there was found. Later, we used a machine to cut down to a level just above the darker Savannah River layer, and then we shoveled off that layer by hand.

Palisades and Burials--A Native American Infant Protected by a Guard Dog We found the post-mold pattern for five palisades around the area, and chased them through slot trenches and areas from which the topsoil zone had been removed (South 1959:269, Figure 22). In addition, we excavated a number of human burials and dog burials. After we had cleaned and removed some dog burials, another one was being revealed when I saw what it was. To save time, I slipped a shovel beneath the burial from each side and placed the

60 bones in the sifter screen. When we received the report from the faunal analyst we discovered that not only the bones of a dog were present, but those of a human infant, as well. What a surprise! Apparently the dog had been placed over the infant in the grave. We also noticed that on some of the flexed burials a single bone of a deer had been placed, perhaps as an offering (South 1959:264, Plate 44c; 289, Figure 25). That lesson taught me that shortcuts sometimes cut data short.

Archaeologists Eating Lunch--A Fascinating Process? Reporters found their way to our campsite in the Roanoke River basin and wrote articles about what we were finding there. One of these carried photographs of Lew Binford and our wives, Jean and Jewell, excavating burials and screening for artifacts (Biggs 1955:5-9). This brought many visitors to the site to view the work in progress, which resulted in our explaining what we were doing and the importance of our salvaging information before the rising water was to drive us from the site. We waited until the last minute, when we had to drive through six inches of water rising in the only access road to the outside world beyond the dam site. One visitor, among hundreds who visited the site, was a funeral home owner, who volunteered to bring us a canopy. He felt sorry for us having to sit in the sun while we excavated burials. We gladly accepted his offer. With so many people standing around watching our excavating process we were afraid to leave the burials while we ate lunch. Jewell always packed our lunch and when noontime came we would open our paper bags and begin eating our sandwiches sitting on the edge of the burial pit on which we were working. As we watched the watchers, we watched their eyes as we took each bite of our sandwiches. Their eyes would watch us unwrap the sandwich, then follow as we brought it to our mouth. We learned that watching an archaeologist take a bite of a sandwich was fascinating to some. The presence of the funeral awning over our heads caused their questions to be delivered in a respectful whisper.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

A Determined Reporter Gets the Story--For Newsweek Magazine One reporter in particular revealed his determination to get the story. It was about 2:30 A. M. one morning when we heard someone shouting. I immediately thought that anyone shouting at us at that time of morning was up to no good, so I grabbed my pistol and peeped out the crack in the door flap of our tent, ready for whatever. By the shouting back and forth, Lew Binford, Jewell and I were able to determine that the person shouting was a reporter named Sebastian Sommer, who said he wrote articles for Newsweek magazine and wanted to interview us. I asked why he hadn't picked a more opportune time than the middle of the night. He explained that his car broke down and he had been lost in the basin since sundown, trying to find our campsite.

Figure 3.3. "DiggersBinford and South" as they appeared in Newsweek magazine. (Photo:SebastianSommer, 1955).

UNC Stories We invited him into the tent and we sat around in the light of the Coleman lantern and told him what we were up to. He said he had started into the basin near sundown and as he crossed the railroad track his oil pan had hit the rail and broke open and all the oil leaked out. The car quickly steamed over before he discovered what had happened. He then began walking up the two-rut roadway, lost it, wandered around in the dark, and finally, hours later, had stumbled on our tent pitched on the Gaston site. We sat up the remainder of the night talking with him and when daylight arrived we showed him the site and the Halifax hearths we had exposed. When other visitors showed up he caught a ride out of the basin. His article was published in Newsweek on July 4, 1955, with a picture of Lew Binford and me at a Halifax-level hearth (Sommer 1955: 76).

Figure 3.4. Stanand Jewell South and Lewis Binford at the camp on the GastonSite. (Photo: Jean Binford 1955)

Figure 3.5. Joffre Coe and Jewell South sifting soil from one of the test squares at the Gaston Site (Hx v7), on Coe's visit to the site. (South 1955)

61 A Fateful Car Wreck Forces a New Direction In a follow-up article on January 1, 1956 that appeared in the Asheville Citizen-Times, photographs of the funeral tent on the Gaston site were published, and a pre-beard me, pointing out the Savannah River stratum (Bartholomew 1956:7). In that article my plans for the future were mentioned: "South, a veteran of World War II, says he hopes to get a job in the field of anthropology after he completes the work on his graduate degree this spring and eventually return to school for a doctor's degree." That plan was to study with James Griffin and Leslie White at the University of Michigan. I had applied and had been accepted, and Jewell had been hired to teach home economics in the Lansing, Michigan public school system. I was working in the summer, again at Palmer's Photo Shop in Boone, standing in the front of the shop, when he and I heard the crash of a car wreck two blocks up King Street. I grabbed the Speed Graphic and ran out the door to photograph what had sounded like a serious wreck. By the time I had run two blocks an ambulance had arrived and gone from the wreck. I took pictures of a 1939 Ford sedan that had run a red light; had crashed into the side of a coal truck; ricocheted off that, causing the load of coal to spill over the street; then crashed into the side of a deputy sheriffs car waiting for the red light to change. I took one picture and then moved to the opposite side of the Ford to get another picture, when I suddenly realized the car looked an awful lot like mine! I went up to the window and looked in to see if I recognized the interior. Then I knew it was my car. I looked for blood but, thankfully, I didn't see any. I turned around and asked one of the bystanders what had happened to the people in the car, knowing now, that Jewell had been the driver. I was told that two ladies and a little boy had been taken to the hospital in an ambulance, but that they didn't appear to be hurt badly, though the boy had landed on the pile of coal and had skidded around over it, receiving a number of cuts and bruises and was covered with black coal dust when they put him on a stretcher.

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Figure 3.6. The 1939 Ford resting against the side of the deputy sheriff's car after hitting the coal truck. The wreck caused the canceIIationof pIans to attend the Universityof Michigan. (Photo: South 1956)

I walked back to the shop and found someone to drive me to the hospital. Jewell and Erma Green, David's babysitter, were shaken up, and Erma had a sprained wrist, but David was being treated for superficial cuts from bouncing around on the load of coal that spilled from the truck. We felt very lucky that there were no more serious injuries than that. Jewell had looked to her left as she saw the light change from green to yellow, but had not looked to her right, the direction from which the coat truck was bearing down. She had hit it broadside without ever seeing it. Our 39 Ford was totaled, so we had no car. I had to pay for the damage to the coal truck, the load of coal, the damage to the deputy sheriffs car, the doctor and hospital bill, and the citation Jewell got for running the red light. Because of this event, we had to cancel our plans for me to get my doctorate at the University of Michigan.

Field Methods in Ethnography--Studying an African American Community At UNC I took a course entitled "The Negro" (Sociology 125) from Guy B. Johnson, and one in field methods in anthropology from John J. Honigmann (Anthropology 221), that were to serve me well in the years to follow. In Johnson's

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

course I wrote a paper comparing the views of E. Franklin Frazier (1951), with those of Melville J. Herskovits (1942), in an attempt to determine which one offered the more valid and objective approach to the understanding of the nature of problems of race relations in the United States (South 1956c). Honigmann's course required that I do anthropological fieldwork of some kind and most of my classmates chose to employ a sociological approach using a schedule of questions and answers. Although that was allowed to satisfy the requirements of the course, I chose to use a field situation where I could interview a member of a community in the tradition of ethnographic fieldwork~descriptive anthropology. I chose an African American community to learn more about that sub-culture because I had been introduced to many differences between the world I knew, and that seen through the eyes of my Negro friends with whom I sometimes played as a child. I wanted to learn more about those differences from a different perspective. The Frazier/Herskovits debate had stimulated my interest in African American studies. The goals of the study were to observe the material culture, social interaction and organization, and child rearing patterns through interviewing members of a community of my choosing. I located an isolated community down a dirt road a mile north of Chapel Hill. I drove slowly through it and found that it consisted of four houses. I was faced with the problem of finding a way to gain entr6e. I saw an elderly man propped in a chair leaning against the back of a house. I parked my car and approached him and introduced myself and told him what I was up to. He motioned to an empty chair beside him and asked me to join him in catching some of the morning sun. Luck was with me as it turned out. I had found the perfect person to inform me about the life ways in that community. He was Jim Blacknell, who was, I found out later, 105 years old, according to his estimate, although he looked and acted, much younger. He was the highly respected elder patriarch and root

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- - ~ ~ . ~ ~- ~ 1,:,, ~

~

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.

[- ....~..--"F -.~-

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Figure 3. 7. Jim Blacknell, the 105 year old patriarch of the community studied by Stan South. (Photo: South 3/1956) doctor for the community. Through long discussions with him in the days to follow I found that people from the other homes nearby had a habit of dropping by to touch base with him to learn how he was doing. He had a very active mind and knew everyone in the community, and had watched as a single house had grown to become the group of homes located along the road. I drew a map of the community, and he arranged for me to enter some of the houses to take photographs of the people and furnishings there. He told me that some younger ones in the broader African American community were for moving out into the outside world, whereas others feared that would endanger traditional family values. He told me some were suspicious of my presence, and what their fears were as to my motives. He shared with me his wisdom about those living in the four houses in the immediate area as well as in the broader African American rural community generally. He told me about what life was like for him as a teen during the days of slavery, as well as what it was like for him at present.

Traditional African American Remedies--My "Description Tends to Be Dry" He also shared with me some remedies: to cure a cold, use Mullen root and pine buds. For drawing out boils: use collards, cabbage, eggshells, Irish potato and plantain. For "scroffuls" (scrofula), "burdock tea will do the trick! . . . . For curing colds, pneumonia, rheumatism, or anything the system has that don't belong there" you do the following: "Take a joint of may apple root about one inch long, and put it in a cup of water to boil. This makes one big dose." For curing chest inflammations: "Make a plaster out of wheat bran, corn meal, flour, turpentine and lard and rub it on the body. Give it with hog hoof tea." For getting gall off liver and kidneys: "May apple tea, lion's tooth, rat's vein, and silk weed root. They make you sick, but they make you well after that." For bad blood: Sarsaparilla tea, cherry bark tea, poke root and red shank tea, fever weed tea, bunch pine tea, bone-set tea, sassafras tea (red kind, not white kind)" (South 1956a: 15). I turned in my report on that community, "Some Generalized Patterns in a Negro Community: Material Culture" (South 1956a), and Dr. Honigmann commented that with my eye for detail, I might neglect presentation for fact alone, and "the meticulous description often tends to be dry," which is certainly true with my reports on archaeological excavations, a fact those who have ventured to read my work have not failed to tell me. The reader of this book may have a similar comment.

Psychoanalyzing Hit Subjective Explanations

Songs--Facts

and

In another paper for Honigmann I did an analysis of 107 themes of songs published in popular, western and country music magazines of the day, and abstracted the patterns. In generalizing from these patterns I said that, "The American is a person who is hungry for love and affection, but who is often frustrated in the achievement of this love," and "This frustration and feeling of insecurity reveals itself in the themes of the songs they sing." The implications

64 of this, I suggested, may be that in American culture there may be "some value attributed to the ability to make love successfully which is in conflict with some value which places taboos on making love except within narrow limits." (South 1956b). In this study, I quantified the themes as though they were potsherds or projectile points, assigning verbal attribute classes, and tabulated the results on a spreadsheet. I enjoyed milking such conclusions from anthropological field notes, as I did when milking patterns from potsherds. I was far more comfortable, however, with coaxing pattern from fragments of pots, and making pronouncements on what I thought they meant than with using psychological tools to analyze the behavior of living people. I had a strong feeling from both kinds of data that there ought to be a more scientifically controlled method of deriving pattern than was often seen in ethnographic or archaeological monographs. The trick, I came to realize, was to weigh known facts with subjective judgment based on past observation: the hypothetico-deductive-inductive method of science.

Modal Personality--Psychological Explanation In one of Honigmann's lectures he passed around a drawing, revealing a picture story about two inches wide written around all four edges of the paper, leaving a blank white space in the middle of the page. He said that he had given a sheet of paper and a pencil to a group of Eskimos unfamiliar with these drawing tools, and asked them to illustrate one of their traditional stories involving the killing of a seal. He said some of them didn't draw anything, while others made drawings around the edge of the paper, such as the example he had passed around for us to examine. He said the pattern of drawing the sto W around the edge of the paper was characteristic of several of those in the group. His stow for explaining this drawing pattern was that it reflected the modal personality of Eskimo culture. Using the culture and personality story-telling approach he explained to us that in the winter, the Eskimo people lived in

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION family units isolated from one another on the vast frozen sea, where they went to blow-holes in the ice to spear seals who came there for air. They also hunted polar bears for subsistence, which was a way of life much harder than what they knew in the summer. In the summer, when the ice began to melt, they would move to the shore, where they gathered ptarmigan eggs and chicks and stuffed them into seal bladders to solidify into ptarmigan cheese, which they saved for a delicacy to be eaten in the winter months when life was much harder. These good times on the shoreline were also a time for socialization--the time for story telling about the adventures of the winter, and a time for young people to interact and choose mates. It was a happy t i m e - - a respite from the severity and danger of the arctic winter. With this cultural background he then turned to telling the stow of the drawing. He explained that what the drawing represented was a classic example of the Eskimo modal personality impressed on them by the way of life they led. The blank white space in the center of the page was symbolic of the vast white winter landscape, a time of hard times and danger experienced in a constant search for food. The story drawn around the edge of the page symbolized the safety, the thawing of the edge of the sea, the good times when people socialized and told stories--a time of laughter and choosing of mates. The edge of the page symbolized this comfortable time of the Eskimo life cycle at the edge of the arctic sea, away from the severity of the winter search for food in the dangerous interior. He paused then, pleased with this story supposedly reflecting the modal personality of the Eskimo, and asked if there were any questions.

Material Culture Explanation

Pattern--Processual

I had reservations about shooting a hole in his presentation from my student perspective, but on the other hand it seemed to me there was a grand canyon between the modal personality sto W and the factual reality of the drawing. I saw that connecting the sto W with the drawing without

UNC Stories some concrete arguments of relevance between the polar concepts (no pun intended) was an error in logical positivism--a flaw that left me cold. So, since the class seemed to be totally accepting of what I saw as a pie in the sky story, I did speak up to challenge the received knowledge. I questioned what kind of art the Eskimo normally did. He said they were famous for engraving stories on walrus tusks, which I knew before I asked. Then I said, "I have an alternative, cultural, not a psychological explanation for why the drawing of the seal hunt was confined to the edge of the paper." He looked a little surprised and said, "Let's hear it." I said, "If the drawings Eskimos traditionally make are on the narrow confines of a walrus tooth, or some other long and slender ivory or bone shape, then I would suggest that, when faced with a broad sheet of paper, they simply saw the edge of the page as the edge of the walrus tooth, and followed that edge around the page to tell the story. I don't see why it's necessary to reach out for a psychological mindset for an explanation in terms of Eskimo personality. I suggest the explanation lies in the Eskimo material culture with which they were familiar-not in their personality." Honigmann looked like he had been pole axed. He had a shocked look on his face and seemed stunned. There was a pregnant pause while we waited. Then the bell rang for the end of the class. Then he said, "Stanley, would you stay for a minute after class?" I thought, "Uh oh! I guess I stepped in it." When the other students had left the room, he said, "That was a very insightful explanation you just gave. I will certainly consider it as I reexamine the conclusions to my paper on this subject." I thanked him, and told him I had been reluctant to speak up, and he said he was glad that I had. Then he said that my comments were not why he had asked me to stay to talk with him.

I Am Honored By an Offer to Study the Attawapiskat Swampy Cree Earlier in the course I had abstracted patterns from Honigmann's field notes on the Attawapiskat Swampy Cree. I found that the

65 pattern I derived from quantified themes boiled down to: "The general child rearing pattern among the Attawapiskat seems to be one of 'leniency' rather than 'severity'" (South 1956d:5). He said he was impressed with the papers I had submitted to him, and that he was going into the field in Alaska to study the life history and modal personality questions arising from his ongoing research among the Attawapiskat Swampy Cree Indians, and asked if I might be interested in going. He said he could arrange a grant to pay me for the summer of ethnographic fieldwork (Honigmann 1954). I was greatly honored by his offer and explained to him that, although I had had a number of courses in psychology as an undergraduate, my primary interest was not in the psychological workings of personality, but in questions related to interpreting material culture such as spear points and potsherds. However, I was so intrigued by the offer that I told him I would think about it and get back to him.

"Upstairs"-"Downstairs"--Humanism Science

and

I should say something about the climate of the time in the Alumni Building at the University of North Carolina. The Department of Anthropology was upstairs with the Research Laboratories of Archaeology downstairs in the basement. The upstairs emphasis in anthropology was culture and personality, using the methods and techniques of psychology, with Honigmann being one of the leaders in the field. The downstairs focus in archaeology was on the evolution of material culture, with an emphasis on establishing cultural chronology, with Coe being one of the leaders in that field. Thus, there was a dichotomy between the research interests of the people "upstairs" and those in "downstairs" in the basement. (Why are archaeology departments so often underground in basements?) - - subliminal psychological mindset of university planners? I reported the offer to Joffre (whom I always called "Dr. Coe" until after I graduated). I told him I was very honored to have been asked to be a research assistant with Dr. Honigrnann, and I was trying to decide whether or not to accept it. I

66 asked him for his recommendation, knowing full well what it would likely be, given his lack of high regard for the culture and personality school of anthropological thought. He said that if I wanted to end my career as an archaeologist, and join the "bunch upstairs" in seeing if Indians could "draw-a-man," or put a square peg in a round hole, or learn how they were weaned, then I should accept the offer. If I did, however, he warned me "Before you know it you'll be psychoanalyzing potsherds!" I told him I had anticipated that would be his view. I told Dr. Honigmann thanks, but no thanks, for his offer. I chose to pursue my dream of someday being an archaeologist. I took pleasure in studying sherds discarded by past Native Americans toward better understanding how culture changes--how it evolves. I had less

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION interest in the idea of becoming an anthropologist involved in the psyche of modem Indians. I was more interested in trying to interpret the meaning of the material culture clues their ancestors left behind--the processes that produced that archaeological record. I have never regretted the decision I made when I faced that career-fork in the road. After I completed my course work for my MA in Anthropology from the University of North Carolina, on June 1, 1956, took Jewell and David and moved to Mt. Gilead, North Carolina, where I took the job as archaeologist at Town Creek Indian Mound--a dream come true--a move that would further my developmental years (Coe 1995: 32).

Part II: The Developmental Years Chapter 4 Town Creek Stories Introduction My developmental years, during which I learned from work carried out on a number of sites throughout North Carolina, began with Town Creek Indian Mound State Historic Site. There my scientific supervisor was Joffre Coe, but on site I worked with Ed Gaines. From him I learned a lot about archaeological technique, patience, dogged dedication to the task, and the joy that came from digging with an archaeological companion and interpreting what was found for the education and entertainment of the visiting public. From time to time I would venture out to other sites, sometimes with Joffre Coe, to address archaeological questions of interest to us both. From Town Creek also, I continued a pattern begun years before at UNC, of making an annual trip with Joffre to attend the Southeastern Archaeological Conference (SEAC), held every other year in Macon, Georgia. Those years at the SEAC meetings were indeed developmental for me, broadening my range of knowledge of the field through papers presented by the outstanding leaders of the time. After Town Creek the opportunity arose for me to move on to excavate the ruins of colonial Brunswick Town on the Cape Fear River. This move allowed me to face the challenge offered by an entire town through historical archaeology--a field in its infancy in the mid 1950s. While there I was called on to visit other sites throughout the state to conduct one or two day exploratory investigations of historic houses--developing my knowledge even further. This broader state-wide

responsibility caused me to be referred to by one administrator as "a loose cannon." Further development took place, broadening the temporal range of my knowledge, when I was put in charge of Civil War Fort Fisher, across the river from Brunswick Town. While I was there, the Civil War Centennial was underway, and diving on Blockade runner wrecks was of great interest at the time. I was asked to direct the recovery of cannon from the wreck of the USS Peterhoff during which I experienced what it was like to view an historic site while trying to stay alive sucking air from a tank strapped to my back, while keeping an eye out for great white sharks who were also interested in the wrecks. After that I chose to suck air (albeit polluted at times) from above water. The stories emerging from the developmental years of my life are told here.

Ed Gaines-Excavator and Teacher--Site Development and Interpretation As Joffre Coe points out in his book on Town Creek Indian Mound, my move there on June 1, 1956, as site archaeologist, was a dream come true, a dream I had had since the time I had visited the site and watched Ed Gaines and Ernest Lewis record postholes and pit evidence from stains in the earth (Coe 1995:32-33, 48). The story of the methods employed there, the development of the site based on the dictates of archaeology, and the resulting interpretation for public education and entertainment, have been covered in Coe's book. The pioneering methods Coe used there served us well as Ed Gaines routinely carried them out. As Coe points out in his book, not only were we

67

68 involved in a long range process of data recovery, we had a lot of grass to mow, visitors to show around the site, and artifacts to process. A major contribution Joffre made to those archaeologists who worked there with Ed Gaines was the freedom to make decisions on their own. He would occasionally visit the site, perhaps two or three times a year, but he kept in touch with what was going on through weekly reports to him on the choices we had made to contribute to the maintenance, research, site development and interpretation.

Figure 4.1. Ed GainescleaningFeature 2, beneaththe photographic tower in Square 20L80, at TownCreek Indian Mound(MgV3). (Photo:South 10/1956)

An important experience for me there was the association with Ed Gaines, the man who knew how to carry out what needed to be done with determination and skill. He knew well the process

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION of troweling the red clay subsoil from a ten-foot square for plotting the exposed features (Coe 1995: Figure F.6, 48). He was also an expert on carrying out mechanical repairs on a Gravely riding mower we used to cut acres of grass, inside and out, around the reconstructed palisaded area. I learned a lot from Ed, as did any archaeologist who had the pleasure of working with him (Coe 1995:xviii). He knew a lot of things he shared with me.

Daubers, Wasps and Black Widow Spiders Our tool shed was a small building, 10 by 12 feet square, that had been Joffre Coe's winter quarters in 1938 (Coe 1995:18). When I arrived there it was plastered on the interior with many dirt dauber nests, and whenever I needed a tool these insects would be flying around my head, though never showing any resentment to my intrusion of their quarters by doing anything so aggressive as stinging. But they sure were distracting, along with the wasps that joined in the harassment when you were in their territory. One day I asked Ed to tear out all the dauber and wasp nests and spray inside the shed to try to keep them out. A day or two later I asked him how it went and he replied that he was very reluctant to do that. I replied that they were not going to sting him. He answered that that was not the problem. The problem was, he said, that those insects killed so many black widow spiders that he couldn't bring himself to carry out my request by killing them. He said, "Come with me. I want to show you something." We went to the shed and he told me to take a trowel and carefully slice one of the clay nests from the wall while he caught the contents on a shovel. When this was done we counted eight black widow spiders and several other brown spiders in that one clay tube. I was impressed. Ed said the spiders liked to live beneath the canvas we used to cover the ten-foot squares we were excavating and having the daubers help him keep that population down was a great comfort to him. We opened a second nest and found seven black

Town Creek Stories

widow spiders in that one. I looked around at the many such clay spider repositories fastened to the walls and tried to estimate how many black widow spiders were represented. I looked at Ed and thanked him for not tearing out the nests. From that time on I had a better understanding of the symbiotic relationship that Ed had established with those creatures. This experience reminded me that as a boy climbing up the side of a grassy mountainside to round up cows in our pasture, I had discovered that most of the flat rocks lying on the ground had black widow spiders living under the downhill side of the rock. This knowledge was like a "law" of black widow behavior, so firm that on several occasions I would bet a companion who accompanied me, ten cents, that by looking under no more than three rocks, I could find a black widow spider. I never lost the bet and was elated to find that I won the dime on the first two rocks. I don't remember ever having to turn over three to win. I told Ed this story and he said the same was true of the canvas he had to move every day, so he was very protective of his friends the daubers and wasps. Copperhead (Ed called them"beach leaf") snakes also liked to crawl beneath the canvas to nap, and Ed taught me to use a shovel, not a hand, to raise the canvas before reaching down to grab it to lift it from the square.

"Walking On the Curb and In the Gutter" I also learned from Ed a lesson about dealing openly with a person's disability, in contrast to the way I had learned in my mountain home. If a person limped, or had a withered hand, or some other noticeable attribute, I was taught that you were n e v e r to acknowledge that fact. To do so was simply not done. I learned a different perspective one day when Ed, his brother, Dude Gaines, and I were walking on the dirt path from the reconstructed palisade toward the parking lot, where the museum is now. I occasionally hired Dude to help with troweling the squares, to mow the grass, to backfill a square, and other necessary work. Dude

69 had had polio as a child so one leg was shorter than the other and he walked with a noticeable limp because of it. As we were walking along on the path, tired from a long day's work, Ed said, "Dude! Why don't you quit walking with one foot on the curb and one foot in the gutter?" Dude replied, "Why don't you use all your brain instead of half of it?" And with that they kept up the good-natured banter until we reached our cars and said goodbye for the day. The next day I asked Ed about it and told him that I would never have said something like that to a limping man. He laughed and said, "Anyone can see he limps. You know it and he knows it, so why not come out and say it? You can't hide the truth of it by pretending it ain't there. You can even joke about it like you do with anyone else." I was later to have that lesson demonstrated again when I was archaeologist at Brunswick Town State Historic Site, when a fight ensured between a man in a wheelchair and one who was not--but that's another story for later.

Sparrow Pie-A Response to Hunger Ed told me about when he was a boy growing up in the depression that the family was often hungry. He and Dude would help by catching sparrows for his mother to make sparrow pie. They would turn a wooden box upside down and put a peg tied to a string under one edge of the box, with the string through a window into the house. They would put some corn meal on the ground near the box, and more beneath it. As the sparrows gathered to eat the meal they would go under the tilted box to get more corn meal. By that time there were several sparrows competing for the meal. Then Ed and Dude would pull the peg out, trapping the sparrows. They would go into the yard and slip their hand under the edge of the box and "pinch off their little heads." Then, there were two ways their room would prepare the sparrows. One was she would wrap each sparrow in mud that Ed and Dude would bring into the house in a bucket. Then their morn would put the clay-wrapped sparrows into the ashes in the fireplace. After

70 they were baked in the hot coals they would rake them out onto the hearth and let them cool. Then they would hit them on the hearth to break the clay coating and suck the meat out of the clay ball. I asked about the bones and feathers and Ed said when you're hungry you don't notice the feathers and you can just crunch up the little bones. The second way Ed's mom cooked sparrows was to put a bunch of them onto a crust in a pie pan and cover them with another piecrust. Then she would bake them in the oven. When they were done and the pie was opened, "That was the best pie in the world!" - - those "four and twenty" sparrows baked in a pie.

"Rusty Nails Richen Your Blood" One day I was not feeling as energetic as usual. Ed noticed it, and said I probably had "weak blood" because it was winter, and added, "But you probably know how to cure that." I admitted I didn't, and asked him what he did about "weak blood." He said, "Come outside with me and I'll show you." He took me to the back comer of the shed where a barrel was positioned to catch the run-off from the roof. "Look in there," he said. 1 looked into the water and saw a handful of cut nails with bright iron rust around them. "What's that about?" I asked. He said, "Those nails rust and put iron in the water. If you drink the water the iron'll richen your blood. I always drink nail water in the winter like a tonic. It keeps me healthy. Drink some every day and see you don't feel better." He took a dipper hanging there and offered me a drink. "What about the mosquito larvae in there," I said, skeptically eyeing the water. "You don't need to drink' um," he laughed, "They won't hurt you, just strain 'um through your teeth and spit 'em out!"

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Public Education and Interpretation of the Archaeological Record The Palisade-An Interpretive Compromise When I arrived at Town Creek the temple mound and ramp, excavated by Joffre Coe in the 1930s, had been rebuilt. The logs placed on the ramp had rotted, leaving only a path for visitors to reach the mound summit (Coe 1995: 3 0 . I replaced the rotten logs with new cedar logs, forming broad steps (South 1995a: 282). Four main cedar support posts and lintels for supporting the roof for the temple on top of the mound were in place---a tempting reminder to me that the temple should be completed some day. The palisade, one of at least four that had been around the area, before and after the mound was built, had been reconstructed using juniper poles brought to the site from the coastal area by the Parks Department (Coe 1995: Cover, Frontispiece, 185, 188). This use of non-local posts bothered me and Coe's answer to my question about authenticity versus compromise was a lesson to me. He said that it would have been nice if local cedar or pine had been used, but the Parks Department had notified him that they had a large number o f juniper posts available from the coastal area and they could truck them to the site to be used to rebuild the palisade. He said that necessity sometimes dictated compromise and it was the responsibility of the archaeologist to be sensitively aware of those compromises that violated too heavily the evidence revealed in the archaeological record. Perfect "authenticity" was not a realistic goal, he said. He explained that juniper is also cedar, (genera Juniperus) and he didn't think the coastal juniper posts were inappropriate. I then asked if the posts had been placed in the original postholes. He said that they had not, but were within a foot or so of the original ones. He said this compromise was made because if it was ever necessary to re-examine the exact location of the original postholes it could be done, because they were not destroyed by the placement of the

Town Creek Stories new posts. They were basically a relatively authentic symbol of the original. The size of the posts was also a compromise. The juniper posts were much larger than the original palisade posts used by the Indians, but again, this compromise was necessary because small posts the size of the original would have rotted much sooner than the larger ones. These lessons in sensitive interpretive compromise as opposed to literal authenticity were to serve me well in the years to come as I faced similar challenges in translating the archaeological record into interpretive statements for public education. I will be saying more about this razor's edge of decision-making as this story continues. A portion of the north D-shaped palisade had been plastered with concrete, a compromise, instead of the clay daub plastered on the original palisade by the Indians so that the rains would not dissolve the daub over time. This compromise caused the concrete wall to need to be mopped with red Clay to simulate clay daub in color. Ed would fill a wheelbarrow with subsoil clay, pour water on it, mix it with a hoe then smear it onto the wall with a broom. This time-consuming process, in place before I arrived, took time I had rather Ed spend on revealing what the next tenfoot square had to show. One day, when Ed was shoveling the clay and I was mixing the mud, it occurred to me that if we shoveled in some concrete mix that the redstained lime might hold the color to the palisade much better than clay alone. We tried it and it worked, freeing a block of Ed's time to do archaeology. One of the things that bothered me about the mud-plastered stockade wall was the holes left in the wall at periodic intervals when the wall was constructed. They looked like holes suitable for use by defenders using guns. I asked Joffre about this and discovered he was uneasy with that interpretive detail as well. While I was there I sealed the holes with mud to remove this bothersome feature, but after I left the site the mud was removed. Joffre used a photograph showing the holes on the cover o f his book (Coe

71 1995: Cover, Frontispiece, and Figure F.1) - another of those compromises. Excavating Human Remains in a Mortuary House One area inside the palisaded compound excavated by Ed Gaines and I, was near the bank of Little River where we found part of a burial house, half of which had been eroded away as past floodwaters had cut into the bank. We removed several burials to recover information before further erosion took place. However, as excavation proceeded, the visiting punic showed great interest in the archaeological process of excavating, revealing, and removing these skeletal remains for further study by physical anthropologists. To prolong the educational opportunity provided by these exposed burials we placed over them a wooden shed, about 4 by 6 feet in size, with a hinged sheet metal roof for protection from rain. This roof could be propped up to allow viewing of the graves. Later, after I had left Town Creek for Brunswick Town, other archaeologists reconstructed a mortuary house over one of these burial houses to allow viewing of burials in place within it (Coe 1995:59, 267). This was a major achievement toward interpreting Native American religious burial practices to the public to help increase appreciation and respect for that culture - - a practice no longer considered acceptable. However, I soon realized that the water table problem on the site during wet weather would have to be faced if such a mortuary structure was ever built. I discovered this through leaving the individual burials open beneath the protective shed. Although we set the shed into the subsoil several inches to keep out surface water, during a rainy spell we could see water flowing out of root holes deep within the walls of the red clay side of the burial h o l e - - a problem if a mortuary house were ever reconstructed on the site. To address this problem I drew a plan to prevent water from entering the excavated burials. In the drawing I indicated that a ditch about six feet deep should be dug around the outside of the

72 burial area and backfilled with gravel. This ditch would be connected to a ditch to the riverbank containing drain tiles set in gravel. Such a drain system would keep water from reaching the burials. However, this was not done when the mortuary house was built so water periodically rose in the burial pits. Because of this problem, as well as the change in interpretive concepts involving Native American burials, the exposed burials were removed and replaced by an alternative exhibit concept.

Discovering a "Square-Ground Shed" from Posthole Depths In 1957, periodically I would visit Chapel Hill to touch base with Joffre Coe, and to develop the 5 by 7 inch exposed film of the ten-foot squares. We had to be sure the exposed film was o.k. prior to backfilling the squares. I would produce the mosaic prints in the darkroom and periodically glue them into place on the master mosaic of the excavated areas. We theorized that rectangular "squareground sheds" might be located in the area between the temple mound and the priest house. I wanted to see if the photographic mosaic revealed any sign of sheds or other structures. Joffre and I stared for a long time at the photographic mosaic, but we could see no visual posthole patterns of square, round, or rectangular buildings that stood out beyond the mass o f postholes that had been dug there in the distant past. I asked Joffre if I could see the square sheet drawings for that area. They revealed no buildings either. Because we always measured the depth of all postholes as we excavated them, I suggested that I use the depth of the holes from various squares in that area to see if a pattern could be revealed. On a copy o f the drawings I used different colors to designate postholes from different half-foot levels. As I remember, the colors were green, blue and red. When I did this and colored the plan of the postholes, I discovered a red set of postholes (from 1.0 ft. to 1.5 ft. in depth) that formed a rectangular shed 8 by 14 feet in size, in association with a number of charred

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION corn pits (Coe 1995:96-97). I had discovered the first square ground shed in the plaza area at Town Creek by using posthole depth. I was pleased with the results of this discovery method and this experience was to prove effective almost fifty years later at Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site in locating one of the first structures built there after the English arrived in 1670 (South 2002:287; Stoner and South 2001:3839).

From Ten-Foot Squares to Transit Mapping-A Breakthrough in Method When I was at Roanoke Rapids with Binford, we needed a map of the site covering a large area. Lcw knew how to use a transit far better than I did, so he made the map of the site (South 1959:248). I knew how to use a transit to map elevations along a straight axis, and to shoot elevations, but not to map large areas. At Town Creek I mapped the features in the ten-foot squares by using two tapes and recording the points at which they intersected over the posthole center, or around a feature (Coe 1995:48). It was a piece of cake to measure a ten-foot square area using the 3-4-5 method pulling tapes. However, I found, when I was laying down a row of ten-foot squares connected to a row laid down by some other archaeologist in previous years, the nails set for a ten foot square sometimes were off by two-tenths of a foot in ten feet! This was certainly unacceptable to me, so I had to make adjustments. However, I had little experience on a transit to map features over large areas of a site, but I wanted to learn how to do that in case I ever worked on a site where the logistics of mapping by grid were so great that a transit was an absolute necessity. Given this problem, I requested from my Raleigh supervisor in the Historic Sites Division a transit (a farm level, actually) that is simply a protractor, mounted on a tripod with a telescope attached. The instrument cost $125. I took it out on the site and drove four nails into the ground within a 300-foot area. I took the little book that came with the thing, and using a tape

Town Creek Stories pulled by Ed, I practiced shooting from one nail to the other. Then I moved the transit, shooting back, etc., until I could make a map of points anywhere in the 360 degrees of the transit and within the reach of a 300 foot tape, with a reasonable degree of accuracy. From then on I was able to make maps of a site without being enslaved to the grid. This breakthrough in method would serve me well in the years to come as I was challenged to map entire towns I was excavating. Excavating the Great Game Pole Hole in the Plaza Area at Town Creek When excavating the plaza area at Town Creek, Ed and Dude Gaines, and another helper and I discovered two trench features that had not been found in other areas o f the site, These proved to be where ramps had been excavated down to a large posthole at the deep end. One of these ramps was filled with large stones that I interpreted as chocking stones for a pole that had been slid down the ramp to the bottom of the hole. Then the pole had been lifted while another stone was thrown into the hole to hold it upright. This process had apparently been carried out until the pole stood upright in the hole, at which time a pile of stones was thrown against the side of the pole facing the ramp to hold it in place to keep it from falIing back into the hole. I made a detailed drawing of the plan and profile o f this ramp, illustrated in Coe's book on Town Creek (1995:94, Figure 5.7). I then excavated another unusual feature shaped like a cross. Hill's ink drawing of my field drawing is seen in Coe (1995: 95, Figure 5.8). When we began excavating this feature we expected to find stones in the ramp, but to my surprise, the ramp contained none, but a few chocking stones were found at the very bottom. Then I excavated the cross-trench feature and found that it was not a ramp, but rather a shallow trench, with the bottom at a uniform depth along its length. In the absence of rocks in the ramp, and the presence of this trench at a right angle to, and just behind, the deepest part of the hole, I interpreted this cross-trench feature as being a slot

73 into which a key log was dropped to lock in place the great game pole or chucky pole, probably about 40 feet long, that once occupied the hole.

Figure 4.2. Excavated game pole holes and trenches with

water revealing the water table level. (Photo: South, 1957) I felt that this exciting feature should be interpreted to more fully tell the story of what went on in prehistoric times at this ceremonial compound, and that a new great game pole should be slid into the hole and locked in place using the hypothesized key log dropped into the crosstrench. To experimentally demonstrate whether this hypothesis was in any way valid, I needed a 45-foot long pine pole. I thought that if Ed, Dude Gaines and a helper, assisted by me to roll the key log in place as they lifted the great game pole, we would successfully raise the pole into position. I thought it would need some kind of trophy head or other adornment to place at the top of the pole.

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Figure 4.3. Dude and Ed

Gaines and helper raising the game pole in the original hole. (Photo: South, 1957)

I contacted the U. S. Forest Service at Uhwarrie National Forest, and asked if they could furnish me with a 45 foot long pine pole. They agreed to do that. I also asked for a deer skull to place at the top of the pole. They said they had no deer skull at the moment but they put me in touch with a man who had recently killed a bear, and asked if a bear skull would do. I said that was fine with me and I made arrangements with that man to pick up a bear skull to grace the top of our pole. Ed cooked it on the site and scraped the meat from it. I then did one of those compromises I spoke of earlier and drove a 40-penny nail into the top of the pole and fastened the bear skull to it through the neck hole. Ed and I then festooned the skull with hemp rope tassels (another compromise). We fastened another piece of hemp rope around the pole about halfway up. I had read (Culin 1907) that in one version of a ballgame played in the Southeast, a higher score was often

counted if the ball hit the object on top of the pole, than if it hit above a mark about halfway up. With these preparations made, the four of us pushed the pole down the original ramp to the bottom of the hole. Then, as the three others lifted, I rolled a cedar key log along the ground to hold the pole in place from time to time while we rested. Gradually, by lifting the pole and rolling the key log, we had the great game pole in an upright position as I shoved the key log into the original key log trench. Our experiment had worked. We had at least demonstrated that a few people could raise a heavy 40-foot pole into position using the original trenches dug by the Indians. I took time away from the process to photograph our effort (Coe 1995:96).

Excavating a Copper Lizard in the Laboratory As a graduate student in Chapel Hill, Joffre showed me a lump of green copper oxide-stained

Town Creek Stories material with fragments of cane matting exposed. It had been taken from burial 57 at Town Creek some years before. It had been preserved by being soaked in Alvar, a standard preservative solution used for stabilizing delicate objects for removal from the field. It was covered with lumps of something that looked like bark. We could see the oval shape of a copper object inside the lump. I asked Joffre if he would allow me to use a solvent to "excavate" the lump, to see if I could reveal more of the cane matting, and he allowed me to do that. The slow process of carefully picking at the mass revealed what appeared to me to be fragments of bark. Beneath those fragments I found preserved woven cane matting with two different weaves. I turned the object over to clean the opposite side. Here the process revealed hair in parallel alignment, like animal fur, along with small fragments of fabric in contact with a copper ornament in the shape of a lizard (Coe 1995:236, Figure 11.12E). Using the solvent to soften the Alvar, I revealed the preserved "strata" associated with this ornament. This allowed me to interpret that, when the deceased individual was placed in the grave, the body had been wrapped in cloth, over which an animal fur, perhaps a cloak, was placed. A copper lizard ornament was then laid on the fur. Then, on the upper side of the ornament, a cane mat had been placed over the body. Finally, the cane mat-covered body had been covered with a layer of bark. This sequence, preserved by copper salts from the lizard, revealed the series of body coverings in the burial pit was something like a custom-made coffin around the body of the deceased. Reproducing Town Creek Indian Artifacts for Exhibits While I was a graduate student in 1954, Joffre asked me to photograph beads and other artifacts for use in slide presentations and for the files at the Research Laboratories of Anthropology. It was then I became familiar with many of the artifacts from Town Creek. Later; when I was the

75 archaeologist there, I undertook to replicate some of those copper and shell artifacts to be used in exhibits. A few exhibits were in the CCC barracks building where our laboratory and office was located (Coe 1995:26), but there was hope that the legislature would appropriate funds for a museum at some time in the future. I asked Sam Tarleton at the Historic Sites Division about plans for a museum on the site. He said an upcoming request was to be made to the legislature, not only for a museum, but a house for the site archaeologist as well. I suggested that if I gave a slide presentation to that group on the work being done at Town Creek, perhaps that would help convince the legisl'ators of the need. He made the political connections and I made the presentation. As a result, funding for the house was forthcoming, but the museum would have to wait until later, long after I had left Town Creek to undertake historical archaeology at Brunswick Town. The exhibits in the CCC building did not contain artifacts because of the risk of break-ins at the isolated site. Replication of artifacts, therefore, was a way to interpret to the visiting public what was being found at Town Creek. So, I went to the hardware store and purchased copper sheeting and began hammering it with a stone to flatten it further in order to reproduce a breastplate such as that illustrated in Coe (1995:236D). I was fascinated by the fact that to fasten such flat copper objects together the Indians had punched holes in two overlapping pieces and inserted little copper rivets, hammering the pieces and the rivets together. I made a reproduction breastplate by this same method. Joffre Coe had showed me the copper ax from burial 50, at Town Creek (1955:237), and pointed out that it had been made by hammering together several thin native copper sheets (probably trade copper from Michigan). So, I made a reproduction copper ax with the same method used by the Indians, hammering to anneal the copper and bond the sheets into a thick copper ax. I then cut out a little copper lizard such as the one I had revealed in the laboratory (Coe

76 1995:236, Figure 11.12D), and made some tubular beads. However, these objects were the color of untarnished copper, not having the green oxide patina characteristic of archaeologically excavated copper. They needed to be artificially "aged" in some manner. To do this I placed wet paper toweling over the objects and sprinkled, as I remember, ammonium chloride crystals I obtained from the drugstore onto the wet toweling. The following day a green patina covered the objects, giving them the appearance of archaeologicallyrecovered artifacts. Years later, on a visit to the Town Creek museum, I saw some of these reproduction pieces still on display. The most difficult item I reproduced was a shell gorget such as that cross-in-a-circle from burial 43, illustrated in Coe (1995:235B). I used a band saw to roughly cut the outside shape, but the saw blade got so hot the teeth were dulled and the blade had to be replaced. To cut out the four triangular holes I began using a drill, but I found that the drills became hot, and dull so quickly, that I was making little progress. I then bought some high carbon steel drills and, by drilling holes tangent to one another, I was able to remove the four triangular areas, leaving the cross shaped area within a circle. However, I then had to use rasps and files in order to smooth the edges of the triangles, and this took an inordinate amount of time and effort. Finally, I was able to produce a shell gorget for exhibit purposes, but the result was not nearly so fine looking as the archaeological examples produced by Native Americans without the use of steel tools. I gained a great respect for their shellworking technology as a result of my efforts. Reconstructing the Town House Temple on the Mound at Town Creek When I was a graduate student in 1955 I wrote a paper for Dr. Coe's Anthropology 74 course entitled, "Some Suggestions for the Construction of an Indian Temple." The research and arguments of relevance for the methods I used in 1957 and 1958 to reconstruct the temple building

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION are presented in the paper that was later published (South 1955, 1973a, 1995). When I arrived at Town Creek only the four large central cedar posts with lintels were in place on the mound (Coe 1995:31). On the outside of the south palisade there was a pile of cedar logs, cut and placed there by a previous archaeologist for use in rebuilding the temple. Each time I passed that pile of logs I had the urge to rebuild the temple. I asked Joffre whether I could launch into that project. He replied that I had "written the book" on how it should be built, but that I would need more poles than were already on the site. I had the plans from my 1955 paper, in which I had drawn details of how the poles were to be set in the ground, how the roof was to be attached, how the aluminum roof was to be sandwiched between reeds cut from the banks of Town Creek, and how bundles of thatch were to be tied to chicken wire nailed over the aluminum roof, so I knew from my own research how the temple should be built. I made arrangements with a local owner of a pine forest that needed the forest thinned and I went into the forest and chain-sawed down a number of his pine trees to use for the roof poles of the temple. We then began cutting and dragging the poles to the road to be loaded on a truck and carried to the site. First, however, we stripped the limbs from the trees and then we used our flat blade, archaeological schnitting (sharp earth-cutting) shovels to cut offthe bark. I bought a large dug-up service station gasoline storage tank, filled it with water to force out all fumes, drained it, and had a welder cut the tank in half along the long axis. Then he cut two ends out and welded it together again to make a long half-round vat to be used to soak the logs in the preservative Pentacholorophenyl, a wood preservative. We loaded the vat with pine poles and let them soak overnight or for a day or two and then remove them and place them on a corrugated metal drain board so that the excess chemical would drain back into the tank. We did this until I

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Figure 4.4. Ed Gaineshandingme anotherroof pole for the town house temple. (Photo:Jewell South, 9/1956)

thought we had enough poles to use for the roof of the temple. Each week I reported our progress to Joffre. This continued until the spring of 1958, when the temple was completed. I used the archaeologically excavated floor plan and laid out the reconstruction. We used nails to fasten the roof poles in place (another compromise) but we took care that none of these would show. We used commercial rope, a compromise that worried me, because it was machine wound, not twisted by hand and Indian rope would have been. Ed cut broom sage and we tied them into bundles with twine and fastened them to the chicken wire on the roof, overlapping like shingles, so that nothing but natural materials showed from the inside or out (South 1995a:294300). We soaked the thatch bundles in Penta, as we had the roof poles. Today 45 years later, some of

this same thatch is still on the roof. The twine I had used eventually rotted, releasing some of the bundles, but I was told they were reused and retied using fine wire. The aluminum roof had protected all but the lower three feet or so of the roof poles and they began to rot off. These were replaced using short pieces of poles. The archaeology had revealed that the sides of the entranceway were covered with cane mats, so Ed went to work weaving mats to represent the original (South 1995a: 297). He also wove mats to cover the wooden seats we built inside the temple (South 1995a: 299). Because archaeology revealed there were no postholes along the wall inside the temple I used benches made of horizontally laid logs, on which we placed Ed's mats. There were postholes at the opposite side from the entranceway that were interpreted as the location of an altar.

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Figure 4.5. The completed town house temple and ramp with new logs in place. Inset: Dancing figures on the vestibule

wall of the temple. (Photo: South, 1957) I rebuilt this altar and placed upon it some animal hides, a conch shell and some leaves of yaupon (Ilex vomitorium) from which the Indians made the black drink. Such altars are known to have contained a religious figure carved of wood (Lawson 1714 [1952]: 228). The painted vestibule wall of one such Mississippi Valley temple was said by Gravier (In Swanton 1946:617), to have been the finest part of the temple, being decorated with dancing colorful figures, or satyrs. I used dancing figures in relief, with the headdress of a deer and a bear, holding

artifacts archaeologically recovered at Town Creek - - a set of sharpened turkey bones fastened together to form a skin-scratcher (Coe 1995:239, Figure ll.14E, 271, Figure 13.6); a bear-tooth rattle, a copper ax (Coe 1995: 237, Figure 11.13); and a conch shell cup for the black drink (South 1995a: 297). I chose the deer and the bear for the vestibule wall because my research in my BAE reports had found that these two animals were the most frequently used Creek clan effigies. On the four walls inside the temple I used the beaver, bear, wolf and deer. The cross-hatching on the

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beaver tail, and the incised lines of the animals themselves, were based on incising I found when I did a detailed study of the daub from the temple walls.

Figure 4.6. The spotlighton the conch shell on the altar in the town house temple that convincedEd Gaineswe "got it right." (Photo: South 1957)

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"We Got It Right!"--A Spotlight Shines On Our Work One day after the temple was completed, I was in my office in the CCC building, when Ed came in very excited. He was usually very controlled and calmly self-assured, but this excitement was unusual. He told me I should come with him immediately, that he wanted to show me something in the temple. I asked him what it was. "I can't tell you. I can't describe it. You'll have to see it for yourself!" On the way through the bastion gate, across the plaza, and up the ramp, Ed kept saying, "We got it right! We got it so right, it's scary!" I had no idea what he was talking about, but he was more excited than I had ever seen him. When I came around the vestibule wall a shaft of light was coming through the smoke hole. It was made more dramatic by the smoke from the fire we kept burning each day in the central fire pit. Then I saw that the shaft formed a circular spotlight directly on the objects on the altar. This spotlight from the sun had convinced Ed that we had indeed "Got it right" - - at least for that hour of the day on that day of year. As a final touch of authenticity, we had left a section of the temple wall without the clay-stained concrete on metal lathing (another compromise). As one came up the mound you could see in this section some of the vines we used as wattling. We plastered red clay daub matching the remainder of the wall over the vines. After that had dried, I took a hammer and struck enough blows to the daub so that some of the wattling was revealed, as might have been the case on any claydaubed wall after being exposed to the weather over a period of time. Visitors sometimes remarked that we needed to repair that place where the clay was coming off--a complement to our effort at authenticity. Almost a half-century has passed since Ed and I built the temple. In that time it has mellowed considerably, and the last time I visited it I was struck by the wonderful odor of the structure, the wood, ashes in the hearth, the thatch, and the general ambiance of the place. It now has a

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mystical, romantic aura that it did not have when Ed and I first completed it. Or is that simply personal nostalgia in my heart and mind? I don't think so. I would like to believe that others may be equally touched by the impact of that silent place, built to recapture the Native American "story from the past," through archaeological science and interpretation. Decades after leaving Town Creek I met a man from Mt. Gilead, who also remembered fondly the romantic aura of the temple building. He said it had been a favorite place for local high school students to go to make love on the benches Ed and I had built--what better use than as a temple of love?

Reconstructing the Entryway Tunnel beneath the Palisade Wall Erosion along the east edge of the D-shaped stockade had removed the posthole evidence. However, the Indians had dug a tunnel beneath the palisade that apparently served as an entryway from Little River (Coe 1995:89). I wanted to reconstruct the palisade along this straight side of the "D" and asked Joffre about doing that. His response was to show me the photographs and drawings for the tunnel gates and pointed out the absence of postholes. I suggested that although posthole data was missing, the tunnel entranceways appeared to me to be sufficient evidence to reveal where the stockade had been. Because I had successfully completed building the temple, I suspect he thought I could do justice to that reconstruction as well, so I began to cut more pine trees to build that palisade wall with tunnel entryway. It was just beyond these tunnel entryways where the eight-foot deep deposit of broken pottery was excavated. Because of the budget restrictions I was not able to buy much Penta for preserving these poles, and because I was anxious to get on with the project, I didn't allow the poles to dry before we soaked them in Penta. Then, after the Penta was used up, I discontinued soaking the poles, with the excuse that this would allow us to gauge the time

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the non-Penta-soaked Indian-placed poles would last in the ground. Ed and Dude, and I, along with a robust 15year old Don Mayhew, a high school football player from Mooresville, North Carolina, installed the palisade poles. Then, we placed shorter poles on each side of the entrance tunnel with a gate overhead that had to be lifted from inside the palisade to allow access to the tunnel beneath the palisade. This was one of the most popular interpretations for school children. They loved to duck their heads to go in and out beneath the palisaded compound wall. The compromise I had made on the poles, or the "experiment," as I liked to think of it, demonstrated that such palisades, made of untreated pine poles, would last about seven years, for it was about that time, I believe, that this palisade was removed because the poles had rotted, and as far as I know this neat entranceway beneath the palisade wall has not been interpreted at the site.

Figure 4. 7. Don Mayhew in the reconstructedentryway

tunnel through the stockade at the Town Creek side of the compound. (Photo: South, 1958)

Square-Ground Refuse beyond the Tunnel Gate--Broken Pots When I arrived at Town Creek a previous archaeologist had begun digging a five-foot-wide trench on the bank below the tunnel gate to a depth of about five feet, and this excavation was still open, but in need of further excavation. I cleaned the weeds from the square and dressed the profile to learn what it revealed. Then I widened

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the trench to 10 feet and excavated the trench to a depth of eight feet before the subsoil was reached. The entire depth of this trench revealed that periodically, refuse, consisting primarily of broken pottery, was thrown down the bank, producing strata at about 45 degrees. Therefore, these strata had to be followed at that angle in order to keep associated refuse together, making excavation at that angle a difficult process. As I dug here I began to observe that some sherds found in the bottom layer were different from those in the layers above. I did a quantitative analysis of pottery from this trench with this difference in temper and surface finish in mind. A question of interest at the time was demonstrating the temporal relationship of Uwharrie pottery to Pee Dee pottery. I was excited by the difference I observed in the strata and asked Joffre if I could present a paper at the Southeastern Archaeological Conference on the pottery found in this trench. His reply was that he would publish such analyses at a later time. Almost 40 years later he published the pottery count of Pee Dee, Yadkin, Caraway, Badin, Bruton and Uwharrie pottery found in the test pit trench cut into the riverbank midden (Coe 1995:153).

Reconstructing the Priest's House Before my going to Town Creek, by 1950, enough excavation had been carried out so that an interpretive drawing could be made of the layout inside the palisaded compound. This 1951 drawing, by Barton Wright, was a valuable interpretive tool to guide those o f us who came to the site in later years (Coe 1995:98, Figure 5.11). Having completed the temple in 1958, and inspired by Barton Wright's drawing, as I had been when I went searching for the posthole for the great game pole, I was anxious to move on to the construction of the palisaded compound archaeology had revealed was located opposite the ramp of the temple mound (Coe 1995:88). The two palisaded compounds found there were interpreted as the enclosures around a priest's house and a burial house.

81 In a conference with Joffre we decided that an interpretive compromise would be made and I would reconstruct only one of the palisade compounds and one priest house inside it. Using the archaeological record as a guide to the building plan, I rented a tractor with a hole-digger on the back, and dug holes in the droughtproduced concrete-hard subsoil clay for the rectangular compound. The priest's house had been a square building, according to the posthole pattern, with an entranceway on the southwest side facing the temple mound. I used cedar again for the posts to go into the ground, with roof poles of pine, cut locally, and because of budget constrictions, I didn't believe we could afford Penta to preserve them. The

Figure 4.8. Dude Gaines, Don Mayhew, Ed Gaines and

David Wilson reconstructing the priest's house. (Photo: South, 9/1958)

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framing of the priest's house was finished before I left Town Creek. The building was completed by David Phelps in 1958 (Coe 1995:34). The concept for the priest's house, after I left, was that the use of native materials would be a non-compromised way of reconstructing such a structure. Natural wattling materials were used in the walls and clay daub was used instead of the red clay-stained concrete I had used on the temple. No aluminum roof was used, so during a rain, I was told, rain would leak into the building onto tourists who had sought shelter there. Six years later, in 1964, the roof poles had rotted, having been kept wet by the thatch after each rain, and the entire roof had to be replaced by Roy Dickens (Coe 1995:38). With that trade-off for the sake of authenticity o f materials, a much higher maintenance consideration was put in effect than that required of the temple Ed and I had built. The pine palisade posts I had used in the enclosure around the priest's house also rotted, but a standard procedure there was to simply remove the rotten part in the ground and stick the same post back into the hole. This resulted in the palisades being of different length, some long, some a few feet shorter, which was noticeable to me when I returned for a visit many years later. This was because I had left the palisade with very little difference in the height of the poles. This greater variability in the length of the poles gave an increased authenticity, it seemed to me, for this may well have been the solution the Indians had to the rotting of palisade posts. This is supported by archaeological evidence that reveals that such palisades are not always in a neat straight line, but have "extra" posts outside that line, which I have interpreted as perhaps replacement posts for those that may have rotted off at ground level. The maintenance of the priest's house on a continuing basis will always be a reality that must be dealt with at Town Creek, I suspect, compared to the almninum-roofed, concrete-walled temple on top of the mound, where only the unprotected overhanging ends of the roof poles have rotted after 45 years.

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"In The Future Man Will Live on the Stars"-Yes-Or-No-Bureaucracy While the temple was being built to interpret what science had revealed about the past, our seven-year old son, David, faced a question regarding what science had discovered about the stars. We lived in Mt. Gilead, a few miles from Town Creek, where David attended school. One day he came home upset because he had made a score of 98 instead of 100 on a science test. He said the question he missed was: "Scientists have found that in the future man will live on the stars." I had taught David that stars were suns, so he had answered "no," but the answer was supposed to have been "yes" to receive credit. I agreed that David's negative answer was the correct one. However, he was concerned that I had fed him incorrect information about the nature of the stars when we had studied the constellations--he was confused as to whom to believe. So, I went to see his teacher--which began a pass-the-buck game. She told me that she had to go by the answers printed in the answer sheet and could not give him credit for his answer. She said the test was approved by the State Board of Education and that if I disagreed with some answer I should contact them, which I did. Their answer was that they did not make the test and only approved its use, and that the teacher was correct in subtracting for David's answer. If I had a problem with the answer to a question I should contact the company in Chicago that manufactured the test. I wrote them explaining the situation. They answered that they would check with their scientific advisors, but that the test in question had been used for years, approved by many school boards in many states, and mine was the first challenge to a question they had received. Weeks went by, so I again wrote asking what their scientific advisor had said about the question. Some time later I received a letter saying that David's answer to that question was indeed a correct one. Finally! However, they said that because they had just had a large printing of the same test, it would be some time before any correction could be made. They said that

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sometime in the future, when that test was redesigned, they would change the answer to that question. Being a determined pest, I called and asked, "What about all those children in the meantime who would, like David, have points subtracted for giving the correct answer? I got the impression from the spokesman for the company that I should have points subtracted for asking such a question and causing the problem. I showed the letter to David, but told him not to hold his breath until the change was made, because he would probably be graduated from college before that happened. The change may never have been made and students are still being given the impression that man will someday indeed live on stars (suns)!

Excavating at the Hardaway Site--Searching for the Paleoindian Presence Not all excavation took place when I was at Town Creek Indian Mound. From time to time Joffre would notify me to meet him at a cafe in Badin, North Carolina, where we would have an early morning coffee and then go to the Hardaway site (StV4) nearby (Coe 1964:56-83). This site promised to reveal evidence for the earliest Indians in North Carolina, and I fantasized about finding a Clovis point at the bottom of the squares we dug. We dug a trench of five-foot squares, one at a time, removing an incredible amount of lithic debitage by half-foot levels. I remember counting 52 projectile points and scrapers from one of these half-foot levels, not counting the unworked debitage that was thrown into a pile that ended up being larger than the pile of dirt screened from the square. Sometimes when Joffre couldn't join us, Ed and I would go to the site and excavate a square without him. The recovery of so much worked stone at that site was an exciting adventure. As we neared the bottom of the two to three foot deep square, however, where the soil color changed from a wine to a brighter red subsoil clay for a half-foot or so, we always hoped we would find a Hardaway projectile point. We found that when this redder subsoil zone was reached, it contained

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fewer lithic specimens. Beneath that layer the red subsoil was found and we discovered, as we troweled the upper surface of this red subsoil, that we would occasionally find a flake of debitage embedded in the clay, but these were not lying flat. Rather, they were standing up on edge. These would extend down into the subsoil a few inches, but there would be no sign at all of any disturbance from darker soil lying above the brighter red subsoil. We had to come up with an explanation for this mystery. Why were the earliest flakes of stone, on what had apparently been a bright red clay surface, with little or no organic material present, always lying on edge, sandwiched between bright subsoil clay? This was a predictable phenomenon in the subsoil in the squares we dug. My theory was, and I was never sure Joffre ever agreed with me, that at the time the first Hardaway point-making people arrived it was a red clay eroded site. The first debitage flaked from cores there fell on a red clay surface with no humus. Then, in very dry weather, that clay would crack open, as I have seen such exposed subsoil do when the sun has sucked the moisture out of it. This would cause stone flakes lying on the clay surface to fall on edge into the cracks. When moisture again wet the clay it would swell, sealing the debitage in a vertical position in undisturbed subsoil. Coe only smiled at this explanation. Because of this phenomenon we had to excavate the red clay subsoil very carefully to prevent scraping the sharp edges of the worked, or un-worked flakes, encased vertically on edge within the subsoil. In this position, with only a sharp edge showing, one careless swipe of the trowel across the sharp edge, would produce a number of tiny flake scars, that later in the laboratory might be interpreted as having been produced there by the people working lithics on the site. To prevent this we developed an excavation technique that involved sticking the point of the trowel into the subsoil to pry out lumps. We found that if the lump was close to one of the vertical flakes, it would sheer away from the flake, thus revealing it, and allowing it to

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Figure 4.9. StanSouth in Square 0LI5 at the Hardaway Site (StV4),with a Hardaway blade (inset and arrow) on edge in the red subsoilclay at the bottom of the square. (Photo:Edward Gaines,6/1956) be removed without our having accidentally created our own flakes from scraping the sharp edges. This was a difficult process to use because the red clay was very hard to excavate in this manner, and many blisters resulted on our trowel hands from this technique. In one of the squares Ed and I were digging, at a time when Joffre could not be there, we discovered the edge of what appeared to be a biface blade. 1 took close-up photographs of the blade in situ and Ed took one of me in the bottom of the square pointing to the blade. We then excavated the subsoil from each side of the object and took more photographs. When it was finally removed from the subsoil matrix in which it lay, we found that it was a Hardaway blade, illustrated by Coe (1995:65). This was, I believe, the first Hardaway blade found in the red subsoil clay at the bottom of the squares at the Hardaway site (StV4, Sq. 0L20, Zone IV Coe 1964: 65). In the same subsoil zone

I also found a classic Hardaway projectile point (Coe 1964: 68). Later long-term Research Laboratories of Anthropology sponsored excavations may well have revealed others, but I was not involved in those digs. This discovery reminded me of the time, seven years before, when I found that Hardaway point in the tobacco field north of Greensboro, that had stimulated my desire to learn more about such early clues to past activities of people who made tools from stone. Joffre's published work on The Formative Cultures o f the Carolina Piedmont (1964) has become a classic archaeological bible, based on the work done at the Doerschuk site (MgV22), the Hardaway site (StV4), and the Gaston site (HxV7). Some time after I worked at the Hardaway site I asked Joffre whether there was a site like that across the river and he said perhaps I should go there to see. Ed and I went there, and to no

Town Creek Stories

surprise to me, found a similar site with quantities of lithic debris. Discovery near the Doerschuk Site--an Unsolved Mystery Downstream from the Hardaway site is the Doerschuk site. Because the site allowed Joffre to locate a number of projectile points stratigraphically, I asked if he would show it to me. We walked across the dam near the site, and down a trail along the river bank, where an outcropping of sandstone had been cut into by the river. He showed me a place where the trail crossed the sandstone, where stone flakes were embedded in it. I recognized this as an incredible phenomenon. He smiled at my excitement and said that he had once had a geologist come to see if he could determine the age of the sandstone so that the obviously man-made debitage might be dated. The geologist had said that the late Holocene Period might be a good guess. Then he asked Joffre when he would date the flakes and from that they might more closely determine the age of the sandstone. So, nothing was done beyond that impasse. The geologist did say that it is surprising how quickly waterborne silica can act as the glue to bond sandbars into sandstone. He theorized that before the dam above the site was built, river-water flowed over the sandstone outcropping when it was a sandbar, at which time stone flakes from Indians making tools in the area settled into the loose sand. Then, through time, silica solidified the sand, turning it into the quartzbonded sandstone containing the flakes we found embedded in it. A nice theory, but unsatisfying to me, but it is all I have to address the mystery, given what we think we know about the time man has been in eastern North America. A few years later, when I was archaeologist in charge of Brunswick Town State Historic Site at Wilmington, I was to be reminded of what that geologist had said about the characteristics of silica in solution. A dredge had pulled a large log from the Cape Fear River. One end was petrified stone, with the opposite end being soft wood that

85 began flaking away as the sun pulled the moisture from the log. The wood end was joined to the stone end at a diagonal line, where the log had apparently been embedded in a layer on the bottom of the river. One end had taken in silica and had turned to quartz, whereas the other end had not, but the wood had been preserved in such a way that silica was not soaking into that end. This observation reminded me of the geologist's comment that silica, under the right conditions, can sometimes bond sand to sandstone in a remarkably short period of time. But...but...how short a time? The mystery of those flakes imbedded in sandstone still haunts me. Salvaging Burials at the Forbush Creek Site When a highway improvement to US 421 was being built in Yadkin County, North Carolina, Joffre asked that I meet him at a bottomland site in the path of the highway. The site was beside the river where a borrow pit had been dug by a company selling sand. The operators loading sand into trucks had reported that human bones and Indian pottery had been found at the site. Now that the site was endangered by highway construction, Joffre thought he, Ed and I should examine the area to see if other burials might be found and salvaged before destruction of the site took place. The site was designated as ydVl, and we knew it as the Yadkin site, but since that time it is known as "The Forbush Creek site." It was in December 1957, and because destruction was soon to take place, a motor grader was used to remove the surface of the sandy bottomland adjacent to the borrow pit. This process produced the dark soil fill of many features; some were refuse pits, but many were flexed Indian burials. Ed and I excavated many burials, and because time was short before destruction of the site, we recorded and removed the bones as quickly as possible, placing the wellpreserved, sand-filled skulls in boxes for removal of the sand at a later time, when careful excavation of the sand inside the skulls would reveal clues such as the eardrum bones, the hyloid bone, and other associated data of scientific use.

86 These skulls were stored in the laboratory in Chapel Hill until one of Joffre's students was given the job of repairing them and taking measurements for use in his M.A. thesis. What he found was that the skulls, in excellent condition when we had removed them from the ground, had broken into many postage-stamp-size fragments while in storage, causing him a challenging task of restoration. When I heard this I was surprised, because they had been so perfectly preserved when we placed them in the boxes. What had happened was that when the damp skulls had dried there was some shrinkage. However, the sand inside did not shrink, causing the skulls to self-destruct by breaking into many pieces. That lesson taught me to excavate the sand from inside archaeologically recovered skulls as soon as possible after removal from the field. Another Stratified Site Is Discovered As Ed continued excavation of the burials, I cut a profile down the ten-foot deep profile of sand which was the wall of the borrow pit adjacent to the burial site to see i f I could see a

Figure 4.10. Ed Gaines at the eight-foot deep Morrow MountainprojectiIe-point-associatedcharcoal deposit at the stratified Forbush Creek site (Ydv 1). (Photo: South, 12/1957)

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION stratum representing a buried surface, such as I had found at the Gaston site at Roanoke Rapids. When the profile was cleaned I saw a dark, charcoal stained area about eight feet deep, not in a layer, but in an irregular shape about 18 inches across. I troweled further into the profile at this point, and my trowel struck something causing the characteristic high-pitched sound heard when a trowel scrapes a stone. When I examined the spot from which the sound had come, I found a Morrow Mountain projectile point in the yellow sand. This was apparently another stratified site! Wow! What an opportunity this was to again reveal the exciting data buried in such a site. I photographed Ed standing beside the dark stain and removed it in a box so that radiocarbon dating might be done on the charcoal, which would suggest a date for the Morrow Mountain type projectile point associated with the charcoal. However, the evidence was eight feet deep and time was so short! In frustration at knowing that a stratified site was going to be buried beneath Highway 421, I returned to helping Ed with the removal of the burials, which showed more likelihood of success than removing eight feet of fill to get at the Morrow Mountain level on the site! "Stanley, I Believe Your Box Is On Fire" It was December, and each day we worked was colder than the last. The highway engineer in charge of the construction notified me that only a few days were left before we would have to leave the site. Each day we had seen the large bellyloading earthmoving machines working closer and closer to the site where we were working. The engineer had held his machines from the site as long as he could, for which we were grateful, but time was running out. It was a few days before Christmas and Ed had left to be with his family for the holidays. Joffre came down from Chapel Hill to help me excavate burials as long as the machines were not yet on the site. He registered in a motel for the night and, to prevent my driving back home to Mt. Gilead that night, he rented a room for me. That

Town Creek Stories

day we continued our work, with the sun shining and the temperature not too bad, so we made good progress. The next morning, however, the temperature was five degrees above zero! We had breakfast and discussed whether we should continue trying to excavate burials with the ground frozen. Joffre said, "Well, we're here. We might as well put in the day." We went to a furniture store and they gave us some large boxes to use as windbreaks, into which we could scrooch down while exposing the bones of a burial. We then went to a service station and got two empty five-quart oil cans and punched holes in the side near the bottom for ventilation. Then we bought a bag of charcoal briquettes and a can of lighter. We would use these as heaters to keep us from freezing in such cold weather. When we arrived at the site we took an ax and began chopping at the sand surface of one of the burials we had previously numbered and flagged with the burial number. The sand was frozen to a depth of about three inches, which broke up into chunks like frozen ice on a lake. We removed the broken chunks of sand and found soft sand of the burial pit beneath. Then Joffre put his box on its side on one side of the burial and I did the same with my box. We then put the charcoal in the cans, poured on the lighter, and lit it. Soon the cans were giving off a little heat against the almost zero temperature. We huddled in our boxes and placed our hot warming-can on the sand near us to capture as much heat from it as possible. Because we could not sensitively remove sand to reveal the bones using our gloves, we would excavate awhile using a bare hand, then when it became too cold to bear, we would hold that hand near the warming can of charcoal while we excavated with the other. We continued this process, periodically getting out of our box and stamping our feet to restore circulation in our cold legs and butts from sitting with only a single layer of cardboard between us and the frozen ground. As the morning dragged on under these conditions, and I was busily brushing sand from bones, I heard Joffre call my name. I looked up. He had a

87 curious expression on his face and was just staring at me. I said, "What?" Still he stared and said nothing. Then he calmly said, with a nod to my right, "Stanley, I believe your box is on fire." I

Figure 4.11. Southin the box excavatinga burialbefore the box caught fire. (Photo:Coe, 12/1957)

turned to my right, and all I saw was a wall of flame--it felt good, actually. But, I moved quickly, crawled out of the box, and by the time I stood up the entire box was flaming, giving off a nice warm glow, as Joffre and I watched it reduced to ashes. I had been so engrossed in excavating that I hadn't noticed the fire. What struck me was that Joffre had showed no excitement, as others might have done-only that calm announcement that my box was on fire. Shortly after that the highway engineer showed up and told us that our time had run out and he could no longer hold the giant bellyloaders back from our area. The causeway they had been building over the site had gotten closer and closer each day and they could no longer work the machines effectively. Joffre asked how much more time we had to remove the burials we had exposed, and he answered, "About five minutes." Whoa! We began grabbing our tools, notebooks, drawings, cameras, and had just carried our sifter frame from the area to just beyond the causeway area, when we looked around and one of the giant machines had run

88 over the spot where we had stood moments before. What a shock that was. Our mouths dropped open, and we looked at each other in disbelief, then we simply stood there and stared at what had been, moments before, an archaeological site where we were attempting to salvage information from the earth that would allow us to better understand the Native American past. It was a strange feeling we both had--to have a site so suddenly destroyed before our eyes. We were silent for a long time afterward, as if in mourning. We sat in a coffee shop and drank a farewell toast of coffee to the Yadkin site and said farewell for the holiday. It was December 23rd. "Pottery A r r o w h e a d s " - - A Lesson in Form and Function On one of my visits to Joffre in Chapel Hill he laid about a dozen small potsherds on a table and asked me what I thought of them. I thought this must be some kind of taxonomy test, so I looked for the surface decoration, and told him that some were Pee Dee Complicated Stamped, and others were burnished plain sherds. He had a mischievous grin on his face when he asked, "What else?" I knew there had to be something I was missing, so I stared at the collection again. Finally it hit me. "All of the sherds are in the shape of triangles," I said, puzzled. He smiled as he turned over a paper bag lying there and read what was written on it--"Pottery arrowheads from Town Creek." "Pottery arrowheads?" I asked. We laughed at the idea, and he explained that one of the archaeologists at Town Creek had noticed, when he was writing catalog numbers on groups of potsherds, that there were always some that were triangular in shape, just like the triangular shape of stone arrowheads. He concluded that these must be "pottery arrowheads." This had seemed like an important discovery to him, and had reported to Joffre that he had begun separating the "pottery arrowheads" from others sherds in the collection. He had made counts of these triangular sherds, and had figured the percentage of the "pottery arrowheads" in

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION relation to others in several proveniences, and had sent the results to Joffre. Joffre was puzzled as to what "pottery arrowheads" were and had asked him to send some to him to examine. The pottery sherds Joffre had shown me were the ones sent him as examples of this discovery. Joffre had later explained to the man that just because something was in the shape of something else it didn't mean their function was the same. Duh! Indians in North Carolina--Public Education Interpreting archaeological information about the Native American past to the public was a major goal in addition to the scientific research Joffre had carried out at Town Creek for twenty years before I arrived. Placing the Town Creek story in perspective in relation to what went on before and after that ceremonial area was in use, was also an important part of the evolution of Native American culture. The centennial of Stanly County was underway in 1957, and I was asked to write an article summarizing what was known about Indians in the Stanly County area, which I did, illustrating it with pictures of the reconstructed temple and a view o f the altar inside it (South 1957a:18-19). This article was my first on interpreting what was known at the time about Native Americans. In 1959 I wrote a summary of Indians in North Carolina, published by the State Department of Archives and History. In this booklet, written specifically for distribution to school children, I presented a time line illustrating changes in Indian artifacts over a 10,000 year period, from Clovis to the historic tribes to A.D. 1838 (South 1959b:61). That little book sold 69,050 copies. It cost 25 cents in 1959, increasing to one dollar by 1985, when it went out of print. The sequences of axes, projectile points and vessels I illustrated there is basically still valid today. Of course, it didn't include the "Pre-Clovis" period based on A1 Goodyear's work in recent years at the Topper site, near Allendale, South Carolina (Begley and Murr 1999:57)

Town Creek Stories

The Kron House---Salvage Archaeology--My First Historic Site In 1957, while I was at Town Creek, I was asked by administrators at Morrow Mountain State Park, not far away, to "demonstrate the technique necessary for locating cellar holes." An historian was contracted to study the life of a Dr. Kron, "a remarkable man far ahead of his time," whose early home was thought to be represented by a cellar depression in the earth (Foglia 1957:37; South 1957a:18-19, 1957b:1). The Park Service was interested in interpreting the life of Dr. Kron. I visited the site with the historian and saw a depression in the ground that appeared to me to be an undisturbed cellar hole. "How would you go about digging for relics or gold in the hole?" he asked. I explained that no gold would likely be found there and that other information besides relics would be recovered if the site were to be excavated by an archaeologist. He asked how I would go about it. I explained about using a grid system to control recovery of data, and mentioned that perhaps the Park Service could make funds available to have such work done through the Research Laboratories of Anthropology at the University of North Carolina. "How long would that take?" he asked. I told him that a month might be adequate to investigate such a site. He said something about digging the site himself, and that disturbed me. I told him that untrained people should not be digging in historic sites, because much information about the site would be destroyed. He said his contract ran out soon and that he wanted the site dug in the next week or so. I could tell he wanted to dig the site himself, because he said he knew that Dr. Kron was wealthy, and there was a story that he buried gold there. I told him laymen invariably thought gold was buried on any archaeological site and I had heard that said from my Watauga County survey, to Roanoke Rapids, to Town Creek, and would likely hear it about every site I would ever dig on. I explained that people's value system was so tied in with money that they couldn't understand a

89 value system anchored in trying to find knowledge about the past. I told him that people thought that because they couldn't understand why archaeologists dug on sites if it wasn't to find gold. I hoped that little lecture would disabuse him of that notion, and recommended he report what I had said to the Park Service officials, but I left that visit with trepidation that he had gold fever and didn't appreciate the potential of archaeology for recovering the document sealed in the pages of the earth. Some time later, I received a call from the administrators at Morrow Mountain State Park saying that one of the administrators had visited the site after the historian had completed his report, and found a large crater where the cellar hole had been. He was shocked at what he saw. The entire cellar contents, including the stones that had been the walls, had been thrown out in a large pile around the crater. A wide variety of artifacts from the cellar were lying around on the piles of dirt. He asked me if I would return to the site and salvage anything of value. I told him about my meeting with the historian and that I had tried to impress on him that the site should not be disturbed before professional archaeology could be done on it. I told him I was not interested in trying to salvage the situation. He asked if Joffre Coe would tell me to examine the material would I do so. I told him that in that case I would have no alternative. So, I received a call from Joffre, who already knew about the situation from my reports to him, and as a result I was dragged into an examination of the material from the historic site at the Kron cellar (South 1957b). Joffre told me that Park Service personnel would be supplied. Ed Gaines stayed at Town Creek while I loaded the sifter screen and went to sift what could be salvaged from the cellar hole. I dug boxes of artifacts from the cellar, and recovered many more artifacts from the back-dirt piles thrown from the hole by the historian hired by the park. I classified and cataloged a total of 521 artifact entries, for a total count of 1,210. Not

90 having dealt with historic site materials before, I grouped the artifacts into classes beginning with bottles, with 13 types represented. Mason jars were another class of particular interest to me because they contained patent dates ranging from 1858 to 1869. Other classes were kitchen objects, consisting of ceramics, cutlery of various types, Dutch ovens, iron pots, etc. Other classes were tools (28 entries), house articles such as window glass (architecture), household objects, barnyard, buggy and wagon objects (52 types), a mineral and rock collection, and an archaeological specimen collection. Clothing items such as thimbles, buckles, and buttons were represented. Arms items were present, such as 32 caliber shell casings, fragments from an air rifle stock, and from a powder flask In the Misc. Objects artifact class, a Deitz lamp from a Hupmobile, dated 1910, was one of the twentieth century artifacts salvaged. Medical objects were of particular interest because Dr. Kron was a medical doctor, so the presence of test tubes, a stethoscope earpiece, and medicine bottles containing medicine were verification, it seemed to me, that this was likely the cellar of his office and home. As I cataloged the 1,210 objects of cultural material, representing the occupation of a particular site by one of the early occupants in the area, I was impressed by the variety of clues to the lifeways of the people who once lived here. I became aware of questions of fimction, status, gender, time, technology, and occupation and activities of those once calling this place home. I realized that the challenge of historical archaeology was not a simple one for those few archaeologists involved in doing it at the time--John Cotter, Charles Fairbanks, Hale Smith, Pinky (J.C.) Harrington and a few others (South and Deagan 2002: 41). In the cataloging process I often turned to Ed Gaines to ask help in the identification of some object, and he would say, "Oh, that's called a 'bull tongue scooter plow point.' I can tell you ain't no real farm boy if you don't know that!" Or he might say, "That's a clevis from a whiffletree!

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION I can tell you don't know how to hitch up a horse to a plow," and I had to admit that I didn't. As a result of this ignorance, I began to collect references that might help me in the future, when I might not have Ed to turn to if I ever had to conduct another taxonomy of historic site materials. I was very grateful for Ed's knowledge and was intrigued by the research potential of historical archaeology.

Morrow Mountain--the Magnificent Quarry for the Archaic Period Before I visited Morrow Mountain State Park to work on the Kron House site, I knew of the magnificent mountain itself, and of its mantle of stone chips (debitage) several feet thick covering the mountain, and cascading down its steep sides like a stone waterfall. This incredible deposit of rhyolite by-products from the manufacture of Hardaway-Da)ton, Palmer, and Kirk projectile points, found over a wide area in North and South Carolina, strikes awe in those interested in learning about the stone-chipping technology being carried out thousands of years ago in this "most intensively quarried source yet located" (Daniel and Butler 1991:65, 1993:Figure 7). I had visited the site with Joffre on our way to a Southeastern Archaeological Conference (SEAC) meeting, and had had nay mind blown by the tremendous challenge to learning about the Native American past presented by this lithic quarry. It inspired me to want to return and put in a 20 foot square in an attempt to learn something of what had gone on there-what tools were used to quarry the stone, and what the product was that was being carried away. We speculated, based on rumors of caches o f blades having been found on the slopes of the mountain, that such cache-blades or "blanks," as they were sometimes called then, were carried far from the mountain to be used to shape whatever projectile point form that was being used in that particular millennium. Over three decades would pass before Randy Daniel and Robert Butler would report on their study of the distribution of the tools made from the flowbanded, silicious slate rhyolite quarried for

Town Creek Stories thousands of years on the sides of the mountain. To my knowledge, however, no systematic, largescale effort has yet been undertaken to examine in scientific detail a collection of the debitage from one of the deeper deposits of stone covering the mountain's stone technology secrets like a deep winter blanket. This incredible phenomenon remains as a monumental testimony to the Native American past. When Joffre and I visited the site, he explained to me that the Morrow Mountain point was not related to this quarry, but rather to a discovery made, when Park Officials were bulldozing for a parking lot near the base of the mountain. They found white quartz flakes and points and called him to investigate. The machine had already scraped off whatever artifacts may have been in the levels above, but the zone in which the projectile points and debitage were found was relatively undisturbed. He excavated there and from that effort the points he found were named "Morrow Mountain." Unfortunately, he did not know what tools had been scraped away, but he knew from the evidence, that it had been a stratified site with the Morrow Mountain points lying buried deeply within the earth below whatever had been removed. It was from side trips such as the one to Morrow Mountain and the Kron House, and the Yadkin site, that I learned first hand a great deal about what was going on in Joffre's archaeological world and mind. The lessons I learned in that way were as valuable as his classroom had been. His teaching method was not to lecture, but to assign topics for each of us graduate students to research and report on, so we learned from each other, while these field projects were hands-on experience with sites and the data emerging from them. Searching for the Cheraw I n d i a n s - - W e Venture South of the Border One of those projects was stimulated by Joffre's theory that the Cheraw Indians were actually the descendants of the Xuala Indians met by DeSoto when they were located at the foot of

91 the Appalachian Mountains in western North Carolina. When they were pressured by "a new virile culture in central Georgia called Lamar," they had moved northeast to the Dan River by 1650, identified archaeologically as the "Dan River Focus" (Coe 1952:308-311). The question then was where did they go from there? Were the eighteenth century Cheraw Indians, for which the town of Cheraw, South Carolina was named, the same Siouan-speaking group? (See Moore 1999; DePratter, Hudson and Smith 1983:125-158). The idea that the 1540 Xuala (Juan Pardo's Joara) in Western North Carolina moved to the Dan River, then South through the Piedmont to become the Cheraw was planted by Mooney in his "Historical Sketch of the Cherokee" (1900:14-29). Joffre suggested that if I ever found the time I might venture down to Cheraw and look in the bottomlands there to see if evidence of an eighteenth century Cheraw village could be located. Later Jewell and I drove into South Carolina to spend a day walking the bottomlands east of the Pee Dee River at Cheraw. I found nothing in the fields there, with the exception of one site, where a few Woodland Period sherds were found. Jewell and I took rums digging a deep shovel test on that site, and found an old buried humus zone located from a foot to eighteen inches below the surface. No wonder I couldn't find evidence for Indian occupation in those bottomlands-the evidence was covered by flood-laid sand from the river! I reported this to Joffre, who came down on a Saturday with one of his students, and we dug a ten-foot square down to the deeper stratum. What we found was Indian pottery of the Woodland Period, but no European artifacts from the eighteenth century. This was a disappointment, but it gave me the opportunity to actually dig with Joffre looking for evidence to support the theory that the Sara, represented archaeologically by the Dan River Focus, moved southward to become the Hillsboro Focus, then later on moved south again, to become the Cheraw. Such were the theoretical questions Joffre was interested in testing archaeologically, and that desire to test

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theory through what we revealed at the end of a shovel, fed the flames of zealous research within me.

For many years David Moore of Warren Wilson College, and Rob Beck, have been interested in the Berry Site near Morganton, North Carolina (located on a tributary of the upper Catawba River) which they think may well be Joara, and on-going research is being carried out there (Moore 1999:332-395, 2002).

Touring Temple Teaching Strategy

Mounds--A

Powerful

Before a SEAC meeting to be held in Tallahassee, Florida, I believe it was, Joffre said he would arrange with Archives and History for me to drive a pickup truck from Town Creek Indian Mound to attend. He said his idea was that I should visit various temple mound sites along the way to become more familiar with them as background for the work I was doing at Town Creek. This was an exciting opportunity for me to learn, and it proved to be a powerful teaching strategy, a gift from Joffre to me. I went alone, and stopped by Ocmulgee National Monument (Fairbanks 1956), although I had been there on several previous trips to the SEAC meetings. Then I went to see the Kolomoki mounds in Georgia, and the large mound group south of Moundville, Alabama, where I visited by phone with David DeJarnette. I was impressed that site had so many temple mounds. I was used to Town Creek, where there was only the one. I visited the Archaic site at Poverty Point, Louisiana (Ford and Webb 1956:Plate 1), where I walked into a gully eight feet deep, and saw erosion-cut profiles of black charcoal-stained pits containing baked clay objects still in place for which the site is known. I picked up some of those lying on the surface, frozen and broken open, but with the fragments still in place. Other broken ones formed a pavement of clay in the bottom of the gully I walked in. To save those cracked-open frozen ones from disintegrating, I took masking tape from my truck,

and wrapped them to hold them in place, to be carefully glued together later. I picked up some of the small drill-shaped microliths that had washed into the eroded gully on their way to the Arkansas River. It is one thing to read about this famous site, with its concentric elevated rings of household debris stretching for a quarter of a mile, and quite another, more intense educational experience, to stand on the site and stoop down to sight over the slight ridges as the sun strikes across them late in a winter day, and witness the concentric rings first hand, as I did, and to recover those simple clues to those who lived here thousands of years ago.

I Visit "The Great Sun"--Stu Neitzel I visited Stu Neitzel at the Marksville site museum and he gave me the tour. In the lobby I saw a box of potsherds excavated at the site, with a sign that announced that they could be bought at the information desk for five cents each. Stu said these were miscellaneous small sherds that had been tabulated but were no longer of scientific value. He said he thought it would be a good idea to give them to school children as a contribution to their education, so he had put a sign on the box saying, "Genuine Indian pottery fragments. Free." That had caused a problem, he said, because school children seeing the sign would pick up a handful of the sherds and begin throwing them at each other, so by the end of the day the floor was littered with potsherds. Then he had an idea that was to put an end to the problem. He said, "I was saddened that the children didn't respect this educational opportunity to learn about Indians in Louisiana. Then I had to admit regretfully that our society puts a monetary value on everything. This being the case, I decided to put a monetary value on the potsherds, with a 'five cents each' sign. Since that time," he explained, "We haven't found a single potsherd on the floor. The kids come in with a quarter their parents have given them to spend on themselves, and they'll say, 'Gee, here's an opportunity to learn about Indians, and they buy five potsherds they'll treasure because they paid a quarter for

Town Creek Stories them. Then, I can just see them going home and researching those sherds to learn more about the 'treasure' they've bought. It's sad that's the way our value system works, but it sure did take care of the potsherd problem on the museum floor, and our janitor loved it!" Stu directed me to one of the big Mississippi Valley sites described in Ford, Phillips and Griffin's Archaeological Survey of the Lower Mississippi Valley (Phillips, Ford and Griffin 1951), where I walked the floodplain site and found nothing but plain sherds, as Stu had predicted, because all the decorated ones had been picked up by archaeologists before me. He went with me to the Greenhouse site (Neuman 1984:178-187), where we ran into the man for whom the site was named. He and Stu reminisced about the time the bottomland site was flooded and they had to excavate on the higher ground. He told me how some of the mounds there had been plowed over by him before the 1938 excavations by Jim Ford. I visited the Cypress Grove mound and the Elkhorn Plantation mound near Frogmore, Louisiana, and the Emerald Mound in Mississippi, now a National Historic Landmark Site. I wanted to see the famous Natchez site at Natchez, Mississippi, where Stu had excavated and found the eighteenth century site buried deep beneath the floodplain (Neitzel 1983). He gave me directions to the site, and there I was able to connect the setting with what I had learned from the eighteenth century document of the DuPratz account of the burial of the Tattooed Serpent. Having this eye witness documented account helped me in interpreting what may have gone on at the temple on the mound at Town Creek (South 1955b). I remembered the story about how one visitor among the Natchez had removed the bars from the temple door one night, and had crept into the temple to examine the contents of boxes stored there, and had found worthless pearls and bones (Swanton 1911, 1946). Those first-hand stories, like ghosts, arose from the Natchez oxbow creek to haunt me that day.

93 Then, further up the valley, I visited the Winterville Mound, near Greenwood, Mississippi, owned at that time by the boy scouts, I believe. Cows had made a series of concentric trails a few feet apart around this 55-foot high grand temple mound, but they had come into the barn, located at the base of the mound, when I arrived late in the day. I walked one of these trails to the top, and what a grand prospect that was! The Winterville M o u n d - - B o y Scouts

Stu Neitzel told me, when I visited with him at the Marksville Museum, and mentioned that I was going to visit the Winterville Mound, that once he was walking along one of those cow trails and saw what he thought was a potsherd in the eroded profile beside the path. He brushed it off with his hand, to reveal a white-painted cross in a circle! He carefully cleaned around this, and found that it was an entire water bottle. He said it was likely the only one ever recovered from the Winterville Mound. I heard that the national boy-scout organization had bought the mound to have a place for scouts to dig to earn their archaeology merit badge. I was disturbed about that prospect and wrote that administration urging them to abandon that plan. Years later I received a memo from an archaeologist who was trying to get the scout organization to rewrite their merit badge requirements to help prevent unsupervised excavation on archaeological sites. The Winterville Mound is now a National Historic Landmark Site. It was the most impressively steep temple mound, with preserved ramp, that I saw on the trip. Joffre's idea to help me learn first-hand about the Mississippi Period mounds was a highlight of my years at Town Creek Indian Mound. A n Inventive M i n d - A Perpetual Motion M a c h i n e with Only O n e Problem - Gravity

Living in Mt. Gilead while I worked at Town Creek, I met a very interesting elderly town character-Percy Covington. Percy had an eclectic mind and was able to put together pieces from a

94 wide range of disciplines. He could speak entertainingly at length on many topics, one of which was the brick-making industry. He once discovered a clay deposit suitable for making bricks. He wrote to the president of a well-known brick-making company and told him about the deposit, suggesting he send someone to look at it, which he did. Percy showed them the site, which was not on land Percy owned, and the brick maker bought the land and set up a big operation on it, but no finder's fee was paid Percy. He tried to legally obtain some payment from the company, but unfortunately, he had not made a copy of the letter he had sent, so nothing came of it. Percy lived in a large two-story house inherited from his parents. At the time I knew him he had gotten a job with a contractor who was widening a bridge near Percy's house. At the end of the day, Percy would light the black cast iron flambeau pots used to light construction areas at night to prevent accidents. Percy took great pleasure in his job and spoke proudly of the responsibility he had in keeping the flambeaus filled with kerosene and in the correct position on the construction site. I would sometimes stop by and we would sit on the porch and talk because he could talk of many things-"Of cabbages and kings...." One day he said he was willing to share a very important discovery with me. He was working on a perpetual motion machine and had it almost perfected. He swore me to secrecy because he didn't want anyone to steal his idea. He escorted me into his house, almost devoid of furniture, (having sold it to support himself) and took me to a room in the center of which was half of a 55gallon barrel cut lengthwise, supported at each end, with the open end up, containing water. A framework over the half-barrel supported a large wooden paddle suspended down into the water, with rubber inner-tube bushings at the edges to insure a tight fit between the paddle and the curve of the barrel. He demonstrated how, when the top of the paddle was moved in one direction by pulling on it, thus supporting much of the water above the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION paddle, then turning the paddle loose, the top of the paddle rocked back and forth as the weight of the water surged again toward the bottom of the barrel. "Grab hold of the top of that paddle!" he shouted. "Feel that power?" Indeed I did, as the paddle kept rocking back and forth from the force of the wave action shifting from one side to the other. "I believe I can harness that wave action to run machinery," he said. "But, it's slowing down now," I said as we watched and talked. "I thought you said it was a perpetual motion machine, which means it should keep on going indefinitely." "You're correct," he said, "There's that minor detail I haven't been able to work out y e t - gravity! But I'll whip it one of these days," he declared with enthusiasm. I didn't wait around for that big day, but I wished him well overcoming the second law of thermodynamics by harnessing the perpetual slosh-power of his machine.

The Coe and Gaines Training School for Archaeologists Town Creek was certainly a developmental training experience for those of us who studied there under Joffre Coe and Edward Gaines. Among these were: Barton Wright, Ernest Lewis, Howard Sargent, Jeff Reid, Bill Wood, Bennie Keel, Roy Dickens and others. A valuable part of that adventure was the short forays launched from that research base that provided a broader perspective beyond the temple mound site itself. Also of value was the annual trip to the Southeastern Archaeological Conference (SEAC), but those stories are told in the following chapter.

Chapter 5 SEAC Stories The SEAC Conference--Exposure to the W o r k of Others--an Education An important part of my developmental years as an archaeologist came from those I met and the papers I heard, and the interaction I observed at the annual Southeastern Archaeological Conference, held every other year in Macon, Georgia. I attended my first conference in 1953, shortly after I turned in my report to Joffre Coe on my site survey of Watauga County. He said I might want to attend the SEAC that was to meet that Fall in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. I went to that meeting and there I met a number of leading figures in the field. From that time on I attended SEAC meetings for many years. Later, when I was a graduate student in the mid-50s, and when I was the archaeologist in charge at Town Creek, Joffre and I would sometimes ride together to attend the meetings. At that time, largely because of Joffre's knowledge of the cultural sequence revealed in his 1949 dig at the Doerschuk site, and my subsequent discovery, in 1955, of the stratified Gaston site, there was great interest in stratified sites. The promise offered by the possible discovery of other such data-revealing sites for understanding the cultural sequence in the Southeast, was exciting to senior archaeologists as well as to those recently entering the field. This influenced the climate of the times. Between 1947 and 1949, James B. Griffin edited, and published what was to become the bible for southeastern archaeologists for decades: Archeology of Eastern United States (Griffin 1952a). For that volume, Joffre had submitted and illustrated the Badin Focus, which included Morrow Mountain projectile points and Hardaway points, as well as engraved stone, atlatl weights, and pottery (Coe 1952: Figure 163).

95

Before that volume went to press, however, Joffre had excavated the stratified Doerschuk site in 1949 (Ward and Davis 1999:59-61), and from what he learned there he knew he would need to revise what he had submitted to Griffin, particularly in regard to the Badin Focus. He was very anxious to revise his chapter. He told me he called Griffin and asked that his paper be returned so he could include his new understanding of the cultural sequence, but Griffin refused. As he understood more, he called again asking for the return of his paper so he could up-date the information in it, but Griffin replied: "I had too hard a time dragging that paper out of you and I'm not about to send it back!" The deadline had long passed before Joffre had submitted his chapter. So, by the time the book appeared, Joffre's knowledge of the cultural sequence of the Carolina Piedmont had expanded dramatically. That new knowledge from the Doerschuk site, along with that from the Hardaway site, combined with what I had found at the Gaston site, was to become the new bible for southeastern archaeologists when Joffre published his "Formative Cultures of the Carolina Piedmont" (1964). Meanwhile, the best source for stratigraphic placement of projectile points in sequence was Joffre himself. A. R. Kelly--"There Are No Stratified Sites in Georgia"--the Old Quartz Culture A note on the background of those times is appropriate here. Prior to the mid-century there been a tendency to include most cultural periods within a two thousand year time frame. Then, as data began to accumulate, it became increasingly more difficult to cram all the cultural periods into that temporal paper bag. Because of that the time frame was later extended back to 2,000 B. C.

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With the advent of radiocarbon dating, however, by the time Griffin's book was published, he was able to present a time line pushed back to 8,000 B. C. (Griffin 1952b: 365370, Figure 205). However, the information in a number of the articles reflected the preradiocarbon time frame. Now, in regard to other stratified sites in the Southeast, in 1951, Joe Caldwell had reported on what he called "The Old Quartz Culture," found "nearly four feet below the base of the pre-pottery Stalling's culture zone, separated from the latter by a deposit of what appeared to be pure river sand (Caldwell 195 l:4)--clearly a stratified site. In his report he included a photograph of the "range in variation of artifacts from the Old Quartz level at the Lake Springs site in Columbia County, Georgia" (Photo from the Smithsonian Institute). The photograph illustrated Morrow Mountain I projectile points and white quartz scrapers. Caldwell described how he had made this discovery when he was standing in a hole dug in order to excavate a burial beneath the Savannah River Archaic period shell mound at Lake Springs. He described the moment of discovery of this stratified site. "For some inexplicable reason it occurred to me to trowel out a small hole in the bottom. Thinking how fine it would be to find something deep below the supposedly virgin sand, I scarcely noticed when the point of the trowel struck a rock. The hole was barely large enough for my arm, but reaching down, I pulled out a broken river pebble, then another, and another. Realization was gradually dawning that these pebbles must have been broken by the hand of man, but had hardly alleviated my consternation when the fourth stretch into the hole produced a nicely chipped white quartz ovate scraper. We may conclude from these events that the wish is father to the thought and grandfather to the discovery (Caldwell 1951:4).

At one Southeastern Archaeological Conference meeting Joffre and I attended, Joe Caldwell reported on "The Old Quartz Industry of Piedmont Georgia and South Carolina" (1954:3739). However, publication on stratified sites was non-existent, so discussions on pre-Savannah River Archaic period evidence invariably focused on "The Old Quartz Industry" (Caldwell 1954:3739, 1958:8). Joe Caldwell and Arthur Kelly usually led these exchanges. In those days there were around 30 or so attendees at the SEAC conference. Joffre leaned over to me and whispered, "Substitute Morrow Mountain I for the Old Quartz Industry" (Caldwell 1954:38; Coe 1964:38). Later in that meeting Joffre stood up and, in a low-key manner, laid out the formative culture sequence he had determined from stratagraphic evidence. He said that stratified sites could predictably be found on the down-stream side of stone arms extending into a river basin where rapids were located, causing flood waters to swirl around there depositing sand onto artifacts lying on occupation surfaces. Because people traveling along the rivers would be narrowly funneled at those rapids sites, through the years many sites would become buried as flood-laid strata. After he sat down, Arthur Kelly, the grand old man of Georgia archaeology, stood up and said, in his deep-voiced impressive manner, that it was nice that Joffre had found stratified sites in North Carolina, but that "There are no stratified sites in Georgia," and he predicted that none would be found, even using Joffre's theory. This seemed like a rash statement to me, given what I considered Joffre's "law-like" statement, and the fact that a number of sites in Georgia had indeed produced lithic debris (old white quartz and otherwise), as well as the stratified Lake Springs site reported by Caldwell (1951:1-5 and 1954:37-39). In 1938, Kelly himself, had reported a Clovis fluted point from the Macon Plateau, associated with lithic debris and scrapers, in a weathered clay zone (Fairbanks 1956:8). It seemed to me, and to Joffre as well, based on our discussion that followed Kelly's assertion, that if archaeologists

SEAC Stories would become more aware of the possibility of stratified sites lying below later shell midden deposits, more such sites could indeed be found. However, since that time few have yet been found in Georgia, as Kelly had predicted. Are they not looking in the places predicted by Joffre?

SEAC--Meeting the Gurus Exchanges such as these between the leaders in the field were exciting to me because it was evident that archaeology was not a cut and dried endeavor. I learned that a lot of trial and error was involved in the search for understanding what archaeological data was trying to tell us. Later on, I would recognize these lengthy discussions at the SEAC meetings (where presentation of data and the frequent questioning by colleagues of interpreted results took place), was a loosely structured version of the hypothetico-deductive process--the road to understanding in the search for truth. Such exchanges were basic to my archaeological development. This phenomenon is not present in the more formal cut-and-dried presentations of today's large meetings, with no e x c h a n g e - n o questions--no oral challenges from the floor between colleagues. At the meetings we attended together, because of his expertise in the pre-Savannah River Archaic cultural sequence, Joffre was sought out by leaders in the field, archaeologists such as Griffin, Ford, Waring and others, asking his opinion on the temporal position of projectile points, etc. These leaders would closet themselves in a motel room at Drill's Motor Court, near the entrance to the park, where some of us stayed. Because I was in a different generation, and not a colleague of these gurus, I was not invited to sit in on their deliberations, so I missed a lot. Partying At Drill's Motor Court--an Ocmulgee SEAC Tradition Drill's Motor Court was located opposite the entrance to 0cmulgee National Monument, where those of us stayed who were not spending the night in the park museum building. The park hosts allowed the male conference attendees to sleep in the basement of the museum in the

97 conference room and in the halls. The females were housed on the second floor. Naturally, with archaeologists present, beer would be consumed in the basement and at one meeting the cans were stacked in a pyramidal arrangement that reached the ceiling of the conference room. After a tradition of many years as the popularity of the conference grew, and as the partying grew more raucous year by year, it is no wonder the park administrators stopped the affairs. Speaking of which, a number of male/female student liaisons could be seen taking place around the reconstructed earthlodge at night, if one chose to stroll away from the carousing in the conference room to get a breath of fresh air. That site was indeed a sacred ceremonial area for archaeologists on those occasions.

The Binford and McNutt Concert The last Southeastern Archaeological Conferences I attended at Macon (speaking of Drill's Motor Court), I had a room there, and after dinner my Chapel Hill classmate and friend, Lew Binford, showed up. He was accompanied by Charlie McNutt. They had a mandolin and a banjo, which they began playing, accompanied by singing furnished by the crowd that began gathering when they heard the commotion. The crowd grew as the night wore on, and the room filled with people sitting on the bed, and on the floor around the walls. Around midnight I took off my boots and, because it was my room, I displaced some of the people temporarily, and slipped beneath the covers, where I could listen more comfortably to the picking and singing involving a wide, and sometimes raunchy, repertoire. This went on as I finally went to sleep. I woke up a couple of times as the management of the motel knocked on the door, and said other guests were being disturbed, and we should knock off the noise. I wasn't in charge of the chaos, so I went back to sleep. Finally, about 4 a.m., I awoke again as the pickers and singers wound down and laid their instruments aside, as the crowd began to disperse.

98

The next morning there was a note on my door as I came out to go to breakfast and to attend the Saturday morning conference. It said I was to report to the motel office. The manager told me that I would have to leave the motel because of the noise that came from my room the night before. The racket from my room had disturbed other guests and they didn't want a repeat "performance." I explained that I had been invaded by a bunch of drunken archaeologists, who thought they were wandering minstrels with a gift to share with the world. I claimed I was as much a victim as the other guests had been. He laughed and said I could stay only if I would assure him I would lock my door and not let anyone else in that night--so I was allowed to stay. We Find a Stratified Site in Georgia At the SEAC meeting where Kelly had said there were no stratified sites in Georgia, causing Coe and others to shake their heads in disbelief, Caldwell reported on a shell mound excavated by students across the Savannah River in Georgia from the Stalling's Island site made famous by Claflin (1931). After Caldwell's talk, Joffre asked him if he had dug below the shell deposit into the deeper sand layer, and he said that he had not. Joffre suggested that it might also be a stratified site beneath the shell deposit, and asked Caldwell to give him directions on how to drive to the site, which he did. When we left the conference, following Caldwell's directions, we drove to that site. The midden was located on the edge of the bank of the Savannah River, with about a six- foot sandy bank profile exposed by erosion adjacent to the mound. Most of the shell was buried beneath sand. Joffre handed me a trowel and asked me to cut a clean profile of that bank, saying, "Let's test Kelly's hypothesis that there are no stratified sites in Georgia." When ! cut the profile and saw, about two feet below the surface, a buried stratum of humus about eight inches thick.. I was excited and couldn't resist troweling that darker area further back into the eroding sand bank hoping to

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION find some artifacts associated with the stratum. Joffre took a walk along the beach while I did this and as he returned I heard a scraping noise on my trowel, and as we examined the area, I saw a potsherd and pulled it from the profile. It was a Stallings Fiber Tempered Sherd. The site was stratified. On the way home I urged Joffre to contact Caldwell to tell him that we had found another stratified site in Georgia. I thought he should suggest that he take another look at the site and concentrate on locating what was in that layer as well as others that might be revealed in such a project. Whether Joffre contacted Caldwell on what we had found I do not know. Stu Neitzel and His Piano--"The Great Sun" at the Southeastern Archaeological Conference A legendary character was Smart Neitzel, who was a great story teller who entertained all of us on many occasions at the annual meetings of SEAC. He was such a legend that the Archaeological Survey of the Lower Mississippi Valley at the Peabody Museum published a posthumous tribute to him: Robert S. Neitzel: The Great Sun, edited by Jeffrey P. Brain and Ian W. Brown (1982). At the SEAC meetings, I often made the rounds of the parties in various rooms during the early part of the evening, and then went to bed. When SEAC met in Columbia in 1970, I was in a comer room filled with drinking archaeologists, including Stu Neitzel, when a group, including Chester DePratter, showed up pushing an upright piano they had found in the conference room. They pushed it into the elevator and brought it to the room where we were. Stu was telling stories and had made the comment that if there had been a piano there he would play and sing for us. They took him up on the offer and found the piano. The door of the room was too small for the piano to enter, although they were able to get it half way in before it jammed. But, undeterred, Stu was able to play on half of the keys, which were enough for him, so he entertained those of us trapped in the room until the hotel Security Officer came and

SEAC Stories

forced the removal of the piano back to the conference room. During those years Stu, and such moments, were among the main reasons some attended the SEAC. Stu was a good writer as demonstrated in his account of his early days in archaeology (Neitzel 1994:125-161). I'll never forget one quote from Stu that epitomizes his attitude toward archaeology and life: "What profiteth it a man if he reckons only his sherds and renders them unto chi square, and has not the spirit of whimsy therein?" (South, ed:1994: 125, 161). A memorable moment at a SEAC meeting was when, as a graduate student, I had just given my first SEAC paper on the stratified Gaston site. With confidence, but with some trepidation, I faced the barrage of questions that, given the experience of other graduate students I had witnessed, had faced a baptism of fire from questions by Griffin, or Ford, or Tono Waring. I asked if there were any questions-only silence. Then, as I gathered my notes together, Stu Neitzel spoke up and said, "Well, I guess that was just your day!" I felt like I had been given an endorsement as I relished the laughter that followed me back to nay seat.

"Hit It With Your Aerial, Joffre!"-The Temple Mound at Little Shoulderbone One of the SEAC trips Joffre and I stopped by to visit the temple mound at Little Shoulderbone Creek, north of Sparta, Georgia. We drove down a long dirt farm road beside cornfields for miles, it seemed, until we came to a place where it made a right angle turn to the right, where Joffre asked me to pull over into the edge of the woods and park. As we got out of the car, he brought out a car radio aerial about three feet long, which he said he might use as a probe. We had walked in fairly open woods about 20 feet when he suddenly stopped and pointed to a rattlesnake, about three feet long, stretched out on the leaf cover on the ground. I had reached for a dead branch lying nearby and he said, "If you try to hit it with that you have to have exact aim to impact the snake at the point where the ground, the snake and your stick meet. Then he told me his

99 aerial was much better, "Watch this," he said, as he approached the snake. When he got near it he bent down low and gave a whack across the snake's back with his aerial. The snake gave a lurch and then lay still. It was an impressive performance and I told Joffre so. He then explained that the aerial would conform to the ground and impact the snake much better than a stick that required much greater accuracy. Apparently he had done that before. We stood a moment and stared at the snake and I asked if I could have the rattle to show my son, David. He cut it off and handed it to me. We then stared at the snake for a while and then moved on into the hay field a short distance from the woods we were in. The grass in the field was shoulder high and so thick that we left a trail of mashed down grass all the way to the mound we could see about 100 yards away. The mound had been described by C.C. Jones (1873), and somewhere I had seen an engraving of a stone idol once seen on top of the mound, and that had fired my imagir~ation regarding what had happened to that stone figure, so I was anxious to see the mound. Mark Williams mentions "stone idols" in his report on Shoulderbone Creek (1990:12). We saw no more snakes, but we did dig a small hole about a foot deep with a trowel to see if there was a plowed zone present. We found abundant fragments of broken pottery and refuse bone fragments. On our way back to the car we looked for the snake Joffre had killed, but found no sign of it. We were driving down the farm road at dusk. The sun was low and the temperature was beginning to drop. Then we saw a log lying across both ruts of the farm road. It appeared to be about 10 feet long and perhaps eight inches in diameter. Joffre speculated that the farmer may have put it there as a warning after seeing us drive into the area. I stopped the car, and Joffre said for me not to run over it because we might damage the undercarriage of the car. He opened the door and, leaving his aerial on the dashboard, he got out saying, "I'll drag it out of the road."

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As he approached, it began to move. It was a giant rattlesnake! We both were shocked at the size of it. I reached for the camera as the snake began to move toward Joffre, and he began moving toward the open door of the car. I said, "Hit it with your aerial, Joffre!" But, he didn't think that was funny. I jumped out of the car and chased the slow-moving "log" as it slid into the woods. I took a picture, but the sun was so low, and the 32-speed film I was using prevented us from having a picture of the "log" (Williams 1990:17).

A Tugaloo River Archaeological Lesson

Temple

Mound--an

Jewell and I visited a temple mound thought to have been the Cherokee Indian site of Tugaloo, near Toccoa, Georgia, when it was being excavated. The buried layers of the mound were being revealed and a ramp to the top of an earlier mound had been revealed. As Jewell and I were being shown the stain of the logs forming the steps of the ramp, I noticed several small piles of potsherds lying on the edge of the profile of the excavated area. The crew had gone for the weekend and I was curious that piles of sherds had been left and not bagged. I asked my tour guide about them and was told that as the various levels of the site were being pealed off, the sherds found were placed in piles by taxonomic type. When the pile of sherds representing types from one previously known period grew larger than a pile of types of another period, the layers involved could then be identified in the field notes as representing the time period indicated by the largest pile of sherds lying on the b a n k - - a rough type of "gut-reaction field analysis" I was not acquainted with! I commented that I usually kept all artifacts in marked bags by visual layers or arbitrary levels so that analysis could be carried out in the laboratory by counting all sherds of any time period recovered from each layer and allowing that quantitative analysis to determine the identification of the time period of each layer. I did not assign the cultural layers first by simply looking at the size of a pile of sherds! This seemed to me a strange way of establishing the

relationship between stratigraphic layers being exposed and the pottery types recovered from them--putting the cultural period horse into the field notes before the analytical cart was even loaded! As I stood in the excavation, which was several feet deep, I could see a pile of dirt near the profile beneath a sifter screen, and beside that, a pile of potsherds. I asked our guide about that and was told that those operating the screen would pick out the largest most diagnostic sherds and throw the remaining ones into a discard pile. I asked incredulously whether that pile of sherds, stones and other things was indeed a discard pile, and commented that I had never seen such a large quantity of what I considered data-~iscarded! I was told I was welcomed to take whatever I wanted from that pile and I made a motion to Jewell, who had heard our conversation. She was already on her way to our car to get a paper bag to salvage some of the high-graded, discarded sherds as a type collection. As I talked with our guide she picked through the pile and found excellent examples of pottery, and some beautiful fragments of knobbed, boat-shaped tobacco p i p e s - examples of what I would consider prime artifact data. I was told, however, in response to my incredulity at such a method, that there were so many sherds being recovered that it was impossible to take them all back to the laboratory--"But what about reconstructing tobacco pipes and pots--what about quantitative analysis?" I asked, and received a shrug in answer. Later, in the field laboratory, I was shown the shed where a few partially reconstructed vessels were sitting in trays of sand. I was offered a type collection of sherds from those spread out on the table, from which the pots were being reconstructed--I refused. It went too strongly against my idea of tight control of data coming from an archaeological site to accept the offer, commenting that some of those sherds might well glue to those vessels. I was told that the holes from missing sherds could later be filled in with plaster--"The form is the important thing, so not all sherds have to be present." I learned that there

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101

are certainly different methodological strategies regarding data used by various archaeologists. I would be satisfied with the sample of sherds Jewell had collected from the pile discarded in the field--a collection I gave to Joffre Coe when we returned from our trip. It was a type collection to be cataloged and curated in the Research Laboratories of Anthropology at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill. I'll never forget that half of a knobbed, boat-keeled tobacco pipe Jewell recovered from that discard pile! Neatness C o u n t s - - But "There's Archaeology than Meets the Eye"

more

to

A major point Joffre Coe made in his classes was that to properly read the archaeological record it was important that profiles be kept neat so that the soil differences could be observed. Those of us who studied under him learned this lesson well, as our work will testify. This story involves a case where Joffre himself learned a lesson regarding neatness. He seldom gave papers at SEAC, but in one he gave, he made a point of illustrating the work of one of his graduate students who had excavated a deep site in a floodplain to see if the site was stratified. He had suggested this be done because, as he had done with me at Roanoke Rapids, he suspected the site might have been stratified. As it turned out, the student reported no stratified site was found in the six-foot deep, 20-foot long excavation he had cut into the riverbank. However, Joffre showed slides of the profile of the excavated area and pointed out that the corners of the square were so straight because a plumb bob had been used to insure their vertical integrity. He proudly pointed to the profile, smooth as a plastered wall, and commented that the dig represented a classic example of good archaeological technique, in spite of the fact that the goal of locating buried strata had not been achieved. He told how long it had taken to trowel the area so that no footprints or trowel marks were showing. He said that student's work, as demonstrated in the slides he had shown, was the neatest he had seen from a student, and he was

going to visit the site on his way back from the meeting. A Confession and a Correction

A year passed and the SEAC meeting was held in Morgantown, West Virginia. On the morning of the first day, as I sat in the breakfast room of the hotel, Joffre joined me. Soon other colleagues joined us. As the time for the first papers came we were getting up to attend the session when Joffre spoke to me and asked if I could stay, saying he had something he wanted to discuss. That had never happened before at a meeting, partly due to the fact that I had entered the field of historical archaeology by that time-a field he was not particularly interested in. So, I was very curious to hear what was on his mind. We "spoke of many things-"Of cabbages-and kings-And why the sea is boiling hot- And whether pigs have wings" (Dodgson 1948:831). This was very unusual because Joffre had never sat with me and discussed the state of the world even on the long trips we had taken together to SEAC when I was a student. Finally, he brought up the subject of his presentation at the previous SEAC meeting, asking if I remembered it. I assured him I had and remarked that it was too bad that all that neat work had not revealed that the site was stratified. He said that was what was on his mind and he wanted to clarify his remarks so that I wouldn't continue to be misinformed about the situation. He reminded me of his strong statements endorsing the technique that had been used and said that on his visit to the site after the meeting he had learned, "There's more to archaeology than meets the eye." I couldn't imagine where this conversation was leading. It had now been over two hours into the papers and still we sat, Joffre as relaxed as I had ever seen him, while I was glad to listen to his unusual monologue, not a method of communication he was accustomed to using. He said on his visit to the site the previous year, to look at the immaculate technique the student had used, he was walking around checking the back dirt pile (as he usually did, looking for missed sherds or other artifacts in order to judge

102 the quality of the artifact retrieval method being used). Because of the fact the site was a flood plain the back dirt pile consisted entirely of waterlaid yellow sand thrown from the excavated area. He began finding river-worn stones at various places in the back dirt pile. Most were the size of a fist and some were broken. He was disturbed by this and asked his student, who was leading him on the tour, where these stones had come from. The answer was, "Oh, we found piles of those at various places when we were shoveling out the dirt to reveal the profile. They were in little clusters about a foot to 18 inches wide." He asked if they had all been at the same level and was told that they were at different elevations within the block as the sand was thrown out. Joffre said he couldn't believe what he was hearing and asked, "You did screen the block, didn't you?" The answers was that they did at first, but the goal was to reveal the profile of the site so they quit screening. There was so much sand, he was told, and they weren't finding anything except those piles of stones every now and then. "I guess you cleaned, photographed, measured and recorded the piles of stones?" "No, they were just stones." Then Joffre asked, "Did it ever occur to you that those stones might represent Archaic Period hearths? "We wondered about that, but the profile revealed no visual strata, so we threw them out." Joffre said by that time he was beginning to be sick. An inordinate amount of time had been spent on revealing the neat, picture-perfect profile, while the evidence that the site had been stratified had been thrown out and no record made of it. There was no time left to repeat the excavation because funding and the rising water back of the dam was soon to put the site underwater. As Joffre saw me shaking my head in disbelief, he said, "Obviously, in making the point that neat profiles helped to interpret a site, I failed to get across the point that the profile is a record to show the relationship of hearths and strata--not the primary goal! I feel guilty that I didn't get that

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION point across. But, I learned the hard way that there's more to archaeology than meets the eye, and I wanted to explain to you what happened after I gave my paper last year." He said he wanted to clarify the situation, "In case you've heard about what happened at that site." I hadn't, and he said he was glad he was able to meet with me, and explain. By that time it was 11:30, and the morning session was about over. We shook hands and I thanked him for sharing the information with me. As he told me the story I got the feeling he felt sad, and perhaps guilty, over that student having missed what may have been a significant piece of archaeological information. I was pleased that he cared enough to tell me the story and I was impressed with the integrity that had prompted him to share the "confession" with me.

"He's Crazy as HelI!"--A "Wool-Pulling Over the Eyes" Attempt At SEAC Another memorable SEAC meeting occurred when Tono Waring was chairing the sessions. A senior presenter was giving a paper in which he reported on weighing an oystershell sample from a shell mound; estimating the number of shells in the mound from the sample; multiplying the calories in each oyster by the estimate for the mound; dividing that number by the minimum number of calories thought to be required to sustain life on a daily basis; then using that number to derive the demographic statistics for the population responsible for the shell mound. As this line of reasoning went on, I began to hear someone commenting aloud. Another heckler joined in with more mutterings. Then, as the comments grew louder, the speaker asked if there was a question. And indeed there was. "What was the time period during which the shell accumulated?" one asked. "Why do you assume all the oysters were discarded by one group at one moment in time?" asked another. "Are you assuming that all members of the group ate the same number of oysters? . . . . What if 100 groups of individuals over a period of 10 years produced the shell mound? . . . . Are you assuming that the individuals ate nothing but oysters? . . . . Were deer

SEAC Stories

bones present? . . . . What about fish bones?" Did you figure the caloric value of the fish and deer represented?" And so the feeding frenzy began, even some students joining in the fray, tearing at bits and pieces of the flimsy carcass as the paper was ripped to shreds, fed by the weak dissimilating answers provided by the presenter. Jimmy Griffin said, "Where are the data for all this?" And others-"Where are the data?" The harassed man said, "Oh, I left the figures back at my motel room," and tried to continue. He was interrupted by Tono Waring, who said stepping close to the lectern," In that case, you can go get the data and bring it here. I'll call on you right after lunch and you can finish your paper." The man said, "Oh, I remember now. I believe I left those data back in my office. By that time Jim Ford was on his feet, advancing halfway to the lectern. He had his billfold in his hand and pulled a bill from it and was waving it around, saying, "I'll donate this for an airplane ticket so you can fly back home and get the data!" Others began standing up with their billfolds in hand pulling out donations. Tono Waring said, "Good! I'll reschedule you for tomorrow afternoon, when you can have the data in hand, and you can finish your paper then." He pushed to the lectern and said, "The next paper is by . . ." but he was interrupted by the speaker, who began to get the point by then, and said, "I believe I'll finish my paper now that you've had your fun." He smiled, and stepped back to the lectern, amid boos from several in the audience. Tono turned away with a look of disgust on his face, saying loudly as he went to his seat, "He's crazy as hell!" One might think that such a reaction at having tried to pull the wool over colleague's eyes---or blowing snow if you prefer--might have affected the speaker in some visible way, but apparently it didn't. He continued reading, smiling-apparently in denial, as though nothing had happened. Today interaction between speakers and the audience is never seen. This may be because the audience has grown so large at today's SEAC meetings that exchange has been lost. In the

103 decades of mid-century that interaction was one of the greatest learning experiences for students and young developing archaeologists. Some of us miss those learning opportunities we had from the challenges thrown at those wool-pullers who attempted to blind us with pseudo-science. SEAC Stories--Lawsuits and Sex In my years of attending the SEAC meetings, the papers presented took on a secondary role to that of getting together with colleagues to share stories about what had gone on since we last met. On one occasion, I remember, I walked out of a particularly dull paper being read in a robotic singsong, hypnotic tone inclined to induce sleep. When I got outside the conference room I found a crowd of archaeologists there sharing tales. I counted them, and then stuck my head back in the conference room door and counted those hypnotized souls there. I found that there were more people outside the conference room than inside! I found an abandoned registration table nearby and sat down, and was soon joined by a colleague I hadn't seen since the conference the year before. He began catching me up on what happened at his university since we had last met. He said the head of his department had been on sabbatical leave for a year, during which time my friend had been put in charge. He found that the books on expenditures were virtually non-existent, with little correlation between the money budgeted and the record of expenditures. Some expenditures were questionable, such as the $20,000. for travel to exotic parts of the world to attend conferences of questionable relevance to the department. My friend had asked for an audit of the books to protect himself, because he wanted to be out of the way in case an accountability crisis hit the fan. The audit revealed problems with bookkeeping, and the lack of documentation of data from projects that had been carried out resulted in the university officials writing a letter asking the department head to resign when he returned from his sabbatical. When he did return he was outraged and threatened to sue my friend as well as the university.

104 A meeting was held, with the lawyer for the university, and that for the professor present. The university's lawyer spoke and asked for the resignation of the professor based on the information revealed in the audit. The professor replied angrily, and in an irate speech, threatened again to sue everyone in sight, and some who weren't. He and his attorney arose to leave, saying they would see the university lawyer in court. Then the university attorney spoke up calmly, and asked that before they filed suit, to hear one more thing. They sat on the edge of their chairs as the university attorney pulled out three pieces of paper and passed them across the table. He explained that those papers were affidavits from three female students who were willing to testify in court that the professor had promised them a grade of "A" on his course in exchange for sex with him. A shocked look appeared on the face of the professor and his attorney, as if they had been pole-axed. The attorney quickly read the affidavits while total silence, like that in the darkness deep within a cavern, enveloped the room. He suddenly stood up and addressed himself to the professor, saying, "Sir! I resign as your attomey[ I knew nothing about this! I resign!" and he walked out of the room. The university attorney then spoke and said, "Professor, when you obtain the services of another attorney, I will be glad to receive your lawsuit papers from him, but you must realize that these affidavits will appear as public record if this matter goes to court." The professor, still in shock, arose and said, "You will have my resignation on your desk next week." To which, the university attorney said, "This afternoon would be far better." "So," my friend said, "That is how I became chair of my department until a search committee is formed." Collegial exchanges of information such as this, and others less dramatic, were one of the attractions at SEAC meetings fifty years ago, and are likely so in the twenty-first century. Such stories don't appear in the published minutes in newsletters from such conferences, but they form

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION an ever-present underground stream communication between colleagues.

of

Historical Archaeology at SEAC--A Disappointing Introduction to the Field My first SEAC meeting (the 10th),was the one hosted by Joffre Coe in Chapel Hill in 1953, where I saw papers presented by McCary, Lewis, Kelly, Sears, Caldwell, Kneberg and Bullen (Southern Indian Studies 1954 6:1-8). At one of the SEAC meetings in years to follow, I saw a paper presented by one of the dozen people in the country who had published on, or dug on, historic sites. The nine I knew of in the field at the time from SEAC meetings were: Ripley Bullen, John Cotter, Charles Fairbanks, John Goggin, John Griffin, J. C. Harrington (Pinky), Ed Jelks, Robert (Stu) Neitzel, and Hale Smith. The feeling of the period by others appeared to me to be that archaeology on historic sites was not "real" archaeology. It was viewed as history, not anthropology, so there was some pre-conceived skepticism about the paper on a historic site that appeared on the program. This was reflected by the fact that when the previous paper on a prehistoric site ended, there was a general move by many to leave the room, with only a fraction of the audience remaining to hear it. I was interested to learn about historical archaeology because of my experience with the Kron House assemblage, so I stayed to hear how an historic site had been handled. The presenter reviewed the history, and then showed slides of the site, where neat excavation had been carried out on a brick-filled rubble deposit found in a cellar hole. He said that historic sites such as that presented a serious problem regarding preserving straight profiles because building materials such as bricks protruded. He said he had solved the problem, however, by renting a diamond saw and a portable generator to run it. He then proudly showed slides showing how the diamond saw had been used to cut the bricks protruding from the profile, allowing a straight profile to be seen! Needless to say this demonstration caused a flurry of protests

SEAC Stories and questions from members of the audience, some of them bordering on the irate. I should mention here that in the early decades of SEAC, at least after I began going in 1953, there were only from 30 to 40 archaeologists from the East in attendance. A characteristic of these conferences, and a valuable asset to those attending, were the comments, questions, challenges, and arguments from the floor the presenter had to face. On one occasion, after a speaker had used a descriptive approach to refer to pottery types (all of which were well known from the published literature), Jimmy Griffin stood up and asked, "Young man, will you explain to us what you have against the use of the taxonomic system?" Such pointed questions from Griffin, Ford and others kept the speakers on their toes in delivering their papers. Now, back to the story of the diamond saw-cut bricks in the cellar profile. This was one of those cases where a battery of questions was thrown. "Why did you feel justified in destroying the integrity of the historic artifacts you cut? . . . . Who is so lacking in visual perception, or good common sense, that they can't understand that brick rubble left protruding from the profile without being cut, represents a brick rubble deposit? . . . . What if an olive jar was found to be protruding from the profile, would you then cut it in half to produce a straight profile? . . . . You have obviously missed the entire point of maintaining a straight profile in an excavation! .... Why do you place less value on a 300-year old brick than you do on an olive jar? . . . . What nonsense is this?" "You're insulting our intelligence!" And so it went. Many got up and walked out in disgust during that exchange and comments were heard on that paper at various parties that night. I don't remember hearing any arguments in support of cutting such straight profiles. I did hear one of the leading archaeologists say, "That's why historical archaeology will never be real archaeology! They're merely frustrated historians with no common sense dabbling in archaeology. " These comments were from archaeologists who had likely not excavated a brick rubble deposit, but knew the difference between pseudo-

105 techniques designed to produce an effect, and techniques designed to recover data from archaeological sites. That paper certainly didn't improve the stereotype of those excavating historic sites, often called "tin can archaeology" at that time. It seemed to me that historical archaeology needed more scientific methodological rigor to improve its image - the kind of rigor I had been taught that archaeology demanded. (For other reminiscences of midcentury and before (see Pioneers in Historical Archaeology by South, ed., 1994). Historical Archaeology--"If You Want To End Your Career in Archaeology" At SEAC meetings I was always impressed by the presentations given by Charles "Chuck" Fairbanks. He had dug at the Macon Earth Lodge (1946: 94-108) at Ocmulgee National Monument, where the meetings were held on alternate years. It was one of the highlights of SEAC to visit the earth lodge with him and listen to him tell about the excavation carried out there. He had reported on the archaeology he did at the HawkinsDavidson Houses (1956: 213-229), demonstrating what historical archaeology could do to address questions about such sites. Such reports were rare at mid-century, but I also remember Adelaide and Ripley Bullen's "Black Lucy's Garden" (1945: 17-28), as an example of historical archaeology carried out by competent archaeologists. As my interest in historical archaeology grew from my experience with the Kron House, I came to look on Bullen, Fairbanks, John Cotter, Pinky Harrington and Hale Smith, John Griffin, Stu Neitzel and Ed Jelks as leaders in that field (South 1994), and I listened when they spoke. When I was at Town Creek in 1957, I heard from my supervisor, Sam Tarlton, in Raleigh, that a new historic site had been established on the banks of the Cape Fear River south of Wilmington, North Carolina, and they were looking for an archaeologist to fill the newly created position. He swore me to secrecy when he confided in me that Chuck Fairbanks had applied for the job. Tarleton asked me if I would write a

106 letter of support for their files, which I gladly did. I was excited that Chuck might well end up moving from Florida to North Carolina. Some months passed and early in 1958 Tarlton contacted me and said that Chuck had come up for an interview, hut when salary was mentioned, he didn't exactly laugh, but told them that they would have to do far better than their offer in order to get him to move from the University of Florida. I was sorry to hear that, and we talked awhile, and he finally got around to asking if I would be interested in the job. "After all," he said, "it is somewhat more than you are now making at Town Creek." I told him I would have to think about it. After talking that possibility over with Jewell we decided that it would be a good career move, although I was no Charles Fairbanks when it came to experience in excavating historic sites, having excavated none thus far, except the effort at the Kron House site. So, I accepted the offer and left Town Creek and the archaeology of Native Americans behind me and we moved to Wilmington to begin a new adventure excavating the ruins of an entire town! That challenge excited me and I thought the field could use a Coe-trained archaeologist. Before I made the decision to take the job I asked Joffre what he thought about my leaving Town Creek to take on excavating at Brunswick Town, he said, "I don't think you'll find much there. If you want to end your career in archaeology I suppose you should take it." That didn't exactly push me into historical archaeology, to say the least, but it reflected the view many anthropologically trained archaeologists had at the time. I weighed that advice against another thing he had said when I asked him if I should continue for some years at Town Creek. His answer to that was, "I don't think any archaeologist should stay at Town Creek over two years, but move on to bigger things." Between those two pieces of advice from my mentor, I put Town Creek and Native American archaeology behind me, and slid sideways into historical archaeology to excavate the ruins of the colonial town of Brunswick.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Chapter 6 Brunswick Town Stories 1830, the town was totally in ruins. The site of Brunswick was sold in 1842, to Frederick J. Hill, owner of Orton Plantation, for $4.25 (South 1967f).

