Appendix Significant Individuals and Events in the History of Psychology

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APPENDIX

Significant Individuals and Events in the History of Psychology Thales (ca. 625–545 b.c.) Begins to replace supernatural explanations of the universe with naturalistic ones; encourages criticism and improvement of his teachings. Heraclitus (ca. 540–480 b.c.) Observes that everything in the empirical world is in a constant state of flux and therefore can never be known with certainty. Protagoras (ca. 485–415 b.c.) Argues that “truth” can only be understood in terms of an individual’s perceptions and beliefs. Hippocrates (ca. 460–377 b.c.) Argues that both mental and physical disorders have natural causes; a physician’s primary task is to facilitate the body’s natural healing ability. Democritus (ca. 460–370 b.c.) Proposes a completely materialistic universe wherein everything consists of atoms. Antisthenes (ca. 445–365 b.c.) Preaches Cynicism or a back-to-nature philosophy whereby life is lived free from wants, passions, and the conventions of society. Plato (ca. 427–347 b.c.) Postulates a dualistic universe consisting of abstract forms and matter. Because only the forms are changeless they alone can be known with certainty. Aristotle (384–322 b.c.) Argues that an understanding of nature must begin with its direct examination. Everything in nature has an inherent purpose that seeks to manifest itself. Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 365–275 b.c.) Observes that because the arguments for or against any belief are equally valid the only reasonable position is Skepticism or the withholding of belief in anything. Epicurus of Samos (ca. 341–270 b.c.) Encourages living a simple life of moderation and one that is free of superstition. Such a philosophy came to be called Epicureanism. Zeno of Citium (ca. 333–262 b.c.) Founds the philosophy of Stoicism with his beliefs that nature is governed by a divine plan and that living in accordance with that plan with courage and dignity is the ultimate good. Philo (ca. 25 b.c.–50 a.d.) A Neoplatonist, preaches that God will reveal knowledge to souls properly prepared to receive it.

Galen (ca. 130–200) Perpetuates the naturalistic medicine of such Greeks as Hippocrates into the Roman empire, and extends the theory of four humors into a rudimentary theory of personality. Constantine (ca. 280–337) Signs the Edict of Milan in 313 making Christianity a tolerated religion in the Roman empire. Augustine (354–430) Combines Stoicism, Neoplatonism, and Hebrew religion into a powerful Christian teleology according to which evil exists because people choose it, and God can be experienced personally through introspection. ■ 400–1000 The Dark Ages. Europe is generally dominated by mysticism and superstition. Avicenna (980–1037) An Arabic philosopher/physician, applies Aristotelian philosophy to a wide range of topics and attempts to make it compatible with Muslim theology. Anselm (ca. 1033–1109) Adds reason to the ways of knowing God with his ontological argument for the existence of God. Peter Lombard (ca. 1095–1160) Argues that God can be known through the Scriptures, through reason, or by studying nature. Maimonides (1135–1204) A Jewish scholar and physician, attempts to reconcile Judaism and Aristotelian philosophy. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) Succeeds in making Aristotelian philosophy the basis of Christian theology. William of Occam (ca. 1290–1350) Argues that explanations should always be as parsimonious as possible (Occam’s razor). In the realist-nominalist debate, he sides with the nominalists, thereby encouraging Empiricism. Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) Sometimes considered the father of the Renaissance, argues for the full exploration and manifestation of human potential. Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) Opposes fanaticism, religious ritual, and superstition. Argues that fools are better off than “wise” persons because fools live in accordance with their true feelings.

