Basic Lab Procedures in Clinical Bacteriology

Basic laboratory procedures in clinical bacteriology

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Basic laboratory procedures in clinical bacteriology Second edition J. Vandepitte and J. Verhaegen Department of Microbiology St Rafaël Academic Hospital Leuven, Belgium

K. Engbaek Department of Clinical Microbiology University of Copenhagen Herlev Hospital Herlev, Denmark

P. Rohner Department of Clinical Microbiology Cantonal University Hospital Geneva, Switzerland

P. Piot Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS Geneva, Switzerland

C. C. Heuck World Health Organization Geneva, Switzerland

World Health Organization Geneva 2003

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WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Basic laboratory procedures in clinical bacteriology / J. Vandepitte . . . [et al.].—2nd ed. 1.Bacteriological techniques—standards 2.Laboratory techniques and procedures standards 3.Manuals I.Vandepitte, J. ISBN 92 4 154545 3

(NLM classification: QY 100)

© World Health Organization 2003 All rights reserved. Publications of the World Health Organization can be obtained from Marketing and Dissemination, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland (tel: +41 22 791 2476; fax: +41 22 791 4857; email: [email protected]). Requests for permission to reproduce or translate WHO publications–whether for sale or for noncommercial distribution–should be addressed to Publications, at the above address (fax: +41 22 791 4806; email: [email protected]). The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers’ products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. The World Health Organization does not warrant that the information contained in this publication is complete and correct and shall not be liable for any damages incurred as a result of its use. The named authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this publication. Typeset in Hong Kong Printed in Singapore 2001/13712—SNPBest-set/SNPSprint—6000

Contents Preface

viii

Introduction

1

Quality assurance in bacteriology

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Introduction Definitions Internal quality control External quality assessment

2 2 6 16

PART I Bacteriological investigations

19

Blood

20

Introduction When and where bacteraemia may occur Blood collection Blood-culture media Processing of blood cultures Cerebrospinal fluid Introduction Collection and transportation of specimens Macroscopic inspection Microscopic examination Preliminary identification Susceptibility testing Urine Introduction Specimen collection Culture and interpretation Interpretation of quantitative urine culture results Identification Susceptibility tests Stool Introduction Etiological agents and clinical features Appropriate use of laboratory resources Collection and transport of stool specimens Visual examination of stool specimens Enrichment and inoculation of stool specimens Media for enteric pathogens Primary isolation Preliminary identification of isolates v

20 20 20 22 23 25 25 25 26 26 28 29 30 30 30 32 34 35 36 37 37 37 39 40 41 41 42 42 44

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CONTENTS

Final microbiological identification Serological identification Upper respiratory tract infections Introduction Normal flora of the pharynx Bacterial agents of pharyngitis Collection and dispatch of specimens Direct microscopy Culture and identification Susceptibility testing Lower respiratory tract infections Introduction The most common infections Collection of sputum specimens Processing of sputum in the laboratory (for non-tuberculous infections) Culture for Mycobacterium tuberculosis Interpretation of cultures for M. tuberculosis General note on safety Sexually transmitted diseases Introduction Urethritis in men Genital specimens from women Specimens from genital ulcers Purulent exudates, wounds and abscesses Introduction Commonly encountered clinical conditions and the most frequent etiological agents Collection and transportation of specimens Macroscopic evaluation Microscopic examination Culture Identification Susceptibility testing Anaerobic bacteriology Introduction Description of bacteria in relation to oxygen requirement Bacteriology Antimicrobial susceptibility testing Introduction General principles of antimicrobial susceptibility testing Clinical definition of terms “resistant” and “susceptible”: the three category system Indications for routine susceptibility tests

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50 54 60 60 60 61 62 62 63 65 66 66 66 68 68 72 74 74 76 76 77 79 82 86 86 86 89 90 91 92 93 97 98 98 98 98 103 103 103 104 106

CONTENTS

Choice of drugs for routine susceptibility tests in the clinical laboratory The modified Kirby–Bauer method Direct versus indirect susceptibility tests Technical factors influencing the size of the zone in the disc-diffusion method Quality control Serological tests

107 109 117 118 120 122

Introduction Quality control measures Serological reactions Serological tests for syphilis Febrile agglutinins tests Antistreptolysin O test Bacterial antigen tests

122 122 125 126 133 135 137

PART II Essential media and reagents

141

Introduction

142

Pathogens, media and diagnostic reagents

143

Blood Cerebrospinal fluid Urine Stool Upper respiratory tract Lower respiratory tract Urogenital specimens for exclusion of sexually transmitted diseases Pus and exudates List of recommended media and diagnostic reagents for the intermediate microbiological laboratory

144 144 145 146 147 148 149 149 150

Selected further reading

154

Index

155

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Introduction Communicable diseases continue to account for an unduly high proportion of the health budgets of developing countries. According to The world health report,1 acute diarrhoea is responsible for as many as 2.2 million deaths annually. Acute respiratory infections (primarily pneumonia) are another important cause of death, resulting in an estimated 4 million deaths each year. Analysis of data on lung aspirates appears to indicate that, in developing countries, bacteria such as Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae, rather than viruses, are the predominant pathogens in childhood pneumonia. b-Lactamase-producing H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae with decreased sensitivity to benzylpenicillin have appeared in different parts of the world, making the surveillance of these pathogens increasingly important. Sexually transmitted diseases are on the increase. There are still threats of epidemics and pandemics of viral or bacterial origin, made more likely by inadequate epidemiological surveillance and deficient preventive measures. To prevent and control the main bacterial diseases, there is a need to develop simple tools for use in epidemiological surveillance and disease monitoring, as well as simplified and reliable diagnostic techniques. To meet the challenge that this situation represents, the health laboratory services must be based on a network of laboratories carrying out microbiological diagnostic work for health centres, hospital doctors, and epidemiologists. The complexity of the work will increase from the peripheral to the intermediate and central laboratories. Only in this way will it be possible to gather, quickly enough, sufficient relevant information to improve surveillance, and permit the early recognition of epidemics or unusual infections and the development, application, and evaluation of specific intervention measures.

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The world health report 2000. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2000.

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Quality assurance in bacteriology Introduction Quality assurance programmes are an efficient way of maintaining the standards of performance of diagnostic laboratories, and of upgrading those standards where necessary. In microbiology, quality goes beyond technical perfection to take into account the speed, cost, and usefulness or clinical relevance of the test. Laboratory tests in general are expensive and, with progress in medicine, they tend to use up an increasing proportion of the health budget.

Definitions To be of good quality, a diagnostic test must be clinically relevant, i.e. it must help in the prevention or treatment of disease. Other measures of quality in a diagnostic test are: • Reliability: Is the result correct? • Reproducibility: Is the same result obtained when the test is repeated? • Speed: Is the test rapid enough to be of use to the doctor in prescribing treatment? • Cost–benefit ratio: Is the cost of the test reasonable in relation to the benefit to the patient and the community?

Factors that affect the reliability and reproducibility of laboratory results Sources of error may include the following: • Personnel. The performance of the laboratory worker or technician is directly related to the quality of education and training received, the person’s experience, and the conditions of employment. • Environmental factors. Inadequate working space, lighting, or ventilation, extreme temperatures, excessive noise levels, or unsafe working conditions may affect results. • Specimens. The method and time of sampling and the source of the specimen are often outside the direct control of the laboratory, but have a direct bearing on the ability of the laboratory to achieve reliable results. Other factors that the laboratory can control and that affect quality are the transport, identification, storage, and preparation (processing) of specimens. The laboratory therefore has a role in educating those taking and transporting specimens. Written instructions should be made available and regularly reviewed with the clinical and nursing staff. • Laboratory materials. The quality of reagents, chemicals, glassware, stains, culture media, and laboratory animals all influence the reliability of test results. • Test method. Some methods are more reliable than others. • Equipment. Lack of equipment or the use of substandard or poorly maintained instruments will give unreliable results. • Examination and reading. Hurried reading of results, or failure to examine a sufficient number of microscope fields, can cause errors. • Reporting. Transcription errors, or incomplete reports, cause problems.

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Quality of interpretation of test results Interpretation is of particular importance in microbiology. At each stage in the examination of a specimen, the results should be interpreted in order to select the optimum test, in terms of speed and reliability, for the next stage of the examination.

Quality assurance in the microbiology laboratory Quality assurance is the sum of all those activities in which the laboratory is engaged to ensure that test results are of good quality. It must be: — comprehensive: to cover every step in the cycle from collecting the specimen to sending the final report to the doctor (Fig. 1); — rational: to concentrate on the most critical steps in the cycle; — regular: to provide continuous monitoring of test procedures; — frequent: to detect and correct errors as they occur. GOOD-QUALITY LABORATORY SERVICES MEAN GOOD-QUALITY MEDICINE Quality assurance helps to ensure that expensive tests are used as economically as possible; it also determines whether new tests are valid or worthless, improves the performance of clinical and public health laboratories, and may help to make the results obtained in different laboratories comparable.

Types of quality assurance There are two types of quality assurance: internal and external. • Internal. This is called QUALITY CONTROL. Each laboratory has a programme to check the quality of its own tests.

Fig. 1. Steps in laboratory investigation of an infected patient

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Internal quality control involves, ideally: — continuous monitoring of test quality; — comprehensive checking of all steps, from collecting the specimen (whenever possible) to sending the final report. Laboratories have an ethical responsibility to the patient to produce accurate, meaningful results.

INTERNAL QUALITY CONTROL IS ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL FOR GOOD OPERATING PROCEDURE

• External. This is called QUALITY ASSESSMENT. Laboratory performance is controlled by an external agency. In some countries, participation is mandatory (regulated by the government) and required for licensure. External quality assessment involves: — periodic monitoring of test quality; — spot checking of identification tests, and sometimes of isolation techniques.

Quality criteria in microbiology Clinical relevance An important criterion of quality for a microbiological test is how much it contributes to the prevention or cure of infectious diseases; this is called its clinical relevance. Clinical relevance can only be ensured when there is good communication between the clinician and the laboratory. To illustrate clinical relevance, here are some examples: 1. If a few colonies of Gram-negative rods are isolated from the sputum or throat swab of a hospitalized patient, further identification and an antibiogram are of no clinical relevance, since neither procedure will have any effect on treatment of the patient. 2. If Streptococcus pyogenes is isolated, a full antibiogram has no clinical relevance, since benzylpenicillin is the drug of choice, and this is always active in vitro. 3. If Escherichia coli is isolated from a sporadic case of non-bloody diarrhoea, identification of the serotype is of no clinical relevance, since there is no clearly established correlation between serotype and pathogenicity. 4. If a Gram-stained smear shows “mixed anaerobic flora”, routine identification of the anaerobes is of no clinical relevance. It would be costly in time and materials, and would not affect treatment of the patient. 5. If a yeast is isolated from a respiratory tract specimen, an identification test for Cryptococcus should be done. Further identification tests have no clinical relevance, since they would have no effect on patient management.

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In summary, a test of good quality is one that is accurate and gives useful results for the prevention or cure of infection. It is not necessary to isolate and identify all the different types of organism in the sample.

Reliability For tests that give quantitative results, reliability is measured by how close the results are to the true value. Some examples of tests of this kind are: — antibiotic assay of serum; — measurement of minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of antibiotics in vitro; — serum antibody titrations. For tests that give qualitative results, reliability is measured by whether the result is correct. Some examples of tests of this kind are: — identification of pathogens; — antibiotic susceptibility testing of isolates by the disc method. Standard terminology for microorganisms is essential to reliability. Internationally recognized nomenclature should always be used. For example: Staphylococcus aureus, NOT “pathogenic staphylococci”; Streptococcus pyogenes, NOT “haemolytic streptococci”. Use of uniform, approved methods is essential. For example, disc susceptibility tests should be performed with an internationally recognized technique, such as the modified Kirby–Bauer test (page 109).

Reproducibility The reproducibility or precision of a microbiological test is reduced by two things: 1. Lack of homogeneity. A single sample from a patient may contain more than one organism. Repeat culturing may therefore isolate different organisms. 2. Lack of stability. As time passes, the microorganisms in a specimen multiply or die at different rates. Repeat culturing may therefore isolate different organisms. To improve precision, therefore, specimens should be tested as soon as possible after collection.

Efficiency The efficiency of a microbiological test is its ability to give the correct diagnosis of a pathogen or a pathological condition. This is measured by two criteria: 1. Diagnostic sensitivity Sensitivity =

total number of positive results total number of infected patients

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BASIC LABORATORY PROCEDURES IN CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY

For example, the sensitivity of MacConkey agar is poor for the isolation of Salmonella typhi from stool. This important enteric pathogen is often missed because of overgrowth by nonpathogenic intestinal bacteria. 2. Diagnostic specificity Specificity =

total number of negative results total number of unifected patients

The greater the specificity of a test, the fewer the number of false-positive results. For example: • • •

Ziehl–Neelsen staining of sputum is highly specific for diagnosing tuberculosis, because it gives only a few false-positive results. Ziehl–Neelsen staining of urine is much less specific, because it gives many false-positive results (as a result of atypical mycobacteria). The Widal test has a very low specificity for the diagnosis of typhoid fever, because cross-agglutinating antibodies remaining from past infections with related salmonella serotypes give false-positive results.

The sensitivity and specificity of a test are interrelated. By lowering the level of discrimination, the sensitivity of a test can be increased at the cost of reducing its specificity, and vice versa. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of a test are also related to the prevalence of the given infection in the population under investigation.

Internal quality control Requirements An internal quality control programme should be practical, realistic, and economical. An internal quality control programme should not attempt to evaluate every procedure, reagent, and culture medium on every working day. It should evaluate each procedure, reagent, and culture medium according to a practical schedule, based on the importance of each item to the quality of the test as a whole.

Procedures Internal quality control begins with proper laboratory operation.

Laboratory operations manual Each laboratory should have an operations manual that includes the following subjects: — — — — — 6

cleaning of the working space, personal hygiene, safety precautions, designated eating and smoking areas located outside the laboratory, handling and disposal of infected material,

QUALITY ASSURANCE IN BACTERIOLOGY

— — — — — — — —

appropriate vaccinations for workers, e.g. hepatitis B, care of equipment, collection of specimens, registration of specimens, elimination of unsuitable specimens, processing of specimens, recording of results, reporting of results.

The operations manual should be carefully followed, and regularly revised and updated.

Care of equipment It is particularly important to take good care of laboratory equipment. Good quality tests cannot be performed if the equipment used is either of poor quality or poorly maintained. Table 1 is a schedule for the routine care and maintenance of essential equipment. Equipment operating temperatures may be recorded on a form such as the one shown in Fig. 2.

Culture media Culture media may be prepared in the laboratory from the basic ingredients or from commercially available dehydrated powders, or they may be purchased ready for use. Commercial dehydrated powders are recommended because they are economical to transport and store, and their quality is likely to be higher than media prepared in the laboratory. For best results, careful attention is required to the points itemized below.

Selection of media An efficient laboratory stocks the smallest possible range of media consistent with the types of test performed. For example, a good agar base can be used as an all-purpose medium for preparing blood agar, chocolate agar, and several selective media. One highly selective medium (Salmonella–Shigella agar or deoxycholate citrate agar) and one less selective medium (MacConkey agar) are necessary for the isolation of pathogenic Enterobacteriaceae from stools. A special culture medium should be added for the recovery of Campylobacter spp.

Ordering and storage of dehydrated media 1. Order quantities that will be used up in 6 months, or at most 1 year. 2. The overall quantity should be packed in containers that will be used up in 1–2 months. 3. On receipt, tighten caps of all containers securely. Dehydrated media absorb water from the atmosphere. In a humid climate, seal the tops of containers of dehydrated media with paraffin wax (fill the space between the lid and container with molten wax, and let it harden). 7

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Table 1. Quality control of equipment Equipment

Routine care

Monitoring

Anaerobic jar

Clean inside of jar each week Reactivate catalyst after each run (160 ∞C, 2 h) Replace catalyst every 3 months

Use methylene blue indicator strip with each run Note and record decolorization time of indicator each week

Inspect gasket sealing in the lid weekly

Autoclave

Clean and change water monthly

Check and adjust water level before each run Record time and temperature or pressure for each run Record performance with spore-strips weekly

Every 6 months

Centrifuge

Wipe inner walls with antiseptic solution weekly or after breakage of glass tubes or spillage

Hot-air oven for sterilization of glassware

Clean inside monthly

Record time and temperature for each run

Every 6 months

Incubator

Clean inside walls and shelves monthly

Record temperature at the start of each working day (allowance 35 ± 1 ∞C)

Every 6 months

Microscope

Wipe lenses with tissue or lens paper after each day’s work Clean and lubricate mechanical stage weekly Protect with dust cover when not in use

Check alignment of condenser monthly Place a dish of blue silica with the microscope under the dust cover to prevent fungal growth in humid climates

Annually

Refrigerator

Clean and defrost every 2 months and after power failure

Record temperature every morning (allowance 2–8 ∞C)

Every 6 months

Water-bath

Wipe inside walls and change water monthly

Check water level daily Record temperature on first day of each week (allowance 55–57 ∞C)

Every 6 months

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Technical maintenance and inspection

Replace brushes annually

Write the date of receipt on each container. Store in a dark, cool, well-ventilated place. Rotate the stock so that the older materials are used first. When a container is opened, write the date of opening on it. Discard all dehydrated media that are either caked or darkened. Keep written records of media in stock.

Preparation of media 1. Follow strictly the manufacturer’s instructions for preparation. 2. Prepare a quantity that will be used up before the shelf-life expires (see below). 8

Fig. 2. Record of equipment operating temperature

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Storage of prepared media 1. Protect against sunlight. 2. Protect against heat. Media containing blood, other organic additives, or antibiotics should be stored in the refrigerator. 3. The shelf-life of prepared media, when stored in a cool, dark place, will depend on the type of container used. Typical shelf-lives are: — tubes with cotton-wool plugs, 3 weeks; — tubes with loose caps, 2 weeks; — containers with screw-caps, 3 months; — Petri dishes, if sealed in plastic bags, 4 weeks.

Quality control of prepared media 1. pH testing. The pH of the prepared medium need not be checked routinely when it is correctly prepared from dehydrated powder. If the medium is prepared from basic ingredients, it should be allowed to cool before the pH is tested. Solid media should be tested with a surface electrode or after maceration in distilled water. If the pH differs by more than 0.2 units from the specification, adjust with acid or alkali or prepare a new batch. 2. Sterility testing. Carry out routine sterility tests on media to which blood or other components have been added after autoclaving. Take 3–5% of each batch and incubate at 35 ∞C for 2 days. Refrigerate the rest. If more than two colonies per plate are seen, discard the whole batch. 3. Performance testing. The laboratory should keep a set of stock strains for monitoring the performance of media. A suggested list of stock strains is give in Table 2. These strains can be obtained through routine work, or from commercial or official sources. Recommendations for the maintenance and use of stock strains are given on page 14. A list of performance tests for commonly used media is given in Table 3.

Table 2. Suggested stock strains for quality controla Gram-positive cocci Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212 or 33186) Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) Staphylococcus epidermidis Streptococcus agalactiae Streptococcus mitis Streptococcus pneumoniae Streptococcus pyogenes Gram-negative fastidious organisms Moraxella catarrhalis Haemophilus influenzae type b b-lactamase-negative b-lactamase-positive Haemophilus parainfluenzae Neisseria gonorrhoeae Neisseria meningitidis Anaerobes Bacteroides fragilis Clostridium perfringens a

Enterobacteriaceae Citrobacter freundii Enterobacter cloacae Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) Klebsiella pneumoniae Proteus mirabilis Salmonella typhimurium Serratia marcescens Shigella flexneri Yersinia enterocolitica Other Gram-negative rods Acinetobacter lwoffi Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853) Vibrio cholerae (non-01) Fungi Candida albicans

The strains most relevant to the needs of the laboratory should be selected.

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Table 3. Performance tests on commonly used media Medium Bile–aesculin agar

Incubation

Control organism

24 h

Enterococcus faecalis a-Haemolytic Streptococcus Streptococcus pyogenes S. pneumoniae Haemophilus influenzae

Growth and blackening No growth, with haemolysis

Shigella typhimurium Shigella flexneri S. typhimurium Klebsiella pneumoniae

Positive Negative Positive Negative

S. typhimurium Proteus mirabilis Escherichia coli Serratia marcescens

Positive Negative Negative Positive

E. coli P. mirabilis E. faecalis E. coli K. pneumoniae Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus epidermidis E. coli E. coli K. pneumoniae E. coli ATCC 25922 S. aureus ATCC 25923 Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 E. coli Acinetobacter lwoffi P. aeruginosa A. lwoffi E. coli K. pneumoniae E. coli P. mirabilis E. coli S. typhimurium Yersina enterocolitica S. flexneri S. typhimurium E. coli E. coli K. pneumoniae

Red colonies Colourless colonies (no swarming) No growth Negative (green) Positive (blue) Yellow colonies Rose colonies

Blood agar

24 h, CO2

Chocolate agar Decarboxylase (cover with sterile oil) — lysine

24 h, CO2

48 h

— ornithine

48 h

Dihydrolase — arginine

48 h

Gelatinase (rapid tests)

24 h

Kligler iron agar (see Triple sugar iron agar) MacConkey agar with crystal violet

24 h

Malonate broth

24 h

Mannitol salt agar

24 h

Methyl red/Voges–Proskauer

48 h

Mueller–Hinton agar

24 h

Nitrate broth

24 h

Oxidation/fermentation dextrose (without oil) Peptone water (indole)

24 h 24 h

Phenylalanine deaminase/ ferrichloride Salmonella–Shigella agar or deoxycholate citrate agar

24 h 24 h

Selenite broth

24 h

Simmons citrate agar (incubate with loose screw-cap)

48 h

Expected result

Growth and b-haemolysis Growth and a-haemolysis Growth

No growth Positive/negative Negative/positive Acceptable zone sizes (Table 24, p. 110)

Positive Negative Oxidation at the suface No change Positive Negative Negative Positive No growth Colourless colonies Colourless colonies Colourless colonies Growth after subculture No growth after subculture No growth Growth, blue colour

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Table 3 (continued) Medium Thiosulfate citrate bile salts agar Thayer–Martin agar

Incubation

Control organism

24 h

Vibrio spp. (nonagglutinating) Neisseria meningitidis Neisseria gonorrhoeae Staphylococcus spp. E. coli C. albicans Bacteroides fragilis Citrobacter freundii S. typhimurium S. flexneri A. lwoffi E. coli P. mirabilis

24 h, CO2

Thioglycollate broth Triple sugar iron agar (depth of butt should be at least 2.5 cm; incubate with loose screw-cap)

24 h 24 h

Urea medium

24 h

Expected result Yellow colonies Growth Growth No growth No growth No growth Growth A/A gasa + H2S K/A gasa + H2S K/A gasa No change Negative Positive (pink)

Voges–Proskauer (see Methyl red/Voges–Proskauer) a

A/A: acid slant; K/A: alkaline slant.

The procedures to be followed when carrying out performance tests on new batches of media are: 1. Prepare a suspension of the stock strain with a barely visible turbidity, equivalent to that of the barium sulfate standard used in the modified Kirby–Bauer method (McFarland 0.5) (see page 109) and use 1 loopful as inoculum. 2. Incubate for the length of time used routinely. Read the plates in the usual way. 3. Keep proper records of results.

Stains and reagents Recommendations for testing a number of reagents are given in Table 4. Testing should be carried out: — each time a new batch of working solution is prepared; — every week (this is critical for the cold Ziehl–Neelsen stain: the classical stain has a shelf-life of several months). Stains and reagents should be discarded when: — the manufacturer’s expiry date is reached; — visible signs of deterioration appear (turbidity, precipitate, discoloration).

Diagnostic antigens and antisera In order to obtain the best results from antigens and antisera: • Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions. • Store at the recommended temperature. Some serological reagents do not tolerate freezing. 12

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Table 4. Performance tests on commonly used reagents Reagent or stain

Species suitable for testing Positive

Medium

Negative

Bacitracin disc Catalase Coagulase plasma b-Glucuronidase (PGUA)a Gram stain ONPGb

S. pyogenes (zone) S. aureus S. aureus E. coli Staphylococcus spp E. coli

E. faecalis E. faecalis S. epidermidis K. pneumoniae E. coli S. typhimurium

Optochin disc Oxidase Tellurite disc

S. pneumoniae (zone) Pseudomonas aeruginosa E. faecalis (no zone)

V-factor (disc or strips) XV-factor (disc or strips) Ziehl–Neelsen stain

Haemophilus parainfluenzae H. influenzae Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Streptococcus mitis E. coli Streptococcus agalactiae (zone) Haemophilus influenzae Mixed non-acid-fast flora

Blood agar Tryptic soy agar Tryptic soy agar Tryptic soy agar Mixed in smear Triple sugar iron agar or Kligler iron agar Blood agar Tryptic soy agar Blood agar Tryptic soy agar Tryptic soy agar Sputum smear c

a

4-Nitrophenyl-b-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid. (PGUA) o-Nitrophenyl-b-D-galactopyranoside. c Prepare a number of smears from known positive and negative patients. Fix by heat, wrap individually in paper, and store in the refrigerator. b

• Avoid repeated freezing and thawing. Before freezing, divide antiserum into aliquot portions sufficient for a few tests. • Discard when the manufacturer’s expiry date is reached. • To test agglutinating antisera, always use fresh pure cultures of known reactivity. • Always include a serum control of known reactivity in each batch of tests. The serum may be from a patient, or from a commercial source. • If possible, the potency of the control serum should be expressed in International Units per millilitre. • Paired sera from the same patient, taken during the acute and convalescent phases of the disease, should be tested with the same batch of reagents. • For the serological diagnosis of syphilis, only nationally or internationally recognized procedures should be used. • Each batch of serological tests should include: — a negative serum (specificity control); — a weakly reactive serum (sensitivity control); — a strongly reactive serum (titration control), which should read within one dilution of its titre when last tested. • Always record all control serum titres.

Antibiotic susceptibility tests The routine use of the modified Kirby–Bauer method is recommended (page 109). To avoid errors, the following guidelines should be used: • Discs should be of correct diameter (6.35 mm). • Discs should be of correct potency (Table 24, page 110). • The stock supply should be stored frozen (-20 ∞C). 13

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• The working supply should be kept no longer than 1 month in a refrigerator (2–8 ∞C). • Only Mueller–Hinton agar of performance-tested quality should be used. • Correct pH (7.2–7.4) of the finished medium is essential for some antibiotics. • The inoculum should be standardized against the prescribed turbidity standard (page 111). • Zone sizes should be measured exactly. • Zone sizes should be interpreted by referring to a table of critical diameters. Zone diameters for each organism should fall within the limits given in Table 24 (page 110). • The three standard control strains are:1 — Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923; NCTC 6571); — Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922; NCTC 10418); — Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853; NCTC 10622). • Tests should be carried out with the three standard strains: — when a new batch of discs is put into use; — when a new batch of medium is put into use; — once a week, in parallel with the routine antibiograms. • Use the quality control chart shown in Fig. 16 (page 121) for recording and evaluating performance tests.

Maintenance and use of stock cultures Selection and origin Select the strains so that the maximum number of morphological, metabolic, and serological characteristics can be tested with the minimum number of cultures; a suggested list is given in Table 2. These strains can be obtained from a combination of the following sources: — — — — —

properly documented isolates from clinical specimens; official culture collections; commercial producers; external quality assessment surveys; reference laboratories.

Preservation

Long-term preservation Long-term preservation methods permit intervals of months or even years between subcultures. The best methods are lyophilization (freeze-drying), or storage at -70 ∞C or below, in an electric freezer or in liquid nitrogen. Alternative methods are described below. Glycerol at -20 ∞C 1. Grow a pure culture on an appropriate solid medium. 2. When the culture is fully developed, scrape it off with a loop. 3. Suspend small clumps of the culture in sterile neutral glycerol.

1

These strains can be obtained from: American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 10801 University Boulevard, Manassas, VA 20110, USA; or National Collection of Type Cultures (NCTC), PHLS Central Public Health Laboratory, 61 Colindale Avenue, London NW9 5HT, England.

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4. Distribute in quantities of 1–2 ml in screw-capped tubes or vials. 5. Store at -20 ∞C. Avoid repeated freezing and thawing. Transfer after 12–18 months. Mineral oil at room temperature1 1. Prepare tubes of heart infusion agar with a short slant. For fastidious organisms, add fresh native or heated blood. 2. Sterilize mineral oil (liquid petrolatum) in hot air (170 ∞C for 1 hour). 3. Grow a pure culture on the agar slant. 4. When good growth is seen, add sterile mineral oil to about 1 cm above the tip of the slant. 5. Subculture when needed by scraping growth from under the oil. 6. Store at room temperature. Transfer after 6–12 months. Stab cultures at room temperature (use for non-fastidious organisms only, such as staphylococci and Enterobacteriaceae) 1. Prepare tubes with a deep butt of carbohydrate-free agar. Tryptic soy agar (soybean casein digest agar) is recommended. 2. Stab the organism into the agar. 3. Incubate overnight at 35 ∞C. 4. Close tube with screw-cap or cork. Dip cap or cork into molten paraffin wax to seal. 5. Store at room temperature. Transfer after 1 year. Stab cultures in cystine trypticase agar (CTA) (for Neisseria and streptococci) 1. 2. 3. 4.

Prepare tubes of CTA basal medium. Stab the organism into the medium. Incubate overnight at 35 ∞C. Close tube with screw-cap or cork. Dip cap or cork into molten paraffin wax to seal. 5. For Neisseria, store at 35 ∞C, and transfer every 2 weeks. For streptococci, store at room temperature, and transfer every month. Cooked-meat medium for anaerobes 1. 2. 3. 4.

Inoculate tubes. Incubate overnight at 35 ∞C. Close tube with screw-cap or cork. Store at room temperature. Transfer every 2 months.

Short-term preservation Working cultures for daily routine tests can be prepared in the following ways. Rapid-growing organisms 1. Inoculate on tryptic soy agar slants in screw-capped tubes. 2. Incubate overnight at 35 ∞C. 3. Store in a refrigerator. Transfer every 2 weeks.

1 Morton HE, Pulaski EJ. The preservation of bacterial cultures. Journal of Bacteriology, 1938, 38:163–183.

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BASIC LABORATORY PROCEDURES IN CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY

Streptococci 1. Inoculate on blood agar slants in screw-capped tubes. 2. Incubate overnight at 35 ∞C. 3. Store in a refrigerator. Transfer every 2 weeks. Meningococci and Haemophilus 1. Inoculate on chocolate agar slants or plates. 2. Incubate overnight at 35 ∞C. 3. Store at room temperature. Transfer twice a week. Gonococci 1. Inoculate on chocolate agar. 2. Incubate and store at 35 ∞C. Transfer every 2 days. 3. Replace the quality control strain by each new clinical isolate.

Use of reference laboratories The following categories of specimen should be submitted to a regional or central reference laboratory: — specimens for infrequently requested or highly specialized tests (e.g. virology, serodiagnosis of parasitic infections); — occasional duplicate specimens, as a check on the submitting laboratory’s own results; — specimens needing further confirmation, specification, grouping, or typing of pathogens of great public health importance (e.g. Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Brucella, meningococci, and pneumococci). Reference laboratories should be able to supply reference cultures for quality control and training needs, and standard sera and reagents for comparison with those in use in the referring laboratory. If no external quality assessment programme exists, the reference laboratory should be asked to supply blind, coded specimens and cultures so that the referring laboratory may test its own proficiency in isolation and identification.

External quality assessment This section gives information on what is involved in participation in an external quality assessment scheme (sometimes known as a “proficiency testing scheme”).

Purposes The purposes of a quality assessment programme are: — to provide assurance to both physicians and the general public that laboratory diagnosis is of good quality; — to assess and compare the reliability of laboratory performance on a national scale; — to identify common errors; — to encourage the use of uniform procedures;

16

QUALITY ASSURANCE IN BACTERIOLOGY

— to encourage the use of standard reagents; — to take administrative measures (which may include revocation of the operating licence) against substandard laboratories; — to stimulate the implementation of internal quality control programmes.

Organization A quality assessment programme consists of a number of surveys in which coded specimens are distributed by mail to participating laboratories. These specimens should be incorporated into the laboratory routine, and handled and tested in exactly the same way as routine clinical specimens. The surveys should be conducted in accordance with the following recommendations: — surveys should be carried out at least 4 times a year; — a minimum of 3 specimens should be included in each survey; — the reporting period should be short, for example 2 weeks following receipt of the specimens; — instructions and report forms should be included with each survey and the report sheet should be in duplicate, with a clearly stated deadline.

Cultures Cultures should be included for identification and for susceptibility testing against a limited range of antibiotics; they may be pure cultures or mixtures of two or more cultures. Cultures should represent at least the first 3 of the following 6 categories: 1. Bacterial species that are of great public health potential, but which are not often seen in routine practice, for example Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Salmonella paratyphi A. NOTE: Brucella and Salmonella typhi should not be used for quality assessment schemes, since they may give rise to serious accidental infections. 2. Abnormal biotypes that are often misidentified, for example H2S-positive Escherichia coli, lactose-negative E. coli, urease-negative Proteus. 3. Newly recognized or opportunistic pathogens, for example Yersinia enterocolitica, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Burkholderia, Pseudomonas cepacia. 4. A mixture of Shigella, Citrobacter, E. coli, and Klebsiella may be used to test the skill of a laboratory in isolating pathogenic microorganisms from a number of commensal organisms. 5. A mixture of nonpathogenic organisms may be used to test for ability to recognize negative specimens. 6. Bacteria with special resistance patterns, for example meticillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA).

Sera Serological tests for the following infections should be part of an external quality assessment programme in bacteriology: — syphilis — rubella — brucellosis 17

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BASIC LABORATORY PROCEDURES IN CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY

— streptococcal infections — typhoid fever.

Rating and reporting of results As soon as all reports of results are received from participating, the correct answers should be sent to the laboratories. Within one month after that, a final report should be sent to the laboratories with an analysis of the results. A performance score is given to each laboratory. Each laboratory should have a code number known only to itself. Thus it can recognize its own performance in relation to others, but the other laboratories remain anonymous.

18

Part I Bacteriological investigations

A

Blood Introduction Blood is cultured to detect and identify bacteria or other cultivable microorganisms (yeasts, filamentous fungi). The presence of such organisms in the blood is called bacteraemia or fungaemia, and is usually pathological. In healthy subjects, the blood is sterile. However, there are a few exceptions: transient bacteraemia often occurs shortly after a tooth extraction or other dental or surgical manipulation of contaminated mucous membranes, bronchoscopy, or urethral catheterization. This type of transient bacteraemia is generally due to commensal bacteria and usually resolves spontaneously through phagocytosis of the bacteria in the liver and spleen. Septicaemia is a clinical term used to describe bacteraemia with clinical manifestations of a severe infection, including chills, fever, malaise, toxicity, and hypotension, the extreme form being shock. Shock can be caused by toxins produced by Gram-negative rods or Gram-positive cocci.

When and where bacteraemia may occur Bacteraemia is a feature of some infectious diseases, e.g. brucellosis, leptospirosis and typhoid fever. Persistent bacteraemia is a feature of endovascular infections, e.g. endocarditis, infected aneurysm and thrombophlebitis. Transient bacteraemia often accompanies localized infections such as arthritis, bed sores, cholecystitis, enterocolitis, meningitis, osteomyelitis, peritonitis, pneumonia, pyelonephritis, and traumatic or surgical wound infections. It can arise from various surgical manipulations, but usually resolves spontaneously in healthy subjects. Bacteraemia and fungaemia may result from the iatrogenic introduction of microorganisms by the intravenous route: through contaminated intravenous fluids, catheters, or needle-puncture sites. Both types of infection may develop in users of intravenous drugs and in immunosuppressed subjects, including those with human immunodeficiency virus/the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). They are often caused by “opportunistic” microorganisms and may have serious consequences. Table 5 shows the most common causes of bacteraemia or fungaemia.

Blood collection Timing of blood collection Whenever possible, blood should be taken before antibiotics are administered. The best time is when the patient is expected to have chills or a temperature spike. It is recommended that two or preferably three blood cultures be obtained, separated by intervals of approximately 1 hour (or less if treatment cannot be delayed). More than three blood cultures are rarely indicated. The advantages of repeated cultures are as follows: — the chance of missing a transient bacteraemia is reduced; — the pathogenic role of “saprophytic” isolates (e.g. Staphylococcus epidermidis) is confirmed if they are recovered from multiple venepunctures. 20

BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Table 5. Common causes of bacteraemia or fungaemia Gram-negative organisms

Gram-positive organisms

Escherichia coli Klebsiella spp. Enterobacter spp. Proteus spp. Salmonella typhi Salmonella spp. other than S. typhi Pseudomonas aeruginosa Neisseria meningitidis Haemophilus influenzae Bacteroides fragilis (anaerobe) Brucella spp. Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) pseudomallei (in certain areas)

Staphylococcus aureus S. epidermidis a-Haemolytic (viridans) streptococci Streptococcus pneumoniae E. faecalis (group D) S. pyogenes (group A) S. agalactiae (group B) Listeria monocytogenes Clostridium perfringens Peptostreptococcus spp. (anaerobes) Candida albicans and other yeastlike fungi (e.g. Cryptococcus neoformans)

It is important that blood specimens for culture are collected before initiating empirical antimicrobial therapy. If necessary, the choice of antimicrobial can be adjusted when the results of susceptibility tests become available.

Quantity of blood Because the number of bacteria per millilitre of blood is usually low, it is important to take a reasonable quantity of blood: 10 ml per venepuncture for adults; 2–5 ml may suffice for children, who usually have higher levels of bacteraemia; for infants and neonates, 1–2 ml is often the most that can be obtained. Two tubes should be used for each venepuncture: the first a vented tube for optimal recovery of strictly aerobic microorganisms, the second a non-vented tube for anaerobic culture.

Skin disinfection The skin at the venepuncture site must be meticulously prepared using a bactericidal disinfectant: 2% tincture of iodine, 10% polyvidone iodine, 70% alcohol, or 0.5% chlorhexidine in 70% alcohol. The disinfectant should be allowed to evaporate on the skin surface before blood is withdrawn. If tincture of iodine is used, it should be wiped off with 70% alcohol to avoid possible skin irritation. Even after careful skin preparation, some bacteria persist in the deeper skin layers and may gain access to the blood, e.g. S. epidermidis, Propionibacterium acnes, and even spores of Clostridium. Pseudobacteraemia (false-positive blood culture) may result from the use of contaminated antiseptic solutions, syringes, or needles. The repeated isolation of an unusual organism (e.g. Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia, Pantoea (Enterobacter) agglomerans, or Serratia spp.) in the same hospital must raise suspicion of a nosocomial infection and promote an investigation. Another source of contamination is contact of the needle with non-sterile vials (or solutions), if the same syringe is first used to provide blood for chemical analysis or measurement of the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. 21

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BLOOD

Anticoagulant The use of sodium polyanethol sulfonate (SPS) as an anticoagulant is recommended because it also inhibits the antibacterial effect of serum and phagocytes. If the blood is immediately added to a sufficient volume (50 ml) of broth and thoroughly mixed to prevent clotting, no anticoagulant is needed. It is recommended that blood-culture bottles be available at all hospitals and major health centres. If blood-culture bottles are not available, blood may be transported to the laboratory in a tube containing a sterile anticoagulant solution (citrate, heparin, or SPS). Upon receipt in the laboratory, such blood samples must be transferred immediately to blood-culture bottles using a strict aseptic technique. Where blood is taken without anticoagulant, the clot can be aseptically transferred to broth in the laboratory and the serum used for certain serological tests (e.g. Widal).

Blood-culture media Choice of broth medium The blood-culture broth and tryptic soy broth (TSB) should be able to support growth of all clinically significant bacteria.

Quantity of broth Ideally, the blood should be mixed with 10 times its volume of broth (5 ml of blood in 50 ml of broth) to dilute any antibiotic present and to reduce the bactericidal effect of human serum.

Blood-culture bottles Blood-culture bottles (125 ml) with a pre-perforated screw-cap and a rubber diaphragm must be used. Fill the bottle with 50 ml of medium and then loosen the screw-cap half a turn. Cover the cap with a square piece of aluminium foil, and autoclave the bottle for 20 minutes at 120 ∞C. Immediately after autoclaving, while the bottle and the medium are still hot, securely tighten the cap without removing the aluminium foil (otherwise the cap will not be sterile). As the medium cools, a partial vacuum will be created in the bottle, which will facilitate injection of a blood specimen through the diaphragm. The top of the cap must be carefully disinfected just before the bottle is inoculated. Prior to distribution and before use, all blood-culture bottles should be carefully examined for clarity. Any medium showing turbidity should not be used. If strictly aerobic bacteria (Pseudomonas, Neisseria) or yeasts are suspected, the bottle should be vented as soon as it is received in the laboratory, by inserting a sterile cotton-wool-plugged needle through the previously disinfected diaphragm. The needle can be removed once the pressure in the bottle reaches atmospheric pressure. Commercial blood-culture bottles often also contain carbon dioxide, which has a stimulating effect on growth.

22

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In countries where brucellosis is prevalent, the use of a diphasic blood-culture bottle, with a broth phase and a solid-slant phase on one of the flat surfaces of the bottle (Castaneda bottle), is recommended for the cultivation of Brucella spp. The presence of carbon dioxide is needed for the isolation of most strains of B. abortus.

Processing of blood cultures Incubation time Blood-culture bottles should be incubated at 35–37 ∞C and routinely inspected twice a day (at least for the first 3 days) for signs of microbial growth. A sterile culture usually shows a layer of sedimented red blood covered by a pale yellow transparent broth. Growth is evidenced by: — — — — — — —

a floccular deposit on top of the blood layer uniform or subsurface turbidity haemolysis coagulation of the broth a surface pellicle production of gas white grains on the surface or deep in the blood layer.

Whenever visible growth appears, the bottle should be opened aseptically, a small amount of broth removed with a sterile loop or Pasteur pipette, and a Gram-stained smear examined for the presence of microorganisms. Subcultures are performed by streaking a loopful on appropriate media: — for Gram-negative rods: MacConkey agar, Kligler iron agar, motilityindole–urease (MIU) medium, Simmons citrate agar; — for small Gram-negative rods: blood agar; — for staphylococci: blood agar, mannitol salt agar; — for streptococci: blood agar with optochin, bacitracin, and tellurite discs, sheep blood agar for the CAMP test, and bile–aesculin agar. For routine examinations, it is not necessary to incubate blood cultures beyond 7 days. In some cases, incubation may be prolonged for an additional 7 days, e.g. if Brucella or other fastidious organisms are suspected, in cases of endocarditis, or if the patient has received antimicrobials.

Blind subcultures and final processing Some microorganisms may grow without producing turbidity or visible alteration of the broth. Other organisms, e.g. pneumococci, tend to undergo autolysis and die very rapidly. For this reason some laboratories perform routine subcultures on chocolate agar after 18–24 hours of incubation. A blind subculture may be made at the end of 7 days of incubation, by transferring several drops of the well-mixed blood culture (using a sterile Pasteur pipette) into a tube of thioglycollate broth, which in turn is incubated and observed for 3 days.

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Antibiogram When staphylococci or Gram-negative rods are suspected, precious time can be saved by performing a direct, non-standardized antibiogram using the positive broth as an inoculum. A sterile swab is dipped into the turbid broth, excess fluid is expressed, and the swab is used to inoculate Mueller–Hinton medium as in the standard method (see page 110). A provisional reading can often be made after 6–8 hours of incubation. In 95% of cases the results obtained with this method are in agreement with the standardized test.

Contaminants Contamination of blood cultures can be avoided by meticulous skin preparation and by adherence to strict aseptic procedures for inoculation and subinoculation. However, even in ideal conditions, 3–5% of blood cultures grow “contaminants” originating from the skin (S. epidermidis, P. acnes, Clostridium spp., diphtheroids) or from the environment (Acinetobacter spp., Bacillus spp.). Such organisms, however, may occasionally behave as pathogens and even cause endocarditis. A true infection should be suspected in the following situations: — — — —

if the same organism grows in two bottles of the same blood specimen; if the same organism grows in cultures from more than one specimen; if growth is rapid (within 48 hours); if different isolates of one species show the same biotypes and antimicrobial-susceptibility profiles.