Brunswick Town Background Brunswick Town was located on the west bank of the Cape Fear River south of Wilmington, North Carolina. The town began when Col. Maurice Moore, son of Governor James Moore of South Carolina, as a real estate venture, began selling lots there in 1725. The town prospered and grew into the chief port for the exportation of naval stores and lumber from North Carolina to Europe and the West Indies. In the 1730s Brunswick was the seat of New Hanover County, and, in 1764, became the seat of the newly created Brunswick County. The North Carolina Assembly met often in the courthouse at Brunswick, especially during the 12 years the Royal Governors William Tryon and Arthur Dobbs lived at nearby Russellborough (South 1967a). In 1748, Brunswick was captured and held for three days by marauding Spanish privateers, who were later ousted by citizens of the town and others under the leadership of Col. William Dry. It was at Russellborough, at the north edge of Brunswick, in 1765, that a group of citizens led by Cornelius Harnett surrounded the home of Governor Tryon and protested the Stamp Act and placed the Governor under house arrest. The use of arms by this group was one of the first incidents of armed resistance to British authority in America. At the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1775, the few citizens still residing in the almost deserted town feared that the British warships would attack the town and moved away due to this threat. Their fears were realized in 1776, when Brunswick was burned by British troops under the command of Captain Collet. Only two or three families returned after the war, and by

Lawrence L e e - - t h e Town Site Is Saved The historical, archaeological and interpretive value of a site depends on its being preserved in the private or public domain in perpetuity. Historian, Dr. E. Lawrence Lee, Jr., a professor of history at the Citadel in Charleston, heard the site of Brunswick Town was to become off limits to visitation by the public because of the presence of the Federal Government's construction of the Sunny Point Army Depot, located to the south of the site. The town site was owned by the heirs of Cape Fear historian James Sprunt. A chain-link fence was scheduled to cut the town ruin site in two. Lee arranged for the Sprunt family to donate the land to the State of North Carolina provided the State agreed to develop the ruined town into a state historic site. He then arranged for the Federal officials to agree to divert the fence and the off-limits requirement if the State took possession of the site. Then he worked with the Legislature to create Brunswick Town State Historic Site. When all these conditions were met, the site was saved, and an archaeologist was needed to carry out research and development of the historic town ruins. The thousands of visitors who visit the site each year and those archaeologists who have benefited from the scientific data that emerged from my excavation there, owe that contribution to Lawrence Lee and the James Sprunt heirs, who saved the site from encroachment by the Army Corps of Engineers (Lee 1965).

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108

Discovering Town Ruins In A Jungle--A Chigger-Welcome to the Site Jewell and I arrived at the ruins of Brunswick Town in the spring of 1958. The road through Orton Plantation ended at St. Philips Church. The ruins of the 1725-1776 town, burned by the British, lay in an impenetrable jungle beyond the church. Although Joffre Coe had predicted no evidence for the town beyond the church would be visible, shortly before we arrived, E. Lawrence Lee, a history professor at the Citadel, with a crew of prisoners, had found some stone foundation ruins standing three feet high by clearing a wide path through the undergrowth jungle.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION We tromped down the cleared path and viewed several stonewall ruins sticking up out of the ground. Other sub-surface foundation comers had been revealed by Dr. Lee by digging a single hole at each comer after locating the ruin using a probe. He was using the map of Brunswick Town drawn by C. J. Sauthier in 1769 that showed the town in relation to St. Philips Church. We spent a happy afternoon looking at the clues to the several ruins, sometimes going through the undergrowth to see if we could find other ruins in alignment with the ones Dr. Lee had found. This was a great introduction to the adventure that lay ahead (South 1977a: 46).

Figure 6.2. Stan South beside one of the ballast stone wails

in Brunswick Town. (Photo: Charles Smith 1959) Figure 6.1 JewellSouth at the doorway of the ruin of St.

Philips Church in Brunswick Town. (Photo: South 5/1958)

That night, back in the motel in Wilmington, we took our showers and found that we were

Brunswick Town Stories

109

covered with chigger bites, so many that my belt line was clearly visible; where the chiggers had been held tightly in place while they munched away on my body. Jewell had so many bites that the imprint of her panties could be seen on her body. During the decade to follow when we visited the site we thought in advance to use Off spray, and that repellent prevented a recurrence of that experience as I worked in revealing archaeologically the ruins discovered by Dr. Lee.

The Challenge of the Newton's Law of Gravity

Grid--I

Discover

The Sauthier map of 1769 shows St. Philips Church aligned with the other structures in Brunswick Town. I knew the first thing I had to do was to establish a grid by setting nails in concrete benchmarks at 300-foot intervals. I chose the northwest brick corner of the church as the zero point, and set an iron rod, 100-feet to the east to set my east-west base line. Because I couldn't set up over the zero point I drove an iron rod reference point three feet from that corner. Then I made a discovery about magnetism I hadn't known before. I noticed when the transit was set up at the E100-foot reference point and magnetic north was recorded, there was a 1/2 ° difference from when the transit was set up at the reference point located three feet from the brick church ruin. I checked the reading three times, moving the transit back and forth, but the result was always the s a m e - - l / 2 ° variation. What was going on? I wanted to know just how much my grid deviated from magnetic north as I poured each concrete reference point, and thought a check against my grid line would be magnetic north as I set up over each of the reference points. Not having had formal training in use of a transit I called a surveyor in Wilmington, who said the mass of bricks in the church was pulling the needle off from when it was 100-feet away. I didn't realize a mass such as that could influence a magnetic needle. Sir Isaac Newton had observed long ago, as Bill Bryson has recently pointed out, that "every object in the universe exerts a tug on every

other," but I was just beginning to catch on (Bryson 2003: 48). Later, as I set the nails in concrete benchmarks hundreds of yards from the church, I noticed that another such deviation would occur between the time I set a bench mark at the end of the day and when I set up again the next morning on the same benchmark. The compass would not be the same. I had assumed it should be. So, I called the friendly surveyor again. He said, "Have you noticed a big yellow thing in the sky over there to the east in the morning?" I said, "Oh, do you mean the sun?" And he said, "You've got it!" Then he asked, "Where is that yellow ball in the late afternoon?"I said, "It's in the west." "Wow!" he said, how observant you are. Do you think that thing might have some magnetic pull on the compass? . . . . Oh," I s a i d - - S i r Isaac, again. He then said I would have to adjust any reading taken with a compass as the sun passes overhead during the day. "There are four major variables you have to deal with when using a c o m p a s s - - l ) the annual declination of magnetic north; 2) the traverse o f the sun throughout the day from east to west; 3) the pull of the new moon versus the full moon; and 4) the presence of a mass, such as a brick church ruin nearby. And I could add the training of the person on the transit. Why are you using a compass to lay out a grid anyway?" Why indeed! That was when I quit using the compass for anything on an archaeological site, depending instead, on the concrete reference points I set. After that, when I first set up my grid reference points I released the compass simply to record where magnetic north was that hour, of that day, of that year--because tomorrow it would be different--I was learning, with a little help from the surveyor, and Sir Isaac Newton!

A Grid within a Grid--Avoiding Triangular "Squares" Because I had assumed St. Philips Church and the other ruins in the town were on the same grid I had laid out my archaeological grid based on the alignment of the church. However, as I extended

1 10 my master grid through the jungle to the Cape Fear River waterfront, where I could see the stone cellar ruin of what I interpreted as Nath Moore's Front (S10) sticking above the surface of the ground, it became apparent that St. Philips Church, and therefore my archaeological grid, was not aligned with the domestic household ruins in the town! By the time I discovered this I had locked in my grid reference points, so it was too late to change them. This presented an unexpected problem, one I had tried to avoid by aligning my grid to the still-standing church ruin walls. To solve this problem so that the excavated squares around and inside the ruins would be parallel with each ruin (as I had originally planned), I simply laid out a ruin-grid within the site-grid to conform to the ruin itself. I had seen a paper presented where the archaeologist used the site grid to excavate a cellar ruin that deviated considerably from the archaeological grid. This resulted in many of the "squares" inside the cellar being triangles! A further absurdity was that some of the excavation units (assigned the same grid number) were excavated with half of the unit being a triangle inside the cellar wall with the other half being outside! The archaeologist then complained that a comparison of artifacts within the ruin with those from the yard was compromised because the grid units fell on both sides of the cellar wall. Talk about being a slave to the grid! It was to avoid this methodological problem that I had carefully laid out my grid by using the largest ruin in the town. I did this so that my excavated squares would parallel the rains. By simply laying out a ruin grid in parallel alignment with the site grid, I could still avoid the type of situation where method is allowed to interfere with sensible data recovery designed to facilitate the analytical process and recover information of value. Nath Moore's F r o n t - - A Colonial Beachcomber and the Lure of Storytelling It was during this period of grid-setting using iron rebar stakes between wider spaced concrete

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION benchmarks that an unexpected problem arose. One day when I came to the Butler shed office, I found a half dozen of my rebar stakes lying on the ground beside the door. A note was attached that said: "We enjoyed visiting the site after you had gone and are sorry we missed seeing you. We found these iron rods sticking up in the ground at various places and thought you might like to have them." Thanks, but no thanks! I could hardly wait for excavation to get underway and I chose a ruin I called "Nath Moore's Front" for the site of the first dig. After that one I dug many more. When I excavated Nath Moore's Front, in the comer formed by the chimney and the ballast stone wall of the cellar, I found a collection of things picked up on the beach by someone living there 200 years before-sea shells, a Savannah River spear point, and fossils. After their return from a trip to the beach they had thrown their collected objects beside the chimney in the yard. This find gave me a feeling of connectedness to that long-ago beach-combing collector of material things--a feeling of immediacy not felt by the exposure of architectural remains. Such feelings are sometimes translated into storytelling. This kind of story, prompted by the data, holds an attraction, and it is tempting to embellish the factual explanation with a tale. Storytelling is popular in historical archaeology as I write this. Should I tell a tale of how the family (father, wife and children--how many?), visited Long Beach south of Brunswick (or did they go across Eagle's Island to Wilmington in a buggy to visit relatives, then to Wrightsville Beach?); (or was it friends they visited to collect these objects?}--ad infinitum-depending on how much of an imaginary scenario the historical archaeologist might conjure up to "explain" the presence of those objects. What if documentation eventually revealed that a bachelor recluse lived there and didn't own a horse? Those are questions novelists ask--and answer far more effectively than do archaeologists. Why not simply write a novel and work the story of the placement of those objects in

Brunswick Town Stories

that chimney corner? Good idea--however, I wouldn't try to pass it off as archaeology!

The British Ceramics Guru--Ivor Noel Hume As I began excavating the ruins I faced a problem most anthropologically trained archaeologists faced with their first historic site: ceramic type identification. I absorbed as much as I could from references in the New Hanover County Library in Wilmington, matching excavated examples of sherds I had taken with me. However, some types still remained a mystery. After I had collected a number of unidentified types I made an appointment with Ivor Noel Hume at Colonial Williamsburg to identify those for me. As more questions arose I made other trips to Williamsburg to learn about the ceramic types I had recovered from the Brunswick Town ruins. Without Noel Hume's help I would not have been able to compile an 86 page Description of the Ceramic Types from Brunswick Town (South 1959c). Later on, Noel Hume published the "bible" for historical archaeologists, A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America (1970).

Quantitative Analysis--"Anthropological Idiocy" As I counted the fragments of various ceramic types from the Brunswick Town ruins and determined the percentage relationship between them I discovered there was a redundancy from ruin to ruin (South 1959:85, 1962a-b 9(1):5, 1977a:252-253). When I mentioned the redundancy based on sherd count to Noel Hume, as we were walking to lunch through the streets of Williamsburg that day, his comment was, "Anthropological idiocy!" I remember the shock of this viewpoint caused me to stop walking. This was a direct paradigm challenge to what I had been taught about quantitative analysis--he thought counting sherds was nonsense. As we discussed his antiquantification attitude it became clear that he believed there were two kinds of people who

lll

should not be digging on historic sites in America: pothunters and anthropologists. This anti-science attitude has had a pervasive impact on historical archaeologists to the extent that now, almost a half century later, among some archaeologists, their assemblages are not quantified with the view of making systematic comparisons of material culture remains on an inter- or intra-site basis (Noel Hume 1969:13-15). I mention this attitude here because it was the point at which I became aware of the different paradigms under which historical archaeology was conducted then, as well as now. I felt as though a gauntlet had been thrown at my feet. I accepted the challenge. My publication of "Percentage Relationship of Certain Ceramic Types from Several Structures at Brunswick Town, N. C" (South 1959: 85), was my first effort at demonstrating the value of quantitative analysis in historical archaeology.

The 1958 SEAC Meeting--"Primarily Indian Archaeology"

For

By December 1958 I was hot to trot to report the results of my excavation in historical archaeology at Brunswick Town. I contacted Joffre Coe, the local arrangements chairman for the Southeastern Archaeological Conference and told him I wanted to present a paper on my work there. He said that SEAC was, "Primarily for Indian archaeology and not many of the SEAC members are interested in historic sites." He said he had invited my supervisor, William S. Tarleton, to give an administrative paper on North Carolina's historic sites program, and John Griffin was reporting on national historic sites and buildings, and he thought that would be enough. I urged him to also put my paper on the program, but he would not be persuaded. As a compromise, however, he said I might show a few slides at the end of Tarleton's talk, which I did (Tarleton 1959:4-8). However, the rejection I felt at not being able to give a paper on Brunswick Town stuck in my craw.

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The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology--Reaching Out to Colleagues I became aware of the strong bias against historical archaeology when the time for the SEAC meeting in Macon, Georgia rolled around in the fall of 1959. I sent in a request to Tarleton for permission for travel expenses to attend that conference. His reply was that because the SEAC was a conference devoted primarily to papers on Native Americans, it was inappropriate for Historic Sites to send me to that conference. They would pay my way and allow me to drive a state pickup that year, but after that if I wanted to go to SEAC it would have to be at my own expense. This was a reflection of the orphan status historical archaeology had among anthropologists at the time--it was not considered to be "real archaeology." I received that notice about two weeks before the Macon SEAC meeting that was to meet on November 13 th and 14th. It was then I decided it was time a "Conference on Historic Site Archaeology" (CHSA) should be established to allow those of us in historical archaeology to share what we were discovering and to be able to address the problems we were facing. I wrote a letter and mailed it to all those colleagues whose address I had. The tone of the letter reflected the pique I felt at colleagues who looked down on those of us doing historical archaeology, known as "tin can archaeology," as though such endeavor could not be archaeological science (South and Deagan 2002:41). As you know, we historic site archaeologists are often looked upon by our fellow anthropologists as a kind of bastard researcher--half archaeologist and half historian . . . . Regardless of how competent our work may prove to be, we will always remain a breed apart from our colleagues working with the American Indian. As a result of our separate problems we are not represented in the programs of existing archaeological conferences as often as might be desired.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

I would like to suggest the formation of

The Historic Sites Archaeological Conference that would meet each year to present a program based on problems encountered by historic site archaeologists in the excavation and analysis of their data.

A Logo for Historical Archaeology As a result of that letter the Conference on Historic Site Archaeology (CHSA) was begun, with the first meeting being held in 1960, and for many years we met the day before the SEAC conference. With the help of an artist I designed a logo to be used on the CHSA stationary. It symbolized historical archaeology on British colonial sites, incorporating a trowel on which the three most often found artifacts were illustrated: a plate, a tobacco pipe and a wine bottle. Many years after its founding in 1959, the CHSA meetings were discontinued, but I continue to wear the pin I had made as a symbol of my personal involvement in the field of historical archaeology.

!

Figure 6.3. The historicalarchaeologylogo. (Photo: South 1960)

Colleagues "Go Their Independent Ways" By the time of the Tuscaloosa, Alabama, CHSA/SEAC meetings in 1976, both conferences

Brunswick Town Stories

had grown until it was difficult to find a hotel large enough to hold those who wanted to attend both conferences. When prominent University of Michigan archaeologist James Griffin showed up without a reservation that year and found the hotel full, he complained loudly that the problem was that those "historic site people have taken all the rooms," and he had to go to another hotel. The next day as I presided over the CHSA meeting for the 17th year, a friend came into the meeting and up to me at the lectern and reported that the SEAC members had voted to inform CHSA that the two conferences "should go their independent ways," bringing to an end the long tandem association of the two conferences (South 1977c:ii). Historical archaeology had again been turned away, and for me it was, as they say, d6j/t vu all over again (See also South and Deagan 2002:35-50). The CHSA continued until 1982, when it was discontinued because no papers were submitted for publication, removing the primary reason for its existence. The CHSA membership funds were transferred to a publication fund at the University of South Carolina, where they were used to publish 16 volumes of Historical Archaeology in Latin America (South ed.: 1994-1996) and continue to be used to publish the series Volumes in Historical Archaeology-- 41 volumes having been published to date.

Pattern Recognition--Ceramics, Pipe Stems and Documents--A Bumblebee Flies By November 1961, I had dug nine ruins at Brunswick Town, and presented a paper at the second CHSA in which I demonstrated the relationship between the ceramic, the documentary, and the kaolin pipe stem dates from several ruins at Brunswick Town (South 1962b: 9(1):24a-b). The chronological redundancy and variability demonstrated by this comparison was remarkable, I thought, and I saw it as an important statement relating the documented chronology of a site to the chronology derived through analysis of artifacts from the archaeological record.

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I continued to use this quantitative "anthropological idiocy," and a decade later it evolved into the Mean Ceramic Date Formula, used to help archaeologists determine the likely occupation range represented by an assemblage of fragments of eighteenth century British ceramics (South 1972a:71-116; see also South 1977a:201274, and 2001b:201-274). When the formula concept was published in 1972, a number of colleagues were invited to comment on the paper in an historical archaeology forum (South, ed. 1972:117-263), revealing a range of attitudes prevalent at the period. One of those commenting was my son David, a student at that time, whose statistics determined a plus or minus four years within which the date derived using the Mean Ceramic Date Formula would vary. His paper, "Mean Ceramic Dates, Median Occupation Dates, Red Ant Hills and Bumble Bees: Statistical Confidence and Correlation" (South, D. 1972:164-174), made the point that just because red ant hills and potsherds might occur together on a site a causal nexus could not be assumed to exist between those facts. In regard to his study designed to determine the confidence one might put in the Mean Ceramic Date Formula, David said (South, D. 1972:174): We have, however, demonstrated the correlation between the mean ceramic formula dates and the median occupation dates of the historic sites of the eighteenth century. The theoretical assumptions upon which S. South's formula was based might lead one to believe that he has constructed an aerodynamically unsound bumblebee; however, the confidence intervals I have derived relating to the use of his formula reveal that his bumblebee does indeed fly. The results of David's statistical evaluation of the Mean Ceramic Date formula were rewarding and in the decades since that time many archaeologists have used it to help them interpret the chronological range likely involved in the

114 accumulation of their ceramic assemblage. In the decades to follow I continued to count things and try to make sense of the cultural patterns they represented in terms of past behavior and the processes of culture--the Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal and the Carolina Artifact Pattern (South 1977a, 2001b), while others elsewhere focused on particular historical questions focused on how many whole dishes a particular family broke while living in the house represented by a ruin. The Mean Ceramic Date concept grew from J. C. Harrington's study of the holes in tobacco pipe stems, and Binford's follow-up study converting Harrington's data to a regression line formula (Harrington 1954; Maxwell and Binford 1961: 108-I09). The immediate stimulus for my ceramic formula was my often demonstrated use of pocket change when giving talks, when I would record the dates on the coins on the blackboard and from that series derive a mean coin date, and from that a terminus post quem date from the latest coin, and compare that with the date I was giving the lecture, to determine the probable time frame represented by the assemblage. I usually remarked that wouldn't it be great if each ceramic type had the date of its manufacture printed on it. Finally it hit m e - - i f I assigned a median date for the production period of a ceramic type, I could then use that assigned date for a number of types in an assemblage, and derive a mean ceramic date. With that mental break-through, the Mean Ceramic Date Formula was determined--the rest is history (South 1972a: 71-116). I later adapted this formula for use on Spanish majolica in the new world (South 1974h: 96-122).

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION attempt by the Spaniards to capture the town on September 3, 1748, which failed when the powder magazine aboard one of their ships exploded, sending it to the bottom of the Cape Fear River. William Dry, the Port Collector was in charge of resisting the Spanish attack. During the resistance by the townspeople, a cannon, borrowed from Roger Moore of nearby Orton Plantation, exploded, killing a Negro slave operating it. The slave was borrowed from George Reonalds, a Brunswick merchant, who asked for 45 pounds to reimburse him for the loss of his slave (South 1960a:28). Ecce

Homo

--

From the Spanish Shipwreck

Slaves and goods and a painting of Christ, Ecce Homo, were recovered from the captain's cabin in the Spanish wreck, but because the painting was a religious object it was not sold.

The Documentary Record--A Spanish Attack and A Shipwreck As I was involved in performing an autopsy on the material remains of the town of Brunswick, I became familiar with the documentary record involving the founding of the town by Maurice Moore from Goose Creek, South Carolina. I discovered from the documents that a "public house" was located there. Also, I learned of the

Figure 6.4. The painting Ecce Homo, taken from the Spanish vessel that attacked Brunswick Town in 1748.

(Photo: South 1960)

Brunswick Town Stories

Instead it was given to the Parrish of St. James Church by the North Carolina General Assembly (South 1960a:31). When I visited the church, the historic painting was hanging on the wall in a hallway. I was concerned that such an historic relic should be hanging there so accessible to anyone who walked into the church, which was open most of the time. It was amazing to me that someone had not stolen the painting. I made an appointment with the minister and told him of my concern. He said I would have to see the Bishop, so I made an appointment with him, and after having to wait an hour in his outer office, I expressed to him my concern for the security of the painting, and, recommended that it be kept in the church vault. He listened, with a condescending smile, and said he would look into it and sent me on my way. I was allowed to take a photograph of the painting. I became interested in the Spanish wreck and mentioned it in my talks on Brunswick. A diver, hearing my talk, explored the shoreline, and found an eighteenth century anchor. Although many ships anchored in front of Bnmswick in the eighteenth century, I like to think the anchor found there might have been from the Spanish wreck. I went into the river at low tide and waded up to my neck, hoping to find further evidence of it, but all that was found was a 16 inch cannonball from the Civil W a r - - b u t that is a later story of the Brunswick site, to be told later.

A Teenage Twice-First-Lady, Justina Davis Dobbs Nash and the Royal Governors In my research I learned that Royal Governor Arthur Dobbs lived at Russellborough, the ruins of which were located at the north edge of Brunswick Town and shown on the 1769 Sauthier map. In 1762 the 73 year old governor of North Carolina fell in love with Justina Davis, the 15 year old girl who, after Governor Dobbs died, married Governor Abner Nash, to become twice first lady. She was buried in Swansboro at the age of 19. After Dobbs died Governor William Tryon moved into Russellborough and later moved into his new mansion in New Bern. Port Collector

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William Dry III then moved into the former governor's home (South 1967a-c). It was there a Stamp Act demonstration took place in 1766 and a ship's cargo was seized, a decade before the American Revolution. I read of a duel fought in the town on March 18, 1765, between Captain Alex Simpson and Lieutenant Thomas Whitehurst of the ship "Viper." After bullets were exchanged with both hitting their mark but not putting either of the men out of action, Simpson attacked Whitehurst and killed him by beating him in the head with the butt of his pistol. The Sauthier map shows 35 dwellings in Brunswick and twice as many other buildings-kitchens, stores, warehouses, and the like. In the same year Sauthier drew his map, 1769, a hurricane hit, causing much damage, blowing down houses and the courthouse, and blowing the roof from St. Philips Church. In 1776, the town was burned by British Captain Collett, as was William Dry's home at Russellborough (South 1967a-c). Brunswick was then virtually abandoned, with only two or three houses there after the Revolution.

"Colonial Brunswick" Artifacts The above historical details came to my attention as I carried out my research in 1958 and 1959. By 1960 I had compiled them into a book, "Colonial Brunswick" designed to inform school children about the historical and archaeological story I had found. In that book I illustrated a piece of brass with "B[runswi]ck" engraved on it--perhaps once on a painting of the town?

Drawing of the brass plate engraved B'runswi"ck. (Drawing: Margaret Bunn 1960)

Figure 6 . 5 .

When I first discovered it, with my limited imagination, I was trying to determine what word

116 "runswi" could possibly be from. I showed the brass fragment to R. V. Asbury, the Brunwick Town guide, who immediately said, "It's the middle of the word "Brunswick!" Duh! We were both excited that I had dug up the name o f the town. We also recovered a spoon once owned by Margaret Hill, with "M. Hill" on the handle; a brass tobacco tin fragment embossed with the British Royal Seal; and an embossed medallion with the bust of Frederick the Great of Prussia, marked "Fred Born Rex." Another medallion from the refuse of one of the few early nineteenth century occupants of Brunswick was embossed with the profile portraits of "MARECHAL GERARD-GENERAL LAFAYETTE," dating sometime after 1830, when Gerard was made a Marshal of France. Unfortunately, that book was not published by the Department of Archives and History, and it remains in manuscript form today. However, I still plan to get it into computer format and to a publisher if I live long enough (South 1960a).

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION number of organizations such as the DAR, UDC, Daughters of the Colonies, etc. Her home was filled with reference card drawers on genealogy and historical research she had done. Whenever I had a question involving a Brunswick Town citizen in the eighteenth century, she would say something like, "Nathaniel Moore? He was the son o f , and his mother was , and she came from , and they had three c h i l d r e n . . , and so it went, as she led me to the card file documenting what she was saying. I valued her friendship, and admired greatly her great knowledge of the history of the individuals, places, and events in the Lower Cape Fear. My primary interest at Brunswick Town was collecting archaeological data from excavation of the ruins, seeing what patterns were there to be recognized, and exploring how those patterns could be predictive o f past cultural behavior and process, to be of methodological and interpretive use to other archaeologists. It wasn't until I had been gone from North Carolina for eight years before much of what I had learned there was published in Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology (South 1977a). During the ten years I was at Brunswick Town, other challenges were undertaken that did not directly involve the database of archaeology.

Archaeological Crew Stories

Figure 6.6. The "MARECHAL GERARD-GINIRAL LAFAYETTE" medallion. (Photo: South 1960) My historical research guru in Wilmington was Ida B. Kellam, who was the archivist for a

Figure 6. 7. Drawing of Brunswick Town crewmen washing artifacts. (DonMayhew 1960)

Brunswick Town Stories

Charlie S m i t h - - " S w e e t Rosie Anne" When I arrived at Brunswick Town, Lawrence Lee recommended Charlie Smith, a hard worker with a willing and happy spirit, as my right hand assistant. Charlie was one of the crew he had used to locate the corners of the ruins. I took his advice and through the years learned as much from Charlie as he did from me. He was a good storyteller who would keep the crew and me laughing. He was also a fisherman, as were the other crewmen. They dug the ruins and helped Jewell wash and process the artifacts. One day as we were digging in Nath Moore's Front, Charlie cut loose singing a chantey called "Sweet Rosie Anne." Some of the other crewmen joined in. It was so beautiful I asked Charlie to sing over until I learned to sing it. He said he it was a Mississippi River chantey he had learned when he fished with a crew out of Empire, Louisiana (South [editor]: 1994: 175, and 1995b): Sweet Rosie Anne, sweet Rosie Anne, Bye-bye sweet Rosie Anna. I thought I heard my baby say, I won't be home tomorrow. Duh steamboat comin' round duh bend, Bye-bye sweet Rosie Anna, Is loaded wi-dat high-bred gin, I won't be home tomorrow. I was invited by Charlie and others on the crew to go with them early one rainy morning. That day they only caught around 500,000 fish in their nets. That seemed like a lot of fish to me, but they were disappointed (South 1994: 174175). Fishing was only a part-time job for them because it was seasonal, so they spent their days clearing the jungle from Brunswick Town ruins and helping me excavate them--but more about the fishermen later. The first year at Brunswick Town I killed 23 copperhead snakes in the pathways cleared by Lawrence Lee. We had visitors each weekend so I killed the snakes to protect the visitors from being bitten as they followed the trails to view the

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ruins. Later on, I killed a rattlesnake, a cottonmouth, and Charlie killed a coral snake. We were converting a jungle to an historic site, so we had encounters with various varmints in the process. "The Las' Otter" A series of events Charlie had fun with, at my expense upon occasion, began with the time he showed me an otter lying in the bed of the pickup truck. I was upset that he had killed it because I had never see one before and knew they were certainly rare on the Cape Fear and its tributaries. He said it had come bouncing up the road in front of him like a puppy. He stopped the truck and got out, took an ax handle out of the bed of the truck, and when it came up to him he had "Napped it in the head." I asked him what he was going to do with it and he looked surprised, "You can have him to eat, unless you have a squeamish belly of course. If you do I'll eat it. They're good eatin'!" I told him it was probably the last otter on the Cape Fear. "The Las' Bald Eagle" A bald eagle nested in one of the ancient pines at Brunswick Town. One day the parents of the chick were flying around and around above the tree trying to get the chick to fly. They screeched all day and finally, as we watched, the chick left the nest and flew up to meet the parent birds and they all three flew offto the south. That was the last we saw o f them. I made the remark that they may have been the last Eagles on the Cape Fear. Charlie listened but didn't comment. "The Las' Lion" Charlie was excited one day when I arrived at our Butler shed that served as my office, tool shed and analysis laboratory. He had been sitting quietly looking out the open door early that morning when he heard something walking through the woods about 30 feet from the door. As he watched he saw a lion. I asked him if it wasn't perhaps a bobcat. He said that the tail was long and went out and down into a loop, then back

118 up. It was a lion, he insisted. I told him that in the mountains those cats were called "painters" [panthers]. I remarked, "That's likely one of t h e " ~ a n d he joined me, saying, "las' lions on the Cape F e a r " - - h e had recognized the pattern. "The Las' Gatuh and Possum" Another time we saw a big alligator lying on the bank of one of the "Carolina Bay" ponds. I went closer to try to get a photograph, and it turned suddenly toward me as I made for a little tree nearby. In telling this story to the crew Charlie said, "I expect de boss man to say, "That de las' gatuh!" Then he followed that by saying, "You show the boss man a 'possum, he say, 'That de las' 'possum!" (South 1995b). After that the crew would point to any animal we saw and ask me if I thought it was the last one on the Cape Fear. Charlie reveled in that kind o f jawing. "Boss Man, You Down There?" We were excavating one of the Brunswick Town wells and had revealed two tipping posts preserved by the water standing in the bottom. The colonists had put the posts in the well to tip the wooden buckets upside down so they would pick up water. I had rigged up a tripod of 2 by 4s and had fastened a chain around the top to hold the block and tackle used to lower me down into the 12 foot deep well. I had put a padlock on the chain and locked it to what I thought was the other end of the chain. As it turned out later, I had locked the padlock to the same end of the chain, leaving the chain simply wrapped around the tripod. Charlie, Freddy Moore and Johnny Roberts had lowered me into the well as I excavated and put the dirt in a bucket to be pulled up. I was almost finished removing dirt and was standing on oyster shells knee deep in water working around the tipping posts. When I finished and gave the signal to Charlie to pull me up, they all three took hold of the rope and began pulling to lift me to the top of the well. I had just reached the surface and could see them pulling on the rope when I heard the noise of the chain

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION coming loose from the tripod above me. Then I began falling down the well shaft. As I fell I imagined how painful it was going to be when one of the sharp tipping posts rammed into my behind. I began dreading that as I fell, and I thought about the fact that the nearest hospital was twenty-five miles away, and wondered if Charlie and crew would be able to get me out of the well in such a wounded condition. All that ran through my mind while I was falling. Then I hit bottom, splashing into the water, with a leg on each side of one of the tipping posts--the only position I could possibly have landed in without hurting myself seriously. I was so relieved that I began laughing as I sat in the cool water up to m y armpits. I waited for Charlie to stick his head over the edge of the well hole to look down at me, but no Charlie appeared. I sat there waiting, but I heard nothing. They say that from the bottom of a well you can see stars in the daytime, and I thought about that looking up, but no stars, and still no Charlie. Finally, after 10 minutes or more, after hollering ever now and then to try to get someone's attention, I saw Charlie's head tentatively peep over the edge of the well and look down at me. "Boss man, you down there?" I laughed and said, "Where'd you think I'd be Charlie?" Then he said, "Lord have mercy! Praise de Lord! I thought you might be daidl Is you hurt?" I assured him I was o.k. and asked where they had been so long. He said they had run the three blocks to the parking lot and had started their cars, dreading the thought of being blamed for a white man lying in the bottom of the well dead. But then Charlie had asked the others, "What if the man ain't daid--maybe he only hurt?" so he had come back to check on me. He went back then and got Freddy and Johnny and they refastened the chain. Then they sent the bucket down for the key to the padlock that was in my pocket, relocked the chain securely this time, and pulled me out of the well. I was lucky.

Brunswick Town Stories

"Fightn'-Eddy" In the Wheelchair--"Snake" On the Floor in "The Spot" The community in which Charlie, Freddy and Johnny lived was located along the highway between Brunswick Town and Wilmington. There was a gathering place there known as "The Spot." It was a one-room slat and board building with benches around the wall inside. Beer was served there, as well as soft drinks and snacks, and judging from the stories I heard from my crew a good time was had by all. Music was played by those who brought guitars, and other instruments, and songs were sung.

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"The Spot" drew a pretty good crowd playing whist and checkers, singing and dancing, especially on weekend nights. When something exciting happened there, I would get a full report from Charlie on Monday morning. It was a world I could never know--the blues, the laughter, the chanteys, and the booze. ! was happy for them, but sad for m e - - a n outsider, who could only attempt to capture some of the richness of their soul-rich brotherhood through the stories and songs they generously shared with me (South 1978a, 1995b). I was a stranger there. Just as Ed Gaines had taught me to acknowledge the reality of Dude's polio-induced limp, Charlie told me a story about a wheelchairbound man, once known as "Wheelchair Eddy,"

Figure 6.9. Whist players in "The Spot." (Photo: South 1960)

Figure 6.8.Freddy on the porch of "The Spot." The gathering place for the Brunswick Town crew and their friends. (Photo: South 1960)

but more recently called "Fightn' Eddy," because of his skill at manipulating his chair during fights. Charlie said Eddy and Snake got in an argument Saturday night and Snake took a swing at Eddy, who saw it coming and quickly wheeled his chair around to avoid the hit. Everyone watched as Snake kept trying to hit Eddy by grabbing the arm of Eddy's chair with his left hand while striking out with his right at Eddy's face. When he did this Eddy would punch Snake

120 in the face two or three times before he could turn loose of the chair. Charlie said it was great fun to see how skillfully Eddy was at moving that chair around and getting in more blows than Snake could. It was a sight to see, with everybody hollering and egging them on, while Eddy used fancy wheelwork to dodge Snake's blows. Then, when the wheelchair rolled back in front of Freddy, he reached out his foot and pushed down on the brake lever. When Snake took another swing, Eddy pulled back on the wheels to feint away, but because the brake was locked, the chair flipped onto its back throwing Eddy to the floor. Snake was on him in a flash and they rolled around on the floor, with the crowd cheering them on. Finally, the fight came to an end because Eddy was beating up on Snake so badly they had to pull him off Snake. Snake was upset because it made him look bad getting beat up by crippled Eddy. Charlie said, "That Fighting Eddy, crippled or not, don't take nothing off nobody!" I told Charlie I ' d never heard of anyone fighting with someone in a wheelchair. He said, "Just because someone's in a wheelchair don't mean they shouldn't be treated just like anybody else---but then, that Eddy, he is something special--wheelchair or not." "The Sound of a Watermelon" Charlie told me about the time he was working cutting pulpwood and a friend of his killed the boss man. It was a cold morning in the pulpwood yard and the crew had built a little fire to keep warm. The boss man came from the little office where he was having coffee and, with his boot, kicked out their fire, saying it was against the rules of the pulpwood yard. They pleaded with him to get in the truck and head for the woods so they could begin work and keep warm, but he smart-mouthed them and went back to his coffee. Jubal lit the fire again, and it was kicked out by the boss man, who used the N- word that time. Jubal said "Boss, if you outn' that fire again, you're a dead man," and gathered the smoldering

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION faggots and built another fire. The boss man, apparently seeing the situation as a conflict of wills, came out a third time and kicked out the fire, scattering the sticks and raising a cloud of dust fi-om the ashes. As he did Charlie saw Jubal reach down and pick up a bush axe and swing it up over the boss man's head and watched it as it came down, "in slow motion," Charlie said, and split the man's head from the top to his chin. "Boss man," Charlie said, pausing in his story, "You know the sound a watermelon makes when you slice it and it splits open? That's the same sound that man's head made when it got split in two wid that ax." "What did you do, Charlie? . . . . Do?" He said, "We ran--and r a n - - and ran! Until, finally when me and Freddy and Johnny got out of breath and had to stop, we was running down an old road in the woods. I said, ' W h y we running? We didn't do nothing?" Freddy was bent over puking. Johnny said, "A white man was killed--we was there--and you want to know why we running? They'd blame it on u s - - t h a t ' s why!" Charlie said when he walked several miles home, he went to Jubal's house and Jubal was there sitting on the porch waiting for the Sheriff. He had walked to his car and had driven home. His wife was crying and his children were hanging onto Jubal as he sat in the swing. When the Sheriff came he walked up to the porch and said, "Mornin' Jubal, I heard you killed a man today. That so?" Jubal said, "You hear right, Sheriff. I killed a no-good white man--pure trash." The Sheriff said, " I ' m sorry to hear that Jubal." "Don't need to be sorry Sheriff. It ain't yo' fault. He needed killin'. Sometime shit happen'." As Charlie told me this story, Freddy had nodded his head from time to time, and muttered supporting sounds. Then he said, "Boss m a n - you can hurry up and believe that!" I did--and I thought of the times when we were digging Nath Moore's Front ruin and Charlie, Freddy and Johnny had built a little fire in the yard of the ruin to keep warm by. I had asked Charlie why they hadn't huddled closer to the fire as they stood

Brunswick Town Stories

around. He answered that the fire was mostly to smell the smoke so your mind would think you were getting warmer. To help lighten the solemn mood generated by Charlie's story, I said, "Charlie, I want you to know, any time you want to build a fire, you go right ahead and build it!" "Blow His Head Off, B o s s ! " ~ K n o w i n g W h e n to Stop

One day as we were on the road leaving Brunswick Town, with me driving the pickup with Charlie beside me and the crew in the bed, the truck passed over a copperhead snake in the road. I stopped the truck and saw that I hadn't hit it. It was coiled ready to strike. I called to Freddy and told him to get the bush axe out of the bed of the truck and kill it. Instead, he handed me a 32caliber pistol and said, "Blow his head off, boss!." I told him I couldn't hit the side of a barn with a pistol, but he insisted, egged on by the crew. So, I took the pistol in hand, commenting that I would probably empty the chamber and still wouldn't have hit the thing. But, like I had seen in the movies, I took aim below the head from about 15 feet away, and slowly brought it up until I squeezed the trigger as the head came in alignment with the sights. To my surprise the head disappeared from the snake--amid cries of astonishment and disbelief from the crew. Later on, when we would see a snake, or when one of the crew was telling the story about the boss man being a crack shot with a pistol, they would urge me to demonstrate my "skill." I told them it had been a lucky shot, but they never believed me. I never tried to use Freddy's pistol again--sometimes success comes from knowing when to stop. " W h o ' s R o b b i n g T h i s T r a i n - - Y o u or M i s t e r James?"

I was sitting in the tin shed analyzing pottery from one of the Brunswick ruins. In the distance I could hear the rhythmic growling sound of the skate-wheeled sifter box as it was shaken back and forth on its frame as the soil from one of the layers in ruin was screened to recover the

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artifacts. It was late on a hot day, and the crew had been digging long hours on the Front Street ruin. Then I heard above the low rumble of the sifter, a high-pitched voice carrying through the woods, "Who's robbing this train?" Then the musical note of laughter as the crew remembered the joke prompted by the punch line rendered by Charlie. When I later mentioned to him that it sounded as though the crew had enjoyed his reminder, he said, "I try to keep some trash goin' late in the day to help get their minds goin' on something besides bein' tired, and hot, and thirsty, and thinking about quitting and going home to get a beer. I try to keep some foolishness goin' to help keep their spirits up. If I don't they start complaining about how bad things are for 'em." The punch line was all that was needed to lighten the day and help that last hour not seem so long. As Charlie told it, Mr. Jesse James was robbing a train and he pointed his gun at the passengers and said for them to give him their money or e l s e - - ' T m gonna rob all the women and rape all the men!" Then one of the passengers spoke up and said, "Scuse me, Mr. James, but don't you mean to say you is gonna rob all the men and rape all the women?" Then a high-pitched voice from another man spoke up and said, "You shut your mouth! Who's robbin' this train--you or Mr. James?"--Charlie the entertainer. A W h i s k e y Still R u i n - - "I H e r e b y Place Y o u Under Arrest"

As we cleared the brush from the edge of the cypress swamp at the north edge of Brunswick Town, we found some cinderblocks, a rusty and dented 55-gallon barrel and some other debris scattered beneath the jungle growth. Charlie said, "Yo, Freddy, ain't this where you had your still?" Freddy laughed and said it might be the place, but wasn't sure, because the undergrowth looked different. From that I knew that Freddy must really have had a still there. I transit-shot a location and drew a little still on my Brunswick

122 Town master map to mark the spot. Then I got the story from Freddy. Many years before, Freddy had hidden the still beneath thick myrtles to prevent it being seen by the Federal spotter plane that frequently flew over the area looking for stills. It was located on the low shoulder of the cypress swamp, with cypress knees sticking up along the shore. The knees extended about twenty feet into the swamp before the deep water prevented them from growing up from the roots below. Freddy was making good money from the sale of his "shine," until somehow the Feds learned that he was operating a still. After that time the planes flew low over the area trying to locate it.

A mountain whiskey still before being destroyed by the Sheriff. It was photographed when I worked as a photographer in Boone. Freddy's still may not have been as elaborate as this one. The archaeological record of such entrepreneurial enterprises is often found during archaeologicalsurveys. (Photo:Plamer Blair 1952) Figure 6.10.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Freddy was loading gallon jugs filled with the clear liquid into a cardboard box when one of his helpers yelled, "Run! Run" It's the law! He's got a gun!" and he took off running. Freddy looked up and there, not forty feet away, stood the federal agent who had talked with Freddy once about the rumor he had a still. He was smiling and pointing a gun, saying, "I found it Freddy. You might as well give up." Freddy said, "You ain't goin' to shoot me. It's agin' the l a w - - y o u can hurry up and believe that!" and he took off running along the shoreline of the swamp with the lawman behind him. Before long Freddy was puffing and waded into the water, trying to keep his balance among the cypress knees. The lawman stopped on the bank, laid his billfold and other personal things from his pocket on the bank, and shouted to Freddy, "Now Fred@, why couldn't you just surrender here on dry land?" Freddy yelled back at him, "If yuh goin'a arrest me you got to do it by the damn rules-place your hand on my shoulder and say, 'I hereby place you under arrest'--ain't dat de way it go? . . . . That's right, Freddy, but did you have to get us so wet?" Into the water the lawman came, as Freddy went further and further into the swamp where the water became deeper and deeper, with the lawman still sloshing through the water behind him. Freddy kept struggling to keep his footing because he couldn't swim. Finally, when the water was up to his shoulders he stopped. The lawman said, "Damn, Freddy! Why don't you just let me arrest you?" All Freddy could do was stand there and watch the man get closer to him. "If I was a foot taller," Freddy said, "I'd drown your white ass before you could get to me." By that time the man put his hand on Freddy's shoulder and said, "I hereby place you under arrest." Freddy shook his head and said, "You some hard-ass lawman over a little whiskey." Freddy told me that serving time in the federal penitentiary was the best time he had ever served. He said he lay up there in Richmond watching TV, eating, and making good time. He said when

Brunswick Town Stories

they let him go they gave him a new suit and ten dollars in his pocket to get home on. If he ever got arrested again, he said, he wanted it to be on a federal charge--"They work your ass off on the county r o a d - - y o u can hurry up and believe that!" Many years later I told this and other Charlie and crewmen stories in a little poem booklet (South 1995b).

"This Heah Cootuh Soup!"--A Lesson in Discrimination From time to time at Brunswick Town I would be asked to investigate other projects of interest to the Historic Sites Division of the Department of Archives and History, and I will be saying more about this broader-scope involvement later in Chapter 9. One of these assignments was for Charlie and me to go to New Bem and explore the cellar and yard of the Chapman-Taylor (AttmoreOliver) House (South 1962c). An interesting discovery in the cellar of that house was several sewing machines sitting in the basement. These were scheduled to be thrown out along with other trash. A brass plate on the machines indicated they dated from 1867, shortly after the Civil War, and this fact seemed to fit with the tradition that uniforms were made there, but after the occupation of the town by Federal forces - probably on those very machines still in the basement. Those machines were still there when I left; I hope they were saved by the historical society for their connection to the history of the house (South 1962c: 17), but more on the rest of that story in Chapter 9. Late in the day Charlie and I ended our work and he said he had a hankering for seafood chowder. We stopped at a popular seafood caf6 in town and I went in to ask if they had seafood chowder. They said they did, but Charlie couldn't come in because they wouldn't serve blacks, only they didn't use that word. That made me so upset that when I got back to the truck I was angry. Charlie asked what was wrong, and I told him amid various irate epithets, and he began laughing--which seemed curious to me. He said, "What's the matter, Boss? - - y o u not used to

123

discrimination, are you? Lord! I've seen it all nay life---here you just now facing i t - - n o w ain't that something!" By that time I had cranked the truck and was backing out of the parking lot, when he stopped me. "Wait. Don't leave. Look at it this way. We hungry, right? We a long way from home, right? We a long way driving to another card, right? We be a long way driving to get out of the South, right?" I laughed, agreed, and cut off the engine. He said, "In that case, you get yo' white ass back in that caf6 and bring us out some seafood chowder to eat out here in the truck"--which I did. We were enjoying the delicious, rich chowder thick with bits of fish, shrimp and other goodies, when Charlie said, "Look at this! This here a cootuh bone! This heah's cootuh soup!" he said, holding up a bone about two inches long. You couldn't prove it by me, but Charlie insisted he knew cooter bones, because he had eaten many a bowl of cooter soup. Suddenly, Charlie was irate--"What kind of place serves cootuh meat in seafood chowduh!" I said it was good chowder anyhow, but Charlie said, "Cootuh a marsh turtle. He don't live in no sea!" As we drove on down the highway toward Wilmington I would occasionally hear, "Uh, uh, uh!---cooter meat don't belong in no seafood chowduh." He was far more incensed over this violation of culinary protocol than with the blatant discrimination we had encountered--that he was used t o - - n o t cooter meat from the marsh passed offas seafood chowder!

The Fishermen--"No Shad Today!" I mentioned that my archaeological crewmen at Brunswick Town were mostly fishermen for menhaden, called shad. At 4 o'clock one Saturday morning I met them at the dock where the converted World War II surplus destroyer escort fishing vessels were anchored. It was an overcast morning threatening rain. I was in the wheelhouse drinking coffee with the captain, looking down onto the deck of the vessel anchored next to the one I was on. I saw one of

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

the fishermen come onto the deck, look skyward, and shake his fist at the low-lying clouds. He paced the deck, raised his arms skyward, rolled his eyes and shouted at the captain and the rain (South, ed. 1994:175): GREAT GAWDA'MIGHTYWHATA GLORYDAY! GLO-REE DAY! NO SHADTODAY!NO SHAD TODAY! GREATGAWDA'MIGHTYWHATA GLORYDAY! THE CAP'N SAY GO, BUT I SAY NO' GREATGAWDA'MIGHTYWHATA GLORY DAY! THE CAP'N SAY CATCHALL THE SHAD YOU CAN! GREATGAWDA'MIGHTYI'M A FISHERMAN! GREATGAWDA'MIGHTYI'M A M A N ! The captain explained that the man was exhorting him to give word that the weather was too bad to go into the Atlantic that day to fish. But the captain had heard on his walkie-talkie from Hall Watters, the pilot flying overhead spotting the white foam on the sea that told him where the school of shad was located, that it was getting light enough to see and the weather was not too bad to prevent the vessel from leaving the dock. So we went in spite of the emotional exhortation not to do so. The fishermen thought it wasn't much of a catch, with only a half-million fish caught in the net between the two purse boats, but it looked like a lot of fish to me (South ed. 1994:174). Charlie said the fish looked like silver dollars shining in the sun to him because each fisherman got a share of the profit from selling the fish for fertilizer. The captain got 3 shares, the chantey man two shares. The chantey man's job was to lead the singing, which the crew usually did as they joyfully pulled in the net, their hands bleeding from being ripped by the mesh of the fish-loaded net. They sang: "Duh steamboat comin' round duh bend, bye-bye sweet Rosie Anna, is loaded wi-dat high-bred gin, I won't be home tomorrow. Oh, the Cap'm got a luger, luger, luger. De Cap'm got a luger, an the mate got a owl head!" [pistols].

..........

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Fishboat crew pullingin the net. (Photo:

South 1962) The school of fish, trapped in the net, pushed their noses against the mesh until they turned red. Then a shock wave was felt within the sea, rocking the boats, as the men, filled with joy and intense exertion, broke into tears with emotion. The shock wave came as all the shad "thundered," and died, bursting their swim bladders in unison, in one of the great mysteries of the sea. Charlie asked me what caused the "thunder" but I had no idea except to compare it with flights of flocks of migrating birds, who move as one organism as they sweep and dive in the air, or like a squadron of Blue Thunder jet pilots once did as the formation dived their planes in unison into the beach--following the lead of their commander. Those fishermen were my archaeological crew at Brunswick Town. Sometimes when the day was mild, a breeze would blow across the five-mile wide Cape Fear River. At such magic moments the crew would become filled with the joy of the work as we shoveled and sifting soil from a Front Street ruin. Then Charlie would break out with Sweet Rosie Anne, and the crew would join him in song, as I did. The shad are gone now from the Cape Fear, along with the fishermen, the chanteys, and my crew. Knowing them was one of life's great

Brunswick Town Stories

moments for me. I loved those wonderful guys, but I was a stranger there. One day a folklorist showed up at my door with a guitar and suitcase in hand. He said he had heard from someone that I sang some of the old chanteys. He was Philip Kennedy who was on a song collecting tour of the South. I invited him in and he recorded me singing some of the songs I knew. I told him that I was only an imitator of the songs had I heard Charlie sing. I urged him to meet Charlie and record the songs directly from the source. He spent the night with us and I introduced him to Charlie whom he also recorded. A couple of years later he sent me a copy of a book with his chapter resulting from his study, on the "Present Status of Ballad Collecting and Geographical Ballad Distributions in North Carolina" (Kennedy 1965: 67-82).

A Lesson in Cultural Diversity During the 1960s, when I was recording Charlie's sea chanteys on my tape recorder and learning from him the songs of the coastal black fishermen, I thought I would expand my repertoire by recording songs sung by some of the black neighbors I grew up with in the mountains. The next time Jewell and went to Boone, I took my tape recorder and made arrangements to meet with an African American acquaintance that agreed to allow me to record some of his songs. I was excited as I set up the recorder, thinking about adding traditional African American songs from this part of North Carolina. He played a guitar, and as he picked and sang, I heard him say, "Garfield ain't dead, but he's hanging mighty low"---a song about the assassination of President James A. Garfield in 1881. The song spoke of the assassin, Charles Guiteau, and of Garfield's hanging on to life long after he was shot. That song was a new discovery for me, sung in the way Appalachian mountain ballads were traditionally rendered, with a drawn-out moaning of words. I asked for other old songs, and I heard him sing about "London Town where I was born," and about Sweet William lying on his deathbed

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for the love of Barbara Allen. Then he sang about Lord Lovel standing at his castle-gate, combing his milk white steed. I asked if he knew any traditional songs sung by the black folks he knew, and he looked surprised, and answered that I had just heard them! Clearly these were not the type of songs I had expected to hear. But what a lesson that was for me! As an anthropologist I should have known, that the songs I heard from my coastal black fishermen crew, songs they learned from those steeped in a Mississippi River steamboat tradition, would have no reason to sound like black mountaineers immersed in an Appalachian English-ballad tradition--I should have known!

Interpretation, Archaeology and Aesthetics Stories Historic Site Development--Politics, Policy, Leadership, Initiative and Sensitivity In the age of cultural resource management archaeology, not many archaeologists face the assignment of excavating a site and developing it as a state historic site for visitation by the public, while at the same time carrying out scientific archaeology. At Brunswick Town, however, in 1958 and the decade to follow, that was my challenge. Some of the scientific results I later published in my Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology (1977). The story I tell here, and others I tell in later chapters, involve decisions I made in the process of carrying out historic site development in conjunction with scientific archaeology--sites such as Fort Fisher, Bethabara, Charles Towne Landing, Ninety Six and Spanish Santa Elena. The Brunswick Town story I tell here is related to administrative politics and policy, leadership, initiative, and sensitivity to the issue of site integrity and functional practicality--issues constantly faced by those involved in researching and developing historic sites and properties. One way of looking at that issue is to say it is a matter of balancing the "purists" on the one hand, with the "practical compromisers" on the other.

126 Purists might say it is inappropriate to have modem toilets in an eighteenth century exhibit building, but most people understand that if you have thousands of people trekking through such a structure there must be toilet facilities for them. I once criticized Williamsburg reconstructions because they were so neat looking, so unauthentic in their pristine neatness, because I knew from archaeology that what I called "The Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal" (a trash dump) was once located beside the entranceways of dwellings, forts and other colonial structures in such towns. To be absolutely and authentically "pure" it would be necessary to not only place such refuse deposits in the yard beside the doors of restored structures, one would have to import into the mix some typhoid bacillus so that flies could spread that plague and thus make Williamsburg more "authentic." Well, that's going a little far, you might say. So, where do we draw the line between authenticity and the new creation called "historic restoration" or "preservation" or "site development" for the education and entertainment of the public? In replacing palisade posts in original fort ditches, for instance, treated posts are not "authentic." Using twentieth century concrete to stabilize colonial ruins as I did at Brunswick Town, or adding stones above the belowground part of stone-lined cellar walls as I did at Bethabara is not "authentic," but such compromises must be made in the process of historic site development. At Jamestown, Virginia, and at Fort Frederica, Georgia, compromises were necessarily made to display the archaeologically revealed ruins to the public. These efforts were a model I used at Brunswick Town. Another case in point arose at Brunswick Town when I introduced a non-authentic bright red and black Japanese bridge to the site!

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION A Japanese Bridge among Colonial Brunswick Ruins? - - A Controversy The Sauthier map of 1769 shows a stream and marsh in the middle of Brunswick (South 1977:46). To get across the stream and provide access from one part of town to the other, the colonists had built a causeway across the A stream, causing the marsh to become deeper, resulting in a shallow marsh-lined pond. When I arrived, to get from the parking lot at St. Philips Church to the ruins I had excavated along Front Street, and stay on high ground, it was necessary to walk a block along Second Street then down a cross street to view the ruins. As we continued to clear the jungle, we found that the marsh, heavily clogged with marsh grass, had been formed into a pond three to four feet deep by the colonial causeway. Charlie and I used a small boat and hip-high waders and went into the pond and began pulling up marsh grass with potato diggers and rakes, loading it into the boat. We did this day after day for weeks until the entire marsh had been converted into a pond again. We were restoring the pond so that water lilies could breathe and frogs would have somewhere to sit. We found the spring that fed the pond and the ballast stones placed around it by colonists two hundred years before. It was a beauty spot in the middle of the ruins of Brunswick. Some tourists would wander off the trail to enjoy the pond they could see by peeping through the woods. It occurred to me that if we had a bridge across the pond, visitors could go straight to Front Street by way of the bridge, enjoy the aesthetic beauty of the pond, listen to the croaking frogs, and come out at the ballast stone ruins along Front Street - - a combination of history, archaeology and the natural beauty of a cypress swamp. The question arose as to what kind of bridge we should build. Charlie said we could hydraulically "jook" down the treated 4 by 4s into the bottom of the pond by fastening a water hose to the side of the timber and "jooking" [an African term] the posts down as far as we could. To do that, I rented a gasoline driven water pump, and sucked water from the pond to jet down the

Brunswick Town Stories

pilings into the muck. But what should the bridge look like? It would have been easy to jook all the posts down to the same level, nail timbers to them and make a simple bridge designed to get visitors from one side of the pond to another. However, that was not what I did. I got approval from Raleigh to build the bridge, but was also told that I couldn't use taxpayers' money to build a nature trail bridge. It was then I turned to outside help to fund the building of the bridge. I approached the Garden Clubs of North Carolina to see if they would be interested in sponsoring a "Brunswick Town Nature Trail" in the middle of the town. They accepted the invitation and donations for the project began coming in from the various garden clubs throughout the state. I had seen a photograph of a Japanese bridge--one of those beautifully arched ones, painted red and black, and I thought that, although there was no evidence that a bridge was ever across that pond in the eighteenth century, such a bridge would make a dramatic contrast to the natural beauty o f the marsh. And that was the type of bridge Charlie, Freddy, Johnny and I built. We spent considerable time building it, and when it was done it was a beauty. It appeared in a number of articles on Brunswick Town and the nature trail, and was a popular attraction as well as a pleasant relief to the stabilized ruins--in such a town exhibit it might have been said, "If you've seen one ruin you've seen them all." The annual meeting of the garden clubs was held in Brunswick Town and club members were pleased with that beautiful addition to the historic site. I prepared a nature trail brochure that was passed out to visitors to the site (South 1964a). However, when Christopher Crittenden, Director of Archives and History visited the site, the first thing he wanted to see was the "bridge I've heard so much about," he said in a serious voice. He said some people didn't like the idea of a Japanese bridge in the middle of an historic site because it wasn't in keeping with the colonial past and he had visited the site to see how offensive it was.

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We discussed the issue of tourist access to the ruins via a Japanese bridge, versus no bridge, versus a plain functional bridge. He said that he could see that removing the bridge was not a good move at present due to the involvement of the Garden Club of North Carolina as a sponsor, but that when the bridge had served its usefulness and needed repair, it would be replaced by a less "controversial" one in the future. He left after seeing only one ruin. Apparently the bridge had stirred up more interest among those in Raleigh than had the excavated ruins. I recently learned the bridge was torn down in 2003, fulfilling Crittenden's promise after 40 years. Aesthetics and Ruin Stabilization

I was surprised when I recently visited the Brunswick Town site because of the aesthetic damage done to the ballast stone ruins. When found, the ruins had narrow oyster shell mortar joints (Figure 6.12a and 12c). I needed to fasten some of the loose stones. To do so, I gathered oyster shells from an oyster-packing finn and bumed them in a bonfire. I then put them in a hemp tow sack, and beat them with a sledgehammer to pulverize them. I then added white plasterer's cement and used that to fasten some of the loose ballast stones around the top of the ruin walls, taking care to match the colonial mortar joints as closely as possible. When I returned to the site many years later I found the original appearance of the ruins had been altered by the addition of shockingly wide mortar joints in strong contrast to the original appearance of the stone ruins (Figure 6.12b). I understand that the ballast stones allow rain water to flow into the spaces between them, so the original joints are exposed to erosion by rain and frost, possibly requiring stabilization. In making such repairs those carrying out the work on historic sites have an obligation to copy the original fabric of the work as closely as possible. Unfortunately that was not done with the Brunswick Town ruins.

12 8

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Crossing the Interpretive Line--Compromise and Sensitivity The question Dr. Crittenden had raised about the bridge--was the wisdom of using materials inconsistent with the period o f the site being interpreted. Sometimes compromises have to be made, but I believe they should be made using sensitivity both to the past and to the present visitors to an historic site. Some thought I had crossed the line between authentic interpretation of the ruins of an excavated town and the practical need for a nature trail bridge over a scenic pond. Should I have had a bridge committee? I have more faith in a committee of o n e - me; because a committee is sometimes a mechanism preventing progress and discouraging creativity and innovation, insuring mediocre decisions and compromises. I built the Japanese bridge and thought the aesthetic and functional addition to the site was worth the trade-off against the stricter yardstick of authenticity to the period. Such choices must always be made in historic site development--authenticity to the past versus practicality to present an educational experience to the public. However, it is wise to balance

functional necessity with authenticity without violating the aesthetic in the process. But, as Jon Leader says regarding conservation and preservation: primum non nocere--a motto borrowed from medicine--"First do no harm!"

From Artifacts to People---the Brunswick Town Guides--Living Exhibits As excavation began at Brunswick Town, in 1958, I was concerned that relic hunters would visit the site on weekends and look for souvenir artifacts by doing their own digging. To avoid this possibility I spent each Saturday and Sunday at the site acting as guide to visitors, most of who came on those days. One Saturday a young man appeared who asked such informed questions I knew he had extensively researched the history of the town. He was R. V. Asbury, Jr., who worked in the Wilmington office o f architect Leslie Boney. The following day he was back, as he was on each Saturday and Sunday for some time to follow. I soon realized he loved the site as much as I did when he volunteered to take over my weekends as guide, giving me some time off to be with my family.

B

Figure 6.12. A: The comer of the James Espy house ruin as discovered. (Photo: South 1958) B: The Espy ruin comer after

"preservation"(South 2/2004) C: R. V. Asbury explainingone of the ruins (note the original stonework). (South 3/1961)

Brunswick Town Stories Under a "touchy-feely" theory current in museology at the time, I gave R. V. a couple of cataloged buckles, some buttons of various types, and a musket ball to show visitors the type of artifacts I was recovering from the ruins. This allowed the visitors, under close supervision, to touch and feel 200-year old artifacts recovered from the ruins, helping them gain a feeling o f having an intimate connection with the past. This psychological appeal to the emotions of the visiting public relative to artifacts was part of a reaction against the cases filled with meaningless piles of artifacts often seen in museum exhibit halls at the time. I visited the Smithsonian in the 1950s and there were exhibit cases there where Native American spear points were literally piled inches deep, with no more interpretation than "Indian Arrowheads." R . V . found the "touchy-feely" connection really seemed to work, judging from the enthusiastic response he got from the public. One day he suggested that I have a colonial costume made for him to wear so that the visitors would know he was not just another visitor with a name tag. Jewell and I thought it was an excellent idea, and she agreed to make a waistcoat, shirt and jabot [a lace cloth shirt bib] for him to wear. I ordered a greatcoat from a theatrical costume company, he bought a plain black pair of shoes, and I fastened shoe buckles I had excavated onto them. Jewell sewed a couple of excavated buttons still having their eyes onto his waistcoat, and he became a walking museum. On special holidays, when we knew a crowd would be on hand to view the ruins, Jewell, David and I would join R.V. to talk with visitors and show them around the site. David, who was 10 years old at the time, asked Jewell to make him a colonial outfit such as that worn by R.V., so he could also be a guide. Jewell gladly made him an outfit and R.V. and David were a weekend feature at Brunswick Town for the many visitors who came to view the ruins.

129

Archaeology--"I Already Know Most All There Is To Know About That" One Sunday, when I was showing a group around, while R.V. had another group, David took a group by himself, having heard the spiel we gave the visitors as we viewed each ruin as we walked through the streets of the town. Later, as David and his group were back at the parking lot at St. Philips Church ruin, one lady came over to me and said she wanted to tell me what a wonderful tour David had given them and what a great idea it was that he was getting that experience interpreting the history of the ruins to the public. Then she lowered her voice so David wouldn't overhear, and told me that she had asked him if he was going to be an archaeologist like his Daddy when he grew up, and he said, "No, I don't think s o - - I already know most all there is to know about that." When he did grow up, he became a worldfamous research forester--being invited to many countries to share his knowledge--India, Scotland, France, New Zealand, South Africa and China. When he was in college at N. C. State, he changed from computer science to forestry because, he said, he didn't want to be chained to a computer indoors all his life--preferring to conduct research outdoors part of the year, as I did in archaeology, and spend the remainder of the time writing and publishing his research results.

Field Exhibits--"Touchy-Feely" Action

Theory in

With so many people visiting Brunswick Town during the tourist season and on weekends it was not possible for the three of us, R. V., David and me to give a walking tour to everyone who came to walk down the streets of Brunswick to view the ruins. A museum was badly needed, but meanwhile, I built some field exhibit cases 4 by 8 feet, in which I put copies of my large maps of Brunswick Town and photographs of some of the artifacts. I bought cardboard letters and glued them in place to tell the story of Brunswick Town and what we were doing there. Along the streets

130 of the town I put smaller plywood cases with photostatic copies of illustrations from books, etc., explaining what the visitor was seeing. I was determined to get across to the public the history and the archaeological findings of this historic Cape Fear town, once the home of the governors of North Carolina. That was my venture into field museum exhibits. In 1965, I wrote a story outline and suggestions for how to use the Brunswick Town artifacts in the' new visitor center museum, but I received no feedback from the exhibits people who had received my plan (South 1965c). There was virtually no contact between the exhibits people and me. All they wanted were artifacts and I was a source of those, having dug them from the ruins. When I asked how they were to be used they said they had a plan, but I never learned what it was. So, when the exhibits were installed, I discovered a current concept in the museum field was to provide a "tactile sensation" for the visitors. Therefore, artifacts I considered somewhat sacred as unique and significant data were simply placed on hooks on exhibit panels for the visitor to take into their hands and fondle at their leisure (or as I pointed out in an irate letter to Raleigh), to put in their pockets and take with them if they so desired. This was quite a different approach to the "touchy-feely" theory R. V. and I had used on his colonial outfit, where the highest security for the artifacts was insured.

Artifact Security--A Porcelain Treasure Lost An example of the disregard for security of the artifacts in the new museum is illustrated by the single longshoreman's hook I had recovered from one of the ruins. To me that was, a unique artifact symbolic of the role of Brunswick as a port town--an important document of what went on there. It was tied to a rope and lying on a bale of cotton, among some pilings symbolizing the waterfront. All it would take was a pocket knife to allow that artifact to become part of someone's private collection--which it may well have, because when I returned years later it was gone.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Another example of the difference between archaeologists and exhibitors is illustrated by the story of two Italian porcelain saucers I recovered from the ruins of Russellborough and placed on exhibit when the museum opened. Russellborough was the home built by Capt. Russell, later sold to William Dry, and then used by Governors Dobbs and Tryon. These unique, over-glazed enameled polychrome-painted porcelain saucers, in the Italian manner, depicted a scene reminiscent o f Moses in the bulrushes. No other sherds of such porcelain were found in any other ruin in the town. They symbolized the affluent social level represented by artifacts from Russellborough compared with the middle class artifacts recovered from other ruins in the town (South 1967a-c). These two porcelain saucers were lovingly restored by George Demmy and me. We replaced the missing sherds with Durham's Rock-hard Water Putty, with the missing over-glaze painting being restored to give the impression of a whole saucer (South 1966c 6(4):1). When I showed these to Noel Hume, his comment was that one shouldn't restore such artifacts so successfully that they might be mistaken for the unaltered object--which I took as a compliment on our reconstruction. I pointed out to him, however, that we had left the back side of our restored piece unpainted, so that if you wanted to see what we had done all you had to do was to turn the object over and observe the putty replacing the missing sherds. I turned these saucers over to the exhibits people in Raleigh. What they did was to construct a little shelf on which they sat the saucer (I suppose to allow visitors to get the touchy-feely thrill of handling a rare 200 year old artifact). My irate comments to Raleigh included an insistence that such artifacts be protected from the public behind plastic or glass. They returned and placed plastic sheets over some of the exposed artifacts that were hanging loose on hooks, and placed the saucer in a little box with a plastic cover that could be removed by simply sliding the piece of plastic upward to remove the saucer.

Brunswick Town Stories

The plastic cover sheet I had insisted on was mounted so far from the artifacts hanging on the panel that all one had to do was to reach behind the plastic to unhook the artifacts hanging there. Another letter followed but by now no one was listening to me. Some time after I was moved from Brunswick Town to Raleigh to become one of the professionals on staff there under the new policy, I returned to Brunswick for a visit and discovered that someone had stolen the porcelain saucer, as I had feared. I was told that it was not such a disaster because we had another one that was then put into the case! Whether that one has survived the exhibit I do not know. In another instance the glass was broken and artifacts were taken. That experience with exhibit people taught me there is a different curatorial perspective regarding the importance of archaeological objects than that held by archaeologists. I realize that the fragments archaeologists recover so carefully and lovingly from ruins are not the crown jewels of Europe, but to me they are as important as documents in the rare book room of our libraries. Would exhibit designers place an original Brunswick Town diary describing the town in an exhibit case with no security but a string attached? Would an original Sauthier map of Brunswick Town be placed on a pedestal for people to handle? I think not. Why then treat archaeological artifacts so carelessly? Are they not as valuable as the written word in helping us to interpret past lifeways? Archaeologists believe they are. Saving Nineteenth Century Wilmington - "There Are No Colonial Houses" In order to understand this story, you should know that Wilmington, North Carolina, when I worked in Brunswick Town in 1958, was literally full of antebellum houses, because it was not burned during the Civil War. After the fall of Fort Fisher it was occupied by Federal troops, who stabled their horses in one of the churches, an insult that townspeople never forgot. Many Of the old houses were in need of repair and painting. This gave the town a "quaintly old" appearance,

131

but also left it vulnerable to the attitude in some quarters that they needed to be tom down to make room for progress. After all, they were simply old houses, not colonial houses such as those being restored in other cities. At one of the meetings of the Lower Cape Fear Historical Society I heard the president say, in answer to R. V. Asbury's plea that the Society should take an active part in saving Wilmington's houses, "There are no colonial houses in Wilmington--only nineteenth century ones." In 1960, Leslie N. Boney, Jr., R. V. Asbury's employer, was president of the Lower Cape Fear Historical Society. As an architect, Leslie could appreciate the fact that classic nineteenth century houses were being tom down almost daily to be replaced by modem structures. Somehow this trend should be stopped, so he and R. V. were pushing in that direction. A member of the Wilmington Architectural Review Committee was a past-president of the Lower Cape Fear Historical Society, and was seen as knowledgeable when a request was before the Committee to allow destruction of a house so it could be replaced by a modem one. Through R. V., I had become concerned over the attitude that that there were no historic buildings in Wilmington worth saving--only nineteenth century ones. R . V . stood up at meetings to challenge this "eighteenth centurypurist" attitude. He and I disagreed with the view that only the "Cornwallis House" was around in the eighteenth century, and - - " I f people want to see colonial houses they should go to Williamsburg." R . V . had campaigned hard among the membership to get Leslie Boney elected as president of the society, hoping that a change in attitude regarding Wilmington's houses would result. When he was elected R. V. requested that a "Historic Sites Committee" should be appointed, consisting of him and me. We submitted our report on September 1, 1960, on the question of "the role that could or should be played by the Lower Cape Fear Society in the case of certain historic houses in Wilmington that appeared to be

132 in danger of damage or destruction" (South and Asbury 1960:1). We urged community forces to organize to save historic structures (albeit nineteenth century ones) through "introduction of a zoning ordinance to protect certain historic areas from damage and destruction" (South and Asbury 1960:15). We also reported that we had undertaken a survey of the many historic nineteenth century houses in Wilmington--which we carried o u t - taking pictures, crawling beneath them to note details of construction and architecture. We were excited by the architectural details seen on humble nineteenth century houses in the African American section of town and were disappointed when the majority of these houses were left out of the historic district when it was later designated. We urged that they be included. Well--you lose some and you win some. It is my hope that some of these have since been included among those considered worthy of being preserved along with those of the more affluent residents of the city. We turned our completed volume over to the Society in the hope it would be an early step toward recognizing and preserving the rich architectural heritage of the city. R. V. later went on to become the director of the Historic Wilmington Foundation--where his efforts on behalf of preservation were continued. A visit to the historic district of Wilmington today is a testimony to those like R. V. and Leslie Boney, who in the 1960s and later, stood up against the prevailing attitude that it was primarily eighteenth century structures that were worthy of preservation. The idea that Williamsburg type reconstruction was the model that should be followed by other preservation efforts elsewhere was dramatically demonstrated when a group of Wilmington lawyers tore down a nineteenth century structure to build a brick reproduction of a Georgian building a la Williamsburg. Talk about "sticking out like a sore thumb!" Eighteenth century Georgian architecture was not a tradition in Wilmington! Coastal Carolina tradition lay elsewhere and resulted in a totally different

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION architectural style than that seen in Virginia. Yet, ironically, the law-firm was praised for introducing this jarring foreign element into Wilmington and was given an award by none other than the Lower Cape Fear Historical Society--in the name of "preservation!" Spare me such well-meaning "preservationists!"

An African American Cemetery--R. Asbury and George Washington's Tour

V.

Reading historical accounts of events and people often leaves the reader cold. But, if you show that same person George Washington's false teeth (as was once done at Mt. Vernon), there is immediate interest. The connection of an historical fact to an artifact enriches the experience---one of the great attractions archaeology has for many. Doing this effectively is the challenge all museums face. "A case in point" is the time, in 1962, R. V. Asbury came to me and said that in reading Washington's Southern Tour 1791 by Archibald Henderson, he noticed that after George Washington's party left Wilmington, they "...breakfasted at Willm. Gause's a little out of the direct Road 14 miles--" (Henderson 1923: 125). R. V. was inspired by this statement to look for "Gause's." He checked maps, old and new, and measured the 14 mile distance south from Wilmington down the Charleston Road, and began searching in the woods for the old road bed. He found it--a deep depression running through the woods. Following that depression he did not find the plantation ruin he was hoping to discover. Instead, he found an old cemetery that was surrounded by a nineteenth century cast iron fence. In that cemetery he found some grave markers cut from wooden boards--markers that had stood so long in place the soft parts of the wood had eroded away, leaving the wood-grain in relief. He assumed he had found an African American slave cemetery. He had never seen such a group of unique "tomb-boards."

BrunswickTown Stories

133

widespread in the nineteenth century in the Lower Cape Fear area, but because of their fragile nature, haven't survived.

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Preservation of Old C a r s - - T h e Classic MGs When David was 13 in 1963, he wanted to buy an MGTD. I told him I didn't have the thousand dollars or so needed for that and told him he might save his allowance toward that goal, thinking it would be years before that happened. I thought that was the end of the matter. Near Christmas he said he had saved the money. He had mowed lawns and delivered papers. Jewel1 matched what he earned, enough he thought, to buy a used MG. His research had found that the Philadelphia paper had advertisements for several used MGs, whereas the North Carolina papers had none.

Figure 6.14. DavidSouth at 16, with his classic 1949 MG and his Chihuahuadog, Claude. (Photo: South 1966)

Figure 6.13. Two of the "tomb-boards" from an African Americancemetery. (Photo: South 1962) Whether this was the cemetery for the African American slaves of the Gause plantation, R. V. did not know, but he knew a rare sight when he saw one. He took me there to witness these unusual antique artifacts and I photographed some of the grave markers. I can't imagine these unusual markers could have survived many more years after I was there, but my photographs are reminders of a burial practice that was likely

So, we went to Philadelphia where we knew there were more MGs than in the South. We answered an advertisement in the paper for sale of a 1949 MGTC, known as "The coffin on wheels." This was because of the death rate when they flipped over, and because MGs (for Morris' Garage) looked like coffins on wheels, particularly the early models (more about that later). David didn't have enough saved for the $1,200 needed for the cost of the car, so I agreed to pay the difference. Because he wasn't old enough to drive, I drove the TC to Wilmington while David proudly

134 rode with me. We had not left Philadelphia, however, when I began accelerating at a stoplight and the axle broke. We luckily were able to buy another one from an MG parts place in that city, and we were on the road again. When we got to Wilmington David learned to drive in our yard, where he made a well-marked trail among the pine trees there. Shortly after that a man knocked on our door and explained that he was a mechanic who had repaired a 1952 MGTD for a customer and had it towed to Fayetteville. The person who towed it didn't take it out of gear so by the time he arrived the engine had thrown a rod, breaking the head, with another rod breaking a hole in the oil pan. The man had sued the mechanic for $1,200 dollars replacement cost, and the mechanic was allowed to keep the car. He said he had seen David's MGTC in the yard and wondered if we wanted to buy the rod-blown MGTD for $600, in which case he would sign the title over to me. That was a deal I couldn't refuse. I borrowed the money from Jewell's savings from her grocery money, and we then owned two MGs. I had a mechanic weld the head and the aluminum oil pan and David and I, led by my friend and Brunswick Town assistant archaeologist, George Demmy, took the engine apart and rebuilt it. But first we built a plywood garage in my yard to house our restoration activity. Later David drove his 1949 TC and I drove my 1952 TD to Ridgeway, New Jersey to an MG rally, where we received trophies for having driven the longest distance to attend. By this time David had become an MG lover par excellence. He collected two 1954 MGTFs to go with the TC and my TD, so between us we had a complete set of the MGT-C through F series. The TF was the ultimate evolution of the MG before it degenerated from a magnificent driving machine, composed of many varied and wonderful parts, to the shapeless envelope that followed--the MGB. David bought the two TFs so he could use one for parts for the other. However, other priorities intervened and he sold both of t h e m - - a decision he regrets to this day.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION "The Coffin On Wheels" - - A Family Tragedy Before we made the New Jersey trip, we visited Jewell's family, and her brother, Don, loved the MGTD I drove and the MGTC David had driven. Don asked me about how much they cost and where he might buy one. I said they were wonderful cars that were so sensitive on the road you could feel a bump when you ran over a pecan--like a soapbox racer. I told him that was one of the great attractions to those who love the thrill and sensitive feel of the road that comes from driving an M G - - t h e windshield laid down flat on the bonnet, and the wind, grasshoppers, and gnats hitting you directly in the face. I also told him about the reputation MGs had for killing the drivers when you rolled one over because there was no top to protect you. I said, "There is one basic rule---don't roll one over!" He said he was thinking about getting one for his son, Mike. Later, I heard he had bought a beautifully restored 1952 MGTD for $4,200, about twice the going rate for un-restored used MGs at the time. I saw it only once on a visit to Jewell's parents' home and it was indeed a collector's item looking like it just came from the factory. Months later Mike was driving on a road near his home. A roofer reported that he looked down from his job to watch the classic MGTD buzzing up the road. Then he saw the right wheel hit the shoulder and the driver compensate too much, causing the thing to flip over, and roll, and roll, and roll up the highway--killing M i k e . . . Car Preservation--A 1930 Whippet It was during the "car preservation" days I saw a 1930 Whippet parked outside a garage in Winston Salem, North Carolina, for sale for $200. It reminded me so much of the 1929 Chevrolet I had had at Appalachian that I bought it, again using Jewell's grocery fund, and hauled it on a trailer to Wilmington. Then David, George Demmy and I tore down the engine and rebuilt it. It was when we got it back together that we did something that could have cremated David, but we didn't think that far at the time because we

Brunswick Town Stories

were anxious to listen to the sound of the Whippet running again. The Whippet wasn't built with a fuel pump. Instead it had a vacuum chamber on the firewall hooked up to the exhaust manifold that produced a vacuum in the chamber. The vacuum sucked the gas from the tank into a container mounted on the firewall and gravity then pulled it down into the engine.

Figure 6.15. The 1930 Whippet before our attempt to

restore it. (Photo: South 1962) We didn't have all that rig hooked up, nor gas in the tank, so David sat on top of the engine and held a funnel in place, while George poured gas from a can into the funnel, while I hit the starter inside the car. As jury-rigged as this was, the thing started. We let out yells of success when it turned over and ran with a satisfying r u m b l e - s o long as George kept pouring gas from above the engine into the funnel. In hindsight, it is a wonder the fumes didn't pour down over the spark plugs and set the whole thing on fire, George included. That was just our lucky day, I suppose. Shortly after that David moved away to college at N. C. State, so we didn't work together on the cars anymore. As years passed I finally realized that the j o y of preserving cars had come from the camaraderie I had with George and David in that joint enterprise. David still has his TC, and I sold my TD to him for $4,000. a few years ago. The Whippet sat in my yard for many years, increasing ten times in value sitting in my

135

yard in Columbia. I recently sold it to a man who planned to finish restoring it. Brunswick Town Ruins--From Rubble to Report From 1958 to 1960, Charlie and I, and the archaeological crew, were busy excavating the ruins of Brunswick Town. I wrote reports on each ruin we exposed for public viewing and sent them, with photographs and drawings, to Raleigh. In them I told how I located the excavation units (South 1958a); recorded the process we carried out in our excavations, such as that at the ruin of Nath Moore's Front (South 1958b). It was a great learning process, with challenges I had never faced before, such as excavating charcoal board floors from the burned structures. In 1959 we dug, and I reported on, the excavation of: The Hepburn-Reonalds House, Judge Maurice Moore's Kitchen, the McCorkallFerguson House, the Newman Kitchen, the Roger Moore House, the Brick Oven at "Prospect Hall," the Wooten-Marnan Lot, and the Area of the "Gaol" (South 1959d-k). In the 60s I continued the archaeology and historic site development at Brunswick Town, publishing articles on: cleaning iron artifacts, ceramic types, kaolin pipes, signet ring seals, buttons, a smokehouse, coins, Brunswick houses, the colonial child as represented in the artifacts, clothing, and the Royal Governor's mansion at Russellborough (South 1962a-f; 1964c-d 17(2)50, 113; 1967a-c). We also excavated in the ruin of St. Philips Anglican Church; the kitchen, wine cellar, and well in the ruins at Russellborough; as well as the James Espy, and Leach-Jobson house ruins, and the home of Captain Stephen Parker Newman (South 1962-68 1-811-4], 1968a 8[3]: 1, 1968b 8[4]: 1). What fun that was and what a major contribution to my archaeological development!

136

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Eventually I met a reporter for the Wilmington Morning Star newspaper who was anxious to hear .

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Figure6.16. The burned wooden floor in the excavated ruin of Nath Moore's Front. (Photo: South 1958)

Public Relations--Radio, Newspapers and Journals My major research goal at Brunswick Town was to expose the town ruins, to define artifact pattern, and to attempt to explain past culture process--science (South 1977a). The goal of the Department of Archives and History, however, was to develop the site for the visiting p u b l i c - humanism. Spreading the word on the historic site by popular media such as radio, newspapers and journals was also a goal. In 1963 and 1964, I arranged to have a weekly radio program in Wilmington called, "A Page o f History," in which I reported on various archaeological and historical discoveries at Brunswick Town--until I became so involved in various projects I could no longer continue it.

about what I had going at Brunswick Town. Our agreement was that I would call him whenever I discovered something I thought his readers would be interested in. In order to get the facts straight, I would write a piece on the discovery for him to use in his article. After I had done two or three of these I noticed that he published them word for word under his byline, a practice which suited us both very well. So I continued to write articles for him to publish under his name, and in that way I was able to keep my research at Brunswick before the eyes of the public. On a broader scope, I made arrangement through the editor o f the American Association for State and Local History for a continuing column in their publication History News, called "History and Archaeology," in which I wrote on various activities in the world beyond my focus on Brunswick Town (Anderson 1967). These articles helped to spread the word on historical archaeology, not only in Brunswick Town, but elsewhere as well.

"Russellborough"--Interpreting Through Model Building

the

Ruin

The written word is a major part of the partnership between archaeology and history. A major element of this partnership is the "reconstruction" of the structure represented by the archaeological evidence. This can be done literally, as was the case later with some of the half-timbered structures at Old Salem, North Carolina, or through paintings or models, as my assistants, Don Mayhew, George Demmy and I did at Brunswick Town (South 1962g 2(2): 1, 1967b-c). As in most cases of excavated ruins, the appearance of the structure represented by the foundation the archaeologist sees must be reconstructed using documentation in the form of drawings, paintings, photographs, descriptions, or

Brunswick Town Stories

Porch tbundation wall p7

137

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Russellborough excavated tbundation plan N

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George Demmy with the study model of Russellborough

Russellborough, home of royal governors on the Cape Fear

Figure 6.17. Interpreting Russellborough from excavated floor plan to the model on the site. (Photo: South 1967)

"of the period" evidence. In the case of Russellborough, when Royal Governor William Tryon lived there, the governor wrote a letter to Sewallis Shirley on July 26, 1765, describing the house as measuring 45 by 35 feet, two stories high, with cellars. He said there were four rooms on each floor, with a parlor and drawing room measuring 20 by 15 feet each. There was a piazza 10 feet wide, with a balustrade four feet high "which is a great security for my little girl" (South 1967b: 1). I combined this description with what is known of houses of the period in the area and built, a model that was a close approximation of what the building looked like from 1753 to its destruction by fire in 1776. My assistant archaeologist, George Demmy, built a model using this information. When it was finished we took it to the site early one morning before sunrise where the original Russellborough had stood 200 years before, and as the sun appeared over the Cape Fear River, I took photographs of the model. Those photographs reveal a scene probably familiar to Governor Dobbs with his bride, Justina, and Tryon with his little daughter, as they viewed the house beside the river at sunrise (South 1967a). Although many visitors to Brunswick Town had a mental vision of the houses in the town being reconstructed over the ruins, I had to disabuse them of this notion they had gained through examples such as Williamsburg and Old Salem. When the ruins themselves are the exhibit, reconstruction through models such as George and I did at Russellborough are an economical and effective way to interpret the ruins to the visiting public. Photographs of such models and drawings placed in ruin-side exhibit cases, such as those I built at Brunswick Town, tell the reconstructive story.

"Russellborough"--Interpreting the Burned Ruin Through Artifacts The artifacts from Russellborough, which was burned with furnishings inside, a casualty of the

138 Revolution, were more abundant and uniquely expensive compared to those from other Brunswick Town house ruins. Other abandoned houses were also burned at that time, but their household furnishings had already been removed. One of the most impressive artifacts recovered from Russellborough was a large Iberian storage jar, about three-feet tall, with "I. F." in a seal on the side. It was standing on the yellow brick floor made of Dutch bricks set on edge when the burning building collapsed on it, breaking it into hundreds of thick sherds. This vessel was restored by Jewell South and Ellen Demmy (wife of George), and was among those artifacts allowed to be fondled in the museum under the "touchy-feely" concept of unique artifact display (South 1977a: 200; also see Noel Hume 1970: 143). I do not know the significance of the "I. F." initials.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Augu~ 1966

The excavated ruin of Russellborough

Objects lying on the floor at the Russellborough ruin

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Flintlock pistol on the floor at the Russeltborough ruin

Figure 6.18. Bottle seal " W D r y C a p e F e a r 1766" f r o m the R u s s e l l b o r o u g h ruin. ( P h o t o : South 8/1961)

Figure 6.19.

On the floor of the cellar, ceramic cups, wine bottles with the seal, "W. Dry, Cape Fear 1766," appeared, along with straight razors, a pistol and other artifacts that had been in a cupboard when the burning house fell on it (South 1966a 6[3]: 1).

From this ruin too, came the two unique Italianate porcelain saucers mentioned above. William Dry had owned Russellborough, having bought it from Capt. Russell, before Governor

One of several bottles recovered fi'om the ruins T h e e x c a v a t e d ruin o f R u s s e l l b o r o u g h and s o m e o f the artifacts l y i n g o n t h e floor. (Photo: South 1966)

Brunswick Town Stories

139

Dobbs moved into the house. The relationship of these objects led me to interpret them has having been in a cupboard that had fallen on its face as the house burned. A unique artifact "trap" o f things recovered from that ruin was a brick tunnel leading from beneath the porch to the edge of the Cape Fear River. In that tunnel reconstructable artifacts such as plates, whole wine bottles, and a whole Spanish olive jar were recovered (South 1966a 6[2]: 1).

Figure 6.21. One of the fossil-filled limestone millstones from the cellar floor of the Russellborough ruin. (Photo: South 1966).

Figure 6.20. View during excavation inside the groundhog hole-like brick tunnel leading from Russellborough to the edge of the Cape Fear River. (Photo: South 1966)

Millstones and a Wine Cellar in the "House of Universal Hospitality"

Also on the floor were four millstones, three virtually intact. Because the fire had caused the stones to crack in many places, I knew they would simply fall to pieces if I tried to move them. I got rubber inner tubes from tires to form a supporting collar around the outside. Thus held securely, I then turned it over and applied fiberglass to the opposite side to permanently hold the millstones in place. They were made of fossiliferous limestone unlike any local stone. These stones may have come from Yucatan. I say this because an eighteenth century shipwreck, discovered by divers in Florida, contained hundreds o f identical stones (according to one of the divers), and documents revealed that a cargo o f 500 millstones

from Yucatan was sunk off that coast (South 1967d: 1). Because of this we know that such stones were being exported from Yucatan to the American colonies at that time. A windmill brought to Brunswick Town in 1767 by the Moravians at Bethabara, North Carolina, may have been the power used to drive such millstones at Russellborough. Russellborugh was known as "the house of universal hospitality," and the discovery of a mass of wine bottles in the cellar, one marked "Claret" and others marked "Pyrmont Water," in the ruin support this observation. The sparkling mineral water was from the spa at Piermont, the capital of Waldeck, Germany. These objects, not found in other ruins at Brunswick Town, attest to the wealth represented at Russellborough compared with other citizens of the town (South 1967e 7[4]: 1). Another artifact, found in the well in the cellar at Russellborough, relating to the wine bottles, was an iron hoop with hooks around the base. This may have been used to cool wine bottles suspended in the well water. I stabilized the weak parts of the hoop with fiberglass, and hung it in the mouth of the well for a photograph to demonstrate how the hoop was likely used (South 1967e (4): 1.

140

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

"I. W a [ l k e r ] - - B r u [ n s w i c k ] " - - The Brunswick

Port Collector's Brand Is Found A fragment of Port Collector James Walker's brass brand used to mark goods inspected by him between 1764 and 1776 was found at Brunswick. It had raised letters "I. Wa..., over Bru..." in reverse. From my documentary research I found that such a brand was required to carry the name of the port collector and his residence. George Demmy reconstructed the missing part of the brand using lead (South 1967e(4): 1.

The Restored Brand

nails from the fragments. Finally, we decided to not save the fragments after they had been counted for analytical purposes. We put those in a peck bucket, where I soaked them in a 5% solution of muriatic acid until the rust fell off. Then I boiled them in distilled water and dried them in an oven. Soon we had a bushel basket full of these fragments. So, I approached the Brunswick County Historical Society and they agreed to sponsor the distribution of these to interested visitors who made a donation to the Society for the benefit of Brunswick Town. I had a small photograph of one of the ruins printed on a card that said something like, "Genuine 200 year old nail fragment from a Brunswick Town ruin--free for a $1.00 donation to the Brunswick County Historical Society." I stapled this card to a glassine envelope containing one of the nail fragments. These packets were a popular item. They brought to mind the potsherds Stu Neitzel had put a five-cent price on at Marksville, Louisana--a story told in Chapter 4. Apparently I thought a historic site nail fragment was worth much more than a Marksville sherd!

Artifact Collecting--By Others The Reversed View Figure 6.22. Port Collector, James Walker's restored

"I.WA[LKER] Bru[nswick]" brand, used for marking goods shipped through Port Brunswick• (Photo: South 1966)

Public Relations through Artifacts--Donations Accepted Not all artifacts from Brunswick Town were as interesting as those mentioned here. Some artifacts, such as nails, were ubiquitous. From the ruins we recovered thousands of blacksmithwrought nails and fragments• Jewell, who was my laboratory assistant at that time, cataloged the artifacts as we got them to her. We cataloged all nails and fragments, but the quantity was overwhelming, so we began to separate the whole

Archaeologists and

As I approached the parking lot at St. Philips Church at the end o f the day, I saw a car drive up and park, not in the lot, but at the end of the walkway to the church ruin. A lady got out and went inside the ruin while her husband kept the car running while he waited on her. Then, a few moments later, as I neared the church, she came out of the church and was hurrying back toward her car. I thought that was about the fastest visit to the church ruin I had ever seen. I went to the doorway and peeped in and saw a brick was missing from the aisle floor. I quickly turned and ran after the woman, calling to her and asking if I could help. Finally, she stopped. Then her husband got out of the car and the three of us stood there facing each other. I mentioned that I thought it was a very quick visit to the church ruin and asked what their interest was. She answered

Brunswick Town Stories

that he had heard about the church and wanted to visit it. Then I told them that a brick that was there only moments before, was missing from the aisle walk, and I asked the lady if she knew anything about it. We stared at each other as a pregnant moment passed between us. Finally, when her guilt became overwhelming, she sheepishly opened her purse and removed the brick and handed it to me. I told them they seemed like nice people and that I was curious why they would steal a brick from an historic site. She said it was just an old brick. I asked what they thought the church floor would look like if each one of the thousands of visitors helped themselves to a brick. She replied that she was interested in history and was making a souvenir collection of bricks from each historic site she visited and always wrote on the brick what place it had come from. She said she had quite a collection of bricks in her basement. Some day she planned to donate her collection to an historical society. She insisted she was a true history buff. I gave my lecture on the importance of provenience, the value o f context, and questioned the value to an historical society of a collection of bricks stolen from various historic sites throughout the country. She said she didn't like the sound of the word "stolen" and preferred "collected." She said when she gave talks to her woman's club on the various historic sites she had visited she would hold up a brick from each site to illustrate her talk--spare me! Artifact collecting from Native American sites has always been a two-edged sword. Collectors who record on a map the location of a site and assign a site number, then put that number on the fragments, are making a contribution to understanding the past. Those who do not are not. Removing those clues from the context where they were left by past occupants of a site distorts the story that site has to tell. This is true of collecting by archaeologists as well. I ran into this myself when I visited a wellknown, documented archaeological site in the Mississippi Valley. The published report on the

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site illustrated sherds with beautiful incised decoration. I walked all over the site for hundreds of yards and saw many plain sherds, but not a single incised sherd did I find. When I commented on this to Stu Neitzel he laughed and said, "Every archaeologist who has come this way has collected incised sherds from that site. They have long ago all gone into collections." This had resulted in a site with only plain sherds visible on the surface--distorting forever any quantitative analysis of a surface collection from that site. Whether it is incised sherds or bricks "collected" from a site, distortion of the story that site has to tell takes place.

Signet Seals from Brunswick Ruins---Salvaging Seals from the Archives During the excavation of the ruins we found a number of glass signet seals once used to impress symbols into sealing wax on letters and documents (South 19620. I became interested in these and went to Raleigh to see if, in the archives there, I could find the same seals I had found in the Brunswick ruins impressed in wax on a document so I could identify the specific owner of the seals I had found, and thus a clue to the possible owner o f the property. What I found shocked me. The archivist told me they had recently hired a person to "deal with" the wax seals on documents. He said if I wanted to make a comparison between the excavated intaglio seals owned by Brunswick individuals and those on archival documents, I would have to hurry. I asked why, and he explained that when the 200 year old (and older) parchment documents are laminated, the heat melts the seals. To prevent this from occurring, the assistant was cutting the seals off of the archival documents and throwing them away! I couldn't believe it! "Do you have to laminate the documents?" I asked. He said, "Oh yes! All archives are doing this now." He was proud that the North Carolina Archives Department of Archives and History was keeping up with the modem world and laminating their historical documents. He said this was going on all over America. I said, "Do

142 you mean that archivists are destroying those personal seals on letters and official documents simply to allow lamination to take place?" He assured me that it was no great loss because the wax seals weren't the sacred written word and therefore were expendable in the cause of preservation o f the documents! He took me down into the stacks, where rare documents were stored, and he introduced me to the assistant with a scalpel in his hand. He had just cut the seal from an eighteenth century document, dropping it into a trashcan half full of other wax seals removed from other documents. I looked in the trash can and saw that some of the red seals had initials, some had portraits of individuals, a sailing vessel, and other symbols relating to the names on the documents from which they had been cut. They were bemused by m y concern as I asked if I could come back and photograph the seals on as m a n y documents as I could before they were all cut off. Smiling at m y curious request, the director agreed I could do that. The situation was so urgent that I made arrangements for Charlie to take care of things at Brunswick Town for a day or two. I returned the next day to Raleigh to salvage what seals I could from the archives, where it had never occurred to me I would ever be "digging" on a salvage project. I took black and white and color photographs of the seals still on documents and recorded what document they were from. I could have used an entire crew of photographers to do a proper job, but I was determined to save what I could before they were destroyed. I set up in the stacks not far from where the archivist was busy scraping seals from documents, and began the thankless j o b of photographing as many as I could before they were all destroyed. I photographed over 150 seals before the expense of staying in Raleigh on m y Brunswick Town budget became too great. I asked if some funds from Archives and History could be used for expenses for me for awhile, but no such funds were available. All I got was a condescending smile and a disbelieving shake of the head.

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4.a

Figure 6.23. Top: Wax impression of a glass seal recovered from the Brunswick Town courthouse ruin, showing the Lamb of God (with halo) and the Christian banner. Below: The red smear resulting when valuable eighteenth century documents such as this are laminated by archivists, thus destroying forever the association of such seals with the document. (Photo: South 3/1964)

Brunswick Town Stories

In the Brunswick Town ruins I had found seals "of a rampant lion, a full length figure of a clown with the word "Harlequin," the head of a woman, the head of a man, and a stylized pair of crossed anchors and rope. An almost exact duplicate of the rampant lion seal found at the public house in Brunswick was discovered on the will of James Ward of Chowan County dated in 1744" (South 1962f:26, 28). In the courthouse excavation I found a glass signet seal with the impression of a lamb carrying the Christian banner--the traditional symbol of Christ (South 1964e 4[4]: 1). It still breaks my heart when I think of all those seals being destroyed in the name of "preservation" in the North Carolina Department of Archives and History, and elsewhere in the nation. To some, the written word is king - - to an historical archaeologist, material things associated with the documentary remain s establish a valuable connection beyond the words themselves. Because of this situation I visited a number o f archival repositories in North Carolina to photograph seals on documents before they too were destroyed, and found several personal seals on documents of property owners once living in Brunswick Town. Shortly after my salvage excavation in the Archives, I learned from a visitor that a group of early eighteenth-century documents with seals were discovered in an attic near Brunswick Town. I contacted the owner but found that I was too late. They had been taken to a curator to see what should be done to preserve them, and they had been laminated! All I saw was a red wax smear where the heat had melted the seals (South 1962f: 27). Too late--too late! "And by the wind-grieved ghost come back again!" (Wolfe 1929: 1) Many years later, when I had relocated to the University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, the director, Bob Stephenson, got a letter from the North Carolina Archivist. The letter asked him to ask me if I would send copies o f my slides and photographs of the seals so they could add them to their collection. They had finally caught on and were,

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belatedly, interested in saving some record of the destroyed seals! Another Wreck--More Chance At Life

Luck--another

While at Brunswick Town, Jewell and I, with David, would travel to Boone and Churchland on holidays to visit our parents. On one of these trips we were in another wreck, and again, as was the case many years before when she hit the coal truck, we were miraculously lucky. Jewell was driving and fell asleep. She hit the edge of the road and compensated by steering to the left toward oncoming traffic. I had been asleep beside her and woke up as we were skidding into the left lane with oncoming traffic looming up ahead. She was steering hard to the right, but I knew to break the skid we should steer toward the oncoming traffic. I grabbed the wheel trying to wrest it from her control, but she had a firm grip pulling the wheel to the right. Finally, I managed to turn the wheel toward oncoming traffic, and to my great relief, the skid was broken and the wheels began to respond to the steering. I rejoiced as the 1950 Buick, we had bought after the coal truck wreck, began to move off the left lane of traffic. We now were skidding toward the right toward the shoulder of the road, and in spite of my efforts to break the skid in this new direction (while reaching over Jewell wrestling with the wheel), the car left the road and struck the side ditch embankment. The impact raised the rear of the car into the air and it stood on its nose as I looked out the windshield directly down at the ground. Then the car was airborne, with centrifugal force as I was thrown against the right door. I was in this suspended position when I saw the driver's side door fly open, as Jewell was flung out onto the ground below the car. I immediately began imagining the terrible sight I would likely see when the car eventually stopped rolling over and over, several times. I thought about my training in first aid, how to tie a tourniquet to stop the flow of blood. The thought went through my mind: So

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this is what it feels like to be in a very bad wreck. I also had the strange thought that this must be what clothes feel like tumbling in a dryer. As the car continued its roll and I tumbled around inside it, I thought that at any moment I was going to feel some violent pain and dreaded that. Then the rolling stopped with the car upside down in the side ditch. I began crawling out the window, steeling myself for the violence the wreck certainly must have done Jewell. Then I heard her calling my name! I couldn't believe it. She was helping me crawl out the window! I was so elated I could do nothing but laugh and shed tears of joy. Then, for the first time, I thought of David, who had been in the back seat. My fear then focused on what had happened to him. I asked Jewell and she said, "He's all right! He's all right!" Then he came walking up out of the crowd of people standing there. We hugged each other at the miracle of life. We began to think about Ralph, our little Chihuahua dog, who had been in the back seat with David. Then we became aware of the sound of Ralph barking at the people standing around, and when he saw the three of us standing there, he rushed over and jumped, and jumped, and ran circles around us. When I picked him up I noticed a single grease spot on his little knitted sweater-one of only two clues to personal injury to come from the wreck. The other was that the frame of my glasses had been broken as it battered the bridge of my nose when it hit the rearview mirror, breaking it. We were elated and on an adrenaline high as we excitedly talked with the people standing around. Cars continued to stop and several people who came up and saw the total wreck of the car, asked, "How many were killed? . . . . Do you mean to tell me you people were in that pile of junk and are standing there talking about it?" I was suddenly aware of the tremendous good fortune we had had and how little material things like the loss of a mere automobile meant in life. I resolved then to always own a big car with strong

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

roof supports for protection, as I had been protected in this wreck. With the first impact, the trunk had flown open and boxes of canned goods my parents had given us were scattered down the side ditch as the car had rolled over and over. The spare tire was lying in a pasture some distance away. The next day Jewell showed me the clear blue bruise showing the imprinted pattem of a car tire tread on her upper leg. Apparently, either the spare tire had hit her after she was thrown out of the car, or the tire on the car had struck her a blow, leaving the bruise of the car-tread imprinted there for a week or more. She got great pleasure out of pulling up her dress and showing the clear pattem to those listening to the story of our brush with death. A patrolman showed up and talked with us, took notes, filled out a form, and pronounced us lucky. He called a wrecker and gave me the phone number of the wrecker company that would tow the wreck of the Buick away. As we gathered up our suitcases and some of the clothes that had come out when they had come open from the impact, one of the on-lookers offered us a ride to Wilmington, which we gladly accepted. By late afternoon we were home, absorbing our new gift of life in a way we had not experienced before. After David had gone to bed we sat on the livingroom floor at the open door absorbing the night breeze and made love in affirmation and celebration of life. The next day I called the wrecker operator and he said I owed 25 dollars for towing the car. I asked how much he would give me for the wrecked Buick. He said he would pay fifteen dollars for it. I told them to keep the wreck in payment for the towing and he agreed, saying, "You folks certainly were lucky. I've never seen that bad a wreck where no one was killed." I told him about the grease spot on Ralph's sweater and that the arm to the mirror and my glasses frame were broken. He laughed, and said, "Enjoy the rest of your life. You'll never be that lucky again!"

Chapter 7 Digging Art and Life Stories The Muse of P o e t r y - - H o l i d a y " C h e e r ? " In 1965, just before Christmas, Jewell, David [age 15] and I were discussing what we were going to do about sending cards to our friends and family. David suggested we write a poem, which we immediately did, with each of us adding a line or so. When it was edited we mailed it out--the first of a series o f heretical strands against the winds of conformity---one poem a year for several years, written by the three of us. That first one in 1965 was called "Calvary" (South 1978:61).

In my letter to him on September 27,1968, I expressed the anti-conformity theme taken by me in most of my replies to his discussion of my annual poem. He had spoken of the supernatural mystery lying behind the observed reality in the natural world and I responded by my usual multipage diatribe, a few lines from which, looking back on that letter, I have formatted as a poem:

The The The The The The The

Beneath the tree, Rats gnaw on hard candy, Hungry for fulfillment, And die empty Beneath the tinseled star." After a few years of that type poem my mother said, "Your Christmas poems aren't overloaded with holiday cheer, are they?" I said I would leave that evaluation to others. That beginning encouraged me to write poems upon occasion and through the years I have continued to write poems, some heretical--some not, to tap a part of myself that is not totally satisfied by the archaeological writing in which I am usually immersed. According to some critics, perhaps poetry is one of those endeavors I should have walked away from--but didn't.

Walt Boone--A Companion in the Search Each year, when I mailed my heretical Christmas poem to my one friend from high school days, Walter Boone, he was prompted to offer a rebuttal. For some years after that he would challenge the idea in my poem and I would reply--then no more exchange until Christmas.

Mystery mystery is not in the flower, mystery is the flower. mystery is not behind pounding surf and the pebble, mystery is the surf and the pebble, mystery lies not beyond man, mystery is man!

Search not for a great unknown, These things just are--they exist. Man is mystificatious-An ascriber of mystery To every u n k n o w n - Addicted to supernaturalism, Giving birth to religions-And gods in his own image. There came a time, however, when I realized I was not going to change my view of man's place on earth as a result o f Walt's letters, nor was he going to be "converted" by my heretical poems and epistles against the mind-stultifying strictures of conformity to received dogma. I wrote him expressing this and thus ended our annual debate on the subject and our correspondence for many years. I was involved in searching for insight into explaining the elusive culture processes of the ways of man that lay behind the broken pot and the chipped stone. I had little patience to argue

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146 how many angels can jitterbug on a marble while it's rolling downhill---or theorizing whether they would be flung off in the process. I was a stranger there and preferred to remain so--viewing religious beliefs objectively as an anthropologist rather than as a participant. Then, on November 28, 1980, Walt wrote me expressing his appreciation of the input I had made to his becoming a free thinker--a tribute from one skeptical inquirer to another. I have thought many times about your statements and our long and perhaps unusual intellectual relationship over and about ideas we have sporadically bounced back and forth. I would not be able to prize this too highly for our contact has been one of the most enduring means of growing and "becoming" in my life. The best I can do I will finally die so ignorant that it is depressing, yet to have at least tried to find something of value past the few trinkets we gather as we go along keeps me centered and gives direction to this short life. I owe a debt to many via their writings, to others via other communications, and to a lesser number on a personal contact basis. Perhaps most of all to you who have been willing to search the comer with me and ever prod me on to clearer thought waves you found before I did. Then Walt addressed the magnetic pull a small town such as Boone has on its iron-filing children toward molding them toward conformity. There is a stony loneliness about an open, serious search in a small town, and one becomes a sort of freak. It seems to cut two ways at least. New ideas seem to disturb the status quo and detract from the ambience (so carefully built) of consensus that we red-blooded Americans all hold the same values and the "Commies," Jews and minorities are a sort of a common

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

enemy whose ideas are of no value--it is the sacredness of "The American Way." Then the second cut is, of course, the pain of overcoming inertia that other ideas produce. Contrary ideas are futile when expressed to a mind that knows the excitement of breaking out. In a provincial setting it is rare to find such a mind. Mostly it is thought along the path of least resistance. Well, why am I saying all that to you? I suppose because you will understand. Through the years my poems involved other topics than heresy. For instance my 1971 poem "The Ninth Hour" deals with the endangered species threat and what will happen if the trend continues (South 1978a: 62-63). I quote a few lines from it here: The ninth hour is at hand. In the valley Is the shadow of death. The eagle, osprey, and condor fall. Mountain lion, tiger, And ferret, are no more. Brother seal, pelican, and whale Vanish and are gone. Death is the mutual cup Shared on the hill of the skull. All nature sleeps in heavenly peace, And the silent world goes by. The brothers and the son of man are gone, And the flowing cup is dry.

The Seductive World of Art--Painting, Sculpture, and the Wit's End Bar Poetry was not the only world that touched me upon occasion as an outlet from my effort at revealing some of the mysteries of Brunswick Town. The 1960s world of painting and sculpture seduced me as well. Don Mayhew, the teenage football player who had worked with me at Town Creek, was a man now and working for me at Brunswick Town. We hung out often at a Wrightsville Beach bar, having a bust of

Digging Art and Life Stories Shakespeare in the window--The Wit's End. A woman named Iris owned the bar and hung paintings by local artists all over the place---it looked like an art gallery. We took paintings to her and told her what we had to get for them, and if a wealthy tourist came along and was interested in it, she might sell it for a hundred percent profit. That was a symbiotic relationship she established with the artists in Wilmington (besides selling us beer). Heyward N e w k i r k - - A Creative Solution to A Problem of Size

I met many local artists at the Wit's End, including Claude Howell, Heyward Newkirk, Jack Berkman, and others. Heyward painted in the style of DeKooning--brush strokes eight inches wide on gigantic canvases, evocative expressionistic symbols reminiscent of the landscapes of the Hudson Valley School of painters in their sweep and grandeur, but far less representational. Once Heyward painted one of his sweeping masterpieces stretched on a gigantic frame built in his studio. He took a client representing a bank to his studio to consider buying a painting to grace a huge stairwell wall. Heyward was the only artist in town who worked with canvasses large enough to fill such a space. The buyer liked what he saw and wrote a check for several thousand dollars--a big sale in those days for a local artist--with the condition Heyward would hang the painting in the bank. When Heyward and a friend tried to get the thing out the door they realized too late that the painting was far larger than the door. That was a problem. With such a sale at stake, Heyward paused only a moment until he could mount two additional parallel stretcher boards vertically behind about a third of the painting, measuring to make sure each part would go out the door. Then he took an Exact-o knife and cut the canvas in two, sawing through the original stretcher frames at the top and bottom. When they got the two halves to the bank he hung the larger one and then offset the smaller one below it and a short distance from it. When

147 the banker saw the result he loved it, commented he thought he had bought only painting. Heyward told him, "You got paintings for the price of one." The banker happy and so was Heyward.

and one two was

Jack B e r k m a n - - R e a l i s m vs. Abstract Expressionism--Riding the Fence

Jack Berkman's theoretical challenge as a painter was to depict human figures halfway between realism and abstract expressionism so dominant in the art world in the 1960s. Jack was an excellent painter of people in the tradition of representational realism. However, realism was not in vogue at that time so Jack began trying to loosen up his detail to bridge the gap between the two ways of seeing--inserting abstract slashes as background splashing over onto the figure, giving the impression of the human form emerging from chaos. One morning in August 1961, Jack asked if he could paint eleven-year old David, whom he felt was a classic boy on the threshold of adulthood, having both feminine and masculine traits as many males do before the hormones kick in. Jewell and I watched fascinated, as Jack rendered David to canvas in a two-hour painting session then threw down his brush with a dramatic gesture---"That's it!" As he painted Eleanor played the classical guitar in a bone-chilling manner. She had studied with Segovia and was a master performing artist who had toured extensively, but had given it up to raise her daughter. What an outstanding artists she and Jack were! When several artists would gather at the same table in the Wit's End, all that was discussed was art--who was in what show, what theory was driving whom, and what work had been accepted to be hung in a juried show. Jack would talk about how he was trying to reconcile realism with abstract expressionism and someone would say, "Jack, why don't you stop trying to ride the fence! You're a damn good portrait painter with your own style--why bastardize it by combining it with the finger-painters? You are simply going to

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Figure 7.1. David South at age 11, with Jack Berkman's

painting of him. (Photo: South 1961) come up with gray if you keep trying to combine those black and white concepts!" Jack had little use for the sharp cubist style used by Claude Howell, often speaking disparagingly of Claude's work, which he considered too tight, too anal and regimented. He often urged Claude to "loosen up!" Claude, on the other hand, accused Jack of painting, not with his mind, but with his groin. Claude Howell--an "Intellectual" Painter Claude Howell considered Jack's loose semiabstractions as little more than finger-painting. Claude spoke of his own work as "intellectual" and was impatient with Jack and "loose paintringers" like him. Claude taught art at Wilmington College for many years and after he retired The City o f Wilmington named a park in tribute to him. Claude's art always sold well, from the watercolor sketches he made on his trips to the outer banks of North Carolina; to the paintings he

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION created using the sketches as models. On one of my visits to his studio he proudly told me he had sold all of his watercolors made that year plus all of his paintings that were commanding higher prices as his fame spread. Claude would usually remain quiet at the Wits End Bar discussions because he had no need to defend his style. But, on occasion, when his "tightness" was needled by Jack or others, he would say, "Everyone has their own style--some paint intellectually using their mind, as I do, while others paint with their viscera, like Jack does." Then Jack would take up the gauntlet and say, trying to shock Claude, "You're damn right I paint with my balls! You should use yours a little m o r e ! " ~ l a u d e would roll his eyes and say, "Well, Jack, you don't have to get vulgar"--and so it went, on into the many nights we shared in the Wit's End Bar. When the funds became available for a visitor center museum at Brunswick Town, I arranged a commission for Claude to create a huge mosaic for the lobby, depicting a colonial scene on the waterfront at Brunswick Town. He ordered the glass fragments from Italy disdaining American made mosaic glass as inferior. He produced a symbolic site mosaic for the lobby of the museum that is a rare interpretive treat for visitors. After Hours--Skirting the Lawman Iris would announce the closing o f the bar and remind those going next door they should stock up. Attached to the bar, and joined to it by a door usually kept locked, was a large room that was a private club, thus outside the law requiring the closing of bars at one a.m. So, those of us who had paid our membership fee would take a bottle or two next door so Iris could close the bar and be legal. It was here the chorographers took over--a place where there was a transitional state between fantasy and the real world we faced the following day. Individual dancers would take the floor surrounded by onlookers---each performing their version of an exotic dance urged on by the crowd.

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Figure 7.2. ArtistClaudeHowell, workingon the BrunswickTownmosaic. (Photo: South 10/1964)

One woman in particular had the ability to mesmerize the crowd with her ad hoc dance, transporting the group with her frenzied performance. Such solo performances came after the crowd had taken part in the limbo---squatting low beneath the pole, lowered each round until only a single winner remained. Most often it was the sleek sinuous dancer who would then hypnotize us with the spell she wove. On such nights Jewell and I knew we had witnessed true magic. After those late night revels, Jewell and I would go to the vacant lot next door, where a set of steps remained from a bumed house once there. We would sit, sometimes with other refugees from the bar, until we saw the one Wrightsville Beach police spider, parked across the street waiting to snare an unwary barfly weaving away in a car. When he saw one and gave chase up the street, we would go to our car and cross the bridge toward home, six miles up the road in

Wilmington. The next morning--seven a.m.--I was off to dig at Brunswick Town. Another prolific reclusive artist who didn't visit the Wit's End, was Neal Thomas, was so creative he had a one-man show where the canvas was not stretched over the stretchers but wadded up, and wrinkled up, and fastened in place like a rag, Then he coated it with a lacquer to make it hold its three-dimensional shape. Then oil painting was done on this highly irregular surface. This was a very creative and unusual approach I admired greatly--a break with conformity. His show elicited comments ranging from "He's the most creative artist we have on the Cape Fear," to, "What kind of craziness is this?" What else is new?

I Enter the Art World--With Tongue in Cheek Given that world of art and artists, Don Mayhew and I were inspired to put aside oar digging hats on weekends and don the beret of the artist. I even took up playing the recorder and

150 enjoyed playing as my Chihuahua dog, Claude, howled his protest with each miserable note. Apparently he was a perceptive critic. The Cottage Lane art show was held periodically, and paintings from local artists were hung on the sides of the buildings along the lane filled with tourists and artists and gawkers--an outdoor voc pop gallery.

Figure Z3. The archaeologist artiste, playing the recorder

with Chihuahua "Claude" howling in protest. (Photo: Jewell South 9/1962) I pulled out the painting I had done when inspired by physical anthropologist, Ellis Kerley in Boone many years before--the one I had mounted on a turntable so the viewer could see it in any direction pleasing to their eye. With tongue in cheek I submitted it for judging. To my surprise it was selected for hanging--apparently "anything goes" was the rule. That seemed to reflect the general philosophy in the art world at that time. But, kids loved the extra choice for viewing the turntable provided--I had an audience! Don, who was an excellent representational artist with a keen eye for detail, also entered and was hung in that show. We stood by and watched

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION the viewers and listened to their comments. After that I was hooked. Jewell was also.

Jewell South--Bit By the Bug--and "Screen Door in Summer" Is Hung I decided to do my own "finger painting" and began smearing acrylics and oil on the canvas rag and entering the effort in shows. To my surprise, I had a number o f paintings accepted in judged shows and was doubly surprised when I sold one. Jewell began painting also, and when the oil on one o f her paintings began to peel and blister, she began to scrape the paint away with a palate knife. When she was about half through doing that, revealing glimpses of a previous painting beneath, I saw what she was doing and yelled, "Stop! That's great as it now stands. It looks like a "screen door in summer," with holes in the screen!" She looked at me and said, "Are you crazy? I ' m just scraping the paint off so I can paint another one." I said I knew that, "Some nut judge is going to look at that and think it's great. Enter it as it is and you won't have to paint another one for the show." So she did and it was accepted and hung in the show in the Wilmington Art Gallery. I Was proud of her and she was too, and she was glad that I had stopped her scraping when I did.

Abstract Art--Knowing When to Pounding Stretchers and Flinging Paint

Quit

Abstract expressionists were dribbling paint on canvases and since anything seemed to go in 1960--there seemed to be no rules--which I went for and began to paint. Wilmington at that time had a lot of street people who could be seen sleeping on the waterfront streets day or night because that was a run-down section o f town. I took a slide of one of these folks and projected it onto a canvas and "finger-painted. . . . The Winebibber," which was hung in a juried show. Another technique I used was to pour acrylic paint onto one edge o f a stretched canvas and pound the stretcher on the floor to make the paint

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" T h e Winebibber," leaning against the "stretcher-pounded" painting, "Badiands." (Photo: South 7/1962)

Figure 7.4.

flOW across the canvas. The result was a painting I called "Badlands." I began to literally fling paint onto other "stretcher-pounded" canvases to see what would happen'. Dribbling paint from a brush from a stepladder seemed to me to be a little mild. I wanted more action, so I filled Dixie cups with paints of various colors and went into the yard to begin flinging paint. To prepare the canvas to receive the paint I spray-painted it black and added blobs of paint poured from cups and pounded the canvas against the ground. Then, accompanied by music from a portable radio, I'd lay the canvas on its back and begin flinging the cups of paint onto it from different directions. As I undertook the "paint-flinging art" process I found that it was not a random one. The concept had to be conceived (unless the creative act is assumed to be totally arbitrary). Then the choice of paint colors had to be made. From then on the painting itself was a partner in its own creation with the flinger [artist?]. With each fling, as the flung-paint hits the canvas, choices must be made as to color, angleheight, force o f throw--all based on the appearance of the work at that moment in time. A critical decision is--knowing when to quit the creative flinging process.

Figure 7.5. Top: Flinging yellow paint onto canvas. Bottom: Paint-flinger South with abstract expressionist "stretcher-pounding-paint-flinging"painting "The Edge of Night." (Photo: Jewell South 3/1961)

152 I wanted to create, through totally abstract symbolism, a representation of reality, inspired by DeKooning. This was a step beyond (I thought) Berkman's literal combination of classical realism with mosaic-like abstract slashes of color. Using this theory the idea I had for the first abstract painting I did, was to symbolize that moment at dusk when the sun, hidden by clouds, suddenly flings a shaft of light over the world. I called this first abstract based on realism, "The Edge of Night" after the radio show by that name---I was on the edge of art in those days. Although I had some success with my "fingerpainting" and "stretcher-pounding" art, I knew when to quit when I was ahead. When recently I showed some of my paintings to a colleague he said it was a good idea I stuck to archaeology!

Subjectivity and Objectivity--Art--Realism and Abstract Expressionism "The Edge of Night" was accepted in a show and it was an interesting experience to stand behind viewers and listen to the comments of some person "explaining" what the artist had in mind--what theory lay behind this "fantastic" representation of a sunset. "This is exactly what Berkman is trying to do by combining abstract expressionism and realism," one viewer commented. By chance it appeared I had, according to that "expert," achieved "a reconciliation of the two concepts in art." Really? Is that what I was up to? On second thought, perhaps it was. The "anything goes" came from the idea in abstract expressionism, as I understood it, the viewer was the critical agent, not the artist. Realism depicted the real world using certain proscribed rules--like science. Interpretation of abstract expressionist paintings was based on what the viewer brought to the painting, not on what the artist had in mind when the painting was created. I might create a painting" by flinging paint on a canvas in a drunken stupor, or just for my personal satisfaction. But, if the viewer of that abomination [from the realist's perspective]

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION thought it represented a sunset or a theory, so be it--that's their thing. That "explanation" of the painting is what's important to the viewer--a doit-yourself interpretation. That's what the painting was " a b o u t " ~ not something the artist had in mind and executed according to rules (although I violated this rule with my "Edge of Night" painting). However, I have been known to violate rules upon occasion. As I read somewhere Thomas A. Edison once said when asked about rules, "Hell, there ain't no rules. We're trying to accomplish something!" I totally agree when it comes to art. Because abstract expressionist art depends on what the viewer brings to it, interpretation varies in direct relation to the number of viewers "explaining" the work--it has served its "function." The more skillful the viewer is in articulating subjective evaluations, the more others may listen--with such a person eventually being elevated from an art aficionado to an imaginative art critic spinning yams, attempting through skillful choice of words, to convince others to share a personal perspective. Realism focused on depicting the real world of nature out there--expressionism on the inner world of the viewer. At least that was the simplistic understanding I gleaned from the artists around me at the time I dug ruins and flung paint after hours, while conducting archaeology at Brunswick Town in the 1960s. Somewhere else I read that "One must take care, or the act of analysis, will tarnish the act of wonder." My involvement in art was an attempt to prevent that from happening within me.

An Archaeological Parallel--Science "Expressionist Archaeology"

and

It seems to me there is a parallel in archaeology. I gather data, abstract pattern [the painting] that becomes a springboard for hypotheses and postulates directed at further inductive collection of data [the degree of fit between the painting and the real world]. This hypothetico-deductive-inductive process is the rule of science--like the rules guiding the

Digging Art and Life Stories realists--an effort to depict the real world was from the artist/archaeologist's perspective. The results either confirm or negate the hypotheses generated from analysis of previous data [or observation of the world]. What might be called "expressionist archaeology," on the other hand, is driven by a search for "meaning" relevant to the personal subjective view of the modern world--as in abstract expressionist painting the emphasis is on a personal subjective "world view." Over three decades after I dug archaeology at Brunswick Town and the art world in Wilmington, this "expressionist archaeology" had evolved into an anti-science wave as articulated by Mark Leone (Thomas 1998: 83). Scientific methods of study tend to demean the culture of others, as well as the others themselves, by measuring, comparing, objectifying, and denaturing them. This sounds like Claude Howell's planned rational, "intellectual" approach to painting vs. Jack Berkman's emotional abstract expressionism I heard debated at the "Wit's End" bar--the old science and humanism argument. Archaeology accommodates both, in that science brings from the earth some of the material culture patterns representing past human activity, and humanism is brought to play to transmit this knowledge to public understanding (See South 1966:10-12). Creative imagination is also involved in archaeology as well as art, at the point where a data-pattern is recognized, and a model is created to "explain" the patterned data. Then it doesn't matter if the insight for the model came as a result of a set of patterned data, a drunken stupor, or in an epiphany--if new data conform to the predicted pattern, the model is verified--if not the model is negated. That's the way science works, isn't it? - - the hypothetico-deductive-inductive method! Art, on the other hand, is overtly subjective. I believe it does not behoove the archaeologist to confuse the two by placing them

153 in polarity by rejecting science, as archaeological expressionists have tended to do. These concepts are on opposite sides of the same archaeological trowel.

A Paint-Out--Sculpt-Out At High Noon with Don Mayhew One Saturday in the Fall of 1962, with paintings and sculpture due to be submitted to the State Art Museum in Raleigh for judging, Don Mayhew said he was coming by our house to challenge me to a "paint out," where we would both set up easels in the yard and do a painting and see which of us would finish first and then make it into that big show. We both knew the answer to that one, because Don was a fine painter and had been hung in many shows. I accepted the challenge, but suggested, "Why don't I do something different? Why don't I make a piece of sculpture instead of a painting?" He laughed and accepted the challenge, saying, "How in hell are you going to make a sculpture by the time I finish my painting?" I said maybe I couldn't, but we would see. I went to the garage where son David and ! worked on our MGs and got a discarded generator. I unscrewed the copper armature while Don was getting his easel set up to paint. I bent the relatively soft thick copper wire and screwed the end onto the top of an apple crate. Then I began bending the wire into something that looked like the shape of a mother holding a child on her hip. Then I drove down to the hardware store down the street and came back with a can of liquid steel--a mass of iron filings held together with epoxy, along with a can of the catalyst. I mixed them together and began troweling the steel onto the momma-and kid-shaped armature. Soon I announced that I had finished my sculpture. Don laughed at it and made appropriate remarks, and continued working on his fine still life painting, while I had a beer on the steps and watched the skillful hand of a real artist use a brush to create beauty on a rag.

154 Don finished around noon and we had a beer together and adjourned to the "Wit's End Bar with Jewell to spend the aftemoon. The next week, we entered our pieces in the 25 th Annual North Carolina Artists' Exhibition in Raleigh (December 6-30, 1962). I had a cabinet-maker make a box base for my "sketch in steel," which I called 'Solace.' About a month later, to my surprise, I received a notice that my sculpture had been accepted in the statewide art show at the North Carolina Museum o f Art in Raleigh. Was I proud or what! I went to Don's apartment to get him to go with me so we could share a beer in celebration-knowing that his painting would also have been accepted. But he hadn't heard. A week passed, while we both waited expectantly for his acceptance notice, but when it finally came it was to say his painting had not made it into the show. We were both disappointed. How could that happed? Don would later share his ability and knowledge through a career teaching art in Northfield, Massachusetts. I went to Raleigh to see my sculpture on display and looked forward to bringing it back to Wilmington and showing it to friends, bragging that it had been in the North Carolina Museum of Art. I had put a price of $150 on the thing, more as a joke than anything, but when I saw the piece on its pedestal, located prominently in the center of the gallery, I was grinning from ear to ear. Then I saw a tag lying on the base of the piece marked SOLD! I couldn't believe it! Someone had bought my first sculpture--incredible! Someone had seen it and bought it before the show opened! For the rest of the evening I simply floated around the gallery. I called Jewell and gave her the good news. She was happy for me, but said she had looked forward to having it in the house, and now she would never see it again. Inspired, I told her I ' d make other ones for her. That one was of a pregnant momma with her child seeking comfort with his head against her belly. It was called "The Promise."