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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) Publishes De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543, in which he proposes the heliocentric theory of the solar system. Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535) The first physician to urge that witch-hunts be stopped because those accused of being witches, or of being bewitched, are actually mentally disturbed. ■ 1487 Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger Publish Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches’ Hammer). Philippus Paracelsus (1493–1541) Among the first physicians to suggest that the unusual behavior displayed by “witches” and those bewitched had natural rather than supernatural origins. ■ 1517 Martin Luther (1483–1546) Nails his Ninety-Five Theses on the door of Wittenberg Cathedral thereby beginning the Reformation. Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) Reintroduces radical Skepticism into the late Renaissance. Francis Bacon (1561–1626) Argues for an inductive science based on the direct examination of nature and the careful generalization of those observations. Theory must be avoided because it biases observations. Believes science should provide practical information. Galileo (1564–1642) Through experimentation finds many previously held beliefs about nature to be false. This brings Galileo into conflict with the Church because many of these fallacies were part of church dogma. Denies that cognitive experience can be studied scientifically thereby inhibiting the development of experimental psychology. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) Views humans as matter in motion and argues that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience, and that all human motivation and emotions are reducible to hedonism. Governments are formed to protect people from each other. Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) Like Hobbes, says humans consist of nothing but matter, thus rejecting dualism in favor of physical monism. René Descartes (1596–1650) Uses the method of doubt to confirm the validity of his subjective experiences. Concludes that several important ideas are innate and that humans consist of a physical body and a nonphysical mind. The human mind provides consciousness, free choice, and rationality. ■ 1600 Giordano Bruno (1548–1600) is burned at the stake for heresy. John Locke (1632–1704) Forcefully argues against the existence of innate ideas, saying instead that all ideas are derived from experience. Once they exist, however, ideas can be rearranged in countless ways by reflection. Also distinguishes between primary and secondary qualities.

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Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) Equates God and nature, and claims mind and matter are inseparable. All things in nature, including humans, are governed by natural law and thus free will does not exist. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) Describes the universe as a complex, lawful machine governed by the law of gravitation and precisely describable in mathematical terms. Explanations of nature must be parsimonious and devoid of theological considerations. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716) Argues that experience can only actualize ideas that already exist within us. Everything in nature consists of monads that vary in their ability to think clearly. For an experience to be conscious, aggregates of monads must exceed a threshold, otherwise the experience remains unconscious. George Berkeley (1685–1753) Denies the existence of a material world, saying instead that only perceptions (ideas) exist. Thus, “to be is to be perceived.” David Hartley (1705–1757) Supplements associationism with speculations about neurophysiology. Julien de La Mettrie (1709–1751) Publishes L’Homme Machine (Man a Machine) in 1748, in which he embraces physical monism and argues that the differences between human and nonhuman animals is quantitative, not qualitative. Thomas Reid (1710–1796) Argues that we can assume physical reality is as we perceive it because it makes common sense to do so. Innate faculties of the mind facilitate the accurate perception of the physical world. David Hume (1711–1776) Argues that humans can never know the physical world with certainty because all we ever experience are the ideas created by that world (for example, causation is a mental habit and may or may not correspond to anything in the physical world). Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) Initiates the modern romantic movement by claiming that human feelings are better guides for living than rational deliberations. Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715–1780) Demonstrates that a statue capable of only sensation, memory, and the feelings of pleasure and pain can display all human faculties and abilities. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) Argues that external reality can never be known because conscious experience always results from the interaction between sensory experience and the innate categories of thought. Believes psychology cannot be scientific because introspection is an unreliable method of studying the mind. Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) Claims to cure disorders by redistributing animal magnetism in his patients. Jean Lamarck (1744–1829) Publishes his Philosophie Zoologique in 1809, in which he elaborates his theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics.