All culture results should be reported to the clinician, including the presumed contaminants. However, for the latter no antibiogram need be performed and appropriate mention should be made on the report slip, e.g. Propionibacterium acnes (skin commensal), Staphylococcus epidermidis (probable contaminant). It is to the advantage of all concerned to establish good communication between physicians and laboratory personnel. The identification of two or more agents may indicate polymicrobial bacteraemia, which can occur in debilitated patients, but may also be due to contamination. “Anaerobic” bacteraemia is often caused by multiple pathogens; for example, one or more anaerobes may be associated with one or more aerobes in severe fulminating bacteraemia associated with severe trauma or surgery involving the large intestine.

24

Cerebrospinal fluid Introduction The examination of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is an essential step in the diagnosis of bacterial and fungal meningitis and CSF must always be considered as a priority specimen that requires prompt attention by the laboratory staff. Normal CSF is sterile and clear, and usually contains three leukocytes or fewer per mm3 and no erythrocytes. The chemical and cytological composition of CSF is modified by meningeal or cerebral inflammation, i.e. meningitis or encephalitis. Only the microbiological examination of CSF will be discussed here, although the CSF leukocyte count is also of paramount importance. The most common causal agents of meningitis are listed in Table 6 according to the age of the patient, but it should be kept in mind that some overlap exists.

Collection and transportation of specimens Approximately 5–10 ml of CSF should be collected in two sterile tubes by lumbar or ventricular puncture performed by a physician. In view of the danger of iatrogenic bacterial meningitis, thorough disinfection of the skin is mandatory. Part of the CSF specimen will be used for cytological and chemical examination, and the remainder for the microbiological examination. The specimen should be delivered to the laboratory at once, and processed immediately, since cells disintegrate rapidly. Any delay may produce a cell count that does not reflect the clinical situation of the patient.

Table 6. Common causes of bacterial and fungal meningitis In neonates (from birth to 2 months) Escherichia coli Listeria monocytogenes Other Enterobacteriaceae: Salmonella spp., Citrobacter spp. Streptococcus agalactiae (group B) In all other age groups Haemophilus influenzae (capsular type b)a Neisseria meningitidis Streptococcus pneumoniae Mycobacterium tuberculosis Listeria monocytogenesb Cryptococcus neoformansb Staphylococcic a

Uncommon after the age of 5 years. In immunocompromised patients (including those with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)). c Associated with neurosurgery and postoperative drains. b

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Macroscopic inspection The appearance of the CSF should be noted and recorded as: clear, hazy, turbid, purulent, yellow (due to haemolysis or icterus), or blood-tinged, with fibrin web or pellicle.

Microscopic examination Preparation of specimen If, on gross examination, the CSF is purulent (very cloudy), it can be examined immediately without centrifugation. In all other cases, the CSF should be centrifuged in a sterile tube (preferably a 15-ml conical tube with screwcap) at 10000 g for 5–10 minutes. Remove the supernatant using a sterile Pasteur pipette fitted with a rubber bulb, and transfer it to another tube for chemical and/or serological tests. Use the sediment for further microbiological tests.

Direct microscopy Examine one drop of the sediment microscopically (¥400), between a slide and coverslip, for: — — — —

leukocytes (polymorphonuclear neutrophils or lymphocytes) erythrocytes bacteria yeasts.

If the yeast-like fungus Cryptococcus neoformans is suspected, mix a loopful of the sediment with a loopful of India ink on a slide, place a coverslip on top, and examine microscopically for the typical, encapsulated, spherical, budding yeast forms. In areas where African trypanosomiasis occurs, it will also be necessary to search carefully for actively motile, flagellated trypanosomes. A rare and generally fatal type of meningitis is caused by free-living amoebae found in water (Naegleria fowleri) which enter through the nose and penetrate the central nervous system. They may be seen in the direct wet preparation as active motile amoebae about the size of neutrophilic leukocytes.

Gram-stained smears As the causative agent of bacterial meningitis may often be observed in a Gram-stained smear, this examination is extremely important. Air-dry the smear, fix with gentle heat, and stain it by Gram’s method. Examine at ¥1000 (oil-immersion) for at least 10 minutes, or until bacteria are found. Table 7 lists important diagnostic findings that are associated with different forms of meningitis.

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BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Table 7. Cerebrospinal fluid findings associated with meningitis Observation

Type of meningitis Bacterial

Tuberculous

Fungal

Viral (“aseptic”)

Elevated leukocyte count

Segmented polymorphonuclear neutrophils

Mononuclear (young neutrophils)

Mononuclear

Mononuclear

Glucose

Very low: 0.28–1.1 mmol/l

Low: 1.1–2.2 mmol/l

Low: 1.1–2.2 mmol/l

Normal: 3.6–3.9 mmol/l

Protein

Elevated

Elevated

Elevated

Slightly elevated in early stage of infection

Stained smear

Bacteria usually seen (Gram)

Rarely positive (acid-fast)

Usually positive (India ink)

Negative

Table 8. Choice of culture media for CSF specimens according to the results of the Gram smeara Observation

Gram-negative rods In neonates

In other ages

Blood agarb

+

+

Blood agar with S. aureus streakb Chocolate agar MacConkey agar Tryptic soy broth

+

+

+ +

(+) + +

Gram-positive cocci

Gram-negative cocci

Gram-positive rods

No organisms seen

+

+

+

In neonates In other ages

+

+ with optochin disc

+

+ +

+ +

(+) + +

+ +

(+) + +

a

+ = Use; (+) = optional use. Incubate in an atmosphere rich in CO2 (candle jar).

b

Acid-fast stain (Ziehl–Neelsen) Although its sensitivity is not high, examination of an acid-fast-stained preparation of the sediment or of the fibrin web is indicated when tuberculous meningitis is suspected by the physician. Carefully examine the acid-fast-stained preparation for at least 15 minutes. If the result is negative, the microscopic investigation should be repeated on a fresh specimen on the following day.

Culture If bacteria have been seen in the Gram-stained smear, the appropriate culture media should be inoculated (Table 8). If no organisms have been seen, or if the interpretation of the Gram smear is unclear, it is desirable to inoculate a full range of media, including blood agar with a streak of Staphylococcus 27

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aureus to promote growth of H. influenzae. Blood agar and chocolate agar plates should be incubated at 35 ∞C in an atmosphere enriched with carbon dioxide. All media should be incubated for 3 days, with daily inspections. When tuberculous meningitis is suspected, at least three tubes of Löwenstein– Jensen medium should be inoculated with a drop of the sediment and incubated for 6 weeks. For the first 2–3 days the tubes should be incubated in a horizontal position with the screw-cap loosened half a turn. Tubes should be inspected for growth at weekly intervals. Smears from any suspicious growth should be prepared, preferably in a bacteriological safety cabinet, air-dried, heat-fixed, and stained by the Ziehl–Neelsen method. The presence of acidfast rods is consistent with the diagnosis of tuberculosis. All isolates should be forwarded to a central laboratory for confirmation and for susceptibility testing. When Cryptococcus neoformans is suspected, either from the India ink preparation or on clinical grounds, the sediment should be inoculated on two tubes of Sabouraud dextrose agar, and incubated at 35 ∞C for up to 1 month. C. neoformans also grows on the blood agar plate, which should be incubated at 35 ∞C for 1 week, if indicated.

Preliminary identification Growth on MacConkey agar is suggestive of Enterobacteriaceae and should be further identified using the methods and media recommended for enteric pathogens. Colonies of Gram-positive cocci with a narrow zone of b-haemolysis may be S. agalactiae (group B streptococci). This should be confirmed with the reverse CAMP test (page 101). Flat colonies with a concave centre and a slight green zone of a-haemolysis are probably S. pneumoniae. For confirmation, a 6-mm optochin disc should be placed on a blood agar plate heavily inoculated with a pure culture of the suspected strain. After overnight incubation, pneumococci will exhibit an inhibition zone of 14 mm or more around the optochin disc. The best results are obtained after incubation on sheep blood agar in a carbon-dioxide-enriched atmosphere. If the reading of this test on the primary blood agar plate is inconclusive, the test should be repeated on a subculture. Colonies of H. influenzae will grow only on chocolate agar, and as satellite colonies in the vicinity of the staphylococcal streak on blood agar. Further identification may be accomplished using H. influenzae type b antiserum in the slide agglutination test. Gram-negative diplococci growing on blood and chocolate agar, and giving a rapidly positive oxidase test, may be considered to be meningococci. Confirmation is accomplished by grouping with appropriate N. meningitidis antisera (A, B, C) in the slide agglutination test. A negative agglutination test does not rule out meningococci as there are at least four additional serogroups. If the agglutination test is negative, carbohydrate utilization tests should be performed and the culture sent to a central reference laboratory. A preliminary report should be given to the physician at each stage of identification (Gramstain, growth, agglutination, etc.), noting that a final report will follow. Colonies of Gram-positive rods with a narrow zone of b-haemolysis on blood agar may be Listeria monocytogenes. The following confirmatory tests are 28

BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

suggested: positive catalase reaction, motility in broth culture or in MIU, growth and black discoloration on bile–aesculin agar.

Susceptibility testing For Gram-negative rods and staphylococci, the standardized disc-diffusion method (Kirby–Bauer) should be used. No susceptibility testing is needed for Listeria monocytogenes, S. agalactiae or N. meningitidis since resistance to ampicillin and benzylpenicillin is extremely rare. All strains of pneumococci should be tested on blood agar for susceptibility to chloramphenicol and benzylpenicillin. For the latter, the oxacillin (1 mg) disc is recommended (see page 66, “Lower respiratory tract infections”). Strains of H. influenzae should be tested for susceptibility to chloramphenicol using chocolate agar or a supplemented blood agar. Most ampicillin-resistant strains produce b-lactamase that can be demonstrated using one of the rapid tests recommended for the screening of potential b-lactamase-producing strains of gonococci (page 79).

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Urine Introduction Urine is the specimen most frequently submitted for culture. It also presents major problems in terms of proper specimen collection, transport, culture techniques, and interpretation of results. As with any other specimen submitted to the laboratory, the more comprehensive the information provided by the submitting physician the more able the laboratory is to provide the best possible culture data. The most common sites of urinary tract infection (UTI) are the urinary bladder (cystitis) and the urethra. From these sites the infection may ascend into the ureters (ureteritis) and subsequently involve the kidney (pyelonephritis). Females are more prone to infection of the urinary tract than are males and also present the greater problem in the proper collection of specimens. In both males and females, UTI may be asymptomatic, acute, or chronic. Asymptomatic infection can be diagnosed by culture. Acute UTI is more frequently seen in females of all ages; these patients are usually treated on an outpatient basis and are rarely admitted to hospital. Chronic UTI in both males and females of all ages is usually associated with an underlying disease (e.g. pyelonephritis, prostatic disease, or congenital anomaly of the genitourinary tract) and these patients are most often hospitalized. Asymptomatic, acute, and chronic UTI are three distinct entities and the laboratory results often require different interpretation. Asymptomatic pyelonephritis in females may remain undetected for some time, and is often only diagnosed by carefully performed quantitative urine culture. Chronic prostatitis is common and difficult to cure, and is often responsible for recurring UTI. In most UTI, irrespective of type, enteric bacteria are the etiological agents, Escherichia coli being isolated far more frequently than any other organism. In about 10% of patients with UTI, two organisms may be present and both may contribute to the disease process. The presence of three or more different organisms in a urine culture is strong presumptive evidence of improper collection or handling of the urine specimen. However, multiple organisms are often seen in UTI in patients with indwelling bladder catheters.

Specimen collection The importance of the method of collection of urine specimens, their transport to the laboratory, and the initial efforts by the laboratory to screen and culture the urine cannot be overemphasized. It is the responsibility of the laboratory to provide the physician with sterile, wide-mouthed, glass or plastic jars, beakers, or other suitable receptacles. They should have tight-fitting lids or be covered with aluminium foil prior to sterilization by dry heat or autoclaving. Urine specimens may have to be collected by a surgical procedure, e.g. suprapubic aspiration, cystoscopy, or catheterization. If not, the laboratory must insist on a clean-catch midstream urine specimen, particularly in females and children. Since urine itself is a good culture medium, all specimens should be processed by the laboratory within 2 hours of collection, or be kept refriger30

BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

ated at 4 ∞C until delivery to the laboratory and processed no longer than 18 hours after collection. Whenever possible, urine specimens for culture should be collected in the morning. It is advisable to ask the patient the night before to refrain from urinating until the specimen is to be collected. A female outpatient should: 1. Wash her hands thoroughly with soap and water and dry them with a clean towel. 2. Spread the labia, and cleanse the vulva and labia thoroughly using sterile cotton gauze pads and warm soapy water, wiping from front to rear. Disinfectants should not be used. 3. Rinse the vulva and labia thoroughly with warm water and dry with a sterile gauze pad. During the entire process the patient should keep the labia separated and should not touch the cleansed area with the fingers. 4. Pass a small amount of urine. The patient should collect most of the remaining urine in a sterile container, closing the lid as soon as the urine has been collected. This is a midstream urine specimen. 5. Hand the closed container to the nursing personnel for prompt delivery to the laboratory. A male outpatient should: 1. Wash his hands thoroughly with soap and water and dry them with a clean towel. 2. Pull back the foreskin (if not circumcised) and wash the glans thoroughly using sterile cotton gauze pads and warm soapy water. Disinfectants should not be used. 3. Rinse the glans thoroughly with warm water and dry with a sterile gauze pad. During the entire procedure the patient should not touch the cleansed area with the fingers. 4. Pull back the foreskin and pass a small amount of urine. Still holding back the foreskin, the patient should pass most of the remaining urine into a sterile container, closing the lid as soon as the urine has been collected. This is a midstream urine specimen. 5. Hand the closed container to the nursing personnel for prompt delivery to the laboratory. For bedridden patients, the same procedure is followed, except that a nurse must assist the patient or, if necessary, do the entire cleansing procedure before requesting the patient to pass urine. In both situations every effort must be made to collect a clean-catch urine specimen in a sterile container and to ensure that it is delivered promptly to the laboratory together with information on the patient, the clinical diagnosis, and the requested procedures. Infants and children Collection of a clean-catch urine specimen from infants and children who are ill in bed or uncooperative can be a problem. Give the child water or other liquid to drink. Clean the external genitalia. The child can be seated on the lap of the mother, nurse, or ward attendant, who should then encourage the child to urinate and collect as much urine as possible in a sterile container. The container should then be covered and delivered to the laboratory for immediate processing. A 31

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Culture and interpretation All urine specimens brought to the microbiology laboratory should be examined at once, or placed in a refrigerator at 4 ∞C until they can be examined. The examination procedure includes the following steps: 1. Examination of a Gram-stained smear. 2. A screening test for significant bacteriuria. 3. A definitive culture for urine specimens found to be positive in the screening test, and for all specimens obtained by cystoscopy, suprapubic bladder puncture (SBP), or catheterization. 4. Susceptibility tests on clinically significant bacterial isolates. Preparation and examination of a Gram-stained smear is a necessary part of the laboratory process. Using a sterile Pasteur pipette (one for each sample), place one drop of well-mixed, uncentrifuged urine on a slide. Allow the drop to dry without spreading, heat-fix and stain. Examine under an oil-immersion lens (¥600 or more) for the presence or absence of bacteria, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, and squamous epithelial cells. One or more bacterial cells per oil-immersion field usually implies that there are 105 or more bacteria per millilitre in the specimen. The presence of one or more leukocytes per oil-immersion field is a further indication of UTI. Non-infected urine samples will usually show few or no bacteria or leukocytes in the entire preparation. In specimens from females, the presence of many squamous epithelial cells, with or without a mixture of bacteria, is strong presumptive evidence that the specimen is contaminated with vaginal flora and a repeat specimen is necessary, regardless of the number of bacteria per oil-immersion field. If results are required urgently, the report of the Gramstain findings should be sent to the physician with a note that the culture report is to follow.

Screening method The absence of leukocytes and bacteria in a Gram-stained smear of a cleancatch urine sample prepared as described above is good evidence that the urine is not infected. A urine specimen that is “negative” on careful examination of the Gram-stained smear does not need to be cultured. An alternative simple and effective screening test is the test strip for leukocyte esterase/nitrate reduction. The strip is dipped into the urine specimen as instructed in the package literature. Any pink colour is a positive reaction indicating the presence of leukocyte esterase and/or bacteria in excess of 105 per ml. Urine samples that are positive in the screening test should be cultured as soon as possible to prevent possible overgrowth by nonsignificant bacteria. If the strip does not develop a pink colour it is interpreted as a negative screening test, is so reported, and no culture is indicated. The test strip may not be sensitive enough to detect bacterial counts of less than 105 per ml of urine.

Quantitative culture and presumptive identification Two techniques are recommended here for quantitative culture and presumptive identification: the calibrated loop technique and the filter-paper dip strip method.

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Calibrated loop technique The recommended procedure uses a calibrated plastic or metal loop to transfer 1 ml of urine to the culture medium (MacConkey agar with crystal violet and non-selective blood agar). 1. Shake the urine gently, then tip it to a slant and with a 1-ml inoculating loop touch the surface so that the urine is sucked up into the loop. Never dip the loop into the urine. 2. Deposit 1 ml of the urine on a blood agar plate and streak half the plate by making a straight line down the centre (1), followed by close passes at right angles through the original (2), and ending with oblique streaks crossing the two previous passes (3) (Fig. 3). 3. Inoculate the MacConkey agar in the same manner. 4. Incubate the plates overnight at 35 ∞C. Blood agar and MacConkey agar can also be replaced by another nonselective medium (e.g. CLED1 agar, purple lactose agar). Filter-paper dip-strip method The filter-paper dip-strip method of Leigh & Williams2 is based on the absorption and subsequent transfer of a fixed amount of urine to a suitable plating agar medium. The strips can be locally prepared using a specific type of blotting-paper and should measure 7.5 cm long by 0.6 cm wide (see Fig. 4). They are marked at 1.2 cm from one end with a pencil. The filter-paper dip strip technique should be compared with the calibrated loop technique before adopting the strips for

Fig. 3. Inoculation of bacteria on culture plates

Fig. 4. Diagram of a dip strip

1

CLED: Cystine-Lactose-Electrolyte Deficient. Leigh DA & Williams JD. Method for the detection of significant bacteriuria in large groups of patients. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 1964, 17: 498–503.

2

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Fig. 5. Dip-strip impressions on an agar plate, showing conversion from number of colonies to number of bacteria per ml

routine investigations. The strips are made in quantity, placed in a suitable container and autoclaved. Sterile strips are commercially available. A sterile strip is removed from the container for each urine sample to be tested. The marked end is dipped as far as the mark into the thoroughly mixed urine sample. The strip is withdrawn immediately and the excess urine is allowed to be absorbed. The area below the mark, which will bend over like the foot of an “L”, should then be placed in contact with a plate of brolacin agar1 or purple lactose agar for 2–3 seconds. Several strips can be cultured on one plate by dividing the undersurface of the plate into up to 16 rectangles (Fig. 5). Be sure to identify each rectangular area with the number or name of the patient. Remove a second strip from the container and repeat the procedure exactly, making a second imprint identical to the first. Once the plate is completely inoculated with duplicate impressions, it should be incubated at 35–37 ∞C, and the colonies resulting from each dip-strip imprint counted. With the help of Fig. 5 it is possible to convert the average number of colonies for each pair of dip-strips to the number of bacteria per ml of urine. Immediately following the above procedure, inoculate half a plate of MacConkey agar (with crystal violet) with the urine specimen using a sterile loop. The inclusion of a blood agar facilitates the rapid identification of Grampositive cocci. Plates should be incubated at 35–37 ∞C overnight, and examined on the following day for growth. Identification procedures may then be initiated using well-separated colonies of similar appearance. If required, the inoculum for performing the disc-diffusion susceptibility test (page 97) can be prepared from either of these plates. In this way, the results of both identification and susceptibility tests will be available on the next day.

Interpretation of quantitative urine culture results For many years, only the presence of at least 105 colony-forming units (CFU) per ml in a clean-catch midstream urine specimen was considered clinically

1

Bromothymol-blue lactose cystine agar.

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relevant for a diagnosis of urinary tract infection. This assumption has been challenged; some experts feel that 104 CFU or even fewer may indicate infection. Others believe that the presence of polymorphonuclear leukocytes plays an important role in the pathology and clinical manifestations of UTI. It is not possible to define precisely the minimum number of bacteria per millilitre of urine that is definitely associated with UTI. General recommendations for reporting are given below. Category 1: fewer than 104 CFU per ml. Report as probable absence of UTI. (Exceptions: if fewer than 104 CFU per ml are present in urine taken directly from the bladder by suprapubic puncture or cystoscopy, in; symptomatic women, or in the presence of leukocytura, report the identification and the result of the susceptibility test.) Category 2: 104–105 CFU per ml. If the patient is asymptomatic, request a second urine specimen and repeat the count. If the patient has symptoms of UTI, proceed with both identification and susceptibility tests if one or two different colony types of bacteria are present. Bacterial counts in this range strongly suggest UTI in symptomatic patients, or in the presence of leukocyturia. If the count, the quality of the urine specimen, or the significance of the patient’s symptoms is in doubt, a second urine specimen should be obtained for retesting. Report the number of CFU. Category 3: More than 105 CFU per ml. Report the count to the physician and proceed with identification and susceptibility tests if one or two different colony types of bacteria are present. These bacterial counts are strongly suggestive of UTI in all patients, including asymptomatic females. If more than two species of bacteria are present in urine samples in categories 2 and 3, report as “Probably contaminated; please submit a fresh, clean-catch specimen”.

Identification Identification should be performed as rapidly as possible. Since the vast majority of urinary tract infections are caused by E. coli, a rapid test should be used to identify red colonies from MacConkey agar.

b-Glucuronidase test for rapid identification of E. coli1 This test determines the ability of an organism to produce the enzyme b-glucuronidase. The enzyme hydrolyses the 4-nitrophenyl-b-dglucopyranosiduronic acid (PGUA) reagent to glucuronic acid and p-nitrophenol. The development of a yellow colour indicates a positive reaction.

1

Kilian M, Borrow P. Rapid diagnosis of Enterobacteriaceae. 1. Detection of bacterial glycosidases. Acta Pathologica et Microbiologica Scandinavica, Section B, 1976, 84:245–251.

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Procedure: 1. Prepare a dense milky suspension of the organism to be tested in a small tube containing 0.25 ml of saline. The suspension should be prepared from colonies growing on MacConkey agar. 2. Dissolve 300 mg of 4-nitrophenyl-b-d-glucopyranosiduronic acid (PGUA) and 100 mg of yeast extract (Oxoid L21) 1 in 20 ml of phosphate buffer (Tris buffer, pH 8.5). Adjust the pH to 8.5 ± 0.1. Pour 0.25 ml of the medium into each of the required number of sterile tubes. Close the tubes with stoppers. Label the tubes PGUA and indicate the date. 3. Inoculate one tube of the PGUA medium with a dense suspension of the organism to be tested. Incubate the tube for 4 hours at 35 ∞C. The development of a yellow colour indicates the presence of b-glucuronidase (positive result); if no colour change occurs the result is negative. The presence of a pigmented yellow colour indicates that the result is unreliable; in such cases other tests must be used. Quality control organisms: Escherichia coli positive (yellow) result Shigella flexneri negative (clear) result PGUA tablets are commercially available.

Susceptibility tests Susceptibility tests (page 97) should only be performed on well-isolated colonies of similar appearance that are considered significant according to the guidelines presented above. Susceptibility tests are generally more important on cultures obtained from patients who are hospitalized or have a history of recurring UTI. Cultures from patients a primary UTI may not require a susceptibility test.

1

Available from Oxoid Ltd, Wade Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG24 8PW, England.

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Stool Introduction Enteric bacterial infections, causing diarrhoea, dysentery, and enteric fevers, are important health problems throughout the world. Diarrhoeal infections are second only to cardiovascular diseases as a cause of death, and they are the leading cause of childhood death. In developing countries, diarrhoeal; diseases account for 1.5 million death each year among children aged 1–4 years. The risk of children in this age group dying from diarrhoeal disease is 600 times greater in developing countries than in developed countries. In some developing countries, children suffer ten or more episodes of diarrhoea a year. Children are frequently infected with multiple pathogens and even children without diarrhoea quite often carry potential pathogens in their stools. Observations in studies suggested that active immunization through repeated exposure and prolonged breastfeeding may protect against the diarrhoeagenic effect of these agents. They have also underlined the difficulties in determining the cause of an episode of diarrhoea by culture of a single stool specimen. With the increasing prevalence of HIV/AIDS and immunosuppressive chemotherapy, diarrhoea in immunocompromised patients has become a growing challenge. Patients with HIV/AIDS either present with diarrhoea or have diarrhoea in a later stage of the disease, and the infection is often lifethreatening and difficult to cure. The list of enteric bacterial infections identified in HIV/AIDS patients is long and includes Campylobacter, Salmonella, Shigella, and mycobacteria. Salmonellosis has been estimated to be nearly 20 times as common and 5 times more often bacteraemic in patients with HIV/AIDS than in those without the disease. In Zaire, 84% of patients with diarrhoea of more than a month’s duration were found to be seropositive for HIV, and 40% of patients with HIV/AIDS had persistent diarrhoea.

Etiological agents and clinical features The genus Salmonella contains more than 2000 serotypes. Many of these may infect both humans and domestic animals. In humans they cause gastroenteritis, typhoid fever, and bacteraemia with or without metastatic disease. Salmonella gastroenteritis usually begins with nausea, vomiting, abdominal colic and diarrhoea 8–48 hours after ingestion of the contaminated food. The symptoms often persist for 3–5 days before resolving without therapy. Antimicrobials will not hasten clinical recovery, and may lengthen the convalescence and asymptomatic carrier state. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing and antimicrobial therapy are not recommended for uncomplicated cases. Antimicrobial treatment is only indicated if the patient appears bacteraemic. Some patients may harbour Salmonella spp. in stool or urine for periods of 1 year or longer but remain asymptomatic. Approximately 3% of patients with typhoid fever and 0.2–0.6% of persons with non-typhoid Salmonella gastroenteritis will have positive stool cultures for more than 1 year. Shigella spp. cause a wide spectrum of clinical diseases, which vary from asymptomatic infections to diarrhoea without fever to severe dysentery. Symptoms consist of abdominal cramps, ineffectual and painful straining to pass stool (tenesmus), and frequent, small-volume, bloodstained inflammatory discharge. Shigella spp. are the main cause of bacillary dysentery followed by enteroinvasive and enterohaemorrhagic E. coli. Many cases present as mild 37

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illnesses that require no specific treatment. However, for severe dysentery or when secondary spread is likely, antimicrobial therapy after susceptibility testing is indicated as resistance towards commonly used antimicrobials is high in many countries. Four groups of Shigella organisms, with a total of 39 serotypes and subtypes, are recognized. Group A (S. dysenteriae), group B (S. flexneri), and group C (S. boydii) contain multiple serotypes; there is only one serotype for group D (S. sonnei). S. dysenteriae and S. flexneri are the most commonly isolated Shigella species in developing countries, while S. sonnei is the most commonly isolated species in developed countries. At least six different classes of diarrhoea-producing Escherichia coli have been identified: enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), enterohaemorrhagic or verotoxin-producing E. coli (EHEC or VTEC), enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC), enteroadhesive E. coli (EAEC), and enteroaggregative E. coli (EAggEC). Four of them are common causes of diarrhoeal disease in developing countries. However, identification of these strains requires serological assays, toxicity assays in cell culture, pathogenicity studies in animals and gene-probe techniques that are beyond the capacity of intermediate-level clinical laboratories. It may be possible to have a presumptive identification of a VTEC strain, as the most frequent VTEC serotype O157:H7 is characterized by being sorbitol-negative. However, E. fergusonii and E. hermanii are also sorbitol-negative. A sorbitol-negative E. coli strain will need additional identification by serotyping with E. coli O157 antiserum. Demonstration of verotoxin production indicates that it is a VTEC strain. Cholera is a typical example of a toxigenic infection. All the symptoms can be attributed to the intestinal fluid loss caused by an enterotoxin released by Vibrio cholerae in the intestine. The stool is voluminous and watery, and contains no inflammatory cells. The main objective of treatment is fluid replacement and antimicrobials have only a secondary role. V. cholerae spreads very rapidly. It can be divided into several serotypes on the basis of variation in the somatic O antigen, and serotype O1 exists in two biological variants termed “classical” and “El Tor”. Until 1992, only V. cholerae serogroup O1 (classical or El Tor) was known to produce epidemic cholera, and other serogroups were thought to cause sporadic cholera and extraintestinal infections. However, in 1992 a large outbreak of cholera appeared on the east coast of India and quickly spread to neighbouring countries. This epidemic was caused by a previously unrecognized serogroup of V. cholerae O139 Bengal. Isolation of V. cholerae O139 has so far been reported from 10 countries in south-east Asia but seems to be on the decline. V. parahaemolyticus and several other species of Vibrio (V. fluvialis, V. hollisae, V. mimicus) and Aeromonas (A. hydrophila, A. sobria, A. caviae) cause food poisoning or gastroenteritis in persons who eat raw or undercooked seafood. Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli have emerged as major enteric pathogens that can be isolated as often as Salmonella and Shigella spp. in most parts of the world. Investigations in Africa and Asia have shown incidence rates of between 19 and 38%, and asymptomatic carrier rates of between 9 and 40%, in children. The intestinal disease varies from a brief, self-limiting enteritis to a fulminant enterocolitis with severe diarrhoea, abdominal colic, fever, and muscle pain. The stools are at first mucoid and liquid and may progress to profuse watery diarrhoea containing blood and pus. Symptoms usually subside within a week. Relapse occurs in about 25% of patients, but is generally milder than the initial episode. The infection is usually self-limiting without antimicrobial therapy, and susceptibility testing is usually not indicated. 38

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Arcobacter butzleri, formerly regarded as a low-temperature-growing Campylobacter, has recently been recognized as a cause of diarrhoeal disease in patients, mainly children, in developing countries. Human infections with Yersinia enterocolitica have been reported mainly from northern Europe, Japan and the United States of America. The majority of isolates have been identified from children with sporadic diarrhoea. Clostridium difficile is the primary cause of enteric disease related to antimicrobial therapy. It produces a broad spectrum of diseases ranging from mild diarrhoea to potentially fatal pseudomembranous colitis. Observation of colonic pseudomembranes by colonoscopy is diagnostic for pseudomembranous colitis, in which case laboratory confirmation is unnecessary. Several commercial tests are available for the laboratory, including culture, latex agglutination for detection of a cell-associated protein, ELISA assay for cytotoxin and/or enterotoxin, and cell culture toxicity assay for cytotoxin. Many hospital patients harbour the organism in the stool in the absence of symptoms, particularly if they are receiving broad-spectrum antimicrobials. Therefore, a culture without demonstration of toxin production has little diagnostic value. Rotavirus is the only non-bacterial agent to be discussed here. Other viruses are important causes of diarrhoea but rotavirus is common everywhere in the world with similar rates in both developed and developing countries. Most infections occur in children between 6 and 18 months, with a higher prevalence during the cooler months of the year. The diagnosis is made either with an enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) or more simply and practically with a latex agglutination assay. Reagents for both assays are commercially available but are expensive.

Appropriate use of laboratory resources The laboratory associated with a busy hospital or clinic in a developing country can quickly become overwhelmed with specimens. Cultures are not required for effective management of the majority of cases of diarrhoea and dysentery and patients will require only rehydration and not antimicrobials. A few patients (e.g. those with typhoid fever) will need the results of a culture for appropriate treatment. The problem of how best to utilize scarce resources is a constant concern. Often, the public health aspects are the most important, and the laboratory must be able to provide data that describe the common enteric pathogens in the district and the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of these pathogens, and investigate an epidemy. Clinicians must work closely with the laboratory. A procedure that allows the laboratory to develop a valid database is the collection of specimens from a random systematic sample of patients with diarrhoea at the hospital or clinic. By testing only a proportion of these, the number of specimens is reduced and a more complete investigation can be made on each specimen. If the sample is a systematic one (e.g. every twentyfifth patient), then the results can be used to estimate the infection in the entire population of patients. If a typical clinical syndrome is observed in a particular age group, or during a particular season, the laboratory can focus its sampling on these specific problems. The laboratory may decide to test for only certain enteric pathogens. Yersinia enterocolitica is evidently rare in most tropical areas. If the organism does not occur in the area served by the laboratory, testing for it can be omitted. When 39

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the laboratory provides a report, it should specify which organisms were investigated. If Salmonella and Shigella species were the only pathogens ruled out, the report should not state “No pathogens found”. Rather, it should state “Salmonella and Shigella species not found”.

Collection and transport of stool specimens Faecal specimens should be collected in the early stages of the diarrhoeal disease, when pathogens are present in the highest number, and preferably before antimicrobial treatment is started, if appropriate. The specimen should be collected in the morning to reach the laboratory before noon, so that it can be processed the same day. Formed stools should be rejected. Ideally, a fresh stool specimen is preferred to a rectal swab, but a rectal swab is acceptable if the collection cannot be made immediately or when transportation of the stool to the laboratory is delayed.

Procedure for collecting stool samples Provide the patient with two small wooden sticks and a suitable container with a leakproof lid (e.g. a clean glass cup, a plastic or waxed-cardboard box, or a special container with a spoon attached to the lid). The use of penicillin bottles, matchboxes and banana leaves should be discouraged as they expose the laboratory staff to the risk of infection. Instruct the patient to collect the stool specimen on a piece of toilet tissue or old newspaper and to transfer it to the container, using the two sticks. The specimen should contain at least 5 g of faeces and, if present, those parts that contain blood, mucus or pus. It should not be contaminated with urine. Once the specimen has been placed in the specimen container, the lid should be sealed. The patient should be asked to deliver the specimen to the clinic immediately after collection. If it is not possible for the specimen to be delivered to the laboratory within 2 hours of its collection, a small amount of the faecal specimen (together with mucus, blood and epithelial threads, if present) should be collected on two or three swabs and placed in a container with transport medium (Cary–Blair, Stuart or Amies) or 33 mmol/l of glycerol–phosphate buffer. For cholera and other Vibrio spp., alkaline peptone water is an excellent transport (and enrichment) medium. Pathogens may survive in such media for up to 1 week, even at room temperature, although refrigeration is preferable.

Procedure for collecting rectal swabs 1. Moisten a cotton-tipped swab with sterile water. Insert the swab through the rectal sphincter, rotate, and withdraw. Examine the swab for faecal staining and repeat the procedure until sufficient staining is evident. The number of swabs to be collected will depend on the number and types of investigation required. 2. Place the swab in an empty sterile tube with a cotton plug or screw-cap, if it is to be processed within 1–2 hours. If the swab must be kept for longer than 2 hours, place it in transport medium.

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Visual examination of stool specimens 1. Examine the stool sample visually and record the following: — its consistency (formed, unformed (soft) or liquid) — its colour (white, yellow, brown or black) — the presence of any abnormal components (e.g. mucus or blood). 2. Place a small fleck of the stool specimen or rectal swab together with a small flake of mucus (if present) in a drop of 0.05% methylene blue solution on a clean slide and mix thoroughly. 3. Place a coverslip on the stained suspension, avoiding the formation of air bubbles. Wait 2–3 minutes to. Examine the slide under the microscope using the high-power objective (¥100). 4. Record cells that can be clearly identified as mononuclear or polymorphonuclear; ignore degenerated cells. Examination of the cellular exudate of diarrhoeal stools may give an indication of the organism involved: — clumps of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (>50 cells per high-power field), macrophages and erythrocytes are typical of shigellosis; — smaller numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (<20 cells per highpower field) are found in salmonellosis, and invasive E. coli. In amoebic dysentery the cells are mostly degenerated (ghost cells). Leukocytes and erythrocytes are also found in about half the cases of diarrhoea due to Campylobacter spp.; — few leukocytes (2–5 cells per high-power field) are present in cases of cholera, enterotoxigenic and enteropathogenic E. coli, and viral diarrhoea.

Enrichment and inoculation of stool specimens Enrichment is commonly used for the isolation of Salmonella spp. and Vibrio cholerae from faecal specimens. Selenite F or tetrathionate broths are recommended for the enrichment of Salmonella spp., and alkaline peptone water (APW) for the enrichment of V. cholerae. Enrichment is not required for Shigella spp., Campylobacter spp., Yersinia enterocolitica and Clostridium difficile.

Procedure for inoculation of enrichment media 1. Prepare a faecal suspension by suspending approximately 1 g of the stool sample in a tube containing 1 ml of sterile saline. If the stool sample is liquid, saline does not need to be added. Rectal swabs received fresh or in Cary–Blair medium should be rinsed thoroughly in 1 ml of saline. Before removing the swab, press it against the side of the tube to express any remaining fluid. 2. Add three or more loopfuls of faecal suspension to the enrichment broth. 3. Incubate selenite F broth for 18 hours and APW for 6–8 hours. In some laboratories two or three loopfuls of suspension the initial APW are subcultured in from fresh APW and incubated for another 6–8 hours. 4. Subculture colonies by streaking a loopful of broth on selective and nonselective plating media. A 41

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V. cholerae grows quickly in APW and will outgrow other organisms in 6–8 hours. However, after 8 hours other organisms may overgrow the V. cholerae. Non-O1 V. cholerae grows more quickly than V. cholerae O1 and may overgrow the latter when both organisms are present.

Media for enteric pathogens For Shigella spp., Salmonella spp. and Y. enterocolitica a general-purpose plating medium of low selectivity and a medium of moderate or high selectivity are recommended. MacConkey agar with crystal violet is recommended as a general purpose medium. For Y. enterocolitica incubate the MacConkey agar at 35 ∞C for 1 day and then at room temperature (22–29 ∞C) for another day. Xylose–lysine–deoxycholate (XLD) agar is recommended as a medium of moderate or high selectivity for the isolation of Shigella and Salmonella spp. Deoxycholate citrate agar (DCA), Hektoen enteric agar (HEA) or Salmonella–Shigella (SS) agar are suitable alternatives. Shigella dysenteriae type 1, S. sonnei and enteroinvasive E. coli do not grow well on SS agar. However, SS agar may be used for isolating Y. enterocolitica when incubated as described for MacConkey agar. Many laboratories include bismuth sulfite agar for isolating Salmonella typhi and other species of Salmonella. For Campylobacter spp. there are several selective media (Blaser, Butzler, Skirrow) containing different antimicrobial supplements. However, a blood agar base with 5–10% sheep blood containing a combination of a cefalosporin (15 mg/ml), vancomycin (10 mg/ml), amphotericin B (2 mg/ml) and 0.05% ferrows sulfate–sodium metabisulfite–sodium pyruvate (FBP) is acceptable. For Vibrio spp. a selective medium is necessary although many strains may grow on MacConkey agar. Thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose (TCBS) agar is selective for V. cholerae O1 and non-O1 and for V. parahaemolyticus, but it is expensive. Telluride taurocholate gelatine (TTG) agar is another selective medium, but it is not commercially available. Alkaline meat extract agar (MEA) and alkaline bile salt agar (BSA) are inexpensive simple media that can be locally prepared and give excellent results. Clostridium difficile was difficult to isolate before the development of cefoxitin–cycloserine–fructose agar (CCFA). Formulations using an egg-yolk agar base are preferally used as C. difficile is negative for both lecithinase and lipase, while other clostridia commonly found in the gut, such as C. perfringens, C. bifermentans and C. sordelli are lecithinase-positive.

Primary isolation The specimen should be examined and cultured as soon as it is delivered to the laboratory, as this gives the highest isolation rate of Shigella and Campylobacter spp. If this is not possible, the specimen should be stored at 4 ∞C. A concentrated inoculum of faeces should be used with high selectivity media and a light inoculum of faeces with low selectivity media. In many laboratories, the plates are inoculated directly with the rectal swabs, but care should be taken not to make an inoculation that is overloaded.

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Procedure for inoculation of primary isolation media 1. Inoculate media of high selectivity with three loopfuls and those of low selectivity with one loopful of the faecal suspension. Place the inoculum in the middle of the agar plate and streak it up and down and across the plate as shown in Fig. 6. This procedure will maximize the number of isolated colonies. Discrete colonies will be found in the peripheral portion of the plate. 2. After inoculation, incubate the agar plates. Incubate the plates for the isolation of Salmonella, Shigella and Yersinia spp. and V. cholerae at 35 ∞C in an aerobic incubator (without CO2), the plates for Campylobacter spp. at 42 ∞C in an microaerophilic atmosphere with 10% CO2, and the plates for Clostridium difficile at 35 ∞C in an anaerobic atmosphere.

Incubation atmosphere for Campylobacter Plates for the isolation of Campylobacter spp. should be incubated at 42–43 ∞C in a microaerophilic atmosphere containing 5% O2, 10% CO2 and 85% N2. The growth of the normal faecal flora is inhibited at this temperature while the thermotolerant Campylobacter species are unaffected. However, if nonthermotolerant species are being investigated, the temperature of incubation should be lowered to 35–37 ∞C. • An atmosphere suitable for the growth of Campylobacter spp. may be produced in several ways. The method of choice will depend on the size and workload of the laboratory, and the relative cost. • A candle-jar provides an atmosphere of approximately 17–19% O2 and 2–3% CO2. This atmosphere is not ideal for the growth of Campylobacter spp., and some strains will not grow in it. However, several investigators have demonstrated that incubation at 42 ∞C on a culture medium supplemented with FBP will improve the isolation rate. The FBP supplement enhances the oxygen tolerance of Campylobacter spp. by inactivating super-

Fig. 6. Inoculation of bacteria on culture plates

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•

•

oxides and hydrogen peroxide. Disadvantages of this system are a longer incubation period and inhibition of some oxygen-sensitive Campylobacter spp. Another simple and inexpensive system uses a co-culture technique. Plates with rapidly growing facultative anaerobic bacteria are incubated with the plates for the isolation of Campylobacter spp. in an airtight container or a plastic bag. As the facultative anaerobic bacteria grow, the oxygen content is lowered and the CO2 content is increased. The disadvantage of this system is the longer incubation time usually required for growth of the Campylobacter spp. A hydrogen and CO2-generator envelope with a self-contained catalyst specifically for the isolation of Campylobacter spp. is commercially available. The envelope is placed in an anaerobic jar, and a new envelope must be used each time the jar is opened. No more than six plates should be stacked in the jar to obtain maximum isolation. A plastic bag incubation system is also commercially available. It consists of a plastic bag, which is collapsed two or three times by hand or vacuum, and refilled each time, with 5% O2, 10% CO2 and 85% N2. The evacuation–replacement system uses an anaerobic jar without a catalyst. The container is evacuated twice to 38 cm (15 mmHg) pressure and refilled each time with 10% H2 and 90% N2 mixture.

Preliminary identification of isolates Identification involves both biochemical and serological tests, the extent of which will depend on the capacity of the laboratory. Flow charts for guidance in identification of important enteric bacteria are presented in Figs 7a–c. Identify well-separated colonies of typical appearance on the primary plates by making a mark on the bottom of the Petri dish. These will be transferred for further testing. If more than one type of colony is present, process at least one colony of each type. Lactose-nonfermenting bacteria, such as Salmonella and Shigella spp., give rise to small colourless colonies on MacConkey agar, SS agar, and DCA. Colonies of Proteus spp. may be confused with Salmonella and Shigella spp., especially on MacConkey agar and DCA, because of their lactose-negative appearance. Lactose-fermenting organisms, such as E. coli and Enterobacter/Klebsiella spp., produce pink to red colonies on MacConkey agar, DCA and SS agar. On XLD agar, Shigella and Salmonella spp. produce small red colonies, most strains of Salmonella with a black centre. Some strains of Proteus spp. will also give blackcentred colonies on XLD agar. On bismuth sulfite agar, Salmonella typhi produces black colonies with a metallic sheen, if the colonies are well separated. Yersinia enterocolitica grows on MacConkey and SS agars as small, pale colourless colonies that grow most rapidly at 22–29 ∞C.

Salmonella and Shigella spp. Three differential media are recommended for initial screening of isolates of Salmonella and Shigella spp.: — urea broth, weakly buffered (UREA) — motility-indole–lysine medium (MIL) — Kligler’s iron agar (KIA).

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Fig. 7a. Flow diagram for the preliminary identification of common Enterobacteriaceae

Procedure for inoculation and reading of UREA 1. Using an inoculating loop, collect 2–3 non-lactose-fermenting colonies from the primary plates and transfer to tube containing UREA. 2. Incubate the tubes for 2–4 hours at 35 ∞C and observe for a change in colour to pink (urease-positive). Discard the urease-positive tubes. 3. Subculture growth from the urease-negative tubes to MIL and to KIA (see below), and incubate all tubes, including the urease-negative tube containing UREA, overnight at 35 ∞C in an aerobic incubator.