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Liquid steel over copper armature wire sculpture, "The Promise," one of South's "sketches in steel in his one-man show. (Photo: South 3/1963)

Figure 7.6.

Across A Crowded Room I was standing there holding a glass of wine in my hand talking with a stranger who had asked me, "Are you the sculptor of that piece?" and I had said, "Yes, I ' m Stanley South--the sculptor"--cool! - - not archaeologist - - sculptor. We talked about the aesthetic character of the piece--the understated sketch effect--the subtle "nuances" I had captured--the human warmth I had built into it through the posture of the mother, the love it exuded, etc., etc., and other B . S . - while I gobbled it all up like a dog on a bone. Then, as I stood there my eyes noticed a woman across the room staring at me. For a long

Digging Art and Life Stories time neither broke our hypnotic b e a m - - n o r glanced away. The man I was talking with melted away and she and I stood with our eyes still locked. Finally, she came near me and said, "Well--what about that." And I said, "What happened?" She answered, "I don't know." Then with the shock over, I discovered she was an artist with a sculpture as well as a painting in the show. W e looked at them together and she asked i f I had something in the show. Then we looked at my mother and child for a moment instead of at each other. I told her I was an archaeologist in the real world. We exchanged addresses and phone numbers and I told her that Jewell and I would stop by on our next trip to Boone so they could meet. She taught art at the Woman's College at the University of North Carolina in Greensboro. In the years to follow Lou Anne Smith became a close friend to Jewell and me, and she visited us in Wilfnington and went with us to Boone to visit with my parents on one occasion. But I never forgot that moment in the gallery. It was similar to that time I first passed Jewell on the campus at Appalachian---one of those unforgettable lifetime moments. A One Man Show! -- I Walk Away from Art

After the North Carolina Artists exhibit in Raleigh I began cranking out other "sketches in steel," selling some, and entering more shows. Through Claude Howell I was invited to have a one-man show by the Art Department at Wilmington College. One of those who saw the exhibit there was Howard Woody, artist in residence at Pembroke College for Indians (now The University of North Carolina at Pembroke). Howard sponsored a one-man show of my sculpture at Pembroke. All this encouragement from the art world begal~ taking my focus away from archaeology at Brunswick Town [I had sculpted away all my sick and annual leave]. The time came when I had to choose which fork in the road I would take--art or science, and, wisely, I walked away from art, where I was a stranger in a foreign land.

155 I Become a P o t t e r - - T r y i n g for B l a c k on B l a c k In 1960, I read an article about a potter named Maria Martinez from the San Ildefonso Pueblo in New Mexico. She and her husband had seen an archaeological excavation where black on black pottery sherds were being excavated. They experimented until they were able to replicate it. She became famous when she fired her pottery, which she signed "Maria," at the Chicago World's Fair in 1933. My parents had taken me there that year. I don't remember seeing Maria there, but that article inspired me to attempt to replicate black on black pottery, as she had done. I knew that she and her husband had used buffalo chips to make a kiln and thus kept the ware smothered as it cooled, preventing firing clouds from oxygen reaching the ware as it cooled. With that much knowledge, I bought some potting clay from a supply house and began modeling various pottery forms (no wheel), from bottles, to bowls, to plates. I burnished the ware in the leather stage with a glass marble to produce the glossy appearance seen on burnished Indian pottery and decorated a few pieces with paint. When the ware was dry, I dug a hole in the yard and filled it with lightwood gathered in the woods at Brunswick Town, and poured several bags of charcoal briquettes on top of that. Then I lit the lightwood using lighter fluid, and placed the pieces o f pottery a foot or so away from the fire. While it burned, I periodically began turning the pieces and moving them closer to the fire. Finally, when they were good and hot, I used asbestos gloves and placed the pieces on top of the red-hot glowing coals in the pit. Then I covered the ware with more briquettes until they, too, were glowing hot. At that point I placed a sheet of asbestos over the hole and began shoveling the dirt from the hole over it until it was buried under a thick layer of sand, and all sign of smoke was smothered. Then we went inside the house for the night. We invited Claude Howell, Jack Berkman, Don Mayhew, George Demmy and other friends to attend a champagne "opening" of the hole the

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Figure 7. 7. Uncoveringpit-fired black pottery in the yard in Wilmington. (Photo: Jewell South 1960)

next afternoon. The pieces we dug from the ashes were mostly black, with a white firing cloud or two, but very few were solid black--the goal I sought. I had heard that Maria's husband had tried many types of paint to get the dull black- painted decorations on Maria's ware before he found that cactus juice would produce the desired black on black effect. I had no cactus juice, so I tried other types of paint, but I was never able to reproduce the black on black effect. I was happy, though, that I was able to produce a black ware by smothering it during, and after, firing. Later on we had other firings o f my pottery, strangely enough, timed to coincide with a beer and wine-

consuming party in my yard when the pit-kiln was opened.

A Flatland Tour A Hillbilly in YankeeLand--A Lake Otesaga Resort Odyssey In 1961 I was invited by the New York Historical Society to give a series of lectures on the work I was doing at Brunswick Town. The week-long series was to take place at the famous exclusive Otasaga Resort Hotel in Cooperstown, New York. This seemed to Jewell and me to be a wonderful opportunity to see the North country. We packed up our pop-up tent camp trailer and hit the road for New York.

Digging Art and Life Stories

After camping for several days, we went through the tunnel into New York City amid steam coming from the radiator o f the car. We could find no place in Manhattan to pull over, so we kept on going, and surprisingly the steaming calmed down. Later, at a camp ground that night, we heard a noise, and looking out we saw the largest raccoon I had ever seen. It was standing, peering into a garbage can, and holding the lid in its right hand. We thought it was a bear at first, until we saw the stripes around its tail. Finally we arrived in Cooperstown, pretty bedraggled, looking much like Ma and Pa Kettle, but fortunately the car wasn't steaming over when we drove up to the elegant front of the historic resort hotel, playground of the rich and famous. After a week of camping on the road, we were indeed a motley group. People stared at us as we carried our camping gear, bags of old laundry, and boxes tied with c6rd into the lobby and piled it in a mound at the registration desk. We were clearly out of our element in this elegant place. But, we adapted quickly to the elegant lifestyle provided for us that week as guests of the New York Historical Society. We hoped the wealthy guests adapted to our presence--but that was their problem. There were two large tents set up on the grass between the hotel and beautiful Lake Otasaga--an idyllic setting. I was to speak in one tent and famous historian John Hope Franklin, also a speaker, there with his wife and son David's age, was to speak in the other one. We were drawn together because our sons were the same age and there were no other children there. We ate together at meals each day o f the week and enjoyed the companionship. When the lectures began, there were about a dozen or so people in my tent to see the slides on my work at Brunswick Town, whereas John Hope Franklin's tent was full and overflowing--so much so, they had to roll up the sides to allow the crowd standing outside to see the speaker. I wanted to be in John's tent listening to him.

157 A "Maria" Plate--a Black On Black Treasure After the morning lectures Jewell, David and I visited the antique shops. In one of those I saw a catsup bottle someone had painted by pouring black paint in it to simulate a bud vase. It was sitting on a black-on-black pottery plate I recognized as the style made by Maria at San Ildefonso Pueblo. I picked up the catsup bottle with my left hand and then the plate with my right hand and turned it over. There, written in script letters on the base when the piece was in the leather state, I saw, "Maria." Wow! I couldn't believe my e y e s - - a signed Maria piece! Still holding the catsup bottle and the plate, I asked the shop owner, "How much is this?" He was standing across the table from me and said, "Oh, I guess, 25 cents." The shocked look on my face must have registered with him, because he then said, "And I'll throw in that plate for nothing." Then I realized he thought I was asking about the catsup bottle, and had thrown in the plate as a bonus! I remember watching my hand tremble with excitement as I handed him two dimes and a nickel. That was a highlight of my trip!

"Doing Archaeology on the M o o n " - - A F a r Out Suggestion from a Famous Actor In 1962, a well-known movie actor and host of "The G. E. Theatre" television program, was a guest of the Azalea Festival in Wilmington. I was asked to provide a tour of Brunswick Town for him and his party and to attend a reception afterward at Orton Plantation. I was talking with him about archaeology when he said, "You may be doing archaeology on the moon some day if the moon shot President Kennedy has called for is successful." I said, "No way!" but he replied that aliens from outer space may have visited and left ruins there to be found when we get to the moon. I argued with him, explaining that telescopes have given us a good picture of the moon and there are no ruins visible. He insisted, but I explained that science had long ago replaced the "alien" theory as new facts were revealed. He said, "I thought scientists were open to theory." I replied, "Yes, but when new facts negate the old theory, new theories are built to explain the facts!

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Figure 7.8. The actor and the archaeologist discussing the possibility of ruins on the moon. (Photo: Hugh Morton 1962)

In the midst of our discussion of aliens on the moon, where neither o f us yielded a point, Hugh Morton took a picture o f the two of us. As we parted,, the actor said, "Mark my word, one o f these days some archaeologist will be excavating ruins on the moon." I replied, "When pigs fly!" Twenty years later the actor was President, presiding over the National Science Board advising the National Science Foundation. Maybe pigs can fly! Today his name is immortalized in The Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport - - what a nice guy! The Lowly Flax Hackle---A

Dated

Betrothal

Gift

In 1965, on a return vacation trip from Boone to Brunswick Town, Jewell, David and I stopped by an antique shop about 50 miles south of the Moravian settlement of Old Salem. I later wrote an account of the artifact I found there (South 1966d, 1968h): "While looking through the tools heaped beneath a table in an antique shop in the North Carolina Piedmont, I removed the wooden top from what appeared to be a small box. To my surprise I saw a set of iron teeth mounted in a board and recognized the implement as a flax hackle." John Cotter had once asked me if I had ever found evidence o f a flax hackle in one o f the Brunswick Town ruins. I told him I had not. He

then told me a story about an archaeologist excavating an historic period ruin who had found a pile of headless nails lying together amid a pile of iron rust, and upon later seeing a hackle, it suddenly occurred to him what the nails represented. When I asked the shop owner the price of the hackle, he had no idea what the object was. After I paid him the $10 I told him the literal function (combing flax fibers so the strands lie straight), but it was many months later before I came to understand the symbolic role the hackle played in the division of labor between the male and female in the process of clothing the family. The hackle I bought had the initials ABE and CVL and the date 1775 punched into the metal wrapped around the wooden board through which the many iron nail-like teeth had been driven. The dealer said he thought the number punched into the metal must be the factory part number! With this find, I began collecting other hackles in antique shops in Piedmont, as well as the mountains o f North Carolina, usually paying five dollars each. The dates range between 1775 and 1831. With this information I knew I had a pattern, and began searching for the answer as to why initials and dates were put on hackles at that time. I wrote the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museums asking if they had dated hackles. The answer I got from them was that they had none. One comment was, "We certainly have no hackles in our collection, and it is beyond me to imagine why anyone would want to date such a mundane item." The Science Museum in London had no information on flax hackles. So, I wrote the Ulster Museum in Belfast, Ireland, and found it had two hackles, but neither was dated. The director referred me to the Ulster Folk Museum in Belfast. The director of that museum said in 15 years of experience he had never seen a dated flax hackle. I concluded that this was not a British or an Irish artifact pattem. If not there where? The Smithsonian Museum sent me a photograph of its hackle dated 1739, but could tell me nothing about it. They referred me to an

Digging Art and Life Stories

Figure 7.9.

159

The "CATARNA HEISTN 1766" flax hackle in the Mercer Museum.

employee who had a hackle dated 1765, from a Hamburg, Pennsylvania, "Dutch" origin. With that clue I wrote the Mercer Museum in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. The director of that museum said its collection had "approximately 125 flax hackles, with approximately 40 of those having, dates ranging from 1739 to 1814, predominately from eastern Pennsylvania." Obviously, I had found the mother lode for dated hackles--the German tradition in Pennsylvania." My search was about over. Jewell, David and I went to the Mercer Museum where I was allowed to photograph a number of their hackles. The display area was not heated and the temperature outside was in the 20s, so the job of photographing the hackles was a chilly one. The hackles were displayed so that the visitor looked through a window into a room with a loom, a flax wheel, and other weaving items. The director simply unlocked the door to the exhibit and allowed me to set up my lights and take the pictures. As we were packing to leave I was still concerned that I had not answered the question of "why" hackles were dated and initialed. I asked the director if she knew why they were dated. She said she only knew what the old people said the tradition was, but apologetically said she knew o f no documentation of use to me. I urged her to tell me about the tradition she had heard. She said that when a couple became engaged the boy would make a hackle, and on it he would place the initials of the girl he planned to marry, and the

(Photo: South 1965)

date of their engagement. This gift symbolized their joining together of their lives, since flax working required both sexes to produce results. It took a strong man to prepare the flax to the point where the hackling process was necessary, and ... "the lightest hand and gentlest touch ... should be applied to flax with the utmost care and tenderness." With this local traditional explanation, I knew I had found the answer to the function the hackle played in the culture of that area at that period in time--the hackle was symbolic of the pivot point of the cooperation necessary between the man and woman to produce clothing for the family, and this symbol had become important in the betrothal ritual within Pennsylvania German colonial culture. Pictures of the hackles from this satisfying detective story were later published in Antiques Magazine (South 1968h: 224-227), and in my

Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology (South 1977a: 183-190). From the time that John Cotter had mentioned the possibility of finding the archaeological remains of a flax hackle in an archaeological site, I was aware of that seed he planted, and looked for such evidence in the many ruins I excavated there, but it was not there----the colonists at Brunswick Town were not participants in the Pennsylvania German tradition. A critic has said why concern yourself with questions easily answered by documents. If that were true, there would be no need for any archaeology, but my challenge has always been to try to explain the

160 patterned archaeological culture process. In the hackle, as in the case excavated from historic always so easily found in

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION record in terms o f past case of the lowly flax o f many other objects sites, the answer is not the documents.

Art N e w t o n - - a Friend Walks Away from Life Through my connection with Brunswick Town and the art community in Wilmington I met a commercial artist, Art Newton. Art lived with his family in the sleepy little village o f Southport, at the mouth o f the Cape Fear River. He was an excellent commercial artist, making a precarious living in a town that had little call for his talent, so his clients were mostly from elsewhere. Jewell, David and I were often invited to their eighteenth century home on the waterfront in Southport, a home much like those that once stood over the Brunswick Town ruins. His failure to obtain enough clients to support his family was on his mind, when I visited him for the last time, and be confided in me as we walked along the riverside. He seemed to be reaching out to me for some kind of support, not financially, but for possible answers to help him solve his current crisis. What can you say to a friend in need? - - platitudes? "'Hang in there buddy!" "Cheer up---the worst is yet to come/?" I didn't have a prayer and he said he had run out as well. We shook hands as we said goodbye, not realizing this would be our last goodbye. I read of his death in the newspaper. A witness saw him as he repeatedly threw himself from his little boat into the water then climbed aboard again. Into the muddy water again he went--and his troubles were over. "Oh lost, and by the wind-grieved ghost come back again!" (Wolfe 1929: 1). Road Kill Art The "anything can be art" philosophy is still with me a half century later. I was influenced by those years I spent in the art community in

Wilmington. An art gallery in Columbia recently displayed mounted desiccated road kill as "found art." I began photographing road kill such as dolls, teddy bears, and other childhood treasures killed and flattened by highway traffic. My son, David, knowing of my interest, recently sent me a photograph of a real road-killed armadillo, just as he found it. That certainly qualifies as symbolic art if any road kill does.

Figure Z 10. Road kill art on Highway 29 north of Auburn, Alabama. (Photo: David South 2000) A Civil War Bonus at Brunswick T o w n - Confederate Fort Anderson When Jewell and I arrived in 1958 at Brunswick Town, we parked our car beside the standing brick-walled ruin of St. Philips Church, and could not help but notice the Confederate earthwork mound beside that colonial ruin. That earthwork was only a low section of the large, impressive two-battery earthworks of Fort Anderson I would discover in the years to come, as my exploration of the Brunswick Town site continued. The story o f that Civil War fort and of the companion Fort Fisher, across the Cape Fear River, was an unexpected surprise, and a bonus to my anticipated excavation of the colonial town. The story of that Civil War bonus is told in the next chapter.

Chapter 8 Civil War Stories Introduction--an Administrative Change When I was at Brunswick Town I was also placed in charge of Fort Fisher State Historic Site, across the Cape Fear River. However, this caused an administrative problem in Raleigh, because all other historic sites in the state were under a single Raleigh-based manager. He believed that the sites I was overseeing should also be under the Raleigh based manager. As a result, the funds for excavation of ruins were cut off in an effort to reduce my resistance to the idea of being transferred to a desk job away from the archaeological database at Brunswick Town. Prior to that time all historic sites were under the management of professional p e o p l e - historians, archaeologists, architects, etc:, as appropriate to the individual site. A new policy was implemented bringing historic site professionals into the Raleigh office, with the onsite managers positions to be filled by individuals who had at least a high school education--the idea given was that it was a waste of talent to have professionals in the field they should supervise from the Raleigh office. You win some and you lose some, and my resistance to the implementation of this policy was settled when I was removed from hands-on control at Brunswick Town and Fort Fisher and transferred to Raleigh. Since that time I have seen historic sites lose their vitality through being placed in what amounts to a holding pattern devoted to simply maintaining the property, where decision-making is theoretically done at higher administrative levels, but the reality is that the on-site administrators at times make ill-informed, (and in my opinion insensitive and unwise) decisions that affect the archaeological and historical integrity of the site. Trained, professional historians and archaeologists, in my view should be in direct onsite control of historic sites because, in my

opinion, people at that level can insure that at least some research and development capacity can continue through the years beyond simply a maintenance status that results when untrained people are put in charge. But, now to the Civil War stories that came from my involvement with that period of history at Confederate Fort Anderson. That fort was built over the ruins of colonial Brunswick Town, and Fort Fisher, the companion fort, was located on the other side of the Cape Fear River, These forts were built to protect the new inlet to the river from entry by Federal ships during the early days of the Civil War. Fort Anderson Earthworks on Top of the Brunswick Town Ruins As mentioned previously, when I arrived at Brunswick Town, low earthworks could be seen along two sides o f the colonial ruin of St. Philips Church. These were thrown up during the Civil War, in 1861, as part of the Confederate works of Fort Anderson--with the ruins of the brick church shown on the map of the fort as part of that defensive work (South 1960a: 102, 1964i: 2). For this reason, some thought at the time that the fort should be called "Fort St. Philip" (South 1960a: 103). Another set of much larger embankments could not be seen because they were hidden in the thick jungle of trees and bushes that covered Brunswick Town and Fort Anderson. Although the excavation of the ruins of colonial Brunswick was my major interest when I arrived, I soon found that I had inherited impressive Fort Anderson as part of the Brunswick Town package. The fort, built by Major Thomas Rowland to help protect the mouth of New Inlet, consisted of

161

162

Figure 8.1.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

The Brunswick Town crew on Battery A at Confederate Fort Anderson. (Photo: South 1961)

two main batteries for artillery, with a long line of embankments (South 1960a: 103). I was able to get an understanding o f the size of the fort by using Charlie and our crew to cut a path through the undergrowth with bush axes. I followed closely behind with my transit, shooting angles and pulling tape to make a map o f the earthworks. When the map was drawn, I could see the impressive outline of the fort for the first time. Later on, I had the crew begin cutting the yaupon and myrtle undergrowth from the mounds and piling the brush all along the base of the mound to be burned on some wet day. That day came and we set fire to one o f the piles. The wind arose and the fire jumped to the next pile o f brush, and so on, until there was a wall of fire raging up one side of the mound and jumping to the other side. As the holocaust spread, I jumped in the truck and drove up to Orton Plantation and called the fire department. The firefighters eventually came and with a fire-lane plow cut trenches to stop the flames before they got to Russellborough to the north of the fort. When it was all over we could see the gun emplacement embankments clearly for the first time. I put up signs along the trail on top of the embankment to explain what the visitors were seeing. At two places bridges were needed to keep people from having to climb up and down the mounds to get the entire tour o f the works. To

solve this problem, I approached the United Daughters of the Confederacy for funds to build the two bridges. They agreed that it was a worthwhile project, and in October 1964, a formal opening of the Fort Anderson earthworks, complete with the new bridges, was held. During that ceremony, I put the 40-foot ladder against a surviving pine tree and took a good picture of Battery A and the group gathered for that occasion (South 1964i: 3).

Captain Newman's Home Ruin beneath the Fort--Lunch Time for Carpenters I correlated the Brunswick Town map with the ruins I discovered. As I mapped the embankments of Fort Anderson, I found that the builders of that fort had placed some of the mounds directly over rows of Brunswick Town house ruins. I probed into the side of those mounds and found the colonial ruins intact, protected beneath the Civil War fort. I was not the first one to observe the ruins of the colonial town. Documents from the Civil War period indicated that in digging around the ruins to construct Fort Anderson, "the laborers found some old coin and other relics" from the ruins of Brunswick Town (Waddell 1890:214). One of the ruins I probed beneath the earthworks of Fort Anderson was found to be that o f the home o f Captain Stephen Parker Newman.

Civil War Stories

To expose the ruin I cut away half of the embankment in order to allow me to expose and excavate the ballast stone foundation of this colonial home (South 1962n: 1-2.). It was in excavating this ruin beneath Fort Anderson that I made an error in judgment that I regret to this day. After having removed the sand from above the ruin, we were excavating a pit we found dug into the floor of an addition to the house during the colonial period. We found few artifacts in the sand layer above the ballast-stone walls, and as we excavated the sand from the pit using trowels, we found no artifacts there. We ate our lunches sitting on the exposed stone wall. It was then I told Charlie that, after lunch, because we had found no artifacts in that pit so far, he should take a shovel and chomp out the remainder of the pit. I was operating the sifter, and as Charlie dipped into the pit with his shovel we heard a loud clunk as it hit something. We immediately went back to using our trowels. What we found was the freshly broken fragments of a whole creamware plate that had remained unbroken until moments before when Charlie's shovel hit it--the only whole creamware plate we found in the town! I was chagrined, to say the least. We also found other things that allowed me to interpret (tell a story) about who had dug the hole inside the addition and why. I explained the other things we found as follows (South 1962n: 2): When the workmen were building these additions they obtained sand for mortar by digging a hole inside the area o f the new addition. As they ate their lunch of boiled eggs, they threw the shells into this hole, along with some of the bones [of chicken] from their lunch. They also accidentally dropped a hatchet and a claw hammer in the hole that became covered with sand. They threw scrap pieces of wood from the construction into the hole, and later filled it in with sand. It may have been one of those workers who lost a half

163 penny of George III, dated 1775, in the basement about this time. The particular association of all these objects in that pit allowed such a story to be told. The creamware plate we broke, probably held the boiled eggs and chicken for the worker who sat on the edge of the sandy pit as he ate his lunch. He didn't notice that his hatchet and hammer had become covered with sand in the hole.

50 Confederate Chimneys in Rows--A Pristine Survival In the woods back of the earthworks, we cut paths through the jungle and found another treasure from the Civil War period. There were chimney mounds there, composed of brick salvaged from the colonial ruins and mortared together with clay dug from the marsh. We discovered rows o f these chimney bases from the barracks buildings housing the Confederate soldiers manning Fort Anderson. I used my transit to map each of these important surviving remains of the fort. From that map, I found that several rows o f these barracks chimneys had survived the hundred years since the fort was bombarded by artillery from the Federal forces. I mapped over 50 of these historic ruins and on the top of one, as he was pulling the tape from the transit to the pile o f chimney bricks, Charlie found a 32 pound artillery shell (South 1960:104).

Figure 8.2. One of the many Confederate barracks chimney bases found at Ft. Anderson made of bricks and stones salvaged from the ruins of Brunswick Town and held together by clay. (Photo: South 1962)

I excavated one o f these chimney mounds located between the museum and the parking lot.

164

These chimney bases, some still standing two feet high, were a rich archaeological treasure I was not able to excavate more fully before I left Brunswick Town and Fort Anderson. As far as I know, these chimney ruins are still in the woods waiting to be examined archaeologically. "A Nice Little Fight" At Fort Anderson After the fall o f Fort Fisher, across the Cape Fear from Brunswick Town, many of the Federal vessels, including the ironclad turreted monitor Montauk were anchored in the Cape Fear River. On the 10 th o f February 1865, part o f this fleet began the bombardment of Fort Anderson, which was under the command o f Admiral Porter. On that day the Mackinaw fired 63 11-inch shells at the fort. That type o f action, and the firing of 350- pound, 15-inch shells from the ironclad monitor Montauk (which did no damage to the sand fort), and three days o f bombardment, was to be referred to as "a nice little fight at Fort Anderson" (South 1960:109-110; The New York Herald, February 23, 1865). Cushing Floats a Bogus Monitor To Test The Defenses Of Fort Anderson A few days later, Lieutenant W. B. Cushing, famous for various exploits, left the Malvern with 15 men to float a bogus monitor in front of Fort Anderson. One northern observer described the result as follows (Official Records 12: 34):

Porter built a bogus monitor out of an old scow and some canvas and barrel staves, and sent it majestically past Fort Anderson at midnight on the flood tide. Johnny Reb let off his torpedoes without effect on it, and the old thing sailed across the river and grounded in flank and rear of the enemy's lines on the eastern bank. A drawing of this bogus monitor was published in The New York Herald on February 23, 1865 (South 1960a: 110, Plate 25). Following the "nice little fight," Fort Anderson was abandoned, with the Confederates moving toward

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

•:"

.~!~ ~ t ~ 2 ~ '

A ~

~

~O~T~'~ BOGUSMONITOr,SUt~KA~UT TWOMll,b~ ~;hO

Figure &3. A sketch o f C u s h i n g ' s bogus monitor floated on the rising tide in front of'Ft. A n d e r s o n was pubfished in The New York flemld on F e b r u a r y 23, 1865. (Photo: South 1960)

the north, because the big guns were pointed toward the river, and useless against an attack from the rear. The retreat was triggered by the fact that General Cox's army was advancing behind the fort from the south. The words spoken by William Temple, Commander of the U. S. S. Pontoosuc, about the defenders o f Fort Anderson, sum up the situation very well: "The rebs stand up to their work manfully; but we are too much for them . . ." (Official Records... 12: 36, 38, in South 1960a: 118). The Monitor Montauk--Recovering a Shell That Fell Short Johnny Miller, a Carolina Beach man who had dug with me at Bethabara, augmented his income operating a small shrimp boat. He said he would bring his boat across the Cape Fear River to Brunswick Town, so he and I could dive and try to see what was on the bottom of the river in front of the town ruins and Fort Anderson. Someone had dived once before and found a colonial period anchor. This dive was in front of Battery A at Fort Anderson. Johnny hadn't been down long when he said he had found a large cannonball sitting on the bottom. We got a large zinc-coated tub and tied a rope to each handle and he went down again and rolled the cannonball into the tub.

Civil War Stories

Our idea was to use the little crane on the back of the boat to raise the ball in the tub, then float the boat ashore with the ball suspended on the little crane. I began cranking the crane, which was very difficult to do because, as we found out later, the shell weighed 350 pounds. Suddenly, Johnny let out a yell to stop cranking. Instead of the cannonball moving off the bottom of the river, the boat was going down and was beginning to take water at the stem. I tried to release the crank to relieve the downward pressure on the boat, but the cannonball was so heavy the cable had jammed. Meanwhile the water continued to slosh over the stern into the boat. We became excited. Johnny yelled for me to stand aside---which I did, as he came toward me with an ax in his hand. Using that he cut the cable, fleeing the boat from its locked-in downward pull, and it suddenly began floating higher--solving the problem. We saved the boat from sinking, but now we knew we had to get the ball out o f the water using something besides the little crane on the shrimp boat. There was an access road I had cut near Battery A, so I got the truck and backed it down to the edge of the water, and we hooked a long rope to the flame, and Johnny dived again and tied the rope to the handles of the tub. With that power available we dragged the tub with the ball in it onto dry land. By that time the tub was no longer shaped like a tub. It was stretched into the shape of a cloth bag with an extremely heavy weight inside. It was then we discovered how heavy the thing was. I went to the site where Charlie and Freddy were digging and recruited them to help us get the ball into the bed of the truck. The four of us then bent down, placed our fingers beneath the ball and tried to lift. It was then we leamed what appeared to us to be a basic law of physics. It is very difficult for four men to get around a 15-inch cannonball weighing 350 pounds and get enough hold on the ball with enough lift to get the thing off the ground. It felt as though it was set in concrete--so much for that approach. We then found two 2 by 12-inch boards 12 feet long, stacked them one above the other, and

165 began pushing the ball up that ramp into the bed of the truck. We found we could push it but not lift it. Once it was finally in the truck bed, I propped it securely in place, because we didn't want it rolling around in there and smashing through the tailgate. From then on, whenever we moved that shell, we rolled it. I never did see it "lifted." Disarming a Civil War Shell--Live Powder When I got it to the laboratory shed, I faced the problem of getting the powder out of it. There was a brass fuse with the date 1862 on it, with notches on each side for a spanner wrench. I called the Ordnance Disposal section at Fort Bragg and explained the discovery of the shell to see if it could be disarmed. The sergeant said he would be glad to come get the shell and take it to Fort Bragg. He said a charge would be put on it to blow it up. I quickly ended the conversation, because there were many shell fragments around already--whole 15-inch shells were not so plentiful on Civil War sites. I wanted this one for exhibit to help tell the story of what went on at Fort Anderson--a little known fort at the time. That shell would be a nice way to help visitors to appreciate the story o f Fort Anderson during the Civil War. I was faced with disarming the thing myself. I left the shell sitting with the fuse facing up and filled with penetrating oil around it to help loosen the bond between the brass fuse and the cast iron shell. When I went into Wilmington that night, I bought a spanner wrench matching the sockets on the fuse, and the next day I put it in place and began tapping counter-clockwise on the wrench with a hammer. I knew enough from working on cars, that to loosen a tight nut you don't hit hard. A series of relatively light taps works far better than hard ones, because the recoil working against your blows isn't strong enough to counteract the force you are exerting. To my surprise, and to that of Charlie and Freddy, the fuse gradually began to turn as I tapped. Then it was unscrewed and out of the

166 shell--success! I expected when I rolled the ball over, that black mucky powder would pour o u t - not so. What came out was dry black powder mixed with pieces of charcoal. We rolled the ball aside and when Charlie touched a match to the little pile o f powder, it flared up with a snort and a puff of smoke. After almost 100 years under water the powder was still dry! (South 1963j: 13). I was then faced with getting the remainder of the powder from the shell. The least spark, we now knew, would set the thing off, and using a coat hanger wire would likely create a spark. We began pouring water into the hole and then tilting the ball until the black muck ran out. We did this time and again until we were convinced that the inside of the shell was as free o f powder as we could make it. Later on the administrators in Raleigh decided the shell should go on exhibit across the river at Fort Fisher. I argued that it should remain at home at Fort Anderson, but that was another argument I lost. The last time I saw that shell, it was in an "out-of-context" - - "of the period" display in the Fort Fisher Museum.

Fort Fisher--Mapping the Earthworks Like Brunswick Town, the site of Fort Fisher in 1960 was overgrown with myrtles and yaupon bushes. Historic Site Specialist/historian, A1 Honeycutt, had cleared much of the dense growth from the land face o f the remaining high sand embankments. I was asked to map the mounds and correlate them with the map drawn in 1865 by Otto Julian Schultze. An airstrip and U.S. Highway 421 had been cut through the middle of the land face gun emplacements, but a number of those still remained. I established benchmarks and transit mapped the site, including sand dunes south of the commemorative monument on the site. I discovered by superimposing my map over the Schultze map that the sand dunes were indeed remnants o f the Civil War fortification. The map showing the correlation and a report was turned over to historian Honeycutt and I returned to Brunswick Town and Fort Anderson (South 1960g).

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Fort Fisher--the Palisade Fence Excavation and Reconstruction A year passed and I was again asked to visit Fort Fisher to conduct exploratory excavation to locate the palisade fence north of the land face (South 1961a, 1963f: 20-21). A photograph taken after the fall of Fort Fisher showed a palisade running along the base o f the earthworks. One of the four recipients of the Congressional Medal of Honor presented for valor during the battle of Fort Fisher received his medal for cutting down some of the poles with an ax while under fire from the

Figure 8.4. Top: The exposed snags remaining from the Ft. Fisher palisade. Bottom: The rebuilt section of the palisade wall. (Photo: South 2/1962)

The clue to where to look for the archaeological remains of the palisade was obtained by lining up the still-to-be-seen snags of the palisade in the marsh at the western end. Using the alignment of the surviving posts, I cut exploratory trenches on higher ground and found

Civil War Stories the palisade about a foot below the surface of the ground (South 1961a:Figures 1-4, Plates 1-6). Later, historian A1 Honeycutt, assisted by Johnny Miller, undertook to open a larger area, exposing more of the palisade posts. Before I left the site to return to Brunswick Town, an historian, observing the exposed pine posts, made the remark to a group of visitors that these were palmetto posts, erected by Confederate Colonel Lamb. I corrected him, saying that the palisade posts they were looking at were pine posts. "That can't possibly be!" he exclaimed. I asked "Why not? You can see the pine knots sticking out the sides of the central heart pine posts." His reply illustrated to me the contrast sometimes seen in the view of those who depend solely on the written word, versus archaeologists who depend on the empirical data their eyes are witnessing. He said, "Those can't be pine posts because Colonel Lamb, who built the palisade, said in a letter to a relative in Virginia, that he used palmetto trees!" I replied that perhaps he used "some" palmetto trees, but what the historian was looking at, were the remains of pine posts. He left shaking his head in disbelief at the betrayal of the empirical evidence to support what his hero, Lamb, had said in the written word. Later he admitted that perhaps there were times when the archaeological document might make a contribution beyond that supplied by documents in the form of words on paper. As the Civil War Centennial approached, greater interest was focused on Fort Fisher. I was put in charge of Fort Fisher as well as Brunswick Town State Historic Site. Because the evidence for the palisade was so dramatic, and correlated with the 1865 drawings by Julian Schultze, I decided that a section of the palisade along the remaining land face of the fort should be reconstructed a foot or more from the original posts so as to not damage that evidence still in the ground. I then drew plans for the restoration of the palisade (South 1964j). With this decision made and fimds available to purchase posts to reconstruct the palisade, I had to

167 decide whether to use creosote posts or salttreated posts. I decided on salt-treated posts because, although they had a greenish appearance, they would soon weather to a natural look. Creosoted ones, however, would be more unsightly because of the surface tar coating. Because the contract was being handled in Raleigh I had no control over who got the contract. That was another one I lost because the creosoted palisade was erected. It has been many years since I saw the palisade---I hope it has weathered nicely in spite of the creosote. Additional plans for the restoration of a part of Fort Fisher included rebuilding an underground bunker on the airstrip cut through the land face of the mound, and rebuilding that section of the sand embankment. However, that plan was abandoned when the museum was located in the area of the missing earthworks. I was able to arrange for a bridge to be built connecting earthworks, to allow visitors to walk along the traverses under cedar and oak, study the exhibits in the museum, and come away with a deeper insight into the past, and a greater awareness of the relationship between today and yesterday (South 1963h: 14).

Fort Fisher Lamb's Headquarters: Excavating the Lighthouse Keeper's House The accidental discovery of a brick foundation in Battle Acre at Fort Fisher, where the Civil War monument is located, prompted an archaeological excavation there (South 1963g, 1963h:15-17). What I found was an L-shaped brick foundation for a 20 by 34 foot lighthouse keeper's house used by Colonel William Lamb at Fort Fisher. Exploded shell fragments, lead bullets, U. S. Army buttons, Confederate buttons from a North Carolina regiment, and brass fuses were recovered from the rubble, definitely connecting it to the Civil War. However, the lighthouse keeper's house dated much earlier, during the second quarter of the nineteenth century, as revealed by ceramics, buttons, gunflints, doll parts, a child's finger ring, a clock key a slate pencil, a tobacco pipe fragment with a grotesque face, as well as an 1819 penny (South 1963h: 15-17).

168

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

With the buttons from the lighthouse keeper's house in hand, I conducted an analysis combined with those I had recovered from Brunswick Town, and published the description of the 35 button types (South 1964k:113-133). When Ivor Noel Hume published his bible of colonial artifacts, my button chart without the type descriptions, was published in that important book (Noel Hume 1970:91).

News in A Fuse---A Remarkable Document Of special interest from the lighthouse keeper's house was a brass Schenkel fuse.

tb

Figure 8.5. Left:The brass fuse, percussion cap and fuse cap, inside of which was wadded the newspaper fragment, probablyreporting the first attack on Ft. Fisher by Benjamin Butler. (Photo: South 3/1963)

When I unscrewed the central plug, I found a wad of newspaper preserved by the copper salts. I carefully unfolded the paper and mounted it between two pieces of glass to hold it flat. One

fragment had the large word "Butler," which may have been in reference to General Benjamin Butler (later known as "Beast Butler"), who landed troops to attack Fort Fisher in December 1864, but withdrew when he discovered the strength of the fort. The second fragment appears to be part of an article dealing with "News From Europe." The fuse had never been fired because the paper wadding had apparently been used to prevent the detonating plunger from sliding forward and exploding prematurely" (South 1963h: 15). This "historical document" inside an archaeological document (the fuse) was a unique discovery relating to the history of Fort Fisher.

Deactivating Artillery Shells--Echoes of the Explosive Conflict During the Civil War Centennial years of the 1960s there was great interest in relics of that war. Shell fragments would be exposed on the beach at Fort Fisher after each Northeaster storm. I first became involved in deactivating Civil War shells when Johnny Miller and I recovered the 15-inch shell from the Cape Fear River at Brunswick Town. Later, at Fort Caswell, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, I dug a 5-foot square and recovered several conical artillery shells lying together. I thought they were Mullane artillery shells (South 1963j). Recently, Jim Legg has informed me that they are Confederate ReedParrott shells (Kerksis and Dickey 1972: 185). To allow their use in historical exhibits I had disarmed them. Because the military ordinance disposal authorities at military bases sensibly exploded shells, thus reducing them to fragments, I undertook to disarm many shells during my involvement with Fort Anderson and Fort Fisher. Once they were disarmed they could be cleaned by electrolysis in the conservation laboratory at Fort Fisher, where Johnny Miller worked (South 1963j: 13). To do this I drilled a hole with a quarter-inch bit through the cast iron wall of the shell. Then I poured water through the hole and flushed out the powder. For safety in doing this process, I directed a stream of water from a water hose onto

Civil War Stories the spot where I was drilling, and with each stroke of the drill, I pulled the bit from the hole to allow water into it to prevent a spark from the bit exploding the powder when it broke into the inner chamber. This was the theory--and in practice it had worked on several shells. It was a very nervewracking experience. ! knew of a bulldozer operator who had hit a Civil War shell south of Wilmington. It had exploded, knocking the blade loose. Fortunately, the operator was not injured. An article in the Wilmington Star newspaper had recently reported on the death of a boy who had found a Civil War shell and was beating on it with a hammer to remove the rust when it exploded. Some shells of that period were loaded with gun cotton, which, through time, becomes like nitroglycerin--very sensitive to shock. Curiosity not only kills cats but also people, as The Wilmington Journal reported on April 16, 186d one hundred years b e f o r e ' m y venture into the shell-deactivation process: Persons residing on the Sound or visiting there, or elsewhere where shells are to be found cannot be too often reminded of the danger of trying experiments with them even when all the powder is supposed to have been removed. This warning was for those finding recently fired but unexploded shells. The article went on to say that some workers plowed up a shell and unscrewed the fuse. The story went on to say that Mr. William Batson (South 1963j: 12): ...determined on trying the shell to see if it would explode, applying a lighted twig or dry branch of some kind. On the second trial he succeeded; the shell did explode, [answering that question]. [The doctor] ...had to amputate his right foot near the instep and his left leg just below the knee ... His recovery must be regarded as very doubtful.

169 Such folly! However, my deactivation of shells using a drill bit was almost as foolish. At least I wasn't out to see if the thing would explode! The danger was emphasized to me when I was drilling one of the Reed-Parrott shells recovered from Fort Caswell. As the drill broke through into the inner chamber it released air pressure built up inside. When I pulled the drill out of the hole, the pressure blew the water I had spraying onto the drill hole into my face, along with a quantity o f wet black powder. My throat seized up, and my heart must have stopped, because I felt dizzy from the shock. Fortunately, for me, the thing didn't explode. It did, however, discourage me from ever drilling another shell to save it intact for an exhibit for people to "ooh and ahh" over in a museum.

I Explode a Confederate Artillery Shell A shell found and donated to our project had a lead bushing around the screwdriver-slotted brass fuse hole-plug (South 1963h: 12-13). With a screwdriver I carefully unscrewed the plug. I knew when I did that the powder inside would likely be very dry. When I looked into the fuse hole with a flashlight, I saw the percussion cap sitting on the little hollow nipple leading into the powder chamber. I also saw that the little metal clips, on each side of the cylinder holding it in place were bright and shiny. They were not rusty as they would have been if water had gotten inside. This appeared to me to be a shell likely to have extremely dry powder. I resolved not to attempt to disarm this one. I picked a deserted dune on the little-traveled river road west of the town of Carolina Beach to conduct an experiment with exploding that shell. I bought a dynamite cap from the hardware, hooked 150 feet of wire to it, dug a hole three feet deep with a posthole digger and put the shell upright in the hole. Carefully I placed the dynamite cap into the fuse hole of the shell, and then went to the end of the wires leading from it, where I had a car battery. Jewell manned the 8mm camera to record the explosion if the powder proved to be dry,

170

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION policeman asked what we were doing and I explained to him that we had just fired the last shot of the Civil War! He didn't seem so excited as we were about that, and asked if we had gotten a permit. "To do what?" I asked, "Explode a Civil War shell?" He laughed then, and said the station had received many calls from residents of Carolina Beach asking what the explosion was about. That was why he was there. He cautioned me that if I did that again to let the police know so they could notify the residents as to what was going on. I told him I was not likely to repeat that experiment with a shell.

Figure 8.6. Johnny Miller standing in the crater made by the exploded Civil War shell. (Photo: South 1963) while Johnny backfilled the hole with sand. When we were ready I touched the two wires to the battery terminals and the Civil War shell exploded with a loud blast, throwing sand and shrapnel into the air and forming a crater three feet deep! Suddenly, Jewell, who was filming the explosion with an 8mm movie camera, screamed, "Look out!" Johnny and I looked up and a large fragment of shrapnel came zooming down at us from high in the air, landing about five feet from where I was standing. The movie film shows the camera suddenly pointing up to the sky as Jewell became aware o f the airborne fragment heading toward us. Johnny and I rushed to the crater and began picking up the shell fragments lying around the hole (South 1963j: 13). We never did find the brass fuse liner. About that time a Carolina Beach police car drove up and parked beside our car nearby. The

The Modern Greece--Salvaging the Cargo of a Blockade Runner From the time I first saw the surviving parts of the Civil War blockade runner Beauregard at Carolina Beach at low tide, I was fascinated by the thought o f what might be found in the sand around that wreck (Saunders 1963: 9). There was great interest in the Civil War wrecks in the early 1960s, stimulated by the centennial events being planned. As a result Jewell, David and I rented SCUBA gear and practiced diving in a pond near Wilmington. After I thought we had enough experience handling ourselves below water (this was before many training regulations were put in place), I got with Johnny Miller and we went out to examine the wreck of the Beauregard. It was not far offshore and scuba divers were often seen around the parts o f the wreck sticking above the surface of the ocean. Johnny Miller and I went out in his small boat on one occasion with a plan to dive, but by the time we got there a storm had blown up and the sea was too high and dangerous. We abandoned that attempt. Later in 1962, the wreck of the Modern Greece was discovered, and the North Carolina Confederate Centennial Commission sponsored the recovery o f artifacts from the cargo using Navy divers. Among the objects recovered and conserved in the conservation laboratory located at Fort Fisher were bars of tin and lead, cases of Whitworth shells, Enfield rifles and bullets, bone and silver-handled knives, forks and spoons, tools

Civil War Stories

171 falling into the hands o f the United States Naval officers (South 1963m: 5). The vessel was taken to New York and sold as a prize of war to the U. S. Navy Department, where she was activated as a gunboat carrying seven guns. She was recycled as the U. S. S. Peterhoff Shortly after February 28, 1864, she joined the blockading fleet off Wilmington. A few days later she drew fire from the guns o f Fort Fisher, and on March 6 th she was accidentally rammed by the blockader U. S. S. Monticello, and sank in 30 minutes (South 1963m: 6).

Figure 8. 7. Jewell and David South helping Stan learn how to dive on the wreck of the bIockade runner Beauregard. (Photo: South 1962) such as picks, files, chisels, medical kits, wooden carpenter tools, bullet molds, pocket knives, leather knife sheaths and shoes (South 1963k: 1819). ! was able to dive on that wreck on one occasion, but again the visibility was so poor I didn't learn a thing except that I preferred breathing the air on land sites to sucking life from a hose.

The U. S. S. Peterhoff--Salvaging Cannon from the Wreck

Early in 1863 the blockade runner Peterhoff was stopped and found to have a suspicious cargo. Certain papers from Mr. Slidell in England to J. P. Benjamin, Secretary of State for the Confederate States were thrown overboard to prevent them

Figure 8.8. Hall Watters and Charlie Foard checking the map they used to locate wrecks of blockade runners from the air. Hall discovered the wreck of the U. S. S. Peterhoff. (Photo: South 8/1963) During the salvage operations on the Modern Greece, Charlie Foard of Wilmington contacted Hall Watters, a professional fish-spotting pilot, and they flew over the area trying to see blockade runner wrecks from the air. By June of 1963, Hall Watters had located the wreck of the U. S. S. Peterhoff much further south than where the documents indicated it had gone down. He took a

172 photograph of the wreck, which shows large white sharks over it. Hall and his brother made a dive on the Peterhoff but were soon chased away by white sharks. After that they always carried a short rod, on the end of which was mounted a little tube holding a shotgun shell. The theory was, if a shark approached too close for comfort, the diver was supposed to thrust the shell against the head of the shark in just the right place, at which time it would explode, and theoretically dispatch the shark. I carried such a weapon on my dive on the wreck, but hoped I would never be called on test the theory by using it against a white shark. The Navy Lands--Commander Bull in Charge Once the wreck was located arrangements were made between the Centennial Commission and Lt. Commander, J. L. Bull, III, of the U. S. S. Petrel ASR 14, to dive on the Peterhoff and recovei the cannon. I was in charge of coordinating the efforts o f the Navy divers and the Department of Archives and History. The night before the scheduled dive Commander Bull dived on the wreck and scheduled a conference with his divers for early the following morning. I'll never forget how impressed I was by the way he briefed his divers. When the appointed time arrived we had gathered in the yard of the beach house where the Navy crew was staying. Commander Bull squatted down and smoothed out a place in the damp sand with his hand. Then he picked up a small stick and drew in the sand the shape of the wreck as it lay 32 feet deep in the ocean, complete with the position of the cannon. Then, he spoke to each man and spelled out what strap went around which cannon at the muzzle, and which at the trunnion--which at the cascabel, and how they were to be attached to the lines going to the balloon. He had each man acknowledge whether he understood his assignment. He pointed out safety concerns and other details. The experienced divers focused intensely on what he was saying. Then he said, "Let's get those cannon," and the strategy meeting was

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION over--not a word having been wasted unnecessarily--an impressive performance! I Dive On the Wreck of the U.S.S. Peterhoff I had rented the cabin cruiser, Coquina out of Wrightsville Beach, as the operations vessel for the project. When I got down on the deck of the Peterhoff on a sightseeing tour of the wreck, the cannon were the primary feature I could see, with various kinds of beautiful colorful plants growing on and around the cannon barrels. There were fish all around me, as though I were inside a glass bowl surrounded by fish looking in at me. Wherever I moved, the circle of fish was always there. It was a paradise of beauty. Meanwhile, off to my right, I got glimpses of the Navy divers as they followed the orders Commander Bull had given them. One was holding an air tank beneath a large black pontoon balloon, inflating it--another was keeping the lines clear as the balloon tugged upward on the cannon. As the cannon was lifted from the ocean floor, and approached the surface, its speed increased due to the reduced water pressure. After I had enjoyed the scene for a short while, the little fish disappeared and when I was looking for them I saw the huge side of a shark glide by. I remembered that Hall Watters had taken a color photograph of white sharks on this wreck. They were so large they extended from one side of the vessel to the other. When Hall dived on this wreck the first time with his brother, a large white shark began circling them, and they quickly surfaced. As they got to their Boston Whaler, Hall quickly pulled his brother in just as the shark struck the boarding ladder, knocking it into the air, where it sailed all the way across the vessel to land in the water beyond. As this incident came to mind, I quickly began to think of surfacing. The little rod with the shotgun shell on the end was little comfort to me. A tap on my shoulder by a Navy diver called my attention to the cannon that was beginning to lift from the bottom. He motioned for me to surface. I was told when I went down that I had only about 30 minutes of air left in the tank I had

Civil War Stories

on, but I thought I had only been down less than that--then my air ran out. I knew what to do, so as I began my slow upward ascent, the air pressure was lessened, and I had plenty of air to breath until I surfaced. The crew had become concerned about me, saying I had been down for 45 minutes--to me it had seemed much less. The Cannon Barrel Is Recovered Back in the cabin cruiser I had rented for the divers to work from, I saw bubbles surfacing almost beneath the vessel, which to me meant that the divers were directly beneath us. I called to Captain Trask and pointed that out to him. Immediately he shouted orders and put the ship in gear to try to move it away from the bubbles. It had drifted directly over the balloon. Then, before it had been moved far enough, the balloon suddenly came up and struck the keel, knocking us off our feet and throwing us around. Then, clear of the vessel, the balloon leaped into the air, but with the weight of the cannon beneath it settled back into the ocean with an enormous splash. Later Captain Alex Trask had the vessel inspected, and found that the keel was cracked, and it had to be repaired--the Centennial Commission paid the bill. When it was floated securely beneath the pontoon balloon, the cannon was slowly towed northward behind the Coquina to Fort Fisher. I had made arrangements with the 701 st Radar Squadron at Kure Beach to have a bulldozer on hand to pull the cannon ashore. The divers tied a rope from the balloon and cannon barrel and dragged it toward shore until the cannon barrel hit the bottom. They then tied the rope to the bulldozer which pulled the barrel onto the sandy beach. It was then lifted and hauled to the Conservation Laboratory, where it was turned over to a conservator (South 1963m: 7). On the second day, too much air was fed into the pontoon balloon and it exploded as it leaped into the air, dropping the second cannon back to the bottom. After that disaster improvised equipment was used, enabling the divers to bring the second gun barrel ashore. Brass davit pots

173 [sockets], the bilge pump, and the commode were brought up as samples o f the smaller objects on the vessel. As the cannon were brought to the beach a large crowd of interested persons gathered to witness the event. Newspaper, radio, and television representatives gathered information for carrying the news to a nation-wide audience.

Figure 8.9. Navy and other personnel, pulling closer to shore, the cannon barrel hanging beneath the balloon. (Photo: South 8/1963) The large cannon weighed over 7,200 pounds and was over 10 feet long, while the smaller one was nine feet long--weighing over 6,400 pounds. The larger cannon was made at the Tredegar Foundary in Virginia, and was marked "1847 T F," and "32," on the trunions. I was immediately concerned that the marks on the ends of the trunions would be destroyed if careful conservation were not conducted soon. Because, as a result of emersion in salty sea water, electrolysis had converted the cast iron to a surface coating o f graphite. The surface of the cannon and the marks on the trunions, could easily be scratched with the fingernail. I turned the gun barrel over to the Conservation Laboratory. The barrel was soaked in water for a year or so, lifted out of the rust-stained water periodically to show to visiting dignitaries, then put back. When the Conservation Laboratory personnel conducted this display I couldn't help noticing

174

Figure 8.10. The cannon barrel, from the blockade vessel U. S. S~ Peterhoff lying on the beach. (Photo: South 8/1963)

that the graphite details on the trunions was flaking off. I was glad I had photographed that evidence before that "conservation" took place (South 1963m: 6). I believe it was subjected to electrolysis later on, but by that time none of the original graphite surface detail remained. I have been told that gun barrel is now exhibited in one of the gun emplacements at Fort Fisher. Hall W a t t e r s - - M o v i n g a D u n e to Foil Looters

Hall Watters was a pilot who would spot wrecks from the air, drop a buoy to mark the location, then use his Boston Whaler to examine the wreck. He worked with North Carolina representatives at a time when some divers were damaging Civil War blockade runner wrecks off shore using dynamite to get the wreck out of the way so they could get to the artifacts. Once Hall was diving on a wreck when another boat came up and the captain asked if he was anchored over a wreck. Hall knew the operator of the vessel, and that he used explosives to blow the side out of wrecks to get at artifacts inside the hull, so he knew these people

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION were bad news. Using his bull horn Hall told them he was just fishing, but he suspected the occupants were zeroing in on the coordinates he had used to place his vessel over the wreck. Sure enough, the next day he flew over the wreck and the same boat was anchored there. The coordinates he had used were a line of power line posts on a point of land toward the north, with a peaked sand dune with a small clump of yaupon bushes on top, aligned with a single very tall pine tree beyond. When the boat was positioned with both these markers on the land, the wreck was beneath the vessel. Hall could see hey were diving on the wreck. Hall flew low, only a few feet above the water, and with his bull horn, he had challenged the divers to get away from the wreck. He kept doing this until the vessel weighed anchor and began moving away. That weekend, Hall and his brother, knowing the importance of the peaked dune with the tall pine tree as an alignment marker, went to the site of the dune with shovels and bush axes. They cut down all the yaupon bushes from top of the dune, then proceeded to work Saturday and Sunday leveling the peak o f the dune with their shovels. The following weekend he flew over the area and saw the same boat dragging-anchor trying to locate the wreck. Unknowingly using a remaining dune south of the one Hall had moved to align with the pine tree, thus placing their dive vessel a half-mile south of the location of the wreck of the blockade-runner. Few divers at that time would have done that to protect the cultural resource represented by those coastal wrecks. The Civil War Centennial had increased the market in artifacts from that period, so wrecks were more vulnerable than they had been before the mid-60s. An example of this is illustrated by the fact that around 1962, I noticed that a nationally known merchandiser of relics advertised Civil War Gatlin gun multi-barreled machineguns for sale. After the Civil War, the company had bought inventories of Government surplus military equipment and supplies stockpiled in warehouses.

Civil War Stories

The company was not allowed by law to sell the complete assembled gun, but you could buy the barrel in one part of the catalog, the stand in another, and other parts elsewhere, so that by specifying various part numbers, an original Gatlin gun could be reassembled. As the mid1960s approached, the cost of the parts was $5,000, a reasonable price for museums needing such an original relic for display. A Confederate Electric Torpedo Is Discovered On a Sunday in May 1964, I received a phone call at home from a newspaper reporter who wanted to know about the electric torpedo found on the beach at Fort Fisher over the weekend. He said he had seen the torpedo uncovered once before, but an historian had identified it as a modern cement mixer, and it had been rebuffed. He said it looked to him like a Civil War electric torpedo, and wanted to know what interpretation I had on' it. Not having seen it, I couldn't answer his question. He said three boys had noticed an iron object in the bottom of a hole where a jeep had gotten stuck in the sand. In digging they had found the torpedo and notified the conservator at the Conservation Laboratory. I had not been previously notified of the discovery. I was by that time in charge of the site as well as Brunswick Town. I immediately went to the beach at Fort Fisher, where the conservator identified the large iron object in the hole as one of the Confederate torpedoes that had guarded the New Inlet channel against possible entry by Federal blockading vessels. The double-pointed torpedo, about three feet in diameter, was made of thick iron boilerplate held together by large iron rivets. A weapon of this type had been floated in the channel of the inlet, with wires connected to a detonator leading to the beach and then to a shed housing a series of wet batteries. The little battery house was shown on a map of Fort Fisher, which was made at the time the torpedoes were in the channel. If a Federal vessel entered the channel the electric current was sent from the battery to detonate the primer inside and explode the torpedo.

175 An Armed Services Carnival When I arrived at the scene, I found a small crowd gathered, and discovered that the night before, the United States Coast Guard had placed a guard on the torpedo in the hole. I was assured it was under the jurisdiction of the Coast Guard for security reasons because the thing might explode. I told the guard representative that it was on a State Historic Site and was state property, and that it was full of wet sand and was totally harmless. I knew this historic artifact would make a fine addition to the Fort Fisher Museum. About this time a United States Air Force lieutenant from the Fort Fisher Air Base arrived and said the torpedo belonged to the United States Government as contraband of the Civil War. He said the Air Force and Coast Guard would keep the area clear until a United States Army demolition team, which had been notified, arrived from Fort Bragg. With the torpedo in such good hands with three govemment agencies involved in protecting and laying claim to it, I felt like it was safe for me to separate myself from the excited crowd standing around the hole, and go home and go to bed. Everyone standing around the hole was a boss - - they certainly didn't need me to add to the confusion. The next day Lieutenant John Christopher of the 864 th Ordinance Detachment at Fort Bragg arrived by helicopter and concurred with me that the torpedo was completely safe and was not going to explode in the next little while. The plan underway before I arrived on the scene was to lift the torpedo by helicopter and deposit it in the yard of the Conservation Laboratory nearby. The Army personnel hooked ropes and cables to the torpedo and the helicopter hovered overhead, blowing a blinding cloud of sand over the area as a cable was fastened to the torpedo. Then the helicopter began to attempt to lift the water and sand-filled historic relic. As more power was exerted the helicopter began to swing back and forth under the strain of the dead weight. The pilot wisely decided to unhook the cable and

! 76 land on the beach a few yards away before ultimately saying goodbye. After this attempt by the Army, I called the 701 st Air Force Radar Squadron and asked if they would furnish a bulldozer to lift the torpedo out of the hole and carry it to the conservation laboratory. The squadron was glad to do that, and once the paperwork was done, the bulldozer arrived at the hole in the beach. Johnny Miller jumped into the hole and assisted in strapping the torpedo to the bulldozer blade lowered into the hole. The bulldozer operator lifted the torpedo out of its sandy bed. The ropes were shortened, snugging the torpedo to the blade, and we began following the bulldozer down a sandy path between dunes, toward the Conservation Laboratory, followed by a retinue of people watching the show. Suddenly, as the procession made its way between two dunes, a United States Navy vehicle appeared in the sandy road in front of the bulldozer. A Navy lieutenant jumped out and announced that the object fastened to the front of the bulldozer was obviously a World War II naval mine, and he was going to take it to the Charleston Museum for exhibit. From the newspaper accounts the admiral had learned that it had been found on the beach, and he thus claimed it as in the Navy's jurisdiction. The lieutenant said he represented the admiral of the 5 th Naval District who had given him orders to seize the "mine" for the museum. Well, as my daddy often said--"another precinct heard from," except in this case it was another Federal government armed service. I explained the "torpedo" was the property of the State of North Carolina, and was destined for exhibit in the Fort Fisher Museum, not in a museum in another state. Meanwhile, the Air Force bulldozer driver was yelling for the Navy guys to get their ~<<*/**# vehicle out of the road or he would bulldoze it out of the way. The Navy guys spoke that same language and soon the air was warmed by the exchange. I stood with a group of observers looking on and enjoyed the show.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Then Charlie Foard, a Civil War expert and director of the Blockade Runner Museum north of Carolina Beach, jumped up on the bulldozer and joined the fray--he too could speak in wicked tongues, and did so eloquently. Finally, the Navy guys backed up their vehicle amid cheers of the onlookers, and the impasse became a pass, and the bulldozer moved on to the Fort Fisher Conservation Laboratory. When we arrived I wondered, with the Coast Guard, Army, Air Force, and Navy involved in this affray--where were the Marines? They missed out on storming this Fort Fisher beachhead. I will say, however, they were on standby. When the Army helicopter was trying to lift the torpedo, a retired U. S. Marine Corps officer was standing in the crowd watching the attempt. He came over to me and said he had contacts at Camp LeJeune, and would be glad to call them for a "real" helicopter to get the torpedo off the ground. I thanked him and took his name and number in case I needed to call out the Marines - - but I managed.

Conserving the Confederate Torpedo I checked with the man in charge of conservation at the laboratory as to what his plan was for conserving the torpedo. He said he would soak it in water for an indefinite period of time, the way he was "conserving" the cannon from The Peterhoff. I told him the torpedo was from the Fort Fisher site where I was in charge, and I would therefore conserve it myself. This didn't endear me to him and the word went out to Raleigh. It was May, and the peak tourist season was upon us, as well as publicity from the recovery of the torpedo, and I thought the public should have the opportunity o f seeing the thing while it was fresh on their minds. It was covered with a coating of rust, which I removed by chipping the scale off with a chisel. I borrowed a sandblaster to remove the rust and a steam jenny to remove surface salts. The interior was another matter, and I knew that it must be cleaned there as well. To me, there was no other alternative but to cut an opening, to allow access to

Civil War Stories

177 it was placed on exhibit in the Fort Fisher Pavilion Museum! In my report on the recovery of the Confederate torpedo, I included a drawing based on the illustration in Philip Van Doren Stem's book on the Confederate Navy (South 1964m: 11; Stern 1962). I would be interested to know, after almost 40 years, how the torpedo has held up in the museum atmosphere. I recently learned to my surprise, that the torpedo has been painted white, and can't help but wonder what thought process warranted this violation of authenticity - - how about pink with blue dots?

Figure 8.11. Stan South and Charlie Foard in the process of sandblasting the Confederate torpedo. (Photo: Johnny Miller 5/1964)

the interior of the torpedo. This would violate the integrity o f the artifact, but without that practical move the artifact would be more violated as time and rust continued to take a toll. The reality o f long-term conservation won out over maintaining the integrity of the object by leaving it totally intact. Thus another compromise had to be m a d e - - a n d I made it. J. L. Watters, brother of the fish-spotting pilot Hall Watters, volunteered to do the deed for me, and he cut an 11 by 20 inch opening on one side of the torpedo. I later hinged this piece of boilerplate as an inspection door for access to the inside. With the door cut I then steamed and sandblasted the interior, borrowing the sandblaster from the 701 st Air Force Squadron. The conservator had removed the sand, flushing it out with a water hose, and in doing that a black powder sediment was flushed from inside, along with small pieces of wood charcoal, samples o f which I kept. I used infrared heat lamps to dry the interior and exterior and then coated it with RustOleum Bare Metal Primer. After this primer was applied a coating of polyurethane was applied as a sealer. To dull the unattractive glossy finish, I used a second coat of satin Polyurethane, which gave it a soft metallic look. One week after the torpedo was removed from the hole in the ground,

Whitworth Shells--Graphite on I r o n - - A Conservation Problem Many Whitworth shells were recovered from the wreck of the Civil War blockade runner Modern Greece. These were faceted shells that were shot from wheeled horse-drawn guns. From

Top: A Civil War Whitworth shell "conserved" by a conservator. Bottom: A Whitworth shell from the same crate, taken from the wreck of the blockade runner Modern Greece, conserved by Stan South. (Photo: South 1962)

Figure 8.12.

being submerged in the salt water of the Atlantic for one hundred years, they had tumed to graphite on the outer layer, a half-inch or more in

178 thickness, through the electrolytic action of the ocean. Therefore, the iron core beneath the graphite was quite a different consistency and hardness than the soft graphite surface, on which all the details of the original shell remained. It was so soft that a fingernail could scratch the shells. If simply allowed to dry out, the iron core rusted and that oxidizing, crystal-forming process pushed off the graphite, leaving lumps of graphite and a roughly tubular iron core. That iron core could then be conserved using electrolysis, but it would reveal nothing about the original shape of the Whitworth shell because that was gone with the graphite lumps! The conservation theory of the time was to attempt to reverse this electrolytic action by exposing the shells to more electrolysis! It seemed to me that if electrolysis in the ocean had caused the east iron to convert to graphite, more electrolysis would simply continue that process! Because the conservation laboratory was close to my office at Fort Fisher, I stopped in often to see what was being done with the various conservation efforts. The curator took some o f these to a blast furnace because he had heard that heating iron objects, such as wrought nails red hot, would conserve them. It only removed the graphite, leaving the inner iron core. Electrolysis experiments he performed produced no better results. Soaking in tap water for months showed no better results, because iron rusts beneath water as well as on dry land. As I saw the inventory of Whitworth shells decrease through various experimental efforts being conducted I became concerned. I also objected to their simply being dried off and presented by Civil War Centennial representatives to politicians and others as gifts--only to fall apart later as the crystallizing process took place. Not being a conservator, but having a certain degree of common sense, I asked permission of officials to turn over to me two of the Whitworth shells to attempt to conserve on my own using that conservation tool. I boiled the shells in distilled water time and time again to attempt to remove the salts within

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION the iron/graphite. I used a silver nitrate test to determine when the water in which the shells had been boiled was free of chlorides, at which time I dried the shells in a 350-degree oven in my kitchen stove. Then, while they were still hot, I submersed them in polyurethane resin, to seal out the oxygen. When that dried, I submersed them again in that solution. In the years to follow I asked to see any of the shells successfully conserved by the curator, but there were none. My two shells still looked good by the time I left North Carolina in 1969, but I don't know if they have held up in the 34 years since.

The Fort Fisher Museum--Exhibits Planning As the date for the opening of the Fort Fisher Museum approached, I was asked to supply a list of artifacts available for use in the exhibits. This was the case at Brunswick Town also. This list was to be used by the Museums Division, an administrative entity separate from the Historic Sites Division, in preparing exhibits for the two museums. I couldn't resist putting in my twocents beyond a mere list, because I felt that what I knew about the artifacts might be of some interest to those who saw them on display. My view was that museum designers were not archaeologists, and therefore a one-page list of artifacts recovered from an historic site would be interpreted based on the degree of familiarity the exhibits designer had with the artifacts on the list. The archaeologist who had excavated those objects, at great expense to the state, was charged with explaining their meaning. Such a professional was far deeper into the research of each artifact than an exhibits designer trained in exhibit design. It seemed to me, therefore, that there should be a high degree of communication and interaction between the professional archaeologist or historian in the field, familiar with how each artifact was used in the past, and the exhibits designer. At the least the historian or archaeologist steeped in the knowledge of a particular site, and how it fit into the broader picture, should have more involvement in the

Civil War Stories exhibits planning process than simply to furnish a list of artifacts. A simple list o f artifacts was all that was requested from me at Brunswick Town or Fort Fisher. I was told the exhibits people would do the rest. My request for meetings with the exhibits staff was never honored, because, I was told, they were not very receptive to input from people in the Historic Sites Division on how to design exhibits. "Just give them a list of artifacts!" However, I couldn't resist, at Brunswick Town or at Fort Fisher, from putting my suggestions into print in the hope that at least they might be read and used--not so (South 1964n, 1965c). Consequently, I wrote a 14 page epistle, presenting the broad view: "A Moment of History, The Effect of Time, Gathering the Clues, Restoration and Interpretation," and along with that I included 32 detailed notes on that outline (South'1964n)---to no avail. On the other hand, I wouldn't want exhibits people telling me how to do archaeology--so where's the beef?. Given the emphasis on storytelling rather than science in historical archaeology today, I should simply supply exhibits people with a list and let them tell whatever imaginative story they feel like coming up with to "explain" the meaning of the artifacts. Museum Exhibits at Fort Fisher--Shrapnel on Display The main exhibit hall turned out to be three sides of the exhibit room with a ton of sand extending from the wall out onto the floor. Lying on the sand were artillery shells, and exploded shell fragments, such as might be seen lying on the beach at Fort Fisher after a nor'easter. A visitor could reach down and pick up the shrapnel or fuses to look at the details, if interested. Signs were directed at asking visitors to please keep their children from walking into the sandy exhibit that looked like an inviting beach. Knowing the potential the history of Fort Fisher had for telling the story of what went on at the site, I was disappointed and like the walrus and the carpenter, I "wept like anything to see

179 such quantities of sand. If this were only cleared away...It would be grand!" (Dodgson 1948: 830). Sand was a commodity the visitors could see a world of on the beach outside the museum! Of course, outside they wouldn't have the opportunity there to pick up the brass fuses and exploded shell fragments to fondle them (and perhaps to pocket them in the process). When I complained, I was told we had many fragments of exploded shells in boxes in the back room, and when one shell- fragment in the open exhibit would disappear it could be replaced by another one. "But what about the brass fuses?" I asked. I wondered how long that process could go on before Civil War exploded shell fragments would be so scarce that it would become obvious they should be displayed behind glass. By the time the museum opened, my "loose cannon" was firing shots at sites all over North Carolina "and half of Georgia." It was not long before the transition was made, and professionals in the field moved to Raleigh, turning the sites over to maintenance staff to keep the grass mowed. Lionel Forrest--the Diorama Man In the early 60s I got a phone call from miniature figure artist, Lionel Forrest, who said he was living on a Tahiti ketch anchored at Wrightsville Beach and had heard that I was in charge of Fort Fisher and Brunswick Town. He wanted to have a beer with me about dioramas. He had liquidated his assets in Philadelphia and was going down the Intra-coastal Waterway toward fulfilling a dream of sailing around the world in his 32-foot long vessel. We met on many occasions after that, and became friends in the years to follow. He was an excellent artist who made small historical figures out of the plastic Duron for sale to Abercrombie and Fitch in New York. His Civil War figures, and those from the French and Indian War, as well as the Revolution, were researched extensively, to the point where the insignia on buttons on the one-foot high figures, were accurate in detail.

180

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION President Johnson's war on poverty program to receive a pig (enclosed). You are to feed it until it is grown, at which time you are to send the hams, chops, shoulders, liver, heart and ribs to Washington, but you may keep the feet, the head, and the entrails as a tax benefit from your government. Congratulations on being chosen to participate in this program designed to help taxpayers like you.

Figure 8.13. Detail of the diorama made by Lionel Forrest for the Ft. Fisher museum, showing hand-to-hand fighting at the third gun emplacement near the Cape Fear River. (Photo: South 1964)

I took him to Raleigh to meet the administrators there in Archives and History, and as a result he made dioramas for several state historic sites, including Brunswick Town and Fort Fisher. His diorama of the hand-to-hand fighting in one of the gun emplacements was the most outstanding exhibit in the Fort Fisher Museum. George D e m m y - - t h e Pig Man Lionel became good friends with George Demmy and they often kidded each other about President Johnson's war on poverty p r o g r a m - Lionel couldn't abide Johnson. One day George called me saying, "You dog! You are behind that!" I didn't know what he was talking about. He said, "There's a goddamn pig in my yard!" I assured him I knew nothing about it and suggested it must have been put there by Lionel. Then George explained that a little pig in a wooden box had been placed outside the trailer door where he lived. (George had packed in an old tractor that now had a pine tree growing up through it and pieces of machinery, etc. were scattered around the yard for want of space to house them.) He said there was a note attached to the pig's box that said something like: Greetings! Because of the appearance of your place you have been chosen by

Well, George raised that pig in a little wooden pen until it was so big it could stand only on its front feet to eat the abundant scraps the Demmy family fed it. When it came time to butcher it, George had to hire a wrecker to lift the carcass into the truck to haul it to be cut and packaged. The Demmy family was devastated at loosing their pet "piggy." When the packages arrived, George opened one of chops, and Ellen looked at them and began crying, as did his children. It was then that George called Charlie Smith, my crew chief at Brunswick Town and asked him if he would like to have a freezer full of pig. Charlie was delighted at the wonderful pork-fall. "That War Is Too Close On U s ! " - - Old Wounds Die Hard As a result o f my role in the interpretation of Confederate Fort Anderson and Fort Fisher, the Daughters of the Confederacy presented me with the Confederate Medal o f Honor. I often spoke to meetings o f various chapters of that group. In talking with various individuals, I knew that the term "Civil War" was anathema--"the War Between the States," or "the War of Northern Aggression," or "the War of the Rebellion," being preferable. After researching the topic, when I spoke to such groups, I always used "Civil War," explaining to the ladies that the war was referred to that way by Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee, and what was good enough for them was good enough for me. What argument could they make to that?

Civil War Stories In my Civil War talk, I usually pointed out that the records indicate that Fort Fisher was surrendered to Colonel A. M. Blackman, a black m a n - - a n interesting symbolic footnote to the Battle of Fort Fisher, I thought. After one of my talks a lady came up to me and said, "I know your research is probably correct, but I don't think you should be saying that. That war is too close on u s ! " ~ old wounds die hard. "Maybe in another century or so it might be appropriate," she said, "but not yet." Almost a half century has passed n o w - - i s it still too close? - I wonder--for some it no doubt is.

Johnny Miller--Linking Artifacts to History When it came to making a connection between Civil War history and artifacts relating to it, Johnny Miller was on the mark, when I was often skeptical of his schemes. At Brunswick Town he wanted to dive to try to find the wreck of the Spanish ship sunk there in 1748. An anchor had previoasly been found by someone else. His interest in Fort Anderson prompted me to help him look for what lay in the river before that fort. As a result of his urging, we found the 15-inch cannonball mentioned above, fired by the ironclad Monitor Montauk. One Saturday he called and asked if I wanted to go out in his shrimp boat to search for the Coehom mortar, an artillery piece that an informant had told him he had seen sitting in the northeast battery of Fort Fisher before that part of the fort washed away. He said, because it weighed 12 tons, when that comer of the fort had washed away in this century, the artillery piece would have simply dropped straight down. He estimated where it should be on the bottom if that theory was correct. A recent nor'easter had hit, and had caused sand offshore to be removed, and Johnny thought the mortar might be exposed as a result. I told him that sounded like a wild goose chase and turned down his invitation to join him. He went out anyway, and dragging his shrimp net where he thought the Coehom mortar should be, it struck something. He donned his gear and dived down to see what held his net. It was the Coehorn

181 mortar! Sitting exactly where he had projected it would be--straight down from where the northeast comer bastion of Fort Fisher had been before the hurricanes took their toll. It's still sitting out there awaiting future recovery. On another Saturday, Johnny called me and asked if I wanted to go with him north of Fort Fisher near the bank of the Cape Fear River, where tradition had it a live oak "hanging tree" was located during the nineteenth century. Following his elderly informant's directions, he had found the tree. He wanted me to go with him and his metal locator to see if he could find something related to that legend. I asked him what he expected to find. "Oh, maybe I'll find some old shackles or something from the people being hung there." I laughed and told him that it seemed like another wild goose chase to me, and I refused to go. The next day he came by my office and showed me the nineteenth century D-shaped shackles he had found beneath the hanging limb of that "hanging oak." Johnny knew how to catch wild geese. Later on, he began working at the Charleston Museum for Milby Burton, and while there he worked on a number of projects, searching for ruins and other things thought by sponsors to lie on their plantations. One of those projects was sponsored by the South Carolina Tricentennial Commission. They wanted Johnny to conduct exploratory digging at Charles Towne Landing, where he discovered the north fortification ditch protecting the settlement from Indian attack. I came along, sometime later, to continue archaeology on the Charles Towne Landing site. The results of my work there, and a summary of Johnny's work, were published years later (South 2002b). Johnny Miller was indeed a successful hunter of wild geese. He was found dead on a Charleston street and I wrote a poem in his memory.

The Fayetteville Arsenal--Destroyed General Sherman in 1865

By

In 1968 I conducted a four-day exploratory search, with Garry Stone, for remains of the

182 Arsenal at Fayetteville, North Carolina. In existence from around 1839 until 1865, when it was destroyed by General Sherman, the site was to be cut into by highway construction, and local people were interested in trying to save the historic site. Through the help of 30 Neighborhood Youth Corps employees, we discovered and revealed the foundation walls of the structure, made of large quarried red sandstone blocks formed into a wall three feet wide. Two octagonal tower foundations were found, measuring 26 feet across, as well as a structure 34 feet in width, shown on a map in the National Archives to have been the carriage store and storehouse. As a result of our discovery that massive walls remained from this historic ruin I recommended moving the highway to avoid destroying it. I recommended that if the Federal highway was destined to indeed destroy this historic site federal funds ghnuld be made available to mitigate the damage through a more thorough investigation than Garry and I were able to conduct in the four day project we undertook. I filed my unfinished report on our work at the arsenal because I was leaving to accept a position at the University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, leaving the completion to my successor at the Department of Archives and History to archaeologist Garry Stone. That was my last "loose cannon" report in North Carolina (South 1968i).

Metal Detecting--Coat-Hanger Dowsers In the mid-60s, when I was at Fort Fisher, and the artifacts from the blockade runner Modern Greece were stored in a tub of water in the Conservation Laboratory. A man came to my office and asked if I ever used metal detecting coat-hanger dowsers to locate metal objects in the ground. I snorted, saying I had heard of such being used, but had placed it in the same category as ESP or psychic phenomena, or belief in ruins on the moon. He insisted that I was simply not informed and should open my mind to using this tool in archaeology.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION To cure my ignorance, he said, he was willing to prove his point by showing me two coat-hanger wires with a handle bent at a right angle. He demonstrated that you held them, one in each hand, so that the two wires extended forward parallel to each other. When they were held above a metal object in the ground the electromagnetic field from the object would cause the wires to cross, one above the other. "When pigs fly," I said. He laughed and said he would demonstrate the phenomenon with me holding the wires. We went to the Conservation shed, and Johnny Miller, who had suggested the man contact me, took one of the pistols recovered from the Modern Greece to use as the artifact to be located. While I waited with the owner of the coat-hanger wires inside the shed, Johnny took the pistol outside and buried it "somewhere in the sand road leading to the shed," as agreed upon. When he returned, he said we should wait a short while yet, because in burying the pistol damp sand had made the spot visible, so we had to wait until the sun evaporated that moisture. After checking the pistol burial site, Johnny said his friend, and the skeptic, could come out of the shed to conduct the demonstration. I held the wires parallel before me, pointing forward. Shaking my head in disbelief at what I had let myself in for, I began walking along the sandy roadway. After about 100 feet, to my great surprise, the wires suddenly crossed! I turned to Johnny and his friend and said, "If these things are correct the pistol should be right about here." I dug the toe of my boot into the sand, and to my astonishment, I kicked up the pistol. Wow! I was impressed--but still skeptical, even though I had witnessed the event myself. Years passed without my ever using that tool. Then, in 1969, Noel Hume's book Historical Archaeology was published. There he discussed and illustrated the use of bent wires to locate metal objects (No~l Hume1969:37-39). Still I was hard-headed and ignorant enough to resist using that knowledge.

Civil War Stories

Finally, when I was excavating in the yard of the Price House in South Carolina (South 1970a), another ,man came up with coat-hanger wires, asking if I had ever used them in archaeology. I told him about the demonstration with the pistol, and about Noel Hume's publication, and told him I was far less skeptical than I had once been. In this excavation, my son David, Richard Polhemus, and others had just finished examining a five-foot square adjacent to the house, and in it we saw nothing except the construction ditch and red clay subsoil. The man with the divining rod coat hangers urged me to try them on that square. I explained that there was nothing there but subsoil, with no sign of disturbance by anything except wormholes. But he insisted. To keep from arguing with the man I took hold of the wires to show him there was nothing there, and walked around the square holding the wires in front of me. Suddenly they crossed! He said for me to sight b~low the cross and I would find metal. To prove him wrong, while all the time mouthing off about how there would be nothing there, I took the trowel and began scraping the subsoil. Then on the second swipe of the clay the trowel struck something white. I stuck the pointed end into the clay and flipped the object o u t - - a 22-caliber short lead bullet! This time I was extremely impressed--finally I was convinced. As an eternal skeptic, however, I asked, as a final test, "What if I checked the magnetism of these wires against that chain-link fence---what would happen?" He said he didn't know--he had never tried that. So, I approached the fence with the wires facing forward, and just before I got to it, they spun in my hand, not crossing, but in the opposite direction, stopping when they paralleled the fence. After that I opened my mind on the subject--empirical demonstration had won out against stubborn ignorance on the subject of dowsers. Old-timers who used willow sticks to locate water beneath the surface would likely s a y - - D u h - - y o u finally caught on!"

183 The Fort Fisher Hermit--"Hermit Removal Is Out of My Line" In 1960, when I first went to Fort Fisher to map the earthworks, I met a man living in a World War II concrete bunker near the Civil War period New Inlet. I told him what I was doing, and we discussed the fact that the State of North Carolina had taken over the site as an historic site. I had heard about him, and knew that he was known as a hermit from a sign he had made directing visitors to "The Fort Fisher Hermit--Visitors Welcome." That being the case I visited him again, signed his register, and we talked about his philosophy of life. He said he was writing a book on the psychology of people who get stuck in the sand. He explained that some people got mad and kicked their car when that happened. Another one got out and knelt down by the bumper and prayed. Others would order him to help dig their car out of the sand, while "hoodlums" would sometimes steal the few coins he had collected in an iron pot he had hung near his camp, with a sign, "Donations accepted to help keep up my camp." His idea of a book on the psychology of people who get stuck in the sand made sense to me. He spoke of how people lacked common sense and how that was a major theme in his book. His name was Robert Harrell, and he was easy to talk with if you took the time to listen to his stories. He told of a "Wild Man" who was like the classic image of a hermit, not interested in being seen by beach visitors, and how he had made friends with him. He told of harassment by local police authorities and how that had finally stopped when the judge realized he was a property owner in Shelby, and if the police arrested him for vagrancy, they should arrest all others who visited the beach but owned property elsewhere. He told of how various agencies had tried to get him out of his bunker, but had failed. He often gathered oysters and roasted them for visitors from Raleigh and other inland cities. He

184

Figure 8.14. Robert Edward Harrell, "The Fort Fisher

Hermit," showing David and Jewell South the horseshoe crab he caught for dinner. (Photo: South 1960) had become well known throughout the state. This was demonstrated when hurricane Helene hit and people who had met him became concerned for his safety and contacted the governor to see if he was safe. The governor contacted the sheriff, who rescued him by boat from the top of his bunker. The headlines in a local paper announced that the hermit was safe. Later on, after my second visit, I was asked by my supervisor to ask the hermit to leave his bunker home. I visited with him again, taking Jewell and David with me this time. In the event the eviction efforts succeeded, I took my camera and recorded his activities and his camp. Before we left I told him that I had been sent to ask him to leave, but that I was going to write a letter to my supervisor in Raleigh refusing to take part in his eviction. That letter dated April 23, 1960, summarized my view of the "hermit problem" as I saw it: Dear [Supervisor]: I tried to call you in regard to the Fort Fisher Hermit, but found you were out of town. I have talked with him as well as with Glenn Tucker and the inspector for the Army who made the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION report to you. Removing the hermit may not be as simple as it may have appeared to you. The following are some facts I have learned in this respect. 1. The Fort Fisher Hermit is almost an Historic Site in himself, and has gained some wide publicity and many friends throughout the State. 2. He has kept a registration book for each day for the guests to sign, and I noticed that on some days he had over two hundred and fifty signed guests from many states; he says not nearly all visitors sign the guest book. His average attendance had been estimated as from six to eight thousands visitors a year from many of the states and foreign countries. Summer attendance is from one to 2,000 per month. 3. He says that a Mr. McKee visited him and wanted to include his picture in a brochure the Highway Department was getting out on tourist attractions in North Carolina, and said he would be willing to have a better road cut into his place to accommodate the extra traffic load. 4. When hurricane Helene hit, quite a stir was made by people who thought he was not going to be rescued in time. 5. He has lived on the site for five years, long before the lease was signed by Archives and History, and the Army inspectors had not asked him to move during that five years. 6. Although the police gave him some trouble during his first 18 months at the site, their attitude gradually changed as he became a tourist attraction, and now his relations with the authorities are good. He is well liked, and is very friendly. 7. He says his primary interest is in promoting interest in SENCLAND [Southeastem North Carolina Land] as a tourist Mecca and the Fort Fisher area. 8. He says he has been to college, and is now trying to finish a book on

Civil War Stories psychology, though I did not see his efforts in this direction. 9. The inspector who reported to the Army his presence said that it was the first time he had inspected that particular area, and was sympathetic with the hermit, but thought since the inspection was necessary as part of the leased terms he should report the presence of the hermit. 10. I pointed out to him that since the hermit had been living there since before the lease was signed, that it was not the responsibility of our department to move him out, and that I thought that if the Army wanted him out they should be the ones to move him. He was of the opinion that if it was up to them they would probably not get around to doing it. He suggested that I contact you and see if your interpretation of who should move him out was the same as mine, and if it was, then you should write him a letter to that effect and the Army would take it from there. In summary, it seems that it comes down to a question of who wants him out. As you say, it is not customary for a hermit to live on historic site property, but for that matter hermits are not customary, and a friendly tourist-attracting hermit is even a rarer phenomenon. What historic site in the country can boast of an authentic hermit? As I see it he is doing no harm, and if the Archives and History Department would not push it and suggest that it is the Army's responsibility, then I doubt that they would move him out. However, if Archives and History wants to move him, then the responsibility, and the publicity that would follow would be our own. I f Archives and History insists on his being evicted forcibly from the property, then I suggest that you fill out the proper papers and mail them to the Sheriff here for serving. This is what was suggested by a Justice of the Peace here.

185 The Army inspector raised the question as to the army regulation that is interesting. He said that their rules said something about "erecting a habitable building" on the site was not allowed. This, he pointed out, the hermit has not done. He stores things in the cement pill box, but sleeps in an old car, and lives almost entirely out of doors, gathering clams and mussels and oysters to survive. By the way, his appearance is exactly that of Ernest Hemingway. There is another hermit living in the area, he says, and is known as "The Wild Man" because of his typically antisocial behavior. This other hermit is seldom seen by man, and runs into the swamps when seen, not being sociable and popular as is the Fort Fisher Hermit. If the Fort Fisher Hermit is evicted, the question might be raised as to disposition of "The Wild man." Perhaps a pack of bloodhounds could be used with the National Guard to flush him out and have him shot for daring to be different!! As you can see, I am no person to get to evict anyone from anywhere. I value human rights o f freedom too highly to even sign papers for another party. I respect the hermit's desire to take a bare living from the sea and his wish to live alone, and be a friend to nature and to man. I do not wish to be the instrument whereby he is forced away from his home and his way of life, although "legally" he could be made to do so, or thrown in jail for trespassing, but the legal right is not always the moral right. I realize that I have been of little help in evicting the Hermit, but at least perhaps now you have a better idea of the situation. The problem of "how to dispose of hermits on historic sites" is still a problem, and I realize that in the procedure of carrying out the business of historic sites that a "hermit disposal policy" will have to be

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION worked out. If I had no qualms about signing the evictment papers they could already have been served on him, but I am sure they can be arranged for by someone there in Raleigh, and sent on here if necessary. If the departmental policy is to continue to press for his removal, then I will go again to him and request that he leave before he is forced out by the sheriff. This I will do. I hope you will understand my position. I would feel much the same way if you requested that I kill or remove all the rabbits and coons from Brunswick. I don't believe that I could do it, any more than I could remove the Hermit from Fort Fisher. In regard to my willingness to help with the Fort Fisher project, I will be glad to assist with the supervision of cutting trees and brush, surveying the site and potiring cement markers, excavating features, or painting signs and working in a number of other ways, but hermit removal is out of my line ....

Stanley South Archaeologist My activities at Brunswick and Fort Fisher expanded to include sites throughout North Carolina. The hermit was still there in the crowd that watched when the cannon from the U. S. S. Peterhoffwas drug onto the beach at Fort Fisher, and he was there watching as the torpedo was lifted from the sandy hole. He was a fixture on that historic site and when he left his bunker to watch such events there were always people around him asking questions and listening to his comments. He had charisma. While I was still in North Carolina my responsibilities broadened to include many other sites, so I saw little o f Robert during those years, but I was wanned by knowing he was still there in his bunker, entertaining tourists--a philosopher hermit who wanted to start a school of common sense. Years after I left North Carolina he was found dead in his bunker.

The Hermit Society Is Formed--"He Made People Think" In 1995, for no particular reason, I began thinking about my visits to Robert Harrell and the Fort Fisher eradication program, and as a result I wrote a 20-page poem summarizing all I knew about him (South 1995c). A few months later I heard from Michael Edwards of Wilmington, who had found a copy of my 1960 letter in the Fort Fisher Museum, and who had tracked me down to invite me to a meeting of "The Hermit Society," which he founded for those who knew and respected what Robert Harrell stood for in his persona as the Fort Fisher Hermit. I attended that meeting and read my poem. Later, in 1995, I was given a certificate documenting that I had graduated from "The School of Common Sense." The circumstance of Robert's death has long been o f interest to Michael Edwards, who has recently solved the mystery. He has written a book on the hermit (Edwards 1994). Recently, I was interviewed by a company making a documentary videotape on the hermit, and shortly after, a movie production company in Wilmington visited me and filmed my stories about Robert Harrell. Robert's story has become legend.

A Broader Scope--Historical Archaeology in North Carolina My focus at Brunswick Town during the first few years was on excavating, mapping, and writing reports on the discoveries being made, as well as processing and cataloging the artifacts recovered and putting up trailside exhibits. By 1960, however, I had been asked by my supervisor in Raleigh to visit other historic sites and offer my evaluation of what I saw. As the years passed and more of these projects were requested, less time could be spent on excavating Brunswick Town ruins. It was during this period when I was dipping my trowel into projects all over the state, someone in Raleigh remarked that I was "a loose cannon" in North Carolina. In the following chapter, I present some of the "loose cannon" projects I did beyond Brunswick, that were a great learning experience for me.

Chapter 9 Tales from "A Loose Cannon" Introduction In the 1960s the Historic Sites Division of the North Carolina Department o f Archives and History was expanding its historic site acquisitions as local interest, politics, and legislative support directed. I was often asked to visit a site and comment on what I observed there. These visits often involved some shovel testing lasting only a day or two, but some were far more extensive, taking me away from Brunswick Town and Fort Fisher for longer periods o f time. In this chapter I recall some o f the stories emerging from these "loose cannon" excursions to foreign parts beyond Brunswick and Fort Fisher that helped me gain a broader developmental perspective. The Chapman-Taylor (Attmore-Oliver) House in New Bern As I mentioned above, I frequently I took Charlie Smith with me, as was the case with the Chapman-Taylor (Attmore-Oliver) house in New Bern (South 1962c). My contact there told me tradition had it that when New Bern was under Federal control during the Civil War, uniforms for Federal troops had been made there. In the basement of this house we found several sewing machines. I was told they were to be discarded in a remodeling taking place at the time. I examined them closely and found they dated to 1867--after the Civil War. I urged that they not be put on the junk pile. Also, one of the rooms had such a low overhead I could not stand up straight, yet the ceiling had been nicely plastered. Why? Perhaps the occupants sat at sewing machines all day? These clues made me think that uniforms might well have been made there after the Civil War, though I had no historical research to support that conclusion other

than the sewing machines and the nicely plastered ceiling in the cellar room.

Figure 9.1. Antique sewing machines in the basementof the Attmore-OliverHouse in New Bern, North Carolina. (Photo: South 1962) Some time later I was asked to return and examine the yard for a foundation thought to have been there. I probed and found it and we exposed part of it. At that time I noticed that only two of the machines remained in the basement room and I took a picture of them, but I was afraid they too,

187

188 were destined for the trash pile along with the others. A round brass plate on the machines indicated they were manufactured by "Wheeler & Wilson Mfg. Co. New York 625 Broadway" In small circles were "LONDRES 1862 AND ARTS 1867." I hope they were saved by the interpreters of that house as an added document to its history. Charlie and I enjoyed these excursions because we shared seafood chowder, stories, and new horizons away from Brunswick and Fort Fisher. These projects also provided a means of broadening my perspective in terms of my personal development, while familiarizing me with a variety of historic sites (South 1964b: 3). By 1964, these "loose cannon" projects became so frequent that my title changed to Departmental Archaeologist, with no increase in salary--a symbolic step-up. It was a point of honor with me to produce a map and a written report on each of these projects--otherwise what I did there would have been simply word-of-mouth hearsay--changing with each telling, like a game of hearsay Momma used to play with the boarders. A phrase was whispered into the ear of the boarder next to you, and so on around the room. When the last person reported what was heard, it bore no resemblance to the original phrase. I wanted to eliminate as much hearsay as possible regarding my involvement in statewide projects, so I put on record each of my forays into various parts of the state.

The House on Hobbs Road--A Successful "Blind Study" Our three-day mission at this Greensboro site was to determine if a ruin in the woods had once been the home of educator David Caldwell, who, Lawrence Lee told me, had lived on a plantation there between 1767 and 1824. Beyond that bit of information I had virtually no historical background to assist me. I probed and located a 20-foot square basement foundation made of large stones. I did some text excavation inside the ruin. Ceramics (75 sherds) and other evidence recovered from the cellar floor indicated that the structure was not occupied prior to 1800, and

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION dated no later than around 1825. When I filed my report, complete with a map showing plan and profiles, I concluded that the cellar did not represent a house dating from 1767 (South 1960d). Later I received a letter from Lawrence Lee, the historian for the project, who told me the documents indicated that some years after the Battle of Guilford Courthouse nearby, Caldwell had built a second house, probably around 1800, and he died in 1824 (South 1960d:5). These dates coincided amazingly well with the bracket provided by the ceramics I had found in the cellar. When I learned this, I was glad I had not known of Caldwell's second house, because that gave my conclusions the character of a "blind study," which impressed my supervisor and others with the potential of historical archaeology in such cases.

Searching for Colono-Indian Pottery---84 Indian Sites in Four Days In several ruins in Brunswick Town, I found fragments of burnished pottery bowls that appeared to be versions of burnished Indian pottery I had seen. I called this ware "Brunswick Burnished," thinking it must have come from Indians coming into Brunswick to sell their wares. I conjured up those Indians, like ghosts from the Green Swamp west of Brunswick (South 1960e: 55-63, 1962a: Plates 10-11). Later, NoEl Hume (1962 17(1), called this ware Colono-Indian. In order to see if other archaeological sites in the area had this type "Indian" pottery, I asked Joffre Coe if he had seen any of that bumished ware from southeastern North Carolina. He indicated he had not, and suggested I do a survey to see if I could find any. Charlie and I undertook to do so in 1960, over a four-day period, during which we found 84 sites. I drew maps of the sites and included photographs of the various Indian pottery types to illustrate the taxonomy I had found in the area from Pender County North Carolina, north of Wilmington, to Horry County, South Carolina (South 1960e, 1964b, 1976a: 156).

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

189

When I turned the artifacts over to Joffre Coe in Chapel Hill, he commented that I shouldn't mention that it only took four days to conduct the survey, because no one would believe me, including him. I told him I simply drove the truck down the main highway paralleling the inland waterway and the rivers and wherever a road cut off from that we drove down it and jumped out and began picking up sherds as the road cut through the high terrace at the edge of the waterway, marked the site number on the county highway map, filled out the site form, put the sherds in a bag, and drove on. He was still not convinced, saying, "No one could record 84 sites in four days!" But, Charlie and I knew that is exactly what we had done. Joffre said that piece of information, true or not, would detract from the study because people wouldn't believe any of it. Results of that survey were finally published in 1976 (youth 1976a). I didn't find any of the pottery such as that which I had found in the Brunswick ruins in our survey. That should have given me a clue that something was wrong with nay conjuring up Indians from the Green Swamp to explain that burnished pottery. Roger Moore, owner of Orton Plantation, said he had killed the last Indians on the Cape Fear in 1725. In my conjectural story, I had some of them hiding out in the swamp making pottery, and coming into Brunswick Town on Saturdays to sell the ware to the citizens of Brunswick. When Leland Ferguson relieved me of that burden, by identifying "Colono Ware" as having likely been made by African slaves, I was grateful (Ferguson 1980:24). But, was all such burnished pottery made only by African Americans? I think not. That question is still with us 40 years later (Steen 1999:93-120).

African American Country Is Full of It!"

Colono-Ware--"This

When Leland Ferguson was working as an archaeologist at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology in the 1970s, before he began his specialty in African American research, I got a postcard from our colleague

Richard Polhemus, who was visiting his brother in West Africa. He said we might want to reevaluate our interpretation of "colono-Indian" pottery, because he said, "This country is full of it!" This started the ball rolling to the point where in 2002, archaeologists sometimes automatically ascribe all such ware to African American slaves. Carl Steen (1999:93-120) has urged us to take another look and nudge our pendulum a little toward the other way--acknowledging that colono-Indian-made pottery is still sometimes an ethnic option, depending on time and place. We haven't yet discovered the double helix in potsherds--but we keep trying. At least progress has been made and I no longer have to pull Native Americans out of a swamp as an explanation.

Site Survey--Searching for Clovis At the request of various historical societies as co-sponsors with the State Department of Archives and History, Chaflie and I were able to conduct archaeological surveys to learn more about the Native American past in North Carolina. On one trip we went to Swansboro to see what sites were present on two islands in the White Oak River. A local minister, Tucker Littleton, whom we called "Friar Tuck," had found a Clovis projectile point on Adler's Island. That site was of particular interest to us (South 1962h: 23). However, we did not find another one when we visited the high sand bluff, at the base of which Rev. Littleton had found the Clovis point. We did find later evidence of Native Americans there.

Searching for Native American Pottery Sites-The McFayden Mound Through the interest of R. V. Asbury, the Brunswick Town guide, we did an archaeological survey of four sites in Brunswick County. This study produced a wide range of pottery types as well as Savannah River projectile points. The pottery types ranged from Stallings fibertempered, to Thorn's Creek, to Cape Fear, to Hanover, to Oak Island, all types we had seen on our four day survey in 1960, giving us another

190 look at the Native American pottery made locally in the past several thousand years (South and Asbury 1962). Members of the Lower Cape Fear Archaeological Society were interested in conducting an archaeological dig sponsored by the Society. From R. V. Asbury I learned of the McFayden burial mound in Brunswick County, and we visited the site where we found numerous fragments of human bone. Members of the society worked two days with us at this mound to learn the information it contained. As excavation got underway that weekend, with a few o f the members of the society showing up, we discovered the only pottery present was six sherds of the Cape Fear Fabric Impressed type I had previously described in my survey (South 1960e). Of most interest to us was a unique stone snake-head effigy and a fragment of a stone tobacco pipe with etched geometric design o f cross-hatched triangles (South 1962i). The mound proved to be filled with cremation burials in the form of small clusters of bumed bones, some containing shell beads. The impressions of a series of timbers revealed that some type of structure must have once been connected to the cremations placed there. An intrusive pit dug into the mound contained fragments of a large restorable glass demijohn, a stub-stemmed tobacco pipe with a face, and fragments o f a glass lantern shade. This pit may have been dug in 1878 by Mr. McKoy, in 1883 by Professor Holmes, or in 19i6 by David Bushnell. We were not the first to be interested in what the mound contained (South 1962i: 16; Sprunt 1916: 16-19). The hot sun and manual labor disabused the Society members o f the "romance" of archaeology, and they quickly returned to concentrating on the documents of history rather than that buried beneath their feet. North Carolina Historic Site E x c a v a t i o n s - - O n the Road to Bath with Charlie

From 1960 to 1968, Charlie Smith and I ran all over North Carolina, sticking our shovels in the ground to provide information on a

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION remarkable variety of historic sites of interest to historical societies and individuals. We had a great time and learned a lot from the challenge. I mention here some of those forays we took far from the particular focus we also had on Brunswick Town. One of the sites Charlie and I excavated was at the Palmer-Marsh House in Bath (South 1960f). The mid-eighteenth century house was still standing, but archaeological exploration of the grounds was needed. We discovered a cellar hole in the yard to the north of the house, with a stonelined well nearby. The cellar contained a layer of refuse thrown into it until the 1760s, a few years after the house was built. Among the interesting objects from that refuse were fragments of etched window glass discovered by Jewell as she was cataloging the artifacts. Etched into the fragments was part of the name of Michael Coutanche, a commissioner of Bath in 1745, who once lived on the lot. The cellar probably was from the home of Coutanche, tom down when the large house beside it was built. The well at this site was also of interest. In the top slump, still visible when we arrived on the site, there was a 1956 license plate for a car. As we excavated we got out of the twentieth century deposit at about a two-foot depth. Below that layer we found nineteenth century artifacts, and finally, in the bottom layer we found eighteenth century artifacts--a neatly stratified well. On the Trail of B l a c k b e a r d - - E d w a r d Teach on Teach's Point

Across from Bath was "Teach's Point," where legend had it that Blackbeard (Edward Teach) once had a home in 1718. We were asked to look at a site where treasure hunters had been digging into a ruin looking for Teach's treasure. I went there with all the expectation that I would find a nineteenth century plantation house ruin. What I found surprised me. Exploring the crater dug by treasure hunters, I found a few bricks still intact in a brick wall held together by oystershell mortar. So far - so good. Then I found sherds of ceramics and wine bottle fragments. None of these dated

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

after 1718. Absent was white saltglazed stoneware, which came into use about 1720, but present were sherds of combed yellow slipware and other sherds dating prior to that time. Nothing I found would refute the idea that this ruin was that of a home built by the famous Blackbeard. I always wanted to go back there to explore that ruin in greater detail, but the opportunity never arose.

The George Hooper House in Wilmington Charlie and I excavated in Wilmington at the eighteenth century George Hooper House, where we found a cobblestone floor in the semi-sunken basement such as those characteristic of those found in the Brunswick Town ruins. A sealed doorway outline, giving rise to stories about a hidden tunnel to the river, prompted us to excavate outside where we found a set of buried steps once providing access to the cellar (South 1962j). In the yard was a huge fig tree with ripe figs in abundance---fewer when we left than when we arrived. The Ringware House in Swansboro In Swansboro, we dug in the cellar of the Ringware House, where we found a plaster floor poured over a wooden floor, beneath six inches of soil. We were able to assign a date of 1778 as the construction period of the house, based on the ceramics we found on and beneath the oystershell plaster floor (South 1962d). "Indian Hill" at the Citadel in Charleston Lawrence Lee, professor of history at the Citadel in Charleston, requested our assistance to explore a ridge known as "Indian Hill" on the campus. This provided Charlie and me the opportunity of leaving North Carolina for a one day foray (South 1962k). The hill itself was a natural river levee, but in the late seventeenth century a house was built there. We found burnished ware there that we assumed at the time was colono-Indian pottery reflecting contact with some local group, but now the sherds we found would likely be called colonoware, thought to

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have been made by African Americans associated with those who occupied the structure---which? On this trip, as Charlie and I were driving through the streets of Charleston, we saw a beautiful African American policewoman directing traffic. When Charlie saw her he made me drive around the block several times so he could gawk at her. He said she was the most beautiful woman he had ever laid an eye on. In future years, whenever Charleston came up in our conversation, I would hear Charlie moan, or mutter, "Oh Lord," and I could read his mind.

The Perquimans County Courthouse When repairs were being made to the Perquimans County Courthouse, I was asked to go there to see if I could discover evidence for an earlier part of the building that had been torn away when the courthouse had been enlarged. I crawled beneath the building through a crawl hole and found the foundation for the original 1824 pentagonal bay, and mapped it. My drawing showed the original foundation of 1824, the 1890 additions, and the 1932 addition, and additions of 1952 (South 1963a). That courthouse had indeed grown like Topsie. We Dug in New Bern, Bethabara, Pineville, Charlotte, Halifax, Beaufort, etc., etc. Other projects we explored beyond Brunswick were: a search for Brice's 1711 "fort" at New Bern (South 1963b); excavation of a brick kiln near Brunswick (South 1963c); exploratory excavation at Bethabara (South 1963d); a search for President James Polk's childhood cabin site in Pineville, North Carolina (South 1964f); excavation in Charlotte at the Hezekiah Alexander House (South 1965a); exploratory excavation in Halifax (South 1965b) and at the Bell House in Beaufort (South 1966e). Fort Dobbs on the French and Indian Frontier Charlie and I went to Statesville and dug at the French and Indian War site o f Fort Dobbs. It was an important fort on the Carolina frontier from 1755 to 1764. There we found garbage thrown

192 into the moat around the site of the impressive log blockhouse that once stood there. In my report, I demonstrated, using a transparent overlay, how a one-mile tract of land surveyed in the mideighteenth century could still-be seen on the modem aerial photograph (South 1967g, 1968g: 111).

We Explored Sites in Halifax, Fayetteville, Asheville, Murphy and Boone We also excavated at the ruin of the Constitution House in Halifax (South 1967h), and conducted salvage archaeology at the site of the North Carolina Arsenal at Fayetteville with Gary Stone (South 1968c).

Stan and Garry Stone at the Fayetteville Arsenal. (Photo: Margaret McMahan 1968)

Figure 9.2.

We conducted a preliminary survey of the Swain-Lane House near Asheville (South 1968d), and I even did an examination of the site of the Amos Howard cabin, once visited by Daniel Boone, located on Faculty Street in my hometown of Boone (South 1968e). When George Demmy came to work with me, we went to Murphy, in the far western comer of the state, to examine the site of Fort Butler, where the town of Murphy was planning a park. Fort Butler was a government compound where many Cherokee Indians starved to death in what was

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION said by General Winfield Scott to be "one of the greatest blots on American history," during the roundup and removal o f Cherokees to Oklahoma in 1838 (Demmy 1970: 45). In our research I examined the microfilm of the surveyor's 1838 field notebooks made during the survey of the Cherokee country. I was struck by the fact that each individual Cherokee house site at that time was exactly located--a prize for some historical archaeologist trying to locate Cherokee house sites from that moment in time (South 1970i: 42-43). We cut trenches searching for a palisade ditch in areas identified (by an old man), as those where he saw "a fence," thought to be the remains of a stockade. I left George there to search for that feature, and returned later to draw a map of what he had found (Demmy 1970:44-47). There was local talk of rebuilding the stockade, and it seemed to me, given the terrible event that happened inside the compound, it would require an interpretive site with great sensitivity, in order to document that example of man's inhumanity to man. George and I found no evidence of a palisade where the informant said he had seen "a fence." That doesn't mean such clues could not be located in a far more extensive project than we were able to carry out in the limited time we spent in Murphy. The National Historic Trail, The Cherokee Trail of Tears 1838-1839, remembers those who died in that Native American holocaust. The Fort Butler site is in keeping with that National Historic Trail of Tears memorial.

Shipwrecked on Russell's Island in Bogue Inlet--Swansboro, North Carolina One o f the beyond-Brunswick sites Charlie, Don Mayhew and I investigated, was a Civil War fortification on Russell's Island, in Bogue Inlet across the Intra-coastal Waterway from Swansboro. An historian commissioned by Archives and History to investigate the island fort went equipped with a shovel. The fortification embankment was an impressive crescent around a central bunker mound. The historian, untrained in archaeological method, had "investigated" the

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

bunker by digging a large crater in the center, leaving a doughnut-shaped remnant around the gaping relic-hunting hole. When a subsequent trip to the site by Archives and History personnel found the violated bunker I was apologetically asked, if I would visit the island to see what could be salvaged from an archaeological perspective. I arranged through "Friar Tuck," the minister from Swansboro, for a boat to take us to the uninhabited island. As we were loading the supplies into the boat a Marine Corps Sergeant on leave showed up and asked if he could join our expedition. We gladly accepted his offer. We cleaned and drew the profiles of the historian's crater and transit-mapped the plan of the earthworks, and took pictures for the record. As we were leaving, the island we found the tide had dropped and we had to push the boat across the marsh to reach water. The low tide meant,that we had to go outside the protection of the sound into the ocean and then back into Bogue Inlet. As we did that a black cloud appeared and a violent storm hit. The engine of the boat quit when we were in the inlet, and the helpless boat began drifting back out to sea, amid lightning flashes and strikes into the water not far from us. I passed out life jackets, making sure Charlie got one because he was scared and disturbed because the captain of the boat was swearing at the rain and shaking his fist at the sky. I jumped overboard with Don Mayhew to see if we could swim and somehow guide the boat back to the island. To my surprise our feet hit bottom. We then walked the boat to the edge of the water on high ground. Through the quick thinking of the Marine Corps sergeant, all our matches and cigarette lighters were put into a milk-carton found lying on the beach to keep them dry. The captain of the boat, who had recently had heart trouble, began having a Chill and two of us sat on each side of him under a bush and hugged him to share our body heat in the downpour. Meanwhile the sergeant siphoned gas from our boat engine, poured some into a mayonnaise jar we found on the beach, filled the jar with dirt, buried it in the

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sand to the rim, and used one of the cigarette lighters to strike a spark to light the gasoline inside the jar. We then piled wood onto that flame and soon had a fire going. We saw some goats on a trail nearby and the sergeant developed a plan to kill one for our dinner meal by laying in wait beside a trail, while others of us drove the goats by him. He would then stab a goat using a frog gig we found in the boat. The storm slacked off, and we went to the beach. We began collecting oysters to place around the fire to roast. I tied my T-shirt to the long frog-gig pole and waved it above my head to try to attract the attention of yachts going along the Intra-coastal Waterway, which we could see in the distance Suddenly a lightning bolt hit the marsh only a few yards away, at which time I decided that what I was doing was not a good idea, and gave it up. With oysters in a box we found on the beach, we then returned to the fire, where the captain was recovering from his violent chill. We sat around the fire enjoying the oysters and making plans for spending the night on the island. Then we heard the sound of a motorboat and rushed to the beach. There we found the captain's son pulling his boat ashore. He was fearful for his dad, and urged him to get into the boat, but the captain insisted that the son calm down and have some oysters with us. We all agreed that these were the best oysters we had ever eaten. We got in the son's boat and he took us back to the mainland, where Charlie got down on his knees and kissed the ground-relieved to be back on high ground (South 1962m, 1994a:178-181). The laughter at his gesture reflected the shared relief we all felt at our rescue from our short shipwrecked-on-an-island adventure.

I'm Conserving Iron Artifacts--Not the Crown Jewels of Europe As hundreds of iron artifacts and thousands of nails began to accumulate in the Brunswick Town laboratory a quick method of cleaning and conserving them was needed. Various methods were being used to conserve iron objects. These

194 varied from soaking them in a number of solutions, to heating them red hot, to electrolysis. I found that most processes took up to six weeks to a month to complete. My response to this drawn-out schedule was that I couldn't spend a lifetime conserving nails. I rented a sandblaster and cleaned over 500 objects in a week's time. I then boiled the cleaned objects in distilled water, dried them in an oven, and dipped them while still hot in polyurethane resin. My experience with conservators had been that they treated a single nail as though it were the crown jewels o f Europe. I had no time for such nonsense (South 1962e: 17). The Moravians in North Carolina--Bethabara in Wachovia At the request of Old Salem, Inc. in WinstonSalem, in 1963, I made a three day exploratory trip to see if I could find ruins from the Moravian settlerhent of Bethabara that could be correlated with the 1766 map of the settlement. Stone ruins for the Gemein Haus (meeting house) were indeed found, along with a whole slipware plate, and the palisade ditch for the fort surrounding the town during the French and Indian War. By December 1963 I was able to make detailed recommendations for the stabilization of the ruins and the development of the historic site of Bethabara (South 1963d, 1963e). The excavations there were sponsored by the Southern Province of the Moravian Church through donations from Charles Babcock, St. Subsequent projects there in the next few years, with assistants of George Demmy, Randy Luther, Bradford Rauschenberg, Bill Reid and J. Glenn Little, II, were equally successful in correlating the map with the ruins. This resulted in a symphony of historic site development o f Bethabara into a major interpretive theme of the early Moravians in North Carolina (South 1964g, 1964h, 199%:11-17). Much o f the research I did for the book I was preparing on my Bethabara work was completed by 1965 and filed with the Department of Archives and History in Raleigh (South 1965d, 1965e).

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"You Said It Would Be W o r k But You Didn't

Say--Work-Work!" The Bethabara work crew was composed of men picked up from a place on the street in Winston Salem where those seeking work gathered. I always gave a speech to them, saying that the shovel work would be hard because we were digging in red clay. One day a worker came to me two hours after work began, complaining that the work was too hard and he wanted me to drive him back into town. I reminded him that I had told them the work would not be easy. He responded by saying, "I know you said you wanted us to w o r k - - b u t you didn't say it would be work--work! I told him he would have to walk back into Winston-Salem. Crawfish In the Cellar--I Unplug a D r a i n - With a Little Help from a Friend As we excavated the cellar holes in Bethabara, rain water often stood for a few days, finally soaking into the surrounding red clay. Each time this happened the crew would have to bail out the water before excavation could proceed. On one occasion, we were dipping buckets of water from one cellar and passing them to other crew members to dump some distance away, when suddenly the water in the hole began to drop on its own. We watched amazed, as the muddy bottom was revealed, and it was then we saw a small hole, into which the last of the water was disappearing. I stuck my hand into the hole into which the water had disappeared, to see if I could determine what had happened, when suddenly I felt a pinch on my finger. I jerked my hand out of the hole, as a crawfish sailed through the air. It had crawled into the cellar from a nearby creek through a wooden drain that had been placed in the cellar long ago to allow water seeping into it to flow into the creek. The crawfish had cut the bailing time considerably, allowing the excavation to proceed quicker than without that help (South 1999a: 40-42).

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

"Finders-Keepers--Losers Weepers!" One o f the laborers I hired was put to looking in the sifter screen to recover artifacts and put them in the marked bag for processing in the laboratory being run by Jewell and her assistants in an old store on the site. One man said he had seen another one put a brass thimble found in the screen into his pocket, i had instructed the men about what to look for and that all artifacts should be put into the bag provided for that purpose. When I asked the accused man about the thimble he gave me an incredulous look and said, "It's mine!" I explained that his job was to put such things into the bag. He shook his head and said,"You'll not get this thimble[ I found it and it is m i n e - finders-keepers--losers-weepersI" He smiled and from his pocket pulled the little Bethabara thimble on his finger and held it up for me to see. I fired him immediately and told him to leave the site. The last I saw the thimble it was moving down the road snugly placed on the raised middle finger on a hand being raised high and waved back and forth for me to see. Its new owner choosing the thimble over a day's pay. Archaeology Claims a Son--and Our Dog Falls in Love with a Rabbit Besides supervising the laboratory personnel, Jewell would help with the excavation of the ruins to give her a break from the routine in the laboratory (South 1999a:181). One day, while excavating the cellar hole at the bakery, she began shoveling some of the loose dirt into the wheelbarrow. I cautioned her about doing that because she was pregnant at the time. She said it was not difficult and continued--that night she miscarried our second son. Her dedication was so great she was soon back in the laboratory processing data, a job in which she took great pride and enjoyment. In the laboratory she dog-sat our little Chihuahua dog, Ralph. He was recuperating also, from being hit by a Mack truck. His front leg was in a cast. That had intimidated him so much that for weeks he simply lay on his pillow in the back room of the

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laboratory shed, standing up only to eat then lying down again as though totally dejected. One day we heard a Clump! Clump! Clump! in the back room. We all looked at each other trying to figure out what had made that sound. Suddenly we realized it was Ralph moving across the floor in a hurry. We rushed to the back door in time to see him poised on the threshold of the rear door, staring at something in the yard. I was alarmed because he appeared about to jump out the door, which was over two feet high from the ground because the stoop stone had been moved away. I tried to reach him before he jumped, but as I was halfway there he sprang out into space, landing on his front leg in the cast and plowing his nose into the ground, but instantly he was on his feet and running across the yard, apparently unfazed by the rough landing. Then we saw what had stirred him to this unusual activity and brought him back from depression, apparently at death's d o o r - - a rabbit. Apparently someone's pet bunny was hopping around the yard near the Gemein Hans ruin nearby. As we watched, pleased that Ralph had found something to stimulate him to forget the cast on his leg, he crept up and smelled the bunny. It tumed and looked at Ralph then went back to eating grass. Then, to our amazement, Ralph went to the rear of rabbit and tried to mount it! The bunny looked around, took a couple of hops, and continued nibbling grass. Ralph tried again to mate with the bunny--then time and again, with no luck, and no sign of interest on the part of the rabbit. Meanwhile Jewell, the lab personnel, and I were laughing so hard tears were sliding down our cheeks. We had never seen such a phenomenon. After that day Ralph was his old self again. He was no longer intimidated by the plaster cast on his leg. His juices were flowing. He was alive again. Life was good. He had fallen in love.

Historic Site Development--"Let's Do It!" I found and excavated the ditch of the 1756 Bethabara fort and the ruins of Bethabara. I then developed the historic site for viewing by the

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Figure 9.3. Stan, pointing to the interior edge of the bastion ditch for the 1756 fort around Bethabara, with the ruin of

Gottfried Aust's pottery shop in the background. (Photo: Bradford Rauschenberg 1963) visiting public. A major aspect of that site was the excavation of the wheel-thrown pottery made by the German potter Gottfried Aust. I also found the ware made by his apprentice, and master potter in his own right, Rudolph Christ. His creamware pottery was such as that being made in Staffordshire in the mid-eighteenth century. Because o f the exciting nature of these discoveries, I published articles on the tobacco pipes and ceramic forms made by Aust (South 1965f, 1967i) and Christ (South 1970b), and a more complete work much later (South 1999a). The question of interpreting the Bethabara fortification wall came up when it was suggested a brick wall, over where the posts had been, would be a way to interpret the fort. I took issue with this view, saying such a brick wall would

mislead visitors into thinking the fort had been of brick. I argued against that interpretation and suggested posts at each comer of the fort to mark its location (South 1999a: 162-163). I won that one, and the next day Mr. Babcock called me and asked that we meet for a hamburger to discuss what to do next. He asked what I would do if cost were no object. I told him I would stabilize the stone ruins and place a palisade of preserved posts in the original ditch, which was standing open at the time. He looked mischievously at me over his hamburger and said, "Let's do it!" From then on I had freedom to develop the historic site based on the results of the archaeology I had carried out. By 1972 I had the manuscript of my book on the Bethabara site almost completed when John

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

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Figure 9.4. Jewell South, at the stabilized ruin of the doctor's laboratory in Bethabara, with the reconstructedpalisade in the background. (Photo: South 1964) Bivens Jr. and Bradford Rauschenberg published their book, The Moravian Potters in North Carolina (1972). A few years before, Brad Rauschenberg, my assistant at Bethabaia, had requested that I turn over to John Bivens the archaeological pictures, as w e l l as the photographs I had taken of the pottery I had excavated from the kiln waster deposits. The ceramics had been lovingly restored with the help of George Demmy. Because I planned to use the photographs in my own book I refused that request. Brad then, took pictures of the pottery stored in Old Salem for the excellent book he and Bivens published. These events made my book moot at the time. Over a quarter of a century later, I sent my manuscript to Eliot Werner at Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, and it finally appeared in print as Historical Archaeology in Wachovia (South 1999a).

Historic Site Development--Removing Later Bethabara Buildings When I began work at Bethabara, there was an early nineteenth century brick house on the site at a location that I thought it would make a good entranceway structure for interpreting the earlier ruins inside the fort (South 1999a:17). However, the prevailing view of others was that the later structure should be bulldozed down to keep the site as "pure" to the eighteenth century Bethabara as possible. I lost that one and the house came tumbling down. The well behind that house, used for water until the house was destroyed, was the original well shown on the 1766 map. It had been adapted for use with a modern pump. Another structure on the site was a large twostory barn of the early nineteenth century period. It had to go also, as did two old wooden stores. To remove the barn so we could excavate beneath

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Figure 9.5. An aerial view of the stabilized ruins of Bethabara and the reconstructed palisade fort of 1756. (Photo:Abrams

Aerial SurveyCorporation 1964) part of where it stood we stripped off the boards near the foundation and cut through all the vertical timbers holding it up. Still it didn't fall because as each timber was cut through it simply settled comfortably onto the cut studs. Finally, I threw a grappling hook with rope attached onto the top floor and the crew and I began pulling on the rope. Gradually the barn tilted and finally came crashing down--not exactly archaeology, but part of what sometimes has to be done in developing an historic site (South 1999a:161162). In 1966, assisted by J. Glenn Little, II, excavation of the Christ waster deposit was carried out by Glenn and Randy Luther. Later Glenn dug at the rear of the Krause-Butner pottery shop still standing in Bethabara, where a kiln was found (South 1999a:315-320). The results of this preliminary exploratory work prompted later excavation of the entire rear area of the shop by John Clauser.

I gave Glenn the following instructions for putting the final touches on the historic site development of Bethabara (South 1966h: 1): Stabilization of the stone ruins, erection of the final palisade posts of the fort, placing gravel and sand in the cellars not having stone floors, erection of interpretive signs throughout the area beside each ruin or feature, construction of a path with shavings throughout the area for use by visitors, cutting grass from around the ruins and poisoning the soil one foot from the stone ruin walls, planting grass in bare areas, removal of unwanted stones and poles from the area inside the fort, erecting signs along the nature trail at the location of important plants, were all part of the outline I gave Mr. Little to be his guide for work between June 6 th and July 3 rd, 1966.

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These details were completed on schedule and around 300 people attended the opening (South 1966h:1). Since that time a visitor center has been built opposite the developed area and the site is in a maintenance status. The Moravians in North Carolina--the Fifth House Excavation in Old Salem In 1965 I carried out excavation in Old Salem on the lot of the Fifth House, assisted by George Demmy (South 1966g). Our goal was to locate the foundation and chimney base o f the original house so that reconstruction could begin. We found through testing that several feet of fill had been placed over the ruin, and that had to be removed by machine to allow excavation to be carried out. We found the stone foundation and chimney base and mapped it for use by the architects involved with reconstructing the house above the original foundation. In conducting our specific goal, we removed the soil from only the public street end of Lot 49, leaving the back side of the lot unexcavated. Our excavation in 1965 had uncovered an interesting bell (1966g: 11), as well as a bisque, mold-pressed sherd and a faience glazed sherd (South 1999a:323). These sherds were exciting to us because they were likely made by Rudolph Christ, the potter who took over the pottery next door after the death o f his mentor Gottfried Aust. An anonymous donor was also interested and funded an additional dig, on the part of Lot 49, not excavated by Demmy and me in 1965. The goal of this 1968 project was to locate additional "Fayance" and more "fine pottery" made by Rudolph Christ as he worked next door to Lot 49. By this time I had been moved from Brunswick Town to Raleigh and was living on a farm not far outside that city. The pressure was on in Raleigh to keep my "loose cannon" approach out o f the field, so I was not allowed to conduct the new dig on Lot 49. I employed Gary Wheeler Stone to be my field assistant on that project. I visited each week to see how the dig was going. I didn't like this remote sensing way of conducting

Figure 9.6. A view of the kiln waster objects in Feature

19R, on Lot 49, in Old Salem, North Carolina. (Photo: South 1965) archaeology and began to think about my options elsewhere. Gary excavated throughout the summer, removing the evidence of nineteenth century structures on the site, before he reached the eighteenth century level. Finally, within a week of the scheduled end of the project, a large pit was discovered containing many wonderful things thrown into it as wasters from the kiln on Lot 48, next door (South 1999a:349-369). Before this feature was dug, Gary had to leave for commitments elsewhere. In this feature I found salt-glazed stoneware; bisque sherds from feather-edge creamware; crown trivets once holding the ware in the kiln; bisque-fired floral sprigged mug fragments with double-intertwined handles; and fragments of a

200 finely made tortoiseshell teapot were among the fragments of Christ's ware found in the pit. The faience we sought was found in a drain filled with fragments of a reconstructed ring-shaped bottle and a slip-glazed mug (South 199%:329). All these wonderful things were reported in detail in my Wachovia book, along with Gary Stone's report on the work he did on Lot 49 (South 1999a:371-399). Isaac Hunter's T a v e r n - - a n Architectural Treasure Found and Lost After I was moved from Brunswick Town to Raleigh, the Wake County Historical Society requested that I archaeologically explore the site of Isaac Hunter's Tavern, located north of Raleigh, and shown on an 1822 map. The president o f the society was interested in the site as an archaeological project to be sponsored by that group. In 1788 the Hillsborough Convention specified that the Capital of North Carolina should be within 10 miles of Isaac Hunter's Tavern. Tradition had it that a committee chosen to select the site had lunch and accompanying libation at Isaac Hunter's Tavern, after which they decided nearby was as good a place as any for the city of Raleigh to be located. For that reason the tavern was an important historic site in the founding of the capital of North Carolina. Garry Wheeler Stone had just come on board as my assistant. He and I went to the site of the tavern as indicated by the correlation of the 1822 map and the aerial photograph o f the area (South and Stone 1969). The site was located in the loop driveway to a modem house, and it was there we began probing. I soon hit a brick footing--then another. We were rejoicing in our quick discovery of what appeared to be the footings for the tavern, when a man showed up and asked why we were digging where the old tavern used to be. I was surprised that he knew about the tavern and stopped digging to talk with him. He expressed interest in what we were doing and said he had been present when the tavern was moved. I asked where was it moved to and he

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION said it was still standing in a field behind the modem house in front o f which we were digging. He and I walked down the farm road beside the house. As we approached the field I saw the characteristic salt-box profile of an eighteenth century building. I looked at the details of construction and verified that this was indeed Isaac Hunter's Tavern--still standing! The floor was gone, and it had been used as a barn. It was intact except for the mantles that had been removed when the house was moved in 1942 (South and Stone 1969). I called off our archaeological project at that point, because now the society had the original architectural shell of the t a v e m - - a far more impressive project it seemed to me than exposed brick footings would have been. Not so, as it turned out. Once those interested in pushing for an archaeological project at the site of the tavern learned that it was still standing and in need of restoration, interest waned, and another project became the main focus of the society. A heartbreaking aspect of this project to me was that the man who had shown me the building said that he had been given instructions to burn the tavern building down on some rainy day. I urged him not to do that and talked with the owner, urging her to save the building so that it might one day be a fine example of a restored historic eighteenth century tavern--the place where the selection of the location o f the city of Raleigh took place. But, such was not to be. The interest of those involved had turned elsewhere. I photographed that historic tavern shell that had managed to survive over two centuries and sent a copy to the City of Raleigh (Harris 1978:195). Records at the North Carolina Historic Preservation Office indicate the tavern building no longer exists. You win some and you lose some---that one was a sad loss for the history of North Carolina. Administrative J o y s - - U l t i m a t u m s Backfire After I was moved into the administrative atmosphere in Raleigh, I soon became aware of grievances held by others with whom I had some infrequent contact in the historic sites division,

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

but I was usually so focused on archaeology that I couldn't expend energy thinking about administrative problems--the least of my concerns. The eternal cynic, I accepted that infighting was a standard part of the administrative package researchers had to deal with. One Saturday, while I was vegging-out in my garden, a carload of about six co-workers at Archives and History came to pay me a visit. We sat on the porch and drank sweet tea Jewell brought us, while I tried to imagine why they had come to visit, because not one of them had ever shown up before. They soon brought up why they were there. They had a petition of grievances directed at the administration. They had signed the document, and wanted me to sign also. As I read, I admired their moxie in putting their itemized complaints in writing, but at the end of the epistle they said if the grievances were not met th~ undersigned would resign. When I read that I. knew I couldn't sign the document. I pointed out that our supervisor might well take us all up on that offer. They resisted that, saying that surely he wouldn't allow us all to resign. I said for them not to count on it and that if they would remove that sentence I would also sign. This meant they had to drive back into Raleigh and change the document. They showed up again on Sunday afternoon with the sentence changed and I signed it. Monday morning we all went into the supervisor's office and presented him with the document to read--several pages of it. As he read his face began to turn pink, then red, and by the time he had read all but the final page, he looked up and said, "If you're saying you're going to resign if this ultimatum isn't met--I accept your resignations!" I said, "Just keep on reading!"--which he did. When he got to the last sentence it said, "If these problems are not satisfactorily addressed we will be disappointed"--not that we would resign. He said he would take our suggestions under advisement. So that was the end of that--nothing was ever done about our "suggestions."