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Benjamin Rush (1745–1813) Sometimes referred to as the first psychiatrist in the United States, argues against slavery, capital and public punishment, and the inhumane treatment of prisoners and the mentally ill. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826) Is appointed director of the Bicêtre Asylum in 1793 and begins releasing inmates from their chains. Segregates different types of patients, encourages occupational therapy, bans punishment and exorcism, and maintains precise case histories and statistics on patient cure rates. Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) Claims that the extent to which one possesses various faculties can be determined by examining the bumps and depressions on the skull. Gall’s colleague Johann Gasper Spurzheim (1776–1832) called such an examination phrenology. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) Views the universe as an interrelated whole that he called The Absolute, and argues that nothing can be understood except in its relationship to The Absolute. Understanding of The Absolute is approached via the dialectic process. James Mill (1773–1836) Argues that any idea, no matter how complex, can be understood in terms of the simple ideas it comprises. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) Argues that ideas compete for conscious expression; successful ideas become part of the apperceptive mass, unsuccessful ideas remain unconscious. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) Argues that the only relief from the unending cycle of needs and need satisfaction comes from the sublimation, denial, or repression of those needs. Only a strong will to survive prevents most people from committing suicide. Pierre Flourens (1794–1867) Performs experiments that demonstrate the cerebral cortex functions as an interrelated whole and is not divided into discrete faculties as the phrenologists had claimed. Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) Observes that just noticeable differences (jnds) in variable stimuli correspond to a constant fraction of a standard stimulus (Weber’s law). Auguste Comte (1798–1857) Promotes positivistic philosophy according to which only publicly observed phenomena can be known with certainty; metaphysical speculation is to be actively avoided. Johannes Müller (1801–1858) Formulates the doctrines of specific nerve energies and adequate stimulation. Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) By noting that for sensations to rise arithmetically the magnitude of the physical stimulus must rise geometrically creates the field of psychophysics. Also creates the field of experimental esthetics. Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802–1887) Campaigning for over 40 years, vastly improves the plight of the mentally ill in the U.S. and Europe.

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John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) Argues that simple ideas can combine and form ideas different from the simple ideas that they comprise (mental chemistry). Believes that a science of psychology is possible, which would describe human nature in general, and that the discipline of ethology would explain individual differences. Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Publishes On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859, in which he describes how animals with adaptive features survive and reproduce and those without such features do not. Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) Urges a return to the personal, introspective religion described by Augustine. Truth must be understood in terms of what is privately and emotionally embraced by an individual; thus “truth is subjectivity.” Alexander Bain (1818–1903) Seeks the biological correlates of cognition and behavior. His analysis of voluntary behavior resembles the later analyses of Thorndike and Skinner. Marks the transition between philosophical and scientific psychology. Founds the journal Mind in 1876. Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) Erroneously generalizes Darwinian principles to societies, thus creating social Darwinism. Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) Promotes positivist medicine, measures the rate of nerve conduction, and makes significant contributions to an understanding of color vision, hearing, and perception in general. Francis Galton (1822–1911) Publishes Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences in 1869, in which he argues that intelligence is largely inherited and therefore eugenics should be practiced. Galton’s intense interest in individual differences inspired him to create a number of methodologies that have become standard in psychology (for example, questionnaires, word association tests, twin studies, and the correlational technique). Paul Broca (1824–1880) Conclusively demonstrates that an area on the left hemisphere of the cortex is specialized for speech (Broca’s area). Also, incorrectly concludes that brain size and intelligence are positively correlated. Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893) Speculates that in individuals predisposed to hysteria, trauma may cause certain ideas to become dissociated from consciousness and grow strong enough to cause the symptoms associated with hysteria. Charcot’s speculations significantly influenced Freud. Ivan M. Sechenov (1829–1905) Founds Russian objective psychology with the publication of Reflexes of the Brain in 1863. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832–1920) Founds voluntarism, psychology’s first school. This school was very much in the rationalistic tradition with its emphasis on will and purpose. Founds the journal Philosophische Studien (philosophical studies) in 1881. Ewald Hering (1834–1918) Offers a nativistic explanation of space perception and color vision.