Procedure for inoculation and reading of MIL and KIA 1. Inoculate the MIL by inserting a straight inoculating needle to 2 mm above the bottom of the tube. Withdraw the needle along the same line. 2. Inoculate the KIA by stabbing the agar butt with a straight inoculating needle and streaking the slant in a zigzag. 3. Label all tubes with the number of the laboratory and incubate overnight at 35 ∞C. 4. Examine the tube of Urease-negative UREA (see above) for delayed urease reaction. Discard the delayed urease-positive cultures. 5. Examine the MIL medium for motility, lysine and indole reaction. Motile organisms will spread out into the medium from the line of inoculation and produce diffuse growth. Non-motile organisms will grow only along the line of inoculation. A positive lysine reaction is indicated by an alkaline reaction (purple colour) at the bottom of the medium, and a negative reaction by an acid reaction (yellow colour) at the bottom of the medium 45

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Fig. 7b. Flow diagram for the preliminary identification of anaerobic Gram-positive rods

(caused by fermentation of glucose). To test for indole production, add 3–4 drops of Kovacs reagent to the medium. A red to pink colour indicates the presence of indole and the persistence of the bright yellow layer indicates a negative test. 6. Examine the KIA medium. All Enterobacteriaceae ferment glucose, producing acid and gas or acid only, which gives a yellow slant. If gas is produced, bubbles or cracks are seen throughout the medium; the medium may even be pushed up in the tube if a large amount of gas is produced (e.g. in the case of Enterobacter spp.). If lactose is simultaneously fermented, both the agar butt and the slant become acid, i.e. yellow (e.g. in the case of E. coli). If lactose is not fermented (e.g. in the case of Shigella and Salmonella spp.), the agar butt is yellow but the slant becomes alkaline, i.e. red. Blackening along the stab line or throughout the medium indicates the production of hydrogen sulfide. Record the result and make a provisional identification of the organism with the help of Tables 10 and 11. Salmonella strains are oxidase-negative, motile, and indole-negative. They do not hydrolyse urea and—except for S. paratyphi A—are lysine-decarboxylasepositive. On KIA agar they produce an alkaline slant, acid butt, H2S, and gas, except for S. typhi, which is anaerogenic, and most strains of S. paratyphi A, which are H2S-negative. If these criteria are satisfied, report: “Salmonella isolated (provisional identification)”. Shigella strains are oxidase-negative, non-motile, lysine-decarboxylasenegative, and urea is not hydrolysed. On KIA they produce an alkaline slant and acid butt, no H2S, and no gas, except for S. flexneri serotype 6 (Newcastle and Manchester varieties) and S. boydii serotype 14, which are aerogenic. 46

BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Fig. 7c. Flow diagram for the preliminary identification of anaerobic Gram-negative rods

Catalase is produced except for S. dysenteriae serotype 1, which is catalasenegative. If these criteria are fulfilled, report: “Shigella isolated (provisional identification)”.

Yersinia enterocolitica Growth of small, pale or colourless colonies on MacConkey or SS agar after overnight incubation could be Yersinia enterocolitica. Inoculate typical colonies into KIA and incubate at 25 ∞C overnight. Also inoculate suspected colonies into two UREA and two MIL media, incubate 1 tube of each at 25 ∞C and the others at 35 ∞C. On KIA, typical Y. enterocolitica strains will produce acid butt, alkaline slant, with no gas or H2S. If the strain is motile and urease-positive at 25 ∞C and non-motile and weakly urease-positive or urease-negative at 35 ∞C, report: “Yersinia isolated (provisional identification)”.

Vibrio cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus Vibrio strains grow as pale, non-lactose-fermenting colonies on MacConkey agar. On TCBS agar V. cholerae grows as medium-sized convex, smooth, 47

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Table 9. Colony morphology of common enteric bacteria on differential and selective plating media Species

MacConkey agar with crystal violet

XLD agar

Escherichia coli

Pink to rose

Large, flat, yellow, opaque

Pink to red, inhibited, growth

Pink, encircled by zone of precipitate

Shigella spp.

Colourless

Red

Colourless

Colourless to tan

Salmonella spp.

Colourless

Enterobacter/ Klebsiella. spp. Proteus/ Providencia spp.

Pink, mucoid

Red, with or without black centre Yellow, mucoid

Colourless, with or without black centre Pink, inhibited growth

Colourless to tan, with or without black centre Large, pale mucoid with pink centre

Large, salmonpink to orange, encircled by zone of precipitate Green, moist and raised Blue-green, with or without black centre Large, salmonorange

Yersinia enterocolitica Enterococci

Colourless

Red, some Proteus spp. have black centre Yellow, irregular

Colourless, with or without grey-black centre Colourless

Large, colourless to tan, with or without black centre Colourless

Blue-green or salmon, with or without black centre Salmon

No growth to slight growth

No growth

No growth to slight growth

No growth to slight growth

Colourless, inhibited, swarming

No growth

SS agar

DCA

HEA

XLD: Xylose-Lysine–Deoxycholate; DCA: Deoxycholate–citrate; SS: Salmonella-Shigella; HEA: Hektoen enteric

Table 10. Interpretation of Enterobacteriaceae reactions on Kligler’s iron agar (KIA) Reaction

Interpretation

Acid butt (yellow) and alkaline slant (red)

Only glucose fermented

Acid throughout medium (butt and slant yellow)

Glucose and lactose fermented

Alkaline throughout medium (butt and slant red)

Neither glucose nor lactose fermented

Gas bubbles in butt or cracks in the medium

Gas-producing bacteria

Blackening in the butt

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) produced

yellow colonies, whereas V. parahaemolyticus grows as large, flat, bluegreen colonies. Some strains of V. cholerae may also appear green or colourless on TCBS because of delayed sucrose fermentation. On TTGA, colonies develop dark centres because of telluride reduction and are surrounded by cloudy zones due to gelatinase activity. On BSA and MEA, V. cholerae colonies are translucent, usually with a flat surface and clear-cut margin; they are easily differentiated from colonies of Enterobacteriaceae under oblique light illumination or when examined against the day light at an 48

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Table 11. Typical reaction patterns of Enterobacteriaceae on Kligler’s iron agar (KIA) Reaction

Sugar(s) fermented

Bacteria species

Butt acid Slant acid Gas in butt No H2S

Glucose: acid and gas Lactose: acid and gas

Escherichia coli Klebsiella Enterobacter Citrobacter diversus Serratia liquefaciens

Butt acid Slant alkaline Gas in butt H2S produced

Glucose: acid and gas Lactose: not fermented

Salmonella Proteus Citrobacter freundii*

Butt acid Slant alkaline No gas in butt No H2S

Glucose: acid only Lactose: not fermented

Shigella Yersinia Serratia marcescens* Providencia stuartii Providencia rettgeri*

Butt acid Slant alkaline Gas in butt No H2S

Glucose: acid and gas Lactose: not fermented

Salmonella paratyphi A Hafnia alvei Serratia marcescens* Morganella morgani

Butt neutral/alkaline Slant alkaline No gas No H2S

No sugars fermented

Alcaligenes Pseudomonas Acinetobacter

*Atypical reactions.

oblique angle. Suspect colonies should be screened with oxidase and the string test.

Procedure for oxidase test 1. Place 2–3 drops of the oxidase reagent (1% tetramethyl-paraphenylenediamine) on a piece of filter paper in a Petri dish. 2. Pick up a small amount of fresh growth from the MacConkey agar with a platinum (not Nichrome) loop or a clean wooden stick or toothpick. Smear the growth across the moistened part of the filter paper. 3. A positive reaction is indicated by the appearance of a dark purple colour on the paper within 10 seconds. Among the Gram-negative rods Vibrio, Aeromonas, Plesiomonas, Pseudomonas, and Alcaligenes are oxidase-positive; all Enterobacteriaceae are oxidase-negative. The oxidase reagent should be tested regularly with positive and negative control strains.

Procedure for string test 1. Place a drop of 0.5% aqueous solution of sodium deoxycholate on a slide and mix a small amount of growth from the MacConkey agar into the drop. 2. A positive reaction is indicated by the suspension within 60 seconds: it looses its turbidity and becomes mucoid; a “mucoid string” can be drawn when the loop is slowly lifted away from the drop. A few strains of Aeromonas may show a weak and delayed string at about 60 seconds. 49

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If these tests are positive, transfer a part of a colony to KIA and, after overnight incubation, observe for a yellow butt, alkaline slant, and no gas or H2S production. If this is confirmed, report: “Vibrio cholerae isolated (provisional identification)”.

Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli Examine the Campylobacter plates after 48–72 hours of incubation. Suspect colonies should be screened with three presumptive tests: oxidase test, wet mount preparation under dark-field or phase-contrast microscope, and Gramstain. If a dark-field or phase-contrast microscope is not available, colonies may be rapidly screened for typical cell morphology by staining with Gram’s crystal-violet solution. For the Gram stain 0.3% carbol fuchsin is recommended as counterstain. Campylobacter species are oxidase-positive, they are motile with a darting, tumbling motility, and they appear as simple curved or spiral-shaped rods (seagull wings or “S”-shape). If this is confirmed, report: “Campylobacter isolated (provisional identification)”.

Clostridium difficile The C. difficile colonies on CCFA are large, yellow and ground glass in appearance. On anaerobic blood agar the colony morphology varies and other features should be looked for to detect the organism. Typically, colonies are grey, opaque and non-haemolytic at 24–48 hours, but a few strains may be greenish blue due to a-type haemolysis. After 48–72 hours of incubation, colonies may develop a distinctly light grey to white centre. With experience, C. difficile is easily recognized despite the colonial variability, thanks to its characteristic odour, which resembles that of horse or elephant manure. If the colonies are lecithinase- and lipase-negative and show yellow-green fluorescence when illuminated with Wood’s lamp, report: “Clostridium difficile isolated (provisional identification)”.

Final microbiological identification Before the final report is made, the cultures should always be checked for pure growth, and the identification should be confirmed with additional biochemical tests. 1. Pick a suspect colony well-separated from other colonies on the plate and subculture it in nutrient broth for biochemical tests, to an agar slope for serological tests, and plate it on MacConkey agar to confirm the purity of the culture. 2. Make additional biochemical tests according to the tables. Examine the reactions after overnight incubation and identify the isolate. Identification of Shigella and Salmonella may sometimes pose a problem, because some strains vary in their biochemical reactions and may even share antigens with other Gram-negative organisms. Non-motile, lactose-negative, anaerogenic strains of E. coli are notoriously difficult to differentiate from Shigella, and identification may be further complicated by the fact that some of these strains may cause bacillary dysentery.

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Salmonella If the results of the preliminary tests are consistent with a Salmonella strain, inoculate ornithine decarboxylase, Simmons citrate, ONPG media, and peptone water enriched with mannitol, rhamnose, trehalose, or xylose. Examine the reactions after overnight incubation and identify the isolate according to Table 12. If the results agree with the culture of Salmonella, proceed with the serological identification.

Shigella If the results of the preliminary tests are consistent with a Shigella strain, inoculate ornithine decarboxylase, phenylalanine deaminase and ONPG media, and sucrose and xylose peptone water. Examine the reactions after overnight incubation and identify the isolate according to Table 13. If the results agree with the culture of Shigella, proceed with the serological identification. Shigella contains four species, S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, and S. sonnei. These are often referred to as subgroups A, B, C, and D, respectively. Some serotypes may provisionally be identified by biochemical reactions and divided into biotypes.

Table 12. Biochemical reactions of Salmonella biotypes and other bacteria

Salmonella (most serotypes) S. choleraesuis S. arizonae S. typhi S. paratyphi A Edwardsiella tarda Citrobacter freundii Proteus spp.

Swarming

H2S KIA

Indole

Lysine

Ornithine

Citrate

ONPG

Urease

Mannitol

Trehalose

Rhamnose

Xylose

-

-

-

+

+

+

-

-

+

+

+

+

-

d + +w d+

+

+ + + +

+ + + +

d + -

+ -

-

+ + + + -

+ + + -

+ + + -

+ + + -

-

+

-

-

-

+

+

d

+

+

+

+

+

+

-/+

-

+/-

v

-

+

-

+

-

+

Abbreviations: +: >95% positive; d: 26–74% positive; d-: 5–25% positive; -: <5% positive; v: variable result; w: weak reactions. H2S/KIA: hydrogen sulfide production in Kligler’s iron agar; Lysine: lysine decarboxylase; Ornithine: ornithine decarboxylase; Citrate: Simmons citrate agar; ONPG: b-galactosidase.

Table 13. Biochemical reactions of Shigella biotypes and other bacteria

Shigella sonnei Shigella, other species E. coli, inactive strains Providencia Morganella Hafnia alvei Serratia marcescens Salmonella paratyphi A Plesiomonas shigelloides

Oxidase

Motility

Indole

Lysine

Urease

VP

Citrate

Ornithine

Phenylalanine

ONPG

Sucrose

Xylose

+

+ d+ + + + +

d d+ + + +

d + + +

v + d-

d+ + -

+ d+ -

+ d+ + + + +

+ d+ -

d+ d dd+ + +

dd d+ -

d + -

Abbreviations: +: >95% positive; d+: 75–95% positive; d: 26–74% positive; d-: 5–25% positive; -: <5% positive. Lysine: lysine decarboxylase; VP: Voges–Proskauer; Citrate: Simmons citrate agar; Ornithine: ornithine decarboxylase; Phenylalanine: phenylalanine deaminase; ONPG: b-galactosidase.

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Table 14. Biochemical reactions of Shigella species and serotypes Ornithine decarboxylase

Fermentation: lactose/sucrose

Fermentation: mannitol

Catalase

Glucose gas

-

-

-

+ +

-

-

-

+ + +

+ + + +

+ + -

+

+(delayed)

+

+

+ -

Shigella dysenteriae Serotype 1 (shigae) Serotype 2 (schmitzii) Serotypes 3–10 Shigella flexneri Serotype 1–5, X and Y Serotype 6 Newcastle Serotype 6 Manchester Serotype 6 Boyd 88 Shigella boydii Serotype 1–13, 15 Serotype 14 Shigella sonnei

S. dysenteriae (subgroup A) contains 10 serotypes. Serotype 1 is catalasenegative and produces Shiga toxin. The other serotypes are catalase-positive. Most strains do not ferment mannitol and lactose. S. flexneri (subgroup B) contains 8 serotypes. Most strains ferment mannitol but not sucrose or lactose. The Newcastle strain of serotype 6 does not ferment mannitol, but produces gas from glucose; the Manchester strain produces acid and gas from glucose and mannitol; the Boyd 88 strain produces acid but no gas from glucose and mannitol. S. boydii (subgroup C) contains 15 serotypes. Mannitol is fermented, but lactose is not fermented. S. sonnei (subgroup D) contains one serotype with two “phases”: I and II. Mannitol is fermented. ONPG is positive, but fermentation of lactose and sucrose is delayed until after 24 hours. (See Table 14.)

Yersinia enterocolitica If the results of the preliminary tests are consistent with a Yersinia strain, inoculate ornithine decarboxylase, Voges–Proskauer, ONPG, Simmons citrate agar, and peptone water enriched with sucrose, rhamnose, mellibiose, sorbitol or cellobiose. Examine the reactions after overnight incubation and identify the isolate according to Table 15. If the results agree with the culture of Y. enterocolitica, report: “Yersinia enterocolitica”.

Vibrio cholerae If the results of the preliminary tests are consistent with a Vibrio strain, inoculate ornithine decarboxylase, Simmons citrate agar, and sucrose peptone water, and incubate overnight. If one of these reactions is negative, test for aesculin hydrolysis, Voges–Proskauer, and fermentation of mannitol, arabinose and arbutin. Examine the reactions after overnight incubation and identify the isolate according to Table 16. 52

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Table 15. Biochemical reactions of Yersinia enterocolitica and other non-pathogenic Yersinia species

Y. Y. Y. Y. Y.

enterocolitica frederiksenii intermedia kristensenii pseudotuberculosis

MIL

Urease

Ornithine

VP 25 ∞C

Citrate

Sucrose

Rhamnose

Mellibiose

Sorbitol

Cellobiose

+/v/+/+/+/+/+/d/+/-/-

+ + + + +

+ + + + -

v + + -

d + -

v + + -

+ + +

+ +

+* + + + -

+ + + + -

Abbreviations: +: >95% positive; d: 26–74% positive; -: <5% positive; v: variable result; MIL: motility–indole–lysine medium; VP 25 ∞C: Voges–Proskauer agar at 25 ∞C incubation; Citrate: Simmons citrate agar. *except biotype 5.

Table 16. Biochemical reactions of vibrios found in stool Oxidase

Vibrio cholerae V. mimicus V. parahaemolyticus V. fluvialis V. furnissii V. hollisae Aeromonas hydrophila A. caviae A. veronii biotype sobria Plesiomonas shigelloides

+ + + + + + + + + +

KIA butt/slant

MIL

Ornithine

Citrate

Sucrose

Mannitol

Arabinose

Aesculin

Comments

K/A v/A K/A K/A K/AG K/A A/AG A/A A/AG K/A

+/+/+ +/+/+ +/+/+ +/d/+/-/+/+/+/+/+ +/+/+/+/+ +/+/+

+ + + +

+ + + + d + + -

+ + + + + + -

+ + + + + + + + -

d+ + + + + + -

+ d +

Poor grower Arb +/VP + Arb -/VP Arb -/VP + Arb -/VP -

Abbreviations: +: >95% positive; d+: 75–95% positive; d: 26–74% positive; -: <5% positive; KIA: Kligler’s iron agar; MIL: motility–indole–lysine medium; Ornithine: ornithine decarboxylase; Aesculin: aesculin hydrolysis; K: alkaline; A: acid; G: gas; Arb: arbutin fermentation; VP: Voges–Proskauer.

Table 17. Differentiation of biotypes of Vibrio cholerae Biotype

Haemagglutination Polymyxin B (50 units) Voges–Proskauer Haemolysis

Classical

El Tor

Negative reaction, no growth* Sensitive Negative reaction, no growth* Negative reaction, no growth

Positive reaction, growth* Resistant Positive reaction, growth* Variable

*Aberrant reactions may occur.

If a specific anti-Vibrio cholerae serogroup O1 serum is available, make a rapid slide agglutination test. In case of macroscopic agglutination report: “Vibrio cholerae O1”. If the antiserum is not available or if the identification is uncertain, send the isolate to a reference laboratory. Differentiation of V. cholerae O1 into classical and El Tor biotypes is not necessary for treatment or control, but for some of the isolates it should be done by one of the following tests (Table 17).

The indirect haemagglutination test 1. Prepare a 2.5% suspension of chicken or sheep red blood cells by repeated centrifugation and dilution in saline. 53

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2. Divide a clean glass slide into several squares with a pencil and place a loopful (3 mm) of the red cell suspension in each square. 3. Place a small portion of the growth from an agar or KIA slant in each red cell suspension and mix well. Clumping of the red cells occurs within 30–60 seconds with strains of the El Tor biotype. Known haemagglutinating (El Tor) and non-haemagglutinating strains should be used as controls for each new suspension of red cells. Newly isolated strains of classical biotypes are usually negative in the test, but old laboratory strains of the classical biotype may not always be negative in this reaction.

Polymyxin B susceptibility test 1. Spread a loopful of overnight peptone water culture of the isolate on a Mueller–Hinton or meat-extract agar. 2. Place a susceptibility disk containing 50 units of polymyxin B in the middle of the culture. 3. Place the plate in the refrigerator for 1 hour. 4. Incubate the plate overnight at 35 ∞C. Known strains of classical and El Tor biotypes should always be included as controls. Classical strains are sensitive to polymyxin B and a clear inhibitory zone is observed around the disk. The El Tor strains are resistant and no inhibitory zone is formed.

Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli Only a few tests are available in clinical laboratories to identify the Campylobacter species and subspecies. Campylobacter species are usually divided into two groups on the basis of growth temperature: thermotolerant species, which grow at 42–43 ∞C, and non-thermotolerant species, which grow at 15–25 ∞C. The thermotolerant species are Campylobacter jejuni subsp. jejuni, C. coli, C. lari, C. upsaliensis, and some strains of C. hyointestinalis. C. lari and C. hyointestinalis are resistant to nalidixic acid; C. jejuni, C. coli and C. upsaliensis are sensitive to it. C. jejuni subsp. jejuni, C. coli and C. lari are resistant to cefalotin; C. hyointestinalis and C. upsaliensis are sensitive to it. The differentiation within these groups is made on the basis of hippurate hydrolysis and the production of hydrogen sulfide in Kligler’s iron agar. The non-thermotolerant species are C. jejuni subsp. doylei, C. fetus, and Arcobacter butzleri. C. jejuni subsp. doylei will grow at neither 15 ∞C nor at 25 ∞C; C. fetus will grow at 25 ∞C but not at 15 ∞C; A. butzleri will grow at both temperatures. A. butzleri is resistant to cefalotin; C. jejuni subsp. doylei and C. fetus are sensitive to it (Table 18).

Serological identification Salmonella The nomenclature and classification of the salmonellae have changed several times and are still under discussion. According to present nomenclature, all Salmonella species belong to a single genus which is subdivided in six subgroups (also called subspecies), including the former genus Arizona. Subgroup

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Table 18. Biochemical indentification of Campylobacter species found in stool Growth at

Campylobacter jejuni subsp. jejuni C. jejuni subsp. doylei C. coli C. lari C. upsaliensis C. fetus subsp. fetus C. hyointestinalis Arcobacter butzleri d

H2S/KIA

Hippurate hydrolysis a

Nitrate reduction

Susceptible to Nalidixic acid b Cefalotinc

15 ∞C

25 ∞C

42 ∞C

-

-

+

-

+

+

S

R

+

+ + +

+ + + v -

+ + -

d -

+ + + + + +

S S R S R R v

S R R S S S R

Abbreviations: +: >95% positive; d+: 75–95% positive; d: 26–74% positive; d-: 5–25% positive; -: <5% positive; v: variable result; S: susceptible; R: resistant. H2S/KIA: Kligler’s iron agar. a Only deep purple colour is considered positive. b 30 mg nalidixic acid disk. c 30 mg cefalotin disk. d Catalase-negative or catalase weakly positive; Kligler’s iron agar.

1 corresponds to the typical salmonellae and includes among others: Salmonella typhi, S. paratyphi A, S. enteritidis, S. typhimurium, S. choleraesuis. This subgroup contains more than 2000 serotypes, which can be differentiated by their antigenic formula (O, H and Vi antigens). Serotypes in subgroup 1 continue to be named as if they were real species: Salmonella subgroup 1 serotype typhimurium is simply called S. typhimurium. More than 99% of human salmonella isolates belong to subgroup 1. The important antigens for serotyping Salmonella species are the somatic, or O, antigens and the flagellar, or H, antigens. O antigens are present in both motile and nonmotile organisms and are resistant to boiling; H antigens are present only in motile organisms and are sensitive to boiling. The majority of the Salmonella species are diphasic in the motile state and may exhibit two antigenic forms referred to as phases 1 and 2. These phases share the same O antigens but possess different H antigens. To identify the serotype it is necessary to identify the specific H antigens in both phases. These may not always be evident, and phase suppression may be necessary to confirm the latent phase. O antigens are designated by Arabic numerals. Phase 1 H antigens are designated by small Roman letters and phase 2 H antigens by Arabic numerals. For example, the antigenic formula for S. typhimurium is 1,4,[5],12:i:1,2, where O antigens are 1, 4, 5 and 12; phase 1 of the H antigen is “i” and phase 2 antigens are 1 and 2. A bracket indicates that the antigen may be absent, and an underlined antigen indicates that the antigen is associated with lysogenic conversion by a bacteriophage. This change in antigenic structure is only present when the bacteriophage is present and may be the only difference between certain serotypes. The Salmonella species have been placed in groups according to the presence of certain O antigens. These groups are often referred to as the Kauffmann–White scheme. Capital Roman letters designate the O group. In the original scheme the groups were A, B, C, D and E; these were subsequently expanded to A–Z with 4 subgroups in C, 3 in D, 4 in E and 2 in G. The O groups are defined by the presence of certain O antigens as follows: 55

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Group: A Ba C1 C2 D E1 F Antigen: 2 4;5 6;7 6;8 9 3;10 11 There are other variations in the antigenic structure: the change in colony appearance from smooth to rough, and the presence or absence of Vi antigen. When present the Vi antigen prevents agglutination by homologous O antiserum. The Vi antigen is usually found in fresh isolates and is lost rapidly on storage of the culture. The Vi antigen is important for the identification of S. typhi, which often is not agglutinated by heterologous H antisera.

Procedure for somatic O antigen analysis Direct slide agglutination test 1. Bring the saline and the reagents to room temperature before performing the test. 2. Place a drop of saline on a clean microscope slide. 3. With a sterile loop, emulsify a small portion of the growth from a moist agar slope in the drop of saline to produce a uniform and turbid suspension. 4. Examine the bacterial suspensions through a hand-lens or the low-power objective (¥10) of a microscope to ascertain that the suspension is not autoagglutinable in saline. 5. With a 10-ml loop take up 1 drop of Salmonella polyvalent O antiserum (A–I and Vi), and place it on the slide just beside the bacterial suspension. 6. Mix the antiserum and bacterial suspension and tilt the slide backwards and forwards for 1 minute. Look for clumping while viewing the suspension under good light. Distinct clumping during this period is a positive result. 7. If the result is positive, repeat the slide test with single-factor antiserum. Some Salmonella possess an envelope (Vi) antigen and, in the live or unheated form, are non-agglutinable with group C1 (O:6,7) or group D (O:9) antisera. Heat the suspension in boiling water for 20 minutes to remove the Vi antigen, cool, separate the bacteria by centrifugation, re-suspend in fresh saline, and test with the same antisera.

Procedure for H antigen analysis A preliminary identification of the major flagellar (H) antigen can be made by the direct slide agglutination test as described for the somatic O antigens. Occasionally it is necessary to increase the motility of the test organism by making several consecutive transfers in a semi-solid nutrient medium (“swarm agar”, see below). Antisera against those antigens are commercially available. However, a phase suppression is often required if identification of both flagellar phases is necessary for classification. This often requires a phase inversion with sera designed for this purpose.1 1. Prepare a semi-solid nutrient medium containing 0.2–0.4% agar. Add 1 ml of the medium to test-tubes. 2. Replace the corks from the test-tubes with cotton wool. 3. Melt the agar in boiling water and place the test-tubes with the melted agar in a 45 ∞C water-bath for 30 minutes.

a 1

All Salmonellae of subgroup B contain antigen 4, but only some contain antigen 5. Available from Statens Serum Institut, 5 Artillerivej, 2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark.

56

Fig. 8. Serological identification of Salmonella species

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4. Write the specimen number and the H antisera (H:b, H:i, and H:1,2) on each test-tube. Include a control test-tube. 5. Add 10 ml of each phase inversion heterologous H antiserum to the corresponding agar, shake the test-tube carefully, and leave the agar to solidify as a slope. 6. Make a heavy suspension of isolated colonies in saline, streak the slope using a loop, and incubate overnight. 7. With an inoculating loop emulsify a speck of the culture from the slope in a drop of saline. 8. With a 10-ml loop, take up 1 drop of one of the heterologous H antisera and place it on the slide just beside the bacterial suspension. 9. Mix the antiserum and bacterial suspension and tilt the slide backwards and forwards for 1 minute. Look for clumping while viewing the suspension under a good light. Distinct clumping during this period is a positive result. 10. Repeat the agglutination test with the other heterologous antisera if required, and identify the serotype with the help of the flow diagram on page 57.

Salmonella typhi To confirm the biochemical identification, test in antisera Vi, O group D (O:D), and H:d. Cultures agglutinating in Vi may be negative in O:D due to obstruction by the Vi antigen. Remove the Vi antigen by heating the suspension for 20 minutes at 100 ∞C and test in O:D antiserum again. If positive in Vi, O:D and H:d, report: “Salmonella typhi”. If positive only in O:D, report: “Salmonella, group D”. Salmonella paratyphi A To confirm the biochemical identification, test with Salmonella group A antiserum. If positive with group A antiserum, test with H:a antiserum, and if positive, report: “Salmonella paratyphi A”. If negative with H:a, report: “Salmonella group A”. If non-motile, they may be S. flexneri type 6 or S. boydii type 13 or 14, and should be tested with Shigella antisera B and D. Salmonella, other serotypes When the presumptive tests indicate typical Salmonella, test with Salmonella O groups A, B, C, D, and E antisera. • If positive in group B, test with flagellar antiserum H:b, H:i and H:1,2. If positive with H:b antiserum, the organism may be S. wien or S. paratyphi B. S. wien can be differentiated from S. paratyphi B by testing with H:1,w and H:2 antisera (if available). S. wien reacts with H:1,w and S. paratyphi B with H:2. • If positive with H:i or H:1,2 antiserum, make a phase inversion and test with heterologous H antiserum. If positive, report: “S. typhimurium”. If negative, report: “Salmonella, group B”. • If positive with group C antiserum, report: “Salmonella group C”. • If positive with group D antiserum, test with Vi, H:d and H:m antisera. If positive with Vi or H:d, report: “Salmonella typhi”. If positive with H:m, report: “Salmonella enteritidis”. If negative with Vi, H:d and H:m, report: “Salmonella group D”. • If biochemically the strain is a Salmonella but is negative with all O-group antisera, report: “Presumptive Salmonella species” and refer to National Reference Centre.

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Shigella Shigella can be subdivided into serogroups and serotypes by slide and tube agglutination tests with specific O-antisera. Slide agglutination will usually be sufficient, if the results are clear-cut. The antigen suspension should be made from a non-selective medium such as a nutrient agar or KIA, and the suspension should be observed for auto-agglutination before the antiserum is added.

Tests with Shigella groups A, B, C, and D antisera • If agglutination occurs with group A, report: “Shigella dysenteriae”. Test with S. dysenteriae type 1 antiserum. If positive, report: “S. dysenteriae type 1”. • If agglutination occurs with group B, report: “Shigella flexneri”. • If agglutination occurs with group C, report: “Shigella boydii”. • If agglutination occurs with group D, report: “Shigella sonnei”. Occasionally Shigella strains may fail to agglutinate in homologous antiserum due to the presence of a K antigen. Heating a saline suspension of the strain in a boiling water-bath for 20 minutes and repeating the test may reverse this. Other Gram-negative organisms may share antigens with Shigella strains and give false-positive agglutination with Shigella typing sera. Well-known examples of bacteria showing this cross-reaction are Plesiomonas shigelloides and Shigella sonnei phase 1, and certain strains of Hafnia and Shigella flexneri serotype 4a; but of greater importance is the cross-reaction with some strains of diarrhoeagenic E. coli.

Yersinia enterocolitica Y. enterocolitica possesses several somatic (O) antigens, which have been used for subdividing the species into at least 17 serogroups. Most human infections in Canada, Europe, and Japan are due to serotype O3; Infections due to serotype O9 have been reported mainly from the Scandinavian countries, and infections with serotype O8 are almost exclusively from the USA. There is serological cross-reaction between Y. enterocolitica O9 and Brucella spp.

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Upper respiratory tract infections Introduction The upper respiratory tract extends from the larynx to the nostrils and comprises the oropharynx and the nasopharynx together with the communicating cavities, the sinuses and the middle ear. The upper respiratory tract can be the site of several types of infection: — pharyngitis, sometimes involving tonsillitis, and giving rise to a “sore throat” — nasopharyngitis — otitis media — sinusitis — epiglottitis. Of all those infections, pharyngitis is by far the most frequent; in addition, the untreated infection may have serious sequelae. Only pharyngitis will be considered here. Most cases of pharyngitis have a viral etiology and follow a self-limiting course. However, approximately 20% are caused by bacteria and usually require treatment with appropriate antibiotics. As the physician is rarely able to make a distinction between viral and bacterial pharyngitis on clinical grounds alone, treatment should ideally be based on the result of bacteriological examination. Bacteriological diagnosis of pharyngitis is complicated by the fact that the oropharynx contains a heavy, mixed, normal flora of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. The normal flora generally outnumbers the pathogens and the role of the bacteriologist is to distinguish between the commensals and the pathogens. Where possible only the latter should be reported to the physician.

Normal flora of the pharynx The normal flora of the pharynx includes a large number of species that should be neither fully identified nor reported when observed in throat cultures: • viridans (a-haemolytic) streptococci and pneumococci • nonpathogenic Neisseria spp. • Moraxella (formerly Branhamella) catarrhalis (this can also be a respiratory pathogen) • staphylococci (S. aureus, S. epidermidis) • diphtheroids (with the exception of C. diphtheriae) • Haemophilus spp. • yeasts (Candida spp.) in limited quantity • various strictly anaerobic Gram-positive cocci and Gram-negative rods, spirochaetes and filamentous forms. The throats of elderly, immunodeficient, or malnourished patients, particularly when they have received antibiotics, may be colonized by Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., etc.) and by the nonfermentative Gram-negative groups (Acinetobacter spp. and Pseudomonas spp.). Such patients may also have in their pharynx a proliferation of S. aureus or of 60

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Candida spp., or other yeast-like fungi. Although these microorganisms do not cause pharyngitis, except in association with granulocytopenia, it is advisable to report such isolates to the clinician, as they occasionally indicate the existence of (or may sometimes give rise to) a lower respiratory tract infection (e.g. pneumonia) or bacteraemia. However, an antibiogram should not be performed routinely on these colonizing microorganisms.

Bacterial agents of pharyngitis Streptococcus pyogenes (Lancefield group A) is by far the most frequent cause of bacterial pharyngitis and tonsillitis. This infection is particularly prevalent in young children (5–12 years). When streptococcal pharyngitis is associated with a characteristic skin rash, the patient is said to have scarlet fever. In infants, a streptococcal throat infection may often involve the nasopharynx and be accompanied by a purulent nasal discharge. Non-group-A, b-haemolytic streptococci (e.g. groups B, C and G) are uncommon causes of bacterial pharyngitis and if detected should be reported. Pharyngeal infections due to S. pyogenes, if not properly treated, may give rise to sequelae such as rheumatic fever, and, less often, glomerulonephritis. Specific identification of, and antibacterial treatment directed against, S. pyogenes are primarily intended to prevent the occurrence of rheumatic fever. Corynebacterium diphtheriae is the cause of diphtheria, a disease that is endemic in many countries. It can reach epidemic proportions in countries where the vaccination programme has been interrupted. Characteristically (with a few exceptions), C. diphtheriae causes a typical form of infection, characterized by a greyish-white membrane at the site of infection (pharynx, tonsils, nose, or larynx). Diphtheria is a serious disease and the diagnosis is made on the basis of clinical findings. The physician would then generally make a specific request to culture for diphtheria bacilli. Gonococcal pharyngitis has been recognized with increasing frequency in some countries, with rates that parallel the incidence of cervical and urethral gonorrhoea. Culture of throat swabs for gonococci should be done on specific request from the clinician, using the appropriate selective medium (modified Thayer–Martin medium). Necrotizing ulcerative pharyngitis (Vincent angina) is a rare condition characterized by a necrotic ulceration of the pharynx with or without formation of a pseudomembrane. It is associated, at the site of infection, with a heavy mixed flora of strict anaerobes dominated by Gram-negative fusiform rods and spirochaetes, generally referred to as Fusobacterium spp. and Treponema vincentii, and possibly others. Although both species belong to the normal mouth flora, their presence in large numbers in a Gram-stained smear of ulcerated lesions should be reported as a “fusospirochaetal complex”. This microscopic diagnosis need not be confirmed by anaerobic culture, which is difficult and time-consuming. However, the presence of this complex does not exclude the need to search for other pathogens, particularly S. pyogenes. Although small numbers of C. albicans or other Candida species may be part of the normal oral flora, oral candidiasis results when the number of organisms increases considerably in certain pathological conditions, e.g. in malnourished premature babies, in immunodeficient adults (e.g. patients with HIV/AIDS), or in patients who have received broad-spectrum antimicrobials or cancer therapy. The affected area—tongue, tonsils, throat or buccal mucosa —may be extremely red, or covered with white patches or a confluent grey61

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white membrane (thrush). The diagnosis of candidiasis is best made by finding numerous yeast cells, some of them forming long mycelium-like filaments, in a Gram-stained smear of the exudate. Swabs from the upper respiratory tract may be submitted to the laboratory, not for the diagnosis of a clinical infection, but to detect a potential pathogen in a healthy subject, a pharyngeal or a nasal “carrier”. This should only be done as part of well-defined epidemiological surveys. The following pathogens can give rise to a carrier state in the upper respiratory tract: • Staphylococcus aureus. Sampling of patients and staff for nasal carriers is sometimes performed as part of an investigation of hospital outbreaks of Meticillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). • Neisseria meningitidis. Carriage of meningococci may be very prevalent (20% or more) even at non-epidemic times. Identification of pharyngeal carriers of meningococci is rarely needed, and need not be performed prior to the administration of prophylactic antibiotics to family or other close contacts of patients with meningococcal disease. • Streptococcus pyogenes. Carriage of this organism in low numbers may be prevalent, especially among schoolchildren (20–30%). • Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The carrier rate of the diphtheria bacillus is high in non-vaccinated populations. In such communities, it may be justified to identify and treat carriers among the close contacts of a patient with proven diphtheria. Carriers are rare when an immunization programme is correctly implemented.

Collection and dispatch of specimens Ideally, specimens should be collected by a physician or other trained personnel. The patient should sit facing a light source. While the tongue is kept down with a tongue depressor, a sterile cotton-wool swab is rubbed vigorously over each tonsil, over the back wall of the pharynx, and over any other inflamed area. Care should be taken not to touch the tongue or buccal surfaces. It is preferable to take two swabs from the same areas. One can be used to prepare a smear, while the other is placed into a glass or plastic container and sent to the laboratory. Alternatively, both swabs may be placed in the container and dispatched to the laboratory. If the specimen cannot be processed within 4 hours, the swab should be placed in a transport medium (e.g. Amies or Stuart).

Direct microscopy The fusospirochaetal complex of necrotizing ulcerative pharyngitis (Vincent angina) and Candida are best recognized on a Gram-stained smear, which should be prepared if the physician makes a special request. The Gramstained smear is not useful for the detection of streptococci or Neisseria spp. Moreover, the direct smear has poor sensitivity and specificity for the detection of the diphtheria bacillus, unless the specimen has been collected with care and is examined by an experienced microbiologist. In the absence of a physician’s request or of clinical information, a Gram-stained smear should not be made for throat swabs.

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Culture and identification Culture for Streptococcus pyogenes Immediately upon receipt in the laboratory, the swab should be rubbed over one-quarter of a blood agar plate, and the rest of the plate streaked with a sterile wire loop. The blood agar should be prepared from a basal agar medium without glucose (or with a low glucose content), e.g. tryptic soy agar (TSA). Acidification of glucose by S. pyogenes inhibits the production of haemolysin. Blood from any species, even human blood (fresh donor blood), can be used at a concentration of 5%. The plates should be filled to a depth of 4–5 mm. Sheep blood is preferred because it does indicate haemolysis of some commensal Haemophilus spp. and it gives no haemolysis with the zymogenes variant of Enterococcus faecalis. The recognition of b-haemolytic colonies can be improved, and their presumptive identification hastened, by placing a co-trimoxazole disc (as used for the susceptibility test) and a special low-concentration bacitracin disc over the initial streaked area. Because S. pyogenes is resistant and many other bacteria are susceptible to co-trimoxazole, this disc improves the visibility of b-haemolysis. Incubation in a candle-jar will detect most b-haemolytic streptococci. A simple way to increase haemolysis is to stab the agar surface perpendicularly by inserting the loop deep into the medium to encourage growth of subsurface colonies. After 18 hours and again after 48 hours of incubation at 35–37 ∞C, the blood plates should be examined for the presence of small (0.5–2 mm) colonies surrounded by a relatively wide zone of clear haemolysis. After Gram-staining to verify that they are Gram-positive cocci, the colonies should be submitted to specific identification tests for S. pyogenes. For clinical purposes, presumptive identification of S. pyogenes is based on its susceptibility to a low concentration of bacitracin. For this purpose, a special differential disc is used containing 0.02–0.05 IU of bacitracin. The ordinary discs used in the susceptibility test, with a content of 10 units, are not suitable for identification. A b-haemolytic streptococcus showing any zone of inhibition around the disc should be reported as S. pyogenes. If the haemolytic colonies are sufficiently numerous, the presence or absence of an inhibition zone may be read directly from the primary blood agar plate. If the colonies are less numerous, one or two should be picked from the primary plate, streaked on one-fifth of another plate to obtain confluent growth, and each inoculated area covered with a bacitracin disc. After overnight incubation, the subcultures should be read for inhibition zones. In some laboratories this presumptive identification is confirmed by serological demonstration of the specific cell wall polysaccharides. This can be done either by the classical precipitin method, or more rapidly by using a commercial kit for the rapid slide coagglutination or latex agglutination tests. If desirable, bacitracin-resistant b-haemolytic streptococci can be further identified using some simple physiological tests (see Table 19). Minute colonies of b-haemolytic streptococci may be encountered, which, when grown and serologically grouped, react with group A antiserum. These streptococci are not considered to be S. pyogenes and are not associated with the serious infections caused by group A streptococci. In reporting the presence of S. pyogenes in a throat culture, a semiquantitative answer should be given (rare, +, + +, or + + +). Patients with streptococcal pharyngitis generally show massive growth of S. pyogenes, with colonies over the entire surface of the plate. Plates of carriers generally show fewer than 20 colonies per plate. Even rare colonies of b-haemolytic streptococci should be confirmed and reported. 63

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Table 19. Differentiation of b-haemolytic streptococci Species

S. pyogenes

S. agalactiae

E. faecalis var. zymogenesa

Others

Lancefield group

A

B

D

C, G, F

Haemolysis Zone around the differential bacitracin disc Bile–aesculin agar (growth & blackening) Reverse CAMP test Co-trimoxazolee susceptibility PYR testf

b

bb

b

b

+

0c

0c

0d

0 0 0 +

0 + 0 0

+ 0 0 +

0 0 + 0

a

E. faecalis var. zymogenes produces b-haemolysis only on horse-blood agar. 5% are non-haemolytic. c 5% are positive. d 10% are positve. e Same disc as in the Kirby–Bauer method. f PYR: pyrrolidonyl-b-naphtylamide. b

Culture for Corynebacterium diphtheriae Although the diphtheria bacillus grows well on ordinary blood agar, growth is improved by inoculating one or two special media: • Löffler coagulated serum or Dorset egg medium. Although not selective, both of these media give abundant growth of the diphtheria bacillus after overnight incubation. Moreover, the cellular morphology of the bacilli is more “typical”: irregularly stained, short to long, slightly curved rods, showing metachromatic granules, and arranged in a V form or in parallel palisades. Metachromatic granules are more apparent after staining with methylene blue or Albert stain than with the Gram stain. • A selective tellurite blood agar. This medium facilitates isolation when the bacilli are few in number, as is the case for healthy carriers. On this medium, colonies of the diphtheria bacillus are greyish to black and are fully developed only after 48 hours. Suspicious colonies, consisting of bacilli with a coryneform morphology on the Gram-stained smear, should be subcultured to a blood agar plate to check for purity and for “typical” morphology. It should also be remembered that colonies of the mitis biotype of C. diphtheriae, which is the most prevalent, show a marked zone of b-haemolysis on blood agar. A presumptive report on the presence of C. diphtheriae can often be given at this stage. However, this should be confirmed or ruled out by some simple biochemical tests and by demonstration of the toxigenicity. As the latter requires inoculation of guinea-pigs or an in vitro toxigenic test (Elek) and has to be performed in a central laboratory, only rapid biochemical identification will be covered here. C. diphtheriae is catalase- and nitrate-positive. Urea is not hydrolysed. Acid without gas is produced from glucose and maltose, generally not from saccharose. The fermentation of glucose can be tested on Kligler medium. Urease activity can be demonstrated on MIU and nitrate reduction in nitrate broth in the same way as for Enterobacteriaceae. For the fermentation of maltose and saccharose, Andrade peptone water can be used as a base with a 1% final concentration of each carbohydrate. Results can usually be read after 24 hours, although it may be necessary to reincubate for one night. 64

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It must be emphasized that the microbiology laboratory’s role is to confirm the clinical diagnosis of diphtheria. Therapy should not be withheld pending receipt of laboratory reports. More detailed information on the isolation and identification of C. diphtheriae is found in Guidelines for the laboratory diagnosis of diphtheria.1

Susceptibility testing Routine susceptibility tests on throat or pharyngeal isolates are most often not required, and may even be misleading. The major pathogens involved in bacterial pharyngitis are S. pyogenes and C. diphtheriae benzylpenicillin and erythromycin are considered as the antimicrobials of choice to treat both types of infection. In cases of diphtheria, treatment with antitoxin is also indicated.