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When we left his office and were walking down the hall, thinking, with our tails between our legs, I began receiving pats on the back, handshakes, and thank-you, from the grouty-grateful we had not lost our jobs. They did almost everything but hoist me onto their shoulders and carry me back to the office in gratitude. My insisting on that last sentence change had saved the day--and our jobs. The Paca House---the "Loose Cannon" on a Maryland Odyssey

In 1966, at the fall meeting of the Conference on Historic Site Archaeology, I was having a beer with J. Glenn Little, II, president of Contract Archaeology, Inc., when he asked how much it would cost to hire me to work for him on a contract he had to excavate at the Paca House in Annapolis, Maryland. I laughed at the idea and said, "Too much." After Christmas of that year he wrote me with a serious proposal. The Paca House was the home of William Paca, the signer to the Declaration of Independence. Historic Annapolis, Inc., had acquired the property in 1965, and had tom away the Carvel Hall Hotel that had been attached to the large eighteenth century home with two wings. The firm was in the process of restoring the building and the grounds behind the Paca House. Archaeology around the house itself would need to be done as well as in the lot behind it. Jewell was pregnant, with the baby expected in May. I couldn't begin the project until after our baby arrived. In June, I took leave from Archives and History, and Jewell, our teenage son, David, and our infant son, Robert, moved into an empty house in the center of Annapolis, provided by Historic Annapolis, where we lived from June to September 1967, sleeping on mattresses on the floor and army cots, and living off of chicken pot pies costing 67 cents each. I hired my son, David, and Randy Luther, who had worked with me at Bethabara. Jewell had her hands full with Robert, but she processed the artifacts we recovered from our digging beneath the floors of the house and around it in the yard.

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We worked seven days each week meeting the challenge that site presented. As the architect studied the fireplaces and other architectural features of the house, I often became involved in helping him with questions regarding details of fireplaces and hearths, identifying eighteenth century, nineteenth century and twentieth century construction (South 1968f: 22-32).

An Archaeological-Architectural Challenge

Research

In digging in the east wing, I discovered the reason two bay windows had been built against the east wall--to provide additional support for the wall when a second story was added in the nineteenth century. The architect had instructed the contractor to remove those bay windows, but when I showed him the reason they had been added he agreed that the top story should be removed before the supporting bay windows, to prevent the east wall from collapsing (South 1967j: Plate 98). I had a great time exploring various archaeological/architectural features. The architect used air-hammers to break through concrete floors to discover eighteenth century walls beneath. I banged on plaster walls to reveal hidden fireplaces, missing staircase clues, old wallpaper, plaster layers with cow hair bonding, the location of original partition walls, and eighteenth century wooden lathing with rose-head nails (South 1967j: Plates 19-53). In the yard we found buried stairwells with sealed entrances, and beside the kitchen wing door, the Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal (South 1977a: 47-51) from the Paca occupation of the house from 1763 to 1780 (South 1967j: 22). In the front yard, beside the kitchen wing, we found a nineteenth century cistern, with a stone covering the hole where the pump once was (1967j: Plates 73-77; 2002a [1998]: 15-23). This odyssey to Annapolis allowed me to meet the unique challenge of restoration archaeology-bringing a "particular emphasis on the systematic recovery of data from the earth, interpreted through analogy with information recovered

through historical research, and correlated with evidence revealed in [a] standing historic building (South 1968:32). Shortly after we left Annapolis I submitted the 280-page report with 122 photographic plates developed in a makeshift darkroom I set up in the bathroom of the house we lived in (South 1967j). I did another report while there, at the request of James Butch, architect, of an examination I did of the records relating to the property at No. 91-93, and 95 Main Street in Annapolis (South 1967k). This project, and the research involved in completing it, provided an opportunity to conduct research in the Maryland Hall of Records in Annapolis, the Maryland Historical Society and the Enoch Pratt Library in Baltimore, The National Archives, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, the Baltimore Museum of Art, and the Library of Congress-with copies of the report going to several of these research institutions.

Political Pressure--Solving a Question of Family Origin An interesting situation arose when one of the sponsors of the Paca House project called me and urged that in my genealogical research it would be helpful if I found that William Paca had an Italian ancestry. This was because a grant of $10,000. would have been forthcoming if that were proved to be the case. I had found, however, that Paca's grandfather, Aquila Peaker, from England, in leaving property to his heirs, used "Paca," and it is in that document where the transition from Peaker to Paca is demonstrated (South 1967j:8). The rumor that the name was Italian came from a remark made in 1911 by Cardinal James Gibbons of Baltimore, who commented that he thought a relationship existed between Paca and the Italian family Pecci (South 1967j: 7). I was not able to say William Paca was of Italian ancestry, disappointing some who had hoped otherwise. When I tumed in the key for the house we had stayed in, I also turned in a letter stating that all the artifacts recovered during our project were left in the second floor laboratory room we had

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

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worked in those months we were there. Some years later I had a request from the Historic Annapolis office asking where the artifacts were. The house we stayed in had been tom down by that time and they had no record of where they were. I was glad that in my report I had illustrated so many of the artifacts we had recovered from that historic site.

represented by the site itself--which is why I used the term "historic site archaeology" for the conference I chaired. I argued that if you used "historic" then "site" should follow--not "archaeology." Noel Hume had pushed for "historical archaeology," and that view prevailed. Sportingly, I seconding that compromise motion (Cotter, ed. 1967: 1-12).

The Society for Historical What's in a Name?

The Political A r e n a - - I A m an Also-Ran

Archaeology--

Although The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology (CHSA) had met for seven years by 1967, and I had published the papers presented during that time, it was a conference, not a society controlled by members. To make sure papers from each conference were published, I remained the chairman and editor during those seven years, because my experience with committees was that they were usually disorganized chaos, and the way to get anything done was to do it yourself. One of the drawbacks for the CHSA becoming the focus for a society was that it was always attached to the Southeastern Archaeological Conference (SEAC). For this reason it was considered a regional conference, although some of the papers presented there were by archaeologists working outside the Southeast. By 1967, therefore, the need for a national society was felt, and a special committee of 16 was established to form the Society for Historical Archaeology (SHA). A baker's dozen of us met in Dallas, Texas, where most of the first day was taken up in a discussion of whether the society was to be " o f ' historical archaeology, or "for" historical archaeology. The other heavy issue was whether archaeology was to be spelled with an "e" in the center or an "ae"--like debating what the meaning of "is" is. Another grave consideration was whether the word "historic" or "historical" should be used in the name of the society. I argued that using the words "historic archaeology" suggested that what we were doing was an historic undertaking (which in some cases it may prove to be); whereas "historical archaeology" had reference to the period of time

With those heavy issues out of the way, on my first and only venture into politics (the game in which my daddy had spent so many decades), I agreed to run against John Cotter for president of the new society--I lost, of course. Later, as a member of the Board of Directors for the society, and even later, as Secretary-Treasurer-Editor of the Society of Professional Archaeologists (SOPA), I finally caught on that the president of such organizations is merely a figurehead, wielding little or no influence on what happens-being primarily a nudger trying to move a bureaucratic mountain--as frustrating as attempting to unsnarl a nylon fish line. I learned to avoid such hopeless involvements. I did take advantage of the new journal Historical Archaeology by submitting articles on the use of photography in historical archaeology, in which I took the opportunity to illustrate my work at Brunswick Town, Bethabara, Old Salem, Russellborough, The Paca House, and Fort Dobbs (South 1968g: 73-113). I also attempted to outline the requirements necessary to become an historical archaeologist in an article entitled "Wanted! An Historical Archaeologist," in which I illustrated my work at Charles Towne Landing (South 1969b: 75-83). John Combes Presents a Proposition

After I returned to North Carolina from the Paca House venture in the fall of 1967, I attended the Conference on Historic Site Archaeology meeting in Macon, Georgia, where I presented two papers, one on the Paca House project (South 1968f: 23-32), and another on archaeological evidence of pottery repairing (South 1968j: 62-

204 71). At that meeting I was having a beer at the invitation of John Combes, who had been excavating at the site of Fort Prince George, South Carolina, when he asked me if I had ever thought about leaving North Carolina. He told me about the South Carolina Tricentennial Commission's interest in archaeology at the original site of 1670 Charles Towne, across the river from present Charleston. I told him I had taken a leave of absence to work for several months in Maryland at the Paca House, and might be interested in a similar contract to look at that site. He said he would look into it. On the Farm in Raleigh Meanwhile, in July 1968, our daughter, Lara, was bom in Raleigh, making our family complete. With the move to Raleigh I had bought part of what had been a working farm with farmhouse and outbuildings. There was some kudzu, but it didn't cover the house. During those days we were enjoying greatly our farm life, raising all kinds of vegetables on our rich soil. We also raised peacocks that flew up to rest and roost in the tops of the tallest pine trees and came swooping down in the morning to land in the garden. Their loud cry caused one neighbor to come rushing over one day thinking Jewell was calling "help," over and over. We raised gamecocks that engaged in some violent fights over status, and hens that ran around the yard "egging them on." Our son, David, was attending North Carolina State University, but we seldom saw him. When we left Raleigh we were never to enjoy that rural life again. Charles T o w n e - - a n Exploratory Odyssey into South Carolina In the fall, I received a letter from Bob Stephenson, Director of the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of South Carolina, who asked if I would be interested in coming to South Carolina to do some excavation at Charles Towne Landing. I said I would conduct a project at that site under one primary condition, and that was that John

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Combes work with me. This requirement prompted resistance from Bob, who told John that two archaeologists on one site was too m u c h - "No site deserves two archaeologists!" However, he finally agreed that John and I could work together, and a trailer was pulled to the site for our quarters and laboratory. I took leave from my N. C. Archives and History job in November, not without resistance, with the comment being made that it seemed lately I had been "running around the country like a loose cannon"--that label again--but I was reluctantly granted another unpaid leave of absence, and conducted exploratory excavation from November 12th through December 20,1968, at Charles Towne, South Carolina--the original settlement site. I found that Johnny Miller had previously been employed to conduct exploratory archaeology on the site and his trenches and excavated areas were still open. He knew enough not to dig out the features he found, so I was able to examine those he had exposed, vineyard ditches and a section of the north fortification ditch for 1670-1680 Charles Towne, though he interpreted it as a drainage ditch. But more about Charles Towne in the next chapter. Historic Site Integrity Threatened--I Take a Stand and Make Enemies We followed the land face fortification ditch, and discovered the main anti-Spanish ditch across the tip of Albemarle Point. These ditches enclosed the 10-acre area of the 1672 fortification around the first landing site (South 1999a: 32-45). By March of 1969, I presented a report to Dr. Stephenson on the exploratory work we had carried out (South 1969a). There was a plan at that time to put a spaceship-shaped museum on the site over the north and west fortification ditches we had found in our slot trenches. This was a violation of the site that disturbed me. Another plan was to build a fiberglass series of shops, to represent the imagined location of Charles Towne, over the main fortification ditch we had discovered. These plans prompted me to

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

state in my report a plea for the integrity of the Charles Towne historic site (South 1969a: 53): For three hundred years the site of the first landing at Charles Towne, the site of the fortification on the point, and the site of the village itself to the north, has remained protected and untouched by the violence of progress, while all around the bulldozer, housing developments, and tourist attractions are scarfing the face of the earth, which will forever remain as violated ground. Fortunately, nothing more serious than the farmer's plow and the natural erosion of wind and rain have disturbed the integrity of the historic site on Albemarle Point, thus allowing history and archaeology to bring a new meaning to the past. As plans are being made for the, development of Albemarle Point as a significant historic site, hope is held high that the site will remain inviolate as sacred soil. It is hoped that those charged with the responsibility of preserving and interpreting the heritage of this spot, will have the good taste to allow the site to retain its integrity. A spot where quiet beauty combined with physical remains from yesterday's fears and hopes, create within the individual a renewed sense of awareness of the past, and refreshed values for today's action. I was a little worked up over those early plans, but fortunately, both of those early ideas floating around when I arrived at Charles Towne were abandoned. P u s h e d to B e c o m e an A d m i n i s t r a t o r - - I G e t O u t of D o d g e

After that foray from North Carolina into South Carolina, I returned to my Archives and History office in Raleigh, where I was admonished to refrain from time away from the office on such ventures or at sites such as Bethabara and 01d Salem. I was told that I should

205

turn more to administration--telling others how to dig rather than getting out there and doing it myself. I began thinking seriously about the question John Combes had asked me a year before about new horizons--I wasn't yet ready to retire from the field of archaeology to become an administrator! I dreaded the thought of being removed from research. I wanted to continue to read and interpret the dirt and the things recovered from it and to wrest some explanation of past culture from the clues I found in it. The thought of pushing other than research-directed paper sickened me. Shortly after my report on the Charles Towne exploratory archaeology project had been submitted to Bob Stephenson, he called and offered me a job as archaeologist at the Institute of Archaeology. I told him I would think about it and went to H. G. Jones, Director of Archives and History (an Appalachian classmate of mine), and suggested that if he could meet me halfway between the $9,600 I was then making, and the $15,000 offered by Bob Stephenson at The University of South Carolina, I would stay. I suggested that he work on getting legislative support for creating an office of historical archaeology in Archives and History. He laughed and said that I already had the position and that was enough. He reminded me that Joffre Coe was state archaeologist. I suggested he work to establish the position of state historical archaeologist, because there was clearly a need for such a position, given all the sites I had been involved in examining throughout the state. He wished me well in South Carolina. I called Bob Stephenson and accepted the offer to join him and John Combes at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology--my "loose cannon" days in North Carolina were over. I was ready to aim my archaeological artillery from the platform of the University of South Carolina and entered a fluorescent period of my career.

206 Update My position in North Carolina was later called Historic Sites Archaeologist, as I had suggested to H. G. Jones. For over forty years that position has functioned as an important cog in the historic site preservation mechanism in North Carolina's historic sites program. The position was most recently held by Dr. Linda Carnes-McNaughton. She supervised and monitored cultural resource clearance, maintenance and other grounddisturbing activities on historic sites. Reorganization has recently taken place there and the position I held as historic site archaeologist was eliminated--a sad end to what, in 1958, and the years since, was one from which a major contribution was being made toward the preservation of cultural resources in North Carolina. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Forum--the Dollar Debates I founded the Conference on Historic Site Archaeology in 1960 to publish papers on historical archaeology. The papers presented at the first two conferences were published in the Southeastern Archaeological Conference Newsletter (Williams (ed.) 1964, with those from the third through the fifth conference papers being published in The Florida Anthropologist (Fairbanks [ed.] 1964: 1712], 1965: 1813], Part 2). I decided to overcome the publication delays experienced during those years, between the presentation of the papers and their appearing in print, by mimeographing and publishing them myself in a new series, The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers, with the sixth and seventh conference appearing in 1967 as Volume 1 (South (ed.) 1967), which I mailed to conference members who had paid their $3.00 annual dues. After the publication of that volume in 1967, I received a tape of a paper from Clyde D. Dollar for presentation at the fall CHSA meeting in Macon, Georgia, in which he discussed the relationship between history, anthropology and archaeology, and presented 10 theses in which he

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION delineated the limitations of historic site archaeology (Dollar 1968 2[2]: 3-30). As the tape was playing there were various exclamations from the audience: "What? Who is this guy? .... Where has he been?!," After the meeting the conversations in the bar focused on the Dollar tape amid head-shaking in disbelief at the points made. To some of those present, the paper revealed a naive understanding of the accepted anthropological approach to historical archaeology. As a result, a few days after the conference I asked Clyde Dollar if I could send a copy of his revised paper to a number of colleagues for comment, which I would then publish with his reply. He agreed, and 13 critiques were received. I then sent these to Clyde to allow him to comment, and the result was published as the first "Historical Archaeology Forum" (South [ed.] 1968). The comments and Clyde's rejoinders made for interesting reading to the extent that for some time in the years to follow the debate volume sold like hotcakes to those teaching courses in historical archaeology. The debate reminded me of the exchanges between some of the presenters and the audience at the earlier SEAC meetings where few punches were pulled. One comment was that Dollar's paper was "so archaeologically and anthropologically na'fve as to set one's teeth on edge." Dollar, meanwhile, referred to one critique as an "elocutionary morass," while a critic referred to Dollar's comments as a "flamboyant display of pseudoknowledge." Dollar mentions a meeting with one of his critics as having the "profundity of a sophomore carnival held in Grand Central Station." Vincent P. Foley was one of those commenting on Dollar's paper as follows (Foley 1968 2[2]: 155): It seems to this writer that Dollar's approach is narrow and national-history oriented, seeing no value in the archaeological study of a site other than to

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

supplement the historical record for preservational [sic] purposes. He is blinded to the anthropologist's diametrically opposed non-ethnocentric orientation and his attempts to extract more information from sites and artifacts. The anthropologist is not satisfied simply with the kinds of data preservational [sic] interests desire, but strives to find cultural significance in each site, and erect comparative methodology usable on other sites. Apparently Foley hit a nerve, as revealed in Dollar's reply (Foley 1968 2[2]: 156): Throughout the critique, Foley (perhaps unconsciously) appears to assume the role of the White Knight of Orthodoxy charging out to do battle with the Differing Dragon of Heresy. One can almost hear sounds of the thundering hoofs of the White Steed (of Righteousness), the whine of the Arrows (of Logic), and the death-dealing blows of the Sword (of All Knowledge). Not until the head of the horrifying Dare-To-BeDifferent Beast is severed from its loathsome body (that taints the very air by its presence) is Foley satisfied with his performance and signifies his readiness to receive the thundering applause (and perhaps other things) from the by-standing Damsels in Distress. Come now, Damsels, everybody applaud... Foley continued to make his important point, which got at the essence of the debate (Foley 1968 2[2]: 156): Dollar's statement to the effect that historic site archaeology is beginning to evolve into a separate discipline appears to be quite correct. That is as it should b e - especially when formal historians, technologists, art historians, etc., have so

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much to contribute. What is called for is a discipline of a cooperative nature. Each must have his own place in the study of a site without an attempt, at least initially, to transmutate [sic] all into one individual. It must be remembered that such a discipline would be an amalgam of the arts with the sciences of anthropology--a science that has existed a relatively short time, but one which has contributed vast quantities of data concerning the history of man and culture. Furthermore being a science, it operates on a different theoretical plane than the arts. Definition is the basis of all scientific thought. Its value is self-evident when one compares the almost universal communication among anthropological archaeologists with the multiplicity of meanings of terms in the arts. In this writer's opinion the scientific approach has proved itself far superior to that of the arts in the acquisition and treatment of data. It therefore behooves others who seek understanding of the apparently inevitable amalgam to be sure they comprehend the scientific method before being ready to discard as useless any part of it. They must also be ready to substitute something more appropriate than the method they are attacking. That, after, is the way science advances. Wow! That is an excellent statement that apparently calmed some of the hoof beats from Dollar's thundering charge, because Dollar said: "It is my hope, that 'science' (and I trust also the 'arts' of which Foley speaks) will indeed advance, and that both he and I will learn more about the subjects in which we each claim the other is deficient" (Foley 1968 2[2]: 157). This exchange of views caused many who read it to examine their position on the issues Dollar had raised in his controversial paper. Many assumptions had become a standard given base of knowledge without question. Dollar's ladle stirred the pot and brought the cooking

208 issues to boil, causing a reevaluation and tightening of positions once thought free from challenge. In this way, Dollar prompted the polishing of the various facets of the jewel comprising the newly emerging discipline of historical archaeology. Dollar's "Letter from Mexico"--The Question of Seriation However, Dollar was not through. The next year he mailed me a paper, "Letter from Mexico," which was a statement on his consultation on a movie "A Man Called Horse" (Dollar 1970: 3:5861). This paper would stimulate another debate and another Forum later on. Then, the following year, Clyde had "More Thoughts on Theory and Method in Historical Archaeology," in which he questioned the use of seriation applied to data in historical archaeology (Dollar 1971 4:83-94), a method I had used to advantage in my study of Native American pottery at Roanoke Rapids in 1955 ('South 1959a:332-340). I called Clyde and we went around and around over the validity of seriation of historic site data. I pointed to the seriation I was currently working on using ceramics from eighteenth century British colonial sites, but I made no inroads in his antiseriation perspective when applied to historic site data--in wrestling with Clyde you could never get his shoulder to the mat. The following year I presented my seriation of eighteenth century British colonial ceramics, entitled "Evolution and Horizon As Revealed in Ceramic Analysis in Historical Archaeology" (South 1972a 7: 71-116). This paper was the subject of another Historical Archaeology Forum (South [ed.] 1972 7: 69-218). It presented seriation data in the form of a Mean Ceramic Date, which has proved to be a helpful tool for those willing to use quantitative analysis as an aid to dating the occupation period of a site using ceramic fragments found thereon--a proposition rejected by Dollar as an impossibility. The success of the Mean Ceramic Date Formula as a helpful tool in historical archaeology speaks for itself.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION The Thurman-Howard Debate--"A Man Called Horse" In the same volume in which several of my papers on method and theory in historical archaeology appeared, Melbum D. Thurman presented another challenge to Dollar regarding his "Letter from Mexico" (Dollar 1970: :58-61), entitled: "The Resurgence of Antiquarianism in Ethnohistory and Archaeology: Clyde Dollar's 'Letter from Mexico,'" (Thurman 1974: 203-210) which was also an Historical Archaeology Forum in that volume. The debate focused on the movie, "A Man Called Horse." Dollar was technical director for the movie and stated that it was "one of the most researched films about the early Plains Indians, and hopefully therefore, one of the most authentic dramas about such people (Dollar 1970: 59." Thurman answered that if that movie "is considered in terms of cultural context, the claim of "authenticity" is absurd" (Thurman 1974: 205). Before I published Dollar's paper and Thnrman's comment, I received a letter from James H. Howard asking to comment on Dollar's paper. I sent him both papers and received his view on the two papers, which resulted in an exchange between Howard and Thurman, with me acting as intermediary mail drop. That exchange resulted in a "Contributed Papers" section of Volume 7 of The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1972 (South [ed.] 1974: 202229). The Dollar-Schuyler Debate--"A Pissing Contest with A Skunk" In that same 1974 volume, I began to offer annually $500 from the budget of the Conference, the John M. Goggin Award for the best paper submitted on method and theory in historical archaeology, with a number of excellent papers receiving the award in the years to follow. After having stimulated the Thurman/Howard Debate, Clyde wasn't through yet, resulting in another Historical Archaeology Forum "Brer Rabbit, Skunks, and the Devil: the DollarSchuyler Debate" (South 1977 [ed.]: 83-127). His

Tales From A "Loose Cannon"

paper, "The Devil Loose Among Us," or, Some Observations on the Historical Accuracy of Certain Historical Archaeology," (Dollar 1977: 84-98) stimulated Robert Schuyler to respond (Schuyler 1977: 99-120), with comments and rejoinders constituting the Forum. I won't go into that debate because the CHSA volumes are still available for $10. each, so the interested reader can enjoy that exchange. A hint at the contents can be gained from Schuyler's recalling of"an old Southern adage (Brer Rabbit?): "When you have a pissing contest with a skunk even when you win you lose" (Schuyler 1977: 126). And so it went, with the Conference on Historic Site Archaeology performing the role of publishing papers resulting from research on historic sites. I introduced the John Goggin Award of $500 to encourage submission of important papers for publication. For 23 years I chaired the conference, but after the 22 nd conference, no papers were submitted for publication. The same thing happened the next year. So in that year the 23 year history of The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology came to a close. Its mission was taken over by The Society for Historical Archaeology through the publication Historical Archaeology. In 1983 Bruce D. Smith, on behalf of SEAC, asked that the CHSA join with that grouty--but that never happened (South led.] 1983: ii-iv). At that time I created a new series Volumes in Historical Archaeology, devoted to publication of master's theses and doctorial dissertations, and at this time (2002), 42 volumes in that series have been published, which I sell for $10 each, with the proceeds returning to the same CHSA-USC publication budget (#21300-Z 100). That account I had begun when that conference was created in 1960. So, in the publication and budgetary sense, the CHSA is alive and well 42 years after it was founded, though it has not existed as an organization since 1982. Kudzu - - " T h e Vine That Ate the South"

The intense focus on the historic sites of Roanoke Rapids, Town Creek, Brunswick Town,

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The Paca House and Bethabara, and the many "loose cannon" projects I conducted all over North Carolina, were valuable developmental experiences for me. It allowed me to see a wide variety of historic sites, some in the process of being formed. One of these sites was a farmstead I saw on one of my trips. The buildings and fences were totally covered with kudzu--a plant that has become a symbol of southern life. It was imported from Japan in the twentieth century to help stop erosion from overuse of the land during the depression. However, it ran amuck, covering everything in the vicinity (Figure 9.7). Studies tracking the evolution of land-use through time cannot ignore the role of kudzu in the South. Some day an historical archaeologist may visit that site to attempt to explain what went on there before it was all reduced to rubble with the help of kudzu. In studying such abandoned farmsteads I have learned a lot regarding refuse disposal practices by the long-gone occupants, just as I did from Grandmaw Casey and from Uncle Blaine's soddy/cabin so long ago. Kudzu--that remarkable plant has many uses, among which is kudzu jelly. I recently purchased a jar of this sweet southern delicacy that had printed on the label, "Kudzu Blossom Jelly, the vine that ate the South" (Forge Mountain 2003). It is one of the formation processes responsible for the archaeological record. I Move South Of the Border to a New Challenge and a New Florescence

Once having made the decision to accept Bob Stephenson's offer to move South, I looked forward to further development of my archaeological skills, as I faced the challenge of conducting historical archaeology on Albemarle Point, at 1670 Charles Towne Landing. I returned to that site to assist the South Carolina Tricentennial Commission in discovery and development of the potential of that historic site. The result was a fluorescing of my archaeological evolution, told in the chapters to follow.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

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Part III: The Fluorescent Years Chapter 10 Charles Towne Tales Introduction After leaving North Carolina, I returned to Charles Towne Landing on April Fools Day 1969 to continue the work I had begun in my foray with John Combes there under contract the previous December. Bob Stephenson, Director of the University of South Carolina's Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, was working in cooperation with the South Carolina Tricentennial Commission to prepare the site, through historical archaeology research and site development, for the opening celebration of the 300 th anniversary of the landing at Charles Towne in1670. Aware that I had developed the confidence needed to handle the challenge of Charles Towne, the move to South Carolina began a fluorescent phase of my career--a period marked not only by data collecting, but by coalescing of ideas broader than at the site specific level. The move ushered in many years of association with Bob Stephenson in his role as director of the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Bob was well known in the field and it was good to be associated with an archaeological supervisor who was familiar with the dirt and the challenge of explaining the past through clues to be found in it. Figure 10.1. Bob Stephenson on a visit to Teton Jackson

The 1670 Charles Towne Fortifications Revealed and Interpreted I immediately continued the work on the main fortification ditch and the land face ditch exposed in my previous work on the site with John Combes. The focus was on excavating the contents of the ditches and replacing the defensive

Cave in the Pryor Mountains of Montana. (Photo: Wil Husted) embankments in their original position as an interpretation of what the archaeology had revealed. I chose this historic site development process based on precedent set by Pinky Harrington at the excavated ditch and reconstructed earthwork he built at Fort Raleigh,

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

North Carolina (Harrington 1962). The full account of what I did at Charles Towne has recently been published (South 2002b).

Figure 10.4. Reconstructionunderway at the 1670 Charles

Figure 10.2. Crew members standing at the edge of the

1670 Charles Towne main fortification ditch before excavation. (Photo: South 1969)

Figure 10.3. A view of the main 1670 Charles Towne

fortificationditch profile. (Photo: South 1969) A Prediction of an Indian Ceremonial C e n t e r - - A Remarkable Coincidence The built-in problem of the location of the spaceship-shaped exhibit pavilion mentioned, previously, had been solved. The original site proved to be at the junction of the archaeologically revealed north and west fortification ditches John Combes and I had revealed, and Bob Stephenson and I had asked that the pavilion be relocated. As it turned out,

Towne fortificationditch. The 1780 RevolutionaryWar redoubt ditch and replaced parapet is on the left. (Photo: South 1969) the architect with the spaceship plan was replaced, and a new site was chosen. The new site needed archaeological testing to discover cultural resources that might have to be mitigated before the new pavilion was constructed. Bob and I appeared before the Tricentennial Commission and I made a presentation, asking for funding to sample the pavilion site through slot trenches. The new architect made a pitch for his 200-foot square pavilion plan. Jim Fowler, of Wild Kingdom television fame, was there to make a presentation regarding the planned animal forest. After my slide show Jim jokingly warned the Commission about us archaeologists, saying that we might find a 200-foot Indian pavilion, and ask that the museum be moved again. As it turned out that's exactly what did happen! A Moundless Ceremonial C e n t e r - - A Unique Discovery Until this time my work at Charles Towne Landing had concentrated on the 1670 settlement site on the tip of the Albemarle Point peninsula where I had a crew excavating the fortification ditches. After the Tricentennial Commission voted to fund my exploratory work on the new pavilion site, I hired more help and we began cutting shovel-width exploratory trenches to discover what archaeological evidence was to be

Charles Towne Tales found there. M y first trench revealed a row o f postholes for a palisaded compound.

Figure 10.5. Archaeological crew members excavating the palisade postholes for the ceremonial compound at Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site. (Photo: South 1969)

In following those palisade postholes I found a 200 by 208-foot Native American Mississippian period moundless ceremonial center (South 2002b: 185). Now I really had my hands f u l l - digging and interpreting through historic site development, at the 1670-1680 British/Barbadian fortified settlement site, as well as an Indian ceremonial center. My crew grew to over 50 people. The palisaded compound consisted of three walls, built at consecutive times, around a central temple building. After that building rotted, in a few years it was replaced by rectangular sheds, similar to those square-ground sheds associated

213 with the Creek Indians, and an addition to the compound area was added. A number of Native American burials were placed there, apparently oriented to one o f the sheds. One of the burial pits contained a group of bundle burials, one having a chunkey stone--perhaps buried with one who excelled in that game. Much Mississippian pottery was found there, with radiocarbon dates indicating around 1300 A. D. as the time o f its use (South 2002b: 185-243). Having found such a unique Native American religious center, we again asked the Commission to move the planned site for the exhibit pavilion-they were suspicious. They scheduled a meeting on the site to examine for themselves the evidence I had found. They weren't impressed by the posthole stains and exposed excavated burials. They had expected more "substantial and impressive ruins," as one commissioner s a i d - such as masonry walls more substantial than daub-plastered posthole stains remaining from thatch-covered huts. I tried to explain that that was the nature o f the remains o f Native American structures. The Commission voted to construct the exhibit pavilion on the site o f the ceremonial center, thus destroying the ceremonial center. It was a sad day when we watched the machines rip into that site that had been the scene of so much ceremonial activity around 1300 A. D. (South 2002b: 243, Figure 8.4). The Media V o i e e - - a Public Relations Effort Backfires As it happened, the day the Tricentennial Commission visited the ceremonial center site to inspect the evidence for the ceremonial center, Ron Nessen (later Press Secretary for President Gerald Ford), from the Huntley- Brinkley Report, the NBC Television News program, showed up. He had his crew and interviewed me, and members of the Commission, regarding what was going on. The timing of his visit was fortuitous, but his presence wasn't. A month before, one of the visitors to the site who had read about our effort at

214 trying to save the ceremonial center from being destroyed by the erection of the exhibit pavilion, asked me if I would like some national publicity on the situation. I told her I hadn't thought about it, but that there had been a lot of local coverage. She said she thought national publicity on the importance of the Native American religious center on the threshold of being destroyed might nudge the Commission to vote yet another time to move the location o f the pavilion. She said she was a friend of Ron Nessen and would notify him about the situation and see what developed. After that, Ron called and said he and his crew were in town and would drop by shortly to interview me on the site. I told him about the Commission meeting there that morning to see if they thought what I had found was worthy of again moving the pavilion. Later, when Chet Huntley was signing off with the Huntley-Brinkley news, he said that South Carolina was celebrating the 300 th anniversary of the first landing at Charles Towne, and that in doing so, ironically, they were destroying a valuable page of history by erecting their exhibit pavilion on a Native American ceremonial site. Later, I was told that when the Commission voted not to move the site of the exhibit pavilion, the feeling was that northern outsiders on the national news couldn't tell South Carolinians what to do. We lost that one and the exhibit pavilion was constructed--destroying that unique archaeological discovery. The visitor's effort to help in our struggle to save the site had backfired. A Native American Curse on the Tricentennial Commission

During the controversy between Bob and me and the Commission over the future of the Native American ceremonial center, a group of Kiawah Indians visited the site and joined us in our effort to save the site. They saw the center as reflecting their local heritage. But the added publicity they brought was not sufficient to have the planned site for the pavilion moved elsewhere.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION When the new pavilion plans became available for viewing, the concept was not a space ship this time, but a 200-foot square roof that was supposed to give the impression that it was floating on water. This was to be effected by a wall of water surrounding the pavilion and spouting up to the edge of the roof. To produce this effect, the architect wanted a moat dug around the structure, with spray nozzles in the bottom of the moat except for a ramp to provide access to the raised floor of the pavilion, where sculptural symbols were to be seen. When I saw the plan, I asked what would happen if the wind were blowing the water from the wall of spray. Would the visitors be provided with ponchos to keep them from getting wet? There were no walls to the pavilion above ground--just an open space with those giant sculptural symbols, like my sketches in steel I once made in the '60s. I also was surprised to see the exhibit pavilion was designed to be below ground. At the meeting where the architect's plans were displayed, I commented that it seemed unwise to me that, in an area where the water table lay only six feet or so below the surface, an exhibit hall would be designed below water like a swimming pool. I knew from stories told by people who had basements, that a serious problem often arose in trying to waterproof the walls enough to keep water from flooding into the basement. But nobody listened to m e - - w h a t did an archaeologist know about architectural design? Before the subterranean exhibit hall was completed, water began seeping into it, and extra work had to be done to improve waterproofing on the walls. As the roofing-crew worked with their tar wagon on the flat roof and were busy applying tar, loud explosions shook the roof, and some of the workers scrambled down ladders, while others repelled down the ropes to safety below. Inspectors were called, and the roof, supported by only four pylons, was condemned as unsafe, the reason for the explosions being the aluminum beams supporting the roof had begun to break from the stress of the long roof overhang beyond the four central post supports. To allow the

Charles Towne Tales pavilion to open by the deadline, about 20 pipes were placed beneath the roof to support it, totally destroying the architect's original concept of a roof supported by only four posts and a wall of water. Meanwhile, before the pavilion opened, it became obvious that with any breeze the spray from the wall of water blew the moisture over the entrance ramp, wetting anyone on it trying to get to the raised platform. The wall of spray pressure had to be reduced to a series of little squirts of water--hardly what the architect had envisioned in his theory. Meanwhile, in Western South Carolina, a Buckminster Fuller-designed pavilion, shaped like a cube resting on one comer against the forest on the side of Roper Mountain, was being built (like a "diamond in the rough?"). The aluminum beams there also began to break from the stress as the diagonal walls of the cube extended out in space. Lawsuits between the Commission and the architects, and between the architects and the contractors, followed shortly, and considerable funding for the Tricentennial celebration went to the expense of this activity. When all of this was in the papers the Kiawah Indians read about it and returned to the site. They had an explanation for these disasters. They insisted they were caused by the desecration of their sacred site at Charles Towne Landing, caused by a curse carried out by the Native American spirits who were offended by that intrusion on their sacred ground. Whatever the cause, " the Roper Mountain pavilion was abandoned, but the one at Charles Towne opened. The Curse Continues--the Pavilion Is Condemned When the pavilion opened the visitors went down a ramp into the bowels of the earth to view a series of glitzy plastic and chrome exhibits more appropriate, in my opinion, to a museum devoted to the glorification of modem technological gimmicks than to honoring the past. A few of the artifacts recovered in our excavations were placed in a small case, lost among the glitz.

215 Predictably, after a while water began making its way into the below water-table chamber. Whenever hurricanes or storm tides hit it would become flooded, like many basements in the area. After some years the problems became so great the pavilion had to be condemned as unsafe and unusable, and for years visitors have seen this abandoned folly standing as a ghost on the site-scheduled to be tom-down. My dream would be that in the future, a palisaded ceremonial compotmd can be reconstmcted on the site, complete with ceremonial temple, similar to the one I built at Town Creek Indian Mound (South 2002b: 243), to acknowledge the Native American heritage so richly represented on Albemarle Point. The Siege of Charleston--A Revolutionary War Redoubt Meanwhile, I was also busy with the crew working at excavating and reconstructing embankments at the Charles Towne fortification ditches (South 1971a: 37-60, 1971b: 37-60, 2002b: 55-105). In exposing the main fortification ditch dug by the colonists to protect against possible Spanish attack, I discovered the ditch for a circular Revolutionary War period British/Hessian redoubt built during the siege of Charleston in 1780 (South 2002b: 111-125). This redoubt was placed directly in front of the 1670 fortification and was aligned with it, so for a while I thought it was a strange redoubt attached to the 1670 main fortification ditch. However, the artifacts from the redoubt ditch were of the late eighteenth century period, clearly indicating it post-dated the 1670s Charles Towne fortification ditch. Although our reconstruction of the embankment for this redoubt was directly in front of the earlier Charles Towne fortification ditch and embankment, I could see no way to avoid this juxtaposition of embankments representing fortifications from two different time periods (South 2002b: 109-125). To sacrifice one for the other for the sake of "purity" of interpretation to one time period, to keep from confusing the visitors viewing the fortifications, seemed to me to be an unwise solution. I expected that on-site

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

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Figure 10.6. Detail of the archaeologicalmap of the 1780RevolutionaryWar redoubt adjacentto the 1670 Charles Towne

main fortificationditch. (Drawing: South 1969) field exhibits such as those I had built at Brunswick Town would interpret the various fortification features throughout the site--not so. As a result, thousands of visitors may well have wondered about the circular embankment, tangent to, and in front of, the larger earthworks.

"Let These Ground Moles Do Their T h i n g - Then Backfill the Ditches" When I got to Charles Towne Landing the Tricentennial Commission had already let a contract for thousands of dollars for the construction of an imaginary model of Charles

Towne. The idea was to have a row of"shops" on both sides of a central street down the center of the peninsula, known as Albemarle Point, where we had located the fortification ditches. Because of budget limitations, these structures would have fiberglass fronts in imitation of half-timbered construction. The visitors would peer into windows to see a cobbler, a potter, a blacksmith, a tinsmith, etc., at work inside--a theatrical stageset interpretation. There was apparently great local support for this concept in Charleston, so, when Bob Stephenson and I objected, we made enemies.

Charles Towne Tales

A 2 4 - p o u n d e r is 1he mos! likely piece o f a r t i l l e r y

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.

Figure 10. 7. Detail from the interpretive drawing of the 1780 RevolutionaryWar redoubt at Charles Towne Landing State

Historic Site. (Drawing: DarbyErd 8/1969) The members o f the Commission didn't want to see the money they had spent on a model wasted, so there was strong resistance to our objections. Our position was not only against the concept o f a series of craft shops in a row, but the thing was planned to run from one end of Albemarle Point to the other, right over the main fortification ditch dug by the 1670 colonists themselves. We felt such a stylized tourist-trap concept would insult the intelligence of those visitors whom we felt were far more sophisticated than that concept gave them credit for being. At one meeting one of the commissioners, trying to find a compromise between those urging the instant town, and Bob and I resisting that concept, said, "I have a solution to the problem. "Let these ground moles do their thing--then backfill the ditches." Fortunately, the Commission voted to put the "town" further back on the site. We were glad for that vote, because it prevented the desecration of the excavated ditches and rebuilt embankments. It was a good example of the conflicts that sometimes arise among those involved in historic site development, between the sponsors and the professionals involved in research and interpretation.

Politics and Archaeology--Inseparable Companions The media had a field day over the different views, between the Commission and Bob and me, of how to interpret Charles Towne Landing. Shortly after, Senator Eugene Zeigler called Bob, and said he had heard about the problem, and had as a student worked in the Mississippi Valley on an archaeological survey. He understood something about how archaeologists collected and interpreted their data, and wondered if we could use some help. Bob said we surely could. Senator Zeigler said he would see if the Governor would appoint him to the Tricentennial Commission--which he did. From then on, we had a champion on the Commission with vision, representing archaeological research and historic site development. As we were archaeologically excavating the 1670 north fortification ditch, following the dark imprint of it against the light subsoil sand, we neared the open grassy field on the higher ground of the site. Dr. Waring, who had sold the site of Old Town Plantation to South Carolina for development as a state historic site, watched what we were doing. He asked me if I was going to dig in the grass, and I told him we would continue to follow the fortification ditch wherever it took us. He became angry and said he would see about

218 that, "I'll call the govemor!" he said, as he walked away--and he did. The governor called the head o f the Tricentennial Commission, and a special meeting of that group was called. When they met, Senator Zeigler spoke on behalf of continuing archaeology as needed in the grassy area, explaining to them the importance o f the archaeological record in discovering evidence on the site necessary for interpreting it. A compromise was reached, and I was told that I could not excavate and disturb the grass beyond 10 feet on each side of the fortification ditch. For that reason I was not able to excavate inside the fortified area on the higher grassy field to attempt to locate archaeological evidence for structures that had been inside the fortified area (South 2002b: 55, 62). However, I am a patient man, so I waited for over 30 years. Then I was able to return to Charles Towne, with Michael Stoner, under an enlightened policy of the Depariment of Parks, Recreation and Tourism. In that more recent dig, we found postholes for a 12 by 18 foot building in the center o f the fortified area enclosed by the north and west palisaded area (South 2002c: 287-289, Stoner 2002, Stoner and South 2001). Politics and historic site research and development are companions--but you should be prepared to lose some of the engagements emerging from that marriage. One of my archaeological colleagues once said to me, "I always keep politics out o f archaeology."-Impossible. They're inseparable--witness the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act [NAGPRA]. Rebuilding the Land Face Fortification--the Palisade Rises From the Postholes With this battle won, I ordered treated posts and we used them in reconstructing the palisade wall we had found paralleling the original north and west fortification ditch and embankment. However, before we could complete replacing the palisade posts beside the fortification embankment, a six-inch rain in one aftemoon

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION caused the new sod we had placed on the earthworks to slide into the excavated ditch, so funds for palisade posts had to be diverted to repairing that damage, and the palisade wall could not be completed. It is my dream that some day that the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism (PRT) will have the funds to complete the palisade around the fortified area. At present, and over the past 30 years, visitors to the site have seen only that section of the palisade we completed.

View of the reconstructed 1670 north fortification ditch and parapet at Charles Towne, with the unexcavated west ditch on the right. (Photo: South 1969)

Figure 10.8.

Figure 10.9. The reconstructed 1670 north palisade

fortificationwall at Charles Towne. (Photo: South 1970) The embankment beside the palisade is all they have seen beyond the partially replaced palisade wall. With a new mission recently

Charles Towne Tales instigated at PRT, that includes tearing down the original exhibits pavilion and building a visitor center on the site, things are looking up at Charles Town Landing. I would like to see that palisade wall completed before more decades pass. Native American Legacy--A Home for 6,000 Years before Charles Towne As our archaeological exploration of Albemarle Point continued through most of 1969, we found an amazing variety of artifacts from Native Americans living there covering a period of 6,000 years before the last-moment entry of Europeans and the African Americans accompanying them (South 2002b:139-183). Our mission was primarily to discover evidence of those English and Barbadian colonists who arrived and stayed a short time on Albemarle Point. What we found was a legacy extending so far back in time that one might well ask why we were focused on that last moment of ten years, from 1670 to 1680. However, that focus did not deter me from recording and trying to explain that broad range of clues reflecting Native American presence there over six millennia. Stone spearpoints, knives, atlatl weights and baked clay objects, along with a wide variety of pottery types revealed the popularity of this environmental niche. To understand these data, I developed a pottery taxonomy so that my colleagues and I could organize and deal with trying to explain the archaeological record I found on Albemarle Point (South 1973b). A wide variety of baked clay objects, balls and discs were found in the yellow sand B zone beneath the topsoil in various concentrations on Albemarle Point (South 1969c 2(1): 3-11, 2002b: 174-183. The baked clay objects were the most exotic Archaic Period artifacts from the early potterymaking period on Albemarle Point (ca. 2,000 B. C.), but the Woodland and eighteenth century periods were also represented (South 2002b: 139183). A fascinating discovery to me was the association of the baked clay objects in the oystershell-free yellow sand B Zone with Thom's

219 Creek and Stallings Island pottery. This appeared to me to reflect a period prior to sea-level rise, when oysters became available in the waters around Albemarle Point. The abundance of archaeological remains from 6,000 years of Native American history on Albemarle Point demonstrated to me how rich that heritage is within the soil on that peninsula, illustrating how important it is for any future disturbance of the ground to be adequately mitigated before such activity is undertaken. The later, eighteenth and nineteenth century Old Town Plantation period was well represented there also, with the Horry-Lucas plantation house ruin and associated "Negro Settlement" shown on an 1836 map (South 2002b: 127). This period has great archaeological potential as well as does the Native American treasure lying beneath the soil of Albemarle Point. The Archaeological Crew Memorable Stories When I arrived on Albemarle Point, many of my crew were from out of town, so housing was a necessity that was solved by Dr. and Mrs. Joseph I. Waring, who supplied an unfurnished house for us to live in. Jewell and our family, David (attending college at N. C. State), and our small children, Robert and Lara, slept on mattresses in the dining room, while other crew members slept on the floor in other rooms, with the living room reserved as a gathering place. It was there we watched the moon landing in 1969 (South 2002b:

46). Randy Luther, my crew chief, who had worked with me at Bethabara, was a drummer who practiced each night after work in a little doll house in the yard. One day I got a call from a man who said he wanted Randy to call him. I took the number and asked who was calling. He said to tell Randy that Chicago---the group wanted him to try out with them because they had just lost their drummer and had heard he was good. I ran out on the site to find Randy. He wasn't nearly as excited as I was, saying they had a different style than he did. I told him this might be the opportunity to hit the big time, but he

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wasn't interested. He never returned the call. I still shake my head over that one. Randy was an excellent crew chief, and would hire and fire workers daily as needed to keep our 50+ crew up to our standards. I once tried to get him to allow me to put another field boss on to help manage the group, but he said that between the two of us we were doing pretty well. He said he preferred being the only one in charge when I was working on the transit-mapping, or drawing the map as the work progressed. Each morning the entire crew gathered around the yard of the house and Randy and I briefed them on what was expected of them that day. I also briefed them on what was going on at various places on the site, from the fortifications at Charles Towne to the Native American ceremonial center, to the transit crew helping me map what was being revealed.

Figure 10.10. CharlesTownevolunteer,David South, with his 1949 MGTC and the cut-down,rebuiltsurfboardhe and crew memberNormanHabibAkel, convertedfroma much larger Californiaboard. (Photo: South 1969)

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Another crew member, Norman Habib Akel, and my son, David, worked on converting David's California surfboard to a smaller size, so the smell of fiberglass solvent was present on the screened back porch at times as they worked. Because David owned a 1949 British MGTC, he put the British flag on the surfboard. Across from the house we stayed in was a nice swimming pool enjoyed by all of us staying in the house. This pool was filled in after we left because it was thought it would not fit in with the mission of the Charles Towne Landing historic park. Being supplied with a house, complete with swimming pool, was not bad duty for an archaeological crew. It seemed a long way from the days Lew Binford, Jewell and I slept in the tent at Roanoke Rapids and bathed in the river. "Fight! - - Fight !" One day I heard a commotion in the block excavation we had open and as I turned away from the transit I saw two of the crewmen fighting--wallowing around in the excavated area thrashing around at each other. I started to try to break it up, when Randy held out his arm and said, "Let 'em get it out of their system." We watched for some time. They were like kids at a fight on the school ground, until they both were so exhausted they could hardly stand. Finally, we went back to work, with one of the men, the one who had lost face by losing, walking away and quit the job. I never did learn what the fight was about. "Bugsy"--Lost at Woodstock One of the crew members, known as "Bugsy" went with others to Woodstock, and when they returned "Bugsy" didn't, because he couldn't be found when they got ready to leave. They had him paged, but he didn't show up. Years later, when I bought a Woodstock album, between two of the numbers, you could hear the loudspeaker paging our "Bugsy" to come to the bandstand. Years later I saw in the Charleston paper a picture of"Bugsy," with an article praising his work as a maker of creative jewelry.

Charles Towne Tales

Bill Kelscr---Exposed to a New Method One of the crew for one week was Bill Kelso, who was working on his doctorate at the time. He had trained under Noel Hume, and found my nongrid-dictated, base line provenience control method quite a contrast to that he had been used to. John and I enjoyed talking with Bill over beers after work each day to get another archaeologist's view of what we were up to. I remember that he did mention, when John and I were having a farewell beer with him, that he had never seen so much data recovered in such a short t i m e - - I appreciated that. He had trained under Noel Hume in Williamsburg. A Teahouse Rap--A Memorable Moment A highlight of my crew experience at Charles Towne resulted from the urging I received from some of the long-haired crew to attend a teahouse in Charleston, where they met each night to unwind from digging all day. I sat on a stool in center~ stage and rapped about how the crew members present were helping me to do my thing, and how they should decide as early as they could what their "thing" was going to be, then "pursue that goal like a hound dog hot on the trail" (South 2002b: 47-48). I laid it on thick, and when I slipped off the stool to return to my table there was silence. Then the applause began, and before I knew it, there was a standing ovation from the crowded room. I had received polite applause from talks I had given on the subject of archaeology, but this ovation was different--the subject was different and the applause was that of youth. It was one of the most memorable moments of my life (South 2002b: 45-48). Romance vs. Reality--Archaeological Training to Produce Future Attorneys Senator Nick Zeigler, who had been so supportive of our effort to save the Native American ceremonial center, said his 15 year old son, Belton, wanted to become an archaeologist. The Senator wanted him to become a lawyer, but asked if I would take him on as a crew member so he could learn what archaeologists did. I agreed, and was impressed with his performance. One

221 day I saw his hands were bandaged and asked what happened. He removed the bandage and showed me the bloody blisters he had gotten as a result of the previous day's shoveling. He hadn't complained, but his hands were in bad shape, not having been exposed to that type of friction before. I put him on laboratory work until his hands healed. He made good progress and his muscles grew noticeably as the season went on. He was liked by the crew, who threw him in the alligator pond to celebrate his birthday. Belton later dug with me at Ninety Six. Some years later, Senator Zeigler called to thank me for providing that experience for Belton, who had just graduated from Amhnrst. After having been exposed to archaeology, he had decided to become an attorney--not an archaeologist, which pleased the Senator. Later still, Senator Zeigler called and said he had another teenage son, Ben, who wanted to become an archaeologist, but again, the father preferred that he become a lawyer. I agreed to take him on the crew at Santa Elena, where he also, did well with the shovel. Ben graduated from Harvard law school. Archaeological work had created another attorney! When he graduated, Senator Zeigler again called and thanked me for doing my part in helping his sons become lawyers, through disabusing them of the romance of archaeology, and exposing them to the reality of the profession.

Method in Historical Archaeology--Dictated By the Linear Data When Ivor Noel Hume evaluated my report on my exploratory work at Charles Towne he questioned my use of a base line method of mapping in lieu of excavating all trenches along a grid in the traditional manner (Personal correspondence, copy of a letter from Noel Hume to Barnett 5/8/1969). The base line method uses a transit to measure the exact location of any slot trench dug to follow a linear ditch (regardless of the angle of the trench). It is flexible in that it allows the transit operator to measure from any point on a base line to any other point at any convenient angle. The grid method, on the other

222 hand, demands that all transit lines be measured only along 90 ° angles. Therefore, laying out grid lines in a thick pine woods becomes a very difficult task because there is always a tree in the way of the line being measured. Measuring from points along a base line at any convenient angle, therefore, results in an incredible saving of time compared with that required to lay out a grid system among trees in a dense wooded area. The transit system I use, to measure excavation trenches and features, allows the archaeological data to dictate where mapping lines are needed. This results in far more information being revealed in a shorter time than when that time is spent trying to shoot around trees to establish a traditional grid system. In over 30 years of using the base line method, I have found it is the best means of mapping linear features in the shortest amount of time. To Be Sure You Lay out the Grid on the Correct S i t e - - K n o w Where North Is And that reminds me of one of Bob Stephenson's stories about an archaeologist he sent into the field on the River Basin Survey. Three weeks were assigned to testing a particular site. After two weeks Bob paid a visit to the site to see what data had been recovered. When he got there no excavation had been accomplished. He saw a forest of carefully marked grid stakes over a large area, but he saw no piles of dirt from excavation. When he approached the archaeologist at his transit and asked where the digging had been done, he answered that they were still laying out the grid, but assured Bob that in another day or two the site would be ready to be tested! Needless to say, Bob was not pleased with the well laid out grid system, or with the judgment of the archaeologist. My approach would have been to have laid down a base line, from which grid lines can be run off at any angle, at any time they are needed, from which I would have shot the excavated areas, whatever shape the data in the ground dictated they should be to answer the questions we were asking--five foot squares aligned with the base

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION line, or whatever shape was necessary to get the most data in the shortest period of time (South 2002b: 35-40, 53-54). What I would not have done was to spend the block of time necessary to completely lay out a grid over the site so that all squares and trenches would slavishly conform to that predetermined grid alignment. Another facet to Bob's story was that he ordered that digging begin immediately. When the first square (on the grid) was dug, no artifacts were recovered. Bob then asked to look at the map, suspecting something was awry. Studying the map, he found that the site located through surface collecting o f Native American artifacts, was found on the other side of the creek from where the nice grid was laid out! The archaeologist failed to notice where North was located and had laid out the grid on the wrong piece o f the creek! Well, so much for that 3-week grid-laying project. "Peeping Through Keyholes" vs. "Hundred Yard Squares" At Charles Towne Landing, when John Combes and I got there, we conducted a site survey to try to determine where the artifacts were concentrated. We found no artifacts dating to occupation in the seventeenth century. However, historical documents and oral history tradition clearly indicated this was the place. John was so skeptical that he went off of Albemarle Point and found an eighteenth century site in the yard of a recently built home in a development on the next point of land up-fiver, while I continued following the north fortification ditch found by Johnny Miller before I arrived, as reported in Chapter 7. I reminded him that we were looking for seventeenth century objects, so he returned and excavated a ten-foot wide trench down the middle of Albemarle Point. By doing that he discovered the main Charles Towne fortification ditch containing seventeenth century artifacts. Once found, we "chased" the ditch by cutting exploratory slot trenches in the woods (South 2002b: 82-90). Once the slot trenches had located the extent of the fortification ditches, and because I had

Charles TowneTales found in sifting the soil from the slot trenches, that there were very few seventeeth century artifacts in the plowed soil zone over the site, I used a motor grader to strip away a 20 foot wide strip over the fortification ditch (South 1977a: 304, 307; 2002b: 73, 77, 88-89). This was at a time when many archaeologists were still saying that the "proper" way to excavate a site was to open 5-foot squares strictly along grid lines using trowels, brushes--spending days and sometimes weeks on a single such square peeping through a keyhole into the past. From the challenge faced by wresting information on fortifications surrounding a 10-acre site, I excavated football field size blocks in order to expose evidence from the past in keeping with the scope and scale of the site.

The "Chicken Chart" and "The Pig Chart" One of the things I had become aware of was that pit features of different ages had different observable attributes. That was something I had not found in studying previously published reports by other archaeologists. Observing these differences while in the field was an important interpretive tool for me. I came to realize that simply recording dark circular areas as "postholes," with no qualifying attributes to separate those posts dug by Native Americans, from seventeeth century Charles Towne settlers, from eighteenth century plantation owners, or from nineteenth century African Americans, or twentieth century landscape gardeners, was ignoring one of the basic observations an archaeologist needs to know to interpret the site being dug. I illustrated this in what has come to be called "The Chicken Chart," because in that chart I illustrated the relationship between theory (a rooster), hypothesis (a hen), field observation (an egg), explanation (a chick), and site preservation and development (the shell from which the chick hatched) (South 1974a; 131, 1977a: 279-281; 2002b: 193). I also illustrated a data flow diagram for evaluation of analysis situations relative to the data bank of archaeological

223 knowledge using a piggy bank. This diagram is known as "The Pig Chart" (South 1974c: 146150).

Lifting Fiberglass Profiles in the Field Because excavating postholes and other features such as the fortification ditches destroys the feature, I became concerned that the profile drawings of the ditches, and the photographs, did not do justice to the soil profile itself. For that reason, I decided to take an impression of the original ditch by spraying the profile with a plastic (Krylon, a polyurethane resin) to provide a moisture seal. Then when that was dry, I coated the profile with fiberglass resin and sheets of fiberglass.

The fiberglass profile of the north fortification ditch at 1670 Charles Towne. (Photo: South 1969)

Figure 10.11.

When that was dry, I pulled the fiberglass from the profile, and looked at the other side. I found that the sand had adhered to the fiberglass, providing an exact transfer of a thin section of the fortification ditch. I then sprayed that side with Krylon to hold the grains of sand in place, and I had a profile I could take back to the laboratory to check against our field drawings, photographs, and notes, or to use as a teaching aid (South 1970c: 2(2/3): 3-7, 2002: 71-72).

224

Methodological Phases in the Archaeological Process From my observations and excavation experience, I became aware of the methodological phases I was involved in as I carried out the archaeological process and shared these with my colleagues: 1) locating the site; 2) exploratory excavation; 3) detailed excavation; 4) 100-yard square excavation; 5) analysis of the data; 6) synthesis and interpretation of the data; 7) explanation of the cultural process represented by the data; and 8) development of explanatory exhibits (palisades, embankments, exposed ruins, etc.) (South 1974b:138-145). I found a lot to criticize in archaeological reports while at Charles Towne and the years to follow, and I wrote a plea for a new direction in a sermon, summarized as follows (South 1974b: 151-156): In our efforts at interpreting patterns of culture let us not engage in pseudo-science misdirected toward meaninglessly translating a potsherd into a series of mathematically expressed numbers; or pseudo-history attempting to discover archaeological equivalents to historical events; or pseudo-archaeology involving endless descriptions of artifacts and features to no apparent end. Rather, let us systematize our selectivity, and direct our efforts toward synthesizing pasterns of material culture from our archaeological data, and in doing so reveal the patterns resulting from cultural activity. Such patterning may well allow us to gain insight into the behavior patterns of the people responsible for the archaeological record, and allow us to make explanatory interpretations relating to culture process.

Report Writing--the Airlie Seminar As a result of my concern with method and theory, as well as reports emerging from archaeological work being carried out elsewhere, I published the above papers to share my concern with colleagues (South 1974a). As a result of my

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION outspoken views, I suspect, in 1974, I was invited by Charles McGimsey III, President of The Society for American Archaeology, to participate in a seminar on archaeological report writing. It was held at the Airlie House Conference Center located south of Washington, D. C. While at the Seminar waiting for a session to begin, I happened to be sitting beside Stuart Struever, Consulting Editor for the Studies in Archeology series for Academic Press. We had never met before, and he asked me what I had been up to. I told him about my interest in method and theory, and he asked that I send him some of my papers. I told him I would do better than that, and went to my room and brought him copies of the papers I had written, illustrated by the "chicken chart" and the "pig chart." The next day he asked me if I had thought about writing a book on method and theory. I told him that I had always thought I might some day write a book, but that I would think about it. He said when I got a manuscript ready, he would be glad to look at it.

"The Cow Chart"--"Milking the Archaeological Cow" As I was returning home on the train from the Airlie House seminar in the summer of 1974, it occurred to me that what we had done there regarding report writing was equivalent to "Milking the Archaeological Cow," and I pulled out a brown wrapper and drew the draft of what has come to be known as "The Cow Chart," number 3 in my "Barnyard Heuristics" series (South 1974d: 157-158), later published in the Airlie Report (McGimsey and Davis: 1977: 6477). This chart showed the research goals and the "General Scientific Guidelines for Report Preparation" and listed the types of cultural resource management studies resulting from cultural resource management planning. I deal with this and other methodological illustrations in Chapter 13. A Problem with "Barnyard Heuristics" In 1977, through the support of Stu Struever, I published my book on Method and Theory in

Charles Towne Tales

Historical Archaeology, in which I shared what I had learned with my colleagues (South 1977a). When the editor at Academic Press saw the chicken chart, pig chart, cow chart, dolphin chart, etc. illustrating that book, he notified me that he had given instructions to have those deleted from the book. ! told him to send the manuscript back to me and I would publish it somewhere else-those charts illustrate serious concepts, I argued. His concern was, he said, that Europeans might not understand those animal charts. I told him they knew about pigs, chickens and cows long before Americans did and I thought they would recognize what they were--the barnyard heuristics stayed in. Charles Towne Ideas Many of the methodological lessons I had learned at Charles Towne Landing served me well in the years to come. By 1971, I had completed my report on what I had learned at Charles Towne Landing, but by that time other commitments had intervened. I became involved in other priorities, so I was not able to complete my book on the archaeological pathways to historic site development emerging from that experience (South 1971b). The book manuscript sat on my shelf awaiting a block of time to insert the photographs with the text, and it wasn't until 2002 that I saw the book in print (South 2002b). In the meantime, in the years following the Charles Towne dig, I began publishing spin-off articles from my experience there. I was also involved in a number of other projects--but that is the subject of the next chapter. A Charles Towne Update Over three decades after I excavated the fortifications and helped develop the Charles Towne site, there is renewed interest on the part of officials at the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism in using history and archaeology as basic elements in changing the image of the site. As a result a new archaeological project was undertaken (South 2002; Stoner and South 2001), but more on that later. I applaud this new mission

225 as a reflection of the evolutionary changes taking place nationally in developing historic sites as sources of informed education as well as entertainment of the visiting public. Winemaking In 1968, before I moved to South Carolina, I lived on a farm east of Raleigh, North Carolina. The edge of the property was surrounded by blackberry vines. That year my daughter, Lara, was bom and shortly after there was a bumper crop of blackberries. Jewell, David and I picked five gallons of very ripe blackberries one Saturday and left the large container sitting on the kitchen floor to be canned the following day. When we woke up Sunday morning there was foam on top of the berries from fermentation that had begun overnight. That was the beginning of my winemaking activity that continued for several years after I came to South Carolina. I quickly researched that process that day and let the fermenting berries continue their vigorous activity (the fruit is known as "must" at that stage). I checked on the legality of making wine at home at that time and found that Federal law allows the head of household to make up to 100 gallons of wine a year by obtaining a Federal permit - - which I did. I later siphoned off the liquid into gallon jugs and a month or so after that, after the wine had "rested" in a crawlway beneath the house, I began enjoying drinking that blackberry wine. I saved a bottle and later presented it to Lara on her eighteenth birthday. When I arrived in Columbia I brought my collection of wine with me. When I bought a house there, I was pleased to see that it had a large cool cellar perfectly designed for winemaking! I began visiting the Farmer's Market and buying bushels of apples, pears, plums, peaches, berries, and other fruit to ferment and convert into wine. I even made tomato, celery, and watermelon wine. One of the best I made was a wine made of parsley! When I was digging at Charles Towne, I named the wine I made for that archaeological

226 site. On weekends I would go to Columbia and enjoy working on winemaking in the cellar. When my colleague, Leland Ferguson, dug at Ft. Watson, I named the wine I was making at that time for that site - - one of the best I ever made. When Dick Carrillo came to the Institute of Archaeology to dig at Ft. Hawkins, Georgia, I named a wine for that site. Through the years I had wines named, "Ft. Moore," "Ft. Moultrie," "Ft. Dorchester," "Ninety Six," and "Ft. Congaree," (a site dug by Jim Michie.) In 1974, my colleagues at the Institute of Archaeology, surprised Jewell and me on our twenty-fifth wedding anniversary with a party at our house when we returned from a movie. I broke out my wine from the cellar and we had a great time. Decades later, when I meet someone who was there on that occasion, they will remind me what great tasting wine was consumed that night. I knew that using a still to convert wine into brandy is an illegal process, so I did not undertake that. However, there is another, legal way, to convert wine into the higher alcohol content of brandy, and I soon undertook that. By placing five gallons of wine in the freezer, the water it contains freezes but the alcohol and sugar content does not freeze and can be poured off of the frozen water as potent brandy or cognac. This is then stored for a long time in an oak barrel, which I bought for the process. However, I began to weigh the enjoyment o f five gallons o f wine on many occasions, against the single gallon of sipping cognac that resulted from the freezing process, so I made little of that brandy. After some years I became so involved in archaeology that I seldom made it to the cellar to work on my wine and that phase of my life came to a halt. I still have some of that 30 year old wine down there in the cellar waiting to be consumed.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Chapter 11 Politics and Potsherd Stories After leaving Charles Towne in the fall of 1969, I moved my family to Columbia and into the house Jewell and I had bought not far from the University of South Carolina. David returned to school at N. C. State. I continued working on the Charles Towne report I had begun while in the field. A series of small projects interrupted my concentration from time to time, because each one required a report of some kind. In this chapter I discuss some of the stories associated with these projects--the "cannon" was now loose in South Carolina.

Under,water Artifacts--Saving South Carolina's Heritage for Taxpayers Shortly after I moved to Columbia, Bob Stephenson asked me to make a division of artifacts a diver had recovered in 1968 from the wreck thought to be The Mary Bowers or the Georgiana, blockade-runner wrecks in South Carolina waters. At the time the state of Florida was the leader in underwater programs involving the state and salvage divers. The division of artifacts from wrecks was 75% for the divers and 25% for the state. Bob, John Combes and I decided that that precedent should be applied to South Carolina as well. A 1968 underwater salvage law, containing rules and regulations, was amended in 1969 to reflect this 75/25% division, but it wasn't until later that funding was made available to support the law. It was in obtaining that funding that I became involved. I assured the Senate Finance Committee, the funding for preserving South Carolina's underwater heritage, would be used to collect a percentage of all artifacts recovered from the shipwrecks, to be curated in perpetuity for the

227

taxpayers of South Carolina for research and museum display. But I was faced with making the first division between the State and the diver who had recovered a number of artifacts from the shipwreck. I examined the artifacts and described them as follows (South 1971c [1969] 110): These include a large quantity of rubber coated canvas sheets, porcelain buttons, sets of teeth for making dental plates, sticks of vermilion, a stoneware jug with an intact cork, large quantities of wooden spools with thread still intact on some examples, hundreds of blue-edged plates, polychrome painted cups, saucers, and mugs, Wedgwood bowls, wooden pencils with the name of the maker still visible, buckets of straight brass pins, wooden handles for tools, staff pens, and the contents of a fire making kit. All of these objects are of considerable historical interest and will surly add to our understanding of specific objects being imported to the Confederate States during the Civil War. However, one still regrets the lack of control on such salvage projects. These and many other wonderful things came from this project. Because the diver was interested in covering expenses involved in the dive by selling the objects on the open market or to collectors, I chose only a few whole plates and a basket full of broken fragments as the 25% for curation in perpetuity by the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, on behalf of the taxpayers of South Carolina.

228 I took only a few handfuls of the straight pins, and a relatively small quantity of the other objects that I envisioned being displayed in an exhibit some day. Overall I tried to keep to the agreed on split and make as fair a division as I could. I envisioned that as the years passed by, and a similar division having been made from many such collections of underwater treasures, that the State of South Carolina would accumulate a wealth of artifacts for research, exhibit, and educational purposes, just as was being done on land sites such as Charles Towne Landing--a naive dream as it turned out. But, we were dreamers and the future looked bright.

An Underwater Archaeology Program-Politics Later on, when Bob was in the process of making out a budget to submit to the Legislature, he asked me for input. I told him the primary items .needed were a salary for an underwater archaeologist, a station wagon for transportation, and other expenses needed to support such a program. I agreed to take the budget for funding the underwater program to the Senator Rembert C. Dennis, Chairman of the Finance Committee, because Bob, as Director, was not supposed to go directly to the Legislature. I volunteered to go instead of Bob. He said he didn't hear that. I explained to Senator Dennis why we needed such funding, and he invited me to make a presentation before his committee. I took with me an article on a Florida shipwreck in which the cargo of gold coins from California were illustrated. I explained that South Carolina needed an underwater program to insure that some of the historic artifacts from each wreck would be selected by an underwater archaeologist so that they could be curated for research and exhibit purposes once South Carolina had a State Museum. I said that as it stood at that trine, there was no underwater archaeologist or program to oversee the compliance with the rules and regulations specified by the underwater law. I passed around the article with the picture of the gold coins, and said that if such a wreck were

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION found in South Carolina waters, there was no one specifically assigned to deal with such underwater sites to insure the State would acquire a selection of artifacts for research, exhibit and curation. Each Committee member had a copy of Bob's budget--I pointed to it and requested funding. About that time one of the Senators spoke up and told about a visit he had made to Ninety Six (when I was carrying out an exploratory project there a short time before), and praised me highly for showing him around the site and explaining the dig to him, not knowing he was a senator. His praise was so great, that as I went to the door, Senator Dennis followed me, and when the door was almost closed, he whispered to me through the crack, "I believe you've got your funding. I'll notify you when it is approved." I was elated and notified Bob at the success of my mission.

The Difference Between Geology And Archaeology--In The Nick Of Time Some months passed and I had not heard from Senator Dennis. One day I was sitting at the bus stop near the capital, reading the paper while waiting for a bus to take me home for lunch. I saw that the Legislature was adjourning that day. Suddenly, it hit me that we didn't know the status of our request to fund an underwater program at the Institute. I jumped up and went straight to Senator Dennis's office. His administrative assistant said she had tried to call the Department of Geology at the University to ask a question about the budget, but was told they knew nothing about funding for an underwater program! "Oh! No!" I said, "Not Geology--Archaeology!" "That's the word!" she said. She was most helpful--saying the Senator was on the floor of the Senate, and that I should go down to see him. She said I should tell the guard at the door that she had sent me with a message for the senator-which I did. He said he had tried to reach us about some question, but because they couldn't get in touch with us they had struck the request out of the budget. He said both houses of the Legislature had passed a version of the budget bill, and that a

Politics and Potsherd Stories representative was up in a room in the dome o f the Capital (far over our heads), reconciling the two versions o f the budget. He said for me to go up to the dome room and tell the man that Senator Dennis said to pencil in the funding for the underwater program at the Institute. He said I had better hurry because he was to report back soon with the reconciled State Budget. I quickly left to find my way up to the dome. On the way I was trying to think of how much money Bob had asked for, but couldn't remember--I thought it was somewhere around forty thousand dollars, but had no idea what it was. The dome room was empty except for a single table, on which were a lot of papers, and one chair, in which the man was seated. I interrupted him and told him what Senator Dennis had told me. He asked what the money was for, and I said it was for an underwater program at the Institute of Archaeology. He made a note as I contimied, telling him it was for a station wagon, the salary for an underwater archaeologist, and... He interrupted me, saying, "I don't need all t h a t - bow much do you want?" Suddenly, there was that question to which I didn't know the answer. I believe I blurted out, "Forty-two thousand dollars," hoping that was somewhere in the neighborhood of what Bob's budget had requested. Before I got that out of my mouth he had written the amount beside the note "Institute of Archaeology-Underwater Program." Then, as though dismissing a dog from the house, he pointed to the door and said, "Done!" I left. I went into Bob's office and told him I had some good news and some bad news. The good news was that I had, by the skin of my teeth, saved the budget for the underwater program. The bad news was that I had no idea how much he had asked for. He went to his file and pulled out his budget request--turned to me, and said, "How much did you have them pencil into the budget?" I told him and he grinned--"You asked for two thousand more than I had asked for!" That was good news! Then, I jokingly said, "I could have asked for fifty thousand!" But we were both happy that the Institute now had funding to

229 support a program to save some of the underwater artifacts from each shipwreck for the State of South Carolina--but that was to change.

The Underwater Program Mission--the Hobby Diver Tail Wags the Dog 0 n e of the problems with accumulating historical artifacts from many shipwrecks is that they must be conserved, and that requires personnel and equipment. As a result, years later, a conservation laboratory was built to address this problem, again through the support of the Legislature after the Brown's Ferry Vessel was discovered. As various administrative revisions of the underwater law took place, however, and policy changes came about, the emphasis shifted from conserving and curating artifacts from shipwrecks in perpetuity for research and museum exhibits, to administratively monitoring a hobby diver program, where the divers are allowed to keep the artifacts they recover--not exactly what Bob Stephenson and I had in mind for an underwater program. Stimulated by the above involvement in trying to save underwater artifacts for research, analysis, interpretation and publication, as we do on dry land sites, I became concerned with the mission relationship between the State and salvage diving operations (South 1971c: 107-113). I urged a more systematic and scientific recovery of data from shipwreck sites--saying that unless this is done, "...the efforts at recovery of historical and scientific data from underwater sites will continue to remain in the realm of salvage relic hunting, and does not deserve to be referred to as "underwater archaeology" (South 1971c: 112). I urged more stringent laws controlling the recovery of data from shipwrecks, saying that, "The time has come for governments to stop relying on private sponsors to recover scientific data from underwater sites." Over 30 years later the recovery of the H.L. Hunley demonstrated the cooperation needed between Federal, State, and private resources to affect a successful scientific recovery and examination of such high-profile artifacts as that submarine.

230 Time has also brought positive changes to the underwater archaeology program, including divertraining education. Recently, as part of the survey mission of the SCIAA Underwater Division, a search for the sixteenth-century French vessel, Prince, wrecked off of Santa Elena, was carried out by Jim Spirek for Chester DePratter. Currently, artifact recovery from shipwreck sites is carried out primarily through such survey.

Hiring an Underwater Archaeologist--A Mission Conflict With the funding in hand, the underwater archaeologist position was advertised. Two prime candidates were interviewed by Bob, John Combes and me. One was George Bass, a Columbia native, and the other was Alan Albright. Bass said he would accept the position only if the University would support an underwater institute devoted to research. Although agreeing with the research mission outlined by Bass, Bob thought the cost of such a program would be more than the University would be willing to support, and he was right. The home-town boy ultimately developed his world-renowned underwater scientific research institute elsewhere---in Texas. Alan Albright had considerable experience in underwater projects. When the three of us interviewed Alan, we explained that we wanted an underwater version of the Institute of Archaeology---devoted to recovering data from each shipwreck under controlled conditions and publishing the results of each project undertaken. We were concerned that at that time underwater "archaeology" was not archaeology at all, but simply relic collecting motivated by profit from selling the recovered "treasure" to collectors. We felt it was time underwater diving became a scientific endeavor, with the results shared with the world through publication. The incidental tail of that research dog was to be the administration of a hobby diving program where hobby diving would be controlled in order to prevent looting of artifacts from shipwrecks. After we explained our mission goals to Alan, and we had discussed his considerable credentials

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION involving underwater projects, we asked him for his thoughts on the position. He said he was totally confident he could manage salvage diving projects and the division of artifacts on behalf of the State, and he had no problem with developing a hobby diver program, but he surprised us by saying, "As far as publication of results is concerned, that is not my thing, and if the job requires writing publishable reports, then I'm not your boy!" That was a conversation stopper, like a 2 by 4 up-side the head of all three of us. He said if we wanted to talk about it we could let him know our decision after lunch. It was about lunch time by then, and we had told him we would take him to lunch at the Faculty Club. But when we heard that, we told him he would have to have lunch by himself while we discussed this bomb he had dropped on us. We had envisioned a far different underwater program than one where scientific data recovery, analysis, report writing and publication, was not the major mission. We were in total agreement on this point. At the end of a two-hour lunch, during which we had gone over and over the contrast between the underwater mission we had envisioned and the one Albright laid on us, Bob finally said, "But what are our options?" We looked at other applications we had received, and thought hard about those in underwater programs elsewhere, and came to the sad realization that virtually no one we could think of had carried out the type of scientific underwater research and publication mission we had outlined to Albright. We were faced with compromising the scientific expectations for data recovery and publications we were familiar with on land sites, for an underwater program that overtly would not meet those requirements. Albright had specifically shot down our research dream of an underwater program that published results. We had to face reality and compromise our expectations. Albright was one of the best men available to manage underwater artifact salvaging projects and develop a hobby diving program. After he left the Institute, however, the

Politics and Potsherd Stories

hobby diver tail would eventually wag the underwater artifact dog, and collection of artifacts on behalf of the State would no longer take place.

A Lost Dog Collar Is Found--and Funding Alan Albright was out of town diving on a project, Bob Stephenson was on leave, and I took the call in their absence. Senator Dennis's assistant said he wanted someone from the underwater program to come to his office. By default I went, and saw a group of artifacts laid out on a table in the Senator's office. A diver had found a collection of artifacts while diving at Brown's Ferry, and had taken them to Senator Dennis because they had been found in his district, not far from his home. Senator Dennis wanted me to comment on the collection and to determine if it was something the State would be interested in having in our collection at SCIAA, because the diver (who was also present) wanted to know if the State was going to "seize" the objectS. There were ceramics from the eighteenth century and other objects of interest of the period, as well as some from the nineteenth century and later. I told him the artifacts would make a nice addition to our study collections, but that there was no way we would "seize" the collection, but if the diver wanted to donate it to SCIAA we would be glad to accept it, but it was up to the diver to make that decision. I told him that a hobby diver program was in the process of being set up whereby a permit to dive could be obtained through Alan Albright, and that the diver might want to contact Alan as soon as he came back in town. This seemed to please them both. Senator Dennis then walked over and picked up one object and said~ "This is one object you won't get in your collection," and, with a smile, handed it to me to examine. It was a brass tag from a dog collar. Engraved on it was the name of a dog, and below that was "REMBERT C. DENNIS • MONCK'S CORNER, S.C." When I read that I laughed, and said: "This looks like personal property to me," and as I handed the dog collar tag back to Senator Dennis, I understood why the

231 collection had been taken to his office. Then he told the story. He said that a number of years before, he had been hunting with his dog, when they approached an elevated causeway through the woods, with his dog running on ahead. Then he heard a car door slam. He called and called, but the dog was never found. He had always thought someone had opened the car door and the dog had jumped in. The incident had happened just above Brown's Ferry Landing, at the bridge. He now knew that once the thief had the dog in the car, the collar had been removed and thrown out the window into the water. The current had carried it a short distance downstream where the collar rotted away, leaving the tag for the diver to find years later. What a story! Later on, Alan Albright went to Senator Dennis's office, and in the process of discussing the artifacts the diver had donated to SCIAA for curation, explained his need for additional funding for the underwater program--which was soon forthcoming. Alan was always grateful for those long-ago thieves who had thrown the dog collar offthe Brown's Ferry Bridge.

Georgeanna Greer--I Discover "Alkaline Glazed Stoneware" I hadn't been in Columbia long before Dr. Georgeanna Greer, a pediatrician from San Antonio, Texas, with her daughter, visited the Institute in the summer of 1970. In her station wagon she had a number of stoneware pottery vessels she had collected in a tour of antique shops in South Carolina--some decorated with white slip. I had seen sherds of this type glossyglazed, dark mottled-green stoneware, but could find nothing published on it. In my catalog of ceramic types, I had called it "Lead-glazed? Stoneware" That was because it was without a doubt, stoneware, but I knew the glossy glaze could not be lead, because lead could not mature to such a gloss at such high temperature, but I didn't know that glaze. Dr. Greer told me that she called the ware "alkaline glazed stoneware," being made of wood

232 or grass ashes [alkaline] and clay. She had a number of notes correlated with experimental tiles she had produced to demonstrate what ingredients produced what color vessels. I was impressed. Her visit was an eye-opener, and I published an account of the event (South 1970e: 3-5). She was very humble, always deferring to what she considered my expertise as an archaeologist, assuming I already knew what she was talking about. I assured her she knew far more about alkaline glazed pottery than any archaeologist I knew, and urged her to write a paper for The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology meeting in the Fall. It would then be published in the CHSA Papers, which I edited. She said, "But I'm not an archaeologist!" I told her that didn't matter, and urged her to present a paper. I assured her she was probably the world's expert on alkaline glazed pottery. In October she presented her paper, and archaeologists learned for the first time what tfiey held in their hand when they excavated a sherd of this type stoneware (Greer 1971: 155170). To help spread the word on alkaline glazed pottery, I edited a forum on the subject, based on Dr. Greer's paper, in which I presented two papers (South 1971d: 171-185, 1971e: 188-193). In the years to follow, Dr. Greer demonstrated she was the world's leading authority on alkaline glazed stoneware, publishing several fine books on the subject (Greer 1993). The Conservation-Preservation Process and "The Log Cabin Syndrome" During the first year after arriving in South Carolina, I became increasingly aware of efforts of historical groups and agencies' conservationpreservation efforts to interpret the past through historic site development (South 1972b). My North Carolina and Charles Towne experiences had exposed me to the challenges, as well as the trials and tribulations of such efforts. At that time, Bob Strickland was excavating a building site in Camden, and Bob Stephenson and I visited to consult with him. He had found many

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION interesting features, including a Revolutionary War redoubt, and evidence for a palisade. While there I found that a local preservation group was moving old barns and log cabins and clustering them together to form a pseudoCamden assemblage. I had seen his phenomenon elsewhere, and had been critical of that process of creating "pseudo-colonial towns" to attract tourists--in the name of"preservation." I voiced my objection to this in a paper presented at the Southeastern Museums Conference held in Columbia on October 22, 1970 (South 1970f: 1621): We should guard against first-impulse planning and development, against the log cabin syndrome where the countryside is stripped of log cabins to be planted in a cluster like pseudo-historical mushroom towns springing up overnight, regardless of the historical focus or archaeological merit a site might otherwise possess. In our enthusiasm, we may go so far as to use California redwood in our "restorations," implying thereby trade routes and resources undreamed of by our forebears. Yet, the minds of children and unsuspecting adults are shaped by such distortions that are springing as full-blown creations from the forehead of our own age rather than anchored in the past through research and archaeology. Let us guard against the pitfalls of creating "instant history" insufficiently rooted in the rich humus of our heritage of people, their things, and the historic sites that were the stage for their drama. Rather, as we engineer our explanatory exhibits in the form of parapets and palisades, ruins and cabins, and restorations and reconstructions on historic sites, we should be constantly aware of our role as creators of historical images to become burned into the mind. If our efforts to interpret history on historic sites are insufficiently documented by research

Politics and Potsherd Stories

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and archaeology and we find that the restoration we built must be taken down in favor of a more accurate presentation, the damage has already been done, not only in wasted effort and funds, but also in the false images carried away by all those who viewed the bastard child. I continued this historic site development theme in the fall 1970 meeting of The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology, attempting to get it to other historical archaeologists who may have witnessed the same problem (South 1971f: 5: 90102, 1971g: 103-113). In 1972, I had the opportunity to carry my conservation-preservation message in detail to a world audience, at the North American International Regional Conference, sponsored by the Intemational Centre for Conservation in Rome, and the Intemational Centre Committee of the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, meeting in Washington (South 1976b: 35-43). Over three decades have passed since I voiced my objections to "The Log Cabin Syndrome." Historic Camden draws many visitors to view its buildings.

Assigning Dates to Potsherds--I "Anthropological Idiocy"

Pursue

On one of my visits to Ivor Noel Hume, his wife Audrey came in while I was in his office, with a group of several types of ceramics on a tray. She set them on his desk and asked him what his date-range for the group was. He looked at them for a moment, he then told her not to look while he wrote something on a slip of paper. When she turned back he asked her what daterange she had put on the sherds. She said, "1790 to 1815." He smiled, pleased, and reached over and turned over what he had written on the slip of paper--we looked and saw "1790--1815." She smiled and said, "Were you testing me?" He answered, "Oh no! I was testing myself." Then he turned to me and said, "Audrey is the ceramic expert here--I'm still learning."

That demonstration of ceramic expertise started me thinking--wouldn't it be nice if each sherd had the date of manufacture printed on it-like coins. How much easier our dating of ceramics would be if that were true. After that, when I gave talks, in trying to explain how archaeologists dated assemblages of ceramics using terminus post quem, I would take from my pocket a handful of coins and call off the dates, or write them on the blackboard. Then I would average the dates, and compare that with the most recent date (the terminus post quem, or time after which the assemblage had to date), and subtract the average from that date. Then I would double that number of years to arrive at the estimated period of time represented by the dates on the coins. That date would not exactly match the time-range indicated by the coin dates, but it was not bad as a rough estimate. I thought about trying to figure out a way to assign a date to each fragment of pearlware, creamware, tortoiseshell ware, white salt-glazed stoneware, etc. Could I do that for British colonial ceramics? Then it occurred to me that if I could assign a mid-production period date to ceramic types using the beginning and end manufacture dates, as indicated in Nofil Hume's artifacts book (1970), I could then arrange site assemblages using the classic "battleship curves" resulting from the seriation of the percentage relationship of ceramic types. Seriation of percentages of Indian pottery to determine the development of types through time, had been demonstrated by Phillips, Ford and Griffin (1951). I could check my ceramic seriation against documented historic occupation dates for the sites. If I could do that, I might have a tool for use in estimating the period of time during which a ceramic assemblage accumulated. But first, I had to determine the manufacture range for each ceramic type, before I could assign the median manufacture date. Once I had that date for ceramic type I would, in effect, have a date I could assign to each sherd--like the date on a coin!

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

To do that I used Norl Hume's book (1970) in which he discussed the manufacture period for various ceramic types. I made a list of British colonial ceramic types with the date range for each and the median date assigned to each type (South 1972a: 85). Then I selected a group of historic sites, for each of which, I had written the occupation date range and set it aside. I then plotted the percentage of each type on a bar graph for each site. Next I cut the strip of percentage bars for each site away from the other sites so that I had a bar-graph strip for all types for each site. Then, on my dining room table, I began arranging the bars in an ascending or descending order, one at a time, in a trial and error manner--the method used in creating a "battleship curve" seriation chart (Phillips, Ford and Griffin 1951, Ford 1951). This process involved a lot of rearranging, until I could see a relative smooth set of "battleghip curves" formed by the percentages for the types. When I was satisfied with the arrangement, I took out my list of known dates for the sites and compared them with the arrangement determined by the seriation of ceramic types from the sites. What I found was that the sites were arranged in chronological order from earliest at the bottom, with later sites at the top. I taped the strips together to hold them in the order in which I had arranged them, then taped the entire set to the window glass in my den, like a Venetian blind seriation. The strips taped to the window resulted in what I called "The Marker Type Model," illustrated in (South 1972a: 85). That afternoon, John Combes came for a visit and asked what that was taped to my window. The rest of the afternoon was spent in explaining to him what I thought I had done. I was excited by the results, and we spent the afternoon lifting beers in salute to the strips hanging in the window. Jewell thought we were crazy.

of British colonial ceramic types could be seriated just as Native American pottery types had been, producing an estimated chronological sequence. Unlike Native American seriations, however, I had real time control through documented pottery manufacture periods for the types--with documented occupation dates for some sites. The next step I took was to deal with each of the sites to obtain the average median manufacture date, just as I had done with coins in my pocket, to see how close the average came to the known median occupation date. At the $7 (Hepburn-Reynolds House) from Brunswick Town, for example, there were 14 different ceramic types, with the average median manufacture date being 1749. The known documented median occupation date for that site was 1755. That was only six years later than the average median manufacture date, but that simple procedure didn't take into consideration the relative frequency of ceramic fragments present for the various types recovered from the ruin. I wanted to see what effect sherd frequency (in spite of the "anthropological idiocy" of sherd counts view held by some) might have when used with median manufacture date. As my next step I took the sherd count for each type, and multiplied it by the median manufacture date for each type, a process producing a product. I then divided the total of the products by the total sherd count for all sherds, which produced a date of 1754.6 as a mean ceramic date for the ceramic assemblage for the $7 ruin. This wasn't a bad date from archaeological sherds for a documented median occupation date of 1755 (South 1972a: 85)! With this success I did the same for each of the ruins. I was convinced that I had discovered a way for historical archaeologists to derive a mean ceramic date for their ceramic assemblages and not far removed from the median occupation date for the accumulation of the sherds.

The Mean Ceramic Date Concept--Empirical Analysis from Coin-Date Theory From the results of this procedure I knew I was onto something--the percentage relationship

The Mean Ceramic Date Formula Model When John and I were toasting the chart in the window, he mentioned that I might want to get his wife, Joan, who was a computer genius (not many

Politics and Potsherd Stories

Figure 11.1. The Mean Ceramic Date Formula and some of

the sherds used with it. (Photo: South 1971) around then), to work with me describing the tiger I had by the tail. I kept that in mind. Later I went to Joan, I asked her to express what I had done in terms o f a mathematical formula. I had arrived empirically at a way to derive a mean ceramic date from an assemblage that rather closely matched, within a few years, the median occupation date for the accumulation of the assemblage, but, being a mathematical klutz, I had no idea how to express what I had done in terms that mathematicians could understand--a formula. She looked at what I was up to, and wrote down the formula, which became The Mean Ceramic Date Formula (MCD). I Run the MCD Formula by Noel Hume By October 14, 1971, I had produced a chart illustrating all this (South 1972a: Figure 1, 85), and tied it into the theoretical concepts of evolution and horizon, and was ready to take it to

235 Noel Hume to see what he thought of what I had done. I wanted to make sure the date-ranges he had indicated in his artifacts book were still valid or if he had altered some of that information since his book was published. Fortunately, he kindly spent the whole day with me going over each ceramic type to refine the date-ranges so I could then revise the time-range brackets in keeping with his latest knowledge. When that process was completed and I was about ready to leave, I mentioned that we had not had time to talk about the Marker Type Model, or the Mean Ceramic Date Formula shown on the fight side of the chart-draft I had created. The chart was lying on his desk. The left third of the chart contained the list of ceramic types with Noel Hume's manufacture date-range and median manufacture date assigned to each type. That's what we had worked all day on revising. The fight two-thirds illustrated the Marker Type Model, the Mean Ceramic Date Formula, and the Application of the Analysis Tools for eleven sites, compared with the Mean Ceramic Date (see South 1972a: 85, 1977a: 210-212, 215). I asked him what he thought about the right two-thirds o f the chart. There was a long p a u s e - thinking about what to say or not to say, I thought. I anxiously awaited his answer. Then he smiled, reached in a drawer and pulled out a pair of scissors, and pushing the chart over so that the fight two-thirds extended over a trash-can beside the desk, he said (using the scissors to demonstrate), "I would cut through the chart about here, and what you have left is a good piece of research"--indicating the list of types with his manufacture date ranges. We both laughed and I got the message, but didn't act on it. The Formula Is Tested Against Strata in a Well Later, when I revised the chart using the updated manufacture ranges, and had re-drafted as necessary, I wrote him and asked if he would count the sherds from some provenience for which he knew the date range, to test the Mean Ceramic Date Formula date against the date he

236 had assigned. He agreed to count the sherds, though he said it went against the grain. Then he sent me the data and the Mean Ceramic Dates for a well he had excavated. It had been used as a trash deposit over a long period of time and he applied the MCD date to the ceramics from various levels in the well. Two o f the MCD dates were out of chronological sequence. He said if the formula were reliable it would have to produce dates in chronological sequence for the strata from the bottom to top of the well--which they had not in his study. I was anxious to see what ceramic types had thrown the formula dates off in the two out-of-sequence layers. As I went over the figures Notl Hume had sent me, to my relief, I discovered that an error had been made in each of the two out-of-sequence layers. When the correct division was carried out, both layers fell neatly into sequence with the other dates. I was pleased that the aplblication of the formula to ceramics from a well had turned out so well (no pun intended). In spite of Noel Hume's skepticism, I was not deterred. I published the thing anyway in 1972 (South 1972a).

The Difference between Model-Building and Model-Using Over 30 years later, I was pleased to see a quote from Noel Hume in which he referred to the Mean Ceramic Date Formula, saying (Adams 2003: 46): I do not deny that (to my astonishment) regardless of Stan's source, his system seems to work. I contend, however, that if you know enough to put all your wares into the brackets he suggests, you also know enough to recognize the terminus post quem based on the most recent artifact present. When we tested the theory for Stan, using a large, well group, our lab people took three days to arrive at what was a reasonable median date based on Stan's formula. However, it took me ten minutes to arrive at the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

terminus post quem, and, after all, it was that date, rather than the median date for the range of the artifacts, that we were seeking! What is not mentioned is, that the reason it took three days was because the ceramic fragments had never before been quantified! Not having quantified data already in hand, the lab people Noel Hume mentions, had to count sherds glued onto pots, as well as those loose ones not previously quantified by type in order to arrive at the data necessary to use the MCD Formula. Archaeologists who use quantitative methods to begin with would already have those data on their spreadsheets. Also not mentioned, is the fact that the MCD Formula allows two dates for use in reconstructing an interpreted time period for

the accumulation of the assemblage--the terminus post quem as well as the mean ceramic date. Using both dates allows this time period to be reconstructed--a process not possible simply using terminus post quem alone! (South 1972: 82). As I have said in regard to this point: The interpretive tools we are discussing here are designed to assist us in going beyond merely determining the date of the fill [of an archaeological deposit using terminus post quem], [by] allowing us to make an interpretation as to the occupation period reflected by the ceramics in the deposit. Bill Adams, in commenting on the above statement by Notl Hume says the Mean Ceramic Date method "is seriously flawed, but not for the reasons discussed above" (Adams 2003: 46). When you examine the "reasons" he refers to, you find that his criticism focuses on differences between the "real" manufacture-date-ranges for some of the types and those date-ranges I used to create the model.

Politics and Potsherd Stories For the model, I made adjustments such as assigning two mean manufacture dates for delft (Type 49), and removing certain types from consideration (Types 26 and 39) because of their long use-time. This allowed the dates derived using the formula match the documented site daterange-control for the accumulation of the ceramics (South 1972a: 80). This, and other adjustments insured the ability of the formula model to correctly predict a mean ceramic date for a new assemblage to which it was applied. In order for the date derived from the model to have reliable predictability it should be close to the date for the documented accumulation of the ceramic assemblage/ That was the whole point of my model-building process! Whether the actual date-range for some of the ceramic types matches the date-range used in the model is irrelevant. It is apparent to me from his discussion of the "seriously flawed" nature of the MCD Method, Adamg appears not to grasp the difference between model-building and model-using to address specific questions. Models can be built using creative imagination "from thin air" and tossed out to be tested against empirical data. The "proof of the pudding"--the efficacy the model, depends on the degree of "fit" between the date-range determined by it, and that range established by historical documentation. How the model was constructed to eliminate "time-lag" or to control some other variable to increase its accuracy in predicting future results, has no bearing on the question of how well the model works as predicted/ If you ask other questions (such as how do we measure time lag? - - (which the MCD Formula was not designed to do) then other tools should be used to address those questions (Adams 2003: 46).

"Crazy! That Formula Is Really Weird"--"But Still the Damn Thing Works" Bill Adams was certainly not the first to criticize the MCD Formula. In 1973, I received a six-page letter from Charles McNutt, an archaeologist at Memphis State University (McNutt 1973: 6). The opening line was "Crazy!

237 That formula is really weird." Those pages were filled with a multitude of formulas demonstrating in great detail statistically, methodologically and theoretically, why the formula was invalid-virtually none of which I could understand. Near the end of the letter he asked, "So: What makes Stanley Run? I really don't know, at least in any precise manner." The paragraph I loved, however, was the following (McNutt 1973: 6): In point of fact, the formula is not valid, it contains several awkward aspects and assumptions, it proceeds from the unknown to the known [italics mine], and can withstand a moderate amount of multiplication by zero. But still the damn thing works [italics mine]--at least for the 18ta century. I plead guilty to that impeachment. In my archaeology I usually proceed from the unknown about a site to the known (to discover at least more than I knew when I began). That's one of the things that "makes Stanley run." The challenge of determining an interpreted site occupation date by quantifying little fragments of ceramics was an unknown that I undertook over 30 years ago that resulted in the MCD Formula. That begged the question posed by McNutt in another concluding paragraph (McNutt 1973: 6): Now above and beyond all the discussion, disputes, and blissful pragmatism, I think that one most important thing emerges. Quite simply, we must discover precisely why it works. If we knew this, then we would have the conditions under which this formula is useful. : This is the voice of a scientist asking the fight question. I have not explored that question. I have left it up to others to do so and the literature is full of examples covering three decades where others, as Bill Adams has done, have addressed it

238 as their research has crossed paths with the MCD Formula tool. I follow their efforts with interest.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION that tribute and his scientifically creative application of the MCD Formula concept to Southwestern Native American pottery.

More Feedback on the MCD Formula

Although Bill Adams (above) said that the Mean Ceramic Date Formula was "seriously flawed," and Charlie McNutt (above) said, "The formula is not valid," there were others who had a more favorable response. Lew Binford, for instance, in the same volume where my MCD Formula paper was published, said," Stanley South's paper is excellent. It argues a closely reasoned justification for the development of a research tool which when properly applied should be of great value in historical archaeology" (Binford 1972:117). He explains that, "Offering many reasons why the proposal cannot work, is not a sufficient justification for an archaeological scientist to reject the proposal. South offers a general proposition and a demonstration that at least ifi the context of the materials used it does work ['italics mine]. The scientist could only take the enumeration of reasons why it shouldn't work as a challenge" (Binford 1972: 124). He points out that, "Any technique of dating which is based on cultural materials may exhibit regular trends temporally, but it is always dependent for its accuracy on the stability of certain relationships in the organization of cultural dynamics" (Binford 1972: 124). Questions we want to answer, he says, are: "How general is its reliability, how variable is its accuracy, what were the determinants operative to produce variable accuracy, etc." Twenty-two years later, I was greatly pleased to receive a letter from Andrew L. Christenson, an archaeological consultant in Prescott, Arizona, who said he had been using the MCD concept in the Southwest on well-dated Kayenta Anasazi sites (Christenson 1994a and 1994b: 297-317). He reported that "It is much more accurate than C-14 or archaeomagnetic dating and vastly increases the number of sites that can be dated. Now the task is to break down the skepticism to the technique! - - Thank you for your pioneering work in this area" (Christenson 1994a). I liked

Politics and Plagiarism

When a colleague was charged with plagiarism I was asked to chair a committee to investigate the matter. My committee report stated the colleague did not commit plagiarism, but he did not find that out until a year or so later. As a result of legal action he brought over the matter he is now financially secure and happy in retirement. As chair of that committee, I became more convinced than ever that I am far more comfortable with potsherds than people. Politics and Potsherds

The stories of politics and potsherds I have told here are examples of the type of events that occurred when I was in my office in Columbia. One of the realities associated with field archaeology projects is, from three to four-times the time spent in the field, must be spent on cataloging, and analysis, and writing about the data emerging from the expeditions. However, opportunity knocks, and before the final report is prepared, administrators often want archaeologists to move on to other projects. Thus, before the Charles Towne report was completed, Bob Stephenson was anxious for me to move on to the next project at Ninety Six, and so was I. It would be 33 years before the research I did at Charles Towne was finally published (South 2002), but I wouldn't, for the world, have wanted to miss the oppommity to explore Ninety Six! In the spring and fall of 1970 and again in the spring of 1971 I carried out expeditions to excavate the archaeological clues to the town of Ninety Six and its history. Those Ninety Six stories are told in the next chapter.

Chapter 12 Ninety Six Stories Introduction No sooner had I returned from Charles Towne, than Bob Stephenson informed me about a project in the works for me to conduct exploratory archaeology at the Trading P o s t - French and Indian War--Revolutionary War site of Ninety Six, South Carolina for the Star Fort Historical Commission. I told him I needed some time to work on the Charles Towne report, and we agreed that the Ninety Six Project would begin in the Spring o f 1970. That was the first of three expeditions I conducted at that site. W, Bruce Ezell, manager of the Ninety Six Project for the Commission, was the prime mover for funding for the projects, the first of which began on May 4 th' 1970. Meanwhile, my research on the history of Ninety Six was underway, and by the Fall of 1970 I had summarized the history and exploratory archaeology of some of the fortifications at Ninety Six, and the exploratory work I did there that year. By 1972, I had published several reports on my work at Ninety Six (South 1970g-i, 1971h, 1971i: 35-50, 1972de).

The Exploratory Project--A Tiger by the Tail The goal of m y first exploratory archaeology project was to find as many of the 15 known forts and features on the site as possible during that month. These are: 1. Goudy's Trading Post of 1751 2. Fort Ninety Six of 1759 and 1761 3. Moultrie's New Stockade of 1761 4. The Town of Ninety Six 5. The fortified jail in Ninety Six 6. Williamson's Fort of 1775 7. Anti-Cherokee fort of 1776 8. Col. Cruger's "square palisade" fort o f October 1780

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9. 10. 11. 12.

Lt. Haldane's Star Fort of December 1780 Lt. Haldane's caponier of December 1780 Holmes' Fort of 1780 "Light Horse Harry" Lee's approach trenches o f 1781 13. General Nathanael Greene's parallels of 1781 14. Kosciusko's mine of 1781 15. Major Green's traverse of 1781

Finding evidence for these elements of the Ninety Six site was the challenge we faced in our research during Our three expeditions to the site totaling less than four months in 1970 and 1971 (South 1970g-h, 1971h-i, 1972c, d-e). I will present these in chronological order with crew stories thrown in from time to time. In the first field project Randy Luther was my crew chief, assisted by my son, David, James Allen, and part time by field assistant, Richard Polhemus. We pitched an army surplus tent for the crew on a vacant lot in the present town of Ninety Six, and moved a small travel trailer onto the site to serve as my quarters and office. John Combes and I had used this trailer during our excavations at Charles Towne. Under Bob Stephenson's direction, the Institute was focused on field archaeology, so he had purchased two travel trailers for expedition use, and a large flatbed truck was bought to move expeditions. Because sewer and water lines crossed the lot we were on, we had a plumber locate it for us so the trailer line could feed into it, and we could have water. We pitched a second tent and installed in it a surplus commode and showerhead for the crew--first class accommodations!

240

Beatniks Loose in Ninety Six Ninety Six is a small town, and the arrival of a bearded dude like me, with Randy having long hair hanging down his back in Indian fashion, the local police were concerned for the safety of the community. I should mention that beards were a rare phenomenon in the South before the Civil War Centennial, when beards began to be worn to celebrate that anniversary. In the mid-60s, until around the time of our dig at Ninety Six, there were communities where citizens were highly suspicious of people with long hair and beards, certainly a dramatic difference from today. I stopped shaving about 1960, and often during that era people would yell at me from passing cars-"Beatnik--Shave that beard!" In the 70s, "Hippy freak! Shave that beard!" Now many have beards--time marches on and culture changes. So, in 1970, when the policeman began following closely behind Randy and me whenever we came into town to shop for groceries, we weren't surprised. We thought that after we had been there awhile that would StOly--but it didn't. The cop would fall in behind our car as we entered the downtown area, and then "escort" us back to the turn-off to our tent camp on the edge of town. One day I mentioned the escort to Bruce Ezell and after that it stopped. Later Bruce asked if there had been any change. I said we were no longer hassled and I asked what he had done. He said he had gotten the mayor to contact the police chief about the matter, and after that the cop would wave as we passed. The next year he showed up on the site and asked me to give him a tour of the many areas of interest there, which I did. He said he was glad we were there, offered to help, and became a regular visitor to see what we were finding (there wasn't much entertainment in Ninety Six in those days) (South 1994a: 171172). The Goudy's Trading Post Site---Palisade Ditches Before the town of Ninety Six was begun, a trader with the Cherokee Indians, Robert Goudy, had in 1751, established a trading post beside the road to Charleston, located 96 miles from the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Cherokee Town of Keowee. When I arrived at the site thought to be that of the trading post, I found an open cellar hole beside the deep depression of the eighteenth century Charleston Road (South 1970g: Figure 1 map, inset). A grass-covered field nearby was thought to be Goudy's Trading Post site. As often was the case in the eighteenth century, his name was spelled various ways-Gawdin, Gowdey, Gaudey, Goudey, Goudy, Gaudy, Gandey Gandy, Gowdy, Goude, and Goudee--take your pick. I picked the one listed on his will in the South Carolina Department of Archives and History (Will of Robert Goudy, Record of Wills, Charleston County, 1774-1779, Vol. XVII). By November 1759, relations with the Cherokee were not good, and a stockade fort was built around Goudy's barn by engineer Capt. Dugeon, with the fort ditch being dug by the pioneers, volunteers, and servants, under the direction of Governor Lyttelton. Sheds were built on the sides of the barn-storehouse for quarters for the men of the garrison, made up of sick and invalids from Governor Lyttleton's expedition to Fort Prince George. A cellar magazine may have been dug in the barn at that time. This 90 foot square stockade around the barn was known as Fort Ninety Six (South 1970h: 2). On March 3 ~d, 1760, Fort Ninety Six was attacked by 240-250 Cherokees, with a constant fire being kept on the fort for 36 hours. In the fort one man was shot through the shoulder and another in the mouth, but they were expected to recover. Six Cherokee Indians were killed---one body was recovered by the garrison and was fed to the dogs, and the scalp was run up on the flagpole, along with the British flag (South 1970h: 1-2). Folks inside the fort weren't happy about the Cherokee attack. Running symbols up flagpoles has had a long history in South Carolina--from Goudy's Trading Post, to Fort Moultrie, to the State Capitol in Columbia. I didn't excavate in the cellar hole because fragments of pottery there revealed it had become a trash dump in later years, and I was primarily

Ninety Six Stories interested in determining if the fortification ditches dug between 1759 and 1761 were still there---cellar holes usually reveal artifacts dating much later than the period of their being dug, so were of less interest to me than were the important fortification ditches. I dug exploratory trenches just north of the cellar hole and found three palisade ditches that may have been the three documented to have been there: Fort Ninety Six of 1759, Fort Ninety Six of 1761, and William Moultrie's New Stockade of 1761 (South 1970g: Figure 1). My work was simply exploratory, however, and my hope was that in the future competent extensive excavation would allow these important palisade ditches to be followed to determine their configuration. To this date, however, to my knowledge, no such work has been carried out there for that purpose. A project was carried out to look at the cellar hole, but that later ruin would not address the question of the 'various stockades built there when Goudy had his trading post on the site. I did find a small filled cellar hole pit that may have been beneath Robert Goudy's house, burned by Cherokee Indians in their attack on Fort Ninety Six in 1760 (South 1970g: 6, Figure 1 map, inset). We found a number of interesting pre-1770 artifacts in this little cellar hole as we were cleaning it off to photograph it. Because of time limitations I chose not to excavate it during the exploratory phase, but to undertake that during a later anticipated project to the site. As it later turned out, this little cellar hole contained the best assemblage of mid-eighteenth century artifacts found at Goudy's place--none dating later than the 1760s, as I remember. In my comments on future plans for Goudy's Trading Post and related fortifications, I mentioned that the topsoil should be removed by machine, as I had done at Holmes' Fort. That was an unwise recommendation! That site is small enough so that standard scientific archaeological excavation, using a grid laid out on the reference points I put in place, would be the best approach to data recovery on that site. I hope detailed archaeology will be carried out there to further

241 discover the valuable evidence that site has to reveal through careful excavation and observation. Because relatively little disturbance of this site has taken place since the Revolution, that evidence would be in the form of artifact density in the plowed soil in different areas of the site. This information can only be achieved by collecting all artifacts using a grid to determine various areas of artifact density. When such information is desired a machine would damage more than it reveals. The Town of Ninety Six After the crisis period of the French and Indian War, people began to settle about 700 yards north of Goudy's Trading Post at the junction of the Charleston road with the road to Augusta. This settlement was to become the town of Ninety Six. By correlating the nineteenth century map of Ninety Six with the still remaining intersection of the deeply eroded eighteenth century Charleston Road with the Road to Augusta, I was able to determine the general location of the dozen houses, courthouse and jail shown on that map in the town of Ninety Six (South 1970g: Figure 1). Because of the heavy use these roads received in the eighteenth century they were deep depressions on the landscape, still to be seen on aerial photographs of the area between Ninety Six and Charleston. I began cutting slot trenches parallel with the Charleston Road in an effort to find evidence of soil disatrbances relating to the houses that once stood there. Two likely cellar hole pits were found, but not excavated, because this was an exploratory project designed to discover and map as much as possible---not to excavate the features we found. I also cut a trench in the area indicated on the nineteench century map as the site of the jail, known from a 1775 reference to have been built of brick. This trench revealed a large quantity of bricks in a cellar hole. The first director of SCIAA, William Edwards, and his students, had examined this still-standing-open cellar hole some years before I arrived at the site.

242 General Nathanael Greene said, on June 20, 1781, "The town...is picketed in with Strong Picketts, a Ditch around the whole, and a Bank raised near the Height of a common Parapet" (South 1970g: Figure 1). He was talking about the defensive works built there by Lt. Col. John Hams Crnger in 1780 and early in 1781. I assumed the parapet-ditch and the ditch for the pickets (palisade posts) would still be present and could be found using my slot-trenching exploratory archaeology method. To discover evidence for this palisade ditch I cut slot trenches 100 yards south of the junction of the Charleston and Augusta roads, just south of where the map indicated the last house was located. Here I revealed the south palisade/stockade ditch in several of the slot trenches. With this success I then moved to try to locate the north stockade ditch around the town. By looking at the nineteenth century map, I searched in the area where recent logging had taken place north of the county access road around the Star Fort. I found a ditch and embankment still existing where the map indicated a stockade had been. It was amazing to me that the site was so undisturbed that this fortification feature around the town was still visible after almost 200 years. I was pleased that I was finding evidence in the ground for features indicated on the nineteenth century map I was using as a guide in my search. I hope that open ditch is still open because it is a cultural feature surviving from the Revolutionary War (South 1970g: Figure 1). In my first four-week exploratory project I found archaeological remains of not only those Goudy's Trading Post fortifications of 1759 and 1761; and those around the town of Ninety Six, but I had also discovered and mapped many other elements of the fortifications from the 1780-81 Revolutionary War period. By the end of the first project I realized that I had an archaeological tiger by the tail, and that much more archaeology would be required to flesh out the findings from the first four-week project. Some of the discoveries are summarized below.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION The Log Cabin Syndrome Springs up at Ninety Six--another Mushroom Town? As my work was underway in 1970, local people were more excited than ever over the prospect of Ninety Six becoming an historic attraction for tourists. Their first idea was to bring onto the site a group of old barns and log houses donated for the purpose, "to attract tourists," I was told. The log cabin syndrome had struck again! I spoke forcefully against this concept to the Star Fort Commission, using the same words I had used regarding the syndrome when I saw it at Camden (South 1970f: 16-20, 1971h: 49-50 and 232-233 herein). Not being used to interpreting and developing an historic site based on archaeologically revealed data, local groups excitedly jumped into collecting log barns and dragging them to an historic site under the idea that somehow that would attract visitors like iron filings to a magnet. They wanted to "give visitors something to see." My argument was that visitors were far more sophisticated than to be attracted to the log house and barn magnet! I thought they want authenticity based on sound research and archaeology to understand what went on at a site---not pseudo-history. I addressed this log cabin syndrome problem at some length and gave copies to the Commission members (See South 1972d: 48-85). My caution may have had some effect. Though one cabin had been moved to the site, a planned purchase of a log bam was not carried out. Fortunately, that may have prevented a pseudo-town of log structures unrelated to the history of Ninety Six, from springing up like poisonous mushrooms on the landscape. My view was that the history of Ninety Six is so rich that it can stand alone without embellishment by the creation of a pseudo-town. The Stockades Around Ninety Six in 1776 and 1780 - - Which Is Which? The historical and archaeological aspects of the fortifications around the town of Ninety Six are often complex, but I will try to simplify the story by introducing three forts and the

Ninety Six Stories interpretive story that goes with them. It is the story of a change of mind I had regarding the identification of a 1776 palisade fort around the town of Ninety Six. It is also a story in which I hypothesize where the bastions of that fort should be located when further archaeology is carried out. The three forts involved are: 1. July 1776. When the Cherokee Indians "poured down upon the frontiers of South Carolina, massacreing [sic]...all persons who fell into their power," the people crowded together and "ran into little stockade forts, for momentary preservation" (Drayton 1821: 11, 339, 341). "Ninety Six, previous to the war, had been slightly fortified for defence [sic] against the neighbouring [sic] Indians. These works were considerably strengthened after the arrival of the British troops" (Lee 1812). So, we were looking for an anti-Cherokee fort of 177~6 that "slightly fortified" the town, but that was "Considerably strengthened" in 1780 by Lt. Col. John Harris Cruger. 2. Oct. 29, 1780. "Colonel Cruger has enclosed the Court House & some other Houses that joined it within a square stockade, flanked by Blockhouses." Cruger himself calls this "square" stockade a "palisade" that enclosed the courthouse and principal houses (Cruger to Cornwallis, October 13, 1780, [South 1972c: Figure 19]). So, we are also looking for a "square" palisade/stockade, around part of Ninety Six, built by Cruger by October 1780. Our exploratory excavations found a square, two-bastioned fort that I interpret as the one Cruger had originally constructed (South 1971h: Figure 3). 3. Dec. 1780. Lt. Henry Haldane inspected Cruger's square palisade/stockade and found they were not strong enough. He ordered a star-shaped fort to be built some distance away with a protective parapet connecting the Star Fort with Cruger's "square" palisade/stockade around Ninety Six.

243 So, we are looking for a large parapet-ditch representing Haldane's strengthening of Cruger's works around Ninety Six. Our exploratory excavations found the defensive ditches ordered by Haldane---far more impressive than Cruger's simple "square" palisade/stockade. These later, larger ditches intruded on (cut away) parts of Cruger's original "square" palisade/stockade ditch (South 1971h: Figure 3). In my report on the exploratory work in which I found the parapet-ditch "erasing" parts of the "square" palisade/stockade fort ditch, I interpreted the little square two-bastioned fort as being that "square" fort built by Cruger before Haldane ordered more extensive parapet/ditch works dug (South 1971h: Figure 3). Later I questioned this interpretation, thinking that the little square palisade/stockade ditch might represent the anti-Cherokee fort of 1776, and indicated that in my report on the later project (South 1972: Figure 19). However, the more I weighed the documents in relation to the archaeological facts I had uncovered, I came to believe that my original interpretation of the square fort as Cruger's palisaded fort existing before Haldane's visit, was correct (South 1971h: Figure 3). If this is so, where is the anti-Cherokee palisade fort of 1776? Why did I reverse myself on this interpretation? Cruger's 1780 fort was said to be "square," around only a part of the town. The square fort I found fits this information. As I studied the data my attention was drawn to the stockade trench I had found at the south side of the town site (South 1972: Figure 19). This ditch had been located by August 1971 and I followed it a short distance cutting slot trenches, but it wasn't until the last day of that last project at Ninety Six that I followed it somewhat farther to see where it went after it crossed the road to Charleston. This was done under the hypothesis that it might be the 1776 anti-Cherokee fort. Since that last day at Ninety Six, I have been convinced that that southernmost palisade ditch represents the ditch for the palisade thrown up around the town of

244 Ninety Six during the Cherokee attacks on the South Carolina frontier in 1776. It is my dream to some day return to Ninety Six to continue my exploratory slot-trenching, to again follow this southernmost palisade ditch at Ninety Six, in an attempt to reveal the southeast bastion of a fort, near the comer of the Haldaneordered Cruger works of 1780. At some point it turns toward the north, forms a northeast bastion, and turns then toward the west. As I write this in June 2003, I plan to submit a proposal to the National Park Service to allow me to again expose what I believe to be the fort built around Ninety Six in 1776, to protect it against a possible Cherokee attack. As exploratory slot-trenching archaeology is underway on a site, I constantly weigh what I think I know at any point in time, with new data as it emerges from the ground in order to make judgments as to where the next slot-trench may be placed' to follow some linear feature. This hypothetico-deductive approach is an ideal discovery process when ditches, moats, and other such linear features are involved. This process of hypothesizing the explanation of what has been found archaeologically in relation to documentary sources is one of the exciting challenges of historical archaeology. The goal is to weigh the information in hand, determine where the preponderance of evidence lies, and go with that interpretation until more evidence is forthcoming. This method is simplistically illustrated by the slot-trenching method of discovery of linear features. Regarding the question of which of the palisade ditches represent the 1776 anti-Cherokee fort, my published record reveals this fluid dataweighing process in the interpretations shown on two different maps. Further slot trenching following that southernmost palisade ditch will reveal whether it is indeed a likely candidate for the 1776 fort, as I have hypothesized. Recently, I have drawn a new map of Ninety Six showing just where this projected fort is expected to be located (South 2003). These many Ninety Six maps are currently in my office, but

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION copies of some were previously published (South 1970g, 1971i). Williamson's Fort--"A Warm Engagement" Between Whigs and Tories in 1775 The year before the 1776 anti-Cherokee fort was built around the houses in Ninety Six, another fort was built around some barns located on the higher ground west of the town by American patriots. In the three days from November 19th through the 21 st, 1775, a battle was fought between Loyalist Tories and Continental patriot Whig forces, at a fort constructed in three hours, of fence rails, straw and beef hides--the rails sat upright like palisades between a bam and some out houses (South 1971h: 66-79). This was the first battle of the Revolution in the South, with the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge being the second. This fort was known as Williamson's Fort, and was shown on Drayton's map of 1775, published in 1821 (South 1972d: map Figure 15). During the three-day battle, with 2,000 Loyalist militia besieging 500 Continental troops commanded by Majors Andrew Williamson and James Mayson controlling the water supply at the foot of the hill, there was a serious shortage of water inside the makeshift fort. A well was dug to a depth of 40 feet but no water was found. The powder supply inside the fort had also dwindled from several hundred to 30 pounds or less. Those in the fort were lucky in that the King's men, commanded by Joseph Robinson, on the third day, offered a white flag, resulting in an agreement for cessation of arms (South 1971h: 74). The King's men reported that one man, a l o y a l i s t ~ a p t . Luper, was killed, as was one man, James Birmingham, inside the fort. Williamson's Fort--the Archaeology I began exploratory slot-trenching on the high ground where Williamson's Fort was located, as well as a 1780 fort known as Holmes' Fort, and during the second expedition I found evidence for both forts. Williamson's Fort was revealed in the form of the ditches that held the fence rails, and the footing holes for Savage's barn and

Ninety Six Stories

outbuildings (South 1972d: map Figures 14 and 15). When Holmes' Fort was built in 1780, three of the same buildings were used in that fort as well (South 1972d: map Figure 16), as revealed by our archaeology.

James Birmingham--A Mysterious Burial and an Empty Grave During our discovery and mapping of features inside Williamson's Fort two pits were found in the shape of burials. A skeleton was found in one of these pits, but the other was empty. An interesting mystery developed as we were excavating the grave containing the skeleton.

Figure 12.1. Stan South, excavating the burial inside Williamson's fence rail and cowhide fort, thought to be that of the patriot James Birmingham, or the loyalist, Capt. Luper, both killed in the first battle of the American Revolution in the South. (Photo: Steve Baker 1971)

We had left a profile above one end of the grave for study, and it happened that the skull of the skeleton was beneath that profile (South 1977a:301). Bruce Ezell, research consultant and project director for the Star Fort Historical Commission, was watching us excavate the skeleton. He commented to me that when we later excavated the skull beneath the profile, and if it had a bullet hole in it, then it would be the body of James Birmingham, a Whig who was killed in the November engagement in 1775, and considered to be the first South Carolinian to die in the Revolution. He said he remembered

245 reading in some reference that Birmingham was shot in the head and his brains were coming out the hole. From then on the crew referred to the grave as that of James Birmingham. As excavation o f the body part of the skeleton progressed, we found a pocket knife at the left hip, large brass coat buttons near the center of the body, and fragments of pewter buttons near the rib cage, with brass wire eyes near the ankles, as though for fastening leggings (South 1972d: 30, map Figure 15). When time came for excavating the skull beneath the profile, we were anxious to see if Bruce's prediction regarding James Birmingham being shot in the head would prove to be the case. As the skull was exposed we found a hole in the left temple. Later, in the laboratory, we removed the dirt from inside the skull and found a badly distorted lead shot (7.2 grams), about the size and weight for a buckshot. From Bruce's prediction we knew this must be James Birmingham. However, he couldn't find the reference that allowed him to make that prediction. I attempted to find it, but what I found only deepened the mystery. In the Journals of the General Assembly 1776 (Hemphill, et al 1970:26), I discovered that, on April 4, 1776, it was resolved that recompense be made to the family of James Birmingham, "who, on the 19th o f November last, was wounded through the body and died the 22 "d of the same month, leaving a widow and a large family very poor, one hundred pounds" and an annuity of the same amount "during her widowhood, and afterwards to the children or child under twelve years o f age" (South 1972d: 32). If "wounded through the body" includes the head, then the individual we excavated might well be James Birmingham, but if not, then who was it? Could this be Capt. Luper, the Loyalist we know was killed during the three-day battle? And: why the empty grave? Perhaps it was being dug on the day the truce was signed on the 22 nd, the day James Birmingham died, and at that point his friends or family were free to take him elsewhere to be buried--backfilling the empty grave. The mystery remains (South 1972d: 32).

246 Today there is a memorial marker on the site to James Birmingham but none for Capt. Luper-apparently not on the correct political side to warrant historical recognition there---perhaps later--stay tuned. British Holmes' Fort of 1780---Captured by "Light Horse" Harry Lee In 1781 Five years after Williamson's Fort was constructed at the dawn of the American Revolution, another fort, Holmes' Fort, was built by Lt. Col. John Harris Cruger in 1780 on top of the earlier fort, using three of the same barns used in Williamson's Fort. It was built on land owned by James Holmes, and was designed to protect the stream below the hill near the town of Ninety Six, which was the source of water for the town and fort (South 1970g: Figure 1). After British forces under command of General Nathanael Greene moved into Ninety Six in 1780, Lt. Col. John Harris Cruger built Holmes' Fort with two blockhouses in 1780. His Royal Provincials defended the fort during the siege by Nathanael Greene's army from May 22 to June 19, 1781. Lt. Col. Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee (father of Robert E. Lee) captured the fort on June 18, 1781 (South 1971h: Figure 4). His assault was launched from approach trenches he dug from north of Holmes' Fort. The British forces inside had fled by way of a caponier (covered way ditch [covered from enemy fire] and accompanying embankment) connecting Holmes' Fort to the Ninety Six settlement (South 1970g: 11, Figure 1). Once Holmes' Fort was in Lee's hands, water could not be collected from the stream by the British inside Ninety Six except at night, when heroic naked Negroes were used to crawl there under cover of darkness to get water, unseen by Lee's sentries in the captured Holmes' Fort. Holmes' Fort--the Archaeology I took my crew to the soybean field on the hill above the old town site of Ninety Six, where a map of 1822 and another one dated 1851, illustrate the location of the town of Cambridge,

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION west of the site of Holmes' Fort. It also shows the stockade fortification around the town of Ninety Six, the Star Fort, and the location of Greene's camps (South 1970g: Figure 1, 1971h, Figure 1). However, the maps showed Holmes' Fort to be a four-bastioned fort, but our second season of archaeology revealed it was otherwise--the four bastioned map was an incorrect, stylized historical symbol of the fort--not an accurate representation of reality--archaeology proving the inaccuracy of the historical record. We began cutting slot trenches in the soybean crop, eating our fill each day from the ripe pods surrounding us. The crew and I, motivated by our bellies full of soybeans, soon found a seven- to eight- foot-wide fortification ditch, but time was running out. I mapped what we had found and knew I would retum to reveal more of this feature in a Fall project. The ceramics we found there indicated the site was occupied from the 1780s to the 1850s. Of particular interest to me was the discovery of a fragment of one of Gottfried Aust's tobacco pipes--the potter I had dealt with at Bethabara and Old Salem in North Carolina, where he had worked until 1788. Another artifact of interest was a Spanish coin of Charles III, dated 1773, minted in Mexico (South 1970g: 15, Figure 5d). The Star Fort and the Well inside It On the east side of Ninety Six, was the Star Fort, a star-shaped earthwork and ditch designed to protect that flank of the town as Holmes' Fort was to protect the high ground on the west. As mentioned earlier the Star Fort was built under the direction of British Lt. Henry Haldane early in 1781, and was besieged by American General Nathanael Greene from May 22 to June 19, 1781 Because of the difficulty of obtaining water without being shot by Greene's men, a well was dug inside the Star Fort, but not deep enough, however, to find water. When I arrived at the site the well hole, dug by the British, and the mound of dirt beside it, could still clearly to be viewed

247

Ninety Six Stories

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/ Figure 12.2. Detail of the map of Ninety Six, showing the Star Fort and well hole, Greene's Parallels and Kosciusko's mine. (Drawing: South 9/1970)

248

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Figure 12.3. Richard Polhemuspointing to the edge of the caponier ditch connectingthe Star Fort to the town of Ninety Six.

(Photo: South 5/15/1970) --both being remarkable surviving physical features from the Revolutionary War. My work at the Star Fort involved cutting 11 slot trenches, inside and around the embankment and ditch of the star-shaped fortification (South 1970g: 17-18, Figure 1).

Another interpretation of the traverse cut within the Star Fort is that it may have been to protect those behind it from Greene's sharpshooters, who, in July 1781, were firing from a 40-foot high log Maham tower, named for the man who had the idea for its construction.

The Traverse inside the Star During the siege of the fort by Greene in May and June 1781, Count Kosciusko supervised the digging of a mine to undermine the Star Fort and blow it up. In order to intercept that mine, the British forces inside dug a deep ditch with an embankment beside it, called a traverse. If the Americans pushed their mine inside the star, it would have broken through the side of the ditch, at which point it could be covered by fire from the top of the traverse embankment. The mine, the ditch and traverse embankment were still there when I conducted my exploratory work--More on the mine later. Inside the Star Fort, one of my trenches revealed artifacts from the pre-traverse embankment use of the area by the British forces. They were sealed beneath the embankment--a wonderful artifact treasure perhaps to be discovered by future archaeological work.

Nathanael Greene's Parallel Approach Trenches Nathanael Greene's siege o f the Star Fort involved digging parallel approach-trenches protected by embankments thrown from the trenches, and by gabions, (large rolls of sticks and some like baskets filled with earth). From these trenches an assault on the Star Fort could be launched. Some of these trenches could still be seen as I mapped the Star Fort and associated features. To study these I cut exploratory trenches across two of Greene's parallels and approach trenches (South 1970g: Figure 1). I was concerned that these original features, remarkably intact after almost 200 years, should be protected and interpreted as development of the historic site was destined to take place in the years to come.

Ninety Six Stories

The Caponier--the Defensive Parapet and Ditch Because the nineteenth century map showed a stockade extending from the Star Fort toward the southeast comer o f the fortification around the town, I saw the exposed bank cut by the county access road around the Star Fort as a way to see if that defensive ditch was indeed present. To check this out, I had Richard Polhemus cut a profile of that bank beside the county road. This profile cleaning clearly revealed the caponier, or defensive parapet-ditch dug by Lt. Col. Cruger in 1780 under orders from Lt. Haldane (South 1970g: Figure 1). I then cut other slot trenches following the ditch toward the west over 100 yards, where I found the comer of another palisaded fort that I have interpreted as Col. Cruger's first palisade he said he erected around Ninety Six in 1780. I have discussed this interpretation above.

249 approach tunnel entrance, to the end of the mine. There it would then reverse its direction down the arc o f the mine shaft to the south end again. It was this recoil explosion that would do more damage than the original explosion of 600 pounds of powder. The powder was ordered from Augusta, but never arrived before Greene had to abandon his siege on Ninety Six. He did attack it, and lost around 40 men before withdrawing when he learned a British army o f 2,000 under Lord Rawdon was on the way from Charleston to Ninety Six. Near the hole we crawled into there were crickets and spiders, but deeper into the mine these decreased somewhat~too dark. A family of rats occupied the east end of the m i n e - - a bachelor frog the south end.