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Ernst Mach (1838–1916) Promotes a positivistic philosophy according to which sensations are all that humans can be certain of; therefore scientists must determine the relationships among sensations. As with Comte’s version of positivism, metaphysical speculation is to be actively avoided. Franz Clemens Brentano (1838–1917) Observes that mental acts always refer to (intend) events outside of themselves. With his emphases on mental acts and intentionality, creates the field of act psychology. Hippolyte Bernheim (1840–1919) Under the influence of Auguste Ambroise Liébeault (1823–1904) becomes the major spokesperson of the Nancy school of hypnosis, which claimed that all people can be hypnotized because all people are suggestible. William James (1842–1910) Publishes The Principles of Psychology in 1890. This text is often cited as marking the beginning of the school of functionalism. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844–1900) Views life as a struggle between the Apollonian (rational) and the Dionysian (irrational) aspects of human nature and an individual’s personality as an artistic blending of these two aspects. Granville S. Hall (1844–1924) Founds the APA in 1892 and serves as its first president. Makes significant contributions to developmental psychology but opposes the coeducation of adolescents and young adults. Invites Freud and Jung to Clark University in 1909. Founds the American Journal of Psychology in 1887. Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) Offers a theory of color vision based on evolutionary theory. George John Romanes (1848–1894) Does early work on comparative psychology but his conclusions are supported only by anecdotal evidence. Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849–1936) Receives the 1904 Nobel Prize for his research on digestion, during which he discovers the conditioned reflex. Believes the conditioned reflex provides an objective, physiological explanation for what psychologists and philosophers had called associationism. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) Publishes On Memory: An Investigation in Experimental Psychology in 1885, marking the first time learning and memory are studied experimentally. Hans Vaihinger (1852–1933) Argues that acting “as if” certain fallacious concepts are true is essential for societal living (for example, the concept of free will). Conwy Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) Argues that in explaining animal behavior one should not postulate faculties beyond those that are required to explain the behavior in question (Morgan’s canon). Emil Kraeplin (1856–1926) Publishes a list of mental disorders in 1883 that was so thorough it was utilized worldwide until recent times.

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Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) With Joseph Breuer (1842– 1925), publishes Studies on Hysteria in 1895, thereby founding the school of psychoanalysis. Alfred Binet (1857–1911) With Theodore Simon (1873– 1961), publishes the Binet-Simon scale of intelligence in 1905. The scale was revised in 1908 and again in 1911. Vladimir M. Bechterev (1857–1927) Argues that human behavior is reflexive and that it can be and should be studied and explained without reference to consciousness. Anticipates many of the features of Watsonian behaviorism. Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) Proposes a pure phenomenology that describes all the mental processes available to humans in their efforts to understand the world. John Dewey (1859–1952) Publishes “The Reflex Arc in Psychology” in 1896, which is often viewed as marking the beginning of the school of functionalism. James McKeen Cattell (1860–1944) Uses the term “mental test” in 1890 and is a key figure in the school of functionalism and in the development of applied psychology. Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916) Replaces William James as director of the Harvard Psychology Laboratory in 1892. Makes significant contributions to such applied areas as clinical, forensic, and industrial psychology. Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) Does pioneering research on memory and creates an influential version of self psychology. In 1905 becomes the first woman president of the APA. Charles Spearman (1863–1945) Does pioneer work on the statistical technique later called factor analysis. Argues that intelligence consists of two factors: Specific abilities (s) and general intelligence (g), and that g is mostly inherited. Henry Herbert Goddard (1866–1957) Translates the BinetSimon scale into English but unlike Binet concludes that intelligence is largely inherited and therefore the feebleminded should be discouraged from reproducing. Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927) Founds the school of structuralism that seeks to describe the basic elements of thought and to explain how those elements combine in accordance with the laws of associationism. Lightner Witmer (1867–1956) Establishes the first psychological clinic in 1896. In 1907 founds the journal The Psychological Clinic, and coins the term “clinical psychology” in its first issue. Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869–1962) A key functionalist at Columbia University, promotes dynamic psychology with an emphasis on motivation. Alfred Adler (1870–1937) Following the termination of his affiliation with Freud, goes on to develop his own theory of personality featuring such concepts as feelings of inferiority, worldviews, fictional goals, lifestyles, and the creative self.