1 Begg N. Manual for the management and control of diphtheria in the European region. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe, 1994.

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Lower respiratory tract infections Introduction Lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) are infections occurring below the level of the larynx, i.e. in the trachea, the bronchi, or in the lung tissue (tracheitis, bronchitis, lung abscess, pneumonia). Sometimes, in pneumonia, the adjacent membranous covering of the lung is involved, resulting in roughening (pleurisy) and sometimes production of fluid in the pleural cavity (pleural effusion). A special form of LRTI is pulmonary tuberculosis, which is common in many countries. The patient may cough up aerosols containing tubercle bacilli (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) which can be inhaled by other people. This form of the disease (“open” tuberculosis) is easily spread from person to person, and is therefore a serious communicable disease. Many patients with LRTI cough up purulent (pus-containing) sputum that is generally green or yellowish in colour; this sputum may be cultured and examined grossly and microscopically. There are other infections in which little or no sputum is produced: Legionnaire disease (caused by Legionella pneumophila), pneumonia due to Mycoplasma pneumoniae (“primary atypical pneumonia”), and Chlamydia pneumonia. These diseases require specialized techniques (serology and isolation on special cultures) for their diagnosis and will not be discussed further here. Apart from pulmonary tuberculosis (see below), most requests for sputum microscopy and culture concern patients with respiratory infections associated with purulent sputum.

The most common infections Acute and chronic bronchitis In patients with acute bronchitis (usually following an acute viral infection, such as a common cold or influenza), sputum is not usually cultured unless the patient fails to show signs of clinical improvement. Chronic bronchitis is a long-lasting, disabling respiratory disease with periodic acute attacks. Most patients generally cough up sputum every day, which is usually grey and mucoid; the disease also has episodes when the condition of the patient becomes worse and obviously purulent sputum is coughed up. This is termed an acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. The typical respiratory pathogens (Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, or less often Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis) are frequently found in sputum samples.

Lung abscess An abscess may form in the lung following the inhalation of a foreign body, of the stomach contents, or of upper respiratory tract (mouth or throat) secretions. This is sometimes termed “aspiration pneumonia”. Attempts may be made to culture coughed-up sputum (which is often extremely foul-smelling),

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but when there is an abscess (as demonstrated by radiography) the pus contained in it should be examined microscopically and cultured. Unfortunately, there is no medical agreement on how this pus should be obtained, but direct puncture and withdrawal of pus is one of the possibilities. Anaerobic bacteria such as Prevotella melaninogenica (formerly Bacteroides melaninogenicus) and Peptostreptococcus spp., derived from the mouth or throat flora, are often very important causative agents. Pus should be collected, transported, and examined according to standard methods for anaerobic culture of pus (see p. 86 and pp. 98–102).

Pneumonia and bronchopneumonia Acute lobar pneumonia usually affects only a single lobe of the lung. This infection is nearly always caused by S. pneumoniae. This form of pneumonia occasionally occurs in epidemic form. A rare cause of a rather similar form of pneumonia is Klebsiella pneumoniae. While a few patients infected with S. pneumoniae or K. pneumoniae will have classical pneumonia, the most frequent form of the disease is bronchopneumonia, with patches of infiltration and inflammation (termed “consolidation”) distributed over one or often both lungs. Many different kinds of viruses or bacteria can be associated with bronchopneumonia. Apart from S. pneumoniae, and sometimes H. influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus is a cause of bronchopneumonia, particularly during influenza or measles epidemics. Gram-negative rods (in particular, E. coli and K. pneumoniae) and P. aeruginosa are also frequently found. These infections are all common in intensive-care departments, especially when broad-spectrum antibiotics are widely used or mechanical respiration is carried out, and are indicative of indiscriminate use of antibiotics and failure to monitor patients carefully for early signs of infection. If there is a pleural effusion, the fluid should be examined microscopically and cultured according to the procedures described for pus and exudates.

Pulmonary tuberculosis The sputum of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis is usually not highly purulent, but should not be rejected for tuberculosis investigation because of this. An acid-fast stained smear (Ziehl–Neelsen) should be examined microscopically to detect immediately any patients who have acid-fast bacteria in their sputum1. After the smear has been stained, the sputum should be treated by a decontamination procedure (see p. 72) in order to kill as many of the nonmycobacterial organisms as possible and to leave the tubercle bacilli viable and thus suitable for culture on Löwenstein–Jensen medium. Because the bacteriological procedures for the diagnosis of pyogenic respiratory infections, such as bronchitis and pneumonia, are so fundamentally different from those for tuberculosis, they will be considered separately. The physician must make it clear to the laboratory whether he or she wishes examinations for:

1

See Manual of basic techniques for a health laboratory, 2nd ed. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2003.

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• pyogenic bacteria (H. influenzae, S. pneumoniae, etc.), • tubercle bacteria (M. tuberculosis), or • both types of bacteria.

Collection of sputum specimens The collection of good sputum specimens is an art in itself and has been described in other books1. Examination of a badly collected sputum specimen can give misleading results because of contamination with the normal bacterial flora present in the mouth and throat; “sputum” consisting of saliva and food particles should not be examined. The sputum should be collected in a sterile wide-mouthed container with a secure, tight-fitting cover and sent to the laboratory without delay. If the sputum is allowed to stand after collection, overgrowth of contaminating bacteria may take place before the examination is carried out and the results of smears and cultures will be highly misleading. For this reason, it is not recommended that sputum specimens be sent to the laboratory by mail. The only exceptions are specimens for tuberculosis examination that may have to be sent to a district or regional laboratory. The local and national postal regulations for the transmission of infected (pathological) material must be strictly applied.

Processing of sputum in the laboratory (for non-tuberculous infections) After collection sputum must be immediately processed or kept in a refrigerator.

Macroscopic evaluation The macroscopic appearance of the sputum should be recorded. Possible descriptions include: purulent, green purulent, yellow mucopurulent (i.e. partially mucoid and partially purulent) blood-stained blood-stained, with green floccules *grey, mucoid *grey, frothy *white, mucoid *white, frothy *white, mucoid, with some food particles *watery (i.e. only saliva present) *watery, with some food particles

1

Specimen collection and transport for microbiological investigation. Alexandria, WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, 1995 (WHO Regional Publications, Eastern Mediterranean Series 8). Manual of basic techniques for a health laboratory, 2nd ed. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2003. Technical guide for sputum examination for tuberculosis by direct microscopy. Bulletin of the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 4th ed. 1996.

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Sputum specimens marked with an asterisk should not normally be examined for non-tuberculous infections.

Microscopic examination A portion of the purulent or mucopurulent sputum should be used for the preparation of a Gram-stained smear. If no floccules of pus can be seen (e.g. in a grey mucoid sputum sample), the Gram-stained smear may show only the presence of large, rather square, squamous epithelial cells, frequently covered with masses of adherent bacteria. This is an indication that the specimen consists mainly of mouth or throat secretions, and culture should not be carried out as it is not relevant, and usually highly misleading. An accepted guideline is to reject, for culture, any specimen that contains fewer than 10 polymorphonuclear neutrophils per epithelial cell1. In many patients with acute respiratory infections (e.g. pneumonia) and purulent sputum, the emergency examination of a Gram-stained smear may provide guidance to the clinician in the choice of antimicrobial chemotherapy. Possible results include: • Gram-positive diplococci surrounded by an empty space from the unstained capsules (suggestive of S. pneumoniae); • small Gram-negative coccobacilli (probably H. influenzae); • Gram-negative diplococci, intracellular and extracellular (suggestive of Movaxella catarrhalis; • Gram-positive cocci in grape-like clusters (suggestive of S. aureus); • Gram-negative rods (suggestive of the presence of Enterobacteriaceae or Pseudomonas spp.); • large Gram-positive yeast-like cells, often with mycelia (suggestive of the presence of Candida spp.).

Cultural procedures and interpretation When microscopy of the specimen demonstrates an acceptable quality of the sputum, select a floccule of purulent material (or of the most nearly purulent material available) using a sterile swap or loop and inoculate on to the various culture plates. A suggested routine set of culture media is as follows: • blood agar, with a streak of S. aureus to facilitate satellite growth of H. influenzae, and with an optochin disc placed in the middle of the secondary streaking, • chocolate agar, • MacConkey agar. The blood agar and chocolate agar plates are incubated at 35–36 ∞C in an atmosphere containing extra carbon dioxide (e.g. in a candle jar) and the MacConkey plate is incubated in air.

1

Heinemann HS & Radano RR. Acceptability and cost savings of selective sputum microbiology in a community teaching hospital. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 1979, 10: 567–573.

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If grape-like clusters of Gram-positive cocci were present in the stained smear, an extra mannitol salt agar (MSA) plate is suggested. The presence of Grampositive, yeast-like structures in the stained smear may be an indication for the inoculation of a tube of Sabouraud dextrose agar (which needs to be incubated for at least 3 days at 35–37 ∞C). MSA and Sabouraud cultures do not need to be done routinely for all sputum specimens. Cultures should be inspected after incubation overnight (18 hours) but reincubation for an extra 24 hours may be indicated when growth is less than expected from the microscopic findings, or when only tiny colonies are present. Typical findings include the following: • Flat, clear colonies with concave centres and zones of green (a-) haemolysis, as well as a zone of inhibition of growth around the optochin disc, may be S. pneumoniae. If the reading of the optochin test result on the primary plate is inconclusive, the test should be repeated on a subculture. It should not be forgotten that other a-haemolytic colonies (the so-called viridans streptococci) are normally present in the flora of the mouth and throat. • Tiny, water-drop colonies growing as non-haemolytic satellite colonies on the blood agar plate, but much larger clear colonies on the chocolate agar or enriched blood agar plates, suggest the presence of H. influenzae. These colonies are usually present in large numbers, generally more than 20 per plate. Some laboratories choose to confirm this by X and V factor dependence tests, but these have to be very carefully controlled and are not strictly necessary. Serological typing of respiratory strains is usually not helpful, as most of them are “rough” and untypable. • Brittle, dry, grey-white colonies on blood agar and chocolate agar plates that can be moved intact with a loop may indicate M. catarrhalis. If desired, a set of sugar degradation tests may be set up (all test results negative), but most laboratories do not do this. Moraxella organisms are strongly oxidase-positive, and their colonial and microscopic appearance is highly characteristic. As the morphologcal appearance of Moraxella resembles Neisseria spp. the tributyrin test may be used for differentiation, since Moraxella hydrolyses tributyrin. • Medium-sized, golden-buff colonies are formed by S. aureus. The coagulase and the mannitol fermentation tests are positive, although the slide coagulase test (“bound” coagulase test) is occasionally negative. If there is a contradiction between the appearance of the colonies and the slide test, then a tube coagulase (“free” coagulase) test should be performed. • Colonies on MacConkey agar suggest that Enterobacteriaceae or Pseudomonas spp. or Acinetobacter spp. are present. • Whitish, round, matt colonies on the blood agar and chocolate agar plates may be Candida albicans, which will also grow within 2–3 days on a Sabouraud dextrose agar culture. It should be stressed that rare colonies of any of the above organisms either stem from the normal commensal flora of the respiratory tract, or are a result of colonization (e.g. coliforms, yeasts). As they may not be relevant to the management of the patient, they should not be reported, or should be reported as colonizing flora.

Susceptibility testing Susceptibility tests should be performed only when the amount of growth is considered significant, and not on every bacterial species present in small 70

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Table 20. Interpretation of susceptibility test results of fastidious organismsa Total zone diameter (mm) Resistant

Intermediate

Susceptible

S. pneumoniae (Mueller–Hinton with 5% sheep blood in 5% CO2 incubation Oxacillin (1 mg) (for benzylpenicillin) Tetracycline (30 mg) Erythromycin (15 mg) Chloramphenicol (30 mg) Co-trimoxazole (25 mg)

19b 18 15 20 15

— 19–22 16–20 — 16–18

20 22 21 21 19

M. catarrhalis (Mueller–Hinton) Tetracycline (30 mg) Erythromycin (15 mg) Co-trimoxazole (25 mg)

14 13 10

15–18 14–22 11–15

19 23 16

a National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS). Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. M100-S8. Vol 18, 1998. b Resistant or intermediate.

numbers in the culture. Interpretations of some possible results are presented in Table 20. For Enterobacteriaceae and staphylococci the standardized disc-diffusion method (Kirby–Bauer) should be used. Strains of S. pneumoniae should be tested on Mueller–Hinton agar, supplemented with 5% sheep blood, for susceptibility to tetracycline, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, and benzylpenicillin. Conventional blood agar can also be used. For benzylpenicillin, a disc containing 1 mg of oxacillin is preferred to a disc containing benzylpenicillin itself as results with this oxacillin agree better with the MIC value for benzylpenicillin; it is also more stable. Benzylpenicillin discs may deteriorate rapidly in hot climates and thus produce unreliable results. H. influenzae strains should be tested for b-lactamase production, using, for example, the Nitrocefin test. Rare strains of H. influenzae may be ampicillinresistant without producing b-lactamase. At this stage it is not recommended to test H. influenzae for antibiotic susceptibility by the disc-diffusion technique. M. catarrhalis isolates should be tested for b-lactamase production. Testing against tetracycline and erythromycin is optional. Candida albicans cultures need not be tested against any antimicrobial agents. Most laboratories give a semi-quantitative assessment of the bacteria cultured on solid media, which might be presented as follows: (+) + ++ +++ 71

= few colonies = light growth = moderately heavy growth = heavy growth.

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Culture for Mycobacterium tuberculosis In addition to the preparation of a direct, acid-fast stained smear, material (usually, but not always, sputum) should be cultured for M. tuberculosis, whenever this disease is clinically suspected. Some patients, in whom pulmonary tuberculosis is suspected, may not cough up any sputum. A little sputum may, in fact, be produced but is immediately swallowed. In this case, the physician should collect a specimen of fasting gastric juice (generally obtained early in the morning) and neutralize the material using sodium bicarbonate (100 mg) before sending it to the laboratory. The gastric juice should be treated in the same way as sputum. It is expensive to culture all sputum samples routinely for tubercle bacilli (although some unsuspected patients would be discovered); therefore this is not routinely recommended.

Concentration–digestion–decontamination procedures Sputum from patients with tuberculosis infection often contains solid particles of material from the lungs and this material should be selected for culture, whenever it is found. However, as tuberculous sputum is coughed up through the throat and mouth, contamination with the normal flora of the pharynx is inevitable. The contaminating bacteria must be killed if the Löwenstein– Jensen culture media are not to become overgrown. A concentrationdigestion-decontamination procedure of any specimen collected from a site where there are normal flora is therefore recommended. The following three procedures are widely used: — Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (Petroff); — N-acetyl-l-cysteine–sodium hydroxide (NALC–NaOH); and — Zephiran–trisodium phosphate Sodium hydroxide procedure (Petroff) This procedure liquifies the sometimes mucoid sputum while destroying the contaminating organisms. However, sodium hydroxide is also toxic for mycobacteria, and care must be taken when using the method to ensure that: — the final concentration of NaOH does not exceed 2%; — the tubercle bacilli are not exposed to sodium hydroxide for more than 30 minutes, including centrifugation time. 1. Mix equal volumes of sputum and 4% sodium hydroxide 40 g/l (previously sterilized by autoclaving) in a sterile, leak-proof, 50-ml glass bottle or jar, or plastic conical centrifuge tube. 2. Incubate at room temperature (25–30 ∞C) for 15 minutes, shaking the mixture carefully every 5 minutes using a mechanical shaker. In hot climates some cooling may be needed or the reaction time may be reduced to 10–15 minutes. 3. Centrifuge immediately or dilute the mixture to the 50-ml mark with distilled water or phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) to stop the action of the NaOH. 4. After 15 minutes, centrifuge the specimen at 3000 g for 15 minutes. Discard the supernatant carefully into a splash-proof container filled with a suitable disinfectant (phenol- or glutaraldehyde-based). Neutralize the sediment drop by drop with a 2-mol/l HCl solution containing 2% of phenol red, combined with shaking, until the colour changes persistently from red to yellow. Alternatively add one drop of indicator solution and then add HCl drop by drop while shaking continuously. 72

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5. If the media is to be inoculated immediately, suspend the neutralized deposit in 1–2 ml of sterile 0.85% NaCl or sterile distilled water. Otherwise, suspend the sediment in 1–2 ml of sterile bovine albumin fraction V. N-acetyl-L-cysteine–sodium hydroxide procedure A lower concentration of NaOH in the presence of a mucolytic agent like Nacetyl-l-cysteine (NALC) is less aggressive against tubercle bacilli. Neither the incubation time nor the temperature are as crucial as in the NaOH procedure. However, the short shelf-life of no more than 24 hours of the NALC–NaOH working solution requires daily preparation. 1. Combine equal volumes of sodium citrate solution (29 g sodium citrate dihydrate per litre of distilled water) and 4% sodium hydroxide (40 g/l), and autoclave the mixture. The solution may be stored at room temperature. 2. Just prior to use, add 0.5 g NALC to 100 ml of NaOH–sodium citrate solution. 3. Depending on the number of specimens that must be decontaminated, prepare 2.5 g of NALC in 500 ml of NaOH–sodium citrate solution or 5 g NALC in 1000 ml of NaOH–sodium citrate solution. After 24 hours the reagent must be discarded. 4. Add an equal volume of NALC–NaOH working solution to the specimen in a sterile, leak-proof, 50-ml glass bottle or jar, or plastic conical centrifuge tube. Securely tighten the screw-cap, invert the tube and shake it gently for no longer than 30 seconds. 5. Let the tube stand for 15 minutes at room temperature (20–25 ∞C). 6. Dilute the mixture to the 50-ml mark with distilled water or with 67 mmol/l phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) to stop the action of the NaOH. Discard the supernatant carefully into a splash-proof container filled with a suitable disinfectant (phenol- or glutaraldehyde-based). 7. If the media is to be inoculated immediately, suspend the deposit in 1–2 ml of sterile 0.85% NaCl or sterile distilled water. Otherwise, suspend the sediment in 1–2 ml of sterile bovine albumin fraction V. Zephiran–trisodium phosphate procedure Mycobacteria can withstand prolonged treatment with this more gentle procedure. Therefore, incubation time and temperature are not critical. 1. Prepare 1 kg of trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4◊12H2O) in 4 litres of hot distilled water, add 7.5 ml of 17% benzalkonium chloride (Zephiran), mix well, and store at room temperature. 2. Mix an equal volume of sputum (up to 10 ml) with the Zephiran–trisodium phosphate solution in a 50-ml sterile, leak-proof centrifugation glass bottle. Tighten the cap and vigorously shake the mixture manually or using a mechanical shaker for 30 minutes. 3. Leave the mixture to stand for an additional 30 minutes. 4. Centrifuge at 3000 g for 15 minutes. Discard the supernatant carefully into a splash-proof container filled with a suitable disinfectant (phenol- or glutaraldehyde-based), and re-suspend the sediment in 20 ml of neutralizing phosphate buffer, pH 6.61. 1

Preparation of neutralizing phosphate buffer 67 mmol/l. Stock solutions: A. Dissolve 9.47 g of anhydrous disodium phosphate in 1 litre of distilled water. B. Dissolve 9.07 g of anhydrous monopotassium phosphate in 1 litre of distilled water. For pH 6.8 buffers: mix 50 ml of stock solution A with 50 ml of stock solution B. For pH 6.6 buffers. mix 37.5 ml of stock solution A with 62.5 ml of stock solution B. Check the pH. Add solution A to raise the pH, or solution B to lower the pH as necessary.

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5. Centrifuge once again at 3000 g for 15 minutes. Discard the supernatant and inoculate the sediment onto the media. Culture 1. Inoculate 3 drops (about 0.1 ml) of the sediment onto at least three plates of Löwenstein–Jensen medium or equivalent. 2. Determine the contamination rate of the incubated media regularly and record the number of contaminated plates. The rate of contamination should be 3–5%. Excessive contamination (over 5%) of the Löwenstein–Jensen cultures usually indicates that the decontamination procedure was not effective enough. Contamination rates of <3% suggest that the decontamination procedure was too vigorous and mycobacteria present in the samples may fail to grow.

Interpretation of cultures for M. tuberculosis The tubes containing the Löwenstein–Jensen medium should be incubated for 2–3 days at 35–37 ∞C in a horizontal position, with the tops loosened half a turn. The culture tubes should then be stored at 37 ∞C for six weeks and inspected for growth at weekly intervals. During these weekly inspections, the growth of any colonies of bacteria on the surface should be noted. A smear should be carefully made and stained by the Ziehl–Neelsen procedure. If the organisms are not acid-fast bacilli, then the culture may be recorded as contaminated. Typical human strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis are “rough, tough and buff”, and can sometimes be seen after 2–3 weeks of incubation (but seldom earlier). Bovine strains (M. bovis) are generally smooth and whitish-cream in colour. Other, generally nonpathogenic, mycobacterial species may grow more quickly (sometimes after only several days) and may or may not produce pigmented growth (red, yellow, or orange). If an isolate has the typical colonial appearance and the Ziehl–Neelsen stained smear from a colony is also typical, it should be reported as “Mycobacterium spp., probably M. tuberculosis”; the isolate should also be sent to the national or local reference laboratory for identification and susceptibility testing, as these are specialized procedures.

General note on safety Sputum should always be treated with care, and leak-proof specimen containers should be used. This is particularly important if the postal service has to be used. It is advisable that all procedures involving sputum (even when tuberculosis is not mentioned on the request form) are carried out in a bacteriological safety box. Even a home-made version is better than none at all. It is strongly recommended that laboratories that process specimens supposedly containing pathogenic mycobacteria meet at least the biosafety level 2 requirements.1 Particular care must be taken when opening, closing, or shaking bottles, and when centrifuging materials. The production of infected aerosols may infect

1

Manual of basic techniques for a health laboratory, 2nd ed. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2003.

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laboratory personnel and appropriate occupational health procedures should be applied.1 Transportation of cultures of M. tuberculosis by mail to the national reference laboratory presents special risks in the event of accidents or breakage of the container. Only approved containers and dispatch materials conforming to postal requirements should be used.

1

Laboratory services in tuberculosis control Part I: Organization and management. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1998 (unpublished document WHO/TB/98.258).

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Sexually transmitted diseases Introduction The number of microorganisms known to be sexually transmitted or transmissible, and the spectrum of clinical syndromes associated with these agents, have expanded enormously during the past twenty years. Table 21 lists selected sexually transmissible microorganisms and the diseases they cause. The etiological diagnosis of some of these conditions is a major challenge to the clinical microbiology laboratory. A laboratory diagnosis is an essential component in the management and control of diseases such as gonorrhoea and syphilis, and has implications not only for the patient but also for his or her sex partners. This section discusses briefly the identification of the most commonly occurring sexually transmissible microorganisms found in specimens from the female and male genital tract. Viruses and bacterial agents such as Ureaplasma urealyticum, Mycoplasma hominis, and Mobiluncus spp. will not be dealt with

Table 21. Selected sexually transmissible microorganisms and related syndromes Etiological agent

Syndrome

Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Bartholinitis, cervicitis, chorio-amnionitis, conjunctivitis, disseminated gonococcal infection (arthritis, dermatitis, tenosynovitis), endometritis, epididymitis, infertility, pharyngitis, prepubertal vaginitis, perihepatitis, proctitis, prostatitis, salpingitis, urethritis

Chlamydia trachomatis (serovars D–K)

Bartholinitis, cervicitis, conjunctivitis in infants, endometritis, epididymitis, infant pneumonia, infertility, otitis media in infants, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), perihepatitis, prepubertal vaginitis, proctitis, Reiter syndrome, salpingitis, urethritis

Chlamydia trachomatis (serovars L1, L2, L3,)

Lymphogranuloma venereum

Treponema pallidum

Syphilis

Haemophilus ducreyi

Chancroid

Calymmatobacterium granulomatis

Granuloma inguinale (donovanosis)

Mobiluncus spp.

Bacterial vaginosis

Human (alpha) herpesvirus (HSV I and HSV II)

Genital and orolabial herpes, meningitis, neonatal herpes, proctitis

Cytomegalovirus (CMV)

Congenital infection

Human papilloma virus (HPV)

Cervical cancer, viral warts

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related complex

Hepatitis B virus (HBV)

Hepatitis B

Gardnerella vaginalis

Urethritis, vaginitis

Candida albicans

Balanoposthitis, vulvovaginitis

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here. For more extensive information, the reader is referred to the relevant WHO publication.1

Urethritis in men Urethritis in men is clinically characterized by a urethral discharge and/or dysuria, but asymptomatic infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Chlamydia trachomatis occurs frequently. If untreated, gonococcal and chlamydial urethritis may progress to epididymitis. Rectal and oropharyngeal infection with N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis may occur in homosexual men. For the purpose of patient management, urethritis should be divided into gonococcal urethritis and nongonococcal urethritis (NGU). Approximately half the cases of NGU are caused by C. trachomatis, but the etiology of the majority of the remaining cases has not been fully elucidated. According to some studies, Ureaplasma urealyticum may be a cause of urethritis, and Trichomonas vaginalis can be found in 1–3% of cases of NGU. Intra-urethral infection with human herpesvirus may yield a urethral discharge. Bacterial agents such as staphylococci, various Enterobacteriaceae, Acinetobacter spp., and Pseudomonas spp. can be isolated from the urethra of healthy men, but have not been shown to cause urethritis. The examination of specimens for C. trachomatis is complicated and will not be discussed in this section. Besides isolation in cell culture systems, nonculture methods for the detection of chlamydial antigens by enzyme immunoassays, immunofluorescence assays and nucleic acid amplification tests have recently become available. These methods, while promising, remain prohibitively expensive.

Collection and transport of specimens For the collection of urethral specimens, a swab with a narrow diameter or a sterile bacteriological loop should be inserted 3–4 cm into the urethra and gently rotated before withdrawal. Purulent discharge can be collected directly on a swab or on the inoculating loop. The composition of both the tip and the shaft of the swab is important. For the culture of N. gonorrhoeae, charcoaltreated cotton tips or calcium alginate or Dacron tips are preferred. If these special, commercially prepared, sampling swabs are not available and regular cotton swabs are used, the specimen should be inoculated immediately. A prostatic massage does not increase the rate of isolation of gonococci or chlamydiae in cases of urethritis. Anorectal specimens are obtained by inserting a swab 4–5 cm into the anal canal. For oropharyngeal specimens, the posterior pharynx and the tonsillar crypts should be swabbed and plated immediately. Ideally the inoculation of specimens for the isolation of N. gonorrhoeae should be made directly onto the culture medium in the clinic. Inoculated plates should be placed in a candle jar or into an atmosphere containing 5–10% carbon dioxide, with high humidity. If immediate plating and incubation are not possible, a transport medium such as Amies or Stuart transport medium should be used. The transport time should be as short as possible, and must

1

Van Dyck E, Meheus AZ, Piot P. Laboratory diagnosis of sexually transmitted diseases. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1999.

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be less than 12 hours in ambient temperatures up to 30 ∞C. Refrigeration is to be avoided.

Direct examination and interpretation Most studies have shown that the presence of four or more polymorphonuclear (PMN) leukocytes per oil-immersion field is strongly indicative of urethritis in men. This criterion is particularly useful to the clinician who has to decide whether to treat patients with vague urethral complaints. In most cases of gonorrhoea in the male, the discharge is purulent, and numerous polymorphonuclear leukocytes (>10 per oil-immersion field) can be seen in the urethral smear. However, this is not always the case in NGU, which yields a less severe inflammatory reaction. Smears with more than 4 PMN leukocytes per oil-immersion field, and without intracellular Gram-negative diplococci, are highly suggestive of NGU. A thinly spread smear, prepared by rolling a swab over a slide, should be heatfixed and methylene-blue or Gram-stained. The presence of Gram-negative intracellular diplococci in PMN leukocytes in a urethral smear is strongly suggestive of gonorrhoea. Gram-stained smears of intra-urethral specimens from asymptomatic males, from blind rectal swabs, or from oropharyngeal samples are not recommended. However, microscopic examination of purulent material obtained under anoscopy has a fairly high diagnostic value.

Culture of Neisseria gonorrhoeae Inoculated plates with modified Thayer–Martin (MTM)1 agar (or New York City medium (NYC))2 should be incubated at 35 ∞C in a humid atmosphere enriched with carbon dioxide (candle jar), and should be observed daily for two days. Laboratories processing a large number of specimens for N. gonorrhoeae often prefer to use a non-selective chocolate agar enriched with IsoVitaleX, or an equivalent supplement, in addition to the selective MTM, because as many as 3–10% of gonococcal strains in a given area may be susceptible to the concentration of vancomycin used in selective media.

1 Modified Thayer–Martin agar is prepared by adding at 50 ∞C a mixture of antimicrobials and IsoVitaleX, or an equivalent supplement, to chocolate agar prepared from GC agar or Columbia agar as basal medium. Antimicrobial mixtures containing 3 or 4 antimicrobials are commercially available from several sources; VCN mixture contains vancomycin, colistin, and nystatin; VCNT mixture also contains trimethoprim. The final concentrations of the antimicrobials in the prepared medium are:

— — — —

vancomycin: colistin: nystatin: trimethoprim lactate:

3 mg/ml 7.5 mg/ml 12.5 IU/ml 5 mg/ml

2

Modified New York City medium is prepared by adding 500 ml of sterile GC agar base cooled to 50 ∞C, the following supplements: — 50 ml horse blood lysed by adding 5 ml/l saponin, — sterile yeast autolysate, — an antimicrobial mixture containing vancomycin, colistin, amphotericin, and trimethoprim. The ingredients are commercially available from Oxoid Ltd, Wade Rd, Basingstoke, Hants RG24 8PW, England.

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Gonococcal colonies may still not be seen after 24 hours. They appear after 48 hours as grey to white, opaque, raised, and glistening colonies of different sizes and morphology.

Identification of Neisseria gonorrhoeae A presumptive identification of N. gonorrhoeae isolated from urogenital specimens is based on a positive oxidase reaction and a Gram-stained smear showing Gram-negative diplococci. Confirmation of the identification can be obtained by carbohydrate degradation assays or other tests, using methods and media discussed extensively elsewhere.1

Antimicrobial susceptibility testing There is considerable geographical variation in the susceptibility of N. gonorrhoeae strains to benzylpenicillin. In some areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa or South-east Asia, most gonococcal strains are now b-lactamase-producing. Chromosomally mediated resistance to benzylpenicillin not based on blactamase production is also becoming more common in many countries. However, the disc-diffusion test is not reliable in detecting such strains. In areas where benzylpenicillin, ampicillin or amoxicillin is still used for the treatment of gonococcal infections, N. gonorrhoeae isolates (particularly from cases of treatment failure) should be routinely screened for b-lactamase production by one of the recommended tests, such as the Nitrocefin test.2 For the Nitrocefin test, a dense suspension from several colonies is prepared in a small tube with 0.2 ml saline; 0.025 ml of Nitrocefin is then added to the suspension and mixed for one minute. A rapid change in the colour, from yellow to pink or red, indicates that the strain produces b-lactamase. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of N. gonorrhoeae by the disc-diffusion assay is not recommended in routine practice.

Genital specimens from women The vaginal flora of premenopausal women normally consists predominantly of lactobacilli, and of a wide variety of facultative aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Abnormal vaginal discharge may be due to: — vaginitis: Gardnerella vaginalis, Candida albicans; — bacterial vaginosis: overgrowth of anaerobes and Mobiluncus spp.; — cervicitis: Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis. Other bacteria, such as Enterobacteriaceae, are not proven causes of vaginitis. Vaginitis in prepubertal girls may be due to N. gonorrhoeae or C. trachomatis.

1 Van Dyck E, Meheus AZ, Piot P. Laboratory diagnosis of sexually transmitted diseases. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1999. 2 The Nitrocefin reagent is obtainable from Oxoid Ltd, Wade Road, Basingstoke, Hants RG24 8PW, England, and consists of 1 mg of Nitrocefin (SR112) and 1 vial of rehydration fluid (SR112A). The tube test can be replaced by a disc test, using Nitrocefin-impregnated paper discs (Cefinase discs, available from BD Diagnostic Systems, 7 Loveton Circle, Sparks, MD 21152, USA).

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Bacterial vaginosis (nonspecific vaginitis) is a condition characterized by an excessive, malodorous, vaginal discharge associated with a significant increase of Mobiluncus spp. and various obligate anaerobes, and a decrease in the number of vaginal lactobacilli. A minimum diagnostic requirement for bacterial vaginosis is the presence of at least three of the following signs: abnormal vaginal discharge, vaginal pH > 4.5, clue cells (epithelial cells with so many bacteria attached that the cell border becomes obscured), and a fishy, amine-like odour when a drop of 10% potassium hydroxide is added to the vaginal secretions. Urethritis in women is also often caused by N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis. Ascending infections with N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, vaginal anaerobes, and facultative anaerobic bacteria can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), with infertility or ectopic pregnancy as late sequelae. Genital infections with bacterial agents, including N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis, during pregnancy may result in complications such as premature delivery, prolonged rupture of membranes, chorio-amnionitis, and postpartum endometritis in the mother, and conjunctivitis, pneumonia, and amniotic infection syndrome in the newborn. On special request, cervicovaginal specimens may be cultured for bacterial species, such as S. aureus (toxic shock syndrome), S. agalactiae (group B streptococci, neonatal infection), Listeria monocytogenes (neonatal infection), and Clostridium spp. (septic abortion). Although infections with C. trachomatis and with human herpesvirus are common, and can cause significant morbidity, their laboratory diagnosis requires expensive equipment and reagents and will not be discussed here.

Collection and transport of specimens All specimens should be collected during a pelvic examination using a speculum. The speculum may be moistened with warm water before use, but antiseptics or gynaecological exploration cream should not be used, since these may be lethal to gonococci. For examination for yeasts, G. vaginalis, and bacterial vaginosis, samples of vaginal discharge may be obtained with a swab from the posterior fornix of the vagina. Samples for gonococcal and chlamydial culture should be collected in the endocervix. After inserting the speculum, cervical mucus should be wiped off with a cotton wool ball. A sampling swab (see page 77) should then be introduced into the cervical canal and rotated for at least 10 seconds before withdrawal. Urethral, anorectal, and oropharyngeal specimens for gonococci may be obtained in a similar manner as from males. In all cases of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), as a minimum, the cervix should be sampled for N. gonorrhoeae. Sampling from the fallopian tubes is more reliable, but in most areas a cul-de-sac aspirate is the best sample available. In infants with ophthalmia neonatorum, conjunctival exudate should be collected with a swab or a loop. 80

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Amies and Stuart transport media are convenient for transport of cervical and vaginal samples, with the exception of specimens to be tested for C. trachomatis.

Direct examination and interpretation Direct examination of vaginal secretions is the method of choice for the etiological diagnosis of vaginitis, but is much less useful for the diagnosis of cervicitis. A wet mount is prepared by mixing the vaginal sample with saline on a glass slide, after which a cover slip is added. A diluted preparation is preferred to ensure the separation of the cells, which may otherwise be clumped together. Examine at a magnification of ¥400 for the presence of T. vaginalis with typical movement, budding yeasts, and clue cells. C. albicans may form pseudomycelia, which may be observed occasionally in vaginal material. Clue cells are found in most women with bacterial vaginosis. A granular or dirty appearance of the epithelial cell cytoplasm is a less objective criterion than the loss of the cell border. Microscopic examination of a wet mount of cervical specimens is not recommended. Preparation of a Gram-stained smear is the method of choice for the diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis. The smear should be prepared by gently rolling, rather than smearing, a swab over the glass slide. A normal vaginal smear contains predominantly lactobacilli (large Gram-positive rods) and fewer than 5 leukocytes per field. In typical smears from women with bacterial vaginosis, clue cells covered with small Gram-negative rods are accompanied by a mixed flora consisting of very large numbers of small Gram-negative and Gramvariable rods and coccobacilli, and often Gram-negative curved rods, in the absence of larger Gram-positive rods. Only a few (<5) leukocytes are found per field. This picture is a sensitive and specific diagnostic indicator for bacterial vaginosis. A large number of white blood cells (>10 cells per field) on the Gram-stained vaginal smear suggests trichomoniasis or cervicitis. Gram-staining is not particularly helpful for the diagnosis of gonococcal infection in female patients. The examination of Gram-stained smears of endocervical secretions for intracellular Gram-negative diplococci has a sensitivity of 50–70%, and a specificity of 50–90% for the diagnosis of gonococcal infection, resulting in a poor predictive value of a positive test in populations with a low prevalence of gonorrhoea. Gram-negative intracellular diplococci in cervical smears should be reported as such, and not as N. gonorrhoeae or gonococci. Over-interpretation of cervical smears, which often contain Gram-negative coccobacilli and bipolar stained rods, must be avoided. The main interest in a cervical smear is its validity for the diagnosis of mucopurulent cervicitis: the presence of more than 10 polymorphonuclear leukocytes per oil-immersion field is a reasonably good indication of mucopurulent cervicitis, most often due to N. gonorrhoeae and/or C. trachomatis. The examination of a Gram-stained conjunctival smear is a sensitive and specific technique for the diagnosis of gonococcal conjunctivitis. The presence of intracellular Gram-negative diplococci is diagnostic for gonococcal conjunctivitis. 81

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Culture Cervical, rectal, urethral, conjunctival, and cul-de-sac specimens may be cultured for N. gonorrhoeae using the methods specified on page 78. Specimens should be processed as soon as they arrive in the laboratory or, preferably, in the clinic itself. Unlike in males, culture is essential for the diagnosis of gonococcal infection in females. The sensitivity of a single culture for the diagnosis of gonorrhoea in women is 80–90%. The sensitivity is lower for specimens taken during the peripartum period. Cultures for G. vaginalis or anaerobes are not recommended for the diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis, since the organisms are recovered from 20–40% of women without vaginal infection. The presence of G. vaginalis in vaginal discharge is in itself not an indication for treatment, and only patients fulfilling the diagnostic criteria for bacterial vaginosis should be treated for this condition. As compared with microscopy, cultures increase the detection of C. albicans by 50–100%. Culture methods are usually more efficient when the number of organisms is low. However, low numbers of C. albicans can be found in the vagina of 10–30% of women without signs or symptoms of vaginitis, and only large numbers of C. albicans should be considered as evidence of vaginal candidiasis. Consequently, culture is not recommended. Cultures for G. vaginalis will mainly detect asymptomatic carriers when performed in addition to a wet mount, and should not be performed.

Specimens from genital ulcers Genital ulcers are a very common problem in many developing countries. Their etiological diagnosis and management are a challenge to the clinician as well as to the laboratory. Mixed infections are common. Genital ulcerative lesions can be caused by a variety of sexually transmissible agents: — — — —

human herpesvirus Treponema pallidum Haemophilus ducreyi Calymmatobacterium granulomatis, the agent of granuloma inguinale (Donovanosis) — Chlamydia trachomatis serovars L1, L2, L3

Genital herpes is the most common cause of genital ulcer disease in most industrialized countries, and is a cause of life-threatening complications in immunodeficient patients and neonates born to women with the infection. Its laboratory diagnosis will not be discussed here. Syphilis is still the most serious disease associated with genital lesions, since it can give rise to severe late sequelae and to congenital syphilis. While serological tests play an important role in the diagnosis of all stages of syphilis, only the dark-field examination will be discussed here. Techniques and interpretation of serological tests for syphilis have been extensively reviewed elsewhere.1

1 Van Dyck E, Meheus AZ, Piot P. Laboratory diagnosis of sexually transmitted diseases. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1999.

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Chancroid (ulcus molle) is the major cause of genital ulceration in many developing areas. The clinical features include painful, purulent ulcer(s) accompanied by painful and occasionally suppurative inguinal buboes. Late sequelae are not known to occur. The clinical differentiation from other genital ulcer diseases is difficult. Chancroid increases the risk of acquiring HIV infection. Granuloma inguinale is characterized by extensive beefy, red, granulated genital ulcers. Bubo formation is rare. Chlamydial lymphogranuloma is typically associated with inguinal and/or femoral lymphadenopathy, and, less frequently, with small ulcers which heal spontaneously. Its diagnosis is based on serological tests and isolation of C. trachomatis serovars L1, L2, L3.

Collection of specimens Treponema pallidum: Protective surgical gloves should be worn. Squeeze the ulcer between two fingers and clean the surface of the lesion with saline, using gauze swabs. Crusts should be removed if present. After wiping away the first drops of blood (if present), collect a sample of serous exudate by touching a completely clean glass slide to the surface of the lesion. Immediately place a clean coverslip firmly on the drop of exudate. Alternatively, the specimen may be aspirated from the lesion, or from an enlarged lymph node, using a sterile needle and syringe. The preparation should be examined immediately by a microscopist experienced in dark-field microscopy. Haemophilus ducreyi: Specimens should be obtained from the base of the ulcer with a swab and inoculated directly on to the isolation medium. Material may also be aspirated from inguinal buboes, but isolation of H. ducreyi is less successful than from genital lesions. Transport media for H. ducreyi have not been evaluated. If granuloma inguinale is suspected, ideally a biopsy of subsurface tissue from an area of active granulation should be made. Fresh smears should be made from a crushed piece of biopsy material. Alternatively, one may make a smear by scraping off the surface of the lesion.

Direct examination Demonstration of treponemas in lesion material is the method of choice for the diagnosis of primary syphilis. Although T. pallidum can be stained (for instance with silver nitrate), dark-field microscopy is recommended because it is more sensitive and specific. A microscope equipped with a good light source and a dark-field condenser must be available for dark-field examination. Dark-field condensers block out the direct light rays, allowing only the peripheral rays (deflected by objects such as treponemes) to pass through. Place a few drops of immersion oil on the condenser of a dark-field microscope. Lower the condenser slightly so that the oil is below the level of the stage. Place the slide on the microscope and raise the condenser until there is good contact between the oil and the underside of the slide. Carefully avoid trapping air bubbles in the oil.

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Fig. 9. Appearance of T. pallidum under dark-field microscopy [Negative]

Use the low-power objective (¥10) to bring the specimen into focus. Centre the light in the field by adjusting the centring screws located on the condenser, and focus the condenser by raising or lowering it until the smallest diameter of light is obtained. Recentre the light if necessary. Then use the dry ¥40 objective to bring the specimen into focus, and examine the slide carefully. The contrast will be better when the microscopy is done in the dark. Avoid bright daylight. T. pallidum appears white, illuminated on a dark background (Fig. 9). It is identified by its typical morphology, size, and movement. It is a thin (0.25–0.3 mm) organism, 6–16 mm long, with 8–14 regular, tightly wound deep spirals. It exhibits quick and rather abrupt movements. It rotates relatively slowly about the longitudinal axis (like a corkscrew). This rotation is accompanied by bending (twisting) in the middle and is executed rather stiffly. Lengthening and shortening (like an elastic expander spiral) may be observed. Distortion may occur in tortuous convolutions. When the organism is attached to, or obstructed by, heavier objects, the resulting vigorous struggling distorts the coils. Other non-syphilis spirochaetes may be loosely coiled, thick, and coarse; the movements are different (not like a corkscrew), but take the form of a more writhing motion, with marked flexion and frequent relaxation of the coils. The demonstration of treponemes with morphology and motility characteristic of T. pallidum constitutes a positive diagnosis for primary and secondary syphilis. Patients with a primary chancre, which is dark-field positive, may be serologically negative. They normally become serologically reactive within a few weeks. Failure to find the organism does not exclude a diagnosis of syphilis. Negative results may mean that: • An insufficient number of organisms was present (a single dark-field examination has a sensitivity of no more than 50%). • The patient had already taken antimicrobials. 84

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• The lesion was approaching natural resolution. • The lesion was not syphilitic. Whatever the result of the dark-field examination, a blood sample should always be taken for serological tests. In the diagnosis of granuloma inguinale, when acetone-fixed smears are stained with Giemsa, typical, intracellular, encapsulated bacilli can be seen within histiocytes. The diagnosis of this disease is described in full elsewhere.1 For the diagnosis of chancroid, a Gram-stained smear is not recommended, since the sensitivity and specificity are both less than 50%. For the diagnosis of chlamydial lymphogranuloma, Giemsa-stained smears are not recommended. However, material from the ulcer should also be examined by darkfield microscopy to search for T. pallidum.

Culture Gonococci are occasionally isolated from genital ulcers, but their significance in such specimens is unclear. Apart from H. ducreyi, no other bacterial species—neither facultative aerobes nor obligate anaerobes—have been shown to cause genital ulcer disease. Specimens to be examined for H. ducreyi should be inoculated directly on to a selective, enriched agar plate.2 The medium used should not be older than one week. The plates should be incubated at 33–35 ∞C in a candle jar with a moistened towel at the bottom. After 48–72 hours of incubation, small, nonmucoid, yellow-grey, semi-opaque or translucent colonies appear that can be pushed intact across the agar surface. The sensitivity of a single culture for the isolation of H. ducreyi is 70–80%. A presumptive diagnosis of H. ducreyi can be made on the basis of the characteristic morphology of colonies on selective media, and the demonstration of small Gram-negative, pleomorphic coccobacilli, often in single chains (streptobacilli), parallel chains (“school of fish”), or clumps in the suspect colonies. Although H. ducreyi is haemin-dependent, most clinical isolates fail to grow on the media used for the determination of X and V factor requirement. Nearly all recent isolates from developing countries produce b-lactamase.

1 Van Dyck E, Meheus AZ, Piot P. Laboratory diagnosis of sexually transmitted diseases. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1999. 2 Mueller–Hinton agar base, supplemented with 5% sterile horse blood heated to 75 ∞C, 1% IsoVitaleX, and 3 g/ml vancomycin.

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Purulent exudates, wounds, and abscesses Introduction One of the most commonly observed infectious disease processes is the production of a purulent (sometimes seropurulent) exudate as the result of bacterial invasion of a cavity, tissue, or organ of the body. Such infections may be relatively simple, innocuous “pimples” or a series of multiple pockets of pus found in abscesses in one or more anatomical sites. The exudate consists of white blood cells, predominantly polymorphonuclear leukocytes, the invading organisms, and a mixture of body fluid and fibrin. In some instances, the exudate may be found as a coating on the surface of an organ, e.g. the surface of the brain in acute bacterial meningitis. In other cases, the exudate may be walled off by layers of fibrin and a network of tissue cells, e.g. a carbuncle or subcutaneous “boil”, while in still other cases the exudate may be associated with an open wound, which therefore drains thick fluid or pus. Just as the anatomical site of exudate production can vary considerably, so too can the organisms involved in the underlying infection. All bacteria that are part of the normal flora, or that gain access to the body, may be involved in the production of an exudate. Some fungi, particularly those that are able to multiply in body tissues, can also be involved in the production of an exudate. In contrast, a purulent exudate is rarely produced in a viral infection. The bench microbiologist should be aware of the diversity of anatomical sites and microorganisms involved, and be prepared to make the appropriate macroscopic and microscopic examinations and the proper primary media inoculations to recover the major organism(s) involved. Once the organisms have been isolated in pure culture, the identification process and antimicrobial susceptibility tests should be set up as soon as possible. Communication between the clinician and the microbiologist is particularly important in the diagnosis and management of patients with suppurative infectious diseases. The microbiologist must collaborate with the physician to ensure proper specimen collection and the expeditious delivery of the specimen to the laboratory for prompt and proper processing.

Commonly encountered clinical conditions and the most frequent etiological agents Surgical specimens Surgical specimens may be obtained by aspiration of a localized abscess or other surgical procedures. The surgeon should be advised to obtain several small representative tissue samples and any purulent exudate. If possible, cotton swabs should be avoided. The exudate should be collected using a needle and syringe. If cotton swabs must be used, as much exudate as possible should be collected and dispensed into appropriate containers for dispatch to the laboratory. Upon receipt, the laboratory should review the information 86

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provided and then plan cultures for the organisms likely to be found in the particular specimen. A few examples of conditions and organisms found in different types of surgical specimens are given below: • The peritoneal cavity is likely to contain Gram-negative enteric bacteria (Enterococci), Gram-negative anaerobic rods (Bacteroides fragilis), and clostridia. • A walled-off abscess may contain any type of organism, either single or multiple species: Gram-positive cocci and Gram-negative bacilli are most frequently isolated. Anaerobic bacteria and amoebae may also need to be considered, depending on the abscess site. • Lymph nodes are frequently involved in systemic infections. They become swollen and often quite tender, and purulent exudate frequently accumulates. If the node is fluctuant, the liquid contents can be aspirated by a physician. Lymph node biopsies or aspirates from children should be cultured for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other mycobacteria. In addition to being cultured for staphylococci, streptococci, and Gram-negative enteric bacteria, lymph nodes may be good specimens for the diagnosis of systemic and subcutaneous mycoses (histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis). • Skin and subcutaneous tissue are prime targets for both abscesses and wound infections. As a general rule, subcutaneous abscesses are caused by staphylococci. Open, weeping skin lesions often involve b-haemolytic streptococci and/or staphylococci, as in impetigo. Another variety of skin lesion requiring some surgical intervention, and often seen as a hospitalacquired infection, is decubitus ulcer or bed sore. The bacteria are frequently skin commensals or intestinal flora that have proliferated in the most external part of the ulcer and create an unpleasant odour and appearance. Routine culture of those organisms is not clinically relevant. The organisms most commonly isolated from biopsy tissue are enteric bacilli; the same organisms may be found in cultures of the superficial exudate. It is not always possible to evaluate the role of these organisms in decubitus ulcers, but healing requires that the ulcer be kept clean, dry, and free of bacteria. Occasionally organisms in a decubitus ulcer may find their way into the blood stream, producing serious complications. • Burns, especially second- and third-degree burns, are prone to infection with a variety of bacterial species. It is very important that careful surgical débridement be carried out prior to obtaining material for culture. Staphylococci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are most commonly encountered. • Exudates. Sometimes a serous or purulent fluid will collect in a cavity that normally possesses a very small amount of sterile fluid, e.g. the pericardial sac, pleural cavity, bursa, or joint. Needle aspiration under aseptic conditions will yield a laboratory specimen from which the infecting organism may be isolated and identified. Bacteria are usually the cause, but fungi or viruses may also be responsible. The infections are usually monospecific, but mixed aerobic and anaerobic infections do occur. Aspirates from the pleural cavity may yield pneumococci, streptococci, H. influenzae, anaerobic streptococci, or anaerobic Gram-negative rods (Prevotella and Porphyromonas) or M. tuberculosis.

Penetrating wounds Any lesion caused by a penetrating object that breaks the skin is likely to contain a mixture of microorganisms; these organisms are generally part of the skin flora or of the normal microbial flora of soil and water. A penetrating 87

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wound involving damage to the intestines will lead to an even greater threat because the intestinal flora may contribute to infection of the wound and peritoneal cavity. Penetrating or cutting wounds may be caused by sharp or blunt objects. Metal, glass, wood, etc. are frequently responsible for penetrating wounds, whether caused by accident or deliberately (e.g. stab or gunshot wounds). Tetanus resulting from a penetrating wound is a life-threatening disease in a non-immunized individual. Similarly, wound botulism may go undiagnosed if the physician and the microbiologist are not aware of this possibility. The diagnoses of tetanus and botulism are best made clinically, and laboratory support should be provided by a central reference laboratory. People working with animals or their products are at risk of infection with spores of Bacillus anthracis, which may gain access through small wounds or skin abrasions and produce the typical black eschar of anthrax. Other soil organisms, such as Clostridium perfringens, may be involved in deep penetrating wounds and give rise to gas gangrene. Animal bites or scratches occur frequently in both urban and rural areas. The bite may be from a domestic pet, a farm animal, or a wild animal. Rabies must be the prime and immediate concern. Once the possibility of rabies has been eliminated, the other possible etiological agents are many and varied. Rabies diagnosis is too specialized to be discussed in this manual.1 The mouths of all animals contain a heterogeneous flora consisting of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, protozoa, and viruses. Infections resulting from bites or scratches are predominantly caused by bacteria. A prime example is infection by Pasteurella multocida, which often follows a dog or cat bite if the bite has not been properly cleansed and treated. Human bites may sometimes result in a serious mixed infection of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.

Nosocomial wound infections One of the main concerns in the care and treatment of hospitalized patients is that they should not be harmed in the course of the diagnosis and treatment of their illness. Unfortunately, 5–10% of hospitalized patients do acquire an infection while in hospital. Nosocomial infections are costly and can usually be avoided or greatly reduced. Many hospital-acquired infections are known to occur in surgical departments. The rate of postoperative wound infection varies from hospital to hospital, and within a given hospital is likely to be highest in patients who have undergone abdominal, thoracic, or orthopaedic surgery. Surgical wound infections may occur shortly after surgery or several days postoperatively. The site of infection may be limited to the suture line or may become extensive in the operative site. Staphylococcus aureus (usually benzylpenicillin-resistant, and now often meticillinresistant) is the biggest offender, followed closely by E. coli and other enteric bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria from the patient’s large bowel may gain access to the operative site, making a mixed infection a serious and fairly frequent occurrence in hospitals in which the postoperative wound care and infection prevention programmes are weak. Bacteroides fragilis and, occasionally, Clostridium perfringens may invade the bloodstream, resulting in a systemic and frequently fatal postoperative infection.

1

Meslin F-X, Kaplan MM, Koprowski H, eds. Laboratory techniques in rabies, 4th ed. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1996.

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An infrequent but challenging infection may follow dental or oral surgery, when a sinus tract from the inside works its way to the skin surface on the face or neck and the discharge contains the “sulfur” granules of actinomycosis.

Collection and transportation of specimens It is not possible, here, to describe in detail the procedures for specimen collection from each type of wound, abscess, etc. It should be obvious that this is a task that requires close cooperation between the laboratory and the physician. In many instances, there is only one opportunity to obtain a specimen; second specimens are unavailable in many cases. Therefore, proper collection, transport, and storage of these specimens are of the greatest importance, and compromises should be avoided. Once a specimen has been obtained, packaged, and dispatched to the laboratory, it should be processed as soon as possible. After the preliminary examinations have been completed and the cultures made, the rest of the specimen should be properly labelled, stoppered, and refrigerated, until it is certain that no additional laboratory tests are needed.

Abscess Once an abscess, or multiple abscesses, have been found, the physician or surgeon and the microbiologist should consult on what is to be done. The technique for collecting pus and pieces of the abscess wall is a surgical procedure. A syringe and needle are used to aspirate as much as possible of the purulent material, which is then aseptically transferred to sterile specimen containers. If such containers are not available, the specimen should be kept in the syringe with the needle capped, and the syringe itself should be transported to the laboratory. This material should be processed immediately by the laboratory; both aerobic and anaerobic cultures can be made from a single specimen. A similar situation exists when the surgeon encounters one or more walledoff abscesses in an organ, or in the thorax, abdomen, or pelvis, during the course of a surgical procedure for another purpose. In anticipation of this, the laboratory should arrange to have stored, in the sterile surgical supplies, a kit for obtaining the contents of such abscesses so that specimens can be delivered promptly to the laboratory for processing. Every effort should be made to avoid the use of swabs for collecting a small amount of specimen, when a large amount is actually present. A swab can justifiably be used to collect very small amounts of pus, or pus from sites that require care, e.g. from the eye. When pieces of tissue are obtained from the abscess wall, the laboratory technician should either grind the tissue, using a small amount of sterile broth as a diluent, or mince the tissue into very small pieces using sterile scissors. Aerobic and anaerobic cultures should be prepared as indicated on pages 92–93.

Infected lacerations, penetrating wounds, postoperative wounds, burns, and decubitus ulcers No standard procedure for specimen collection can be formulated. However, certain fundamental guidelines should be followed to obtain the best possible specimen for laboratory analysis. After carefully cleaning the site, the surgeon should look beneath the surface for collections of pus, devitalized 89

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tissue, the oozing of gas (crepitation), or any other abnormal sign. Segments of the tissue involved that are to be used for cultures should be removed and placed on sterile gauze for processing. Pus or other exudate should be carefully collected and placed in a sterile tube. Swabs may be used if necessary.

Sinus tract or lymph node drainage When a sinus tract or lymph node shows evidence of spontaneous drainage, the drainage material should be collected carefully, using a sterile Pasteur pipette fitted with a rubber bulb, and placed in a sterile tube. If discharge is not evident, the surgeon should obtain the purulent material using a sterile syringe and needle or probe. Again, swabs should only be used if a sterile Pasteur pipette is not available.

Exudates The abnormal accumulation of fluid within a body cavity such as the pleural space, a joint, or the peritoneal space, requires a surgical procedure to aspirate the accumulated material into a sterile container for subsequent delivery to the laboratory for microbiology and cytology. In those cases where the accumulation persists and an open drain is put in place, it is necessary to collect the drainage fluid in an aseptic manner for subsequent culture and other tests.

Macroscopic evaluation Specimens of pus or wound discharge collected on swabs are difficult to evaluate macroscopically, particularly when the swab is immersed in a transport medium. Specimens of pus, received in a syringe or in a sterile container, should be evaluated carefully by an experienced technician for colour, consistency, and odour.

Colour The colour of pus varies from green-yellow to brown-red. A red colour is generally due to admixture with blood or haemoglobin. The aspirate from a primary amoebic liver abscess has a gelatinous consistency and a dark brown to yellowish brown colour. Pus from postoperative or traumatic wounds (burns) may be stained blue-green by the pyocyanin pigment produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Consistency The consistency of pus may vary from a turbid liquid to one that is very thick and sticky. Exudates, aspirated from a joint, the pleural cavity, the pericardial sac, or the peritoneal cavity, are generally liquid, with all possible gradations between a serous exudate and frank pus. Pus originating from a draining sinus tract in the neck should be inspected for small yellow “sulfur” granules, which are colonies of the filamentous Actinomyces israelii. The presence of sulfur granules suggests a diagnosis of cervicofacial actinomycosis. Small granules of different colours (white, black, red, or brown) are typical of mycetoma, a granulomatous tumour, generally involving the lower extremities (e.g. madura foot), and characterized by mul90

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tiple abscesses and draining sinuses. The coloured granules correspond to either filamentous bacteria or fungal mycelium. Pus from tuberculous “cold abscesses” (with few signs of inflammation) is sometimes compared with soft cheese and called “caseum” or “caseous pus”.

Odour A foul feculent odour is one of the most characteristic features of an anaerobic or a mixed aerobic–anaerobic infection, although it may be lacking in some instances. The odour, together with the result of the Gram-stained smear, should be reported at once to the clinician as it may be helpful in the empirical selection of an appropriate antimicrobial. It will also help in determining whether anaerobic cultures are needed.

Microscopic examination A smear for Gram-staining and examination should be made for every specimen. In particular cases, or at the request of the clinician, a direct wet mount may be prepared and Ziehl–Neelsen staining carried out.

Gram-stained smear Using a bacteriological loop, make an even smear of the most purulent part of the specimen on a clean slide. If only a swab is available, the slide should first be sterilized by being passed through the flame of a Bunsen burner and allowed to cool. The cotton swab should then be gently rolled over the glass surface, without rubbing or excessive pressure. Allow the slide to air-dry, protected from insects, or place it in the incubator. Fix by heat, stain and examine the smear under the oil-immersion objective (¥100). Inspect carefully and note the presence and the quantity (use +signs) of: — — — —

polymorphonuclear granulocytes (pus cells); Gram-positive cocci arranged in clusters, suggestive of staphylococci; Gram-positive cocci in chains, suggestive of streptococci or enterococci; Gram-negative rods resembling coliform (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, etc.), other Enterobacteriaceae (Proteus, Serratia, etc.), nonfermentative rods (Pseudomonas spp.), or obligate anaerobes (Bacteroides spp.); — large straight Gram-positive rods with square ends suggestive of Clostridium perfringens, the principal agent of gas gangrene, or Bacillus anthracis, the agent of anthrax; — an extremely heavy and pleomorphic mixture of bacteria, including streptococci, Gram-positive and Gram-negative rods of various sizes, including fusiform rods; such a picture is suggestive of “mixed anaerobic flora” and should be reported as such; — Candida or other yeast cells, which are seen as ovoid Gram-positive budding spheres, often forming branched pseudomycelia. Sulfur granules from actinomycosis or granules from a mycetoma should be crushed on a slide, Gram-stained and inspected for thin branched and fragmented Gram-positive filaments. A

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Direct microscopy When requested, or when a fungal or parasitic infection is suspected, a wet preparation should be examined. If the pus is thick, a loopful should be mixed in a drop of saline. When looking for fungi, a drop of 10% potassium hydroxide should be used to clear the specimen. Apply a coverslip and, using the ¥10 and ¥40 objectives, look especially for: — actively motile amoebae in aspirate from a liver abscess; — yeast cells of Histoplasma capsulatum (including the African var. duboisii,) Blastomyces dermatitidis (in endemic areas), Candida spp.; — fungal hyphae and bacterial filaments in crushed granules from mycetoma; — parasites, such as microfilariae, scolices or hooks of Echinococcus, eggs of Schistosoma, Fasciola, or Paragonimus.

Acid-fast staining (Ziehl–Neelsen) Ziehl–Neelsen staining should be performed when requested by the clinician. It is also advisable to make an acid-fast stained preparation when the pus shows no bacteria or when only faintly stained Gram-positive “coryneform” rods are seen on the Gram-stained smear. Tubercle bacilli should be suspected, in particular, in pus or purulent exudate from the pleura, joints, bone abscesses, or lymph nodes. Non-tuberculous (so-called “atypical”) acid-fast bacilli are sometimes found in gluteal abscesses at the site of deep intramuscular injections. Such abscesses are often caused by rapidly growing mycobacteria belonging to the Mycobacterium fortuitum–chelonei group. In the tropics, discharge scraped from the base of a necrotic skin ulcer situated on a leg or an arm may be due to slow-growing acid-fast rods called M. ulcerans (Buruli ulcer). M. marinum is another tuberculous acid-fast rod, which may be found in chronic, ulcerative, nodular lesions on the hands, arms, and other exposed skin surfaces in swimmers and fishermen.

Culture If bacteria or fungi are seen on microscopic examination, appropriate culture media should be inoculated. Independently from the results of microscopy, all specimens of pus or exudate should preferably be inoculated onto a minimum of three culture media: — a blood agar plate for the isolation of staphylococci and streptococci; — a MacConkey agar plate for the isolation of Gram-negative rods; and — a tube of broth that can serve as enrichment medium for both aerobes and anaerobes, e.g. thioglycollate broth or cooked meat medium. The size of the inoculum should be determined according to the result of the microscopic examination, and may vary from one loopful to a few drops. If massive numbers of organisms are seen on the Gram-stained smear, the specimen may even have to be diluted in a small amount of sterile broth before plating out. If a swab is used for the inoculation, it should be applied to a small area of the plate and the rest of the surface streaked out with a loop. If the swab is dry, it should first be moistened in a small quantity of sterile broth or saline. In all cases, the technique of inoculation should provide single colonies for identification and susceptibility tests.

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Prior to inoculation, the blood agar plate should be dried for 20 minutes in an incubator to minimize the risk of overgrowth by spreading Proteus spp. The inoculated plate should be incubated at 35 ∞C in a candle jar. Routinely, all media should be incubated for two days and inspected daily for growth. If culture for fastidious organisms is requested, longer incubation (1–2 weeks or more) will be necessary. If growth appears in the broth, it should be Gramstained and subcultured onto appropriate culture media. Additional culture media should be used if specially requested, or if indicated by the results of the microscopic examination, as in the following examples: • If staphylococci have been seen, an additional mannitol salt agar is helpful in obtaining pure growth and in making a preliminary distinction between S. aureus and other cocci. • If streptococci have been observed, their identification may be hastened by placing a differential bacitracin disc on the initial streaking area. • If yeasts or fungi have been observed, the specimen should also be inoculated onto two tubes of Sabouraud dextrose agar, one to be incubated at 35 ∞C, the other at room temperature, both to be observed for up to one month. (Blood agar is sufficient for the isolation of Candida spp.) • If acid-fast rods have been seen in the Ziehl–Neelsen stained smear, up to 3 tubes of Löwenstein–Jensen medium should be inoculated. If the specimen also contains non-acid-fast bacteria, it should first be decontaminated. Rapidly growing mycobacteria, such as M. fortuitum, may be killed by the decontamination process; they produce growth within 3–7 days on blood agar and MacConkey agar. Branched, filamentous, partially acid-fast rods in pus from the pleura or from a brain abscess will probably be Nocardia asteroides, which grows on blood agar within a few days. • Pus from patients with arthritis, pleuritis, osteitis, or cellulitis, particularly from children under 5 years of age, should also be inoculated onto a chocolate agar plate for the recovery of H. influenzae. • Culture in a strictly anaerobic atmosphere is essential when the Gramstained smear shows mixed anaerobic flora and also when the specimen produces a typical foul odour. Anaerobic blood agar is also necessary for the growth of Actinomyces. Anaerobic culture will be requested by the clinician when he or she suspects clostridial gas gangrene. Methods for anaerobic bacteriology are described on pages 98–102.

Identification With the exception of contaminants from the environment or from the skin (such as Staphylococcus epidermidis), all organisms isolated from wounds, pus, or exudates should be considered significant and efforts made to identify them. Full identification, however, is not always necessary, particularly in the case of mixed flora. Bacteria and fungi isolated from pus and exudates may belong to almost any group or species. Identification criteria are given here only for staphylococci commonly associated with pus (pyogenic), and for two other pathogens, Pasteurella multocida and Bacillus anthracis, which are rarely isolated from wounds or skin infections, but are very important for the management of the patient. A standard textbook of clinical microbiology should be consulted for a full description of identification methods. In every case, the first step should be to examine well-separated colonies carefully, pick a single colony of each type, prepare a Gram-stained smear, and then characterize the organisms under the microscope. A 93

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Staphylococci Staphylococci are the bacteria most frequently associated with the production of pus. Staphylococci grow well aerobically on blood agar and form opaque white to cream colonies, 1–2 mm in diameter, after overnight incubation. They are unique in growing on media with a high salt content, such as MSA. They can be differentiated from streptococci by their morphology and by the production of catalase. Catalase production by staphylococci is shown by placing it in a drop of 3% hydrogen peroxide onto the colonies deposited on a clean glass slide. The appearance of bubbles of oxygen is an indication of catalase production. For clinical purposes, staphylococci can be divided into those that produce coagulase and those that do not. The coagulase-producing staphylococci belong to the species S. aureus, which is the species of greatest medical interest. Of the several coagulase-negative species, only two will be considered here—S. epidermidis and S. saprophyticus. Although S. aureus is part of the commensal microbial flora of the nose (40% of healthy adults are positive), skin, and intestinal tract, this species causes impetigo, boils, abscesses, wound infection, infection of ulcers and burns, osteomyelitis, mastitis (breast abscess), pleural empyema, pyomyositis, toxic shock syndrome, and other types of pyogenic infection. S. epidermidis is also a common commensal of the skin, nose, and other mucous membranes and possesses a very low pathogenicity. However, its presence in pus should not always be dismissed as skin contamination. Despite its low infectivity, S. epidermidis can cause skin infections at the site of an in-dwelling catheter, cannula, or other device. Infections with S. epidermidis are particularly troublesome in cardiac and orthopaedic surgery involving the insertion of prosthetic devices (artificial heart valves or artificial hips). S. saprophyticus is recognized to be a common cause of urinary tract infections in young women, being second only to E. coli in some populations. The distinctive features of the three main species of Staphylococcus are given in Table 22. A flow diagram for the preliminary identification of staphylococci is shown in Fig. 10. In view of the importance of the coagulase test in the identification of S. aureus, this test is described here in detail. Coagulase is an enzyme that causes plasma to clot. Staphylococcal coagulase exists in two forms: bound coagulase or

Table 22. Differentiation of medically important species of Staphylococcus

Production of coagulase Acidification of mannitol on mannitol salt agar a Pigment of coloniesa In vitro susceptibility to novobiocin DNase agar a

S. aureus

S. epidermidis

S. saprophyticus

yes acid (yellow) grey, cream or yellow susceptible yes

no neutral (red) white

no acid (yellow) white

susceptible no

resistantb no

Exceptions are possible. Inhibition zone of less than 16 mm, using a 5-mg disc in the standardized disc-diffusion method.

b

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Fig. 10. Flow diagram for the preliminary identification of human Staphylococcus species

clumping factor, which is demonstrated in the slide test, and free coagulase, which is demonstrated in the tube test. • Slide test. On a clean slide, emulsify one or a few similar colonies of staphylococci in a drop of saline. The suspension must be fairly thick. Dip a straight wire into plasma and use this to stir the bacterial suspension. Observe for clumping within 10 seconds. False-negative slide tests occur approximately 10% of the strains of S. aureus. If the slide test is negative for an isolate that seems to be pathogenic on other grounds (pigment, clinical source), it should be re-examined in the tube test. • Tube test. Dispense a few drops (0.5 ml) of plasma into a sterile 12 ¥ 75 mm tube, and add two drops of the pure culture in broth. A suspension with an equivalent density may also be prepared directly from growth on blood agar. Incubate the tube at 35 ∞C for 4–18 hours and then examine for clotting. The plasma used in the coagulase test may be fresh human or rabbit plasma obtained with ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA). It should be stored in 95

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the refrigerator in small amounts (1 ml), and its performance checked with cultures of S. aureus and S. epidermidis, run in parallel.

Pasteurella multocida A number of Gram-negative bacilli are transmitted by animal bites and can cause severe infections in human beings, the most prevalent being Pasteurella multocida. P. multocida is a commensal found in the normal mouth flora of many animals. A bite wound infected with P. multocida may give rise to extensive cellulitis, which may extend to a joint, producing arthritis. Osteomyelitis, bacteraemia, and even meningitis have been described. P. multocida should be looked for specifically in wound discharge if an animal bite is known or suspected of being the cause of the wound. P. multocida is a very small, Gram-negative, nonmotile coccobacillus. It grows well on blood agar at 35 ∞C but is completely inhibited by the bile salts contained in the enteric selective media, e.g. MacConkey agar. After overnight incubation, the colonies on blood agar are small, nonhaemolytic, translucent, and mucoid (due to the presence of a capsule in the virulent form). Biochemical identification is based on the following characteristics: — fermentation of glucose without gas: P. multocida grows on Kligler iron agar with acidification of the butt; — oxidase test is weakly positive; — catalase-positive; — nitrate reduced to nitrite (0.1% potassium nitrate in nutrient broth); — urease-negative; — indole-positive—test in tryptic soy broth (TSB) or on MIU after 48 hours incubation; — highly sensitive to benzylpenicillin in the disc-susceptibility test.

Bacillus anthracis The genus Bacillus is composed of numerous species of aerobic, sporeforming, Gram-positive rods, widely distributed in the soil. The species B. anthracis is of public health importance in skin infections. The other species, when isolated from wounds or pus, are generally contaminants or, at most, opportunists. B. anthracis is a major pathogen of cattle, sheep, goats, and other domestic animals. It also affects wild animals. Anthrax can affect human beings, particularly people in parts of Africa and Asia working or living in close contact with livestock. Human infection may also derive from animal products containing anthrax spores, such as wool, skins, fur, and bones. The commonest form of human infection is cutaneous anthrax, which may progress to septicaemia and meningitis. The spore enters through damaged skin and produces a vesicular lesion with a necrotic centre, surrounded by extensive oedema (“malignant pustule”). Large Gram-positive, squareended, capsulated rods without spores are seen in smears from the vesicular fluid. B. anthracis grows aerobically. On blood agar it produces large, flat, greyish colonies, up to 5 mm in diameter, with a rough surface texture and irregular edges showing hairy outgrowths (Medusa head). It is important at this stage 96

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to differentiate the highly pathogenic B. anthracis from the generally harmless saprophytic species. The preliminary distinction should be based on the absence of haemolysis, benzylpenicillin sensitivity, and the lack of motility in B. anthracis. In contrast, most of the saprophytic Bacillus species are motile and strongly haemolytic. These three features can form the basis of a presumptive identification. For definitive diagnosis, a pure culture of the isolate should be sent immediately to the central veterinary or public health laboratory. B. anthracis is a highly infectious organism and specimens and cultures should be handled with the greatest care to avoid contamination of the environment and infection of laboratory personnel.

Susceptibility testing Antimicrobials may not always be needed for the management of patients with wounds, abscesses, or exudates. Proper surgical incision, drainage and débridement are generally more important than antimicrobial drugs. The results of susceptibility tests should be made available, however, within 48 hours after receiving the specimen. Routine susceptibility tests should not be performed on bacteria that have a known sensitivity pattern, such as streptococci, Pasteurella, and Actinomyces, which are almost without exception susceptible to benzylpenicillins. For Enterobacteriaceae, non-fermentative Gram-negative rods, and staphylococci, the standardized disc-diffusion test (Kirby–Bauer) should be used. Only antimicrobials currently being used by the requesting physicians should be tested. New and expensive antimicrobials should only be tested (or reported) on special request, or when the isolate is resistant to other drugs. Problems are often encountered when testing the susceptibility of staphylococci, both S. aureus and S. epidermidis. Over 80% of isolates, even from the community, produce b-lactamase and are resistant to benzylpenicillin and ampicillin. Infections caused by benzylpenicillin-resistant staphylococci are often treated with b-lactamase-resistant penicillins of the meticillin-group (oxacillin, cloxacillin, etc.). The oxacillin disc (1 mg) is currently recommended for testing the susceptibility to this group. Oxacillin discs are stable, and apt to detect resistance to the whole group. This resistance is often of the heteroresistant type, i.e. it involves only a part of the bacterial population. As heteroresistance of staphylococci is easier to recognize at low temperatures, the incubator temperature should not exceed 35 ∞C. A heteroresistant strain shows, within an otherwise definite zone of inhibition, a film of hazy growth or numerous small colonies that are often dismissed as contaminants. If such growth appears, a Gram-stained smear is indicated to exclude contamination. Heteroresistant strains are clinically resistant to all the b-lactam antimicrobials including cefalosporins, carbapenems, and the meticillin group. For this reason staphylococci need not be tested for susceptibility to cefalosporins. There is complete cross-resistance between benzylpenicillin and ampicillin. Staphylococcal susceptibility to ampicillin should therefore not be tested separately.

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Anaerobic bacteriology Introduction This manual frequently refers to anaerobic bacterial infections and anaerobic bacteria. The former may occur in virtually any body tissue and at any body site provided that the prevailing conditions are suitable. The majority of anaerobic bacterial diseases are caused by endogenous bacteria that are part of the normal body flora and that are perfectly compatible with health until something happens to disturb the balance of the normal flora, or to allow the passage of bacteria from one anatomical site to another. Exogenous anaerobic bacteria, primarily Clostridium tetani, C. botulinum, and occasionally C. perfringens and other clostridial species, can gain access through wounds, causing tetanus, wound botulism, or gas gangrene. Abscesses of practically any organ, bacteraemia, peritonitis, thoracic empyema, cellulitis, and appendicitis are just a few conditions in which anaerobic bacteria may play a very significant role in the disease process. It is therefore important that the microbiologist knows when and how to culture for anaerobic bacteria in a given clinical specimen.

Description of bacteria in relation to oxygen requirement A perhaps over-simplistic, but operationally acceptable, description of medically important bacteria in relation to their oxygen requirements is as follows: • Obligate aerobic bacteria require gaseous oxygen to complete their energyproducing cycle; these organisms cannot grow without a source of oxygen. Examples of obligate aerobic bacteria are Micrococcus spp. and Nocardia asteroides. • Obligate anaerobic bacteria do not require oxygen for metabolic activity, and in fact oxygen is toxic to many of them. Energy is derived from fermentation reactions, which may produce foul-smelling end-products. Examples of such anaerobic bacteria are Bacteroides fragilis and Peptostreptococcus magnus. • Facultative anaerobic bacteria are those for which there is no absolute requirement for oxygen for growth or energy production; they can either utilize oxygen or grow by anaerobic mechanisms. Such bacteria are most versatile, and are usually able to adapt to their environment, creating energy for growth and multiplication by the most effective mechanism. E. coli and S. aureus are examples of facultative anaerobic organisms. There are, in addition to the above, microaerophilic bacteria that grow best at reduced oxygen tensions. Campylobacter jejuni is an example of a microaerophilic bacterium.

Bacteriology Four major groups of anaerobic bacteria account for approximately 80% of the diagnosed anaerobic infections. These are Bacteroides, Prevotella and Porphyromonas spp., Peptostreptococcus spp., and Clostridium spp. The most

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frequently encountered species in each genus are: Bacteroides fragilis, Peptostreptococcus magnus, and Clostridium perfringens. Specific methods for the isolation and identification of these three genera and species should also serve as a model for isolating and initiating the identification process of other clinically important anaerobic bacteria.

Specimen collection and transport to the laboratory This has been covered throughly in previous sections. Swabs are to be avoided for the collection of specimens, as anaerobes are very sensitive to air and drying. Specimens for the culture of anaerobes should be taken carefully from the active site of infection. The services of a surgeon may be required for the collection of some specimens. This is particularly true of needle aspiration of pus, obtaining tissue and/or pus specimens from infected wounds, empyema, or draining abscesses. The specimen should be placed in a sterile, tightly closed container, or if one of these is not available, the entire aspirated specimen should be transported immediately to the laboratory in the syringe, with the needle capped or protected by a rubber stopper.

Establishing an anaerobic environment for incubating cultures A variety of methods exist for creating an anaerobic environment. One that is simple and inexpensive is the use of an anaerobic jar made of thick glass or polycarbonate, with a capacity of 2.5–3.5 litres, that is equipped with a secure gas-proof lid which can be easily removed and replaced. After putting the inoculated Petri dishes into the jar, an anaerobic atmosphere is generated by introducing a commercially available disposable anaerobiosis-generating device, and closing the lid. Disposable devices for generating anaerobiosis take the form of flat, sealed, foil envelopes that release hydrogen and carbon dioxide after addition of water. These devices, however, require a palladium catalyst fixed on the underside of the lid of the jar. The catalyst becomes inactivated during use and should be regenerated or replaced at regular intervals, as recommended by the manufacturer. Disposable redox-indicator strips, which change from blue (or red) to colorless in an anaerobic atmosphere, are available from a number of manufacturers. Tubes of broth cultures for anaerobes, such as thioglycollate broth or cooked meat broth, need not be incubated under anaerobic conditions, because their formulations contain reducing substances that will create an anaerobic environment. When the volume of broth is sufficient (10–12 ml per 15-mm diameter standard screw-top tube) and the medium freshly prepared, anaerobic conditions are produced in the lower part of the tube. If not used on the day of preparation, the tubes should be regenerated with the screw-top loosened for about 15 minutes in a boiling water-bath to remove dissolved oxygen, the screw-top tightened, and the medium allowed to cool before inoculation.

Anaerobic culture media Anaerobic cultures should be performed only when requested by the clinician, when the specimen has a foul smell, or when the result of the Gram-stained smear indicates the possibility of an anaerobic infection, e.g.

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the presence of a mixed pleomorphic flora of Gram-positive and Gramnegative rods and cocci, the presence of Gram-negative fusiform rods, or the presence of square-ended thick Gram-positive rods that may be Clostridium. Routine anaerobic cultures should not be done on urine, genital secretions, faeces, or expectorated sputum; the presence of anaerobic bacteria in these specimens is indicative of contamination with the normal commensal flora of the respective specimen site. Clinicians should be informed that specimens containing normal flora are not acceptable for anaerobic cultures unless there is strong justification. Ordinary blood agar is a good plating medium for isolation of the most important anaerobic pathogens. For isolation of the more fastidious species, a blood agar base enriched with growth factors (haemin and menadione) is recommended. Such a base is commercially available as Wilkins–Chalgren anaerobe agar. Anaerobic bacteria are often part of a complex microflora, also involving aerobic organisms, and anaerobic blood agar may be made selective by the addition of one or more specific antimicrobials. For example, the addition of an aminoglycoside (neomycin, kanamycin) in a final concentration of 50 mg/ ml inhibits the majority of aerobic and facultative bacteria. A solution of the aminoglycoside is prepared by dissolving 500 mg in 100 ml of distilled water. Melt 100 ml of anaerobic agar base and when it has cooled to 56 ∞C, add aseptically 5 ml of defibrinated blood and 1 ml of the antibiotic solution. Mix well, and aseptically pour about 15–18 ml into sterile Petri plates. These plates should be used as soon as possible, or kept in a refrigerator, preferably in a plastic bag or sleeve.

Inoculation and isolation procedures Specimens from suspected anaerobic infections should be inoculated without delay onto the following media: — — — —

an anaerobic blood agar to be incubated in an anaerobic jar; an aerobic blood agar to be incubated in a candle jar; a plate of MacConkey agar; a tube of anaerobic broth (thioglycollate or cooked meat).

The aerobic cultures should be inoculated and processed as usual and examined after 24 and 48 hours for aerobic and facultative organisms. A small area of the anaerobic blood agar plate should be inoculated and the inoculum streaked out with a loop. The plates should be incubated and the anaerobic jar opened after 48 hours for inspection. If growth is insufficient, the plates may be reincubated for a further 24 or 48 hours. The broth culture should be heavily inoculated with a Pasteur pipette so as to distribute the inoculum throughout the medium in the tube. After 48 hours, the growth on the anaerobic blood agar should be inspected and compared with the growth on the aerobic plating media. Each colony type should be examined with Gram stain. Bacteria with the same microscopic appearance that grow on aerobic and anaerobic agar are considered to be facultative anaerobes. Colonies that appear only on anaerobic agar are probable anaerobes and should be subcultured on two blood agar plates, one to be incubated anaerobically and one in a candle jar. If growth appears only in anaerobiosis, identification of a pure culture of the anaerobe should be attempted. 100

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If growth is observed in the depths of anaerobic broth, it should be subcultured to aerobic and anaerobic blood agar and examined in the same way as the primary culture plates. As the liquid culture is inoculated with a larger volume of pus, it may be positive when the primary plates remain sterile.

Identification of medically important anaerobes Bacteroides fragilis group This group includes several related species that belong to the normal flora of the intestine and the vagina. They are frequently involved in abdominal and pelvic mixed infections and may also cause bacteraemia. B. fragilis is a nonmotile Gram-negative rod, often showing some pleomorphism, growing rapidly on anaerobic blood agar. After 48 hours, the colonies are of moderate size (up to 3 mm in diameter), translucent, grey-white, and non-haemolytic. Rapid identification is possible with the bile stimulation test. A pure culture of the suspected organism is inoculated in the depth of two tubes of thioglycollate broth, with one of the tubes containing 20% (2 ml in 10 ml) sterile (autoclaved) ox bile. After 24 hours of incubation, the growth in the two tubes should be compared: the growth of B. fragilis is clearly stimulated in the broth supplemented with bile.

Clostridium perfringens The genus Clostridium contains many species of sporulating Gram-positive rods, some of which belong to the normal gut flora while others are found in dust and soil. The clinically most significant species is C. perfringens. It is commonly associated with gas gangrene and may also cause bacteraemia and other deep infections. Unlike most other species of Clostridium, it is non-motile and does not form spores in the infected tissues or in young cultures. C. perfringens grows rapidly in anaerobic broth with the production of abundant gas. On anaerobic blood agar, colonies of moderate size (2–3 mm) are seen after 48 hours. Most strains produce a double zone of haemolysis: an inner zone of complete clear haemolysis, and an outer zone of partial haemolysis. Rapid identification is possible with the reverse CAMP test,1 which is performed as follows (see Fig. 11):2 1. Prepare a blood agar plate with 5% thrice-washed sheep blood. 2. Streak a pure culture of Streptococcus agalactiae along the diameter of the plate. Streak the suspected Clostridium culture in a line perpendicular to, but not touching, the S. agalactiae. 3. Incubate in an anaerobic jar for 24 hours. C. perfringens forms an arrowhead-shaped area of enhanced haemolysis at the junction of the two streaks. Reverse-CAMP-negative clostridia may be reported as “Clostridium spp. not C. perfringens”. 1

Reverse CAMP test: named after Christy, Adkins and Munch-Peterson who first described this reaction in group B streptococci. 2 Hansen MV & Elliot LP. New presumptive identification test for Clostridium perfringens: reverse CAMP test. Journal of clinical microbiology, 1980, 12:617–619.

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Fig. 11. Reverse CAMP test

Peptostreptococcus Several species of obligate anaerobic Gram-positive cocci belong to the commensal flora of the respiratory, digestive, and urogenital tracts. They are involved, usually in association with other aerobic or anaerobic bacteria, in anaerobic abscesses, wound infections, and even bacteraemia. The growth of anaerobic cocci in laboratory media is usually slower than that of Bacteroides or Clostridium and colonies are usually not apparent on blood agar until after 48 hours of incubation. Species identification is not needed in routine bacteriology. Gram-positive cocci that produce small, convex, white colonies on anaerobic blood agar, but do not grow in aerobic conditions, may be presumptively identified as Peptostreptococcus spp.

Antimicrobial susceptibility tests Antimicrobial susceptibility tests should not routinely be performed on anaerobic bacteria, in view of the present lack of agreement on a standardized discdiffusion test. Most anaerobic infections are caused by penicillin-sensitive bacteria, with the exception of infections originating in the intestinal tract or the vagina. Such infections generally contain Bacteroides fragilis, which produces b-lactamase and is resistant to penicillins, ampicillins, and most cefalosporins. Such infections can be treated with clindamycin, metronidazole, or chloramphenicol. Aminoglycosides and quinolones have no activity against anaerobes, but they are often used for the treatment of patients who have mixed infections, because of their effectiveness against aerobic bacteria, which are often part of the complex flora.

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Antimicrobial susceptibility testing Introduction At a meeting organized by WHO in Geneva in 1977,1 concern was expressed about the worldwide increase in antimicrobial resistance associated with the growing, and frequently indiscriminate, use of antimicrobials in both humans and animals. In recent years, drug-resistant bacteria have given rise to several serious outbreaks of infection, with many deaths. This has led to a need for national and international surveillance programmes to monitor antibimicrobial resistance in bacteria by susceptibility testing using reliable methods that generate comparable data. The availability of microbiological and epidemiological information would help clinicians in selecting the most appropriate antimicrobial agent for the treatment of a microbial infection. If predictions are to be valid, the susceptibility test must be performed by an accurate and reproducible method, the results of which should be directly applicable to the clinical situation. The ultimate criterion of the reliability of any susceptibility testing method is its correlation with the response of the patient to antimicrobial therapy. The WHO meeting considered that the modified disc-diffusion technique of Kirby–Bauer2, for which requirements had been established by WHO in 1976, could be recommended for clinical and surveillance purposes in view of its technical simplicity and reproducibility. The method is particularly suitable for use with bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae, but it can also be recommended as a general purpose method for all rapidly growing pathogens. It has been adapted to the clinically most important fastidious bacteria but not to strict anaerobes and mycobacteria. It is therefore recommended that the details of this test be made available to laboratory workers.3

General principles of antimicrobial susceptibility testing Antimicrobial susceptibility tests measure the ability of an antimicrobial agent to inhibit bacterial growth in vitro. This ability may be estimated by either the dilution method or the diffusion method.

The dilution test For quantitative estimates of antimicrobial activity, dilutions of the antimicrobial may be incorporated into broth or agar medium, which is then inoculated with the test organism. The lowest concentration that prevents growth

1

Surveillance for the prevention and control of health hazards due to antibiotic-resistant enterobacteria. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1978 (WHO Technical Report Series, No. 624). 2 WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization. Twenty-eighth report. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1977 (WHO Technical Report Series, No. 610). 3. A comparable method, based on similar principles and quality control requirements as the Kirby–Bauer method, is the NEO-SENSITABS method, produced by ROSCO Diagnostica, Taastrup, Denmark. This method uses 9-mm colour-coded, antimicrobial tablets, instead of paper discs. The tablet form results in an extraordinary stability with a shelf-life of four years, even at room temperature. This increased stability is very important for laboratories in tropical countries.

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after overnight incubation is known as the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the agent. This MIC value is then compared with known concentrations of the drug obtainable in the serum and in other body fluids to assess the likely clinical response.

The diffusion test Paper discs, impregnated with a specified amount of an antimicrobial, are placed on agar medium uniformly seeded with the test organism. A concentration gradient of the antimicrobial forms by diffusion from the disc and the growth of the test organism is inhibited at a distance from the disc that is related, among other factors, to the susceptibility of the organism. There is an approximately linear relation between log MIC, as measured by a dilution test, and the inhibition zone diameter in the diffusion test. A regression line expressing this relation can be obtained by testing a large number of strains by the two methods in parallel (see Fig. 12 and 13).

Clinical definition of terms “resistant” and “susceptible”—the three-category system The result of the susceptibility test, as reported to the clinician, is the classification of the microorganism in one of two or more categories of susceptibility. The simplest system comprises only two categories: susceptible and resistant. This classification, although offering many advantages for statistical and epidemiological purposes, is too inflexible for the clinician to use. Therefore, a three-category classification is often adopted. The Kirby–Bauer method and its modifications recognize three categories of susceptibility and

Fig. 12. Graphic representation of the relationship between log2 MIC and the inhibition zone diameter obtained by the diffusion test using discs containing a single concentration of antimicrobial

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Fig. 13. Interpretation of zone sizes as susceptible, intermediate and resistant by their relationship to the MIC

it is important that both the clinician and the laboratory worker understand the exact definitions and the clinical significance of these categories. • Susceptible. An organism is called “susceptible” to an antimicrobial when the infection caused by it is likely to respond to treatment with this antimicrobial, at the recommended dosage. • Intermediate susceptibility covers two situations. It is applicable to strains that are “moderately susceptible” to an antimicrobial that can be used for treatment at a higher dosage (e.g. b-lactams) because of its low toxicity or because the antimicrobial is concentrated in the focus of infection (e.g. urine). The classification also applies to strains that show “intermediate susceptibility” to a more toxic antimicrobial (e.g. aminoglycoside) that cannot be used at a higher dosage. In this situation, the intermediate category serves as a buffer zone between susceptible and resistant. As most clinicians are not familiar with the subtle, although clinically important, distinction between intermediate and moderate susceptibility, many laboratories use the designation “intermediate” for reporting purposes. • Resistant. This term implies that the organism is expected not to respond to a given antimicrobial, irrespective of the dosage and of the location of the infection. In certain situations, for example testing the response of staphylococci to benzylpenicillin, only the categories “susceptible” and “resistant” (corresponding to the production of b-lactamase) are recognized. The ultimate decision to use a particular antimicrobial, and the dosage to be given, will depend not only on the results of the susceptibility tests, but also on their interpretation by the physician. Other factors, such as pathogenic significance of the microorganism, side-effects and pharmacokinetic properties of the drug, its diffusion in different body sites, and the immune status of the host, will also have to be considered. 105

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Indications for routine susceptibility tests A susceptibility test may be performed in the clinical laboratory for two main purposes: • to guide the clinician in selecting the best antimicrobial agent for an individual patient; • to accumulate epidemiological information on the resistance of microorganisms of public health importance within the community.

Susceptibility tests as a guide for treatment Susceptibility tests should never be performed on contaminants or commensals belonging to the normal flora, or on other organisms that have no causal relationship to the infectious process. For example, the presence of Escherichia coli in the urine in less than significant numbers is not to be regarded as causing infection, and it would be useless and even misleading to perform an antibiogram. Susceptibility tests should be carried out only on pure cultures of organisms considered to be causing the infectious process. The organisms should also be identified, as not every microorganism isolated from a patient with an infection requires an antibiogram. Routine susceptibility tests are not indicated in the following situations: • When the causative organism belongs to a species with predictable susceptibility to specific drugs. This is the case for Streptococcus pyogenes and Neisseria meningitidis, which are still generally susceptible to benzylpenicillin. (However, there have recently been a few reports of sporadic occurrence of benzylpenicillin-resistant meningococci.) It is also the case for faecal streptococci (enterococci), which, with few exceptions, are susceptible to ampicillin. If resistance of these microorganisms is suspected on clinical grounds, representative strains should be submitted to a competent reference laboratory. • If the causative organism requires enriched media, e.g. Haemophilus influenzae and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Disc-diffusion susceptibility tests may give unreliable results, if the appropriate technique is not strictly followed. The emergence of b-lactamase-producing variants of these species has led to the introduction of special tests, such as the in vitro test for b-lactamase production, described on page 79. It will be the responsibility of the central and regional laboratories to monitor the susceptibility of pneumococci, gonococci, and Haemophilus. If problems arise with resistant strains, the peripheral laboratories should be alerted and instructions should be given on appropriate testing methods and on alternative treatment schemes. • In uncomplicated intestinal infections caused by salmonellae (other than S. typhi or S. paratyphi). Antimicrobial treatment of such infections is not justified, even with drugs showing in vitro activity. There is now ample evidence that antimicrobial treatment of common salmonella gastroenteritis (and indeed of most types of diarrhoeal disease of unknown etiology) is of no clinical benefit to the patient. Paradoxically, antimicrobials may prolong the excretion and dissemination of salmonellae and may lead to the selection of resistant variants.

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Susceptibility tests as an epidemiological tool Routine susceptibility tests on major pathogens (S. typhi, shigellae) are useful as part of a comprehensive programme of surveillance of enteric infections. They are essential for informing the physician of the emergence of resistant strains (chloramphenicol-resistant S. typhi, co-trimoxazole-resistant and ampicillin-resistant shigellae) and of the need to modify standard treatment schemes. Although susceptibility testing of non-typhoid salmonellae serotypes causing intestinal infection is not relevant for treating the patient, the appearance of multiresistant strains is a warning to the physician of the overuse and misuse of antimicrobial drugs. Continued surveillance of the results of routine susceptibility tests is an excellent source of information on the prevalence of resistant staphylococci and Gram-negative bacilli that may be responsible for cross-infections in the hospital. Periodic reporting of the susceptibility pattern of the prevalent strains is an invaluable aid to forming a sound policy on antimicrobial usage in the hospital by restriction and/or rotation of life-saving drugs, such as the aminoglycosides and cefalosporins.

Choice of drugs for routine susceptibility tests in the clinical laboratory The choice of drugs used in a routine antibiogram is governed by considerations of the antibacterial spectrum of the drugs, their pharmacokinetic properties, toxicity, efficacy and availability, as well as their cost to both the patient and the community. Among the many antimicrobial agents that could be used to treat a patient infected with a given organism, only a limited number of carefully selected drugs should be included in the susceptibility test. Table 23 indicates the antimicrobials to be tested in various situations. The drugs in the table are divided into two sets. Set 1 includes the drugs that are available in most hospitals and for which routine testing should be carried

Table 23. Basic sets of antimicrobials for routine susceptibility testsa Staphylococcus

Enterobacteriaceae

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Intestinal

Urinary

Blood & tissues

Set 1 First choice

benzylpenicillin oxacillin erythromycin tetracycline chloramphenicol

ampicillin chloramphenicol co-trimoxazole nalidixic acid tetracycline

sulfonamide trimethoprim co-trimoxazole ampicillin nitrofurantoin nalidixic acid tetracycline

ampicillin chloramphenicol co-trimoxazole tetracycline cefalotin gentamicin amoxy-clavb

piperacillin gentamicin tobramycin

Set 2 Additional drugs

gentamicin amikacin co-trimoxazole clindamycin nitrofurantoin

norfloxacin

norfloxacin chloramphenicol gentamicin amoxy-clavb

cefuroxime ceftriaxone ciprofloxacin piperacillin amikacin

amikacin ciprofloxacin ceftazidine

a

Notes on the individual antimicrobial agents are given in the text. Amoxycillin and clavulanic acid (inhibitor of b-lactamase).

b

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out for every strain. Tests for drugs in set 2 are to be performed only at the special request of the physician, or when the causative organism is resistant to the first-choice drugs, or when other reasons (allergy to a drug, or its unavailability) make further testing justified. Many antimicrobials with good clinical activity have been omitted from the table, but it must be emphasized that they are rarely needed in the management of the infected patient. In very rare cases, one or more additional drugs should be included when there is a special reason known to the physician, or when new and better drugs become available. Periodic revision of this table is therefore desirable, and this should be done after appropriate discussions with clinical staff. Many problems arise in practice, because clinicians are not always aware that only one representative of each group of antimicrobial agents is included in routine tests. The result obtained for this particular drug may then be extrapolated to all, or most, of the other members of the group. Difficulties arise in some countries when the physician is familiar only with the commercial brand name of the drug and not with its generic nonproprietary name. A serious effort should be made to inform medical personnel about the international nonproprietary names of pharmaceutical substances, and to encourage their use.1 1. The benzylpenicillin disc is used to test susceptibility to all b-lactamasesensitive penicillins (such as oral phenoxymethylpenicillin and pheneticillin). Isolates of staphylococci that fall into the resistant category produce b-lactamase and should be treated with a b-lactamase-resistant penicillin G or with another antimicrobial, such as erythromycin. 2. The oxacillin disc is representative of the whole group of b-lactamaseresistant penicillins (including meticillin, nafcillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin, and flucloxacillin). There is good clinical evidence that cross-resistance exists between the meticillin and the cefalosporin groups. Therefore, it is useless and misleading to include cefalotin in the antibiogram for staphylococci. Resistance to meticillin and related drugs is often of the heterogeneous type, i.e. the majority of cells may be fully susceptible and produce a wide inhibition zone, while the resistant part of the population appears in the form of minute discrete colonies growing within the inhibition zone. This type of resistance is more apparent when the temperature of the incubator is set at 35 ∞C2 or when the incubation time is prolonged. A serious disadvantage of meticillin, as a representative disc for the blactamase-resistant penicillins, is its great lability even under conventional storage conditions. The oxacillin disc is much more resistant to deterioration and is therefore preferred for the standardized diffusion test. The cloxacillin and dicloxacillin discs are not used as they may not indicate the presence of a heteroresistant strain. 3. The results for the tetracycline disc may be applied to chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, and other members of this group. However, most tetracycline-resistant staphylococci remain normally sensitive to minocycline. A disc of minocycline may thus be useful to test multiresistant strains of staphylococci. 4. The result for the chloramphenicol disc may be extrapolated to thiamphenicol, a related drug with a comparable antimicrobial spectrum, but without known risk of aplastic anaemia. 5. Only one representative of sulfonamide (sulfafurazole) is required in the test. 1

International Nonproprietary Names (INN) for Pharmaceutical Substances. Cumulative list No. 9. Geneva, World Health Organization, 1996. Sahm DF et al. Current concepts and approaches to antimicrobial agent susceptibility testing. In: Cumitech 25, Washington, DC, American Society for Microbiology, 1988.

2

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6. The co-trimoxazole disc contains a combination of trimethoprim and a sulfonamide (sulfamethoxazole). The two components of this synergistic combination have comparable pharmacokinetic properties and generally act as a single drug. 7. Ampicillin is the prototype of a group of broad-spectrum penicillins with activity against many Gram-negative bacteria. As it is susceptible to blactamase, it should not be used for testing staphylococci. Generally, the susceptibility to ampicillin is also valid for other members of this group: amoxycillin, pivampicillin, talampicillin, etc. (although amoxycillin is twice as active against salmonellae and only half as active against shigellae and H. influenzae). 8. Only cefalotin needs to be tested routinely as its spectrum is representative of all other first-generation cefalosporins (cefalexin, cefradine, cefaloridine, cefazolin, cefapirin). Where second- and third-generation cefalosporins and related compounds (cefamycins) with an expanded spectrum are available, a separate disc for some of these new drugs may be justified in selected cases (cefoxitin, cefamandole, cefuroxime, cefotaxime, ceftriaxone). Although some cefalosporins can be used to treat severe staphylococcal infections, the susceptibility of the infecting strain can be derived from the result with oxacillin as already mentioned under 2 above. 9. Erythromycin is used to test the susceptibility to some other members of the macrolide group (oleandomycin, spiramycin). 10. Aminoglycosides form a group of chemically related drugs that includes streptomycin, gentamicin, kanamycin, netilmicin and tobramycin. Their antimicrobial spectra are not always closely enough related to permit assumption of cross-resistance, but against susceptible pathogens these agents have been shown to be equally effective. Numerous studies have compared the nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity of gentamicin, netilmicin and tobramycin, but there is no conclusive evidence that any one of the drugs is less toxic than the others. It is strongly recommended that each laboratory select a single agent for primary susceptibility testing. The other agents should be held in reserve for treatment of patients with infections caused by resistant organisms. 11. Nitrofurantoin is limited to use only in the treatment of urinary tract infections, and should not be tested against microorganisms recovered from material other than urine. Table 24 provides information on zone diameter limits for control strains.

The modified Kirby–Bauer method The disc-diffusion method, originally described in 1966,1 is well standardized and has been widely evaluated. Official agencies have recommended it, with minor modifications, as a reference method which could be used as a routine technique in the clinical laboratory.

1

Bauer AW et al. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disc method. American journal of clinical pathology, 1966; 45:493–496.

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Table 24. Zone diameter limits for control strainsa Antimicrobial

amikacin amoxy-clavb ampicillin benzylpenicillin cefalotin cefalozin ceftazidime cefotaxime ceftriaxone cefuroxime chloramphenicol ciprofloxacin clindamycin co-trimoxazole erythromycin gentamicin nalidixic acid nitrofurantoin norfloxacin oxacillin piperacillin sulfonamidec tetracycline tobramycin trimethoprim vancomycin

Disc potency

30 mg 20/10 mg 10 mg 10 IU 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 5 mg 2 mg 25 mg 15 mg 10 mg 30 mg 300 mg 10 mg 1 mg 100 mg 300 mg 30 mg 10 mg 5 mg 30 mg

Diameter of zone of inhibition (mm) S. aureus (ATCC 25923)

E. coli (ATCC 25922)

P. aeruginosa (ATCC 27853)

20–26 28–36 27–35 26–37 29–37 29–35 16–20 25–31 22–28 27–35 19–26 22–30 24–30 24–32 22–30 19–27 — 18–22 17–28 18–24 — 24–34 24–30 19–29 19–26 17–21

19–26 19–25 16–22 — 15–21 23–29 25–32 29–35 29–35 20–26 21–27 30–40 — 24–32 — 19–26 22–28 20–25 28–35 — 24–30 15–23 18–25 18–26 21–28 —

18–26 — — — — — 22–29 18–22 17–23 — — 25–33 — — — 16–21 — — 22–29 — 25–33 — — 19–25 — —

a

National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Performance standards for antimicrobial disc susceptibility tests. 6th ed. Vol. 21 No 1 (M2-A7 and M7-A5) and 11th informational supplement 2001 (M100-S11). b Amoxycillin and clavulanic acid (inhibitor of b-lactamase). c Sulfisoxazole.

Reagents Mueller–Hinton agar 1. Mueller–Hinton agar should be prepared from a dehydrated base according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The medium should be such that control zone sizes within the published limits are produced (see Table 24). It is important not to overheat the medium. 2. Cool the medium to 45–50 ∞C and pour into the plates. Allow to set on a level surface, to a depth of approximately 4 mm. A 9-cm plate requires approximately 25 ml of medium. 3. When the agar has solidified, dry the plates for immediate use for 10–30 minutes at 35 ∞C by placing them in the upright position in the incubator with the lids tilted. 4. Any unused plates may be stored in a plastic bag, which should be sealed and placed in the refrigerator. Plates stored in this way will keep for 2 weeks. 110

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To ensure that the zone diameters are sufficiently reliable for testing susceptibility to sulfonamides and co-trimoxazole, the Mueller–Hinton agar must have low concentrations of the inhibitors thymidine and thymine. Each new lot of Mueller–Hinton agar should therefore be tested with a control strain of Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212 or 33186) and a disc of co-trimoxazole. A satisfactory lot of medium will give a distinct inhibition zone of 20 mm or more that is essentially free of hazy growth or fine colonies.

Antimicrobial discs Any commercially available discs with the proper diameter and potency can be used. Stocks of antimicrobial discs should preferably be kept at -20 ∞C; the freezer compartment of a home refrigerator is convenient. A small working supply of discs can be kept in the refrigerator for up to 1 month. On removal from the refrigerator, the containers should be left at room temperature for about 1 hour to allow the temperature to equilibrate. This procedure reduces the amount of condensation that occurs when warm air reaches the cold container. If a disc-dispensing apparatus is used, it should have a tight-fitting cover and be stored in the refrigerator. It should also be allowed to warm to room temperature before being opened.

Turbidity standard Prepare the turbidity standard by pouring 0.6 ml of a 1% (10 g/l) solution of barium chloride dihydrate into a 100-ml graduated cylinder, and filling to 100 ml with 1% (10 ml/l) sulfuric acid. The turbidity standard solution should be placed in a tube identical to the one used for the broth sample. It can be stored in the dark at room temperature for 6 months, provided it is sealed to prevent evaporation.

Swabs A supply of cotton wool swabs on wooden applicator sticks should be prepared. They can be sterilized in tins, culture tubes, or on paper, either in the autoclave or by dry heat.

Procedure To prepare the inoculum from the primary culture plate, touch with a loop the tops of each of 3–5 colonies, of similar appearance, of the organism to be tested.

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Transfer this growth to a tube of saline.

When the inoculum has to be made from a pure culture, a loopful of the confluent growth is similarly suspended in saline. Compare the tube with the turbidity standard and adjust the density of the test suspension to that of the standard by adding more bacteria or more sterile saline.

Proper adjustment of the turbidity of the inoculum is essential to ensure that the resulting lawn of growth is confluent or almost confluent. Inoculate the plates by dipping a sterile swab into the inoculum. Remove excess inoculum by pressing and rotating the swab firmly against the side of the tube above the level of the liquid.

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Streak the swab all over the surface of the medium three times, rotating the plate through an angle of 60∞ after each application. Finally, pass the swab round the edge of the agar surface. Leave the inoculum to dry for a few minutes at room temperature with the lid closed.

The antimicrobial discs may be placed on the inoculated plates using a pair of sterile forceps. It is convenient to use a template (Fig. 15) to place the discs uniformly.

A sterile needle tip may also be used to place the antimicrobial discs on the inoculated plate.

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Alternatively, an antimicrobial disc dispenser can be used to apply the discs to the inoculated plate.

A maximum of seven discs can be placed on a 9–10 cm plate. Six discs may be spaced evenly, approximately 15 mm from the edge of the plate, and 1 disc placed in the centre of the plate. Each disc should be gently pressed down to ensure even contact with the medium. The plates should be placed in an incubator at 35 ∞C within 30 minutes of preparation. Temperatures above 35 ∞C invalidate results for oxacillin/ meticillin. Do not incubate in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide. After overnight incubation, the diameter of each zone (including the diameter of the disc) should be measured and recorded in mm. The results should then be interpreted according to the critical diameters shown in Table 25. The measurements can be made with a ruler on the under-surface of the plate without opening the lid.

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If the medium is opaque, the zone can be measured by means of a pair of calipers.

A template (Fig. 14) may be used to assess the final result of the susceptibility tests.

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Table 25. Interpretative chart of zone sizes for rapidly growing bacteria using the modified Kirby–Bauer techniquea Antimicrobial agent

Diameter of zone of inhibition (mm) Disc potency

Resistant

Intermediate

Susceptible

amikacin amoxy-clavb ampicillin, when testing

30 mg 20/10 mg

<14 <13

15–16 14–17

>17 >18

— Enterobacteriaceae — enterococci

10 mg 10 mg

<13 <16

14–16 —

>17 >17

10 IU 10 IU

<28 <14

— —

>29 >15

cefalotin cefalozin cefotaxime ceftazidime ceftriaxone cefuroxime sodium, cefamandole chloramphenicol ciprofloxacin clindamycin co-trimoxazole erythromycin gentamicin nalidixic acidc nitrofurantoinc norfloxacinc oxacillin piperacillin, when testing

30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 30 mg 5 mg 2 mg 25 mg 15 mg 10 mg 30 mg 300 mg 10 mg 1 mg

<14 <14 <14 <14 <13 <14 <12 <15 <14 <10 <13 <12 <13 <14 <12 <10

15–17 15–17 15–22 15–17 14–20 15–17 13–17 16–20 15–20 11–15 14–22 13–14 14–18 15–16 13–16 10–12

>18 >18 >23 >18 >21 >18 <18 >21 21 16 >23 >15 19 >17 >17 >13

— P. aeruginosa — other Gram-negative rods

100 mg 100 mg

<17 <17

— 18–20

>18 >21

sulfonamidec,d tetracycline tobramycin trimethoprimc vancomycin, when testing

300 mg 30 mg 10 mg 5 mg

<12 <14 <12 <10

13–16 15–18 13–14 11–15

>17 >19 >15 16

— staphylococci — enterococci

30 mg 30 mg

— <14

— 15–16

>15 >17

benzylpenicillin, when testing — staphylococci — enterococci

a

National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Performance standards for antimicrobial disc susceptibility tests, 6th ed., Vol. 21, No. 1 (M2–A7 and M7–A5) Wayne, PA, NCCLS, 1997; and 11th informational supplement 2001 (M100–S11). b Amoxycillin and clavulanic acid (inhibitor of b-lactamase). c Only applicable for testing isolates from urinary tract infection and some enteric pathogens. d Sulfisoxazol.

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Fig. 14. Template for the determination of susceptibility

The end-point of inhibition is judged by the naked eye at the edge where the growth starts, but there are three exceptions: • With sulfonamides and co-trimoxazole, slight growth occurs within the inhibition zone; such growth should be ignored. • When b-lactamase-producing staphylococci are tested against benzyl penicillin, zones of inhibition are produced with a heaped-up, clearly defined edge; these are readily recognizable when compared with the sensitive control, and, regardless of the size of the zone of inhibition, they should be reported as resistant. • Certain Proteus species may swarm into the area of inhibition around some antimicrobials, but the zone of inhibition is usually clearly outlined and the thin layer of swarming growth should be ignored.

Interpretation of the zone sizes Using a template. When the zone sizes are compared with a template, a separate template must be prepared for each individual antimicrobial agent (see Fig. 14). The result—susceptible, resistant, or intermediate—can be read at once: “susceptible”, when the zone edge is outside the black circle; “resistant”, when there is no zone, or when it lies within the white circle; and “intermediate”, when the edge of the zone of inhibition lies on the black circle. Using a ruler. When the zone sizes are measured in mm, the results should be interpreted according to the critical diameters given in Table 25.

Direct versus indirect susceptibility tests In the standardized method outlined above, the inoculum is prepared from colonies on a primary culture plate or from a pure culture. This is called an “indirect susceptibility test”. In certain cases, where a rapid answer is important, the standardized inoculum may be replaced by the pathological specimen itself, e.g. urine, a positive blood culture, or a swab of pus. For specimens of urine, a microscopical examination of the sediment should first be made in order to see if there is evidence of infection, i.e. the presence of pus cells and/or organisms. The urine may then be used as the inoculum in the standard test. Likewise, susceptibility tests may be performed on incubated blood cultures showing evidence of bacterial growth, or a swab of pus may be used as a direct inoculum, when a Gram-stained smear shows the presence of large numbers of a single type of organism. This is called a “direct susceptibility test”; its advantage over the indirect test is that a result is obtained 24 hours earlier. The main disadvantage is that the inoculum cannot be properly controlled. When the susceptibility plate shows too light or too heavy growth, or when the culture is a mixture, the results should be interpreted with caution, and the test repeated on pure cultures. 117

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Technical factors influencing the size of the zone in the disc-diffusion method Inoculum density If the inoculum is too light, the inhibition zones will be larger even though the sensitivity of the organism is unchanged. Relatively resistant strains may then be reported as susceptible. Conversely, if the inoculum is too heavy, the zone size will be reduced and susceptible strains may be reported as resistant. Usually optimal results are obtained with an inoculum size that produces near confluent growth.

Timing of disc application If the plates, after being seeded with the test strain, are left at room temperature for periods longer than the standard time, multiplication of the inoculum may take place before the discs are applied. This causes a reduction in the zone diameter and may result in a susceptible strain being reported as resistant.

Temperature of incubation Susceptibility tests are normally incubated at 35 ∞C for optimal growth. If the temperature is lowered, the time required for effective growth is extended and larger zones result. When a heterogeneous resistant strain of Staphylococcus aureus is being tested against meticillin (oxacillin), the resistant portion of the population can be detected at 35 ∞C. At higher temperatures the entire culture appears to be susceptible. At 35 ∞C or lower temperatures, resistant colonies develop within the zone of inhibition. These resistant colonies can be seen more easily if the plate is left for several hours at room temperature before the result is read. Such colonies should always be identified to check whether they are contaminants.

Incubation time Most techniques adopt an incubation period of between 16 and 18 hours. In emergencies, however, a provisional report may be made after 6 hours. This is not routinely recommended and the result should always be confirmed after the conventional incubation time.

Size of plate, depth of agar medium, and spacing of the antimicrobial discs Susceptibility tests are usually carried out with 9–10 cm plates and no more than 6 or 7 antimicrobial discs on each plate. If larger numbers of antimicrobials have to be tested, two plates, or one 14-cm diameter plate, is to be preferred. Excessively large inhibition zones may be formed on very thin media; the converse is true for thick media. Minor changes in the depth of the agar layer have negligible effect. Proper spacing of the discs is essential to avoid overlapping of the inhibition zones or deformation near the edge of the plates (see Fig. 15).

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Fig. 15. Template for uniform placement of susceptibility discs on plates of 90 mm diameter

Potency of the antimicrobial discs The diameter of the inhibition zone is related to the amount of drug in the disc. If the potency of the drug is reduced owing to deterioration during storage, the inhibition zone will show a corresponding reduction in size.

Composition of the medium The medium influences the size of the zone by its effect on the rate of growth of the organism, the rate of diffusion of the antimicrobial, and the activity of the agent. It is essential to use the medium appropriate to the particular method. The many factors influencing the zone diameters that may be obtained for the same test organism clearly demonstrate the need for standardization of discdiffusion methods. Only if the conditions laid down in a particular method are closely followed can valid results be obtained. Alteration of any of the factors affecting the test can result in grossly misleading reports for the clinician. The precision and accuracy of the method should be monitored by establishing the quality control programme described below. Variations can then be immediately investigated and corrective action taken to eliminate them.

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Quality control The need for quality control in the susceptibility test The final result of a disc-diffusion test is influenced by a large number of variables. Some of the factors, such as the inoculum density and the incubation temperature, are easy to control, but a laboratory rarely knows the exact composition of a commercial medium or the batch-to-batch variations in its quality, and it cannot take for granted the antimicrobial content of the discs. The results of the test must therefore be monitored constantly by a quality control programme, which should be considered part of the procedure itself. The precision and accuracy of the test are controlled by the parallel use of a set of control strains, with known susceptibility to the antimicrobial agents. These quality control strains are tested using exactly the same procedure as for the test organisms. The zone sizes shown by the control organisms should fall within the range of diameters given in Table 24. When results regularly fall outside this range, they should be regarded as evidence that a technical error has been introduced into the test, or that the reagents are at fault. Each reagent and each step in the test should then be investigated until the cause of the error has been found and eliminated.

Standard procedure for quality control The quality control programme should test standard reference strains of bacteria in parallel with the clinical cultures. These tests should preferably be run every week, or with every fifth batch of tests, and, in addition, every time a new batch of Mueller–Hinton agar or a new batch of discs is used.

Standard strains for quality control Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853) These cultures can be obtained from national culture collections. They are commercially available in the form of pellets of desiccated pure cultures. Cultures for day-to-day use should be grown on slants of nutrient agar (tryptic soy agar is convenient) and stored in the refrigerator. They should be subcultured on to fresh slants every 2 weeks.

Preparing the inoculum The cultures may be inoculated into any type of broth, and incubated until the broth is turbid. Each broth should be streaked onto an agar plate and incubated overnight. Single colonies should then be picked off and submitted to susceptibility tests as described on pages 111–115.

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Fig. 16. Quality control chart for antimicrobial susceptibility testing

Placing antimicrobial discs After the inoculum has been streaked on to the plates, as described on page 113, the appropriate discs should be applied. The discs to be selected for each control strain are listed in Table 24.

Reading the plates After 16–18 hours incubation, the diameters of the inhibition zones should be measured with a ruler and recorded, together with the date of the test, on a special quality control chart. This chart should display data for each disc–strain combination. The chart is labelled in millimetres, with an indication of the range of acceptable zone sizes. An example of such a chart is shown in Fig. 16. When the results consistently fall outside the acceptable limits, action should be taken to improve the quality of the test. Grossly aberrant results, which cannot be explained by technical errors in the procedure, may indicate contamination or sudden changes in the susceptibility or growth characteristics of the control strain. If this occurs, a fresh stockstrain should be obtained from a reliable source.

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Serological tests Introduction Serological tests, unlike culture and microscopic investigations, provide only indirect evidence of infection by detecting bacterial antigens, or antibodies produced in response to them, in clinical material. Such tests are now widely used in microbiology because of their high specificity and sensitivity. After an initial infection with pathogenic microorganisms, most patients will produce both IgM and IgG antibodies. After a few weeks, the cells producing IgM antibodies switch to producing IgG antibodies, and subsequently only IgG antibodies will be present in the patient’s serum. A second infection with the same pathogens will elicit only an IgG response. Because the antibodyproducing cells have retained the memory of the pathogen, the response will be more rapid and usually stronger than the initial response; this is an anamnestic response. The antibody level is usually designated by a “titre”. The diagnostic titre to be reported is the reciprocal value of the highest dilution of the patient’s serum in which antibodies are still detectable. For example, if antibodies are detectable in serum diluted 1 : 1024 but not in further dilutions, the titre of the serum is 1024. Serum collected during the acute phase of the infection, when the disease is first suspected, is called the acute serum; serum drawn during convalescence, which is usually 2 weeks later, is called convalescent serum. Reaction to an antigen will occur regardless of the stage of infection, although this reaction will vary. The presence of IgG antibodies in a single serum sample may indicate past exposure to the agent and therefore cannot be used to diagnose a current infection. An antigen may also stimulate production of antibodies that cross-react with other antigens. As these antibodies are nonspecific, tests involving only single serum samples may give rise to misinterpretation of results. For the majority of serological tests, both acute and convalescent sera should be tested, preferably together in the same test-run, to counteract variables inherent in the test procedure. An increase in the antibody titre of two doubling dilutions (e.g. from a dilution of 1 : 8 to a dilution 1 : 32) is usually considered to be diagnostic of current infection. This is called a fourfold rise in titre. Testing a single serum sample may be useful only in special cases, such as for diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection, where high titres may indicate a recent infection, or when the test demonstrates the presence of IgM antibodies and the result may be taken as evidence of a current infection. The type of antigen–antibody reaction depends on the physical state of the antigen.

Quality control measures The reliability and consistency of serological test results are entirely dependent on the quality control measures undertaken before, during and after each test. These quality control measures are extremely important as a falsepositive or false-negative result might give rise to a medical decision or action that could harm the patient. Many variables may affect the quality of serological testing, including the experience of the laboratory personnel, the quality of the kits and equipment, the condition of the specimens, the controls used in test-runs, and the interpretation and reporting of results. After the test 122

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has been completed, discard used materials into a container filled with disinfectant, and wash hands and bench surfaces with disinfectant.

Equipment The equipment in a serology laboratory includes water-baths, incubators, refrigerators, freezers, pH meters, balances, centrifuges, microscopes, and rotators. Monitoring and routine maintenance of equipment is a vital part of the quality assurance programme in the serology laboratory. A routine maintenance service should be established with periodic inspection of all equipment for minor adjustments. Records showing dates of inspection, maintenance, and repair should be maintained for each piece of equipment. The water-bath should be kept free of all foreign material and drained and cleaned monthly. The temperatures of the water-bath should be strictly controlled and should not vary by more than ±1 ∞C; it should be checked and recorded daily and during use. A cover should be provided to prevent cooling at the surface of the water. Mixtures of antigen and antibody should not be incubated until the desired temperature has been maintained for at least one hour. The water level should be the same as that of the fluid in the tubes or flasks that are placed in the water-bath. Microscopes are essential for the Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) test and the fluorescent treponemal antigen absorption (FTA-Abs) test, and must be maintained in the best possible working order. After use, the eyepieces, objectives, and condenser of the microscope should be wiped clean of all oil and debris with a non-abrasive tissue. When not in use, the microscope should be kept covered and protected against moisture. The intensity of the mercury lamp of the fluorescence microscope should be checked repeatedly with a light meter. The mechanical rotator for the VDRL and the rapid plasma reagin (RPR) tests should be checked for speed during use, and any change in speed that may adversely affect the agglutination reaction should be corrected. The mechanical rotator should be lubricated on a regular basis.

Materials Glassware and needles used in serological tests should meet the specifications recommended in those tests. All chipped or scratched glassware, plates and slides should be discarded. The use of dirty or improperly cleaned glassware that may have residues of organic material on it is a major cause of misleading results. The instructions for washing glassware should be clearly written out and displayed in the washing area. The basic steps should include pre-rinsing, washing with an appropriate laboratory detergent, rinsing with tap water followed by distilled water, drying, and checking to ensure that all detergent has been removed. All pipettes should be soaked upright in a detergent solution so that the solution fills the inside of the pipette. Pipettes should then be rinsed for at least 30 minutes under running water, followed by a rinse in distilled water. Glass plates used for the VDRL test must be cleaned thoroughly until all detergent and oil residues are removed. Prolonged soaking in detergent solutions should be avoided as this may weaken and flake the ceramic rings on the 123

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plates. Glass plates with paraffin rings should be cleaned using an appropriate organic solvent (e.g. petrol ether). For the RPR and VDRL tests, calibrated needles are used for dispensing antigen and diluent. The RPR test kit includes a dispensing needle, and these needles should be checked before use. Check the needle by determining the number of drops/ml: a 20-gauge needle should deliver 90 drops/ml. RPR needles that are not working properly should be discarded. Wash the needles with distilled water after use. To prepare the two needles for the VDRL test, break the points with a pair of pliers. Check the needles by determining the number of drops/ml: an 18-gauge needle must deliver 60 drops/ml, and a 21or 22-gauge needle deliver 100 drops/ml. Any needle in the VDRL test kit that does not deliver the exact number of drops should be discarded, or adjusted by either pressing or reaming the end of the needle. Wash the needles with water, 70% ethanol and acetone after use.

Reagents Chemicals used in serology must be of reagent quality and must meet the specifications of the particular procedure. They should be stored in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions. High-quality distilled water with a pH of 7.0 should be used for the preparation of reagents. Distilled water should be stored in a heat-resistant glass or plastic bottle with a tightly fitting lid and be properly labelled and dated. Saline is used either as saline or as a buffered solution, such as phosphatebuffered saline. In humid climates, sodium chloride should be dried in a hotair oven for 30 minutes at 160–180 ∞C to remove any moisture. The salt should be dissolved in distilled or demineralized water and stored in a heat-resistant glass or plastic bottle with a tightly fitting lid and be properly labelled and dated. When buffered saline is prepared, the pH must be determined before use. Sera that contain particulate debris should be centrifuged at 3000 g for 10 minutes, and the supernatant used for testing. Haemolysed or contaminated sera should be discarded. If inactivated serum is required for a test, heat the serum at 56 ∞C for 30 minutes. If the serum has not been used 4 hours after the initial inactivation, it should be re-inactivated by heating at 56 ∞C for 10 minutes before testing. Bring all sera to room temperature before testing. A detailed description of some of the serological procedures routinely performed in many medical laboratories will be discussed in this chapter. These include serological tests for the investigation of syphilis, the Wright test for the diagnosis of brucellosis, and the antistreptolysin O test for the diagnosis of post-streptococcal disease. Each description refers to the use of a commercial test kit. As these test kits are available from a number of manufacturers, the user should carefully read the detailed instructions contained in each package insert.

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Serological reactions Flocculation or precipitin reactions In flocculation tests, the antigen is in solution and the interaction with the antibody will result in the formation of a precipitate, which can be observed either under the microscope or with the naked eye. When the reagents are mixed, the initial combination of antigen and antibody occurs almost immediately. However, subsequent formation of larger visible clumps requires an hour or more and is temperature-dependent. The reaction is fastest in the zone of equivalence, where the antigen–antibody ratio is optimal. The tube with the quickest formation of a precipitate is a good indication of equivalence. The most widely used flocculation tests are the VDRL and the RPR test. Both are used for the diagnosis of syphilis (caused by Treponema pallidum), and for other treponemal infections. Flocculation tests provide qualitative evidence of an antigen–antibody reaction but do not indicate whether one or more types of antigen–antibody reactions are involved. If, however, the reactions are investigated using a semisolid gel, the different antigens and antibodies are likely to diffuse at different migration rates, and it may be possible to distinguish different reactions.

Agglutination reactions In agglutination tests, the reagent, which may be an antigen or an antibody, is fixed or absorbed to a micro-particle. A variety of particles can be used as carriers of the reagent, e.g. latex particles, gelatin particles, microbeads, bacteria or red blood cells. This technique is also called passive agglutination. When red blood cells are used as carriers the tests are called coagglutination tests. When mixed with a specific antiserum, the cells or particles form a lattice network that results in clumping and leaves a clear supernatant. If an antiserum of known specificity is used, the test for the identification of unknown microorganisms or their antigens can be applied. This test may be performed on a slide, and the resulting agglutination read macroscopically or under the low-power objective of microscope. The agglutination reaction is also used to estimate the titre of antibacterial agglutinins in the serum of patients with unknown diseases. A rise in titre during an illness strongly suggests a causal relationship. Agglutination is accelerated at higher temperatures (35–56 ∞C) and by movement (e.g. shaking, stirring or centrifuging), which increases the contact between antigen and antibody. The agglutination process requires the presence of salts. A potentially serious problem with agglutination tests is prozone reaction: if too much antibody is present, the lattice will not form and agglutination will be inhibited. A prozone reaction gives the impression that antibody is absent; this error, however, can be avoided by testing serial dilutions of the serum. There is a commonly used agglutination test that uses Staphylococcus aureus, which contains a protein, Protein A, on its surface. This protein binds to the Fc fragment of IgG antibodies. IgG antibody-coated staphylococci produce visible agglutination in the presence of a specific antigen. The test is mainly used to identify organisms cultured from clinical specimens or to detect bacterial antigens in body fluids of infected patients (cerebrospinal fluid in the case of meningitis).

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Agglutination tests are used for the diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus (infectious mononucleosis), rotavirus, rubella, and for the detection of bacterial antigens (Haemophilus and Streptococcus A and B, among others).

Fluorescent antibody tests In immunofluorescence tests, the immunoreagent (antigen or antibody) is attached to a fluorescent dye, such as fluorescein or rhodamine, and the reaction between the antigen and the antibody is detected by fluorescence microscopy. In the direct antigen-detection test, fluorescein-conjugated antibodies are used to reveal the presence of a specific antigen. The test is a valuable aid in the rapid identification of Chlamydia trachomatis, C. psittaci, Rickettsia spp., Streptococcus pyogenes, Bordetella pertussis, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Legionella pneumophila, and other organisms in clinical specimens. In the indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test, serial dilutions of a patient’s serum are allowed to react with the specific antigen, and antihuman IgG or IgM antibodies conjugated to fluorescein are added to make the reaction visible. For example, in the serodiagnosis of syphilis, Treponema pallidum antigen is fixed to a slide, overlaid with the patient’s serum, and then washed. Fluorescein-labelled antihuman immunoglobulin is then placed on the preparation, which is washed and examined by fluorescence microscopy. If the patient’s serum contains specific antibodies to Treponema pallidum, brightly fluorescent spirochaetes are seen. If the spirochaetes do not fluoresce, no specific antitreponemal antibodies are present in the patient’s serum. The IFA test can also be used to identify other bacteria, including mycobacteria, and this procedure is often more sensitive than the direct immunofluorescence test, because more fluorescein-labelled antibodies will attach to each antigen site.

Serological tests for syphilis The serological tests for the diagnosis of syphilis include non-treponemal and treponemal tests. The non-treponemal tests are the VDRL and the RPR tests. The antigens used in these tests are prepared from non-treponemal antigens, such as cardiolipin–lecithin, and they detect the antibody-like substance reagin, which is present in the sera of many patients with syphilis, and may occasionally be detected in the sera of patients with other acute and chronic diseases. These tests are practical, inexpensive, and reproducible, although they are not absolutely specific. They may confirm the diagnosis of early or late symptomatic syphilis or provide diagnostic evidence of latent syphilis. This test is superior to the treponemal tests as a follow-up investigation after treatment. Moreover, the VDRL test is an effective tool in epidemiological investigations of syphilis and other treponemal diseases. The treponemal tests use Treponema pallidum antigens to detect specific antibodies that have developed in serum in response to syphilis infection. The procedures are used to verify the specificity of positive reactions in nontreponemal tests. The fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test (FTAAbs) and the Treponema pallidum haemagglutination test (TPHA) are highly specific and sensitive but they cannot differentiate between active and past syphilis infections; neither can they be used for evaluating therapeutic response.

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VDRL test The VDRL test uses cardiolipin–lecithin-coated cholesterol particles. Inactivated serum or cerebrospinal fluid and VDRL antigen emulsion are mixed using a rotating machine for a prescribed period of time. The VDRL particles will flocculate if reagin is present in the serum or cerebrospinal fluid. The VDRL test is strongly reactive for early syphilis infection. After effective treatment the titre falls gradually and usually becomes non-reactive within 1–2 years. In the late phase of the disease the serum may remain reactive at a low titre (e.g. 1 : 8 or less) for many years, even after effective treatment. Reactivity may cease spontaneously in about 20–30% of untreated patients during the latent phase of the disease, and even more often during the late phase. False-positive results may be observed because of the similarity of the VDRL antigen with normal host tissue. Although false-positive reactions can sometimes be observed in the serum of healthy persons, they are often associated with a specific disease or following vaccination. Acute false-positive reactions often have low titres (1 : 8 or less) and are mainly seen in persons with viral or bacterial infections (atypical pneumonia, psittacosis, infectious mononucleosis and infectious hepatitis), during pregnancy or after recent vaccination. Prolonged false-positive reactions usually have high titres that are caused by autoantibodies (rheumatoid factors) in patients with lepromatous leprosy, tuberculosis, immune disorders (e.g. lupus erythematosus, collagenosis, rheumatic diseases, Sjögren syndrome, dysgammaglobulinaemia) and occasionally malaria, or in those who are dependent on heroin. Reactive or weakly reactive VDRL test results should not be considered conclusive evidence of syphilis in a patient and a non-reactive VDRL test by itself does not rule out the diagnosis of syphilis. Any test sample giving a reactive or weakly reactive result in the absence of clinical evidence of syphilis should therefore be subjected to a treponemal test such as FTA-Abs or TPHA. Materials and reagents provided in the VDRL test kit Buffered saline solution Control sera set (non-reactive, weakly reactive and reactive) VDRL antigen Additional materials and reagents required for the VDRL test Absolute alcohol and acetone Agglutination slide, approximately 5 ¥ 7.5 cm with wells 16 mm in diameter and 1.75 mm deep, for cerebrospinal fluid tests Aliquot vials Distilled or deionized water Glass plate with 12 paraffin or ceramic rings approximately 14 mm in diameter for serum tests Humidity cover Hypodermic needles without bevels: 18-gauge for serum tests, and 21- or 22-gauge for cerebrospinal fluid tests Interval timer Light microscope with ¥10 ocular and ¥10 objective Mechanical rotator, circumscribing a circle 2 cm in diameter, at a speed of 180 rev/min, on a horizontal plane, with an automatic timer pH meter Serological pipettes: 5.0 ml, 1.0 ml and 0.2 ml Sterile saline solutions (0.85% and 10%) Syringe, Luer-type, 1 or 2 ml

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VDRL antigen emulsion bottles, 30-ml, round, glass-stoppered, narrowmouth, approximately 35 mm in diameter with flat inner bottom surface Water-bath (56 ∞C) Rehydration of VDRL antigen and control sera The VDRL antigen is an alcoholic solution of lipids (cardiolipin and lecithin) and cholesterol. These substances are not soluble in water. VDRL antigen is unstable and a fresh suspension must be prepared on the day of use. Pour the contents of the antigen ampoule into the storage vial. Ensure that the vial is tightly capped and store in the dark at 15–30 ∞C. Withdraw antigen as required. After the bottle of buffered saline has been opened, it should be stored in the refrigerator. Discard if turbidity appears. Rehydrate the control sera with 3 ml of distilled or deionized water. Divide the rehydrated sera that are surplus to the day’s use into suitable aliquot portions (one day’s use) and store at -20 ∞C for up to one month. Do not thaw and refreeze. Store the sera to be used for the day in the refrigerator at 2–8 ∞C. Preparation of VDRL antigen emulsion 1. Allow the antigen and buffered saline to reach room temperature. Check the pH of the buffered saline and discard if outside the range of pH 6.0 ± 0.1. 2. Pipette 0.4 ml of buffered saline into an antigen emulsion bottle and gently tilt the bottle so that the buffered saline covers the bottom the bottle. 3. Measure 0.5 ml of antigen solution using a 1-ml pipette graduated to the tip, and add the antigen as follows: • Keep the pipette in the upper one third of the bottle. Do not let it touch the saline. • While rotating the bottle manually in a circle approximately 5 cm in diameter, add the antigen drop by drop to the buffered saline. • Allow approximately 6 seconds to add the antigen, then discharge the remaining antigen in the pipette into the bottle. • Continue rotation of the bottle for 10 seconds. 4. Add 4.1 ml of buffered saline to the bottle, allowing it to flow down the side of the bottle. 5. Place the glass stopper in the bottle and shake the bottle up and down approximately 30 times in 10 seconds. 6. Let the antigen emulsion stand for at least 10 minutes before using. Swirl gently prior to use. The antigen emulsion may be used for the next 8 hours. 7. If cerebrospinal fluid is to be tested, dilute the antigen emulsion a further 1 : 2 with an equal volume of 10% saline solution. Shake the bottle gently for 10 seconds and allow to stand for a minimum of 5 minutes and a maximum of 2 hours before using.

VDRL qualitative test 1. Using a 1.0 ml pipette, mix the inactivated serum several times then add 0.05 ml to the first well of the VDRL glass plate. 2. Spread the serum with a circular motion of the pipette tip so that it covers the entire inner surface of the paraffin or ceramic well. Use only clean plates that allow the serum to cover evenly the entire surface within the paraffin or ceramic well.

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3. Take a syringe with an 18-gauge needle and, holding it vertically, carefully add 1 drop of antigen (1/60 ml) to the serum. Do not allow the needle to touch the serum. 4. Place the plates on the mechanical rotator under a humidity cover and rotate for 4 minutes. If a mechanical rotator is not available rotate the card by hand with a steady circular motion for 4 minutes. 5. Examine the plate immediately after rotation using a microscope with a ¥10 ocular and a ¥10 objective. 6. Read the reactions as follows: Medium and large clumps R Reactive Small clumps W Weakly reactive No clumping or very slight roughness N Non-reactive Serum that produces weakly reactive or rough non-reactive results should be retested with the semi-quantitative test as prozone reactions are occasionally encountered.

VDRL semi-quantitative test 1. Prepare a two-fold serial dilution of inactivated serum in 0.85% saline (1 : 2, 1 : 4, 1 : 8, 1 : 16, 1 : 32). 2. Test each serum dilution using the qualitative test procedure. 3. Report the results in terms of the highest serum dilution that produces a reactive (not weakly reactive) result in accordance with the following examples:

Dilution

Report

Undiluted serum

1:2

1:4

1:8

1 : 16

1 : 32

W R R R W N (rough)

N W R R W W

N N W R R R

N N N W R R

N N N N W R

N N N N N N

Weakly reactive, undiluted Reactive, undiluted Reactive, 1 : 2 dilution Reactive, 1 : 4 dilution Reactive, 1 : 8 dilution Reactive, 1 : 16 dilution

W: weakly reactive; R: reactive; N: non-reactive.

4. If reactive results are obtained up to dilution 1 : 32, prepare further twofold serial dilutions in 0.85% saline (1 : 64, 1 : 128 and 1 : 256) and retest using the qualitative test procedure.

RPR test The antigen suspension in the RPR test contains charcoal particles to allow for macroscopically visible flocculation. The main differences between the RPR test and the VDRL test are that it uses a stabilized antigen, cards instead of plates, and serum as well as plasma, and the serum does not need to be heated. As only a small amount of sample is required, plasma or serum from capillary blood can also be used. The RPR test cannot be used to test cerebrospinal fluid. A 129

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In the RPR test the antigen is ready for immediate use. It requires no prior preparation or dilution. Unopened antigen reagent has a shelf-life of one year; storage in a refrigerator is recommended. Once opened, the antigen reagent maintains its reactivity for 3 months when stored in the refrigerator in its plastic dispenser. The RPR test is slightly more sensitive than the VDRL test and it is easier and quicker to perform. False-positive reactions occur slightly more often with the RPR test than with the VDRL test. Some commercial kits require a mechanical rotator for mixing the reagents, whereas others can be rotated manually. Materials and reagents provided in the RPR test kit Antigen delivery needle to deliver 60 drops/ml of the antigen suspension Control sera, positive and negative Disposable droppers to deliver 50 ml of serum or plasma Plastic-coated RPR test cards, each with two rows of five wells Prepared RPR antigen suspension Stirrers Additional materials and reagents required for the RPR test Disposable dropper Grease pencil Humidity cover Mechanical rotator, circumscribing a circle 2 cm in diameter, at a speed of 180 rev/min, on a horizontal plane, with an automatic timer Sterile saline (0.85%)

RPR qualitative test 1. Remove the reagent kit from the refrigerator and allow the reagents to warm to room temperature. 2. Reconstitute the control serum by adding the recommended volume of distilled water. 3. Label each well on the RPR card with the laboratory number of a sample to be tested, including wells for positive, weakly positive and negative control sera. 4. Use the disposable dropper to add 50 ml of unheated serum or plasma to the corresponding well. Use a new dropper for each sample. 5. Gently shake the antigen suspension and add one free-falling drop to each well using the antigen delivery needle provided. Carefully mix the antigen suspension and serum. Use a new stirrer for each sample. Spread to cover the area of the well. 6. Place the card on the mechanical rotator under a humidity cover and rotate for 8 minutes. If a mechanical rotator is not available rotate the card by hand with a steady circular motion for 2 minutes, then place it in a moist chamber containing wet tissue or filter-paper for 6 minutes. Remove the card and rotate briefly to obtain the final reading. Take care to avoid crosscontamination of samples. 7. Remove the card from the rotator and examine it macroscopically in a good light. The positive control serum should show clearly visible agglutination. The negative control serum should show no agglutination. A brief rotation and tilting of the card by hand can help to differentiate weakly reactive from non-reactive samples. 8. Record the test results: • Small to large flocculated clumps: reactive • Even turbidity of the particle suspension: non-reactive 9. Prepare serial dilutions of any reactive sera to estimate the antibody titre. 130

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RPR semi-quantitative test 1. Remove the reagent kit from the refrigerator and allow the reagents to warm to room temperature. 2. Label a row of 5 wells on the RPR card with the laboratory number for each sample to be tested. 3. Use the disposable dropper to add 1 drop of saline (0.85%) to each well. Do not spread. 4. Use a new dropper to add 1 drop of the serum sample to the first well. Mix by drawing up and down the dropper 5–6 times (avoid bubble formation). 5. Transfer 50 ml of the mixed sample (1 : 2 dilution) to the next well. Mix. Repeat the procedure up to the 5th well (1 : 32 dilution). Discard 50 ml from the last dilution. 6. Spread the diluted samples over the entire area of the test well starting with the highest dilution. Use a new stirrer for each sample. 7. Gently shake the antigen add 1 free-falling drop to each well using the antigen delivery needle provided. Carefully mix the antigen suspension and serum. Spread to cover the area of the well. Use a new stirrer for each sample. 8. Place the card on the mechanical rotator under a humidity cover and rotate for 8 minutes. If a mechanical rotator is not available rotate the card by hand with a steady circular motion for 2 minutes, then place it in a moist chamber containing wet tissue or filter-paper for 6 minutes. Remove the card and rotate briefly to obtain the final reading. Take care to avoid cross-contamination of samples. 9. Remove the card from the rotator and examine it macroscopically in a good light. The highest dilution to contain macroscopic agglutination is the titre of the sample. 10. If the sample is positive at 1 : 32, the dilution series should be extended. Prepare a 1 : 16 dilution in saline (0.85%) and perform a serial dilution series as described previously.

Fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA-Abs) The antigen used for the FTA-Abs test consists of Treponema pallidum (Nichols strain) which is fixed with acetone on a slide. Lyophilized T. pallidum cells reconstituted in saline can also be used. Inactivated patient serum is incubated with a sorbent consisting of Reiter treponemes for absorption of nonspecific treponemal group antibodies. After absorption, patient serum is added to the slide. Specific antibodies in the serum bind to the surface of the treponemal cells. After rinsing, a conjugate of antihuman antibodies with a fluorescent stain (fluorescein isothiocyanate) is added to the treponemes. The conjugate will bind to the antibodies that have bound to the treponemes and can be visualized by fluorescence microscopy. Reactivity can be observed three weeks after infection and is permanent in untreated patients. It may be observed several years after successful drug treatment in the early phase of the disease and may be permanent in patients who receive adequate drug therapy only in the late phase of the disease. A positive reaction in the FTA-Abs test indicates a high probability of syphilitic infection. False-negative results are exceptional and may be due to poor quality antigen. False-positive results may be caused by group antibodies that were not eliminated during absorption procedures or by unsatisfactory reagents. False-positive results have also been reported in patients with

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hepatic cirrhosis, balanitis, collagenosis, herpes gestationis, lupus erythematosus, and very occasionally in pregnant women and healthy persons, for unknown reasons. Cross-reactivity between T. pallidum and Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease) has been demonstrated. In particular, specimens with a disproportionately high antibody titre in an FTA-Abs test, compared with other serological syphilis tests, should be tested for antibodies against Borrelia. The main advantages of the FTA-Abs test is its high specificity and sensitivity as well as the early onset of reactivity. The results are reliable and may be decisive in doubtful cases. However, the FTA-Abs test is time-consuming and expensive; it requires highly trained personnel to carry it out and to read the results. It should therefore be used only as a confirmatory test in cases where the diagnosis is in doubt. Materials and reagents provided in the FTA-Abs test kit Buffer solution Control sera, positive and negative Fluorescein-labelled antihuman immunoglobulin (conjugate) Lyophilized extract of Reiter treponemes (sorbent) T. pallidum smears fixed to slides Additional materials and reagents required for the FTA-Abs test Coverslips Fluorescence microscope with UV illumination (¥40 objective) Mounting medium Phosphate-buffered saline, pH 7.2 (PBS) Tween 80 (2%)-PBS

FTA-Abs test 1. Remove the reagent kit from the refrigerator and allow the reagents to warm to room temperature. 2. Allow the required number of slides to warm to room temperature for 15 minutes. 3. Dilute 50 ml of serum with 0.2 ml of sorbent and mix. Dilute positive control and negative control sera in parallel, 1 : 5 in buffer solution and 1 : 5 in sorbent. 4. Cover the smear on one slide with 10 ml of buffer solution (conjugate control) and the smear on a second slide with 10 ml of sorbent (sorbent control). 5. On the remaining slides cover the smears with 10 ml each of serum dilution and control serum dilutions. 6. Place the slides in a moist chamber for 30 minutes at 37 ∞C. Wash the slides for 5 minutes in Tween-PBS solution. Repeat each wash. Rinse in distilled water, then drain and leave to dry in a slide box. 7. Cover the smears on all slides with 10 ml of antihuman immunoglobulin diluted in buffer solution according to the manufacturer’s instructions. 8. Place the slides in a moist chamber for 30 minutes at 37 ∞C. Wash the slides for 5 minutes in Tween-PBS. Repeat each wash. Rinse in distilled water, then drain and leave to dry in a slide box. 9. Cover each smear with 2 drops of mounting medium and a coverslip. 10. Check that the conjugate, sorbent and negative serum controls do not fluoresce:

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• No fluorescence or slightly greenish treponemes: negative reaction • Varying degree of green fluorescence: positive reaction The degree of fluorescence can be graded as: Non-reactive Borderline Reactive

0 1+, 2+, 3+ 4+

A reaction of 2+ or greater is regarded as indicative of T. pallidum infection.

Febrile agglutinins tests Physicians who treat patients with inexplicable fever often request a series of serological tests, collectively known as febrile agglutinins tests, to demonstrate infections with Brucella (Wright test), Salmonella typhi (Widal test) and some rickettsias (Weil–Felix reaction). The tests measure agglutinating antibodies directed against an O surface antigen and/or an H flagella antigen of the suspected organism, or, in the case of the Weil–Felix reaction, a crossreacting surface antigen of two strains of Proteus vulgaris. The Widal and Weil–Felix tests are no longer recommended for the screening of patients as they pose a considerable number of technical and interpretational problems. A negative reaction will not exclude active infection as the infection may be in the incubation period and the patient has not yet produced detectable antibodies against the organism. The prozone phenomenon also results in a negative reaction; this can be prevented by using serial dilutions of the serum. A positive reaction with a given antigen may not be diagnostic, as the patient may exhibit a rise in heterologous agglutinins during the course of the illness. Such reactions are known as nonspecific anamnestic reactions because the patient has responded to an antigenic stimulus with production of nonspecific agglutinins. This makes serological diagnosis based on a single high antibody titre too uncertain, and only seroconversion with a fourfold or greater rise in titre on serial dilutions of sera should be accepted as an indication of a recent infection. Most patients with acute brucellosis will have an agglutinin titre of 1 : 320 or greater by the end of the second week of illness. Even one year after treatment, 20% of patients will continue to have a significant Brucella agglutinin titre. High Brucella agglutinin titres have also been recorded in patients with Francisella tularensis and Yersinia entero-colitica infections, and in patients who have recently had a Brucella or cholera vaccination or been tested with brucellergin skin test. They have also occasionally been recorded in abattoir workers. Because blood culture may not demonstrate the organism for many weeks, if ever, the Brucella agglutinin determinations can support a presumptive diagnosis of acute brucellosis. Isolation of the organism, usually from blood, provides definitive proof of infection. However, in suspected cases where blood culture does not show infection, sternal bone marrow aspirate may be cultured to confirm the diagnosis. Patients with localized brucellosis may be afebrile and may not have significant levels of Brucella agglutinin titre. In these cases, the infection should be suspected on epidemiological grounds and by detection of calcified lymph nodes on X-ray, but the diagnosis should be confirmed by culture. A 133

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The rapid slide test is a screening test designed to detect agglutinins, whereas the tube test is a confirmatory test designed to measure the agglutinin quantitatively. Any positive result obtained with the slide test should be verified with the tube test. Materials and reagents provided in the febrile agglutinins test kit Antigen suspensions (B. abortus, B. melitensis) in bottles fitted with droppers Negative control serum Positive control serum Additional materials and reagents required for the febrile agglutinins test Applicator sticks Glass plate Grease pencil Pipettes, 50–1000 ml Ruler Sterile saline (0.85%) Test-tubes and test-tube racks Timer Water-bath, temperature-controlled

Febrile agglutinins slide test This test is preferred to the tube test as it is less complicated. 1. The serum sample must be clear and free of visible fat. It should not show haemolysis or be contaminated by bacteria. It should not be heat inactivated, as this may destroy some of the thermolabile agglutinins. 2. Prepare the glass plate by drawing up rows of 2.5-cm squares with the ruler and the grease pencil. Each row of 5 squares is sufficient to test one antigen against serum dilutions up to 1 : 320. 3. Use a 0.2 ml pipette to add 0.08, 0.04, 0.02, 0.01, and 0.005 ml of serum to a row of squares on the glass plate. 4. Place 1 drop of the appropriate well-mixed antigen suspension for the slide test on each drop of serum. 5. Mix the serum–antigen mixture with an applicator stick, starting from the highest serum dilution. The final dilutions are correlated approximately to the macroscopic tube test dilutions and are counted as 1 : 20, 1 : 40, 1 : 80, 1 : 160 and 1 : 320, respectively. 6. Hold the glass plate with both hands and gently rotate it 15–20 times. Examine the serum–antigen mixture macroscopically for agglutination within 1 minute in a good light. Reactions occurring later may be due to the reactants drying on the slide and should be verified with the tube test. 7. Record results as follows: Complete agglutination 4+ Approximately 75% of the cells are clumped 3+ Approximately 50% of the cells are clumped 2+ Approximately 25% of the cells are clumped 1+ Trace or no agglutination —

Febrile agglutinins tube test Prepare serial dilutions of serum and the control sera in the following manner: 134

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1. Place 8 test-tubes in a rack for each serum to be tested. 2. Pipette 1.9 ml of saline (0.85%) into the first tube of each row and 0.5 ml into each of the remaining tubes. 3. Add 0.1 ml of the serum to tube 1 containing 1.9 ml of saline. 4. Mix well with a pipette and transfer 0.5 ml to tube 2. Mix thoroughly. 5. Continue down the row of rubes adding 1 drop of serum dilution until tube 7. Mix thoroughly. Discard 0.5 ml from tube 7 after mixing thoroughly. Tube 8 is the antigen control tube. 6. Add 0.5 ml of the respective antigen to each of the 8 tubes. Shake the racks to mix the antigen and antiserum. The resultant dilutions are 1 : 20 through 1 : 1280, respectively. 7. Incubate in a water-bath at 37 ∞C for 48 hours or according to the manufacturer’s instructions. 8. Examine the tubes macroscopically for agglutination within 1 minute in a good light against a black background. The tubes should not be shaken. Positive reactions show obvious agglutination (granulation); negative reactions show a cloudy suspension without agglutination. The highest degree of dilution of serum in a tube showing agglutination is the titre. Discard an antigen if it does not agglutinate with a known positive control serum, or if it agglutinates with a known negative control serum. Agglutinins may be found in healthy individuals, and single sera with titres of less than 80 are of doubtful significance. False-positive results may occur with sera from patients infected with Francisella tularensis or vaccinated against Vibrio cholerae. It is not possible to differentiate between B. abortus and B. melitensis infections using this test.

Antistreptolysin O (ASO) test Streptococcal infections are very common in all populations, and a high percentage of people will have antibodies against streptococci. The b-haemolytic group A streptococci produce two haemolysins: oxygen-labile streptolysin O and oxygen-stable haemolysin S. Only reduced (non-oxidized) streptolysin O is immunogenic and is used for the test. The antistreptolysin O test is based on the fact that patients with Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcal) infections develop antibodies that inhibit the haemolytic activity of streptolysin O. The antibodies are usually long-lasting and a single increased titre is not an indication of a current infection. Only a fourfold or greater rise in titre on successive serum samples taken 10–14 days apart should be considered indicative of recent infection. This test is mainly used in the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever, acute glomerulonephritis and other post-streptococcal diseases. There are two types of commercial antistreptolysin O test kits: • The ASO latex slide agglutination test is used to screen sera to identify those with raised ASO titres (200 IU or higher). • The ASO tube test is a haemolysis inhibition test that is used to determine ASO antibody titre in serum samples that are positive in the ASO latex slide agglutination test. A titre of less than 50 IU does not confirm the diagnosis of acute rheumatic fever.

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Materials and reagents provided in the ASO latex slide agglutination test kit Disposable cards, with 6 wells each Disposable dropper Positive control serum Sensitized latex reagent (with streptolysin O) Additional materials required for the ASO latex slide agglutination test Applicator sticks

ASO latex slide agglutination test 1. 2. 3. 4.

Dilute the serum 1 : 20. Place 1 drop of the serum solution in a well on the disposable card. Use a new dropper to add 1 drop of sensitized latex reagent. Use an applicator stick to mix the two drops and spread them over the entire well. 5. Examine for agglutination within 2 minutes. A positive reaction appears as a fine flocculation (agglutination) within 2 minutes. A negative reaction shows no agglutination. If the flocculation appears within 2 minutes, the serum should be titrated with the antistreptolysin O tube test. Materials and reagents provided in the ASO tube test kit Positive control serum Reduced streptolysin O antigen (dried preparation) Sheep red blood cells Standard antistreptolysin O antibody (dried preparation, 20 IU/bottle) Streptolysin O buffer (25¥ concentrated solution) Additional materials required for the ASO tube test Distilled water Pipettes (1 ml, 2 ml) Test-tubes Water-bath

ASO tube test 1. Reconstitute the reduced streptolysin O antigen (dried preparation) with the appropriate volume of distilled water (stated on the bottle label) to give a potency of 2 IU equivalent per ml. The solution should be used within 6 hours of reconstitution as it does not contain preservatives. 2. Reconstitute the standard antistreptolysin O antibody (dried preparation, 20 IU/bottle) with 10 ml of streptolysin O buffer. The solution can be stored for six months at 4 ∞C provided it does not become contaminated. 3. Dilute the streptolysin O buffer (25¥ concentrated solution) with 480 ml of distilled water before use. Diluted buffer should be discarded after one week.

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4. Wash and centrifuge 1 ml of sheep red blood cells three times in streptolysin O buffer and pipette the supernatant fluid off. Add streptolysin O buffer to give an 8% cell suspension. 5. Allow the reagents and serum samples to reach room temperature. 6. Make a 1 : 10 dilution of patient serum in a test-tube (0.1 ml serum + 0.9 ml streptolysin O buffer). Prepare 2 master dilutions from the 1 : 10 dilution as shown in the table below:

Serum

Buffer

Dilution

0.2 ml (1 : 10) 1.0 ml (1 : 100)

1.8 ml 0.5 ml

1 : 100 1 : 150

7. Prepare the following dilution series with streptolysin O buffer for each of these master dilutions:

Tube 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Serum 0.2 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml

(1 : 10) (1 : 100) (1 : 200) (1 : 400) (1 : 150) (1 : 300) 0 0

Buffer

Dilution

Reduced streptolysin O

0.8 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 1.5 ml 1.0 ml

1 : 50 1 : 200 1 : 400 1 : 800 1 : 300 1 : 600 — —

0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0.5 ml 0 0.5 ml

8. Rearrange the tubes in rising dilutions: 1 : 50, 1 : 200, 1 : 300, 1 : 400, 1 : 600, 1 : 800. 9. Add 1.5 ml of buffer to control tube 7 and 1 ml of buffer to control tube 8. 10. Add 0.5 ml of reduced streptolysin O to all test-tubes, except control tube 7. 11. Mix and refrigerate at 4 ∞C for two hours to allow the antibody–antigen reaction to take place. 12. Add 0.5 ml of the 8% cell suspension to each tube, including control tubes 7 and 8, mix and incubate in a water-bath at 37 ∞C for 30 minutes. 13. Centrifuge the tubes at 1000 g for 2 minutes and observe for haemolysis. Control tube 7 should show no haemolysis and control tube 8 should be completely haemolysed. 14. The ASO titre is determined as the highest dilution showing no sign of haemolysis: • If there is haemolysis in all tubes, report the result as “ASO titre less than 200 IU”. • If there is no haemolysis in the tubes with a higher serum dilution, report the result as “ASO reactive with the titre”.

Bacterial antigen tests Latex agglutination and coagglutination tests for bacterial antigens are used to identify microorganisms or their antigens in cultures or in clinical specimens. Latex agglutination tests use polymer particles as solid-phase support; coagglutination tests use red blood cells as solid-phase support. Latex agglutination tests are available to detect a number of different polysaccharide anti137

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gens of bacteria that cause meningitis including Haemophilus influenzae (type b), S. pneumoniae (omnivalent), N. meningitidis (group A, B, C, Y and W135), E. coli (type K1), and S. agalactiae (group B). Latex agglutination tests are useful for identifying streptococci from Lancefield groups A, B, C, D, F and G. Moreover, latex agglutinating sera are available for use in qualitative slide agglutination tests and quantitative tube agglutination tests for serological identification and typing of Streptococcus groups A–D, N. meningitidis, H. influenzae, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, etc. A threshold level of the antigen is required to detect polysaccharide antigens in clinical samples. The threshold level is usually exceeded if organisms can be seen in Gram-stained preparations, although this may not always be the case. The number of bacteria found in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with N. meningitidis infection is significantly lower that that for other types of Neisseria spp. infection and therefore the threshold level of polysaccharide antigens is reached less frequently. Several serogroups of N. meningitidis may cause meningitis. While serogroups A, C, Y, and W135 each have a stable antigen that can be detected with a single polyvalent reagent, the serogroup B antigen is relatively unstable and considerably more difficult to detect. It is also indistinguishable from the K1 polysaccharide antigen of E. coli, which is the main cause of E. coli meningitis in newborn babies. However, if the Gram-stained preparation demonstrates Gram-negative diplococci, infection is most likely to be due to N. meningitidis group B; if the Gram-stained preparation demonstrates Gram-negative rods, infection is probably due to E. coli. For some of the tests a polysaccharide antigen is extracted from the organism before testing. This extraction may be carried out chemically or enzymatically. Four different tests can be used for the detection of the antigen: • In the slide-agglutination tests, the antigen is added to latex particles or staphylococcal cells coated with specific antibodies. The mixture is rotated by hand with a steady circular motion for 1–2 minutes and the reaction is observed macroscopically for agglutination. • In the ELISA tests, a solution of sample and antigen is first passed over a membrane coated with an antibody (this antibody is usually monoclonal). Subsequently, the membrane is covered with a solution of a second (monoclonal) antibody conjugated with an enzyme. The presence of the antigen–antibody enzyme complex on the membrane is detected by its reaction with a chromogenic substrate that is added in solution. • In the gold immunoassay, a solution of sample and antigen is left to diffuse on a membrane, which is then examined. • In the optical immunoassay, antibodies are attached to a silicon wafer with reflective properties. When the antigen reacts with the specific antibody on the wafer, a change in the surface layer occurs, which causes a change in the light reflection.

Typical procedures for latex agglutination or coagglutination tests 1. For cell-bound antigens: use a sterilized loop to transfer well-isolated colonies to a drop of saline on a slide and mix carefully to obtain a slightly opalescent emulsion. If the saline emulsion shows clumping, it usually indicates a rough (R) strain instead of a smooth (S) strain, and the cells will fail to agglutinate with the antibody. If no clumping appears, add the reagent and proceed from step 4. 138

BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

For extracted antigen: use a sterilized loop to transfer well-isolated colonies to a small test-tube containing extraction solution and emulsify them. Incubate the emulsion at 35 ∞C or according to the manufacturer’s instructions. For clinical specimens (CSF, urine): heat the specimen to boiling-point or according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Cool and centrifuge at 2000 g for 5–10 minutes. Place 1 drop of the antibody-coated particles on the slide. Place 1 drop of the antigen suspension beside the antibody-coated particles. Mix the 2 drops on the slide and spread in a square. Rotate the slide by hand in a steady circular motion for 1 minute. Take care that the mixture does not spill outside the boundaries of the square. Examine the slide macroscopically for agglutination after the time specified in the manufacturer’s instructions. For best visibility hold the slide near a bright light and view against a dark background. A positive result is recorded when the antigen mixed with the antibody shows agglutination, i.e. the suspension shows clumping or is granular to the point of curdling. Agglutination is best seen by tilting the slide slightly so that the fluid drains down towards the lower boundary of the square.

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Part II Essential media and reagents

A

Introduction With just a few diagnostic materials, a laboratory can make an important contribution to individual patient care through accurate etiological diagnosis. In most developing countries bacteriological laboratory practice is hampered by a shortage of culture media and basic reagents, which are very costly to import. However, the number of culture media and reagents that have to be purchased can be reduced to the essential ones, through rational selection, as has been the case with essential drug lists. Additionally, some simple media and reagents can be produced or prepared locally. Application of these two approaches would greatly reduce the necessity for foreign exchange and make more readily available the laboratory material necessary for patient care and epidemiological studies. This chapter has been prepared to enable health laboratory managers to concentrate their resources on the most relevant media and reagents. It comprises two sections both composed of a series of lists.

142

Pathogens, media and diagnostic reagents Expected pathogens Pathogens are listed according to a number of factors: — — — — —

frequency of isolation, clinical relevance, severity of disease, epidemic potential, cost–benefit ratio of isolation and/or identification.

The listing is by no means absolute and will vary from country to country or from laboratory to laboratory, depending on the local disease pattern, the laboratory capacity, and the resources available.

Media and diagnostic reagent priority gradings A certain degree of flexibility has been incorporated by adopting a priority grading for media and diagnostic reagents as follows: Grade 1: High priority Grade 2: Intermediate priority Grade 3: Low priority Media and diagnostic reagents are priority graded according to the listing of the pathogens for which they are used for isolation and identification. However, there may be differences. If the medium is used broadly for more than one pathogen, it may score higher than any one pathogen for which it is used. Grade 1: High priority media and diagnostic reagents should be available in all laboratories that practise general diagnostic bacteriology. They are most often for general purpose use, easy to prepare and few in number. Grade 2: Intermediate priority media and diagnostic reagents are additional useful substances that make laboratory diagnosis more complete and more useful for epidemiological studies, although they may not be essential for direct patient care, e.g. the grouping antisera for meningococci. Grade 3: Low priority media and diagnostic reagents are substances that are of value only occasionally for patient care, but which are useful for teaching, research, and special investigations by a reference laboratory. This category applies to media and diagnostic reagents that are too expensive for general use, or that are needed for the isolation and identification of organisms that occur rarely or are difficult to isolate and therefore often not cost-effective. For common laboratory investigations, the listed pathogens, and the required media and diagnostic reagents, together with a suggested priority grading, are to be found below. The priority grading should be adapted for each laboratory according to local circumstances.

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Blood Expected pathogens Bacteroides fragilis Brucella Burkholderia pseudomallei Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans Haemophilus influenzae Neisseria meningitidis Non-fermenters other than Pseudomonas aeruginosa Other Enterobacteriaceae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Salmonella typhi and non-typhi Staphylococcus aureus Streptococci (S. pyogenes, S. pneumoniae, viridans streptococci)

Media and diagnostic reagents Blood-culture broth Priority grading Tryptic soy broth (TSB) can be replaced by any rich broth, e.g. brain–heart infusion broth, addition of sodium polyanethol sulfonate (SPS), 0.25 g/l, optional “Anaerobic” blood culture broth: thioglycollate broth or Schaedler broth or Wilkins–Chalgren anaerobe broth

1 2

Isolation media Subculture on blood agar, chocolate agar and MacConkey agar

1

Diagnostic reagents Bacitracin disc Coagulase plasma b-Lactamase test reagent Optochin disc Oxidase reagent Salmonella agglutinating antisera V and XV factors Haemophilus influenzae type b antiserum Neisseria meningitidis agglutinating serum (polyvalent and specific groups A, B, C)

Cerebrospinal fluid Expected pathogens Cryptococcus neoformans Enterobacteriaceae Haemophilus influenzae Listeria monocytogenes 144

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3

ESSENTIAL MEDIA AND REAGENTS

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Neisseria meningitidis Streptococcus agalactiae Streptococcus pneumoniae

Media and diagnostic reagents Isolation media Blood agar (with streak of Staphylococcus) Chocolate agar MacConkey agar Löwenstein–Jensen medium Sabouraud dextrose agar

Priority grading 1 1 1 2 2

Diagnostic reagents India ink b-Lactamase test reagent Optochin disc Oxidase reagent V and XV factors Haemophilus influenzae type b antiserum Neisseria meningitidis agglutinating serum (polyvalent and specific groups A, B, C)

1 1 1 1 2 3 3

Rapid diagnostic tests Test kit for rapid diagnosis of bacteria causing meningitis

3

Urine Expected pathogens Candida albicans Enterococci Escherichia coli Mycobacterium tuberculosis Other Enterobacteriaceae Other staphylococci Pseudomonas and other non-fermenters Staphylococcus saprophyticus

Media and diagnostic reagents Isolation and quantitative media Blood agar Brolacin agar (can be replaced by purple lactose agar,

Priority grading 1 A

145

PATHOGENS, MEDIA AND DIAGNOSTIC REAGENTS

MacConkey agar, agar without crystal violet, or eosin methylene-blue agar) CLED agar

1 1

Identification media and diagnostic reagents b-Glucuronidase tablet (PGUA) for identification of E. coli For Gram-negative rods: Kligler iron agar (KIA) Kovacs reagent for indole motility–indole–urease (MIU) medium oxidase reagent lysine–decarboxylase broth (Möller) ONPG test Simmons citrate agar For staphylococci and enterococci catalase test (H2O2) coagulase plasma bile–aesculin agar (for enterococci) novobiocin (5 mg) disc for differentiating negative-coagulase staphylococci

1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 3

Stool Expected pathogens Aeromonas and Plesiomonas Campylobacter spp. Escherichia coli (enteropathogenic, enterotoxigenic, enteroinvasive, and enterohaemorrhagic) Non-typhoid Salmonellae spp. and Edwardsiella Salmonella typhi and S. paratyphi Shigella Vibrio cholerae serogroup O1, non-cholerae vibrios Yersinia enterocolitica

Media and diagnostic reagents Transport media Cary–Blair medium (for all pathogens) Buffered glycerol saline (not for Vibrio or Campylobacter)

Priority grading 1 2

Enrichment media Selenite F broth Alkaline peptone water

146

1 2

ESSENTIAL MEDIA AND REAGENTS

Isolation media Deoxycholate–citrate agar (can be replaced by Salmonella-Shigella agar, xylose–lysine–deoxycholate agar (XLD) MacConkey agar (with crystal violet) TCBS agar Campylobacter medium: Columbia agar base or any blood agar base with lysed blood and antibiotic supplement, or charcoalbased media

1 1 1

2

Preliminary media and diagnostic reagents Kligler iron agar (KIA) (may be replaced by triple sugar iron agar (TSI) but only for enteric pathogens) Kovacs reagent for indole Motility–indole–urease (MIU) medium (may be replaced by motility test medium + peptone urea broth) Oxidase reagent

1 1 1 1

Specific media and diagnostic reagents Andrade peptone water (or phenol red broth base) Lysine–decarboxylase broth (Möller) ONPG test Simmons citrate agar Vibriostatic compound O:129 disc

2 2 2 2 2

Agglutinating antisera Priority grading O antiserum polyvalent (A–I and Vi) 1 O-factor antisera: O:2 (A), O:4 (B), O:9 (D), Vi 2 H-factor antisera: H:a, H:b, H:d, H:i, H:m, H:2 3 phase inversion H-antisera: H:b, H:i, H:1,2 3 Shigella: dysenteriae polyvalent, flexneri polyvalent, boydii polyvalent, sonnei polyvalent 1 dysenteriae type 1 (Shiga) 1 Vibrio cholerae: O1 antiserum polyvalent 1 subtypes B (Ogawa), C (Inaba), O:139 3 Haemophilus influenzae type b 3 Neisseria meningitidis polyvalent 3 single factor A, B, C 3 Salmonella:

Upper respiratory tract Expected pathogens Candida albicans (oropharynx) Corynebacterium diphtheriae (throat and nose) Haemophilus influenzae (ear and sinus) Moraxella catarrhalis (ear and sinus) Neisseria meningitidis Pseudomonas

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PATHOGENS, MEDIA AND DIAGNOSTIC REAGENTS

Staphyloccoccus aureus (ear and sinus) Streptococcus pneumoniae (ear and sinus) Streptococcus pyogenes (group A, throat)

Media and diagnostic reagents Isolation media Blood agar (prepared from a glucose-free base) Chocolate agar Löffler coagulated serum or Dorset egg medium Tellurite blood agar Modified Thayer–Martin medium (for gonococci and meningococci)

Priority grading 1 2 2 2 3

Diagnostic reagents Bacitracin disc Catalase and coagulase reagents Optochin disc Carbohydrate degradation media for Neisseria spp. Oxidase reagent V and XV factors (discs or strips) Tributyrin

1 1 1 2 2 2 3

Rapid diagnostic tests Grouping kit for haemolytic streptococci

3

Lower respiratory tract Expected pathogens Candida albicans Enterobacteriaceae Haemophilus influenzae Klebsiella pneumoniae Moraxella catarrhalis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus pneumoniae

Media and diagnostic reagents Isolation media Blood agar Chocolate agar MacConkey agar Löwenstein–Jensen medium

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Priority grading 1 1 1 2

ESSENTIAL MEDIA AND REAGENTS

Sabouraud dextrose agar Selective blood agar for Haemophilus (bacitracin or vancomycin)

3 3

Diagnostic reagents Coagulase plasma Optochin disc Oxidase reagent V and XV factors (discs or strips) Tributyrin

1 1 2 2 3

Urogenital specimens for exclusion of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) Expected pathogens Candida albicans (microscopic examination) Chlamydia trachomatis Gardnerella vaginalis (microscopic examination)1 Haemophilus ducreyi Neisseria gonorrhoeae Treponema pallidum (dark-field microscopy)

Media and diagnostic reagents Transport media Amies transport medium or Stuart transport medium

Priority grading 1

Isolation media Modified Thayer–Martin (MTM) medium or New York City (NYC) medium Mueller–Hinton chocolated horse-blood agar + vancomycin + IsoVitaleX for H. ducreyi

1 3

Identification reagents Nitrocefin test or other b-lactamase test reagent Oxidase reagent

1 1

Pus and exudates Expected pathogens Bacillus anthracis Bacteroides and other strict anaerobes

1

Gardnerella vaginalis is an indicator organism for vaginosis, but not a pathogen.

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Clostridium perfringens Enterobacteriaceae Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. ulcerans Other Mycobacterium spp. Pasteurella multocida Pseudomonas and other non-fermenters Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus pyogenes Streptococcus (other species)

Media and diagnostic reagents Isolation media Priority grading Blood agar 1 MacConkey agar 1 Mannitol salt agar 2 Thioglycollate broth (with indicator) (can be replaced by cooked meat medium, Schaedler broth, Wilkins–Chalgren broth) 2 Tryptic soy broth (TSB) 2

Diagnostic reagents Catalase test (H2O2) Coagulase plasma Oxidase reagent Hydrogen generator for anaerobic jar

1 1 1 2

List of recommended media and diagnostic reagents for the intermediate microbiological laboratory Culture media Recommended medium Bile–aesculin agar Blood agar (see tryptic soy agar) Brolacin agar Kligler iron agar (KIA) Löffler coagulated serum Löwenstein–Jensen medium MacConkey agar (with crystal violet) MacConkey agar (without crystal violet) Motility–indole–urease (MIU) medium Mueller–Hinton agar Sabouraud dextrose agar Deoxycholate citrate agar Tryptic soy agar (TSA)

150

Alternatives

Priority grading 1

purple lactose agar, CLED agar Dorset egg medium

1 1 1 1 1

eosin methylene-blue agar 1 1 motility test medium + urea broth + peptone (tryptone) water

Salmonella–Shigella (SS) agar Columbia agar

1 1 1 1 1

ESSENTIAL MEDIA AND REAGENTS

Recommended medium Tryptic soy broth (TSB) TCBS Transport medium (Amies) Andrade peptone water Decarboxylase broth (Möller) Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Selenite F broth Simmons citrate agar Thioglycollate medium (with indicator)

Alternatives

Priority grading

brain–heart infusion broth transport medium (Stuart or Cary–Blair) phenol red broth

Schaedler broth, Wilkens– Chalgren anaerobe broth, cooked meat medium

DNase agar

1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2

2 3

Inhibitors or antimicrobials for use in media or as reagents Chloramphenicol (for isolation of fungi) Gonococcal antimicrobial supplement: vancomycin, colistin, nystatin (trimethoprim): VCN (VCNT) Campylobacter antimicrobial supplement Tellurite solution (for isolation of Corynebacterium diphtheriae) Bacitracin (for isolation of Haemophilus spp.) Vancomycin (for isolation of Haemophilus ducreyi or H. influenzae)

1 1 2 2 3 3

Enrichments for culture media IsoVitaleX (Polyvitex, Vitox, supplement B, supplement VX, supplement CVA) Sodium polyanethol sulfonate (SPS)

2 3

Diagnostic discs, tablets or strips Bacitracin disc Nitrocefin disc (Cefinase) or reagent ONPG test Optochin disc Oxidase reagent PGUA (b-glucuronidase) V and XV factors Novobiocin (5 mg) disc PYR test Tributyrin Vibriostatic compound O:129 disc

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3

Diagnostic kits Rapid serodiagnostic kit for identification of bacteria causing meningitis Serological grouping kit for haemolytic streptococci

151

3 3

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PATHOGENS, MEDIA AND DIAGNOSTIC REAGENTS

Miscellaneous diagnostic reagents Barium sulfate standard (for Kirby–Bauer method) Gram-stain reagents Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (catalase) Kovacs reagent (for indole) Oxidase reagent (dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine) Plasma (for coagulase test and germ-tube test) Ziehl–Neelsen stain Buffered glycerol–saline (for transportation of stool) Carbohydrates: glucose, lactose, maltose, mannitol, sucrose Hydrogen generator for anaerobic jar India ink (for capsule detection) Lysine (for decarboxylase test)

Sensitivity-testing discs Antimicrobials included in the WHO list of essential drugs (2002) amoxicillin ampicillin benzylpenicillin chloramphenicol ciprofloxazin co-trimoxazole (sulfamethoxazole–trimethoprim) cloxacillin erythromycin gentamicin kanamycin nalidixic acid nitrofurantoin sulfonamide tetracycline (or doxycycline) trimethoprim

Reserved antimicrobials amoxy-clav amikacin cefalotin cefazolin cefotaxime ceftazidime ceftriaxone cefuroxime ciprofloxacin or other fluoquinolones clindamycin piperacillin vancomycin

152

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2

ESSENTIAL MEDIA AND REAGENTS

Agglutinating antisera Priority grading O antiserum polyvalent (A–I and Vi) 1 O-factor antisera: O:2 (A), O:4 (B), O:9 (D), Vi 2 H-factor antisera: H:a, H:b, H:d, H:i, H:m, H:2 3 phase inversion H-antisera: H:b, H:i, H:1,2 3 Shigella: dysenteriae polyvalent, flexneri polyvalent, boydii polyvalent, sonnei polyvalent 1 dysenteriae type 1 (Shiga) 1 Vibrio cholerae: O1 antiserum polyvalent 1 subtypes B (Ogawa), C (Inaba), O:139 3 Haemophilus influenzae: type b 3 Neisseria meningitidis: polyvalent 3 single factor A, B, C 3

Salmonella:

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Selected further reading August MJ et al. Quality control and quality assurance practices in clinical microbiology. Cumitech, 1990, 3A:1–14. Basics of quality assurance for intermediate and peripheral laboratories, 2nd ed. Alexandria, WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, 2000. Baron EJ, Finegold SM. Diagnostic microbiology, 8th ed. St Louis, MO, The C.V. Mosby Company, 1990. Blazevic DJ et al. Practical quality control procedures for the clinical microbiology laboratory. Cumitech, 1976, 3:1–12. Cheesbrough M. Medical laboratory manual for tropical countries. Vol. II: Microbiology. London, Tropical Health Technology/Butterworths, 1989. Collins CH, Lyne PM. Microbiological methods, 5th ed. London, Butterworths, 1985. Gillies RP, Paul J. Bacteriology illustrated. Edinburgh, Churchill Livingstone, 1983. Howard BJ et al. Clinical and pathogenic microbiology. St Louis, MO, The C.V. Mosby Company, 1987. Koneman EW. Color atlas and textbook of diagnostic microbiology, 5th ed. Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1997. Miller JM. Quality control in microbiology. Atlanta, GA, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1987. Miller JM, Wentworth BB. Methods for quality control in diagnostic microbiology. Washington, DC, American Public Health Association, 1985. Montefiore DG et al. Tropical microbiology. Edinburgh, Churchill Livingstone, 1984. Murray P et al. Manual of clinical microbiology, 8th ed. Washington, DC, American Society for Microbiology, 2003. Stokes EJ et al. Quality control. In: Clinical bacteriology, 7th ed. London, Edward Arnold, 1993. Turk DC et al. A short textbook of medical microbiology. London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1983. Summanen P et al. Wadsworth anaerobic bacteriology manual. Belmont, CA, Star Publishing Company, 1993.

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Index Note: Page numbers in bold type indicate main discussions. Abscesses 86, 87, 89, 93, 98 liver 92 lung 66–67 Acid-fast stain, see Ziehl–Neelsen staining Acinetobacter Iwoffi 10–12, 24 spp. 60, 70 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) 20, 37, 61, 76 Actinomyces israelii 90, 93 Actinomycosis 89, 90 Acute bronchitis 66 Aeromonas spp. 38, 53, 146 Aesculin agar, see Bile–aesculin agar African trypanosomiasis 26 Agglutinating antisera 147, 153 Agglutination tests 28, 56–59, 63, 125–126, 135–139 Agglutinins tests, febrile 133–135 AIDS, see Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Albert stain 64 Albumin, bovine 73 Alcohol 21 Alkaline bile salt agar 42 Alkaline peptone water 40–42, 146 American Type Culture Collection 14 Amies transport medium 40, 62, 77, 81, 149, 151 Amikacin 107, 110, 116, 152 Aminoglycosides 100, 109 Amoeba 26, 87, 92 Amoebic dysentery 41 Amoxicillin 109, 152 Amoxy-clav 107, 110, 116, 152 Amphotericin B 42, 78 Ampicillin 107, 109, 110, 116, 152 Anaemia, aplastic 108 Anaerobes 10, 80, 87, 98–102 necrotizing ulcerative pharyngitis 61 stab cultures 15, 24 surgical specimens 91, 93 wound infections 88 Anaerobic jars 8, 44 Andrade peptone water 64, 147, 151 Aneurysms, infected 20 Animal bites/scratches 88, 96 Anorectal specimens, collection 77 Anthrax (see also Bacillus anthracis) 96–97 Antibiograms (see also Susceptibility tests) blood cultures 24 Antibiotic discs, see Antimicrobial discs Antibiotic susceptibility testing, see Susceptibility testing

155

Antibodies 122 Anticoagulant, blood collection 22 Antigens 77, 122 diagnostic 12–13 latex agglutination test 137, 138–139 VDRL test 128 Antimicrobial discs 13–14, 103, 104–105, 108–121 potency 119 recommended 151, 152 Antimicrobial resistance 17, 62, 97, 101–121, 108 Antimicrobial susceptibility, definition 104–105 Antimicrobial susceptibility testing, see Susceptibility testing Antimicrobials (see also Drugs) enteric disease therapy 39 generic names 108 media/reagent use 151 susceptibility testing discs 103, 104–105, 108–121, 151–152 Antisera agglutinating 147, 153 diagnostic 12–13 external quality assessment 17–18 Antistreptolysin O (ASO) test 135–137 Arabinose 53 Arcobacter butzleri 39, 54 Argenine 38, 54 Arthritis 76, 93, 96 ASO, see Antistreptolysin O test Aspirates 80, 86–87, 92 Autoclaves, quality control 8 Bacillus anthracis 88, 91, 93, 96–97, 149 Bacitracin 148, 151 Bacteraemia 20–21, 24, 37, 101, 102 Bacteria, oxygen requirement 98 Bacteriology, quality assurance 2–18 Bacteriuria, screening test 32 Bacteroides fragilis 12, 21, 87, 88, 91, 144 identification 99, 101, 102 stock strain 16 melaninogenicus, see Prevotella melaninogenica spp. 98–99, 149 Balanitis 132 Balanoposthitis 76 Barium sulfate 12, 152 Bartholinitis 76 Bed sores 87, 89–90 Benzalkonium chloride, see Zephiran Benzylpenicillin 79, 97, 106–108, 110, 116, 152

H

INDEX

Bile–aesculin agar 11, 23, 29, 64, 146, 150 Bile stimulation test 101 Bismuth sulfite agar (BSA) 44, 48 Bites, animal/human 88, 96 Blastomyces dermatitidis 92 Blind subcultures, blood samples 23 Blood agar 27–29, anaerobic specimens 100 Corynebacterium diphtheriae 64 CSF specimens 27 Haemophilus influenzae 29, 149 priority grading 144–145, 148–150, 155 sputum culture 69 Streptococcus pyogenes culture 63 surgical specimens 92–93 Blood specimens 20–24 collection 20–22 culture 21, 22–24 diagnostic reagents/media 144 expected pathogens 144 Body cavities, purulent exudates 87, 90 Bordetella pertussis 126 Borrelia burgdorferi 132 Bottles, blood-culture 22–23 Botulism, wound 88, 98 Brain heart infusion broth 144, 151 Branhamella catarrhalis, see Moraxella catarrhalis Brolacin agar 145, 150 Bromothymol blue–lactose–cystine agar 34, 145, 150 Bronchitis 66 Bronchopneumonia 67 Broth anaerobes culture 99, 100, 101, 144, 151 blood culture 22 thioglycollate 12, 23, 38, 92, 144, 150 tryptic soy (TSB) 22, 27, 96, 144, 150, 151 Wilkins–Chalgren 100, 144, 151 Brucella abortus 23, 135 melitensis 133, 135 spp. 16, 17, 23, 59, 133, 135, 144 Brucellosis 20, 133 BSA, see Bismuth sulfite agar Buboes, inguinal 83 Burkholderia pseudomallei 17, 21, 144 Burns 87, 89–90 Calcium alginate 77 Calibrated loop technique, urine specimens 32–33 Calymmatobacterium granulomatis 76, 82 CAMP test 23 reverse 28, 64, 101–102 Campylobacter antimicrobial supplement 151 coli 38, 50, 54, 55 fetus 54, 55

156

hyointestinalis 54, 55 jejuni 38, 50, 54, 55 lari 54, 55 media 147 spp. 7, 41, 42, 50, 98 enteric infections 37, 38, 146, 147 identification 54, 55 incubation 43–44 upsaliensis 54, 55 Cancer, cervical 76 Candida albicans 12, 21, 61, 144–149 in sputum 69 STDs 76, 79, 81, 82 stock strain 10, 70, 71 spp. 61, 62, 93 Candidiasis, oral 61–62 Candle jars 43, 69, 100 Carbapenem 97 Carbohydrate degradation 79, 148 Carbohydrates 152 Carbohydrate utilization test 28 Carbol fuchsin 50 Carbon dioxide 28, 77 Cardiolipin lecithin 126, 127 Carriers, upper respiratory tract infections 62 Cary–Blair transport medium 40–41, 146, 151 Castaneda bottle 23 Catalase test 13, 29, 46, 52, 64, 96, 146, 148, 150, 152 Causal agents bacteraemia 21 diarrhoeal disease 37–39 fungaemia 21 meningitis 25 pharyngitis 61–62 purulent exudates 87 STDs 76–77 tonsillitis 61 CCFA, see Cefoxitin–cycloserine–fructose agar Cefalexin 109 Cefalosporins 97, 109 Cefalotin 107, 109, 110, 116, 152 Cefalozin 110, 116, 152 Cefamandole 109 Cefamycin 109 Cefapirin 109 Cefotaxime 109, 116, 152 Cefoxitin 109 Cefoxitin–cycloserine–fructose (CCFA) agar 42, 50 Cefradine 109 Ceftazidime 107, 110, 116, 152 Ceftriaxone 107, 110, 116, 152 Cefuroxime 107, 109, 110, 152 Cellobiose 53 Cellulitis 93, 96 Centrifuges, quality control 8 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 25–29 diagnostic reagents/media 145

INDEX

diagnostic tests 29, 125, 127–129, 145 expected pathogens 144–145 macroscopic inspection 26 meningitis 27 microscopic examination 26–28 Neisseria meningitidis 138 pathogen identification 28–29 specimen collection/transport 25 specimen culture 27–29 susceptibility testing 29 Cervical cancer 76 Cervicitis 76, 79, 81 Cervicofacial actinomycosis 90 Cervicovaginal specimens (see also Sexually transmitted diseases) collection 80 culture 82 interpretation 81–82 microscopic examination 81 transport 81 CFUs, see Colony-forming units Chancre 84 Chancroid 76, 83, 85 Children bacterial pharyngitis 61 diarrhoeal diseases 37 neonates 21, 25, 80, 82 surgical specimens 93 urine specimens 31 Chlamydia spp. 66, 83 trachomatis 76, 77, 79–80, 82, 83, 126, 149 Chloramphenicol 107, 108, 110, 116, 151, 152 Chlorhexidine 21 Chlortetracycline 108 Chocolate agar 11, 27–28, 69, 78, 145, 148 Cholera 38, 41 Chorio-amnionitis 76, 80 Chromosal resistance 79 Chronic bronchitis 66 Ciprofloxacin 107, 110, 116, 152 Citrate 22, 25, 51 Citrobacter freundii 10, 12, 17, 51 spp. 25 Classification, Salmonella spp. 54–55 CLED agar, see Cystine–lactose–electrolytedeficient agar Clindamycin 107, 110, 116, 152 Clinical relevance 4–5 Clostridium bifermentans 42 botulinum 98 difficile 39, 41, 42, 43, 50 perfringens 10, 21, 88, 101–102, 150 sordelli 42 spp. 21, 24, 42, 80, 98–99, 100 tetani 98 Cloxacillin 97, 108, 152

157

Clue cells 81 Coagulase plasma 13, 70, 144, 146, 149, 150 Coagulase test, Staphylococcus aureus 94–96 Colistin 78, 151 Colitis 20, 38–39 Collagenosis 127, 132 Collection anaerobic specimens 99 anorectal specimens 77 blood specimens 20–22 cervicovaginal specimens 80 CSF specimens 25 genital ulcer specimens 83 pharyngeal specimens 62 sputum specimens 68 stool specimens 40 surgical specimens 89–90 urethral specimens 77–78 urine specimens 30–32 Colony-forming units (CFUs) 34–35 Concentration, minimal inhibitory (MIC) 5, 71, 104–105 Conjunctivitis 76, 80, 81 Containers, urine specimens 30 Contamination anaerobic cultures 100 blood cultures 21, 24 Control strains bacteria 14 susceptibility testing 110, 120 Cooked meat broth, anaerobes 99, 101 Cooked meat medium 92, 150, 151 Corynebacterium diphtheriae 61, 65, 126, 147 carriers 62 culture/identification 64–65 mitis 64 Coryneform rods 92 Cost–benefit ratio, diagnostic tests 2 Co-trimoxazole 107, 109, 110, 116, 152 Crepitation 90 Criteria, quality assurance 4–6 Cross-reactivity 59, 132 Cross-resistance, staphylococci 97 Cryptococcus neoformans 4, 21, 25, 26, 28, 144 CSF, see Cerebrospinal fluid Culture media (see also Media) 7–8, 10–12 blood specimens 22–23 CSF specimens 27–28 dehydrated 7–8 ordering/storage 7–8, 10 performance tests 11–12 preparation 8 priority grading 143, 150–151 quality control 10–12 selection 7 stool specimens 41–42, 44, 48 storage 7–8, 10 urine specimens 33–34

H

INDEX

Cultures 13–15, 27, 29 anaerobic 61, 91, 93, 99–101 blood specimens 22–24 Candida albicans 82 cervicovaginal specimens 182 Corynebacterium diphtheriae 64–65 CSF specimens 27–28 external quality assessment 16, 17 Gardnerella vaginalis 82 genital ulcer specimens 85 Mycobacterium tuberculosis 72–75 Neisseria gonorrhoeae 78–79, 82 preservation 14–16 sputum specimens 69–70 stab cultures 15, 24, 29 stock 10, 14–16 Streptococcus pyogenes 63, 63 surgical specimens 92–93 susceptibility testing 120 urine specimens 32–35 URT specimens 63–65 Cystine–lactose–electrolyte-deficient (CLED) agar 33, 146 Cystine trypticase agar (CTA) 15 Cystitis 30 Cytomegalovirus 76 Cytotoxin 39 DCA, see Deoxycholate citrate agar Decarboxylase 11 Decarboxylase broth 151 Decontamination procedures, Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures 67, 72–74 Decubitus ulcers 87, 89–90 Definitions antimicrobial resistance/susceptibility 104–105 quality assessment 4 quality assurance terms 2 quality control 3–4 Dehydrated media 7–8 Dehydrolase 11 Dental surgery 89 Deoxycholate citrate agar (DCA) 7, 11, 42, 44, 48, 147, 150 Dermatitis 76 Dextrose oxidation/fermentation (see also Glucose) 11 Diagnostic discs, see Antimicrobial discs Diagnostic kits, recommended 151 Diagnostic reagents, see Reagents Diagnostic sensitivity 5–6, 13, 83 Diagnostic specificity 6, 13, 83 Diagnostic tests (see also Tests) error sources 2 quality assurance 2–18 Diarrhoeal diseases 37–39, 41 Dicloxacillin 108 Diffusion test, antimicrobial resistance 104 Dilution, serological tests 131–133, 137

158

Dilution test, antimicrobial resistance 103–104 Dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine (oxidase reagent) 52 Diphtheria (see also Corynebacterium diphtheriae) 61, 64–65 Disc-diffusion technique, see Kirby–Bauer disc-diffusion technique Discs, antimicrobial 13–14, 103, 104–105, 107–121, 151–152 Disinfection, skin 21, 25 Dispatch (see also Transport) Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures 75 pharyngeal specimens 62 sputum specimens 68 Distilled water, serological tests 124 DNAse agar 94, 151 Donovanosis, see Granuloma inguinale Dorset egg medium 64, 151 Doxycycline 152 Drugs (see also Antimicrobials) nonproprietary names 108 susceptibility testing 107–109 WHO list of essential 152 Dysenteriae polyvalent antiserum 147, 153 Dysentery 37–38, 41 Edwardsiella tarda 51, 146 Egg yolk agar base 64 Elek test (in-vitro toxigenic test) 38, 64 ELISA test 39, 138 Encephalitis 25 Endocarditis 20 Endometritis 76, 80 Endovascular infections 20 Enrichment culture media 151 stool specimens 41–42, 146 Enteric bacteria, colony morphology 48 Enteric infections (see also Stool specimens) 37–38 Enterobacter agglomerans, see Pantoea agglomerans cloacae 7, 10, 15, 25, 28, 45–46, 48, 60, 69–71 spp. 21, 48 Enterobacteriaceae 4, 7, 10, 15, 28, 144–145, 148, 150 colony morphology 48 identification 45–50 Kirby–Bauer technique 103 meningitis 25 in pharynx 60, 148 sputum cultures 69, 70, 71 stab cultures 15 susceptibility testing 107, 116 Enterococci 145 Enterococcus faecalis 11, 63, 64 Enterocolitis 20, 38

INDEX

Epidemiology 107 Epididymitis 76, 77 Epiglottitis 60 Epstein–Barr virus 126 Equipment anaerobic jars 8, 44 blood-culture 22–23 care of 7 operating temperature records 9 quality control 8–9 serological tests 123 Error sources, diagnostic tests 2 Erythrocytes 41 Erythromycin 71, 107, 109, 110, 116, 152 Escherichia coli 11–12, 17, 88, 91, 145 bronchopneumonia 67 colony morphology 48 control strains 14, 110 diarrhoeal disease 38, 41 b-glucuronidase test (PGUA) 35–36 latex agglutination test 138 meningitis 25, 138 performance tests 10–11 in pharynx 60 Shigella differentiation 50–51, 59 stool specimens 37–38, 41, 146 susceptibility testing 120 urinary tract infection 30, 35–36, 94 wound infections 88 fergusonii 38 hermanii 38 Essential drugs, WHO list 152 Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) 95 Exudates, purulent, see Purulent exudates; Surgical specimens Facultative anaerobic bacteria 98 Faecal specimens, see Stool specimens False negatives, blood cultures 21 False positives, FTA(Abs) test 131–132 Fasciola hepatica 92 Febrile agglutinins tests 133–135 Females genital specimens 79–82 urine specimens 31 Fevers 37, 133–135 Filter-paper dip-strip method, urine specimens 33–34 Flexneri polyvalent antiserum 147, 153 Flocculation reactions, serological tests 125 Flora mixed anerobic 4 normal pharyngeal 60–61 Flucloxacillin 108 Fluorescence microscopy 123, 131–132 Fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption (FTA-Abs) test 123, 124, 126, 127, 131–133

159

Francisella tularensis 133 Fungaemia 20–21 Fungi 10 fungaemia 20–21 meningitis 25–28 pharyngitis 61 surgical specimens 92, 93 Fusobacterium spp. 61 Fusospirochaetal complex 61, 62 Gardnerella vaginalis 76, 79, 80, 82, 149 Gas gangrene 88, 93, 98, 101 Gastroenteritis 37–38 Gelatinase 11, 48 Generic names, antimicrobials 108 Genital herpes 76, 82 Genital specimens 77, 79–82 Genital ulcers 82–5 Gentamicin 107, 109, 110, 116, 152 Ghost cells 41 Giemsa stain 85 Glassware equipment 8 serological tests 123–124 Glomerulonephritis 61, 135 Glucose 27, 46, 52, 63 Glucuronic acid 35 b-Glucuronidase test, Escherichia coli 13, 35–36, 146, 151 Gluteal abscesses 92 Glycerol, long-term preservation 14 Gold immunoassay 138 Gonococcal antimicrobial supplement 151 Gonococcal pharyngitis 61 Gonococcal urethritis 77 Gonococci, culture preservation 16 Gonococcus, see Neisseria gonorrhoeae Gonorrhoea 61, 78, 81 Gram-negative organisms 10, 20 Bacillus anthracis 96 CSF cultures 27 meningitis 28, 29 piperacillin 116 respiratory tract infection 61 sputum specimens 69 stool cultures 45, 47 surgical specimens 87, 91, 96 urine cultures 34 Gram-positive organisms 10, 20, 27–28, 91 CSF cultures 27 sputum specimens 69, 70 stool cultures 46–47 surgical specimens 91, 95 urine cultures 34 Gram-stained smears (see also Gram staining) 64 bacterial vaginosis 81 CSF specimens 26–27 sputum specimens 69 surgical specimens 91, 92, 93 urine specimens 32

H

INDEX

Gram staining (see also Gram-stained smears) 13, 26, 31, 77, 152 anaerobes 100, 101 Granulocytopenia 61 Granuloma inguinale (donovanosis) 76, 82, 83, 85 Growth factors 64, 100 Gunshot wounds 88 H factor antisera 147, 153 Haemagglutination tests, stool cultures 53–54 Haemin 85, 100 Haemolysin 23, 63, 135 Haemolysis alpha 11, 28, 50, 70 antibiotic susceptibility 29 beta 11, 28, 63, 64 performance testing 10–11 reverse CAMP test 101 b-Haemolytic streptococci 61, 63–64 grouping kit 148 Haemophilus ducreyi 76, 82, 83, 85, 149 influenzae 10–11, 25, 28, 144, 147, 148 agglutinating antisera 145, 147, 153 latex agglutination test 138 lower respiratory tract infections 66, 67, 69, 70, 71 surgical specimens 93 susceptibility tests 106 parainfluenzae 10, 11 spp. 16, 60, 63, 126 HBV, see Hepatitis B virus HEA, see Hektoen enteric agar Heart infusion agar 42, 48 Hektoen enteric agar (HEA) 42, 48 Hepatitis B virus (HBV) 76 Heroin 127 Herpes, genital 82 Herpesvirus, human (HSV) 76, 77, 80, 82 Heteroresistance 97 Histoplasma capsulatum 92 HIV, see Human immunodeficiency virus Hospital-acquired infection, see Nosocomial infection Hot-air ovens, quality control 8 HPV, see Human papilloma virus HSV, see Herpesvirus; Human herpesvirus Human herpesvirus 76, 77, 80, 82 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 20, 37, 61, 76, 83 Human papilloma virus (HPV) 76 Hydrogen generator 44, 150, 152 Hydrogen peroxide 44, 152 Hydrogen sulfide 46, 51 Hyphae, fungal 92 Iatrogenic infection 20 Identification (see also Interpretation) anaerobic bacteria 101–102 Bacillus anthracis 93, 96–97

160

Bacillus fragilis 101 Clostridium perfringens 101–102 Corynebacterium diphtheriae 64–65 CSF pathogens 28–29 Neisseria gonorrhoeae 79 Pasteurella multocida 93, 96 Peptostreptococcus spp. 102 Salmonella spp. 44–46, 50–51 sputum pathogens 70 Staphylococcus spp. 94–96 stool pathogens 44–59 Streptococcus pyogenes 63 surgical specimen pathogens 93–97 urine pathogens 32–36 Vibrio cholerae 47–48, 52–53 Yersinia enterocolitica 47, 52–53, 59 IFA, see Indirect fluorescent antibody test Immunocompromised patients 20, 60, 82 diarrhoea 37 oral candidiasis 61 Immunofluorescence assay 77 Incubation anaerobic specimens 99–102 blood cultures 23 Campylobacter spp. 43–44 Clostridium difficile 43 Kirby–Bauer method 114 stool specimens 43–45 susceptibility tests 118 Vibrio cholerae 43 Yersina spp. 43 Incubators, quality control 8 India ink 145, 152 Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) test 126 Indole 46, 51 Indole test 96 Infants, urine specimens 31 Infertility 76, 80 Influenza 67 Inhibitors, media/reagent use 151 Inoculation anaerobic specimens 100–101 stool specimens 41–43 surgical specimens 92–93 susceptibility testing 111–114, 118, 120–121 urine specimens 33–34 Inspection, equipment 8 Intensive-care departments, infections 67 Intermediate susceptibility 105 Interpretation cervicovaginal cultures 81 Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures 74 sputum cultures 69–70 test results 3 urethral cultures 78 urine cultures 34–35 Iodine 21 Isolation, enteric pathogens 42–44

INDEX

Isolation media 43, 144–149 IsoVitaleX 78, 149, 151 Jars anaerobic 8, 44 candle 43, 69, 100 Kanamycin 100, 109, 152 Kirby–Bauer disc-diffusion technique (modified) 13, 71, 97 interpretative chart 116 susceptibility testing 103, 104–105, 109–119 Kits, diagnostic 151 Klebsiella pneumoniae 10–11, 13, 17, 67, 148 spp. 48, 60, 91 Kligler’s iron agar (KIA) 11, 23, 51, 54 priority grading 146, 147, 150 stool specimens 44–49 Kovacs reagent for indole 46, 146, 147, 152 Laboratories appropriate resources use 39–40 operations manual 6 Lacerations, infected 89–90 b-Lactamase production 71, 79, 85, 97, 106, 108 test reagent 144–145 Lactobacilli, vaginal 80 Lactose 44–45, 46 Lactose non-fermenting bacteria 44–45 Latex agglutination tests 63, 135–139 Lecithinase 42, 50 Legionella pneumophila 66, 126 Legionnaire disease 66 Leigh & Williams method, urine cultures 33 Leprosy 127 Leptospirosis 20 Leukocyte esterase 32 Leukocytes CSF specimens 25–27 polymorphonuclear 78 stool specimens 41 urine specimens 32 Lipase 42, 50 Listeria monocytogenes 21, 80, 144 meningitis 25, 28, 29 Liver abscesses 92 Löffler coagulated serum 64, 148, 150 Loop technique, calibrated 32, 33 Löwenstein–Jensen medium 28, 67, 72, 93, 145, 148, 150 Lower respiratory tract infections 66–75 common 66–68 culture/interpretation 69–70, 72–74 diagnostic reagents 149 expected pathogens 148 media 148–149 specimen collection/processing 68–69 susceptibility testing 70–71

161

Lumbar puncture 25 Lung abscesses 66–67 Lyme disease 132 Lymph nodes spontaneous drainage 90 surgical specimens 87 Lymphogranuloma venereum 76 Lyophilization 14 Lysine 46, 151 Lysine decarboxylase 46, 152 Lysine decarboxylase broth 146, 147 MacConkey agar 11 anaerobes 100 CSF cultures 27, 28 priority grading 144–148, 150 stool cultures 42, 47–48, 50 surgical cultures 92, 93 urine cultures 33–34 Macroscopic evaluation CSF specimens 26 sputum specimens 68–69 surgical specimens 90–91 Maintenance equipment 8, 123 stock cultures 14–16 Malaria 127 Males urethritis 77–79 urine specimens 31 Malonate broth 11 Maltose 64 Mannitol 51–52, 70 Mannitol salt agar 11, 23, 70, 93, 150, 151 Manuals, laboratory operations 6–7 Mastitis 94 Materials ASO tests 136 febrile agglutinins test 134 FTA-Abs test 132 RPR test 130 serological tests 123–124 VDRL test 127 Measles 67 Media (see also Culture media) 7–12, 42, 142 anaerobic specimens 99–101 blood specimens 22–23, 144 Corynebacterium diphtheriae culture 64 CSF specimens 27–28, 145 essential 141–53 exudates/pus 92–93, 150 lower respiratory tract specimens 69–70, 148–149 Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture 74 Neisseria gonorrhoeae culture 78 priority gradings 143, 150–151 quality control 10–12 sputum specimens 67, 69–71 stool specimens 41–42, 146–147 storage 10 Streptococcus pyogenes culture 63

H

INDEX

surgical specimens 92–93 susceptibility testing 110–111 upper respiratory tract specimens 64 urine specimens 33, 145–146 urogenital specimens 149 Medusa head 96 Mellibiosa 53 Menadione 100 Meningitis 25–28, 86 anthrax 96 Escherichia coli 138 neonates 21, 25 Pasteurella multocida 96 pathogens 138 viral 76 Meningococcus, see Neisseria meningitidis Metacillin, resistance to 17, 62, 97, 108 Methyl red/Voges Prosgauer 11 Methylene blue 8, 41, 64, 77 Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) 17, 62 Metronidazole 102 MIC, see Minimal inhibitory concentration Microaerophilic bacteria 98 Microscopes maintenance 123 quality control 8 Microscopic examination cervicovaginal specimens 81 CSF specimens 26–28 genital ulcer specimens 83–85 pharyngeal specimens 62 respiratory tract infections 62 sputum specimens 69 STD specimens 78, 81, 83–85 surgical specimens 86, 91–92 Treponema pallidum 83–85 urethral specimens 78 Microscopy, dark field 50, 82, 83 MIL, see Motility–indole–lysine medium MIU, see Motility-indole-urease medium Mineral oil 15 Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) 5, 71, 104–105 Minocycline 108 Mobiluncus spp. 76, 79–80 Monitoring, equipment 8 Mononucleosis, infectious 126 Moraxella catarrhalis 10, 60, 66, 69, 70, 71, 147, 148 Morganella 51 Morphology, common enteric bacteria colonies 48 Motility–indole–lysine medium (MIL) 44, 45–46, 47 Motility–indole–urease medium (MIU) 146–147, 150 MRSA, see Meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus MTM, see Thayer–Martin medium Mueller–Hinton agar 11, 14, 20, 24, 54, 71, 110–111, 120, 150

162

Mueller–Hinton chocolate horse blood agar 149, 150 Mycetoma 90–92 Mycobacteria, HIV/AIDS 37, 87, 92, 93, 126, 150 Mycobacterium bovis 74 chelonei 92 fortuitum 92, 93 marinum 92 tuberculosis 25, 66, 72–75, 87, 92, 145, 148, 150 ulcerans 92, 150 Mycoplasma hominis 76 pneumoniae 66, 122 Mycoses, lymph nodes 87 N-acetyl-L-cysteine-sodium hydroxide (NALC) 72, 73 Naegleria fowleri 26 Nafcillin 108 NALC, see N-acetyl-L-cysteine-sodium hydroxide Nalidixic acid 107, 110, 116, 152 Nasopharyngitis 60 Necrotizing ulcerative pharyngitis (Vincent angina) 61, 62 Needles, serological tests 124 Neisseria catarrhalis, see Moraxella catarrhalis gonorrhoeae 10, 12, 76, 77, 79–80, 81, 149 culture 78–79, 82 identification 79 susceptibility testing 79, 106 meningitidis 10, 12, 21, 25, 28, 29, 144–145, 147 agglutinating antisera 144–145, 147, 153 carriers 62 latex agglutination test 138 susceptibility 106 Neomycin 100 Neonatal infection 80, 82 Neonatal meningitis 21, 25 Netilmycin 109 New York City medium 78, 149 NGU, see Nongonococcal urethritis Nitrate broth 11 Nitrate reduction tests 32, 64, 96 Nitrocefin test 79, 149, 151 Nitrofurantoin 107, 109, 110, 116, 152 o-Nitrophenyl-b-D-galactopyranoside (ONPG) test 13, 51, 146, 147, 151 p-Nitrophenyl-b-Dglucopyranosiduronic acid (PGUA) test 13, 35–36, 151 Nocardia asteroides 93 Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU) 77, 78 Nonproprietary names, drugs 108 Non-trepanomal tests 126–131 Non-tuberculous acid-fast bacilli 92

INDEX

Norfloxacin 107, 110, 116 Normal flora, pharynx 60–61 Nosocomial infections 21, 67, 88–89 Novobiocin 146, 151 Nystatin 78, 151 O antiserum polyvalent 147, 153 Obligate bacteria, aerobic/anaerobic 98 Oleandomycin 109 ONPG, see o-Nitrophenyl-b-Dgalactopyranoside test Operating temperature, equipment 9 Operations manuals 6–7 Opthalmia neonatorum 80 Optochin discs 13, 23, 28, 69, 70, 144, 145, 148, 149, 151 Oral candidiasis 61–62 Oral surgery 89 Ordering procedures, dehydrated media 7–8 Ornithine 11, 28, 51 Ornithine decarboxylase 51–52 Otitis media 60, 76 Ovens, hot-air 8 Oxacillin 71, 97, 107, 108, 110, 116 Oxidase reaction 79, 96 Oxidase reagents 13, 51, 144–153 Oxidase test, stool specimens 49 Oxygen, bacteria requirement 98 Oxytetracycline 108 Pantoea agglomerans 21 Paragonimus westermani 92 Parasitic infection, surgical specimens 92 Pasteurella multocida 88, 150 identification 93, 96 Pathogens 143 blood 144 CSF 144–145 enteric disease 37–39, 42 lower respiratory tract 148 pus/exudates 149–150 STDs 149 stool 146 upper respiratory tract 147–148 urine 145 Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) 76, 80 Penicillins, susceptibility testing 108 Peptone urea broth 147, 150 Peptone water 11, 51 Peptostreptococcus spp. 67, 98–99, 102 Performance tests culture media 11–12 prepared media 10 stains/reagents 12, 13 Pericardial sac, exudates 87 Peritoneal cavity, purulent exudate 87, 90 Petroff procedure, see Sodium hydroxide procedure PGUA, see p-Nitrophenyl-b-Dglucopyranosiduronic acid test Pharyngitis 60–65, 76

163

Pharynx, normal flora 60–61 Phenol red broth 147, 151 Phenylalanine 11, 51 Phenylalanine deaminase 51 pH testing 10 Piperacillin 107, 110, 116, 156 Pivampicillin 109 Plasma, Staphylococcus aureus coagulase test 95–96, 152 Plesiomonas shigelloides 51, 53, 59, 146 Pleural cavity, exudates 87, 90 Pleural effusion 66, 67 Pleurisy 66 Pneumococcus, see Streptococcus pneumoniae Pneumonia 61, 66, 67–68 atypical 127 Corynebacterium trachomatis 76, 80 Polymorphonuclear leukocytes 78 Polymyxin B susceptibility test 53, 54 Polysaccharides 63 Polyvidone iodine 21 Polyvitex 151 Porphyromonas spp. 87, 98 Potassium hydroxide 80, 92 Precipitin reactions, see Flocculation reactions Pregnancy 80, 127, 132 Preservation, stock cultures 14–16 Prevotella melaninogenica 67, 87 Prevotella spp. 98 Priority gradings, media/reagents 143–152 Proctitis 76 Propionibacterium acnes 21, 24 Prostatitis 30, 76 Protein A 125 Proteus mirabilis 10–12 spp. 10–12, 21, 48, 51, 117 vulgaris 133 Providentia spp. 48, 51 Prozone reaction 129, 133 Pseudobacteraemia 21 Pseudomembranous colitis 39 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 10–11, 87, 90, 110, 144 bronchopneumonia 67 susceptibility tests 107, 116, 120 cepacia 17 pseudomalei, see Burkholderia pseudomalei spp. 22, 91, 145, 147, 150 in pharynx 60 sputum specimens 69, 70 Public health, enteric disease 39 Pulmonary tuberculosis 66, 67–68 Purple lactose agar 145, 150 Purulent exudates 77, 86–97, 149–150 abscesses 67, 89 collection/transport 86–87, 89 culture 89, 92–93 diagnostic reagents/media 150

H

INDEX

expected pathogens 149–150 pathogen identification 93–97 wound infections 87–88 Pus 86, 89, 91, 93 lung abscesses 67 macroscopic evaluation 90–91 Pyelonephritis 20, 30 Pyocyanin 90 Pyogenic bacteria 68 Pyomyositis 94 PYR, see Pyrrolidonyl-b-naphthylamide test Pyrrolidonyl-b-naphthylamide (PYR) test 64, 151 Quality assessment 4, 16–18 Quality assurance 2–18 external 4 internal 3–4 Quality control definition 3–4 equipment 7, 8 internal 6–16 prepared media 10–12 serological tests 122–124 stock strains 10 susceptibility tests 120–121 Quality criteria, microbiology 4–6 Quantitative cultures serological tests 129, 131 urine specimens 32–35 Quinolones 102 Rabies 88 Rapid diagnostic tests CSF specimens 145, 151 URT specimens 148 Rapid plasma reagin (RPR) test 123–124, 126, 129–131 Reagents 142, 150–153 ASO tests 136 blood specimens 144 CSF specimens 145 febrile agglutinins test 134 FTA-Abs test 132 Kirby–Bauer method 110–111 lower respiratory tract 149 miscellaneous diagnostic 152 performance tests 11–12, 13 priority gradings 143 pus/exudates 150 recommended 150–151 RPR test 130 serological tests 124 stool specimens 147 susceptibility testing 110–111 upper respiratory tract 148 urine specimens 146 urogenital specimens 149 VDRL test 127–128 Reagin 126, 127 Records, equipment operating temperature 9

164

Rectal swabs, collection 40 Reference laboratories, use of 16 Refrigerators, quality control 8 Reiter syndrome 76 Reliability, diagnostic tests 2, 5, 16 Reproducibility, diagnostic tests 2, 5 Resistance antimicrobial 101–121 metacillin and related drugs 17, 62, 97, 108 Respiratory tract infections, see Lower respiratory tract; Upper respiratory tract Results, reporting 18 Reverse CAMP test 28, 64, 101–102 Rhamnose 51, 53 Rheumatic disease 127 Rheumatic fever 61, 135 Rickettsia spp. 126, 133 Rotavirus, diarrhoea 39 RPR, see Rapid plasma reagin test Rubella 17, 126 Sabouraud dextrose agar 28, 70, 93, 145, 149–151 Saccharose 64 Safety, Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures 74–75 Saline 112, 124, 127, 128, 132 Salmonella arizonae 51 choleraesuis 51 groups C and D 58 non-typhi 144 paratyphi 17, 46, 51, 58, 146 spp. 10–12, 25, 37, 40, 41, 43, 106, 146 agglutinating antisera 144, 147, 153 colony morphology 48 identification 44–46, 50–51 nomenclature 54–55 serological identification 54–58 typhi 17, 21, 42, 51, 107, 133, 144, 146 typhimurium 10–12 Salmonella–Shigella agar 7, 11, 42–44, 48, 147, 150 Salmonellosis 37, 41 Salpingitis 76 Schaedler broth 92, 144 Screening, urine specimens 32 Selenite F broth 11, 41, 146, 151 Sensitivity, diagnostic 5–6, 13, 83 Sensitivity testing, see Susceptibility testing Septicaemia 20, 96 Sera 122, 131 quality assessment 17–18 serological tests 124 Serological tests 12–13, 122–139 Salmonella spp. 54–58 syphilis 126–133 Serratia marcescens 10, 21, 51, 91

INDEX

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) 76–85 causal agents 76–77 diagnostic reagents/media 149 expected pathogens 149 specimen collection/transport 77–78, 80–81, 83 specimen culture 78–79, 82, 85 susceptibility tests 79 Shigella boydii 38, 46 dysenteriae 38, 42, 47 flexneri 10–12, 36, 38, 46 sonnei 38, 51 spp. 10–12, 16, 17, 20, 37–38, 146 agglutinating antisera 147, 153 final identification 50–52 identification 44–47 latex agglutination test 138 serological identification 59 stool specimens 41, 42, 43, 46–47, 51 susceptibility tests 107, 109 Shigellosis 41 Shock, septic 20 Silver nitrate 83 Simmons citrate agar 11, 23, 51, 146–147, 151 Sinus tract, spontaneous drainage 90 Sinusitis 60 Sjögren syndrome 127 Skin disinfection blood collection 21 CSF collection 25 Skin infections 87–88, 92, 94 Slide agglutination tests 28, 63, 138 Slide clumping test 95 Smears, see Gram-stained smears Sodium citrate 73 Sodium hydroxide procedure (Petroff), Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultures 72–73 Sodium metabisulfite–sodium pyruvate 42 Sodium polyanethol sulfonate (SPS) 22, 144, 151 Sonnei polyvalent antiserum 147, 151 Sorbitol 63 Soy casein agar, see Tryptic soy agar Specificity, diagnostic 6, 13, 83, 122, 126, 132 Specimen collection, see Collection Specimen preparation blood 22–23 CSF 26 Specimen transport, see Transport Spiramycin 109 Spirochaetes 61, 84, 126 SPS, see Sodium polyanethol sulfonate Sputum specimens 72–74 collection 68 culture/interpretation 69–70 macroscopic evaluation 68–69 microscopic examination 69

165

pulmonary tuberculosis 67, 67–68 transport 75 Stab cultures 15, 24, 29 Stab wounds 88 Stains (see also Gram staining; Ziehl–Neelsen staining) Albert 64 Giemsa 85 performance tests 12, 13 Standardization, disc-diffusion methods 119 Standard strains, quality control 120 Staphylococcus aureus 10, 12, 21, 80, 94–96, 144, 148 bronchopneumonia 67 carriers 62 identification 70 in pharynx 60–61 sputum specimens 69 susceptibility testing 120 wound infections 88 epidermidis 20, 21, 24, 60, 94–96 saprophyticus 94–96, 145 spp. 11–12, 25, 145 surgical specimens 87, 93, 94–96 susceptibility testing 97, 107 vancomycin 116 STDs, see Sexually transmitted diseases Sterility testing, prepared media 10 Stock cultures 10, 14–16 Stool specimens 37–59 anaerobic cultures 100 collection and transport 40 enrichment and inoculation 41–43 expected pathogens 146 laboratory resource use 39–40 media 42, 146–147 pathogen identification 7, 42–43, 44–59 reagents 147 serological identification 54–59 visual examination 41 Storage dehydrated media 7–8 prepared media 10 stock cultures 14–16 Streptococcus agalactiae 10, 21, 25, 28, 29, 64, 145 groups A and B 61, 63, 126, 135 mitis 10 pneumoniae 10, 21, 25, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 145, 148 antibiotic susceptibility 28 latex agglutination test 138 meningitis 25 upper respiratory tract infections 60, 148 pyogenes 10, 21, 61, 62, 63–64, 126, 135 carriers 62 culture/identification 63 pharyngitis 61 priority grading 144, 148, 150 susceptibility 106

H

INDEX

spp. 10, 15, 23, 61, 144 ASO test 135–137 culture preservation 16 surgical specimens 87, 91, 93, 150 Streptolysin O 135 Streptomycin 109 String test, stool specimens 49–50 Strips, diagnostic 151 Stuart transport medium 40, 62, 77, 81, 149, 151 Subcultures, blood samples 23 Subcutaneous tissue, infections 87 Sucrose fermentation 48, 51–53 Sulfamethoxazole 109 Sulfonamide 107, 108, 110, 116, 152 Sulfur granules 89 Supplements 151 Surgical specimens 86–87 collection/transport 89 culture 92–93 macroscopic evaluation 90–91 microscopic examination 91–92 pathogen identification 93–97 susceptibility testing 97 Surveys, quality assessment programmes 17 Susceptibility testing 13–14, 103–121 anaerobic specimens 102 basic antimicrobials 107–109 benzylpenicillin 108, 110, 116 CSF cultures 29 direct vs indirect 117 general principles 103–105 indirect 117 Neisseria gonorrhoeae 79 plate size 118–119 recommended discs 152 sputum cultures 70–71 stool cultures 54 surgical specimens 97 throat specimens 65 treatment guide 106 urine cultures 36 Syphilis (see also Trepanoma pallidum) 76, 82, 83–85 serological tests 13, 125, 126–133 Tablets, diagnostic 151 Talampicillin 109 TCBS, see Thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose agar Tellurite agar 42, 48, 64, 148, 151 Tellurite discs 13, 23 Tellurite taurocholate gelatine agar (TTGA) 42, 48 Temperature equipment operating records 9 susceptibility tests 118 Terminology, microorganisms 5 Tests agglutination 56–59, 125–126, 135–139 antimicrobial susceptibility 13–14, 103–121

166

ASO 135–137 diffusion/dilution 103–104 febrile agglutinins 133–135 FTA-Abs 123, 124, 126, 127, 131–135 media performance 11–12 ONPG 13, 51, 146, 147, 151 PGUA 13, 35–36 rapid diagnostic 145, 148, 151 RPR 123–124, 126, 129–131 serological 12–13, 122–139 stool specimens 49–50 Tetanus 88, 98 Tetracycline 71, 107, 108, 110, 116 Thayer–Martin medium (MTM), modified 12, 61, 78, 148, 149 Thiamphenicol 108 Thioglycollate broth 12, 23, 38, 92, 144, 150, 151 Thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose (TCBS) agar 12, 42, 47–48, 147, 151 Throat swabs collection 62 culture/identification 63–65 gonococcal pharyngitis 61 Thrombophlebitis 20 Tobramycin 107, 109, 110, 116 Tonsillitis 60, 61 Toxicity assays 38, 64 Toxigenicity 64 Toxic shock 20, 80 Transport (see also Dispatch) anaerobic specimens 99 cervicovaginal specimens 81 CSF specimens 25 respiratory tract specimens 62 sputum specimens 68 STD specimen media 149 stool specimens 40, 146 surgical specimens 89 urethral specimens 77–78 urogenital specimens 81 Transport media 81 Amies 40, 41, 62, 66, 77, 81, 149, 151 Buffered glycerol saline 146, 152 Cary–Blair 40–41, 146, 151 Stuart 40, 62, 77, 81, 149, 151 Treatment, susceptibility tests as guide 106 Treponema pallidum 76, 82, 83–85, 125–126, 149 vincentii 61 Tributyrin 70, 148–151 Trichomonas vaginalis 77, 81 Trimethoprim 78, 107, 110, 116, 152 Triple sugar iron agar 12, 70, 147 Trisodium phosphate 26, 73 Trypanosomiasis, African 26 Tryptic soy agar (TSA) 15, 63, 150 Tryptic soy broth (TSB) 22, 27, 96, 144, 150, 151 Tubercle bacillus, see Mycobacterium tuberculosis

INDEX

Tuberculosis pulmonary 66, 67–68 VDRL test 127 Tuberculous meningitis 27–28 Turbidity standard Kirby–Bauer technique 111–112 susceptibility testing 111 Typhoid fever 20, 37 Ulcerative pharyngitis, necrotizing (Vincent angina) 61, 62 Ulcus molle, see Chancroid Upper respiratory tract infections 60–65 carriers 62 causal agents 61–62 diagnostic reagents/media 148 direct microscopy 62 expected pathogens 147–148 pathogen culture/identification 63–65 Urea medium 12, 44–45, 76, 77 Ureaplasma urealyticum 77 Urease 12, 45, 47, 51, 53 Ureteritis 30 Urethral specimens collection/transport 77–78 interpretation 78 Urethritis in men 77–79 in women 80 Urinary tract infection (UTI) 30, 35, 94 Urine 30–36 culture/interpretation 32–35, 100 diagnostic reagents/media 145–146 expected pathogens 145 screening 32 specimen collection 30–32 Urogenital specimens 149 UTI, see Urinary tract infection Vaginitis 76, 79, 81 Vaginosis 76, 79–82 Vancomycin 78, 110, 116, 149, 151, 152 VCN mixture 78, 151 VDRL, see Venereal Disease Research Laboratory test Venepuncture, blood collection 21 Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) test 123–124, 125 syphilis 126, 127–129 Ventricular puncture 25 V-factor 13, 144–151 Vibrio cholerae 10, 16, 38, 146 agglutinating antisera 147, 153 identification 47–48, 52–53

media 41, 42, 43 fluvialis 38, 53 furniss 53 hollisiae 38, 53 mimicus 38, 53 parahaemolyticus 38, 47–49 vibriostatic compound O:129 disc 147, 151 Vincent angina, see Necrotizing ulcerative pharyngitis Viral diarrhoea 41 Viral meningitis 27 Vitox 151 Voges–Prosgauer agar 11, 52, 53 Water-baths, quality control 8, 123 Weil–Felix reaction, rickettsias 133 White blood cells, see Leukocytes Widal test, Salmonella typhi 6, 133 Wilkins–Chalgren anaerobe broth 100, 144, 151 Wounds Clostridium spp. 98 nosocomial infections 88–90 penetrating 87–90, 96 Wright test, Brucella 133 XLD, see Xylose–lysine–deoxycholate agar XV-factor 13, 85, 144–145, 148–149, 151 Xylose–lysine–deoxycholate (XLD) agar 42–44, 48, 147 Yeasts (see also Fungi) 26, 69 Yersinia enterocolitica 17, 39, 133, 146 colony morphology 48 identification 47, 52–53, 59 media 41, 42, 43 frederiksenii 53 intermedia 53 kristensenii 53 pseudotuberculosis 53 Zephiran–trisodium phosphate procedure 73–74 Ziehl–Neelsen staining 74, 152 CSF specimens 27, 28 diagnostic specificity 6 pulmonary tuberculosis 67 sputum specimens 67 surgical specimens 92, 93 Zone diameters, disc-diffusion susceptibility testing 104–105, 110–111, 116–119

H 167