Kosciusko's Mine--Revolutionary War Pick Marks in Red Clay The mine shaft mentioned above, dug under the direction of Count Kosciusko in May and June of 1781, had collapsed at three places by 1970, with one o f these allowing access to the mine itself when I was there (South 1970g: Figures 6 and 7). One day rain poured down and it was too wet to dig. Crew Chief Randy Luther, David South, and I crawled into the mine shaft and discovered it was three to four feet high, allowing one to squat comfortably within it. The mine was 125 feet long, shaped in an arc, and around four feet wide. The south end was pointed directly at the center o f the Star Fort, ending 35 feet from the ditch of the fortification. The opposite end o f the arc was at a 90 ° angle, pointing toward the east. Near the center of the mine an approach tunnel led off at a 90 ° angle. The approach tunnel could be sandbagged, at the junction with the arc of the mine, after the fuse was lit. The purpose of the arc of the mine was to direct the recoil from the explosion so that it would curve around the arc, past the sandbagged

Figure 12.4. Randy Luther and groundhog Stan South

inside Kosciusko's 1781 mine. (Photo: David South 1970)

250 There were a few recent names engraved on the clay wall near the entrance, made by children crawling into the hole to explore. A crack along the wall at each side revealed that the mine was originally deeper than the present floor. The most impressive thing, however, was the tool marks made by pick and shovel of Count Kosciusko's men, digging the tunnel and passing out the dirt. We took photographs of each other in the mine. While we were involved in that we also used a compass and a tape to map the direction of the mine tunnel beneath the surface of the ground so that a plan and profile could be drawn (South 1970g: 18-21, Figures 6 and 7, 1994a: 172).

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION collapses have occurred recently, as many as had occurred in the prior two and a quarter cen~ries. It is my hope that some means of preventing further collapse of the tunnel can be discovered to protect this remarkable survival from the struggle at the birth of our nation.

An Archaeological Rule for Digging--Take Shovels The first director of the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology conducted some digging at the jail site at Ninety Six with undergraduate students at times from 1961 through 1965. One of the stories told by the students recounted how once the group arrived at Ninety Six ready for the dig. However, when they got out of their cars, and gathered around talking, they suddenly realized they had forgotten to bring the shovels! One of the students went back to Columbia to get the shovels, trowels, and paper bags (on which notes were kept). By the time the student retumed it was time to leave and return to Columbia.

Cruger's First "Square Stockade" Around Ninety Six Figure 12.5. Mine explorers Stan South, Randy Luther and

David South at the mine entrance in 1970. (Photo:Bruce Ezell 1970) In anticipation of sharing this wonderful Revolutionary War feature with the visiting public in the future, I wrote an "Archaeological and Interpretive Proposal for the Kosciusko Tunnel at the Star Fort at Ninety Six" (South 1972c: 103110, Figure 20). In that proposal I presented an exhibit plan and stylized profile of a "Suggested Plan and Profile of the Exhibit Hall for Kosciusko's Tunnel," which would allow that survival of the Revolutionary War to be seen by visitors to the site. In recent years, however, all trees have been cut from over the Star Fort, Greene's approach trenches, and the mine. This has resulted in more water in the earth, and in the tunnel (rain no longer being sucked up by the trees). Three

My second eight week expedition was launched on October 5, 1970 (I remembered to take shovels). It was designed to explore the area north of the junction of the Charleston and Augusta roads and Cruger's fortifications around Ninety Six, including the fortified jail site (South 1971h: Figure 3). This time I had eight members of the crew, double the number I had on the first dig. My goals were to 1) follow the palisadeditch around Ninety Six that I had found in the Spring, 2) to examine the sites of the blockhouse and 3) jail, and 4) to explore further the moat-like ditch we had found at Holmes' Fort in May. We first explored the palisade ditch around Ninety Six. It proved to be a most exciting discovery, because in following that ditch, our slot trenches revealed what I interpreted as a stockade built by Col. Cruger who said he: "enclosed the Court House & some other Houses that joined it within a square stockade, flanked by

Ninety Six Stories Blockhouses" (Wemyss to C o m w a l l i s - Oct. 29, 1780), as mentioned above. Our slot trenches revealed the stockade fort was almost square, being 190 by 220 feet. We found a little bastion at the northeast and southwest corners--a two bastioned fort around the town of Ninety Six (South 1971h: Figure 3). This was a great discovery--a cute little fort around some of the houses and the courthouse in the town. Later, Lt. Haldane ordered more extensive works incorporating Cruger's square stockade. As mentioned above, I originally interpreted this as the 1776 anti-Cherokee fort around the town. Cruger's Northwest Blockhouse Is Discovered In following the square stockade ditch with slot trenches I discovered ditches for what I interpreted as Lt. Col. Cruger's 1780 northwest blockhouses, complete with a cellar magazine beneath. I looked forward to the time when this blockhouse and the fortification ditches flanking the Charlestown Road to protect access to Ninety Six, would be carefully excavated and the embankments placed on each side of the road as part of the interpretation of these remarkable Revolutionary War features, as Cruger had originally constructed them in 1780 (South 1971 h, map Figure 3, 1972d, map Figure 19). This has not been done:perhaps someday. Cruger's Southwest Blockhouse Is Discovered In the third expedition in 1971 we not only discovered the northwest blockhouse and cellar site mentioned above, we found a series of ditches for the southwest bastion of the 1780 fort. This allowed me to determine that Cruger's parapeted earthwork fort measured 240 by 300 feet. This earthwork was accompanied by a palisaded firing wall ditch paralleling the larger fort ditch throughout its length. I also found a small powder-storage cellar hole beneath the southwest bastion (South 1972d: map Figure 19). These remarkable discoveries, the unexcavated fortification ditch in particular, promised other wonderful finds from the Revolutionary War when further excavation beyond the exploratory

251 phase was carried out in the future. When the future came I was out of the picture and another archaeologist used a machine to strip away the surface of the site above the southwest bastion. The Fortified Jail To the south of the southwest bastion of Cruger's fort, my slot trenches discovered two additional stockade trench ditches. The northernmost one made an obtuse angle, ending at a wide hornwork-shaped, defensive ditch around the fortified jail site at the west edge of the town site (South 1971h, map Figure 3, 1972d: map Figure 19). This wider parapet embankment ditch circled around the slope of the hill below the site of the brick-filled fortified jail cellar hole where Bill Edwards had his students digging, from time to time, between 1962 and 1965. I believe the stockade ditch connecting to the jail fortification ditch was part of the "new work" thrown up after Col. Haldane's visit in December 1780. This ditch around the jail also was not excavated, and should contain artifacts of interest from the Revolutionary War period (South 1971 h: Figure 3, 1972d: Figure 19). Recently a summary of the later work carried out at the jail site has been published (Prentice 2002). The second stockade ditch found south of Cruger's southwest bastion I now believe to be the ditch for the anti-Cherokee palisade thrown up around Ninety Six in 1776, as protection against possible attack on the town by Cherokee Indians, (discussed above). Crew Mutiny--Snoring Concerts and Attitude One day a delegation from the crew came to me with a problem they said was likely to cause several of them to quit digging for me unless it was solved. They all slept in the big army squad tent in rows of cots. The complaint was that one of the crew snored so loud that the others could get no sleep and were too tired to work efficiently in the morning. I hadn't noticed, because I was shut up in my little travel trailer at night. I told them I would work something out. That night I kept my trailer door open, and although the crew

252 tent was 50 feet away, I could hear the growling bass, high-pitched soprano whistles, and gutteral baritone snorting concert, amid occasional cries of "Shut u p - - l e t me sleep!" The next day I called the offending crewman in and asked him if the crew had been waking him up throwing shoes at his cot. He admitted that was the case, so I offered him the opportunity to move his cot to the tool and artifact-storage tent, beside the wheelbarrows and shovels, so he could get more sleep at night. He smiled and took the move in good spirit, and that problem was solved. Another time, the crew was on the verge of mutiny--threatening to quit to a man if something were not done to alter the situation. The problem was with a crew chief who was not respectful of the other members of the crew--he had an attitude! I had noticed this friction between the man and other members of the crew, but now I had to do something. I solved that one by putting him off a project digging by himself, apart from the others. By himself he did a good j o b - - a detailed thing-man, like m e - - n o t a people person.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION my fill as we worked, as did some of the members of the crew. Bruce Ezell had worked out a deal with the farmer of the field to compensate him for our trashing the beans, so before lunchtime and late in the afternoon, the bean-picking-andshelling activity increased as we worked. When I took my transit data and soybeanstuffed body to the trailer at night to plot what we had found, it was rewarding. I found that when I connected the dots (ditch edges revealed by slot trenches), to see the mitten-like horn work shape of Holmes' Fort for the first time (South 1971h: map Figure 4). With these data in hand, I knew I would have to return in another expedition to excavate the moat ditch to recover artifacts thrown there during and after the Revolution, and to totally strip the rich topsoil from the soybean site to reveal the entire layout of Holmes' Fort. With the goals of the second Ninety Six Project met and with time running out, we packed our gear into the flatbed truck and returned to Columbia to ink the maps of the discoveries made in our eight-week project and to write the report..

Holmes' Fort Fortifications Revealed Through Slot Trenching

The Third Expedition to Ninety Six--Logistics

I moved then to the high ground above the town of Ninety Six to Holmes' Fort. I was interested in following the moat-like fortification ditch I had found through slot trenching in the spring. What we discovered through extensive slot trenching was a fortification known as a horn work, or crown work, in the shape of a bishop's hat, measuring 220 by 130 feet. We also found a ditch with burned palisades, which I interpreted as a parapet retaining wall, or the ditch for a firing step wall running around the inside of the parapet, 12 feet from it. In addition to the ditches connected with Holmes' Fort, we found other ditches, puzzling at the time. We later found that these ditches were from Williamson's Fort of 1775, where the Whigs and Tories fought the first battle of the Revolution in the South--discussed above. We enjoyed digging in the soybean field because the beans were dried in the pods, and I ate

I returned to Holmes' Fort from June 7 through July 7, 1971, with Richard Polhemus as Assistant Archaeologist, and crew chiefs, Lloyd Chapman, Alan DeVorsey, and Steve Baker, and a crew of 23 men plus a part-time crew of 25 boys from the Greenwood County Office of Economic Opportunity [OEO]. John Combs, Assistant Director of SCIAA, paid us a visit periodically to help dig and to check on our progress.. The goal at Holmes' Fort was to totally strip the plowed soil zone from site to reveal any past excavations [intrusions] into the subsoil. I also wanted to do some final slot-trenching activity in the area of the northwest blockhouse to resolve some of the questions our previous slots had raised. In addition to the large tent for the crew, we erected a wooden tent platform on the same vacant lot we had used in the previous digs, and pitched a large army tent over it. This was the

Ninety Six Stories cook tent--supplied with an upright freezer, an electric stove, two surplus refrigerators, and picnic tables for the dining room. I employed a cook, Mattie Carroll, who cooked during the school year for the local high school. She prepared our breakfast, bag lunches, and a dinner meal for the c r e w - - w e were going first class now!

Reading the Dirt--a Difficult Challenge At Holmes' Fort Having obtained a good sample of the artifacts in the plowed soil zone in the area of Holmes' Fort by screening the soil from our slot trenches, I brought a machine equipped to cut two inches from the surface and feed it onto a belt, where it was lifted into the bed o f the machine. 0nce the undisturbed subsoil level was reached, the machine was stopped in that area and moved over to begin a new section while a small motor grader gave a'final dressing to the surface of the subsoil.

Figure 12.6. The archaeologicalcrew schnitting the subsoil

clay at Holmes' Fort, so the disturbances into it can be read, after removal of the plowed soil by machine. (Photo: South 1971) At this point, members of the archaeological crew were brought in and careful shovel schnitting (skimming) o f the wine-colored Davidson subsoil was carried out using rounded

253 shovels with the pointed ends removed. With the point of the rounded shovel blade removed by band saw, with the straight cut edge sharpened to razor sharpness, the shovels made an effective cutting tool for the hard, red, Davidson clay loam of the site. Flat-shovels could not be used because the resistance against the wider blade was so great against the tough clay o f the site that the strength of the crewmen could not force the blade forward in the required smooth-cutting manner needed to read the difficult-to-read Davidson clay, which is unique to the area. The need for a clean cut of the clay (not a scraping cut), was absolutely necessary in order to read the subtle differences between the winecolored subsoil and the ditches backfilled with the same wine-colored soil. Time and again the schnitting had to be done over to allow the soil document to be read properly for mapping. This difficulty in reading the document we were there to read required that the soil be damp to allow it to be shaved for accurate observation. It could not be read when the sun had been on it for even a short while. That soil, however, was excellent for raising soybeans and other crops, as was the entire area of the Davidson soil zone in that part of South Carolina--a reason farmers in that zone lead the State year after year in crop productivity per acre. Davidson clay loam is locally known as "push land," or "red heavy clay land," and it differs from Cecil clay loam in having a firm but friable brownish-red or reddish-brown rather heavy clay loam surface soil 6 or 8 inches thick. The subsoil extends to a depth ranging from 36 to 48 inches and consists of dark-red or maroon firm smooth brittle clay which is almost free from grit or sand particles (Lesh, Hendrickson, et al 1929: 7, 18-19). This Davidson clay loam has a tendency to crack in dry weather, forming large blocks about one foot square surrounded by cracks. We were digging during a drought and thus faced with keeping the soil wet enough to read the

254 archaeological features from Holmes' Fort. From our archaeological profiles we could see the cracks extending to a depth of 18 or more inches below the subsoil junction with the plowed soil. Faced with this challenge to our collection of data from the Davidson clay zone, through Bruce Ezell, I was able to work out an agreement with the town of Ninety Six, for a fire truck to dump 1,000 gallons of water on the site each day, using a fire hose. Mr. Will Henderson, the man who raised soybeans on the Fort Holmes site, furnished a 1,000-gallon water tank for us to use throughout the day to keep the ground wet. I installed a water pump at the bottom of the hill to pump additional water from a small stream, which was kept running constantly throughout the project. Without such water sources the Davidson soil cannot be archaeologically investigated using the method I used on this project (South 1972d: 1113). In contrast, the Cecil clay, with different characteristics, is found down the hill from Holmes' Fort, at the Ninety Six town-site. Once an area was wet thoroughly and allowed to soak for awhile, a crew of up to 10 of my best men would be positioned in a line, and gangschnitting would take place to cleanly cut off the surface to allow the intrusive features to be read. The cutting work was so difficult the crew had to be given a rest break every l0 minutes. As soon as an area was cut clean and photographed and mapped, the moisture had left the ground and the features were unreadable. Because of this, I assigned a man full time to pin string with nails along all features while they could be seen, while I was mapping the features using a transit set on a reference point, one of many tied into the same base line grid throughout the Ninety Six site. I used the provenience control system I developed, whereby logged feature numbers are assigned, rather than using the time-consuming traditional designation based on grid square coordinates. This allowed the features to be mapped in a tenth of the time required to lay out a grid for controlling provenience. Using the methods described here

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION the postholes, pits, and fortification ditches were revealed, photographed and mapped (South 1972d: 10-43)--in spite of the difficulties imposed on us by the tricky Davidson soil. A Buzzard in the Freezer--Not Cool! John Combes came to visit us at Ninety Six from time to time to work a day or two with us as a break from his duties as Assistant Director of the Institute. As a goal of the Institute, John wanted to build a comparative floral and faunal collection to aid research archaeologists in identification of that kind of data recovered from archaeological sites. As part of this mission, John would pick up road kills: possums, raccoons, rabbits, etc. from the highway. He would then wrap the carcass in ¼-inch hardware mesh-screen and bury it in the yard of Maxcy College, the building the Institute was located in at the time. The idea was that the ants and other insects in the ground would strip all the organics from the bones, leaving the clean bones to be retrieved and added to the comparative faunal collection in the Institute---so, the yard was filled with buried road kill. On one trip he came in carrying a turkey buzzard in a paper bag. To keep it fresh until the next day when he was to leave, he wrapped it in plastic and put it in the freezer in the mess tent. When he left he forgot about it. Some time later, MaRie Carroll was looking in the freezer for something to thaw for our dinner and came across the package. I heard her scream and I ran out of the trailer to see what had happened. She was standing there pointing at the package on the table--shaking her head in disbelief. She said some of the crew had played a joke on her and put a buzzard in the freezer! She let me know she didn't like that kind o f joke. I explained John's project to her, but she refused to let me put the thing back into her freezer where she kept the pork chops and other fixings for our dinner. I took it to Columbia when I left for the weekend and gave it to John to bury in the yard of Maxcy dormitory. Later on, when John left the Institute, his dream of a comparative

Ninety Six Stories

faunal collection left with him. The bones of the buzzard and other wild creatures still rest in peace in the yard o f that building--mute testimony to an unrealized research dream.

Holmes' Fort Revealed and Excavated and Photographed--A 40-Foot High I excavated the defensive horn work ditch of Holmes' Fort along with the ditch for the firing step wall containing burned remains of the posts once forming that wall. Lt. Col. Cruger abandoned the fort and burned it in July 1781 following Lee's departure with General Greene. [ revealed the footing postholes for a barn at the larger horn of the horn work shaped fort. Also, a smaller barn at the smaller horn of the defensive work was revealed (South 1972d: map Figure 16). John Savage built these barns and outbuildings prior to 1775 as part of his plantation which were incorporated into the construction of Holmes' Fort by Col'. Cruger in 1780. Dtiring the excavation of Holmes' Fort, I periodically needed to take photographs of work in progress, and of the ditches, postholes, and pits exposed by the crew. To do this I needed a high vantage point from which to take the pictures. I purchased a 40-foot long extension ladder and dug two holes to hold the feet of the ladder, tied four long ropes to the top of the ladder, and stood it upright with the feet in the holes. Then, as the crew held the ladder in a vertical position, I tamped dirt around the legs of the ladder. Then, with the crew holding the ladder upright using the four ropes, I climbed the 40-foot vertical ladder with my 4 by 5 camera and holders, and from the top of it, steadied by the crew pulling on ropes, I was able to look down on Fort Holmes' ditch and other features to record what we had found--not something I ever attempted again. Later, to avoid this scary experience, I arranged for a 50-foot high "cherry picker" bucket truck to lift me up to get the needed photographs. "Light Horse Harry" Lee's Approach Trench I knew from the documents, in order to get his men close to Holmes' Fort during the siege, Lt.

255 Col. Henry Lee dug approach trenches. In order to intercept such a trench I had a machine cut the plowed soil from the area to the northwest of the large horn work of Holmes' Fort. We saw a feature and followed it with a long slot trench dug by the crew, and this turned out to be one of Lee's approach trenches from which his men streamed out to attack Holmes Fort and to capture it on June 18, 1781 (South 1972d: map Figure 16). The end of Lee's approach trench was 110 feet from Holmes' Fort.

Visitors to Holmes' Fort--Guided Tours While we were digging at Holmes' Fort and Williamson's Fort, many people came to visit the site to see what we were doing. I usually gave them a tour, explaining what we were finding and directing them to other areas of the site--the Star Fort, etc. One man who came with his family was a South Carolina Senator, though I had no idea who he was at the time. Years later, when I asked the Senate Finance Committee for funding for an underwater program for the Institute, he spoke up and mentioned visiting the site and spoke favorably of m y tour, saying he would gladly support my request for an underwater program at S C I A A - - a chicken home to roost. Another visitor was archaeologist, Iain Walker, from Parks Canada. He was given the tour also, and before he left he asked how I was so lucky to get so many good archaeological sites to excavate. I told him luck had nothing to do with it----obtaining funding through sponsors for archaeological research and historic site development, and treating each project as a problem oriented, research-driven challenge was the key. Once historic sites come under the administrative umbrella to a maintenance status, research and historic site development usually come to a screeching halt. Bruce Ezell Stories--Ninety Six National Historic Site Without the leadership of Brace Ezell, the archaeological work I carried out at Ninety Six would not have been possible. Bruce ran his own

256 textile consulting business from his home office, where I met with him from time to time to talk about Ninety Six and his dream that some day it would become a National Historic Site in the National Park Service. We swapped stories whenever we met. He showed me a letter he had received from the director of the Department o f the Interior in response to Bruce's proposal that Ninety Six should become a National Historic Site. That individual told Bruce that it was highly unlikely that Ninety Six would ever become a site in the National Park Service, the reason being that the "wrong side won" when General Greene lifted his siege after he lost some 40 men there during a foolhardy assault on the Star Fort. He went on to say that there was far more interest in sites where Americans won rather than those where they lost. Needless to say, this didn't sit too well with Bruce---or me either--politically selected history. I Was concerned about the letter, but Bruce Ezell said that I needn't worry--"The man's a politician and politicians come and go, but I will be here when the next politician comes into office, and I will continue to work toward Ninety Six becoming a National Historic Site." And he was right. It became such in 1976, five years after his prediction. Bruce E z e l l - - A Master Rainmaker Once when I was in his office the phone rang and he spoke for a short while. When he hung up he told me an arrangement he had made over the phone had just netted him many times his investment. Then he told me the story about the time about a year or so before, he was flying in a private plane and saw a large pile of something in a clearing in the woods near a nylon chemical plant. He had the pilot fly down low over the gigantic pile of something white. He also read the name of the chemical company. When he got back to his office he called and found out that the pile was from nylon extrusions left each day in the nylon thread-manufacturing machines. They were about the thickness of a thumb and about three inches long. He wrote the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION company and asked if they would sell him the pile of nylon extrusions. The company was glad to get rid of them at $10 a boxcar full, but Bruce would have to be responsible for loading the boxcars. Bruce then contacted a manufacturer of nylon products in Chicago and asked if they would be interested in buying boxcar loads of nylon plugs at $100 a ton. The call he had just received verified that they would buy the nylon at that price and would pay for the shipping themselves. Bruce then called and arranged for boxcars to be delivered to the railroad siding beside the pile of nylon. He then called a front-loader operator he knew and told him where to go to load the boxcars. He was laughing at the good news he had just received, saying that his only expense had been a few phone calls and a front-loader operator. The profit he was going to make was considerable. He then said, "The first million I made was for someone else." Then he told me the story, about the time he worked for a rope company. It was during World War II, when American troops in the Pacific were having problems because the rope they were using rotted so quickly in the tropical heat and jungle environment. The U. S. Govemment sent a flyer offering a million dollar prize to any company who was chosen as the winner in a competition involving development of rope that would survive such jungle-rot conditions. Bruce came up with a plan for soaking the rope in some solution that would prevent jungle-rot. His company submitted his idea and won the million- dollar prize as well as a govemment contract to produce the rope. That was Bruce's "first million," he told me--the second one he had lost in the market, and he was then working on his third--I was impressed with his rainmaking ability. The Town of Cambridge--Property Lines and Cellar Holes To the west of the area of Holmes' Fort many square and round postholes spaced six to eight feet apart were found to align in rows 200 to 250 feet long. I interpreted these as representing

Ninety Six Stories property lines at different periods of time (South 1972d: 44, map Figure 14). These posthole features intruded onto the earlier Williamson Fort and Holmes' Fort features. Also dating from this later period was a privy and six cellar holes. These features date from the period of the town of Cambridge, built over the fort site from 1783 to the 1850s. Steven Baker, assisted by several members of the crew, did a thorough, excellent, detailed dissection of the cellar, over a considerable period of time, as his report indicates (Baker 1972). Bob Stephenson remarked that the cellar was the most expensive one ever dug in the history of American archaeology, but Steve's report demonstrates the high quality of the work involved.

Figure 12.7. Steve Baker and crew members at the Cambridge cellar hole he excavated. (Photo: South I971)

The painstaking excavation technique used in the cellar excavation paid off when the construction ditch behind the brick-walled cellar was excavated. Steve found a cache of coins, above which a brass chain was found hanging in a vertical position. This discovery suggested that someone hung a purse or bag containing the coins in the space behind the cellar wall during the occupation of the house. "This cache of coins and

257 jewelry consisted of a brass chain, four Spanish silver coins, a cut-quartz set from a sleeve link or earring, a small brass buckle, and two buttons. There was also an almost complete green shell edged pearlware dinner plate wedged behind the brick" (Baker 1972:38, Figure 16). The Spanish coins were a perforated half-real, and three silver real pieces, dated 1766, 1774, and 1780. Cambridge had its beginning with an act of the South Carolina Assembly of 1783, and the fence lines, privy, and cellars represent the post1783, Cambridge period overlying the archaeological remains of Williamson's Fort and Holmes' Fort (South 1972d: 45, map Figure 14. "O. E. O. - - not OreoF' Through the Office of Economic Opportunity [O.E.O.], the Star Fort Historical Commission employed 25 high school students to assist with our work at Ninety Six during the Summer of 1971. In order to handle such a large group of helpers in an efficient manner, but in such a way as to keep from spending an inordinate amount of time away from the paid archaeological crew, I brevetted Mike Hartley and Lee Atwater as crew chiefs to manage that group. Under Mike and Lee's direction progress was made with a group more interested in payday than spending time working (South 1972d: 8). Each morning I would meet with the O. E. O. group and brief them on what they would be doing that day, and tell them about what the professional crew was up to. Then I would tell Mike and Lee to take their O. E. O. groups (each had half of the boys), to the area of the site where they were to be working on moving dirt, preparing excavation areas, etc. One day Lee and Mike told me that there was a problem, as the O. E. O. group stood staring at me---unsmiling. A spokesman for the group said, "We're going to quit if you don't quit calling us Oreos!" I said, "O. E. O.--Not Oreo!" I explained how "O" stood for "Office," and "E" for "Economic," and "O" for "Opportunity"-"That's the office that pays for your work--The Office of Economic Opportunity." They stood looking at me for a moment, then the spokesman

258 said, "What we're saying i s - - w e don't want to be called Oreos." I explained again what O. E. O. stood for, and then I said I hoped they understood now. Then, to review to be sure they understood, I asked, "What does O. E. O. mean?" The spokesman said, "It means black on the outside and white on the inside--and we don't want you to call us Oreo any more!" I understood then that I was facing an insurmountable communication wail, and agreed to call them, "the Star Fort crew"--no more complaints.

A Political Strategist--Lee Atwater Gets the Last Laugh As I was thanking Lee Atwater for his help with the Star Fort crew, I asked him what he was planning to do after he graduated from the University of South Carolina. He said he wanted to become a political strategist--a manager of political campaigns. I laughed and asked him what dffice he was going to run for. He laughed and said that he hadn't said he wanted to be a politician. He patiently explained that he had said he was a political science major, and had worked on political campaigns for Strom Thurman, and other politicians, as a volunteer. I laughed again and said I had never met anyone before who had such an ambition as that, and shaking my head, I told him that seemed to me to be a very limited ambition--one requiring a lot of luck or a great deal of political acumen. He answered that he had his share of both. I told him if he wanted to become an archaeologist I would gladly hire him again for my crew. He said potsherds had little to say to him and that he wanted to deal with people. I wished him well with his dream (South 1994a: 173). As it turned out, Lee got the last laugh. Years later, when he had become the political strategist for the National Republican Party, and I would see his name mentioned by presidents, I would remember my skepticism when he told me of his ambition--what did I k n o w ? - - eat crow!

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Some Crew Members Bitten By the Bug As I thanked Mike Hartley for his help, I remembered that he had been a television cameraman in Florence when Senator Zeigler had asked him to go with him to Charles Towne Landing to interview me. Mike liked what he saw and came to work for me at Ninety Six. After that, he returned to school to prepare himself for archaeology, and now he is the archaeologist for Old Salem, North Carolina. John Jameson had been a crewman at Ninety Six, but I was impressed with his ability and had brevetted him as a crew chief to help manage the crew. He later came to the University of South Carolina and while there assisted in making the inked versions of some of my Ninety Six maps. John is now an archaeologist for the National Park Service, interpreting archaeology to the public. Richard Polhemus, an excellent assistant archaeologist with me at Ninety Six, and later at Spanish Santa Elena and other sites, is an archaeological consultant in Tennessee. Alan DeVorsey was brevetted as a crew chief to work with a crew of four, and successfully revealed the details of the northwest blockhouse around Ninety Six that had been discovered in the exploratory work carried out in 1970. Steven Baker who did such an excellent job digging the Cambridge cellar started his own archaeological firm in Colorado.

Chain-Gang Archaeology To assist with the archaeology at Ninety Six, I used prisoners from the Greenwood County prison system. These men in striped outfits were good help with our project--watched over by a guard with a shotgun. In making arrangements with the warden for their cooperation, I visited the correction facility, where the warden invited me to eat with the guards. The food was good, and I was invited to return, which I did on several occasions to share lunch with the guards--the price was right. One morning, only a couple of prisoners showed up. The guard apologized, saying that there had been an attempted escape and those

Ninety Six Stories involved were required to wear a ball and chain as punishment. I asked the guard if there was any way I could get more prisoners the following day, and he said he would see the warden and would do what he could to get more men on the job---jail break attempt or not. The next day there were more prisoners in the truck, some in leg irons, with chains around their waist, and nursing a large ball attached to their ankle-chain. They wouldn't get far if they ran. Those carrying balls said they were glad to get out of solitary confinement, where they had been put after they tried to crawl over the chain-link fence around their compound (South 1994a: 170). When I was positioning the chain-gang members on a slot trench they would carry the ball to the dig site while a crew chief or I carried the shovel. The prisoner dropped the ball and digging began. If there was no one to carry the shovel it would be thrown ahead and the ball picked'up and toted to the new dig spot. Although digging under duress, the prisoners did a good job of cutting slots for me in my discovery of the archaeological features at Ninety Six.

Sheriffs Raid Our Camp--My Crew Shrinks We were digging with this crew on the blockhouse site at the northwest corner of the fortified area around the town when a paid crewman I had working with the chain gang men came up to me. He appeared excited and in a hurry. He asked if I would move him to a place further away from the county access road nearby. I asked why, and he said he would explain when we got to his new work area deeper in the w o o d s - - w e hurried away. Then he explained: he had recognized some of the school children approaching the site from a bus had just unloaded nearby. He said they were from his hometown, and because his wife had a warrant out for his arrest for non-child support, he was afraid one of them might recognize him and report him to the sheriff of his county. He was an ex-school principal and had come to work for me to hide-out for the Summer. He said he didn't

259 want to end up carrying a ball and chain like some of the men he was working with--there's more. About a week later I went to the local hardware store, where I had a blanket purchase order account for supplies, from my Ninety Six account at the University of South Carolina. Mattie Carroll had to return to her cooking for the Ninety Six school system, so I advertised for a cook and hired the lone applicant who showed up. At the hardware store I had arranged for this cook to be able to sign off on small items needed in the kitchen. I asked for a copy of the bill so I could sign off on it before it was submitted to the University for payment. As I looked it over I saw items marked "cash out," and asked the clerk what that was all about. He said the cook had been putting cash advances for groceries for the crew onto the account. That was a surprise to me because the system I had set up was that each member of the crew paid me $10. a week for food, and I gave that amount to the cook to buy groceries. The cook had agreed that amount was adequate for groceries, as it had been when Mattie Carroll had cooked for me. Then I saw entries on the bill stating "gas," and I asked about that. The manager said the gas station across the street had been sending their gas bills over to the hardware. I had worked that arrangement for purchase of gas used in our water pump. However, I hadn't charged any gas, having brought it in a can from Columbia for that purpose. The manager called the gas station owner and asked who had purchased the gas. He was told it had been put into a little blue Volkswagen bug owned by the camp cook. Uh oh! I had a problem. I knew if I confronted the cook with these unauthorized charges, amounting to $220. he might well end up in California, leaving me holding the bag to personally pay for them. So, I went straight to a Justice of the Peace and swore out a warrant for the arrest of my cook. Then I took it to the police station. The police chief looked at the warrant, then at me, and said, "What a coincidence," and smiled. He got up and said for me to follow him into his office.

260 There he introduced me to the High Sheriff of Greenwood County and his deputy. He then introduced me to the High Sheriff of an adjoining county, and two highway patrolmen, who were there on another matter. The visiting sheriff had a warrant for one of my crew for failure to pay child support (I immediately knew who that was). As protocol required, he had come to the Greenwood County Sheriff to get his assistance in serving it. Now the police chief had my warrant to serve on the cook--so off we went, but not before the highway patrolmen asked if the sheriff would mind if they went to help me represent the State of South Carolina in the arrests of the two men. So, the caravan consisted of the police chief, his assistant, two county sheriffs and deputies, two highway patrolmen, and me, in different vehicles. We rolled into camp in front of the crew tent looking like the biggest raid by lawmen in the history of Ninety Six (There wasn't much entertainment in town in those days) (South 1994a: 171). The Visiting sheriff shook hands with the ex-principal, and told him one of the kids visiting the site had seen him and told his ex-wife. Then I confronted the cook on his bunk in the cook tent and told him about the $220. he owed me for the charges of gas and cash he had made at the hardware store. He said he understood, but asked why I didn't come to him. I told him I thought he might disappear to California if I had done that, and the cook grinned and said, "Or Florida, more likely." After the lawmen left the crewmen were faced with making their own peanut butter sandwiches, after which we went to the jail in Greenwood to visit the cook. He stayed in jail a couple of days while his friends and his sister raised the money to bail him out. I later met him on the campus at the University and he shook hands with me and thanked me, saying that experience had been a lesson to him--be smarter next time. Historic Site Development--Holmes Fort Stabilization Having revealed Holmes' Fort on top of Williamson's Fort, I was faced with making

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION recommendations for interpretive stabilization of both forts, without causing too much confusion by visiting tourists to the site. I knew that archaeological maps making a lot of sense to archaeologists might be confusing to those charged with interpreting the site to the public. My report, accompanied by a map, presented suggestions as to how the various archaeological elements might be interpreted (South 1972d" 4869, map Figure 18). After my excavation of Holmes' Fort moat my crew and I replaced the parapet embankment beside the excavated ditch. I recommended the use of 7-foot high stockade in the parapet embankment of Holmes Fort, with a low, two-foot high palisade of posts symbolically representing the fence rail palisade of Williamson's Fort. I recommended that poles be placed above the excavated postholes where Savage's barns and outbuildings had stood. This arrangement would allow a place for visitors to sit and read the interpretive signs that needed to be there to interpret what they were viewing and to explain what had been there in the past. I suggested a horizontal log wall be placed around the inside of the parapet above the ditch we had excavated for the firing step wall (South 1972d: map Figure 18). I also suggested the approach trench used by "Light Horse Harry" Lee also be interpreted with a ditch and embankment to show that offensive feature of the Holmes' Fort site. In spite of my anti-log cabin syndrome, I was asked by the Star Fort Historical Commission to give them my suggestions for putting recent log barns over the places where the original footings were found. I didn't recommend that such barns be brought to the site. However, if they were determined to do that, I recommended extensive research be done before the log structures were brought and planted on the Williamson's Fort/Holmes' Fort site (South 1972d: 64-69). Since that time some reconstruction has taken place inside Holmes' Fort. A concern I had was that the double fort site, with the important history connected to both forts, as well as the rich archaeological record I had

Ninety Six Stories revealed, might be boiled down to the interpretation of only Holmes' Fort--the one moment in time concept at the expense of the evolutionary development represented by the archaeological record. I was fearful that the ephemeral but historically significant remains of Williamson's Fort would be ignored in favor of the more glamorous later Revolutionary War evidence. I hoped by supplying a detailed stabilization-interpretation map of the fort, as I had the many maps of the archaeological data I had revealed, that future historic site developers would pay some attention to this valuable source of information at Ninety Six. Perhaps some day Williamson's Fort will be interpreted at the site. Another concern I had was that my exploratory archaeology on the many fort elements at Ninety Six would not be followed-up by problem-oriented, research-driven long-range archaeology, to provide further data for development of this great historic site. With so much data still remaining beneath the earth to be revealedl I was fearful that the site would simply lapse into a maintenance mode, which I was trying to prevent. Gender Discrimination--"No Girls Allowed" With three field projects completed and the tremendous archaeological potential offered for the many Ninety Six sites, I was raring to go into the planned 1972 field season. I outlined the objectives and budget for a May 1972 to July project, for archaeology to progress beyond the first exploratory phases, and move on to more extensive expeditions (South 1972d: 94-103). To help me accomplish this goal, I contacted Kathleen Deagan to see if she would be interested in digging with me at Ninety Six and she agreed to do so. I was excited at the prospect of having such a highly qualified archaeologist working with me. I went to Bob Stephenson's office and told him the good news--his answer was a surprise. He got red in the face, and literally pounded his desk with his fist, and said, "As long as I am director there will be no girls allowed on any site I administer!"

261 His response was so emotional I knew enough to not push him at a time like that, so I got up and walked out of his office. I waited a week to allow him to cool off, and returned to his office with a plan. I realized there were not that many women in archaeology at that time--Madeline Kneberg in Tennessee and Bettye Broyles in West Virginia were the two I knew. I knew there was a feeling among some archaeologists that a woman's place was certainly not as a field archaeologist. But I had been unprepared for Bob's emotional reaction--a conservative view at the time. My plan was to try to convince him that the world was changing and that more women were entering the field--Kathy having just received her doctorate in historical archaeology. I told him his attitude toward women in the field was an obsolete viewpoint that was rapidly changing. He countered that by saying it was too expensive to maintain separate facilities in the field. I countered that by saying I would arrange to have Kathy boarded with some family in Ninety Six, and I would pick her up each morning before the crew left for the field. He finally agreed to this solution to the problem. I called Kathy and asked her if being boarded in town would be acceptable to her and she said it would. I then called Bruce Ezell, and he arranged for Kathy to stay with a family in town. Later I heard that Kathy had confronted Bob at the SEAC meeting and had read him the riot act over his anti-female position. For whatever reason, however, the issue never came up again, and I had female assistants at Ninety Six and other sites after that, with no objection from Bob. However, working with Kathy was not to be. The 1972 plan was abandoned when the expected funding did not materialize. I called Kathy, and the other members of the crew I had lined up, and regretfully give them the bad news. It wasn't until 30 years later that Kathy and I worked together on publishing a joint chapter in a book (South and Deagan 2002).

262

A Crisis Develops--Archaeology and Site Integrity Endangered Planning for the 1972 archaeological research season at Ninety Six had taken place through the urging of Bruce Ezell, who had raised the funding for the previous projects through the Star Fort Historical Commission. He had requested an outline of the objectives and budget for the expedition to Ninety Six in 1972, which I had provided (South 1972d: 94-102). Crew members, including Kathy Deagan, had been selected and were waiting final word from me as to whether the project was funded. Bruce kept putting off sending a check to Bob to allow us to begin in May. Near the end of April, I was entertaining an alternative project through the South Carolina Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism, but the time frame for that was not such that I could use the crew I had lined up, so that was cancelled. Then, with no funding in hand, I cancelled the 1972 expedition (South 1972e). Bruce Ezell Saves Ninety Six What I found out later was that a housing development was planned for property encroaching closely onto the Star Fort site. Bruce Ezell was trying hard to keep that encroachment from happening because it would greatly damage the integrity of the historic site of Ninety Six-preventing it from ever being a National Historic Site. Faced with the need for money to save the site from commercial encroachment, Bruce used funds earmarked for research and development to acquire the land to save the site (South 1972e). This caused Bruce a personal crisis when federal agents showed up and demanded reimbursement for the research and development money he had used to buy the land from the developers to prevent the encroachment of the housing development. The fine print for those funds did not allow purchase of land! To prevent the consequences of his action, Bruce told me he went to the bank and personally borrowed the funds to reimburse the federal coffer. Whether he ever found other funds to pay off that loan I do not know. What I do know is that his courageous action on behalf of the site he loved, saved Ninety

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Six to become a National Historic Site years later, in spite of the personal jeopardy it exposed him to. Because of this situation, my research and development plans for Ninety Six had to be cancelled, but I was glad that the integrity of the site was protected. After this failure of the project to materialize, I haven't returned to conduct the planned archaeology at that grand site, but hope to eventually do so. Perhaps I can some day return for a period of two weeks to look for the missing 1776 anti-Cherokee palisade fort ditch--I still can dream. National Park Service Superintendent, Farrell Saunders, also hopes that dream may be realized.)

A Master Plan for Ninety Six--"Fairy Tales" By June 1973, two years after I left Ninety Six, the Star Fort Historical Commission had contracted with an architectural firm for a master plan for the development of Ninety Six. I was asked to comment on this document that, as far as I could tell, hadn't utilized any of the archaeological data or maps I had made available to the Commission. The log cabin syndrome was present, and I said (South 1973f): Once we move beyond the firm anchor of archaeology and documentary data, both of which are very limited at Goudy's at this time, we must resort to the use of "of the period" log cabins, houses, outbuildings, shops, dependencies, etc., which moves so far into the conjectural that we end up portraying fiction rather than presenting interpretive exhibits or explanatory exhibits" based on the archaeological data at Goudy's trading post (South 19730. My critique of the master plan was in the form of a glossary of concepts spelling out details I felt needed to be understood before any master plan was approved - restoration, explanation, reconstruction, interpretation, and the difference between pseudo-history, and authenticity. I also objected to the "moment before the battle"

Ninety Six Stories concept, complete with army tents, proposed in the master plan, to be executed "in as much detail as possible"--- as a reenactment group might create--a concept I considered "alien to any modem restoration philosophy" (South 19730. It was distressing to me that, none of the results of three expeditions to Ninety Six, replete with archaeological evidence, explanation, historical documentation, suggestions and recommendations for historic site development and interpretation, would appear in the "master plan" for the site a year after they were distributed. Needless to say the recommendation to "restore the buildings" and "exhibit relics" did not sit well with me, nor did the "rebuild Goudy's" concept. Historic sites so blessed with archaeological riches should anchor their interpretations in that wealth rather than in creative imagination based on stereo-typical notion~ of the past--pseudo-history. However, it should be remembered, that relatively little had been written on the site itself and Marvin Cann's summary was not available until 1974, but Robert Meriwether's book on The Expansion of South Carolina, 1729-1765, had been published in 1940 (Pp. 63-132).

Consulting at Ninety Six--A Good Lunch Some time after I left Ninety Six and went on to other things it became a National Historic Site in the National Park Service. About that time more money became available for archaeology at Ninety Six than I had spent on all three seasons of archaeology there. I was interested in hearing which of the 15 site features I had mapped in detail would be excavated. Later, I learned that the entire amount had been spent on aerial photography of the site in an effort to locate Revolutionary War fortification features, or evidence of Goudy's Trading Post, or the town of Ninety Six! I was disappointed to say the least. It seemed to me that aerial photographs of the wooded site would produce pictures of the tops of trees. I was told that a recent barn site had been found somewhere near the site through

263 interpretation of the aerial photographs. I hadn't gone into that neck of the woods! Seven years after I left Ninety Six, on May 17, 1978, I was invited by John Jameson (who had dug with me there, and was now a National Park Service archaeologist), to meet with Park Service archaeologists and planners to discuss the direction and future research goals and to evaluate the cultural resources of Ninety Six. John was interested in those colleagues responsible for the future of Ninety Six seeing the site before longrange goals were set in concrete. He was concerned that little attention was being paid to the work he and I and others had done there in the past. I was glad for an opportunity to again visit the site and talk with archaeologists about the wonderful evidence found in three field seasons of discovery. I looked forward to the meeting and helping John's colleagues make the connection between the archaeological record, the historical record, and plans for the future of the site for the visiting p u b l i c - - a connection not always easy to achieve. There was something of a time-crunch involved, because a research overview, inventory assessment of resources, and an examination of remote sensing techniques, needed to be completed by nine days after the meeting. One of the conclusions reached at the meeting was that "if a planned magnetometer survey is successful, we may be able to determine where the town is." It seemed urgent that a research design for the site be made available as soon as possible. It was pointed out that a two-foot contour map is available, and a photogrametric map is easy to develop with an engineering firm. I wondered if the planners had access to the dozen large detailed maps of the town and its fortifications I had produced, on which I had shown exactly what I had found in the town and its many forts. Resistivity was discussed, and we heard that seismograph, as well as magnetometer sensing, could be used to locate hearths. Hearths? This was a different world than reading the archaeological record in the dirt!

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We learned that aerial over-flight at ½-foot contour would be helpful on 2-acre plots for placing visitor center, parking lot, etc. Aerial photos survey is rapid versus slower ground survey. There was an interest in prehistoric models, such as the highway research design reported by Goodyear (1977). I learned that the site contained 1,120 acres but that 268.12 acres need to be acquired, and that the plant communities involved can be identified from aerial photos using infrared photography--and so it went. By this time I was overwhelmed with so much unfamiliar and foreign information beyond the dirt archaeology with which I was so familiar. In addition to the above observations, I wrote the following note that morning in the form of a poem to help pass the time as I listened (South 1978b): Summit at Ninety Six in '78 We gathered there at Ninety Six, And each one brought a bag of tricks, To lay their ideas on the line, Toward a plan within the time, To consider all alternatives. So assessment is--as to what gives, Within the range of the short time table, To do the job as we are able, To see who does what, and when, And then go over it all again, Carefully considering archaeological resources, Within confining cultural forces, Scrutinizing topographic maps, Watching out for data gaps, Evaluating impacts in a graphic way, Leaving nothing untouched for another day. There was much talk of"ground-truthing," Using remote sensing to determine this proofing. What cultural resources are there there? Making sure assessments are always fair, We debate each point as we are able, Leaving no worm unturned upon the table, We used scientific logic and occasional hunch, But the climax came when we broke for lunch!

In the years following my 1970 and 1971 exploratory discovery work at Ninety Six, a number of archaeologists came, did their thing, and left. The archaeological work at the site has been summarized recently by Guy Prentice (2002) and by Prentice and Nettles (2003). My hope is that archaeology beyond my preliminary testing, will some day be done at Ninety Six in the areas still unexplored, to develop and interpret the rich archaeological legacy for the visiting public, beyond leaning on the written word often seen in historic parks. Our Responsibility--A Sermon from A Zealous Missionary My experience with the sponsor of the Charles Towne project, and my archaeological work at Ninety Six, made me more aware than ever of the responsibility I felt the archaeologist has to guide historic site development based on archaeological evidence. Rather than leaning on history as the primary document for interpreting the past, too often--from Fortress Louisbourg, Nova Scotia, to Charles Towne and Ninety Six, South Carolina-sponsors impatiently intent on interpreting the past, use preconceived notions, ignoring the rich interpretive document provided through archaeology--even when they have commissioned archaeology, ostensibly to guide their efforts! As a result of this awareness, I spoke out to express my attitude after my first experience at Ninety Six (South 1970g: 48-49): Somewhere between our projection into the future and the site of Ninety Six we see today, the dream meets reality. Our responsibility to the future lies in first having a dream worthy of our striving, and reaching for its conversion to reality through the most competent means at our disposal. We must take care not to spoil the dream in our eagerness to bring its fuzzy edges too quickly into the sharp focus of reality. For to do so, is to warp our understanding of history through the creation of distorted images that do a

Ninety Six Stories

disservice to the past, as well as to the future. We must consistently, in our role as stewards of the past, be aware of this responsibility. All our efforts should be directed toward achieving the greatest degree of accuracy in our historical and archaeological research, to insure the closest correlation between the reality of the past and our explanatory exhibits. These parapets and palisades, cabins and ruins, are the bridges leading the minds of men to a greater appreciation of our heritage. We must not fail in our role as historical engineers shaping the attitudes and understanding of generations yet unborn. For it is only through what we do today in developing our historic sites that the future can know the past through them. If we, in our enthusiasm, and in the name of history and "restoration," damage, destroy and distort the clues that have survived, rather than competently interpreting them, we have burned our bridges behind us, and the future can no longer build on the true evidence, but must forever depend on our interpretation. We, the researchers and developers of historic sites, are the only ones who have the opportunity o f observing the maximum amount o f historical and archaeological evidence. Once the pages in the earth have been revealed through archaeology, there is never another chance for those pages to be read, for the archaeological process itself is a destructive force, erasing as it reveals. There is no second chance! ...Therefore, we should look closely at our responsibility. These are not games we are playing with history! Our involvement in the past is our investment in the future!"---Amen.

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Experimenting with Bobwhite Quaff Before I leave this chapter on my adventures at Ninety Six, I can't resist telling about a simultaneous personal project I had underway in the spring of 1971, in my yard in Columbia. I had allowed it to grow wild to screen out the view of neighbor's homes and thought it would be neat to determine if urban dwellers with yards such as mine could raise bobwhite quail in the inner city. I bought and released in my yard a half dozen wing-clipped birds that couldn't fly over the chain-link fence surrounding my place. Cats began taking their toll, so I installed electric wires around the top of the fence and would hear the loud cat-yowls in the night as they hit the electrified wires. After that the cats sat in frustration outside the fence and watched as the quail went about their daily activities. Periodically I bought more quail, now that I was fully aware of the cat-factor and had the fence wired. I wrote a 33 page report on the project. I observed the bobwhites roosting in a tight circle late in the day, with some birds piled in the center. I dug little nests in piles of hay and within an hour a quail was sitting on one. I watched as they took dust baths in the sandy path through the weeds and bushes and carried out impressive stylized mating dances. Jewell, Robert and Lara and I listened at the several specific whistles uttered by the male and female birds as they guarded nests, laid eggs, and took turns brooding them. As they got used to me I could get within 18 inches of the adult birds as I fed them They hatched chicks in two of the several nests where over 40 eggs were laid and Robert and Lara brought some chicks inside for pictures, and yes, they were accepted back into the covey after that. I drew a map of the yard and the location of the 17 nests the quail had made there. With time all birds flew the coop and fed the cats. None returned as I had hoped they would. I returned to watching the dozen or so rabbits (I lost count), raised in another part of my yard, until a neighbor reported me, and a policeman informed me there was an ordinance against that, so I had to get rid of them a l s o - - o h well.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

56' by 40' l

~ Hog "@ire Fence

~ ' ' ' ~, Dusting Holts

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Roo~i~g Circle --Brush-Covered A*,O WireTunn|,

Boorci

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/ N

! Shelvus

=ence

Bat !¢llnTree

~oofin; South Gote

Figure 12.8. Top: The bobwhite quail yard showing the location of the 17 quail nests (numbered circles). Lower left: One of the nests with eggs. Lower right: Robert and Lara South with baby bobwhite quail.

Chapter 13 "Loose" In South Carolina The Price House Project--Scorpion ArtifactSecurity After the Charles Towne project was over, Bob Stephenson often asked me to undertake an archaeological assessment o f property. This was done at the request of an historical society or agency needing advice on cultural resource management (CRM), before ground-disturbing activity through development, took place. Before I knew it, I was running "loose" in South Carolina fighting CRM fires--an old story for me. One such project I conducted was at the Price House, near Spartanburg (South 1970d). There I discovered the ruin of a flanking building [one an office I thought, and the other an ice-cellar] on each side o f the still-standing brick house. There is where I had a lesson in dowsing using bent-wire coat hangers, described earlier. An architect was working on measurements useful in making alterations to the house, and I went into the cellar beneath the outbuilding attached to the back of the house to look for clues to the period of construction of that structure. As I shone my flashlight around over the crawl space adjacent to the cellar hole, I saw some turn-of-the-twentieth-century South Carolina Dispensary bottles someone had thrown there. These bottles are collector's items, and I thought it would be a good idea to collect them for display inside the Price House by the Spartanburg Historical Society. As I began to crawl into the low space to get the bottles, I saw a slight movement not caused by my flashlight. As I focused more closely, I saw that there were many such small shadows cast by the light. Suddenly, I realized that many scorpions living in the dry environment beneath the addition caused the movement. As I watched their skittering movement running here and there,

267

with their venomous tails held proudly high, it occurred to me that those exhibit specimens were well protected there behind that field of scorpions, so I left the cellar to them.

"The Loose Cannon" in South Carolina Before and during the time I was working on the Ninety Six projects, I wrote a number of book reviews, one being of Noel Hume's A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America, where I bemoaned the lack of specific citations, but said most of us were willing to defer to his expertise. One of the most interesting projects was the request to contribute to the new Handbook of North American Indians on "The Tribes of the Carolina Lowlands." The research for that project took considerable enjoyable research time, and I submitted my contribution on schedule. However, in order to get any feedback that might require changes before the thing was published, I included it in the Research Manuscript Series at the Institute (South 19720. The handbook volume was never published, and just recently, Chester DePratter told me Gene Waddell was writing that section for the reinvigorated project 30 years after I submitted my effort to the editor. One of the short projects I undertook was to conduct an archaeological survey of the north end of the Isle of Palms, north of Charleston (South 1973c), and on another foray I was sent to conduct a survey of Jenkins Island in Beaufort County (South 1973d). I found Native American sites and mapped them; as I did with a survey I conducted with Susan Jackson around the interchange of U. S. 1-20 and 1-95 near Florence (South 1973e). Not only was the "loose cannon" site surveying in South Carolina, but I also consulted on the Netherland Inn site (South 1973), and the

268 Exchange Place in Kingsport, Tennessee, as well as the Newbold-White House in Perquimans County, North Carolina.

Too-Loose "Loose"--Goodyear to the Rescue It was during this time that I began to urge Bob to refrain from sending me out on the short cultural resource management archaeological survey projects such as these. I wanted to concentrate my energies on larger, long-range research projects, such as Charles Towne and Ninety Six, projects on which I was still working to write the results of my research. He insisted that there was no difference between Cultural Resource Management [CRM] archaeology and problem-oriented research ones, saying, "Archaeology is archaeology--the source of funding makes no difference!" I agreed with that, but the time constraints on the CRM projects, the lack o f concern by the sponsor for in-depth documentary research, and the fact that the results of the work were seldom published, caused me to want to focus my energy on research underwriting historic site development, such as I had done at Brunswick Town, Bethabara, Charles Towne and Ninety Six. I argued for two archaeological arms within SCIAA--Research and CRM. He held firmly to the view that he should be able to come in to my office any time and send me out to fight an archaeological fire, although I was trying to focus on a major report on another dig. I argued somewhat forcibly until Bob reminded me, "Remember, everyone is expendable. If you want to resign I can fill your position in a week." I can take a subtle hint, so I shut up. I lost that one and had given up on convincing Bob, when A1 Goodyear came to work for the Institute. He did an outstanding job on a survey of a proposed four-lane highway corridor in western South Carolina and was then faced with a time block to write it up, before another project was assigned (Goodyear 1977, 1978). He came to me with the same argument I had been presenting to B o b - - S C I A A needed a research emphasis as

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION well as a CRM arm to allow major reports and books to be written. I laughed and told A1 I had given up on that point and reminded him that Bob had told me in reference to my working on the Charles Towne Landing book, "I didn't hire you to write books! I hired you to write site reports for sponsors!." I wished A1 well with convincing Bob to agree to that split of functions within the Institute. Later, he came to me, and to my surprise, smoothtalking A1, reported that Bob had agreed to those two mission arms of SCIAA. That coup by A1 resulted in the creation of what later developed into the present Research Division.

The Pawley House--an Eighteenth Century Beach House When Bob Stephenson got the call from Alan Taliaferro Calhoun of Spartanburg that he wanted someone to look at his beach house on Pawley's Island, South Carolina, to determine if it was built in the eighteenth century, Bob was skeptical. So was I when Bob asked me to pay a one-day visit to the island to look at the house. I couldn't believe a beach house could have withstood hurricanes for 200 years, but I was curious to see it. Dick Carrillo, Jewell, Robert and Lara and I visited the house on September 23, 1971. When I examined it I noticed 6-over-6 window-panes and wooden shutters, and it was covered with a tin roof. When I walked onto the porch and saw shutters with wrought iron strap hinges, held together with rose-headed wrought nails, with latches such as I had excavated at Brunswick Town at the governors' mansion at Russellborough, I knew it was, without a doubt, a surviving beach house from the eighteenth century! The doors were hung with HL hinges (called Holy Lord hinges by some), and the saw marks on the timbers were straight, from being pit-sawn, not curved as they would later be when circular saws began to be used. There had been additions, but basically the house was a great survival from the eighteenth century. I took many pictures documenting the details I observed, to b e used in my report (South 1971j,

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269

Figure 13.1. Lara and Robert South sittingon the porch of the eighteenthcenturyPawleyHouse. (Photo: South9/23/1971)

1973j: 13-33). Many additions had been made through the years, but the previous owners had respected the integrity of the eighteenth century structure and had not buggered it up to "modernize" it. The large living room of the original structure had exposed beams that had only been whitewashed in the past, but Mr. Calhoun had brought in local school children who volunteered to scrape the walls and timbers to remove the flaking of the whitewash. Additions had been made on both floors at the rear of the house, where bathrooms and bedrooms had been installed, and that allowed over 20 people to sleep comfortably there. The original part of the building was a rare jewel on the Carolina coast. The secret to its survival was the fact it was located back from the beach behind two large sand dunes that had acted as barriers to the sea. A

long catwalk across these dunes connected the second floor of the house to the beach. Mr. Calhoun invited Dick Carrillo and me to return and enjoy the house some weekend. I told him I couldn't accept gifts, but he said he needed someone in the house to provide security when it wasn't rented. I would be doing him a favor. We said we would gladly accept, and on later trips Jewell and our little children, Robert and Lara, enjoyed several weekends there. The house was rented out almost all summer and fall, to beach visitors at more cost than we could afford, so visiting there was a treat for us all. Mr. Calhoun would periodically call to let me know that the house was not rented for a weekend, and to ask if I would to take my family there, because he needed someone to be there for security, and to pay the lady who came each day to cook for the

270 guests. We bought the groceries and she prepared wonderful meals for us. What a deal! Since living on the farm outside Raleigh, I had been making wine in my cellar, especially after I moved to Columbia where I had space for a real wine cellar. On those invitations to the Pawley House I would load several bottles of my home brew into the car and we would be off for a pleasant visit to the beach. On one occasion the owner wanted us to take care of the house for a week, and I invited all Institute personnel to visit and enjoy a vacation at the b e a c h - - a few did, with many showing up for the weekend. Each time I went I relished looking at the details o f the wonderfully rare beach house survival from the eighteenth century. A bird feeder on the back porch allowed us to watch a remarkable variety of birds that also enjoyed the house with us. Later on, Dick Polhemus did a follow up study of the chimney, the footings, and the timbering of the Pawley House (Polhemus 1972). In a later detailed study of the history of the house by Eugene B. Chase, Jr., he could find no evidence that the house was ever owned by the Pawley family (Chase 1994: 31-36). In fact, he determined that it was owned by Joseph Blyth Allston, and was "not extant on Pawleys Island when the 1858 plat of the lots was made." He says the house is, "an eighteenth or early nineteenth century building and certainly not one built in the last half o f the nineteenth century, when circular saws and very different hardware were in use. Obviously the house was moved there intact or disassembled and moved to the site from another location" (Chase 1994: 31-36). I was pleased to learn the historically documented details ferreted out by Mr. Chase for this remarkable house. A German S p y - - C a p t u r e d on the Boardwalk Mr. Calhoun told me about the time during World War II, when rooms were rented at the Pawley House, that one of the renters was arrested on the catwalk by the FBI. This man would leave the house by the catwalk late in the day carrying a

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION suitcase. This was a time when oil tankers were being torpedoed by German submarines off the Carolina coast, with crude oil washing up on the beaches, sticking to swimmers. One of the guests became suspicious of this man's nightly behavior and reported it to the FBI. An agent came and secretly observed him opening his suitcase and signaling with a light to a submarine off shore. Several agents returned later, and positioned themselves beneath the catwalk, in the myrtle grove nearby, and in the Pawley House. When the man left the house and was walking down the catwalk, he became suspicious when he saw agents behind and in front of him, and jumped over the rail into the arms o f agents waiting below, who nabbed him as a German spy. The Indian Springs Site on Hilton Head Island--Living "High on the Hog" In 1973, a developer on Hilton Head Island was planning to build a condominium on a site known as Indian Springs and needed an archaeological survey of the site before construction began, but no funds were available for conducting the project. Bob Stephenson, in expectation that funds for a larger survey of the Island might eventually be forthcoming from the wealthy landowner, worked out an agreement to conduct the survey at USC-SCIAA expense regarding salary of the archaeologist and crew, with the landowner picking up the tab for housing and subsistence as his contribution to the survey. Bob asked that I go down to Hilton Head in January 1973, to conduct, with a crew of five, a 5day project designed to determine what cultural resources might be damaged by the planned construction. The site was a field heavily scattered with oyster shells. My approach was to conduct a "dog leash" survey to collect surface artifacts within a measured circular pattern. After that I "crucified" the field with two right-angled two-foot wide trenches extending beyond the shell- covered area to clearly delimit the area of the shell in four directions (South 1973k). We found the site had been occupied by Native Americans for 4,000 years, with the oyster shell

"Loose" In South Carolina

midden having been deposited there around 700 years ago (South 1973m). We also found that the site had been occupied in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with a George I halfpenny dating from the early 1720s, being the most interesting European artifact recovered. Our quarters were elegant condominiums, which we enjoyed, with Jewell, Robert and Lara coming down to benefit from the opportunity offered us. The first day on the project, the six of us on the crew went to the staff cafeteria to try to eat lunch, but we were told that we were guests and should eat with the tourists in the public cafeteria. We were a grungy group from digging, but we ate there each day among the wealthy tourists who often stared at us with curiosity or disdain, and who sometimes asked what we were doing there. We looked a little better at breakfast. At night, after we had cleaned up, we were told v?e were to eat at the Calibogue Cafr, where the cheapest item on the menu was filet m i g n o n - but the landowner was picking up the tab as his contribution to the jointly sponsored project--so we ate high on the hog. Each night the table would be set with several carafes of white wine for our enjoyment. When the word got back to Columbia we began getting volunteers from SCIAA to help dig and enjoy the elegant fare. Our crew sometimes doubled in size. In my daily report for January 24 th I said (South 1973n): "I can think of nothing better than to have these accommodations for an entire summer of work. A prime drawback might be that we would eat so much and get so fat that we would not be able to work as efficiently from abundant l i v i n g - then there would be the danger of gout..." While we were on this dig President Nixon announced the signing for the end of the Vietnam War that week, and it coincided with Richard Polhemus' birthday, so we had good reasons to celebrate royally one night--as though any additional stimulus was needed. My daily report for the following day indicated a "decrease from

271 15 excavation units on Tuesday, to 9 units today..."--reflecting the impact the unfamiliar life of the rich was having on our production. To pay the bill for the largess I would simply sign the tab for the entire dinner. Sometimes John Combes would sign, or Susan Jackson, who would jokingly say, "The dinner is on me tonight," and sign the tab with a flourish. A month after the dig was over Bob Stephenson received a bill for all those meals. "Not to worry," he said, "my agreement was that the subsistence would be on the landowner--I'll call him." The next month the bill for several hundred dollars came again--again he called to remind the landowner of their agreement. The third month, I received a bill for hundreds of dollars for the tabs I had signed, and John Combes and Susan Jackson also received a similar invoice marked "Past Due!" for the signatures they had jokingly put on the dinner tab. We turned them over to Bob, who was somewhat upset by this time, loudly voicing some choice words in response. Again he called the landowner--who by this time was not returning Bob's calls. When the fourth bill arrived Bob threw it in the trash--and that took care o f that. Our salaries had far exceeded the food and condominium bills. As a result, Bob wasn't about to allow the agreement to be violated. I've never been entertained so royally on a dig since that day. Archaeology on the Horseshoe--Digging on the U. S. C. Campus In the spring of 1973, at the urging of the Vice Provost, George Terry, Bob Stephenson asked me to conduct an exploratory excavation on the campus of the University of South Carolina, on the mall known as "The Horseshoe," so called because of the shape of the road that went around it resembled a horseshoe. The president's dwelling was at the curve of the horseshoe with buildings flanking each side. No funds were made available for the project. As a consequence, I used various members of the SCIAA staff and a number of student volunteers as the archaeological crew. The primary interest of University officials was the discovery of the

272 original wells located on the horseshoe in the nineteenth century, with the expectation that they might be reconstructed to restore that part of the campus to its original appearance. We located four of the wells, one of which was covered with a brick dome, like "jug well" cisterns of the nineteenth century (South 2002a), in the top of which was discarded in the fill, test tubes and other paraphernalia from a chemistry laboratory (South and Steen 1992 [1973]: 21-25). At another well, fragments of a blue transferprinted pitcher, such as those found in each room of the dormitories in the early nineteenth century were found, where some student likely dropped it while getting water at the well for the bowl in the dorm room (South 1992: cover). We also found that the original road to and from the president's house was much narrower than at present. The original road, complete with wagon ruts, was found buried beneath a blanket of six inches of soil (South and Steen 1992 [1973]: 33-34). These ruts were evidence of the original College Street extending up to the president's house at the end of the horseshoe. One of the most interesting, and for awhile most puzzling discoveries we made was the foundation ditch for the originally-planned location of DeSaussure College (South and Steen 1992 [1973]: 28-29), located 100 feet south of the still-standing building. At first when I discovered these ditches, I thought they represented some kind of formal garden paths, but, when a profile was cut into the discolorations, I found they were over three-quarters of a foot deep---not a walk but a ditch! I mapped the ditch, and as I stared at the map I noticed a similarity between the ditch I had found and the shape of the standing DeSaussure building, the second building built on the campus of the University of South Carolina. Once this epiphany dawned on me, I checked the measurements against the building and discovered they were the same. This meant the space between buildings had originally been planned to be 100 feet narrower than it now is. Later buildings were aligned with the first and second buildings on campus, so this move was critical to

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION the shape of the "Horseshoe" we see today. The map I drew appeared in the Gamecock, the campus newspaper (Edmund 1973 [July 19]). I had discovered the foundation ditch for an originally planned [ 1806] location of DeSaussure 100 feet south of the present building. When this was published, I met a university historian who said I shouldn't have published such an undocumented statement. I pointed out that the document was there in the earth! He said if that were so the fact would have been written down somewhere (South and Steen 1992 [1973]: 2930): I reminded him that about ninety percent of what we know from the past was not written down but had been derived from archaeological knowledge of the material remains that have survived. He insisted, however, that if it existed in the past, the written word would witness it... He said if a document showed up stating the building had been built 100 feet to the north of the originally planned site he would believe it. Skeptics often believe the written word more sacrosanct than archaeological evidence, whereas archaeology often reveals the opposite is true. A year or so after my conversation with the skeptical historian, John Bryan, the University of South Carolina architect, called me and said he had found documentation that indicated the University Board of Trustees had indeed originally planned the building to be where I had found the original foundation ditch--100 feet south of where the building now stands. I suspect the historian would now believe that it was a fact because the written word proved it so! (South and Steen 1992 [1974]:30-30..Bryan published the written "proof" in his excellent An Architectural

History of South Carolina College 1801-1855 (Bryan 1976).

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Fort J o h n s o n - - " F i c k l e Point"

273 Forts

on

Windmill

In May 1973, I conducted a two-week project on Windmill Point, site of a series o f forts known as Fort Johnson, dating from 1708 to 1865. The project was sponsored by officials at the College of Charleston and the South Carolina Wildlife Resources Department, through the efforts of W. J. "Skipper" Keith. This project is typical & t h o s e cultural resource management projects where archaeological study is necessary before development is undertaken. I did a preliminary assessment (South 1975a). I spent the two weeks in the field with a crew of eight, students at the College of Charleston, Charleston Baptist College, and the University of South Carolina. After the dig, I spent 12 weeks writing the report on the features we found at a powder magazine, a Civil War stockade, a brick lined well, a barracks ruin and a tabby fort wall (South 1974g, 1975b). We also discovered the forts On Windmill Point had a rich history. They had features that were variously triangular or square, made with moats, palisades, sand-filled cribs made of palmetto logs, or t a b b y - depending on the time they were constructed and the function they served. There were drawbridges and embankments. Others were timbered, and mud-filled--reflecting a fickle history of change. When we were excavating the long barracks ruin (South 1975a, Figure 23), I was using a bush ax to cut a clean profile along the edge of our excavation area, when a man came out of an adjacent building and said his phone line had gone dead. I associated it with the cutting I had just been doing, and upon exploring the cut line I found I was responsible for his dead phone. I apologized, and he went to another building to call the phone company. Their technician came the next day. By that time I had exposed the excavation square with the phone line going across it. He placed the line through a little glass tube and then spliced the wires. He then injected gas into the sealed glass tube, insuring an oxygen-

flee, water and rustproof, seal--an interesting way to protect a splice. The next day I used a steel probe and located the opposite, east wall of the barracks ruin. I laid out a row of squares over that wall and began cutting a profile with a bush axe along the string line to insure a clean profile when the squares were excavated. When I looked up and saw the look on the face of the same man whom I had met the day before, I knew what had happened. I had cut the phone line again! He and I looked toward the west wall where I had cut the line the day before and saw the exposed black cable pointing at the place where we stood. He had a pained look on his face that said, "Can you be so stupid as to have cut our phone line again?" Again I apologized, and again he called the repair man who came out the following day to again splice the line. He shook his head in disbelief that I should have cut the same line again, only a few feet away. Again I watched, as he spliced the line. Not surprisingly he was not as friendly as he had been the day before. Later on, Randolph Widmer and I conducted another project at Fort Johnson where we explored an archaeological sampling strategy (South and Widmer 1976, 1977), in which we examined the relationship between an intervalaligned core sample using posthole diggers and augers and random-aligned core samples. I was using a random-aligned sampling strategy under the impression it was "more scientific," when my son David showed up as a volunteer on leave from Auburn University where he was a forester. I explained what I was doing and he argued that an interval-aligned method would be just as valid, and predicted that a comparison of the dispersion of data using the two methods would be virtually the same. To test this proposition I collected data from a series of interval-aligned core samples and compared the result with the computer printout of the random-aligned sample I had dug. David was right--we could determine no difference in the results of the two data-collecting methods (South and Widmer 1977: 121).

274 "No Offshore Salt Marsh Sites"--A Challenge from Chester DePratter In the fall of 1973, I was attending the SEAC meeting, when the dean of Southeastern Archaeology, A. R. Kelly, gave an extemporaneous pronouncement that there were "no offshore salt marsh sites to be found in Georgia." His statement sounded very convincing. Following him was a student, Chester DePratter, whose paper dealt with "Settlement, Subsistence, and Procurement Technology of the Georgia Coastal Shellmound Archaic" (1973). As I listened to Chester tell about how he had explored the shell deposits in the offshore marshes and found pottery from Native American occupation, I realized he was, in a very low-key, systematic, and thorough manner, destroying the myth that A. R. Kelly had just supported! To address this question, Chester had used a boat to navig~ite the streams winding through the marshes, and when he came to a shell bank, he would stop, get out of the boat, explore the surface of the deposit, and the marsh sand adjacent to it. In doing this he discovered a wide range of Native American ceramic types covering a period of several thousand years, from Stallings Island fiber-tempered pottery to Mississippian complicated stamped sherds. He made an appeal that this rich data base not be ignored and urged archaeologists to conduct more such surveys in the marshes where sites covering thousands of years in time were to be discovered. I was impressed! After the meeting, I sought Chester out and congratulated him on a fine presentation and the scientific manner in which he had put a longstanding myth to rest. I told him that if he ever wanted a job to get in touch with me because I would be happy to work with him. He said he was a student and maybe he would contact me some day after he graduated. Later on I saw him and again made the offer, but he said he was going to continue school at the University of Georgia until he received his PhD. I had no doubt

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION but that he would breeze through that exercise with ease. Fort Moultrie---Palmetto Parapet Clues Discovered Through a contract agreement with the National Park Service a 10-week field project was undertaken, in the fall and winter of 1973, at Fort Moultrie, the famous Revolutionary War fort built by William Moultrie of palmetto logs in 1776, on Sullivan's Island, South Carolina,. It was here that Moultrie withstood the bombardment of the British fleet, giving a strong boost to the morale and spirit of the American Revolution. The goals of the project were driven by (as Leland Ferguson said), "the fundamental premise that the material culture of human beings is patterned and that archaeological interpretation is founded upon the explication of this pattern." He said that was "the primary tool for understanding of aggregate human behavior" (South 1974g:vii). Explicit goals were the location and identification of the first Fort Moultrie--the palmetto log fort and related eighteenth and nineteenth century material culture, and developing methodological tools for future use (South 1974g:viii). A brick fort, still standing, was built early in the nineteenth century on the site of the larger original palmetto log fort. I used a backhoe east of that fort and cut trenches in the protected area on the offshore side. What I found was abundant evidence of the palmetto log Fort Moultrie in the form of the original moat, timbers, palmetto logs, and cast pewter buttons from the uniforms of Moultrie's second regiment (marked "2"), as well as buttons from British regiments occupying the fort after its capture (marked "62," "63," "64," "30," "19," "23," and "RP") (South 1974g: Figures 1, 2 and 10). Also found was a fragment of a ceramic biumenkubel tray, once used to hold a flower pot, perhaps to grace some officer's quarters (South 1974g: Figure 56). The moat ditch contained a concentrated deposit of black powder, a cannonball, shoe fragments, and other objects

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275

Figure 13.2. Stan South (top), with the Fort Moultrie archaeologicalcrew and the dig dog. (Photo: Lara South 11/2/73)

from the Revolutionary War period, as well as a fabric bale seal marked "GANGES,"possibly from goods shipped from India (South 1974g: 218, Figures 35, 40, 56 and 58). The quantity and variety of button types found in the deep strata on the site demonstrated a time span from 1776 to the Civil War Period, representing the first, second, and third Forts Moultrie. Other objects, such as cartridge cases and bullets dated as late as the early years of the twentieth century (South 1974g: Figures 60-61), as did the gunflints, percussion caps, cartridge cases and bullets (South 1974g: Figure 55). The Mean Ceramic Dates ranged from 1774 to 1846 (South 1974g: Figure 60). The ceramics recovered also allowed me to construct "A General Taxonomy for Nineteenth Century

Ceramics for Use In Historical Archaeology" (South 1974g:Figure 62). Also discovered were squared timbers from the Eliason Palisade of 1833, built to protect the federal fort against possible attack by South Carolinians during a political flair-up many years before the attack of Fort Sumter (South 1974g: Figures 21, 22). In the British and American Revolutionary War midden deposits, were hundreds of colonoware sherds, some decorated with red paint (South 1974g: 181-188, Figure 53) I said: It appears then, that the Colono-Indian pottery found in the American and British midden deposits may well have been deposited there by some group that was present during both the American and the

276

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION British occupation periods. One good candidate for such a group would be Negroes who may have been on hand throughout most of the American occupation period to assist with the continuous construction of the fort, and who may have been captured with the garrison when the British took the fort in 1780. Alternatively, perhaps the British brought their own Negroes with them.

I also pointed to the Catawba as possible makers of the "colono-Indian pottery found in both the British and American midden deposits (South 1974g: 188). Distinguishing between the makers of the ware now known as "colonoware" (Ferguson 1980, 1992) is still no easy task, with very similar wares being produced by both groups. Attributing all such ware to African Americans, as has recently been the trend, is a mistake, as Carl Steen has effectively pointed out (Steen 1999). The preliminary exploratory archaeology I conducted at Fort Moultrie was primarily designed to provide a base from which more extensive exploration of the buried moat and refuse deposits associated with it could be done. As I stated in that report (South 1974g: 269): A responsibility of the archaeologist is to provide some guidelines for the sponsors of archaeological projects toward their goal of interpreting historic sites to the visiting public. Such suggestions, however, are not the goal of archaeology. Archaeology does contribute to these goals, but they are secondary by-products of its primary function, the integrative explication of patterned material remains

of culture occupation.

stemming

from

human

The report on the palmetto parapet first Fort Moultrie became the first volume in SCIAA's Anthropological Studies series, and I was pleased to learn that volume was being used by colleagues

as a text in historical archaeology method courses in some universities. It was in that Fort Moultrie report that I was inspired to draw "The Pig Chart," entitled, "Data flow diagram for evaluation of analysis situations relative to the data bank of archaeological knowledge," later published in my method and theory book (South 1974g: 321, 1977a: 310). Political Pressure and a "Controversy" During the preparation of the research design for the contract for archaeology at Fort Moultrie, on an old aerial photograph, I saw a little feature, having the shape of a comer bastion of a fort. This "bastion" was located between the present brick 1808 fort and the ocean and was thought by some to be a sand remnant of the 1776 Fort Moultrie. I dismissed this hypothesis because a map, showing the 1794-1804 fort, delineates the "high tide line of October 1803" tangent with the brick wall of the fort at that time. That told me that any part of the 1776 sandfilled palmetto parapets would have been eroded away to that high tide line adjacent to the fort There had been added at least 100 yards of rubble and sand-fill, several feet deep, above the 1804 beach. This was done to prevent erosion damage from the ocean tide beating against the side of the brick wall of the new Fort Moultrie, built in 1809 (South 1974g: 347). The sand pile that appeared to be a bastion on the aerial photograph was resting on top of this rubble and sand fill. It could not possibly have anything to do with the 1776 palmetto Fort Moultrie! Knowing this, I chose to dig in the protected area on the opposite side of the brick fort from the eroded ocean area shown on the 1803 map. Doing this, I found the artifact-filled 1776 Fort Moultrie moat, with palmetto log remains in it, and focused my attention on that. That was the goal of SCIAA's contract with the National Park Service. Not long after I began work in the yard of the 1808 brick fort, I found all kinds of good Revolutionary War British artifacts in the moat. I

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unearthed a thick layer o f Moultrie's artifact-filled refuse, thrown from the palmetto parapet onto the berm [a narrow shelf between the moat and the parapet]. It was then a contingent of National Park Service officials from Washington and Florida showed up for a meeting. When I enquired as to the purpose o f the meeting, I was told it was to try to settle the "controversy" over where I should dig. I knew of no such controversy. I soon found out, however, it related to the fact that some administrators and archaeologists, having looked at the "bastion-shaped" pile of sand on the old aerial photograph, were determined that I should dig between the brick fort and the ocean, into that sand pile and rubble fill to attempt to locate remains of the 1776 fort. They wanted me to dig beneath the rubble fill where the ocean had been in 1803. Then I remembered that Bob Stephenson had told me about the interest in Washington that I dig there into that rubble fill, and we had had a good laugh over that suggestion. I had told Bob that our contract called for discovering remains o f 1776 Fort Moultrie, and I had already done that, now being involved daily in bringing more information to light on that fort. He relayed my refusal to administrators bringing the pressure and apparently that was the source of the "controversy." I was not invited to the meeting, which took place in a conference room inside Fort Moultrie. They asked me to stand by while the discussion was underway and that they would notify me when time came for them to question me. This seemed like some kind of inquisition to me, but I was well prepared to argue my position--that being that I was already busy digging into the remains of the first Fort Moultrie and had no interest in digging beneath rubble fill. To make my case, I sent Mike Hartley, my field assistant, to quickly bring some o f the British and American artifacts from our crew quarters, to show the jury whenever I was called to testify in my defense. Meanwhile, awaiting the call, I continued digging, recovering more artifacts,

277 photographing profiles, and transit-mapping the location of exploratory trenches.

Percy to the Rescue It was about that time that a man showed up to watch what we were doing, having seen an article in the paper about the dig. As I explained what we were doing, he asked if I had dug a hundred yards away into the sand "bastion" and pointed to the mound of sand that was the focus of the discussion going on inside. I was surprised that he would know about the "bastion" of sand and asked what he knew about it. He answered, "I built it!" I burst out laughing and asked for an explanation. He said his name was Percival "Percy" Petit, a historian, and some years before, he had been in charge of a commemorative celebration of the 175 m anniversary of the victory at Fort Moultrie. He had used plywood and two-by-fours to build a bastion-shaped construction and filled it with sand. This was the platform from which the various speakers spoke to the assembled crowd. Later he had removed the plywood, leaving a bastion-shaped pile of sand. This was what had shown up on the old aerial photograph! I explained the situation to Percy, and we shared a good laugh. But, when I asked if he would come into the meeting with me to tell his story, he was reluctant to do so. I got his phone number and address, thanked him, and went inside and broke into the meeting, asking that I be heard. They said they were about to adjourn for lunch, that the meeting was about over, but that I could have a few minutes. I related what Percy had told me, and showed the Revolutionary War artifacts I was recovering, none o f which seemed to impress anyone. Then I was told the conclusion o f the meeting was that I was to be asked to dig through the rubble and sand fill on the ocean side to look for the 1776 fort. I told them again that I had already found the fort and that I refused to dig through fill to locate an 1803 beach. I was reminded that I had a contract and that I would be in violation of the agreement if I refused to dig where they were

278 suggesting. They said the up-coming celebration of 1976 was to be held in that area and they wanted me to dig to locate a bastion there. I pointed out that our contract called for locating the 1776 Fort Moultrie, and I had done that, along with associated artifacts from both sides of the engagement. They then asked if I would object if they sent their own archaeologist to dig on the ocean side of the fort to search for evidence. I assured them again that whomever dug there beneath the fill would find little more on that old beach than salad and water. I assured them that I would have no objection to their own archaeologist engaging in such folly. This seemed to satisfy the group, but I am sure some went away shaking their heads at what they apparently saw as my bull-headedness. George Fischer to the Rescue Not long after that, underwater archaeologist, George Fischer showed up. We had known each other for some time. George has a good sense of humor, and was responsible for publishing, and thus perpetuating the facetious use of the term "fointwinder" to explain unidentifiable archaeological objects (Fischer 1973:2:203, cited in South 1979a: 215). I explained to George what I was doing and showed him some of the things I had found relating to the first Fort Moultrie. He understood my position in not wanting to chase a wild goose several feet deep on the 1803 beach, but nevertheless, he had been sent to do just that. I sympathized with his position. George rented a backhoe and dug a large crater near the brick fort on the ocean side, but soon he hit water seeping through the sand fill, and rented a couple of pumps to attempt to remove the water from the hole. These had little effect on lowering the water table, so he rented more pumps, with the same result, or lack thereof. I kidded George on trying to pump out the ocean. To my surprise, he did discover a row of abattis posts, or "picket fence," along with some shell fragments from the Civil War (South 1974g: Figure 1 and 30). George and I had a good time digging on opposite sides of the brick fort and

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION drinking beer after work. It was good to share stories with another archaeologist. He found no evidence of the first Fort Moultrie---but he had carried out the mandate of the Washington and Tallahassee plan. Later, a palmetto bastion was reconstructed on top of the rubble fill for tourists to view, as Percy Petit had done decades before. The Fluorescent Period With my running loose in South Carolina, digging at Ninety Six and the Price House in the upcountry, and at the USC Horseshoe in Columbia, at Charles Towne and other coastal sites at the Pawley House, Indian Springs, Ft. Johnson, and Ft. Moultrie, my career was certainly in a fluorescent period that I was enjoying greatly. Writing and publishing reports on these projects after returning from the field was a major involvement during the 1970s. The Charles Towne report, however, kept getting pushed back by reports on smaller projects. I also became involved in bringing together what I had learned by that time on method and theory in historical archaeology and through that interest, by the late 70s, my career had reached a climactic plateau--the subject o f the next chapters.

Part IV: The Climactic Years Chapter 14 Method and Theory Stories Introduction After two decades of digging on a wide variety of sites in North and South Carolina, and that one in Maryland, the evolution of my personal career had reached a climax period of "maximum intensity and individuality," a term usually used to describe "an archaeological horizon or tradition" (Willey and Phillips 1958: 39). By 1977, my developmental and fluorescing years o f experience were brought to a climax by the publication of my book Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology (1977a), and the edited companion Research Strategies in Historical Archaeology (1977b). That plateau made me open to change, and I welcomed the opportunity to take leave from British colonial historical archaeology to enter and explore a new field of research at sixteenth century Spanish Santa Elena, on Parris Island, South Carolina. During those climactic years of my career, death came to my beloved wife and companion, Jewell, and adulthood came to my children, Robert and Lara. My son, David, received his doctorate at Auburn University, where he still works as a forestry research professor. The 1980s years also brought another marriage to a young wife, Linda, and a few years later, a divorce. Then I met, and married Janet Reddy, with whom I now happily share my life. Those recent climactic years have allowed me to focus on bringing to publication, long overdue, my books on the work I did at Bethabara (South 1999a) and Charles Towne (South 2002c). They have also brought me, in 2002, the opportunity to write this book. And too, to my great pleasure and fulfillment, a number of honors have been

279

bestowed upon me. All of this and more are presented in the chapters to follow as the story of my climactic years continues.

Method and Theory--an Early Formative Adrenaline Rush with Lew Binford In Chapter 3, I told stories about my field work I shared with my UNC classmate, Lewis Binford, and our wives, Jewell and Jean. I did not tell of the nights in the mid 50s, when he and I wrestled with archaeological method and theory, honing our understanding of what we thought we knew at the time. I have saved that story until now, because this chapter is on method and theory, and those nights of arguing with Lew were important to me in shaping my thought process relating to archaeological method, which I felt was my strength, and theory, which was Lew's playing field. In other words, I was an inductive data-collecting dirt archaeologist focused on the methods necessary to observe and recover data from the earth, while Lew's conversation would focus on the broader theory underwriting archaeology. I knew evolutionary theory underwrote what archaeologists do, but I could accept that as dogma and move on to data-collecting. I was not so caught up in theoretical questions as was Lew, who kept bringing up those broader questions. I felt he was levitating somewhere "up there"--airborne , while I, like the groundhog I am, was digging holes in the earth and simply wanted to be able to refine that process to implement the best observation and collection of data. Of course, behind our excited discussions was the influence of our mentor, Joffre Coe.

280 When Lew and I dug together at Roanoke Rapids in 1955, he was primarily interested in ethnography, though exposed to archaeology through Joffre Coe. My discussions with Lew usually took place at his Victory Village home, rented to married graduate students by the University of North Carolina. Of course, we talked archaeology non-stop before dinner, during dinner, and afterward, while Jewell and Jean were preparing our meal and washing the dishes. Then they would escape to the bedroom to talk, long since having given up on getting a word in edgewise. Sometimes at 4 a.m., when we had talked ourselves into a zombie-like state, we would find Jewell and Jean asleep on the bed where they had been talking and waiting for us to shut up. Lew and I were such ego-centered talkers that it was difficult for either of us to get a word in edgewise or any other wise. Consequently we each developed and honed our technique of interrupting the unwary speaker at the least opening to a high art form--lingus interruptus, which enabled us to rush in with points we felt were more important than that being made by the speaker. That habit, unfortunately, is with me yet, as my wife, Janet Reddy, is not reluctant to remind me. I was concerned with method, as was Coe. It seemed to me that a great need in archaeology at the time was a refinement of method so that explanations of past culture pattern and process would have a sounder grounding in scientific data collecting than was the case at the time---an inductive approach to data collection for the purpose of explanation. Lew's viewpoint at the time was to approach the problem by changing the way archaeologists thought about what they were doing. He told me in one of our sessions that he was some day going to "turn American archaeology upside down" by challenging some of the leaders in the field. I thought that was his powerful ego speaking, but he eventually did exactly that! At the time, however, when I was concerned with collecting empirical data, Lew was talking about

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION approaching the archaeological record and process from somewhere up there in the theoretical ether. I couldn't get m y inductive archaeological trowel into much of what he was interested in. We were both influenced by reading Walter Taylor's "A Study of Archaeology" (Taylor 1948), and I admired the way Lew was determined to make of himself an anthropological archaeologist. For instance, he sought out a professor and took a linguistics course, and a doctor at the medical school and took a one-on-one course in physical anthropology, another in linguistics, and yet another to learn about faunal analysis, though, as I remember, such courses were not required in the anthropology M A program at that time. His eclectic approach was in contrast to my view, which was far more narrowly focused on archaeological method and data analysis--the inductive end of the scientific cycle. I saw myself as a groundhog ground-up archaeologist. I saw Lew as a clouds-down theorist needing a firmer grounding in the data from the dirt. I was willing to be a dirt archaeologist to keep my trowel and my mind on the archaeological record, while he was impatient to move on to a new, broader anthropologicallyanchored theoretical perspective to address in a fresh way the relationship between the data and explanation. I believe our experience at Chapel Hill with Coe and our exchanges there were major formation processes in our later careers regarding method and theory directed at explaining past cultural behavior and process. His flowering of that influence came with his experience at the University of Michigan. So, much later, in 1968, when Lew's second wife Sally, published with Lew, their New Perspectives in Archaeology, I read it, but paid little attention to the ideas expressed there because I was trying to understand the historical archaeology record. For several years, I ignored Binford's theoretical expostulations, and so it wasn't until 1974 that I finally cited the new perspectives book (Binford and Binford 1968) in my own publications. This came about because by that time every book I read cited Binford.

Method and Theory Stories Finally, I decided to read those cited references to see what all the excitement was about, and to my surprise found that what he had to say was worth paying attention to. He had done what he had predicted he was going to d o - "turn American archaeology upside down"--and the rest is history. As a major world archaeological thinker, his magnum opus recently

appeared--Constructing Frames of Reference (Binford 2001). In 1975, Jewell, David and I made a trip to Albuquerque to visit Lew to see first hand what he thought of the manuscript of my method and theory book I had sent him for review. He remarked that it seemed to him that he and I shared a similar view, having arrived from opposite directions using different data sets. I asked if he would write a foreword to the book, which, to my pleasure, he agreed to do. Twentyfive years later, he also agreed to write a new foreword to the paperback edition of the book published by Eliot Werner Publication's Percheron Press (South 2002f).

Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology--Background to the Book Although my concern in historical archaeology had always been to inductively fit the method to the questions I was asking in relation to the data coming from the ground, by 1972 my experience, summarized in the previous chapters, had broadened my view from a previous particularistic focus on the specific site under study to a greater explication of method in relation to theory and a broader synthesizing scope of inquiry. This is seen in published papers on evolution and horizon as revealed in ceramic analysis (South 1972a); the role of the archaeologist in the conservation-preservation process (South 1972b); methodological phases (South 1974b); analysis evaluation in relation to data (South 1974c); and a concem for goals and hypotheses. I also wrote on the theoretical base under which scientific archaeologists operate, the synthesizing of analyses, the cultural-historical integration of the data, processual explanation in

281 terms of hypothesis and theory, and the stabilization and interpretive historic site development of archaeological remains (South 1974d).

"The Polearm of Archaeology" In the previous chapters I have told stories leading up to the time when I began to share what I thought I knew about method and theory in archaeology with my colleagues in articles published between 1972 and 1974, such as those mentioned above. I synthesized those articles in 1975 into my book, Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology, suggested by Stuart Struever (South 1977a). In that book I summarized the conceptual pool for the accumulation of knowledge through archaeology in "The polearm of archaeology--a bill of particulars," about which I said "To face the charge of archaeology as antiquarianism, the polearm of archaeology must be forged from the nomothetic metal of explicitly scientific archaeology" (South 1977a: 6). In that metaphor I pointed out that classical anthropological and historical archaeology are underwritten primarily by evolutionary theory--using the humanistic, particularistic, and hypothetico-deductiveinductive scientific paradigms. Magic, on the other hand, also works beautifully--when it works. Stick pins in a doll representing an individual and sometime later when that individual dies, the believer in magic assumes a causal nexus between the two events, but there is no predictable replicability. The scientist depends on pattern recognition and the predictability based on it--the essence of science. It was also the essence of my book on method and theory. To make those concepts easier to understand (I thought), I used several metaphorical charts. The "Dolphin Chart"--the Scientific Cycle I contrasted the scientific cycle with armchair theoreticians and blind empiricists through a heuristic device in the form of a "dolphin chart" to illustrate the scientific hypothetico-deductive-

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Figure 14.1. The Dolphin Chart illustrating the scientific cycle (after Kemeny 1959:86). (South 3/1975. In South2002f: Cover and 15) inductive cycle (South 1977a: 15). The relationship between data collecting, deductive thinking and hypothesis formulation is presented in that illustration. The "Snail Chart" Analyzing the Field of Historical Archaeology I examined the slowly emerging field of historical archaeology toward archaeological science. This was revealed through 15 years of articles in The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers, and the Society for Historical Archaeology journal Historical Archaeology. I illustrated this slow progress through a chart showing a snail (South 1977a: 20). By showing the dates and themes of the articles on the body of the snail I was able to show that between 1960 and 1965, papers were concerned with narrative site reporting, site description and classification. In 1965, the topics of the papers revealed a beginning of a concern for method that continued until 1974.

The Dollar debate, over the identity of historical archaeologists and what they were up to, discussed in Chapter 8, was a turning point toward theory as a bridge from the particularistic focus to the broader nomothetic paradigm searching for law-like patterns. However, it wasn't until 1971 that there were indications of a turning point toward a science of archaeology reflected in the published papers (South 1977a: 20). This analysis of the field was done in an attempt to nudge my colleagues excavating historic sites to use archaeological science to discover cultural patterns and to publish their explanations. My concern was that too many colleagues were simply digging and describing what they found at a particularistic level rather than searching for broader law-like statements useful to others.

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Pattern Recognition--The "Brunswick" and "Carolina Artifact Patterns" I had hope for a science of historical archaeology and was pushing toward that end through my papers and in my book, where I emphasized quantitative analysis and pattern recognition. I developed the Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal and the Carolina and Frontier Patterns based on quantitative analysis of historic site artifacts recovered from eighteenth century British Colonial domestic and frontier sites. I recognized the Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal when I plotted the density of distribution of artifacts around the ruined houses in the town and from that pattern predicted that others would find a similar artifact pattern there in their domestic household ruins in the British Colonial system. The Carolina Artifact Pattern was recognized when a comparison was made between the percentage relationship of eight groups of artifacts from those ruins and that percentage remained highly consistent in ruins of the same time period.

The mean percentage for artifacts in the eight groups, which I called the Carolina Artifact Pattern was found to be as follows: Kitchen: 63.1, Architecture: 25.5, Furniture: .2, Arms: .5, Clothing: 3.0, Personal: .2, Tobacco Pipes: 5.8, Activities: 1.7 (South 2002: 107). I explored various analytical techniques through artifact class patterns and ratios, including an inventory pattern based on documentary data that has never to my knowledge been tried by any archaeologist since. That was my venture into cliometrics. Apparently archaeologists are too involved with material culture in the form of inground artifacts to bother quantifying inventory patterns from probate records. Many are too involved to move beyond the site-specific artifactdescriptive level in their studies. The "Mean Ceramic Date Formula" and the "Cow Chart" I revealed culture process through the formula concept and demonstrated how quantitative analysis of fragments of ceramics could be

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AN ARCttAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

expressed as a Mean Ceramic Date Formula (MCD) from British as well as Spanish colonial sites. All this was presented in a paradigm of the role of the formula model in explaining culture process from the archaeological record (South 1977a: 250). I had gotten the idea of the MCD formula from Harrington and Binford. It seemed to me that if the little holes in pipe stems could measure a temporal process ceramics could also (Binford and Maxwell 1961; Harrington 1954). I also dealt with methodological considerations involving the function of observation in the archaeological process and classification of the archaeological record, as well as the methodological phases in that process. I illustrated the archaeologist's responsibility in milking the archaeological cow in cultural resource management studies by the "cow chart," (South 1977a: 329). This book was a culmination of the work I have summarized in the previous chapters, and it has remained a useful tool for many,' finally going out of print in the late 90s, only to be reprinted late in 2001 by Eliot Wemer in paperback form (South 2002g).

The demonstration of patterning from the material remains from archaeological sites, and the integrative synthesis of these data in terms of the explanation of progenital cultural patterns, is the direction historical archaeology must take to emerge from the sterility of purely descriptive reporting, and take its place among behavioral disciplines. Historical archaeology is presently laboring under the assumption that its primary contribution to knowledge lies in the search for greater accuracy, authenticity, validity, correlation, personalization, and interpretation of "historical reality," epitomized in our historic site preservation-restoration-reconstructionnostalgia obsession. Archaeology does contribute toward these goals, but they are secondary by-products of its primary function: the integrative explication of patterned material remains of culture stemming from human occupation (May 1974).

The Society for Historical Archaeology--the 1975 Charleston Meeting In addition to the climaxing of my career in British colonial archaeology in my method and theory book, it was in 1975, also, that I was chairman of the program committee for the Society for Historical Archaeology. Bob Stephenson and I were intent on making the 1975 Charleston SHA meeting (hosted by SCIAA) an outstanding one, which it turned out to be. As program chairman I was determined to push the scientific agenda I had synthesized in my method and theory book, then receiving its final touches for publication by Academic Press. The program theme I mailed to SHA members prior to the conference was "Toward Archaeological Science Through the Material Remains of Culture"(South 1975c). In that flier I stated my belief as to what historical archaeology is all about:

To make the program an outstanding one I wanted to invite, among others, Lew Binford, David Clark, Michael Coe, Kathy Deagan, Henry Glassie, Jim Deetz, Chuck Fairbanks, Jim Fitting, John Griffin, Pinky Harrington, Mark Leone, Bill Rathje, Jeff Reid, Mike Schiffer, and Bob Schuyler--all leaders in the field. Sessions were chaired by Norman Barka, Dick Carrillo, John Combes, Kathy Deagan, John Ehrenhard, Chuck Fairbanks, Leland Ferguson, Steve Gluckman, AI Goodyear, Mike Hartley, Bill Kelso, Carlyle Smith, and Bob Stephenson. Fund-Raising for the SHA Conference in Charleston To lure, with honoraria and expenses, some of the participants who didn't normally attend the SHA meetings, I suggested to Bob that he write a letter to Senator Rembert Dennis, Chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, and I would deliver it in person. I explained that the influx of

Method and Theory Stories internationally prominent archaeologists into South Carolina was a public relations benefit for the state. After Senator Dennis had read Bob's letter requesting $5,000, he told me to go to the office of State Treasurer, Grady Patterson, and tell him I had been sent to request he write a check to SCIAA for the SHA meeting expenses (Stephenson 1974). Mr. Patterson told me to return the following day to pick up the check. It was waiting for me when I returned. In his letter, Bob pointed out that SCIAA was striking a replica of a medallion struck to commemorate the capture of Portobello by the British in 1739, discovered inside the ruin of Fort Dorchester by Dick Carrillo. One of the medallions was included in the program packet for each member attending the conference. Silver medallions were also struck and presented to dignitaries, such as the president of USC, and the Governor of South Carolina, as well as other dignithries attending the conference. Charmed by Henry Glassie--the Impact of Humanism on SHA At the Charleston SHA conference, one evening in Hiburnian Hall, next door to the conference motel, Lew Binford, Jim Deetz, Henry Glassie and I answered questions from the audience and an interesting exchange resulted from that. The star of that show was Henry Glassie, who, throughout the conference, charmed those around him with his personality and depth of humanistic knowledge. His paper, "Archaeology and Folklore, Shared Hopes for a More Human History and a More Humanistic Social Science," in Leland Ferguson's symposium "Historical Archaeology and the Importance of Material Things," was a hit at the conference, which Leland later published (Ferguson, [ed.] 1977). I was glad to see Lew Binford again to renew our friendship after so many years. Our paths had seldom crossed in the twenty years since our dig at Roanoke Rapids together. Leland's symposium gave us that opportunity. That symposium had a

285

Figure 14.3. Lewis Binford and Stan South at the SHA

meeting in Charleston in 1975. (Photo:GordonBrown 1/1975) major impact on what was to follow in historical archaeology. Historical Archaeology Tilts--Not to Science but to Humanism The Charleston SHA conference contrasted science and humanism. This resulted from the personalities brought together there and the eclectic ideas that energized those present. Along with the publication, two years later, of Leland's symposium papers (at the same time as my method and theory and edited research strategies books) (South 1977a, 1977b), it appeared to me at the time, that the Charleston meeting was a pivotal point in historical archaeology. It tilted the previously particularism-vs.-science see-saw (as I saw the field), not toward scientific archaeology, as I had hoped, but toward humanism, where it remains a quarter of a century later. Because of the importance of that moment in time to the field of historical archaeology (reflecting a national climate toward humanism), I quote here from my foreword to Leland's

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Historical Archaeology and the Importance of Material Things (South 1977d: 1-2): When Robert L. Stephenson, host and general chairman for the eighth annual meeting of the Society for Historical Archaeology, asked that I act as program chairman for the Charleston event, I welcomed the opportunity. He knew of my concern and disappointment in the fact that the seven previous meetings of the Society for Historical Archaeology had focused on historical-descriptive, particularistic topics, with little concern shown for the idea-sets under which such topics were explored. I saw this as an opportunity likely to arise but once in a decade, to structure an SHA program around the belief system under which archaeology is undertaken, rather than around the database addressed by that faith. I envisioned a thematic framework emphasizing theory on the first day, method on the second day, and the usual descriptive papers on the final day of the conference. However, Leland Ferguson, whom I had asked to chair the thematic presentation, had a far better idea, pointing out that a session hailed as exploring theoretical concepts would likely be attended by very few, whereas one dealing with the importance of material things would attract a far wider audience. To insure as wide an audience as possible, including those who normally might be reluctant to attend a non-descriptive session, the thematic session was not concurrent with another session. Our concern over a lack of support for such an idea session was at that point a reflection of our awareness of the developmental background of historical archaeology, and our recognition that the field was not traditionally oriented to the testing of ideas. We had not yet discussed the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION session in terms of the participants, and as it turned out, those who agreed to join Leland in an examination of the importance of material things brought to the session credentials 'enough to insure a full auditorium under any conditions. Our fears regarding the reception of such a session are recorded here as a matter of historical record monitoring attitudes present in January 1975. The strategy we had was that if we could bring together in one room an ideaset composed of Leland G. Ferguson, David L. Clark, Lewis R. Binford, Henry Glassie, James Deetz, William Rathje, Mark Leone, and James Fitting, each bringing his own vibrant concepts, that something might happen similar to when drops of mercury are brought close together; a sudden coalescence might occur to produce a result larger than any of the parts. Those who attended the Charleston meeting are well aware that such a happening did occur. As the reader enjoys the enclosed papers of Ferguson and his colleagues, an awareness of the importance of the Charleston meeting will begin to emerge in the image of the future of historical archaeology that these papers mirror. The rare happening recognized here in this special volume by the Boards of Directors of the Society for Historical Archaeology and its editor, John D. Combes, is seen as a pivotal event in historical archaeology. The Society for Historical Archaeology is indebted to special volume editor, Leland G. Ferguson, and production editor, Susan Jackson, for seeing this work to press. It is difficult to say when another such event as the Charleston meeting will come about, given the depth to which particularism is endemic in historical archaeology. However, a revolution is thought to be underway in the field, and its seeds are clearly seen in these papers.

Method and Theory Stories From such conceptual roots a new vitality will evolve in the decadeS to come through the process of exploring and testing our ideas about the past. The International Conference on Underwater Archaeology The International Conference on Underwater Archaeology program was held concurrently with the SHA conference, with 556 persons attending the joint meetings--514 from all 50 states and D. C., and the others from 14 foreign countries. As part of the program I hired a chamber music group to play during the banquet, but as it turned out they were drowned out by all the excited conversation that was probably influenced by the carafes of wine waiting on the tables as the attendees sat down. For presentation after the banquet, I had arranged, through the USC Department of Theatre and Speech, the play, "Franklin and Friends," for those who had not adjourned to the Charleston bars. In short, I believe a good time was had by all. A quarter of a century later, when I sometimes meet a colleague I haven't seen for decades I will hear, "I will never forget that Charleston meeting!" The success it had, I believe, came from the fact that it was underwritten by not only the State Budget and Control Board, but by other sponsors, to the tune of over $20,000, allowing us to put together a group of outstanding colleagues, as opposed to just allowing the program to happen. As mentioned above, my high hopes for that program being a stimulus toward moving historical archaeology toward archaeological science were not fulfilled. The eclectic mix represented by the participants, reflecting the process of ideological change underway within American universities at the time, toward humanism rather than science, seems to me in hindsight, to have been a bellwether for historical archaeology in the decades to follow. Method and Theory--Fall-Out I focused on the method and theory and research strategies books, from 1974 to their

287 publication (South 1977a and 1977b, editor). Also, a number of articles on that subject appeared. These dealt with research strategies and pattern recognition (South 1977g: 427-443, 1978c 1011]:36-50, 1978f 43[2]: 223-230,); a republication of my evolution and horizon-Mean Ceramic Date paper (South 1978d: 68-82); and exploring analytical techniques in historical archaeology (South 1978e: 253-266). A subsurface posthole digger sampling strategy for archaeological reconnaissance was published, with Randolph Widmer, in which we demonstrated the value of determining the density and dispersion of artifacts from prehistoric to historic periods of time (South and Widmer 1976, 1977). In 1978 I was invited by the editor of American Antiquity to write a lead-off article for that journal, and when "Historic Site Content, Structure and Function," appeared, I submitted a drawing for the cover, showing pull tabs and a beer can illustrating adjacent and peripheral refuse deposit distribution in relation to standing historic structures--a first for historical archaeology on the cover of that prestigious journal (South 1979a 44(2):213-237, 1980c: 87-106). In that year also, the publication of The

Management of Archaeological Resources: The Airlie House Report appeared as a result of a group of seminars sponsored by the Society for American Archaeology (McGimsey and Davis 1977). As mentioned earlier, I was one of the participants in a seminar on the preparation of "Guidelines for the Preparation and Evaluation of Archaeological Reports," in which my "Cow Chart" illustrating the "Milking of the Archaeological Cow" appeared--having been created on the train while returning from that series of seminars--the first such use of a cow, pig and chicken, along with a bale of hay and a cow patty, to illustrate research goals, cultural resource management and general scientific guidelines for report preparation in archaeology's barn (McGimsey and Davis 1977: 67). The patty, by the way, reflects what is produced when archaeological science is not

288 used--it symbolizes the "Failure of the Endproduct to Competently Employ Science." A result of my participation in the Airlie Seminar was my induction into "The Society of the Flaccid Trowel," for which I received an appropriate certificate that hung in my office for years (no pun intended).

Preserving Architectural Details for The Future---The Huguenot Guillebeau House It was in 1979, at the request of Kenneth Lewis, an archaeological colleague at SCIAA that I went with him to study the Guillebeau House in McCormick County. Our goal was to rescue architectural data that might well be lost when plans then underway for its restoration were carried out. Ken had learned that restoration plans involved ripping off the original porch of this eighteenth century Huguenot structure (Lewis 1979). This sent up a red flag to Ken, because it appea~ed that the porches were original, as we verified by crawling beneath the house to examine the clues to be revealed there. The porch floors had indeed been replaced at a later time, but the timbers on which the floor was laid were dovetailed into the original supporting beams for the house! Because of our fear that the porches would be removed in the restoration process and replaced with a stereotypical British stoop, never present on this house, we became concerned that other important clues to the original fabric of the house might also be endangered. I agreed to assist Ken in making this point through conducting a photographic study of architectural hardware (South 1979c). By so doing, there would at least be a record of the original details of the house that might become lost in the restoration process. With such a record, any architectural details destroyed during restoration could be authentically replaced in future years, by those who might be as interested in maintaining the original integrity of the house as Ken and I were. When our study was undertaken, the house was still occupied by a tenant family who allowed me to go in with lights, tripod and camera to take

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION photographs. In some cases we had to pull back layers of insulating newspapers and cardboard in order to expose the eighteenth century hardware, which was remarkably intact--rose headed nails holding HL hinges with little square leather bushings beneath the heads. On the second floor, Room 1 was a pure joy to behold, having never been painted or wallpapered in two hundred years, the untouched character of this room gave me the feeling of having stepped into it soon after the carpenters who built it had left. I hope the restorers of this remarkable Huguenot house did not think it more attractive for the tourist to paint this wonderfully untouched room. At the Paca House, over a decade before, I had worked closely with the architect studying the house, resulting in sharing of information. Sometimes preservation contracts are let by agencies for archaeologists, architects, historians, and contractors, without the one knowing what the other is doing. The resulting situation is not a sharing of information, but one that results in various specialists working at cross-purposes to one another. Such situations can be avoided by agencies involved in preservation of sites and structures through careful advanced coordinative planning before restoration is undertaken. Ken and I haven't returned to see what was done with the Guillebeau House, but I have heard that it was removed to a new site more accessible to tourists.

SOPADOPA--the Society of Professional Archaeologists--the First Newsletter In the same year in which my method and theory and research strategies books appeared, I was elected to the office of Secretary/Treasurer and newsletter editor of The Society of Professional Archaeologists, a position I held from 1977 to 1979. During those years I published the newsletter SOPADOPA, which reported on all the dope on SOPA. Some of the more serious members didn't like my title for the newsletter. Consequently, no sooner than I left office, that august organ ceased to exist (South [ed.] 1977h).

Method and Theory Stories

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Studying the Dead Rich Man, Poor Men, the that time were found. This made possible the General, the Major, and the Angel tentative identification of the 12 people buried in I was asked by David Hurst Thomas, of the American Museum of Natural History, to study the artifacts from three antebellum burials from the Georgia Coast. A memorable learning experience from that collaboration was the fact that delicate wire nails were in use in caskets (in this case in 1859) and other furniture where such nails were needed in the 1850s--as opposed to my belief, prior to that demonstration, that wire nails were not in use until much later in time (Thomas, South and Larsen 1977 54[3]: 416; also see Nelson 1963). Another disinterment of the dead occurred in a project designed to remove the remains of the famous Revolutionary War general and hero, General William Moultrie, his son, Major William Moultrie, Jr., and other members of his family from their plantation graveyard at Windsor Hill, near Charleston, South Carolina, to St. Janaes EpiscOpal Church at Goose Creek, South Carolina. This was necessary because the site of the graveyard had been exploited to remove the tombstones for souvenirs, and a housing developer was planning to use the site for commercial purposes. Susan Jackson was my assistant, with my wife, Jewell, and our two children Robert and Lara, as well as others, assisting in exposing and excavating the burials. All of the tombstones had been removed from the site, and some had been piled in the woods a short distance away, apparently to be picked up by a tombstone collector at a later time. The discovery of this cache of tombstones by someone prompted the Reverend Canon E. 13. Guerry to contact us at the Institute with a request that we locate and remove William Moultrie and his family to a more protected location. An earlier attempt to locate the grave of William Moultrie (buried in 1805) had been made by Rev. Guerry's father, Rt. Rev. William Guerry and Capt. A. M. Brailsford in 1908 and 1909. The holes they dug, and their description of their location in relation to the tombstones in place at

the various archaeologically revealed graves. Using the archaeological evidence and documentation a fascinating jigsaw puzzle was put together to identify the location of various Moultrie family members buried there. Rev. Guerry dug his hole "on the right of" Major Moultrie (William's son), while Capt. Brailsford's hole was "dug through the grave of Major Wm. Moultrie." They made these statements because the tombstone for the Major was still in place at the time they dug, and they knew that William had said he wanted to be buried "next his son" (South 1977: Figure 4). These statements allowed me to suggest who the excavated grave occupants were. The tombstone of Edward Ainslie Brailsford, "the angel" who died on October 12, 1803, at the age o f 4 months and 3 days was recovered. On this tombstone there was a poignant poem: Rest Lovely babe! Wait the Almighty's Will, Then rise unchang'd And be an angel still. The bone fragments were few, though the outlines of the various coffins were clearly seen. As the bone fragments were removed Reverend Guerry performed the appropriate ritual, as the coroner for Charleston County looked on, as required by South Carolina law. The remains of Moultrie's relatives were rebuffed at Goose Creek, while the few fragments from William himself were buried beneath a new tombstone at Fort Moultrie, with the South Carolina governor speaking on the occasion. The other graves were not excavated. My report on this project was published in two sources (South 1977i 82: 31-49, 1979b).

Method and Theory in Public Service Archaeology--Academic Freedom on Trial The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology is not an academic teaching department, but for a few years we had a joint

290 teaching program with the Department of Anthropology. In 1977 a Master's Degree program was proposed, with the name being an early hurdle. Institute archaeologists suggested "Archaeological Resource Management" as the name for the program, while "Conservation Archaeology" was the title favored by the Department faculty. I suggested "Contemporary Archaeology" as an appropriately generalized name, with the final solution being "Public Service Archaeology" (South 1977j). I taught method and theory in historical archaeology, and, although the teaching addition took some time from my research and writing, as well as changes in my fieldwork scheduling, I enjoyed the stimulating interaction with the bright, hopeful, and eager graduate students for 12 years until the program was disbanded in 1988. More on that later. I was encouraged on May 13, 1981, when I receix/ed a letter from Bill Marquardt, (who was on a' Department of Anthropology committee) commenting on the evaluations of my teaching the committee had received from my students. He said, "In my seven years of teaching experience, I have never seen so high a rating, and so unanimous a rating, by a class of students" (Marquardt to South, May 13, 1981). In 1988, however, on May 10, I received a letter from Vice President for Student Affairs, Dennis A. Pruitt saying, "Congratulations Mr. South! You were cited by at least one graduate as a faculty member at Carolina who significantly contributed to a student's success" (Pruitt to South May 10, 1988). I'm glad that I reached at least one student that year--better one than none! As time went on, however, students began coming to me, and to other archaeologists at SCIAA, with complaints that they were having difficulty forming their graduate committees. The reason being, that some faculty members in the Department of Anthropology had personal objection to the nuclear facility at the Department of Energy's (DOE) Savannah River Plant. They exercised their academic freedom not to sit on the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION committee of students who used archaeological data emerging from the DOE/SCIAA facility. SCIAA operates the Savannah River Archaeological Research Program (SRARP), in conjunction with DOE, devoted to mitigating damage to endangered archaeological values within the Savannah River Plant. Those of us at SC/AA, believed that faculty members who brought that personal anti-nuclear perspective into the classroom and refused to sit on committees as a result, violated the student's academic freedom to pursue truth in a free and open scholarly inquiry. I checked on the guidelines regarding academic freedom published by the Association of American Colleges and the American Association of University Professors, and found that "Academic freedom in its teaching aspect is fundamental for the protection of the rights of the teacher in teaching and of the student to freedom in learning" (Himstead 1940: 2611]: 49). The issue then was that the Department of Anthropology professors were arguing for the "protection of the rights of the teacher in teaching." Those of us in SCIAA were arguing for "the protection of the rights of the student to freedom in learning!" (Italics mine). The impasse continued, between the issue of academic freedom of faculty on the one hand, and that of students on the other. For want of a resolution, the University disbanded the Public Service Archaeology Program in 1988. Since that time I have not had the benefit of the stimulating interaction with graduate students and they have not had the benefit of my teaching them what I think I know. Walking Away from Life He was a scholar, a friend and an archaeological colleague. Roy Dickens took a sabbatical from Georgia State University to spend a semester in Columbia interacting with colleagues in the Department of Anthropology and at SCIAA. I was one of those who benefited by evenings drinking beer together while he was in town. I had once unfairly written a critique of

Method and Theory Stories one of his papers without mentioning the positive contribution it had made. At which time he had written a hurt response, pointing that out, and I had apologized for my unbalanced critique. After that baptism of fire we had become friends and admirers of each other's work. Years later, he contacted me and said he had a personal crisis and needed to talk. He asked me to take leave and come to Chapel Hill to visit with him. I went immediately, for I was in need of a friend at that time as well. He shared our personal problems and spent a day together at an estate auction, where I bought a wooden wheelbarrow, after which we waited all afternoon for an alkaline glazed stoneware pot to be put up for auction, but when it was, the bidding was so high neither of us could afford to get into the contest. Later, we sat by Roy's swimming pool stared into the water. He spoke of his personal sadness, "I sometimes think I should just dive to the bottom and never come up." I replied, "This life is all there is, Roy - - we must adapt to change!" We made plans to meet the following weekend at the Isle of Palms to support each other in our time of need--we were in the same boat. He would call me, he said, on Friday--but the call never came. I called his number but got no answer. On Sunday I got a call from a colleague saying Roy had drowned himself. "Oh lost!... " It was some time after the publication of my method and theory book in 1977, when Roy had come to USC for his sabbatical. Many years later, he walked out on life, as Virginia had done on hers so many years before, making the same choice Art Newton had made. They dove into that dark river that took them all, taking the hearts of those who loved.

The Morning Glory Vine and the Joyful Magic of Science With the publication of my first books, I felt as though I had reached an internal plateau, as though the wind had gone from my sail--a reaction from the intensity of the focus during the previous years. In response to that feeling, I turned to the other side of myself, and put

291 together my first book of poems, written between 1950 and 1978 (South 1978a). In 1976, one of the verses of "The Crescent Moon," written in response to Leland Ferguson's decision to retire from archaeology and teaching, to devote his energy to his farm, expressed my feeling that: The probing mind is a morning glory vine, Its searching blossoms Following the constant sun of inquiry Into the mysteries of time. The joyful magic of science Brings dreams to fruit in chiseled metaphor And words honed to burnished thought. Ideas blossom along a fertile pathway Trod by scientists in a departed day, Revealing the richness of the way. At the SHA meeting in 1990, the sponsors had asked Jim Deetz, a prominent historical archaeologist and me, to comment on our perspectives in historical archaeology, assuming a confrontation would take place between my push for a scientifically anchored historical archaeology versus Deetz's humanism. Deetz spoke first, mentioning his epiphany when he had first met and was strongly influenced by the noted scholar, Henry Glassie. Jim gave a very poetic humanistic presentation. I wasn't about to follow that with a plug for science, which I had already done in many places in print. It so happened that I had just received my first book of poems and had a copy in my pocket. With Deetz's impressive remarks, I suddenly decided not to challenge that approach, but instead, to read "The Crescent Moon," from my book, Silver Strands (South 1978a). After I finished reading there was silence for a long moment--then I said, "Jim speaks with a poetic tongue, and I write poetry--but I don't call my poetry archaeology!" Afterward, at the party held in a room in the hotel, Jim came up to me, shook my hand, and said, "Congratulations! You stuck the dagger in my ribs and slowly turned it!" Then we laughed together from the well of mutual respect--from which we so often drank.

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My Anthropological Perspective on Religion, Tribal Man, and Proseleytizing In that poem book I held in my hand that day in 1978, I also published a 1972 poem inspired by the phrase used by the Australian aborigines to refer to Jesus. In their language they know him as "Poor-bugger-white-fellason-of-God-got-nailed." That poem comments on the coercive corrosion of aboriginal life ways by the imposition of an outside religion from an alien culture. The cream of my personal belief--that native groups should be observed not changed-- arose to the top in that poem, a part of which I quote here (South 1978a: 6770): Pollution Here are the harmless people, The gentle men, where, R6oted within the rich and loamy mind, The treasures of the ancient earth are stored: The secrets of the family band, The tribal ritual brave and grand, Burning deep in nerve and tendon taut, In elastic muscle springing free And flashing as glistening sweat on flesh In billowing, dusty, choking cloud From pulsing dance and beat of drum, And kindred feet against the earth, In soul-full rhythm river-deep, Lifting the spirit on wings that soar Above the innocent world of love and joy Bonding man and his people With home, fire and earth, Water hole and gods. Who would presume to water-down This earth-aged richest wine? Yet in the name of another Harmless, gentle man, To "save" these simple souls, The disciples come With "The Word," "The Book;" And subduing gun, Throughout the world and time,

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Professing to tum earth's "water" into wine. Safaris to hunt earth's treasured game No longer satisfy man's urge to kill, But mind-bending hunters explore to find The lonely reaches of the earth To bag the greatest prize of all Within the dark continent of the mind. Where are the champions Clamoring to preserve The sacred tenets of the mind? Within that infinite vastness, Who upholds the sanctity Of ancient and venerated spirits Dwelling in mystic grandeur there? Who defends the integrity of man's thoughts Rooted in ancient tribal lore? Who speaks against the Despoilers of the mind, The rapists Of the virgin flower of native thought? Is the sophisticated rivalry of modem man From the crimson snows of Mount Olympus To the napalm showers and bloody mud Of Vietnam a better way Than the wine-rich heritage of love Within the mind of tribal man? The gentle people hear of a man they call "Poor-bugger-white-fella-son-of-God-gotnailed," And the holy water mixes with the wine, And the "Word" is poisonous pollution In the ever-flowing river of the mind. After the 1978 SHA meeting, I was ready for the morning glory vine of knowledge to grasp a new purchase on the joyful magic of science beyond the British colonial limb I had clung to in prior years. Then, in 1979, there came a phone call from Joe Judge, Associate Editor of The National Geographic Magazine, that would change the direction of that vine--entwining my mind around a new field of research--Spanish

Chapter 15 Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort Tales Introduction For almost a quarter of a century I have been excavating at the site of Spanish Santa Elena on Parris Island, in Port Royal Sound, South Carolina, a town occupied as the capital of Spanish Florida from 1566 to 1587. I was joined in that research in 1989 by Chester DePratter. Our research has also involved trying to solve the puzzle of the location of French Charlesfort of 1562 to 1563, on that same island. The story of the efforts of these two nations to gain control of the New World is an interwoven tale, as is that of those, w h o h a v e since searched for clues the explorers left behind. The story of the unraveling of this tale begins with the search for Spanish Santa Elena. My involvement with that search began in 1978, with a phone call from Joseph Judge, Senior Associate Editor for National Geographic Magazine that resulted in the search for clues to Santa Elena and the eventual discovery, in 1995, of French Charlesfort. My first awareness of Spanish Santa Elena, however, came in 1958, when I was at Town Creek Indian Mound. Joffre Coe had mentioned Santa Elena to me as a possible source for copper found in burials at Town Creek Indian Mound, which he then thought might date as late as the mid-sixteenth century. He said that there was some disagreement as to whether the site there was French Charlesfort or Spanish Santa Elena. I remember asking him if copper from Spain, and France, and Michigan, could be analyzed to determine the source o f the copper ornaments found in the Town Creek burials. That question had stimulated my interest in reading about Santa Elena and Charlesfort and visiting it at some future time.

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Spanish Santa Elena--Historieal Background: "A Doorway to The Past" The Spanish town of Santa Elena was established on Parris Island in 1566. Chester DePratter wrote a preface to a booklet I wrote on the archaeological work I did at that Spanish "Doorway to the Past," and I quote from that here (South 1996b: vii-viii): Between 1566 and 1587, the Spanish town of Santa Elena was the most northern of the several outposts established by Pedro Mendndez de Avilrs to defend Spanish Florida against encroachment by French and English adventurers. For nearly a decade after it was settled, Santa Elena served as the capital of Spanish Florida. During the two decades it was occupied, the town's population ranged from a few dozen to several hundred people including soldiers and settlers. Sir Francis Drake's raids on Spanish settlements in the Caribbean, in South America, and St. Augustine, Florida, forced the Spaniards to consolidate their holdings: Santa Elena was abandoned in 1587 when its occupants were forced to relocate to St. Augustine.

Interest in Santa Elena Interest in the early Spanish and French activity in South Carolina was expressed by Lucia Harrison, researcher for the Tricentennial Commission in a letter to Major M. G. Styles at the Marine Corps Recruit Training Depot on Pards Island (Harrison, Letter May 1, 1969). She was interested in the controversy over whether the fort on Parris Island was French or Spanish in origin. This interest stimulated Bob Stephenson

294 to have Maryjane Rhett prepare a nomination of the fort site in 1974 for the National Register of Historic Places Inventory. The confusion over the identity of the site is reflected in the name assigned at that time: "Charles Forte (38Bu51), Ribault Monument, San Marcos, San Felipe" (SCIAA Site Files). In the fall of the following year, Charles Gay, a University of South Carolina employee interested in the history of the Spaniards and French on Parris Island, visited the Santa Elena site after a storm and became concerned that the erosion was eating Santa Elena's forts. He wrote letters to the Secretary of the Navy, the Marine Corps, and Archives and History officials requesting permission to dig two test pits, with X marking spots shown on his sketch map of the site (Gay 1975). Responses to his letters referred Charles to State Archaeologist, Bob Stephenson. Bob and I met with Charles after that, and he showed us some sherds taken from the site. He let me copy an aerial photo of the tip of Parris Island, which I put in my file, and I copied for Bob the little sketch map showing "X" locations, which Bob put in his file. Not before, however, commenting to Charles (unnecessarily harshly, I thought), that, "We can't launch an expedition on the basis of chicken-scratched maps such as this!" Charles spoke of seeing an eroded creek bank having "two ' U ' shaped soil discolorations he thought were a fort moat. At the time they meant nothing to us. As it turned out, however, he had interpreted them correctly (we were later to discover), as being the erosion-exposed crosssections of the ditch surrounding Ft. San Felipe (Stephenson 1979:viii). Bob told Charles that any excavation should be done only by qualified professional archaeologists and strongly discouraged him from digging test pits on Parris Island. Neither Bob nor I showed much enthusiasm for Charles' interest in Santa Elena at that time. I was deeply involved in editing my manuscript for my method and theory book, and putting together the research strategies book. The result being that I quickly forgot about the meeting with Gay. Charles didn't forget,

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION however, that he had tried to get us to dig on Parris Island. But, I'll have more to say on that later.

A Phone Call--the Magazine

National

Geographic

The 1978 phone call to Bob Stephenson was from Joseph Judge, Senior Associate Editor of National Geographic, stating that he was planning an article on the Spaniards in La Florida in the sixteenth century, and would like to talk with Bob about his interest in archaeology being carried out on the site. He said that he was calling to obtain permission for Charles Fairbanks and/or, Kathleen Deagan, to conduct a project at Santa Elena on Parris Island, South Carolina, because of their expertise and experience in Spanish colonial archaeology--neither of which I possessed. He was interested in whether the fort on Parris Island, excavated by Major Osterhout in 1923, was French Charlesfort or Spanish Ft. San Marcos. Bob told me about the call and asked if I would be interested in conducting archaeology at sixteenth century Spanish Santa Elena. I told him I would be very interested in doing that, because I felt like a change in research direction was exactly what I needed at that time. I was confident enough to say I didn't feel my obvious lack of a track record would prevent me from doing a competent job of undertaking Spanish colonial archaeology. Then Bob informed me that he had told Joe Judge in no uncertain terms, that if archaeology were to be carried out at Santa Elena it would be done by me through the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, and not by Florida archaeologists. He said Joe had asked if we could meet him in Charleston to discuss the idea for such a project. We went. The dinner was excellent, with the best of eVerything, including caviar and snails, all on Joe's expense account--first class! Joe was interested in determining through archaeology whether the site on Parris Island was French Charlesfort or one of Spanish Santa Elena's forts.

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort Later in the fall Bob and I visited the Santa Elena site with Joe Judge and historian Paul Hoffman (Stephenson 1979b: x). Historian Eugene Lyon was invited to join us there but was unable to do so. In the years to follow, these historians were a great help with the Santa Elena research. The outcome of the Charleston dinner and our on-site meeting was that I was to write a proposal and submit it to the National Geographic Society's Research and Exploration Committee for consideration for possible funding. Joe Judge was not on the committee, but he hoped that a proposal for funding a Santa Elena project would be approved Out Of the P a s t - - A Magic Personal Moment That first visit to Santa Elena in the fall of 1978 was a rare romantic experience prompting me to attempt to express it in a poem written on the site of Osterhout's dig as the others walked on ahead'. Later, I published that verse and my feelings that inspired the poem (South 1996b: 9193). As I stood on the site of Spanish Fort San Marcos that first day in 1978, near the monument to French Charlesfort, my companions walked away from the fort to the North carrying the map of Fort San Marcos showing the cannon pointing to Santa Elena and Fort San Felipe. They were looking for a likely spot to dig to search for Santa Elena. A melancholy mood suddenly overcame me. I lingered behind, holding in my hand the Spanish and Indian potsherds and the musketball I had found beneath my feet. They seemed to glow in my hand. I saw them as symbols of Spain's try at establishing a toe-hold on a new continent occupied by Native Americans, and the struggle between them that followed. I sat against one of Major Osterhout's concrete fort-outline markers and stared at the fuzzy outlines of my companions in the woods to

295 the north. As dense fog floated out of the marsh enveloping them in a gray cloud. The tide flowed into the moat of the fort where Major Osterhout had found many objects from the Spanish and Indian past. It was a romantic and mystical moment. My companions appeared as ghosts, dimly drifting amid the fog. I thought of the exciting scientific adventure lying ahead. I could see myself enjoying the privilege of removing the soil blanket covering the site, opening the doorway to the past to discover more clues such as those I held in m y hand. I was captured in a rare moment where the body is experiencing more than the mind can absorb and the feelings had to find a way out of their imprisonment within me. I took from my pocket a note pad and began writing in an attempt to capture something of that moment in the mist at Santa Elena (South 1996b: 92-93): Santa Elena Beneath our dusty feet Fort San Marcos' ancient soil Was a precarious Spanish toe-hold In a new and splendid world. And over there somewhere, Beneath that soaring bird, Stood Charlesfort of France, And San Felipe, beneath that sand, Once the pride of Spain At Port Royal's gateway To a vast and virgin land. Our search was not for Spanish gold, But for clues to lives unknown; For ancient cedar walls, For stains of earth Where holes once were, For daily living's treasure In broken sherd of bowl And lowly refuse bone, Symbols of a nation's dream, With Spanish Empire theme.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Then came the clash of arms Between Americans at home, Warmed in tribal band, And aliens in a foreign land. Bitter war drove invaders From the homeland shore In Indian victory sweet... But the aliens returned. Then, beneath our feet, Not rich, nor beautiful, Nor elegantly refined, But splendid in simplicity, An Indian sherd! And Spanish majolica, With a musket ball beside! Symbols of a way of life, Of a city burned, And human strife Where many died, Of a toe-hold gone, Of a conquest tried, Of a continent lost, And human pride.