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William Stern (1871–1938) Introduces the term mental age (determined by performance on the Binet-Simon test) and suggests mental age (MA) be divided by chronological age (CA), yielding the intelligence quotient (IQ). William McDougall (1871–1938) Defines psychology as the science of behavior as early as 1905. Focuses on purposive behavior that is instinctive and has perceptual and emotional components. Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) In 1894 becomes the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology. In 1908 publishes The Animal Mind. In 1921 becomes the second woman president of the APA (Calkins was first). Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) A transitional figure between functionalism and behaviorism. Experimentally studies trial and error learning and attempts to explain that learning without reference to consciousness. Along with Woodworth tests the claims of the “mental muscle” approach to education and finds them to be incorrect. Carl Jung (1875–1961) Following the termination of his affiliation with Freud in 1914, goes on to create his own theory of personality featuring powerful, inherited dispositions (archetypes) that develop throughout human evolution. Robert Yerkes (1876–1956) Is largely responsible for creating the Army testing program during World War I and for supporting the argument that many of the nation’s ills are caused by people of low intelligence, thus agreeing with Goddard and Terman. Lewis Madison Terman (1877–1956) Significantly modifies the Binet-Simon scale, thus creating the Stanford-Binet scale that was used to identify gifted children for further study. The first results of Terman’s study of gifted children were published as Genetic Studies of Genius in 1926 and the study continues to the present. John Broadus Watson (1878–1958) Publishes “Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It” in 1913, thereby founding the school of behaviorism. ■ 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first experimental

psychology laboratory. Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) Publishes “Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement” in 1912, thereby founding the school of Gestalt psychology. Ludwig Binswanger (1881–1966) Integrates psychoanalytic theory and the writings of Husserl and Heidegger. Clark Leonard Hull (1884–1952) Creates a hypotheticodeductive theory of learning that he believes to be self-correcting. Most of the intervening variables in this theory are physiological. Karen Horney (1885–1952) Creates a version of psychoanalysis in which dysfunctional social relationships are seen as the causes of mental disorders instead of the intrapsyche conflict proposed by Freud. In 1923 begins writing a series of

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articles of special relevance to women. Publishes Self-Analysis in 1942, which is considered one of psychology’s first selfhelp books. Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) Does pioneering work in the education of exceptional children. Her Gifted Children (1926) becomes a standard text in schools of education. Edward Chace Tolman (1886–1959) Publishes Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men in 1932, in which learning is explained primarily in terms of cognitive processes. Edwin Ray Gunthrie (1886–1959) Creates a highly parsimonious theory of learning that embraces the law of contiguity but rejects the law of frequency. Frederick Charles Bartlett (1886–1969) Publishes Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology in 1932. ■ 1894 The journal The Psychological Review was founded by James McKeen Cattell and James Mark Baldwin. Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) Introduces into psychology such existential concepts as Dasein, authenticity, and thrownness. Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) Applies Gestalt principles to such topics as personality, motivation, conflict, and group dynamics. Karl S. Lashley (1890–1958) Summarizes his research on brain functioning in his 1929 APA presidential address. Publishes Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence also in 1929. Percy W. Bridgman (1892–1961) Publishes The Logic of Modern Physics in 1927, in which he proposes that abstract concepts be operationally defined. Norbert Wiener (1894–1964) Publishes Cybernetics in 1948. Anna Freud (1895–1982) Extends psychoanalytic principles to the treatment and understanding of children, makes significant contributions to the development of ego psychology, and becomes the official spokesperson for psychoanalysis following her father’s death. Jean Piaget (1896–1980) In 1926 begins publishing an influential series of articles and books on intellectual development (genetic epistemology). Carl Rogers (1902–1987) Publishes Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice in 1942, creating what many consider the first viable alternative to psychoanalysis. Creates a theory of personality featuring such concepts as the organismic valuing process, need for positive regard, conditions of worth, unconditional positive regard, and incongruency. Karl Popper (1902–1994) Publishes The Logic of Scientific Discovery in 1935. ■ 1904 Edward Titchener founds “The Experimentalists.” Donald Hebb (1904–1985) Publishes The Organization of Behavior in 1949, which describes his speculations about cell

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assemblies and phase sequences and does much to promote cognitive and physiological psychology.

■ 1956 Jerome Bruner, Jacqueline Goodnow, and George

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990) Proposes a positivistic theory of behavior that avoids theory by concentrating on how behavior is modified by its consequences.

■ 1956 George Miller publishes “The Magical Number

George Kelly (1905–1967) Creates a largely existential theory of personality according to which people create construct systems to facilitate the accurate anticipation of future events; so-called mental disorders are actually perceptual problems and therefore the therapist’s job is to help clients perceive life differently.