A Disappointment and a Catch-22 Shortly after our Fall 1978 visit to Santa Elena I asked permission from the Marine Corps to dig on the site. I contacted the Parris Island Marine Corps Recruit Depot officers and was referred to Brigadier General E. H. Simmons, USMC (Retired), who was the Director of Marine Corps History and Museums for the Depamnent of the Navy at the Marine Corps Headquarters in Washington. Bob Stephenson contacted General Simmons, who asked that I call him to explain what I planned to do at the Parris Island site. General Simmons was very interested in the research I planned to undertake, and opened doors in the Department of the Interior regarding obtaining an Antiquities Act Permit. He was interested in the fact that I had been in charge of the Fort Fisher site because he had published a paper on the "Federals and Fort Fisher" when he was a Major (Simmons 1951). As a result of our

mutual interest in the Civil War, we exchanged papers and I kept him informed of my progress at Santa Elena. Having received assurance from General Simmons that my application for a permit would very likely be approved, I submitted a proposal in February, designed to attempt to locate the town of Santa Elena, to the National Geographic Society's Committee for Research and Exploration. To my disappointment it was deferred until such time I could present evidence for the existence of Santa Elena on Parris Island. If I found evidence, then the proposal would be reconsidered--a classic Catch-22 it seemed to me. But I set out to do that by trying to locate funds after Bob told me the Institute could not afford a one-week dig for that purpose. When the Antiquities Act Permit arrived in April, I was ready to dig whenever funds were available to do so. At that time, I was notified by Marine Corps officials that I should meet with them. At that meeting it was made clear to me that I was to come on the site, do my thing and leave, and that I should not expect any support of personnel or logistics. In other words they wanted me to keep a low profile, which I promised to do. The First Expedition to Santa Elena--A Family Affair After receiving the proposal deferment from the National Geographic Society committee saying that I should prove the site was Santa Elena before they would again reconsider my proposal to locate it, I went to the office of A. Riley Macon, Associate Provost for Research at the University of South Carolina. I explained the Catch-22 to him, and Bob's lack of funds for exploratory archaeology, and asked for funding to look for evidence of the Spanish town site. Perhaps a small discovery project would give me the evidence I needed to convince the skeptics in that committee that Santa Elena was indeed on Parris Island. That was at 11 a.m. He said he was leaving on a trip, but that if I could get a proposal to him

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort by 1 p.m., he would see what he could do before he left town. Then he said for me to submit two proposals, a low-budget one-week one, and a onemonth budget. I rushed back to my office and typed up two budgets, the more modest one for $842. That included two motel rooms (one for me and my drafted family), and another room for the remainder of the crew of volunteers, plus per diem for a week. Less than two hours later I got both proposals signed by Bob and arrived at Riley Macon's office shortly before one o'clock. He quickly looked them over and signed the more modest one-week proposal and gave me the budget number against which to charge the expenses for the dig. (That is probably a record for proposal writing, acceptance, and budget availability for a grant proposal.) I called Jewell and told her about the funds becoming available and that I needed to go into the field immediately. She said she and our children would go with me as the first volunteers to become part of the crew. The day was Friday, June 29, 1979. With that short notice I went into the field on Sunday, July 1st, with Jewell, our children, David (age 29), Robert (age 11), and Lara (age 10), Darby Erd, draftsman for the Institute, and volunteer Sue Jane Alsing, a USC employee. My young teen children Robert and Lara worked hard, as did the adult volunteers throughout the project, though Lara sometimes took time out to sculpt faces in the piles of sifted dirt as a diversion from looking for hours in the screen for artifacts. The following quotes are from my daily log for that project, revealing events as they unfolded during that first significant week of archaeological sampling at the Santa Elena site (South 1979e). As word progressed other volunteers joined us. Daily Log for the First Parris Island Project Sunday, July I, 1979 The Souths and Darby Erd met David South and Sue Jane Alsing at the site of the famous fort on the tip of Parris Island.

297 The goal: To test the idea that the site identified by Osterhout in 1923 as the French Charlesfort of 1562, is actually Fort San Marcos of 1577 as stated by historian Paul Hoffman of L.S.U. We are searching for a site of two towns of Santa Elena to the northwest of the fort site, and some evidence that the island in front of the site is that of Ft. San Felipe, an earlier fort than San Marcos, built in 1566, before the Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth Rock were born. [My first thought was to check out a high place in the marsh, speculated to be the location of Fort San Felipe as shown on the aerial photograph borrowed from Charles Gay. That site contained only tidal sand and shell. With this determined I focused on trying to find evidence of the town of Santa Elena.] We used David's canoe and loaded equipment to explore the island. It was low tide. Muck and mud everywhere, covered with fiddler crabs. I attempted to go ashore and sunk up to my knees in muck, almost losing a boot in the process. We decided to wait until high tide. [My research design called for digging 42 3foot squares on a grid 90 by 420 feet in size. I drove iron rod reference points 0, A, B, and C along a line positioned between the 8th fairway of the golf course and the edge of the marsh. Each 3-foot square was placed randomly within each 30 foot square, with the plan being to discover the concentration of Spanish pottery, and particularly fired clay daub, that we assumed would be present at each clay-daubed and burned house site in Santa Elena. We sifted all soil to recover artifacts and daub using ¼-inch screens. Using this method, I expected to discover the location of house sites within the town when those data were programmed into a computer, to produce density concentrations of those artifacts. This assumption was based on my Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal resulting when trash is discarded

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adjacent to structures, a pattern I expected to be present at the Spanish colonial Santa Elena village as well (South 1977a: 47-80)]. Began sifting three foot holes after using transit to set flags. Found Spanish majolica in all four holes we excavated today. Found that the soil zone is eighteen inches deep in some holes. Found features such as a ditch and midden deposit with Spanish and Indian sherds. We are all highly excited by the success of the discovery of Spanish pottery in all holes tested so far. We explored the island at high tide and found that it is made of loose sand and muck, not a good site for San Felipe. Sue Jane's parents came by for a visit by boat and brought a watermelon, which we all enjoyed greatly. The kids, Lara, and Robert took the boat and explored the island by themselves, probing and putting flagging down where they struck something. We plan to check these points out tomorrow at the mouth of the creek where trees can be seen. Perhaps this was a fort site, but if so it will violate some of Hoffman's hypothesis. Monday, July 2, 1979 Met David and Sue Jane and went to the site. Met Helen Haskell at the site. She has come to volunteer her help. We put out the flags and equipment and continued taking out squares. We were soon joined by Jim Scurry who has come to volunteer his help. Capt. Keleman and Sgt. Walker came for a tour. I am to meet with them at 3 p.m. and meet the Colonel Schriner. He came to the site at 2:45 and saved me a trip to his office. We ate at the post cafeteria at lunch. Continue to find Spanish and Indian material in all but one square. The prospects of the site being that of Santa Elena are good. Sgt. Walker brought a reporter from the post paper and one from

the Savannah News. I have some concern for the site once the stories come out but there is no hope of holding the news of the project down for the safety of the site . . . . One asked "Are you looking for Spanish doubloons?" So we hope no big splash will be made of the project, but with this type of thinking there is no telling what kind of slant the stories will have. Channel 16 television people will be on the site tomorrow to interview us. We found a fish line weight, a Marine Corps or Navy button, clay daub and unfired clay, spike nails, and bones as well as large oystershell midden, musket balls, majolica and incised and punctated rimstrip Indian pottery similar to York (in the South Appalachian Mississippian tradition), as well as San Marcos check stamped? [pottery from the St. Augustine area]. This Indian pottery appears to be contemporary with the Spanish---covariation will tell the tale. Our total squares finished are 10. We hope to complete an average of 6 per day so we will end the project Saturday afternoon. David South explored the island and the idea that the fort site is one of the San Felipes, which would place San Marcos to the southwest o f the known fort. He found a lot of mosquitoes, some "U.S.M.C. 1917" pottery, and some canals and earthworks. We plan to check out his hypothesis further, perhaps putting a hole or two in this more southwesterly direction. Also we are interested in exploring the island at the mouth of the creek. Tuesday, July 3, 1979 David, Robert, Lara and Jewell South, as well as Helen Haskell, Jim Scurry, and Darby Erd on hand by 8:30 to begin work on more squares. By 11 a.m. Educational Channel 16 television reporter and cameraman showed up with Sgt. Walker to

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort interview us on the project. We talked and saw the program at 6 p.m. on the news. They did a good job o f relating the project to the public. At breakfast we read the Savannah News about our project. They got some of the dates 100 years too late, and a misquote or two, but otherwise the article was o.k. in that it did not go overboard, but reported the projects goal, etc. We made good progress today, almost completing 18 squares, which brings us up to our quota of 6 per day to get the 42 by Saturday afternoon. We are still getting Spanish and Indian pottery but less daub that we had expected. Sgt. Robles came down to talk about his bottle hunting and other digging activities on the island. He said lead shot was used to fire at weather or practice balloons on the site around World War 2, and one of the large lead balls found on the site fits his description of this type of lead ball. When pinned down on his references for this information he remained vague. He told us of a site on the drill field that produced Spanish pottery like we are finding on the site, along with Indian pottery and shell midden. He says there was an Indian site there contemporary with the Spanish settlement. We have found several ditches in the squares, and I had David South opening exploratory trenches from some of the squares so as to get more architectural data. The ditches often run at a diagonal angle to the grid we happen to be using for our sampling area. We have found a junction or cross o f two ditches at right angles. We found a concrete septic tank or similar sub-surface structure near the edge of the site. All of our volunteers are working well and seem to be keeping reasonably happy in the digging process. Lara and Robert are working out well on this dig and are

299 good h e l p ~ p u l l i n g tape during transit plotting of features and in taking elevation shots of the squares. David, Jim Scurry and I are still working on alternate hypotheses for the location of the first fort. We feel it may have been on the island in the woods, near where we are digging: the second fort 300 feet in front of that, in the marsh, and the third toward the southwest from that. David hopes to explore the island near the mouth of the creek. Robert and Lara continued to explore the stream nearby with David's canoe. Everything is going well with the project and we are having a good time. The data recovery is progressing in a superb manner, with pottery and Indian sherds being a major type of data, something of a surprise, since we had thought there would be more daub than pottery, but so far it is the other way around, with a surprising scarcity of daub. This may indicate that the houses perhaps are not located in this area. Wednesday, July 4, 1979 Went to the site with Jewell, Robert, David, Lara, Joe Joseph, Mike Harmon, Helen Haskell, Sue Jane, and were met by Jim Scurry and Darby Erd, and later in the day we were joined by Larry Lepionka and some of his friends and classmates who helped work most of the day. Joe Joseph and Mike Harmon arrived last night about 10:30 with the truck and two power sifters, which we were glad to see. David continued expanding the area of some o f the ditches to see where they went, etc., and we shot these with the transit. A reporter from Savannah showed up and talked awhile. We used all three sifters all day and made great progress, so that now we have about 30 squares finished . . . . We plan to attend the fireworks show at Parris Island tonight.

300 We are beginning to be crowded in the two rooms, but hopefully with the help of rollaway beds we will make it o.k. Pelham Erd showed up today to help work and will be here tomorrow. David found a cut nail in one of the ditches we had hoped would be Spanish, so it looks like the grid of ditches we have found may well relate to the later Marine Corps occupation. However, known deposits such as those (having Navy buttons) have such clear cut edges and contrasting fill that it is difficult to relate the older, more blended pits and ditches as those from this late occupation on the site. [The ditches were, as it turned out, nineteenth century vineyard ditches.] One square today had more pearlware, British type pipes, etc. from the late eighteenth to early nineteenth century, the e~irliest such British material yet seen. This should make an interesting blip on the [computer] SYMAP. One deep square revealed two postholes beside what may be a large ditch which is an interesting feature. David and I will likely explore this to determine its width, etc. David, Robert and I shot a line down toward Fort San Marcos so we can begin shooting the reference points there from the Osterhout dig for plotting on our site map. Jewell has been acting as provenience control helper and keeping up with the square sheets, [data] cards, and numbering of bags and packing the material for shipment, etc. It is good to have someone like that around to help. Joe Joseph is an excellent helper, taking things in hand as he sees need for things to be done. It is good to have such quality help aboard. We now agree with Hoffman that the second Ft. San Felipe was located in the woods and the first fort is out front in the marsh and is likely too far gone to ever be

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION discovered. Hopefully we may find some clue to the location of the second fort before we leave here, if we are lucky. We found three squares today, 24, 25 and 28 that have the edge of ditches showing, two running NS and one EW. The interesting thing is that they parallel our grid, an interesting correlation of grids on the site. We will explore these tomorrow by cutting cross trenches to determine their width. Could this be Fort San Felipe? Thursday, July 5, 1979 Before we came down for this project Gordon Brown [Institute photographer] remarked to Jewell that "Tell Stan that an all American boy will go down there and find the fort on the 4th of July," AND WE DID!! This morning I put Joe Joseph digging on an exploratory trench across Square 23, and I took Square 24, while the others continued sifting for artifacts in the various test squares, and David and Sue Jane explored the island at the mouth of the creek using his catamaran. As we cut our slot trenches looking for the other side of the ditch it soon became apparent that these were no ordinary ditches in width. When mine reached five feet I ran to Joe Joseph's square to tell him the news and he reported the same results with his ditch in square 23. It then became something of a contest to see which of us would find the other side first. We were overjoyed and excited that our ditches have both proved to be far wider than our fondest hopes had anticipated. We had hoped that it would perhaps reveal something of Fort San Felipe, but we had not thought that both ditches would prove to be the moat of the fort! Joe's square 23 ditch proved to be 13.4 feet wide, and mine at Square 24 was 14.7. We dug all morning, and by lunch neither had found the opposite side, but we were quietly contemplative at lunch, both of us thinking of the prospect these wide ditches

Spanish Santa Elenaand FrenchCharlesfort

at right angles to each other offered. After lunch David took up the job of digging across the ditch at Square 243, and finally found the other side. As we went to Joe Joseph's square to tell him the news we found him with a grin a mile wide and a sparkle in his eyes. He too had found the opposite side of his ditch and realized that what we likely had was a moat of a fort. I jokingly remarked that these wide ditches were certainly more than a drainage ditch for the kitchen sink of some citizen of Santa Elena. This was in answer to one of the crew members who asked how I knew that the ditch was from a fort. I could not think of many reasons a private householder or property owner would want to dig a ditch fourteen feet wide! On Tuesday night our interview on Channel 16 (educational channel) regarding the project was broadcast from Beaufort. We tried to get the channel in our motel room but the reception was very poor even though we were only a few miles down the road from Beaufort at Port Royal. We went to the motel operator, a pleasant man from India, and asked if we could try to get it on his T. V. He was surprised that we would want to find that channel rather than the good ones usually received, and said, with a puzzled tone to his voice "Nothing like this has ever happened here before." We have picked up on this phrase among the crew and now, after finding Fort San Felipe on the 4 th of July, 1979, we can indeed say, "Nothing like this has happened here before." After we were convinced that we had major fort ditches we began the job of verifying this by cutting extensions off of Square 31 and 24 to see if we could find the edges there also, which we did. In Square 34 David found that the fill soil was very light, almost appearing not to be fill since no artifacts were seen, such as

301

shell fragments, etc., though a few flecks of charcoal did reveal that the square was indeed disturbed. As David extended his square to explore for the edge of the fort moat, which we were calling the "big ditch," he heard the scrape of something on his shovel blade. His training told him to automatically r e a c h for his trowel before the next blow of the shovel struck the object that was responsible for the noise. As he cleaned offthe object he saw that it was the neck of a Spanish olive jar. The crew came over to see as David cleared it off with a paint brush in preparation for photographing it in situ-the first such object from what we are coming now to call the moat of San Felipe.

Figure 15.1. Stan South cataloging the frrst artifacts recovered from the moat of SpanishFt. San Felipe. (Photo: GordonBrown7/1979) [We continued cutting exploratory slots, following along the edge of the wide ditches we

302 were convinced were the moat of Ft. San Felipe. I transit mapped the slot trenches and the edge of the ditch they revealed.] Tonight I plotted all the transit shots on these squares and ditches and now have accommodated all the data now in hand in [six squares] into a conjectural interpretation of what the disturbances there are trying to tell us about what they represent. The result looks a lot like the moat shown around the fort at Santa Elena in AGI, Mapas y Pianos, Florida y Luisiana 2 (Hoffman 1978, Figure 9), but it is oriented in a different manner. The angles, etc., are what I am interested in here as a guide for speculation in the field as to where to dig the next trench to reveal yet another edge of the moat. This fort is what Hoffman refers to as San Felipe IIB. The excitement over discovery of the fort has overshadowed the continued excavation of the three-foot squares being continued by Helen Haskell, Sue Jane, Jewell, Jim Scurry, Robert, Lara, Darby, Pelham and Mike Harmon. Their work, however, does continue at an excellent rate, and now there are only about 2 or three squares to complete before we all can chase the fort. Tomorrow our main push will be to locate a bastion. Fort San Felipe, "the old fort which was lost" [to the Indians] has been found! As soon as we find a bastion I will call Bob Stephenson, (and Gordon Brown to tell them we did indeed find the fort on the 4 th of July), and then I will call Joe Judge and Paul Hoffman so they can share in the excitement of finding "the old fort that was lost." Friday, July 6, 1979 Began cutting slot trenches to locate points along the ditches to shoot with the transit so that the fort can be mapped. This means going to a depth of 18 inches in areas near or above the moat, to eight

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION inches inside the fort area. We tried to find the southwest bastion but found another ditch paralleling the first one along the west curtain area. We worked in the area of the north moat trying to locate both sides of the ditch and found it in several places ... Scurry is gone now and we missed his good work on the site. David came this afternoon to help chase the fort ditches. Joe Joseph found that the trench in and to the south of Square 24 did not continue toward the west along the southern edge as we had thought. We will check this out tomorrow. David cut a long trench to the east off Square 28 and found the first fibertempered sherds on the site that I am aware of. The only thing we have seen come out o f the fort ditches are Spanish sherds and Indian sherds. Tomorrow we plan to take out a section of the fort to sample for artifact content. We completed digging and sifting the 42 squares and put everyone to cutting slots to check for the positions of the edge of the ditches. Even though the ditches are not developing according to the interpreted drawing I worked out at 5:30 a.m. this morning we still are positive we have the second fort San Felipe though we do not yet know just what the shape is in detail. I contacted Captain Keleman and notified him that I would be announcing something later today on the finding of Ft. San Felipe once we found a bastion. However, by 3:30 we had found a number of details through our slot trenching, but we still lacked needed data for a bastion. I went to Capt. Keleman's office and talked about the discovery and called Bob Stephenson to report on the project. He had talked with Joe Judge who wanted to have a press conference in Washington to announce the find. I called Joe and pointed out that we did not use National Geographic funding, and he said we would

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort definitely get the money for a more complex project either through the Research Committee or via his magazine--National Geographic. I told him I would need to have a by-line for my article for the magazine since such would be based on my work primarily--plus the research by Hoffman. He said, "You've got it!" and congratulated me again for our discovery of the fort and Santa Elena. I am to call him Monday or Tuesday to set a date for Bob and me to go to Washington to have a news conference with the National Geographic and the Marine Corps officials, probably later in the week. I must get a statement typed first regarding our findings. Hopefully the next day will tell the tale. I had wanted to stay until Monday or Tuesday to get the maximum data, with Jewell and the crew going back on Sunday. However, Bob said the Institute could not afford the motel bill, so I will also go back on Sunday. We hope to get more ditch points tomorrow, plus plotting all such points and trenches onto the map, plus backfilling, plus sifting a section of the moat for representative artifacts. I called Paul Hoffman and talked with his wife and told her the news. I called Sammy Lee this morning but failed to get him. Later, when we returned tonight we had a call from him, and he and Bob Parlier are coming down at 7 p.m. to help us tomorrow and Sunday if needed. The least I could do was to let them stay with the other crewmen Joseph and Harmon. Helen Haskell is staying with us on a rollaway bed, so the accommodations are working out o.k. Darby and Pelham left today after having helped greatly on the project.

303 Saturday, July 7, 1979 I began the day at the Huddle House by meeting Bob Parlier and Sammy Lee, who came down from Orangeburg to help today and tomorrow. Their loan of a power screen has been a life saver and time saver on this project, especially when combined with the two from the Institute. We cut more exploratory slots to follow the edge of the fort ditch and have enough points along the edge now to get a good idea o f how the fort appears. We excavated a narrow section through the moat to the bottom and found that it is five feet deep, most definitely a moat. The fort appears to be around 100 by 130 feet, with a moat extending into the creek on the north and south ends along the east at the creek. We noticed that with the high tides we are now having the water would likely have run into the moat at periods of such tides. We will shoot elevations tomorrow on the high tide line to see for sure. [This proved not to be the case, the moat bottom was higher than the high tide line.] We backfilled many of the holes after an hour long rain had caused us to stop work about 3:30. We ate at that time and came back after to backfill. Joe Joseph and Mike Harmon and David South helped with this work, as well as Helen Haskell and Jewell for a few hours before they left for Columbia. Lara and I are staying and will continue backfilling tomorrow with Sammy Lee, Bob Parlier, and David South. I shot all the transit shots on the work we have done and now have the fort ready to be plotted on paper, a good feeling. David and I have had many sessions on the identity o f this fort and find that the first fort San Felipe as well as the second was said to have been in the woods. The first fort, however, was said to have been triangular, which the fort we have found is not. Therefore, it would seem that we

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have found what was referred to as "the old fort which was lost," which was San Felipe II, of 1572 to 1576, though the moat was dug in 1574. I hope Bob Parlier can shoot elevations for a contour map of the fort site since we can still see the depression of the moat on the surface of the ground on the north side of the site. We also want to shoot and plot the location o f the San Marcos fort on the same map as Fort San Felipe. San Marcos on Parris Island now has a companion fort, Fort San Felipe, with a handsome moat. Also the town of Santa Elena was there and further work should reveal more details. The project has been most successful, and has firmly committed funding for future work from the National Geographic Magazine, if not from the Research COmmittee. Riley Macon's grant has paid off handsomely. Tomorrow we backfill and leave for now. But we shall return!

Sunday,July 8, 1979 Backfilled, shot transit, and left for Columbia.

Surprising Recognition--Distinguished Appalachian Alumnus Award While I was involved in the first Santa Elena dig in 1979, I received a phone call from Appalachian University Professor David Hodgin, my sophomore English teacher and inspirational mentor 32 years before. He told me that his wife, Allie, had nominated me the year before to receive Appalachian University's Distinguished Alumnus Award. I was honored and excited to hear that and was very grateful to Mrs. Hodgin for nominating me. However, he explained, there had been competition with other nominees who had given large sums of money to the university, and when my failure to do that was pointed out by one of the committee members, Allie had challenged the

committee. She asked whether the award was given, not for distinguished service to the university, state or nation, but on how much money had been given to Appalachian by an alumnus. A discussion ensued, and I did not receive the award that year. However, in 1979, she had nominated me again, and this time the committee had awarded me that honor, along with another recipient. I was pleased at the honor and Jewell, Robert, Lara and my high school friend, Walt Boone, as well as Alan Albright from SCIAA were present to see me receive that award. That was a nice break from the dig for the trip to Boone, but meanwhile, I go back to the story of the discovery of Fort San Felipe at Santa Elena.

Breaking the Story--the National Geographic Society Press Conference The reporter for the Savannah Morning News who had visited the site during our dig, Bill Whitten, was an acquaintance o f Joe Judge. I had told him I was looking for Spanish Santa Elena so I could convince the National Geographic Committee on Research and Exploration that the site was that of Santa Elena. I told him I had heard that one o f the committee members thought the Parris Island site was a mission site, not Santa Elena. Whitten had called Joe Judge to verify my story and told him I thought I had found the town and Fort San Felipe. He told Joe that he was going to submit the story to appear in the Savannah newspaper. Joe asked that he hold off publishing his article until the morning of the day the Geographic Society made its announcement, and Whitten agreed. When Joe heard from Whitten he immediately called Bob Stephenson, excited about what he had heard. Bob said he hadn't heard from me, but would call the Marines and ask that they get a message to me to call him. Before the Marines got in touch with me, however, I had become convinced that I had found Fort San Felipe and called Bob, as noted in my above log, to inform him of the discovery. Bob said Joe Judge wanted us to go to Washington for the press conference,

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort

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but I told Bob the Geographic had no claim on the discovery because they had turned down my proposal. He told me to call Joe Judge, which I did, and I told him the same thing. That was when Joe said if the Research and Exploration Committee wouldn't fund my proposal then the National Geographic Magazine would. I told him I wanted a byline for an article to appear in the magazine and he said, "You've got it!" I later wrote the story of what we had found there, but Joe thought it was not in the National Geographic Magazine style. I agreed it should appear in National Geographic Research Reports (South 1979f 20: 703-715).

The National Geographic Conference Publicity

Society

Press

Bob and I went to Washington to the press conference held by the National Geographic Socie@ I took the Spanish olive jar neck David had found in the fill of the San Felipe moat, and some photographs of me peeping through it appeared in a number of papers. At that press conference, after Bob had introduced me and I had made my remarks to the large assembled group, General Robert H. Barrow, Commandant of the Marine Corps, (who was there accompanied by two or three generals), stood up and said he had left the SALT talks to attend the press conference because he was once in charge of the base at Parris Island and was interested in our discovery. He said he had played golf on the eighth fairway, adjacent to where we had found the fort, and there was a live oak tree that we could cut down if we wanted to because it stuck out into the fairway, and had collected many of his golf balls hit into its branches. He assured those present that whatever we wanted in the way of security for the site, and cooperation from the Marine Corps, we had it. When I later returned to the site the Marines were more cooperative than they had ever been before, with a security patrol every hour night and day driving around the dig site until they wore a path in the grass. Before that time, the Marines

had said I was allowed to dig beside the 7 th and 8 th fairways, but not to expect any logistical help from them. After General Barrow's comments, all that changed and in the years to follow the Marine Corps and the University of South Carolina have become firm partners in the archaeological research we have carried out on the site of Santa Elena. As a result of the press conference many articles appeared announcing the discovery of Santa Elena and Ft. San Felipe. William H. Whitten's article appeared in The Savannah Morning News on July 12, 1979, entitled '"Spanish Jamestown' Found on Parris Island." Articles also appeared that day in The Columbia Record, and on the following day, John Noble Wilford published an article on the front page of The New York Times, entitled, "16 th Century Spanish Fort Found at Pan'is Island." Articles also appeared in The Washington Post, The Charlotte Observer and many other papers throughout the country as a result of the Geographic press release. My friend, Lionel Forrest, wrote me from Spain telling about a television newscast and an article in a Spanish newspaper that had appeared in Barcelona.

Proof of Santa Elena on Parris Island--My Proposal As a result of the publicity generated through the National Geographic Society about my discovery on Parris Island, my proposal was reconsidered at the next meeting of the Research and Exploration Committee. Joe Judge told me that in an effort to counter the resistance within the committee on funding my proposal, he appeared and spoke on his interest regarding the article he planned to write on the Spaniards in La Florida. The committee voted to fund my $13,500 proposal for work that was carried out in the fall of 1979. In the years to follow, the National Geographic Society also funded two other proposals--my Santa Elena research was off and running. After three years of funding from the National Geographic Society, I was notified that it was

306 time I received grants from other sources--that their seed money should help toward that end. In the years to follow I received grants for Santa Elena from The National Endowment for the Humanities (3 years), The Explorers Club of New York, The National Science Foundation (3 years), The U. S. Marine Corps, The University of South Carolina, The National Geographic Magazine, and the Government of Spain, and the B. J. Gethers Fund, and other donors.

An Unexpected Consequence--a Colleague Sadly Stranded in France Also in the fall of 1979, I was at a party at Leland Ferguson's house. I was telling about how I had received the National Geographic Society grant after Joe Judge had gone to bat for my proposal, telling the committee that if they didn't fund my project the magazine would. Carole Crumley, an archaeologist and professor of anthropology at the University of North Carolina, was at the party. When she heard my story she was flabbergasted. The amount I had received was exactly the amount that had been whisked away from her planned project in France after she had been assured that the main problem remaining was how to transfer the funds to her there. The funding had been suddenly and surprisingly whisked away as she and her crew awaited final word that the committee had awarded her grant. "There we were," she said, "awaiting 'the call' in a bar," ready to celebrate---a call that never came. She later called to find out the cause, and was simply told that she didn't get the funding-no explanation. She was stuck in France with a crew and no money for food. She called her bank in Chapel Hill and arranged a loan by phone to feed her crew, using her Honda Civic as collateral (an arrangement probably not possible with banks today). At Leland's party when she talked with me, it became clear that the funds earmarked for her project had, at the last minute, been granted to me to dig at Santa Elena--at last she had her explanation. She recently told me that through the years since that time, in order to fund her digs, she has "eaten my car" seven times.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Stranded in France--what a disappointment! I apologized for having caused her that crisis, and assured her that "I knew nothing!" about that sudden change in her plans for the summer research in France. Her disappointment was caused by my discovery at Santa Elena--a sad ending to a hopeful dig for her, and a personal expense!

Publishing the Results--a Spanish House Site Is Pinpointed One month after returning from the field I published the results of our one week project, showing the outline of the moat for Ft. San Felipe II, determined through our sample squares and slot trenches (South 1979g: Figure 1, 1980a; Struever 1979: 23). The computer generated artifact-distribution map, using data from the 42 three-foot squares, revealed a concentration of Spanish pottery, fired clay daub and lead balls near the southwest comer of our 90 by 420 foot research frame, 90 feet south of the fort moat (South 1979g: 18-20). This concentration suggested to me that a Spanish household had been located there, calling for another project to explore that area with a block excavation to test this hypothesis. My deferred Geographic proposal was funded and that allowed me to search for the postholes and other related artifacts at the pinpointed site, to be discussed later. The Spanish House Revealed--A Servant's Hut The National Geographic Society grant allowed me to employ Leland Ferguson, Mike Hartley, John Goldsborough and Bryan Watson, assisted by many volunteers, to excavate the area of the Spanish artifact concentration (South 1980b). We found a D-shaped posthole pattern about 12 feet across, for a hut with a central hearth area. The hut had burned, leaving masses of fired clay daub around the postholes, with charcoal-preserved wood in the holes (South 1980b: 9-27). We had found our first structure in Santa Elena!

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort Analysis o f the distribution of artifacts revealed that there was a concentration of pottery fragments and other refuse discarded against the hut on both the north and south sides of the entrance to the house. I had demonstrated this artifact disposal phenomenon at the entrances of Brunswick Town houses, and called it the Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal (South 1977: 47-80, 1980b: 37). The refuse concentration on both sides of the doorway of the hut demonstrated, that sixteenth century Spaniards threw garbage and trash out the doors of their houses against the wall, as did the British colonists in the eighteenth century--a fact not demonstrated before. We also found the outline of a well hole in exploratory trenches cut south of the hut site (South 1980b: Figure 25). I resolved to retum to excavate this well at a later date. Ft. San Marcos, the fort explored by Major Osterhout in 1923, was sampled. I found several trenches and palisade posts in place (South 1980b: 73). Our work there revealed that this fort had not been severely damaged by Osterhout, and much data remained to be revealed. In one of my squares I found one o f his white-painted stakes used to lay out the neat trenches he had cut in 1923. The intact data remaining in the ground increased my desire to retum there at some later time to explore this fort more fully. One of our findings in Ft. San Marcos was that when the fortification ditch was dug by the Spaniards the water table was far lower in the sixteenth century than when we did our work, suggesting sea-level rise as an explanation (Brooks 1980: 148; South 1980d).

Deep Water and High Ground--Using Maps to Locate Seventeenth Century Sites In 1975 I wrote a preliminary plan for locating sites using seventeenth century maps as a guide (South 1975d). I submitted a proposal to the South Carolina Department of Archives and History through the National Historic Preservation Act by way of the U. S. Department o f the Interior (South and Hartley 1980). I was funded and in

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Figure 15.2. Top: Detail of the 1695 Thornton-Morden Map showing the location of five sites. Bottom: Detailof the James Island U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey map showing the area where the sites were found in the deep water and high ground survey. (Photo: South 5/1980)

the summer of 1980, Mike Hartley and I undertook the project in addition to the Santa Elena research I was involved in.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

My idea was, because the deepwater channels in the colonial era afforded access to high ground by ocean-going vessels, it seemed to me that the dwelling sites shown on the 1685 and 1695 maps would be located on high ground. To test this colonial settlement pattern hypothesis I proposed "A Pilot Study for the Location of Certain Seventeenth Century Sites in Charleston County South Carolina (South 1978g). Mike Hartley and I, assisted by Michael Hartley, Jr., and Robert and Lara South, undertook the study by visiting the sites shown on the 1685 Maurice Mathews Map and the 1695 Thornton-Morden Map (South and Hartley 1980: Figure 8, 1985: Figure 14.4). We found a correlation between those maps and the USGS maps of the present day. We were excited when we began to discover, that when we found the location of one of the sites using the maps, we would also find North Devon Gravel Tempered Ware and combed yellow slipware from ~the seventeenth century. As a result of our surface survey, we found a high correlation existed between the artifacts recovered and deep water and high ground (South and Hartley 1980: 31-35, 1985: 263-286). This correlation between the maps and the location of seventeenth century sites as revealed by artifacts, indicated to me that the "deep water and high ground" predictive model, was a valid observation about the past.

On the final day of the survey we were driving back from Edisto Island to Columbia, and we stopped for me to make a phone call to see how Jewell was feeling after a biopsy of her liver. She said she was told it looked cancerous, but they would know for sure later on after the analysis was complete. That bad news cast a pall over the cab of the truck, where minutes before I had had hope that the result would be negative. However, I now knew that Jewell would soon die. When I got home I called David, who was in research at Auburn University, and he came to be with Jewell and await the word from the biopsy. When the time came, David and I went to the hospital, and learned that her liver was cancerous, and that she had only about three weeks to live--a prediction exactly correct, as it turned out. She was on the eighth floor of the hospital, the floor devoted to terminal cancer patients, when Marjorie Idol visited her. Jewell was lying in bed in a drowsy state, when someone in the hall dropped a bedpan. Marjorie, without thinking, said, "Uh oh! Somebody kicked the bucket!"--then suddenly regretted having said that old clichr. Jewell opened her eyes, and with a little mischievous smile at Margie, said, "That's what this floor is for, isn't it?" They had a good laughing-cry together as Margie hugged Jewell a final goodbye.

Deep Sorrow and Great Loss In August 1979, before our project began in April 1980, Jewell began to periodically have an aggravating cough, which we thought was some kind of bronchial infection. She took various cough medicines, in the hope that it would soon go away. Months wore on, and finally, in January 1980, she went to the doctor, and found that there was a tumor growing in one of her lungs. The surgeon operated and removed the lung, which was cancerous. She returned home from the hospital, and by April, when our seventeenth century coastal site-survey was to begin, she insisted I go into the field rather than stay in Columbia to be near her. So, Mike Hartley and I undertook the survey.

A Broken Heart--and Mechanical Repair One day in 1980 when Jewell was in the hospital, I was just getting ready to enter her room when the door opened and her doctor, Stephen Lloyd, came out. I asked him about her prognosis. Without answering he asked me why I was panting and I replied that I had just come up the steps to the first floor of the hospital. He was my doctor also, and he said those few steps should not have caused that loss of breath and said he wanted to put me in the hospital immediately. I told him I had to leave town the next day for a talk. He said if I wouldn't cancel the talk he wanted me in the hospital the following day. When the tests were done, it was found that my heart arteries were 90% blocked and

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort scheduled my open-heart surgery for the following Thursday, but I would be monitored over that weekend. On Monday the doctor said the results were such that the day for my surgery had been moved up to Tuesday for fear a heart attack was imminent. I had felt nothing but a little shortness of breath. The operation went off well, with five by-pass tubes being installed using veins stripped from both legs below the knee. I was told that they had bought me at least four more years of life. Sadly, the news was not that good for Jewell. She and I were both hospitalized, until I was up and back at work a week later, and into the routine of visiting Jewell in her room. On one of those visits as I sat quietly beside her bed she said, "I'11 give you six months." I asked her, "To do what?" She smiled and said, "To get married again." I said, "Oh no! It will be far longer than that, if ever." The end came on June 22, 1980. She donated her body to science. The next day Lara and Robert and I took the camper and went to the beach for a week to try to bridge the gap between our past with Jewell and the future without her, and to begin the healing process in a different environment than our home where we had known so much j o y with her. She had been very close to David, Robert and Lara, raising them virtually alone while I did my archaeological thing with things. Her death was a great blow, particularly to Robert and Lara--who once truthfully said that I had seemed to her as some guy who came by to eat with them and then went away. Jewell had been their parent and constant companion. I was a stranger there. With her death, a new era in our lives had begun. A New Marriage and a New Family Jewell had predicted I would soon marry again and by the following year, 1981, I was married to Linda Hunter who had two children, Christy and Brent. I had gone to my dentist for some tooth repair and as usual I had my eyes shut while he worked. When the doctor stepped away for a moment I felt a pressure on my chest from someone leaning on me. I opened my eyes and looked into those of Linda a few inches away.

309 "Hello, I ' m Linda," she said sweetly, and I took it from there. We were married on top of Howard's Knob above Boone. Soon after, with Robert and Lara South, and Linda, Christy, and Brent Hunter we traveled to Beaufort, where I dug at Santa Elena while Linda and the kids enjoyed each day at the Hunting Island beach. Life had changed, but we adapted and it went on for us. An Echo from the War in Italy - - Mussolini My new father-in-law, Walter Richter, had been in the U. S. Army as it fought its way through Italy during World War II. When he reached Milan, in April 1945, he saw the bodies of Mussolini and others, killed by Italian partisans, hanging upside down in the piazza. He took a picture and allowed me to make a copy of this dramatic moment in history. Each time we talked, I heard more about his role in the war. Revealing Santa E l e n a - - M o r e Houses Found After my marriage to Linda, my obsession for escape into my work continued. Following the "Deep Water and High Ground" project, I obtained another National Geographic Society grant and returned to Santa Elena to open a larger "Doorway to the Past." This focused on an "L"shaped block of 127 five-foot squares positioned where our computer revealed the greatest density of Spanish artifacts to be located. In this block we found postholes for three rectangular Spanish structures, along with large quantities of artifacts from features within, and adjacent to, those structures (South 1982a, 1985a). One feature contained large fragments of a Santo Domingo Blue on White majolica bowl. I took a picture of Joe Joseph excavating the feature. A female magazine reporter appeared and also took pictures of him. She remarked that Joe had the most beautiful legs she had ever seen on a man. The crew got a big kick out of that comment, but refrained from saddling him with a "Joe Legs " nickname. The structural evidence and the artifact-filled features we found, were beginning to reveal details of Spanish Santa Elena.

310

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION In addition to the large "L-shaped" block excavation, we also excavated the well we had discovered in another area in the previous field project. We found a beautiful barrel in the bottom having iron and wooden bands interwoven with the basketry withes still intact after four centuries beneath water. This discovery raised the question as to how we could remove the barrel from the earth without it collapsing and being reduced to a group of loose staves. My brother-in-law, John Idol, Jr., an English professor at Clemson University, suggested I use plastic water-hose coiled inside the barrel to put a slight outward pressure to prevent this from happening. I thought that was an excellent idea and purchased hose for that purpose.

Figure 15.3. Joe Joseph displayingSpanishSantoDomingo Blue on White majolicaand his legs. (Photo: South 1981)

A Spanish Barrel Is Recovered

Figure 15.5. The Spanish barrel in the conservationtank awaiting the process that failed to preserve it. (Photo: South 1981) Figure 15.4. Stan South and MichaelHartley (in the barrel) preparing to support it using plastic hose to keep the barrel from collapsing inward. (Photo: Copyright David L. Brill from National Geographic: Judge 1988: 341).

First we excavated the interior of the barrel, where we found melon seeds, hickory nuts, roach egg cases, leaves and other organic material (South 1996b: 52-53). Then we dug around the

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort outside of the barrel into the subsoil surrounding it to allow access to it. Mike Hartley climbed down inside the barrel and coiled the plastic hose into place, providing support for the staves. I obtained an old gasoline tank and had the end cut out, then we set the barrel into the tank as a means of keeping it wet during transport to Columbia to the conservation laboratory. With the water-filled tank on a truck, the Marine Corps officials brought a crane to the site and fastened it to the metal lifting frame I had built around the barrel. It was then lifted out of the hole and lowered into the tank. A photograph of Mike and me placing the plastic hose in position appeared in The National Geographic Magazine (Judge 1988: 341; see also South 1979f: 712, South 1982a: 111126, South 1996b: 27). My hope was that after that careful removal process the barrel would be safe in the hands o f conservators. However, after decades o f sitting in w/iter, with conservators shaking their heads over 'what to do with it, it was turned over to yet another conservator at the South Carolina State Museum. The water in the tank evaporated and the barrel dried out, whereupon, it shortly went to pieces. Needless to say, this and other experiences with conservators through the years have left me highly skeptical of our ability to preserve such complex artifacts. It broke my heart when I was informed that the careful efforts I had made to transport this wonderful barrel from its safe location below the water table to the conservation laboratory had not been matched by similar careful treatment there. I expected it would be preserved intact in perpetuity. However, the "conservation" had resulted in the same pile o f staves, fragments o f dried-up woven withes that would have been the case had I simply removed the barrel and allowed it to dry out decades before when it was first discovered. Since that time we have exposed a number of Spanish barrels. I have measured them, photographed them, a n d left them where they have been preserved for 400 years. That is a much better option than allowing them to be

311 destroyed by the lack of knowledge and ability of conservators who haven't yet gotten their act together! If that takes place at some future time, archaeologists can re-locate and remove those barrels, and have them safely conserved for research, education and display purposes.

Sampling a Broader Area Using 20 by 30 Foot Excavation Blocks--A Bad Idea The National Geographic Society funded a third project at Santa Elena in 1982. I had the bright idea that rather than opening a large block as I had done in the prior season, I would excavate four 20- by 30-foot blocks spread over a broader area and thus use that size block as a sampling as well as a feature-revealing method. As it turned out that was not a great idea.

Figure 15.6. Michael Hartley and Stan South examining features revealed in one of the small 20 by 30 foot excavationareas of Santa Elena beneath the eighth tee of the Parris Island Golf Course. (Photo: Bill Hunt I982) When the blocks were excavated, we had discovered no additional structures, and then it occurred to me that even if I had found a few

312 postholes in any one o f the units of that size, the likelihood o f being able to delineate a Spanish house in such a small area was virtually nil (South 1983). I learned little more from a sampling viewpoint than I would have learned had I placed a number of three-foot squares over the same area. Thereafter I would stick to large excavation blocks to reveal more effectively various parts o f Santa Elena (DePratter and South 1995: 82). For the 1982 field season, I had submitted a proposal to the National Geographic Society for the project mentioned above, and another one to the National Endowment for the Humanities to excavate the northwest bastion of Fort San Felipe, thinking that I might receive one or the other grant. To my surprise I received both. They had to be carried out using different blocks of time, so that summer we dug from spring into f a l l - straight through the hot South Carolina summer. We suffered some from the summer heat, but breezbs from the Beaufort River and Port Royal Sound helped us to endure it as we dug. Bill Hunt, in fact, enjoyed the heat and was an inspiration to the others in the crew to keep quiet about their discomfort. One day as we were leaving the site we saw a black flag flying at the Marine Corps obstacle course, where we usually saw recruits undergoing the torture o f the various challenges they faced. We later discovered that when the weather was too hot, the black flag was flown to wam the drill instructors to take the recruits back to the barracks and out of the heat. We didn't have a black flag and we didn't miss a day's work due to heat all summer!

The Northwest Bastion of Ft. San Felipe-Native American Revenge The 1982 project at the northwest bastion o f Ft. San Felipe involved excavating the moat in ten-foot wide units--two workers to a unit. As time went on, a competition between the teams developed, to see which would have dug to the deepest level by the end o f the day. John Goldsborough and his partner often lost that competition, and I would kid that team to get with it. It wasn't until the end of the dig when we were

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Figure 15. 7. A view of the northwest bastion of Ft. San Felipe. (Photo: Bill Hunt 1982)

celebrating with pitchers o f beer at the eighteenth century tabby-built John Cross Tavern in Beaufort, that the cause o f that problem came out. Some of the crew opened up and told me that John's partner would often walk away from digging when I was in the golf course clubhouse drafting on the map, leaving John to dig alone. I asked why they hadn't spoken up before, but they just shrugged, saying they didn't want to get anyone in trouble. When I later confronted John's partner with what the crew had said, he said they had spoken the truth, and that he wouldn't sign up for the project again. Native Americans burned the northwest bastion of Ft. San Felipe in 1576. We found abundant evidence for that in the form of charcoal timbers from the bastion wall that had held back the sand fill inside the elevated bastion. As the timbers burned and gave way, they collapsed into the moat, releasing the sand inside the bastion, which was scorched as it fell onto the buming retaining wall (South 1983: Figures 17 and 21). In the bottom o f the moat, in one place, we found a cluster of musket balls, which I interpreted as a pouch holding them having been dropped in the

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort moat four hundred years before (South 1983: Figure 20). When the excavation of the northwest bastion was completed, I asked the U. S. Marine Corps for funding to stabilize it so visitors to Santa Elena could view its shape and size and get a feeling for the scale of the fort. Funding was provided and the moat was partially backfilled and the edges were contoured to accommodate maintenance through grass cutting (South 1983: 81). Digging on a Golf Course---A Hazard For Golfers and Archaeologists As we dug near the 8 th tee of the Parris Island Golf Course on our various projects, sliced balls would often whiz by our heads. Sometimes I had to park our truck beside the excavation area to deflect errant balls flying into our rough and protect the crew from the incoming fire. One ball ricocheted around in a large live oak tree then came to rest on one of the large limbs. My crew watched as the golfer beat the grass beneath the limb looking for his ball. Then, it rolled off the limb and hit him on the shoulder. I thought this was one for the Guiness Book of Worlds Records--"Hit by his own drive!" When we had the moat of the northwest bastion of Ft. San Felipe open and cleaned for a photograph, I was standing on top of the station wagon with the camera in m y hand. Suddenly, a golf ball came bouncing through the rough beneath the oak trees and landed in the bottom of the moat. Before I could give orders for someone to try to get the ball out without leaving footprints in the sand in the bottom of the moat, a golfer showed up and saw the ball some six feet below him. He yelled to his partner, "Here it is!" and suddenly sprang out into space, hitting with a thud on the bottom of the moat--reached down and picked up the ball and threw it toward his partner beneath an oak tree, yelling, "I'11 have to take a stroke on that one!" Then he scrambled up the side of the excavated moat, leaving scars and footprints in the sand. He was totally oblivious that he had just leaped into a 400 year old Spanish

313 fort moat without so much as a by-your-leave to those of standing around with our mouths open watching the spectacle. Thus golf becomes as obsessive for some as archaeology does for others.

Visitors from Spain Bearing a Gift On Columbus Day, October 12, 1982, Santa Elena was visited by 47 members of the Orden del Tercio Viejo de la Armada Real del Mar Oceano (The Old Tercio of the Ocean Sea of the Spanish Royal Navy), accompanied by their ladies. This regiment, established in 1537, is the oldest Marine Infantry in the world. It was reactivated by King Juan Carlos o f Spain as a ceremonial "Order of the Ocean Sea" to commemorate Spain's long history of Marine Infantry actions in world exploration. The visit was part of the celebration of the decade long Columbian Quincentennial. They stood, poised with the cannon they brought with them, banners waving proudly, on the original bastion of Ft. San Felipe built by their ancestors more than four centuries earlier. As I watched the group appeared like ghosts emerging from the soil of Santa Elena. The Spanish Ambassador attended that event, and as he looked at a large green-glazed earthenware labrillo sherd recovered at Santa Elena, from a vessel as large as a bicycle wheel, (the size of the galvanized tub I took baths in as a child, in our kitchen), he said, "Oh yes, I know that vessel." I asked him how he knew it, and he replied that they were still being made in Andalusia in northem Spain. I asked him what they were used for, and he said to take baths and many other uses where a large tub was needed. I was interested to learn that the same form was still being made in Spain today. One of those I met was related to the founder of Santa Elena. Later, I heard he was killed in the unsuccessful coup to overthrow Juan Carlos. The group, under the leadership of Pascual Barberan Daza, the Gran Maestre, brought with them, and presented tO the Santa Elena site, a series of blue on white tiles on which, printed in Spanish and English, was the following:

314 IN RESPECTFVL TRIBVTE TO THE MEMORY OF THOSE SPANIARDSWHO LEFT THEIR MARK HERE BETWEEN 1566 AND 1587 WHEN IN QVEST OF THEIR COV'NTRY'S GLORY AND IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION TO THE DISTINGVISHED AMERICANS WHO TODAY WITH THEIR WORK PAY HOMAGE TO THE MEMORY OF THOSE HEROES AND THE HISTORY SHARED BY THE TWO NATIONS, SPAIN AND THE VNITED STATES OF AMERICA. LOS CABALLEROSDE LA ORDEN DEL MAR OCEANO SANTA ELENA 12 OF OCTVBRE DE 1982 DIA DE LA HISPANIDAD HISPANIC HERITAGE DAY These tiles required a monument of some kind to allow the message on them to become a permanent display on the Santa Elena site. Bruce Rippeteau, SCIAA Director, obtained a grant of $20,000 to be used for that purpose. I thought that was a great deal of money, having envisioned a small brick base on which the tile message could be seen by visitors standing before it. Contracts were let and a plan for a 10-foot high wall with flanking wings was designed to hold the tile message. When the contract for construction of the design was let out on bids, the cost was far more than remained in the budget for the monument, so corners had to be cut. Rather than going through the design process again, it was decided that the monument should be made of fiberglass over a wooden framework. When the monument was completed Bruce held a banquet on the Marine Base to acknowledge our research at Parris Island, to which dignitaries from the University and the Marine Corps were invited. After some years had passed there were holes kicked through the fiberglass by those curious about the hollow sound emerging when the monument was tapped. By this time it began to look shoddy and the Marine Corps officials began to look askance at the appearance of the monument erected by the University. This concern resulted in Federal funds becoming available through the Marine Corps to redesign it, this time constructing it o f brick, adding buttresses on the back of the wall to support it in

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION hurricane winds, and using the four walls to hold displays to tell the story of Santa Elena and the work we were doing there.

A Grant from the Spanish Government--A "Token Of Spanish Gratitude" As a result of the interest generated by the visit of the reenactment group from Spain, I wrote a letter to the Spanish Ambassador requesting funding for further research at Santa Elena. In 1985, the Spanish Ambassador to the United States, Gabriel Maneuco de Lecca, in reply to my proposal to the Spanish Government through the Embassy, presented University of South Carolina president, James Holderman, a check for $10,000. I knew nothing of the ambassador's visit, because the reply to my proposal had gone to President Holderman's office. My first knowledge of the success of my proposal was when I read about it in the local newspaper (The State, March 28, 1985: C2), which announced, the "token of Spanish gratitude" had been presented to President Holderman. I was eventually notified and learned that The National Endowment for the Humanities would match the Spanish government grant, but needed a proposal for their $10,000. matching fimds. I proposed a historical database based on translation and transcription of sixteenth century documents related to Santa Elena to enrich the research capability of the Santa Elena Project. Eugene Lyon carried out this historical project in the years to follow, revealing new information in addition to his previously published account of the history of the town and its people (Lyon 1984). An African American Cemetery North of Ft. San Felipe--Burned Beads In one of the ten-foot excavation units in the moat we found a pit filled with 3,481 glass beads from a period of time long after the fort moat had filled up with sand. Bead experts interpreted these beads as dating from the sixteenth to mideighteenth century. However, I think they relate to the plantation period African American cemetery located just north of the bastion, dating

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort

Figure 15.8. StartSouth excavating the burned glass beads found in a pit thought to have been associated with a nearby African American grave. (Photo: Bill Hunt 1982)

from the eighteenth to nineteenth century (South 1983: 75, 1996b: 83-86). This pit in which beads were cremated was the first o f three we were to discover, one containing an eighteenth century pipestem. In addition to the bead pit we found the outlines of two of the burials near the bastion, in the fill of one in which a glass tumbler, filled with residue of a medicine, had been placed upside d o w n - - a practice identified with African American burials in South Carolina (Combes 1974: 52-61). Nearby was a single 1909 tombstone of a four year old child, indicating the presence of a cemetery that was used at least that late, but a local informant indicated that it was used much later (South 1983: 75, 1996: 84). As a result of the cremated beads in the pit my research led me to an interpretive story, which I quote here (South 1996: 86): The area of Beaufort, South Carolina, the nearest settlement to Parris Island, is a place where African beliefs are still prevalent today and where root men still practice their art. Nearby is the Africanmodeled Yoruba ceremonial center,

315 Oyotunji, where a series of festivals honoring a pantheon of gods is held throughout the year under the leadership o f King Oba Oseijeman Adefumi I, who was very helpful in providing information on voodoo beliefs. I learned from this very erudite man that some African funerals involve two ceremonies, one when the physical body is buried and a second one when material goods are burned so they can accompany the soul to the spirit world. Beads are a status symbol among Yoruba believers and are among the items burned after the death of an individual. Many Yoruba slaves were brought to South Carolina. It might well be that this practice of burning material possessions is responsible for the burned beads in the pits I found. I learned that blue, white, and coral beads are the colors of Olokun, the Yoruba god o f the deep sea, similar to Neptune, and that beads o f that color were also symbolic of Yemoja, goddess of the Ogun River at Abeokuta, the holy city of Yemoja, and that chiefs or persons of title and royalty wore several strings of such beads. The blue, white, and coral beads I found may well relate to African American beliefs. Because African Americans lived on Parris Island for over two hundred years, the finding of cemeteries and ritual objects comes as no surprise.

Searching for More of Santa Elena--Finding More African American Graves The 1982 National Geographic Society grant included a plan to excavate a 1% sample of an area extending 450 feet north of Ft. San Felipe by excavating a series o f 3-foot squares. That was done in order to sample more of the remains of Santa Elena to determine how far the town extended in that direction. What I found was that the two African American graves we had found near the fort bastion were on the southern edge of

316 a cemetery extending 250 feet toward the north. Our small sample located 12 graves, suggesting that if the entire area were excavated, hundreds of burials would be found. Two decades after my discovery o f the glass bead pits and the two burial pit outlines, I would become tangentially involved in a project, led by Chester DePratter and Jim Legg, to survey and locate all African American cemeteries on Parris Island (DePratter and Legg 2000, 200 I, DePratter, Legg, and South 2002). A Distinguished Visitor to Santa E l e n a - Senator Strom Thurmond When I was digging at the northwest bastion of Ft. San Felipe in 1982, a Marine Corps officer showed up and said Senator Strom Thurmond had notified the Commanding General that he had heard about my excavation o f Santa Elena and when he arrived for an inspection tour of the Parris Island base, he wanted to visit the dig. Arrangements were made for me to meet the Senator at the parking lot with a golf cart and escort him to the dig site at the northwest bastion.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION my junior. He laughed, and reminded me that his wife was also many years younger than he was. I drove him in the golf cart to the northwest bastion area, where I gave him a tour of what we were doing there, while the generals and colonels stood aside in a formal parade rest row. When he returned to Washington I received a letter from the Senator thanking me for my tour of Santa Elena, and saying he was going to read into the Congressional Record, a statement about the work we were doing at Santa Elena. That statement appeared following one by Senator Percy saying he had reluctantly voted to sustain President Reagan's veto of the supplemental appropriations bill, saying: "I do not, for example, think we need all o f the military spending originally requested by the President." This was followed by Senator Strom Thurmond's two and one-half pages on "Historic Beaufort, S. C.," during which he said (Congressional Record, September 10, 1982:11275): Mr. President, the people of Beaufort can take great pride in the history of this fine port city. Researchers from the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of South Carolina have given the citizens of Beaufort County even more reason to be proud of this historic area. Three years ago, these researchers began an excavation project to uncover the lost city of Santa Elena. This was followed by a short history of the forts at Santa Elena and another statement about our research there (p. 11276):

Figure 15.9. U. S. Senator Strom Thurmond and Stan South at the northwest bastion of Spanish Ft. San Felipe. (Photo: Bill Hunt 1983) When I was introduced to the Senator, who was accompanied by Marine Corps generals, colonels and others, I mentioned that he and I had something in common. When he asked what that was, I told him that my wife, Linda, was 23 years

Researchers continue to work diligently to find the entire settlement. They have made great strides so far, and are to be commended for their outstanding work. I look forward to hearing more about their findings and am excited about the prospects o f their search.

Spanish SantaElenaand FrenchCharlesfort This was a welcomed and unexpected public relations bonus emerging from Senator Strom Thurmond's visit to Santa Elena. Now, as I write this summary of his visit on December 5, 2002, President George W. Bush, the Congress of the United States, and others celebrate Thurmond's 100th birthday. He was the oldest Senator ever to serve in the U. S. Senate. And, as I edit this, June 27, 2003, I learn that the famous South Carolina Senator has died.

317

The Interior of Ft. San Felipe--A Casa Fuerte and Wells From 1983 to1985 I received three grants from the National Science Foundation for excavation and artifact analysis of the area inside Ft. San Felipe. There I found two wells, a ditch, and postholes for a large 50 by 70 foot structure I interpreted as a fortified house, or casa fuerte (South 1984a, 1985b). The archaeological crew posed for a picture in the excavated ditch of the casa fuerte.

Figure 15.10. The Ft. San Felipe crew sitting on the edge of the casa fuerte ditch, with the profile of the "Pre-casa fuerte'" (Charlesfort) ditch behind Stan South. Fromleft to right: Bill Hunt, Gary Shapiro, John Goldsborough,SusanJackson, Mike Harmon and Ken Sassaman. (Photo: RichardPolhemus 1982)

318

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION DePratter would suggest that the "pre-fort" ditch I had found was part of Charlesfort, dug by Jean Ribault's Frenchmen in 1562--but more on that later.

Discovering Santa Elena West of Ft. San Felipe---a Spanish House Search Through a 1985 grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a sampling of the area of the eighth fairway of the Parris Island Golf Course was undertaken. Bill Hunt and Guy Prentice carried out the sampling scheme. Previous sampling of the area had indicated a concentration of fired clay daub, suggesting a Spanish house may have been located on the west edge of the eighth hole of the golf course. A block excavation in that area revealed some postholes and other features, including a burned bead pit containing an eighteenth century tobacco pipe stem. The area opened was not large enough to determine the size of the structure once located in that area (South and Hunt 1986).

Figure 15.11. Charles Fairbanks and Stan South discussing the features revealed in Ft. San Felipe. (Photo: Bill Hunt)

I was pleased to have famous historical archaeologist, Charles Fairbanks visit the site to view the Ft. San Felipe archaeology underway and offer his advice. I discovered that postholes for the casa fuerte intruded into a moat-like ditch dug and backfilled before the Spaniards built Ft. San Felipe. In that ditch, was a deposit of oystershell midden discarded there when the ditch was open. Who would have dug such a ditch before the Spaniards? It occurred to me that it might have been the French, who built Charlesfort in 1562, four years before the Spaniards arrived at Santa Elena. However, I had no other corroboration for that theory. I called that ditch "the pre-fort moatlike ditch," and interpreted it as a ditch dug by Spaniards (South 1984a: 45-46, Figures 24 and 25). Over a decade later, my colleague Chester

A Broad Research Plan for Mulberry Mound and the Wateree Valley As I continued my work at Santa Elena, Chester DePratter was employed by the Department of Anthropology at the University of South Carolina to teach and conduct a field school at the Mississippian mound and village site known as Mulberry in Camden, where other field schools had been conducted for 10 years. He took a student crew to Mulberry, and in the process of examining the results of previous field school discovered that, given the short field season for training the students in methodology, and the fact that the site was extensive, many basic questions remained-- how many mounds were there at the site, how large was the site, what time period was involved in its occupation by Native Americans, and what ceramic sequence had been revealed. Answers to these questions were unknown. Chester's plan was to address these questions by site surveying to identify small Mississippian village sites in the Wateree Valley and adjacent drainages. He planned to conduct test excavations

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort on those sites showing promise for addressing settlement pattern, chronology, and ceramic sequence. With this information, a systematic survey of the Mulberry site could be undertaken and that knowledge applied to that larger mound complex. The area he wanted to explore had been visited by DeSoto and Pardo in the sixteenth century, adding an additional possibility for the presence of Spanish trade goods at a site. By working on a number of such sites over time, with this broad research strategy, Chester thought he would be better able to address the large site at Mulberry with a better understanding of the development of Native American cultures in the Wateree Valley. As it turned out, he was not able to pursue his more generalized approach to the Wateree Valley research.

An Anonymous Donor to the Rescue While the dialogue on the direction of the Wateree Valley archaeological research was underway within the Department of Anthropology, an anonymous donor gave $200,000 to the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, specifically earmarked for supporting Chester's research. In 1984, Chester had come to U. S. C. with a joint appointment for half-time research at SCIAA, and half-time teaching in the Department. Later, Chester resigned from the Department and since 1986, through Bruce Rippeteau, director, he has been pursuing research at SCIAA. In 1989, Chester became full-time with SCIAA and agreed to join me in research at Spanish Santa Elena, and my 1973 desire to work with him was realized. A Trip to Spain to Visit the King--an "Encounter of Two Worlds" As one of Spain's Quincentennial events, a group of university professors involved in Spanish-colonial research were invited, in the spring of 1988, to become part of the cultural project "The Importance of the Encounter of Two Worlds," through the "Columbus Line" (Tuero 1988). We were asked to present a paper on our

319 research--mine being, "Discovery At Santa Elena: Capital of Spanish Florida." By that time, I was divorced from my young wife, Linda, and was living back at my home in Columbia. I was excited about the two-week all-expense paid trip for a companion, and myself, so I invited my fianc6, Janet Reddy, to go with me. In the summer before the October trip, I was attending a faculty reception at the home of U.S.C. President, James Holderman. I mentioned to him that I had been invited to present a paper in Spain, and he told me he had invited the king of Spain, Don Juan Carlos, to visit the University of South Carolina but had yet to receive a reply. He may have done this when Ambassador Maneuco De Lecca had presented him with the check in answer to my proposal to the Spanish Government. Then he jokingly said, "When you see the king remind him of my invitation." We both laughed at that idea. When we arrived in Spain, I was glad to see colleagues Kathy Deagan, Gene Lyon, and Paul Hoffman, all specialists in Spanish colonial research who were familiar with my Santa Elena research. Throughout our visit, Gene Lyon willingly acted as interpreter for Janet and me, for which we were very grateful. One evening the group was told we were to meet at the bus to be taken to a reception given by the mayor of Madrid. When we arrived we were kept waiting for some time in an anteroom. Then a spokesman arrived and told us that we would be given an opportunity to meet King Juan Carlos. This was a pleasant surprise for us, and we were ushered into the room where drinks and tapias were served. Shortly after, as we stood around being treated with those libations, Janet and I noticed that no one was talking to Juan Carlos at the moment. We went over to him, introduced ourselves, and struck up a conversation about my work at Santa Elena, and Janet's work as a Psychological Career Counselor. Remembering what President Holderman had told me, I reminded the king about the invitation I understood had been sent to him to visit the University of South Carolina. He

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

looked puzzled and replied he didn't remember such an invitation, so I invited him. He smiled and replied something to the effect that he didn't get to the United States that often, and we both laughed at that. Then I asked if I might take his picture with Janet, which I did. The next day I sent a postcard to President Holderman and told him that I did, indeed, meet Juan Carlos, but that he hadn't remembered the invitation.

Matching Archaeology with Interpretation and Synthesis

History--

By 1988, I was to a point where it was time to pull together a volume illustrating the artifacts recovered from Santa Elena in the previous decade. This 472-page presentation of artifacts was designed as a visual presentation of the Spanish artifacts compared with documentation of those artifacts from references and paintings of the sixteenth century. I was assisted in this major effort by contributions from Eugene Lyon, Richard Polhemus, William Radish and Carl Steen. Chester DePratter, as usual, assisted me throughout that project. Russell Skowronek and Richard Johnson worked long and hard on the analysis of the Spanish ceramics (South, Skowronek and Johnson 1988). That year my chapter on "Santa Elena: Threshold of Conquest" appeared in The Recovery of Meaning, Edited by Mark Leone and Parker B. Potter, Jr. (South 1988a: 27-71), and my article, "Project Description and Goals in Proposals and Research Design: The Santa Elena Example" was submitted to a journal, but was not published (South 1988b). In another article, "Whither Pattern?" in Historical Archaeology (South 1988c 22: 25-28), I complained that the pattern recognition method I had emphasized, unfortunately, had become an end in itself rather than a means toward explanation of the process represented by the pattern--becoming a crutch rather than the explanatory tool I had envisioned. In "From Archaeology to Interpretation at Charles Towne," (South 1989c:157-168), I illustrated 28 views of archaeology carried out at the 1670-1680 Charles Towne site I had dug 30

years before and that subsequently appeared in my book on historic site development (South 2002b). In that article, I emphasized the importance of moving from simply digging and describing to interpreting what was found for the public through historic site development. That same year I also had an article on "Discovery at Santa Elena" published in Italian (South 1988d: 33-36). The long-plannedNational Geographic article, by Joe Judge, Senior Associate Editor of the magazine, containing beautiful photographs of fieldwork and artifacts from Santa Elena, was also published that year (Judge 1988: 340-347). This article, "Exploring Our Forgotten Century," was the one he was researching when he first met with Bob Stephenson and me in Charleston ten years before to suggest we conduct research at Santa Elena to recover information of value for the article. In that article are illustrated many artifacts and interpretive paintings based on them, along with a shot of Mike Hartley and me preparing the Spanish barrel to be removed from the ground. In a double-page spread of an interpretive painting of a religious procession at Santa Elena, you can see sand-colored smudges along the pathway. These came when Joe Judge sent me copies of these paintings to review before publication and I saw that the pathway was strewn with glacial boulders, such as one might see in the northern states--not in the sandy soil at Santa Elena. I pointed out to Joe that anyone familiar with the sandy soil of coastal Carolina would know that no glacial boulders are to be found there. He quickly called the artist and asked him to delete the stones from the painting, the result being smudges along the pathway (Judge 1988: 343).

An Impressive Spanish House Ruin--the Gutierre de Miranda Lot In 1989, Chester DePratter and I undertook to attempt to locate 1562 French Charlesfort on the next point of land north of Santa Elena, but I will report on that later on. That was, however, the beginning of our working together to learn about

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort Spanish Santa Elena's past. He was chairman of the Columbian Quincentennial Commission of South Carolina. Through grants from the Archaeological Research Trust at SCIAA, the R. L. Stephenson Archaeological Research Fund, and the South Carolina Humanities Council, Chester and I were able to return and conduct block excavations at Santa Elena in 1991 and 1992. Assisted by Carl Steen, we used a Gradall to systematically strip the plowed soil zone from the block excavation units by 10-foot squares (South 2002e [1998]:37-42), and what we found was an impressive set of postholes for a building that had been heavily plastered with oystershell m o r t a r - the most impressive structural remains yet discovered in the town (South 1996: 76, 90). Carl Steen produced an impressive Symap printout of the recovered data, dramatically revealing the concentration of daub, plaster and Spanish artifacts at the house site. The most impressive artiffict from these two block excavations was the reco~cery o f a Santo Domingo Blue on White Spanish chamber pot (Figure 15.12). Chester has interpreted this structure in relation to previously discovered structures (South and DePratter 1996: 8) as being on a separate lot from the three structures I had previously found south of this house ruin (See also, Depratter and South 1995: 83). Chester's keen interpretive mind allowed him to suggest, based on the archaeological and historical documentation available to us by this time, that we could identify several different lots in Santa Elena. He assigned numbers to these. The three structures around a courtyard I had previously found, and the large one found in the 1991-1992 block excavations, were now thought to be Lots 3 and 4 in the town of Santa Elena. This interpretation of the alignment of data was a major interpretive achievement (DePratter and South 1995: 8)! Finally, after digging at Santa Elena for over a decade, some understanding of the layout of the town was beginning to emerge through Chester's genius. Because of the nature of the architectural and artifact data, and the size of the lot, he has

321 suggested that we may well have found the home of the governor at Santa Elena--and his chamber pot! Through his interpretation we can now place the occupation on this Iot between 1580 and t587 after Native Americans burned Santa Elena.

The Isabella Blue on White majolica chamber pot recovered from what is thought to be the ruin of the home of Governor Gutierre de Miranda at Santa Elena. (Photo: S. C. Department of Transportation Roll 1, #10 1997) Figure 15.12.

A Generous On-Site Grant for Santa Elena Artifact Analysis--the B. J. Gethers Fund In 1992, Dr. Richard MacAuley was on his way down the Intra-coastal Waterway in a sailboat with his wife, Dr. Leslie MacAuley, and their young daughter, Jessica. They stopped in Beaufort and learned about our dig at Santa Elena. Because Jessica was interested in archaeology, they visited the site while we were exposing the area of the impressive Spanish house ruin. Chris Judge showed them around the site and then introduced them to me, and I talked with them about the history of our Santa Elena research.

322 As I was telling them goodbye, Dr. Macauley asked how we were funded. I explained that we had put most of our grant funding into the field expeditions and when we returned we would be conducting the laboratory analysis on a shoestring budget. He then reached in his pocket and took out his checkbook and said, "If I gave you a thousand dollars now and more when that is spent, would that help with your laboratory analysis?" I was surprised at this instant on-site generosity and assured him that our analysis process would be helped greatly by that gesture. He then asked if many African Americans were involved in our research, and I told him none were, and that not many were involved in the field of historical archaeology generally. I told him that at Brunswick Town and the first dig at Charles Towne my crews were all African Americans. As he finished writing the check he handed it toward me, but held on to it, saying that there was only one string attached--I was to use the money to hire an African American to conduct the laboratory analysis. I gladly agreed to that condition, whereupon he said that when that thousand ran out there would be more forthcoming. I assured him I would keep him informed of the progress of the person I hired. He asked that the money be used to establish the B. J. Gethers Fund in the University of South Carolina Educational Foundation. Dennis Muhammed Joins Our Research I contacted The Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture in Charleston for a recommendation and was told my timing was perfect. They recommended a young history graduate from The College of Charleston, Dennis G. Graham, Jr. He had worked there and everyone was pleased with his performance. I interviewed Dennis and other applicants and chose Dennis. He worked out so well as our laboratory assistant that he stayed with our Santa Elena Project for several years eventually becoming one of our excellent field crew members. Other checks followed that first one until a total of $5,000. had been provided for the

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION B. J. Gethers Fund to support Dennis' research with us. The final contribution to that fund was given to allow Dennis to participate in my research on John Bartlam at Cain Hoy. He later became Dennis Muhammed, and was hired by other archaeologists as a valued member of their team as well. The moment Dr. Macauley handed me that check at Santa Elena that day, and those to follow from him, were memorable for me, providing a shot in the ann for our research program at Spanish Santa Elena. Such on-the-site generosity as that is rarely seen by research archaeologists. The U. S. Marine Corps--Partners in Santa Elena Research Program After a few years in the late 80s, away from field work at Santa Elena, during which time I was involved in putting together the Santa Elena artifact volume and searching with Chester for French Charlesfort, it was good to get back to the block excavations we conducted together in 1991 and 1992, discussed above. Up until our reappearance on Parris Island, I had interacted with the Marine Corps, based on the original instructions given me in 1979. I was told the Marines would not be able to help me with logistics or other support, though I had found them cooperative throughout that first decade of research there. However, when Chester and I returned in 1991, the Marines were much more cooperative than before. The officers even appeared eager to help us with our research projects and the generals in charge since that time have been remarkably supportive. Two of the generals invited us to cocktail parties, and one sponsored a special reception to welcome our archaeological crew to Parris Island and "a good time was had by all!" During this period of partnership, the Marines furnished housing for the crew in facilities not being used by them at the time. They also furnished a Gradall machine for removing the topsoil zone and a front-loader for backfilling-for which we were very grateful. The Marines liked the fact we used volunteers and hired

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort

multiple tour guides for the 1500 visitors to the site each year, half of which were students. Other grant funding was also made available from time to time to underwrite our joint research goals. Apparently a decade of good relations between our research goals and those of the Marine Corps had paid off and we became true partners with the Corps. Among those helping to bring about this remarkable second decade of partnership were those permanently assigned to the Parris Island Marine Recruit Depot, with whom I had dealt during the first decade of research at Santa Elena. These individuals were numerous, from the office of the generals, to the colonels, to the offices of those charged with operating the base, the environmental office, the maintenance office, and the individuals responsible for operation of the clubhouse at the Parris Island Golf Course. Chester and I are grateful for their continued support through the decades of our University research at Santa Elena and Charlesfort, and more recently the research on the African American cemeteries on Parris Island. I have seen many generals and colonels come and go at Parris Island since my first visit in 1978, some more interested in our presence there than others. However, Dr. Steve Wise, Director of the Parris Island Museum, and Dean Bradley, Natural Resources and Environmental Affairs Office Assistant Chief of Staff, have assisted greatly through the years in our research partnership with the Marine Corps, for which we are grateful. A Broader Perspective on Santa Elena Research--Chester Takes the Lead Until 1992, my Santa Elena research had focused on block excavations on a season-byseason basis, with analysis conducted, and a report being written before the next field project began. My partnership with Chester brought a broader perspective to the Santa Elena research, which I welcomed. He wanted to know the extent of Santa Elena and was determined to establish it through a shovel testing project of a large area, including the 7 th and 8th fairways of the Parris Island Golf Course. He also wanted to search for

323

another Ft. San Marcos beneath the 7 th fairway of the Parris Island Golf Course. Our joint proposal to the congressionally appropriated Legacy Fund, through the U. S. Marine Corps, resulted in our receiving $129,987. to be used for archaeological excavation and analysis at Santa Elena, and Ft. San Marcos, with a shovel-testing project designed to delineate the boundary of the town of Santa Elena (DePratter and South 1993a, 1995; and South and DePratter 1993). A Survey to Search for the Boundary of Santa Elena Chester's plan to locate the boundary of Santa Elena proved highly successful. A total of 1,383 shovel tests were excavated on 30 foot grid intervals, producing over 9,000 artifacts. When these were analyzed, the computer-generated results revealed the boundary of Santa Elena through the density distribution of the Spanish artifacts (DePratter and South 1995:35-72; South and DePratter 1993). We Are Joined by an Outstanding Research Colleague---Jim Legg In 1993, Chester and I were joined by James Legg, who is an outstanding historical archaeologist whose research area is military sites--a perfect colleague for our Spanish fort archaeology, French fort archaeology and Marine Corps archaeology on Parris Island. His involvement in our research has been a major contribution to our success. Because of his interest in military history, he has conducted an analysis of the World War I artifacts from the Santa Elena site collected during the past quartercentury. His research will be published in a forthcoming festschrift volume. Jim was responsible for finding the ceramic fragments that demonstrated that Spanish Ft. San Felipe had been built on top of French Charlesfort, but more on that below. Jim also conducted a video catalog collection of the sixteenth century ceramics from Santa Elena (Legg 1996).

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Searching for Ft. San Marcos--Chester Finds a Pottery Kiln In 1993, Chester began looking for evidence of a Ft. San Marcos that the documents indicated lay to the west of the Spanish fort explored by Major Osterhout, on which the Charlesfort Monument stands. The golf course clubhouse sits on an elevation where the 7 th tee was located, west of that fairway where I had dug a series of sample squares many years before. Chester began a shovel testing project in that area to search for the missing Ft. San Marcos. One of the shovel tests produced a group of unglazed pottery fragments and bricks, near the north end o f the clubhouse. He decided to open a block excavation to explore that discovery and in so doing a Spanish pottery kiln was found (DePratter and South 1993a, b; South 1993b: 5455). Additional block excavations were done near the kiln in 1994 and 1997-98.

Figure 15.13. Stan South in the excavated kiln with some of the bricks from the fallen arch still in place. (Photo: Jim Legg 5/13/1993)

Before he could excavate the kiln he had discovered there was good news and bad news for Chester. The good news was that he had to return to Columbia for the birth of his little daughter, K a l a - - a wonderful addition to his family. The bad news for him was that much of the kiln had been excavated by Richard Polhemus and me before he was able to return. Dick and I enjoyed our role excavating the kiln and removing the pottery it held. Chester returned to finish the job.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION The kiln was an important discovery because no other such feature has been found in St. Augustine or at Santa Elena from the sixteenth century period of Spanish occupation in La Florida. The kiln ruin contained many fragments of locally made unglazed redware sherds, among which were two parts of an alembic (distillery), the earliest ever found in America. From the fragments a large number of vessels being made in the kiln, representing a great variety of forms, were reconstructed, some familiar and some unfamiliar ones.. A quantity of restorable olive jar fragments were also found there, these probably having been used to cover the green ware during firingl while allowing the smoke from the firebox to escape and producing the draft needed for firing the vessels in the kiln. Archaeologist Jim Legg drew an interpretive view of how the kiln would have looked during firing. In the 1994 block excavation near the kiln, one of the most impressive discoveries was a large stone, unlike any other found at Santa Elena. When Jim Legg turned it over he saw a depression in the stone, and in that depression was a circular area, highly polished, where the iron rod bearing for the potter's wheel had rested. The pivot stone was resting on a deposit of very fine potting clay. Adjacent postholes in the area revealed where the potting shed had stood over 400 years before. The kiln discovery was of great interest to other archaeologists and many of our colleagues visited to witness first hand the rare find. Kathy Deagan brought her class of students to visit for a day and to view the historic kiln ruin before it was backfilled. Later, the Marine Corps placed a layer of tiles over the kiln to protect it, with an interpretive sign explaining its significance to the golfers who passed the site each day. After the kiln was backfilled, in years to follow, Chester received a grant of $52,100 from the Department o f the Navy to further explore the area of the kiln (DePratter and South 1997 2(1): 67). We dug other block excavations adjacent to the kiln in an attempt to discover a major pottery waster dump of broken pot fragments, but no such

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort Tales

325

Figure 15.14. Interpretive drawing of the Santa Elena kiln during operation. (Drawing: Jim Legg 1993)

dump was found. Chester asked me to prepare the archaeological report on the postholes and other features, which I did, while he concentrated, with the assistance of Lisa Hudgins, on obtaining on library loan from many sources, documents he plans to use to provide a background of the history of the Spanish pottery tradition in Spain to underwrite this significant discovery on the western outskirt of Santa Elena. I look forward to the publication of that report. I turn now to the part of this chapter dealing with French Charlesfort, a major discovery announced in 1996. The Search for F r e n c h Historical B a c k g r o u n d

Charlesfort

--

The Spanish kiln was certainly a surprise discovery. However, another discovery was on my mind from the first dig at Santa Elena in 1979. I was interested in finding French Charlesfort of 1562, long thought to have been located on Parris Island, where a monument commemorating the French presence had been erected in 1925. But was the fort site on which that monument stands

really Charlesfort? That was the second question asked by National Geographic Associate Editor, Joseph Judge when he made a phone call and inquired if we were interested in digging at the Charlesfort/Santa Elena site. That 1978 phone call had initiated my work at Santa Elena, where I addressed his first question, "Where is Santa Elena?" As I found time and funds from my Santa Elena research I conducted searches for Charlesfort in 1982 and 1989. But before I tell those stories I should say that Charlesfort was a French effort to establish a toehold on the continent of North America. Chester DePratter has summarized the historical background of that enterprise as follows (DePratter 1996a): In February 1562, Jean Ribault, in search of refuge for French Huguenots fleeing France to escape religious persecution, left that country with two ships and 150 men. He arrived at the east coast o f Florida in April and sailed north, arriving at Port Royal Sound in present-

326 day South Carolina on May 17, 1562. After entering the harbor, Ribault observed what he called 'one o f the greatest and fairest havens of the world.' Ribault and his crew spent a week exploring Port Royal Sound and what is now the Broad River. On May 22, he erected a stone column claiming the land for his king, Charles IX. He then announced his decision to build a fort and asked for volunteers to remain at the fort while he returned to France to recruit reinforcements and gather supplies. Ribault selected 26 men to defend the land and appointed Capt. Albert de la Pierria as their leader. Ribault and the men spent two weeks building a fort that measured 'in length but sixteene fathome and thirteene in breadth.' A house of wood and earth with a straw roof was built iflside the fort and outfitted with cannon and necessary supplies. On June 11, 1562, Ribault left for France with plans to return in six months. However, civil war was under way in France, so Ribault sought help in England, where he was imprisoned as a spy. At Port Royal, meanwhile, the men were becoming discouraged by Ribault's absence, and supplies were running low. Morale deteriorated further after a fire in the fort destroyed supplies and the men's possessions. Further discord developed, and the men killed Capt. Albert de la Pierria. The mutineers decided to return to France and, with help from the Indians, they built a 20-ton vessel with wood, pitch, and Spanish moss. Indians provided cordage, and the men used shirts and sheets for sails. The ship sailed for France in April 1563. After a difficult crossing in which several men died the crew met up with an English ship off the coast of England. The surviving members of the Charlesfort garrison eventually returned to France.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION

Early Interest in Finding French Charlesfort Documented interest in the sixteenth century French Charlesfort site on Parris Island (15621587) began in the mid-nineteenth century (South 1980:1). Later interest was stimulated by Major George Osterhout, who dug in a fort on Pan'is Island he thought was French Charlesfort. (Osterhout 1923). As it turns out that fort was Spanish Fort San Marcos, one of the forts built by the Spaniards occupying Santa Elena between 1566 and 1587. Albert Manucy, who examined the artifacts recovered by Osterhout (Manucy 1957), demonstrated they were Spanish in origin. However, Osterhout's dig had caused the Huguenot Society and others to push Congress to fund the erection of a monument on the site of the fort on which he dug. On that monument was inscribed, "ERECTED 1925 BY THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA TO MARK THE FIRST STRONGHOLD OF FRANCE ON THIS CONTINENT." As it turns out, it was a monument to France sitting on a Spanish fort. There were skeptics, however, and the location of Charlesfort remained in doubt. A Challenge and a Media Circus One of those interested in the same questions Joe Judge had asked was Charles Gay. I mentioned him earlier in the story of when he came to Bob Stephenson in 1975, asking for permission to dig on Pan-is Island to explore some discolorations on the creek bank that he thought were evidence of a fort moat. When I returned from discovering the moat of Ft. San Felipe in 1979 and happened to see Charles walk by as I unloaded the last equipment from the one-week expedition, I spoke to him and excitedly told him about the discovery I had just made on Parris Island. I had remembered the aerial photograph he had allowed me to copy in 1975. On that I could see a high spot in the marsh that Charles and I had speculated might be the remains of one of the forts at Santa Elena, or perhaps Charlesfort. I told Charles I had checked out that high spot and had found nothing cultural. I explained that I had found the fort as a result o f digging 42 3-foot test-

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort squares on the mainland part of Parris Island, where Paul Hoffman had shown as the likely location of Ft. San Felipe II (which may well be Ft. San Felipe I, according to DePratter's interpretation) (Hoffman 1978: 44). Gay's map with "X" had meant nothing to me in 1975. Consequently, I had not thought of it when my test-square survey stumbled on the moat of Spanish Fort San Felipe where Hoffman had projected it might be found. Gay congratulated me and then went to the media saying I had used his information to locate the fort (The Columbia Record, August 21, 1979: B1). A media blitz of several articles followed, with interviews of Gay charging foul, and Bob and I verifying that we had met with Charles in 1975, but that our expedition was not launched using his map. I explained that some of my test squares had randomly fallen on the moat of Fort San Felipe, allowing me to map its location and size'(South 1979d: 5-8). My expedition had been launched, not from prior knowledge from Gay, but from a phone call from Washington. The Search for 1562 French Charlesfort-Negative Results Two years later, The Greater Piedmont Chapter of the Explorer's Club of New York became interested in my archaeological research at Santa Elena and asked how it could help. I wrote a proposal and received funding in 1981, to search for evidence of Ribault's 1562 French Charlesfort (South 1982b). Through studying the documents of this French establishment four years prior to the arrival of Spaniards at Santa Elena, I thought the site might be found on the high ground adjacent to the deep water of Beaufort River, on the grounds of the U. S. Naval Hospital at Port Royal, halfway between Parris Island and Beaufort. Our 1981 three-foot sampling project there produced negative results. I then explored a deep water and high ground site on Pigeon Point, north of Beaufort, but that also failed to reveal any sign of sixteenth century occupation. We then surface surveyed north of

327 the hospital to Spanish Point, but again failed to find sixteenth century artifacts. I concluded that the most likely site for Charlesfort was at Port Royal (South 1982b: 10). The search story did not end here. French Charlesfort--another Search and a New Partnership As I mentioned earlier, Chester joined my research effort in 1989 when he urged another attempt to try to find Charlesfort. We received several grants, and with Tommy Charles and Nena Powell, we undertook the excavation of a mile-long trench, on the next point upstream from Santa Elena, to again search for that elusive fort. Finally, after having been so impressed with Chester's work many years before when he had presented an important paper at SEAC, we were finally in the field together.

Figure 15.15. Chester DePratter and Stan South setting reference points for excavating at French Charlesfort. (Photo: Jim Legg 6/1996) We noticed that a watercolor by Le Moyne, engraved by DeBry, shows Charlesfort being built on an island that appeared to us to represent the southern tip of Parris Island. It also shows the little island in the Beaufort River, mentioned

328 above, still to be seen on modem maps (DePratter and South 1990: Figure 4). To search this shoreline area we used a backhoe to cut the long exploratory trench through the woods beside Means Creek. Tommy Charles skillfully manipulated the backhoe between the trees in the forest, but no evidence of Charlesfort or occupation by Spaniards - - or Frenchmen, could be found. A Rattlesnake Den What we did find, as we followed an animal trail along the high ground adjacent to the Means Creek marsh one January day, was a group of rattlesnakes, in and beside the trail, sunning and waiting for game. As I walked at the front of the group, I smelled an odor I had learned was characteristic o f snakes, and I stopped. Looking around for the source of the odor, I saw, about 30 feet away, a rattlesnake coiled up in the path watching me. I looked in front of me on both sides of the animal trail we were following, and saw two more canebrake rattlers, sunning. I called to Chester and the crew gathered behind me some distance and watched as the snakes slowly began to move toward the edge o f the nearby river bank. When they were out of the path I began walking on. Chester suddenly called out for me to stop and back up---which I did, puzzled as to why I needed to do that. "Don't ask questions!" he yelled, "Just do it!" He then pointed to an extended rattlesnake lying at a right angle to the path, with its head a foot or so from where I had stopped. It was the largest rattlesnake I had ever seen in the wild. What I could see of it was seven or eight feet long and larger around than my upper arln.

I yelled back to Chester and the others with us to look at me and compare my length with that of this monster rattler and to compare my upper arm with the diameter of the snake. They agreed that the snake won that measurement contest. It was still stretched straight out, making it possible for us get a good look at its size from fairly close up.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION We looked carefully over the area for more snakes, but four in the same place were enough for one day. We went down the bank to examine the place where the snakes had gone, and found a hole, extending back into the bank beside the marsh, where the snakes had made their den, with their favorite sunning spot being beside the game trail on the high bank above. They apparently had a good environmental niche going there. We reported the discovery of the snake "den" to the environmental officer and volunteered to show him the location of the den, but when we arrived to show him and others the location, he chose to wait on the nearby airstrip as a safer place, while we took others to the den. Later a Marine SP showed up wearing a sidearm, saying he had been assigned to shoot to kill if he saw the snakes again. I don't know if they dared venture out again against the U. S. Marines. The Underwater Search for the French Vessel "El Principe"--Bruce Frank Thompson At more than one point in our survey, we thought we had found Charlesfort, but as we cut slot trenches and mapped unproductive disturbances, we finally, had to admit that we had not found the fort site (DePratter and South 1990: 74-106). In conjunction with our search for Charles fort on land, Bruce F. Thompson, Conservator for SCIAA, with the assistance of Judy Wood from the Savannah District Corps of Engineers, along with volunteers, conducted an underwater survey of Means Creek searching for the French vessel, Le Prince (El Principe), wrecked near Santa Elena, and reported by Pedro Menendez Marques to the King on October 21, 1577 (Thompson 1990: 68). The wreck was not found, but at this writing, 2004, the search goes on through the efforts of Chester DePratter and SCIAA Underwater Archaeologist, Jim Spirek. The after-hours time on this project was enjoyable for all of us as we sat on the porch of Plums Restaurant in Beaufort and talked about the dig. A USC television crew documented the Charlesfort search, in spite of the fact that digging a mile-long backhoe trench through the woods is

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort not the most exciting footage to shoot. However, some dramatic shots of Chester shoveling in the narrow trench were achieved by using what we in photography school called the low-angle view from "the cockroach perspective." This perspective is used when the photographer must resort to shooting from that angle to put some interest in the composition. Some of us often visited the still-standing John Cross Tavern, a two story eighteenth century tabby restaurant and bar in Beaufort, to be royally fed and entertained by owner Harry Chakides, Jr., who, when he designed the bar, left a window to show the tabby construction. French Ceramics Discovered by Jim Legg-Via D-Day in Normandy When the mile-long trench produced no evidence for French occupation, Chester asked if perhaps the "the pre-fort moat-like ditch" I had foun~l beneath the Spanish casa fuerte (fortified house) structure in Ft. San Felipe might have been dug by Jean Ribault's men as part of Charlesfort. When he asked me about that idea, I said when he could show me sixteenth century French ceramics from the Ft. San Felipe artifact collection I might believe that theory. He went through the Spanish ceramics I had recovered from Ft. San Felipe, and besides some suspicious pink paste tin-ash glazed ware, no unusual fragments shot out from the 1982 dig as being smoking sherds from a French connection. Months later, Jim Legg did find a previously unrecognized Spanish pottery type in the more recent Marine Corps and Plantation collections. He found a bag with a group of very thick, incised sherds with an olive jar type of paste, marked "incised conduit ware," because of their having come from a very large vessel of some sort. These were identified as fragments of a large Spanish wine storage jar from the sixteenth century. A nice find, but still no French pottery! Later, in 1996, while working on a video project designed to record the artifacts from Santa Elena, Jim was looking through the nineteenth century plantation collection on the Santa Elena

329 site, and recognized the brown stoneware sherds characteristic of those made in Normandy. He then found other French types that had not been recognized in the 1982 ceramic analysis (DePratter and South 1997a: 2(1): 4-5, 1997b 2(2): 8-9). These s t o n e w a r e sherds, he realized, were like those he had found on the battlefields of Normandy when he visited there with his dad, who had landed in a glider there during the invasion of Normandy on D-Day. In his visits to museums in France, Jim had noticed that the French had been making stoneware in the sixteenth century, and that the tourist ware made in Normandy today looks much the same as the archaeological fragments he was seeing from Ft. San Felipe. To prove his point he showed us for comparison a brown Normandy stoneware vessel he had bought while in France. He had visited le Chateau du Louvre Museum where he saw examples of sixteenth century French stonewares and earthenwares (Fleury and Druta 1990). Jim was thereby able to identify stoneware sherds from Normandy, Beauvais, Martincanap, and earthenware sherds from Saintonge, as well as other French types in the collection excavated in Spanish Ft. San Felipe (Drcarle-Audet 1979; Niellon and Moussette 1981). We Visit the Ceramics Gnru--Ivor Noel Hume As I often did when I had questions regarding ceramics, Chester and I made a trip to Williamsburg to visit the ceramic guru archaeologist, Ivor Noel Hume, who said the several types Jim had identified were very likely French. He suggested I show the sherds to European ceramics expert, John Hurst, which I did on a trip to a conference in Williamsburg, where he verified that Jim's identification was correct. With these smoking sherds in hand, we then knew without a doubt, that 1562 French Charlesfort had finally been found, thanks in part to Jim Legg's tour of the World War II Normandy battlefields.

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Figure 15.16. Richard Polhemus, Ivor No61 Hume and Stan South in the Winthrop Rockefeller Archaeology Museum after the 1997 SHA meeting in Williamsburg, Virginia (Photo: Saliy Polhemus 4/1997) Later, in 1998, on my visit to the Sorbonne to sit on a dissertation committee, I took some of the sherds from Charlesfort and received additional verification for their sixteenth century French origin. As a result of Jim's discovery of sixteenth century French ceramics in our collection, Chester's theory that the Santa Elena Spaniards had built Ft. San Felipe on top of 1562 French Charlesfort was verified (DePratter, South, and Legg 1996a; Depratter and South 1997 2(2): 8-9). The University of South Carolina President John Palms announced the discovery o f Charlesfort on the site in an official ceremony held on June 6, 1996 (DePratter, South and Legg 1996b: 1, 5, 8-9, 47, 101). The discovery of Charlesfort was listed as one o f the "Top 100 Science Stories" of 1996 in Discover magazine (Menon, Shanti 1997: 12), and an excellent photograph of the French sherds was published in the Beaufort Low Country magazine (Holly 1997: 53-57). Charlesfort Revisited--The Marine Corps Partnership Continues Between 1996 and 1998, with a Department of the Navy Legacy grant of $200,000 in hand, we began a new excavation inside the forts in Santa Elena, reexamining the area inside Ft. San Felipe I

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION had previously exposed between 1983 and 1985, looking for Charlesfort features. We also received a grant from the French company, Michelin North America. As a result of our new look at what we now knew was Charlesfort/Ft. San Felipe, we were able to locate and follow the French Charlesfort moat, and the deeper Ft. San Felipe moat for some distance, until the Chartesfort moat crossed the northwest bastion of Ft. San Fetipe (DePratter and South 1998a 311]: 6-7). We then followed the Charlesfort moat for some distance north of Ft. San Felipe, where it continued into the African American cemetery near the eroded edge of the site.

Figure 15.17. Chester DePratter at the profile in the 1562 French Charlesfort ditch (Photo: South 4/27/2000) The story of that chase of the Charlesfort moat and other cemeteries on Parris Island is being written by Chester and Jim, while I spin this autobiographical tale. So Charlesfort has been found, but Chester, Jim and I still hunger for more details of that short occupation by a few Frenchmen on Parris Island in 1562. We shall return! Chester DePratter - - The Charlesfort/Santa Elena Rainmaker In 1995, Chester received a $30,000 grant from the U. S. Marine Corps to allow Jim Legg to carry out a videotape project to record the finer pieces of ceramics recovered from Santa Elena (Legg, DePratter and South 1996: 11; DePratter 1997: 10). After this Chester was on a roll and his

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort rainmaking ability to provide research funds for our research became legendary. This was followed in 1996 by the $200,000 grant, mentioned above from the Department of the Navy, to carry out excavation at Ft. San Felipe and Ft. San Marcos, as well as Charlesfort. This allowed a re-examination of the interior of Ft. San Felipe in a search for evidence of Charlesfort, the moat of which was recognized, having been cut into by that of Ft. San Felipe (DePratter and South 1997b: 8-9), 1997c: 4-5, 1998a: 6-7, DePratter, South, and Legg 2000: 22). Block excavations and the discovery and excavation of more wells came in 1996 through 2000 (DePratter and South 1997: 4-5, DePratter, South and Legg 2000: 21). By this time, I had begun to kid Chester on his ability to make money fall from the sky. This was prompted by the fact that at one time hoped-for funds had not materialized, but Chester was scheduling people to work on our next dig. I cautioned him about putting the "cart before the horse," remembering the time at Ninety Six when I had made such plans and the funds had fallen through--asking him if he expected the "money to fall from the sky." He grinned and said, "Maybe it will,"---and from an unexpected source it did! One day we were coming out of the Lizard's Thicket restaurant and from somewhere above us, a penny fell in front of me and rolled around on the sidewalk. Chester and I stood looking up, wondering where it had come from. Chester said, "No, Stan, you don't quite have it right! When you want money to fall from the sky, you must ask for more than a penny if you want to be a rainmaker!" On April 13th, 1998, shortly after he had volunteered at Santa Elena, as he did ever chance he got, our friend and Santa Elena volunteer, Don Patton, suddenly died. Many archaeologists throughout the southeast with whom he had worked were saddened by his death. To remember Don, Chester established at SCIAA the E. Donald Patton Memorial Fund to receive donations for Santa Elena research, and many of

331 his friends contributed to honor Don (South and DePratter 1998 312]: 6). An Offer to Pull Up R o o t s - - a n Anonymous Donor to the Rescue In 1997, Chester and I discovered that a seductive offer for us to move our research to another state had been made. When one of Chester's admirers of his research heard about the offer, a counter-offer was made, allowing us to continue our research at the University of South Carolina. That anonymous donor, who had long supported Chester's research, asked him to draw up a three-year budget for research at Santa Elena and Charlesfort. Chester complied, and the resulting budget was $1,240,000--enough to fund considerable Santa Elena research in the years to come. The donor eventually provided $675,000 of this request, allowing the reclassification and tabulation of all the previous artifacts recovered. Because the donor did not want the funds to be administered through SCIAA, Chester met with historian Walter Edgar, Director of the Institute for Southern Studies, and a new working relationship was established there. A research laboratory was set up, providing adequate space for a re-examination and reconstruction of Spanish and Native American pottery. This windfall from the donor supported our research in the years that followed. This association with Walter Edgar also resulted in our being appointed Research Professors by the dean, an appointment I was never able to obtain through SCIAA. By 2003, my grants for Santa Elena and Charlesfort research, combined with other projects, and the joint funds Chester and I had received, totaled $1,952,605. This reminds me of the time years before when my grants for the Santa Elena site had totaled almost a quarter million dollars. I was turned down for a Federal grant proposal for further archaeology at Santa Elena, because a reviewer said that no site deserved that much money for archaeology, and that the funds should go to other sites not having received that much support--an example of egalitarianism versus

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scientific merit as a criterion for distribution of taxpayer's money. However, with all that money over a quarter o f a century, we have excavated less than 3.5% o f the site. Chester's budget to the donor had involved a promise that I would complete and publish my book on the work I had done in Wachovia in the mid-1960s, and at 1670 Charles Towne Landing in 1969. At the turn o f the century both of these books were published (South 1999, 2002b). Additional books are planned for the future as Santa Elena and Charlesfort data continue to be analyzed toward the goal o f eventually providing a complete synthesis of over 20 years of research on Parris Island (DePratter and South 1999: 5). Volunteers at Santa Elena--A Major Contribution to Our Research Throughout our research at Santa Elena, especially after Chester became a partner in that endeavor, volunteers have been used to great advantage in accomplishing our research goals (DePratter and South 1998d: 7). For most o f my pre-Santa Elena career I had insisted on paying the crew working with me in the erroneous belief that volunteers could not be controlled. At Santa Elena, I came to realize what I had been missing through the years. My eyes began to be opened with those first volunteers who dug with me at Santa Elena in 1979--my family, Jewell and our children, David, Robert and Lara. Later on, after Chester came to work with me, we increased our volunteer crew. The many hundreds who came were excellent assistants, some highly experienced. They came from many states, among whom were Dave and Joan Jordan from California, Elsie Fox from Indiana, Harold Chandler from Arizona, Marilyn Pennington, Carol McCanless, Don Patton and Linda "Polly" Worthy from Georgia. Some volunteers returned season after season to help us achieve our goals (DePratter and South 1998d: 7). A list of the volunteers and crew members is included in the Appendix.

Figure 15.18. Volunteer Lara South and her sculptureof the

"Spirit of the Back-dirt Pile." (Photo: South 11/1979)

Figure 15.19. Volunteer Robert South upon being asked by the National Geographic photographer if he liked digging at

Santa Elena. (Photo: Copyright David Bril11979)

Spanish Santa Elena and French Charlesfort

"Volunteers Are the Light of the World" What attraction draws volunteers to work long days in the hot sun helping archaeologists achieve their goal, calling it "fun"? I have often tried to disabuse volunteers of the "romance" of archaeology, reminding them that field work is often not only work, but w o r k - w o r k . This caution was designed to prepare them that what lay ahead may not be at all romantic. Yet, there is that undeniable aspect of the archaeological process that is r o m a n t i c ! - - is attractive to volunteers and professional archaeologists alike. Hunting for Easter eggs has an attraction to young and old alike and the expectation of finding some old odd curious thing in the dirt may be one of the emotions that drive volunteers to go out of their way to satisfy that curiosity. Volunteers often say to me, "I have always wanted to be an archaeologist, ever since I was a child!"-suggesting, like the game of hide and seek, that a childhood urge to seek and find is involved, as well 'it may be. Then, there is also that desire to break away from the routine of daily life at home and office to see the world from a fresh perspective for awhile. The time period involved may vary, from those to whom after a few hours of digging, say, "Enough is enough!" to those who return to Santa Elena time and again to participate fully in the experience that aspect of archaeology offers. At Santa Elena we ask that volunteers spend a week at.a time with us in the field. I have found that the interest of some is limited to perhaps a day or so, which is a waste of time on a serious data-collecting archaeological project. Those "volunteers" I refer to as "tourists," whose primary interest is simply observing - - which they can do without volunteering. We accommodate that type of limited interest by conducting educational tours of each dig we undertake, because it is from such tours, that the information we are revealing is shared with the public. Some volunteers derive great pleasure from simply writing neat numbers on potsherds, as I always have, thus satisfying some deep inner urge

333 to simply focus intensely on one simple task for hours on end, removed from all distractions. A psychologist might say this focus is an effort to escape from this world to another, less complex and socially interactive one - - a world where there is comfort in simple things, not people. But, I have a badge attached to my digging hat that says, "Volunteers are the light o f the world," and they are good people. But there is another reason that may explain why volunteers as well as archaeologists, subject themselves to the archaeological process. That is a desire to want to know about what went on in the past beyond the story in history books, a story too often deadly to read, and difficult to absorb. Brushing from a fragment of a broken pot the soil adhering to it for a hundred or a thousand years, evokes within a feeling of awe - - a direct connection to the past. And that stimulates a desire to know more about the circumstances of that voice reaching from the past, not so much the historical person who fashioned it, but the process under which, it and the person, were clues to a past cultural system, This desire for an explanation of the broader processes that produced the artifact held in the hand, is a driving force within the activity that is archaeology - - satisfying an inner need for order, knowledge, and understanding through the scientific method. In 1986, I attempted to capture some of what I have been talking about here in a poem.

Ruin Crumbling walls and broken pots Bear witness to the builder's dream And domestic scene Of life unfolding here, In pleasure and in pain, Long locked in sherd and stone, But sounding now The depth of me, For a knowing Only I can see, Of those who went before.

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Figure 15.20. Stan South with volunteers and crew at Santa Elena. Left to right: Stan, Carol McCanless, Chester DePratter, Joan Jordan, David Jordan, Don Patton, Polly Worthy, Marilyn Pennington, Michael Stoner, and Jim Legg. (Photo: 1997) The Rain Dance Continues As the twentieth century closed, Chester continued his rain dance. Funds became available for exploration o f the area around a sinkhole that proved to be a source of fresh water for Native Americans many centuries ago (DePratter and South 1999 4: 4-5, DePratter 1999 4: 5). Chester also arranged for the mitigation of damage that might be caused by a pipeline for watering the golf course driving range. To do this, we excavated a 5 by 100- foot trench, containing a number of Native American, Spanish, plantation, and World War I period artifacts (DePratter, South and Legg 2000: 20-22; DePratter, Legg and South 2001, 2002). We also searched for an additional fort beneath the fairway, near the seventh tee of the Parris Island Golf Course, and found instead, daub from a Spanish structure (#5), along with a well (DePratter and South 2000:21). With the twenty-first century coming up, Chester and Jim Legg, working with the Parris Island Marine Corps personnel, launched into a research and search project to locate the African American cemeteries on Parris Island, including the Means Cemetery that intrudes on the remains of Spanish Santa Elena (DePratter and Legg 2000: 26-28, 2001: 14-15). This project has revealed a

rich legacy of documents about the African American presence on Parris Island, and as I write this in 2003, Jim and Chester are preparing a major report on this study. As I end this chapter in 2003, I am reminded of the fact that my involvement at Santa Elena has become far less than it was when I began my research on that site a quarter o f a century ago. This has come about through my focus on the Wachovia and Charles Towne books, and the republication o f my 1977, Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology (South 1999, 2002b, 2002f); as well as on this autobiographical journey into the past. In the final chapter to follow, I address the question of life during and after Santa Elena, as my research continues.

Chapter 16 Tales Beyond Santa Elena As I look back at a quarter-century of excavation at Santa Elena it appears our work there was the main involvement I had during that period of time. However, I did have other "irons in the fire" and I carried these out concurrently with research and publication at Santa Elena which I reviewed in the last chapter. Here I summarize some of those happenings involving life beyond Santa Elena. At Flowerdew Hundred with Deetz-Psychoceramics In 1985, 1986 and 1989, I was invited by Jim Deetz to be a guest lecturer at his NEH funded Summer Institute in Historical Archaeology held at Flowerdew Hundred Plantation in Tidewater Virginia, near Hopewell.

Figure 16.1. Stan South and Jim Deetz at Flowerdew

Hundred in 1989. (Photo:courtesyof Jim Deetz, 1989)

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That was always a stimulating experience-getting to see Jim and the educators who formed the classes in that great environment, with bald eagles sitting in tall trees and snatching food from the broad bottomland fields, and ospreys, carrying fish from the James River nearby. He had me come to give those who had signed up for the courses some exposure to the scientific view of historical archaeology. Jim sat in on the classes, and had great fun kibitzing and firing shots at my approach, as I talked and showed my slides. I was not reluctant to get in my two-cent shots at his subjective humanism in rejoinder. In my 1985 lecture I took the opportunity to attack Jim's theory that ceramics evolved from colorful decoration in the eighteenth to plain in the twentieth century. I pointed out that if one subjectively began with high socio-economic status polychrome delft from the eighteenth century, then crossed economic class lines 200 years later, to lower socio-economic class Ironstone-whiteware of the twentieth century, then you might, as Deetz had done, come to the erroneous pseudo-developmental conclusion, that an evolution from polychrome decorated, to plain ceramics, might have taken place, cutting across economic cost lines along time's rocky road in the process! To present data negating this theory I pointed out that, in my view of ceramic evolution during 200 years, the following took place: plain delft and white salt-glazed stoneware evolved to creamware, to pearlware, to edged ware, to whiteware, to ironstone-whiteware. These were cheaper wares The more expensive, colorful, polychrome painted wares of the eighteenth century, such as polychrome delft, overglaze-enamelled Oriental export porcelain of the mid-eighteenth century

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evolved into polychrome painted pearlware, colorful annular wares, and transfer-printed wares, which in turn evolved to the gaudy polychrome painted porcelain of the late nineteenth and twentieth century, with similar gaudy wares seen in upscale stores today. I didn't fail to point out my view of the parallel development of upper and lower socioeconomic ceramics o f plain-to-plain, decorated todecorated, and passed it out to the students, pointing out that Jim had simply crossed socioeconomic lines and reached an erroneous conclusion regarding the development of ceramics during that 200 year period of time. I diagramed this evolution: Needless to say, Jim and I had fun with our scientific method vs subjective humanism routine. He would reiterate that, "I used to dabble in that science stuff until I met Henry Glassie-had an epiphany, and was saved from it." The students seemed to enjoy our exchanges and I know Jim and I did each time I visited with them. While at Flowerdew, a student handed me a paper entitled, "Psycho-ceramics: A Metascientific Approach to Cracked Pots" (Anonymous 1985). I quote here a paragraph from that piece o f pseudo-scholarship: Large expanses of earth were moved and sampled using the existential method of method reduces time, work loads, and costs. It recovers only that information artifact collection. This innovative that is destined to be revealed. The method consists of digging a pit. A small box of

appropriate size (standard is 13cm.x 6in. x 61/4cm.) is placed at a shovel's throw from the pit. Dirt is thrown in the direction of the box. Only that information that is significant enough to hit the box is recovered. Therefore, the information found in a 10m. x 10m. pit, can be consolidated and concentrated into a more manageable quantity. Then, screening, cleaning, and cataloging becomes a minor operation. Without all that unnecessary information, the archaeologist's true role, as speculator and conjecturer, can be fulfilled. I believe I detect a Deetzian influence in this epistle, which goes on to present a taxonomic classification of pottery type descriptions, with titles such as: "Incognito Incised, Inconsistent Engraved, Homely Plain, Trite Incised, Hardly Stamped, Metaphysical Marked, Schizoid Complicated Stamped, Twilight Zoned Red, var. Doppler, and Armageddon Irradiated, var. Doomsday," among others. Historical Archaeology in the Toilet--A Spontaneous Seminar One night at Flowerdew Hundred, I sat drinking beer with the students, around an open campfire, on the hillside near the picnic shelter. I stepped into the small toilet in the shelter, and as I was coming out, one of the students was entering, and commented on how refreshing it was to hear

(Temporal development of cheap, plain ceramics) plain delft and white stoneware, to creamware, to pearlware, to edged ware, to whitcwarc,to ironstonc-whiteware Time L i n e - - - - ~

eighteenth century

> nineteenth century

> twentieth century

(Temporal development of expensive, decorated ceramics) polychromedelft polychromepainted pearlware overglazed-enamelled to -----~ annular decorated wares to -----* polychromepainted porcelain Oriental export porcelain transfer-printed wares

Tales Beyond Santa Elena the scientific, quantitative approach to historical archaeology I had expressed--a topic not often mentioned at Flowerdew. We began discussing analysis as I leaned against the sink. Soon another student came in to use the facility, and the conversation continued uninterrupted while that student relieved himself and joined in the discussion. Then a knock on the door came. I opened it and saw two female students, who, having noticed that we had not returned to the group around the campfire, had come looking for us. They heard us talking in the men's room, and knocked, asking if this seminar was for males only. We assured them that they were welcome to join the discussion, which they did, bringing with them some of the most cogent points of view we were to hear all evening as the "toilet seminar" continued, with one participant sitting on the back of the toilet tank, another on the commode, another on the trash can, and another perched on the sink, while others leaned around the wall, all eagerly engaged in urgent discussion, about what I have no memory, but it seemed important at the time. In the years since, I am reminded of that night when I run across one of the people who enjoyed that gathering. One o f those told me that the participants had placed a plaque there in later years marking the site of "Stan South's Toilet Seminar." I doubt, however, that any one of us there for that gathering remembers what was said, but we were certainly caught up in the exchange of ideas in that unusual seminar setting.

Psychic Energy Flow at Santa Elena--A Test Case The anonymous Flowerdew paper reminds me of the time, after Jewell died, when I attended a high school class reunion and met again an old classmate from elementary school. One thing led to another and we began dating whenever she happened to be passing by Columbia. I soon discovered she was a psychic. I once accompanied her to a meeting of psychics in Durham, North Carolina--an

337 interesting experience! She asked about my work at Santa Elena, and I suggested that she visit the site with me. She said she might be able to direct me to past events through her psychic powers. Being a skeptic I didn't immediately take the bait, but called her hand by saying I would take a transit to the site, flag the places she indicated as hot energy spots, and compare those flagged coordinates with what I found when that area was excavated, as a kind of test to her psychic energy theory. After the area had been excavated and the Spanish features mapped, I compared her flagged "energy spots" with what I had found--Surprise! There was absolutely no correlation with any Spanish feature. When I pointed this out to her, she said the energy she had felt at those spots had been caused by some significant event, perhaps a murder, which had happened at those flagged places at sometime in the past. She said it was not wise to try to demonstrate by science, facts only perceived through psychic means--duh! Gee, I should have known that! That was a different kind of energy theory than I was used to thinking about as underwriting evolutionary theory.

Psychic Energy and a "Family" Man I was traveling with my psychic friend to attend the SEAC meeting in New Orleans when she began anxiously looking behind her as we drove along. As her concern grew more obvious I asked her what was wrong. She said she had a confession to make. She had not told me, about a boyfriend in Florida who was a jealous family don, who often had her followed by one of his "made" men. At the last service station where we had gassed the car, she had recognized one of her boyfriend's associates in a car that had been following us! Whether that was true or just a story as an excuse to sever our relationship, or perhaps it was psychic energy run a m o k - whatever, it worked. I put her on a bus, and that was an end to our affair. I didn't need that kind of energy in my life.

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The Halifax Award, the Harrington Medal, and the Stephenson Award When I was a loose cannon running all over North Carolina, operating out of Brunswick Town State Historic Site, I was asked to fire an exploratory archaeological shot in the eighteenth century town of Halifax, North Carolina, where I discovered and mapped a number of eighteenth century ruins, including addressing questions regarding the still-standing brick jail (South 1965b). Better late than never, almost 20 years later, on April 12, 1984, I was pleased to learn I had been given the Halifax Resolves Award for "Outstanding Accomplishment in the Field of Historic Preservation" by the Historic Halifax Restoration Association, Inc. Sometimes it takes awhile for a chicken to come home to roost. I am grateful for this award from a group that has done an outstanding job of preservation of its historic town. In 1987 I was presented the J. C. Harrington Medal for outstanding scholarly achievement in historical archaeology from the Society for Historical Archaeology. Six years later I was honored to receive from the Archaeological Society of South Carolina--the Robert L. Stephenson Award for Lifetime Achievement (Goodyear 1993. 12). A Research Trip to Mexico--A U. S. C. Center Resource Evaluation Team In July 1984, Bob Stephenson wrote a report for Stanley Applegate, U. S. C. System Vice President for Sponsored Programs and Research, on a trip he had made with a team in May to evaluate the potential of a U. S. C. Cuernavaca Center there. Bob's letter addressed the archaeological potential in the State of Morelos, Mexico, toward producing "a research center of excellence" involving the University of South Carolina (Stephenson 1984). Early in December of that year, I was invited to give a luncheon slide presentation on my Santa

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Elena research to the University of South Carolina Board of Trustees. Bob Stephenson had retired and Bruce Rippeteau was director of SCIAA. Bruce went with me to the luncheon and we sat across the table from Stanley Applegate. Stanley was telling us about a proposal he was submitting for a second "Cuernavaca Team" to visit Mexico to look at a hotel and sugar refinery to evaluate the potential for such a center. Suddenly, he asked us if we would like to join the team. We both said we would, and he told us we would have to have a letter of intent to him immediately, because he had a deadline for submission of names for the travel itinerary. Bruce and I hurried back to the office and just made it "trader the wire" to join the group for the trip to Mexico "to take necessary steps to create a University of South Carolina Center in Cuemavaca" (Applegate, December 7, 1984). To prepare for the trip Bruce and I wrote letters regarding the structure and implementation of an archaeological research center as part of the Carolina Center to Stanley Applegate (Rippeteau, December 10, 1984, and South, December 13, 1984b). We took the trip in January, 1985, and we saw a large impressive sugar factory with great potential for an archaeological research center, and I wrote a specific proposal for the development of historical archaeology research there (South and Rippeteau 1985). However, nothing ever came of that proposal and neither the offered hotel nor the sugar factory were involved in the Carolina academic program later established in Cuemavaca. A Canadian Journey--Carrying Energy Theory Baggage In 1988 I was invited to present a paper on domestic pattern at British and Spanish colonial sites at the 21 st Chaemool Conference in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, having the theme of "Households and Communities." What an enjoyable experience that was to meet many Canadian colleagues working in the field of historical archaeology. My paper, "Using Scientific Methodology and Energy Theory to

Tales Beyond Santa Elena Address Artifacts from British and Spanish Colonial Communities," was published in the proceedings of that conference (South 1989a: 312). In that paper I proposed a "Sixteenth Century Spanish Colonial Status Artifact Model" for use in determining from artifact assemblages whether an upper or lower socio-economic status is represented (South1989a: 7-10). I compared the Spanish artifacts from Santa Elena with those from Ft. San Felipe and a servant or soldier's hut, and found that the data fit the hypothesized model. This was based on the theory that the ratio of high-cost artifact fragments to low-cost fragments in Spanish colonial household artifact assemblages is reflective of the socio-economic status level of the households represented. This is based on the energy theory assumption underwriting evolutionary theory, that energy cost is an indicator of the amount of energy harnessed per c~pita per year--"as more energy is harnessed, the more highly developed does the culture become" (White 1947a:2, quoted in South 1955a:10). A paper on this subject detailing the importance of this concept to historical archaeology, was written with Halcott Green (South and Green 2001), and revised in 2003. It is to be published in a festschrift volume (CamesMcNaughton and Steen, ed., [in press in 2004]) "Can You Dig It?" - - Archaeology and Public Education At the invitation of my colleague, Tommy Charles, and the South Carolina Department of Education, I contributed to a classroom workbook guide for teachers and students designed to introduce them to the methods and theory used in archaeology (South 1989b: 86-111). I have so often written for my colleagues throughout my archaeological career, it was a pleasure to join in this educational effort to introduce children to archaeology. I had done that in North Carolina 30 years before with my booklet Indians In North Carolina (South 1959b), and it was rewarding to be given the opportunity to reach school children

339 with the method and theory in historical archaeology. I also reached out to the public in a series of popular monthly articles on archaeology for the Archaeological Society of South Carolina, under the name of "Carolina South" (South 1989c), as I did with a radio series "A Moment In History" - in Wilmington, North Carolina in the 1960s. At the suggestion of my colleagues Chester DePratter and Albert Goodyear, I wrote a little booklet, "Archaeology at Santa Elena: Doorway to the Past," to be distributed to the public at low cost to tell the story of Santa Elena and the archaeology I had carried out there (South 1991b and [4 th edition] 1996b). The ATTIC Project--Archaeological Techniques [o Inventory Collections The next year after our Charlesfort search, in 1990, I received two grants from James L. Skinner, Jr., to conduct an inventory of the accumulation of material things in the attic of the Archibald Smith House in Roswell, Georgia. The house was built in 1845 and had been lived in by the same family until the Skinner family inherited it in the twentieth century. The Skinner plan was to give the historic house to the City of Roswell to be interpreted as a house museum. For 100 years material objects were stored in the attic and several outbuildings. When the attic became full a storage shed was built and other items stored there. Eventually, three such storage buildings were constructed to hold the overflow of material items from the house. The Skinner family, composed of "a committee of five," wanted to examine and record for posterity, all the objects in the attic and outbuildings before they were distributed to historical societies and the City of Roswell. My personal research interest was to compare the percentage relationship of the eight artifact groups I used in my Carolina Artifact Pattern (South 1977a: 107), with the objects stored in the attic, in order to get some idea of how those figures compared. I wanted to gain insight into what the fragments in the archaeological record represent

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340 in terms of whole items curated in an attic by the owners. I set up a photographic recording station and, with the help of Tommy Charles, Sharon Pekrul, Ruth Trocolli and Joe Beatty, we photographed and recorded descriptions on data sheets, a total of 22,149 objects in the attic, comprising 16 thick volumes (South 1990c). A fantastic wealth of nineteenth century material culture items was recorded. These include cooking wares, ceramics, architectural objects, wheelbarrows, furniture, paintings, guns, personal items, coins, watches, musical instruments and wonderful toys for girls and boys. Other objects of interest were Confederate money, a trunk containing the personal items, clothing and pills, of a soldier who died in prison while

In 2000, I received a grant from the City of Roswell, Georgia, to computer-enter the attic part of the ATTIC Project data into CD format. This grant was augmented by grants to complete the data-entry, from James L. Skinner, III, and his son James L. Skinner (Jimmy). Lisa Hudgins and Julie Elam carried out that project. The goal was to provide a computerized database of 6,782 entries describing the artifacts and recording any information known about the objects, such as patent dates. The photographs of the objects were scanned into the database to allow researchers to view the artifacts we photographed. The comparison between the Carolina Artifact Pattern and the attic artifact percentages emerging from the ATTIC project are presented here. Carolina Pattern and ATTIC Compared

3--'--Figure 16.2. Toy wheeled wind-up horse from the ATTIC Project in the Smith House at RosweI1,Georgia. (Photo: South 12/13/1990) at Salisbury, North Carolina, during the Civil War were recorded. In the pocket of his coat I found an envelope with the postage stamp of Jefferson Davis on it. A zoetrope, the forerunner of the movie projector with a selection of strips to accompany it was there, as was clothing-especially clothing. The attic held a fantastic collection of nineteenth century objects seldom seen by archaeologists--reflecting past lifeways in a manner undreamed of when viewed only through excavated potsherds, drawer pulls, lead balls and nails usually recovered from the earth on historic site excavations.

Artifact Group Kitchen Architecture Furniture Arms Clothing Personal Tobacco Activities

Carolina Pattern 63.1 25.5 .2 .5 3.0 .2 5.8 1.7 100.

Attic % 3.3 7.7 6.4 5.4 46.0 4.1 .1 27.0 100.

These figures reveal that the "hard" items preserved in the archaeological record fall primarily in the Kitchen and Architecture artifact groups, whereas the "soft" items in the Clothing and Activities Groups dominate in the attic collection. Now that the tens of thousands of artifacts have been recorded and quantified, I expect to publish spin-off articles from this remarkable database in the years to come. One such article on toys from the attic of the Smith family house is now in press (South 2002d: 34(1 &2). James L. Skinner III has edited The Autobiography of Henry Merrell: Industrial Missionary to the South (Skinner 1991). Merretl was one of the members of the Smith family and

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the manuscript of his autobiography was discovered in a drawer in the Smith House by a member of the Skinner family.

The current anti-science trend within structural humanism has no place in a vital historical archaeology of the future!

Volumes in Historical Archaeology---A New Publication Series With the funds remaining from publishing the 15 volumes of The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers, I began a new series, Volumes in Historical Archaeology, devoted to publishing Master's theses and Dissertations on historical archaeology. Between 1984 and 1994, in my spare time, I had published 30 volumes in that series, and by 2002, a total of 42 volumes have been published (South ed. 1984-2002). These are distributed to interested readers at a cost to them of ten dollars each, the purpose being to share results of historical archaeology research-the original goal I had in mind when I began the Conference on Historic Site Archaeology in 1960.

Later I reiterated this position (South 1996c 1712]: 11):

Standing on the P r o m i s e - - t h e Soapbox of Science and Humanism In the early 90s, I continued to publish chapters in books, and articles on Santa Elena, such as "From Thermodynamics to a Status Artifact Model: Spanish Santa Elena" (South 1990a: 329-341), and "Strange Fruit: Historical Archaeology 1972-1977," in which I bemoaned the direction historical archaeology was taking from processual archaeology toward a deconstructionist, post-processual, anti-science perspective "imbued with human feeling-tone" (South 1993a: 17). In that article I said: "We do not need an anti-science stance counterproductive to good scholarship, good science, good history, and good interpretation of the archaeological record through historical archaeology!" (South 1993a: 27(1): 18). I also expressed there a hope for the future:

My greatest hope is with those "dirt archaeologists" who still practice archaeology with objectivity and scientific zeal, acknowledging the vital role both the tools of science and humanism have for understanding and interpreting the past.

The anti-science wave of which I speak is expressed by Ian Hodder, who says: "Many people do not want a past defined as a scientific resource by us but a past that is a story to be interpreted" (1991:14). In a critique of this perspective, Richard A. Watson has said that "deconstruction in the social sciences is a nihilist attack on all science and objective knowledge" (1990: 673). He points out that the anti-science perspective is based on the assumption that the past did not exist, but is a story to be interpreted. The "Critical Theorist" approach implies that each individual's view of the past is as good as any other view and that one cannot choose systematically between them. However, science and humanism are not incompatible (South 1996c 1712]: 11): Some of the best and most reliable interpretations of data revealed by scientists have been written by humanists who have brought to the story a skill with words often lacking in those who gathered the information. It is when the humanist impresses on scientifically derived data creative imagination beyond warranted limits that the work becomes fiction merely based on facts. Creative imagination plays a vital role in both science and art at the highest levels, as some of the world's greatest scientists have emphasized. It is my hope that the "nihilist attack on all science and objective knowledge" Watson speaks of will be overshadowed by those who use the

342 methodological controls demanded by the scientific method, combined with the creative imagination of humanism, to bridge the gap between raw data and the emerging explanation of culture process. However, in his remarkable book on How the lrish Saved Civilization, Thomas Cahill comments on stereotypical bias in history by quoting from John Henry Newman's fable of the Man and the Lion (Cahill 1995: 7-8). The man was proudly giving the lion a tour of a palace where paintings depicted encounters between man and lion-whereupon the lion commented, "Lions would have fared better, had lions been the artists." The lion, the scientist, the humanist, and the poet tell their stories, each from a different perspective. It behooves each of them to stop championing his position somewhere short of dogma--to at least dip a toe in the cold water on the other side.

Sciende and Magic: Knowledge and Dogma Although archaeology can accommodate both science and humanism, distinction should be made between science and its progenitor--magic. In her chapter on magic-making, Emma Hawkridge states clearly the contrast between those theoretical limbs of The Wisdom Tree (1945:18): Magic has been the dominating habit of man's thinking for thousands upon thousands of years; and science has only begun to enter the thinking of a few. Our roots go down through layers and layers of ancient theorizing and introspection; and our tip is just striking up into the air of science; the humble attitude of studying facts and forces according to their own laws, instead of our fancies. Once this contrast is acknowledged by a few, and there is the realization that the world's religions have emerged from the magic-makinggod-creating-dogma-producing process, science enters as the main actor on the stage of knowledge.

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Expressing Humanism--A Hillbilly ToulouseLautrec? In 1990, I climbed down from my science soapbox long enough to publish, within the humanism paradigm, my second book of poems, Angel at the Door (South 1990b). In the Preface, English professor, Skip Eisiminger, compared my poems dealing with overheard conversations in bars and cafes, to the artist Tolouse-Lautrec, who captured the vigor of ordinary people with a fluid and vivacious style. As an example of my poems, Skip tells the story I told in "Solomon's Song," of Jan, with her working-class friends, having lunch, and urging her to leave her uncaring husband and enjoy life. She goes to the powder room, and in the restroom hallway, she meets a "charismatic ram" who seduces her quite easily using the rhetoric of the Song of Solomon. Afterward, she rejoins the flock of "ewes .... who are still discussing what they regard as Jan's terminal shyness around men. Jan just listens and smiles with satisfaction" (Eisiminger 1990: v). This poem was based on a true story told me by Jan. Skip says that in my poems I am (Eisiminger 1990 vi): ...lusty, profane, provocative, and unapologetically sensual--'a mid-century Adam' charmed by Eve's bobbling, ripe fruit. For what this neo-romantic does best as one of his many personas confesses in "Living" is to live: To touch, And be touched, And to find myself Within. Is this Stan the historical-archaeology-asscience nut? Skip singles out my poem "McDonald's," that I literally overheard in that restaurant in 1982, and wrote it down almost verbatim as I heard it.

Tales Beyond Santa Elena

McDonald's What's the matter with this place! Ain't got no ash trays? Ain't got no ash trays? That what da man say, "Ain't got no ash trays!" How come, "Ain't got no ash trays?" Out, I guess. What kind of place is, "Out?" This kind of place, I reckon! Hey man! Where yo' ash trays?! I'm gonna bus' his head! "Ain't got no ash trays!" Hey, wait! - come here Bubba! The man can't help He ain't got no ash trays. He done run out! I ain't got no use For no place Ain't got no ash trays! Hey, wait Bubba, Flick 'em on the flo' The' man ain't got no ash tray, Then flick 'em on the flo'. Yeah, man! Good idea! Flick'era on de table! An flick 'em on de tiC. Flick 'em on de seat! An' flick 'em on de tiC. Yeah man - c o o l - Ain't got no ash trays? Damn right--flick 'era on de flo! Come on Bubba, Let's go! Yeah, man, Let's hit de doh!

Murphy's Pump Room Many o f m y poems have been written in bars as I observed those who frequented there. A favorite of mine was Yesterdays in Five Points in Columbia. The owners had a plaque on the wall to remember a friend and Vietnam buddy, who after the war, had become a mercenary who would parachute into the jungles of Africa to lead a reconnaissance party in tribal conflicts underway at that time. They told stories about his return from such trips and buying drinks for all those present in the bar.

343 One time he raised his drink for a toast and stuck the glass in the blades of a fan, breaking the glass and showering him with sherds and beer. On one j u m p his chute "bloomed," not opening properly, and he was killed. One night in 1987, as I sat drinking beer at the bar I wrote on napkins a long poem about that man, Big John Murphy, that I called "Murphy's Pump R o o m " (South 1990b: 3-5). I took the napkins upstairs to the office of Scottie and Duncan McCrae and read the poem. They liked it so much they had a calligrapher to copy it and mounted it in a large frame they hung in the bar for the bleary-eyed patrons to read!

"Lies In A Country Store"--I'm Caught Eavesdropping Recently (March 15, 2003), I "found" another poem while listening to conversations in a country store in Pumpkintown, South Carolina. This store also had a cafe at one comer where many local people stopped by to enjoy breakfast. The booths and tables are close to each other and as I listened I began taking notes on what I overheard nearby as I often do. However, this time I got caught, and in the conversation that followed, I was given the name o f that poem, a part o f which I present here.

Lies In A Country Store "You fellers better watch what you say, "That man's pro'ly writin' a book "'Bout what goes on in a country store. "Don't any of youn's use your real names. "You can use mine, tho'--hit's Bill Jones. (Laughter at the wrong name.) "Well, he can write there ain't but three things "Kills a man--smokin', stress, and women, "An you can do somethin' about the first two. "Air you a-getting' all this down?" "If you come in here ever' day "You could write more'n one, "But a lot of hit ain't printable! "Hit's pro'ly titled 'Lies in a Country Store.'

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Love and Marriage--an Apache Ceremony In the late 80s, my colleague, Jim Michie, invited me to go with him to a bar where a singles group met once a w e e k - - I was working too hard, he said. We were standing at one of those little round tables with no stools with our beers in hand, watching the entrance, checking out those who entered, waiting for Jim's date. A beautiful lady entered, took one look at us, and walked straight over to our table and introduced herself. We talked, and by the time Jim's date arrived, the place was packed, so the four of us went upstairs to a restaurant and ordered something to eat. We sat around all evening, with Jim telling stories, like the one about the time he was speeding in his boat on a dark night up the Congaree River with a friend and missed a rum in the Congaree River, after having consumed a sixpack of beer. The boat shot across a sandbar and then some distance into a cornfield. They got out and pushed the boat back into the river, leaving a large scar in the muddy field, with a set of Bigfoot-like tracks on each side. Later Jim heard that the farmer who owned the land had reported some humongous monster had crawled up out of the river and laid waste a mess o f corn--"What kind of a giant varmit do you reckon that was?" he had asked. Of course I had to respond with stories of my own, and so it went--showing off for the ladies. She was Janet Reddy, from New York by way o f Minneapolis, who was soon to receive her doctorate in psychology. She had a friend, a doctor of psychology, who also was an Apache medicine m a n - - a member of the Apache tribe in Oklahoma. We were married in the yard, by Kenneth Trogdon, in a Native American ceremony, on June 30, 1991--and lived happily ever after. Graduation Day--Janet, Robert and Lara Between 1990 and 1991, Janet had completed her dissertation and was awarded her Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Minnesota, and my children, Robert and Lara, had received their degrees from the University of South

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION Carolina: Robert's in Restaurant and Hotel Management (1990), and Lara's in Dramatic Arts (1992).

Figure 16.3. Janet Reddy. She and I were married by an

Apache Medicine Man/Psychologistin 1991. (Photo: South 1997) Janet and I went to Minneapolis so I could proudly witness her receiving the doctoral hood. Janet and I watched as Robert received his BA, and two years later we watched Lara receive hers--Jewetl would have been proud. Some years later, Robert married Sheila Douglas and they have two children, GingerGabrietle Alexis (Gigi) and Austin Alexander (Alex). Lara married James McKenna, from Ireland, and is expecting her first child in 2004.

America's First Creamware Potter--Searching for Bartlam on the Wando In 1991, assisted in the field by Carl Steen, and 1992, by Jim Legg, I went to Cainhoy, a settlement north of Charleston, to search on the bank of the Wando River, for evidence of the creamware potter, John Bartlam. Brad Rauschenberg, Director o f Research at the Museum o f Early Southern Decorative Arts at Old Salem, North Carolina, and I, had long been interested in locating the kiln and pottery waster dump of Bartlam, who made British type creamware at Cain Hoy between 1765 and 1770 (Rauschenberg 1991: 1-66; South 1993c 1).

Tales Beyond Santa Elena The site at Cainhoy, known in colonial days as Cain Hoy, was located by George Terry, who was also interested in discovering the site of Bartlam's pottery manufactory. His collection in the McKissick Museum at USC revealed fragments from Staffordshire type creamwares made by Bartlam, which stimulated my long-time interest in Bartlam's ware. As a result, I obtained a grant from the South Carolina Department of Archives and History, the B. J. Gethers Fund and the Diachronic Research Foundation, while Brad raised funds through MESDA t~om some donors interested in John Bartlam's venture of making Staffordshire type creamware in America. With this support we found Bartlam's pottery, including evidence from his attempt to make porcelain.

Figure 16.4. A sherd of John Bartlam's Dot, Diaper and

Basket, Staffordshiretype creamware. (South 1993) Brad arranged for a public celebration on the site to allow donors and others to meet M. Mellany Delhom from the Mint Museum in Charlotte--a noted expert on British ceramics (Pressley 2002 611]: I). The event, "Marooning with Bartlam on the Wando" was a great success, with many ceramic specialists attending. I entertained the crowd with stories of the archaeological work we had in progress on the site at that time. My report on the 1991 dig was published, and soon went out of print (South 1993c, 1999b), and, a decade later, I have completed a report on the 1992 excavation, with both reports scheduled to be published in the summer (South 2004). The preparation of that book was made possible in 2003 by funding provided by Brad Rauschenberg,

345 who is the Power of Attomey officer for Frank Horton, who has been a supporter of my research on John Bartlam, and William Ellis, as well as Rudolph Christ in Wachovia (South 1999a). I was assisted in the Bartlam book project by Lisa Hudgins and Julie Elam, who scanned into the text the many photographs it contains (South 2004).

Historical Archaeology in Latin America-Uruguay--I Begin A New Journal In November 1993, my wife, Janet Reddy and I were invited to attend the first South American conference on historical archaeology in Colonia del Sacramento, Uruguay. Our hostess was Uruguayan archaeologist Neslys Fusco Zambetogliris, who invited us on behalf of the Uruguayan Ministry of Education and Culture, under the auspices of the Instituto Cooperativo Iberoamericano Embajada de Espafia. Having founded the Conference on Historic Site Archaeology in 1960, I was especially pleased to present a paper at this conference on method and theory in historical archaeology (South 1994b 2: 78-84). In my discussion with colleagues in Uruguay I discovered that it was difficult for historical archaeologists to get papers published in Latin American countries-sometimes taking three years after submission before an article would appear. I realized that a journal on "Historical Archaeology in Latin America" was needed to allow publication of the result of work being conducted there. I also found out that the cost of subscribing to a journal costing $10 would cost $20, due to import costs--a cost beyond most colleagues to afford. Therefore, I resolved to publish such a journal anyway, using funds accumulated in my Conference on Historic Site Archaeology account at SCIAA - - mailing 10 copies at no cost to each of seven colleagues in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Uruguay. They agreed to act as Editorial Board coordinators and distribute them to colleagues digging on historic sites. I published 16 volumes of this journal in Portuguese, Spanish and English (South ed.,

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1994-1996), before I ran short of publication funds and had to end the series. I was particularly pleased that my Uruguayan colleague, Nelsys Fusco Zambetogliris translated into Spanish m y 1991, "Archaeology at Santa Elena: Doorway to the Past" for use by Hispanic speaking Latin American colleagues (South 1994 4). To share the Santa Elena discoveries with Latin American colleagues, I submitted an abstract from that "Doorways" volume to be translated and printed in the magazine Osmus (South 1996d: 4118]: 44-45, 4119]: 40-41).

Brick Technology in Uruguay--A Wonderful Research Opportunity We traveled by bus from Colonia in southwestern Uruguay across the country to Punta del Este on the southeastern coast. Along the way, we saw many brick clamps such as those once seen on some southern plantations in North Ameri6a. We had seen these handmade bricks stacked on the streets in Montevideo awaiting use in building construction, but it was a remarkable treat to see them being made. We stopped at one large clamp with several fireboxes and watched the workers plaster the outside of the large clamp with clay to hold in the heat. I took pictures and made up my mind then to apply for a grant to return and make a study of this brick technology, long gone from North America, before it is replaced by large commercial factories. When I was taking pictures of the rows and rows of bricks drying in the sun before being loaded into a clamp, a goat walked over the area, leaving its hoofprints in some of the green ware bricks along the way. I took a picture of this event that was of interest because at Spanish Santa Elena we have found dog prints, cat prints, chicken prints, and mouse prints in the bricks, where those animals too, walked on green ware bricks as they dried, over 400 years ago. We saw family domed-bee-gum bake ovens and stopped at one home and were shown the one they used to bake bread---currently occupied by a setting hen. They couldn't bake more bread until the chicks hatched.

Figure 16.5. A brick clamp of unfired bricks stacked over fireboxes.inthe Uruguayan countryside. The man at the left is plastering mud over the clamp to hold in the heat during firing. (Photo: South 11/1993) I later wrote my proposal and asked Uruguayan authorities for a needed invitation to return to Uruguay to study the domestic brick industry, but the invitation did not come. It was an opportunity missed to record a wide-spread folk industry before some big brick company moves in to ruin it with mass-produced bricks.

A Lecture in Argentina At the invitation of Daniel Sch~ivelzon, an historical archaeologist excavating in Buenos Aires, Janet and I traveled to Argentina to the Museo de la Plata, where we met with graduate students and staff and enjoyed an evening with them at a sidewalk caf6. I gave a lecture in "The Series of Conferences: New Directions in Science," at the Postgraduate Department for the Natural Science Faculty at the National University o f La Plata. My talk, on November 30, 1993, was

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on (what else)--method and theory in historical archaeology. Pioneers in Historical Archaeology: Breaking New Ground In 1994 1 edited a book written by contributors in 1977, shortly after my book on method and theory was published. This volume contained stories told by 12 pioneer archaeologists recalling their experiences with historic sites between the 1920s and the 1940s, in the dawning days of the field of historical archaeology. I recognized the field was growing fast, and felt that these pioneers should tell their stories and in 1977, I asked them to do that for a volume I would put together. They sent me chapters, but unfortunately, I was not able to put them into publishable form until 17 years later when it appeared as Pioneers in Historical Archaeology: Breaking New Ground (South (ed.): 1994). This volume records for posterity the efforts of these pioneers, trained in various fields, to tackle the challenge of dealing with sites relating to early American history.

The Golden Groundhog Award--Recognizing Golden Colleagues On Groundhog Day in 1994, i n order to recognize three of my colleagues in the groundhog hole of archaeology whose work I admire greatly, I created "The Golden Groundhog Award," which I presented to Chester DePratter, James Legg, and Richard Polhemus, in appreciation for excellence in archaeology and in gratitude for being:

Figure 16.6. Mountaingroundhogarchaeologist Stan South in the field at Santa Elena. (Photo:Jim Legg 12/1997)

Golden Groundhog A companion in the search For immortality in the earth, Who listen to the heartbeat in a pot, To fill a void in the vessel within, And inhale the spirit of the past With integrity, honesty, Wisdom and skill. Figure 16.7. The "Golden Groundhog" holding Stan's historical archaeologylogo. (Drawing: Jim Legg)

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Figure 16.10. Golden Groundhog archaeologist Richard

Polhemus with his certificate. (Photo: Sally Polhemus 1997) Figure 16.8. Golden Groundhog archaeologist Chester

DePratter in the field at Santa Elena. (Photo: South 12/1997)

Figure 16.9. Golden Groundhog archaeologist Jim Legg.

(Photo: South 1997)

In 1960, I had an artist draw several examples of a logo incorporating three of the most frequently found objects on eighteenth century British colonial sites: a wine bottle, a delft plate with a stylized drawing o f two swans (forming my initials), and a tobacco pipe, as well as the tool used by archaeologists to reveal those artifacts-the trowel. This logo first appeared on the program for the first Conference on Historic Site Archaeology in November o f that year. It appeared on all programs thereafter, as well as a personal logo on my archaeological maps and in my published books. The groundhog illustrated on the award is holding the logo-trowel and wearing my hat stuck full of feathers I have found on archaeological sites. Along with my presentation of "The Golden Groundhog Award," I had made, a duplicate of the gold logo pin (I have wom on my shirt collar for decades) with the initials of each recipient on the delft plate-symbol instead of the "SS" swans.

Tales Beyond Santa Elena

I did this to acknowledge the privilege I have had in working closely with such valued colleagues.

Remembering "Times Gone By"--Storytelling Perhaps it was the publication of the lookingback stories in the long delayed Pioneers in Historical Archaeology in 1994 (South ed.). Or maybe it was looking back to the 1950s to my study of the reconstruction of the town house on the mound at Town Creek (South 1995a), published in Joffre Coe's book (Coe 1995). Whatever--in 1995, I got the urge to write down the stories told me by my Brunswick Town archaeological crew - - What It Is Boss Man? I discussed that book in a previous chapter. It was that year also that I wrote the bookletlength poem, The Fort Fisher Hermit about my contact with that unique individual - - told in a previous chapter (South 1995c). In 1991, my sister, Elizabeth Storie had publisfied a book, My Killing Kin." The Potters of Tamarack: Telling It Like It Was, and when Howard Woodring, from the Meat Camp community near Boone read her book, he called her to talk about his stories involving the notorious Potter family of Tamarack, just over the mountain from Meat Camp. She gave me Howard's name (pronounced ---"Hard,"), and I called him in 1995. He had good stories to tell in the mountain way, which I enjoyed hearing. He also mentioned that he had a tape recording made of him telling some of the stories. I told him if he would mail me a copy o f the tape I would publish the stories in a booklet, which I did, which Howard called "A Window to Times Gone By" (Woodring 1996). Howard said of the collection, "That's a little ol' thing I put together just sorta for the family." This group of songs and folklore stories is told by a mountain storyteller, many of whom used to be found in the nooks, crannies and hollers of the Appalachians. It is told in Howard's natural mountain dialect, which he refers to as "o1' timey talk." This type of storytelling is becoming rare these days, because, as Howard said, "About all the old people that used to tell stuff to the younger

349 generations is about all gone." I am glad folklorists are working to preserve such treasured talk. Recently (July 2003), thanks to the intemet, a dramatist in New York had received through interlibrary loan from Appalachian University, a copy of Howard's booklet filled with "o1' timey talk." She was charged with making sure the Appalachian mountain language in a play by Romulus Linney, was authentic sounding. She asked for a copy of the tape so the actors could listen to Howard's use of the mountain dialect. Within a day o f her request for Howard's booklet, an actor from Connecticut, who is writing a screen-play on the Potter saga, called and asked for a copy of my book on Clarence Potter. I gladly sent him a copy knowing that at least he wasn't going to pass it off as archaeology. Maybe some day I'll see that story on television.

Storytelling in Historical Archaeology--A "Horse of a Different Color" In this volume I have told a number of stories, and to some not familiar with my Appalachian mountain accent, they may think my dialect is "o1' timey talk," not so strong as "Hard" Woodring's, but recognizable none the less. After I give a talk and am asked where I ' m from, I know the question has reference to my mountain accent. But, there are "Hard" Woodring's kind of mountain stories (folklore), and there are the "stories" my mother had reference to when she said to me, "Don't let me catch you telling stories!" To her, a story was a lie. In 1977, when I wrote to the pioneers in historical archaeology asking them to tell about their early years in the field, I urged them to simply tell their stories. Those stories were not archaeological reports, but stories about archaeology--there is a difference (South [ed.]: 1994). This present book appears to me to be a combination of both. Then there are the stories encouraged recently in the journal of the Society for Historical Archaeology, entitled "Archaeologists as Story Tellers (Praetzellis and Praetzellis 1998)--they

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are a horse of a different c o l o r - - a blend of fact and imagination--like a novel. Some of the best storytellers I know o f are writers of historical fiction--novelists--far more interesting as a rule than the often-deadly prose cranked out by those of us who are historical archaeologists. Given that, I can understand why, in the current antiscience humanistic wave sweeping historical archaeology, the idea of combining archaeological and historical data with imaginative reconstructions has become popular. In 1993 I addressed the storytelling phenomenon in historical archaeology as follows (South 1993a: 18). My view is that in the absence of scientific data, interpretive stories can well be written using imagination and writing skills, as a tale told by a novelist, or a poet, or a science fiction writer. But such stories are beyond the scope of archaeology. Such creations do not challenge the mind in a search for truth, or long hold the interest, because a basic element is missing--authenticity based on original data I am reminded of a comment by Robert Lowie in a letter to me (6/27/57), in which he said: It is evidently not superfluous to point out that the most imaginative constructs are scientifically worthless unless they bear some relation to reality. Swift's accounts of Brobdingnag and Lilliput are free inventions, but not contributions to anthropology. Accordingly, there are personal stories that are folklore, such as mountain tales passed on from generation to generation and collectors of tales; there are stories such as those being told by historical archaeologists to embellish their findings to make them more palatable; and there are lies that are euphemistically referred to as stories. Mixing scientific facts with creative imagination requires some special doing, so that

what is passed off as historical archaeology is not a horse of a different color--as in Brobdingnag and Lilliput. One of the true mountain tales I told in Chapter 3 was obtained from Clarence Potter when I interviewed him in 1958. Suppose some day in the future Clarence's house is gone, and I return to the site years later and find in the ruin a rusty pearl handled pistol--would this tale then qualify to become an historical archaeology report? O r - - i f I dig in a ruin somewhere else and find a pearl handled pistol, could I simply attach Clarence's story about blowing the head off of a chicken to that excavation report as "explanation" and call it historical archaeology? Think about it! I don't call poetry or fiction, or story-telling-archaeology.

"Anyway, I Saw the Bushes Move!" "If You're Going to Lie, Make It A Big One!" I never met my great aunt, "Greatie," but I heard stories of her stretching the truth upon occasion. Daddy said one time when she was visiting us she came in the house and reported she had seen a big snake under a bush in the back yard. He knew there were hardly any snakes in the mountains and challenged her on the story. She said, "Well, I saw the tail," and he challenged that, based on the pattern he knew from experience, and asked he why she had lied about seeing a snake. Her answer was "Anyway, I saw the bushes move!" He then asked her why she stretched the truth that way and she said, in exasperation, "If you're going to lie, make it a big one!" He always enjoyed telling that story about a storyteller (as in lying). "A Little Bird Told Me"--A Yellow One As a child, if my mother found out I had not told the truth about something, I would ask, "How did you know?" She would answer, "A little bird told me." However, an incident in the fifth grade made a strong impact on me regarding the need to tell the truth unmixed with fiction. I was asked to report to the class for "show and tell" and I reported on having seen a beautiful

Tales Beyond Santa Elena

little yellow bird when I climbed Howard's Knob, the mountain behind our home. To make the story more interesting, I added that the bird was beside a nest containing little yellow baby birds. The teacher, Mrs. Howell, immediately challenged my story, but I tried to stick to it. She told the class birds did not raise little ones in the mountains in November and told me I was lying and that it made her s a d - - I had been caught by a seasonal pattern of which I was unaware. I was mortified at being caught lying to the entire class. That incident, and having my mouth washed out with soap, made me resolve never to lie again.

Charged With Storytelling--As In Lying In the light of the above discussion, for my public lectures I have always focused on those fascinating bits of information which audiences love, that must be winnowed from the archaeological and historical documents, both often filled with excruciating factual detail at times--like parts of this book. For example, when French Charlesfort was abandoned in 1563, the group in the little boat they had built to return to France began dying of starvation, so they decided to eat the next person who died. For three days no one died, so they drew lots and the loser, a man named Chere, was killed. His flesh was cut from his bones and divided equally among the others, thus allowing them to survive (Quinn 1979: II, 306-307, also in DePratter and South 1990: 7). A gruesome story, but the kind of tale, audiences appear to enjoy. Another story I use is from a Spanish document (Archives of the Greater Indies. Escribania de Cfimara 1487-89, Folio 392-401, Nov. 29, 1576]), involving a lawsuit between Pablas Juan and Capt. Gutierra de Miranda, who made him kiss a dog's behind. This brings a laugh from the audience, as I tell them that the expression used today to tell someone to kiss that part of one's anatomy, apparently has its origin deep in the pages of history. My supervisor was at one of my talks, after which I was called into his office and told that I should not insert such mountain fables into my

351 talks on historical archaeology at Santa Elena. I assured him that those stories were not simply lies made up to entertain the crowd, but were taken from the historical documents. I agreed with him that fictional stories should not be passed off as archaeology, and gave him the citations for the stories to prove my point--today I take care that my stories are not fiction.

"Oh Boy!"--The Wachovia Book Manuscript Is Lost In the Mail In 1997, I mailed a chapter on "Generalized Versus Literal Interpretation" of historic sites to John Jameson for publication in his book on presenting archaeology to the public (South 1997a), and I enclosed an article on thoughts on theory in historical archaeology (South 1996c: 1712]: 10-12). John received these epistles through the mail with no problem. It was at this time also, after inserting into the computer my 30-year old manuscript on archaeology at the Moravian settlement of Bethabara, I completed the book, called Historical Archaeology in Wachovia. With great relief, I took the manuscript to the post office to mail it to Eliot Werner at KluwerAcademic/Plenum Publishers, assuming there would be no problem--wrong! I was so excited to get the thing in the mail after having it sit on my office shelf for three decades that I said to the postal clerk, "Oh boy! Am I glad to get this book in the mail after 30 years." He looked fiercely at me as though I had said something insulting--even gritting his teeth and glaring intently, but I was excited, and asked him to register the package, with the cost going to the Institute account. When I asked for a receipt, he said the person who handled the registration was not there at the moment and it would be mailed to me. I thought this was curious, but left the post office happy that the Wachovia book was finally on its way toward being published (South 1999a). After a month or so I called Eliot Werner and asked what he thought of the manuscript. He said he had never received it. What a blow that was! Many of the photographs were irreplaceable. I

352 was devastated. The post office had no record of the registration. I finally reconciled myself to the loss, realizing that the book would now never be printed. It was then, as I thought about the day I had turned the manuscript in, and the anger I saw in the clerk's face, I realized that the key to the disappearance of the manuscript lay in my original greeting to the man as I excitedly laid the package on the counter (South 1997b). After several months of mourning for the disappearance of that member of my family of books - - out of my research and writing--life went on, as I tumed to other things to try to forget that great loss. Then, one day, my colleague, Lisa Hudgins, told me one morning that, while looking through my desk for something, she had found a manuscript in a seldom-used drawer, and asked if that was the Wachovia book manuscript. I opened the drawer, thinking I would find a Xerox copy, but to my great surprise and delight I saw the original manuscript, complete with the box of 390 photographic illustrations and maps. I was flabbergasted! The book had returned from the dead. Then I knew the answer. I had meant to mail the original to Eliot but had accidentally sent my working Xerox copy instead! With that discovery I had a new lease on life, and to my great pleasure I saw the Wachovia book, having survived 30 years in hibernation and a disaster in the mail, finally appear in print (South 1999a). Recognition from U. S. C. - - t h e Honorary Degree--Doctor Of Humanities Unknown by me, my colleagues, Chester DePratter and Albert C. Goodyear, supported by George Terry, nominated me for an Honorary Doctor of Humanities degree (H.H.D.). In 1997, I was surprised when I received a phone call from the Secretary of the University of South Carolina Board of Trustees, informing me that I was to be presented that degree. The citation said (Legacy 1997 2[3]: 1, 5):

For his pioneering efforts in the field of historical archaeology, for his tireless

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION research at important archaeological sites in South Carolina that have brought national and international attention to the state, and for his long and productive career that has bumished the reputation of the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, the University of South Carolina, with approval of the Board of Trustees, now presents Stanley Austin South for the honorary degree of Doctor of Humanities. What an honor that is for meE George Terry, who at that time was Vice Provost for Libraries and Collections, told me that to his knowledge I was only the second recipient of that degree who had been awarded it while still employed by the university--a special honor indeed! I A m Invited to The Universite de Paris I, Panth6on-Sorbonne--A Ph.D. Committee Another honor came in 1998, with an invitation to the Sorbonne, U.D.R. D'Historie de L'Art et Archeologie, Paris, France, to sit on the Ph.D. Committee of Maria-Teresa Penna, whose dissertation was on historical archaeology in the United States. She was an outstanding candidate and she received the unanimous approval of the committee. Her thesis was prepared for publication and appeared in print in 1999 (Penna 1999), with an introduction by Leon Pressouyre, a professor at the University of Paris 1 (Panth6onSorbonne). I was expected to make a statement in French, a language I had never studied, but Janet saved the day the night before the committee met, by tutoring me in the pronunciation after having translated my remarks into French the night before. As I read my remarks, the members politely smiled, as I struggled to make my self understood in their language. It was then they furnished a translator to keep me informed of what was going on, and to translate into French my comments in the discussion that followed Maria-Teresa's oral presentation.

Tales Beyond Santa Elena

Janet and I were treated royally in Paris. We enjoyed our stay very much, being escorted around the city and the museums by Maria-Teresa and her husband. They took us to a museum where archaeological artifacts were being processed, and where I showed a group of French stoneware potsherds we had recovered from French Charles fort at Santa Elena. The verification I got there clinched the identification of those sixteenth century fragments for us. We also enjoyed going below ground to visit the archaeological ruins in La crypte archrologique du Parvis Notre-Dame ~ Paris. While we were in France, Janet and I were taken to visit a museum outside Paris, the Musre Archrologique Drpartemental du Val d'Oise, where we saw sixteenth century ceramics and other artifacts on display. This was a rare treat because other museums are more interested in Roman or other early sites, and have less interest in histbric sites of the sixteenth century--they being too recent. To allow us to experience a French home environment, our hosts invited us to the home of Drs. Bruce and Danielle Velde, where we had a delightful dinner of French cuisine and evening of conversation. Janet, a city dweller and I, greatly enjoyed this rare hospitality we experienced in France---certainly a once-in-a-lifetime experience for a hillbilly-groundhog archaeologist.

"Chickens Coming Home to Roost"--Books Published Sometimes books are brought almost to completion when other priorities rise to the top and the manuscripts are put aside. This was the case with the manuscript for the archaeology I did at Bethabara and Old Salem in the 1960s. In manuscript form it was titled "Discovery in Wachovia," which became Historical Archaeology in Wachovia (South 1999a), when the funds from the anonymous donor allowed me the opportunity to complete the book. Another such volume was my book manuscript on the archaeology I had done at British colonial Charles Towne in 1969, originally

353 entitled, "Man on Albemarle Point," which became Archaeological Pathways to Historic Site Development when the anonymous donor's grant had resulted in making available to me the time from Santa Elena responsibilities to devote to completing it for publication (South 2002b). It was in 2001, when Eliot Werner, who had edited several of my other books through Plenum Publishers, and then Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, contacted me with an interest in republishing my 1977 book on Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology (South 1977a). He had resigned from that firm to start his own publishing company, Eliot Werner Publications, Inc. I was pleased that he wanted to produce a paperback edition in his Percheron Press series (South 2002b). I asked my friend, Lew Binford, who had written the Foreword to the 1977 book, to write a new one for that edition, and he graciously agreed to do so.

Interviewed Thurman

By

Poet

Archaeologist--Mel

In 1998, Mel Thurman, a published archaeologist poet who shared some of his poems with me, came to SCIAA to interview me about my career in historical archaeology. He spent most of the day with a tape recorder running hot as I rambled on about the past--answering his probing questions from time to time. Over the next three years he worked on transcribing and editing the tapes to pull some coherence from the train-of-thought ramblings I had subjected him to. As the long document neared completion, he was of the opinion that the paper "is a truly major contribution to historical archaeology" (personal communication 8/15/01). However, that may be, Mel dropped from my email screen early in 2002--his whereabouts after that unknown to me. I don't suppose the interview will ever be smeared onto the printed page, but a few of the same stories I told Mel have been re-told in this autobiographical tale. Mel is a long-time friend and colleague--a brilliant and interesting person who challenges one to think-and to stretch the frontier o f inquiry to catch a

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glimmer of understanding from the vast darkness of the unknown--out there--and within.

The Order of the Palmetto--Governor Hodges Thanks Me---and Hootie and the Blowfish

We Thank Our Crew Members To thank our many volunteers and crew members, in 1999, on the anniversary of my 20 years of research at Santa Elena, Chester organized a "20 th Anniversary Celebration and Crew Reunion," with speakers Kathleen Deagan, Carl Halbirt, Elizabeth Reitz, Paul Hoffman, Karen Paar and Chester DePratter. The announcement was made and invitations to all crew members for whom I had addresses were mailed out (1998 Legacy 3[3]: 9). The celebration was co-sponsored by the Santa Elena Project, the South Carolina Institute o f Archaeology and Anthropology, and the Institute for Southern Studies. The crew reunion was held in conjunction with the Archaeological Society of South Carolina, on February 20, 1999.

Walter Edgar, Director of the Institute for Southern Studies made an announcement at our anniversary celebration, saying that South Carolina Governor Jim Hodges had presented me with The Order o f the Palmetto, the State's highest award, and I was designated "A Palmetto Gentleman." What a surprise that w a s ! - - a groundhog--hillbilly--gentleman, yet! I am grateful to Governor Hodges for that honor and to Chester DePratter and Walter Edgar for nominating me for it. I took pleasure in noting that when the announcement was made in The State newspaper, it was disclosed that members of the musical group, Hootie and the Blowfish, had also received that honor as w e l l - - I was in good company! (Stroud, Joseph S. 1999; Rice, Nena Powell, ed. 1999 411-3]: 1, 7). I was pleased to see so many of my crew members and colleagues present to share this honor with me. Some of the outstanding researchers in the field o f Spanish colonial history posed with me for a picture to mark the occasion (Fig.16.11).

Figure 16.11. Researchers in Spanish colonial history and archaeology. Left to right: Elizabeth Reitz, Paul Hoffman, Cart Halbirt, Karen Paar, Start South, Chester DePratter and Kathleen Deagan.

(Photo: Daryl Miller I999)

Tales Beyond Santa Elena

"I Feel A Poem Coming On"--Mae Belle Casey South While I was being honored by Governor Hodges, my mother Mae Belle, had a posthumous book of her poems published as a tribute by my Sister, Elizabeth Storie, (South, Mae Belle Casey 1999). Momma would have been so proud to see her poems in print--as I was. The title was an expression momma often used whenever she felt a poem coming on. After she said that, she would go into her bedroom and we knew to leave her alone, until she emerged a short while later with a new poem. Charles Towne Revisited--2000-2001 Over 30 years after my 1969 discovery and reconstruction of the fortification embankments at Charles Towne Landing, the officials at the South Carolina Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism had a new vision for interpretation of the site. As a result I was asked to direct a two-year project of archaeology on the site designed to locate one or more of the original structures documented to have been built inside the fortified area shortly after the colonists arrived in 1670. To do this, I employed Michael J. Stoner, who had worked with me at Santa Elena, to manage the field project in cooperation with park officials and Park Archaeologist, Elsie Eubanks. The $99,998 project resulted in the discovery of the 12 by 18 foot posthole pattern for one of the original Charles Towne houses, and the seventeenth century artifacts associated with it (South 2001b; 2002b:287-289). The artifact concentration for various classes of Charles Towne artifacts was located along the east side of the posthole pattern for the house (Stoner and South 2001: 43-76). The seventeenth century Charles Towne artifacts clustered just as my Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal had predicted they would on eighteenth century sites (South 1977a: 47-80). This law-like generalization stated that "On British-American sites of the eighteenth century a concentrated refuse deposit will be found at the points of

355 entrance and exit in dwellings, shops, and military fortifications" (South 1977a:48). A few years after my prediction I discovered that the law-like prediction emerging from eighteenth century British colonial town site data, also applies to sixteenth century Spanish colonial town sites as well (South 1980b: 37-38, 1982a: 45). It was rewarding, therefore, to see the Brunswick Pattern so dramatically demonstrated at seventeenth century Charles Towne (South 2001b: 12, 2002b: 287-289; Stoner 2001: 10, 2002: 291-293; Stoner and South 2001, vii, 4376). Mike Stoner had excavated at a kiln site in Barbados, so he was familiar with Barbadian redwares (Stoner and South 2001: 57-61). When he determined the distribution of these wares he found that they clustered in the same place as did the seventeenth century British colonial artifacts--to the east of the posthole pattern--thus associating those wares with the occupation of the house. This Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal (South 1977a: 47-80), demonstrated archaeologically the Barbadian connection with one of the earliest houses inside the fortified area of Charles Towne. That connection was known from historical documentation, of course, but it was rewarding to see it demonstrated archaeologically, as it was to finally see the architectural evidence for one of the earliest Charles Towne houses. When South Carolina Governor Jim Hodges visited the site I explained to him what Mike and I were finding there (Stoner and South 2001: Cover). When I dug at Charles Towne over 30 years ago (South 1969a), I was not able to recognize the redwares I found as being from Barbados. Our recent work there, thanks to Stoner's knowledge of Barbadian ceramics and the methodology we used, allowed this relationship to be established. That method was the one developed at Spanish Santa Elena through the years (South 2002e [1998]), involving the use of a Gradall excavator to remove the soil in two inch layers from ten-foot squares on a grid (South 2001b: 12). The resulting

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- _

~

:

"-..

~

.......

Figure 16.12. Stan explaining the Charles Towne house discovery to South Carolina governor Jim Hodges. (Photo: Andrew Agha 2001) artifact assemblage was then computerized, to print a visual display of artifact concentration - the Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal.

Evolutionary Theory--Full Circle I n ' 1999 I drafted a paper, "Evolutionary Theory at Mid-Century and at the Millennium: A Personal Perspective," including many comments I received from colleagues who had read my 1955 paper on "Evolutionary Theory in Archaeology" (South 1955a). To broaden the perspective, in the year to follow, I collaborated with Halcott P. Green, a Columbia attorney long interested in evolutionary theory, and we submitted the joint paper to a journal only to have it rejected. We made a few changes and filed it away to age like a fine wine (South and Green 2000). We then turned our efforts to a paper on "Energy Theory and Historical Archaeology," making the point that energy theory underlies evolutionary theory, and providing specific examples - - a paper that was also rejected (South and Green 2001), but will be published in (McNaughton and Steen led.) 2004). We sent a copy of our evolutionary theory paper to Robert L. Carneiro, whom Robert Bates Graber has said is, "Undoubtedly the greatest cultural evolutionist of our time" (Carneiro 2003, cover). Later, in Carneiro's masterpiece book on, Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical

History, it pleased me to see that he quoted from my 1955 paper (South 1955a: 21-22), saying I boldly announced that archaeologists will slowly begin to admit, "how deeply the roots of archaeological theory lie within the evolutionary theory outlined by Tylor and Morgan (Cameiro 2003: 135). He notes that I chided my colleagues, "If archaeologists are going to use evolutionary stages, and operate under basic evolutionary assumptions, why not say so?" And he also pointed out that I said that the reality of evolution is "one of the necessary assumptions upon which archaeology depends if it is to aspire to anything more than merely writing historical description" (Carneiro 2003: 135; South 1955: 3). He also quotes from our evolutionary theory paper as it was in 2000 (Cameiro 2003: 124, 135136, 265), which healed our disappointment at having our papers turned down by two historical archaeology journals. But we persevered, and it will be published in, In Praise of the Poet Archaeologist: A Salute to Stanley South and His Five Decades of Historical Archaeology (CarnesMcNaughton and Steen (ed.) 2004 [in press]). Regarding biological evolution, John R. Searle, "one of the great philosophers of our century," says in discussing how the world works, that "there are two propositions of modern science that are not, so to speak, up for grabs,".., t h a t . . . "are not seriously in dispute among educated members of our civilization at the turn of the millennium. These are the atomic theory of matter and the evolutionary theory of biology" (Searle 1998: cover, 40). Unfortunately, evolutionary theory has not yet achieved this level of recognition in the science of culture, in spite of the efforts of Morgan, Tylor, White and Carneiro (Morgan, 1877, Tylor 1889, White 1945, 1947a, 1947b, Carneiro 2003). Some ideas basic to mankind's understanding of how things really are, are slow to achieve recognition in archaeology!

Kathleen A. Deagan--A Colleague in the Search Having gotten our paper on evolution accepted for publication, I turned my attention to collaborating with Kathleen Deagan on a chapter

Tales Beyond Santa Elena on "Historical Archaeology in the Southeast, 1930-2000" for a book in honor of Charles H. McNutt (South and Deagan 2002: 35-50). It was a pleasure to me, after such a rocky beginning of our collegial relationship, to be able to join Kathy 30 years later in writing a review of the field of historical archaeology in the Southeast (Tushingham, Hill and McNutt 2002). In a forthcoming book Kathy tells the story of our rocky beginning as colleagues. I had written some extensive critical comments on a paper she sent me for review: "A few weeks later, after I stopped crying, I realized that Stan had been right in nearly all of his critiques, and I wrote to thank him for his truly generous act in taking a beginning graduate student that seriously" (Cames-McNaughton and Steen (ed.) 2004 [in press]). I am glad Kathy came down off the ceiling, quit crying, and wrote to thank me. As a number of people may well testify, I am not known' for pulling punches (not being a people person), and as Kathy relates, I told her I had previously written critiques for other colleagues but never heard from them again.

Praise for the Poet Archaeologist--an Honor from Colleagues When the Society for Historical Archaeology held its annual meeting in Mobile, Alabama, in January 2002, Linda F. Carnes-McNaughton and Carl Steen organized a symposium entitled "A Salute to Stanley South and His Five Decades of Historical Archaeology." It was a special tribute from two long-time colleagues Linda CarnesMcNaughton and Carl Steen. I took the opportunity to present the South and Green paper on energy theory (South and Green 2001), and at the request of John Idol, whose paper dealt with my poems, I read my poem "The Fishermen," as the climax of John's paper (South 1978a: 6-9). Linda and Carl are publishing the papers presented at that conference in a festschrift volume (Carnes-McNaughton and Steen 2004 [in press]).

357

Searching for Hopewell in South Carolina My formative days were devoted to a great interest in prehistoric Native American culture change, but my developmental period came with the challenge of historical archaeology--defining my archaeological image for many who have read the results of my efforts in that field. This year 2003, however, it was my pleasure to once again join a project with a question about Native American culture. Chester DePratter, Jim Legg and I conducted a one-week field project to explore the Stone Rock Mound site in western South Carolina. We looked for evidence of the Hopewell culture dating around 2,000 years ago. The site was brought to the attention of Chester DePratter a decade ago by Tommy Charles. They mapped it in the expectation of re~rning, to explore archaeologically, the two stone rings encircling a natural outcropping on top of a hill. They thought the geometric ring enclosures, characteristic of the Middle Woodland Hopewell period, might represent a cultural influence from Ohio in South Carolina around 2,000 years ago (Caldwell 1958: 29-31; Griffin 1952a: 228-229, 1952b: 358-361, 1952c:367; Maxwell 1952: 184-186; Morgan 1952: 88-93). The artifacts representative of this culture are copper and mica ornaments and shell beads found with burials located among rock outcrops on sites such as this in Georgia and elsewhere. Our week-long dig revealed that the stone rings were placed there on red clay subsoil when the natural mound was devoid of organic material--leading to speculation as to when, and by whom, the rock rings and piles were created-farmers or Hopewell Indians. But we found no artifacts addressing this question--only a single brown beer bottle, which Chester suggested might be used on the cover of his report on the project. Chester did collect charcoal from beneath one of the rock rings, from which a radiocarbon date might give a clue to when the stones were placed in their present configuration on the site. A major benefit from this project was the camaraderie we enjoyed in having the eight of us on the crew to

358 share the experience---always a major personal pleasure on an archaeological dig. I r a q - - W o r l d Cultural Memory Loss Today is April 13, 2003 and a sad day for the world because of the news of the looting of the great world archaeological treasures from the National Museum in Iraq representing the cultural memory of the history of the world. The thousands who lost their lives in the process of change in that country are a loss to the families-a particularistic one that can't compare to the loss to the world of those ancient artifacts that were the cultural memory for us all--a loss similar to other great cultural memory disasters that occurred when the archive of the ancient world in the library in Alexandria was looted and burned by Christians in 391 A. D. ----or when the archbishop of Mexico, Don Juan de Zumarraga, burned to ashes a "mountain heap" of Aztec writings collected from all over Mexico. As historian William H. Prescott said (1843: 101102): We contemplate with indignation the cruelties inflicted by the early conquerors. But indignation is qualified with contempt, when we see them thus ruthlessly trampling out the spark of knowledge, the common boon and property of all mankind. The loss of human life is a limited, localized sadness for the family and friends, retained in memory during their lifetime, but that is a mere personal loss. The loss of the world's memory inherent in the archaeological artifacts in those repositories in Alexandria and Iraq, however, is a far greater blow to human history than the mere loss of human life can ever be. The losses at Alexandria and Baghdad are an unparalleled, heartbreaking disaster for those of us steeped in the belief that it is the material remains of culture in which the immortality of each of us, and of mankind, resides. It is found in the form of the written word in our libraries, and our archives, and in the cultural legacy residing in the artifacts recovered from the earth beneath our feet. These

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION things, housed in our museums, insure our immortality far more than the empty promises of the gods we have created to assuage our pain and give us hope. A Change Toward More Problem-Oriented Research?--When Pigs Fly! Time brings evolutionary change, revolutionary change, regime change, and personal change, but change is forever a constant to be depended upon--but sometimes growth is very slow to take place. For instance, when I came to SCIAA in 1969, there were the director, and John Combes and me in USC-funded unclassified hard money staff positions, devoted to long-range, problem-oriented archaeological research on land sites. There was one support staff member. When John resigned, his position was assumed by A1 Goodyear. Today, after 35 years, one additional such position has been added in the Research Division u Chester DePratter (Associate Director for Research). The' dream of John Combes and me, that growth would involve the creation of many such unclassified, faculty level University positions, devoted to grant procurement for longrange problem oriented research, was not realized--perhaps some day--when pigs fly! However, there are currently 52 people on the SCIAA payroll! Included in that figure are support staff, student assistants, and 10 archaeologists on soft grant-dependent funds, conducting mitigation-driven archaeology in the Applied Research Division, headed by Steven D. Smith; the Maritime Research Division, headed by Christopher Amer, (Associate Director for Maritime Research) and at the Savannah River Archaeological Research Program (headed by Associate Director, Mark Brooks) - - major roles performed by SCIAA. It is apparent that growth has occurred as the state agency responsibilities at SCIAA have increased--a phenomenon reflecting the growth of archaeology on the national level, as cultural resource management has taken an increasingly significant role in our system.

Tales Beyond Santa Elena The fact that this state agency function currently dominates research at SCIAA, with the creation of only one unclassified USC archaeological faculty level position in the Research Division in the past 34 years, is disappointing when contrasted with the phenomenal growth in faculty positions seen in departments throughout the University of South Carolina during the same period of time. Recent change has come about at the administrative level at SCIAA. Our director, Bruce Rippeteau, has stepped aside after nearly 19 years as Director, to become a Research Professor. State Archaeologist, Jonathan Leader, has replaced him as Interim Director of SCIAA to fulfill both those roles. Given the current financial status of the State of South Carolina and the University regarding funds to employ a new director, and the track record of only one unclassified position having been created during the pagt three decades, I suspect Jon may well look forward to being the interim director for years to come. I don't begrudge him that challenge! This regime change will, no doubt, bring change in the direction of the SCIAA regarding its dual missions of grant-funded, problem-oriented archaeological research on the one hand; and state agency-mandated curation of archaeological records, conservation and management of mitigation-driven, archaeological and underwater resources through contractual agreements between agencies on the other. The future of problemoriented research in relation to cultural resource mitigation-driven research is a challenge currently faced in archaeology throughout America. At present I am the senior archaeologist on the staff of SCIAA, having been here longer than others. Because of the lack of upward mobility within SCIAA, such as that endemic to the Academic teaching world, I have spent my archaeological research career at the same level and title I had when I first arrived at the University of South Carolina 34 years a g o - archaeologist--a title I continue to proudly place after my name.

359 An Archaeological Evolution--the Challenge of a Lifetime The stories I have told here represent an outline of my archaeological evolution--a challenge that has taken me a lifetime to unfold. It has been a remarkable journey, climaxed in recent years by the helpful support, applause, acknowledgement and thanks of my colleagues who have helped me along the way--for which I am grateful. I could keep the stories flowing, but I haven't yet lived tomorrow and this groundhog will keep on burrowing in that archaeological midden as long as my worn-down trowel holds up. In spite of the fact that I was awarded a certificate at the SAA Seminar at Airlie that certifies that I am a member of The Society of the Flaccid Trowel, I will continue to have it ready when Chester or someone else suggests I join their expedition to explore the past by delving in the dirt and writing about recovering those clues to the past! I love it, and will continue to do so as long as my mind holds out. A fortune cookie I got recently says it all: "Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of your own mind." Postscript I completed the above paragraph to end this book at 9:30 a.m. today, Friday, June 27, 2003, and in a happy, fulfilled mood, I left immediately to meet my first appointment with a new doctor, one whom Janet had highly recommended as being of a more scientific mind than the one I had recently been having humanistic chats with on occasion--the one who knew me, after a number of visits, as "Mr. Smith." For the last two days on the treadmill in my hour-long cardio-pulmonary exercise program I have participated in for two years, I began having chest pain. With nine by-pass tubes plugged into my heart already, I thought "no wonder," "it's about time." So, I thought I ought to be checked out. As I walked across the street after finishing this book, the pain returned before I got to the doctor's office. Fortunately, this doctor was of a more scientific bent than a pro forma-socializing one. He listened to my story and did some tests,

360 including nuclear radiation and a treadmill-free treadmill exam ("a new one on me"), taking most of the day, and concluded: "It would seem the arteries to your heart are about 99% blocked [could it be from too many clieh6s in this book?]. He gave me a cute little bottle of nitro-glycerin [isn't that what terrorists put in bombs?]; told me to take one under my tongue whenever I felt chest pain [how much I wonder on a scale of one to ten?]; and sent me home with the encouraging thought that he hoped I could "hang in there" until Monday. I admire such honesty! That reminds me of a point I have believed in ever since a reviewer of one of my poetry books said my poems were filled with clich6s. That is, as I listen to people in the real world to collect my "found poems," I have discovered that the language of the people---the poetry of their thoughts, as it were, is filled with elieh6smthe voice 9f the people! I have recognized that pattern-recognition phenomenon, in my poetry and in my writing, and have succumbed to it. It is not the voice of the scholar whose properly-honed use of the language avoids clich6s "like the plague"~but the chosen words of the people you meet and listen to every day! So, yes, I plead guilty to the soft impeachment of recognizing patterned, well-worn metaphorical language [clieh6s]--as the reader who has "stuck with me" thus far has discovered in this book [though I have "weeded out" many at the suggestion of my helpful "eagle-eyed" editors]. This groundhog can't predict future weather, or events, but I'm having a third heart catheterization to monitor the condition of my heart, which has "seen better days." To those who haven't enjoyed that process, a probe is inserted into an artery in your groin and pushed up that arterial intra-body highway to your heart where a dye is introduced. As you watch on the T. V. monitor, you can see where the crud-buildup in the arteries constricts the blood-flow to a narrow line. What a show that is! As I watched that process I exclaimed to the cardiologist that he should "put the show on the road" on national television. I said the same thing

AN ARCHAEOLOGICALEVOLUTION when I watched on the "tube" as another T. V. probe made its journey through the clean red cavern of my colon--now that's also "a show worth watching" as the polyp "mushrooms" growing there are zapped and a little puff of smoke rises in that tunnel! What tim---what science! The previous two heart catheterizations resulted in mechanics [surgeons] opening my chest and exposing that sucker to the scalpel [shovel] to insert those nine oxygen-carrying, crud-by-passing tubes to that remarkable humping-sump-pump. Is there room in there for yet more macaroni tubes to feed oxygenated fluid [blood] to that dude to keep it hunching? I don't know, but my options have been reduced and my future is unpredictable by this mountain groundhog. With that, I will subject the reader to yet another, final elich6---"Here today--gone tomorrow." Later--I'm still kicking, but not so high. As long as I can write, I'll be happy--especially when this book is published by Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers 2005. Then I can begin working on a couple more I have in the works: my thesis "Archaeology on the Roanoke" (South 1959a) and the revision of"The Search for John Bartlarn at Cain Hoy: America's First Creamware Potter" (South 1993c), for which I have just received a grant from supporters Frank L. Horton and Bradford Rauschenberg (South 2004). [This one has just come off the press as SCIAA Research Manuscript 231.] Another Honor Is B e s t o w e d m F r o m SEAC

I was notified that on November 14, 2003, I will receive the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Southeastern Archaeological Conference! What an honor that is! Thanks to so many for supporting my archaeological research [Appendix], especially my family, my colleagues and Mends, and my colleague Chester DePratter, who nominated me for that award, and the SEAC committee members who presented it to me - - a treasured accolade from my peers!

APPENDIX Stan South's Archaeological Field Crew Members Watauga Co., N. C. S u r v e y 1952 South, Jewell Roanoke Rapids, N . C . 1954 Binford, Jean Binford, Lewis Hills, Allen South, Jewell T o w n Creek, N.C. 1956-1958 Gaines, Dude Gaines, Edward Mayhew, Don South, Jewell Wilson, David Brunswick Town, N . C . 1958-1969 Clark, Edward Demmy, George Edge, Johnny Mayhew, Don Miller, Johnny Moore, Freddy Roberts, Johnny Smith, Charles Smith, Freddy South, David South, Jewell

Paca House, Md. 1967 South, Jewell South David Luther, Randy Little, J. Glenn II Bethabara, N . C . 1963 - 1968 Demmy, George Little, J. Glenn II Luther, Randy Miller, Johnny Rauschenberg, Brad Reid, Bill South, David South, Jewell Old Salem, N . C . 1968 Horton, Frank Rauschenberg, Brad South, Jewell Stone, Garry Fort Fisher, N . C . 1963 - 1968 Asbury, R. V. Jr. Demmy, George Miller, Johnny Reid, Sill Smith, Charles

Fayetteville Arsenal N. C. 1968 Holmes, Alice Jones, James McMahan, Margaret Neighborhood Youth C o r p s Stone, Garry

Charles Towne Landing 1969 S.C. Akel, Norman Allen, James Amine, Bob Armbruster. James Baker, George Barnes. Russell Barrington, Robert Benthal, Joe Bivens, Alton Boydston, Stuart Bozard, Jim Brooks, Richard Brumbaugh, Lee Burbage, Charles Calwicks, Tommy Capers, Joseph Carroll, Christine Caulfield, Martin Chewier, "Bugsy" Chiles, Paul Clement, Thomas Combes, John Corvette, Rusty Crooks, Danny Dangerfield, Mike Daudin. Mike Deering, Gary Drury, Andrew Durling, Chaya Dukes, Jerry Farrow, David Frayer, David Frisco, Charles Galwicks, Tommy Garrison, Allen Gettys, Bill Gettys, Cathy Gilbert, Dave Gonsalves, Charles Grimes, Buddy Gumm, Paul Halsey, Dick Hamlin, Thomas Hardy, Frank Harp, Steve Harrels, James Hartzog, Glenn Harwood, Marcus Hendrickson, Larry

361

Charles Towne Landing, S. C. - 1969 Hinson, Gary Hostetler, Alvie Howton, Norman Hurst, Lee Roy Isaacson,Mark Ives, Dwight Jameson,John Kerr, David Kelso, William Kopacka, Alan Kopacka, Glen Kowalski, Raymond Lane, David Lane, Jimmy Luther, Randy Malanos, George Martin, Joe Martin, Pat Mathew, Ralph Mattingly, John McCarry, Tim McKenzie, Ellis McMillan, Dick McMurry, Curtis Meyers, Rick Miller, Benjamin Miller, Edmund Miller, Frank Miller, Johnny Milligan, Dennis Mills, Bob Moore, Thomas Muckenfuss, Ricky O'Brien, Gilbert Pearce, Greg Peterson, Danny Pitcher, Whir Polhemus, Richard Porter, Don Powers, Brian Przyborowski, David Quattlebaum, Ronald Rader, Ronald Ragland, Roy Reid, Charles Rhett, Maryjane Rogers, Richard Rouse, George Schachtr, Nell Sedlacek, Roger Seitz, George Sharkey, James Sharkey, James, Jr. Sindler, Robert Smith, Ricky Solomons, Susan S. South, David

South, Jewell Spencer, Mike Stewart, Steve Stringer, Rick Thomas, Marion Thomas, Randall Towles, Ronald Towles, Steve Turner, Sandra Volpe. James Voshell, Sob Wallman, Chris Wallman, Chris Welch, Alan White, DeJarnette White, Jack Wilkinson, Boyce Wilkinson, David Wilkinson, Steve Wright, James Young, Ralph Zeigler, Belton Zimmerman, Dixie

Ninety Six, S. C. 1970 - 1971 Abernathy, Duncan Atwater, Lee Baker, Steve Barton, David Bianchi, Travis Chapman, Lloyd Chaussy, Paul DeVorsey, Alan Hartley, Mike Henry, Leonard Jameson, John Johnston, David KelleR, Stanley Luther, Randy Murray, Daniel Polhemus, Richard Rhett, Maryjane Skinner, Arthur Spadetti, Pete Strickland, Bob Vinson, Steve Ward, David Zeigler, Belton

The Price House 1970 s.c. Carpenter, Wade Jackson, Jim Larson, John Mills, Bob Polhemus. Richard South, David

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Ft. Hawkins, Ga. 1970 Cardllo, Richard Byrd Trust Land & J e n k i n ' s Island 1971 Jackson, Susan Pawley House 1971 Carrillo, Richard Indian S p r i n g s 1973 Bianchi, Trevis Brown, Gordon Carrillo, Richard Combes, John Jackson, Susan Kimmel, Richard Lawrence, David Luttrel, Page Miller, David Mullis, David Polhemus, Richard Isle o f Palms, S.C. 1973 Combes, John Jackson, Susan Polhemus, Richard Ft. J o h n s o n , S . C . 1973 Ballenger, David Beuschel, Leslie Bianchi, Trevis Bigalow, James DeLoach, Alan Folsom, Foster Henry, Leonard Hinnant, Alan Humpheries, Leroy Jackson, Susan Jay, Joe Miller, David Mullis, David Willis, Keith Zeigler, Belton Ft. M o u l t r i e 1973 Baker, Everette Bianchi, Travis Culpepper, Ken Hartley, Michael Hinnant, Alien Jackson, Susan Johnson, Elly Neighbors, Wayne Prescott, John South, Lara Southard, Cad

U . S . C . Horseshoe 1973 Ballenger, M. Susan Beaty, Linda D. Brockington, Frances L. Brown, Ronnie Cain, Victor H. Chickering, Lee R. Doctor, Clarisse DuTremble, Lee A. Edmond, Larry E. Edwards, Richard T. English, Hope Y. Fordham, Marlene Frierson, James, M. Harmon, Michael A. Henry, Leonard Howe, M. Elizabeth Hunt, Frederick, D. Mclntyre, Paul Miller, David Montieth, William Mullis, David Painter, George T. Pendel, Chris J. Rader, Joni L. Rhett, James M. Rhett, Mary Jane Smith, Vanessa Stephens, Thomas M. Sumter, Connie L. Waldrop, Samuel T. Wood, Carol P. W i n d s o r Hill 1977 Brandt, Julian V., III Brandt, Julian V., Jr. Guerry, Rev. Edward B. Jackson, Susan Santa Elena 1979 The Hut, Ft. San Marcos Breeland, Ed Brill, David Cameron, Larry Ferguson, Annette Ferguson, Leland Goldsborough, John Green, Sheryl Horowitz_ Green, Stanton Hartley, Michael Johnson, Kada Libby, Carol Short, Emily Smith, Marvin South, David South, Jewell

Hut & San Marcos (Cont.) Houses & Barrel Well South, Lara 1981 (Continued) South, Robert USC Lancaster Class Strickland, Bob Williams, Marshall W. Tallant, Alexander Worthy, Linda Watson, Bryan French Charlesfort Williams, Mark 1981 Search Williams, Woody Hartley, Michael Santa Elena 1979 Joseph, Joe The Sample Frame Jackson, Susan Ft. San Felipe Found Metropol, Jeanne Bufkin, Emmit Carnes, Linda Erd, Darby Goldsborough, John Erd, Pelham Hunt, William Grunden, Mona Santa Elena 1982 Harmon, Mike NW Bastion Excavation Hartley, Michael and Cemetery Sample Haskell, Helen Beth, John Joseph, Joe Bracken, Mark Lee, Sammy Burgess, Brooks Lepionka, Larry Dickens, Roy Lepionka, Lisa Fleming, Keith Lewis, Kenneth L. Goldsborough, John Parlier, Bob Green, Stanton Picking, Jane Hartley, Michael Picking, John Hunt, William Scurry, James Hunter, Brent South, David Hunter, Christy South, Jewell Joseph, Joe South, Lara Joseph, Walt South, Robert Lewarch, Dennis Santa Elena 1981 Metropol, Jeanne 3 Houses, Courtyard, Pearson, Jolee and a Barrel Well Pfeiffer, Rozanna Brill, David Polhemus, Richard Cames, Linda Smith, Marvin Craft, Chris South Linda Goldsborough, John South Robert Green, Stanton South, David, Hartley, Michael South, Lara Hayes, Bill Strickland, Bob Hayes, Pat Thomas, D.Hurst Crew Hunt, Bill U.S.C. Field School Idol, John Ft. San Felipe 1983 Jackson, Susan Testing Sampling Methods Joseph, Joe The Casa Fuerta and the Joseph, Walt "Pre Casa Fuerte Ditch" Metropol, Jeanne Barbot, Chip Polhemus, Richard Depratter, Chester Scurry, James Depretter, Tricia Singley, Katherine Doswell, Harry South, Lara Goldsborough, John South, Linda Hanson, Elizabeth South, Robert Hanson, Glen Strickland, Bob Harmon, Mike U.S.C. Field School Holland, Claudia Hunt, William

APPENDIX Ft. San Felipe 1983 (Cont.) Jackson, Susan Paulk, Greg Polbemus, Richard Resnick, Ben Sassaman, Kenneth Savannah River Plant Crew Shapiro, Gary Sloan, Linda Smith, Greg South, Linda South, Robert Walker, Karen White, John Zeigler, Ben Ft. San Felipe 1984 Casa Fuerta & Wells Babson, David Braley, Chad Goldsborough, John Harmon, Mike Hunt, William Hunt, William Mastran, Chuch Peterson, Curtis Polhemus, Richard Prentice, Guy Skowronek, Russ Sloan, Linda South, Linda Strickland, Bob Zeigler, Ben Santa Elena 1985 W. of Ft. San Felipe Goldsborough, John Greiner, Jim Grunden, Mona Hunt, William Johnson, Rich Prentice, Guy Sloan, Linda Smith, Marvin Zeigler, Ben Charlesfort Search 1989 Amer, Christopher Adams, Natalie Beard, David Beatty, Joe Chapman, Ashley Charles, Tommy DePratter, Chester Depratter, Marianna Errante, Jim Hall, Larry Hiott, Barbara Little, Tom Naylor, Carl Powell, Nena Reddy, Janet Smith, Steve South, Robert Thompson, Marisin

363 Charlesfort Search 1989 (Cont.) Thompson, Bruce Frank TrocoUi, Ruth Yarborough, Kristy, T h e ATTIC Project Roswell, Georgia 1990 Beatty, Joe Charles, Tommy Pekrul, Sharon Tracolli, Ruth "The Committee of Five" Santa Elena 1991 Spanish House Found Barker, Donnie Beatty, Joe Brundage, Barbara Byra, Patti Chandler, Harold Chapman, Ashley Charles, Tommy Crosby, Janice DePratter, Chester DePratter, Mair Foechee, Lea Green, Jim Green, Laura Hiott, Barbara Judge, Chris Keller, Jack Keller, Joyce Polhemus, Richard Powell, Nena Rinehardt, Charles South, Robert Steen, Carl Trocolli, Ruth Wagner, Gall B a r t l a m at Cain Hoy 1992 The First Project Aanstad, Judy Buss, Michael Carnes-McNaughton, Linda Fortune, Harold Ghaffar, Tariq Graham. Dennis, G., Jr. Green, Laura Jones, Joel Joseph, Kathryn Millis, Tracy Mulchrone, Kathy Murphy, Kelly Rauschenberg, Bradford Reddy, Janet Rowland, Myma Steen, Carl Zierden, Martha B a r t l a m at Cain Hoy 1992 The Second Project Beatty, Joe Chapman, Ashley Charles, Tommy Fortune, Harold

Cain Hey Second Project 1992 (Cont.) Graham, Dennis Muhammed Hiott, Barbara Hudgins, Lisa Legg, James Rauschenberg, Bradford Rauschenberg, Judy Reddy, Janet Reeves, Marianne Zierden, Martha Santa Elena 1992 Spanish House-Second Dig Allen, Marion Boone, Walter Chandler, Harold Charles, Tommy DePratter, Chester Douglas, Sheila Fox, Elsie Gordon, William Green, Bill Green, Laura Hiott, Barbara Judge, Christopher Kerekanich, Shorty Legg, Jim Maxwell, Craig McCanless, Carol Ogden, Gene Pennington, Marilyn Polhemus, Richard Prass, Dick Reddy, Janet Reeves, Marianne South, Robert Steen, Cad Stine, Linda White, Patrice Williams, Woody Zambetogliris, Nelsys Fusco Santa Elena t 9 9 3 N-Block Excavation & Well Pottery Kiln Discovered Albright, Alan Anderson, Patricia Anderson, Timothy Anthony, non Arndt, Elizabeth "Chica" Beatty, Joe Borg, Barbara Brooker, Colin Brumfield, Chris Caballero, Olga Carlton, E. Michael Carlton, lan Carnes-McNaughton, L. Chandler, Harold Charles, Tommy Crass, David Curry, Cynthia Curry, Hal

N-Block & Kiln (Cont.) 1993 Davis, Anna DePratter, Chester Fortune, Harold Fox, Elsie Ghaffar, Tariq Gordon, Elizabeth Graham, Dennis, Jr. Grunden, Ramona Hall, Larry Hamer, Fritz Hiott, Barbara Jarvis, Dale Jones, Joel Judge, Christopher Judge, Tara Lee, Sammy Legg, James Linder, Suzanne Marcil, Valerie Marsaglia, Jean McCanless, Carol McGregor, Hamilton Moore, Dorothy Moreno, Christian Morgan, Bob Mulchrone, Kathy O'DonnelI-Rosales, J. Patton, Don Pekrul, Sharon Pennington, Marilyn Polhemus, Dick Reeves, Marianne Roberts, Carolyn Roberts, Lynn Roberts, Wayne Robertson, Kris Sheridan Chris Sheridan, Jack Shlasko, Ellen Snadeers, Joe Steen, Carl Strickland, Bob Tariq, Gaffar Tippett, Ann Weeks, Bill White, Patrice Wilburn, Peggy Zierden, Martha Santa Elena 1994 Boundary Survey & Kiln Anderson, Patrice W. Arndt, Elizabeth Ball, Don Ball, Susan Beatty, Joe Beck, Rob Berkeley, Jane Brumfield, Christopher Carnes-McNaughton, L. Chandler, Harold Charles, Tommy

364

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Boundary Survey & Kiln 1994 (Cont.) Dagenhart, Sgt. Bill Davis, Anna DePratter, Chester Gambrell, Pamela Graham, Dennis, Jr. Grunden, Ramona Hiott, Barbara Hudgins. Lisa Jarvis, Dale Jordan, David Jordan, JoAn Legg, James Marcil, Valarie Marseglia, Jean McCanless, Carol McGregor. Hamilton Moore, David Patton, Don Pennington. Mahlyn Roberts, Tod Weill, Lorna Wetmore. Ruth Williams, Shari Worthy, Linda (Polly) Zambitoglaris, Nelsys ' Santa Elena 1996 R-Block and 162M Wells Arndt, Cad Arndt, Chica Baldwin, Libbie Beatty, Joe Berkeley, Jane Bower, John Carter, Brinnen Caylor, John Charles, Tommy Connors, John Contois, Allison Contois, Ellen Contoise, Elizabeth DePratter, Chester Fox, Elsie Glenn, James Halbert, Carl Jordan, David Jordan, Joan Klipp, Diane Lare, Carrie Legg, James Littlejohn, Callie McCanless, Carol Moore, Dorothy Mostafa, Nadia Parham, Lawrence C. Parr, Karen Patton, Don Pennington, Marilyn Rhyne, Glenn Sheridan, Chris Sheridan, Jack Sheridan, Sandra Smith, Ann

Santa E. 1996 (Cont.) Smith, Linda Stabler, Carol Stoner, Mike Wilson, Debra Worthy, Linda (Polly) Ft. San Felipe & Kiln 1997 Arndt, Elizabeth Asher, Kris Asher, Candace Baldwin, Libbie Ballantine, Jane Beaman, Thomas Berg, Jeffrey Berkeley, Jane Brurnette, Kitty Carnes-Mcnaughton, L Cleaver, Matt Connor, John Contois, Elizabeth Curry, Cynthia Curry, Hal DePratter Chester DePratter Marianna DePratter David Dukes, Tracy Erante, Jim Fansher, Daniel Fox, Elsie Griesmer, Laurie Grunden, Ramona Hall, Larry Hartell, Matthew Johnson, Heathley Jordan, David; Jordan, Joan Joseph, Carrie Kirby, John Landstrom, Heather Legg, James Lester, Judy Mazur, Kathleen McCanless, Carol McPoland, Gwen Nash, Lesley Ogilvie, Marilyn Parham, Lawrence C. Patton, Don Pennington, Marilyn Perry, Leslie Proctor, Jorge Radish, William Rascoe, Dorothy Riggan, Betty Rusnack, Dennis Sheridan, Sandra Sheridan, Chris Sheridan, Jack Shoothoff, Cynthia Stoner, Michael Taylor, Shawn Waiters, Amy Wolf, Michael Worthy, Linda (Polly)

Ft. San Marcos 1998 Allen, Judy Allison, Robert Arndt, Carl Arndt, Chica Asher, Candice Asher, Kristopher Beaman, Thomas, Jr. Becker, Susan Berkeley, Jane Bice, Jim Buckner, Cathy Carnes-McNaughton, L Charles, Tommy Conkle, Joel Coutu, Jeff Daniels, Aubrey DePratter, Chester Eagan, Sharon Fox, Elsie Halbirt, Carl Hall. Larry Harrelson, Marie Johnson, Heathly Jordan. David; Jordan, Joan Kendrick, Amy Kirby. John Legg, James Lester, Judy Lindsey, Jason Lindsey. Todd Luna, Greg McBride, Trey McCanless, Carol Moran, John Patton. Don Polhemus, Richard Ranney, Debbie Riggan, Betty Seitsonen, Oula Stoner, Michael Tippett, Lee White, Nancy Worthy, Linda (Polly) Santa Elena 1999 Sink Hole Survey Asher. Kristopher DePratter, Chester Johnson, Heathly Kirby, John Legg, James Owen, Marshal Santa Elena 2000 Pipeline Excavation Asher, Kristopher Barrera, Rebecca DePratter, Chester Joyce, Amy Kirby, John Legg, James McCanless, Carol Reeps, Eddie Shumpert, Catherine

Stoothoff, Cindy Worthy, Linda (Polly) Santa Elena 2001 Cemetery Project Asher, Kristopher DePratter, Chester Holiday, Susan Hudgins, Lisa Johnson, Heathly Kirby, John Legg, James White, Nancy Wilson, Debbie Charles T o w n e House 2000 and 2001 Agha, Andrew Clark, Rusty Epps, Katrina Eubanks, Elsie Isenbarger, Nicole Johnson, Heathly Stoner, Michael Wall, Raye Worthy, Linda (Polly) Volunteers Allen, David Amos, Me1 Applebaum, Sharon Bass, Roy Bean, Garrett Blank. Leonard Blank, Pam Bridgman, Howard Burkel. Archie Burns, Jody Buss, Michael Carlisle, Julia Chartrand, Elizabeth Clark, Cindy CJark, EJlen Cruise, B. Daugherty, Matt Davis, James Duncan, Radge Durgee, Eleanor Dyer, Jennifer Elsey, Kent Epps, Katrina Faucette, Steve Fellows, Charlotte Flynn, Robdert Frank, Thomas Franz, Thomas Frierson, David Frierson, Mary Gifford, Chuch Glapker, Nathan Godfrey, James Griffin, David Griffin, Mary Hall, Florence Haman, Katherine Harris Karen Harris, Jennifer

APPENDIX

365

Charles Towne Volunteers 2000 - 2001 (Cont.)

Charles Towne Volunteers 2000 - 2001 (Cont,)

Harvey, Ladona HatUer, Lorna Heinz, Susie Heller, Maxine Hensley, Mitty Hershenson, Alex Hinton, Boyd Horres, Russell Horton, Tom Howard, Laura Isenbarger, Nicole Jackson, Jill Jackson, Karen Jewell, Bronwell Kilpatrick, Sean Lee, Cathy Lehan, Richard Lester, Judy Lind, Alexandra Lyle, Sarah Lynch, Kevin Lynch, Maureen Maastricht, Bill Maastricht, Dorothy Martinez, Aquiules Matthews, Daniel McCall, Jacqueline MqClure, Kristina McCormick, Karen Mclntyre, Joan Miller, George Mills, Marguerite Morris, Ann Scott Nell, George Newcomb, Shannon Nussbaum, Joseph Nye, Martha Pace, Bob Page, Sarah Piwowar, Ed Piwowar, Vivian Pollard, Sherry Prettyman, Andrea Pricde, Sarah Reuther, Carolyn Rhodes, Alicia Roach, Heather Rosenberg, Marcia Rosenthal, Shimoni Rousselin, Chantal Sample, Jack Schad, Carolyn Shinners, Fred Shinners, Mary Ann Shorter, Frank Siedler, Virginia Siegel, Robert Sinners, Gerry Skinner, Dwain Smart, James Snyder, Ethel Strout, Emily Sweetman, Rebecca

Taber, Fred Tate, Olivia Thrower, Marie Trupos, Theris mrusso, James Vogel, Dick Wade, John Wade, Sarah Wahrer, Emily Wain, Jennifer Wall, Raye Way, Jim Whitlatch, Joan Wilson, Jessica Wolfe, Susan Wood, Elizabeth Zwingman, Theresa College of Charleston Field School Volunteers

Bicksler, Hamilton Destefano, Jamie Epps, Katie Erbland, Chris Groves, Travis Harris, Margaret isenbarger, Nicole Kruse, Chad Langenberg, Jill Munoz, Melinda Poyer, Meaghan Sigmon, Beth Tankerley, Matthew Thompson, Erin The Citadel - The Military College of S.C. Volunteers

Gentry, Megan Jackson, Garrett Kamorie, Laurie Maloney, Brian McCoy, Carrie Rogers, Bobby Sheppard, Zach Villereal, Nicole The Stone Rock Mound Dig 2003

Asher, Kris Charles, Tommy DePratter. Chester Elam, Julie Kirby, John Legg, Jim South, Stanley Worthy, Linda "Polly" An Additional List of Some Others Who Have Helped Me

Adefumi, Oba Oseijeman I Albright, Alan Alford, Dorothy Alford, Dorothy Anderson, David Anderson, Patrice White Aylward, Edward

Others Who Have Helped Me Through the Years (Cont.)

Babcock, Charles H., Sr. Babits, Lawrence Ball, Susan Barrow, Robert Beaman, Keith Beafty, Joe Binford, Lewis Boone, Walter Braley, Chad Brooks, Mark Brooks, Richard Brown, Gordon Busby, Patricia Cantliffe, Daniel Carnes-McNaughton, Linda Chain Gang Prisoners at 96 Chakadis, Harry Charles, Tommy Clark, Rusty Coe, Joffre Colquhoun, Donald Combes, John Corsi, Phil Craft, Chris Cutler, Hugh Davis, Steve Deagan, Kathleen A. Demmy, George DePasquale, Mike DePratter, Chester Derting, Keith Dollar, Clyde Edgar, Walter Edgar, Walter Elam, Julie Erd, Darby Fairbanks, Charles Fairbanks, Charles Ferguson, Leland Fischer, Nancy Fischer, Ron Foley, Mike Fortune, Harold Gardner, Paul Garvin, Woodrow Gilliam, Chris Goodyear, Albert Graham, Dennis Muhammed Green, Halcott Green, Laura Green, William Hanson, Elizabeth Hanson, Glen Hoffman, Paul Horton, Frank House, John Howard, Bryan Hudgins, Lisa Hume, Noel Hunt, Bill Idol, John Idol, Marjorie Jackson, Susan

Additional Others (Cont.)

Jennings, Buddy Johnstone, BiLl Jones, David Judge, Christopher Judge, Joseph R Keene, Deborah Kelly, Gaye Kerby, John King, Adam Leader, Jonathan Legg, James Lepionka, Larry Lewis, Kenneth Little, J. Glenn, II Luther, Randy Lyon, Eugene MacAuley, Leslie MacAuley, Richard Macon, Riley Manucy, Albert Marine Corps Personnel Marquardt, William Miller, Daryi Miller, George Miller, Johnny Mudge, Jean Mulcahey, Anna Nabors, Johnsie Owens, Marshall Palmer, Pearl Palms, John Pekrul, Sharon Peterson, Curtiss Pinson, Kenn Polhemus, Richard Prentice, Guy Radisch, Bill Rauschenberg, Bradford Reddy, Janet Resnick, Ben Reeves, George Reid, Bill Reitz, Elizabeth (Betsy) Rheft, Maryjane Rice, Nena Powell Rinehart, Charles Rippeteau, Bruce Roberson, Allen Safko, John Salter, Ann Sassaman, Kenneth Scarry, Margaret Schmitt, William Shapiro, Gary Shealy, Carole Skowronek, Russell Smith, Dorothy Smith, Marvin Smith, Steven D. Spirek, Jim Steen, Carl Stephenson, Robert L. Stokes, Allen Stone, Garry

366

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Additional Others (Cont.) Struever, Stuart Tarlton, Sam Teague, George Terry, George Thompson, Bruce Tippet, Lee Werner, Eliot Wise, Steve Woodward, David Ziegenbein, Linda Zeigier, Eugene Zierden, Martha

Computer Assistance (To Avoid My Using the Manual) Babson, David Beatty, Joe Boyd, Diane Burns, Mary Joyce Chades, Tommy Clement, Chris Combes, Joan DePratter, Chester Elam, Julie Gillam, Chris Hudgins, Lisa Legg, James

Computer Assistance (Cont.) Lewis, Kenneth Long, Keith McGraw, Keith Onley, Debra Sassaman, Kenneth Sawyer, Phil Schmitt, William Smith, Steve Spirek, Jim Spirek, Pam Welch, Faith Wilson, Tamara Ziegenbein, Linda

And Also Those Acknowledged In My Stories, Articles and Books. With Apology To Those Who Helped But Have Not Been Mentioned.

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Binford, Lewis R. 2001 Constructing Frames of Reference: An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Hunter-Gatherer and Environmental Data Sets. University of California Press. Berkeley. Binford, Sally R., and Lewis R. 1968 New Perspectives in Archaeology. Aldine Publishing Company. Chicago. Bivens, John, Jr. 1972 The Moravian Potters in North Carolina. (Photography by Bradford L. Rauschenberg.) The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill. Brain, Jeffrey P. and Ian W. Brown (ed.) 1982 Robert S. Neitzel: The Great Sun. Lower Mississippi Survey Bulletin 9. Peabody Museum. Harvard University. Cambridge. Bryan, John Morrill 1976 An Architectural History of South Carolina College 1801-1855. The University of South Carolina Press. Columbia. Bryson, Bill 2003 A Short History of Nearly Everything. Broadway Books. New York Bullen, Adaelaide K., and P. Ripley Bullen 1945 Black Lucy's Garden. Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 6:1728. Cahill, Thomas 1995 How the Irish Saved Civilization. Nan A. Talese, Doubleday. New York. Caldwell, Joseph R. 1951 Preliminary Report Lake Springs Shell Heap, Columbia County, Georgia. Manuscript on file University of Georgia Laboratory of Archaeology. Athens. 1954 The Old Quartz Industry of Piedmont Georgia and South Carolina. Southern Indian Studies. 6:37-39. Chapel Hill. 1958 Trend and Tradition in the Prehistory of the Eastern United States. Memoir 88. American Anthropologist 60(6), Part 2. The American Anthropological Association. Scientific Papers No. 10. Illinois State Museum. Springfield. Cann, Marvin L. 1974 Ninety Six and the S o u t h Carolina Backcountry: 1700-1783. Manuscript on file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

368 Carneiro, Robert L. 2003 Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History. Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado. Carnes-McNanghton, Linda F., and Carl Steen 2002 A Salute to Stanley South and His Five Decades of Research in Historical Archaeology. Pp. 9. Legacy 7(1). South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 2004 (In press) In Praise of the Poet Archaeologist: Papers in Honor of Stanley South and His Five Decades of Historical Archaeology." To be published by the Council of South Carolina Professional Archaeologists. Cashion, Jerry Clyde (with archaeological notes by Stanley South and George Demmy) 1970 Fort Butler and the Cherokee Indian Removal from North Carolina. State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh. Chase, Eugene B., Jr. 1954 Pawleys Island Historically Speaking. Pawleys Island Civic Association. Pawleys Island, South Carolina. Chase, Richard 1943 The Jack Tales. The Riverside Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1948 Grandfather Tales. The Riverside Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts. Christenson, Andrew L. 1994a Letter to Stanley South dated March 30, 1994. On file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1994b A Test of Mean Ceramic Dating Using WellDated Kayenta Anasazi Sites. Kiva 59(3): 297-317). Claflin, William H., Jr. 1931 The Stalling's Island Mound, Columbia County, Georgia. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology 14(1). Cambridge. Coe, Joffre L. 1964 The Formative Cultures of the Carolina Piedmont. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (New Series) 54, Part 5. The American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia. 1995 Town Creek Indian Mound. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill. The Columbia Record 1979 Amateur Archaeologist Charges 'Rip-off'. (August 21, 1979: B1) Columbia.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Colquhoun, Donald J., Mark J. Brooks, et. al. 1980 Principles and Problems in Establishing A Holocene Sea-Level Curve for South Carolina. Pp. 143-159. In. Excursions in Southeastern Geology: The Archaeology-Geology of the Georgia Coast. Guidebook 20, pp. 206-224, (Edited by James D. Howard, Chester B. DePratter and Robert W. Frey.) The Geological Society of America, Georgia Geologic Survey. Atlanta. Combes, John D. 1974 Ethnography, Archaeology and Burial Practices Among Coastal South Carolina Blacks. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1972 7: 52-61. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Congressional Record 128(119): 11275-11278. (September 10, 1982). Proceedings and Debates of the 97th Congress, Second Session. Government Printing Office. Washington. Connelly, Joe 1999 Bringing Out the Dead. Vintage Books. New York 1999. Culin, Stewart 1907 Games of the North American Indians. In Twenty Fourth Annual Report of The Bureau of American Ethnology, edited by W. H. Holmes. Washington. Daniel, I. Randolph, Jr. 1993 Uwharrie Rhyolite and Early Archaic Settlement Range in the Carolina Piedmont. A paper presented at the Southeastern Archaeological Conference, November 3-6. Raleigh, North Carolina. Daniel, I. Randolph, Jr., and J. Robert Butler 1991 Rhyolite Sources in the Carolina Slate Belt, Central North Carolina. Lithic Studies. Pp. 6466. D6carie-Audet, Louise 1979 Palace Royale--Collections Archeologiques: Le gr~sfrangais. Minist6re des Affaires culturelles. Direction g6n6rale du Patrimonie. Qu6bec. Demmy, George G. 1970 [1966] Archaeological Examinations at the Site of Fort Butler, Murphy, North Carolina. [With archaeological notes by Stanley South and George Demmy.] In Jerry C. Cashion's Fort Butler and the Cherokee Indian Removal from North Carolina. State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh.

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DePratter, Chester B. 1973 Settlement, Subsistence, and Procurement Technology of the Georgia Coastal Shellmound Archaic. Paper presented at the Southeastern Archaeological Conference Annual Meeting: Memphis, Tennessee. 1996a History of Charlesfort. Printed in the program, "1562 French Charles fort Archaeological Site," held at Parris Island, South Carolina June 6, 1996." 1996b Preface. In Stanley South, Archaeology at Santa Elena: Doorway to the Past. In Popular Series 2. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Charlesfort/Santa Elena Video Project. 1997 Legacy 2(1): 10. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Testing at 38BU1834. Legacy4[1-3]: 5). The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. DePratter, Chester B., Charles M. Hudson, and Marvin T. Smith 1982 The Route of Juan Pardo's Explorations in the Interior Southeast, 1566-1568. Florida Historical Quarterly 62:125-158.. DePratter, Chester B., and James Legg 2000 Delineation of an African-American Cemetery (38BU1895B) on Parris Island, South Carolina. Legacy 5(2):26-28. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 2001 Panis Island Cemeteries, Part II. Legacy 6(2):14-15. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. DePratter, Chester B., James Legg and Stanley South 2001 38BU162U: Excavations for an Irrigation Pipeline on the Santa Elena Site, Parris Island, Beaufort County, South Carolina. Report to the U.S. Marine Corps (with contributions by Lisa R: Hudgins). Research Manuscript Series 229. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 2002 Delineation of 38BU1895B (Cemetery #1), Parris Island, South Carolina. (Draft). The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1999

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3 70

DePratter, Chester B., Stanley South and James Legg 1996a The Discovery of Charlesfort (1562-1563). Transactions of the Huguenot Society of South Carolina 101:39-48. Charleston. 1996b Charlesfort Discovered! Legacy 1(1):1, 5, 8-9. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina. Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 2000 Santa Elena/Charlesfort Excavations, Spring 2000. Legacy 511]: 20-22. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Dickens, Roy S. Jr., and H. Trawick Ward, (eds.) 1985 Structure and Process in Southeastern Archaeology. The University of Alabama Press. University, Alabama. Disney, Walt 1934 Mickey Mouse Stories. David McKay Company. Philadelphia. Dodgson, Charles L ("Lewis Carroll") 1948 The WaLrus and the Carpenter. In The Literature of England. (3'~t edition, volume 2), edited by George B. Woods, Homer A. Watt, and George K. Anderson. Pp. 830-831. Scott, Foresman and Company. New York. Dollar, Clyde D. 1968 Some Thoughts on Theory and Method in Historical Archaeology. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1967 2(2): 3-30. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1970 Letter from Mexico. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1968 2(3): 58-61. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1971 More Thoughts on Theory and Method in Historical Archaeology. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1969 4: 8394. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Drayton, John 1821 Memoirs of the American Revolution, from its Commencement to the year 1776, inclusive; as relating to the State of South-Carolina: and occasionally referring to the States of North Carolina and Georgia. A. E. Miller. Charleston. Edmund, Larry 1973 Archaeologists Solve Horseshoe Mystery. [July 19, 1973]. The University of South Carolina student newspaper. Columbia.

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Edwards, Michael F. 1994 Homesteading 101: Robert E. Harrill, "The Fort Fisher Hermit. '" The Hermit Society. Wilmington. Eiseley, Loren 1946 The lmmense Journey. Random House. New York. Fairbanks, Charles H. 1946 The Macon Earth Lodge. American Antiquity 12(2):94-108. 1956 Excavation of the Hawkins-Davidson Houses, Fredefica National Monument, St. Simon's Island, Georgia. Georgia Historical Quarterly 40(3):213-229. Fairbanks, Charles H. (ed.) 1964 Goggin Memorial Issue. The Florida Anthropologist 17(2). Papers of the 5th Annual Historic Sites Conference. The Florida Anthropologist 18(3), Part 2. Ferguson, Leland G. 1980 Looking for the "Afro" in Colono-Indian Pottery. In Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America, edited by Robert L. Schuyler, pp. 14-28. Baywood Press. Farmingdale, New York. 1992 Uncommon Ground: Archaeology and Early African America, 1650-1800. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington. Ferguson, Leland G. (ed.) 1977 Historical Archaeology and the Importance of Material Things. Special Publication Series 2, Society for Historical Archaeology. Fischer, George 1973 Notes and News: Arizona. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Archaeology 2:203. Fleury, Michael and Veneeslas Kruta 1990 Le Chateau du Louvre. Editions Atlas. Paris. Foglia, Virginia (ed.) 1957 Doctor Francis Kron, a Remarkable Man Far Ahead of His Time. Albemarle, Stanly County Centennial, May 11-18, 1957. I(1):37. Foley, Vincent P. 1968 'Some Thought s on Theory and Method in Historical Archaeology,' A Critique.. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1967 2(2):142-157. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Ford, James A. 1951 Greenhouse: A Troyville-Coles Creek Period Site in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 44(1). New York.

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AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Prentice, Guy and Wendy M. Nettles 2003 Ninety Six National Historic Site Archaeological Overview and Assessment, Greenwood County, S o u t h Carolina. Southeast Archaeological Center. Tallahassee. Pressley, Leigh 2002 M. Mellany Delhom: A Living Treasure: Ceramics Collection Puts Mint Museum On the Map. Carolina Arts 6(1): 1, 3). Ranschenberg, Bradford L. 1991 John Bartlam, who established "new Pottworks in South Carolina" and became the first successful creamware potter in America. Journal of Early Southern Decorative Arts 17(2): 1-66. The Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts. Winston-Salem. Rice, Nena Powell, (ed.) 1999 Stanley Austin South Awarded the Order of the Palmetto. Legacy 4(1-3): 1, 7 The University of South Carolina, South C~olina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Rights, Douglas 1947 The American Indian in North Carolina. Duke University Press. Durham. Rippeteau, Bruce, and Stanley South 1984 (December 10) Letter to Stanley Applegate on the USC Center in Cuernavaca: Archaeology. On file at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. Saunders, Mary F. 1963 Incidents in the Blockade-Running Career of Signal Officer D. S. Stevenson. Pp. 8-9. In The Hebe Skirmish Centennial and the Fort Fisher Visitor Center-Museum Groundbreaking Program, August 24, 1963. Edited by Stanley South. The State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh. Sauthier, C. J. 1769 [1967] Plan of the Town and Port of Brunswick in Brunswick Cotmty, North Carolina...Survey'd & Drawn in April 1769 by C. J. Sauthier." Pp. 364. In South, Stanley "Russellborough":Two Royal Governors' Mansion at Brunswick Town. The North Carolina Historical Review 44(4):360-372. Searle, John R. 2000 Mind, Language and Society: Philosophy in the Real World. Basic Books. New York. Sears, William H. 1953 Excavations at Kolomoki, Final Report. University of Georgia Series in Anthropology, No. 5. Athens.

REFERENCES CITED Simmons, Edwin H. 1951 The Federals and Fort Fisher. The Marine Corps Gazette 35(1): 52-59 (January), 35(2): 47-53). The Marine Corps Association. Quantico, Virginia. Skinner, James L., III 1991 The Autobiography of Henry Merrell: Industrial Missionary to the South. The University of Georgia Press. Athens. Sommer, Sebastian 1955 Science: 8,000 Year Old Clue. Newsweek (July 4), XLVI(1): 76. South Carolina Department of Archives and History 1774-1779 Will of Robert Goudy, Record of Wills, Charleston Comaty, Vol. XVII. Columbia. South, David 1972 Mean Ceramic Dates, Median Occupation Dates, Red Ant Hills and Bumble Bees: Statistical Confidence and Correlation. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1971. 6(1):164-174. The University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. South, Mac Belle Casey 1999 I Feel A Poem Coming On. [Compiled by Elizabeth South Storie]. Boone, North Carolina. South, Stanley 1939 Headlines of World War 2. Unpublished plywood-back book in the author's possession. Columbia. 1952 An Archaeological Survey of Watauga County, North Carolina (with Jewell South). Manuscript on file at the Research Laboratories of Anthropology at the University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill. 1955a Evolutionary Theory in Archaeology. Southern Indian Studies 7:1-24. Chapel Hill. 1955b Some Suggestions for the Construction of an Indian Temple. Published in: The Temple at Town Creek Indian Mound State Historic Site, North Carolina The University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology Notebook 1973:5(5):150-171. Columbia. 1956a Some Generalized Patterns in a Negro Cornnaunity: Material Culture. A paper on field work to satisfy Assignment 12, in John J. Honigmann's Anthropology 221 course (April 17). University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill (Author's personal file).

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Method of Constructing Patterns from Themes in Contemporary "Hit" Ballads. A paper on field work to satisfy Assignment 5, in John J. Honigmann's Anthropology 221 course (February 23). University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill. (Author's file) Nature of Problems of Race Relations. A paper to satisfy the examination Guy B. Johnson's Sociology 125 course on "The Negro" (March 8). University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill. (Author's file.) Attawpiskat Child Rearing Patterns. A paper on abstracting pattern from field notes to satisfy Assignment 10, in John J. Honigmann's Anthropology 221 course (April 3, 1956). University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill. (Author's file.) Indians in the Stanly County Area. Albemarle, Stanly County Centennial, May 11-18, 1957 1(1):18-19. Examination of the Material from the Kron Cellar at Morrow Mountain State Park. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Locating the Excavation Units at Brunswick Town. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Nath Moore's Front. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. A Study of the Prehistory of the Roanoke Rapids Basin. M.A. thesis. The University of North Carolina. Chapel Hill. Indians in North Carolina. State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh. Description of the Ceramic Types from Brunswick Town State Historic Site. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. The Hepburn-Reonalds House. Judge Maurice Moore's Kitchen. The McCorkall-Fergus House. The Newman Kitchen. The Roger Moore House. The Brick Oven at "Prospect Hall." The Wooten-Marnan Lot. The Area of the "Gaol." (All the above Unpublished manuscripts on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh.)

376 South, Stanley (cont.) 1960a Colonial Brunswick: 1726-1776. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1960b The Public House and Tailor Shop. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1960c The Wall Around Lot 2 7 . . Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1960d The House on Hobbs Road: David Caldwell's Second House. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1960e An Archaeological Survey of Southeastern Coastal North Carolina. Unpublished manuscript on file at the Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1960f The Exploratory Excavation in the Yard to the North of the Palmer House in Bath, North Carolina. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1960g Notes on the Plan of Fort Fisher Surveyed January 1865 by Otto Julian Schultze, Correlated with the Remaining Earthworks Surveyed in September 1960 by Stanley A. South. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1961a Excavation of the Palisade Fence at Fort Fisher State Historic Site. Unpublished manuscript on file at The Office of State Archaeology. Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1962a The Ceramic Types at Brunswick Town, North Carolina. Papers Presented at the 1st and 2na Conferences on Historic Site Archaeology (1960-1961). Southeastern Archaeological Conference Newsletter 9(1 ): 1- 16. 1962b Kaolin Pipe Stem Dates from the Brunswick Town Ruins. Southeastern Archaeological Conference Newsletter 9(1):22-25). 1962c Examination of the Chapman-Taylor (Attmore-Oliver) House in New Bern, North 1963b The Search for Brice's Fort. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology. North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh.

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Exploratory Excavation of a Brick Kiln at Town Creek, Bnmswick County, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology. North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Report on the Exploratory Excavation at the Ruins of Bethabara and Some Suggestions for the Development of the Bethabara Site. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology. North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Letter to Frank Horton. (December 18, 1963), Pp. 8-11. In Progress Report on the Bethabara Project (April 1, 1964). Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology. North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Excavating the Palisade Fence at Fort Fisher. Pp. 20-21. In Stanley South (ed.), The Hebe Skirmish Centennial and the Fort Fisher Visitor Center-Museum Groundbreaking Program. State Department of Archives and History souvenir booklet. Excavation of the Ruin of the House of the Keeper of the Light and William Lamb's Headquarters at Fort Fisher State Historic Site. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology. North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Excavating the Ruin of the Lighthouse Keeper's House and Colonel Lamb's Headquarters at Fort Fisher. Pp. 15-17. In The Hebe Skirmish Centennial and the Fort Fisher Visitor Center-Museum Groundbreaking Program. Souvenir booklet published by the State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh. Plans for the Restoration of a Part of Fort Fisher. P. 14. In The Hebe Skirmish Centennial and the Fort Fisher Visitor CenterMuseum Groundbrealdng Program. Souvenir booklet published by the State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh. Deactivation of Explosive Civil War Shells. Pp. 12-13. In The Hebe Skirmish Centennial and the Fort Fisher Visitor Center-Museum Groundbreaking Program. Souvenir booklet published by the State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh. Salvaging and Preserving the Cargo of the Blockade Runner Modern Greece. Pp. 18-19. In The Hebe Skirmish Centennial and the Fort Fisher Visitor Center-Museum Groundbreaking Program. Souvenir booklet published by the State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh.

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377 1964m The Recovery of A Confederate Torpedo at Fort Fisher State Historic Site. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1964n A Story Outline for the Planning of the Displays for the Visitor Center-Museum at Fort Fisher State Historic Site. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1965a Exploratory Excavation in the Yard to the North of the Hezekiah Alexander House, Charlotte, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1965b Exploratory Excavation in Halifax, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1965c A Story Outline for the Planning of the Displays for the Visitor Center Museum at Brunswick Town State Historic Site. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1965d Bethabara Research Notes. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1965e Excavating the Eighteenth Century Town of Bethabara, North Carolina. The Florida Anthropologist 18(3)[2]: 45-48. 1965f Anthropomorphic Pipes from the Kiln Waster Dump of Gottfried Aust--1755-1771. The Florida Anthropologist 18(3)[2]: 49-60. 1966a Excavating the Royal Governor's Mansion at Brunswick Town. The Brunswick County Historical Society Newsletter 6(2): 1. 1966b Russellborough Excavation Completed. The Brunswick C o u n t y Historical Society Newsletter 6(3): 1. 1966c Excavation of the Kitchen At Russellborough. The Brunswick County Historical Society Newsletter 6(4): 1. 1966d The Lowly Flax Hackle. Unpublished report on file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1966e Examination of the Area Behind the Bell House, Beaufort, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Instititute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

3 78 South, Stanley (cont.) 1966f A House of Passage on the Carolina Frontier. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1966g Exploratory Excavation at the Ruin of the Fifth House in Old Salem, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1966h Progress Report on the Bethabara Project. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1967a "Russellborough"; Two Royal Governors' Mansion at Brunswick Town. North Carolina HistoricaI Review 44(4):360-372. 1967b Interpreting the Ruins of Russellborough. The Brunswick C o u n t y Historical Society Newsletter 7(2):1. 1967c Russellborough, the Royal Governors' Mansion at Brunswick Town. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1:111125. 196qd William Tryon's Windmill At "Russellborough." The Brunswick County Historical Society Newsletter 7(3): 1. 1967e A Wine Cooler in the Cellar at "Russellborough." The Brunswick County Historical Society Newsletter 7(4): 1. 1967f Brunswick Town and Fort Anderson. A brochure published by the Historic Sites Division of the State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh. 1967g Fort Dobbs on the Carolina Frontier, 17551764. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1967h Excavation at the Site of the Ruin of the Constitution House in Halifax, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. 1967i The Ceramic Forms of the Potter Gottfried Aust at Bethabara, North Carolina, 1755 to 1771. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1965-1966 1:33-52. 1967j The Paca House, Annapolis, Maryland: A Historical Archaeological Study. Contract Archaeology, Inc. Unpublished report on file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION 1967k

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An Examination of the Records Relating to the Property at No. 91-93 and 95 Main Street, Annapolis, Maryland. Unpublished report on file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Excavation of the James Espy House Ruin In Brunswick Town. . The Brunswick County Historical Society Newsletter 8(3):1. Excavation At the Leach-Jobson House Ruin in Brunswick Town. The Brunswick County Historical Society Newsletter 8(4): 1. Salvage Archaeology at the Site of the North Carolina Arsenal at Fayetteville, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. A Preliminary Survey of the Swain-Lane House Near Asheville, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Examination of the Daniel Boone Monument on Faculty Street in Boone, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Restoration Archaeology at the Paca House, Annapolis, Maryland. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers1967 2(1): 22-32. Photography In Historical Archaeology. Historical Archaeology 2: 73-113. The Society for Historical Archaeology. The Lowly Flax Hackle. Antiques 94(2): 224227. Salvage Archaeology at the Site of the North Carolina Arsenal at Fayetteville, North Carolina: June 17-20, 1968. Report on file at the North Carolina Historic Sites Section, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. Archaeological Evidence for Pottery Repairing. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1967 2(1): 62-71. Exploratory Archaeology at the Site of 16701680 Charles Towne on Albemarle Point In South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 1. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Wanted! An Historical Archaeologist. Historical Archaeology 3:75-83. The Society for Historical Archaeology.

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Baked Clay Objects from the Site of the 1670 Settlement at Charles Towne, South Carolina. The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology Notebook 2(1):3-11. The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1970a Exploratory Excavation at the Price House (38Spl). Research Manuscript Series 5. The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1970b The Ceramic Ware of the Potter Rudolph Christ at Bethabara and Salem, North Carolina 1786-1821. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1968 1968 (3):62-71. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1970c A Method of Removing Soil Profiles. The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology Notebook 2(2/3): 3-7. The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1970d (See 1970a) 1970e Alkaline Glazed Pottery from South Carolina to Texas. 2(9-12): 3-5. The Institute of Archeology and Anthropology NotebooL The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 197.0f The Historical Archaeologist and Historic Site Development. The Institute of Archeology and Anthropology Notebook. 2(9-12): 16-21. The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1970g Exploratory Archaeology at Ninety Six (38GN1-5). Research Manuscript Series 6. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1970h An Outline of the Objectives of the Exploratory Expedition to Ninety Six During May and October 1970. Manuscript on file at The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1970i A Report on the Examination of Microfilm of the Survey Field Notebooks Made of the Cherokee Country in 1838. In Cashion, Jerry Clyde, Fort Butler and the Cherokee Indian Removal from North Carolina. State Department of Archives and History. Raleigh. 1971a Excavating the Fortified Area of the 1670 Site of Charles Towne, South Carolina. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 4: 37-60. The University of South Carolina, The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

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Archaeology at the Charles Towne Site (38CH1) on Albemarle Point in South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 10. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. A Comment on the Relationship Between the State and Salvage Diving Operations. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1969 4(2): 107-113. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. A Comment on Alkaline Glazed Stoneware. Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 5(2): 171-185. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Comment on Alkaline Glazed Stoneware from Various States. Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 5(2): 188-193. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. The Historical Archaeologist and Historic Site Development. In The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers, 1970 5: 90-102. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. The Log Cabin Syndrome. In The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers, 1970 5: 103-113. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Coltunbia. Historical Perspective at Ninety Six with a Summary of Exploratory Excavations at Holmes' Fort and the Town Blockhouse. Research Manuscript Series 9. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Exploratory Archaeology at Holmes' Fort, the Blockhouse, and Jail Redoubt at Ninety Six.. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1970 5:35-50). The University of South Carolina, The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. The Pawley House.(38GE15). Research Manuscript Seriesl6. The University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

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South, Stanley (cont.) 1972a Evolution and Horizon As Revealed In Ceramic Analysis in Historical Archaeology. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1971 6:71-116). The University of South Carolina, The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1972b The Role of the Archaeologist in the Conservation-Preservation Process. Research Manuscript Series 26. The University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1972c The Archaeological and Interpretive Proposal for the Kosciusklo Tunnel at the Star Fort at Ninety Six. Pp. 103-110. In Archaeological Excavation at the Site of Williamson's Fort of 1775, Holmes' Fort of 1780, and the Town of Cambridge of 1783-1850s. Research ManuscriptSeries18. The University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1972d Archaeological Excavation at the Site of Williamson's Fort of 1775, Holmes' Fort of 1780, and the Town of Cambridge of 17831850s. Research Manuscript Series 18. The University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1972e Statement on the Fate of the Plans for the Ninety Six Project for 1972. Memo on file in the Ninety Six Papers. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1972f The Unabridged Version of Tribes of the Carolina Lowland, Peedee-Sewee-WinyawWaccamaw-Cape Fear-Congaree-WatereeSantee. Research Manuscript Series 20. The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1973a The Temple at Town Creek Indian Mound State Historic Site, North Carolina. The University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology Notebook 1973:5(5):145-171. Columbia. 1973b An Indian Pottery Taxonomy for the South Carolina Coast. South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology Notebook. 5(2): 54-57. In A Reviewer's Note, by Leland Ferguson 5(2): 53-57. 1973c Archaeological Survey of the North End of the Isle of Palms, Charleston County, South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 53. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

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An Archaeological Survey of Jenkins Island, Beaufort County, South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 42. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1973e An Archaeological Survey of the Area of a Proposed Industrial Park Located on the Byrd Trust Lands in Florence County, South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 41. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1973f A Statement on the Master Plan for the Development of Ninety Six. Memo: South to Stephenson, June 28, 1973, in the Ninety Six files. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1973g Archaeological Recommendations for the Netherland Inn Site, Kingsport, Tennessee. Research Manuscript Series 43. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1973h Archaeological Recommendations for the Exchange Place, Kingsport, Tennessee. Research Manuscript Series 44. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1973i Archaeological Consultation Report on the Newbold-White House, Perquimans County, North Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 46. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. The Pawley House (38GE15). In Notebook. 197 9 The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1973k Research Design for the Indian Spring Exploratory Expedition at Hilton Head, January 22-26, 1973. Report on file at The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1973m A Progress Report on the Exploratory Archaeology Project at the Indian Spring Site on Hilton Head Island, South Carolina (38BU24). Report on file at The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

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Daily Report for the Indian Spring Site (38BU24) at Hilton Head, South Carolina. Report on file at The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. The Function of Observation in the Archaeological Process. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1972 7: 123137. Methodological Phases in the Archaeological Process. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1972 7: 138-145. Evaluation of Analysis Situations Relative to the Archaeological Data Bank. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1972 7: 146-150. Historical Archaeology Reports: A Plea for a New Direction. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1972 7:151-156. A Note on the Society for American Archaeology Seminar on Report Writing. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1972 7: 157-158. An Archaeological Survey of an Area of Fort Johnson. Research Manuscript Series 62. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Palmetto Parapets. Anthropological Studies 1. Occasional papers of the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. The Horizon Concept Revealed in the Application of the Mean Ceramic Date Formula to Spanish. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 7: 96-122. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Preliminary Assessment of the Site of the Southeastern Utilization Research Center and the Waste Treatment Plant at Fort Johnson, Charleston County, South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 79. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Fickle Forts on Windmill Point: Exploratory Archaeology at Fort Johnson, South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 81. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

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Program Theme for the Eighth Annual Meeting of the Society for Historical Archaeology: The Mills-Hyatt House, Charleston, South Carolina, January 8-11, 1975. Pp. 1-12. (Report on file at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. Preliminary plan for a research proposal for submission as a grant request. Manuscript on file at the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina. Columbia.

Archaeological Survey of Southeastern Coastal North Carolina. Notebook 8:1-56. The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. [1972] The Role of the Archaeologist in the Conservation-Preservation Process. Pp. 35-43. In Preservation and Conservation Principles and Practices. Edited by Sharon Timmons. Produced by the Smithsonian Institution Press. Published by the National Trust for Historic Preservation in the United States. The Preservation Press. Washington, D. C. Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology. Academic Press. New York. (ed.) Research Strategies in Historical Archaeology. Academic Press. New York. Preface and Chairman's Report. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1976. ll:ii. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Foreword. Pp. 1-2. In Leland G. Ferguson, (ed.) Historical Archaeology and the Importance of Material Things. Special Publication 2. The Society for Historical Archaeology. Archaeological Pattern Recognition: An Example from the British Colonial System. Conservation Archaeology: Models for Cultural Resource Management Studies. Edited by Michael Schiffer and George J. Gummerman. Academic Press. New York. (ed.) The Historical Archaeology Forum. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1975 10: 83-127. The University of South Carolina, The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

3 82 South, Stanley(cont.) 1977g Archaeological Pattern Recognition: An Example from the British Colonial System. In Conservation Archaeology: A Guide for Cultural Resource Management Studies. Academic Press. New York. 1977h Sopadopa. The Society of Professional Archaeologists (Secretary-Treasurer). 19771979. University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1977i The General, the Major, and the Angel: The Discovery of General William Moultrie's Grave. Transactions of the Huguenot Society of South Carolina. 82. R. L. Bryan Company. Columbia. 1977j What's In a Name? A flowchart dated April 9, 1977. On file at the University of South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1978a Silver Strands. Wine Cellar Verse. 1321 Pendleton Street. Columbia. 1978b Summit At Ninety Six in 78. May 18, 1978 NPS Meeting Notes on file. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 19"~8c Research Strategies for Archaeological Pattern Recognition on Historical Sites. Worm Archaeology 10(1):36-50. Edited by I. H. Longwor~h. Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., Newton Road, Henley-on-Thames, Oxon. England. 1978d Evolution and Horizon as Revealed in Ceramic Analysis in Historical Archaeology. A Guide to Substantive and Theoretical Contributions. Edited by Robert L. Schuyler. Pp. 68-82. Baywood Publishing Company. New York. 1978e Exploring Analytical Techniques. In A Guide to Substantive and Theoretical Contributions. Edited by Robert L. Schuyler. Pp. 253-266. Baywood Publishing Company. New York. 1978f Pattern Recognition in Historical Archaeology. American Antiquity 44(2): 213-237. 1978g A Pilot Study for the Location of Certain Seventeenth Century Stes in Charleston and Berkeley Counties, South Carolina. Manuscript on file at the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1979a Historic Site Content, Structure, and Function. American Antiquity 44(2):213-237. 1979b The General, the Major, and the Angel: The Discovery of General William Moultire's Grave. Research Manuscript Series 146. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION 1979c

Architectural Data "Rescue" at the Guillebeau House. Pp. 77-95. In Kenneth E. Lewis, The Guillebeau House: An Eighteenth Century Huguenot Structure in McCormick County, South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 145. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1979d The Search for Santa Elena on Parris Island, South Carolina.. Research Manuscript Series 150.. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1979e Daily Log for the Parris Island Project. Report to Robert L. Stephenson on file at The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1979f [1985] Exploring Santa Elena. In National Geographic Research Reports 1979 20: 703715. Edited by Winfield Swanson. National Geographic Society. Washington. 1979g The Search for Santa Elena on Parris Island, South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 150. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1980a The Search for Sixteenth Century Santa Elena. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 13: 25-37. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1980b The Discovery of Santa Elena. Research Manuscript Series 165. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1980c Contemporary Patterns of Material Culture or Hansel and Gretel in the Modern World: Following the Trail of Pull Tabs sto "The Pause That Refreshes." The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 12: 87-106). The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1980d Santa Elena, A Spanish Foothold in the New World. Excursions in Southeastern Geology: The Archaeology-Geology of the Georgia Coast. Guidebook 20, pp. 206-224, (Edited by James D. Howard, Chester B. DePratter and Robert W. Frey.) The Geological Society of America, Georgia Geologic Survey. Atlanta. 1982a Exploring Santa Elena 1981. Research Manuscript Series 184. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

REFERENCES CITED 1982b

1983

1984a

1984b

1985a

1985b

1988a

1988b

1988c

1988d 1989a

The Search for the French Charlesfort of 1562. Research Manuscript Series 177. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Revealing Santa Elena 1982. Research Manuscript Series188. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Testing Archaeological Sampling Methods at Fort San Felipe 1983.. Research Manuscript Series 190. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. (December 13) Letter to Stanley Applegate on the archaeological research potential of a Carolina Center in Cuemavaca, Mexico. On file at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. Exploring Santa Elena. In National Geographic Research Reports 1979 20: 703715. Edited by Winfield Swanson. National Geographic Society. Washington. Excavation of the Casa Fuerte and Wells at Fort San Felipe 1984. Research Manuscript Series 196. South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina. Columbia. Santa Elena: Threshold of Conquest. In The Recovery of Meaning, Edited by Mark Leone and Parker B. Potter, Jr. The Anthropological Society of Washington. The Smithsonian Press. Washington. Project Description and Goals In Proposals and Research Design: The Santa Elena Example. Unpublished paper on file at the. South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina. Columbia. Whither Pattern? Historical Archaeology 22: 25-28. The Society for Historical Archaeology. Scoperta a Santa Elena. Columbus 92. Anno 4, numero 6 (28). Genova. Using Scientific Methodology and Energy Theory to Address Artifacts from British and Spanish Colonial Communities. ChacmooL Edited by Scott MacEachern, David J. W. Archer and Richard D. Garvin. The Archaeological Association of the University of Calgary.

383 1989b

1989c

1990a

1990b 1990c

1991b

1992

1993a

1993b

1993c

Interpret A Site. Pp. 86-111. In Can You Dig It?: A Classroom Guide to South Carolina Archaeology. Edited by Jeanne Adams, Tommy Charles and Margaret Walden. South Carolina Department of Education and the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. From Archaeology to Interpretation at Charles Towne. Pp. 157-168. In Studies in South Carolina Archaeology: Essays in Honor of Robert L. Stephenson. Anthropological Studies 9. Edited by Albert C. Goodyear, III, and Glen T. Hanson. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. From Thermodynamics to a Status Artifact Model: Spanish Santa Elena. Columbian Consequences." Archaeology and History of the Spanish Borderlands East Pp. 329-341. Edited by David Hurst Thomas. The Society for American Archaeology. Angel at the Door. Wine Cellar Verse. Columbia. The Attic Project (Archaeological Techniques To Inventory Collections: A Smith Family Legacy--A Photographic Data Base. Unpublished Volumes (1-16). University of South Carolina, The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Archaeology at Santa Elena: Doorway to the Past. Popular Series 2. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Archaeology on the Horseshoe. Research Manuscript 2 1 5 . University of South Carolina, The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Strange Fruit: Historical Archaeology, 1972-1977. Pp. 15-18. Historical Archaeology 27(1): 15-18. Historical Archaeology of the Exploratory Period of South Carolina History. South Carolina Antiquities 1968-1993 (2511 & 2]:52-55). The Archaeological Society of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia The Search for John Bartlam at Cain Hoy: America's First Creamware Potter. Research Manuscript Series 219. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia.

3 84

South, Stanley(cont.) 1994a Archaeologist and the Crew'. From the Mountains to the Sea. Pp. 165-187. In Pioneers in Historical Archaeology: Breaking New Ground. Edited by Stanley South. Plenum Press. New York. 1994b Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology. Volumes in Historical Archaeology 2: 78-84. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1994c Arqueologia en Santa Elena: Entrada al pasado Arqueologla Hist6rica en Amdrica Latina 4. Instituto de arqueologla y anthropologia de Carolina del sur, Universidad de Carolina del Sttr. Columbia. 1994-1996 Historical Archaeology in Latin America. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1995a Reconstruction of the Town House on the Mound. In Joffre Coe,Town Creek Indian Mound. Pp. 282-300. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill. 1995b What It Is, Boss Man? Wine Cellar Verse. Columbia. 1995c The Fort Fisher Hermit. Wine Cellar Verse. Columbia 1996a I Never Killed a Man Didn't Need Killing! Wine Cellar Verse. Columbia. 1996b Archaeology at Santa Elena: Doorway to the Past [4th addition]. In Popular Series 2. With a Preface by Chester B. DePratter. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1996c Some Thoughts on Theory in Historical Archaeology: A Personal Perspective. Review of Archaeology 17(2): 10-12. 1996d Arqueologia en Santa Elena: Entrada al Pasado. Osmus 4118]: 44-45, 4119]: 40-44. 1997a Generalized Versus Literal Interpretation. Pp. 54-62. In Presenting Archaeology to the Public: Digging for Truths. Edited by John Jameson. AltaMira Press. Walnut Creek, California. 1997b "Oh Boy!" Culture Clash and Semantics in. the New South. Wine Cellar Verse. Columbia. 1999a Historical Archaeology in Wachovia: Excavating Eighteenth-Century Bethabara and Moravian Pottery. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

1999b

2001a

2001b

2002a

2002b

2002c

2002d

2002e

2002f

2003

Excavating the Pottery of John Bartlam: America's First Creamware Potter. Pp. 289298. In Old and New Worlds. Published by the Society for Post Medieval Archaeology and the Society for Historical Archaeology. Edited by Geoff Eagan for SPMA and R. L. Michael for SHA. Oxbow Books. Oxford, Great Britain. Teacher. Common Ground 13:(1):7. Coe Foundation for Archaeological Research. Raleigh. A Summary of the Results of the 2000 Archaeological Project at Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site. Legacy 6(1):12.. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. [1998] "Jug Well" Cisterns. South Carolina Antiquities 30(1):15-23. The Archaeological Society of South Carolina. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Archaeological Pathways to Historic Site Development. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York. A Summary of the Archaeological Project at Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site in 2000 and 2001. Pp. In Stanley South's Archaeological Pathways to Historic Site Development. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York. (In Press) Toys in the Attic. South Carolina Antiquities. 34(1 & 2). The Archaeological Society of South Carolina. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. [1998] Using the Telescopic Boom Hydraulic Excavator: The Ultimate Archaeological Shovel. South Carolina Antiquities. The Archaeological Society of South Carolina. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology. Percheron Press. A division of Eliot Werner Publications, Inc. Clinton Comers. New York. Comments on Maps from Expeditions to Ninety Six in 1970 and 1971, May 23, 2003. Requested by Farrell Saunders, Superintendent, Cowpens National Battlefield and Ninety Six National Historic Site. Manuscript on file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

REFERENCES CITED 2004

John Bartlam: Staffordshire in Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 231. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

South, Stanley: Edited and Joint Papers South, Stanley (ed.) 1972 1967-1983 (ed.) The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers. 1-15. The University of South Carolina, The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1972 (ed.) The Historical Archaeology Forum. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers 1971 6: 69-263. The University of South Carolina, The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1972 (ed.) 1984-2002 Volumes in Historical Archaeology [42 volumes]. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology Papers.. The University of South Carolina, The Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1994 (ed.) Pioneers in Historical Archaeology: Breaking New Ground. Plenum Press. New York. 199.4-1996 (ed.) Historical Archaeology in Latin America. Vol. 1-16. The Conference on Historic Site Archaeology. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. The University of South Carolina. Columbia. South, Stanley, and R. V. Asbury, Jr. 1960 Report of the Historic Sites Committee of the Lower Cape Fear Historical Society. On file at the office of The Lower Cape Fear Historical Society. Wilmington. 1962 An Archaeological Survey of Four Sites in Brunswick County, North Carolina. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. South, Stanley, and Kathleen A. Deagan 2002 Historical Archaeology in the Southeast, 19302000. Pp. 35-50 In Histories of Southeastern Archaeology. Edited by Shannon Tushingham, Jane Hill, and Charles H. McNutt. The University of Alabama Press. Tuscaloosa. South, Stanley and Chester B. DePratter 1993 Santa Elena/Ft. San Marcos Excavation and Analysis and Santa Elena Boundary Survey. A proposal ($75,000..) to the U. S. Department of Defense "Legacy" program, dated September 2, 1993. On file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

385 1996

Discovery at Santa Elena: Block Excavation 1993. With contributions by James B. Legg, Dennis G. Graham, Jr., Marianne Reeves, and Lisa R. Hudgins, and including analyses by C. Margaret Scarry, Dan Weinand, and David R. Lawrence. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1998 The E. Donald Patton Memorial Fund Established. Legacy 3(2): 6. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. The University of South Carolina. Columbia. South, Stanley, and Halcott Green 2000 Evolutionary Theory in Archaeology at MidCentury and at the Millennium. Unpublished paper on file at the University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. To be published in a festschrift book (in preparation in 2003) edited by Linda Carnes McNaughton and Carl Steen. 2001 Energy Theory and Historical Archaeology. Paper presented in 2002 at the Society for Historical Archaeology meeting at Mobile, Alabama in a session entitled, "In Praise of the Poet Archaeologist: Papers in Honor of Stanley South and His Five Decades of Historical Archaeology. 2004 (In press) Energy Theory and Historical Archaeology. The Council of South Carolina Professional Archaeologists. Edited by Linda Carnes McNaughton and Carl Steen. South, Stanley and Michael O. Hartley 1980 Deep Water and High Ground: Seventeenth Century Low Country Settlement. Research Manuscript Series 166. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1985 Deep Water and High Ground: SeventeenthCentury Settlement Patterns on the Carolina Coast. Structure and Process in Southeastern Archaeology. Edited by Roy S. Dickens, Jr. and H. Trawick Ward. The University of Alabama Press, University of Alabama. Tuscaloosa. South, Stanley and William B. Hunt 1986 Discovering Santa Elena West of Fort San Felipe. Research Manuscript Series 200. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

3 86 South, Stanley and Russell K. Skowronek and Richard E. Johnson 1988 Spanish Artifacts from Santa Elena. Anthropological Studies Z Occasional papers of the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology at the Univerrsity of South Carolina. Colmnbia. South, Stanley and Carl Steen 1992 [1973] Archaeology on the Horseshoe at the University of South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 215. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. South, Stanley and Garry Wheeler Stone 1968 Report on the Examination of the Site of Isaac Hunter's Tavern. Unpublished report on file at the Office of State Archaeology, North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. Raleigh. South, Stanley with Michael J. Stoner 2001 Exploring 1670 Charles Towne: 38CH1A/B, Final Archaeology Report. Research Manuscript 230. University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. South, Stanley and Randolph Widmer 1976 Archaeological Sampling at Fort Johnson, South Carolina (38CH275 and 38CH16). Research Manuscript Series 93. The University of South Carolina. The South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 1977 Subsurface Sampling Strategy for Archaeological Reconnaissance. Pp. 119-150. In Research Strategies in Historical Archaeology. Edited by Stanley South. Academic Press. New York. South, Stanley and Bruce Rippeteau 1985 (January 27) Letter to Norberto Gonzalez Crispo regarding a proposed project at Actopan's villa ruin. On file at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. South, Virginia Mae 1936 My Poems. All poems from 1927 (age 9) to Dec. 1936 (age 18) (79 Poems). Unpublished manuscript compiled by Virginia South. Copy from Elizabeth Storie. Stan South's files. 1937 My Diary of My Western Trip--June 9 to July 11, 1934. Copy from Pam Fisher, Boone, North Carolina. Stan South's files.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Southern Indian Studies 1954 Tenth Annual Southeastern Archaeological Conference. The Research Laboratories of Anthropology. Chapel Hill. Sprnnt, James 1916 Chronicles of the Cape FearRiver 1660-1916. Edwards and Broughton Printing Company. Raleigh. Squier, E. G., and E. H. Davis 1847 Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. The Smithsonian Institution. Washington. State Newspaper 1985 (March 28). Spain Donates $10,000. to USC Dig. Steen, Carl 1999 Stirring the Ethnic Stew in the South Carolina Backcountry: John de la Howe and Lethe Farm. In Historical Archaeology, Identity Formation, and the Interpretation of Ethnicity. Edited by Maria Franklin and Garrett Fesler. Colonial Williamsburg Research Publications. Colonial Williamsburg Foundation. Williamsburg. Stem, Philip Van Doren 1962 The Confederate Navy: A Pictorial History. Doubleday, Garden City. New York. Stephenson, Robert L. 1974a Letter to Senator Rembert C. Dennis, Chairman, Senate Finance Committee, May 28, 1974. On file at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1984 Letter to Stanley Applegate, System Vice President for Sponsored Programs and Research for the University of South Carolina, July 24, 1984. On file at the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, The University of South Carolina. Columbia. 1979 Introduction. Pp. v-xi. In Stanley South. The Search for Santa Elena on Parris Island, South Carolina. Research Manuscript Series 150.. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Stoner, Michael J. 2001 Discovery at 1670 Charles Towne. Legacy 6(1):10-11. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. 2002 Discovery at 1670 Charles Towne. In Stanley South, Archaeological Pathways to Historic Site Development. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York.

REFERENCES CITED

Stoner, Michael J, and Stanley South 2001 Exploring 1670 Charles Towne. Research Manuscript Series 230. The University of South Carolina, South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia. Storie, Elizabeth South 1990 My Killing Kin." The Potters of Tamarack." Telling It Like It Was. The Reprint Company. Spartanburg, South Carolina. 1999 [Compiler] IFeelA Poem Coming On. A book of poems by Mac Belle Casey South Strong, William D. and Clifford Evans, Jr. 1952 Cultural Stratigraphy in the Virti Valley, Northem Peru: The Formative and Fluorescent Epochs. Columbian Studies in Archaeology and Ethnology 4. New York. Stroud, Joseph S. 1999 Two from Hootie and the Blowfish finally collect Order of Palmetto. The State, February 27: B5. Struever, Smart (ed.) 1979 New Discoveries: Earliest New World Fort Found on Marine Base in South Carolina. Early M a n . (Autum). Northwestern Archaeology Program. Evanston. Illinois. Swanton, John R. 1911 Indian Tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley and Adjacent Coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 43. Washington. 1946 The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 137. Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C. Tarleton, William S. 1958 Historic Site Program in North Carolina. Southeastern Archaeological Conference, 15fh Newsletter [1958] 6. Chapel Hill. Taylor, Rabun 2003 Roman Builders: A Study in Architectural Process. Cambridge University Press. Taylor, Walter W. 1948 A Study of Archaeology. Memoir No. 69. American Anthropologist 50(3), Part 2: 1-256. Thomas, David. H. 1998. Archaeology. Harcourt Brace College Publishers. New York. Thompson, Bruce F. 1990 Underwater Survey At Parris Island. Pp. 6473. In Charlesfort: The 1989 Search Project. By Chester B. DePratter and Stanley South. Research Manuscript Series 210. The University of South Carolina. South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology. Columbia.

387

Trudeau, Garry 2002 Doonesbury. The State [April 20]. Columbia. Tuero, Aquilles Garcia 1988 Los Encuentros del "Columbus Line": Homenaje de la Universidad Norteamericana al Quinto Centenario. Madrid. Tylor, E. B. 1891 Primitive Culture. John Murry (second edition). London. Waddell, Alfred Moore 1890 A Colonial Officer and His Times 1754-1773. Raleigh. Walker, Iain C. 1977 Clay Tobacco-Pipes, with Particular Reference to the Bristol Industry. History and Archaeology 11A-D. National Historic Parks and Sites, Parks Canada. Ottawa. Watson, Richard A. 1990 Ozymandias, King of Kings: Postprocessual Radical Archaeology as Critique. American Antiquity 55(4): 673-689. White, Leslie A. 1945 Diffusion vs. Evolution: An Anti-Evolutionist Fallacy. American Anthropologist 47(3). Menasha. 1947a Energy and the Development of Civilization, Serving Through Science, Radio talk sponsored by the United States Rubber Company. New York. Quoted in South 1955a. 1947b Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Rejoinder," American Anthropologist 49(3). Menasha. Whitten, William H. 1979 'Spanish Jamestown' Found on Parris Island. The Savannah Morning News (July 12, 1979:A1). Wilford, John Noble 1979 16th Century Spanish Fort Found at Pan'is Island. The New York Times (July 13, 1979: Section A1. Willey, Gordon R, and Philip Phillips 1958 Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Pp. 39-40, 71-78, 144-181. University of Chicago Press. Chicago. Williams, Stephen (ed.) 1962 Papers Presented at the 1st and 2"d Conferences on Historic Siter Archaeology. Newsletter of the Southeastern Archaeological Conference 9(1). Wolfe, Thomas 1929 Look Homeward Angel: A Story of the Buried Life. Charles Scribner's Sons. New York.

388 Woodring, Howard 1996 A Window to Times Gone By: Tales and Songs by Howard Woodring. Transcribed and published by Stanley South. Wine Cellar Verse. Columbia.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

LIST OF F I G U R E S Figure 1.1

The covered wagon in which my parents rode from Hickory to Boone in September 1917. Left to right: My grandmaw, Bessie Gunlock Casey, holding my sister, Virginia, my uncle Bill, nay mother Mae Belle Casey South, and my uncle Morris. (Photo: Austin South, 11/4/1917) ........................................4

Figure 1.2. My grandpaw, Tom Casey, and my grandmaw at home. (Photo: South, 12/25/19) .......................................

5

Figure 1.3. Uncle Blaine's log house in 1934 located near Malta, Minnesota. My sister, Elizabeth, and our cousin Christine Eggers posed with momma standing in the doorway. (Photo: Austin South, 7/1934) .................... 6 Figure 1.4. Virginia, wearing chaps made from Uncle Blaine's black sheep. (Photo: Mae Belle South, 7/1934) ...................................................................................................................

8

Figure 1.5. A hardworking, inspiring mountain man who pm two children through college. (Photo: South, 4/1952)...22

Figure 2.1

Mountain man/environmentalist/poet/scholar/professor, David Hodgin. My Appalachian mentor, with his wife, Allie. (Photo: South, 1950) ............................................................................................................

26

Figure 2.2. Ham actor/lawyer in the operetta, "Trial by Jury" at Appalachian. (Photo: Antonakos, 1947) ................... 36 Figure 2.3. The Appalachian Rhododendron 1948 yearbook photographer at work. (Photo: Austin South, 1948) ...... 37 Figure 2.4. Clarence Potter on his porch with his dog. (Photo: South 1958) ..................................................................

42

Figure 2.5. In the outdoor drama "Horn in the West," as a British soldier in the battle of Camden. (Photo: Jewell South, 1952) .................................................................................................................................................

47

Figure 2.6. The Hardaway projectile point that shot me into archaeology. (Photo: Daryl Miller, 2003) ....................... 48 Figure 2.7. With my mentor, Joffre Coe, and some of the pine trees I planted 42 years earlier. (Photo: Bruce Rippetean, 8/29/1995) ...................................................................................................................................

53

Figure 3.1. The ossuary burial at the Thelma Site, with Lew Binford at the lower right. (Photo: Jewell South, 1955) ..............................................................................................................................................................

58

Figure 3.2. The stratified profile showing the dark Savannah River Archaic period layer in the middle, below the dark Clement/Gaston pottery zone at the top. The Halifax points and hearths were in the lighter soil below the Savannah River stratum. (Photo: South, 1955) ............................................................................

59

Figure 3.3.

"Diggers Binford and South" as they appeared in Newsweek magazine. (Photo: Copyright, Sabastian Sommer, 1955) .............................................................................................................................................

60

Figure 3.4. Stan and Jewell South and Lewis Binford at the camp on the Gaston Site (Photo: Jean Binford 1955) ....... 61 Figure 3.5.

Joffre Coe and Jewell South sifting soil from one of the test squares at the Gaston Site, on Coe's visit to the site. (South 1955) ...............................................................................................................................