■ 1958 Allen Newell, J. C. Shaw, and Herbert Simon mark

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) Is usually considered the founder of humanistic (third-force) psychology. Creates a theory of personality featuring a hierarchy of needs ranging from physiological needs to self-actualization. Rollo May (1909–1994) Introduces existential philosophy and psychology into the U.S. Roger Wolcott Sperry (1913–1994) In the 1950s, begins an influential series of experiments on hemispheric functioning using the split-brain preparation. ■ 1917 G. Stanley Hall founds the Journal of Applied

Psychology. ■ 1917 The American Association of Clinical Psycholo-

gists (AACP) is founded. ■ 1919 APA creates the Division of Clinical Psychology. ■ 1929 Edwin G. Boring (1886–1968) publishes A History

of Experimental Psychology. ■ 1941 APA removes the requirement that for full mem-

bership in the organization an applicant must have published research beyond the PhD dissertation. ■ 1943 Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts anticipate

new connectionism by speculating about “neuro-logical networks.” ■ 1944 APA reorganizes itself into 18 divisions. ■ 1946 APA first publishes the American Psychologist. ■ 1946 Veterans Administration (VA) funds training pro-

grams for clinical psychologists whose functions would include psychotherapy. ■ 1949 Boulder Conference on Training in Clinical Psy-

chology endorses the scientist-practitioner model. ■ 1949 Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver publish The

Mathematical Theory of Communication thereby creating information theory.

Austin publish A Study in Thinking. Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information.” the transition between artificial intelligence and information-processing psychology with their article “Elements of a Theory of Problem Solving.” ■ 1958 Frank Rosenblatt describes an early neural network. ■ 1959 The Psychonomic Society is founded. ■ 1959 Noam Chomsky publishes his review of Skinner’s

Verbal Learning (1957). ■ 1960 Donald Hebb publishes his 1959 APA presidential

address “The American Revolution” in which he argues that the rigorous scientific methods employed by the behaviorists be applied to the study of cognitive processes. ■ 1960 George Miller and Jerome Bruner create the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard. ■ 1960 Robert I. Watson (1909–1980) publishes “The History of Psychology: A Neglected Area.” ■ 1961 Marian and Keller Breland publish “The Misbehavior of Organisms.” ■ 1962 Thomas Kuhn publishes The Structure of Scientific

Revolutions. ■ 1967 Ulric Neisser publishes Cognitive Psychology. ■ 1968 University of Illinois offers the first Doctor of Psychology Degree (PsyD). ■ 1969 California School of Professional Psychology (CSPP) is founded. Offers the PsyD independently of any college or university. ■ 1969 Journal of Cognitive Psychology is founded. ■ 1969 Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert criticize neural

networks thereby significantly reducing interest in them. ■ 1973 Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, and Niko Tinber-

gen share the Nobel Prize in biology for their work in ethology. ■ 1973 Vail Conference on Training in Clinical Psychology

endorses freestanding professional schools and the PsyD. ■ 1975 Edward Wilson publishes Sociobiology: The New

Synthesis thereby creating the field of sociobiology. ■ 1976 Ulric Neisser publishes Cognition and Reality.

■ 1950 Edwin G. Boring publishes the second edition of

■ 1977 Albert Bandura publishes Social Learning Theory.

A History of Experimental Psychology.

■ 1980 John Searle presents his “Chinese Room” rebuttal

■ 1950 Alan Turing (1912–1954) creates the field of artifi-

to proponents of strong artificial intelligence.

cial intelligence with his article “Computing Machinery and Intelligence.”

■ 1981 Roger Sperry shares the Nobel Prize in medicine/

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physiology with David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel for his

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work on hemispheric specialization using his split-brain preparation. ■ 1984 Gregory Kimble publishes “Psychology’s Two Cultures.” ■ 1986 David Rumelhart, James McClelland, and other members of the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) group publish Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. ■ 1986 Albert Bandura publishes Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.

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■ 1988 American Psychological Society (APS) is founded. ■ 1994 Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray publish

The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life which rekindled many of the old scientific, moral, and political debates concerning the nature of intelligence. ■ 2000 The number of members and affiliates of the APA exceeds 159,000.

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