61

Figure 3.6. The 1939 Ford resting against the side of the deputy sheriff's car after hitting the coal truck. The wreck caused the cancellation of plans to attend the University of Michigan. (Photo: South 1953) ............ 62 Figure 3.7. Jim Blacknell, the 105 year old patriarch of the community studied by Stan South, (Photo: South 3/1956) ..........................................................................................................................................................

389

63

390

Figure 4.1.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Ed Gaines cleaning Feature 2 in Square 20L80 beneath the photographic tower at Town Creek Indian Mound (MgV3). (Photo: South 10/1956) ......................................................................................................

68

Figure 4.2.

Excavated game pole holes and trenches revealing the water table level. (Photo: South, 1957) ................. 73

Figure 4.3.

Dude and Ed Gaines and helper raising the game pole in the original hole. (Photo: South, 1957) .............. 74

Figure 4.4.

Ed Gaines handing me another roof pole for the town house temple. (Photo: Jewell South, 9/1956) .......... 77

Figure 4.5.

The completed town house temple and ramp with new logs in place. Inset: Dancing figures on the vestibule wall of the temple. (Photo: South, 1957) .......................................................................................

78

Figure 4. 6. The spotlight on the conch shell on the altar in the town house temple that convinced Ed Gaines we "got it right." (Photo: South 1957) ...........................................................................................................

79

Figure 4. 7. Don Mayhew in the reconstructed entryway tunnel through the stockade at the Town Creek side of the compound. (Photo: South, 1958) ..................................................................................................................

80

Figure 4.8.

Dude Gaines, Don Mayhew, Ed Gaines and David Wilson reconstructing the priest's house. (Photo: South, 9/1958) ...............................................................................................................................................

81

Figure 4. 9. Stan South in Square 0L15 at the Hardaway Site (STY4), with a Hardaway blade on edge in the red subsoil clay at the bottom of the square. (Photo: Edward Gaines, 6/1956) ..................................................

84

Figure 4.10. Ed Gaines at the eight-foot deep Morrow Mountain projectile-point-associated charcoal deposit at the stratified Forbush Creek site (Yd v 1). (Photo: South, 12/1957) ...................................................................

86

Figure 4.11. South in the box excavating a burial before the box caught fire. (Photo: Coe, 12/1957) ............................ 87

Chapter 5.

No figures

Figure 6.1

Jewell South at the doorway of the ruin of St. Philips Church in Brtmswick Town. (Photo: South 5/1958) ........................................................................................................................................................

Figure 6.2.

Stan South beside one of the ballast stone walls in Brunswick Town. (Photo: Charles Smith 1959) ........ 108

Figure 6. 3. The historical archaeology logo. (Photo: South 1960) ............................................................................... Figure 6. 4.

108

The painting Ecce Homo, taken from the Spanish vessel that attacked Brunswick Town in 1748. (Photo: South 1960) ....................................................................................................................................

112

114

Figure 6. 5. Drawing of the brass plate engraved B"runswi"ck. (Drawing: Margaret Bunn 1960) ........................ 115 Figure 6. 6. The "MARECHAL GERARD-G1NIRAL LAFAYETTE" medallion. (Photo: South 1960) ..................... 116 Figure 6. 7. Drawing of Brunswick Town crewmen washing artifacts. (Drawing: Don Mayhew 1960) ......................... Figure 6. 8. Freddy on the porch of "The Spot." The gathering place for the Brunswick Town crew and their friends. (Photo: South 1960) .......................................................................................................................

119

Figure 6. 9. Whist players in "The Spot." (Photo: South 1960) .....................................................................................

119

LIST OF FIGURES

391

Figure 6.10. A mountain whiskey still before being destroyed by the sheriff. (Photo: Palmer Blair 1952) ................... 122 Figure 6.11. Fish boat crew pulling in the net. (Photo: South 1962) ...............................................................................

124

Figure 6.12. A: The comer of the James Espy house ruin as discovered. (Photo: South 1958) B: The Espy ruin comer after "preservation." (South 2/2004) C: R. V. Asbury explaining one of the ruins (note the original stonework). (South 3/1961) ............................................................................................................

128

Figure 6.13. Two of the "tomb-boards" from an African American cemetery (Photo: South 1962) ............................... 133 Figure 6.14. David South at 16, with his classic 1949 MG and his Chihuahua dog, Claude. (Photo: South 1966) ........ 133 Figure 6.15. The 1930 Whippet before our attempt to restore it. (Photo: South 1962) ...................................................

135

Figure 6.16. The burned wooden floor in the excavated ruin of Nath Moore's Front. (Photo: South 1958) .................. 136 Figure 6.17. Interpreting Russellborough from excavated floor plan to the model on the site. (Photo: South 1967) ...... 137 Figure 6.18. Bottle seal "W Dry Cape Fear 1766" from the Russellborough ruin. (Photo: South 8/1961) .................... 138 Figure 6.19. The excavated ruin of Russellborough and some of the artifacts lying on the floor. (Photo: South 1966) ............................................................................................................................................................

138

Figure 6. 20. View during excavation inside the brick tunnel leading from Russellborough to the edge of the Cape Fear River. (Photo: South 1966) .................................................................................................................

139

Figure 6.21. One of the fossil-filled limestone grindstones from the cellar floor of the Russellborough ruin. (Photo: South 1966) .................................................................................................................................................

139

Figure 6.22. Port Collector, James Walker's restored "I.WA[LKER] Bru[nswick]" brand, used for marking goods shipped through Port Brunswick. (Photo: South 1966) ..............................................................................

140

Figure 6.23. Top: Wax impression of a glass seal recovered from the Brunswick Town courthouse ruin, showing the Lamb of God (with halo) and the Christian banner. Below: The red smear resulting when valuable eighteenth century documents such as this are laminated by archivists, thus destroying forever the association of such seals with the document. (Photo: South 3/1964) .........................................................

Figure 7.1. David South at age 11, with Berkman's painting of him. (Photo: South 1961) ..........................................

142

148

Figure 7.2. Artist Claude Howell, working on the Brunswick Town mosaic. (Photo: South 10/1964) ........................ 149 Figure 7.3. Playing the recorder with Chihuahua "Claude" howling in protest. (Photo: Jewell South 9/1962) .......... 150 Figure 7.4. "The Winebibber," leaning against the "stretcher-pounded" painting, "Badlands." (Photo: South 7/1962) ........................................................................................................................................................

151

Figure 7.5. Top: Flinging yellow paint onto canvas. Bottom: Paint-flinger South, with abstract expressionist "stretcher-pounding-paint-flinging" painting, "The Edge of Night." (Photo: Jewell South 3/1961) ........ 151

Figure 7.6. Liquid steel over copper armature wire sculpture, "The Promise," one of South's "sketches in steel in his one-man show. (Photo: South 3/1963) ..................................................................................................

154

Figure 7. 7. Uncovering pit-fired black on black pottery in the yard in Wilmington. (Photo: Jewell South 1960) ....... 156

392

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Figure 7,8. The actor and the archaeologist discussing the possibility of ruins on the moon. (Photo: Hugh Morton 1962) ............................................................................................................................................................

158

Figure 7,9. The "CATARNA HEISTN 1766" flax hackle in the Mercer Museum. (Photo: South 1965) .................... 159 Figure 7,10. Road kill art on Highway 29 North of Auburn, Alabama. (Photo: David South 2000) .............................. 160 Figure 8. l.

The Brunswick Town crew on Battery A at Confederate Fort Anderson. (Photo: South 1961) ................. 162

Figure 8.2. One of the many Confederate Fort Anderson barracks chimney bases found at Ft. Anderson, made of bricks and stones salvaged from the ruins of Brunswick Town and held together by clay. (Photo: South 1962) .................................................................................................................................................

163

Figure 8. 3. A sketch of Cushing's bogus monitor floated on the rising tide in front of Ft. Anderson was published in The New York Herald on February 23, 1865. (Photo: South 1960) ........................................................ 164 Figure 8. 4. Top: The exposed snags remaining from the Ft. Fisher palisade, Bottom: The rebuilt section of the palisade wall. (Photo: South 2/1962) ..........................................................................................................

166

Figure 8,5. Left: The brass fuse, percussion cap and fuse cap, inside of which was wadded the newspaper fragment, probably reporting the first attack on Ft. Fisher by Benjamin Butler. (Photo: South 3/1963) ... 168

Figure 8,6. Johnny Miller standing in the crater made by the exploded Civil War shell. (Photo: South 1963) ............ 170 Figure 8. 7, JeweU and David South helping Stan learn how to dive on the wreck of the blockade runner Beauregard. (Photo: South 1962) ............................................................................................................... 171 Figure 8.8. Hall Watters and Charlie Foard checking the map they used to locate wrecks o f blockade runners from the air. Hall discovered the wreck o f the U. S. Peterhoff (Photo: South 8/I963) ...................................... 17l

Figure 8.9. Navy and other personnel, pulling closer to shore, the cannon barrel hanging beneath the balloon,. (Photo: South 8/1963) ..................................................................................................................................

173

Figure 8,1 O, The cannon barrel, from the blockade vessel U. S. S. Peterhoff, lying on the beach. (Photo: South 8/1963) ........................................................................................................................................................

174

Figure 8.11. Stan South and Charlie Foard in the process o f sandblasting the Confederate torpedo. (Photo: Johnny Miller 5/1964 ...............................................................................................................................................

177

Figure 8.12. Top: A Civil War Whitworth shell "conserved" by a conservationist. Bottom: A Whitworth shell from the same crate, taken from the wreck of the blockade runner Modern Greece, conserved by Start South............................................................................................................................................................

177

Figure 8.13. Detail of the diorama made by Lionel Forrest for the Ft. Fisher museum showing hand-to-hand fighting at the third gun emplacement of the fort near the Cape Fear River. (Photo: South 1964) .......................... 180

Figure 8.14. Robert Edward Harrell, "The Fort Fisher Hermit," showing David and Jewell South the horseshoe crab he caught for dinner. (Photo: South 1960) ..................................................................................................

184

Figure 9.1. Antique sewing machines in the basement of the Attmore-Oliver House in New Bern, Nolth Carolina. (Photo: South 1962) .....................................................................................................................................

187

Figure 9.2. Start and Garry Stone at the Fayetteville Arsenal. (Photo: Margaret McMahan 1968) .............................. 192

LIST OF FIGURES

393

Figure 9.3.

Stan, pointing to the interior edge of the bastion ditch for the 1756 fort around Bethabara, with the ruin of Gottfried Aust's pottery shop in the background. (Photo: Bradford Ranschanberg 1963) ......... 196

Figure 9. 4.

JeweU South, at, the stabilized ruin o f the doctor's laboratory in Bethabara, with the reconstructed palisade in the background. (Photo: South 1964) ....................................................................................

198

An aerial view of the stabilized ruins of Bethabara and the reconstructed palisade fort of 1756. (Photo: Abrams Aerial Survey Corporation 1964) ..................................................................................

198

A view of the kiln waster objects in Feature 19R on Lot 49 in Old Salem, North Carolina. (Photo: South 1965) ..............................................................................................................................................

199

Figure 9, 5. Figure 9. 6. Figure 9. 7.

A North Carolina home place covered by kudzu, "The vine that ate the South." (Photo: South 1968).. 199

Figure 10.1.

Bob Stephenson on a visit to Teton Jackson Cave in the Pryor Mountains of Montana, (Photo: Wil Husted) .............................. ~......................................................................................................................

211

Crew members standing at the edge of the 1670 Charles Towne main fortification ditch before excavation. (Photo: South t969) ..............................................................................................................

212

Figure 10.2. Figure 10.3.

A view of the main 1670 Charles Towne fortification ditch profile. (Photo: South 1969) ..................... 212

Figure 1D.4.

Reconstruction underway at the 1670 Charles Towne fortification ditch. The 1780 Revolutionary War redoubt ditch and replaced parapet is on the left. (Photo: South 1969) ........................................... 212

Figure 10.5.

Archaeological crew members excavating the palisade postholes for the ceremonial compound at Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site. (Photo: South 1969) ..........................................................

213

Detail of the archaeological map of the 1780 Revolutionary War redoubt adjacent to the 1670 Charles Towne main fortification ditch. (Drawing: South 1969) ..........................................................

216

Detail from the interpretive drawing of the 1780 Revolutionary War redoubt at Charles Towne Landing State Historic Site. (Drawing: South 8/1969) ..........................................................................

217

View o f the reconstructed 1670 north fortification ditch and parapet at Charles Towne, with the unexcavated west ditch on the right. (Photo: South 1969) ......................................................................

218

Figure 10. 6. Figure 10. 7. Figure 10.8. Figure 10. 9.

The reconstructed 1670 north palisade fortification wall at Charles Towne. (Photo: South 1970) ......... 218

Figure 10.10.

Charles Towne volunteer, David South, with his 1949 MGTC and the cut-down, rebuilt surfboard he and crew member Norman Habib Akel, converted from a much larger California board. (Photo: South 1969) ..............................................................................................................................................

220

Figure 10.11. The fiberglass profile of the north fortification ditch at 1670 Charles Towne. (Photo: South 1969) ...... 223 Figure 11,1.

The Mean Ceramic Date Formula and some of the sberds used with it. (Photo: South 1971) ................ 235

Figure 12.1.

Stan South, excavating the burial inside Williamson's fence rail and cowhide fort, thought to be that of the patriot James Birmingham, or the loyalist, Capt. Luper, both killed in the first battle of the American Revolution in the South. (Photo: Steve Baker 1971) .............................................................. 245

Figure 12.2.

Detail of the map of Ninety Six, showing the Star Fort and well hole, Greene's Parallels and Koscinsko's mine. (Drawing: South 9/1970) ...........................................................................................

247

394

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Figure 12.3.

Richard Polhemus pointing to the edge of the caponier ditch connecting the Star Fort to the town of Ninety Six. (Photo: South 5/15/1970) .................................................................................................... 248

Figure 12.4.

Randy Luther and groundhog Stan South inside Kosciusko's 1781mine. (Photo: David South 1970) .249

Figure 12.5.

Mine explorers Start South, Randy Luther and David South at the mine entrance in 1970. (Photo: Brace Ezell 1970) ....................................................................................................................................

250

Figure 12. 6,

The archaeological crew schnitting the subsoil clay at Holmes' Fort, so the disturbances into it can be read, after removal of the plowed soil by machine. (Photo: South 1971) .......................................... 253

Figure 12. Z

Steve Baker and crew members at the Cambridge cellar hole he excavated. (Photo: South 1971) ....... 257

Figure 12.&

Top: The bobwhite quail yard showing the location of the 17 quail nests (numbered circles). Lower left: One of the nests with eggs. Lower fight: Robert and Lara South with baby bobwhite quail. (Drawing and Photos: South 1971) ................................................................................................

266

Lara and Robert South sitting on the porch of the eighteenth century Pawtey House. (Photo: South 9/23/1971) ................................................................................................................................................

269

Start South (top), with the Fort Moultrie archaeological crew and the dig dog. (Photo: Lara South 11/2/73) ....................................................................................................................................................

275

The Dolphin Chart, illustrating the scientific cycle (aRer Kemeny 1959:86). (South 3/1975. In South 2002f: Cover and 15) .....................................................................................................................

282

Figure 13.1. Figure 13.Z Figure i4. I. Figure 14.2.

Ceramic density distribution illustrating the Brunswick Pattern of Refuse Disposal at the Public House-Tailor Shop in Brunswick Town. (South 1975. In South 2002f: 67) .......................................... 283

Figure 14,3,

Lewis Binford and Stan South at the SHA meeting in Charleston in 1975. (Photo: Gordon Brown 1/1975) .....................................................................................................................................................

285

Stan South cataloging the first artifacts recovered from the moat of Spanish Ft. San Felipe. (Photo :Gordon Brown 7/1979) ................................................................................................................

301

Figure 15.1.

Figure 15.2.

Top: Detail of the 1695 Thomton-Morden Map showing the location of five sites. Bottom: Detail of the James Island U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey map showing the area where the sites were found in the deep water and high ground survey (Photo South 5/1980) .................................................. 307

Figure 15. 3.

Joe Joseph displaying Spanish Santo Domingo Blue on White majolica and his legs. (Photo: South 1981) ........................................................................................................................................................

309

Figure 15. 4.

Stan South and Michael HaRley (in the barrel) preparing to support it using plastic hose to keep the barrel from collapsing inward. (Photo Copyright: David L. Brill from National Geographic: Judge 1988: 341) ................................................................................................................................................ 310

Figure 15.5.

The Spanish barrel in the conservation tank awaiting the process that failed to preserve it. (Photo: South 1981) ..............................................................................................................................................

Figure 15. 6.

310

Michael Hartley and Start South examining features revealed in one of the small 20 by 30 foot excavation areas of Santa Elena beneath the eighth tee of the Parris Island Golf Course. (Photo: Bill Hunt 1982) ............................................................................................................................................... 311

395

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 15. 7.

A view of the northwest bastion of Ft. San Felipe. (Photo: Bill Hunt 1982) .......................................... 312

Figure l 5. 8.

Start South excavating the burned glass beads found in a pit thought to have been associated with a nearby African American grave. (Photo: Bill Hum 1982) ............................................................ ~......... 315

Figure 15.9.

U. S. Senator Strom Thurmond and Stan South at the northwest bastion of Spanish Ft. San Felipe. (Photo: Bill Hunt 1983) ...........................................................................................................................

316

Figure 15.10. The Ft. San Felipe crew sitting on the edge of the casafuerte ditch, with the profile o f the "Pre-casa fuerte" (Charlasfort) ditch behind Stan South. From left to right: Bill Hunt, Gary Shapiro, John Goldsboro, Susan Jackson, Mike Harmon and Ken Sassaman. (Photo: Richard Polhemus 1982) ......... 3t7

Figure 15.11. Charles Fairbanks and Stan South discussing the features revealed in Ft. San Felipe. (Photo: Bill Hunt) ........................................................................................................................................................

318

Figure 15.12. The Isabella Blue on White majolica chamber pot recovered from what is thought to be the ruin of the home Governor Guitierre de Miranda at Santa Elena. (Photo: S.C. Department of Transportation Roll 1, #10 1997) ............................................................................................................. 321

Figure 15.13. Stan South in the excavated kiln with some of the bricks fi'om the fallen arch still in place. (Photo: Jim Legg 5/13/1993) ................................................................................................................................

Figure 15.14.

324

Interpretive drawing of the Santa Elena kiln during operation. (Drawing: Jim Legg 1993) ................. 325

Figure !'5.15, Chester DePratter and Stan South setting reference points for excavating at French Charlesfort. (Photo: Jim Legg 6/1996) ........................................................................................................................

327

Figure 15.16. Richard Polhemus, Ivor Noel Hume and Stan South in the Winthrop Rockefeller Archaeology Museum after the 1997 SHA meetingin Williamsburg. (Photo: SallyPolhemus 4/1997) .................... 330

Figure 15.17. Chester DePratter at the profile in the 1562 French Charlesfort ditch. (Photo: South 4/27/2000) ........... 330 Figure 15.18. Volunteer Lara South and her sculpture of the "Spirit of the Back-dirt Pile." (Photo: South 11/1979)..332 Figure 15.19. Volunteer Robert South upon being asked by the National Geographic photographer if he liked digging at Santa Elena. (Photo: Copyright David L. Brill 1979) ............................................................

332

Figure 15.20. Stan South with volunteers and crew at Santa Elena. Left to right: Start, Carol McCanless, Chester DePratter, Joan Jordan, David Jordan, Don Patton, Polly Worthy, Marilyn Pennington, Michael Stoner, and Jim Legg. (Photo: 1997) ......................................................................................................

334

Figure 16.1.

Stan South and Jim Deetz at Flowerdew Hundred in 1989. (Photo: courtesy of Jim Deetz) .................. 335

Figure 16.2.

Toy wheeled wind-up horse from the ATTIC Project in the Smith House at Roswell, Georgia. (Photo: South 12/13/1990) ......................................................................................................................

340

Janet Reddy. She and I were married by an Apache Medicine Man/Psychologist in 1991. (Photo: South 1997) ..............................................................................................................................................

344

Figure 16. 3. Figure 16. 4.

A sherd of John Bartlam's Dot, Diaper and Basket, Staffordshire type creamware. (South 1993) ........ 345

Figure 16. 5.

A brick clamp of unfired bricks stacked over ftreboxes.in the Uruguayan countryside. The man at the left is plastering mud over the clamp to hold in the heat during ftring. (Photo: South 11/1993) ...... 346

3 96

Figure 16. 6.

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

Mountain groundhog archaeologist Stan South in the field at Santa Elena. (Photo: Jim Legg 12/1997) ...................................................................................................................................................

347

Figure 16. 7.

The "Golden Groundhog" holding Stan's historical archaeology logo. (Drawing: Jim Legg) .............. 347

Figure 16.8.

Golden Groundhog archaeologist Chester DePratter in the field at Santa Elena. (Photo: South 12/1997) ...................................................................................................................................................

348

Figure 16.9.

Golden Groundhog archaeologist Jim Legg. (Photo: South 1997) ........................................................

348

Figure 16.10.

Golden Groundhog archaeologist Richard Polhemus with his award certificate. (Photo: Sally Polhemus 1997) .......................................................................................................................................

348

Researchers in Spanish colonial history and archaeology. Left to right: Elizabeth Reitz, Paul Hoffman, Carl Halbirt, Karen Paar, Stan South, Chester DePratter and Kathleen Deagan. (Photo: Daryl Miller 1999) ...................................................................................................................................

354

Figure 16.11.

Figure 16.12. Stan explaining the Spanish house discovery to South Carolina governor Jim Hodges. (Photo: Andrew Agha 2001) .................................................................................................................................

356

INDEX A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America, 111 A Man Called Horse, movie, 208 A Page of History, radio program, 136 A. J., the male lead in a play, 36 Aborigines in Australia, name for Jesus, 292 Abrams Aerial Survey Corporation, 198 Abstract expressionism, 152 Academic freedom on trial, 289-290 Accent, mountain, 349 Adafumi I, King Oba Oseijeman, Oyotunji Village, 315 Adams, William (Bill), 236-238 Adler's Island, Swansboro, North Carolina, 189 Administration, Brunswick Town, 161 Administrative joys, 200; pressure, 205 Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, 232 Aerial photograph: Ninety Six, 263-264; Bethabara, 198 (photo) Aesthetics and ruin stabilization, 127-128 African American: beads, 315; cemetery tomb-boards, 132, 133 (photo); cemetery project, 334; cemetery, Fort San Felipe, 314-315; community study, 62; document research, 334; glass bead pit, 315 (photo); remedies, 63: school, observation, 32; section, Wilmington, North Carolina, 132 African Americans and Europeans, Charles Towne, 219 archaeological research, 322 African voodoo priest training, Oyotunji village, 315 Agha, Andrew, 356 Airlie House Conference Center, seminar, 224, 287 Akel, Norman Habib, surfboard conversion, 220 (photo) Albemarle Point, 1670 settlement, 212, 353 Albright, Alan, hiring process, 230-231,304 Alembic (distillery), Santa Elena kiln, 324 Alexander, Hezekiah, house, Charlotte, North Carolina, 191 Alexandria library, looted and burned, 358 Aliens on the moon, Ronald Reagan theory, 157-158 Alkaline Glazed Stoneware, 231 Allen, James, Ninety Six, 239 Allston, Joseph Blyth, Pawley House, 270 Alsing, Sue Jane, Santa Elena, 297-300, 302 Aluminum roof, town house temple, Town Creek, 77 Ambassador Maneuco de Lecca, 319 Amer, Christopher, 358 American Antiquity, paper invitation, 287 American archaeology, upside down, Binford, 280-281 American Association of University Professors, 290 American Red Cross, 31 America's first creamware potter, 322, 344, 360 An archaeological evolution, 359 An Architectural History of South Carolina College 18011855, 272 Analytical techniques paper, 287

Analyzing the field of historical archaeology, The Snail Chart, 282 Andalusia, Spain, labrillo pottery fragments, 313 "Angel at the Door," poem, Start South, 342 Angel, buried, Windsor Hill cemetery, 289 Angels jitterbugging on marbles, 145 Animal prints in bricks, 346 Annapolis, Maryland, 11 Anniversary, crew reunion, 354 Anonymous doner, 319, 331-332, 353 Antebellum burial study, 289 Anthropological idiocy, quantification, 111,233 Anthropological perspective on religion, 292 Anthropological Studies, Fort Moultrie, 276 Anti-Cherokee Fort, 239, 243-244 Anti-nuclear perspective in the classroom, 290 Antiquarianism resurgence, 208 Antiques magazine, flax hackle article, 159 Antiquities Act Permit, Santa Elena, 296 Anti-science attitude, 111 Ant0nakos, Antonio, photography professor, 34, 36 Apache marriage, Start South/Janet Reddy, 344 Appalachian English-ballad tradition, 125 Appalachian State Teachers College, 2, 11-12, 23-40 Appalachian University's Distinguished Mumnus Award, 304 Appalachian, student teaching, 32 Applegate, Stanley, 338 Application of analysis tools, 235 Archaeological crew: Brunswick Town, 116 (photo); fight, Charles Towne Landing, 220; Fort Moultrie, 275 (photo); Fort San Felipe, 317 (photo); judgment, 222; mutiny, Ninety Six, 251; reunion, twentieth anniversary, 354; Santa Elena, 333 (photo), 354 Archaeological data: faculty objection to use from DOE sites, 290; evolution, 278,359; Archaeological: method, (see method and theory); Pathways to Historic Site Development, 353; plans cancelled, Ninety Six, 261-262; process, methodological phases, 224; record, integrity, 204-205; interpretation, 70; report guidelines, 287; research program, Savannah River Department of Energy site, 290; Research Trust, grant, SCIAA, 321; sampling strategy at Fort Johnson, 273; science theme at Charleston SHA meeting, 28; site survey of Southeastern North Carolina, 188; Society, South Carolina award, 338, 354; Survey of the Lower Mississippi Valley, 93; -architectural research, Paca House, Annapolis, Maryland, 202 Archaeology: and aesthetics stories, 125; and history, interpretation and synthesis, 319; and public education, 339

397

398 Archaeology: is archaeology, 268; confused with geology, 228; Eastern United States, 95; expressionist, 152-153; Holmes' Fort, 246; public, 339; Santa Elena, 292, 339, 346; spelling, 203 Archaic Period: artifacts, Charles Towne Landing, 219; lithic quarry, 90 Archibald Smith House, attic inventory, 339-340 Architectural: purists, Wilmington, North Carolina, 131; archaeology, Paca House, Annapolis, Maryland, 201203,288 Armadillo art, 160 (photo) Armed services, carnival, Fort Fisher, 175-176 Art: (see also, painting, sculpture); abstract expressionist, 147, 151 (photo); and life, stories, 145-160; exhibit in Raleigh, 154; flinging paint, 151 (photo); one man show, U. N. C. Pembroke, Wilmington College, 155; pottery making, 156 (photo); road kill art collection, 160 (photo); sculpture, 153; stretcher-pounding, 151 (photo) Articles, journal, 320 Artifact: cluster, Charles Towne house, 355; collecting, 141; groups defined, 283; security, Bnmswick Town, 130131; Archibald Smith House, 338-340; Fort Moultrie, 275; replication, 75; shipwreck, 227 Asbury, 'R. V. Jr.: Washington's tour, 132; Brunswick Town guide, 116, 128 (photo), 129-131,289-290 Asheville Citizen Times, 61 Association of American Colleges, 290 Atakulla, outdoor drama, 46 Atomic: bomb, dropped, 17; theory of matter, 356 Attacullaculla, Cherokee chief, 46 Attawapiskat Swampy Cree, research, 65 ATTIC Project: (Archaeological Techniques to Inventory Collections), 339-340; computerizing data, 340; toy, wind-up horse, 340 (photo) Attmore-Oliver House, 123,187-188 Attorney training, Charles Towne, 221 Atwater, Lee, Ninety Six, 258 Auburn University, David South, 279, 308 Aust, Gottfried: German potter, Bethabara, 196; Old Salem, North Carolina, 199; tobacco pipe, Ninety Six, 246; pottery shop ruin, 196 (photo) Australian aborigines', Jesus' name, 292 Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture, 322 Aviles, Menendez de, 293 Azalea Festival king, Ronald Reagan, 157-158 Aztec writings, burned, 358 B. J. Gethers Fund grant, Cain Hoy research, 345; Santa Elena research, 306, 321 Babcock, Charles, Sr., 194-196 Backhoe search, Charlesfort, 327 Badin Focus, 95 "Badlands," painting, 151 (photo) BAE reports, 50

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Baghdad, museum looted, 358 Baked clay objects, Charles Towne Landing, 92, 219 Baker, Steve, 245, 252, 257 (photo), 258 Bald eagles, Cape Fear, 117; Flowerdew Hundred, 335 Ball and chain diggers, Ninety Six, 258 Baltimore Museum of Art, Maryland, research, 202 B arbadian redware, connection, 355 Barbados kiln, excavated, Michael (Mike) Stoner, 355 "Barbara Allen," ballad, 125 Barbaran, Pascual Daza, Gran Maestre, Santa Elena, 313 Barka, Norman, 284 Barn: demolition, Bethabara, North Carolina, 198; site, discovered, Ninety Six, 263 Bamhardt, Don, 134; Jewell, vii, 41 (see also, Sooth, Jewell); Mike, 134 Barnyard heuristics, 224 Barracks ruin, Fort Johnson, 273 Barrel: conservation, fails, 311; Spanish, recovered, 310 (photo), 311 Barrow, General Robert H., 305 Bartlam, John, creamware potter, Cain Hoy, South Carolina, 322, 344-345,360 Base-line mapping method, Charles Towne Landing, 221 Bass, George, interviewed, 230 Bastion, Bethabara fort, 196 (photo) Bath, North Carolina, dig, 190 Battle: Guilford Courthouse, 188; Moore's Creek Bridge, 244; Revolutionary War, Ninety Six, 244; Whigs and Tories, Ninety Six, 244 Battleship curve, seriation, 234 Beads: copper, replicated, 76; glass, Fort San Felipe moat, 315 (photo); Olokun, god of the deep sea, 315 Bear skull, on game pole, 74 Beards, Ninety Six, 240 Beast Butler, Fort Fisher, 168 Beatniks, loose in Ninety Six, 240 Beatty, Joe, ATTIC Project, 340 Beaufort Low Country, French sherds, 330 Beaufort, North Carolina, Bell House, 191 Beauregard, blockade runner wreck, 170 Beauvais stoneware, Charlesfort, 329 Beck, Rob, 92 Bell House, study, Beaufort, North Carolina, 191 Bell, Fifth House, Old Salem, North Carolina 199 Benjamin, J. P., Slidell, papers on U.S.S. Peterhoff, 171 Berlonan, Eleanor, musician, 147 Berkman, Jack, artist, 147, 152; David South painting, 148 (photo) Berry site, 92 Bethabara: dig, 191,198 (photo); Gottfried Aust, pottery, 196; palisade fort, reconstruction 198 (photo); Rudolph Christ, pottery, 196 Betrothal gift, the flax hackle, 158-159 Bicycle trip, 10 Binford, Jean, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 61,279-280

INDEX Binford Lewis R. (Lew): 56, 58 (photo), 60 (photo), 61 (photo), 72, 97, 114, 281,279-280, 285 (photo); book forewords, 28 l; Charleston SHA meeting, 284286; letter to, about David Hodgin, 26-31; on MCD Formula, 238; theory-strength, 279; pipestem formula, 284 Binford, Sally, 280 Birmingham, James, Williamson's Fort, 244, 245 (photo), 246 "Bitch of Buchenwald," 54 Bivens, John, Jr., 197 Black Lucy's Garden, 105 Black: powder, Fort Moultrie, 274; sailors, 17; widow spiders, 68 Blackbeard, house ruin, 190 Blackberry wine, 225 Blackman, Colonel A. M., Fort Fisher, 181 Blacknell, Jim, patriarch, 62, 63 (photo) Blair, Palmer, 53, 122 Blind study, Hobbs Road, 188 Block excavation, Santa Elena, 331 Blockade runner: Beauregard, wreck, 170; Georgiana, wreck, 227; Modern Greece, wreck, 170; Mary Bowers, wreck, 227 Blue Thtmder, jet pilots, 124 Blumenkubel tray, Fort Moultrie, 274 Board of Directors, SHA, 203 Boas, Franz, 55 Boat, Sally Jewell, 42 Bobwhite quail, experiment, 265,266 (drawing and photo) Bolo, Appalachian wrestler, 39-40 Boney, Leslie N., Jr., 131-132 Booher, Glen, voice teacher, 20 Boone: Lions Club, 49; Daniel, cabin site, 192; North Carolina, town, 4 Boone, Walter (Walt), viii, 24, 26-31,145-146, 304 Boot camp, 12-19 Booze, cathedral, 19 Boss man, 118 Bottle seal, W. Dry, Cape Fear, 1766, 138 (photo) Boundary, search, Santa Elena, 323 Box, on fire, 86-87 Boy scouts, Winterville Mound, 93 Brailsford; Captain A. M., 289; Edward Ainslie, 289 Brain, Jeffrey P., 98 Brand, James Walker, Port Collector, 140 (photo) Brandy, frozen, 225 Breastplate, copper replicated, 75 Brendell, J. R., 38 Brer Rabbit, Dollar-Schuyler debate, 208 Brew, J. O., 56 Brice's Fort, New Bern, North Carolina, 191 Brick: collector, St. Philips Church, Brunswick Town, 140; wall, Bethabara, 196; clamps, Uruguay, 346 (photo); oven, Prospect Hall, excavated, 135; technology, Uruguay, 346 (photo)

399 Bridge, Japanese, controversy, 126 Brill, David L., 310, 332 British: refuse, Fort Moultrie, 276; regimental buttons, 274; Royal Seal, 116;/Hessian redoubt, Charles Towne Landing, 215 Brooks, Mark, 358 Brown, Gordon, 285,300-301 Brown, Ian W., 98 Browns Ferry Landing, artifacts, 231 Brunswick: artifacts, 115; Burnished pottery, 188; County Historical Society, 140; engraved nameplate; Pattern of Refuse Disposal, 114, 126, 283,297, 307, 355-35; crew, 116 (drawing); guide, R. V. Asbury, 116, 128 (photo), 129-132, 289-290; historical background, 107; ruins, 135; stories, 107-144; engraved nameplate, 115 (photo) Bryan, John, 272 Buchenwald, "Bitch of," 54 Buckminster Fuller, Roper Mountain pavilion, 215 Budget, underwater research, 228 Buffalo skull, trophy, 7 Bugsy, at Woodstock, 220 Bull, Commander J. L. Bull, III, 172 Bullen: Adelaide, 105; Ripley, 104-105 Bumblebee, Mean Ceramic Date Formula, 113 Bunn, Margaret, 115 Bunny/dog, affair at Bethabara, 195 Burch, James, Paca House, 202 Bureau of American Ethnology, 50 Bureaucracy, 82 Burial: African American, infant, 60; mortuary house, 71; study, 289; Fort San Felipe, 315; Native American, Charles Towne, 213; salvaged, 85 Burke Complicated Stamped pottery, 49 Bush, President George W., Thurmond birthday, 317 Butler, General Benjamin, Fort Fisher, 168 Butler, Robert, 90 Buttons, British, Fort Moultrie, 274 Buzzard, frozen, 254 Byers, Douglas, 56 By-pass surgery, 309, 359 Cahill, Thomas, 342 Cain Hoy, grant, 345; John Bartlam, creamware pottery, 344-345 Cainhoy, Wando River, 344 Caldwell, David, second house, 188 Caldwell, Joseph (Joe), 56, 96, 98, 104 Calhoun, Alan Taliaferro, Pawley House, 268 Cambridge, cellar hole, 256 (photo) Cann, Marvin, Ninety Six, 263 Cannibalism, Charlesfort survivors, 351 Cannon barrel, U. S. S. Peterhoff, 173 (photo), 174 (photo) Cannonball: disarming, 165; Fort Anderson, 165 Cape Fear Fabric Impressed pottery, 189, 190 Caponier, ditch, Ninety Six, 246, 248 (photo), 249

400 Captain Newman, house ruin, Brunswick, 162 Car wreck, 61, 62 (photo), 143-144 Career chronology, Stan South, ix Carlos, Juan, King of Spain, 313 Carneiro, Robert L., 356 Carnes-McNaughton, Linda, 206, 357 Carolina: Artifact Pattern, 114, 170, 283,339-340; Beach police, 170; South, articles, 339 Carolinas map, Stan South projects, ix Carrillo, Richard (Dick): Fort Dorchester, 285; Fort Hawkins, 225; Pawley House, 268-270, 284 Carroll, Mattie, Ninety Six, 252,254, 259 Carvel Hall Hotel, Annapolis, Maryland, 201 Casa fuerte ditch, Fort San Felipe, crew, 317 (photo), 318 Casey: Bessie Gunlock, 2, 4 (photo), 5 (photo), 9; Bill, 4 (photo); Morris 4 (photo); Tom, 5 (photo) CATARNA HEISTN 1766, flax hackle, 159 (photo) Catawba, colono-Indian pottery, Fort Moultrie, 276 Catch-22, Santa Elena proposal, 296 Catheterization, 360 Cecil clay, Ninety Six, 254 Celery wine, 225 Cellar drain, crawfish, Bethabara, 194 Cemetery, African American, tomb-boards, 133 (photo), 314:315,334 Ceramic: dating formula, conceived, 233-234 (see Mean Ceramic Date); density distribution Brunswick Town, 283 (drawing); taxonomy, nineteenth century, 275; guru, Ivor Noel Hume, 329, 330 (photo) Ceremonial center: discovered, 212; postholes excavated, 213 (photo) Chain-gang archaeology, Ninety Six, 258 Chamber pot, Santa Elena, 321 (photo) Chandler, Harold, Santa Elena, 332 Chantey: 124; "Sweet Rosie Anne," 117; recorded, 125 Chapel Hill, Roy Dickens, 291 Chapman, Lloyd, Ninety Six, 252 Chapman-Taylor House, 123, 187-188 Charles Forte, 294 Charles IX, King of France, 326 Charles Towne Landing: house, 355, 356; State Historic Site, 355; archaeology begun, 211; baked clay objects, 219, book funded, anonymous donor, 33; British/Hessian redoubt excavated, 215; invitation to excavate, 204; moon-landing-watch, by crew, 220 Charles Towne: Native American legacy, 219; revisited, 355; Revolutionary War redoubt, 215, 216 (drawing), 217 (drawing); "ground mole" activity, 216-217; a South Carolina odyssey, 204; book, 334; fortifications, 211,212 (photo); method and theory, 225; tales, 211226; update, 225 Charles, Tommy: Charlesfort search, 327; ATTIC Project, 340; computer help, iii; Stone Rock Mound site, 357 Charlesfort: pre-easa fuerte Fort San Felipe, 318; and Spanish Santa Elena tales, 293-334; beneath Fort San Felipe, 330; Chester DePratter summary, 325;

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION constructed, 326; early interest, 326; French fort on Parris Island, South Carolina, 294; French stoneware sherds, 329; grant, Department of the Navy, 331; moat followed, 330 (photo); monument, Santa Elena, 325; revisited, 330; search, 325-328; survivors build boat, eat Chere, 351 Charleston Baptist College, students, Fort Johnson dig, 273 Charleston Road, Ninety Six, 241 Charleston, SHA meeting, 284 Charlie Brown syndrome, 27 Charlotte Observer, Fort San Felipe, 305 Chase, Eugene B., Pawley's Island, historian, 270 Chase, Richard, folklorist, 51-52 Cheraw Indian, site search, 91 Chere, Charlesfort, 351 Cherokee: attack, Fort Ninety Six, 241; chief, Attacullaculla, 46; Indian, fed to the dogs, Fort Ninety Six, 240; surveyor, house site locations, 192; Trail of Tears Memorial, 192 Chicago World's Fair, Maria pottery, 155 Chicago called Randy Luther, 219-220 Chicken: chart, 223,225; navy story, 14 Chickens, home to roost, 353 Chiggers, Brunswick Town, 108-109 Chihuahua dog: 133 (photo); Ralph, falls for a rabbit, 195; Ralph, hit by Mack truck, 195 Chimneys, Fort Anderson, 163 (photo) Christ, Rudolph: Old Salem, 199; Staffordshire pottery, Bethabara, 196, Wachovia, 345 Christenson, Andrew L., MCD, Keyenta Anasazi sites, 238 Christian banner, seal, 143 Christmas: Holi-day, 52; poems, 145 Christopher, Lieutenant John, torpedo, 175 Chronology, career, Start South, ix; storytelling power, 1 CHSA, separated from SEAC, 112-113; Conference on Historic Site Archaeology, 203,209; volumes available, 209 Chunkey stone, Charles Towne, 213 Citadel, Indian Hill dig, Charleston, 191 City of Roswell, Georgia, 339 Civil War: too close on us, 180; Centennial, 167, 240; Confederate soldier's trunk, 339; shell conserved, 177178; shell, disarmed, 165; shell, exploded, 170; stories, 161-186 Claret bottle, Russellborough, 139 Clark, David, 284, 286 Classic cars, MGs, 133 (photo) Claude, Chihuahua dog, 133 (photo), 150 (photo) Clauser, John, Krause-Butner pottery shop, 198 Clement pottery, defined, 59 Clemson University professor, John L. Idol, Jr., 310 Cliches, 360 Climactic years, 279-292 Clovis fluted point, Macon Plateau, 95 Clovis: point, Adler's Island, Swansboro, North Carolina, 189; search for, 189

INDEX Coat-hanger dowsers, 182 Coe, Joffre L.: viii, 2, 48-49, 53 (photo), 55-57, 61 (photo), 65, 70, 74-76, 87, 89, 94-97, 104, 108, 188-189, 205206; funeral poem, 57; Cheraw search, 91; Forbush Creek site, 85; Hardaway site, 83; influence on Binford and South, 279-280; snake-killing aerial, 99; Morrow Mountain, 91; SEAC meeting, 111; training with, 56 Coe, Michael, 284 Coe, Sally, 57, 280 Coehoru mortar, Johnny Miller, 181 Coffin on wheels, MG, 133-134 Cognac, made in the freezer, 225 Coin: cache, Cambridge cellar, 257; minted in Mexico, Charles III of Spain, Ninety Six, 246; terminus post quem, 233,234 Colleagues chided, 356 College of Charleston, Fort Johnson, 273,322 Collett, Captain, 115 Colonia del Sacramento, Uruguay, 345; to Punta del Este, 346 Colonial status-artifact model, paper, 339 Colono Ware, 189 Colono-Indian pottery, 188, Fort Moultrie, 275 Colonoscopy, 360 Colonoware sherds, Fort Moultrie, 275 Colored Town, 32 Columbia Record, Fort San Felipe discovery, 305 Columbian Quincentennial, Santa Elena, 313,321 Columbus Line, Spain, 319 Combes, Joan, 234-235 Combes, John: 204, 286, 358; ceramic seriation, 234; Charles Towne Landing, 211-212, 222; Hilton Head Island, 271,284; Ninety Six, 239; road kill, 254 Compass, fickle tool, 109 Computer SYMAP, Santa Elena, 300 Concentration camp, Fort Butler, 192 Conduit ware, Santa Elena, 329 Confederate: electric torpedo, 175-177; Fort Anderson, 160, 162 (photo); Fort Anderson, chimney ruins, 163 (photo); Medal of Honor, 180; soldier's trunk, possessions, 339 Conference on Historic Site Archaeology: Forum, 206; founded, 112; 203,209, 345 Conglomerate, Grandfather Mountain, 50-51 Congressional Record, Strom Thurman on Santa Elena, 316 Conservation: electric torpedo, 176; -preservation, message and process, 232-233 Conservator, Bruce Frank Thompson, Santa Elena, 329 Conserving iron artifacts, 193 Constitution House, Halifax, North Carolina, 192 Constructing Frames of Reference, 281 Consulting, Ninety Six, poem, 263 Contract Archaeology, Inc., 201 Controversy, bastion, at Fort Moultrie, 276-278 Cook, arrested, Ninety Six, 259 Cooperstown, New York, 156

401 "Cootah soup," 123 Copper: beads, replicated, 75; breastplate, replicated, 75; lizard, laboratory-excavation, 74 Copperhead snakes, 69, 117 Coquina, dive vessel, 172 Coral snake, Brunswick Town, 117 Cornfield story, James (Jim) Michie, 344 Cornwallis House, Wilmington, North Carolina, 131 Corporal punishment, student, 45 Cotter, John: 56, 104-105,203, 158-159 Coutanche, Michael, cellar excavated, 190 Covered wagon days, 4 Covington, Percy, inventor, 93-94 Cow Chart, 224-225,283-284, 287 Cowboy song, 7 Cowhide fort, Williarnson's, Ninety Six, 245 Cox, General, army, 164 Crawfish, drain, Bethabara, 194 Crazy as Hell! 102 Creamware potter, America's first, 322, 344-345,360 Creative imagination, science and art, 341 Crew: fight at Charles Towne Landing, 220; anniversary reunion, 354; Brunswick Town, 116 (photo); Fort Moultrie, 275 (photo); Fort San Felipe, 317 (photo); members, viii, (listed in Appendix); mutiny, Ninety Six, 251; Santa Elena, 333 (photo), 354 Crittenden, Christopher, 128 CRM (Cultural Resource Management) projects, 267-268 Cruger, Lt. Col. John Harris: square stockade, Ninety Six, 239, 250; caponier ditch, 249; Holmes' Fort, burned, 255; Ninety Six, 242-243,246, 250; NW and SW blockhouses, Ninety Six, 251 Crumley, Carole, stranded in France, 306 Cuernavaca Team, to Mexico, 338 Cultural: Resource Management (CRM), 267; sequence of the Carolina Piedmont, 95 Culture: change, measuring, 59; process, search for, 145 Curse, on the Tricentenniai Commission, 214-215 Cushing, Lieutenant, W. B., 164; bogus monitor, 164 (photo) Cypress Grove Mound, 93 Dallas, Texas, photography school, 20-21 "Damn thing works," MCD Formula, 237 "Damsels in Distress," Dollar paper, 207 Dan River Focus, 91 Daniel, Randy, 90 Darkroom man, 21 Database: Santa Elena, NEH grant, 314; ATTIC Project, 340 Davidson soil, Holmes' Fort, 253-254 Davis, Hester, 56 Davis, Jefferson, 180 Davis, R. P., Stephen, Jr., viii D-Day, identification of French sherds, 329 Deactivating artillery shells, 168

402 Deagan, Kathleen A. (Kathy), 261-262, 284, 294, 319, 324, 354 (photo), 356-357 Debates, CHSA, 206 DeBry, engraving, 327 Deep water and high ground, 307-309 Deetz, James (Jim): 284-286, 291,335-336; Flowerdew Hundred, 335 (photo) Deetz/South debate plan at SHA, 291 DeJarnette, David, 92 DeKooning, 152 Demijohn, glass, McFayden Mound, 190 Demmy, Ellen, 138, 180 Demmy: George, 130, 134-135; Bethabara pottery, 197; Fifth House in Old Salem, 199; Murphy, N. C., 192; pig gift, 180; Russellborough model, 137 (photo), 138 Dennis, Senator Rembert C., Finance Committee Chairman, 228,231,284-285 Department of Anthropology at U. S. C., 290, 318 Department of Energy (DOE), Savannah River Plant archaeology, 290 Department of the Navy, Chester DePratter kiln, 324; Legacy Fund, Charlesfort, 330 DePratter, Chester: Santa Elena, vii-viii, 98, 267, 274 293, 316, 319, 321,330 (photo), 331,334 (photo), 354 (photo), 357, 359-360; cemetery project, 315; Commission Chairman, 321; daughter, Kala, born, 324; DeSoto and Pardo research plan, 319; French Charlesfort, 318, 320, 322-323,327 (photo), 330 (photo); Georgia coastal shell mound Archaic, 274; golden groundhog, 347, 348 (photo), 352; Mississippian village sites, 318-319; Santa Elena; SCIAA, 358; search for French vessel, 328-329 DeSaussure College, U. S. C., site located, 272 Description of the Ceramic Types, Brunswick Town, 111 DeSoto and Pardo, research plan, Chester DePratter, 319 DeSoto and Xuala Indians, 91 Developmental years, 67-94 Devil Loose Among Us, comment on Dollar paper, 209 Devil, in the Dollar-Schuyler debate, 208 DeVorsey, Alan, Ninety Six, 252, 258 Diachronic Research Foundation, Cain Hoy, 345 Diamond-sawing bricks in the profile, 105 Dick and Jane and Spot, 45 Dickens, Roy, 82, 94; suicide, 290-291 Dig-dog, Fort Moultrie, 275 (photo) Dilbert cartoon, 2 Dioramas, Fort Fisher, 180 (photo) Dirt: reading, 252; -archaeologists, 341; -daubers, 68 Disarming Civil War shells, 165 Discover magazine, Top 100 Science Stories, 330 Discovery at Santa Elena: Capital of Spanish Florida, 319 Discovery in Wachovia, manuscript, 353 Discrimination, 123 Dissertation committee, Sorbonne, 330, 352 Distinguished Alumnus Award, Appalachian University, 304

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Ditches, vineyard, Santa Elena, 300 Diver-training education, 230 Dobbs: Fort dig, Statesville, North Carolina, 191 Dobbs, Governor Arthur, Russellborough, 138 Dobbs, Justina Davis, 115 Doctor's laboratory, Bethabara, 197 (photo) Doctors, life-saving, 359 Doerschnk site, 84-85 Dog: burials, 57, 59; collar tag found, 230-231; guarding infant burial, 59; mascot at Fort Moultrie, 275 (photo) Dog/bunny affair at Bethabara, 195 Dog-leash survey, Hilton Head Island, 270 Dogma, received, challenged, 145 Dollar, Clyde D, controversial paper, 206-209 Dolphin Chart, 225, 281,282 (drawing) Don Juan de Zumarraga, Archbishop of Mexico, 358 Donnelly, Mary Catherine (Granny), vii Doonesbury cartoon, quote, 24 Doorway to the Past, 293,309 Dot, Diaper and Basket, Staffordshire pottery, 345 (photo) Dougherty, B. B., Appalachian State Teachers College President, 34 Douglas, Sheila, vii, 344 Doughton, Robert L., Congressman, 11, 50 Dowser experiment, coat-hanger 182 Doylestown, Mercer Museum, flax hackles, 159 Drake, Sir Francis, 293 Drayton's map, Williamson's Fort, 244 Drill's Motor Court, 97 Drummer, Randy Luther, called by Chicago, 219-220 Dry, William, seal, W. Dry, Cape Fear 1766, 138 (photo) Dry, William, Russellborough, 115 Duck-walking story, 16 Dugeon, Captain, at Ninety Six, 240 Durant, Will, The Story of Civilization, 43 Durham's Rock-hard Water Putty, 130 Duron, Civil War figurines, 179 Dutch bricks, Russellbrough, 138 "Ecce Homo," painting, from Spanish wreck, 114 (photo) Edgar, Walter, 331,354 Edisto Island site survey, 308 Edwards, Michael, The Hemit Society, 186 Edwards, William, Ninety Six, 241 Eggers, Christine, 6 (photo) Eggers, Margaret, 6 Ehrenhard, John, 284 Eisiminger, Skip, review of Stan South's poetry, 342 Eisley, Loren, The Immense Journey, 23 El Principe (Le Prince), search at Santa Elena, 328 Elam, Julie, ATTIC data to computer, 340 Electric torpedo, Fort Fisher, 175-177 Eliason palisade of 1833, Fort Moultrie, 275 Eliot Werner Publications, Inc., viii, 281,353 Ellis, William, 345 Emerald Mound, National Historic Landmark Site, 93

INDEX Energy flow experiment, Santa Elena, 337 Energy Theory and Historical Archaeology, 356 Energy theory, paper, 338 Enfield rifles, 170 Enoch Pratt Library, Baltimore, Maryland, 202 Environmentalist poem, 146 Environmentalist, David Hodgin, 25 Erd, Darby, at Santa Elena, 297, 299-303 Erd, Pelham, at Santa Elena, 300, 302-303 Eskimo culture and art, 64 Espy ruin before and after preservation, 128 (photo), 135 Eubanks, Elsie, 355 Europeans and African Americans at Charles Towne, 219 Evolution: and horizon, paper, 208,287; Evolution, 2, 2324, 44, 356; an archaeological, 359; Appalachian, 23, climactic years, 279-360; developmental years, 67-210; florescent years, 211-278; florescent years, 278; formative years, 1-66, 278; taught underground, 23 Evolutionary change, historic sites, 225 "Evolutionary Theory at Mid-Century and at the Millennium: A Personal Perspective," paper, 356 Evolutionary theory: 24, 356; Archaeology, paper, 55, 356; biology, 356; underwrites archaeology, 279 Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History, Robert L. Carneiro, 356 Excavating human remains, a mortuary house, 71 Excavation blocks, Santa Elena, 311 (photo) Exchange Place, Kingsport, Tennessee, 268 Exhibits, planning, Fort Fisher Museum, 178 Exhibits, in the field, Brunswick Town, 129-130 Exhibits, security, Brunswick Town, 130-131 Exploratory archaeology, Ninety Six, 239 Explorers Club of New York, Santa Elena, 306, 327 Expressionism, 147 Expressionist archaeology, 152-153 Ezell, Bruce, Ninety Six, 250, 262; stories, 239-240, 245, 252, 254, 256 Faience, "Fayance," and fine pottery, in Salem, North Carolina, 199 Fairbanks, Charles (Chuck), 104-106, 284, 294, 318 (photo) Fales, Iris, Wit's End bar owner, 148 Farm in Raleigh, North Carolina, 204 Faunal collection, John Combes' dream, 254 Feature 19R, Lot 49, wasters in pit, Old Salem, 199 (photo) FECES, Failure of the End product to Competently Employ Science, 288 Federals and Fort Fisher, paper, 296 Feelings, 3 Ferguson, Leland, 189, 226, 284-286, 291,306 Ferreting Phantom Footsteps, talk, 49 Fiberglass: profiles, Charles Towne, 223 (photo); shop fronts, Charles Towne Landing, 216 Fickle Forts on Windmill Point, Fort Johnson, 273 Field exhibits, Brunswick Town, 129-130 Fifth House excavation, Old Salem, 199

403 Fight, in "The Spot," 119-120 "Fightn'-Eddy," 119 Finance Committee Chairman, Rembert C. Dennis, 228 "Finders-keepers, losers-weepers," stolen thimble, 195 "Fine pottery," in Salem, North Carolina, 199 Fire control safety, 15 Fire truck, Holmes' Fort, 254 Fischer, George, Fort Moultrie, 278 Fish, thundered, 124 "Fishermen," 123, 124 (photo); poem read, 357 Fitting, James (Jim), 284,286 Flat-earthers, complaint, 43-44 Flax hackle, 158, 159 (photo) Florescent Period, archaeological evolution, 278 Flowerdew Hundred Plantation, Jim Deetz, 335 (photo) Foard, Charles (Charlie): Confederate torpedo, 177 (photo); historian, 171 (photo); choice word use, 176 Fointwinder, phenomenon, 278 Foley, Vincent, Dollar paper, 206-207 Football, I play football, 24 Forbush Creek, site, 85 Ford, Gerald, Press Secretary, Ron Nessen, Charles Towne, 213 Ford, James, 55-56, 93, 103, 105 Forest, Lionel, dioramas, 179 (photo) Form and function, 88 Formation process in career, 280 Formative Cultures of the Carolina Piedmont, 84 Formative years, 1-33 Formula, Mean Ceramic Date, 234-236 Fort: Anderson, 160-161,162 (photo); Bragg, Ordnance Disposal section, 165; Butler, North Carolina, 192; Congaree, wine, 225; Dobbs, 191; Dorchester, Portobello medallion, 285; Dorchester, wine, 225 Fort Fisher: artifacts exhibited, 179; Battle Acre ruin, 167; Col. Lamb's headquarters, 167; Conservation Laboratory, torpedo, 176; electric torpedo, carnival, 175-176; fuse with newspaper inside, 168 (photo); hermit, book, 349; hermit eradication program, 184; hermit letter, Stan South, 183-184 (photo); museum exhibits planning, 178 Fort: Hawkins, wine, 225; Johnson archaeological project, 273; Moore, wine, 225 Fort Moultrie: a bastion controversy, 276-278; artifacts listed, 275; black powder in moat, 274; colono-Indian pottery, 275; excavation, 274; General William Moultrie, 274; burial 289; midden deposits, 276; palmetto logs, 274; wine, 225 Fort Ninety Six, 239-240; attacked by Cherokee Indians, 240; Moultrie's new stockade, 241 Fort Prince George: excavated by John Combes, 204; Lyttelton's expedition to, 240 Fort Raleigh, J. C. (Pinky) Harrington, 212

404 Fort San Felipe: 297-298, 301-302, 306; Charles Fairbanks (Chuck), 318 (photo); crew, 317 (photo); Department of the Navy grant, 331; discovered, 302; moat found, 326; built on French Charlesfort, 330 Fort San Marcos, 295, 298, 307, 323-324; misidentification, 326; Department of the Navy grant, 331 Fortification, Charles Towne: ditches, 204, 211, 212 (photo); land face, 218; Ninety Six, 242 Fortified jail, Ninety Six, 251 Forts at Ninety Six, 239 Fortune cookie wisdom, 359 Forum topic, "Brer Rabbit, Skunks, and the Devil: the Dollar-Schuyler Debate," 208 Found poems, 342-344, 360 Fowler, Jim, "Wild Kingdom," predicts Indian pavilion, 212 Fox, Elsie, volunteer at Santa Elena, 332 France, colleague stranded, 306 Franklin and Friends, SHA, Charleston, South Carolina, 287 Franklin, John Hope, 157 Frazer, The Golden Bough, 23 Frazier, E. Franklin, 62 Frazier/Herskovits debate, 62 French: and Indian War, Fort Dobbs, 191; ceramics on display, 353 French Charlesfort: and Spanish Santa Elena tales, 293-334; eating Chere story, 351; search for, 325-328 French stoneware sherds, at Charlesfort, 329 French vessel, Le Prince, at Santa Elena, 328 "Friar Tuck," 189, 193 Frontier Pattern, 283 Fulbright scholar, David South, vii Fuller, Buckminster, Roper Mountain Pavilion, 215 Fusco Zambetogliris, Nelsys, Uruguan archaeologist, 345 Fuse, artillery, Fort Fisher, with newspaper inside, 168 (photo); unscrewing, cannonball fuze, 165 Gahions, at Ninety Six, 248 Gabriel Maneuco de Lecca, Spanish Ambassador, grant, 314 Gaines, Dude, 69, 73, 74 (photo), 80, 81 (photo) Gaines, Edward (Ed), 52, 56, 67, 68 (photo), 69-70, 73, 74 (photo), 77 (photo), 79-80, 81 (photo), 83, 85, 86 (photo), 94, 119 Game pole holes, excavated and pole replaced, 73 (photo) GANGES, bale seal, Fort Moultrie, 275 Gaol, Brunswick Town, 135 "Garfield ain't dead but he's hanging mighty low," song, 125 Garnets, Ashe County, 50 Gaston: pottery, defined, 59, 61; site profile, 57, 59 (photo) Gater, last on the Cape Fear, 118 Gatlin gun, 174 Gause, William, 132-133 Gay, Charles, interest in Charlesfort, 294, 326-327 Gemein Hans, ruin at Bethabara, 194 Gender, discrimination, "no girls allowed," Ninety Six, 261; segregation at Appalachian, 33-34

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Geology, an archaeology companion, 50; and archaeology confused, 228 George Washington, southern tour, 132 Georgia, Roswell, Archibald Smith House, 339 Georgia, State University, Roy Dickens, 290-291 Georgian, reproduction Wilmington, North Carolina 132 Georgiana, blockade-runner shipwreck, 227 German spy, Pawley House, 270 Gethers, B. J., Fund, Santa Elena, grant, 306 Gibbons, Cardinal James, Baltimore, Maryland, 202 Gilbert and Sullivan, musicals, acting in, 35 Gillin, John, 56 Glass demijohn, McFayden Mound, 190 Glassie, Henry, "A More Humanistic Social Science," 284286, 291 Gluckman, Steve, 284 Goat tracks, Uruguyan greenware bricks, 346 Goggin Award, competition, 104, 208-209 Gold Dust Twins, 6 Golden Groundhog Award, recognizing golden colleagues, 347 (photo) Golden Groundhog, holding logo, 347 (drawing) Golden Groundhog, poem, 347 Goldsborough, John, Santa Elena, 306, 312, 317 (photo) Golf course, digging on, a hazard, 313, 318 Goodyear, Albert C. (A1): Pre-Clovis, 88; 264, 268,284, 352, 358 Goose Creek, St. James Episcopal Church, cemetery, 289 Gorget, shell replicated, 76 Goudy, Robert, house burned, 241; spelling of the name, 240; trading post, Ninety Six, 239-240; barn stockaded (Fort Ninety Six), 240 Gould, Jay, 1 Government, Spanish, Santa Elena grant, 306 Government, waste, 18 Governor, mansion, Russellborough, 135 Governor, the grass problem, 217-218 Graber, Robert Bates, 356 Gradall excavator, method, Charles Towne, 355; Santa Elena, 321-322, 355 Graduate committee, difficulty forming, 290 Graham, Dennis, Jr., Santa Elena, 322 "Granny," (Mary Catherine Dounelly), vii Grant: B. J. Gethers Fund, 321-322, 345; Department of the Navy Legacy fund, Charlesfort, 330; Diachronic Research Foundation, Cain Hoy, 345; Marine Corps, 313; MESDA donors, 345; S. C. Department of Archives and History, 345; Santa Elena, 306, 321-322; Spanish Government for Santa Elena research, 314; Spanish Government, 314; -dependent funds, 358 Grants, total received, 331 Grass-disturbance problem, Charles Towne, 217-218 Graveyard, African American, Santa Elena, 315 Great game pole, excavation, 73 "Great Sun," Stuart (Stu) Neitzel, 92, 98 Green swamp, Indians conjured up, 188

INDEX Green, Halcott, paper, 339,356 Green, Major, traverse, Ninety Six Greene, Nathanael: 242; camp at Ninety Six, 246-248 (drawing) Greenwood County, Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), 252 Greenwood County, prison system, 258 Greer, Georgeanna, Alkaline Glazed Stoneware, 231-232 Grid: use, 109; invisible, Charles Towne Landing, 221 Griffin, James B. (Jimmy), 61, 93, 95, 103-105, 113 Griffin, John, 104-105,284 "Ground moles," Charles Towne, 216-217 Groundhog, hillbilly archaeologist, France, 353; hole, escaping, 1-22 Guerry, Reverend Canon E. B., 289 Guerry, Right Reverend William, 289 Guide, Brunswick Town, 128 (photo) Guidelines, archaeological report, SAA seminar, 287 Guillebeau House, study, 288 Guiteau, Charles, assassan of Garfield, 125 Gulick, John, 56 Guns, toy, 15 Guru, of ceramics, Ivor Noel Hume, 329, 330 (photo) Hackle, flax, 159 (photo) Hair offense at Ninety Six, 240 Halbirt, Carl, 354 (photo) Haldane, Lieutenant Henry: Ninety Six, 243; new work, Ninety Six, 251; Star Fort, 239, 246; caponier, 239 Halifax, North Carolina: hearths, 60; jail archaeology, 191, 338; projectile point, 59; Resolves Award, received, 338 Handbook of North American Indians, 267 Hanover pottery, 189 Hardaway: blade, 84 (photo); point, 47, 48 (photo); site excavation, 83 Harmon family, 52 Harmon, Mike, at Santa Elena, 299, 302-303,317 (photo) Harrell, Robert, (the Fort Fisher Hermit), 183, 184 (photo) Harrington, J. C., (Pinky) 104-105, 211,284 Harrington, Medal, received, 338 Harrison, Lucia, 293 Hartley, Michael (Mike), 284, 306-308, 310 (photo), 311 (photo), 320; Fort Moultrie, 277; Ninety Six, 258 Hartley, Michael, Jr., 308 Haskell, Helen, Santa Elena, 298-299, 302-303 Hawkins-Davidson Houses, 105 Hawrkridge, Emma, 342 Heart problems, 360 "Helene" hurricane, 184 Henderson, Archibald, 132 Henderson, Will, 254 Hepbum-Reonalds, ruin excavated, 135 Heretical Christmas poems, 145

405 Hermit: Robert Harrell, eviction efforts, 184-186; Fort Fisher, dead in his bunker, 186; "removal out of my line," 183; Hermit, Society formed, 186 Hermit: David Hodgin, scholar in a mountain shack, 25 Herskovits, Melville J., 62 High on the Hog, on Hilton Head Island, 270-271 Hill, Margaret, 116 Hillbilly: groundhog archaeologist, France, 353; in Yankee land, 156; Toulouse-Lautrec, 342 Hillsborough, convention, 200; Focus, 91 Hilton Head, Indian Springs site, 270 Hinges, HL, Pawley House, 268; Guillebeau House, 288 Hippy freak, 240 Historic Camden, 233 Historic Halifax Restoration Association, award, 338 Historic site archaeology, 203 "Historic Site Content, Structure and Function," paper, 287 Historic site development: Bethabara, 195, 197; Holmes' Fort, 260; process, 211; sermon, Ninety Six, 264 Historic Sites Administration, 161 Historical Archaeology and the Importance of Material Things, 285 Historical archaeology; coat-hanger dowsers, 182; Forum, Clyde Dollar paper, 206-207; Latin America, 113,345; in the Southeast, 1930-2000, history, 356; in Wachovia, book, 351,353; manuscript, lost, 351; published 197 Historical Archaeology: articles submitted, 203; disappointing introduction, 104; journal, 203,209; newly emerging discipline, 208; seminar in the toilet, 336-337; theory and method, Clyde Dollar, 208; tilts to humanism, 285 Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 202 "History and Archaeology;" column in History News, 136; interpretation and synthesis, 319 HL hinges, Pawley House, 268; Guillebeau House, 288 Hobby diver program, 229, 231 Hodder, Ian, on storytelling, 341 Hodges, Governor Jim, 354, 355, 356 (photo) Hodgin, Allie, 26 (photo), 304 Hodgin, David, 23-31, 26 (photo), 28 (poem), 304 Hoffman, Paul, 295,297, 300, 302-303, 319, 327-328, 354 (Photo) Holderman, James, U. S. C. President, 314, 319 Holi-day of Christmas, 52 Holmes Fort at Ninety Six: 239, 244-245; captured by Light Horse Harry Lee, 246; crew schnitting, 253 (photo); excavated, 255; fortification revealed by slot trenches, 252; horn work ditch, 255; interpretive parapet reconstruction, 260 Holmes, James, 246 Holocaust, "Bitch &Buchenwald," 54; Native American, 192 Homesteading, in a soddy/log cabin Honeycutt, Albert, 167 Honigmann, John J., 62-66 Honorary Doctor of Humanities Degree (H.H.D.), 352

406 Honored by SEAC, 360 Hooper, George, house cellar dig, 191 Hootie and the Blowfish, 354 Hopewell in South Carolina, 357 Horn in the West, outdoor drama, 46 Horn work ditch, Holmes' Fort, 255 Horry-Lucas plantation house, ruin testing, 219 Horse: different color, 349; toy wind-up, ATTIC Project, 340 (photo) Horseshoe mall, dig, U. S. C. campus, 271-272 Horton, Frank, fimding, viii, 345,360 House of universal hospitality, Russellborough, 139 House on Hobbs Road, dig, 188 Houses at Santa Elena, discovered, 309 How the Irish Saved Civilization, 342 Howard, Amos, cabin site, Boone, North Carolina, 192 Howard, James, H., Dollar's paper, 208 Howard's Knob, wedding, 309 Howell, Claude: intellectual painter, 148, 155; mosaic, 148, 149 (photo); park, 148 Hudgins, Lisa, ATTIC data to computer, 340; research, 325 Huguenot Society, Charlesfort monument, 326 Huguenot, Guillebeau House, 288 Humanism; science, 65, 341; historical archaeology, 286 HumaniSm, in SHA, Charleston, South Carolina, 285 Hume, (see Noel Hume) Hundred yard squares, vs. peeping through keyholes, 222 Htmley, H. L., recovery, 229 Hunt, William, (Bill), 312, 317 (photo), 318 Hunter, Brent, vii, 309 Hunter, Christy, vii, 309 Hunter, Kermit, playwright, 46 Hunter, Linda,vii, 279, 309 Htmting, prairie, 7 Huntley-Brinkley television, Charles Towne, 213-214 Hupmobile, Deitz lamp of 1910, 90 Hurricane Helene, 184 Hurst, John, French sherds, 329 Husted, Wil, 211 Hypothetico-deductive process, 282 (drawing); Ninety Six, 244 Hypothetico-deductive-inductive method of science, 64 I Never Killed a Man Didn't Need Killing! 43

I. F. Seal on storage Jar, Russellborough, 138 Icehouse, Blaine South, 6 ICUA, (International Conference on Underwater Archaeology), Charleston, 287 Idol, John L., Jr., viii, 310; SHA paper, 357 Idol, Marjorie,vii-viii, 308 Inbreeding data, 54 Incised conduit ware, Santa Elena, 329 Indian ceremonial pavilion, 213 (photo) Indian ceremonial pavilion, Jim Fowler prediction, 212 Indian Hill, The Citadel, Charleston, 191 Indian Springs site on Hilton Head Island, 270

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Indians in North Carolina, 88, 339 Ingersoll's Greatest Lectures, 23

Institute for Southern Studies, 331 Institute of Archaeology, Underwater Program, 229 Instituto Cooperativo Iberoamericano Embajada de Espana, 345 Integrity, archaeological record, 204-205 Integrity, your own mind, 359 International Centre for Conservation in Rome, 233 International Conference on Underwater Archaeology (ICUA), 287 Interpretation: crossing the line, 128; Santa Elena kiln, 325 (drawing); stories, 125 Interpreting a ruin, model building, 136, 137 (photo) Interpretive drawing, redoubt, Charles Towne, 217 Interval-aligned sampling strategy, Fort Johnson, 273 Invasion on D-Day, French sherds identified, 329 Inventory of artifacts, Archibald Smith House, 339 Invisible grid, Charles Towne, 221 Iraq, National Museum, 357 Iraq, world cultural memory loss, 357 Irwin, Carol, 56 Isaac Hunter's Tavern, Raleigh, North Carolilna, 200 Isabella Blue on White majolica chamber pot, Menendez' home, 321 (photo) Isle of Palms, archaeological survey, 267 Jack Tales, Richard Chase, 52 Jackson, Susan: 317 (photo); burials at Windsor Hill, 289; Florence by-pass survey, 267; Hilton Head Island, 271; SHA in Charleston, 286 Jail at Ninety Six, 239, 241,251 James Espy, ruin excavated, 135 James, Jessie, train robbery story, 121 Jameson, John, Ninety Six, 258, 263 Japanese bridge, 126 Jefferson Davis stamp, in Confederate soldier's coat, 340 Jelks, Ed, 104-105 Jenkins Island, archaeological survey, 267 Jennings, Jessie, 56 Jerrals War, 42 Jesus, name among Australian aborigines, 292 Joara site, 92 Job offer, University of South Carolina, 205 John Cross Tavem, Beaufort, 312, 329 John M. Goggin Award, papers in historical archaeology, 208-209 Johnny Reb, at Fort Anderson, 164 Johnson, Guy B., 56, 62 Johnson, Richard, 320 Jones, C. C., 99 Jones, H. G., administrator, 205 Jordan, David (Dave), volunteer, Santa Elena, 332, 334 (photo) Jordan, Joan, volunteer, Santa Elena, 332, 334 (photo)

INDEX Joseph, Joe, at Santa Elena, 299-301,303-304, 306, 309 (photo), 310 Journal articles, published, 320 Journal volumes, Portuguese, Spanish and English, 345 Jubal, kills his boss man, 120 Judge Maurice Moore, kitchen excavated, 135 Judge, Chris, tours at Santa Elena, 321 Judge, Joseph (Joe), National Geographic, 292-295, 302, 305, 320; search for Charlesfort, 325 Keel, Bennie, 94 Keith, W. J. (Skipper), Fort Johnson dig, 273 Keleman, Captain, Santa Elena, 298,302 Kellam, Ida B., 116 Kelly, A. R., 95, 97, 104, 274 Kelso, William (Bill), Charles Towne, 221,284 Kennedy, Philip, folklorist, 125 Kentucky, University, publications, 50 Keowee, Cherokee Town, 240 Kerley, Ellis, 24, 54, 150 Key, Jewell, 41 Keyenta Anasazi sites, MCD Formula, 238 Kiawah Indians, Charles Towne, ceremonial center, 214215 Kiln at Krause-Butner pottery, Bethabara, 198 Kiln at Santa Elena, 325 (drawing) Kiln wasters, Feature 19R, Old Salem, North Carolina, 199 (photo) King Charles IX, France, 326 King of Spain, Juan Carlos, 319 Klavan, Andrew, 1 Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers,viii, 351,353 Kneberg, Madeline, 104 Knights, with am suits, 43 Knowledge, morning glory vine, 292 Koch, Ilsa, 54 Kolomoki mounds, 92 Kosciusklo, mine, Ninety Six, 239, 248-250 Kosciusko's mine, pick marks in, 249 (photo), 250 Krause-Butner pottery shop, Bethabara, 198 Krauss, Teresa, viii Kron House, 89-90 Krylon, lifting profiles, 177, 223 (photo) Kudzu blossom jelly, "The vine that ate the South," 204, 209, 210 (photo) La crypte archeologique du Parvis Notre-Dame a Paris, 353 La Florida, 324 LaBarre, Weston, 56 Labrillo pottery fragments, Santa Elena, 313 LaFayette, medallion, 116 (photo) Lake Otesaga, odyssey, 156 Lamar culture, 91 Lamb of God, seal, 143 Lamb, Colonel William, 167 Land use evolution, kudzu, 209

407 Latin America, historical archaeology journal, 345 Lawsuits and sex, 103-104 Le Moyne watercolor, DeBry engraving, 327 Le Prince (El Principe), search, Santa Elena, 328 Leach-Jobson, ruin, 135 Leader, Jonathan (Jon), viii, 128, 358-359 Lecture, Argentina, National University of La Plata, 346 Lee, Light Horse Harry, approach trenches at Ninety Six, 239 Lee, Light Horse Harry, Holmes Fort captured, 246 Lee, E. Lawrence, Jr., 117, 188, 191 Lee, E. Lawrence, Jr., saves Brunswick Town, 107-108 Lee, Lt. Col. Light Horse Harry, Holmes' Fort, 255 Lee, Robert, E, 180 Lee, Sammy, Santa Elena, 303 Legacy Fund, Santa Elena archaeology, 323 Legg, James (Jim): viii, 168, 323-325,327, 334 (photo); at Charlesfort, 327, 330; French stoneware, Santa Elena, 329-330; golden groundhog, 347, 348 (photo), 357; kiln interpretation, 324 (drawing); Parris Island cemetery project, 315; Santa Elena artifacts, video catalog, 323 Leone, Mark, 284, 286, 320 Lepionka, Larry, Santa Elena, 299 Letter from Mexico, Clyde D. Dollar, 208 Lewis, Ernest, 52, 67, 94 Lewis, Kenneth, 288 Lewis, T. M. N., 104 Library in Alexandria, looted and burned, 358 Library of Congress, research in, 202 Lies, as in storytelling, 351 Lifetime Achievement Award, SEAC, 360 Light Horse Harry Lee, Holmes Fort approach trenches, 239 Lighthouse keeper's house, Fort Fisher, 167 Limonite pseudomorphs-after-pyrite crystals, 50 Linney, Romulus, play by, 349 Linney, Virginia Wary, voice teacher, 20 Lion, at Brunswick Town, 117-118 Lions Club, Boone, North Carolina, 49 Lithic debitage, sandstone-embedded, 85 Little Shoulderbone Creek, site, 99 Little, J. Glenn, II, Contract Archaeology, Inc., 201; Bethabara, 194, 198 Littleton, Tucker, "Friar Tuck," Clovis point, 189, 193 Lizard, copper, 74, 75 Lizard's Thicket restaurant, 331 Lloyd, Stephen, viii, 308 Log cabin: soddy, 5 (photo); syndrome, 232-233, 242; syndrome, at Goudy's Trading Post, 262-263 Log, Santa Elena, 297-302 Logo: 112 (photo); Golden Groundhog, 347 (drawing) "London town where I was born," ballad, 125 LONDRES 1962 AND ARTS 1867, 188 Loose cannon: loose, 179, 182; projects, Maryland, 201; projects, North Carolina, 209; projects, South Carolina, 204, 227, 267-278; stories, 187-210; title, 67, 186-187 "Lord Lovel," ballad, 125

408 Lord Rawdon, 249 Lot 49, Old Salem, North Carolina, 199 Love and Marriage, Apache ceremony, 344 Lower Cape Fear Archaeological Society, dig, 190 Lowie, Robert, 55-56, 350 Luger, "Cap'm got a," 124 Lunch time, archaeologists', 60 Luper, Captain, Williamson's Fort loyalist, 244, 245 (photo) Luther, Randy: Bethabara, 194, 198, crew chief and drummer, 219-220, 239-240, 249 (photo), 250 (photo); Paca House, Annapolis, Maryland, 201 Lyme disease, vii Lyon, Eugene, 295,314, 319-320 Lyttelton, Governor, Ninety Six, 240 MacAuley, Jessica, Santa Elena, 321 MacAuley, Leslie, funding at Santa Elena, 321 MacAuley, Richard, funding at Santa Elena, 321 Machine, destroys Charles Towne ceremonial center, 213 Machine, use, Ninety Six, 253 (photo) Mackinaw, shelled Fort Anderson, 164 Macon, A. Riley, Santa Elena funding, 296-297, 304 Macon, Earth Lodge, 105 "Mad Greek," 36 Madrid,'Mayor's reception, 319 Magic and science, knowledge and dogma, 342 Magic, works well when it works, 281 Major Green, traverse, Ninety Six Malvern, Cushing vessel, 164 Man on Albemarle Point, manuscript, 353 Maneuco de Lecca, Spanish Ambassador, 319 Manucy, Albert, Osterhout artifacts, 326 Map of DeSaussure College, The Gamecock, 272 Map of Stan South's projects in the Carolinas, ix Map, seventeenth century sites, 307 (drawing) Mapping Fort Fisher, earthworks, 166 MARECHAL GERARD-G1NIRAL LAFAYETTE, medallion, 116 (photo) Maria black on black plate, 157 Marine Corps Recruit Training Depot, Parris Island, 293, 296 Marine Corps: button, Santa Elena, 298; generals, Fort San Felipe, 316; protects kiln, Santa Elena, 324; Infantry, oldest in the world, Santa Elena, 313 Marker Type Model, 235 Marksville: Museum, 92; potsherds, 140 Marooning, Bartlam on the Wando, event, 345 Marquardt, Bill, 290 Marriage: Janet Reddy, 344; Jewell Barnhardt, 41; Linda Hunter, 309 Martin, Frank, Jr., doctor, viii Martincamp, French stoneware, Charlesfort, 329 Martinez, Maria, potter, 155 MaryBowers, shipwreck, artifact division, 227 Maryland Hall of Records, Annapolis,Maryland, 202 Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore, 202

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Maryland project, Paca House, Annapolis, Maryland, 201 Mason, Carol Irwin, 56 Master's Degree in Public Service Archaeology, at U. S. C., 290 Material culture, pattern, 64 Mathews, Maurice, map, 380 Mayhew, Don, 80 (photo), 81 (photo), 116, 146, 149-150, 153-154; Russell's Island, 146, 193 Mayson, James, Williamson's Fort, 244 McCanless, Carol, Santa Elena, 332,334 (photo) McCary, Ben, 104 Mccorkall-Ferguson, ruin, Brnnwick Town, 135 McCrae, Duncan, 343 McCrae, Scotty, 343 MCD Formula: (see also, Mean Ceramic Date), 235-236; "the damn thing works!... Crazy! That formula is really weird," McNutt, 237; "His system seems to work," Noel Hume, 237; "more accurate than C-14," Christenson, 238; tool, 237; Keyenta Anasazi sites, 238 McFayden burial mound, dig, 189 McGimsey, Charles III, Airlie Seminar, 224 McKee, Mr., 184 McKenna, Lara South, vii, 344 (see also South, Lara) McKenna, James, vii, 344 McKissick Museum, creamware collection, U. S. C, 345 McMahan, Margaret, 192 McNutt, Charles, 56, 97, 237, 356 Mean Ceramic Date concept (see MCD), 114, 234, 283-284, 287 Mean Ceramic Date Formula, Model: 59, 113,233-234, 235 (photo), cover (photo), 236; tool based on seriation, 208 (see also MCD) Means Cemetery, Parris Island, 334 Medallion: MARECHAL GERARD-G1NIRAL LAFAYETTE, 116 (photo); Portobello, Fort Dorchester, 285 Media circus, 326 Media voice, public relations effort, 213 Menendez Marques, Pedro, Governor, 328 Menendez', chamber pot, Santa Elena, 321 Mercer Museum, Doyle stown, Pennsylvania, 159 Meriwether, Robert, Ninety Six, 263 MESDA, donor fund, Cain Hoy, 345 Metal detecting, 182 Method and theory: formative days, Lew Binford, 279-280; in historical archaeology, 116, 224, 279, 281,290, 334, 353; National University of La Plata, Argentina, 346; publications, 287; stories, 279-292; Uruguay, 345 Method: dog leash survey, Hilton Head, 270; Gradall excavator, Charles Towne, 355; Gradall excavator, Santa Elena, 355; sampling strategy, Fort Johnson, 273; slot-trenching, Charles Towne, 222; Tugaloo Mound, 100-102 Methodological phases, archaeology, 224 Mexican coin, Charles III, Ninety Six, 246 Mexico, Cuernavaca Team, 338

INDEX MGs, classic cars, 133 (photo), 134; MGTC, 1949 British, Charles Towne, 220; MGTD, generator coil art, 153 Michelin North America, Charlesfort grant, 330 Michie, James (Jim), 344 Midden deposits, Fort Moultrie, 276 Middle Woodland Hopewell, 357 Milking the archaeological cow, 224-225,287 Miller, Daryl, 48, 354 Miller, Johnny, 177; anchor, 181; artifacts and history, 181; cannonball, 164-165, 168, 181; Charles Towne, 181, 204, 222; coat-hanger dowser experiment, 182; Coehom mortar at Fort Fisher, 181; shackles, 181; shell hole, 170 (photo) Millstones, Russellborough, from Yucatan, 139 Mind, integrity, 359 Mine, Ninety Six, 239 Mitigation-driven archaeology, 358 Modal personality, 64 Model building: 136, 137 (photo); process, 236-237 Model, marker type, 235 Modern Greece: pistol experiment, 182; salvaging cargo, 170; Whitworth shells, 177 Montana, Malta, Blaine South, homestead, 6 Montauk ironclad, Fort Anderson, 164 181 Monument, Spanish, Santa Elena, 314 Moon landing, crew-watch, Charles Towne, 219-220 Moon ruins theory, Ronald Reagan, 157-158 Mooney's Historical Sketch of the Cherokee, 91 Moore, David, 92 Moore, Freddy, 119 (photo), 120-121,165-166 Moore, Maurice, Brunswick Town, 114 Moore, Roger, Orton Plantation, 114 Moravian ministers, Methodist training, 48 Moravians, Bethabara: excavation, 194; windmill, 139 Morgan, Lewis H., 55,356 Morrow Mountain State Park: 89-91; lithic quarry, 90; parking lot site, 91 Morrow Mountain, point, Forbush Creek site, 86 (photo) Morton, Hugh, 158 Mortuary house, 71 Mosaic, photographic, 52 Mussolini, 309 Moultrie, Major William, Jr., exhumed, 289 Moultrie, General William: buttons, Fort Moultrie, 274; Goudy's Trading Post, 241; namesake fort, 274, 289; reburial, 289 Moundless ceremonial center, Charles Towne Landing, 212 Moundville mounds, 92 Mountain: accent, 349; man inspiration, 22; saga, 25; stories, 349 Movie, "A Man Called Horse," 208 Mt. Gilead, North Carolina, 66 Muhammed, Dennis, Santa Elena, 322 Mulberry Mound, Wateree Valley plan, 318-319 Murder, 120 Murphy, John (Big John), 343

409 Murphy, North Carolina, Fort Butler, 192 Muse of poetry, 145 Musee Archeologique Departemental du Val d'Oise, 353 Museo de la Plata, Argentina, lecture, 346 Museology, touchy-feely theory, 129-130 Museum exhibits, Charles Towne Landing, 214 Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts, 344 Mushroom towns, 232, 242 Mutiny, crew, Ninety Six, 251-252 My Killing Kin: The Potters of Tamarack: Telling It Like It Was, 349 NAGPRA [Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act], 218 Nail, cut, vineyard ditch, Santa Elena, 300 Nails, conservation procedures, 140 Nameplate, engraved, 115 (photo) Nash, Justina Davis Dobbs, North Carolina first lady, 115 Natchez Indians, 93 Nath Moore's Front, 110, 136 (photo) Nathaniel Greene, parallels, Ninety Six, 239 National Archives, Washington, D. C., 202 National Endowment for the Humanities, grant, 306, 312 (photo), 314 National Geographic Magazine: 292-294, 303,305, 310 (photo), 311 National Geographic Research Reports, 305 National Geographic Society: Santa Elena, 304-306, 309, 312, 315; 320; Committee for Research and Exploration, 296, 303-305 National Museum, Iraq, 357 National Park Service: Fort Moultrie, 274; John Jameson, Ninety Six, 258 National Register of Historic Places Inventory, Santa Elena nomination, 294 National Science Foundation grants, Santa Elena, 306 Native American: burials, Charles Towne, 213; cultures, Wateree Valley, 319; Graves Protection and Repatriation Act [NAGPRA], 218; heritage, Albemarle Point, 215; Keyenta Anasazi sites, MCD, 238; legacy, Charles Towne Landing, 219; marriage ceremony, 344; past, Watauga County, 49; religious center, 213; site, Indian Springs, Hilton Head Island, 270; bum Fort San Felipe, 312, 321 Natural Science Faculty, National University of La Plata, lecture, 346 Naval Hospital, Port Royal, Charlesfort search, 327 Navy: buttons, Santa Elena, 300, days, 11-19; duty in Washington, 17-19; training, 14-15; vs. Marines, 16 NBC television, Charles Towne, 213 Neatness, archaeological site, 101 Negro Settlement, Charles Towne Landing, 219 Negro, course, UNC, 62 Negroes, Fort Moultrie, colonoware, 276 Negroes, naked, save Ninety Six, 246 NEH, Summer Institute on Historical Archaeology, 335 Neitzel, Stuart, 92-93, 104-105, 98-99 (piano)

410 Nessen, Ron, Huntley-Brinkley, Charles Towne, 213 Netherland Inn, Kingsport, Tennessee, 267 Nettles, Wendy M., 264 New Bern, North Carolina, 191 New Perspectives in Archaeology, Binford and Binford, 280 New York Herald, Admiral Porter, bogus monitor, 164 New York Times, Fort San Felipe, 305 Newbold-White House, Perquimans County, North Carolina, 268 Newkirk, Heyward, artist, 147 Newman, Captain Stephen Parker, 135, 162 Newsletter. Southeastern Archaeological Conference, 206 Newsweek Magazine, South and Binford, 60 (photo) Newton, Art, 160 Newton, Law of Gravity, 109 Nineteenth century artifacts, attic, 339-340 Ninety Six: 239-266; camp, raided, 259; National Historic Site, created, 256; meeting at, 263-264; Fortifications, 239, 242, 251; jail, 250; master plan, 262; Revolutionary War battle, 244; third expedition, 252; tour, 228; town, 239-240; wine, 225 Nixon, President Richard, Vietnam War, 271 Noel Hume, Audrey, 233 Noel Hume, Ivor, 111, 182-183,203, 221,233-234, 236, 330 (photo) Nomothetic approach, scientific archaeology, 281 Normandy D-Day invasion, French sherds identified, 329 North American International Regional Conference, 232 North Carolina Museum of Art, 154 North Carolina State University, David South, 204 North Devon Gravel Tempered Ware, 308 North, orientation on site, 222 Northwest bastion, grant, NEH, 306, 312 (photo), 314 Nuclear facility, objection to, 290 O. E. O. (Office of Economic Opportunity), 252, 257 Oak Island pottery type, 189 Observation in the archaeological process, 284 Ocmulgee National Monmnent, 92, 105 Office of Economic Opportunity, (O. E. O.), 252, 257 Ogun River at Abeokuta, holy city of Yemoja, 315 Old Quartz Industry, 96 Old Salem, kiln wasters, 199 (photo) Old Salem, North Carolina: kiln wasters, 199; Mike Hartley, archaeologist at, 258 Old Town Plantation, Charles Towne, 219 Olive jar neck, Santa Elena, 301 (photo) Olokun, Yoruba deep sea god, blue, beads, 315 "Oops!" collision with an admiral, 18 Opera: training, 20; dream, 37 Orden del Tercio Viejo de la Armada Real del Mar Oceano, Santa Elena, 313 Order of the Ocean Sea, Santa Elena, 313 Order of the Palmetto, 354 Oreo (OEO) story, Ninety Six, 257 Orlon Plantation, 108, 157

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Osmus, 346 Ossuary burial, Thelma site, 58 Osterhout, Major George H., 294-295,297, 300, 307, 324, 326 Otesaga Resort Hotel, 156 Otter, Cape Fear, 117 Owl head, pistol, 124 Oyotunji village, 315 Paar, Karen, 354 (photo) Paca House, archaeological-architectural research, 201-203, 288 Paca, William, 201 Painting: 146, 150, 151 (photo), 152-153 "Badlands," 151; "The Edge of Night," 151 (photo), 152; "The Winebibber," 150, 151 (photo) Palisade: ditches, Ninety Six, 240; entryway tunnel, 80; fence excavation and reconstruction, Fort Fisher, 166 (photo); postholes, 59, interpretive compromise, 70-71; reconstruction, Charles Towne, 218 (photo); reconstruction, Town Creek, 71, 80 Palmer-Marsh House dig in Bath, North Carolina, 190 Palmer's Photo Shop, 46, 52, 61 Palmetto: bastion, Fort Moultrie, 278; Gentleman, designation, 354; logs, Fort Moultrie, 274; palisade posts; Fort Fisher, 167 Palms, John, U. S. C. President, 330 Panther, Brunswick Town, 118 Parapet reconstruction, Charles Towne, South Carolina, 212 (photo), 218 (photo) Pardue, Bolo, wrestler, 39-40 Parents, 4 (photo) Paris, Ph.D Committee, 352 Parks Canada, Ian Walker, Holmes' Fort, 255 Parlier, Robert, (Bob), 303-304 Parris Island, South Carolina, 279, 293,299, 311,332, 334 Parsley wine, 225 Particularism in historical archaeology, 286 Pattern recognition, basic to science, 4, 113,281,283 Patterson, Grady, 285 Patton, E. Donald, Jr. (Don), Santa Elena, 331,332, 334 (photo) Pavilion: Charles Towne, condemned, 212, 214-215; Roper Mountain, failed, 215 Pawley House, study, 268, 269 (photo) Peach wine, 225 Peacocks, Raleigh, North Carolina, 204 Peaker, Aquila, William Paca, 202 Pecci, Italian family, William Paca, 202 Pedro Menendez de Aviles', Santa Elena lot, 320 Pee Dee and Uwharrie pottery, 81 Peeping through keyholes, 222 Pekrul, Sharon, ATTIC Project, 340 Penna, Maria-Teresa, Ph.D Committee, Paris, 352-353 Permington, Marilyn, Santa Elena volunteer, 332, 334 (photo)

INDEX Pennsylvania, flax hackles, 159 People-person, 2 Percheron Press, Eliot Werner, 281,353 Percy, Senator, 316 Perpetual motion machine, 93 Perquimans County Courthouse, 191 Peterhoffcannon salvaged, 67, 171-172, 173 (photo), 174 (photo) Peterhoff, Slidell papers on, 171 Petit, Percival (Percy), Fort Moultrie bastion, 277-278 Phelps, David, 82 Phillips, Philip, 56, 93 Phone lines cut, Fort Johnson, 273 Photographing artifacts, ATTIC Project, 340 (photo) Photography: career, 54; school, 37 Pierria, Capt. Albert de la, Charlesfort, 326 Pig chart: Charles Towne, 223,225; Fort Moultrie, 276 Pigeon Point, Charlesfort search, 327 Pigs, when they fly!, 358 Pills, Civil War soldier, 340 Pine tree seedlings, planting, Town Creek Indian Mound, 53 Pineville, North Carolina, Polk cabin search, 191 Pioneer days, homesteading, 5 (photo) Pioneers in Historical Archaeology: Breaking New Ground, 347' Pipeline.mitigation, Santa Elena, 334 "Pirates of Penzance," 35 "Pissing contest with a skunk," 208-209 Pistol, Russellborough, 138 (photo) Pivot stone, potter's wheel, Santa Elena, 324 Play, Ben Franklin, SHA meeting, Charleston, 287 Plenum Publishers, 353 Plumbs Restaurant, crew, 328 Poem: "Angel at the Door," reviewed, 342; "Bury Me on a Mountain Top," 9; "Calvary," 145; "Crescent Moon," 291; "Golden Groundhog," 347; "I want to Go Home," 8; "Lies in a Country Store," 343-344; "Living," 342; "McDonald's," 342-343; "Murphy's Pump Room," 343; "Mystery," 145; "Pollution," 292; "Ruin," 333; "Santa Elena," 295; "Slum Child--Christmas 1975," 28; "Solomon's Song," reviewed, 342; "Suicide Bullet," 9; "Summit at Ninety Six in '78," 264; "The Fishermen," 357; "The Ninth Hour," 146 Poems by: David South 145; David Hodgin, 28; Jewell South, 145; Lara South, 27; MaeBelle South, 355; Virginia South, 8-9 Poet archaeologist: Mel Thurman, 353; Stan South, interview, 357 Poetry (see poem) Polearm of Archaeology, 281 Polhemus, Richard (Dick), viii, 317, 320, 324, 330 (photo), 347, 348 (photo); birthday celebration, 271; in West Africa, re. colonoware, 189; Ninety Six, 239, 248 (photo), 249, 252, 258; Price House, 183 Polhemus, Sally, 330, 348 Policeman, follows crew, Ninety Six, 240

411 Political pressure: Fort Moultrie, 276-278; Paca House, 202 Political strategist, Lee Atwater, Ninety Six, 258 Politics: and Archaeology, inseparable, 217-218; archaeological research, 50; historic site research and development, 218; plagiarism, 238; policy at Brtmswick Town, 125; potsherd stories, 227-238; SHA, 203; underwater program, 229 Polk, James, childhood home, search, 191 Polyurethane, 177, 223 Pontoosuc, U. S. S. vessel, Fort Anderson, 164 Poor-bugger-white-fella-son-of-God-got-nailed, 292 Port Royal Sound, 295,325-326 Port Royal, Charlesfort search, 327 Porter, Admiral, D. D., 164 Portobello medallion, Fort Dorchester, 285 Possum, last on the Cape Fear, 118 Postholes, ceremonial compound, Charles Towne Landing, 213 Potsherds: Charlesfort, 353; sale, 92 Potter: kin, 41 Potter, "Booger" Enoch, 42 Potter, Polly, 41 Potter, Clarence: 41, 42 (photo), book on, 349; stories, 350 Potter, Daniel Boone, (Boonie), 41-42 Potter, Parker B., Jr., 320 Potter, trying for black on black, 155, 156 (photo) Potter-Hatfield feud, 42 Potters of Tamarack, 349 Pottery: arrowheads, 88; kiln found, 324 (photo); repairing, archaeological evidence, article, 203; shop ruin, Bethabara, 196 (photo); types, defined, 59; wasters, Old Salem, North Carolina, 199 (photo); I.F., on storage jar incised conduit ware, Santa Elena, 329; colono-Indian, Fort Moultrie, 275 Poverty Point, Louisiana, 92 Powder magazine, Fort Johnson, 273 Powell, Nena, 327 Pre casa-fuerte, ditch, 317 (photo) Pre-Clovis, 88 Predictability, scientific, 281 Prentice, Guy, 264, 318 Preservation, James Espy ruin, 128 (photo) Preservation, old cars, 133 Pressouyre, Leon, University of Paris, 352 Price House: coat-hanger dowser experiment, 182; project, 267 Priest house, reconstruction, 81 Prince, French vessel, Santa Elena, 230 Problem-oriented research, 358-359 Processual explanation, 64 Profile: Gaston site, 59 (photo); lifting, Charles Towne, 223 Projectile point types, 49 Proposal: ignored, 338: VEPCO, 56 PRT (South Carolina Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism), 218 PRT, enlightend policy, 218

412 Pruitt, Dermis A., congratulations letter, 290 Pryor Mountains, Montana, 211 Pseudo-colonial towns, 232 Psychic energy flow, Santa Elena, 337 Psychoanalyzing: hit songs, 63; potsherds, 66 Psycho-ceramics, Jim Deetz, 335-336 "Psycho-ceramics: A Meta-scientific Approach to Cracked Pots," paper, 336 Public education: and archaeology, 339; and interpretation, 70 Public relations: artifacts, 140; effort backfires, 213; radio, newspapers and journals, 136; Santa Elena, 301 Public Service Archaeology Program, 289-290 Publication ethic, 188 Publication of results rejected, 230 Pull tabs and beer cans, American Antiquity, 287 Punta del Este to Colonia, Uruguay, 346 Pyrmont Water bottles, Russellborough, 139 Quantitative analysis, 111 Quincentennial celebrated, Santa Elena, 313 R. L. Stephenson Archaeological Research Fund, grant, 321 Rabbits raised in the inner city, 265 Raccoor;, large as a bear, 157 Radio program, "A Moment in History," 339 Radish, William (Bill), 319 Rain dance, Chester DePratter, 334 Rainmaker, Chester DePratter, videotape project, 330-331 Ralph, Chihuahua dog in wreck, 143-144 Random-aligned sampling method, Fort Johnson, 273 Rathje, William (Bill), 284 Rat's Den, moving into the system, 38 Rattlesnake: den, 328; Brunswick Town, 117; Little Shoulderbone Creek, 99-100 Rauschenberg, Bradford L. (Brad): Bethabara, 194; book, 196-197; funding, viii, 345-360; Bartlam, 344, 345 Rawdon, Lord, 249 Reading the dirt, 3 Reagan, Ronald; space visitors to the moon, 157, 158 (photo), 316 Realism, 147 Received dogma, 145 Reconstructing: entryway tunnel, 80; priest's house, 81 (photo); town house temple, Town Creek, 76 Recovery of Meaning, 320 Reddy, Janet: with the King of Spain, 319; married, vii-viii, 279-280, 344 (photo), 359; Paris, 353 Redoubt, Charles Towne, 215,216 (map) Reed-Parrott shells, disarmed, 168 Refuse, square-ground, 80 Regimental buttons, Fort Moultrie, 274 Reid, Bill, Bethabara, 194 Reid, Jeffery (Jeff), 94, 284 Reitz, Elizabeth (Betsy), 354 (photo) Religion, anthropological perspective, 292

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Religious dogma, a stranger, 145 REMBERT C. Dennis, MONCK'S CORNER, S. C., dog collar tag, 231 Remote sensing, techniques, Ninety Six, 263 Reonalds, George, 114 Replicating artifacts, 75 Report writing, Airlie Seminar, 224 Research and Exploration Committee grant, Santa Elena, 305 Research Design for the Wateree Valley, DePratter, 313-319 Research Division, U. S. C., SCIAA, created, 268 Research Laboratories of Anthropology, U. N. C, 52 Research Manuscript Series, U. S. C.-SCIAA, 267 Research Professor, appointment, 331 Research Strategies in Historical Archaeology, 279 Research-driven archaeology, 358-359 Resistivity, Ninety Six, 263 Restoration, palisade fence, Fort Fisher, 166 (photo), 167; philosophy, Ninety Six, 263 Reunion, crew anniversary, 354 Review, A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America, 267 Revolutionary War redoubt reconstruction, 209 (photo), 215 Revolutionary War, Ninety Six, South Carolina, 239 Rhett, Maryjane, 294 Ribault Monument, 294 Ribault, Jean, French Huguenots, 325-327 Richter, Walter, 309 Rights, Douglas, The American Indian in North Carolina, 48 Riley, Carroll, 56 Ringware House, Swansboro, North Carolina, 191 Rippeteau, Bruce, SCIA.A, 53,314, 319, 338,358 Road kill art, 160 (photo) Road to Augusta, Ninety Six, North Carolina, 241 Roanoke Rapids, basin survey, 56 Robert S. Neitzel: The Great Sun, 98 Roberts, Johnny, 120 Robinson, Joseph, WiUiamson's Fort, 244 Robles, Sergeant, 299 Roger Moore, house ruin, 135 Romance of archaeology, training attorneys, 221,333 Roper Mountain pavilion, 215 Roswell, Georgia, attic artifact inventory, 339 Rowland, Major Thomas, 161 Ruin stabilization, 127 Ruins on the moon, the Reagan theory, 157-158 Russell, Captain, Russellborough, 138 Russellborough: abandoned, 115; Italian porcelain saucers, 130; model building, 136, 137 (photo); pistol on floor, 138 (photo); ruin, 138 (photo); storage jar with I. F., 138; wine bottles on floor, 138 (photo) Russell's Island, Swansboro, North Carolina, 192 Rust-Oleum Bare Metal Primer, 173 Rusty nails, blood-enrichment, 70

INDEX SAA (Society for American Archaeology), Airlie Seminar, 224, 287 Saintonge, French earthenware, Charlesfort, 329 Salisbury prison, soldier's possessions, 339 SALT talks, General Barrow, Santa Elena press conference, 305 "Salute to Stanley South and His Five Decades of Historical Archaeology," SHA symposium, 357 Salvaging: blockade runner cargo, 170; burials, 85; seals from the Archives, 141,142 (photo), 143 Salvation Army, 31 Sampling strategy, 287 San Felipe, Fort, 294, 304 San Marcos, Fort, 294 San Marcos, pottery, Santa Elena, 298 Sandblasting iron artifacts, conservation, 194 Sandstone, embedded lithics, 85 Santa Claus, a sham, 51 Santa Elena: L block excavation, 309-310, 311 (photo); Antiquities Act Permit, 296; archaeology begins, 292293; boundary search, 323; burned beads, African ceremony, 315; chamber pot, 321; grants at, 305-306, 309, 314; houses, 309; log, 297-302; method, 354; National Register of Historic Places Inventory, 294; research design, 296-297; Senator Strom Thurmond, 316-317; site, 2; visitors, 316-317, 323; volunteers, 299 Santo Domingo Blue on White majolica bowl, Santa Elena, 309 (photo), 310 Sara Indians, 91 Sargent, Howard, 53, 94 Sassaman, Ken, 317 (photo) Saucers, Russellborough, 130, 138 Sauthier, C.J., map of Brunswick, 108-109, 115 Savannah Morning News, Fort San Felipe, 298-299, 304305 Savannah River Archaeological Research Program, 290, 358 Savannah River projectile point, 59 Scalp of Cherokee Indian, on flagpole, Fort Ninety Six, 240 Schavelzon, Daniel, Argentina, 346 Schiffer, Mike, 284 Schnitting, Holmes' Fort, 253 (photo) School of Common Sense, diploma, 186 Schriner, Colonel, Santa Elena, 298 Schuyler, Robert (Bob), 284 SCIAA (South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology): 228-231,271,358-359; Applied Research Division, 358; archaeological crew, Horseshoe, project, 271; Bruce Rippeteau, 319; Jon Leader, viii, 128-359; Maritime Research Division, 358; Research Division, 358; Underwater Division, 230; underwater program funded, 228-231; upward mobility, 359 Science story, Top 100 Science Stories, Charlesfort, 330 Science: advances, 207; and expressionist archaeology, 152; and humanism, 341; and magic: knowledge and dogma,

413 342; building new theory via new facts, 157; Foley comment, 207; joyful magic of, 292; learning, 8; of culture, 356 Scientific: archaeology, argument, 281; cycle, The Dolphin Chart, 282 (drawing); predictibility, 281 Scorpions, Price House, 267 Scrapers, Hardaway site, 83 Scroggs, Ross, 55 SCUBA-diving practice, 170-171 Sculpture, 146, 153, "The Promise," 154; North Carolina Museum of Art, 154 Scurry, James (Jim), Santa Elena, 298-299 SEAC, (Southeastern Archaeological Conference), 67, 95106, 274; Lifetime Achievement Award, 360; meeting, "primarily for Indian archaeology," 111; stories 95-106 Seafood chowder, 123 Seals, signet, Brunswick Town, 141,142 (photo), 143 Search for culture process, 145 Searle, John R., 356 Sears, William, 104 Second law of thermodynamics, 94 Seige of Charleston, Revolutionary War redoubt, 215 Seige of Ninety Six, Nathanael Greene, 248 Senate Finance Committee, underwater program, 227, 255 SENCLAND (Southeastern North Carollina Land), 184 Seriation, battleship curve, 234 Seriation, use questioned, Clyde DoiIar, 208 Servant's hut, Santa Elena, 306 Seventeenth century site survey, 307 (drawing) Seventh fairway excavation, 334 Sewing machines, 123, 187 (photo), 188 Sex and lawsuits, 103-104 SHA: (The Society for Historical Archaeology), formed, 203; conference, themes, 286; conference, Charleston, scientific agenda, 284 Shad fishermen, 123 Shapiro, Gary, 317 (photo) Sharks, Peterhoff wreck, 172 Shell, beads, McFayden burial mound, 190 Shell, exploding an active one, 169 Shell, gorget replicated, 76 Sherds, Charlesfort, 353 Sheriffof Greenwood County, Ninety Six camp raided, 259260 Sherman, General, Fayetteville Arsenal, 181-182 Shipwreck: adventure, 192-193; artifacts, divided, 227 Signet seals, Brunswick Town, 141,142 (photo), 143 Simmons, Brigadier General, E. H. (Retired), Santa Elena, 296 Simpson, Alex, Captain, duel, 115 Singing, 12, 19, 37 Site integrity threatened: Charles Towne, 204-205; Ninety Six, 262 Site survey of Southeastern North Carolina, 188-189 Skinner family, "Committee of Five," Archibald Smith House, 339

414 Skowronek, Russell, 320 Skull split open, 120 Skunks, historical archaeology debate, 208-209 Slaves, ¥ourba, brought to South Carolina, 315 Slot-trenching, feature-discovery method, Charles Towne, 222 Smith, Archibald, artifact inventory, Roswell, Georgia, 338339 Smith, Carlyle, 284 Smith, Charles (Charlie): 117, 119-120, 165-166, 187; ballad, " Sweet Rosie Anne," 117; pig gift, 180; shipwrecked, 193; singing, 117, 125 Smith, Hale, 56, 104-105 Smith, Lou Anne, 155 Smith, Stephen D, 358 Snail Chart, and historical archaeology, 282 Snake: fight, 119; killed, 121; effegy, McFayden Mound, 190; Little Shnulderbone Creek, 99-100 Snoring concerts, Ninety Six, 251-252 Society for American Archaeology (SAA), Airlie House Seminar, 287 Society for Historical Archaeology, 203,224, 284 Society of Professional Archaeologists, (SOPA), 203 Society of the Flaccid Trowel (SOFT), certificate, 288, 359 Soddy/cb.bin, Blaine South, homesteading, 5 (photo), 6-8 Sommer, Sebastian, Newsweek reporter, 60 Songs, psychoanalyzing, 63 SOPA, (Society of Professional Archaeologists), SecretaryTreasurer and Editor, 203 SOPADOPA, SOPA newsletter 288 Sorbonne, dissertation committee, 330, 352 Sound of a watermelon, 120 South American Conference on Historical Archaeology, 345 South Appalachian Mississippian pottery, Santa Elena, 298 South Carolina Department of Archives and History: grant, 345; proposal, 307 South Carolina Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism, vision, 355 South Carolina Department of Transportation, 321 South Carolina Dispensary bottles, 267 South Carolina Humanities Council, grant, 321 South Carolina job offer, 205 South Carolina State Museum, 311 South Carolina Tricentennial Commission, project, 204, 211 South Carolina Wildlife Resources Department, Fort Johnson, 273 South family, Santa Elena, 296 South, Austin Alexander, (Alex), vii, 344 South, Austin, 4, 6, 8, 37 South, Blaine, 5-8 South, David:, vii, 41, 49, 52, 57, 82, 113,129, 145, 147, 157-160, 308-309; formula evaluation paper, 113; Auburn University, doctorate, 279; Berkman painting, 148 (photo); Charles Towne Landing, 219, 220 (photo); Fort Fisher hermit, 184 (photo); Fort Johnson, 273; Kosciusko mine, 249, 250 (photo); MGTD, 133

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION (photo); N. C. State graduate, 204; Ninety Six, 239; Paca House, Annapolis, Maryland, 201; poem, 145; Price House, 183; Santa Elena, 297-301,303,332; SCUBA diving, 170, 171 (photo); wreck, 143-144 South, Elizabeth, 5, 6 (photo), 7 South, Ginger-Gabrielle Alexis (Gigi), vii, 344 South, Jewell, 47, 49-50, 52-55, 58, 60, 61 (photo), 77, 91, 100, 108 (photo), 129, 133-134, 150-151,154-156, 157-159, 279-280, 300, 302, 304; Bath, North Carolina, dig, 190; Bethabara, 197 (photo); bit by art bug, 150; dies, 279, 308-309; filmed exploding shell, 170; Fort Fisher hermit, 184 (photo); Hilton Head Island, 27 l; laboratory assistant, 140; miscarries a son, 195; Paca House, 201; Pawley House, 268; poem, 145; Santa Elena, 297-298, 302-303; SCUBA diving practice, 170, 171 (photo); twenty-fifth anniversary surprise party, 226; Windsor Hill, 289; wreck, 61, 62 (photo), 143 South, Lara: (see also, McKenna, Lara), vii, 27 (poem), 41; bobwhite quail, 266 (photo); born, 204, 225; Charles Towne, 219; 304, 309; Fort Moultrie, 275, expecting, 344; grown up, 279; Hilton Head Island, 271, married James McKenna, 344; Pawley House, 268 (photo); poem, 27; Santa Elena, 297-299, 302,332 (photo); site survey, 308; U. S. C. graduate, 344; Windsor Hill, 289 South, Linda Hunter, 316, 319 South, Mae Belle Casey, 4 (photo), 6 (photo), 8, 32-33,355 South, Marjorie, (see also, Idol, Marjorie), 5, 41 South, Robert: vii, 41,279, 304, 309; Charles Towne Landing, 219; Hilton Head Island, 271; married Sheila Douglas, 344; Paca House, Annapolis, Maryland, 201; Pawley House, 268 (photo); Santa Elena, 297-300, 302, 332 (photo); site survey, 308; U. S. C. graduate, 344; Windsor Hill, 289; with bobwhite quail, 266 (photo) South, Sheila, married Robert South, vii, 344 South, Stanley Austin: 58 (photo), 60 (photo), 61 (photo), 301 (photo), 354 (photo); "hermit removal is out of my line," 186; sketches in steel, sculpture, 154-155; actor in "Trial by Jury," 36 (photo); artiste, putting on the dog, 150 (photo); Bethabara fort bastion ditch, 196 (photo); British soldier in outdoor drama, 47 (photo); Brnnswick Town, 108 (photo); bull-headedness at Fort Moultrie, 278; career chronology, ix; Carolinas projects map, ix; ceramics debate with Jim Deetz, 335-336; Charles (Chuck) Fairbanks, Fort San Felipe, 318 (photo); Charleston SHA meeting, 284; critiques, 356357; excavation block, 311 (photo); Fayetteville Arsenal, 192 (photo); Forbush Creek site, 87 (photo); Fort Moultrie with crew, 275 (photo); Fort San Felipe, 317 (photo); Governor Jim Hodges, 356 (photo); groundhog in Kosciusko's mine, cover (photo), 249 (photo), 250 (photo); Hardaway site, 84 (photo); Jim Deetz at Flowerdew Hundred, 335 (photo); Joffre Coe, 53 (photo), 54; Lew Binford, 285 (photo); mapping Brunswick Town, 109; mapping Charlesfort, 327 (photo); meets Janet Reddy, 344; method strength, 279281; moves south of the border, 209; photographer at

INDEX work, 37 (photo); poetry, (see poem); potter with pitfired ware, 156 (photo); publications on method and theory, 281; sandblasting the torpedo, 177 (photo) Santa Elena crew, 333,334 (photo); Santa Elena pottery kiln, 324 (photo); Santa Elena, 247 (photo); Santa Elena, burned glass beads, 315 (photo); sculptuor, 154; Secretary-Treasurer of SOPA, 288; Senator Strom Thurmond, Fort San Felipe, 316 (photo); singing in public, with Doc Watson, 12; Spanish barrel, 310 (photo), 311; studies under Coe, 54; teaching evaluated, 290; veteran of World War II, 61; Williamson's Fort, 245 (photo), 246; H.H.D. Degree presented, 352 South, Stephanie, vii South, Virginia, 4 (photo), 5, 7, 8 (poem), 9 (photo) South, Virginia, poems, 8-9, 47 South/Deetz debate plan, SHA, 291 Southeastern Archaeological Conference, (See SEAC) Southeastern North Carolina site survey, 188 Southern Province of the Moravian Church, 194 Southwest Photo Arts Institute, 19-22 Soybean field excavation, Holmes' Fort, 252 Spaceship-shaped museum plan, Charles Towne Landing, 204, 214 Spalding, Albert, 56 Spanish:' Ambassador, Santa Elena, 313; attack, Brunswick Town, 114; barrel conservation fails, 310 (photo), 311; colonial archaeology, Santa Elena, 292; colonial history and archaeology, colleagues, 354 (photo); daub, seventh fairway, 334; Florida, 293; government grant, Santa Elena, 306, 314; house site, Santa Elena, 306, 318; King, Juan Carlos, conversation, 319; labrillo pottery fragments, Santa Elena, 313; Point, Charlesfort search, 327; Santa Elena and French Charlesfort tales, 293-334; tile monument, Santa Elena, 314; visitors to Santa Elena, tile gift, 313; well, seventh fairway, 334 Sparrow pie, 69-70 Spirek, James (Jim), underwater vessel search, viii, 230, 328 Sponsored Programs and Research, U. S. C., 338 Spot, popular store, (photo), 119 Sprague, Carl T., cowboy song, 7 Sprunt, James, heirs, donate land, 107 Spy, German, Pawley House, WW II, 270 Square: stockade, Ninety Six, 250; ground refuse, 80; ground shed, 72 St. Augustine, 293 St. James Parish church, 115 St. Philips Church, 108, 110, 135 Stabilized doctor's laboratory ruin, Bethabara, 197 (photo) Staffordshire: in Carolina, book, 360; pottery, Rudolph Christ, Bethabara, 196; type, creamware, 344-345; type, Dot, Diaper and Basket pattern sherd, 345 (photo) Stallings fiber-tempered pottery, 189, 219 Star Fort Historical Commission, 239, 242 Star Fort, Ninety Six, 239, 246, 247 (drawing) Stars, living on, argument with educators, 82 State agency archaeology, 358-359

415 State of Morelos, Mexico, archaeological potential, 338 Steen, Carl, 319, 321,344, 357 Stephen Parker Newman, house ruin, 135 Stephenson, Robert (Bob), viii, 143,204-205, 211 (photo), 212, 222, 228-231,261,268, 270, 277, 284, 293-297, 302-305, 320, 326-327, 338-339 Stephenson, Robert L., Archaeological Research Fund Award, 338 Stern, Philip Van Doren, Confederate Navy, 177 Steward, Julian, 55-56 Stewards of the past, Ninety Six, 265 Still, whiskey-making, 122 (photo) Stirling, Matthew, 56 Stockades, Ninety Six, 242, 250 Stone column erected, Jean Ribault, 326 Stone Rock Mound, excavation, 357 Stone, Garry Wheeler: Old Salem, North Carolina, 199; Fayetteville Arsenal, 181-182, 192 (photo); Isaac Hunter's Tavern, 200 Stoner, Michael (Mike), 334 (photo), 355 Stoner, Michael, Charles Towne Landing, 218 Stoneware, French sherds, Charlesfort, 329 Storage jar sherds, Santa Elena, 329 Storie, Elizabeth, 10, 43,349, 359; My Killing Kin, 349 Storie, James, 10 Story of Civilization--Will Durant, 43 Storytelling: 4; Brunswick Town, 110; historical archaeology, 3,349-351 Stranger to religious dogma, 145 Strata, well, MCD Formula, 235-236 Stratified site: Gaston, discovery, 57; Forbush Creek, 86; Georgia, 98; "none in Georgia," 95 Strickland, Robert, (Bob), Camden, South Carolina, 232 Struever, Stuart, Consulting Editor, Academic Press, 224, 281 Student teaching, Appalachian, 32 Students' academic freedom, controversy, 289-290 Students, Fort Johnson, 273 Suicide, Art Newton, 160 Suicide, Roy Dickens, 290-291 Suicide, Virginia South, 9 Surfboard conversion, Charles Towne, 220 (photo) Stuvey, Swain-Lane House, Asheville, North Carolina, 192 Sweet William, ballad, 125 Switch-blade knife, lesson, 21 SYMAP, Santa Elena, 300 Tales beyond Santa Elena, 335-360 Tamarack, North Carolina, 349 Tarlton, Sam, viii, 105-106, 111 Tater Hill Lake, 42 Tattooed Serpent, 93 Taxpayers', shipwreck artifacts, 227 Taylor, Rabun, 3 Taylor, Waiter: 55-56; influence, 280 Teach, Edward, house ruin, Teach's Point, 190

416 Teaching school, Greensboro, 44 Teach's Point, Blackbeard's house ruin, 190 Teahouse rapping for a non-conforming audience, 221 Teeth, new, story, a fish out of water, 13 Temple mound tour, 92 Temple Mound, Town Creek, 52-56 Temple reconstruction, 76, 77 (photo), 78 (photo), 79 (photo) Temple, William, commander, Fort Anderson, 164 Ten foot square, measurement, 72 Terminus post quem demonstrated by coins, 233 Terminus post quem, 236 Terry, George, Vice Provost, U. S. C., 271,345, 352 Teton Jackson Cave, Montana, Robert L. (Bob) Stephenson, 211 (photo) The Autobiography of Henry Merrell: Industrial Missionary to the South, 340 The Expansion of South Carolina, 1729-1765, 263 The Florida Anthropologist, papers, 206 The Moravian Potters in North Carolina, 197 The State, newspaper, 354 The Wisdom Tree, 342 Theatre and Speech, Department play, Charleston SHA, 287 Thelma site, 58 Theory: I3inford, 280; and method, Dollar, 208; touchyfeely, 129-130; building, via new facts, 157 "Thermodynamics and a Status Artifact Model," paper, 341 Thimble theft, Bethabara, 195 Thomas, David Hurst, burial study, 289 Thomas, Neal, artist, 150 Thompson, Bruce F., French vessel search, Santa Elena, 328 Thompson, Raymond, 56 Thom's Creek pottery, 189, 219 Thomton-Morden Map of James Island, 307 (drawing), 308 Thurman, Melbum D. (Mel),208,353 Thurman-Howard Debate, A Man Called Horse, movie, 208 Thurmond, Senator Strom, 258, 316-317 Thurmond, Senator Strom, Fort San Felipe, 316 (photo) Tiger by the tail, Ninety Six, 239, 242 Tiles, Spanish, presented, Santa Elena, 313-314 Time line, Stan South's career, ix Time-lag, 237 Times gone by, stories, Howard (Hard) Woodring, 349 Tobacco pipe, Gottfried Aust, Ninety Six, 246 Tobacco pipe, stone, McFayden burial mound, 190 Toilet seminar, 337 Token of Spanish Gratitude, Spanish Government gift, 314 Tombstone, Santa Elena, 315 Torpedo conserved, 176 Touchy-feely, theory in muse ology, 129-130, 138 Touring America, 11 Tours, Holmes' Fort, 255 Town Creek Indian Mound, 52-53, 56, 66-94; Town Creek Indian Mound, Joffre Coe, 67 Town house, alter, Town Creek, 79 (photo) Town house, temple, 76, 77 (photo), 78 (photo)

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION Town of Ninety Six, 241 Toy guns, Navy training, 15 Toys in the Attic, 340 (photo) Trading post, Ninety Six, 239 Transit mapping, 72, 302 Trask, Captain Alex, 173 Traverse, Ninety Six, 239, 247 (drawing), 248 "Tribes of the Carolina Lowlands," summary, paper, 267 Tri-centennial Commission, 212, 214-215,293 Trocolli, Ruth, ATTIC Project, 340 Trogdon, Kenneth, 344 Trivette, Sam, millwright, 42 Tucker, Glen, 184 Tngaloo Mound, visit, 100 Tunnel, Russellborough, 139 (Photo) Tylor, Edward B., 55, 356 U. D. R. D'Historie de L'Art et Archeologie, Paris, France, Ph. D Committee, 352 U. S. S. Petrel, 172 U.S.S. Peterhoff, cannon salvaged, 171- 172 Ultimatums backfire, 200-201 Underhill, Ruth, 56 Underwater program, SCIAA, funded, 227-231 United States: Air Force, at torpedo, 175-176; Army, at torpedo, 175-176; Coast Guard at torpedo, 175-176; Fifth Naval District at torpedo, 176; Marine Corps, Camp LeJeune, at torpedo, 176 United States Marine Corps, Santa Elena, 306, 313,322-323 Universite de Paris I, Pantheon-Sorbonne, Ph. D Committee, 352 University: Board of Trustees, South Carolina, 272; of Kentucky, 50; of Michigan, goal cancelled, 61; of North Carolina, 55 University of South Carolina: Santa Elena, 306; Board of Trustees, talk, 338; Cuemavaca Center, Mexico, 338; Department of Anthropology, 290; students at Fort Johnson, 273; Television crew, Santa Elena, 328 Uruguay, trip, 345 Uruguayan Ministry of Education and Culture, 345 Uwharrie and Pee Dee pottery, 81 Van Dorsleer, Margaret, 56 VEPCO, (Virginia Electric and Power Company), 56-57 Victory Village, University of North Carolina, 280 Videotape project, Santa Elena, 330 Vietnam War, 271 Vincent pottery, defined, 59 "Vine that ate the South", kudzu jelly, 209, 210 (photo) Vineyard ditches, nineteenth century, Santa Elena, 300 Virginia Electric and Power Company, proposal, 56-57 Visitors, Santa Elena, 323 Volumes in Historical Archaeology, 113,209, 331,341 Volunteer, E. Donald Patton, 331 Volunteers are the light of the world, badge, 333 Volunteers at Santa Elena listed, 299, 306, 332

INDEX Voodoo priest, Oyotunji village, 315 Wachovia book, funded, anonymous donor, 332, 334; manuscript lost in the mail, 351 Waddell, Gene, 267 Wake County Historical Society, 200 Walker, I., brand, 140 (photo) Walker, Ian, Holmes' Fort, 255 Walker, James, Port Collector, Brunswick, 140 (photo) Walker, John, 56 Walker, Sergeant, Santa Elena, 298 Wando River site, John Bartlam creamware, 344 "Wanted! An Historical Archaeologist," article, 203 War: "between the states," 180; "of northem aggression," 180; "of the Rebellion," 180 Ward, James, lion seal, 143 Waring, Joseph I., Old Towne Plantation, crew housing, 219 Waring, Mrs. Joseph I., Old Towne Plantation, crew housing, 219 Waring, Antonio, (Tuno), 99, 103 Washington's Southern Tour 1791,132 Washington Post, Fort San Felipe, 305 Washington, Navy duty, 17-18 Wasps, 68 Wasters; Old Salem, 199 (photo) Watauga County, archaeological survey, 49 Wateree Valley, survey plan, 318-319 Watermelon, the sound, 120 Watermelon, wine, 225 Watkins, wrestling coach, 39 Watson, Bryan, Santa Elena, 306 Watson, Doc, singing with Stan South, 12 Watson, Richard A., deconstruction, 341 Watters, Hall: moved a dune, 171 (photo), 174, 177 Watters, J. L., moved a dune, 174,177 Wauchope, Robert, 56 Webb, Clarence, reports, 49 Well, Fort San Felipe, 317 Well; Horseshoe mall, U. S. C. campus, 271-272; Russellborough, 138 (photo); Santa Elena, 307; Stan South fell in, 118; Star Fort at Ninety Six, 246, 247 (drawing) Wemer, Eliot, iii, 197, 351-352 Wemer, Eliot, Percheron Press, 281,284 West Point, 11 Western trip, 5-8, What It Is Boss Man? crew stories poem book, 349 "Wheelchair Eddy," fight with, 119-120 Wheeler & Wilson Mfg. Co., New York 125 Broadway, 188 Whigs and Tories, Ninety Six, 244 Whippet, car restoration, 134, 135 (photo) Whiskey still: in the mountains, 122 (photo); ruin at Brunswick Town, 121 Whist players, in "The Spot," 119 (photo) White knight of orthodoxy, comment, 207 White, Leslie A., 55, 61,356

417 Whitehurst, Thomas, Lieutenant, on The Viper, 115 Whitten, Bill, 304-305 Whitworth shell, conservation, 170, 177 (photo), 178 "Who's robbing this train?" story, 121 Widmer, Randolph, sampling strategy, 273,287 Wild Man, at Fort Fisher, 183, 185 Willey, Gordon, 55-56 Williams, Mark, 99 Williams, Stephen, 56 Williamson, Major Andrew, Williamson's Fort, 244 Williamson's Fort, Ninety Six, 239, 244, 260-261 Wilmington College, 148 Wilmington Historic Sites Committee, 131 Wilmington Morning Star reporter, 136; Civil War shell kills, article 169 Wilmington, nineteenth century houses, 131 Wilmington, park named for Claude Howell, 148 Wilson, David, 81 (photo) Windmill Point, Fort Johnson, 273 Windmill, Bethabara, Brunswick Town, 139 "Window to Times Gone By," 349 Windsor Hill, cemetery excavation, 289 Wine cellar, Russellborough, 138 (photo), 139 Winemaking, 225 Wines named for archaeological sites, 226 Winterville Mound, 93 Winthrop Rockefeller Archaeology Museum, 330 (photo) Wire nails, caskets, 289 Wisdom Tree, 342 Wit's End bar, 146, 148, 154 Wood, Bill, 94 Wood, Judy, French vessel search, 328 Woodring, Howard (Hard), ol timey talk,, 349 Woodstock, Charles Towne crew loses "Bugsy," 220 Woody, Howard, 155 Wool-pulling, SEAC, 102 Wooten-Marnan lot ruin, 135 Work-obsessed, 2 "'Work?'-work, Bethabara, 194 World of art, 146 World view, personal, subjective, 153 Worthy, Linda (Polly), Santa Elena, 332, 334 (photo) Wreck, 61, 62 (photo), 143-144 Wrestling, College, the competition, not theater, 38 Wright, Barton, 81, 94 Xuala Indians, met by DeSoto, 91 Yearbook photographer, 37-38 "Yellow corn borer", zircon story, 51 Yemoja, goddess of the Ogun River at Abeokuta, 315 Yesterdays bar, 343 Yoder, Julian, geology teacher, 50 Yornba ceremonial center, Oyotunji Village, 315 Yoruba, deep sea god, Olokun beads, Santa Elena, 315 Yoruba, slaves, South Carolina, 315

418

Zeigler, Belton, Charles Towne, and Ninety Six, 221 Zeigler, Ben, Santa Elena, 221 Zeigler, Senator Eugene, Charles Towne archaeology champion, 217-218, 221,258 Zircons, the yellow corn borer, 50 Zoetrope, Archibald Smith House attic, 340 Zumarraga, Don Juan de, burned Aztec writings, 358

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION