Ceramic Industry November 2011

November 2011 | Volume 161 | Issue Number 11 www.ceramicindustry.com

Special Section | Brick & Clay Record

“With resin and carbon fiber, we can build a New Economy.” New technologies are powering the drive to develop renewable energy. Spacecraft that are commercially viable. Airliners that leave a smaller carbon footprint. And cars that can cruise all day long without burning a drop of gasoline. From syntactic foams and other lightweight structural composites to the new generation of adhesives and batteries, Ross mixers are helping to create the materials necessary to build the New Economy. We’d like to help you succeed, too. Call 1-800-243-ROSS Or visit mixers.com

Ken Langhorn Technical Director Employee Owner

Your kiln. Like no other. Your kiln needs are unique, and Harrop’s experienced staff will thoroughly analyze your process and objectives before recommending a final solution. This review often includes precise characterization of your ceramic materials and pilot testing at our in-house facility. After defining the most efficient thermal cycle for your product, Harrop then engineers an energy-efficient, properly sized kiln that is uniquely suited to your operation. Hundreds of customers will tell you that this expert application engineering is what separates Harrop from “cookie cutter” kiln suppliers. Learn more at www.harropusa.com, or call us at 614-231-3621 to discuss your special requirements.

Fire our imagination www.harropusa.com

³ TABLEOFCONTENTS November 2011 | Volume 161 | Issue Number 11

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66

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DEPARTMENTS

FEATURES

Inside CI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

³Investing in Ceramics Thermal Technology has tripled its production capacity for Model K1 growers at its new manufacturing facility in Santa Rosa, Calif. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

International Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Ceramics in the News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Market Forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

³ 2011-2012 Equipment Digest Our annual reference tool incorporates definitions and suppliers for hundreds of different types of machinery and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

People in the News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Glass Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

SPECIAL SECTION | BRICK & CLAY RECORD

What’s New . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Going Wireless New wireless automation options enable technology to meet art in brick manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Buyers’ Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Services Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Classified Advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . 81

ON THE COVER: Thermal Technology’s new production facility, dedicated to Model K1 LED sapphire crystal grower production, triples its manufacturing space. Article on p. 12.

Advertiser Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

With a MobileTag go from Print to Web ³ Simply snap a photo of the mobile tag with your Smartphone, and you can conveniently go from a page in our magazine to a webpage. CERAMIC INDUSTRY (ISSN 0009-0220) is published 12 times annually, monthly, by BNP Media, 2401 W. Big Beaver Rd., Suite 700, Troy, MI 48084-3333. Telephone: (248) 362-3700, Fax: (248) 362-0317. No charge for subscriptions to qualified individuals. Annual rate for subscriptions to nonqualified individuals in the U.S.A.: $178.00 USD. Annual rate for subscriptions to nonqualified individuals in Canada: $216.00 USD (includes GST & postage); all other countries: $228.00 (Int’l mail) payable in U.S. funds. Printed in the U.S.A. Copyright 2011, by BNP Media. All rights reserved. The contents of this publication may not be reproduced in whole or in part without the consent of the publisher. The publisher is not responsible for product claims and representations. Periodicals Postage Paid at Troy, MI and at additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to: CERAMIC INDUSTRY, P.O. Box 2145, Skokie, IL 60076. Canada Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608. GST account: 131263923. Send returns (Canada) to Pitney Bowes, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON, N6C 6B2. Change of address: Send old address label along with new address to CERAMIC INDUSTRY, P.O. Box 2145, Skokie, IL 60076. For single copies or back issues: contact Ann Kalb at (248) 244-6499 or [email protected].

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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³ INSIDECI by Susan Sutton | Editor-in-Chief, Integrated Media

®

www.ceramicindustry.com 6075 B Glick Road • Powell, OH 43065 281-550-5855 (p)

EDITORIAL / PRODUCTION STAFF

Evaluating Opportunities As the worldwide economic roller coaster continues to careen up, down and all around, it can be very difficult for manufacturers to determine where best to direct their resources. Playing it safe and waiting until conditions improve could mean stagnancy for a considerable period of time. On the other hand, manufacturers must also be wary about overextending through aggressive expansions or acquisitions. Trying to accomplish too much could lead to a more immediate failure. Manufacturers must carefully evaluate their business and the markets they serve to determine their best course. The bottom line is that companies that position themselves for growth will be ready to take advantage of even the slightest signs of improvement. Investing in new or updated equipment is one way manufacturers can improve their current processes while keeping an eye on future opportunities. “Ironically, we have the uncertain economy to thank for low interest rates and numerous incentives such as tax breaks and rebates,” writes David Malone, president and CEO of Community Bank in Pasadena, Calif. “Favorable rates and incentives reflect government efforts to spur recovery and growth.” To learn more, read “A Historic Time for Equipment Financing” online at www.ceramicindustry.com. This issue includes our exclusive annual Equipment Digest, a year-round reference tool that incorporates definitions and suppliers* for hundreds of different types of machinery and equipment. Products are listed alphabetically, and definitions explain what each product is and how it is used. Supplier listings include contact information so you can easily follow up to request additional information about the products you’re interested in. The Equipment Digest is also available and fully searchable online at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest.

Amy Vallance, Publisher 281-550-5855 (p) • 248-283-6543 (f) • [email protected] Susan Sutton, Editor-in-Chief, Integrated Media 330-336-4098 (p) • 248-502-2033 (f) • [email protected] Teresa McPherson, Managing Editor 734-332-0541 (p) • 248-502-2102 (f) • [email protected] Kelsey Seidler, Associate Editor 614-789-1881 (p) • 248-502-2051 (f) • [email protected] Mike Holmes, Art Director 412-306-4358 (p) • 248-502-1075 (f) • [email protected] Bryon T. Palmer, Production Manager 248-244-6435 (p) • 248-502-9113 (f) • [email protected] Ralph Ruark, Senior Technical Editor Charles Semler; Sandra Spence; Lynn Bragg; George Muha, Contributing Editors

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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

ONLINE EXTRA: A Historic Time for Equipment Financing With low interest rates and numerous incentives, this may be the best opportunity to finance equipment for your business.

ONLINE EXTRA: A Better Bottle TricorBraun recently worked with Indio Spirits to develop custom-manufactured glass bottles for its Snake River Stampede Whiskey beverage line.

EQUIPMENT DIGEST The online version of the Equipment Digest at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest is searchable by product or company, and includes extras such as hotlinks, spec sheets, and videos for select suppliers.*

DIGITAL EDITION CI’s digital editions are easy to read, search and download. This month’s digital edition is sponsored by NETZSCH Instruments Inc.

*Supplier listings indicate paid advertising. Contact Darlene Dipzinski at [email protected] for pricing and additional details.

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November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM

Surinder Maheshwary, Director, Quality Assurance/Process Improvement, Dal-Tile International; William Babik, Technical Sales Manager, Nabertherm Inc.; Charles Semler, Ph.D., Refractories Consultant, Semler Materials Services; Gary Childress, General Manager, Orton Ceramic Foundation; Matthew Centa, Technical Support Manager - Ceramics & Glass, Rio Tinto Minerals; James E. Houseman, Ph.D., President, Harrop Industries, Inc.

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BNP Media Helps People Succeed in Business with Superior Information



³INTERNATIONALCALENDAR

NOV 9-10 The Composites Engineering Show ³Birmingham, UK, www.compositesexhibition.com NOV 9-10 Mobile Power Technology Partnering Summit ³Las Vegas, Nev., www.knowledgefoundation.com/ viewevents.php?event_id=267&act=evt NOV 14-17 10th Annual LAV & Stryker Summit ³Washington, D.C., www.LightArmoredVehiclesSummit.com JAN 23-26 36th Annual Conference on Composites, Materials and Structures ³Cape Canaveral, Fla., http://advancedceramics.org FEB 7-10 Cevisama 2012 ³Valencia, Spain, http://cevisama.feriavalencia.com * FEB 21-23 Composites 2012 ³Las Vegas, Nev., www.acmanet.org * MARCH 11-15 Pittcon ³Orlando, Fla., www.pittcon.org * MARCH 24-26 DECO ‘12 ³Las Vegas, Nev., www.sgcd.org * MARCH 26-28 St. Louis Section 47th Annual Symposium ³St. Louis, Mo., www.ceramics.org MARCH 27-29 Westec ³Los Angeles, Calif., www.westeconline.com April 17-20 Coverings ³Orlando, Fla., www.coverings.com  April 18-19 NanoManufacturing Conference & Exhibits ³ Boston Mass., www.sme.org/cgi-bin/get-event.pl?-002081-000007-home--SME* May 8-10 Powder and Bulk Solids ³Chicago, Ill., www.powderbulksolids.com  May 15-17 CISILE 2012 ³Beijing, China, www.cisile.com.cn/en * May 22-25 ceramitec 2012 ³Munich, Germany, www.ceramitec.de * May 24-26 DECO ’12 ³Las Vegas, Nev., www.sgcd.org

³ INTHENEWS Ceradyne Receives Multiple Military Orders Ceradyne Inc. recently announced it has received orders for $9.5 million for its Seamless Ballistic® helmet components. These components will be enhanced with various upgrades and then shipped to certain elite military units worldwide. This order will be produced at Ceradyne’s wholly owned subsidiary, Ceradyne Diaphorm in Salem, N.H. Shipments will begin immediately, with the bulk of the order scheduled for 2012 shipment. Ceradyne has also received ceramic body armor delivery orders totaling approximately $6.9 million for delivery in 2012. These orders were issued by the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) and represent special ergonomic designed systems that Ceradyne has produced for USSOCOM in the past. In addition, Ceradyne recently announced that it has received a new three-year indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity (ID/IQ) contract for enhanced small armor protective inserts (ESAPI) ceramic armor plates from the Defense Logistics Agency Group Support, Philadelphia. The using services include the U.S. Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps. Visit www.ceradyne.com for additional details.

Imerys Announces Proppants Production Unit Imerys recently announced the inauguration of a production unit for ceramic proppants in Andersonville, Ga. Produced from minerals owned and processed by Imerys, ceramic proppants are beads that can keep fractures in hydrocarbon reservoirs open, combining mechanical strength with low density. They are essential to unconventional oil and gas production. The proppant production unit, representing an investment of around $60 million, was built on the Andersonville site. Annual production will reportedly exceed 100,000 tons. After the commissioning and ramp-up phases, the new line is expected to be fully operational by the end of the year. For further details, visit www.imerys.com.

CoorsTek Acquires BAE Systems’ Advanced Ceramics Business CoorsTek recently announced it has purchased BAE Systems’ Vista, Calif.-based advanced ceramics facilities. The three facilities total 106,000 sq ft, adding to the more than three million square feet of manufacturing floor space already in place worldwide. BAE acquired the ceramics business through its acquisition of United Defense Inc. in June 2005. These facilities develop and fabricate lightweight ceramic armor systems, semiconductor components and assemblies, and industrial components. Specifically, they manufacture hotpressed boron carbides, silicon carbides, aluminum nitrides, and other advanced ceramic materials. For more information, visit www.coorstek.com or www.baesystems.com.

* Look for Ceramic Industry magazine at these events! For a more detailed listing, visit our website at www.ceramicindustry.com.

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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IN THE NEWS

Elgin Butler Acquires Trikeenan Tileworks Elgin Butler Co. recently announced it has acquired Trikeenan Tileworks, a manufacturer of art tile, ceramic tile and glazed thin-brick with plants in New Hampshire and New York. After a year of protection from its creditors under Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code, Trikeenan will successfully emerge from bankruptcy protection and operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of Elgin Butler. Elgin Butler has reportedly invested significantly in Trikeenan to retain many of the existing employees who are willing to work in the upgraded New York facility, and to ultimately grow the business and establish a strong domestic manufacturer of ceramic tile and thin brick in Hornell, N.Y. Elgin Butler reports it will purchase major capital equipment and engage major marketing and sales support resources, and will support existing Trikeenan customers in the marketplace. For more information, visit www.elginbutler.com or www.trikeenan.com.

Schenck AccuRate Opens Test Center Schenck AccuRate recently announced the grand opening of its renovated test center located in Whitewater, Wis. The remodeled facility is equipped with the necessary features for

testing customers’ dry bulk solid materials in volumetric, gravimetric, vibratory and sanitary feeding configurations. In addition, bulk bag discharging and pneumatic conveying systems can also be tested. New additions to the test center as a result of the renovations include an isolated testing cell for dusty and poor-flowing powders, customer offices with Internet accessibility, and a specially designed room for viewing material tests. The new isolated testing cell features wash down walls and a drainage system, reportedly making it easy to quickly clean the area when multiple materials need to be tested in a short period of time. For additional details, visit www.accuratefeeders.com.

Ceramica Verdi Installs Sacmi Machinery Located in Egypt’s Suez industrial zone, Ceramica Verdi produces 12,000 sq m of floor and wall tile per day, an output rate that has been achieved a few weeks after startup, reportedly due to Sacmi technology. Ceramica Verdi chose Sacmi for its main line machines, including the MMC092 modular mill and the ATM140 spray drier. These machines feed the company’s two PH3020 presses. Also installed in the plant is a 134-m kiln from Sacmi. Verdi reportedly aims to play a major role in the Egyptian ceramic market, with Sacmi as a strategic industrial partner. Visit www.sacmi.com for more information.

Saint-Gobain Begins Construction on First U.S. Solar Plant Saint-Gobain recently announced that construction work on Saint-Gobain Solar’s mirror line for solar thermal power stations has begun. Located near Phoenix in Goodyear, Ariz., the plant will be Saint-Gobain Solar’s first manufacturing facility in North America. The facility will supply primarily the domestic market and will eventually produce solar mirrors for thermal power station technologies (concentration towers, linear Fresnel lenses, etc.). The new solar mirror line is planned to come on-stream in the last quarter of this year and will produce 50 new jobs for the area. This investment reportedly complements SaintGobain’s current solar mirror production base, which includes a parabolic mirror plant in Portugal and a flat mirror facility in Germany. The plant’s projected production capacity corresponds to an annual thermal power output of 300 MW, or the equivalent annual energy requirements for an American town of 150,000 inhabitants. Every year, the green energy produced using this plant’s mirrors will reportedly enable savings of up to 320,000 tons of carbon dioxide (which would have been generated by a coal-fired power plant), the equivalent of replanting nearly 62,000 acres of forest. Additional details are available at www.saint-gobain.com.

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November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM

RHI AG Begins Construction of First Brazilian Plant RHI AG recently announced it has begun to build its first factory in Brazil, located in Rio de Janeiro’s Industrial District of Queimados. RHI’s investment for the first phase of the project will be €85 million (~ $117 million). The factory will reportedly create 200 direct and about 400 indirect jobs. Production is planned to begin in the third quarter of 2013. “This is the first step in establishing a production platform and an important part of our plan for global growth in the BRIC countries,” said Franz Struzl, CEO. “The proximity of the new plant will allow RHI AG to better serve customers, particularly in the steel industry in Brazil, as well as other major Latin American markets. Brazil’s steel industry is growing and we want to benefit as much as pos-

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sible from this enormous growth, being close to our customers. RHI AG’s investment in Rio de Janeiro further confirms the proper stage of development that the state and country have with a decisive contribution from the company to locally generate more jobs and opportunities.” Additional details are available at www.rhi-ag.com.

of Energy (DOE) and is to be operational in the second half of 2012. ITM technology uses a ceramic material which, under pressure and temperature, ionizes and separates oxygen molecules from air. No external source of electrical power is required in this process. For more information, visit www. airproducts.com.

Air Products Breaks Ground on Oxygen Production Test Facility

PANalytical Expands into New X-Ray Tube Factory

Air Products recently announced it has broken ground in Convent, La., where it will build a 100 ton/day (TPD) ion transport membrane (ITM) oxygen production test facility. The pilot plant project will include both an ITM unit producing oxygen and an electrical cogeneration unit producing power. The ITM demonstration project is funded in part by the U.S. Department

PANalytical recently announced it has relocated its X-ray tube manufacturing to a new factory in Eindhoven, The Netherlands. The new factory, which began production in August, features state-of-the-art technology to enhance the production of X-ray tubes and the quality and performance of the company’s X-ray instruments and solutions. For more information, visit www.panalytical.com. 

Application Seminar! January 16-17, 2012 & January 18-19, 2012 in Exton, PA

10/18/11 3:02 PM

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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³ MARKETFORECASTS U.S. Solar Industry Achieved Record Cost Reductions in 2010 The average cost of going solar in the U.S. decreased significantly in 2010 and through the first half of 2011, according to a report recently released by the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Solar advocates applaud the report as the latest indicator that solar is ready to power America’s new energy economy. “The solar power industry is the fastest growing industry in America,” said Rhone Resch, president and CEO of the Solar Energy Industries Association. “We are delivering strong economic returns and good jobs at increasingly competitive prices, as this National Lab report shows. This report is further proof of what Americans from across the country already know: smart solar policy creates jobs and economic growth for communities hit hard by the recession.” The latest edition of Lawrence Berkeley National Lab’s “Tracking the Sun,” an annual report on solar photovoltaic (PV) costs in the U.S., examined more than 115,000 PV systems installed between 1998 and 2010 across 42 states.

Solar Panels Market to Reach $71.8 Billion by 2017 The global market for solar panels is forecast to reach $71.8 billion by the year 2017, primarily driven by robust demand for solar energy in the U.S. and developing markets such as China and India, according to a new report by Global Industry Analysts Inc. The market will also be driven by government policies, especially feed-in tariffs and investment subsidies, which are expected to play a major role in determining the future demand for solar panels. Following several years of perpetual increase, growth in the solar photovoltaic (PV) cells and panels market slowed down for a brief period in 2009 due to the global economic downturn. The credit squeeze not only affected the purchases of solar cells and panels for energy generation, but also deferred investments in solar cell manufacturing. Sluggish demand resulted in a significant inventory buildup, starting from the silicon raw material and PV cells to complete PV systems, which ultimately led to a considerable decline in prices of solar cells and panels. The decline in demand for solar cells and panels was harsher in Europe, as the market suffered a twin blow with Spain registering drastic reductions in PV installations during the year. However, dramatic improvements in solar PV installations across the globe in the year 2010, particularly 10

November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM

in Europe and Asia-Pacific, ensured that the cells and panels market staged a comeback in 2010. Supportive government policies, especially feed-in tariffs and investment subsidies, helped western European nations such as Germany, Italy, and the UK to achieve tremendous increase in solar PV installations in 2010, thus driving a resurgence in demand for solar panels during the year. After making a comeback in the year 2010, the solar panels market in the immediate future will be challenged by planned subsidy cuts in major European countries such as Germany and Italy, as well as the possibility of excess supply. While Europe still accounts for a major share of demand for solar panels, other markets such as the U.S., Asia-Pacific and even Latin America are expected to gather momentum, and even spearhead growth in the global market over the next few years.

Glass Fibers Market to Exceed 8.5 Million Tons by 2017 The growth of the worldwide glass fibers market will be driven by a recovery in the global economy and improving prospects in various end-use markets, specifically construction and automotive, according to “Glass Fibers,” a new study from Global Industry Analysts Inc. Technological advancements and material improvements, as well as enormous potential in Asia, particularly China and India, are likely to foster further growth in the glass fiber market. Glass fiber has contributed significantly to facilitating advancements in construction and automotive applications. The product’s versatile performance and low cost has made it a leading reinforcement fiber in the manufacture of plastic products. With the recession affecting all sectors of the industry, the demand for glass fiber witnessed a downward slide, particularly in North America and Europe. However, the industry is registering a steady rise in demand as the global economy moves toward complete recovery. The Asia-Pacific region is the driving force for the glass fiber market and is expected to benefit immensely from the construction boom in developing countries. Glass wool’s superior sound absorption and thermal conductivity properties allow its extensive use in the construction industry. In addition to the construction sector, the segment is witnessing sustained demand from basic as well as high-tech industries such as electronics, automotive, construction, aircraft, and construction, among others. The expanding use of textile glass fibers in electronic and electrical, and telecommunication sectors offers growth opportunities for the glass fiber market participants. In the U.S., the demand for textile glass fibers is expected to grow at a steady rate led by emerging opportunities in the field of reinforced plastics, as well as asphalt construction products such as shingles. However, growth in the U.S. market is limited due to the growing maturity of various end-use applications and the rising threat of low-cost imports from Asian countries, specifically China.  Editor’s note: Visit www.ceramicindustry.com for additional details, including contact information, on each of these forecasts.

³ PEOPLEINTHENEWS Rankin Hobbs, CEO of KaMin LLC, recently announced that Harlan Archer has been appointed president of the company, effective September 19. Formerly vice president of Operations, Archer will provide the overall direction for KaMin LLC and will be charged with the execution of the company’s business plan. PremaTech Advanced Ceramics recently named Harvey Clough general manager and Dwighd Delgado operations manager. Clough is responsible for all aspects of PremaTech’s day-to-day operations; he previously held a variety of management and engineering positions with manufacturers of optics and lighting products, including Janos Technology and GE Lighting. Delgado is leading the company’s production, new product and service development activities. He most recently worked at Strategic Operations

Solutions, a manufacturing operations consulting firm, and has held management positions with Spectris, Fusion Systems Corp., Brüel & Kjaer Vibro GmbH, and NDC Infrared Engineering. Saint-Gobain recently announced the appointment of John Crowe as president and CEO of Saint-Gobain Corp. and CertainTeed Corp., effective September 1. As president and CEO of Saint-Gobain, Crowe will act as the company’s representative in North America, overseeing its North American businesses and chairing the company’s executive committee. He succeeds Gilles Colas, who will return to Saint-Gobain’s Paris headquarters as senior vice president in charge of global strategic developments. In addition, Crowe will assume operational responsibility for CertainTeed, following in the footsteps of Peter Dachowski, who

retired as president and CEO on August 31 after 35 years of service. RHI AG recently announced that Henning E. Jensen has resigned his position as CEO of the company. RHI’s Supervisory Board accepted his resignation and has appointed Franz Struzl the new chairman of the Management Board. Struzl was a member of the Management Board of the Voestalpine Group for 12 years, where he has served as CEO for the last three years. Innovative Processing Solutions recently announced the promotion of Aaron Potter to the position of Engineering manager. Potter has over 14 years’ experience as a systems and design engineer. His responsibilities include customer relations, project management, systems and component design, and estimating. 

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CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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Thermal Technology to Meet Demand for Sapphire Grower

Thermal Technology tripled its production capacity for Model K1 growers at its new manufacturing facility in Santa Rosa, Calif.

T

hermal Technology, a leading manufacturer of crystal growth equipment and high-temperature furnace systems, added a new production facility, tripling its manufacturing space. The new location offers an additional 25,000 sq ft of manufacturing space and has created 57 new jobs. The new facility is dedicated to Model K1 sapphire crystal grower production and neighbors Thermal Technology’s sales and manufacturing site in Santa Rosa, Calif. “Market response to the K1 grower is strong. Potential customers see our machines in

full production elsewhere and are convinced of our technology,” says Matt Mede, Thermal Technology president and CEO. “Utilizing the modified-Kyropoulos method, our growers remain the most productive tool in the market, with large crystal size and a short growth cycle. We also have the most growers in successful production, compared to our competitors.” Thermal Technology is reportedly shipping multiple sapphire growers weekly. The new high-volume production facility enables the company to meet its customers’ growing demand for the Model K1. “The new manufacturing facility significantly increases our production capacity and improves the overall flow of our production processes,” says Jim Coffey, Thermal Technology’s production manager. “The expansion was fueled by continued growth in our Model K1.”  For more information, visit www.thermaltechnology.com.

Thermal Technology’s new manufacturing site is located off Airport Boulevard in Santa Rosa, across the street from its original location.

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Equipment Digest Advertiser Index Advertiser

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GV Service Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . www.gvservice.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Union Process Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . www.unionprocess.com . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Allied High Tech Products Inc.. . . . . . . . www.alliedhightech.com . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Avure Technologies, Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . www.avure.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Bracker’s Good Earth Clays Inc.. . . . . . . www.brackers.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Carbolite Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . www.carbolite.us. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Deltech Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . www.deltechfurnaces.com . . . . . . . . . . .30 FLSmidth Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . www.flsmidth.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

I Squared R Element Co., Inc. . . . . . . . . www.isquaredrelement.com . . . . . . . . . .37 L&L Kiln Manufacturing, Inc.. . . . . . . . . www.hotkilns.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Ram Products Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . www.ramprocess.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Smith-Sharpe Fire Brick Supply . . . . . . www.kilnshelf.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 Starkey Machinery Incorporated . . . . . . www.starkeymachinery.com . . . . . . . . . .55 Thermaltek Inc.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . www.thermaltek.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

* See our ad in the 2011-2012 Ceramic Industry Data Book & Buyers’ Guide. This index is a feature maintained for the convenience of the advertiser. It is not part of the advertiser’s contract, and Ceramic Industry assumes no responsibility for its accuracy. The master ad index for this issue can be found on p. 82.

Equipment Digest References 1. Engineered Materials Handbook, Vol. 4, Ceramics and Glasses, ASM International, Materials Park, OH 440730002, pp. 43, 66, 75, 77-80, 95, 98-100, 109, 130, 132133, 151, 158, 162, 215-217, 245-253, 312, 391, 472, 561-562, 572, 581-582, 895-896, 904, 907, 911. 2. The Aggregate Handbook, edited by Richard D. Barksdale, National Stone Association, Washington, D.C., 1991, pp. 8-15. 3. Glossary of Glass and Ceramic Decorating Technology, Fourth Edition, Society of Glass and Ceramic Decorators (SGCD), Gaithersburg, MD. 4. North American Combustion Handbook, Third Edition, Vol. I, North American Mfg. Co., Cleveland, OH, 1986, pp. 39-42. 5. North American Combustion Handbook, Third Edition, Vol. II, North American Mfg. Co., Cleveland, OH, 1997, pp. 12-27, 29-32, 211-212, 404. 6. Merriam-Webster OnLine (www.m-w.com). 7. American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), (614) 274-6003, fax (614) 274-6899, www.asnt.org. 8. MAC Equipment, www.macequipment.com/prod_dilute.html. 9. Chicago Conveyor Corp., www.nauticom.net/www/jhorst/ chicago.htm. 10. Moisture Sensors Ltd., www.moisturesensors.com/ whymicro_h.htm. 11. Farr APC, www.farrapc.com/html_articles/collecting_ testing_dust.php. 12. The American Heritage Dictionary, Third Edition, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, MA, 1993. 13. Quasar International Inc., www.quasarintl.com/main/ resonant.html. 14. “Airborne Particulate Matter: Pollution Prevention and Control,” Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, World Bank Group, July 1998, http://wbln0018.worldbank. org/essd/essd.nsf/GlobalView/PPAH/$File/42_aborn.pdf.

15. Gordon England Thermal Spray Coating Consultant, www. gordonengland.co.uk/hardness/index.htm. 16. Applied Precision Manufacturing, www.apprmfg.com/why.htm. 17. ABC’s of Spray Finishing, DeVilbiss, Glendale Heights, Ill., 2001; www.devilbiss.com. 18. Industrial Spray Equipment Selection, Binks Training Division, Glendale Heights, Ill; www.binks.com. 19. Norstone Inc., www.norstone.com. 20. Datapaq Inc., www.datapaq.com. 21. Orton Ceramic Foundation, www.ortonceramic.com. 22. Sunnen Products Co., www.sunnen.com. 23. C.A. Litzler Co., Inc., www.calitzler.com. 24. Spang Power Electronics, www.spangpower.com. 25. Matec Micro Electronics, www.matec.com. 26. Hocking NDT Ltd., www.hocking.com/theory_intro.htm. 27. Industrial Heating, www.industrialheating.com/CDA/ ArticleInformation/features/BNP__Features__Item/0,2832,94035,00.html. 28. Warren Rupp, Inc., www.warrenrupp.com. 29. How Stuff Works, www.howstuffworks.com. 30. Trinks, W.; Mawhinney, M.H.; Shannon, R.A.; Reed, R.J.; and Garvey, J.R., Industrial Furnaces, Sixth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004, pp. 60-63, 400-402, 429, 439, 442, 446. 31. Vesuvius McDanel, www.techceramics.com. 32. The Lanly Co., www.lanly.com. 33. American Art Clay Co., www.amaco.com. 34. Applicon Co. Inc., www.appliconco.com. 35. Continental Products Corp., www.continentalrollomixer.com. 36. Saint-Gobain WRT, www.saint-gobain.com. 37. The Free Dictionary, www.thefreedictionary.com. 38. Carbolite Inc., www.carbolite.com. 39. Freeman Technology, www.freemantech.co.uk. 40. Particle Sizing Systems, www.pssnicomp.com.

41. Charles Ross & Son Co., www.mixers.com. 42. Ametek Thermox, www.thermox.com. 43. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org. 44. SAMA Maschinenbau GmbH, www.sama-online.com. 45. SEMATECH, www.sematech.org. 46. CM Furnaces Inc., www.cmfurnaces.com. 47. Wyssmont Co. Inc., www.wyssmont.com. 48. Agilent Technologies Inc. (www.agilent.com), Particle Sizing Systems Division, www.pssnicomp.com. 49. AMETEK Land Instruments, www.landinst.com. 50. Peter Pugger Manufacturing Inc., www.peterpugger.com. 51. A.W.T. World Trade Inc., www.awt-gpi.com. 52. O’Hara Technologies, www.oharatech.com. 53. NOL-TEC Asia www.nol-tecasia.com.sg/pneumaticblending-blender.html. 54. Jachen Technology Co. Ltd., www.jachen.com.tw/09-mixermachine.html?CID=2. 55. Dynomax, http://dynospindles.com/foundry-deburringdeflashing. 56. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_dryer. 57. Paul O. Abbe, http://pauloabbe.com/productlines/ millingequipment/ballMillHandbook.html. 58. Paul O. Abbe, http://pauloabbe.com/productLines/ millingEquipment/index.html. 59. Lynch, Alban J., and Rowland, Chester A., The History of Grinding, Society for Mining Metallurgy, December 2005. 60. ASM HANDBOOK®, Vol. 5: Surface Engineering, www.bluewaveinc.com/reprint.htm. 61. Kramer Industries, www.kramerindustriesonline.com/ vibratory-finishing-systems.htm.

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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ABRASIVE WHEELS ³ ANALYZERS, DENSITY

ABRASIVE WHEELS. Ceramic materials are normally ground with superabrasive diamond wheels; however, conventionally bonded silicon carbide wheels can also be used in some applications. The grindability of a specific ceramic material depends on its composition and physical properties. Due to the toughness and heat sensitivity of ceramic materials, it is extremely difficult to grind them to close dimensional tolerances without generating external and internal flaws—yet it is important to minimize micro-cracks and fractures that negatively effect the integrity and strength of the finished ceramic part. Many properties of the grinding wheel influence the outcome of the manufacturing process and directly affect the total cost of processing ceramics. The diamond type and its coating, the abrasive concentration and mesh size, bond type, and hardness all influence the productivity of the process and the integrity of the workpiece. It is best to work closely with an abrasive supplier to determine the appropriate wheel selection for a specific application. (See also GRINDING WHEELS.) AGGLOMERATORS. Agglomerators are used to increase the particle size of powders by bonding small particles to form into clusters of larger overall dimensions. This process is used to reduce dust in the case of very small particles, to increase the porosity, and/or to simplify reconstitution by improving solubility and sinkability of the material. The simplest method of agglomerating powders is to spray water onto a mass of powder in a blender/mixer and re-dry it in a fluidized bed dryer. Materials can also be agglomerated successfully in many cases by atomizing a bonding agent onto the material in the fluid bed and then cooling the material on the same bed. Agglomeration by this method usually results in quite small agglomerates averaging about 1 mm diameter. AGGLOMERATOR SUPPLIERS ADVANCED PROCESSES, ADVANCED CONTRACT TOLLING INC. 2097 Duss Ave. Ambridge, PA 15003 (724) 266-7274 Fax: (724) 266-8274 Email: [email protected] Website: www.advancedprocesses.com GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com AGITATORS. Agitators are used to keep liquid mixtures (slips, glazes, coatings, etc.) in suspension. (See MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT.) AIR CLASSIFIERS. See CLASSIFIERS, AIR. AIR FILTERS. See FILTERS, AIR. AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT. Used in surface finishing applications, the major components of an air spray system include spray guns, material containers, hoses, air control equipment, compressors, spray booths and respirators. The spray gun is the key component in a finishing system. An air spray gun is a tool that uses compressed air to atomize paint, or other sprayable material, and apply it to a surface. Air and material enter the gun through separate passages and are mixed at the air cap in a controlled pattern. Types of air spray guns include suction feed (draws material to the gun by suction), gravity feed (material travels down, carried by its own weight and gravity), and pressure feed (material is fed by

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positive pressure). Guns may also be classified as either external or internal mix, depending on the type of air cap. All spray systems must have material containers to hold the material being applied. These containers are usually made of metal or plastic, with capacities of ¼-pint or more. Three common types of cups—siphon, gravity and pressure—attach to the gun itself, while remote pressure cups and tanks are located away from the gun. Material container types and sizes vary considerably, depending on the kind of spraying system being used. The various types of hose used to carry compressed air and fluid material to the spray gun are important parts of the system, as improperly selected or maintained hose can create a number of problems. Air hose is used to transfer compressed air from the air source to the gun, and fluid hose is used in pressure feed systems to transfer the material from its container to the spray gun. Permanent, crimp type or reusable fittings are used to connect hoses to air sources or to spray equipment. Although there are many different styles of connections, the two most common are the threaded and the quick-disconnect types. The thread-type connection is a common swivel-fitting type that is tightened with a wrench, while the quick-disconnect connection is a spring-loaded, male/female system that readily attaches and detaches by hand without the use of tools. Air control equipment controls the volume, pressure and cleanliness of the air entering a spray gun. This equipment comes in a wide variety of types, but it basically all performs one or more of the following functions: air filtering/ cleaning, air pressure regulation/indication, and air distribution through multiple outlets. A respirator is a mask that is worn over the mouth and nose to prevent the inhalation of overspray fumes and vapor. The three primary types include the air-supplied respirator, the organic vapor respirator and the dust respirator. Before using any respirator, it is important to read the manufacturer’s safety precautions, warnings and instructions. Many respirators are not suitable for use with all materials. An air compressor is a machine designed to raise the pressure of air from normal atmospheric pressure to some higher pressure, as measured in pounds per square inch (psi). The two common types include the piston-type design and the rotary screw design. Because most commercial spray finishing operations consume large quantities of compressed air at relatively high pressures, the piston type compressor is the more commonly used. A spray booth is a compartment, room or enclosure of fireproof construction that is built to confine and exhaust overspray and fumes from the operator and the finishing system. Various models are available, designed for particular spray applications.17 (See also SPRAY BOOTHS; SPRAY EQUIPMENT, AUTOMATIC; and SPRAY GUNS.) ANALYZERS, CHEMISORPTION. Chemical adsorption, or chemisorption, involves strong chemical interactions between a gas (adsorbate) and a solid (adsorbent). The measurement of chemisorption is particularly important for the characterization of catalysts. A widely used technique is based on the physical adsorption and subsequent desorption of an adsorbate on the surface of an adsorbent. The vapor sorption method is not only used for measuring pore size distribution but also is the basis for determining surface area. When an adsorbent (solid) is allowed to interact with an adsorbate vapor, typically nitrogen at low temperatures, an amount of the vapor will physically adsorb on the surface and in pores as a function of the partial pressure of the vapor. The amount of a vapor that will adsorb on a solid surface is a function of temperature, pressure, and the interaction potential between the adsorbate and the adsorbent. A plot of the quantity of vapor adsorbed or desorbed versus pressure at a constant temperature is called an isotherm, portions of which are used for surface area and pore size distribution determinations.1

November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM/EQUIPMENTDIGEST

ANALYZERS, DENSITY. Absolute density (also termed true, real, apparent or skeletal density) is obtained when the volume measured excludes the pores as well as the void spaces between particles within the bulk sample. In traditional absolute density measurement, water or another liquid is used to fill the pores in the sample, thus removing their volume from the measurement. Sometimes the material is subjected to boiling in a liquid to ensure pore penetration, and sometimes the sample is evacuated prior to immersion to assist pore filling. More modern techniques include helium (or other gas) pycnometers, which use gases to fill the minute pore spaces and provide a much more accurate measurement of absolute density. Envelope density (sometimes called bulk density) is determined for porous materials when pore spaces within the material particles are included in the volume measurement. Some envelope density analyzers use a free-flowing dry powder as the displaced medium. The material to be tested is surrounded by this medium that does not penetrate pores but conforms to irregular surface contours to form a tight-fitting “envelope.” This dry powder medium permits rapid, easy-tomake density measurements without damaging or contaminating the sample. Envelope density values are less than absolute densities when the material is porous; values for absolute and envelope density are equal for nonporous materials. Total porosity can be calculated from a measure of both absolute and envelope density on the same material. Bulk density is obtained by filling a container with the sample material and vibrating it to achieve near optimum packing. It is frequently referred to as “tap” density because it has traditionally been measured by mechanical devices that lift then drop the container, producing a loud tapping noise. Today, advanced instruments are available to obtain precise results comparable to traditional tap density measurements. Tap density is not an inherent property of a material but depends on particle size distribution and shape, as well as measurement techniques. Since interparticle voids are included in the measurement, tap density is always a lesser value than envelope density. Density Analysis by Gas Pycnometer. A gas pycnometer determines volume and calculates density using a value for mass that is entered by the operator or read directly from an electronic balance. Gas pycnometers determine volume by the displacement method, where the medium displaced is a gas. The sample material typically is solid, although some liquids can be analyzed. Helium is most often the gas of choice because of its penetrating characteristics, although nitrogen and dry air also are commonly used. In special cases, a gas of a specific molecular size is used to exclude penetration into pores smaller than a certain diameter. The types of densities obtained by a gas pycnometer are absolute density, true density or skeletal density, depending on the specifics of the definitions,†* the porosity characteristics of the material, and the capability of the analysis gas to probe these pores. The fundamental measurement performed by the instrument is that of pressure within sealed chambers of accurately known volume. Typically, two chamber volumes are involved in an analysis: the sample chamber and an expansion chamber. The two volumes initially are isolated, but can be joined by changing the position of a valve. The sample chamber contains the sample and the expansion chamber initially contains a charge of gas at a pressure of about 2 atm. Pressures within the two isolated chambers are measured. Next, the joining valve is opened and the gas in the expansion chamber expands into the sample chamber. The equilibrium pressure in the joined volumes is measured. The volume of the sample is determined using the universal gas law to describe both the pre-expansion and postexpansion systems. The gas law reduces to a series of PV terms since the number of molecules and temperature are Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

ANALYZERS, DENSITY

assumed to remain constant before and after expansion. One of the V terms represents the unknown sample volume for which the equilibrium equation is solved. All other V terms are known from calibration, and the value of each P term is determined from the measurements previously described. Calibration of the sample and expansion chamber volumes is achieved using a reference volume. If designed with meticulous attention to thermal stability, a gas pycnometer can determine solid volumes and densities to the fourth decimal place. A limitation to the technique is due to outgassing or vapor pressure. A solid material must be free of volatile contaminants that could contribute to pressure within the sample chamber. Vapor pressure also accounts for why only a limited number of liquids can be measured to a high precision and accuracy using this method. Density Analysis by Solid Medium Displacement. Density is not directly measured in the great majority of instances, but is determined by measuring volume and dividing by sample weight as commonly determined by a balance. A common technique for volume measurement is the displacement method. The medium displaced may be solid, liquid or gas. Volume determinations by displacement of the latter two are discussed in separate sections. The only known implementation of solid displacement in a commercially available pycnometer employs an assemblage of very fine, free-flowing spherical particles as the displacement medium. The particle size distribution of the solid is sufficiently fine to allow conformity to surface details, but sufficiently large to prohibit entry into pores. The particles are contained in a cylindrical chamber of accurately known diameter. Displacement volume is determined by first establishing zero displacement. This is achieved by partially filling the chamber with the medium, then sealing the chamber with a movable piston. While the cylinder is agitated by rotation, the piston pushes on the medium with a specified force. The agitation and the force from the piston cause the particles to assume a close packed geometry. Packing is complete when the piston has achieved its maximum depth within the cylinder. Next, the piston is removed and the sample placed in the cylinder within the medium. The piston is replaced into the cylinder, agitation resumed, and the piston again compresses the medium with the same force until close packing again is achieved, this time enveloping the sample material. The difference in depth the piston travels in the two tests is substituted into the equation for the volume of a cylinder, the diameter being known. The calculated volume is the envelope volume of the sample material, where the envelope volume includes the volume of the solid matter, the volume of open and closed pores, and the volume of any surface voids that are bridged by the enveloping medium. The limitations of the technique mainly are associated with how efficiently the medium packs around the contours of the solid object. However, much of this error is systematic and can be compensated for using a conversion factor. Conversion factors averaged for a variety of shapes are provided by the manufacturer, but these can be refined for specific shapes, improving accuracy and repeatability. It is of interest to note that the skeletal volume obtained by gas pycnometry subtracted from the envelope volume is the total pore volume of the sample material. Density Analysis by Liquid (Mercury) Displacement. Since density is determined by measuring volume and dividing by sample weight as commonly determined by a balance, a common technique for volume measurement is the displacement method. The medium displaced may be a liquid, gas or solid. Volume determinations by displacement of the latter two are discussed in separate sections. Displacement of a liquid has been a common method of determining volume since Archimedes was commissioned by King Hero of Syracuse to assay his new crown. A variety of

liquids have been used. In cases where the envelope or bulk volume of a porous sample was of interest, the sample would have to be pretreated to seal the pores. Mercury, being a nonwetting liquid to most solids, will resist entry into pores unless sufficient pressure is applied to overcome the resistive forces arising from surface tension. Mercury, therefore, provides an excellent medium for easily determining envelope volumes (and densities). Furthermore, by adjusting pressure, the analyst has control over the size of surface features that are excluded from the volume measurement. Pore size distribution by mercury porosimetry is a benchmark analysis performed on ceramic materials. Although mercury porosimetry primarily is used to determine the pore size distribution of materials, it actually performs all of the measurements necessary to determine envelope or bulk volume and skeletal volume. Simply adding another mass measurement step to the analysis process is all that is required to obtain additional density measurements. Bulk density values obtained by mercury porosimetry are valuable in controlling the quality of ceramic pieces, particularly regarding final size and porosity. †

Compilation of ASTM Standard Definitions, 8th Edition, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa. (1994). *British Standard BS 2955 Glossary of Terms Relating to Particle Technology, British Standards Institution, London, England (1991).

ANALYZERS, MOISTURE. The moisture content of ceramic powders and materials can be measured in a variety of ways. In standard gravimetric methods, also known as loss on drying, a known weight sample is heated to drive off the free water by evaporation, and the remaining dry weight is measured to determine the moisture content. This now well-established and universal method is often the only way to provide the basic calibration required for on-line process measurement methods. However, it involves destructive and intrusive sampling, with samples having to be removed from the process area, taken or sent to a laboratory or similar facility that has a balance and oven drying equipment, and analyzed there. Electrical impedance techniques make use of the huge difference in the dielectric constant of water compared to most common host materials. By applying a potential to sample measurements of the current flow, resistance to flow, or the charge capable of being put in to the field of view, a reading of the relative permittivity can be made and a moisture level gauged. Spectroscopic methods largely use the near infrared part of the spectrum, or, more specifically, one of the three vibrational energy levels of the hydrogen/oxygen bands. When the technique is used to measure solids, a multi-frequency signature beam is reflected from the surface of the material, and the strength of the water molecule is compared with the remaining part of the signature. This reading is then processed and calibrated to give a readout of the moisture level. In microwave moisture analysis, a low-energy microwave beam is focused or shaped by means of horns or lenses, and signal-processing circuits measure the beam’s changes. The properties of microwaves allow both transmission and reflection techniques to be used. This means that measurement can take place by passing the beam through the bulk to be measured and receiving it on the other side (for non-contact analysis) or by passing it through transmitter/receiver probes inserted into the moving host material.10 ANALYZERS, OXYGEN. Oxygen analyzers are used to measure oxygen concentration in non-combustible gases such as N2, Ar, He, Kr, Xe, Ne, etc. Applications include cryogenic gas production, heat treating, semiconductor thermal processing, blanket/purge gas analysis, welding gases and nitrogen purity. In addition, oxygen analyzers are typically used in glass container manufacturing plants for optimizing burner and fuel efficiency. Some oxygen analyzers are capable of post-combustion spot sampling at the checker ports on

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ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE

glass furnaces, and pre-combustion analysis of air-to-fuel ratio settings on forehearth premix zones.42 ANALYZERS, OXYGEN SUPPLIERS

AMETEK, THERMOX 150 Freeport Rd. Pittsburgh, PA 15238 (412) 828-9040 Fax: (412) 826-0399 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ametekpi.com ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE. A variety of instruments exist to measure the size of particles. Some particle size analyzers determine particle size distribution using the sedimentation method, measuring the rate at which particles fall under gravity through a liquid having known properties as described by Stokes’ Law. Other analyzers use electrozone sensing, in which the sample—a dry powder, paste or liquid—is dispersed in an electrolyte solution. This dispersion is placed in a sample container that also contains an electrode. An orifice tube—a closed-end, glass tube containing a precisiondrilled hole through which particles can pass—is placed in the sample and electrolyte dispersion. An electrode inside the orifice tube provides a current that passes through the orifice by way of the electrolyte to the first electrode. The sample dispersion is pulled through the orifice via a partial vacuum applied to the exit end of the tube. As particles pass sequentially through the orifice, each displaces a volume of electrolyte equal to its own volume. A low-voltage electrical field established between the two electrodes is disturbed each time a particle passes through the orifice. This produces an electrical pulse for each particle, the amplitude of which is proportional to the particle volume. The instrument counts and sizes the pulses and reports comprehensive reduced data. Low angle (laser) light scattering is yet another technique used to measure particle size. The linear “size” of an irregularly shaped particle is difficult to define in a manner applicable to a wide variety of shapes. Consequently, most size descriptions obtained by instrumental analysis employ some type of size equivalency. The equivalency is based on a size-related characteristic of the particle that is convenient to measure with accuracy. For example, the cross-sectional area of a particle can be measured by a projection method. The linear size then can be described in terms of the diameter of a sphere that has the same cross-sectional area; in other words, the equivalent spherical size. The static light scattering technique for particle sizing uses the theory of Gustav Mie, which describes the intensity of the light scattered at each angle from a spherical particle illuminated with monochromatic, coherent light. The scattering phenomena is not restricted to spherical particles, but is scattered from particles of any shape. Mie theory, however, pertains only to spherical particles. But there is, in a statistical sense, a Mie scattering pattern that most closely matches the pattern produced by the non-spherical particle. The size of the sphere associated with this most similar pattern is the equivalent particle size, in this case, the equivalent Mie scattering size. A scattering pattern can vary considerably in intensity over a short angular range, therefore a high-resolution detector is an important requirement if slight changes in a particle size distribution are to be detected and quantified. There are several equivalent size definitions, and the same particle in not likely to produce the same equivalent CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE

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ANALYZERS, SURFACE AREA

spherical size when measured by two different techniques. Only for spherical particles should such a comparison yield the same results. The light scattering technique generally is fast compared to other techniques, but not necessarily so. It is, however, a versatile technique in that it is applicable to all types of particles suspended in essentially any medium through which the light can be transmitted. The limitations of this method concern the requirement to know both the real and imaginary refractive index of the sample material and the index of refraction of the liquid. Another is to measure the scattering pattern with sufficient accuracy and resolution to closely fit the experimentally measured scattering pattern to one calculated from Mie theory with a minimum contribution of “residual” size fractions that get added erroneously to improve the fit. Particle size is important in the manufacture of ceramic goods because particle size directly affects the surface area of the raw materials and the porosity and density of the finished products. These characteristics directly relate to performance. As the above paragraph implies, determining particle size is not the end objective; relating particle size to something else is. When selecting a particle size analyzer, the first challenge is to determine the technique that produces data that best relates to why particle size is important. The light scattering method may or may not be the optimum technique. Yet another particle size measurement technique is X-ray sedimentation. Because of the variety of irregular particle shapes that are likely to be found in a sample of particles, most size descriptions employ some type of equivalency. The equivalency is based on some size-related characteristic of the particle that is easier than “diameter” to describe and measure. For example, the cross-sectional area of a particle can be measured by a projection method and the size described in terms of the diameter of a sphere that has the same crosssectional area; in other words, the equivalent spherical size. The X-ray sedimentation method measures the settling velocity of the particles and equates the size of the sample particle to the size of a spherical particle of the same density as the test particle that settles at the same velocity in the same medium. Again, this is the equivalent spherical size, but by sedimentation. The equivalent spherical size of the same particle by area projection and by sedimentation and by any number of other equivalent spherical methods will not necessarily yield the same value except in the specific case in which the particle shape is actually a sphere. Therefore, when describing the size distribution of an assemblage of particles and particularly when comparing size distributions, the method by which the size was obtained should be stated. Mass fraction determination is achieved by measuring the relative X-ray attenuation through the liquid-solid suspension as the larger particles settle out. Prior to the analysis, the amplitude of the X-ray signal is measured after passing through clear liquid. Prior to the beginning of sedimentation, a homogeneous distribution of particles flows through the cell. The X-ray signal again is measured, this time being attenuated to minimum signal. This establishes the 0 and 100% concentration levels, respectively. Pumping ceases and sedimentation begins. Initially, the measurement zone (the zone through which the X-ray beam passes) contains a homogeneous distribution of sample material and therefore registers 100% relative concentration. As the larger particles fall below the measurement zone the concentration of particles in the suspension decreases and the attenuation of X-ray diminishes. After some length of time, all particles will have settled below the measurement zone at which time the X-ray signal will return to maximum and 0 concentration will be registered. At any time between the time of maximum and minimum concentration, the range of particle sizes that have had time to fall completely below the measurement zone can

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be calculated. So, at any time, the cumulative mass percent finer than a certain size that are still in the measurement zone can be reported. There are two limitations to this technique that should be noted. First, the material must contain atoms of atomic number 11 or higher to absorb sufficient X-ray energy to be detected. This eliminates most organic compounds as well as boron nitride and boron carbide ceramics. Second, the gravitational settling velocities of particle less than about 0.1 mm diameter become difficult to determine with accuracy due to Brownian motion. As size decreases more, Brownian motion eventually will dominate. ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE SUPPLIERS PARTICLE SIZING SYSTEMS 8203 Kristel Cir. Port Richey, FL 34668 (727) 846-0866 Fax: (727) 846-0865 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pssnicomp.com ANALYZERS, PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION. See ANALYZERS, DENSITY and ANALYZERS, PORE STRUCTURE. ANALYZERS, PORE STRUCTURE. There are several ways to measure pore structure, including mercury porosimetry and the physical adsorption of gas on a solid surface. Mercury is a non-wetting liquid to most solid materials, forming a bead rather than spreading over the surface. Its high surface tension allows it to bridge across pores, cracks and crevices that have openings of less than a certain size. Consequently, an external pressure must be applied to force it to enter these openings. The pressure applied is inversely proportional to the size of the pore opening that it will be forced to enter. Conversely, when pressure is decreased, mercury will exit the pores; however, due to the shape of the pore network, some mercury may be trapped within the solid. By monitoring applied pressure and the quantity of mercury that enters or exits the pores, a plot of pore volume vs. pore diameter can be obtained. The plot of mercury entering the pores is called the intrusion curve, and its shape reveals a considerable quantity of information about the pore structure of the material. When pressure is decreased, an extrusion plot is obtained and it seldom retraces the intrusion curve. The shape of the extrusion curve and the difference in shapes of the intrusion and extrusion curves also contain information about pore structure. A number of theories have been developed to extract information about the solid material from the shape of the intrusion/extrusion curves. These lead to determinations not only of pore volume and pore size, but to information about the shape of the pore cavity, material permeability, fractal dimensions of pores, material tortuosity and material compressibility. Many characteristics of ceramic materials, from the processing of a green body to the performance of finished products, can be predicted from knowledge of pore structure. A major strength of this analytical technique is its wide dynamic range of pore size, 0.003 to 360 μm, five orders of magnitude. The limitations of the technique vary according to application and may or may not be of concern. Perhaps of most concern to those working with ceramics, and one for which control should be exercised, is that the sample must be free of moisture to obtain good data. The drying process can produce cracks or voids that add pore structure that was not present in the hydrated form of the material. Additionally, if the material contains a large number of closed pores, the danger of structural damage increases and can give a false indication of porosity. This effect, however, is recognizable in the data and can be discounted. Also, mercury porosimetry is a destructive testing method. A mercury porosimetry analysis also can provide bulk (or envelope) and skeletal density information, as explained in

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more detail in the discussion on density. This presents a means by which total closed porosity can be quantified. The physics of the adsorption of gas on the surface of a solid material has been studied over the past century, and from the resulting theories came methods for extracting information about surface features, specifically, surface area and pore volume distribution by pore size. Theories of pore filling can generally be divided into two categories: 1) micropore filling (pore diameter <20Å), and 2) the filling of mesopores (20Å to 500Å diameter) and macropores (>500Å diameter). The recent application of density functional theory (DFT) to the adsorption process has yielded a method by which the full range of pore sizes from micropore into the mesopore range can be analyzed by a single theory. An experimental data set consists of a series of volume adsorbed vs. pressure data points. These describe the adsorption isotherm and, according to the size range of the pores, may range in pressure from 10-5 mm Hg to atmospheric pressure or higher, the smaller pores being filled at lower pressures. The adsorption process is not necessarily reversible, so in the process of lowering the pressure, a desorption isotherm is generated which typically exhibits a hysteresis loop with the adsorption isotherm. There are two techniques commonly employed to measure the isotherm: a flowing gas or dynamic technique, and a static volumetric technique. In physical adsorption instrumentation, the flowing gas technique usually is associated with less sophisticated systems. The equipment used for examining pore volume distribution in the micropore region typically is more sophisticated due to the requirement of obtaining, controlling and measuring very low pressures. However, total micropore volume can be obtained without highly complex equipment by applying the t-Plot method. Obtaining information about porosity in the mesopore and into the macropore range has less stringent requirements on instrumentation, and the sophistication of the instrument generally is determined by the quality and extent of data desired and the level of automation. Quite simple and inexpensive manual instruments are available, particularly for applications in which only the total pore volume of the sample is to be determined. The limitations of the techniques described above are mostly dependent on the pore size range of the material being studied. If the porosity does not extend into the micropore range and extends well above 500Å in the mesopore range, then mercury porosimetry may be a better technique for determining pore size distribution. Even so, the capability and wide use of gas adsorption to determine surface area as well as porosity usually means that a ceramic laboratory will have both gas adsorption porosimetry and mercury porosimeter capabilities. ANALYZERS, POROSIMETRY. See ANALYZERS, DENSITY and ANALYZERS, PORE STRUCTURE. ANALYZERS, SURFACE AREA. Most atoms that make up a solid are bound on all sides by other atoms in the bulk of the solid. The atoms on the surface of the solid, however, are incompletely bound. Due to van der Waals forces of interaction, these surface atoms are more reactive and they attract gas, vapor and liquids to satisfy the imbalance of atomic forces. It was realized a century ago that the physical adsorption of a gas on the surface of a solid material could lead to a determination of surface area, provided that the quantity of gas necessary to completely cover the surface with a single layer could be determined. The search for a way to determine the “monolayer capacity” led to several theories, two of which still are widely used today: 1) the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) theory and 2) the Langmuir theory. The analytical procedure involves measuring the volume of gas adsorbed onto the sample material at various presSupplier listings indicate paid advertising.

ANALYZERS, SURFACE AREA

sures; the data set describes the adsorption isotherm. The shape of the isotherm reveals information about the formation of the monolayer, and the application of BET or Langmuir theory allows the gas volume of the monolayer to be determined. The number of molecules forming the monolayer can be calculated from the volume of gas, and the surface area can be determined by multiplying this number by the area of surface occupied by a single gas molecule. The knowledge of the surface area of ceramic raw materials and finished ceramic goods is important for a number of reasons, some pertaining to controlling the characteristics of finished goods and others pertaining to how the finished goods perform in their final application. For example, the reaction and binding characteristics of a material are determined by the extent of the exposed surface. Instrumentation for determining surface area ranges from sophisticated units that meticulously probe the free surface and pore wall surface of a sample to reveal where the surface area is located, to simple manual units. At both extremes of complexity, these units are capable of determining information about porosity; the more sophisticated the instrument, the more detailed information it can provide. ANALYZERS, ZETA POTENTIAL. Zeta potential and particle size distribution are recognized as critical parameters in the processing of concentrated ceramic slurries. Achieving optimal powder dispersion, suspension rheology, stability and compatibility with sintering aids all require careful control of the slurry components’ zeta potential. In addition, determining the pH where the zeta potential of a ceramic powder is zero, known as the iso-electric point (IEP), has been proven to be a sensitive method for controlling ceramic powder purity and reproducibility. Zeta potential analyzers are available commercially that provide a thorough characterization of colloidal dispersions without the need for dilution. Some instruments can directly measure particle size, zeta potential, pH, conductivity and temperature in both laboratory and on-line measuring modes over a broad particle size range (from 20 nanometers to 10 microns) in concentrations as high as 50 volume percent. (See also ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE.) ANALYZERS, ZETA POTENTIAL SUPPLIERS PARTICLE SIZING SYSTEMS 8203 Kristel Cir. Port Richey, FL 34668 (727) 846-0866 Fax: (727) 846-0865 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pssnicomp.com AUTOCLAVES An autoclave is a strong, heated container that can be used for chemical reactions and other processes in which high pressures and high temperatures are used.

bulk storage systems and containers; intermediate bulk containers; bin dischargers; dry feeders; powder fillers; weighing systems; and dispensing systems. Systems can be automated or manual and pneumatic or mechanical, depending on the quantity of material being processed and the end user’s specifications. See specific products for more detailed information. (See also BATCHERS, WEIGHING & MEASURING.)

AUTOMATIC SPRAY EQUIPMENT. See SPRAY EQUIPMENT, AUTOMATIC. BALL MILLS. See MILLS, BALL. BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT. Equipment used for batch handling includes bulk bags and bulk bag loaders; vibratory screeners, feeders and conveyors; storage bags; batchers;

BLENDERS, POWDER

BIN DISCHARGER SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com

BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT, PNEUMATIC. See BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT. BATCHERS, WEIGHING & MEASURING. The objective of batching is to combine the required proportions of the components of a system in a safe, reproducible manner that suits the subsequent processing operations. This involves weighing out the solid components, metering the volume of liquids, or, in some continuous processing, controlling the feed rates of the components.1 BATCHING PLANTS & SYSTEMS. Measuring, weighing, feeding and conveying systems are an important part of processing. Modern batching plants and systems are designed to provide high levels of flexibility, accuracy and efficiency. (See specific BLENDING, MIXING, BATCHING, WEIGHING and CONVEYING categories for additional information.) BATCHING PLANTS & SYSTEM SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com

EIRICH MACHINES INC. 4033 Ryan Rd. Gurnee, IL 60031 (847) 336-2444 Fax: (847) 336-0914 Email: [email protected] Website: www.eirichusa.com

AUTOCLAVE SUPPLIERS AVS INC. 60 Fitchburg Rd. Ayer, MA 01432 (978) 772-0710 Fax: (978) 772-6462 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avsinc.com

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BATTERY CASTING MACHINES. See CASTING MACHINES. BATTERY COATING MACHINES. See CASTING MACHINES and COATING EQUIPMENT. BIN DISCHARGER. Bin dischargers help ensure the proper flow of bulk materials from storage containers such as bins, silos or hoppers. (See also BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT and BATCHERS, WEIGHING & MEASURING.)

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BINS, STORAGE. Storage bins hold bulk materials until they’re needed for processing. (See also BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT.) BINS, STORAGE SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com BLADES/IMPELLERS, DISPERSING. Blades and impellers disperse the product within mixing vessels. Various sizes and types are available, depending on the mixing action required to meet the specifications of the end product.19 (See also IMPELLERS and MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT.) BLENDERS. Blenders are used primarily for solids-solids blending. They may also be used to add liquids to solids, or to blend minor liquid additions to a solid.41 BLENDER SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com BLENDER, CONICAL & PNEUMATIC. The folding, spreading, and cascading action of a conical blender provides a rapid, homogeneous blending of dry and semi-dry materials. The end over and revolving action moving materials in and out of a restricted area results in a thorough intermeshing of the products into a uniform mix having blend variations of 1-2%.52 Pneumatic blending provides an effective method of achieving homogeneous batches of powdered, granular, and/ or abrasive materials.53 BLENDER, CONICAL & PNEUMATIC SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com BLENDERS, POWDER. A powder blender can provide homogeneous mixing of powders with varying specific weights and particle sizes.

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BLENDERS, POWDER

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BURNERS, COMBINATION OIL & GAS

BLENDERS, POWDER SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com BLENDERS, ROTARY. Rotary blenders (also called tumble blenders) use rotation to provide low-shear mixing action. With cone-shaped rotating blenders, the vessel rotates endover-end. With “v”-shaped blenders, the batch is divided into right and left legs as the “v”-shaped vessel rotates, causing the batch to blend and recombine. BLENDERS, ROTARY SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com BLENDERS, SPIRAL. A spiral, or double cone, blender has a conical shape at both ends that allows for uniform mixing and easy discharge. It can be used for mixing dry powder and granules homogeneously in multiple industries.54 BLENDERS, SPIRAL SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com BLOWERS. Blowers are used to move air in pressure or vacuum conveying systems. (See also CONVEYORS, PNEUMATIC.)

combined bottom/wall scraper continuously cleans the pan bottom and cylindrical pan wall, and directs the material to be prepared toward the high-performance dispersing tools. An exit gate specifically designed for liquid media ensures an even discharge flow. (The prepared liquid can also be extracted using a pump, if necessary.) This design reduces the specific energy requirements of the machine, provides the user with greater control of the finished material’s viscosity and minimizes cleaning requirements.

BORING TOOLS, DIAMOND. Advanced chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond coatings are used on carbide boring tools to drill holes in abrasive nonmetallic materials, including green ceramic and graphite. While the cost of diamond boring tools tends to be higher than conventional technologies, the benefits obtained from CVD-diamond coated tools—including savings in tool costs, improved productivity, fewer set-ups and tool changes, and higher-quality machined surfaces—often far outweigh the initial investment in the technology. (See also DIAMOND DRILLS and DIAMOND TOOLS.)

BLUNGER SUPPLIERS

BRICK MACHINES. Any of a number of machines used in the brick manufacturing process, including extruding, molding, dry pressing, setting, coring, cutting, hacking and dehacking, facing, lining, drying, firing, stacking and packaging machines. Many of these processes are increasingly being handled by automated technologies and/or robots. (See also ROBOTICS.)

EIRICH MACHINES INC. 4033 Ryan Rd. Gurnee, IL 60031 (847) 336-2444 Fax: (847) 336-0914 Email: [email protected] Website: www.eirichusa.com

BRUSHES, AIR. See AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT. BORE FINISHING MACHINES. Single pass bore finishing is a process for sizing the inside diameter of components by passing one or more pre-set diamond tools through at a controlled rate. By finishing holes to predictable, consistent bore sizes and geometries in a single pass, this process eliminates the need for conventional honing. Some systems are capable of repeatedly and reliably generating bore sizing to better than .0001 in. (.0025 mm), with bore roundness, straightness and taper to as good as 20 millionths of an inch (.0005 mm). Surface finishes as good as 4 microinches (.1 Ra. micrometer) can be attained. (See also BORE FINISHING TOOLS, CBN and BORE FINISHING TOOLS, DIAMOND.) BORE FINISHING MACHINE SUPPLIERS LIBERTY MACHINERY COMPANY 111 Schelter Rd. Lincolnshire, IL 60069 (847) 276-2761 Fax: (847) 276-2762 Email: [email protected] Website: www.libertymachinery.com

BLOWER SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com BLUNGERS. Also known as dispersers, blungers are used to mix raw lump, powdered or plastic clay with water to create slips for casting or decorating. Many blungers consist of a stationary tank with a dispersing tool mounted on a shaft. The tank is filled with the appropriate amount of water needed to achieve the desired slip density, and then the clay is added. (The clay must be pre-crushed to minimize the amount of time required for adequate dispersion.) The necessary energy for dispersing the clay in the water is introduced through the dispersing tool. Since the specific energy input of conventional systems is relatively low, the dispersion process typically requires three to five hours or more, even when pre-crushed clay is used. More advanced blungers are designed to introduce higher energy into the slip to shorten the processing time and reduce the machine size and space requirements. For instance, one machine uses a rotating tank or pan, along with one or several eccentrically positioned rotating dispersing tools that are mounted at the top of the machine and reach into the rotating pan. A

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BORE FINISHING TOOLS, CBN. Cubic boron nitride (CBN) is the second hardest material next to diamond, making it useful for bore finishing ferrous materials, such as hardened steel and steel superalloys. Diamond is typically the material of choice for bore finishing or machining ceramic and glass materials, but CBN can also be used in these applications. When compared to conventional abrasives, both diamond and CBN allow greater material removal rates, improved quality due to less damage of the workpiece, and longer wheel life—all of which can reduce overall grinding costs. (See also BORE FINISHING MACHINES and BORE FINISHING TOOLS, DIAMOND.) BORE FINISHING TOOLS, DIAMOND. Bore finishing tools that combine high-grade industrial diamonds with advanced micronizing and plating technologies have been shown to cut cooler and last longer than other bore finishing tools. Diamond bore finishing tools can precisely finish the inside diameter of parts in a single pass. The result is bore geometry as good as 20 millionths of an inch (.0005 mm), sizing to better than .0001 in. (.0025 mm), with surface finishes as fine as 4 microinches (.1 micrometer Ra.). Tools can be designed for use with a wide range of materials, from hardened alloys to ceramics to aluminum to multi-material components. (See also BORE FINISHING MACHINES and BORE FINISHING TOOLS, CBN.)

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BURNER BLOCKS, REFRACTORY. Refractory burner blocks are typically made from sillimanite, silicon carbide, mullite, zirconia mullite or various zirconium oxide compositions and are engineered to withstand high temperatures and the contaminants found in fuel oil. BURNERS. A burner is a device that positions a flame in a desired location by delivering fuel and air to that location in such a manner that continuous ignition is accomplished. Some burners include atomizing, mixing, proportioning, piloting and flame monitoring devices.5 See the following specific burner categories for more information. BURNERS, COMBINATION OIL & GAS. Fuel supply shortages and price fluctuations may make it necessary to substitute one fuel for another, preferably without major changes in combustion chambers, burners, piping or controls. Five aspects that must be considered are: 1) equal heat input rate; 2) fluid handling capability of flues, burners, piping, valves and controls; 3) burner stability; 4) heat release pattern; and 5) furnace atmosphere. The only way to substitute oil burning through existing gas burners is with an external vaporizing system added to premix gas burners. If the input per burner can be at least 250,000 Btu/hr (17.5 kcal/s), it is usually less expensive to replace each gas burner with a combination gas/oil burner built into a common housing. Either of these conversion systems (vaporizer or combination burners) require a higher initial investment than gas-to-gas substitution, but may save on operating (fuel) costs. Selecting the conversion equipment takes care of the first three of the five aspects of interchangeability. The fourth aspect, heat release pattern, is different for oils because their flames are more luminous. (However, some burners are designed to produce blue oil flames, and long luminous flame burners make yellow gas flames.) Because atomization and vaporization time is usually required after the oil leaves the burner nozzle, oil flames often require somewhat more combustion space. If combustion space is very confined, or if a lot of flame radiation may be detrimental to the process, conversion to oil might require a combustion chamber revision. However, this is not a problem in most conventional general-purpose furnaces because they are designed conservatively. For the fifth aspect, furnace atmosphere, the effects of changes in sulfur or carbon/hydrogen ratio must be evaluated for each specific fuel and process.4

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BURNERS, COMBINATION OIL & GAS

BURNERS, COMBINATION OIL & GAS SUPPLIERS

FIVES NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION INC. 4455 E. 71st St. Cleveland, OH 44105 (216) 271-6000 Fax: (216) 641-7852 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fivesgroup.com HAUCK MFG. CO. P.O. Box 90 Lebanon, PA 17042 (717) 272-3051 Fax: (717) 273-9882 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hauckburner.com BURNERS, GAS. Industrial gas burners may be classified as premix, nozzle-mix or delayed mix burners, according to the position and manner in which the gas and primary air are brought together. In premix gas systems, the primary air and gas are mixed at some point upstream from the burner ports by an inspirator mixer, an aspirator mixer or a mechanical mixer. The burner proper (“nozzle”) serves only as a flame holder, maintaining the flame in the desired location. Theoretically, if mixture velocity equals flame velocity, a flame will stand stationary at any point at which ignition is applied. Actually, a relatively cool burner nozzle (or port) is needed to serve as a flame stabilizer. If the flame advances too far into the port as a result of a momentary reduction in mixture velocity, the cool nozzle tends to quench it to prevent flashback. Three main types of premix burners are 1) inspirator or gas-jet venturi mixer, 2) aspirator (air-jet) mixer and 3) mechanical mixer. Inspirator mixers use the energy in the gas to induce primary air in proportion to the gas flow and are the only type of mixer with which no blower is required. Good practice dictates that industrial inspirators for manufactured gas need at least 5 psi gas pressure, and for natural gas, at least 10 psi gas pressure. Inspirators can rarely be used with propane or butane gas in industries because 25 to 30 volumes of air must be induced by one volume of gas, requiring an oversized nozzle and undersized spud. An aspirator mixer is a mixing and proportioning device for low-pressure air (3 to 24 psi) and “zero gas” (gas at atmospheric pressure). Air is pushed through a venturi so that the low pressure in its throat induces gas into the air stream in proportion to the air flow. Controlling the air flow thus controls the gas flow, giving proper proportioning with single (air) valve control. The diffuser (downstream section of the venturi) gradually reconverts the velocity into mixture pressure (about 30% of the air supply pressure). An adjustable gas port permits manual setting of the air/gas ratio. For an aspirator type mixer to function properly, about a 2.5:1 ratio must exist between the burner orifice area and mixer throat area. In mechanical mixers, gas is admitted to the air inlet of a compressor, blower or fan. Such units may include controls for proportioning the air and gas, often using zero gas. Any mixer is susceptible to flashback, but it is more detrimental in a fan mixer system because the blower housing is filled with a combustible mixture. In nozzle mixing gas burners, the gas and combustion air do not mix until they leave the ports. The two fluids are kept separate within the burner itself, but the nozzle orifices are designed to provide mixing of the fluids as they leave. The principal advantages of nozzle-mix burners over premix burners are: 1) the flame cannot flash back upstream of the nozzle because fuel and air are not premixed, 2) a wider

range of air/fuel ratios is possible, and 3) greater flexibility in burner/flame design is possible. High velocity burners, a type of nozzle mixing gas burner, are designed to increase convection heat transfer, regardless of the temperature level or loading in the furnace. In radiation burners, another type of nozzle mixing gas burner, the burner heats its own refractory tile and the refractory surface of a surrounding furnace wall or roof by convection from the high velocity combustion gases thrown sideways from the burner. These hot refractory surfaces than radiate heat to the furnace load. Radiation burners can be used where penetration or forward drive by the flame and hot combustion gases must be avoided (as when firing in close proximity to a valuable container or a bank of tubes), or when radiation heat transfer must be enhanced. Delayed mixing gas burners, a special form of nozzle mix burner, create long, luminous flames and are used in applications where direct flame radiation over a large area is desirable. This is frequently the case in wide or extremely long furnaces where poor heat distribution (i.e., hot and cold spots) would be obtained from conventional short, clear flames, or where all burners must be located at one end.5

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CALCINERS

a vibrating reed to produce a fog of minute oil droplets.5 BURNERS, OIL SUPPLIERS FIVES NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION INC. 4455 E. 71st St. Cleveland, OH 44105 (216) 271-6000 Fax: (216) 641-7852 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fivesgroup.com BURNERS, OXY-FUEL. Air contains only about 20.9% oxygen, and the balance of this is primarily nitrogen. In combustion systems that use blower air as their oxygen source, the large nitrogen content of the air absorbs heat and increases the volume of the furnace and flue gases. In oxy-fuel firing, no blower air is used. Instead, fuel is mixed with 100% commercial oxygen and burned. Oxyfuel burners are primarily used in glass melting and in metallurgical furnaces, where they save fuel, increase productivity, reduce NOx emissions, and lower the volumes of furnace and flue gases.5 BURNERS, OXY-FUEL SUPPLIERS

BURNERS, GAS SUPPLIERS FIVES NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION INC. 4455 E. 71st St. Cleveland, OH 44105 (216) 271-6000 Fax: (216) 641-7852 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fivesgroup.com

FIVES NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION INC. 4455 E. 71st St. Cleveland, OH 44105 (216) 271-6000 Fax: (216) 641-7852 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fivesgroup.com BURNERS, PULSE FIRING. A control method in which all burners are operated on/off or high to very low, and modulated by varying their ratio of time on to time off. This enhances convection heat transfer because burners operate only at full fire. Individual burner cycle times are usually set to start at slightly different times so as to increase furnace temperature uniformity.

HAUCK MFG. CO. P.O. Box 90 Lebanon, PA 17042 (717) 272-3051 Fax: (717) 273-9882 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hauckburner.com BURNERS, OIL. Oil and other liquid fuels must be vaporized before they can be burned. Some small capacity burners, called vaporizing burners, accomplish this vaporization in a single step by direct heating of the liquid. Most large-capacity industrial oil burners use two steps to get the oil into combustible form: atomization plus vaporization. By first atomizing the oil and thus exposing the large surface area of millions of droplets (10 to 1000 microns diameter) to air and heat, atomizing burners are able to vaporize oil at very high rates. Low-pressure atomizing burners are two-fluid atomizers that use air at 1 to 2 psi as the oil atomizing medium. A well-designed atomizing unit may use as little as 10% of the total air required for atomization. High-pressure air or steam atomizing burners are twofluid atomizers that use steam or compressed air to tear droplets from the oil stream and propel them into the combustion space. The high velocity of the oil particles relative to the air produces the scrubbing action required for quick vaporization. Oil pressure atomizing burners are one-fluid atomizers, also referred to as mechanical pressure atomizing burners. When oil is permitted to expand through a small orifice, it tends to break into a spray of fine droplets. Centrifugal atomizing (rotary) burners use centrifugal force to throw oil from the lip of a rotating cup in the form of a conical sheet of liquid, which quickly breaks into a spray; while sonic and ultrasonic atomizers usually use an arrangement similar to

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BURNERS, PULSE FIRING SUPPLIERS FIVES NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION INC. 4455 E. 71st St. Cleveland, OH 44105 (216) 271-6000 Fax: (216) 641-7852 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fivesgroup.com HAUCK MFG. CO. P.O. Box 90 Lebanon, PA 17042 (717) 272-3051 Fax: (717) 273-9882 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hauckburner.com CALCINERS. Calciners heat materials to a high temperature, but below the melting or fusing point, causing loss of moisture, reduction or oxidation, and the decomposition of carbonates and other compounds.37 Calcination processes are endothermic decomposition reactions in which an oxysalt, such as a carbonate or hydroxide, composes, leaving an oxide as a solid product and liberating a gas. Producing this type of powder is convenient and economical because the as-calcined oxide is extremely finely divided. Low calcinations temperatures produce very fine, high surface area powders. Heating at temperatures well above the decomposition temperature reduces the surface area (and increases the particle size) to any degree that is desired, even to the point of making very coarse and inactive “dead burnt” lime, dolomite and periclase for use in refractories.1 CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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CARS, DRYER. See DRYERS, PRODUCTION and KILN CAR MOVERS.

CASTING MACHINES, PRESSURE. See CASTING MACHINES and PRESSURE CASTING MACHINES.

CARS, TRANSFER. See KILN CAR MOVERS.

CASTING MACHINES, PRESSURE SUPPLIERS

CARS, TUNNEL KILN. See KILNS, TUNNEL. CASTABLES, REFRACTORY. Refractory castables are lightweight and typically feature a low thermal conductivity, which results in fuel savings, less need for support steelwork, and increased energy efficiency. They are usually supplied as dry materials that are mixed and applied on-site by pouring, casting or gunning. Some castables are supplied as a ready-to-apply paste or material. After forming or installing, the castables must typically be cured and fired according to the suppliers’ directions. The key criteria when choosing a castable are the operating temperatures and peak temperatures of the application, as well as the required strength, abrasive resistance and thermal conductivity. (See also REFRACTORIES, CASTABLE.) CASTING MACHINES. Casting machines are used to produce thin and thick films and layered products to precise tolerances using solvent- or aqueous-based slurries. Slip casting is an economical process that is widely used to produce complex shapes from a broad range of ceramic-based materials. Applications are numerous, including artware, chinaware, sanitaryware, crucibles, filter media, structural tubing, bone implants and heat engine components. Several slip casting variations are used, depending on the application requirements. Drain casting, the most common process, involves casting for a limited time period to deposit a layer of the desired thickness. The remaining slip is subsequently drained from the mold. Another common process is solid casting, which is identical to drain casting except that slip is continually added until a solid cast is made. Pressure filtration entails pressurizing the slip to increase the casting rate. Pressure casting is a process that resembles slip casting, except that the slip is pressurized in order to increase the filtration rate. A wide range of intricate shapes can be formed with generally higher production rates than conventional slip casting. Tape casting is used to form sheets that have large surface areas with very thin cross sections. These ceramic sheets are essentially 2-dimensional in nature and are used as the basic building blocks for many electronic substrates and packages. Doctor blades are used in concert with tape casting machines, which are either stationary blade/moving machines or moving blade/stationary carrier machines. Stationary blade machines are by far the most popular, and are the only type of machine capable of producing from hundreds to thousands of feet of tape product on a continuous basis. Moving blade machines are predominantly used in small-scale laboratory operations. The basic elements of any tape casting machine are a sturdy frame with a solid, level plate on which the doctor blade is positioned during casting, and an enclosed drying chamber, where the solvents can be removed under controlled conditions as the tape moves continuously toward the exit end and take-up spool.1 (See also TAPE CASTING MACHINES.) CASTING MACHINES, BATTERY. See CASTING MACHINES. CASTING MACHINES, BATTERY SUPPLIERS RAM PRODUCTS INC. 1091 Stimmel Rd. Columbus, OH 43223 (614) 443-4634 Fax: (614) 443-4813 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ramprocess.com

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RAM PRODUCTS INC. 1091 Stimmel Rd. Columbus, OH 43223 (614) 443-4634 Fax: (614) 443-4813 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ramprocess.com CASTINGS, REFRACTORY. See REFRACTORIES. CERAMIC DIES. Ceramic dies are used to extrude various metals, such as copper, brass and aluminum, and are engineered to provide high-temperature stability, chemical inertness, hardness, and wear and corrosion resistance. The dies are typically used in a direct press, in which the billet moves through the die, but some dies can also be used in an indirect press, in which the die moves through the billet. Although ceramic dies cost more than conventional steel and tungsten carbide dies, they usually offer a longer life, increased productivity and improved product quality. CERAMIC FIBER PRODUCTS. Ceramic fiber products can be supplied in a variety of different forms. Bulk fibers are typically vacuum-formed into low-density shapes or are used as packing or bulk fill material. Binders can also be added to form rigid refractory thermal insulation products. Tapes and cloths (textiles) are used as heator flame-protective curtains or linings, high-temperature gasket or wrapping materials, and thermal or electrical insulation. Paper is a strong, flexible material with fibers held together with organic binder that is available in roll or sheet form. It is typically used as thermal insulation in low mass furnaces and thermal process systems; high-temperature gaskets and seals; separators in multi-foil vacuum furnace insulation systems; expansion joint insulation; backup thermal insulation in molten metal troughs, furnaces and thermal process systems operating to high temperatures; parting agents and barrier layers in brazing, heat-treating and metal forming processes; and electrical insulation in high-temperature systems. Mats and blankets can be layered between rigid insulation, wrapped around process piping or fabricated into folded modules. They are also used as insulation packing in furnace spaces, around furnace sight tubes and ports, and in expansion joints and masonry cracks. Boards are rigid, vacuumformed products that often can be cut into specific shapes and sizes. Fiber ropes are used as furnace or kiln car seals, joint packing and pipe insulation, and high-temperature gaskets and seals. Other forms of ceramic fiber include yarns and modules. CERAMIC FIBER PRODUCT SUPPLIERS LYDALL INC., PERFORMANCE INSULATION MATERIALS 68 George St. Green Island, NY 12183 (518) 880-1970 Fax: (518) 273-6361 Email: [email protected] Website: www.lydallthermal.com

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CERAMIC PLATES. Ceramic plates are designed to provide resistance to high temperatures, corrosive or dry gas environments, thermal cycling and chemical attack. They are typically used in kiln furniture applications. CHEMISORPTION ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, CHEMISORPTION. CLASSIFIERS, AIR. Air classifiers separate particles according to their settling velocity in a gas. They are used to separate dry materials into different particle size fractions by their size, mass or shape; modify a particle size distribution; remove the fines fraction of a material (de-dust) or the oversized or coarse particles of a material; or create two grades of material. Air classifiers are also used as an integral part of a mechanical impact or air jet mill to control the upper particle size limitation. CLASSIFIERS, AIR SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com CLASSIFIERS, SAND. Sand is often classified using modular dry sizing systems, which can handle feed rates ranging from 30 sand tons per hour (STPH) to over 300 STPH. High-speed systems operate up to 3600 RPM and can separate nominal 6 mesh by 140 mesh sand into either direct shipment or closely sized blend products for applications in the oil fracturing, foundry, blast and glass industries. Screening costs well below 1¢/ton are common, with some fine 40 to 60 mesh panels lasting in excess of 2000-3000 hours. COATING EQUIPMENT. Coatings can be sprayed, dipped, brushed, tape cast or rolled onto a surface, and each application method requires different equipment. In some plasma spray applications, for instance, the coating equipment consists of an electronically controlled power supply, a PLC-based operator control station, a gas mass flow system, a closed-loop water chilling system, a powder feeder and a plasma gun. A primary inert gas, such as argon, is injected between two water-cooled electrodes in the gun, where it is ionized to form a plasma jet. Ceramic powder is injected into the plasma and is subsequently deposited onto the component. Other plasma spray techniques use an aqueous solution feedstock instead of a powder. In one such method, a liquid delivery system pumps the precursors from reservoirs to an atomizer that generates a fine-droplet fog. The fog stream is fed into the plasma, where the liquid droplets experience a series of physical changes and chemical reactions in multiple sequential steps that most likely involve evaporation, droplet breakdown, pyrolysis reaction and melting. The formed coating layer features a nanostructured, ultrafine splat; three-dimensional pores; and a nanometer and micrometer pore size distribution. A recent innovation in coating technology is the ability to impregnate the coating material (including most metals, multi-alloys, multioxycarbonitrides and noble metal combinations) into the substrate (including ceramics, crystal, quartz and composite materials) through ionic plasma deposition (IPD). The process is performed in a vacuum (at ambient temperature in most cases) to remove all contaminants, water vapor and oxygen. High kinetic energies at ambient temperature drive the ions of the selected target material into the selected substrate. The depositing material ions are accelerated through proprietary devices to ensure that the depositing species are the correct energy for the process and substrate material. This allows for a broad range Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

COATING EQUIPMENT

of custom stoichiometries. Unlike other deposition technologies, the IPD process can be carefully controlled for particle size, density and rate of dispersion. This high degree of control—coupled with the energy generated—enables the ion particles to be driven into the substrate material deeply and uniformly. In recent tests by NASA, the ion penetration achieved a depth of 13 microns. In other tests, the high deposition capability of the IPD process enabled the creation of an extremely dense copper with super high conductibility, which eliminated the need to use highly toxic beryllium in a test of linear accelerators. Comparative studies at Los Alamos National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory tested 60 coating and plating technologies for use in the highly reactive environment of linear accelerators and reportedly showed that the IPD process outperformed all of the technologies in all areas tested, including adhesion, purity, corrosion protection, wear resistance and uniformity. (See also AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT; CASTING MACHINES; COATING EQUIPMENT, CVD; SPRAY EQUIPMENT, AUTOMATIC; SPRAY GUNS; and TAPE CASTING MACHINES.) COATING EQUIPMENT, CVD. Processes for the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of SiC, Si3N4, SiOxNy and BN have been used to fabricate microelectronic devices for over 20 years. In a conventional CVD process, a solid material is deposited onto a heated substrate surface as a result of chemical reactions in the gas phase. Chemical vapor deposition systems thus have several components in common: reactant supply systems; the CVD reactor (a furnace or similar system for heating the substrate); and an effluent gas handling system for gases that are often corrosive, toxic or both. At room temperature, the reactants, which are usually metal halides, may be gases, liquids or solids. Liquid and solid reactants are usually warmed sufficiently to raise their vapor pressure to a level at which a carrier gas (normally Ar or H2) flowing through a vessel that contains the reactants can transport the vapors into the reactor at the desired rate. Some metals, however, do not form high vapor pressure halides, and therefore a number of metal-organic vapor sources have been developed, opening a new area of research. In the reactor, the substrate can be suspended by a wire, lie on a platform (often a radio frequency-heated susceptor), be immersed in a fluidized bed of particles, or (if the substrate is small particulates) form the fluidized bed. The effluent from the reactor usually contains the carrier gas, partially decomposed reactants, and HCl or HF vapors that must be removed by a caustic scrubber or cold trap. CVD reactors are classified as either hot-wall or coldwall. Hot-wall reactors are heated chambers (furnaces) in which the substrate is placed for coating. As expected, the interior of the furnace also becomes coated, resulting in both maintenance problems and lower efficiency. In coldwall reactors, only the substrate is heated, and this is done inductively, radiatively or resistively. Although these reactors are more complex, they allow greater control over the deposition process. The most important inherent advantage of CVD over other coating techniques is its high deposition rate, typically greater than tens of micrometers/h, which is exceeded only by plasma spraying. Because the technique does not require line-of-sight with the vapor source, the coatings can be uniformly deposited over substantial contours. It is also a process that allows the preparation of refractory materials at temperatures much lower than the usual fabrication temperature. Indeed, the moderate temperature, together with the ease of purifying the reactants, allows the deposition of exceptionally high-purity materials. A major market for CVD coatings is the cutting tool industry.1 (See CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS.)

COATING MACHINES, BATTERY. See CASTING MACHINES and COATING EQUIPMENT. COMBUSTION CONTROLLERS. Combustion control starts with selecting the proper burner for the application to deliver the energy to the products. The control of the combustion process involves all the valves, regulators and safety devices used in the air and fuel systems. This includes air/fuel ratios (atmosphere control through the burners), air and fuel pressure control, furnace pressure control, total process atmosphere control and gas flow through the process. Complete combustion control involves integrating all the aspects of the process, not just the burners, to effect complete control of the process and maximum efficiency and practicality. This is best done in a single control package as a PLC or PC. The size of the process (i.e., the total fuel usage) and the sensitivity of the product and process will determine the feasibility and extent of the total system. Complete combustion controllers automatically control the major aspects of combustion and provide for the later addition of many sophisticated control features. Integration of several combustion control functions into a single controller can simplify operation and maintenance for industrial heat processing systems. For any furnace, process heater, kiln, incinerator, boiler or even oven that will use more than about 5 million Btu/hr or purchased fuel, two or more fuels simultaneously, preheated air or oxygen enrichment, a complete combustion control system can save fuel costs and simplify control. Modern combustion control systems facilitate remote supervision and provide management with recorded information for review.5 (See also CONTROLLERS.)

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COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

COMBUSTION CONTROLLER SUPPLIERS FIVES NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION INC. 4455 E. 71st St. Cleveland, OH 44105 (216) 271-6000 Fax: (216) 641-7852 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fivesgroup.com COMBUSTION SYSTEMS. Systems that promote burning or rapid oxidation. (See BURNERS, COMBINATION OIL & GAS; BURNERS, GAS; BURNERS, OIL; and BURNERS, OXY-FUEL.) COMBUSTION SYSTEM SUPPLIERS

FIVES NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION INC. 4455 E. 71st St. Cleveland, OH 44105 (216) 271-6000 Fax: (216) 641-7852 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fivesgroup.com

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

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CONVEYORS, PNEUMATIC

COMBUSTION SYSTEM SUPPLIERS - continued HAUCK MFG. CO. P.O. Box 90 Lebanon, PA 17042 (717) 272-3051 Fax: (717) 273-9882 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hauckburner.com COMPACTION MACHINE, ROLL; HIGH SHEAR. Roller compactors use smooth rollers to compact a material into a sheet.

CONTROLLERS, COLOR SUPPLIERS

KONICA MINOLTA SENSING AMERICAS INC. 101 Williams Dr. Ramsey, NJ 07446 (201) 236-4300; (888) 473-2656 Fax: (201) 785-2480 Email: [email protected] Website: www.konicaminolta.com/sensingusa

COMPACTION MACHINE, ROLL; HIGH SHEAR SUPPLIERS CONTROLLERS, COMBUSTION. See COMBUSTION CONTROLLERS. ADVANCED PROCESSES, ADVANCED CONTRACT TOLLING INC. 2097 Duss Ave. Ambridge, PA 15003 (724) 266-7274 Fax: (724) 266-8274 Email: [email protected] Website: www.advancedprocesses.com COMPRESSORS, GAS. Gas compressors are used to increase fuel supply pressure to gas-fired kilns. A common application is with the use of landfill gas, where the compressor is installed as the gas enters the facility to ensure constant pressure to the kiln and to eliminate surge problems.

CONTROLLERS, COMBUSTION SUPPLIERS FIVES NORTH AMERICAN COMBUSTION INC. 4455 E. 71st St. Cleveland, OH 44105 (216) 271-6000 Fax: (216) 641-7852 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fivesgroup.com CONTROLLERS, FURNACE. See COMBUSTION CONTROLLERS. CONTROL PANELS, COMBUSTION. See COMBUSTION CONTROLLERS.

COMPRESSORS, GAS SUPPLIERS FLUITRON INC. 30 Industrial Dr. Warminster, PA 18974 (215) 355-9970 Fax: (215) 355-9074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fluitron.com CONCRETE BLOCK MACHINES. Any of a number of machines used to manufacture concrete block. Such machines are typically capable of handling anywhere from 400 to 4000 blocks per hour in a manual or fully automated process, and include loaders/unloaders, curing systems, transfer and finger cars, overhead conveyors, molding pallet buffers, cubbing system for rumbled pavers, washing systems, block splitting lines, block turn-over devices, turnkey batching and mixing plants, and a variety of other machinery. (See also BRICK MACHINES.) CONTROLLERS. Most temperature control techniques consist of measuring the temperature and adjusting the rate of power output. The simplest control technique is an off-on control: When the temperature is below the desired level, turn the power on; when the temperature is above the desired level, turn the power off. More elaborate control strategies involve so-called proportional integral differential (PID) control. Proportional action is the control mode by which a control signal is generated that is proportional to the difference between the measured and the set point temperature. As the set point is approached, the power input is reduced. Proportional control alone often results in a steady but offset temperature. Integral action corrects for the offset. Differential control corrects for overshoot and undershoot of the temperature by adjusting the power input based on the rate of approach to the set point.1 CONTROLLERS, COLOR. Consistent color is vital for quality control/quality assurance purposes. A color management system could include a variety of instrumentation, including colorimeters, color readers, gloss meters and spectrophotometers.

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CONTROL PANELS, ELECTRIC. Control panels enable operators to control temperature, atmosphere and other equipment characteristics. Some are manually operated, while others are fully programmable and computer-controlled. (See also CONTROLLERS.) CONTROLS, ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC. See CONTROLLERS and CONTROL PANELS, ELECTRIC. CONTROLS, WEIGHING & BATCHING. See BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT and BATCHERS, WEIGHING & MEASURING. CONVEYORS. Conveyors are used throughout ceramic manufacturing. See BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT; KILNS, ROLLER HEARTH; and the separate CONVEYOR listings for more information about specific types of conveyors. CONVEYORS, ABRASIVE-RESISTANT. Conveyors designed to resist the damaging effects of abrasive materials. (See also CONVEYORS, PNEUMATIC.) CONVEYORS, ABRASIVE-RESISTANT SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com CONVEYORS, BELT. Belt conveyors are typically used in bulk storage facilities and port terminals, where it is often necessary to convey materials across large distances. Belt conveyors can have throughput capacities near 2000 metric tons per hour. CONVEYORS, BELT SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com

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CONVEYORS, BUCKET. Bucket conveyors are used when material must be conveyed vertically. Buckets often pivot so they can be used in situations where both vertical and horizontal transport are required. CONVEYORS, DRAG CHAIN. Drag chain conveyors typically transport materials via tubes or troughs. The chains, sometimes equipped with paddles or discs, pull or drag material along the conveyor path. CONVEYORS, DRAG CHAIN SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com CONVEYORS, ELEVATING. Many types of conveyors can be adapted to transport material to various heights—vertically or via inclines of varying degrees—in order to save space or reach subsequent material handling processing operations. CONVEYORS, ELEVATING SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com CONVEYORS, PNEUMATIC. Pneumatic conveyors use air or gas to convey bulk materials from one location to another. This is accomplished by using vacuum, pressure or vacuum/pressure to transport the material. The three basic methods of pneumatic conveying are dilute phase, dense phase and semi-dense phase. Dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems, also known as suspension flow, operate on the principle that the solids will be suspended in the conveying line air stream. This is accomplished by metering product into a moving air stream. Dilute phase conveying velocities typically are greater than 3500 ft per minute (fpm) and material to air ratios are less than 12 to 1. Individual particles in the air stream will have some separation by their suspension in the air stream.8 Dense phase conveying is a means of transporting powdered or granular material through a pipe or tube. It differs from dilute phase conveying in that much more material is transported per pound of air in a dense phase system—typically 10 to 20 lbs of material per 1 lb of air, but the ratio can go as high as 40 or 50 to 1. The material travels through the pipe more slowly—linear velocities are roughly half that of dilute phase—with the result that abrasive wear in the pipes (and elbows) is greatly reduced, and fragile material is handled with less attrition. Conveying over longer distances is also possible—systems can extend to 1000 ft or more. Additionally, since less air is required per pound of material conveyed, some of the equipment can be smaller. However, system pressures are higher, so the equipment can be more expensive initially. The majority of dense phase systems are designed to convey under positive pressure, using a single vessel for batchwise point-to-point transfers. The use of diverter valves makes it possible to convey to multiple locations.9 Semi-dense phase conveying is especially appropriate for friable or abrasive materials. It uses medium pressure blower air to convey material at intermediate line velocities (2000-3000 fpm) and material-to-air ratios (50:20) for low abrasive line wear and reduced product degradation.

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CONVEYORS, PNEUMATIC

CONVEYORS, PNEUMATIC SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com CYCLONAIRE CORP. P.O. Box 366 York, NE 68467 (402) 362-2000; (800) 445-0730 Fax: (402) 362-2001 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cyclonaire.com

FLSMIDTH INC., PNEUMATIC TRANSPORT 2040 Avenue C Bethlehem, PA 18017 (610) 264-6800; (800) 523-9482 Fax: (610) 264-6307 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fls-pt.com CONVEYOR ROLLS. Rolls are used in conveyors to move product through continuous firing processes. (See also KILNS, ROLLER HEARTH and ROLLERS, CERAMIC.) CONVEYOR, SCREW. A screw conveyor is used to move dry bulk materials at various speeds over straight distances, typically up to about 100 ft. The conveyor usually consists of several screw sections, each mounted on a hollow pipe, which slide over a rotating drive shaft. These machines are designed to be mechanically simple and easy to operate. They can typically be used with bags, bins, hoppers or weigh stations. CONVEYORS, SCREW SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com COOLING SYSTEMS. Ceramic, glass and related materials and products require cooling at various stages of their manufacture. See specific categories for additional details: AGGLOMERATORS; COATING EQIUPMENT; CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS; DRYERS, FLUID BED; the various FURNACES categories; GLAZING MACHINES; GRINDING FLUIDS; PRESSES, HOT ISOSTATIC; the various TESTING EQUIPMENT categories; THERMAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT; and ULTRASONIC MACHINING.

COOLING SYSTEM SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com CRUCIBLE, REFRACTORY. Refractory crucibles are ideal for melting steel, aluminum, chromium, copper, iron, powdered metals and other ferrous/nonferrous metals. Primarily used in the foundry and investment casting industries, these crucibles offer large capacities and the ability to withstand high temperatures. (See also REFRACTORIES.) CRUSHERS. Crushers use force to crush, grind and pulverize abrasive or non-abrasive materials into much smaller particle sizes. Particles break from three major causes: abrasion, cleavage and shatter. All of these fracture events occur to some degree in all commercial crushers; however, different type crushing machines cause one type of fracture to predominate. Impact crushers, which exert high-speed blows, cause a high degree of shatter. Compression-type machines of the jaw and gyratory style apply their energy much more slowly, creating abrasion and cleavage. Cone-type compression crushers have a reciprocating cycle approximately twice that of jaw or gyratory machines and accentuate both cleavage and shatter.2 (See also GRINDERS and PULVERIZERS.) CRUSHER SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com CRUSHERS, GYRATORY. Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary crushing. The crushing action is caused by the closing of the gap between a mantle line (movable) mounted on a central vertical spindle and concave liners (fixed) mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the spindle that causes the central vertical spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis. The machines are typically large, stationary and are used for large throughputs (1000 tons per hour or more).

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CRUSHERS, PRIMARY

CRUSHERS, HAMMER MILL. See CRUSHERS; HAMMER MILLS; and MILLS, HAMMER. CRUSHERS, IMPACT. Impact crushers use swinging hammers or anvils to reduce materials to a granular powder at high throughput rates. Product size is controlled by the size of the grates or screens used in the machine. (See also CRUSHERS, HAMMER MILLS and MILLS, HAMMER.) CRUSHERS, IMPACT SUPPLIERS STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com CRUSHERS, JAW. Jaw crushers are used for coarse and intermediate crushing of aggregates, ceramics, minerals and sintered metals. Materials are reduced by compression and shear between two jaw plates. Jaw crushers are smaller and less expensive than gyratory crushers, and can be mounted on a trailer or crawler for easy transportability. They are typically used for throughputs of 600 tons per hour or less. CRUSHERS, LABORATORY. Laboratory crushers are smallscale crushers that are used to prepare material samples for laboratory analysis. (See CRUSHERS, GYRATORY; CRUSHERS, IMPACT and CRUSHERS, JAW.) CRUSHERS, LABORATORY SUPPLIERS RETSCH INC. 74 Walker Ln. Newtown, PA 18940 (866) 473-8724 Fax: (267) 757-0358 Email: [email protected] Website: www.retsch-us.com CRUSHERS, PRIMARY. Primary crushers are used to reduce large chunks of materials to smaller sizes. Materials then go through a screen to separate the large and small particles; particles that are too large to fit through the screen are sent to a secondary crusher or hammer mill for further size reduction. (See also CRUSHERS, GYRATORY; CRUSHERS, IMPACT; and CRUSHERS, JAW.) CRUSHERS, PRIMARY SUPPLIERS STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com

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CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS

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DIAMOND DRILLS

CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS. Ceramics are finished before final use to meet shape, size, finish or surface, and quality requirements. Equipment used in cutting ceramics includes saws and other tools made of carbide, ceramic or diamond. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) lasers are used for precisely cutting, welding, drilling and scribing alumina, aluminum oxide (Al2O3), aluminum nitride (AlN) and beryllium oxide (BeO), as well as unfired (green) substrates. In sample preparation, sectioning of a ceramic sample must be done such that the microstructure or defect present is not altered. In the case of brittle materials such as ceramics, heat and mechanical damage are the most common. To perform a quick and economical sample removal from the bulk, sawing is used. Dry cutting should never be performed as it damages the microstructure of the ceramic and reduces the service life of the cutting wheel. Fluids such as water, mineral oil or emulsions are recommended for wet sawing, and care must be taken for sufficient cooling. If materials are soluble in the cooling agent, another lubricant must be used. High-speed sawing saves time in the sectioning of a sample, but more time may then be needed to grind and polish the sample properly down to the undisturbed microstructure. High-speed cutoff wheels are used for cutting a coarse piece. The subsequent sample should be sectioned from this coarse piece using a low-speed cutoff machine with a fine-grain abrasive in the wheel. Abrasives such as diamond and corundum are commonly used for cutting ceramics such as silicon carbide and alumina. These abrasives are bonded with rubber, resin or a metallic bond (normally brass). Diamond is the most effective abrasive for all kinds of ceramics because of its hardness. Other abrasives can be used only for materials whose hardness is less than their own.* In the glass industry, cutting can be achieved by scoring the glass with a diamond, steel wheel or other hard alloy wheel and breaking it along the score. Other methods of cutting glass include water jet and laser.** Nearly 50% of cobalt-bonded tungsten carbide tool inserts are coated with TiC, TiN, or titanium carbonitride (TiCxN1-x). Coatings extend the life of these cutting inserts by a factor of five because of their increased hardness and wear resistance, and because they prevent the reaction of the cobalt binder with the metal workpiece at the elevated temperatures of machining. The complementary properties of the carbide and nitride reduce sliding and crater wear and further improve performance. Unfortunately, titanium carbide and nitride are susceptible to oxidation at temperatures above approximately 800°C (1470°F). Thus, for high-temperature, high-speed operations, tool bits with very hard Al2O3 coatings on the outer surface are used. At temperatures greater than 800°C (1470°F), Al2O3-coated inserts have a lifetime that is twice as long, comparable to TiC-coated inserts. Multiple layers of different materials are routinely utilized to combine the best properties of each layer. For example, TiC interlayers are frequently used between the substrate and either TiN or Al2O3 coatings to improve adherence. Adherence of compounds such as TiC, TiN and TiCxN1-x on cobalt-bonded tungsten carbide and steel cutting tools is due to the interdiffusion of elements at the relatively high processing temperatures, which tightly bonds the coating to the substrate. Unfortunately, the high temperatures that benefit adherence soften the substrates and necessitate subsequent heat treatments to reharden the inserts. Some distortion of the tool occurs, however, and this may be unacceptable for some applications.1 (See also DIAMOND TOOLS and LASERS.) *Source: ASM, pp. 312, 572 **Source: Glass Association of North America, www.glasswebsite.com

DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS. For continuous or batch firing applications, data acquisition systems typically include thermocouples, a data logger, a thermal barrier to protect

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the data logger, and software to analyze the data. Thermocouples located throughout the kiln feed temperature information back to the data logger, which sits directly beneath the kiln car. Protected from the high temperatures beneath the car by a specially engineered thermal barrier, the data logger either transmits temperature information to a PC for viewing in real time or stores it for later retrieval. Routine temperature profiling provides reliable data to optimize processes, prove process control and make corrections when required.20,21 (See also CONTROLLERS and KILN CAR TRACKING SOFTWARE/SYSTEMS.) DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS SUPPLIERS KILTEL SYSTEMS INC. 2809 96th Ave. N.E. Clyde Hill, WA 98004 (425) 451-7689 Fax: (425) 450-1722 Email: [email protected] Website: www.kiltel.com DEAERATORS, VACUUM. Vacuum deaerators are used to remove oxygen from water and other liquids. DEBURRING/DEFLASHING MACHINE. Deburring is similar to finishing, in that the part may require subtle filing to smooth out rough edges resulting from the machining process. Deflashing is the removal of excess material caused by the seams of foundry molds.55 DEBURRING/DEFLASHING MACHINE SUPPLIERS LIBERTY MACHINERY COMPANY 111 Schelter Rd. Lincolnshire, IL 60069 (847) 276-2761 Fax: (847) 276-2762 Email: [email protected] Website: www.libertymachinery.com DECORATING MACHINES, AUTOMATIC. Processes such as decal cutting and squeegeeing, thermal decal application, pad printing, banding and lining, back stamping, gold polishing and color spraying have all been automated through the use of sophisticated computer controls. Many of these machines can be custom-designed to suit specific applications. DENSITY ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, DENSITY. DETECTORS, GAS. Gas detectors monitor flammable gases and vapors in the lower flammable limit range to prevent fires and explosions. For each flammable substance there is a level of concentration in air, usually expressed as a percent by volume, that is known as its lower flammable limit, or LFL (also known as the lower explosive limit, or LEL). Below the LFL, the mixture of fuel and air is too lean to support combustion. For example, a mixture of 1.1% hexane in air is equal to 100% of its LFL—just rich enough to burn. As the amount of fuel continues to increase, the mixture will eventually become too rich to burn—there will be too much fuel and not enough air. This concentration is known as the upper flammable limit, or UFL (also known as the upper explosive limit, or UEL). Between the LFL and the UFL lies the flammable range where, given a source of ignition, the mixture will readily ignite. While it may be theoretically possible to operate safely at concentrations up to 100% of the LFL, authorities worldwide have established safety regulations that require operation well below this point. Almost all safety authorities require a 4:1 margin of safety below the LFL, based on worst-case conditions. This means that enough dilution air must be used to always

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maintain a concentration of less than 25% of the LFL. However, a process oven or oxidizer is allowed to operate with only a 2:1 safety margin (up to 50% of the LFL) when continuous flammability analyzers are used. The requirements stipulate that real-time, fast-response, continuous analyzers be connected in such a manner as to trigger corrective action at predetermined alarm points. Unprotected processes, which may normally run at only 10 or 12% of the LFL to avoid reaching 25% in case of accidental upset, can therefore operate at much higher vapor concentrations when LFL analyzers are used. The resulting cost savings due to reduced ventilation or increased throughput can be considerable. DETECTORS, GAS SUPPLIERS CONTROL INSTRUMENTS CORP. 25 Law Dr. Fairfied, NJ 07004 (973) 575-9114 Fax: (973) 575-0013 Email: [email protected] Website: www.controlinstruments.com SIERRA MONITOR CORP. 1991 Tarob Ct. Milpitas, CA 95035 (408) 262-6611 Fax: (408) 262-9042 Email: [email protected] Website: www.sierramonitor.com DEWATERING EQUIPMENT, SLUDGE. Sludge dewatering equipment is used to recover valuable product from moisture-laden waste materials. Some systems use either fine urethane or wire mesh panels in conjunction with a vacuum assisted dewatering deck to allow diluted screen feeds to be presented directly to fine mesh screen surfaces for either sizing or preliminary dewatering of feed solids. Partially dewatered solids are then presented to a vacuum assisted urethane dewatering deck for final moisture removal. Other systems use a high-frequency, linear-motion vibrating screen fed from a cluster of hydrocyclones, either alone or incorporated into a more complex flowsheet. Fine solids, normally the overflow from a screw classifier, are pumped at 30 to 40 psi to a circular manifold of hydrocyclones. The thickened cyclone underflow is directed to a high-frequency vibrating screen fitted with urethane panels with 0.5 mm (35 mesh) openings. The intense “G” forces developed by the linear motion screen dewater and convey the recovered fine solids off the screen to a stockpile or conveyer. The small amount of fines and water passing through the screen are circulated back to the hydrocyclone feed. DIAMOND BORE FINISHING TOOLS. See BORE FINISHING TOOLS, DIAMOND. DIAMOND BORING TOOLS. See BORING TOOLS, DIAMOND and DIAMOND DRILLS. DIAMOND DRILLS. Diamond has the highest degree of hardness of any material; the lowest coefficient of friction; the highest thermal conductivity; the lowest chemical reactivity; the highest tensile and compressive strength; and the broadest range of optical transmissivity. Diamond drills capitalize on these benefits by using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond coatings to precisely and efficiently drill holes in ceramic and other hard materials. The cost of diamond-coated drill bits is significantly higher than conventional carbide tools; however, tests have shown that diamond-coated drill bits often last more than 10 times longer than their carbide counterparts, providing the potential to significantly reduce downtime and per-part costs. (See also BORING TOOLS, DIAMOND, DIAMOND TOOLS and CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS.)

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DIAMOND HONES

DIAMOND HONES. Used for precision bore sizing and finishing in high production environments, diamond hones typically offer accelerated stock removal and long abrasive life in iron, carbide, titanium, silicon carbide and other materials. The cutting action of diamond hones is typically accomplished with metalbond diamond or CBN (cubic boron nitride) honing stones.22 (See also DIAMOND MANDRELS.) DIAMOND MANDRELS. A usually tapered or cylindrical axle, spindle or arbor inserted into a hole in a piece of work to support it during machining. They are often used in conjunction with honing equipment, in which a diamond plated mandrel is used to remove stock from a bore, typically in a single-pass, for extremely precise bore sizing and finishing.6,22 (See also DIAMOND HONES.) DIAMOND SAW BLADES. Diamond-coated saw blades can be used with table saws, hand saws, horizontal milling machines and other machines to efficiently cut materials such as fiberglass, aluminum oxide, bakelite with abrasive filler, carbon, ceramics (both fired and unfired), and many other abrasive filled materials. When cutting fragile materials, where the cutting pressure from other cutting methods would cause surface chipping, edge breakout, cracking along shear lines, or delimitation of composites, cutting with diamond wire should be considered. A diamond wire saw cuts with a gentle lapping action not found with most other cutting devices. Fine diamonds, from 20 to 120 microns in size, are responsible for the cutting action, and cutting forces are quite small, almost always below one pound (or four hundred grams). Materials cut with diamond wire have an almost ground appearance. Delicate crystals can often be cut into wafers as thin as .005 in. (.127 mm) without cracking. (See also CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS.)

breaking. Others integrate the scribing and breaking processes, reducing scribe tool failure. Traversing Speed. Traversing speed is referred to as the rate at which the scribing tool transverses across the surface of the wafer. Assuming the surface of the material being scribed is uniform in quality and flatness, the rate of traverse should not be the predominant factor in achieving a quality scribe and a satisfactory break. It is important, however, to consider the physical relationship of the tool prior to wafering engagement. Tools suspended excessively below the surface of the wafer tend to bounce when hitting the edge of the wafer upon entry on the street. Tool Pressure. In order to achieve scribing, adequate force must be applied to overcome the surface tension of the material under the edge of the scribing tool. This is a variable function depending upon the material, geometric shape of the edge of the tool, and the degree of stress to be imparted into the wafer. The scribing machine manufacturer designs into the mechanism a means for controlling and varying the amount of force to be applied and, for the most part, generally force in the 15 gram range will be adequate providing all other mechanisms are in balance. The applied force is extremely critical and the most important single variable in producing the desired scribe. Unfortunately the pressure indicator on many machines on the market are not sensitive enough and not repetitive between machines for a specific setting. Each machine should be calibrated with an external measuring device for both actual weight and range of change. Wafer Breaking. Wafer breaking is the process of using the scribes to force crack propagation at the predetermined points. Since the mechanics of breaking is one of interrupted surface tension at high stress locations, any change in these applied

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DILATOMETERS

properties would reduce their effect. Many materials, including those used in the wafers, tend to self-anneal, reducing the applied stress. It is therefore of great benefit to use the scribe line as soon as physically possible after it has been applied. DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY INSTRUMENTS. See INSTRUMENTS, DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY. DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT. See TESTING EQUIPMENT, DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS. DIFFUSION EQUIPMENT COMPONENTS. In the manufacture of semiconductors, a dopant material, such as boron, is often deposited on the surface of the silicon and then diffused or driven into the wafer through controlled periods of high temperature in a diffusion furnace. The components used in these furnaces must have high levels of purity, chemical resistance, and thermal and electrical insulation. Fused quartz (in the form of high-purity silica glass), alumina, silicon carbide, boron carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum nitride, and boron nitride are the most commonly used materials. DILATOMETERS. See TESTING EQUIPMENT, DILATOMETERS. DILATOMETER SUPPLIERS LINSEIS INC. 109 North Gold Dr. Robbinsville, NJ 08691 (800) 732-6733; (609) 223-2070 Fax: (609) 223-2074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.linseis.com

DIAMOND SAWS. See DIAMOND SAW BLADES and SAWS, DIAMOND. DIAMOND TOOLS. Many companies use uncoated tungsten carbide cutting tools, which can be made in virtually any size and configuration required, and represent the least expensive type of quality cutting tool. However, because tools wear rapidly when cutting abrasive materials, such as green ceramic, machines must be stopped frequently for tool changes, extending overall machining time. Dulling of the tool’s cutting edges can cause a buildup of tool pressure, leading to chipping, cracking and other damage, which requires the machine operator to be constantly alert to incipient damage to the workpiece. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamond tools are made by depositing a pure polycrystalline diamond coating onto the cutting edges of carbide tools. Because the cutting surface is pure diamond, there are no binding chemicals that could contaminate the surface of the workpiece material. A major advantage is that tools of any configuration can be diamond coated, including very small tools such as endmills and drills in diameters of 1/16 in. and smaller; tools with multiple cutting edges (straight and helical flutes); and indexable inserts with multiple cutting corners, chipbreakers and other intricate surface geometry. The ability to diamond-coat tools of any size and configuration also makes it possible to supply tools to custom configurations with short delivery turn-around. (See also COATING EQUIPMENT, CVD and CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS.) DICING MACHINES. Dicing technology is often used in semiconductor manufacturing. Scribe points, formed in diamond, are used to create a single crack (scribe line) along the separation channels of a semiconductor wafer. The breaking mechanism causes the cracks to grow through the wafer, singulating the dice. The scribe and break process is ideal for III-V compounds, gallium nitride (sapphire) and silicon wafers less than 300 μ thick. This technology is also used for cleaving and dicing semiconductor lasers. Some dicing machines scribe the entire wafer before Submit equipment definitions online at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest.

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DILATOMETERS

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DRYERS, LABORATORY

DILATOMETER SUPPLIERS - continued

NETZSCH INSTRUMENTS NA LLC 37 North Ave. Burlington, MA 01803 (781) 272-5353 Fax: (781) 272-5225 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-thermal-analysis.com DISPERSING BLADES/IMPELLERS. See BLADES/IMPELLERS, DISPERSING. DRYERS. A variety of different dryers are used in the ceramic and related industries. Fluid bed and spray dryers are commonly used to dry powders and materials, while air, gasfired, microwave and radio frequency dryers are used to dry ceramic products and components. (See specific DRYER categories for more information.) DRYER SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com

PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com DRYERS, CONTINUOUS TRAY. The continuous tray dryer handles a variety of feed consistencies from pasty slurries to fine powders and pellets. It has two moving parts—the shelf assembly and the fan assembly—and each turns independently in a sealed housing. Wet feed enters through a feed chute in the roof of the housing and flows onto the first shelf. The shelves are circular with cut-out center and radial slots. The shelves are rigidly mounted on an inner supporting frame, forming a vertical stack that rotates slowly as a unit. Material flows onto each shelf from the one above, forming a pile. The rotation of the tray/shelf assembly carries the freshly formed pile under a stationary blade set to level the pile to fill the tray at a uniform height. At the end of a revolution, the tray segment meets a second stationary blade set to wipe the tray clean of material. The material is held stationary by the wiper blade while the tray continues its rotation. The

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material flows through the radial slot onto the shelf below, where the cycle is repeated. Material progresses downward from shelf to shelf through the dryer and is discharged through a chute in the housing bottom. Air or another drying medium is fed to the continuous tray dryer through a side-mounted vertical manifold with control dampers. Air movement inside the dryer is provided by centrifugal fans mounted on a single vertical shaft. The fan assembly rotates independently of the shelves, and the housing is totally sealed. Advantages of this dryer include close temperature control due to the internal mixing and recirculation of the drying medium; generally, lower air flow requirements because a greater Delta T between inlet and exhaust air can be used without overheating the material; good product uniformity because of the positive retention time, frequent turnover of material and contact with the drying medium; less dusty operation, as gentle handling does not create fines; and low power requirements in comparison to other air flow dryers.47 DRYERS, FLUID BED. Fluid bed processing involves drying, cooling, agglomeration, granulation and coating of particulate materials. It is ideal for a wide range of both heat sensitive and non-heat sensitive products. Uniform processing conditions are achieved by passing a gas (usually air) through a product layer under controlled velocity conditions to create a fluidized state. In fluid bed drying, heat is supplied by the fluidization gas, but the gas flow need not be the only source. Heat may be effectively introduced by heating surfaces (panels or tubes) immersed in the fluidized layer. In fluid bed cooling, cold gas (usually ambient or conditioned air) is used. Conditioning of the gas may be required to achieve sufficient product cooling in an economically sized plant and to prevent pick up of volatiles (usually moisture). Heat may also be removed by cooling surfaces immersed in the fluidized layer. Agglomeration and granulation may be performed in a number of ways depending upon the feed to be processed and the product properties to be achieved. Fluid bed coating of powders, granules, or tablets involves the spraying of a liquid on the fluidized powder under strictly controlled conditions. Fluid bed processing reportedly offers several important advantages compared to other methods of drying particulate materials. Particle fluidization gives easy material transport and high rates of heat exchange at high thermal efficiency while preventing overheating of individual particles. The properties of a given product are determined from drying rate data, i.e. how volatile content changes with time in a batch fluid bed operating under controlled conditions. Other important properties are fluidization gas velocity, fluidization point (i.e. the volatile content below which fluidization without mechanical agitation or vibration is possible), equilibrium volatile content, and heat transfer coefficient for immersed heating surfaces. These and other data are applied in a computational model of fluid bed processing, thus enabling dimensioning of industrial drying systems. Fluid beds can be designed for continuous operation or for batch operation to suit a particular application. Continuous fluid beds can be designed either as plug flow units or back-mixed units. Plug flow fluid beds are used for feed materials that are directly fluidizable. Internal baffles in the bed limit back-mixing to maintain the plug flow. This type of fluid bed is ideally suited for removing bound moisture or for product heating or cooling, as the moisture content and the product temperature vary uniformly as the solids pass through the bed. Back-mixed fluid beds are used for feed materials that cannot be fluidized in their original state but become fluidizable after a short time in the dryer. The feed material is distributed over the bed surface, designed to allow total solids mixing. In this case, product moisture con-

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tent and temperature is uniform across the entire bed, making this design suitable only for removing surface moisture. Often fluid beds are designed as a combination of the two types, with a back-mixed section followed by one or more plug flow sections. Batch fluid beds can sequentially perform both types of operation, first drying off the surface moisture, then the bound moisture. The product batch is placed in a removable container with a perforated bottom, where the drying and fluidizing air can be forced through. The batch is finished after having been processed to a certain product temperature or for a certain amount of time. Typically, the liquid included in the feed material is water. In such cases the spent drying air is exhausted to atmosphere after treatment in air pollution control equipment. If the liquid is a flammable solvent, the drying system is designed for use of nitrogen as the drying gas and the spent drying gas is recirculated through a condenser system for reuse in the drying system. This way, both the dry product and the solvent are recovered in the system. Fluid bed drying is suited for powders, granules, agglomerates and pellets with an average particle size normally between 50 and 5000 microns. Very fine, light powders or highly elongated particles may require vibration for successful fluid bed drying. DRYERS, FLUID BED SUPPLIERS GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com DRYERS, GAS-FIRED. See DRYERS, PRODUCTION. DRYERS, HEAVY CLAY. Heavy clay dryers are specifically designed to dry heavy clay products, such as brick and clay tile. (See also DRYERS, PRODUCTION.) DRYERS, INFRARED. Infrared drying can be used to reduce drying time and for the drying of coatings such as decorations and glazes.1 (See also DRYERS, PRODUCTION.) DRYERS, LABORATORY. Laboratory dryers offer most or all of the features of a production dryer in a compact, often portable design. They are typically used for research and development projects, product testing or small-scale production and are usually electric-powered. Conventional drying systems (also called conduction, convection and radiant drying) heat products from the outside in using an external heat source. The heat is first transferred to the surface of the material and is then conducted to the middle of the material. Radio frequency drying starts heating from within the material at a molecular level and heats the middle as well as the surface. Some dryers combine the two technologies—using RF heating to heat the inside and move the water to the surface where it is removed with a convection system—to significantly reduce drying times. Other laboratory dryers include vacuum dryers, which combine heat with vacuum pressure to achieve fast, efficient drying of ceramics, chemical intermediates, plastics and other products; and freeze dryers, which are used for drying ceramic powders. (See also DRYERS, PRODUCTION and DRYERS, RADIO FREQUENCY.)

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DRYERS, MICROWAVE

DRYERS, MICROWAVE. Microwaves are generally reflected by electrical conductors, transmitted by electrical insulators, and adsorbed by dielectrics. Liquid water behaves like a dielectric, because the molecule is polar and the direction of polarization cycles when subjected to a microwave field. Microwave adsorption causes heating in proportion to the field strength and the product of the frequency and dielectric loss factor. At a particular field strength, penetration of the dielectric varies inversely with power adsorption. Microwave energy may be used to heat and evaporate liquid in large cross sections, relatively rapidly, independently of the thermal conductivity of the solid. When drying ceramic insulators, the microwaves are preferentially adsorbed by the water, and the product temperature during drying may never exceed 50°C (120°F); that is, the high surface temperatures in conventional drying are avoided. The apparent penetration of microwaves increases as water is vaporized and diffuses as a gas to the surface. Potential uses for microwave drying are in the processing of temperature-sensitive products; more rapid drying; drying products of large cross sections and large gypsum molds; and drying products containing colloidal materials such as gels, pigments and clay of extremely low liquid permeability.1 (See also DRYERS, PRODUCTION.)

Since the heat is developed directly in the material, excellent uniformity and remarkable speed of heating are possible. In drying applications, energy is absorbed in relation to the amount of moisture present and becomes self-limiting. Practical efficiencies of 50 to 60% (line power heat in the work) are readily attained. (See also DRYERS, SPECIAL.) DRYERS, RADIO FREQUENCY SUPPLIERS PSC INC., POWER SYSTEMS 21761 Tungsten Rd. Cleveland, OH 44117 (216) 531-3375 Fax: (216) 531-6751 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pscrfheat.com DRYERS, ROTARY. A rotary dryer reduces or eliminates liquid moisture by bringing it into direct contact with a heated gas. The dryer consists of a large, rotating cylindrical tube, usually supported by concrete columns or steel beams. Rotary dryers have a slight slope so that the discharge end is lower than the material feed end in order to use gravity to convey the material through the dryer.56 DRYERS, ROTARY SUPPLIERS

DRYERS, MICROWAVE SUPPLIERS PSC INC., POWER SYSTEMS 21761 Tungsten Rd. Cleveland, OH 44117 (216) 531-3375 Fax: (216) 531-6751 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pscrfheat.com DRYERS, POTTERY & PORCELAIN. Well-designed pottery and porcelain dryers can reduce drying time from three weeks (the typical amount of time required for air drying) to as little as one or two days, and can also reduce warping and cracking losses on all shapes and sizes of ceramics. Such dryers can typically be programmed to follow both a time/temperature program and a time/relative humidity program, and some units can also be adjusted for changes in season, as well as changes in the character of the ceramic load. For example, large, thick-walled pieces will require a more gentle rate change than smaller thin-walled pieces. Once the appropriate curves are programmed into the controllers, the dryer will automatically follow the curves without assistance from the operator. (See also DRYERS, PRODUCTION.) DRYERS, PRODUCTION. Shaped ceramic products requiring drying and working molds are usually dried in a controlled manner in fabricated metal dryers. Chamber dryers are used for drying large, free-standing shapes and smaller products supported on shelves or suspended from the structural framework on dryer cars. Continuous dryers may convey the ware up and down through a baffled chamber by means of shelves supported on continuous chains in a mangle dryer, or on rack dryer cars in a tunnel dryer. Air circulation is maintained and controlled by means of fans. Heat sources include direct fired air heaters, steam coils, waste warm air from kilns and furnaces, and infrared or microwave radiation.1 DRYERS, RADIO FREQUENCY. Also called dielectric heating, radio frequency (RF) drying uses radio frequencies of 10 to 100 MHz to heat and dry a product. The material to be dried is placed in this high-frequency field, often between two parallel plates or electrodes, where it becomes the dielectric of a capacitor; hence the names dielectric, high-frequency, radio frequency or capacitive heating. Other applicator configurations are also used, such as stray-field electrodes, resonant cavities or waveguides at higher frequencies. Electrodes can also form the platens or a press in pressure applications.

PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com DRYERS, SPECIAL. Damp material may be heated by the mechanism of convection, conduction and radiation. When using convective heating, which is most common, the product temperature during drying is lower than the temperature of the hot circulating gas. Conductive heating, in which heat passes to the product from a heated surface supporting the product, is used in drying some thin substrates and slurries in belt and rotary drum dryers. Infrared radiation that is of a long wavelength does not penetrate deeply into wet ceramics, but may be absorbed by the liquid and transported into the interior by conduction. It is more often using for drying thin substrates, films and coatings. Radiation of a very long wavelength in the microwave range penetrates deeply into most ceramics; energy dissipation from the polarization of the water molecules absorbs the radiation and heats the liquid. Dielectric and microwave drying are used for the drying of liquid saturated products where the drying must be relatively rapid, the maximum temperature of solids must be relatively low, or the product integrity is sensitive to liquid concentration gradients and capillary stresses.1 (See also DRYERS, MICROWAVE and DRYERS, PRODUCTION.) DRYERS, SPRAY. Spray drying is the most widely used industrial process involving particle formation and drying. It is highly suited for the continuous production of dry solids in either powder, granulate or agglomerate form from liquid feedstocks as solutions, emulsions and pumpable suspensions. It is an ideal process when the end product must comply to precise quality standards regarding particle size distribution, residual moisture content, bulk density and particle shape. Spray drying is commonly used in the ceramic industry for drying of a ceramic slurry (slip) into a free-flowing powder suitable for subsequent pressing. Spray drying involves the atomization of a liquid feedstock into a spray of droplets and contacting the droplets with hot air in a drying chamber. The sprays are produced by either rotary (wheel) or nozzle atomizers. Evaporation of moisture from the droplets and formation of dry particles proceed under controlled temperature and airflow conditions. Powder is dis-

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DRYERS, VACUUM

charged continuously from the drying chamber. Operating conditions and dryer design are selected according to the drying characteristics of the product and powder specification. Typically, the liquid included in the feed material is water. In such cases the spent drying air is exhausted to atmosphere after treatment in air pollution control equipment. If the liquid is a flammable solvent, the drying system is designed for use of nitrogen as the drying gas and the spent drying gas is recirculated through a condenser system for reuse in the drying system. This way, both the dry product and the solvent are recovered in the system. Every spray dryer consists of feed pump, atomizer, air heater, air disperser, drying chamber, and systems for exhaust air cleaning and powder recovery. Widely varying drying characteristics and quality requirements of the thousands of products spray dried determine the selection of the atomizer, the most suitable airflow pattern and the drying chamber design. The formation of sprays having the required droplet size distribution is vital to any successful spray dryer operation so that powder specifications can be met. The initial contact between spray droplets and drying air controls evaporation rates and product temperatures in the dryer. There are three modes of contact: Co-Current. Drying air and particles move through the drying chamber in the same direction. Product temperatures on discharge from the dryer are lower than the exhaust air temperature, making this is an ideal mode for drying heat sensitive products. When operating with a rotary atomizer, the air disperser creates a high degree of air rotation, giving uniform temperatures throughout the drying chamber. However, an alternative non-rotating airflow is often used in tower-type spray dryers using nozzle atomizers with equal success. Counter-Current. Drying air and particles move through the drying chamber in opposite directions. This mode is suitable for products that require a degree of heat treatment during drying. The temperature of the powder leaving the dryer is usually higher than the exhaust air temperature. Mixed Flow. Particle movement through the drying chamber experiences both co-current and counter-current phases. This mode is suitable for heat stable products where coarse powder requirements necessitate the use of nozzle atomizers, spraying upwards into an incoming airflow, or for heat sensitive products where the atomizer sprays droplets downwards towards an integrated fluid bed and the air inlet and outlet are located at the top of the drying chamber. DRYERS, SPRAY SUPPLIERS GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com

SACMI USA LTD. 3434 106th Circle, P.O. Box 7858 Des Moines, IA 50322 (515) 276-2052 Fax: (515) 276-2084 Email: [email protected] Website: www.sacmiusa.com DRYERS, VACUUM. Vacuum dryers are typically used when a solid/liquid product requires the removal of moisture.41 (See also DRYERS.)

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DRYERS, VACUUM

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EXTRUSION MACHINES

DRYERS, VACUUM SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com DRYERS, WASTE HEAT. See DRYERS, PRODUCTION. DUST COLLECTORS. In 1998, both the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) issued more stringent requirements relating to the use of respirators in plants. Though respirators are critical to shielding workers from ambient dust and fumes, they are not the total answer. The new OSHA standard (29 CFR 1910.134) states that employers are expected to use engineering controls to protect workers from air contaminants and not rely on respirators alone. While respirators do a good job of protecting workers’ lungs, they do nothing to safeguard machinery and process areas from contamination that may result in costly equipment failure, constant rework or general cleaning nuisances. The equipment currently used in fabricating plants has reached a new level of sophistication. High-definition plasma cutters, laser cutters and other computerized systems are more sensitive than machinery was 10 or 20 years ago. If dust is not collected properly from laser tables, welding stations and similar areas, a million-dollar investment could be ruined in no time. A well-designed and maintained dust and fume collection system is needed to prevent such problems and keep facilities in compliance with current air-quality requirements. In some cases, a good dust collection and ventilation system can eliminate the need for personal respirators and the challenge of getting employees to wear them. However, finding the right dust collection system is a complex task affected by dozens of variables. The process can be approached scientifically using dust sample testing as the basis for sound and accurate equipment selection. For the majority of dust-testing situations, small-sample or bench testing will suffice. Common bench tests include: Particle size analysis, which reveals the dust’s particle size distribution down to the submicron range. This information determines the filtration efficiency required to meet emissions standards. A dual-laser particle analyzer can be used to pinpoint both the count (the number of particles of a given size) and the volume or mass spread of the dust. Knowing both is important because many dusts are mixed. For example, the exhaust dust from a plasma cutter includes submicron carbon particles mixed with much larger steel particles. Scientific testing is the only way to identify the tiny particles of carbon dust, which helps manufacturers choose the appropriate equipment and filter media. Sieve analysis is a related test that measures particle size larger than 100 microns. A video microscope, which provides visual analysis of the dust shape and characteristics. Together with particle size analysis, this tool is vital for proper equipment selection, often helping to determine what type of collector should be used. For example, a microscope may be needed to see oil in the dust—a common occurrence with processes involving oily steel. Oil can cause serious problems with dry-dust collectors, sometimes dictating the use of an alternate system. Pychnometer testing, which determines the true specific gravity of the dust as opposed to the bulk density. Specific gravity is the weight of a given material as a solid block. For example, aluminum weighs 165 lbs per cubic foot. Bulk density is the weight of the same material in the form of dust. For example, flame-sprayed aluminum dust weighs only 1 to 2 lbs per cubic foot. Pychnometer testing can help to determine the efficiency of cyclonic-type dust collectors.

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A moisture analyzer, which measures a dust’s moisture percentage by weight. This information can help to prevent or troubleshoot moisture problems that could affect filter performance. A humidity chamber is used to see how quickly a dust will absorb moisture. This test helps to identify hygroscopic (moisture-absorbent) dust. Hygroscopic dusts require widely pleated filter cartridges or bag-type filters, as these sticky dusts cause tightly pleated filters to plug up. Abrasion testing, which measures the relative abrasiveness of dust. This knowledge helps to determine the optimal design of dust-handling components, including valves, inlets and ductwork. For example, when capturing a highly abrasive dust such as cast-iron grindings, the collector must be designed with low inlet velocity. If inlet velocity is too high, the dust will re-entrain on the filter elements, abrading the filters and causing premature wear. Terminal velocity testing, which pinpoints the air velocity required to lift the dust. This information helps to determine correct filter housing size and bag length. Horizontal convey velocity testing reveals the optimal velocity needed to move the dust horizontally, aiding in proper ductwork system design. Sliding angle/angle of repose testing determines the angle at which dust forms freely, aiding in hopper and dust discharge design. This test further identifies whether the dust tends to stick or agglomerate. In some cases, a lab might need further information beyond the bench tests to troubleshoot an existing collector problem or to predict the behavior of an unusual or difficult dust. In these situations, full-scale testing using one or more dust collectors may be needed. Full-scale testing also can help fabricators to meet particularly strict emission requirements involving toxic dust and fumes such as those emitted when cutting or welding galvanized material. After testing is complete, the fabricator can work knowledgeably with the equipment supplier to choose the appropriate collector and filter media type, the best air-tocloth ratio, the proper can velocity (defined as the upward flow of air through the housing), and the best inlet and hopper design. The end result is a dust collection system that delivers reduced emissions, reliable operation, and optimal protection of workers and equipment. 11 (See also ANALYZERS, DENSITY; ANALYZERS, MOISTURE; ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE; FILTERS, AIR; and POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS.) DUST CONTROL SYSTEMS. See DUST COLLECTORS and DUST EMISSIONS MONITORS. DUST EMISSIONS MONITORS. Dust emissions monitors can be used for many industrial applications where dust emissions measurement is required. Monitors are available to meet a wide range of compliance and performance approvals, including those from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, UK Monitoring Certification Scheme (MCERTS) and German TÜV. Data is generally reported as opacity, dust density or optical density.49 DUST EMISSIONS MONITOR SUPPLIERS

AMETEK LAND INSTRUMENTS 150 Freeport Rd. Pittsburgh, PA 15238 (412) 828-9040; (412) 826-0399 Website: www.landinst.com

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ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEMS. Any of a number of systems designed to protect either the interior plant environment or the outdoor environment from industrial fumes, dust and pollutants. (See also DUST COLLECTORS; DUST EMISSIONS MONITORS; FILTERS, AIR; and POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS.) EXTRUSION MACHINES. Extrusion consists of continuously forcing a plasticized ceramic material through a shaped die. This method is used for producing tubes, rods and parts with small cross sections. An example of the usefulness of extrusion would be the forming of thermocouple tubes. These can be produced with outside diameters ranging from as large as 0.250 in. (6.35 mm) to as small as 0.030 in. (0.76 mm) with one or more holes as small as 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) for thermocouple wires running the length of the tubing. Tooling is relatively inexpensive. Hydraulic ram extruders (also called piston extruders) are designed to meet a wide range of requirements for highpressure extrusion of such materials as ceramics, ferrites, tungsten carbide, and other powdered materials into a variety of sizes and shapes. Some extruded shapes include rods, tubes and honeycomb grid patterns. The original technology was cumbersome for fast production since the filling mechanism was limited to a gap of a few inches when the ram was fully retracted. This did not allow for automation of the loading process. With the advent of EPA regulations requiring automobiles to be fitted with catalytic converters to curb harmful exhaust gases, presses better suited to the tremendous production requirements imposed by the automotive industry were needed. In the mid-70s, the first double tilt extrusion press was built to meet these demands. This meant that not only could the press frame tilt to extrude in any angle between vertical and horizontal, but the material cylinder (where the material is inserted prior to extrusion) could also tilt up to 90 degrees away from the press frame. This allows for automated pressing cycles supplemented by automatic material feeding systems. This design is now the standard for piston extrusion presses worldwide. Standard extrusion presses will perform the following steps under typical usage: 1) A die is selected and placed in the front end of the extruder. The die will determine the shape of the extruded product. 2) Pre-mixed material is inserted into the material cylinder. Material is typically in a billet form or granular. 3) The material cylinder is tilted to align with the hydraulic piston. 4) The piston is advanced until the de-airing cap creates a seal against the material cylinder. 5) The vacuum pump is started and operates for the preset time interval. Vacuum is generally desired prior to extrusion in order to remove unwanted air pockets that can cause erratic extrusion. 6) The piston is advanced and compacts the material until the desired product is extruding through the die. 7) The product is cut to the desired size and prepared for other steps in the production process, such as drying and firing. With today’s increasing demand for tighter tolerances and precision cutting, a need for technological improvement has pushed the envelope once more for an advance to take place. The inevitable problem of varying piston speeds, caused when the extrusion encounters hard and soft spots in the material mix, creates inconsistencies in the outside dimensions of the product. As the piston speed increases, the rate of extrusion also increases, and the product’s outer dimension decreases in size. The opposite is true when the piston speed decreases. Some hydraulic machines feature a closed loop extrusion control system to compensate for the inconsistencies in the material mixture. Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

EXTRUSION MACHINES

EXTRUSION MACHINE SUPPLIERS

noise abatement. (See also BURNERS, COMBUSTION CONTROLLERS and COMBUSTION SYSTEMS.)

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FURNACES

FURNACE SUPPLIERS

FURNACE INSULATION. See INSULATING MATERIALS and REFRACTORIES, INSULATING. STARKEY MACHINERY INC. P.O. Box 207 Galion, OH 44833-0207 (419) 468-2560 Fax: (419) 468-1698 Email: [email protected] Website: www.starkeymachinery.com FEEDERS. Feeders move, or feed, materials during batching and handling processes. (See also BATCH HANDLING EQUIPMENT and BATCHING PLANTS AND SYSTEMS.) FEEDER SUPPLIERS SCHENCK ACCURATE P.O. Box 208, 746 E. Milwaukee St. Whitewater, WI 53190 (800) 558-0184; (262) 473-2441 Fax: (262) 473-4384 Email: [email protected] Website: www.accuratefeeders.com

FURNACES. Furnaces can be used to process ceramics and perform high-temperature strength testing. Additionally, high-temperature furnaces are used to process small batches or ceramics in the laboratory. Other common uses for furnaces are heattreating, burning, baking or firing to enhance the structural characteristics of a material. Smaller furnaces can be easily installed in universal test machines, creep testers and other testers for high-temperature testing up to 1700°C. In testing, furnaces can be used with fixtures, grips, compression platens, extensometers and retorts. Considerations for purchasing a furnace include how the furnace will be used and the size and amount of the ceramic material in the process. The furnace being purchased should be able to perform the desired process, support the size or amount of the ceramic material being processed, and provide the temperature range and heat-up/cool down curve that the process requires.

AVS INC. 60 Fitchburg Rd. Ayer, MA 01432 (978) 772-0710 Fax: (978) 772-6462 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avsinc.com CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us

FIBERS, CERAMIC. See CERAMIC FIBER PRODUCTS.

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FIBERS, REFRACTORY. See CERAMIC FIBER PRODUCTS.

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FILTERS, AIR. Air filters are used in dust collectors to capture dust particles and clean the air as it flows through the system. Types of filters include cartridge filters, pleated bags, minipleat filters, V-pack filters, HEPA filters, panel filters, HVAC filters and dust collector filter bags. The type of filter required depends on the application and filtration requirements. (See also DUST COLLECTORS and POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS.)

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FILTERS, COMPRESSED AIR. Compressed air filters eliminate moisture, oil, dirt and rust from the air supply used with air spray equipment, thereby increasing the life of the tools. (See also AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT.) FILTERS, CONTINUOUS. Continuous filters and separators are designed to efficiently separate liquids from solids, or large particle sizes from small particle sizes, in a continuous production operation. Features to look for include accuracy of sieving/filtering, capacity, noise levels and the ability to easily upgrade the system. (See also SEPARATORS.) FLUID BED GRANULATORS. See GRANULATORS, FLUID BED. FLUID BED GRANULATOR SUPPLIERS GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com FUEL OIL EQUIPMENT. Storage tanks, supply lines, safety valves and switches, and combustion equipment are important components of any firing process. For glass manufacturers that use oxy-fuel firing, technologies are available to produce oxygen on-site in a range of purities, pressures and flow rates. This provides the potential to save up to 50% on gas costs compared to traditional supply methods, while also creating environmental advantages through reduced truck deliveries, minimal emissions and, where appropriate, specialized

Don’t let abrasive materials wear you down Lined with thick ceramic and tungsten carbide coatings, our abrasion-resistant ceramic feeder is designed to handle the most abrasive materials. Its robust construction offers indisputable long life and proven reliability. Find out more at www.flsmidth.com

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FURNACES FURNACE SUPPLIERS - continued

FURNACE SUPPLIERS - continued

FURNACE SUPPLIERS - continued

HARPER INTERNATIONAL CORP. 100 W. Drullard Ave. Lancaster, NY 14086 (716) 684-7400 Fax: (716) 684-7405 Email: [email protected] Website: www.harperintl.com

DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com

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L & L SPECIAL FURNACE CO. INC. 20 Kent Rd., P.O. Box 2129 Aston, PA 19014-1494 (610) 459-9216; (877) 846-7628 Fax: (610) 459-3689 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotfurnace.com

Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

FURNACES

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FURNACES, ENAMELING

FURNACE SUPPLIERS - continued NABERTHERM INC. 54 Read’s Way New Castle, DE 19720 (302) 322-3665 Fax: (302) 322-3215 Email: [email protected] Website: www.nabertherm.com OLYMPIC KILNS 4225 Thurmon Tanner Pkwy., P.O. Box 1347 Flowery Branch, GA 30542 (770) 967-4009 x108; (800) 241-4400 x108 Fax: (770) 967-1196 Email: [email protected] Website: www.greatkilns.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com FURNACES, CALCINING. A calcining furnace raises the temperature of a substance without reaching its melting point. (See also CALCINER.) FURNACES, CALCINING SUPPLIERS L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com

FURNACES, CUSTOM SUPPLIERS AVS INC. 60 Fitchburg Rd. Ayer, MA 01432 (978) 772-0710 Fax: (978) 772-6462 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avsinc.com CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com FURNACES, DEBINDING. A debinding furnace is used specifically for the removal of binder from a component prior to sintering.46 FURNACES, DEBINDING SUPPLIERS

FURNACES, CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE. Controlled atmosphere furnaces allow full control of the flow conditions of all input gases to ensure optimum product quality. Atmospheres are generally classified as being inert (such nitrogen, argon or helium) or reducing (such as hydrogen or dissociated ammonia). (See also FURNACES, VACUUM.) FURNACES, CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE SUPPLIERS CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com FURNACES, CUSTOM. A custom furnace is a one-of-a-kind furnace that does not fit into a normal furnace category. It may also pertain to a standard furnace with unique features.46 Custom furnaces are typically produced in various styles and types according to customer specifications.

FURNACES, ELECTRIC. With the availability of mass produced electricity during the late 1800s, electrically heated furnace technology developed rapidly. The earliest electric furnaces, similar to the earliest electric lights, used direct current (dc) arcs between carbon electrodes for heating. Later, with the development of alternating current (ac) power, resistance and inductive heated furnaces were developed along with ac arc furnaces. The main advantages of electric power for heating are ease of measurement and control, as well as cleanliness. An atmosphere completely independent of the heating source can be maintained.1 FURNACES, ELECTRIC SUPPLIERS CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com

CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com

HARROP INDUSTRIES INC. 3470 E. Fifth Ave. Columbus, OH 43219 (614) 231-3621 Fax: (614) 235-3699 Email: [email protected] Website: www.harropusa.com

L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com

L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com

FURNACES, DIFFUSION. An oven that uses heat and gas to form layers. For example, a diffusion furnace facilitates the reaction of gases with silicon wafers to form silicon dioxide or to diffuse previously deposited dopants into the wafer.45 FURNACES, DIFFUSION SUPPLIERS CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com

SKUTT KILNS 6441 S.E. Johnson Creek Blvd. Portland, OR 97206-9552 (503) 774-6000 Fax: (503) 774-7833 Email: [email protected] Website: www.skutt.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com FURNACES, ENAMELING. An enameling furnace is used to vitrify enamel coatings.

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FURNACES, ENAMELING

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FURNACES, MICROWAVE

FURNACES, ENAMELING SUPPLIERS L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com FURNACES, GLASS. Many ceramic kilns and furnaces can also be used for fusing and slumping glass, but some dedicated glass furnaces have also been recently developed. Such furnaces typically feature controllers specifically designed for glass operations, and software that allows kiln operators to run factory-set fusing and slumping programs with a few simple key presses. Some glass kilns also allow operators to design their own programs. FURNACES, GLASS SUPPLIERS CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com SKUTT KILNS 6441 S.E. Johnson Creek Blvd. Portland, OR 97206-9552 (503) 774-6000 Fax: (503) 774-7833 Email: [email protected] Website: www.skutt.com FURNACES, GLASS BENDING & TEMPERING. Glass bending and tempering furnaces are used to shape and bend glass into curved shapes, such as a U- or L-shape. FURNACES, GLASS BENDING & TEMPERING L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com FURNACES, HIGH-TEMPERATURE. High-temperature furnaces are designed for curing and firing applications above 800-1000ºF. Systems can be electric- or gas-fired and can range in size from small laboratory units to large production furnaces. (See also KILNS, HIGH-TEMPERATURE.)

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FURNACES, HIGH-TEMPERATURE SUPPLIERS AVS INC. 60 Fitchburg Rd. Ayer, MA 01432 (978) 772-0710 Fax: (978) 772-6462 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avsinc.com CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com THERMALTEK INC. 2800 Armentrout Dr. Concord, NC 28025 (704) 784-3001 Fax: (704) 784-3020 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermaltek.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com FURNACES, HYDROGEN; BENCH-TOP. A hydrogen furnace is specially designed to employ a hydrogen atmosphere.46 Hydrogen is a highly flammable gas that burns to water vapor. Hydrogen flames are usually invisible, highly reactive and acid forming, but considered non-polluting. Hydrogen’s extremely low gas density allows it to permeate porous materials. Gains in heat transfer that can be achieved when firing in a hydrogen atmosphere must be weighed against the costs of the precautions required to minimize the risk of handling hydrogen.30 Bench-top models are typically used for laboratory or research and development purposes. FURNACES, HYDROGEN; BENCH-TOP SUPPLIERS CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com FURNACES, LABORATORY. Laboratory furnaces are designed specifically for use in a laboratory environment and typically fire only small quantities of products.

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FURNACES, LABORATORY SUPPLIERS

CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com FURNACES, MICROWAVE. Using microwaves for firing or sintering ceramics, metals and glass can provide energy and time savings, as well as improved products. Microwave furnaces have successfully been used to heat treat, sinter and anneal a variety of different ceramic products, including electroceramics and bioceramics. One advantage of microwave heating is that the entire part couples in the energy field, directly absorbing energy throughout the volume. In microwave firing, heating rates from 100 to 150ºC/min (180 to 270ºF/min) can be used to fully sinter ceramics without cracking. Cooling also occurs more quickly because the refractories do not become as hot as in conventional firing. This translates to a significant savings in time. For example, a heating process that requires 24 hours can be reduced to six hours or less using microwave technology. It also has been demonstrated that diffusion is accelerated or enhanced in a microwave field. This means that densification, reactions, bonding, etc., can occur at lower temperatures than those expected using conventional heating. As a result, less expensive, lower-temperature-rated refractories can be used, and a significant level of energy savings can also be achieved.27 (See also MICROWAVE SYSTEMS.) FURNACES, MICROWAVE SUPPLIERS CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

FURNACES, MICROWAVE FURNACES, MICROWAVE SUPPLIERS - continued

FURNACES, MUFFLE. A muffle furnace is a (usually) frontloading box-type oven or kiln for high-temperature applications such as fusing glass or creating enamel coatings and ceramics. They are also used in many research facilities, (i.e., by chemists to bake the moisture out of a sample to ensure it is completely dry). The term muffle furnace may also be used to describe another oven constructed on many of the same principles as the box-type kiln mentioned above, but it takes the form of a long, wide and thin hollow tube used in roll-to-roll manufacturing processes. These furnaces allow for the uninterrupted processing of materials or products in a controlled environment. Both of the aforementioned furnaces are usually heated to desired temperatures by conduction, convection or blackbody radiation from electrical resistance heating elements. Therefore, there is (usually) no combustion involved in the temperature control of the system, which allows for much greater control of temperature uniformity.43

FURNACES, OPTICAL FIBER DRAWING FURNACES, MUFFLE SUPPLIERS - continued

FURNACES, MUFFLE SUPPLIERS

HARROP INDUSTRIES INC. 3470 E. Fifth Ave. Columbus, OH 43219 (614) 231-3621 Fax: (614) 235-3699 Email: [email protected] Website: www.harropusa.com

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CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com

THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com FURNACES, MULTIPLE-HEARTH. A multi-hearth furnace features more than one tunnel or chamber. It is not uncommon for a multiple-hearth furnace to have 3-20 hearths.46 FURNACES, MULTIPLE-HEARTH SUPPLIERS CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com FURNACES, OPTICAL FIBER DRAWING. Optical fiber drawing furnaces are designed specifically for the manufacturing of optical fiber. The fiber is processed at high temperatures to give it certain characteristics.46

LABORATORY FURNACES & OVENS

Box Furnaces

Furnaces • Box • Tube • Bottom & Top Loading • Microwave • 750° to 1800°C

Ovens

Tube Furnaces

NEW NEW

Laboratory Ovens

• Laboratory • High Temperature • Gas-Tight • Clean Room • 250°C to 600°C

Microwave Assist Furnace

Tel: 800-543-6208 • Fax: 800-543-6209 [email protected] • www.carbolite.us

CALL FOR INFORMATION ON CARBOLITE’S FULL PRODUCT LINE Submit equipment definitions online at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest. CI07084Carbolite.indd 1

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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FURNACES, OPTICAL FIBER DRAWING

FURNACES, OPTICAL FIBER DRAWING SUPPLIERS CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com

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FURNACES, TUBE

FURNACES, SINGLE CRYSTAL SUPPLIERS CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com FURNACES, TEMPERATURE GRADIENT. Temperature gradient furnaces generate a controllable thermal gradient over a certain length or span, enabling the user to observe and measure the effects of different firing temperatures on a given material in a single firing. Such furnaces are typically used in quality control, product testing, and research and development applications.

FURNACES, PRESSURE. See FURNACES, VACUUM. FURNACES, TEMPERATURE GRADIENT SUPPLIERS FURNACES, PRESSURE SUPPLIERS AVS INC. 60 Fitchburg Rd. Ayer, MA 01432 (978) 772-0710 Fax: (978) 772-6462 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avsinc.com FURNACES, ROTARY. Rotary furnaces are commonly provided in a tubular design and are used for the heat processing of assorted materials in both batch and continuous processes. Systems are available from small laboratory-scale, bench-top batch and continuous designs, to intermediate pilot plant size designs, to large industrial production systems. Unique characteristics of the material being processed, as well as the production rate, dictate the furnace size and general design characteristics, operating temperature, atmosphere requirements, cooling capabilities, and control system specifications. One benefit of processing material in a rotary furnace is the significant reduction in process time compared to the much greater reaction times required to heat treat the same material in a static mode.38 (See also FURNACES, TUBE.) FURNACES, ROTARY SUPPLIERS CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com FURNACES, ROTARY GLASS. A rotary glass furnace uses a process tube that rotates constantly during the heating process to melt or create different glasses.46 (See also FURNACES, ROTARY.) FURNACES, SINGLE CRYSTAL. These furnaces are used in the crystal growing industry to facilitate crystal growth.46

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CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com FURNACES, TUBE. Tube furnaces feature a tube-shaped design and typically fire up to 1800ºC (3272ºF). Typical applications include gas analysis, doping of silicon wafers, materials research, powder metallurgy, sintering and firing of ceramics, calibration of thermocouples, crystal growing, thermal degradation, continuous strip and wire heating, and superconductor research. To achieve the most uniform temperature, both ends of the tube should be fitted with tapered ceramic end plugs or radiation shields. Wire-wound tube furnaces operate up to 1200ºC. The majority of these models use a resistance wire heating element wound around the outside of a ceramic worktube, making it an integral part of the heating element. If the tube is required to contain an atmosphere or is likely to be contaminated by spillage, a separate work tube should be used. The thermocouple is located in a protected position between the outside of the work tube and the heating element, allowing the full work tube diameter to be used and protecting the thermocouple from mechanical damage. Split tube furnaces are manufactured in two halves and are hinged together for easy loading or placing around a work piece or worktube. This design offers the flexibility to place the furnace around a fixed item—such as a pipe with flanges that are too large to pass through a solid tube furnace, or around a sample that is fixed into a materials test rig. High-temperature tube furnaces operate from 1500-1800°C. Tube furnaces that operate in the 1500 and 1600°C range typically use silicon carbide (SiC) heating elements arranged in a heated chamber sur-

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rounding the work tube. This design provides even heating of the tube surface for maximum temperature uniformity. SiC furnaces can be used either horizontally or vertically. 1700°C tube furnaces use molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) heating elements suspended down each side of a horizontal tube. At elevated temperatures, these heating elements become very soft, making the furnace suitable only for horizontal use. 1800°C tube furnaces use lanthanum chromite heating elements, which generally achieve slower heating rates. These furnaces are for use in a vertical position only, and the elements are suspended around a vertical tube. Although the elements give off a small amount of chromium vapor, the work tube shields all but the most sensitive work pieces from contamination or pink coloration. In three-zone tube furnaces, the heated length is divided into three zones, each with its own temperature controller and thermocouple. In some units, the power supplied to the end zones is automatically adjusted to compensate for the heat loss at the ends of the tube, irrespective of whether the ends are left open or have insulation plugs fitted. This system provides a longer uniform zone temperature than that achieved by using a single zone furnace of the same length. The temperature controllers are usually linked so that they act to keep all three zones at the same temperature (known as slave control). Vacuum tube furnaces operate in the range of 12001500°C. The vacuum system and all controls are housed in the base, with one end of the worktube joined to the vacuum system via a stainless steel elbow. Access to the tube is via the other end, which is fitted with a removable stainless steel flange. In some units, radiation shields are provided for both ends of the furnace to ensure maximum temperature uniformity with minimum loss of pumping speed. Rotating tube furnaces allow powders to be heated and agitated inside a furnace by using a rotating drive system. This ensures that all the powder is exposed to the atmosphere and provides laboratory scale simulation of industrial rotary calcining kilns. FURNACES, TUBE SUPPLIERS CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com DELTECH INC. 1007 E. 75th Ave., Unit E Denver, CO 80229 (303) 433-5939 Fax: (303) 433-2809 Email: [email protected] Website: www.deltechfurnaces.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

FURNACES, VACUUM

FURNACES, VACUUM. In vacuum furnaces, the heat treating process takes place in an airtight vessel, where a vacuum is created. The entire heat treating process can take place under vacuum, or precisely controlled atmospheres can be introduced. Heat treating under vacuum can prevent surface reactions, such as oxidation or decarburization; remove surface contaminants, such as oxide films and residual traces of lubricants; add a substance to the surface layers of the work; and/or remove dissolved contaminating substances through degassing. (See also FURNACES, CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE.) FURNACES, VACUUM SUPPLIERS AVS INC. 60 Fitchburg Rd. Ayer, MA 01432 (978) 772-0710 Fax: (978) 772-6462 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avsinc.com

CENTORR/VACUUM INDUSTRIES 55 Northeastern Blvd. Nashua, NH 03062 (603) 595-7233; (800) 962-8631 Fax: (603) 595-9220 Email: [email protected] Website: www.centorr.com

OXY-GON INDUSTRIES INC. 42 Old Route 28, P.O. Box 40 Epsom, NH 03234-0040 (603) 736-8422 Fax: (603) 736-8734 Email: [email protected] Website: www.oxy-gon.com

in the ware holder), as well as its entire external surface. Spray glazing machines are suitable for earthenware bodies, bone china, single-fire bodies and other ceramic articles. The basic design comprises spindles that are suspended to keep all mechanical parts out of the over-spray. Some units are equipped with pre-heating and cooling for special products like bone china and lead-free glazes. GRANULATORS. Granulation is the intentional agglomeration of fine particles into larger clusters in order to improve certain powder properties. For example, bulk powders typically have a low bulk density, do not readily flow, are dusty, and have low thermal conductivity. When properly granulated, the same powder pours easily, exhibits a high and uniform bulk density, does not experience dusting losses, and more efficiently transfers thermal energy. The granulation methods used by the ceramic industry can be categorized as agitation, pressure or spray techniques. Granulation by agitation involves bringing moist particles into contact by mixing or tumbling so that bonding forces can cause agglomeration. Pressure granulation is accomplished either by compacting powder into briquettes or pellets, or by extruding powders that are in a plastic state through a perforated plate or orifice. Granules are formed by spray techniques either by atomizing a powder-liquid suspension into a hot, dry gas or by spraying a liquid over a bead of fluidized powder. Granules formed by these methods tend to have a spherical geometry.1 (See also GRANULATORS, FLUID BED and GRANULATORS, FREEZE.) GRANULATOR SUPPLERS ADVANCED PROCESSES, ADVANCED CONTRACT TOLLING INC. 2097 Duss Ave. Ambridge, PA 15003 (724) 266-7274 Fax: (724) 266-8274 Email: [email protected] Website: www.advancedprocesses.com GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com

GAS ANALYSIS INSTRUMENTS. See INSTRUMENTS, GAS ANALYSIS. GAS COMPRESSORS. See COMPRESSORS, GAS. GAS DETECTORS. See DETECTORS, GAS. GENERATORS, ELECTRIC. An electrical generator is a device that produces electrical energy from a mechanical energy source using electromagnetic induction. The process is known as electricity generation.43 GLAZING MACHINES. Glazing machines are semi- or fully automatic machines designed for both dip and spray glazing of tableware and other ceramic products. Dip-glazing systems are particularly suitable for whitedried or biscuit-fired tableware with good surface absorption. With most dip-glazing machines, the article is loaded either manually or automatically (depending on the machine) onto a feed conveyor. The piece is dedusted in a special cabin and then precision-centered with its foot on a centering device. A transfer unit holds the piece from above, while an optional printing unit fitted on the centering device stamps the underside. The transfer unit then places the article on the glazing machine ware holder. The latter, after being cleaned at the wash station, is rotated together with the article and dipped in the glaze bath. This tilting and rotating action coats the underside of the piece (with the glaze contained

GRANULATORS, FLUID BED. Devices that form granules by suspending primary particles in an air stream and spraying them with a binding agent. The binding agent can be either a solution or a suspension, in either water or an organic liquid. The liquid is evaporated during the granulation process. The primary particles can be about 50 microns or larger, and the resulting granules can be up to 1 or 2 mm in diameter. Granules are agglomerations of primary particles and can be of open structure (resembling popcorn) or of dense structure (spheroidal), depending on the feed material and the operating conditions in the fluid bed granulator. Granules are typically larger, less dusty, freer flowing, and more easily dissolved or dispersed than the primary particles. By controlling operating conditions, it is typically possible to control the particle size distribution and the bulk density of the granulated product. GRANULATORS, FLUID BED SUPPLIERS GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com

Submit equipment definitions online at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest.

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GRINDERS, LABORATORY

GRANULATORS, FREEZE. Ceramic and metallic powders can be granulated by instant freezing and subsequent freeze-drying of sprayed drops (granules). This technology is designed to ensure high-quality granules with homogeneous distribution of particles, polymeric pressing aids and other additives. The solids content of the powder suspension (slip) and the processing parameters (pump speed and airflow) control the granule density and size. The constituent migration that is common in other granulating processes is avoided in freeze granulation/freeze-drying. Additionally, the process provides excellent pressing performance with easy breakdown of the granules, resulting in homogeneous compacts with enhanced sinterability and optimal material properties. Freeze granulation/freeze drying can be used on either a laboratory or production scale with equal granule properties. GRANULATORS, SPRAY. See GRANULATORS. GRANULATORS, SPRAY SUPPLIERS GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com GRINDERS. Grinders use force to crush and pulverize abrasive or non-abrasive materials into much smaller particle sizes. (See also CRUSHERS and PULVERIZERS.) GRINDER SUPPLIERS

BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com GRINDERS, IMPACT. See CRUSHERS, GRINDERS and HAMMER MILLS. GRINDERS, IMPACT SUPPLIERS STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com GRINDERS, LABORATORY. Grinders intended for laboratory and research and development use. (See also GRINDERS.) GRINDERS, LABORATORY SUPPLIERS GLEN MILLS INC. 220 Delawanna Ave. Clifton, NJ 07014-1550 (973) 777-0777 Fax: (973) 777-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.glenmills.com

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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HEATING ELEMENTS

GRINDERS, LABORATORY SUPPLIERS – continued RETSCH INC. 74 Walker Ln. Newtown, PA 18940 (866) 473-8724 Fax: (267) 757-0358 Email: [email protected] Website: www.retsch-us.com GRINDERS, LABORATORY, WET MILLING. Wet milling grinders intended for laboratory and research and development use. (See also GRINDERS, WET MILLING.) GRINDERS, MULLER-TYPE. Muller-type grinders achieve size reduction through the use of heavy wheels, which grind and crush the materials being processed. (See also GRINDERS.) GRINDERS, PULVERIZING. See CRUSHERS, GRINDERS, HAMMER MILLS and PULVERIZERS. GRINDERS, PULVERIZING SUPPLIERS STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com GRINDERS, WET MILLING. A wet milling grinder is typically an enclosed vessel filled with small spheres or beads (the grinding media) that are activated by an agitator shaft, creating shearing and impacting forces. The agitator design selected is based on the material to be processed. The rotation of the agitator imparts energy to the surrounding media. These forces act on the solids suspended in a liquid as they are continuously pumped through the grinding chamber. The forces tear apart and/or crush the solids, resulting in an overall reduction in the particle size. The particles are simultaneously dispersed in the liquid while the grinding media is retained inside the mill. The main process parameters are agitator speed, product flow rate and grinding media. The process can be continuous if a positive displacement pump is used. (See also GRINDING MEDIA and MILLS, WET GRINDING.) GRINDING. A process that employs force to crush and pulverize materials into much smaller particle sizes. GRINDING SUPPLIERS LIBERTY MACHINERY COMPANY 111 Schelter Rd. Lincolnshire, IL 60069 (847) 276-2761 Fax: (847) 276-2762 Email: [email protected] Website: www.libertymachinery.com

PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com GRINDING FLUIDS. Grinding fluids (also called coolants) are one of the most important components in the grinding of materials such as composites, glass, quartz, steel, etc. In

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many cases, the selection of the grinding wheels is given a lot of attention, while the type of grinding fluid used is considered insignificant. However, using the wrong grinding fluid can adversely affect grinding performance and/or workers’ health. When choosing a grinding fluid, the primary objective is maximum material removal combined with an excellent finish. The fluid should also prevent the wheels from “loading up,” so that wheel life is extended and cutting action remains optimized. Transfer of the grinding sludge to the tank where it can be filtered is also important; grinding fluid that foams during this stage will hinder the grinding process. The grinding fluid must be compatible with the grinding machine and should be user-friendly—in other words, it shouldn’t cause the machine to rust, leave behind sticky coolant residuals, irritate the operator’s skin, or generate dangerous or hazardous fumes. Stability in a grinding fluid is probably one of the main characteristics that operators look for. Care should be taken to ensure that coolant-stabilizing ingredients contain no chlorine and are not hazardous or carcinogenic. The grinding fluid should also be bio-stable, which means that as long as the fluid mixture remains at the correct ratios, it will be stable with no side affects (rusting, rancidity, foaming, residuals, etc.), regardless of the environment in which it is used. Careful selection of all of the grinding variables—from the equipment to the grinding wheels, parameters and grinding fluid—will ensure optimum performance. GRINDING MACHINES. Both numerically controlled and conventional grinding techniques are used to achieve the precise physical dimensions not possible in the as-fired condition of the part. This includes centerless, cylindrical, surface and inside-diameter methods using diamond wheels. Dimensional tolerances of ±0.0001 in. (0.0025 mm) can be met with both simple and complex geometries. In fine grinding, essentially the same kinematic conditions prevail as in the lapping process, where the path of the part is guided. Fixed in rotor carriers, the part is forcibly guided through a tooth system between two grinding wheels. (See also LAPPING & POLISHING EQUIPMENT.) GRINDING MEDIA. Hard objects, such as balls, rods or grains, tumbled or propelled in a grinder or mill to conduct grinding action. This grinding action is usually particle size reduction in ceramic slurries by attrition and/or highspeed impact. Characteristics of a quality grinding media for the purpose of production efficiency should include high density, smooth surface, high hardness, narrow size distribution, high roundness and high wear resistance (which, in the case of ceramic media, results from fine grain size). GRINDING MEDIA SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com GRINDING MEDIA, PEBBLE. Pebbles can be used as grinding media to conduct grinding action.

November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM/EQUIPMENTDIGEST

GRINDING MEDIA, PEBBLE SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com GRINDING WHEELS. See ABRASIVE WHEELS. GYRATORY CRUSHERS. See CRUSHERS, GYRATORY. HAMMER MILLS. Hammer mills are impact mills that operate at relatively high speeds. A horizontal shaft carries several hammers that rotate inside the mill housing. The inner walls of the mill can include special wear resistant plates or linings, depending on the abrasiveness of the feed product. The grinding action is a mixture of impact and attrition between lumps or particles of already ground material, the mill housing and the grinding elements. The fineness of the end product depends on the rotor speed, screen, gap clearance between the hammers and grinding plates, number and thickness of the hammers, and feed rate. Hammer mills produce products from x=1 mm up to a few centimeters. Hammer mills are used for pre-crushing, defibring and disagglomerating all soft to medium-hard and hard materials between 5-6 mohs. (See also CRUSHERS; CRUSHERS, HAMMER MILL; GRINDERS; MILLS, HAMMER; and PULVERIZERS.) HAMMER MILL SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com HARDNESS TESTERS, CERAMIC. See TEST EQUIPMENT, HARDNESS, CERAMIC. HEATERS, PREHEAT. The use of preheated air can shorten firing cycles and reduce costs. HEATERS, PREHEAT SUPPLIERS L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com HEATING ELEMENTS. Three common types of heating elements are metallic (wire), silicon carbide and molybdenum disilicide. Metallic elements are the least expensive in terms of upfront cost, but they also have the lowest temperature rating. Additionally, the resistance of metallic elements increases with age due to the reduction in cross section by oxidation, as well as elongation of the loops. This will result in decreased power to the furnace and the ultimate failure of the element. However, many furnaces use metallic elements—mainly because they cost less, they operate on less expensive line voltage, and they are ideal for processes that require temperatures lower than 1250°C (2300°F). The silicon carbide heating element is a linear type resistance heater that converts electrical energy to heat energy—Joule’s Law: W=I2R (where W = power in watts, I = current in amperes and R = resistance in ohms). Silicon carbide heating elements have been manufactured for more than 50 years and are used in furnaces all over Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

HEATING ELEMENTS

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HEATING SYSTEMS, INDUSTRIAL HEATING ELEMENTS, MOLYBDENUM DISILICIDE SUPPLIERS - continued

the world. They are a reliable and versatile heat source for temperatures between 538 and 1538°C (1000 to 2800°F). The most common type of silicon carbide heating element is the rod or tubular shape, which has a central heating section referred to as a hot zone, and two terminal sections, called cold ends. The cold ends are lower in electrical resistance, which allows them to operate at a lower temperature. For applications that require the electrical connection on one end of the heating element, the double spiral or U-shaped element can be used. The amount of energy that a silicon carbide heating element is capable of converting from electrical to heat energy depends on the size of the element, the ambient furnace temperature and the atmosphere in which the silicon carbide heating element is operating. Knowing the furnace temperature and atmosphere, wattage capabilities can be determined by multiplying the recommended watt loading by the radiating surface area of the heating element. The recommended maximum watt loading can be anywhere from 4 to 11 watts per square centimeter (25 to 70 watts per in.), depending on the application. The radiating surface area is calculated by multiplying the diameter times the hot zone length times pi (3.14). Furnaces that use silicon carbide heating elements include muffle tube, heat treating, steel hardening, laboratory, brazing, sintering, rotary hearth and glass melting. Tunnel kilns also commonly use silicon carbide heating elements. The molybdenum disilicide heating element is a dense cermet material consisting of molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) and a glassy phase silicon dioxide (SiO2). These elements can be operated at temperatures up to 1800°C (3300°F). The molybdenum disilicide heating element is a resistance type heating element that converts electrical energy— Joule’s Law: W=I2R (where W = power in watts, I = current in amperes and R = resistance in ohms). The elements are U-shaped and are most frequently suspended with the bottom of the “U” down. The element consists of two cold ends (Lu) and a U-shaped hot section (Le). The cold ends are twice the diameter of the hot section and are attached by a weld. The extremities of the cold ends are metallized with aluminum to provide a low-resistance contact surface to which the electrical connections are made with flat braided aluminum straps. The elements are manufactured to industry-established resistance values in the following diameters: 3¼6; 4¼9; 6¼12; 9¼18 and 12¼24, and in hot zone lengths up to 1400 mm (55 in.). Molybdenum disilicide heating elements provide long service life, are easy to replace, and have low maintenance costs. New and old elements can be operated in the same control group. The elements have a high power rating—22.6 watts per square centimeter at 1450°C (130 watts per square in. at 2640°F) furnace temperature. The elements can be used in most types of industrial furnaces for heat treatment forging, sintering, glass melting and refining for use in radiant tubes. Laboratory furnaces, testing equipment and high-temperature sintering production furnaces use a higher grade element that can reach temperatures up to 1800°C (3300°F).

HEATING ELEMENT SUPPLIERS - continued THERMALTEK INC. 2800 Armentrout Dr. Concord, NC 28025 (704) 784-3001 Fax: (704) 784-3020 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermaltek.com

I SQUARED R ELEMENT CO. INC. 12600 Clarence Center Rd. Akron, NY 14001 (716) 542-5511 Fax: (716) 542-2100 Email: [email protected] Website: www.isquaredrelement.com

THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com

HEATING ELEMENTS, SILICON CARBIDE. See HEATING ELEMENTS. HEATING ELEMENTS, SILICON CARBIDE SUPPLIERS

HEATING ELEMENTS, METALLIC. See HEATING ELEMENTS. HEATING ELEMENTS, MOLYBDENUM DISILICIDE. See HEATING ELEMENTS. HEATING ELEMENTS, MOLYBDENUM DISILICIDE SUPPLIERS CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com

I SQUARED R ELEMENT CO. INC. 12600 Clarence Center Rd. Akron, NY 14001 (716) 542-5511 Fax: (716) 542-2100 Email: [email protected] Website: www.isquaredrelement.com HEATING SYSTEMS, INDUSTRIAL. See FURNACES, KILNS and OVENS.

Starbar and Moly-D elements are made in the U.S.A. with a focus on providing the highest quality heating elements and service to the global market.

HEATING ELEMENT SUPPLIERS

I SQUARED R ELEMENT CO. INC. 12600 Clarence Center Rd. Akron, NY 14001 (716) 542-5511 Fax: (716) 542-2100 Email: [email protected] Website: www.isquaredrelement.com

Over 40 years of service and reliability I Squared R Element Co., Inc. Akron, NY Phone: (716)542-5511 Fax: (716)542-2100

Email: [email protected] www.isquaredrelement.com Submit equipment definitions online at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest.

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HEATING SYSTEMS, INDUSTRIAL

HEATING SYSTEMS, INDUSTRIAL SUPPLIERS THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSES. See PRESSES, HOT ISOSTATIC. HYDRAULIC PRESSES. See PRESSES, HYDRAULIC. IMPELLERS. Most mixers, blungers and dispersers in the ceramic industry use chrome-plated stainless steel impellers for mixing applications to reduce the amount of steel in their slip and glaze. This prevents sparking during the firing operation, which causes defects in the finished product. However, the chrome plating has a limited wear life and exposes the stainless steel in time. Other mixing/dispersing impellers are made of polyurethane. Polyurethane mixing/dispersing impellers provide high abrasion resistance and can have up to seven times more axial flow than some metal impellers and 10 times the wear resistance. The impellers are all-organic, so any particles that might get into the ceramic are completely burned off during the firing process. INFRARED EQUIPMENT. Any type of equipment that uses invisible radiation wavelengths from about 750 nm (just longer than red in the visible spectrum) to 1 mm (on the border of the microwave region). Examples include dryers, thermometers, and moisture/thickness meters. (See also DRYERS, INFRARED.) INSTRUMENTS, DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) instruments measure the amount of energy (heat) absorbed or released by a sample as it is heated, cooled or held at constant temperature. They are also used to perform precise temperature measurements. INSTRUMENTS, DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY SUPPLIERS NETZSCH INSTRUMENTS NA LLC 37 North Ave. Burlington, MA 01803 (781) 272-5353 Fax: (781) 272-5225 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-thermal-analysis.com INSTRUMENTS, DYNAMIC LIGHT SCATTERING. Dynamic light scattering (DLS), also known as photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS), is a particle sizing technique that works by first measuring the scattered light intensity at one angle. The intensity of light scattered in a particular direction by dispersed particles tends to periodically change with time. These fluctuations in the intensity vs. time profile are caused by the constant changing of particle positions brought on by Brownian motion. DLS instruments obtain, from the intensity vs. time profile, a correlation function. This exponentially decaying correlation function is analyzed for characteristic decay times, which are related to diffusion coefficients and then by the Stokes-Einstein equation, to a particle radius. DLS has several advantages over other laser light scattering technologies. First, it is an absolute measurement that does not require knowledge of the composition of the suspended particles. This can be helpful if the optical properties of the suspended particles are not known or if the suspension is made up of particles with different optical properties. Second, DLS can

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size particles down to 1 nm, which is ideal for making measurements on proteins or other types of nanoparticles. Laser diffraction methods can reliably size particles down to 100 nm or so.48 INSTRUMENTS, DYNAMIC LIGHT SCATTERING SUPPLIERS PARTICLE SIZING SYSTEMS 8203 Kristel Cir. Port Richey, FL 34668 (727) 846-0866 Fax: (727) 846-0865 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pssnicomp.com INSTRUMENTS, GAS ANALYSIS. Gas analysis instruments monitor toxic gases such as ammonia, carbon monoxide, chlorine, ethylene oxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide—often in the parts-per-million range—to ensure plant safety. They can also monitor combustible gases to prevent explosions and/or save on fuel costs. INSTRUMENTS, GAS ANALYSIS SUPPLIERS

CONTROL INSTRUMENTS CORP. 25 Law Dr. Fairfied, NJ 07004 (973) 575-9114 Fax: (973) 575-0013 Email: [email protected] Website: www.controlinstruments.com INSTRUMENTS, IMAGE ANALYSIS. Automated image analysis is a fine particle technique that is used to measure particle shape and shape distributions. Previously, the measurement and recording of shape information was time-consuming and required specially-trained operators. This forced engineers to rely on the characterization provided by sieves or particle size analyzers, techniques that offer only a mean diameter and range. Advances in digital imaging and the large amount of computational power available on personal computers make it possible to bring shape analysis into the quality control laboratory. Dynamic image analysis involves the flowing of the particles, either in an air or liquid stream, past the camera used to capture the images. The advantages of this method are that many particles can be brought into the focal plane of the camera with little effort. Furthermore, it is possible to perform dynamic image analysis online or in-process. The downside of this approach is that it is difficult to control the particles, both in terms of their orientation as well as the number of particles that end up in the frame (particularly in-process). Since the flow path is often wider than the depth of field, it is possible to lose details or resolution because the particles are out of focus. This usually limits this technique to particles no smaller than 10 microns or so. Also, it is hard to disperse fine “sticky” powders well enough (especially in an air stream) to be sure that one is imaging individual particles and not agglomerates. Static image analysis entails the imaging of particles placed on a slide. In the case of freely flowing powders, this can be done in an automated way by feeding particles onto a moving optical surface, thus enabling the possibility of on-line measurements. In the case of a fine or “sticky” powders, compact and easy-to-use dispersion devices are available to place the particles on the slide in a way that breaks up agglomerates and keeps them from overlapping with each other. Coupled with a computer controlled X-Y translator to move the slide past the camera, hundreds or thousands of particles can be imaged in minutes. Dispersing particles on a slide ensures that they will be oriented in one way and always in focus. This leads to higher resolution and more detail than can be attained by dynamic image analysis. Image analysis methods not only enable the quality control laboratory to measure particle

November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM/EQUIPMENTDIGEST

shape, but, in some cases, this information can be monitored inprocess. For example, it is possible to monitor the wear factor in situ and determine when the abrasive particles start to wear down and become less effective.40 (See also ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE and SIEVES, TESTING.) INSTRUMENTS, IMAGE ANALYSIS SUPPLIERS PARTICLE SIZING SYSTEMS 8203 Kristel Cir. Port Richey, FL 34668 (727) 846-0866 Fax: (727) 846-0865 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pssnicomp.com INSTRUMENTS, LEVEL MONITORING. Level monitoring instruments monitor liquids, solids or slurries in a vessel or pipe and alert operators if high or low points are reached. Some devices use a cable system to mechanically measure levels at regular intervals. Other devices use a vibrating paddle— when the paddle comes into contact with the process media its amplitude of vibration decreases, and the output voltage drops to a very low value. This change in output signal operates the contacts in a relay switch receiver. Level monitoring instruments can also use acoustic pulses that travel to the surface being monitored and are reflected back to the sensor face. The time-of-flight information is converted to an output signal directly proportional to the material level. Capacitance probes, microwave systems, ultrasonic pulses and radiometric devices are also used in level monitoring applications. INSTRUMENTS, OPTICAL PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT. Encompasses a range of devices used to measure optical properties. Interferometers use the interference of light waves to measure the wavefront of a material or object. Optical profilers measure and analyze surface texture, while micro-optic metrology systems provide optical testing of discrete or array-based micro-optical components. Other instruments measure optical properties such as fluorescence, reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarization, color and gloss. (See also INTERFEROMETERS.) INSTRUMENTS, OXYGEN MONITORING. Oxygen monitoring instruments can help improve combustion efficiency, minimize NOx emissions and reduce fuel costs by measuring the net concentration of oxygen in a process; i.e., the amount of oxygen that remains after combustion is completed. Operators can make adjustments based on these measurements to ensure a consistent combustion atmosphere. INSTRUMENTS, OXYGEN MONITORING SUPPLIERS CONTROL INSTRUMENTS CORP. 25 Law Dr. Fairfied, NJ 07004 (973) 575-9114 Fax: (973) 575-0013 Email: [email protected] Website: www.controlinstruments.com INSTRUMENTS, QC & QA. Quality control (QC) and quality analysis (QA) instruments are used in the ceramic industry to measure and analyze material properties, particle size, pore structure, surface area and overall product performance. They are also used to detect defects and ensure adherence to quality specifications. (See ANALYZERS, INSTRUMENTS, and specific TESTING EQUIPMENT categories for more information about the various types of testing equipment used in the ceramic industry.)

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INSTRUMENTS, QC & QA

INSTRUMENTS, QC & QA SUPPLIERS BYK-GARDNER USA, BYK ADDITIVES AND INSTRUMENTS, ALTANA 9104 Guilford Rd. Columbia, MD 21046-2729 (301) 483-6500; (800) 343-7721 Fax: (301) 483-6555 Email: [email protected] Website: www.byk.com INSTRUMENTS, THERMOGRAVIMETER. Thermogravimeter instruments monitor the mass of the sample as a function of temperature or time while also subjecting the sample to a controlled temperature program. INSTRUMENTS, THERMOGRAVIMETER SUPPLIERS LINSEIS INC. 109 North Gold Dr. Robbinsville, NJ 08691 (800) 732-6733; (609) 223-2070 Fax: (609) 223-2074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.linseis.com NETZSCH INSTRUMENTS NA LLC 37 North Ave. Burlington, MA 01803 (781) 272-5353 Fax: (781) 272-5225 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-thermal-analysis.com INSTRUMENTS, THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS. See DILATOMETERS. INSTRUMENTS, THERMOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS SUPPLIERS LINSEIS INC. 109 North Gold Dr. Robbinsville, NJ 08691 (800) 732-6733; (609) 223-2070 Fax: (609) 223-2074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.linseis.com INSTRUMENTS, X-RAY DIFFRACTION. All manufacturing processes—including heat treating, grinding, electroplating and machining—create residual stresses in materials that can cause defects and premature failures in materials and components. Directing an X-ray beam onto a crystalline material, whether it is metal or ceramic, causes the beam to be diffracted, creating an observable peak. This process is called X-ray diffraction (XRD). If the material is stress-free, the peak occurs at a specific known angle depending on the wavelength of the X-ray and the material being analyzed. The diffraction peak is observed from several angles. If peak shifts appear at these angles, stresses are present. The degree and location of the shift provide data that allows the operator to calculate how much the atomic lattice structure of the material is either pulled apart (tensile stress) or pushed together (compressive stress). Since the actual material is analyzed, XRD is a direct method of measuring stresses. (See also X-RAY SYSTEMS, DIFFRACTION and TESTING EQUIPMENT, X-RAY.) INSULATING MATERIALS. A variety of insulating materials are used in ceramic manufacturing and other thermal processing applications. Insulating fire brick (IFB) made from refractory clays and other ceramic materials are often used as linings for ovens, kilns and furnaces. Calcium silicate boards can be used as backup insulation for any refractory construction, including IFB, dense refractory brick, castable, gunning mix, plastic refractory or ceramic fiber. Felt is used as gasketing around burners; ceramic fiber boards and blocks are used in the pre-heating and cooling zones of roller and tunnel kilns; and ceramic fiber blan-

kets and modules are used in a variety of kiln and furnace applications. High-temperature foam is increasingly being used as an alternative to traditional modules/blankets because it offers increased installation speed and lining performance for new furnace linings, linings over existing refractory; and furnace lining maintenance, repairs, patches and refits. Microporous insulation is also increasingly being used in a variety of thermal applications because of its energy- and space-saving potential. Recently, a new type of microporous insulation composed of inorganic oxides (primarily fumed silica) has been introduced into the North American market. It offers lower thermal conductivity than some existing forms of microporous insulation, enabling users to save space, reduce weight and significantly reduce energy consumption. The new insulation also provides a high level of thermal stability, consistent operating temperatures and easy fabrication. The board form of the new microporous insulation is being used as backup insulation in specific high-temperature zones of ceramic tunnel kilns, where it is providing energy savings, a reduction in cold face temperature, a reduction in heat loss, improvements in product quality, lower operating costs and easy on-site fabrication. It is also being used as backup insulation in roller kilns, where it reduces heat loss, increasing the usable volume of the kiln and improving the thermal consistency of the kiln (resulting in improved product quality). The material also has applications in the aluminum and steel industries. (See also REFRACTORIES, INSULATING.) INSULATOR FINISHING & GLAZING SYSTEMS. Systems for the finishing and glazing of insulators include equipment that ranges from saws to testing. For the finishing process, diamond saws are required for the cutting of the ends of the longrod insulators, and diamond tools facilitate the grinding of insulator surfaces. Steel fittings must also be cemented to the insulators, and testing machines are used for analysis of electrical and mechanical properties. Glazing of the insulators in their clay state involves dipping, pouring and spraying processes.44 (See individual equipment categories for additional information.) INSULATOR FORMING & DRYING SYSTEMS. Insulators are formed using machines for jiggering, jollying, turning and shaping, and boring. Cutting tools perform according to profiles set by CAD/CAM systems. Insulator drying is achieved in chamber, mangle, and tunnel dryers for leather-hard and white drying.44 (See individual equipment categories for additional information.) INTERFEROMETERS. Interferometers use the interference of light waves to measure the wavefront of a material or object. Displacement measuring interferometers (DMIs) measure linear and angular displacements with very high accuracy and precision. They are typically used in high-resolution, real time position control systems, such as those used in semiconductor lithography, e-beam and laser reticle writers, CD measurement tools, process equipment, and memory repair tools. DMIs are also used to characterize high-resolution, high-frequency mechanical motions, such as piezo transducers, linear and rotary scale calibration, and atomic force microscope (AFM) stage calibration. Fringe analysis interferometers rely on comparing the shape of the interference fringes to an ideal set of fringes. Usually this means a set of straight, parallel, equally spaced fringes. The shape of the fringe is found by locating the centers of the dark fringes. Phase measuring interferometers calculate the interference phase at every point in the interference pattern. These interference phases are then connected together to form a map, which is compared to an ideal map (usually a plane).

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KILN CAR MOVERS. Kiln car moving equipment is used to move ware to, from, through and around kilns at controlled rates of speed. The equipment is usually controlled by programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and is hydraulically or electrically operated. Car movement equipment consists of transfer cars, pushers, cable and chain haulages, indexers, multi-dog indexers, turntables, levelators, elevators and car tracking systems. Transfer cars travel perpendicular to kiln car flow on a steel rail system. Transfer cars carry loaded or empty kiln cars, normally one car at a time, to and from the kiln to adjoining parallel tracks, dryers, setting stations, etc. A transfer car system can be completely automatic or semi-automatic with PLC control, or manually operated. Depending upon need, transfer cars can be designed to carry up to 150,000 lbs of product. A kiln pusher is an electrically controlled, hydraulically operated, computer programmed, stationary hydraulic unit located at the entrance of the tunnel kiln. Using computer programming, this device systematically pushes one kiln car at a time into the tunnel kiln. It maintains the continuous push rate of the entire train of kiln cars through the kiln. Cable and chain haulages move kiln cars using floormounted dollies equipped with pusher dogs along a track through an endless winch design. Cable haulage systems are available in 3000 to 15,000 lb drawbar capacities. Chain haulage systems are available in 1000 to 3000 lb capacities. Both systems are electrically or hydraulically driven with PLC control. Either system can be supplied with top-of-floor design or with a hidden dolly design. Indexers are used to position kiln cars at various pieces of equipment, such as transfer cars, multi-dog indexers, levelators, elevators and setting machines. Indexers are hydraulically operated and are electrically controlled by a PLC. This system can be supplied with a top-of-floor or recessed design. Multi-dog indexers are used to build a train of cars with planned separation. The system can be hydraulic or electrically driven with PLC control. This system can be supplied with a top-of-floor design or with a hidden dolly design. Turntables are used to rotate the kiln car 45°, 90°, 180° or 360° for ease in loading and unloading kiln cars or redirecting car travel. These tables may be electrically controlled or manually operated. They are circular in design, come in various sizes and capacities, and are usually designed to be flush with the plant floor. The power-driven models have adjustable rotating speeds up to six revolutions per minute. Turntables are usually used in combination with multi-dog indexers so that some separation can be made between the kiln cars before they are rotated. Levelators are used with shuttle kilns and are provided to raise or lower one kiln car at a time for ease of loading and unloading ware. These devices are electrically controlled and hydraulically operated. Levelators are available in 5000 to 150,000 lb capacities. Elevators are used on tunnel kilns in combination with turntables. The turntable turns the kiln car 90°, then the kiln car is placed onto the elevator. The elevator raises or lowers the kiln car, one car at a time from 3 to 12-in. increments for ease in loading and unloading ware. These devices are electrically controlled and hydraulically operated.

ISOSTATIC PRESSES. See PRESSES, ISOSTATIC.

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KILN CAR MOVERS

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KILN CAR MOVER SUPPLIERS

SWINDELL DRESSLER INT’L. CO. 5100 Casteel Dr. Coraopolis, PA 15108 (412) 788-7100 Fax: (412) 788-7110 Email: [email protected] Website: www.swindelldressler.com KILN CAR TOPS. See KILN CARS. KILN CAR TRACKING SOFTWARE/SYSTEMS. Over the past five to 10 years, computers have become a commonplace tool for process management and productivity improvement. Today,

almost all new kilns are provided with some form of computer-based process control, and modern control electronics can easily be added to older kilns. Such systems can include kiln car tracking functions, as well as firing curves, kiln profile plots, trend plots, statistics for analyzing fuel flows, a kiln firing database, flashing and direct-mode operation, the ability to issue alarms and a straightforward user interface. Plant-wide car tracking systems are available that allow kiln car information to be monitored as it travels anywhere throughout the plant. With user-friendly graphical interfaces, car and product locations can be displayed in an instant. Car numbers are automatically read with bar code scanners at each car transfer point, thus eliminating manual intervention, even when cars are physically removed from the system. Each car is assigned vital product and car code information. The product code associated with each car contains all productrelated information, including drying and firing parameters. These product codes, in combination with the car location, can then be used to perform dynamic setpoint downloads. Dynamic setpoints allow temperature setpoints, damper adjustments, and other operating parameters to be automatically changed as new products cycle through the process. The setpoints can also be configured to automatically adjust for rate changes in the firing process. This allows for a totally automated firing process, virtually eliminating the need for operator intervention. The car tracking system also allows car thermal history to be collected as it travels through the kiln. This data provides a record of the firing curve for an each individual car. This data is then archived to a database for a comparison with other kiln cars for customer compliance information, maintenance flags, dynamic parameters, troubleshooting reasons, product matching, etc.

KILN CAR TRACKING SOFTWARE/SYSTEMS SUPPLIERS KILTEL SYSTEMS INC. 2809 96th Ave. N.E. Clyde Hill, WA 98004 (425) 451-7689 Fax: (425) 450-1722 Email: [email protected] Website: www.kiltel.com KILN CARS. Kiln designers of the 1960s and earlier thought that kiln cars should be constructed from the highest refractory grades used in the kiln chamber, and that they should also exhibit loadbearing properties. As a result, only relatively dense, heavy refractories, such as bricks and refractory concretes, were used. In many cases, the kiln car refractories alone typically weighed 10-20 times more than the product being fired. Users soon began to realize that these heavy kiln car constructions greatly influenced their overall manufacturing programs and production schedules. In the early 1970s, ceramic fiber was introduced as a layer of blanket laid on the upper surface of dense kiln cars as a thermal barrier. Basic trials quickly confirmed the material’s excellent insulating properties. Ceramic fiber in many shapes, forms and methods of installation became accepted by the industry as it allowed ceramic manufacturers to speed up their firing cycles. Kilns were redesigned to operate on schedules closer to the capabilities of the materials and products being fired—in some cases, for example, firing in 12-hour cycles for mixed sanitaryware items resulted in a 50% output increase over the old highthermal-mass kilns of the same size. Open ceramic fiber lightweight kiln cars were a major factor in this development. Unfortunately, the new car constructions were not without their own problems. After only a few years of using the new cars, manufacturers began to notice that ware losses due to “kiln dirt” increased significantly. Investigations revealed that the higher velocity combustion systems necessary to achieve the faster firing cycles were propelling the fibers on the kiln car surfaces airborne. This resulted in some erosion of the kiln car deck, which, in combination with the more severe thermal cycling of the kiln cars on a faster turnaround, exacerbated what was now becoming a major cause of firing losses. A further serious consideration emerged during the 1980s and early 1990s, when health and safety concerns with respect to the use of refractory ceramic fibers became a growing issue. At this point, the only option became encapsulating or even eliminating the fiber. The 1990s saw the introduction of a range of relatively lightweight systems designed to overcome or avoid the problems of open-fiber cars. Systems based on insulating brick formulations successfully tackled all of the disadvantages associated with fiber, but they could not match fiber’s extremely low thermal mass and highly insulating properties. The most thermally acceptable solutions were still those based on ceramic fiber, so some companies began developing ways to totally encapsulate the fiber in hard refractory tiles and/or insulating brick. An ultra-lightweight kiln car peripheral block system was introduced in the late 1990s that produces a totally encapsulated, lightweight, robust and durable kiln car base. The ultra-lightweight kiln car systems can be individually tailored for most car types. When used in conjunction with low-thermal-mass kiln furniture, the cars can reduce overall car weight by up to 65%, depending on the original structure. Such significant improvements in the ware-to-carweight ratio can offer kiln users the potential to speed up kiln cycle times or push rates (where the ware body allows), or to take advantage of the reduced energy consumption associated with ultra-low thermal mass kiln cars. KILN CONTROL PANELS. See CONTROL PANELS, ELECTRIC and COMBUSTION CONTROLLERS. KILN FURNITURE. Typical structures in modern, low-mass kiln furniture systems include hollow shapes, such as posts and beams, and flat shapes, such as setter plates. Historically, alu-

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KILN FURNITURE

mina-, mullite- and cordierite-based refractories were chosen for kiln furniture due to their resistance to chemical and physical degradation at high temperatures. However, with the increasing trend toward higher throughput, efficiency and automation, many manufacturers and kiln builders have begun choosing high-performance materials based on silicon carbide (SiC). KILN FURNITURE SUPPLIERS SMITH-SHARPE FIRE BRICK SUPPLY 2129 Broadway St. N.E. Minneapolis, MN 55413 (612) 331-1345 Fax: (612) 331-2156 Email: [email protected] Website: www.kilnshelf.com KILNS. Kilns are available in a wide range of designs and operation types, including bell, belt type, conveyor-type, decorating, electric, elevator, envelope, fast firing, high-temperature, laboratory, periodic, pusher-type, roller hearth, rotary, shuttle, tunnel and walking beam. (See specific categories below for more details.) Before trying to choose a kiln, you must first understand your firing objectives. In all cases, the kiln operator is looking for the same basic characteristics—uniformity and efficiency at the right temperature and atmosphere. The kiln needs to be able to heat the product, or ware, to the temperature required for the necessary ceramic reactions to occur within the body. These reactions typically occur between 900-1700ºC (1650-3100ºF). The kiln must also have the right composition of gases

in the atmosphere to allow the product to exit the kiln with the correct final properties. This can vary from the pure nitrogen atmosphere required for some technical ceramics to the strongly oxidizing or reducing conditions required to achieve the proper color in a whiteware glaze. The uniform treatment of all the products in the kiln is paramount to the industrial ceramist. Only with uniform treatment will all products exiting the kiln be the same and be saleable as “first quality.” This is important whether firing brick or electronic ceramics. Finally, efficiency is paramount to any business; however, many companies overlook the efficiency of their new kiln when comparing the initial cost of different designs. It is important to remember that the initial cost of any kiln is low compared to the fixed costs that can be added to your budget when the kiln is not efficient. The kiln should use the least possible amount of energy and labor while meeting production needs. Manufacturers should also ensure that they will be making efficient use of the equipment— why, for instance have two small kilns that are in use only 50% of the time when one larger kiln would suffice? Automating the kiln can also add to these efficiencies. (See also DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS and KILN CAR TRACKING SOFTWARE/SYSTEMS.)

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KILNS

KILN SUPPLIERS

L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com

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KILNS

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KILNS, ELECTRIC

KILN SUPPLIERS - continued NABERTHERM INC. 54 Read’s Way New Castle, DE 19720 (302) 322-3665 Fax: (302) 322-3215 Email: [email protected] Website: www.nabertherm.com OLYMPIC KILNS 4225 Thurmon Tanner Pkwy., P.O. Box 1347 Flowery Branch, GA 30542 (770) 967-4009 x108; (800) 241-4400 x108 Fax: (770) 967-1196 Email: [email protected] Website: www.greatkilns.com

SACMI USA LTD. 3434 106th Circle, P.O. Box 7858 Des Moines, IA 50322 (515) 276-2052 Fax: (515) 276-2084 Email: [email protected] Website: www.sacmiusa.com

use of staggered top and bottom burners on all sides, along with minimal square footage plant requirements compared to other types of kilns. This style of kiln uses a downdraft exhaust system that significantly improves temperature uniformity by pulling the exhaust gases to the coldest part of the kiln (bottom center of the car). Facilities using or desiring to use a bell kiln must have adequate headroom to accommodate the raised bell kiln. Different jet firing systems and a variety of shapes and sizes can usually be obtained, depending on the manufacturer’s needs.

KILNS, CALCINING. See CALCINERS. KILNS, CALCINING SUPPLIERS L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com SWINDELL DRESSLER INT’L. CO. 5100 Casteel Dr. Coraopolis, PA 15108 (412) 788-7100 Fax: (412) 788-7110 Email: [email protected] Website: www.swindelldressler.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com

KILNS, BELT TYPE SUPPLIERS THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, BENDING & CONVEXING. A kiln used for bending glass. KILNS, BENDING & CONVEXING SUPPLIERS

THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, BELL. The bell kiln derives its name from its totally enclosed, four-sided kiln structure that is raised and lowered, resembling a large bell. This style of kiln consists of a car bottom furnace that is lifted vertically by hydraulic cylinders positioned on each side of the kiln. It offers outstanding temperature uniformity in batch-fired production. Bell kilns are chosen for use in the technical ceramics and refractory industries, and provide benefits such as high temperature uniformity through the

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THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com

KILNS, BELL SUPPLIERS

KILNS, BELT TYPE. See KILNS, CONVEYOR TYPE.

SWINDELL DRESSLER INT’L. CO. 5100 Casteel Dr. Coraopolis, PA 15108 (412) 788-7100 Fax: (412) 788-7110 Email: [email protected] Website: www.swindelldressler.com

KILNS, BOX SUPPLIERS - continued

L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com KILNS, BOX. Typically available in a variety of sizes and temperature ranges, box kilns can be used for industrial or laboratory/R&D applications. KILNS, BOX SUPPLIERS L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com

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L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, CONVEYOR TYPE. A conveyor kiln has a heated chamber and a belt with loading/unloading areas. KILNS, CONVEYOR TYPE SUPPLIERS THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, DECORATING. Decorating kilns are used to fire glazes or decorations on glass or ceramics. KILNS, ELECTRIC. Electric kilns use electric power and heating elements (instead of fuels and burners) and are typically used for firing clay bodies and porcelain artware; decorating glass and ceramic articles; and processing technical ceramics, aerospace components, metals and a wide range of other materials requiring uniform and reliable high-temperature firing. KILNS, ELECTRIC SUPPLIERS L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com SKUTT KILNS 6441 S.E. Johnson Creek Blvd. Portland, OR 97206-9552 (503) 774-6000 Fax: (503) 774-7833 Email: [email protected] Website: www.skutt.com SWINDELL DRESSLER INT’L. CO. 5100 Casteel Dr. Coraopolis, PA 15108 (412) 788-7100 Fax: (412) 788-7110 Email: [email protected] Website: www.swindelldressler.com Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

KILNS, ELECTRIC

KILNS, ELECTRIC SUPPLIERS - continued

THERMALTEK INC. 2800 Armentrout Dr. Concord, NC 28025 (704) 784-3001 Fax: (704) 784-3020 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermaltek.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, ELEVATOR. With an elevator kiln, product is loaded and unloaded with a motorized lift mechanism that can typically be stopped or started at any point of travel. Complete access to load or unload product quickly is possible because the car, which also serves as the furnace hearth, can be rolled clear of the furnace area. KILNS, ELEVATOR SUPPLIERS L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com

KILNS, FAST-FIRING. Fast-firing kilns are designed to fire products on faster cycles than have been achieved in the past. While it has been possible for quite a while to fire ceramics on faster cycles, it has not always been practical. Firing cycles needed to be longer than necessary for the ware due to other constraints, such as kiln furniture, kiln insulation, ware loading and other factors. Advances in firing technology have eliminated these obstacles. Kiln furniture based on silicon carbide, for instance, has eliminated many of the problems associated with the conventionally used alumina silicate furniture systems. Silicon carbide sinters at a much higher temperature— over 3800°F (2100°C). It is also stronger at temperature and less susceptible to creep, which allows thinner cross sections to be used. Another advantage is its higher thermal conductivity, which is almost as high as the thermal conductivity of steel. This allows the temperature of the furniture to come to equilibrium quickly and makes it less susceptible to thermal shock. Insulating with ceramic fiber instead of conventional firebrick also allows much faster cycles. The lower density of ceramic fiber has better insulating properties and less heat storage than a firebrick lining. Kilns designed for fast firing typically include these and other features and can often reduce firing times by one-sixth or more compared to what was previously required. KILNS, HIGH-TEMPERATURE. High-temperature kilns, which typically fire above 1000ºF and as high as 4000ºF, are commonly used for testing and production operations in the ceramic industry. Kilns that operate above 3000°F are typically used in laboratory settings.

THERMALTEK INC. 2800 Armentrout Dr. Concord, NC 28025 (704) 784-3001 Fax: (704) 784-3020 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermaltek.com

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KILNS, HIGH-TEMPERATURE

KILNS, HIGH-TEMPERATURE SUPPLIERS HARPER INTERNATIONAL CORP. 100 W. Drullard Ave. Lancaster, NY 14086 (716) 684-7400 Fax: (716) 684-7405 Email: [email protected] Website: www.harperintl.com HARROP INDUSTRIES INC. 3470 E. Fifth Ave. Columbus, OH 43219 (614) 231-3621 Fax: (614) 235-3699 Email: [email protected] Website: www.harropusa.com L&L KILN MFG. INC. 505 Sharptown Rd. Swedesboro, NJ 08085 (856) 294-0077 Fax: (856) 294-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hotkilns.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com

PRODUCTION KILNS 7RXJK3UHFLVH$IIRUGDEOH

THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, ENVELOPE. The envelope kiln design provides for high production in a minimum amount of floor space. The kiln rolls on tracks to envelop ware placed on stationary beds. Some designs feature two completely accessible fixed beds, permitting rapid loading or unloading of one bed while the other is being fired. Total accessibility and the elimination of ware movement with the fixed bed design result in an optimized setting density, minimum kiln furniture requirements, a fast turn around time and low breakage losses for even the most delicate materials. Heating coils are typically distributed over walls, doors and beds, providing rapid and uniform firing. Firing schedules can be easily adjusted from one cycle to the next as sales and production demands vary. The usual decorating temperature for ceramics and glass can be attained in less than three hours. High-temperature firing, sintering, or calcining times will depend on the maximum temperature and loading requirements. :OHYW[V^U9K :^LKLZIVYV51 *HSS!   -H_  ZHSLZ'OV[RPSUZJVT

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KILNS, LABORATORY

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LABORATORY EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS

KILNS, LABORATORY. Laboratory kilns are typically smallscale units and are used for testing materials and products. KILNS, LABORATORY SUPPLIERS CARBOLITE INC. 110 S. Second St. Watertown, WI 53094 (920) 262-0240 Fax: (920) 262-0255 Email: [email protected] Website: www.carbolite.us THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, PERIODIC. A periodic kiln is simply a heated chamber. It contains at least one opening to allow the product to be loaded into and unloaded from the kiln. Once the unfired product has been placed in the kiln, the openings are sealed and the firing is started to heat the entire volume of the kiln. If the kiln is well designed, this is done quickly and uniformly. After the kiln has reached its peak temperature, the firing is stopped, and the kiln is allowed to cool. The kiln is then opened, and the fired product is removed. The downdraft periodic kiln was developed around 300 A.D. In it, the products of combustion first traveled up inside the kiln and then were forced down and exhausted through the bottom of the kiln. This made the kiln more fuel-efficient and improved the temperature uniformity. Modern periodic kilns have a few common variants. A fixed-hearth kiln, which is still one of the most common formats for a periodic kiln, features a door on the side or top for loading the kiln. The box kiln is a classic example of a fixedhearth kiln. Most studio pottery and laboratory kilns fall into the box category. Large industrial variants, such as the beehive and bottle-style kilns, are also still in use today. A shuttle kiln has one or more doors and one or more kiln cars that support the ware to be fired and act as the floor of the kiln. By shuttling two sets of cars to and from one kiln, the downtime for loading the kiln can be reduced. A variant on this design, the “envelope” kiln has one or more fixed loading platforms, and the kiln shuttles between these platforms. A top-hat kiln is a periodic kiln without swinging doors. In a small kiln, which is commonly referred to as an “elevator” kiln, the floor is often lowered out of the stationary kiln. As the load gets heavier and the kiln gets larger, it becomes less expensive to lift the kiln off the floor platform. These are referred to as “bell” kilns. These kilns are generally used for restricted-atmosphere and high-temperature applications, where a typical door creates difficulties in sealing the kiln. Periodic kilns are best for inconsistent or low-volume production. They are very flexible, as a different curve can be run in a periodic kiln every time it is started. With a periodic kiln, you can produce two or more completely different products in one kiln without having non-productive kiln time or performing the time-consuming adjustments required with a continuous kiln. Since periodic kilns operate intermittently, they are better for production that has large peaks and valleys. They can be left idle when there is no ware to be produced and then restarted as soon as demand increases. However, periodic kilns are less efficient than a continuous kiln with the same capacity. Since the whole of the kiln must be heated and cooled at the same time, more energy and time are required to process each piece of product. This is especially true at high temperatures, since the whole of the kiln lining must be constructed to resist the peak kiln temperature. In a continuous kiln, only a small fraction of the lining must resist the peak temperature. (See also KILNS, BELL; KILNS, ELEVATOR; and KILNS, SHUTTLE.)

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KILNS, PREFABRICATED. Prefabricated kilns—also known as modular kilns—are fully constructed in the kiln builder’s facility, then disassembled and shipped in sections or modules to the customer. The sections are then reassembled in the customer’s facility with a minimum amount of downtime. KILNS, PREFABRICATED SUPPLIERS HARROP INDUSTRIES INC. 3470 E. Fifth Ave. Columbus, OH 43219 (614) 231-3621 Fax: (614) 235-3699 Email: [email protected] Website: www.harropusa.com KILNS, PUSHER TYPE. Pusher type kilns feature a design similar to tunnel kilns but with a fixed floor or hearth. Heavy refractory plates containing the ware are pushed along the surface of this hearth. These kilns were popular before the invention of the roller hearth. Today, they are primarily used for special applications, such as for certain electronic ceramics that cannot be fired in other kiln types due to their small size, slow firing cycles and aggressive ingredients. (See also KILNS, ROLLER HEARTH and KILNS, TUNNEL.) KILNS, PUSHER TYPE SUPPLIERS CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey St. Bloomfield, NJ 07003 (973) 338-6500 Fax: (973) 338-1625 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cmfurnaces.com KILNS, ROLLER HEARTH. Like a pusher type kiln, roller hearth kilns also have a fixed floor, but the hearth is composed of a conveyor. In a roller hearth kiln, the “conveyor” is a series of ceramic or alloy rollers that extend through the walls of the kiln to an external drive system. The roller hearth kiln is typically used for very fast firing cycles. With roller hearth advancements, airlocks can be placed within the kiln to allow different atmospheres to be used at different times as the product progresses through the kiln. (See also KILNS, PUSHER TYPE.) KILNS, ROTARY. Rotary kilns are use to presinter and calcine materials such as hard ferrite and other electronic materials. The product must be in the form of small pellets so that it can be fed into one end of a rotating tube. These pellets are then heated and fall out of the other end, ready for further processing.

KILNS, SHUTTLE SUPPLIERS SWINDELL DRESSLER INT’L. CO. 5100 Casteel Dr. Coraopolis, PA 15108 (412) 788-7100 Fax: (412) 788-7110 Email: [email protected] Website: www.swindelldressler.com THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, TUNNEL. Tunnel kilns are continuously operating car bottom kilns that involve pushing a train of cars on a continuous push at a predetermined rate. They can be used in all ceramic industries requiring high-volume production. Through the use of computer technology, kiln car movement can be tracked through the kiln. Computer technology also allows for easy program changes in schedules, firing temperatures and temperature curves, which helps minimize production disruptions. These automatic controls can be programmed to make firing changes for differences in product size and color. (See also COMBUSTION CONTROLLERS, DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS and KILN CAR TRACKING SOFTWARE/SYSTEMS.) Continuous kilns such as tunnel, pusher-type, roller hearth and rotary kilns are best for consistent, high-volume production. They are more fuel-efficient than periodic kilns, since only the product and kiln furniture must be heated. It is easier to achieve uniform temperatures in a continuous kiln than a periodic kiln, since there are fewer heat sinks and the products are all heated in the same way. Because of this, a well-designed continuous kiln is able to run a faster cycle than a well-designed periodic kiln. By their nature, continuous kilns are more easily loaded and unloaded than a periodic kiln. However, continuous kilns are limited in their flexibility. As their name implies, they operate continuously and must therefore be loaded and unloaded around the clock. This requires either 24-hour staffing in the plant or an automatic buffering system to keep the kiln fed during the off hours. Continuous kilns are also limited in the amount of change that can be made to their temperature curves. They are built to maintain a profile along their length, and physical constraints are designed into the kiln. Drastic changes to the profile are not possible. (See also KILNS, PUSHER TYPE; KILNS, ROLLER HEARTH; and KILNS, ROTARY.) KILNS, TUNNEL SUPPLIERS

KILNS, ROTARY SUPPLIERS THERMCRAFT INCORPORATED 3950 Overdale Rd. Winston Salem, NC 27117 (336) 784-4800 Fax: (336) 784-0634 Email: [email protected] Website: www.thermcraftinc.com KILNS, SHUTTLE. A shuttle kiln is a car bottom kiln with a door on one or both ends. Burners are positioned at the top and bottom of each side. This type of kiln is generally a multi-car design and is used for processing whitewares, technical ceramics and refractories. Depending on the size and weight of the ware, shuttle kilns may be equipped with car moving devices to transfer fired and unfired cars in and out of the kiln. Shuttle kilns can be either updraft or downdraft in design. (See also KILN CAR TRACKING SOFTWARE/SYSTEMS and KILNS, PERIODIC.)

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SWINDELL DRESSLER INT’L. CO. 5100 Casteel Dr. Coraopolis, PA 15108 (412) 788-7100 Fax: (412) 788-7110 Email: [email protected] Website: www.swindelldressler.com KILNS, WALKING BEAM. Walking beam kilns/furnaces are typically used for heat treating tubes, bars, billets and slabs. The product is transported through a stationary unit via a rectangular walking beam. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS. Equipment and instruments designed for use in a laboratory setting for quality control/quality analysis purposes. (See specific equipment or instrument categories for more information.)

Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENTS

ENGIS CORP. 105 W. Hintz Rd. Wheeling, IL 60090 (847) 808-9400; (800) 993-6447 Fax: (847) 808-9430 Email: [email protected] Website: www.engis.com

CO2 lasers are the most common types of lasers used in the ceramic industry and emit in the far-infrared region of the spectrum. When using CO2 lasers to scribe ceramic materials, the pulse length must be kept short to allow for high-speed scribing without elongating the holes. Typically, pulse lengths for scribing range from 100 to 300 microseconds. Parameters for cutting ceramic substrates are similar to those used for scribing. The pulse repetition rate is determined by the scribing speed and scribe hole spacing. For example, a scribing speed of 8 in. (203 mm) per second with hole spacing of 0.005 in. (0.127 mm) would require 1600 pulses per second. The thickness of the ceramic substrate will determine the pulse repetition rate. For 0.025-in. (0.64 mm) thick substrates, the pulse repetition rate would typically be 300 Hz; for a 0.0400-in. (1 mm) thick substrate, the pulse repetition rate would typically be 500 Hz. The power used for ceramic scribing applications is relatively low. While the peak power of each pulse is quite high, the pulse length is very short, so the average, or integrated power of the pulses is low, typically between 50 to 150 watts. Power requirements will be determined by the depth of scribe penetration and the process speed. When cutting ceramic substrates, the power requirement is determined by the substrate thickness and consideration of thermal impact, especially when cutting complex geometries with acute angles. The typical power required for cutting 0.025-in. (0.64 mm) thick substrates would be 50 watts; for 0.060-in. (1.52 mm) substrates, 150 watts. Lenses used for ceramic processing are almost always 2.5-in. focal length (f.l.), since shorter focal length lenses produce the smallest focused spot size. While lenses shorter than 2.5-in. f.l. can be used, their limited depth of field can be problematic. Ceramic substrates are not always perfectly flat; often their camber irregularities are greater than the depth of field of very short focal length lenses, leading to changes in focus, and inconsistent results. Gas jets used for cutting ceramic are similar to those used for cutting metals. The exit orifice of the cutting nozzle is 0.050-in. diameter. The nozzle standoff is usually around 0.020-in. from the surface of the ceramic substrate. The nozzles in gas jets used for ceramic scribing have large exit orifices, usually 0.125-in. (3.18 mm). The gas jet does not produce a columnar flow as would a gas jet used for cutting ceramic; rather, it serves to divert the molten ceramic from striking the lens. Nozzle standoff is typically 0.250 to 0.500 in. Assist gasses used for cutting and scribing ceramic substrates are almost always compressed air, although oxygen can be used for scribing as some ceramic compositions tend to discolor with air. Gas pressure for scribing is nominally 40 psi; gas pressure used for cutting ceramic ranges from 60 to 120 psi, depending on the substrate thickness. DPSS lasers are available in a variety of wavelengths, including 355 nm in the ultraviolet (UV) region of the spectrum, 532 nm in the green portion, and 1064 nm in the nearinfrared region. The latest DPSS lasers contain one or more diode laser arrays that are used to continuously pump a rod of neodymium-doped vanadate (Nd:YVO4), and an acousto-optic Q-switch that is used to generate pulsed output. UV-DPSS lasers are used in ceramic procesing applications where CO2 and other long wavelength lasers are unsuitable. These applications usually involve small feature sizes or require highquality processing where no thermal degradation is tolerated and where speed of manufacturing is not the primary concern. The short wavelength of UV-DPSS lasers (355 nm) compared with CO2 lasers (10,600 nm) allows them to focus down to smaller spots for applications such as drilling vias.

LASERS. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) lasers are used for precisely cutting, welding, drilling and scribing alumina, aluminum oxide (Al2O3), aluminum nitride (AlN) and beryllium oxide (BeO), as well as unfired (green) substrates.

LEHRS. A lehr is a continuous kiln with a long, tunnelshaped oven for firing or maturing a decorating and/or annealing glass. The ware passes through on a continuously moving lehr belt—a metal mesh conveyor made of various metal alloys and designed to provide resistance to heavy

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT/INSTRUMENT SUPPLIERS BYK-GARDNER USA, BYK ADDITIVES AND INSTRUMENTS, ALTANA 9104 Guilford Rd. Columbia, MD 21046-2729 (301) 483-6500; (800) 343-7721 Fax: (301) 483-6555 Email: [email protected] Website: www.byk.com PARTICLE SIZING SYSTEMS 8203 Kristel Cir. Port Richey, FL 34668 (727) 846-0866 Fax: (727) 846-0865 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pssnicomp.com

RETSCH INC. 74 Walker Ln. Newtown, PA 18940 (866) 473-8724 Fax: (267) 757-0358 Email: [email protected] Website: www.retsch-us.com LAPPING. Lapping is a machining operation used to achieve a specific surface finish. An abrasive is placed between two surfaces and they are rubbed together by hand or with a machine. LAPPING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS LIBERTY MACHINERY COMPANY 111 Schelter Rd. Lincolnshire, IL 60069 (847) 276-2761 Fax: (847) 276-2762 Email: [email protected] Website: www.libertymachinery.com LAPPING & POLISHING EQUIPMENT. Lapping is used to achieve specific surface finish, flatness and parallelism. In the lapping process, revolving flat surfaces abrade the ceramic part with a diamond or other abrasive lapping compound. The surface finish is controlled through selection of the proper abrasive, pressure and lapping cycle. The shape of the tool surface (the lapping wheel) and the type of the tool motion should be chosen so that the ideal shape of the tool is preserved for the maximum length of time and the largest possible number of pieces are processed to a precision approaching the ideal shape. Depending upon the degree of hardness and porosity of the lapping wheel, each lapping grain will tumble, thus producing a stock removing action. (See also GRINDING MACHINES.) LAPPING & POLISHING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

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MILLS

loads, high temperatures and surface spray deterioration. Lehrs can be either gas-fired or electric-powered. LEHRS, ELECTRIC. See LEHRS. LOADERS, PALLET CAR. See BRICK MACHINES. MACHINING EQUIPMENT, CERAMIC. Grinding, cutting and other machinery used for precision cutting and machining of ceramics. See specific categories for additional details. MACHINING EQUIPMENT, CERAMIC SUPPLIERS LIBERTY MACHINERY COMPANY 111 Schelter Rd. Lincolnshire, IL 60069 (847) 276-2761 Fax: (847) 276-2762 Email: [email protected] Website: www.libertymachinery.com MANDRELS, DIAMOND. See DIAMOND MANDRELS. METAL DETECTORS. Metal detectors are used in conjunction with magnetic separators to remove tramp metal from processing streams. Removing contamination from slip lines improves product purity, reduces defects and rework due to contamination, and eliminates costly downtime by protecting downstream equipment. (See also SEPARATORS, MAGNETIC.) MICROSCOPES. An optical instrument consisting of a lens or combination of lenses for making enlarged images of minute objects.6 MICROSCOPE SUPPLIERS ALLIED HIGH TECH PRODUCTS INC. 2376 E. Pacifica Pl. Rancho Dominguez, CA 90220 (800) 675-1118; (310) 635-2466 Fax: (310) 762-6808 Email: [email protected] Website: www.alliedhightech.com MICROSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT. Measures and analyzes information about a material’s microstructure, including surface area, pore size/volume and chemisorption. (See also ANALYZERS, CHEMISORPTION; ANALYZERS, PORE SIZE; and MICROSCOPES.) MICROWAVE SYSTEMS. See DRYERS, MICROWAVE and FURNACES, MICROWAVE. MILL LININGS. Mills are typically lined with wear-resistant steel or stainless steel. In applications where metal contamination is a concern, high-density ceramic or porcelain brick linings can be used. (See also MILL PARTS, ABRASION-RESISTANT.) MILL PARTS, ABRASION-RESISTANT. Parts such as media mill disks and dispersing blades can be made resistant to abrasives through the use of polymers, ceramics and metals, as well as combinations of those materials. For applications involving the milling of highly abrasive materials, such as TiO2, oxide pigments, ferrite and silica, abrasion resistance helps extend part life and reduce impurities in the finished product.19 MILLS. Milling, also known as comminution, grinding and size reduction, is a process in which small particles are produced by reducing the size of large ones. Invariably, dry ceramic powders are received from powder manufacturers in agglomerated form. The ceramic component manufacturers utilize these powders to prepare the required size distributions via milling techniques. Wet milling techniques predominate because dry milling has limitations in the proCERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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ATTRITOR

duction of particle agglomerates that are finer than a few micrometers. The general purpose of a milling system is to produce powders of a specific product size distribution. Consequently, control of the milling circuits involves maintaining optimum size distribution without producing too many particles that fall outside of the desired size distribution. In addition, maintaining or maximizing the mill throughput is often required. Therefore, the common control objective is to operate the mill at the maximum throughput that will produce the particle size distribution. Based on operator experience, these objectives can be achieved by controlling process variables such as feed size distribution, mill power or speed, ratio of solid to liquid, feed rate and flow rate. This type of control does not work when the operating conditions deviate from the norm. Thus, some form of on-line measurement of particle size is required to achieve reproducibility in powder milling, so that compensating changes can be made based on the deviations. 1 (See ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE.) Most mills are designed in either a horizontal or vertical format. (See the separate MILL categories for more information about specific types of mills.)

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MILL SUPPLIERS

MILLS, ABRASION-RESISTANT. Mills designed to resist the damaging effects of abrasive materials. (See also MILL PARTS, ABRASION-RESISTANT and MILLS.) MILLS, ABRASION-RESISTANT SUPPLIERS

BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com NETZSCH PREMIER TECHNOLOGIES LLC, GRINDING & DISPERSION DIV. 125 Pickering Way Exton, PA 19341 (484) 879-2020 Fax: (610) 280-1299 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-grinding.com

PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com

NETZSCH PREMIER TECHNOLOGIES LLC, GRINDING & DISPERSION DIV. 125 Pickering Way Exton, PA 19341 (484) 879-2020 Fax: (610) 280-1299 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-grinding.com MILLS, ATTRITOR. Attritor mills use internally agitated media to comminute or grind materials. In most attritor mills, the materials and grinding media are fed into a stationary tank and are agitated by a shaft with arms that rotate at a high speed. The agitation causes the media to exert both shearing and impact forces on the material. Some attritor mills use a rotating chamber, which drags the material to the inside and mixes it with the grinding media. As soon as the material enters the chamber, the high pressure of the load at the bottom of the grinding chamber, which is caused by the weight of the grinding media, develops into a very intense grinding action. The intense movement of the grinding media provides a high dynamic input into the agitator (most of the grinding action takes place in this zone), and the compression of the grinding media in front of a deflector produces a high level of attrition between the grinding media and the material. The rotation of the grinding chamber ensures that all areas experience an equal amount of grinding action. As a

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November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM/EQUIPMENTDIGEST

Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

MILLS, ATTRITOR

result, the energy supplied to the agitator is always high, intense contact between the grinding media and the agitator is always guaranteed, and material buildup on the wall and bottom of the grinding chamber is prevented. During the grinding process, the fine material is pulled from the bottom of the grinding chamber to above the grinding media, where it is automatically extracted and sent through an air classifier. Oversized particles are recirculated back into the mill with the coarse grain for additional grinding until the desired fineness is achieved. The grinding media, which is consumed during the grinding process, is continuously replaced through a material feeding tube.

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MILLS, IMPACT

instances, the rotor/stator interface is adjustable to regulate the shearing conditions. Tip speeds are up to approximately 14,000 fpm. Laboratory and production models are available up to 250 hp. Colloid mills are typically used for fine dispersions and emulsions.41

MILLS, BALLS & LININGS FOR SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com

MILLS, HAMMER. See HAMMER MILLS. MILLS, IMPACT. See CRUSHERS, GRINDERS, HAMMER MILLS and PULVERIZERS.

MILLS, COLLOID. Colloid mills consist of a high-speed rotor turning at close clearances within a fixed stator. In some

MILLS, ATTRITOR SUPPLIERS

Think Fine and Finer ▲

EIRICH MACHINES INC. 4033 Ryan Rd. Gurnee, IL 60031 (847) 336-2444 Fax: (847) 336-0914 Email: [email protected] Website: www.eirichusa.com

DMQ-10

Small Media Milling Systems for submicron grinding and nanodispersions

HSA-1/1-S Combination dry grinding/wet grinding laboratory mill

▲

UNION PROCESS INC. 1925 Akron Peninsula Rd. Akron, OH 44313 (330) 929-3333 Fax: (330) 929-3034 Email: [email protected] Website: www.unionprocess.com MILLS, BALL. Ball mills, also called pebble mills, use rolling jars loaded with grinding balls and/or cylinders to mix product. Many models and materials of construction are available.

Union Process offers fine grinding and dispersing systems capable of delivering narrow, uniform particle size distributions in the micron, sub-micron and nanometer ranges. Varying materials of construction are available for grinding tank linings, shafts, agitator arms and disks for material compatibility or metal-free milling systems. • Lab, pilot scale or full-sized production equipment available for either wet or dry milling. • Union Process is a full service solution provider offering grinding and dispersing equipment, grinding media, lab testing and process optimization services, toll milling, particle size analyses and particle characterization.

We provide solutions for all of your grinding and dispersing needs.

MILLS, BALL SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com

Contact us today! Phone (330) 929-3333 Fax (330) 929-3034 Email: [email protected] www.unionprocess.com

MILLS, BALLS & LININGS FOR. Ball mill liners can be used to maximize throughput and increase liner life. Liners can be made of Burrstone, metal, rubber or porcelain. (See also MILLS, BALL and MILL LININGS.)57

© 2008, Union Process, Inc. All rights reserved. 508-23

Expanding the Possibilities For Size Reduction Submit equipment definitions online at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest. CI07084UnionP.indd 1

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MILLS, IMPACT

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MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT

MILLS, IMPACT SUPPLIERS STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com MILLS, JAR See MILLS, BALL and MILLS, PEBBLE. MILLS, JAR SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MILLS, JET. Jet mills pulverize materials in a central chamber by driving them at high velocities around the chamber’s perimeter using multiple jets of air or steam. Size reduction is the result of the high-velocity collisions between particles of the process material itself. No grinding media is involved. (See also MILLS, PULVERIZING and PULVERIZERS, JET.) MILLS, JET SUPPLIERS

MILLS, PEBBLE. Pebble mills were originally lined with brick and used pebbles (silica) as the grinding media. First popularized in the paint industry (where iron was an unacceptable contaminant to many processes), the term is now loosely used to refer to any lined mill. (See also MILLS, BALL.)58 MILLS, PEBBLE SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com

MILLS, TUBE SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MILLS, TUMBLING. Tumbling mills use horizontal rotating cylinders, which contain both the grinding media and the particles to be broken. These obtain potential energy, which becomes kinetic energy as the media and the particles fall from the rotating shell of the mill.59 MILLS, TUMBLING SUPPLIERS

MILLS, PUG. See PUG MILLS. MILLS, PULVERIZING. See MILLS, JET and PULVERIZERS. MILLS, PULVERIZING SUPPLIERS GLEN MILLS INC. 220 Delawanna Ave. Clifton, NJ 07014-1550 (973) 777-0777 Fax: (973) 777-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.glenmills.com

PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MILLS, VERTICAL. See MILLS. MILLS, WET GRINDING. See GRINDERS, WET MILLING. MILLS, WET GRINDING SUPPLIERS

NETZSCH PREMIER TECHNOLOGIES LLC, GRINDING & DISPERSION DIV. 125 Pickering Way Exton, PA 19341 (484) 879-2020 Fax: (610) 280-1299 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-grinding.com MILLS, LABORATORY. Mills intended for laboratory and research and development use. (See also MILLS.)

STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com MILLS, ROD. A rod mill includes steel rods that assist in the grinding process. MILLS, ROD SUPPLIERS

MILLS, LABORATORY SUPPLIERS GLEN MILLS INC. 220 Delawanna Ave. Clifton, NJ 07014-1550 (973) 777-0777 Fax: (973) 777-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.glenmills.com NETZSCH PREMIER TECHNOLOGIES LLC, GRINDING & DISPERSION DIV. 125 Pickering Way Exton, PA 19341 (484) 879-2020 Fax: (610) 280-1299 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-grinding.com PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com RETSCH INC. 74 Walker Ln. Newtown, PA 18940 (866) 473-8724 Fax: (267) 757-0358 Email: [email protected] Website: www.retsch-us.com

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PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MILLS, ROLLER. Roller mills impart pressure in a dry milling process to grind and reduce larger-sized material to the required smaller particle size. (See also MILLS.) MILLS, ROLLER SUPPLIERS MILLS, RUBBER-LINED. Mills lined with rubber reduce sound and provide surface impact resistance. MILLS, RUBBER-LINED SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MILLS, TUBE. Tube mills are long, cylindrical mills designed for continuous flow operation.

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EIRICH MACHINES INC. 4033 Ryan Rd. Gurnee, IL 60031 (847) 336-2444 Fax: (847) 336-0914 Email: [email protected] Website: www.eirichusa.com NETZSCH PREMIER TECHNOLOGIES LLC, GRINDING & DISPERSION DIV. 125 Pickering Way Exton, PA 19341 (484) 879-2020 Fax: (610) 280-1299 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-grinding.com PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MINING AND BENEFICIATION EQUIPMENT. The raw materials used as constituents in ceramics all have their primary origin in nature. Some raw materials are incorporated into ceramic products in their natural form while others require treatment and processing prior to use. In general, raw materials for high-tonnage products (such as brick, concrete, refractories and so on) receive little or no preliminary processing, while those for lowtonnage ceramic products (such as ceramics used for electronic components, ceramic cutting tools and optical glass) receive extensive beneficiation. The trend today is toward additional processing of all raw materials, even for high-tonnage applications, because more restrictive and narrow specification requirements are applied to the properties of ceramic products and because the best natural deposits are gradually being depleted.1 MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT. The objectives of mixing are to produce a mixture with a composition and/or particle size distribution that approaches the uniform state on a scale of size appropriate to the use of the mixture, in a manner that suits the subsequent processing operations. ComSupplier listings indicate paid advertising.

MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT

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MOLDS, RESIN

MIXERS, BATCH SUPPLIERS - continued mon operations in the ceramic industry are to mix different types of particulate solids with each other, and/or with liquids that may contain components in solution. The machine used to mix the components must be capable of causing the individual particles to move relative to one another. The type of machine selected depends on the rheological properties of the mixture. Many different designs of particle mixers exist to handle different types of mixtures and quantities of material to be processed. Mixers are designed for either batch or continuous operation. Most have been developed to process materials that are not as hard or abrasive as ceramics, but these may be suitable if the mixer parts that contact the mixture are either made from wear-resistant materials or coated with a tough polymeric material. Selecting the most suitable mixer is a difficult task that involves trials with the particular mixture and assessment of the quality of the mixture produced. The mixing action results from the complex interplay of the movements of the mixing tools and/or body of the mixer and the rheological behavior of the mixture, which tends to change as mixing proceeds. Consequently, the mixing action of a given mixture varies with the material being mixed. For example, turbulent flow, which can disperse agglomerates, may be induced in suspensions of low apparent viscosity, but not in those with a high value.1 MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com

MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS continued

PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MIXERS, CLAY. The preliminary stage of mixing heavy clay products is carried out in a muller mixer. The clay, contained in a cylindrical pan with water, is sheared and crushed between the heavy muller wheels and the surface of the pan. Plows direct the mixture under the wheels. Further mixing and deairing is performed in a pug mill.1 (See also PUG MILLS.) MIXERS, CLAY SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MIXERS, DRUM. Drum-type mixers have an axis of rotation that is horizontal to the center of the drum. Internal flights and chutes create a low-shear, gravity-flow, fast mixing action.35 (See also MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT.)

GLEN MILLS INC. 220 Delawanna Ave. Clifton, NJ 07014-1550 (973) 777-0777 Fax: (973) 777-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.glenmills.com LANCASTER PRODUCTS, MFD. BY KERCHER INDUSTRIES INC. 920 Mechanic St. Lebanon, PA 17046 (717) 273-2111 Fax: (717) 273-2967 Email: [email protected] Website: www.lancasterproducts.com

MIXERS, VACUUM. Vacuum mixing is primarily used to remove air from an end product. It is also used in combination with heat to expedite drying.41 MIXERS, VACUUM SUPPLIERS PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MOISTURE ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, MOISTURE.

EIRICH MACHINES INC. 4033 Ryan Rd. Gurnee, IL 60031 (847) 336-2444 Fax: (847) 336-0914 Email: [email protected] Website: www.eirichusa.com

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PAUL O. ABBE INC. 735 E. Green St., P.O. Box 80 Bensenville, IL 60106 (630) 350-2200 Email: [email protected] Website: www.pauloabbe.com MIXERS, BATCH. Batch mixers process a quantity of material at a time, as opposed to operating in a continuous flow.35 (See also MIXERS & MIXING EQUIPMENT.) MIXERS, BATCH SUPPLIERS NETZSCH PREMIER TECHNOLOGIES LLC, GRINDING & DISPERSION DIV. 125 Pickering Way Exton, PA 19341 (484) 879-2020 Fax: (610) 280-1299 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-grinding.com

Submit equipment definitions online at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest.

MOLDS, RESIN. While plaster molds are still the primary type of mold used for RAM-pressed ware, molds made out of resin and other synthetic materials have become increasingly popular over the past several years. Resin molds can yield more than 15 times the number of pressings of plaster on average, yet cost only eight to 10 times more. This means that the initial costs can be quickly recouped through the additional production capabilities of the synthetic dies. Porous resins have the added benefit of flexibility. Should the die halves contact each other either on or off the press, the die will give slightly rather than fracture as it would if made of plaster or another rigid material. While plasters used in RAM Press dies may deflect up to 0.003 in. before cracking, porous plastic will actually bend before breaking. Additionally, the new materials allow potteries to use their dies for short production runs. The pottery can press parts, then clean the die and store it for use at a later date without noticeable die deterioration. The new materials can be drilled, taped, repaired and sanded. Damaged dies have often been restored and placed back into service, a trait not shared by other, less flexible materials. Harder and stronger resins have been successfully integrated into the cutoff edge of “standard” porous plastic working dies. This marriage of materials provides the normal requirement for the airflow and porosity needed to press and release parts, yet wears more slowly on the cutoff edge. Other hard materials have also been integrated into the cutoff edge with similar success. These advances provide working dies with a production life of over 20,000 cycles and more, easily twice the capability of standard synthetics. CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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MOLDS, RESIN

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POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

MOLDS, RESIN SUPPLIERS RESTECH-US 1091 Stimmel Rd. Columbus, OH 43223 (614) 443-4634 Fax: (614) 443-4813 Email: [email protected] Website: www.restechus.com MUFFLES, REFRACTORY. A muffle is a gas-tight enclosure that protects the pieces of a furnace load from contact with the products of combustion.30 (See also REFRACTORIES and TUBES, RADIANT.) NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING EQUIPMENT. See TESTING EQUIPMENT, NONDESTRUCTIVE and TESTING EQUIPMENT, ULTRASONIC. NOZZLES, REFRACTORY. A nozzle is an opening, port, orifice or jet tube through which a fluid flows. For burners, the nozzle delivers air, fuel or an air-fuel mixture to the combustion chamber.5 (See also REFRACTORIES.) NOZZLE, SAND BLAST. Sand blast nozzles control the flow of sand (or other abrasive material) during sand blasting. Nozzles are available in a variety of materials and sizes, depending on the specific application. Due to the abrasive nature of sand blasting, sand blast nozzles can degrade over time and should be replaced when worn for best results. OVENS. Ovens apply heat to a product in a batch or continuous system. The heat can be applied to a product using any combination of the three heat transfer methods: radiation, conduction or convection. Due to the cost of operation, ovens need to be thermally efficient and can range in size from small batch ovens to large multi-zone, continuous process ovens with integrated material handling systems. State-ofthe-art, high-velocity impingement convection ovens provide exceptional temperature uniformity and maximized production.32 (See also OVENS, INDUSTRIAL.) OVENS, INDUSTRIAL. Like kilns, furnaces and dryers, industrial ovens come in a variety of different types and sizes. Convection ovens use heated air to process a variety of products for drying and curing. They offer consistent, even heating throughout the oven. Convection heating can be direct or indirect with virtually any fuel from natural gas to coal. Advantages of convection ovens include the ability to provide heat transfer and mass transfer; accurate temperature control; uniform heating regardless of product size, color or shape; and non-contact heating. Disadvantages include a lower rate of heat transfer compared to other types of heating; increased exposure time; slower start up and cool down; the possibility of disturbing or contaminating the product from air movement; and a reliance on the thermal conductivity of the product to heat the interior of thick products. Infrared ovens transfer energy via electromagnetic radiation between a source and an object. Most materials absorb heat in the infrared wave band with useful wavelengths for industrial applications in the 3- to 8-micron range. Radiant heating (electric, gas, steam, oil) is often used for drying textiles, ceramics and paint (wood and metal); hardening powder paint; and heat treatment of plastics. It is most beneficial in the rapid direct heating of a product. Its advantages include a high rate of heat transfer, quick start up, a small footprint, no air movement, undisturbed product or coating, energy efficiency and a low capital cost. Disadvantages include difficult temperature control; a potential of overheating the product; line-of-sight heat transfer, which requires precise placement of the product in the oven; a heating rate dependent on product characteristics; and a reliance on the thermal conductivity of the product to heat the interior of thick products. Radio frequency (RF) or dielectric ovens use radio frequencies between 10-100 MHZ to dry or heat products. These ovens are normally used for products with high loss factors,

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such as wet materials, vinyl, plastics and adhesives, and other non-electrically conductive products. They provide significant advantages of faster drying time, less floor space, uniform drying, instant on/off and targeted drying. However, they might not heat complex shapes uniformly, they cannot be used on metal or conductive materials, they are generally not effective with organic solvents, and they generally have a higher capital cost since they use electricity. Combination ovens combine both infrared and convection, or radio frequency and convection, in a single oven to deliver more effective and efficient heat transfer, while increasing productivity and quality at reduced operating costs. Combination systems typically have independent temperature controls for the convection, infrared or radio frequency (RF) operations. Such systems have been shown to increase quality and productivity, hold temperatures to within two degrees of the set point, require less space, and cost less to operate than the systems they replace.23 (See also DRYERS, FURNACES, KILNS and OVENS.) OXY-FUEL SYSTEMS. See BURNERS, OXY-FUEL. OXYGEN MONITORING INSTRUMENTS. See INSTRUMENTS, OXYGEN MONITORING. PACKAGING EQUIPMENT. A variety of systems exist for packaging applications. For finished products, such as brick, plastic or steel strapping is often used. For bulk powders and granules in that are packaged in bags, automated filling systems are typical. Some systems feature a unique, bottomup fill method that minimizes product aeration for improved product quality and effective dust control. Other options include product deaeration, modified atmosphere packaging and robotic palletizing. (See also PACKAGING EQUIPMENT, BRICK and STRAPPING EQUIPMENT.) PACKAGING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com PACKAGING EQUIPMENT, BRICK. See PACKAGING EQUIPMENT and STRAPPING EQUIPMENT. PACKAGING EQUIPMENT, BRICK SUPPLIERS SIGNODE PACKAGING SYSTEMS 500 W. Fourth St., Ste. 202 Winston Salem, NC 27101 (877) 744-2742 Fax: (336) 724-1837 Email: [email protected] Website: www.signode.com PARTICLE SIZE ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE. PNEUMATIC CONVEYORS. See CONVEYORS, PNEUMATIC. POLISHING EQUIPMENT See LAPPING & POLISHING EQUIPMENT. POLISHING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS LIBERTY MACHINERY COMPANY 111 Schelter Rd. Lincolnshire, IL 60069 (847) 276-2761 Fax: (847) 276-2762 Email: [email protected] Website: www.libertymachinery.com

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POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS. Many pollution control systems are used in the ceramic and related industries, including dust collectors, scrubbers, selective catalytic reduction, selective non-catalytic reduction and zero ammonia technology. Several different types of scrubbers can be used to control hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen chloride (HCl), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter (PM) emissions from tunnel kilns. Dry lime injection fabric filters (DIFF) inject hydrated lime (a dry lime powder) into the kiln exhaust. The lime and kiln exhaust mix in a reaction chamber or an exhaust duct and are ducted to a fabric filter. Acid gas removal takes place in the exhaust duct or reaction chamber and subsequent ductwork, and across the lime-caked fabric filter bags. The fabric filter then removes the lime and other PM from the exhaust stream prior to release to the atmosphere. The spent lime and PM collected by the fabric filter are then disposed of as solid waste. In some cases, the lime can be used by landfills to solidify liquid hazardous waste, preventing the disposing facility from having to pay disposal charges. Dry lime scrubber/fabric filters (DLS/FF) mix fresh hydrated lime, re-circulated hydrated lime, and a small amount of water in a conditioning drum. The lime/water mixture is then injected into a reaction chamber where it mixes with the kiln exhaust. Acid gas removal takes place in the reaction chamber, subsequent ductwork, and across the lime-caked fabric filter bags. Additionally, the hot exhaust gases from the kiln evaporate the water in the lime/water mixture, thereby cooling the exhaust gases before entering the fabric filter. From the reaction chamber, the exhaust stream is ducted to a fabric filter for PM removal, and a percentage of the fabric filter catch is reintroduced into the conditioning drum along with fresh lime and water. Wet scrubbers (WS) can also be used to control HF, HCl, SO2 and PM emissions from tunnel kilns. One type of WS system currently in use is a vertical, packed-tower scrubber. This system first quenches the exhaust gases with a soda-ash and water solution. The exhaust gases then pass through 5 ft of random dump packing followed by a demister. The soda-ash and water solution is also added to the top of the packing material, countercurrent to the gas flow. The other WS currently in use with tunnel kilns is a fluidized bed scrubber that uses water and sodium hydroxide as the scrubbing solution. Another type of wet scrubber system has been developed specifically for the brick industry. The system is a cross-flow scrubber that includes the addition of magnesium hydroxide (Mg[OH]2) to the scrubber water. The Mg(OH)2 reacts with HF, HCl, and SO2 to form several salts, including magnesium fluoride (MgF2), magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO4). A pilot-scale test of the system reportedly showed HF control efficiencies greater than 99%, SO2 control efficiencies greater than 95%, and PM concentrations lower than 0.023 grams per dry standard cubic meter (g/dscm) (0.1 grains per dry standard cubic foot (gr/dscf)). The testing did not include measurements of HCl emissions. In some cases, the scrubber wastewater from wet scrubbers can be discharged directly to the sewer; however, this water disposal option is not available to all facilities. Manufacturers of wet scrubbers have devised alternative solutions such as spray dryers or evaporators to eliminate the liquid waste. Dry limestone adsorbers (DLAs), another scrubber technology, feed limestone into the top of a reaction chamber countercurrent to the kiln exhaust gases. The limestone cascades through multiple baffles within the chamber and reacts with and removes HF, and, to a lesser degree, HCl and SO2 from the kiln exhaust. The system does not provide a mechanism for controlling PM. Depending on the system, the limestone is then pneumatically conveyed directly back to the top of the chamber or is mechanically processed (scraped) to remove reacted material from the surface and then pneumatically conveyed back to the top of the reaction chamber. New limestone is periodically added to the system as needed. On May 16, 2004, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s final National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS

(NESHAP) for Brick and Structural Clay Products Manufacturing and Clay Ceramics Manufacturing (commonly known as the “MACT” rule because it requires the use of a maximum achievable control technology [MACT]) was published in the Federal Register. The final rule allows the use of DLAs to retrofit existing kilns that do not currently have pollution control technologies in place. However, it champions the use of DIFF, DLS/FF and WS as appropriate technologies for new large tunnel kilns and for reconstructed large tunnel kilns that were equipped with DIFF, DLS/FF or WS prior to reconstruction. A scrubber should include the following features, listed in priority of plant importance: Efficiency. The temptation with control devices is to “buy cheap” since the devices themselves do not add to the plant’s bottom line. However, all decision-makers will quickly forget how much money was saved if a system fails to perform on all required emission targets (generally hydrogen fluoride [HF], hydrogen chloride [HCl], sulfur oxides [SOx] and particulate matter [PM]). Efficiency should be the key factor in choosing a control system. A properly designed system includes redundancy on mechanical parts and sufficient mass transfer, and should be relatively easy to maintain. Low Operating Costs. The system must scrub at the lowest possible cost per unit of pollutant collected. The cost analysis should include energy, maintenance, labor hours, reagent usage, disposal costs and expected lifespan of the components. (Acid gases are very corrosive and can limit housing life, for example, without the use of proper construction materials.) Final system costs, including operating costs, can be determined by studying three key parameters: gas volume (determined by the kiln manufacturer), emissions estimates (determined through experience, stack tests or pyrohydrolysis), and kiln emission moisture content. Redundancy and Turndown Capability. The system should be rugged, with redundant pumps and sensors, and with easy access to internals for inspection or maintenance. Kilns often have variations in gas flow due to flashing and other techniques. The scrubber should be capable of operating efficiently during these gasflow swings. For controlling NOx emissions, some plants use selective catalytic reduction (SCR), which involves mixing the exhaust air with gaseous reagent, typically ammonia or urea, and passing the homogenous mixture over a bed of catalyst designed for reaction completion at the airstream temperature. The catalyst promotes a reaction between NH3, NOx and the excess oxygen (O2) in the exhaust stream, forming nitrogen (N2) and water (H2O). Traditionally, the catalyst is shaped as a monolithic honeycomb structure with cell density varying from 30 to 200 cells per sq in. The monoliths provide for a low pressure drop at linear velocity in excess of 10 ft per second, which translates into a compact catalyst bed design. Historically, the typical operating temperatures of vanadia/titania catalysts are between 500 and 800ºF, and that has satisfied many industrial applications. Low-temperature gases can be treated using heat recovery systems, but advances in catalyst technology have created catalysts that can directly treat operating temperatures as low as 250ºF. For high-temperature applications up to 1100ºF, zeolite catalysts provide for high performance and stability. In these times of ever increasing utility costs, properly matching the catalyst to the process temperature will optimize performance and result in lower operation costs. Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) uses the same principle of reacting NOx with ammonia in the presence of oxygen, but uses gas-phase free-radical reactions instead of a catalyst to promote reactions. In order to achieve a high NOx reduction, the gas mixture must be kept within a relatively narrow and high temperature range of 1600-2100ºF. No solid or liquid wastes are created in the SNCR process. While SNCR performance is specific to each unique application, NOx reduction levels ranging from 30 to 70% have been reported. A recent progression in system design is the hybrid SNCR/ SCR system approach. By combining the two technologies, improvements can be seen in chemical and catalyst use, making

the hybrid combination often more flexible and effective than the sum of its parts. A hybrid system uses lower temperature SCNR injection to provide improved NOx reduction while generating higher ammonia slip. The residual ammonia slip is the reagent for a smaller SCR reactor that removes the slip and reduces NOx, while limiting the costs associated with a larger catalyst volume. Zero ammonia technology (ZAT), or “NOx trap,” as it is often referred to, is the newest technology that does not require the injection of ammonia or urea. ZAT is a catalyticbased system that converts all of the NOx into NO2 (i.e., it oxidizes the NO) and adsorbs the NO2 onto the catalyst. Portions of the catalyst are isolated from the exhaust stream, and the adsorbed NO2 is reduced to N2 using diluted hydrogen, or some sort of hydrogen reagent gas. The N2 is then desorbed from the catalyst. (See also DUST COLLECTORS, DUST EMISSIONS MONITORS and ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEMS.) PORE SIZE ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, PORE SIZE. PORE STRUCTURE ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, PORE STRUCTURE. POROSIMETRY ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, PORE SIZE; ANALYZERS, PORE STRUCTURE; and ANALYZERS, POROSIMETRY. POROUS PLATE & TUBES. See REFRACTORIES and RODS, CERAMIC. POWDER TESTING EQUIPMENT. The physical and chemical characteristics of ceramic powders strongly influence their behavior during processing and, thus, impact the microstructure and performance of the ceramic component. The characterization of a powder is complicated by the complex shapes of particles; the range of particle sizes; variations in composition from particle to particle; and the presence of more than one phase, either within or between particles.1 See ANALYZERS, DENSITY; ANALYZERS, MOISTURE; ANALYZERS, PARTICLE SIZE; ANALYZERS, PORE STRUCTURE; ANALYZERS, SURFACE AREA; RHEOMETERS, POWDER; and TESTING EQUIPMENT, POWDER for additional details. POWER CONTROL UNITS. Power control units are designed for precise control of power in ceramic manufacturing, glassmaking, fiberglass manufacturing and other industrial heating applications. The controllers can be either digital or analog, and digital controllers can be single-phase or three-phase. (See also CONTROL PANELS, ELECTRIC and CONTROLLERS.)

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PRESSES, HOT ISOSTATIC

PRESSES, DRY. In dry pressing, ceramic powder is compacted to shape in a steel die. Pressure is applied by a simple, shared punch, or by a compound, multi-stage die. Dry pressing permits high production rates and maintains dimensional tolerances routinely within ±1% after firing. It is generally suitable for parts when the ratio of the part’s dimension in the pressing direction (length) to its dimension normal to the pressing direction (width) is less than 3 to 1. Proper design and tight process control routinely produce parts free of distortion, cracks and other imperfections. Dry pressing is most often used for volume production of small parts and simple shapes, such as bushings, spacers and substrates. PRESSES, HOT ISOSTATIC. The first hot isostatic press (HIP) was used in the diffusion bonding of dissimilar metals in the 1950s. Since that time, the technology has grown and become an important process in the consolidation, densification and/or bonding of materials for critical and highly stressed applications. Use in ceramics includes the production of high-temperature/high-wear-resistant components from silicon nitride and silicon carbide for applications such as ball bearings, nozzles, wear liners, etc. The HIP consists of a cylindrical pressure vessel, in which a resistance-heated furnace, surrounded by a thermal barrier, is inserted. Once parts are loaded into the furnace’s work zone, the press is closed, argon gas is pumped into the pressure vessel, and the workload is heated. This combination of heat and pressure creates fully dense components from containerized powder or pre-sintered preforms in ceramics, and is also used in densifying metal castings or enabling metal cladding. Computerized controls allow operators to adapt and monitor the process’ key parameters of temperature, pressure, time, and heating and cooling rates. In specifying an HIP press, users need to select the proper size of the furnace’s work area by diameter and length; furnace heater materials, which are typically molybdenum or graphite; the pressure rating of the vessel, which is typically between 15,000 and 30,000 psi; and any special needs, such as rapid cooling, high-temperature operation in vacuum prior to pressurization, or reactive gas HIPing. PRESSES, HOT ISOSTATIC SUPPLIERS

POWER SUPPLIES. AC power centers are used in both glass and ceramic manufacturing applications. They must be designed to precisely match the characteristics of specific heating elements and process requirements. Power centers are available in both single and multiple zone configurations and can be easily customized and equipped with the level of control, instrumentation and indication needed. An AC power center consists of a SCR power controller or controllers, packaged in an enclosure with or without voltage matching transformers. Normally equipped with circuit protection such as circuit breakers, metering and pilot light indication, they take a continuous AC “voltage in” and provide a controlled/variable AC “voltage out.” PRESSES. Presses compact wet clays or dry powders into shapes and forms. (See TABLETING MACHINES and specific PRESS categories for more information.) PRESS SUPPLIERS GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com

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AMERICAN ISOSTATIC PRESSES INC. 1205 S. Columbus Airport Rd. Columbus, OH 43207 (614) 497-3148; (800) 375-7108 Fax: (614) 497-3407 Email: [email protected] Website: www.aiphip.com

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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PRESSES, HOT ISOSTATIC

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PRESSURE CASTING MACHINES

PRESSES, HOT ISOSTATIC SUPPLIERS - continued

sure transmitting media, whereas the term “hydrostatic pressing” is best reserved for liquids. However, both terms are freely used today to describe either method, and they also cover other pressure transmitting media that under pressure behaves like fluids. The widest application today concerns the use of liquids at or near room temperature. Depending on whether the flexible tool is an integral part of the press or removed from the pressure vessel after each compaction cycle, one distinguishes between the “dry-bag” and “wet-bag” process. Isostatic pressing using gas as the pressing medium has been developed but is practiced by few. It mainly becomes attractive at higher temperatures than those where liquids can safely operate. The preform produced by cold isostatic pressing is, in most cases, further consolidated by such methods as sintering, forging, extrusion, rolling or hot isostatic pressing. When the economics of isostatic pressing are considered, it must be in relation to the final product and not for the shaping operation alone. The advantages often lie in a better final product and the reduction of the final machining requirements. Isostatic pressing produces preforms that are uniformly compacted, devoid of strata, and have sufficient green strength to permit handling. Almost all materials, including metals, ceramics, plastics and composites, can be formed from powders using isostatic pressing. (This definition was taken from Isostatic Pressing by Paul Popper, 1976, with additions.) (See also PRESSES, HOT ISOSTATIC.) PRESSES, ISOSTATIC SUPPLIERS

AVURE TECHNOLOGIES INC. 3721 Corporate Dr. Columbus, OH 43231 (614) 891-2732 Fax: (614) 891-4568 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avure.com

PRESSES, ISOSTATIC SUPPLIERS - continued

AVURE TECHNOLOGIES INC. 3721 Corporate Dr. Columbus, OH 43231 (614) 891-2732 Fax: (614) 891-4568 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avure.com FLUITRON INC. 30 Industrial Dr. Warminster, PA 18974 (215) 355-9970 Fax: (215) 355-9074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fluitron.com

PRESSES, HYDRAULIC. A hydraulic press is a machine in which a large force is exerted on the larger of two pistons in a pair of hydraulically coupled cylinders, while a small force is applied to the smaller piston, which results in a pressing action.12 Many of today’s industrial hydraulic presses are automatic—the operator simply charges the die, pushes one or more buttons to activate the press, and prepares to receive the formed article as it is released from the final die member when the press opens. Smaller hydraulic presses designed for small-quantity pottery production are typically semi-automatic or manually operated.

PRESSES, ISOSTATIC DINNERWARE. See PRESSES, ISOSTATIC. PRESSES, POWDER COMPACTING. See PRESSES, DRY and TABLETING MACHINES. PRESSES, POWDER COMPACTING SUPPLIERS

PRESSES, HYDRAULIC SUPPLIERS RAM PRODUCTS INC. 1091 Stimmel Rd. Columbus, OH 43223 (614) 443-4634 Fax: (614) 443-4813 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ramprocess.com

AMERICAN ISOSTATIC PRESSES INC. 1205 S. Columbus Airport Rd. Columbus, OH 43207 (614) 497-3148; (800) 375-7108 Fax: (614) 497-3407 Email: [email protected] Website: www.aiphip.com

GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com PRESSES, TILE. High-pressure tile press systems provide operators with the ability to press a wide range of field tile, relief molding and architectural pieces. Tile presses often include state-of-the-art controls and valving to provide efficient and simple operation.50 PRESSES, TILE SUPPLIERS

SACMI USA LTD. 3434 106th Circle, P.O. Box 7858 Des Moines, IA 50322 (515) 276-2052 Fax: (515) 276-2084 Email: [email protected] Website: www.sacmiusa.com PRESSES, ISOSTATIC. Isostatic or hydrastatic pressing is the process by which a powdered material is compacted in a predetermined shape by the application of pressure via a fluid through a flexible mold. The arrangement may be such that the flexible tool contracts or dilates by the application of pressure. The term “isostatic pressing” includes the use of liquids and gases as the pres-

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PETER PUGGER MANUFACTURING 3661 Christy Ln. Ukiah, CA 95482 (707) 463-1333 Fax: (707) 462-5578 Email: [email protected] Website: www.peterpugger.com PRESSURE CASTING MACHINES. Pressure casting provides significantly increased production efficiency and product quality over conventional slip casting. In the pressure casting process, the slip is fed into the cavity of a tightly closed porous resin mold. During the filling of the mold Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

PRESSURE CASTING MACHINES

cavity, there is a slight increase in slip pressure as a “first layer” of slip is built up. This layer acts as a filtration barrier, preventing small body particles from penetrating the mold’s pore structure. Pressure then increases (this can be done in several steps) to a preset value and is kept at that level until the article is fully cast. The slip pressure then decreases, and the cast is de-molded with a manual or automatic suction device and the simultaneous application of compressed air to the (usually female) mold part. Pressure casting provides a high-quality product surface, precise contour and relief work, improved handling stability, decreased risk of deformation, constant article weight, less effort in fettling and sponging, decreased dependence on operators’ skills, significantly reduced mold wear, highly flexible production (due to the ability to quickly change molds), increased output per operator, and decreased space requirements, as well as other benefits. Recently, a new handle pressure casting and application machine was developed to increase the efficiency of producing cups with handles. The machine is composed of two pressure casting systems, with a manipulation unit arranged between them. The pressure casting systems are alternately supplied with slip. While the handle application process is carried out on the one pressure casting system using the manipulation unit, the handle is produced with the second pressure casting system. A three-part mold is used for the production of the handle. During the casting process—which takes place at up to 20 bars of slip pressure—the mold is horizontally and vertically tightened using pneumatic cylinder units. After the handle casting process is complete, the individual vertical axes are released, and then the third mold part, which contains the cast handle, is lifted vertically. At the same time, the cup (which has been controlled by a centering gripper) is picked up and turned into position over the handle pressure casting mold. The cup body is then connected with the handle, and the machine vibrates to provide a thixotropic effect, softening the contact points and ensuring a strong connection between the handle and clay body. (In fact, the connection is more solid than if it were achieved with the application of slip, as in conventional slip casting.) After the connection process, both sides of the pressure casting mold are opened to release the handle, which is now connected with the cup body. In a completely automated system, the finished cup would then be automatically deposited on a transport belt to be taken to the next stage of the production process. The system can produce as many as 500-600 pieces per hour, depending on the pressure casting characteristics of the slip.

PUG MILL SUPPLIERS ADVANCED PROCESSES, ADVANCED CONTRACT TOLLING INC. 2097 Duss Ave. Ambridge, PA 15003 (724) 266-7274 Fax: (724) 266-8274 Email: [email protected] Website: www.advancedprocesses.com

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PUG MILLS

PUG MILL SUPPLIERS - continued PETER PUGGER MANUFACTURING 3661 Christy Ln. Ukiah, CA 95482 (707) 463-1333 Fax: (707) 462-5578 Email: [email protected] Website: www.peterpugger.com

Your no. 1 source for CIP G`cfkgcXek&d`[$j`q\ gif[lZk`fegi\jj\j

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PROCESS CONTROL EQUIPMENT. See COMBUSTION CONTROLLERS; CONTROLLERS; CONTROL PANELS, ELECTRIC; CONTROL PANELS, ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC; and DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS.

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PRODUCTION SYSTEMS, AUTOMATIC DINNERWARE. Automatic dinnerware production systems automatically handle any and/or all stages of dinnerware production. Such systems can incorporate isostatic pressing, jiggering, traditional or pressure casting, fettling, glazing and/or decorating. PUG MILLS. Used in the mixing of heavy clay products. The clay mixture is sheared by rotating knife blades, which push it through a multi-orifice plate into a chamber that is partially evacuated. The shredded, moist clay falls onto an auger, which pushes the plastic mass out of the pug mill through an extrusion die.1 (See also MIXERS, CLAY.)

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Submit equipment definitions online at www.ceramicindustry.com/equipmentdigest.

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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PUG MILLS

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PYROMETER TUBES

PUG MILL SUPPLIERS - continued

STARKEY MACHINERY INC. P.O. Box 207 Galion, OH 44833-0207 (419) 468-2560 Fax: (419) 468-1698 Email: [email protected] Website: www.starkeymachinery.com PULVERIZERS. Pulverizers use air jets or heavy machinery to crush, grind, pulverize, blend and mix abrasive or non-abrasive, wet, and even sticky materials. Types of pulverizers include air separation, jet and screw feed. (See also CRUSHERS; GRINDERS; MILLS, PULVERIZING; and PULVERIZERS, JET.) PULVERIZER SUPPLIERS STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com PULVERIZERS, JET. With jet pulverizers, pulverizing is accomplished by the direct action of jets of compressed air or superheated steam. These jets accelerate the material being ground, and pulverizing is accomplished by the shattering impact of one particle against another of the same material. The grinding chamber is typically round and relatively shallow. The jets are spaced around the periphery and cause the material being ground to rotate rapidly. Classification is accomplished simultaneously; centrifugal force holds the large particles in the grinding chamber until the increased surface area and decreased mass enables the grinding gas to entrain the fine particles and carry them out. (See also PULVERIZERS.) PUMPS, AIR-OPERATED. Many diaphragm pumps are driven by compressed air. The directional air distribution valve and pilot valve, referred to as the “air end,” are located in the center section of the pump. Liquid moves through two manifolds and outer chambers of the pump, referred to as the “wet end.” Generally, check valves are located at the top and bottom of each outer chamber or on a common manifold. The two outer chambers are connected by suction and discharge manifolds. The pumps are self-priming. During operation, the air distribution valve controls alternate pressurizing of one diaphragm, then the other. The valve automatically transfers air pressure to the opposite chamber after each stroke. This provides alternating suction and discharge strokes, as the diaphragms move in parallel paths. As the air distribution valve directs pressurized air to the left diaphragm, the diaphragm is pushed outward. This is a discharge stroke, which forces liquid from the left outer chamber. Discharged liquid moves from the chamber, through an open discharge check valve, and exits the pump at the discharge manifold. The position of the discharge port can be top, bottom or side. As the left diaphragm is pressurized outward, the connecting rod pulls the right diaphragm inward on a suction stroke, which fills the left chamber with fluid. Liquid enters the pump at the suction manifold, moves through an open suction check valve and fills the chamber. At the end of the cycle, the air distribution valve automatically shifts the air pressure to the opposite diaphragm, initiating another pumping cycle.28 (See also PUMPS, DIAPHRAGM.)

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November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM/EQUIPMENTDIGEST

PUMPS, DIAPHRAGM. A diaphragm pump is a positive displacement pump used to transfer or feed fluids (usually coatings or slurries) to an applicator (normally spray guns). The reciprocating rod is separated from the coating or slurry by a flexible diaphragm and is protected from corrosion and erosion, thus avoiding related problems with packing and seals. One of the most important features of a diaphragm pump as it relates to the ceramic industry is the straight through flow of material and lack of a piston. The ceramic material (frit) is very abrasive as it flows, and this type of pump design has minimum contact with it and therefore minimum wear. Additionally, diaphragm pumps impart little shear to the materials being transferred, making the pumps especially useful when working with shear-sensitive materials. The pumps can handle highly abrasive materials and materials that consist of larger particles, but they are usually limited in pressure output to about 100 lbs per square inch (psi). (In comparison, some piston/plunger pumps can produce as much as 7000 psi and higher.) There are many crossover applications in the ceramic industry where either a diaphragm or piston pump would be suitable. In these situations, the selection is often a matter of price—diaphragm pumps are generally less expensive than piston pumps. (See also AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT; PUMPS, AIROPERATED; PUMPS, PISTON OR PLUNGER; and SPRAY GUNS.) PUMPS, HYDRAULIC PRESS. The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple: Force that is applied at one point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid. The fluid is almost always an oil of some sort, and the force is almost always multiplied in the process.29 PUMPS, PISTON OR PLUNGER. A piston pump (also known as a plunger pump) is used to transfer or feed fluids to an applicator. This type of pump generally develops higher pressure than diaphragm pumps (although there are exceptions, this is generally the case in the ceramic industry) and is the pump of choice when higher pressures are necessary to atomize a coating material. However, piston pumps are not suitable for use with shear-sensitive or highly abrasive materials. Features that are important in a piston pump include: materials of construction, abrasion resistance, corrosion resistance, ratio (a mechanical design function that determines how much pressure a pump can develop with a given air pressure supply), and flow rate (the amount of material the pump can move, typically measured in gallons per minute at a baseline of 60 cycles per minute). Piston pumps can be obtained in two-ball or four-ball designs. Two-ball pumps are used to circulate and spray in a pump room at a medium to high pressure. They can also be used at a spray booth as a booster pump, fed by a diaphragm pump or another piston pump. The typical pressure range of a two-ball piston pump is 600-4500 psi, although some designs can go up to 7000 psi and higher. Fourball pumps are used for low- to medium-pressure spray applications, almost always in the pump room. Slow pump cycling and low volumes per cycle can increase the pump life. The typical pressure range of a four-ball piston pump is 150-500 psi. (See also AIR SPRAY EQIUPMENT; PUMPS, DIAPHRAGM; and SPRAY BOOTHS.) PUMPS, SLIP. Slip pumps are specifically designed to transfer liquid clay. They are generally submersed in the slip and incorporate a mixing action to keep the slip constantly agitated. (See also PUMPS, AIR-OPERATED.) PUMPS, SLUDGE. Sludge pumps are rugged, submersible devices designed to transport solids-laden materials. (See also PUMPS, AIR-OPERATED.) PYROMETER TUBES. See TUBES, PYROMETER PROTECTION.

Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

PYROMETRIC DEVICES

PYROMETRIC DEVICES. Pyrometric devices are a simple and cost-effective way to monitor a firing process on a daily basis. The pyrometric cones used today by both ceramic artists and industrial manufacturers were developed in the late 1800s by Edward Orton Jr., Ph.D. Orton recognized that ceramists needed a way to determine when their ware was fired correctly in order to develop the properties they required in their finished products. Thus, all ceramic products were eventually assigned a cone number to which they were to be fired (cone 9 for sanitaryware, cone 6 for stoneware, etc.) to ensure the maturity of the ware during the firing process. Later, the development of electronic temperature controllers simplified and improved the control of the firing process, but they could not replace the cones as a measure of the cumulative effect of time and temperature (heat work) on the ceramic ware. Pyrometric shrinkage keys and process temperature control rings work in much the same way and can be used where space or operating conditions make the use of pyrometric cones impractical. Maximizing the use of pyrometric devices requires that the operator first establish a system for monitoring the heat-work delivered by the firing process, then develop a database to track heat work measurements and display them in a user-friendly format. Finally, the operator will need to correlate the heat work measurements to the fired properties of the ware. Using this simple three-step procedure can improve control of the firing process and overall product quality. QC & QA INSTRUMENTS. See INSTRUMENTS, QC & QA.

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REFRACTORIES, CASTABLE

REFRACTORIES SUPPLIERS - continued THORLEYS CUSTOM REFRACTORIES, LAGUNA CLAY CO. 14400 Lomitas Ave. City of Industry, CA 91746 (800) 452-4862; (626) 330-0631 Fax: (626) 333-7694 Email: [email protected] Website: www.lagunaclay.com

Calcium aluminate cements prepared from Bayer alumina may have pyrometric cone equivalents above 35. There are three grades of calcium aluminate (CA) cement: low, intermediate and high purity. High-purity CA cement incorporates alumina to achieve its refractoriness. The other two grades use a bauxite-limestone mixture to achieve the desired level of alumina in the finished cement.

REFRACTORIES, ALUMINA. The addition of alumina to fireclays increases refractoriness, load-bearing ability and spalling resistance. A type of high-temperature insulating refractory is made from fused alumina bubbles, or hollow spheres, bonded and high fired. This material is supplied as a castable that can be formed into the desired shape on the job and provides protection up to 3300°F. Calcined alumina and bauxite, as well as tabular alumina grog, are used in large tonnages to increase the alumina content of refractories. Calcined, sintered and fused aluminas constitute the base materials in a class of special refractories containing from 90-99% alumina, used in the form of refractory brick or monolithic liners. Calcined alumina is added to native kyanite to adjust the alumina-silica ratio during conversion to mullite. High-purity synthetic mullite is produced from alumina and low-iron clays mixed in suitable proportions to form 3Al2O3-2SiO2, and converted by sintering or fusion. A synthetic, high-temperature thermal insulator consists substantially of mullite in the fibrous form. Alumina is used in producing refractory calcium aluminate cements that set by hydraulic bonding. In rammed and castable compositions with refractory grogs, these cements retain good bonding strength in their effective service range.

REFRACTORIES, CASTABLE. A kind of refractory that can be poured in place in a manner similar to concrete, often into a form or mold.30 Magnesia-carbon refractory bricks and shapes are highly sophisticated composites containing magnesia (natural or synthetic), carbon/graphite, high residual carbon organics, powdered metal(s) and other proprietary additives. Technical knowledge of these refractories has reached a level where they can be made on a prescription basis specifically for the application conditions involved. Based on the success of these bricks, active work is under way to develop magnesia-carbon castables, which will allow faster installation and service life equivalent to or better than the bricks. Although there still may be skeptics, it is now possible to make and install castable refractories with properties that are better than pressed/fired bricks. The rebound rate (material loss during shotcasting installation) can be as low as 2%, compared with 10% or more for traditional gunning. Advanced castables (low-, ultra-low and nocement types) and other monolithic refractories, used in conjunction with continually improving installation methods, are now the dominant refractory type in most of the industrialized countries, surpassing bricks in terms of the tonnage used. The permeability of castables can now be

REACTORS, HIGH-TEMPERATURE. High-temperature laboratory and pilot-plant reactors are used for a variety of chemical-reaction applications. In the ceramic industry, they are primarily used for synthesizing nanomaterials. REACTORS, HIGH-TEMPERATURE SUPPLIERS FLUITRON INC. 30 Industrial Dr. Warminster, PA 18974 (215) 355-9970 Fax: (215) 355-9074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.fluitron.com RECORDERS, TEMPERATURE. Temperature recorders can be sent through a kiln on a thermocouple car to determine the temperatures that the ware is exposed to. They also enable the kiln operator to review the temperature uniformity across the load. (See also DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS.) REFRACTORIES. Refractories are heat-resistant materials that are used to insulate and protect other materials and components from heat-related damage, as well as from abrasion, pressure and chemical attack. Refractories are used as kiln and furnace linings, as kiln furniture to support products during heat treating, as linings and protective materials in metal melting processes (e.g., crucibles and foundry facing materials), and as electrical insulators, as well as a variety of other applications. REFRACTORIES SUPPLIERS SMITH-SHARPE FIRE BRICK SUPPLY 2129 Broadway St. N.E. Minneapolis, MN 55413 (612) 331-1345 Fax: (612) 331-2156 Email: [email protected] Website: www.kilnshelf.com

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CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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REFRACTORIES, CASTABLE

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measured at high temperatures, which will allow the development of dryout schedules specific to each castable, rather than the traditional generic schedules. This change will help eliminate one of the major problems for castable installations: cracking, spalling and premature failure caused by improper curing/dryout. Additionally, microwaveassisted dryout of pre-cast shapes is now being done; field trials have shown up to a 50% increase in service life for microwave-dried castable shapes. (See also CASTABLES, REFRACTORY and REFRACTORIES, MONOLITHIC.) REFRACTORIES, COATINGS. Coating refractories are in the form of a thin slurry that can be brushed onto or otherwise coated on the working surface of other refractories.30 (See also REFRACTORIES.) REFRACTORIES, CORDIERITE. Refractory and ceramic components containing cordierite as a major constituent are generally used where low thermal expansion and good thermal shock resistance are required. Axial thermal expansion studies have determined that expansion is positive in the a crystallographic direction and negative in the c direction, with an aggregate thermal expansion of about 0.9 x 10-6/K from room temperature to 800ºC (1470ºF). Glass-ceramic shapes with thermal expansion values approaching this theoretical limit have been made through controlled crystallization of articles shaped from cordierite glass powders. The combination of low thermal expansion and the high strength resulting from additives make this material attractive for heat exchangers used in gas turbine engines.1 REFRACTORIES, FIBER. See CERAMIC FIBER PRODUCTS. REFRACTORIES, FOREHEARTH. In the forehearth, fused _-ß alumina or fused or sintered alumina-zirconia-silica (AZS) are used most frequently for soda-lime glass channels, bowls and skimmers. Zircon or fused AZS is required for borosilicate glasses. Expendable stirrers and other feeder parts are typically made of mullite or bonded AZS because of the thermal shock encountered in their installation and use.1 REFRACTORIES, FUSED CAST. See CASTABLES, REFRACTORY. REFRACTORIES, GLASS HOUSE. See REFRACTORIES, GLASS PLANT. REFRACTORIES, GLASS PLANT. Refractories for [glass] melters are selected primarily to reduce defects in the glass, to increase furnace life, and to reduce initial cost. The corrosion resistance of all refractories results from the chemical inertness at high temperature of the oxides of silicon, aluminum, magnesium, and especially zirconium and chromium. They are produced by two processes: sintering and fusion casting. Sintered silica and various aluminosilicates are used in superstructures. Sintered zirconium silicate, alumina, chromia, chromia-alumina and zirconia-aluminosilicates are used in glass contact. The most widely used glass contact refractory is fusion-cast alumina-zirconia-silica (AZS). It consists of alumina and zirconia crystals in an aluminosilicate glass matrix. It has excellent resistance to corrosion and thermal stress. Fusion-cast alumina, chromia-AZS and zirconia are also used in critical applications.1 REFRACTORIES, HIGH-ALUMINA. High-alumina refractories are generally composed of bauxite or other raw materials that contain from 50-87.5% alumina. Depending on its composition and impurities, a high-alumina refractory is generally multi-purpose and offers fair-to-excellent resistance to chipping and somewhat higher stability than most other clay refractories. Extra-high-alumina refractories are made predominantly from bauxite or alumina (Al2O3) that has been fused or densely sintered. These refractories con-

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tain from 87.5 to slightly less than 100% alumina, and they offer good volume stability at temperatures up to 1815°C (3300°F).1 (See also REFRACTORIES, ALUMINA.) REFRACTORIES, INSULATING. Ceramic materials based on carbides, borides and nitrides provide high-temperature resistance, thermal shock resistance, a low coefficient of thermal expansion, electrical insulation, high mechanical strength and toughness, high thermal conductivity, and corrosion resistance. As a result, they are used in a variety of insulating refractory applications. Other insulating refractories include insulating fire brick and block; ceramic fiber boards, blankets and modules; high-temperature foam; and microporous insulation. (See also INSULATING MATERIALS.) REFRACTORIES, MONOLITHIC. Monolithic refractories are classified by physical properties, consistencies and grain sizing (e.g., powder, paste, clay). Construction methods have been developed to suit various installation procedures such as pouring, troweling, gunning, ramming, patching, blowing, slinging, vibrating, spraying, foaming or injecting. The castable (poured), plastic (rammed) or blown (sprayed, foamed) forms of refractory materials are generally superior to layed-up, dipped refractory brick construction because they are less prone to leakage, and they provide extended service life. Monolithic material can be transferred by pumps over long distances and in large quantities for pouring in position. Much labor can be saved by selecting the right method for transferring and applying monolithic materials. Because the weight of monolithic refractory in a furnace is held by a large number of supports, small or large areas can be repaired or replaced whenever necessary without affecting the surrounding area. Monolithic refractory materials adhere well to surrounding materials. Monolithic refractories are suitable for walls that must be gas tight. The weight of the furnace itself is sustained by supports that help the monolithic material adhere to the shell and prevent gas leakage. Monolithic refractories have lower thermal expansion than most refractory bricks. Whatever small expansion does occur can usually be absorbed by the supports. Therefore, unlike refractory bricks, monolithic refractory walls do not require clearances for thermal expansion. Clearances required for brick construction may allow passage for furnace gas leaks our or air into a furnace. The superior sealing capability and reduced expansion of monolithic refractories make them suitable for higher furnace pressures and temperatures. Among the reasons for the growing use of monolithic refractories are the versatility of the material and the flexibility of the self-supporting anchor system.30 (See also REFRACTORIES, CASTABLE.) REFRACTORIES, MULLITE. Mullite refractories are noted for their low level of impurities and their excellent resistance to loading at high temperatures.1 Sintered and electrofused synthetic mullites (including zirconium mullite) are used in kiln furniture and refractories for the glass and steel industries. Mullite bodies show a uniform rate of thermal expansion and are resistant to spalling and deformation under load. Their strength is due to the interlocking of long, needle-like crystals. Some authorities have stated that to get long crystals there must be impurities present that will promote their growth, but a mullite body with short, interlocking crystals is more stable to load-deformation at high temperatures. REFRACTORIES, REPAIR MATERIALS. A category of monolithic refractories, mortars are used primarily to bond brick but may be used for repairs to help bond monolithics to old refractories. Service coatings are also used for this purpose, as well as to seal cracks, act as parting compounds, repair worn surfaces, and to generally “dress up” a refractory lin-

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ing. Injection mixes are a relatively new idea in furnace maintenance to repair worn linings and insulation. They are applied from outside the furnace through injection nipples, and allow repair while the furnace is operating or still hot.1 (See also REFRACTORIES, MONOLITHIC.) REFRACTORIES, SILICON CARBIDE. Silicon carbide (SiC) is produced by the reaction of sand and coke in an electric furnace. It is used to make special shapes, such as kiln furniture, which are used to support and separate pieces of ceramicware as they are fired in kilns. Silicon carbide has exceptionally high thermal conductivity, good load-bearing characteristics at high temperatures, and good resistance to rapid changes in temperature.1 (See also KILN FURNITURE.) REFRACTORIES TESTING EQUIPMENT. A variety of different types of testing equipment—often combined with a furnace or kiln—can be used to analyze such characteristics as refractoriness under load, apparent porosity, water absorption, permeability, true and apparent specific gravity, bulk density, water content, cold crushing strength, modulus of rupture, creep, chemical resistance, abrasion resistance, oxidation resistance, thermal expansion, permanent linear change and Young’s modulus. (See the FURNACES and TESTING EQUIPMENT categories for more information.) REFRACTORIES, TEXTILE. Ceramic fiber tapes and cloths (textiles) are used as heat- or flame-protective curtains or linings, high-temperature gasket or wrapping materials, and thermal or electrical insulation. (See also CERAMIC FIBER PRODUCTS.) REFRACTORIES, ZIRCONIA. The thermal shock resistance of fully stabilized zirconia refractories is very low because of their high thermal expansion and low thermal conductivity. There are many applications, however, where goodto-excellent thermal shock resistance is required. Requirements can be met by optimizing the level of stabilization for each application. As the level of stabilization is reduced, so are the modulus of rupture, elastic modulus and thermal expansion, until, at some point, the strength becomes too low for practical utilization. The very severe thermal shock stress requirements of crucibles used for induction melting of refractory metals (especially while pouring the molten metal over a relatively cold crucible spout) are met by zirconia compositions that have a cubic zirconia content of about 40%. A cubic zirconia content of about 65% results in good performance of tundish nozzles in the casting of molten steel, whereas an 80% cubic zirconia content provides long life for zirconia setter plates for firing barium titanate capacitors. This flexibility, combined with the capability of microstructural control through heat treatment, provides the means by which the properties of zirconia can be engineered to fit a wide variety of special refractory applications.1 REFRACTORY BRICK, HIGH-ALUMINA. See REFRACTORIES, HIGH-ALUMINA. RESIN MOLDS. See MOLDS, RESIN. RESONANT INSPECTION EQUIPMENT. Resonant inspection (RI) vibrates a part and measures its resonant frequencies to detect the presence of defects. Parts made by a controlled process have a similar pattern of resonances determined by the part’s dimensions and material properties. RI identifies patterns that discriminate between acceptable and unacceptable variations in these characteristics. An unacceptable pattern indicates the presence of a defect, and the RI computer rejects the part. The fact that RI is based on measurable physical properties means that RI results are quantifiable and repeatable. Parts are rejected because of their structural properties, with no human judgment about the severity of a defect needed. The manufacSupplier listings indicate paid advertising.

RESONANT INSPECTION EQUIPMENT

turer can set the level of defectiveness for rejection and be confident that all of the truly defective parts are rejected and that no parts are rejected because of superficial indications. RI can be applied to parts made of any stiff material, including metals, ceramics and stiff composites. Powdered metals and ceramics are particularly attractive since they can sometimes be difficult to inspect with other nondestructive testing methods. Sintered parts provide the best defect detection, but large cracks can sometimes be detected in green parts. RI can detect a wide variety of defects including cracks; chips; voids and inclusions; dimensional variations; laps; bonding failures and delaminations; changes in mass, density, hardness, residual stress or heat treat; and the presence of design features such as holes or stress raisers. The defect detection limit is a function of the part’s stiffness, complexity and the manufacturing precision. Stiffer materials and higher precision both improve defect detection. For example, detection of 75-100 micron voids is feasible in rough ground engine valve blanks, whereas 10 micron cracks are detectable in finished silicon nitride bearing balls. Chips as small as 0.01% of a part’s dimensions are detectable for precise parts.13 (See also TESTING EQUIPMENT, RESONANT INSPECTION.) RHEOMETERS, POWDER. A powder rheometer is an instrument that makes dynamic measurements of the flow characteristics of powders. Modern systems offer fully automated measurement and include modules for automated shear strength measurement. Applications include assessing powdered materials for flowability and processability for both research and development and quality control applications.39 The most basic and widely used form of rheometric instrumentation is the simple steady shear viscometer. A wide variety of existing devices have been developed for the measurement of steady shear viscosity, many of which are specific to a particular industry or material. In principle, however, all of these devices share a common goal: to measure the bulk viscosity of a material as it flows in a steady or continuous fashion. In fact, the definition of the term “viscosity,” which is the ratio of the shear stress applied to a material and the resulting shear rate, suggests the design of most of these simple viscometers. As a comprehensive materials characterization tool, however, the traditional viscometer is of limited use. The most powerful and versatile form of rheometric instrumentation currently in use may be described in general terms as a dynamic shear rheometer or simply a dynamic rheometer. The modern dynamic rheometer shares a basic common concept with the simpler viscometer in that it uses well-defined geometries, such as cone plates, parallel plates or concentric cylinders, to isolate and deform the material in a controlled fashion. A fully functional dynamic rheometer will include steady shear rate capabilities that enable it to be used as a viscometer to measure steady shear or bulk viscosity. The real power of a dynamic rheometer, however, lies in its unique ability to apply very small amounts of rotation or deformation in a dynamic or oscillatory fashion. It is often useful to visualize this type of dynamic shear testing as if the sample were being “vibrated” between parallel plates or concentric cylinders, as opposed to being sheared in a continuous fashion. The components of a modern dynamic rheometer enable this “vibratory” measurement to be applied to a sample in a controlled fashion while also controlling the sample temperature. The significance of this dynamic testing method is that the resulting measurement is delivered in terms of discrete components of the material’s viscosity or shear modulus, as opposed to the simple bulk viscosity reported by traditional viscometers. In addition to providing insight into the effects of formulation on processing behavior, a fully capable dynamic rheometer can provide analysis of the final morphology and properties of the material system. The most advanced of today’s rheometer systems couple standard

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rheometric analysis with simultaneous analysis features, such as optical, dielectric or high-voltage measurements. (See also VISCOMETERS.)

SCALES & SCALE SYSTEMS, HOPPER

*The total indicator reading is the deviation of the outer diameter before default after a 360° rotation.

ROTARY BLENDERS. See BLENDERS, ROTARY. RHEOMETERS, POWDER SUPPLIERS FREEMAN TECHNOLOGY 1 Miller Ct., Severn Dr. Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire GL20 8DN England, U.K. +44 (0) 1684-851551 Fax: +44 (0) 1684-851552 Email: [email protected] Website: www.freemantech.co.uk

SAGGER HANDLING SYSTEMS OR EQUIPMENT. Sagger filling, stacking and extraction of fired product can be hot, dirty and laborious. Systems to automate these operations include semi-manual to fully automatic pick-and-place or robotic systems for stacking or unstacking; volumetric or gravimetric filling and leveling; fired product extraction; detection of broken containers; container cleaning; and queuing.34

ROBOTIC EQUIPMENT. Robotic equipment is helping many plants optimize labor, lower costs, improve quality, minimize waste and provide a safer work environment. One of the most basic specifications for a robot is its payload (in kilograms), which is the weight of the end-of-arm tooling and workpiece. Determining the weight of the product and tool the robot needs to carry is the first step in finding the right robot model for a given application. Other important features include axis speed, reach and moments of inertia.

SAMPLE PREPARATION EQUIPMENT. Cutting, grinding, sectioning, mounting and polishing systems, as well as microscopes and other imaging and analysis tools, are all used to prepare product samples for quality analyses. (See ABRASIVE WHEELS, CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS, GRINDING WHEELS and MICROSCOPES for more detailed information about these systems.)

RODS, CERAMIC. Small diameter ceramic tubes and rods are generally produced by extrusion. Options can include solid rods, as well as single, double and four-bore tubing and oval double bore tubing at various lengths. Large-diameter tubes and rods are produced by slip casting. These are often available as closed one end (COE) or open both ends (OBE) tubes with a round shape. The sizes of these tubes generally range from 1/4 in. OD to 9.5 in. OD by various lengths.31

ALLIED HIGH TECH PRODUCTS INC. 2376 E. Pacifica Pl. Rancho Dominguez, CA 90220 (800) 675-1118; (310) 635-2466 Fax: (310) 762-6808 Email: [email protected] Website: www.alliedhightech.com

ROLLERS, CERAMIC. Standard aluminosilicate-based kiln rollers have been used for applications in temperatures up to 2460°F (1350°C), while synthetically produced oxideceramic or silicon carbide roller materials have been used for particularly high loads or applications reaching temperatures above 2460°F (1350°C). Today, new application possibilities for roller hearth kilns in advanced areas such as firing oxide ceramics, annealing glass and heat treating steel are creating a demand for roller materials that can cope with the extreme conditions that are often found in these areas. As a result, roller producers have begun modifying and further developing materials for these high-tech applications. The ideal support rollers must show a homogeneous structure over their entire length to ensure that the mechanical properties are uniform. Additionally, as everincreasing roller lengths are needed to fit increasingly wider kilns, the tolerances of the outer diameters and roller sagging (measured through the total indicator reading [TIR]*) must continually decrease to ensure the directional stability of the ware during firing. The rollers must also possess good thermomechanical properties, high creep resistance and excellent thermal shock resistance. Since most roller hearth kilns are operated continuously, the rollers need to be replaced for cleaning or maintenance without interrupting production. They must therefore be able to withstand a hot change, which allows the kiln to remain at its production temperature. The rollers must also be able to maintain chemical stability, withstand contact reactions and remain unchanged by a flux-containing kiln atmosphere. Additionally, a smooth, clean roller surface is needed to decrease contamination hazards, sticking or caking. In some cases, the surface might even need to be polished—for instance, to avoid imprints on soft glass plates annealed by an uneven roller surface. Other criteria include higher maximum application temperatures of up to 3000°F (1650°C) at high thermomechanical constant loads with extreme thermal-shock resistance; and improved corrosion resistance, such as against metallic components in oxidizing and inert or H2-containing atmospheres.

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SAMPLE PREPARATION EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

SAWS, ABRASIVE. Abrasive saws use abrasive wheels to precisely cut and machine a variety of different materials. The abrasives might be diamond, boron carbide, silicon carbide, aluminum oxide or other materials, depending on the material being machined. (See also ABRASIVE WHEELS, CUTTING EQUIPMENT/TOOLS, DIAMOND SAW BLADES and SAWS, DIAMOND.) SAWS, DIAMOND. Diamond saws use diamonds embedded in a saw blade or wire to cut hard materials, such as ceramics, glass, carbide and tool steels. (See CUTTING EQUIPMENT/ TOOLS, DIAMOND SAW BLADES and DIAMOND SAWS.) SCALES. Industrial scales are used for a variety of operations in the ceramic industry, including batching, formulation and inventory control. Systems range from manual to semi-automatic to completely automated, and many of today’s scales are equipped with sophisticated software that continuously monitors the material weighing process. SCALE SYSTEMS. See SCALES and WEIGHING/SCALES. SCALES & SCALE SYSTEMS, AUTOMATIC CONVEYOR. See BATCHERS, WEIGHING & MEASURING, CONVEYORS, and SCALES. SCALES & SCALE SYSTEMS, AUTOMATIC CONVEYOR SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com SCALES & SCALE SYSTEMS, HOPPER. Hopper is a general term for a chute with additional width and depth to provide a volume for temporary storage of material(s). The bottom of the hopper chute typically has a mechanism to control the flow of materials, thus allowing them to be metered out at the desired rate.43 (See also BATCHERS, WEIGHING & MEASURING.) CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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SCALES & SCALE SYSTEMS, HOPPER

SCALES & SCALE SYSTEMS, HOPPER SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com SCREEN PRINTING MACHINE. Screen printing is one of simplest yet most versatile of printing processes. An ancient graphic art that has seen dramatic technological improvements over the past several years, screen printing is ideally suited for use on ceramic products, both flat and three dimensional. The process involves a stencil that is attached to or chemically embedded in a fabric or metal mesh—the “screen”—stretched across a frame. The ink or paste (including compounds such as frit) passes through the portion of the mesh not masked by the stencil and is deposited directly onto the substrate. Unlike other printing processes, the type of ink and its viscosity are not limited by an intermediate transfer to a printing plate or roller. The stencil controls where the ink will be deposited, and the size of the openings in the mesh determines what type and how much ink or paste will pass through. Screen printing can even deposit a mask for etching intricate patterns. A screen printing operation can range from a simple, manually operated tabletop setup to huge electronic and pneumatic presses designed to handle substrates measuring as much as 5 by 10 ft or even larger. In an automated machine, ink is applied to the screen with a mechanical “flood bar” and the ink or paste is spread through the image area with a mechanical “squeegee.”51

SEPARATORS, MAGNETIC

Laboratory screens perform the same operations as production models but are much smaller and are often portable. They are typically used for testing operations. Liquid screens are designed to separate liquid from solid materials, also called dewatering. They operate on the same principles as dry separation screens. Vibrating screens use a vibratory motion to prevent screen blinding and ensure an efficient screening process. Almost all types of screens used in the ceramic industry are designed to vibrate. In some cases, vibration is accomplished by eccentric weights on the upper and lower ends of the motor shaft. Rotation of the top weight causes vibration on the horizontal plane, which causes material to move across the screen to the surface periphery. The lower weight acts to tilt the machine, causing vibration in the vertical and tangential planes. The angle of lead given the lower weight in relation to the upper weight provides variable control of the spiral screening pattern. SCREENS, ELECTRIC HEATING. Electric screen heating equipment can be used to prevent damp materials from adhering (a situation known as “blinding”), keeping the screen mesh open and allowing the material to pass through. On unheated screens, damp material often clogs cold wire mesh, reducing efficiency and causing expensive damage when the screen is cleared with hammers, brooms, chains, torches, etc. (See also SCREENS & SCREENING EQUIPMENT.)

SEPARATORS, CYCLONE & IMPINGEMENT. Cyclone and impingement separators are typically associated with pollution control operations. Impingement separators (also called inertial separators) rely on the inertial properties of particles to separate them from the carrier gas stream. They are primarily used for the collection of medium-size and coarse particles and include settling chambers and centrifugal cyclones (straight-through, or the more frequently used reverse-flow cyclones). Cyclones are lowcost, low-maintenance centrifugal collectors that are typically used to remove particulates in the size range of 10–100 microns (mm). The fine-dust-removal efficiency of cyclones is typically below 70%, whereas electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) and baghouses can have removal efficiencies of 99.9% or more. Cyclones are therefore often used as a primary stage before other particulate removal mechanisms. Their efficiency in removing toxic metals such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead and nickel is reportedly greater than 99%. They also have the potential to enhance the capture of sulfur dioxide (SO2) in installations downstream of sorbent injection and dry-scrubbing systems.14 (See also ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL SYSTEMS and POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEMS.)

SEPARATORS, AIR. See CLASSIFIERS, AIR.

SEPARATORS, MAGNETIC. The attractive power of magnets makes their use a natural approach for the separation and removal of fine magnetic particulate from processing streams in ceramic manufacturing. When rare earth magnets are installed in key locations in a ceramic processing line, the separation results can be significant. Removing contamination from slip lines improves product purity, reduces defects and rework due to product contamination, and eliminates costly downtime by protecting downstream equipment. Magnetic traps are typically arrays of easily removed, finger-like magnetic tubes and are commonly used for removing ferrous contaminants from liquid or slurried products in pipelines or troughs. Traditional applications involve food products such as soups or chocolate, but these high-powered separators are ideal for the ceramic industry as well, because they exert such a powerful attracting force on small ferrous contamination. Rare earth traps installed in slurry lines remove fine particulate that would discolor the finish of fine china after firing. Small bits of metal react during the firing process and discolor the finish of the china. Super-strength rare earth magnetic traps collect fine metal contamination and reduce the number of defects resulting from product contamination. Traps also remove small bits of metal that may contaminate the surface texture of the finished item or material, causing the item to fail during firing. Even a small piece of contamination within an item could literally explode during the firing process—increasing the number of defects, damaging other products or harming processing equipment. High-intensity electromagnetic filters are another type of magnetic separator used by the ceramic industry to eliminate iron contamination in the glaze and slip processes, which usually occurs from iron bearing minerals used for ceramics, machinery wear and oxidation. Unwanted ferrous material increases the chances of structural and cosmetic defects in the manufactured product, resulting in costly rejects. These filters are designed for the continuous removal of ferrous particles from liquid based applications, particularly ceramic slips and glazes, and are designed to handle from 12 to 238 gpm. When superior quality ceramics are required, the filters are normally fitted with an auto backflush system on a timed cycle to enhance performance and prevent clogging. Some filters consist of electrical coils into which a canister containing a stainless steel matrix is inserted. The slurry is pumped through the matrix, which allows greater control of particle residence time. Magnetic contaminates are washed down through the matrix once the separator is de-energized. The matrix amplifies the background magnetic field to produce points of very high magnetic intensity and gradient. A typical amplified field produced by the matrix is many times that of the background field.

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SCREEN PRINTING MACHINE, MULTICOLOR. Multicolor screen printing machines employ the same principles as single-color machines. (See also SCREEN PRINTING MACHINE.) In order to print in more than one color, multiple screens are required— one screen for each color to be applied. Typical configurations can be a series of inline, single-head presses or large carousel presses with the substrate rotating under as many stations as needed for all of the colors. When printing multicolor products, registration guides ensure that the colors line up properly on the finished image.51 SCREENS & SCREENING EQUIPMENT. Screens can be specified in a number of different sizes and configurations and are used to filter or separate particles of various sizes to ensure high product quality. Centrifugal screens use rotating paddles within a cylindrical sifting chamber to continuously propel the material against the screen. The resultant centrifugal force on the particles accelerates them through the apertures. The rotating paddles, which never make contact with the screen, also serve to break up soft agglomerates. Oversized particles and trash are typically ejected through an oversize discharge spout. Electric screen heating equipment can be used to heat the screen to prevent damp materials from adhering (a situation known as “blinding”), keeping the screen mesh open and allowing the material to pass through. On unheated screens, damp material often clogs cold wire mesh, reducing efficiency and causing expensive damage when the screen mesh is cleared with hammers, brooms, chains, torches, etc. Gyrocentric screens use a circular motion to spread material across the full width of the screen surface, with the goal of maximizing screen use. This motion stratifies the material, causing the fines to sink down against the screen surface. The particles that are appreciably smaller than the openings pass through at this part of the screen.

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SCREENS, LABORATORY. Laboratory screens perform the same operations as production models but are much smaller and are often portable. They are typically used for testing operations. (See also SCREENS & SCREENING EQUIPMENT.) SCREENS, LIQUID. Liquid screens are designed to separate liquid from solid materials, also called dewatering. They operate on the same principles as dry separation screens. (See also SCREENS & SCREENING EQUIPMENT.) SCREENS, PERFORATED METAL. Perforated metal screens are frequently used in the fabrication of strainers and filters for applications where rugged performance is required. They can also be used as a support layer for a finer mesh strainer. A multi-layer configuration combines mechanical strength with a high degree of filtration in a turbulent or large volume application. SCREENS, VIBRATING. Vibrating screens use a vibratory motion to prevent screen blinding and ensure an efficient screening process. Almost all types of screens used in the ceramic industry are designed to vibrate. In some cases, vibration is accomplished by eccentric weights on the upper and lower ends of the motor shaft. Rotation of the top weight causes vibration on the horizontal plane, which causes material to move across the screen to the surface periphery. The lower weight acts to tilt the machine, causing vibration in the vertical and tangential planes. The angle of lead given the lower weight in relation to the upper weight provides variable control of the spiral screening pattern. (See also SCREENS & SCREENING EQUIPMENT.) SCREW CONVEYORS. See CONVEYORS, SCREW. SEPARATORS. Separators are designed to separate one material from another, such as moisture from solids or contamination from a raw material processing stream. They are also used to separate material particles into different sizes for quality control purposes. (See also SCREENS & SCREENING EQUIPMENT; SEPARATORS, CYCLONE & IMPINGEMENT; SEPARATORS, MAGNETIC; and SEPARATORS, ULTRASONIC.)

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SHAKERS, SIEVE SUPPLIERS - continued SEPARATORS, ULTRASONIC. For companies that handle fine ceramic powders, accurate particle size separation is of the utmost importance. Blinding—which occurs when powder blocks the sieve mesh during the separation process—can be a serious problem. Ultrasonic separators help eliminate this problem by using an acoustically developed transducer to apply an ultrasonic frequency to the sieve mesh. This frequency breaks down the surface tension, effectively making the stainless steel wires friction-free and preventing particles that are slightly larger and smaller than the mesh from blinding or blocking the screen. The system is typically composed of three parts: 1) a control unit, which houses all of the electronic components driving the system; 2) an acoustically developed transducer, often referred to as the probe; and 3) a mesh screen, which includes a special velocity transfer plate (VTP) to which the probe is connected. The probe is bolted to the VTP, which, in turn, is bonded to the stainless steel wires of the sieving mesh. When the system is activated, the control box sends signals to drive the piezoelectric element in the probe through a single cable, and the probe is excited at its resonant frequency of 35,000 Hz. This frequency excites the velocity transfer plate, which, in turn, vibrates each individual wire of the mesh and prevents the powder from sticking to the wires. Ultrasonic systems have no mechanical or wearing parts, so there is no risk of mesh damage or product contamination. Because they keep the mesh from being blocked or blinded, these systems ensure that screening capacity and throughput remain constant throughout the production process. They also dramatically reduce downtime for cleaning while increasing mesh life due to the reduction in manual handling. SETTERS, POTTERY PINS. Also known as stilts, pottery pins are used when firing glazed ware to help ensure that it will not stick to the kiln shelf. SETTERS, WARE. Many types of setters are available to help support ware and ensure proper air circulation during firing. Sizes, shapes and materials vary according to the product being fired and the firing schedule. (See also KILN FURNITURE.)

RETSCH INC. 74 Walker Ln. Newtown, PA 18940 (866) 473-8724 Fax: (267) 757-0358 Email: [email protected] Website: www.retsch-us.com SIEVES, TESTING. Sieving measures the minimum square aperture through which particles can pass. The laboratory sieving operation can be carried out wet or dry, either for a fixed period of time or until less than 0.2% of the sample passes through the mesh in any 5-min. sieving period. Electroformed micromesh sieves have extended the size range to 5 μm. Several methods of wet sieving using micromesh sieves are available, such as rinsing, vibration, reciprocating action, vacuum, and/or ultrasonics. Periodic calibration of the sieves is carried out to determine the difference between the true and the nominal aperture size, and thereby promote accurate sieving.1 SIEVES, TESTING SUPPLIERS RETSCH INC. 74 Walker Ln. Newtown, PA 18940 (866) 473-8724 Fax: (267) 757-0358 Email: [email protected] Website: www.retsch-us.com SIEVES, VIBRATING. Vibration is used on test sieves to ensure rapid, accurate results in particle analyses. In production applications, vibration is used to prevent screen blinding. (See also SCREENS, VIBRATING; and SHAKERS, SIEVE.) SILICON CARBIDE SPECIALTY SHAPES. See REFRACTORIES, SILICON CARBIDE. SIZE REDUCTION EQUIPMENT. Any of a number of types of equipment used to reduce the particle size of raw materials for further processing. (See also CRUSHERS; GRINDERS; MILLS, PULVERIZING; PULVERIZERS, JET; and SCREENS.) SIZE REDUCTION EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

SETTING MACHINES, BRICK. See BRICK MACHINES. SHAKERS, SIEVE. Sieve shakers are used to ensure rapid, accurate results in particle analyses. A good test sieve shaker should have three essential characteristics: 1) It should generate an effective sieving action for tests to reach an ultimate end point; 2) the end point should be reached in the shortest possible time; and 3) the results achieved should be reproducible. Some systems also incorporate particle size analysis software and/or electronic control of the vibration level, time and interval. In production applications, sieve or screen shakers are used to prevent screen blinding. (See also SCREENS & SCREENING EQUIPMENT; SIEVES, TESTING; and SIEVES, VIBRATING.) SHAKERS, SIEVE SUPPLIERS GLEN MILLS INC. 220 Delawanna Ave. Clifton, NJ 07014-1550 (973) 777-0777 Fax: (973) 777-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.glenmills.com

GLEN MILLS INC. 220 Delawanna Ave. Clifton, NJ 07014-1550 (973) 777-0777 Fax: (973) 777-0070 Email: [email protected] Website: www.glenmills.com NETZSCH PREMIER TECHNOLOGIES LLC, GRINDING & DISPERSION DIV. 125 Pickering Way Exton, PA 19341 (484) 879-2020 Fax: (610) 280-1299 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-grinding.com STEDMAN 129 Franklin Ave., P.O. Box 299 Aurora, IN 47001 (800) 262-5401 Fax: (812) 926-3482 Email: [email protected] Website: www.stedman-machine.com SPRAY BOOTHS. Spray booths are designed to prevent overspray from entering the surrounding environment when spraying glazes or coatings. Booths are typically made of steel, fiberglass or polyethylene materials. Individual booths can often be adapted to both fully automated and multiple-booth systems.

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Some booths are designed to capture over-spray and “funnel” it into a recovery tank, saving valuable glaze material while protecting the environment. (See also AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT.) SPRAY BOOTHS SUPPLIERS LAGUNA CLAY CO. City of Industry CA/Byesville OH 14400 Lomitas Ave. City of Industry, CA 91746 (800) 452-4862; (626) 330-0631 Fax: (626) 333-7694 Email: [email protected] Website: www.lagunaclay.com SPRAY DRYERS. See DRYERS, SPRAY. SPRAY EQUIPMENT, AIR. See AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT. SPRAY EQUIPMENT, AUTOMATIC. Equipment designed to duplicate the function of a spray operator in the application of coatings to mass-produced items in a highly repetitive situation. The equipment generally lends itself to the use of either air or airless equipment with heat or electrostatic attraction, if required. The major advantages of automatic equipment are the uniformity of the finish, the reduction of man hours and higher production speeds.18 (See also AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT.) SPRAY GUNS. Application equipment that applies a fluid or solid/fluid mixture by forcing it by air pressure through a controlled orifice. Used to cover large areas and/or irregular shapes with relatively even layer thicknesses of spray mist.3 (See also AIR SPRAY EQUIPMENT.) STRAPPING EQUIPMENT. Both steel and plastic strapping are used to secure brick loads for handling, shipping and storage. While steel strapping has traditionally been used for securing loads, many recent technological advancements have paved the way for high-strength polyester strapping materials. Polyester strapping has proven to provide several clear advantages over steel strapping in brick and concrete paver packaging applications, including ease of use and weather resistance. Power strapping machines and dispensers enable both types of strapping to be used efficiently in almost any production situation. (See also PACKAGING EQUIPMENT and PACKAGING EQUIPMENT, BRICK.) STRAPPING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS SIGNODE PACKAGING SYSTEMS 500 W. Fourth St., Ste. 202 Winston Salem, NC 27101 (877) 744-2742 Fax: (336) 724-1837 Email: [email protected] Website: www.signode.com SURFACE AREA ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, SURFACE AREA. TABLETING MACHINES. A machine for compressing powder into tablets or other shapes. Most tableting machines employ a series of dies mounted in a rotating turret. As the turret turns, the powder is fed to successive dies. Punches, operating from both above and below the dies, compress the powder into the desired shape. The pressed shapes can be from a fraction of a millimeter up to several inches in diameter, with a similar range of thickness. Pressing forces typically vary from less than 5 to 45 tons or more. The output of a single press can range from a few hundred to 3000 or more tablets per minute. Complex machine parts such as gears and bushings can be CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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made on tableting machines. Diodes and other electrical parts can also be made. The primary limitation is that the pressed shape must such that it can be removed from the die by the axial motion of the bottom punch. Multi-layer tablets can also be produced by feeding different powders in at different points on the machine. Modern control systems can provide very close control of the dimension and weight of each pressed part. TABLETING MACHINE SUPPLIERS GEA PROCESS ENGINEERING INC. 9165 Rumsey Rd. Columbia, MD 21045 (410) 997-8700 Fax: (410) 997-5021 Email: [email protected] Website: www.niroinc.com TANK LININGS, CERAMIC. Tanks can be lined with abrasionresistant ceramic material to extend the life of the equipment.36 TANKS, ALUMINUM. Aluminum tanks are often used for fuel and gas storage. TANKS, ALUMINUM SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com TANKS, STAINLESS. Stainless steel tanks are used to hold slips, coatings and a variety of other materials used in the ceramic industry. They are corrosion-resistant and are suitable for virtually all fluids and solvents. TANKS, STAINLESS SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com TANKS, STEEL. Steel tanks can be used to hold a variety of materials used in ceramic manufacturing. Different grades of steel are available depending on the material to be stored. (See also TANKS, STAINLESS.) TANKS, STEEL SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com TANKS, WELDED. Welded tanks are generally used for highcapacity, high-volume liquids storage. TANKS, WELDED SUPPLIERS BUHLER INC. 13105 12th Ave. N., P.O. Box 9497 Minneapolis, MN 55440-9497 (763) 847-9900 Fax: (763) 847-9911 Email: [email protected] Website: www.buhlergroup.com

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TAPE CASTING MACHINES. Tape casting is routinely used in the manufacture of products such as multilayer ceramic capacitors (MLCCs), low temperature co-fired ceramics (LTCCs), lithium batteries, fuel cells, oxygen separators and thermistors. In addition, progress in nanotechnology is leading to new and exciting applications for tape casting very thin films (less than 5 microns [0.0002 in.]) in the development of products such as ceramic body armor, optical films, medical films used as drug delivery systems, and microporous membranes. Tape casting is similar to web coating and can be described as a process that uses controlled fluid flows to produce a uniform layer or coating of one material on another. Web coating usually pertains to thin protective, decorative or functional coatings, while tape cast products are generally thicker and most often removed from the substrate or web for further processing. In general, tape casting systems include fluid flow control units or coating heads, dryers and web/carrier conveyors, as well as take-up and unwind equipment. The process relies on free surface flows of viscous or solidsloaded liquids to form a layer of film that is continuously deposited on a moving substrate. Tape cast films are usually thicker than 20 microns (0.0008 in.), but can be much thinner when nanotechnology processing methods are used. High-precision knife or doctor blade systems that are available today produce very precise films as thin as 12 microns (0.0005 in.), while slot die or lip coating systems are used for films as thin as 5 microns (0.0002 in.). Other methods that are being adapted to apply even thinner films (1 micron) to substrates include micro gravure rolls, as well as forward and reverse roll coaters. The knife/doctor blade is a coating application in which the film is formed on a continuous web or carrier from fluid in a reservoir, which is metered through a gap between the knife and the carrier substrate to control film thickness. This is by far the most widely used, simple, versatile and inexpensive method, and it operates over a broad range of thicknesses, fluid viscosities and casting speeds. The knife/doctor blade system is used with high fluid viscosity in the range of 1000 to 30,000 mPa·s to cast thicknesses from 12 to 1000 microns (0.0005 to 0.040 in.) with coating speeds of up to 100 m/minute (330 ft/minute). Slot die/lip coatings are applications in which metering of the fluid flow occurs through a slot positioned across the web/carrier. The fluid flow is proportioned by the viscosity of the fluid and the fluid reservoir height or pressure gradient imposed at the slot. The film thickness is controlled by carrier speed settings. Uses include a wide range of fluid viscosities up to 50,000 mPa·s to casting film thicknesses in the range of 4 to 400 microns (0.00015 to 0.015 in.), and casting speeds of 10-200 m/minute (30-650 ft/minute). The diversity of tape casting applications for both ceramic and non-ceramic products has become the driving force for many of the recent advances in the technology. The tape casting process has become more automated, product quality has improved, and fabrication of the final shape of the product has become easier. The production of a steady stream of high-quality tape or coated products requires perfect control of the casting material, casting rate, casting speed, curing or drying method, and product take-up. The newest generation of tape casting systems uses the latest computer control technology to provide this level of control. TAPE CASTING MACHINES, CONTINUOUS. See TAPE CASTING MACHINES.

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TAPE CASTING MACHINES, CONTINUOUS SUPPLIERS HARROP INDUSTRIES INC. 3470 E. Fifth Ave. Columbus, OH 43219 (614) 231-3621 Fax: (614) 235-3699 Email: [email protected] Website: www.harropusa.com TEMPERATURE PROFILING EQUIPMENT. Comprised of a data logger encased in a thermal barrier, a temperature profiling system is placed beneath the kiln car prior to firing. As the car progresses along the kiln, thermocouples placed throughout the car relay temperature data to the data logger, resulting in a time/temperature profile for each of the thermocouples. The system helps reduce energy costs by optimizing firing cycles and enables users to adjust their kiln to the most efficient temperature and cycle times. Systems also allow users to set up process files that can be saved and modified at any time to determine and maintain optimum time at temperature for maximum throughput and efficiency. (See also DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS.) TEMPERATURE PROFILING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS DATAPAQ INC. 187 Ballardvale St. Wilmington, MA 01887 (978) 988-9000 Fax: (978) 988-0666 Email: [email protected] Website: www.datapaq.com TESTING EQUIPMENT. See ANALYZERS, INSTRUMENTS and specific TESTING EQUIPMENT categories for information about the various types of testing equipment used in the ceramic industry. TESTING EQUIPMENT, DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS. Measures changes in heat content. For ceramic materials, differential thermal analysis (DTA) is used for phase identification and characterization. Heat is absorbed (endothermic) or released (exothermic) whenever a chemical process results in a phase change. The amounts of heat exchanged (calories per mole), usually expressed as DH or enthalpy, and the temperatures at which the reaction occurs are fixed and characteristic for any given material. For purposes of phase identification, the most useful reactions are isothermal (that is, the temperature of the phase remains constant during the entire time the reaction is occurring). A change from a low-temperature structure to a hightemperature structure (polymorphic transformation), dissociation with loss of a volatile component, reduction of oxidation state, and fusion are all endothermic isothermal processes that are detectable by thermal analysis. The reverse of all these processes is the exothermic isothermal process. In a DTA apparatus, the sample and a reference material are placed in suitable holders inside a furnace that can be programmed to heat or cool on a predetermined schedule, usually at a constant rate. The reference material should undergo no phase changes, and its specific heat should be close to that of the sample over the entire sample range. The thermocouple circuitry is arranged so that the temperature of the reference material, T, and the temperature difference between the sample and the reference material, DT, are obtained, amplified and recorded. The plot of DT versus T is called a thermogram. At the onset of a phase change during either heating or cooling, the temperature of the sample deviates from the reference temperature and remains constant until the reaction is complete. The temperature Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

TESTING EQUIPMENT, DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS ³ TESTING EQUIPMENT, TENSION/COMPRESSION

difference, DT, is negative for an endothermic reaction or positive for an exhothermic reaction, and is shown as a deviation from the baseline, or peak, on the thermogram.1 (See also THERMAL ANALYSIS.) TESTING EQUIPMENT, DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS SUPPLIERS NETZSCH INSTRUMENTS NA LLC 37 North Ave. Burlington, MA 01803 (781) 272-5353 Fax: (781) 272-5225 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-thermal-analysis.com TESTING EQUIPMENT, DILATOMETERS. Dilatometry is a thermophysical properties measurement technique used to determine the expansion or shrinkage of solids, powders, pastes and liquids during heating or cooling. An accurate understanding of this behavior can provide insights on firing processes, the influence of additives and raw materials, densification and sintering properties, phase transitions, and thermal shock. It can also be used to carry out rate-controlled sintering studies on reactive powders in the fields of advanced ceramics or powder metallurgy. To perform an analysis, a sample is placed in a holder and positioned inside a furnace. A push-rod placed directly against the sample transmits the length change to a displacement transducer. As the sample length changes during the temperature program, the displacement is recorded. The temperature program is normally controlled using a thermocouple or optical pyrometer. Dilatometer tubes and pushrods made of fused silica, alumina and graphite are typically used for temperatures up to 1200, 1700 and 2800°C, respectively. The measured length change of the sample includes both the sample holder expansion and the length change of the sample itself. The measurement is automatically corrected against the expansion behavior of a suitable reference material. The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is determined by comparing the sample length change with the initial length over a temperature range. Dilatometers use horizontal and vertical furnace designs, with the latter preferred for sintering applications. It may be crucial in some cases to tightly control gas atmospheres inside the furnace (for example, for samples subject to oxidation or reducing atmospheres or for metals). For this reason, vacuum-tight furnace designs are becoming increasingly important because they allow work in pure gas atmospheres or under vacuum conditions. Other available features include multiple sample analysis for higher throughput and differential measurements, Windows® operating and data analysis software, and calibration reference materials. Recent innovations in dilatometer hardware and software design promise to increase the power of thermal expansion measurement. These include applying new thermokinetic analysis techniques to model and construct optimized firing and sintering processes, combining dilatometry with simultaneous DTA (differential thermal analysis) for better understanding of thermal behavior, and new hardware designs to improve low-temperature thermal expansion measurements. (See also DILATOMETERS and TESTING EQUIPMENT, DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS.) TESTING EQUIPMENT, GLASS. Any of a variety of instruments and equipment used to test and analyze glass from materials to finished components. (See ANALYZERS, INSTRUMENTS and specific TESTING EQUIPMENT categories for more information.) TESTING EQUIPMENT, HARDNESS, CERAMIC. Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic

deformation, usually by penetration. The usual method to achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an indentation left by an indenter of a specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time. Three principal standard test methods are used to express the relationship between hardness and the size of the impression: Vickers, Rockwell and Brinell. Vickers and Rockwell are the two methods primarily used in the ceramic industry. The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter in the form of a right pyramid, with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces, subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured using a microscope, and their average is calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is also calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation:

where F is the load in kgf; d is the arithmetic mean of the two diagonals in mm; and HV is the Vickers hardness. When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined, the Vickers hardness may be calculated from the above formula, but it is more convenient to use conversion tables. The Vickers hardness should be reported as “800 HV/10,” which means a Vickers hardness of 800 was obtained using a 10 kgf force. Several different loading settings give practically identical hardness numbers on uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of scale with the other hardness testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials under varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor-standing unit that is more expensive than the Rockwell machine. The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor load, usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device—which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter—is set to a datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied, an additional major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration. When equilibrium has again been reached, the additional major load is removed, but the preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, thereby reducing the depth of penetration. The permanent increase in depth of penetration resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number: HR = E - e where e is the permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load measured in units of 0.002 mm; E is a constant, depending on the form of indenter used (100 units for a diamond indenter; 130 units for steel ball indenter); and HR is the Rockwell hardness number. Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness number readout and rapid test-

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ing time. Disadvantages include many arbitrary non-related scales and possible effects from the specimen support anvil. (Try putting a cigarette paper under a test block and take note of the effect on the hardness reading. The Vickers method doesn’t suffer from this effect.) The Rockwell superficial hardness test method is often used to measure thin plates, assembled components, small components and surface-quenched components (e.g., carburized or nitrided surface) that cannot be tested with the Rockwell hardness tester. The principle is primarily the same, except that the indenter is forced into the test material under a lesser preliminary load—usually 3 kgf.15 TESTING EQUIPMENT, HARDNESS, CERAMIC SUPPLIERS SHIMADZU SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT INC. 7102 Riverwood Dr. Columbia, MD 21046 (410) 381-1227; (800) 477-1227 Fax: (410) 381-1222 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ssi.shimadzu.com TESTING EQUIPMENT, NONDESTRUCTIVE. Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been defined as comprising those test methods used to examine an object, material or system without impairing its future usefulness. Since the 1920s, nondestructive testing has developed from a laboratory curiosity into an indispensable tool of production. A great variety of nondestructive tests are used to detect variations in structure, minute changes in surface finish, the presence of cracks or other physical discontinuities, to measure the thickness of materials and coatings, and to determine other characteristics of industrial products.7 (See specific instrument categories for more information.) TESTING EQUIPMENT, NONDESTRUCTIVE SUPPLIERS STRUERS 24766 Detroit Rd. Westlake, OH 44145 (888) 787-8377; (440) 871-8188 Email: [email protected] Website: www.struers.com TESTING EQUIPMENT, POWDER. Powder testing equipment can measure the dynamic flow behavior, shear properties and bulk properties of powders, including permeability and compressibility. (See also POWDER TESTING EQUIPMENT.) TESTING EQUIPMENT, POWDER SUPPLIERS FREEMAN TECHNOLOGY 1 Miller Ct., Severn Dr. Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire GL20 8DN England, U.K. +44 (0) 1684-851551 Fax: +44 (0) 1684-851552 Email: [email protected] Website: www.freemantech.co.uk TESTING EQUIPMENT, RESONANT INSPECTION. See RESONANT INSPECTION EQUIPMENT. TESTING EQUIPMENT, SONIC. See TESTING EQUIPMENT, ULTRASONIC. TESTING EQUIPMENT, TENSION/COMPRESSION. Two types of tension and compression testing equipment are compression creep testers and universal test machines. A compression creep tester uses compression and sometimes high temperatures to test ceramics. The basic tester includes a rugged open frame with side operation, a large testing area near the center, a counterbalanced lever arm, a single or dual ratio with a support block assembly, a CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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ratio adjustment and ram alignment adjustment, a specimen failure shutdown switch, an electric time meter, and finally, on the bottom part of the frame, isolator mounts with leveling screws. Options for this type of machine are a weight elevator; couplings, rams, and test fixtures; a furnace, oven, or environmental chamber; a mounting bracket; a linear variable capacity (LVC) chamber; programmable temperature controls; and computer control. The compression creep provides many benefits for the testing lab and quality control department. For those who prefer universal test machines, this type of tester is less expensive than high end UTMs. It also offers the option of running a basic test for more than 1000 hours at a time. Users can set the optional computer controls and return for the results in six months to a year. Also, with point bend test fixtures, there is an alternative to tensile tests. Most testers are for the short term—1 to 1000 hours. But for long-term tests that use high temperatures on ceramics, a compression creep tester is an excellent option to consider. Designed in the late 1800s, the universal test machine (UTM) is effective for testing ceramics used for products like nozzles and injection systems and other high-temperature applications. Typically, researchers test ceramics under high temperatures in compression or flexure experiments. For tests with durations of less than 1000 hours, a universal test machine is often the tester of choice. Lever arm or direct load systems are employed for tests running over a longer period of time. Both manually controlled and the more advanced UTMs are available to meet different testing environments. Smaller tabletop UTMs range from 1000 to 10,000 lbf, and higher end computer models from 1000 to almost 70,000 lbf. For high-temperature applications with ceramics, a furnace or oven is an important addition. With continuing innovation, a wide variety of test fixtures and accessories have been developed for testing ceramic specimens in universal test machines. Different bend test fixtures, grips, compression platens, retorts, extensometers and laser extensometers support different specimen sizes and temperature specifications. A large selection of compression platens and flexure accessories are manufactured in different materials to withstand temperatures from ambient to 3000°F. Retorts are made from various materials, such as stainless steel, Inconel and ceramics; these can meet or exceed most ceramic test temperatures and atmosphere requirements. Extensometers, another type of universal test machine, are used in measuring dimensional changes that occur to specimens during a physical test, and they are available in many types and styles. They are manufactured from many materials to match the testing accuracy and temperature required. For example, most extensometers support temperatures from ambient room temperature to 2200°F, but a laser extensometer might support temperatures to 3000°F or higher. Some bend test fixtures in combination with extensometers precisely measure the deflection of ceramics and also support temperatures to 3000°F. TESTING EQUIPMENT, TENSION/COMPRESSION SUPPLIERS SHIMADZU SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT INC. 7102 Riverwood Dr. Columbia, MD 21046 (410) 381-1227; (800) 477-1227 Fax: (410) 381-1222 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ssi.shimadzu.com TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL ANALYSIS. See TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY; TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY; and THERMAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT.

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TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL ANALYSIS SUPPLIERS LINSEIS INC. 109 North Gold Dr. Robbinsville, NJ 08691 (800) 732-6733; (609) 223-2070 Fax: (609) 223-2074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.linseis.com TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY. A variety of methods and instruments can be used to determine thermal conductivity. Instruments that use the steady-state conditions described in the Fourier equation (Q = -? · [?T/?x]) are primarily suitable for analyzing materials with low or average thermal conductivities at moderate temperatures. Instruments based on dynamic (transient) methods, such as the hot-wire or flash diffusivity methods, are used to characterize materials with a high thermal conductivity and/or for measurements at high temperatures. Steady-State Methods: Heat Flow Meters. For this process, a square sample with a well-defined thickness (usually 30 cm in length and width and 10 cm thick) is inserted between two plates, and a fixed temperature gradient is established. The heat flow through the sample is measured with calibrated heat flow sensors that are in contact with the sample at the plate interface. The thermal conductivity is determined by measuring the thickness, the temperature gradient and the heat flow through the sample. Samples can be up to 10 cm thick with a length and width between 30 and 60 cm. This method can successfully test materials with thermal conductivities between 0.005 and 0.5 W/mK and is typically used to determine the thermal conductivities and k-factors of fiberglass insulation or insulation boards. Depending on the type of instrument used, measurements between -20 and 100ºC are possible. Advantages of this method include easy handling, accurate test results and fast measurements, while disadvantages include its limited temperature and measurement range. Guarded Heat Flow Meters. For larger samples that require a higher measurement range, guarded heat flow meters can be used. The measurement principle is nearly the same as with regular heat flow meters, but the test section is surrounded by a guard heater, resulting in higher measurement temperatures. Additionally, higher thermal conductivities can be measured with this method. Guarded Hot-Plate Instruments. The hot-plate or guarded hot-plate apparatus uses an operating principle similar to the heat flow meter with hot and cold plates. The heat source is typically positioned in the center between two samples of the same material. Two samples are used to guarantee symmetrical heat flow upward and downward, as well as complete absorption of the heater’s energy by the test samples. A well-defined power level is put into the hot plate during the test. The measurement temperatures and temperature gradient are adjusted between the heat source and the auxiliary plates by adjusting the power input into the auxiliary heaters. The guard heater(s) around the hot plate and the sample set-up guarantee a linear, one-dimensional heat flow from the hot plate to the auxiliary heaters. The auxiliary heaters are in contact with a heat sink to ensure heat removal and improved control. By measuring the power input into the hot plate, the temperature gradient and the thickness of the two samples, the thermal conductivity can be determined according to the Fourier equation. The advantages of guarded hot plates compared to the heat flow meters are their broader temperature range (-180 to 650ºC) and measuring range (up to 2 W/mK). Additionally, the guarded hot-plate technique is an absolute measurement technique—no calibration of the unit is required. Dynamic (Transient) Measuring Methods: Transient measuring methods have become established in the last few decades for studying materials with high thermal conductivities and for taking measurements at high tem-

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peratures. Besides their high precision and broad measuring range, transient methods feature a comparably simple sample preparation and the ability to measure up to 2000ºC. Hot-Wire Method. In the hot-wire method, a wire is embedded in a sample, generally a large brick. During the test run, a constant heating power is applied to this wire, causing the temperature of the wire to rise. The temperature increase is measured versus time at the heating wire itself or at a well-defined distance parallel to the wire. Because this measurement depends on the thermal conductivity of the tested materials, it provides an evaluation of this thermal conductivity. Various methods can be used to measure the temperature rise of the wire. With the cross-wire method, the temperature increase is measured with a thermocouple that is directly welded onto the hot wire. With the parallel-wire method, the temperature increase is measured in a defined distance to the hot wire. With the T(R)-method, the heating wire itself is used to measure the temperature increase. Here, the well-known correlation between the electrical resistance of the hot wire (which is typically platinum) and the temperature is used. The magnitude of the thermal conductivity to be measured is an important consideration in selecting the right method. The cross-wire method is suitable for measuring thermal conductivities below 2 W/mK, while the T(R) and parallel-wire methods are used for materials with higher thermal conductivities (15 and 20 W/mK, respectively). Some instruments allow the use of all three methods. Flash Diffusivity Method. Another technique that can be used to investigate highly conductive materials and/or samples with small dimensions is the flash diffusivity method, also known as the laser flash method. This method directly measures the thermal diffusivity of a material. If the specific heat and density of the sample are known, thermal conductivity can be determined. The specific heat can be directly measured with flash diffusivity using a comparative method; however, a differential scanning calorimeter is recommended to obtain the highest accuracies. Density and/or density alteration subject to temperature can be determined using dilatometry. Using the flash diffusivity method, a plane-parallel sample is run in a furnace to the required test temperature. Afterwards, the front surface of the sample is heated with a short (<1 ms) light pulse produced by a laser or a flash lamp. The heat diffuses through the sample, leading to a temperature rise on the sample’s rear surface. This temperature rise is measured vs. time with an infrared detector. It is important to note that only the time-dependent behavior of the measuring signal is decisive, not its height. Due to its high precision (<3 %) and the small necessary sample geometries, the flash diffusivity method has entered many areas of research and development and quality control in the production of ceramic materials. The success of this method is mainly due to its short measurement times—the instruments can go from room temperature up to 2000ºC in less than one day. The flash diffusivity technique can be applied to materials ranging from pressed fiberboards, with thermal conductivities of less than 0.05 W/ mK, to diamond, which can have thermal conductivity of more than 2000 W/mK. This method can also be used to measure multilayer-systems, such as the characterization of thermal barrier coatings on turbine blades. TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY SUPPLIERS LINSEIS INC. 109 North Gold Dr. Robbinsville, NJ 08691 (800) 732-6733; (609) 223-2070 Fax: (609) 223-2074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.linseis.com

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TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY

TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY. Thermal diffusivity systems measure the heat transfer through materials, usually through a technique called flash diffusivity (also known as the laser flash method). Many thermal diffusivity test instruments also measure thermal conductivity. (See also TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY.) TESTING EQUIPMENT, THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY SUPPLIERS LINSEIS INC. 109 North Gold Dr. Robbinsville, NJ 08691 (800) 732-6733; (609) 223-2070 Fax: (609) 223-2074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.linseis.com NETZSCH INSTRUMENTS NA LLC 37 North Ave. Burlington, MA 01803 (781) 272-5353 Fax: (781) 272-5225 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-thermal-analysis.com TESTING EQUIPMENT, ULTRASONIC. Ultrasonic testing is a non-destructive, versatile technique that can be applied to a wide variety of material analysis applications. It is most widely used for flaw detection, thickness gauging, and acoustic imaging of flaws and time-of-flight variations. Ultrasonic sound waves can also be used to discriminate and quantify some basic mechanical, structural or compositional properties of solids and liquids. Ultrasonic material analysis is based on a simple principle of physics: the motion of any wave will be affected by the medium through which it travels. Thus, changes in one or more of four easily measurable parameters associated with the passage of a highfrequency sound wave through a material—transit time, attenuation, scattering and frequency content—can often be correlated with changes in physical properties such as hardness, elastic modulus, density, homogeneity or grain structure. The two types of equipment typically used for ultrasonic testing are portable contact testers and immersion scanning systems. Both can be used for ceramic testing; however, the detection of very small defects requires high-frequency immersion testing. This provides a permanent record with a color image of the area and the defect location and size. Ultrasonic testing requires the use of a couplant to transmit the sound wave into the test part. For contact testing, a couplant gel is used. For immersion testing, water is used. Ultrasonic testing complements other non-destructive testing methods, such as X-ray, liquid penetrant and eddy current. It has the capability to be sensitive to defects as small as 5 microns in diameter and can operate over a wide range of thickness if the appropriate transducer frequency and size are selected. It is very sensitive to laminar defects, inclusions, porosity and voiding. Ultrasonic inspection of ceramics is widely used because it is non-destructive and effective in evaluating both material properties and quality.25 TESTING EQUIPMENT, X-RAY. X-rays can be used to reveal detailed information about the chemical composition and physical nature of all kinds of natural and manufactured materials. The appeal of X-ray analysis lies in its combination of practical and economic advantages. In the vast majority of cases, analyzed samples are not destroyed or changed by exposure to X-rays. They can thus be saved for future reference or used for other types of testing. Additionally, many samples can be examined with little or no pre-treatment. To provide a basis for comparison, they should simply be homogeneous and representative of the bulk source from which they are extracted. For chemical analysis of solids and powders, it is also desirable to create a clean, flat surface in order

to obtain reproducible results. Many of the alternative techniques require dissolution procedures that are both time-consuming and costly in terms of the acids or other reagents required. X-ray spectrometry also enables chemical compositions to be determined in seconds. As a result, it is a preferred method for operations where any delays in quality checks involve dramatic increases in energy consumption and costly plant occupancy. Modern instruments run under computer control, with powerful software to handle measurement setup and results calculation. Tasks that once required the attention of a trained analyst can now be handled by unskilled operators— or even carried out by fully automated systems.26 Types of X-ray analyses used in the ceramic industry include X-ray fluorescence, wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is used for nondestructive, environmentally clean and safe multi-element analyses. It operates by irradiating a sample with a beam of high-energy X-rays and exciting characteristic X-rays from those elements present in the sample. It is a very established technique for analyzing the total elemental/oxide composition of raw materials, as well as intermediate and final products in the ceramic industry. Wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (WDXRF) is a non-destructive analytical technique used to identify and determine the concentrations of the elements present in solids, powders and liquids. WDXRF is capable of measuring all elements from beryllium (atomic number 4) to uranium (atomic number 92) and beyond (at trace levels, often below one part per million, and up to 100%). When the atoms in a sample material are irradiated with high-energy primary X-ray photons, electrons are ejected in the form of photoelectrons. This creates electron “holes” in one or more of the orbitals, converting the atoms into ions— which are unstable. To restore the atoms to a more stable state, the holes in inner orbitals are filled by electrons from outer orbitals. Such transitions may be accompanied by an energy emission in the form of a secondary X-ray photon—a phenomenon known as “fluorescence.” The various electron orbitals are called K, L, M, etc., where K is closest to the nucleus. Each corresponds to a different energy level, and the energy (E) of emitted fluorescent photons is determined by the difference in energies between the initial and final orbitals for the individual transitions. This is described by the formula:

E = hc/h where h is Planck’s constant, c is the velocity of light and lambda is the wavelength of the photon. Wavelengths are thus inversely proportional to the energies and are characteristic for each element. In addition, the intensity of emission—i.e. number of photons—is proportional to the concentration of the responsible element in a sample. An analyzing crystal, with lattice planes parallel to its surface and separated by distance, is used to separate the various wavelengths by diffraction. If radiation strikes the crystal at an angle, diffraction occurs only when the distance traveled between successive planes differs by a complete number of wavelengths. By changing the angle—e.g., by rotating the crystal—different wavelengths are diffracted.26 X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a versatile, non-destructive analytical technique for identifying and quantitatively determining the various crystalline compounds, known as “phases,” present in solid materials and powders. Identification is achieved by comparing the X-ray diffraction pattern—or “diffractogram”— obtained from an unknown sample with an internationally recognized database containing reference patterns for more than 70,000 phases. Modern computer-controlled diffractometer systems use automatic routines to measure, record and interpret the

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THERMAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT

unique diffractograms produced by individual constituents in even highly complex mixtures.26 Unlike XRF, which is limited to measurements relating to a material’s chemical composition, XRD can analyze compounds and/or phases. For this reason, it is often used in conjunction with XRF to obtain a more complete characterization of materials. XRD is also used to identify and analyze stresses in crystalline materials. In this application, the X-ray beam is directed onto the material, which causes the beam to be diffracted and creates an observable peak. If the material is stress-free, the peak occurs at a specific known angle depending on the wavelength of the X-ray and the material being analyzed. The diffraction peak is observed from several angles. If peak shifts appear at these angles, stresses are present. The degree and location of the shift provide data that allows the operator to calculate how much the atomic lattice structure of the material is either pulled apart (tensile stress) or pushed together (compressive stress). Since the actual material is analyzed, XRD is a direct method of measuring stresses. (See also INSTRUMENTS, X-RAY DIFFRACTION.) Single-crystal X-ray diffraction (X-ray crystallography) is an analytical technique for applications in which X-rays are used to determine with certainty the actual arrangement of atoms within a crystalline specimen. X-ray crystallographic systems generally include dedicated computers with associated hardware and software for instrument control, data reduction, solution and refinement of molecular structures, and display and plotting of final results. TESTING EQUIPMENT, XRF. See TESTING EQUIPMENT, X-RAY. TESTING EQUIPMENT, XRF SUPPLIERS PANALYTICAL Lelyweg 1, P.O. Box 13 Almelo 7600 AA Netherlands +31 546-534-444; (508) 647-1100 Fax: +31 546-534-598 Email: [email protected] Website: www.panalytical.com THERMAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT. Thermal analysis instrumentation is used to measure changes in the properties of materials when they are heated or cooled. These instruments measure dimensional, weight and energy changes associated with reactions, phase changes, transitions and other physical or chemical phenomena. Thermal Dilatometric Analysis (TDA). Dilatometers measure the dimensional changes of materials during heating or cooling of the sample. Both the reversible and irreversible changes in the length of a specimen can be measured. Typically, this is done with a ceramic push rod in direct contact with the specimen. Dimensional determinations can include: expansion coefficient (a), softening point, glass transition temperature, curie point, crystalline transformation, phase transition, shrinkage, bloating, sintering rate, isothermal creep and stress relaxation. Dilatometers are designed to operate under different conditions of heating/cooling rate, maximum temperature, horizontal or vertical sample orientation and atmosphere. Data is digitally sent to a computer for display and further analysis. (See also TESTING EQUIPMENT, DILATOMETERS.) Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA). Differential thermal analysis is a “fingerprinting” method that detects heat release or heat absorption associated with chemical and physical changes that occur when materials are heated or cooled. This knowledge is valuable in understanding thermal properties of materials and in determining firing or sintering schedules. Points where changes occur can be used to predict what occurred and the relative magnitude of the change. For example, oxidation releases heat (exotherm), while a phase change may absorb heat (endotherm). The size and shape of the curve CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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THERMAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT

indicates the magnitude of change. (See also DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT.) Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). Thermogravimetric analysis measures the weight change of a test sample as the temperature rises. Points along the temperature curve that show rapid weight loss are indicative of chemical reactions and phase transitions that create gaseous byproducts. This information is useful to determine where the firing cycle must be slowed to allow safe completion of these reactions. Changes in sample weight may be due to oxidation, decomposition, reduction, volatilization, sublimation and reactions within the sample.

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VACUUM CHUCKS

THERMOCOUPLE SUPPLIERS

AMERICAN ISOSTATIC PRESSES INC. 1205 S. Columbus Airport Rd. Columbus, OH 43207 (614) 497-3148; (800) 375-7108 Fax: (614) 497-3407 Email: [email protected] Website: www.aiphip.com

THERMAL ANALYSIS EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

LINSEIS INC. 109 North Gold Dr. Robbinsville, NJ 08691 (800) 732-6733; (609) 223-2070 Fax: (609) 223-2074 Email: [email protected] Website: www.linseis.com

AVURE TECHNOLOGIES INC. 3721 Corporate Dr. Columbus, OH 43231 (614) 891-2732 Fax: (614) 891-4568 Email: [email protected] Website: www.avure.com THERMOGRAVIMETER INSTRUMENTS. See INSTRUMENTS, THERMOGRAVIMETER.

NETZSCH INSTRUMENTS NA LLC 37 North Ave. Burlington, MA 01803 (781) 272-5353 Fax: (781) 272-5225 Email: [email protected] Website: www.netzsch-thermal-analysis.com SHIMADZU SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT INC. 7102 Riverwood Dr. Columbia, MD 21046 (410) 381-1227; (800) 477-1227 Fax: (410) 381-1222 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ssi.shimadzu.com THERMOCOUPLES. Two wires of different compositions welded together on one end to form a junction. On heating this junction, a low voltage, proportional to temperature, can be measured on the opposite ends. A properly calibrated instrument can thus be used for temperature measurement.3

TRANSFORMERS, ELECTRIC. Electric transformers are used to provide the voltage matching capability and ratings required by a variety of heating elements. Silicon carbide elements change resistance with age. To deliver full power over the resistance range, a means of increasing voltage over a two-to-one range must be provided. This can be accomplished through multi-tapped transformers. Molybdenum and graphite elements generally are operated at lower voltages (approximately 50 volts) and higher currents, and change resistance with temperature. For contactor or manually controlled heating applications, reduced voltage taps are required to avoid overloading the system during the cold elements’ low-resistance stage. Typically, a transformer is designed with three or four secondary taps, depending on the size of the furnace. Since the current will be higher than nominal when each voltage is first applied, some oversizing of the electrical system, including the transformer, is desirable. For finer control, additional taps can be specified.24 TUBES, PYROMETER PROTECTION. Tubes that encase and protect the pyrometer from contamination or physical jarring. TUBES, RADIANT. Radiant tubes are tubular muffles through which burners are fired for indirect heating of furnace loads. The metal alloy or ceramic tube wall transfers heat to the load without products of combustion contact by a combination or radiation and convection from its outer surface. This provides process heating with reduced risk of scale formation or damaging reactions on the product surface. A prepared atmosphere (friendly to the material being heated) may be piped into the furnace space outside the radiant tubes.30 TUBES, REFRACTORY. See RODS, CERAMIC and TUBES, PYROMETER PROTECTION. TURNTABLES. See KILN CAR MOVERS.

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ULTRASONIC CLEANING EQUIPMENT. Ultrasonic cleaning involves the use of high-frequency sound waves (above the upper range of human hearing, or about 18 kHz) to rid parts immersed in aqueous media from a variety of contaminants. Metals, glass, ceramics and other materials can be cleaned ultrasonically.60

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ULTRASONIC CLEANING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS LIBERTY MACHINERY COMPANY 111 Schelter Rd. Lincolnshire, IL 60069 (847) 276-2761 Fax: (847) 276-2762 Email: [email protected] Website: www.libertymachinery.com ULTRASONIC MACHINING EQUIPMENT. In ultrasonic machining (USM), a tool shaped conversely to the desired hole or cavity oscillates at a high frequency (typically 20 kHz) and is fed into the workpiece by a constant force. An abrasive slurry composed of water and small abrasive particles is supplied between the tool tip and the workpiece. Material removal occurs when the abrasive particles, suspended in the slurry between the tool and workpiece, impact the workpiece due to the downstroke of the vibrating tool. A more recent development, called rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM), uses a rotating core drill with metal bonded diamond abrasives that is ultrasonically vibrated in the axial direction while the spindle is fed toward the workpiece at a constant pressure. Coolant pumped through the core of the drill washes away the swarf, prevents jamming of the drill and keeps it cool. By using abrasives bonded directly on the tools and combining simultaneous rotation and vibration, RUM provides higher material removal rates (MRR) than those obtained by either diamond grinding or USM alone. Experiments with calcium aluminum silicate and magnesia-stabilized zirconia have shown that the MRR obtained with RUM is six to 10 times higher than that of a conventional grinding process under similar conditions, and it is about 10 times faster than USM. Studies have also shown that it is easier to drill deep holes with RUM than with USM, and that hole accuracy is improved. Other advantages of this process reportedly include a superior surface finish and low tool pressure. ULTRASONIC NDT EQUIPMENT, CERAMIC. See TESTING EQUIPMENT, ULTRASONIC. VACUUM CHUCKS. Vacuum chucks use vacuum to pull a workpiece or part against a reference surface. The part is held by the friction between the part and the chuck. The chuck system typically consists of the chuck, a vacuum pump and a vacuum reservoir. Vacuum chucks are typically used with parts that have a relatively large surface area (including curved parts); parts that are thin and would be distorted by clamps or other mechanical holding devices; parts whose surface finish would be damaged by clamps or mechanical holding devices; parts that need to be supported over most of their surface; and parts that require only medium- to light-force machining, grinding, turning or electrical discharge machining. Vacuum chucks should not be used with parts that have a relatively small surface area or no reasonably finished surfaces (i.e., rough casting), or that require high machining forces. Types of vacuum chucks include pin chucks, slot or pocket chucks, and porous ceramic or metal chucks. Pink chucks use an array of holes to deliver the vacuum and are good for flat parts that are somewhat subject to distortion. They are also good for holding other fixtures, such as vices, and they can be reconfigured for different size parts. Slot or pocket chucks use networks of slots, pockets or orifices to deliver the vacuum and are suitable for relatively rigid parts of all geometries. Porous ceramic or metal chucks use porous ceramic or metal to deliver the vacuum, and are typically more expensive than other types of vacuum chucks. They are good for finishing operations on parts that are subject to distortion or breakage if not fully supported, and they can also be used for holding flexible parts.16 Supplier listings indicate paid advertising.

VACUUM CLEANERS, CENTRAL STATIONARY

VACUUM CLEANERS, CENTRAL STATIONARY. Central stationary vacuum cleaners are typically used for entire plant cleanup, wet/dry slurries, process pneumatic conveying, production line material reclamation, bin loading/ unloading, decontamination of sensitive areas and other continuous applications. Systems are generally rated from 1/2 to 100 tons per hour. VACUUM CLEANERS, CENTRAL STATIONARY SUPPLIERS

VACUUM CLEANERS, INDUSTRIAL MOBILE SUPPLIERS

HI-VAC CORP. 117 Industry Rd. Marietta, OH 45750 (740) 374-2306; (800) 752-2400 Fax: (740) 374-5447 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hi-vac.com VACUUM DEAERATORS. See DEAERATORS, VACUUM.

HI-VAC CORP. 117 Industry Rd. Marietta, OH 45750 (740) 374-2306; (800) 752-2400 Fax: (740) 374-5447 Email: [email protected] Website: www.hi-vac.com

VIBRATORY FINISHING EQUIPMENT. Vibratory tumble finishing systems produce a cutting action by shaking the processing vessel (the finishing tub) at a high speed, causing the tumbling media and parts to scrub against each other. This scrubbing action precisely abrades the parts to remove burrs. A shaft with rotating eccentric weights mounted on the tub produces the shaking action.61 VIBRATORY FINISHING EQUIPMENT SUPPLIERS

VECTOR TECHNOLOGIES, ROSS COOK BRAND 6820 N. 43rd St. Milwaukee, WI 53209-2215 (800) 832-4010 Fax: (414) 247-7110 Email: [email protected] Website: www.vector-vacuums.com VACUUM CLEANERS, INDUSTRIAL MOBILE. Mobile industrial vacuum cleaners range from 2 to 300 horsepower with capacities from 7 gallons to 2 yards. They are typically designed for light- or heavy-duty industrial use. Some designs offer an integrated hopper for easy dumping of material.

LIBERTY MACHINERY COMPANY 111 Schelter Rd. Lincolnshire, IL 60069 (847) 276-2761 Fax: (847) 276-2762 Email: [email protected] Website: www.libertymachinery.com VISCOMETERS. An instrument for measuring the viscosity of fluids or pastes at specified temperature and shear rates. The viscosity of a material is its resistance to flow.3

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ZETA POTENTIAL ANALYZERS

ceramic artists, potters and students to form clay into various creations, such as bowls, cups and vessels. The motor on an electric potter’s wheel drives the wheel-head through the compression of a foot pedal. The operator can increase or decrease speed on variable speed units, and reverse the wheel-head rotation if the wheel has reversing capabilities. Generally, the wheel is run clockwise for left-handed users and counter-clockwise for right-handed users. Various designs of electric potter’s wheels range from portable tabletop models to larger, more powerful models. Wheels that are rotated manually also vary in design, including kick wheels that utilize a flywheel, and treadle wheels.33 WIRE SCREENING CLOTH. Woven wire cloth is available in a wide range of materials and weave patterns and is the most frequently used medium for strainers, screens and filters. It can be worked and formed to exact filtration or screening requirements and provides a moderate level of durability, strength and reliability. The most common properties used to specify wire cloth include material, mesh count, wire diameter and weave. The material is the metal or alloy used in the wire to determine its resistance to corrosion, abrasion, heat and vibration. The mesh count refers to the number of openings per linear inch. The mesh is counted by starting from the center of one wire and counting the number of openings to a point one inch distant. The wire diameter is the diameter of the wire before weaving. And the weave is the pattern in which the wires running crosswise (shute wires) and the wires running lengthwise (warp wires) cross each other. The properties required for a given process depend on the specific material handling requirements. (See also SCREENS & SCREENING EQUIPMENT.) X-RAY SYSTEMS, DIFFRACTION. See INSTRUMENTS, X-RAY DIFFRACTION and TESTING EQUIPMENT, X-RAY. X-RAY SYSTEMS, DIFFRACTION SUPPLIERS

WEAR PLATE. Wear plates protect machinery and equipment from abrasion, impact and wear. WEIGHING/SCALES. See BATCHERS, WEIGHING & MEASURING and SCALES. WHEELS, DIAMOND. See ABRASIVE WHEELS; DIAMOND TOOLS; and SAWS, DIAMOND. WHEELS, POTTER’S THROWING. Potter’s wheels are used by

PANALYTICAL Lelyweg 1, P.O. Box 13 Almelo 7600 AA Netherlands +31 546-534-444; (508) 647-1100 Fax: +31 546-534-598 Email: [email protected] Website: www.panalytical.com ZETA POTENTIAL ANALYZERS. See ANALYZERS, ZETA POTENTIAL.

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³ GLASSWORKS by Joe Cattaneo | President, Glass Packaging Institute

Industry Recognizes Leaders in Glass Packaging and Recycling more dairy products in glass, was honored in the Conversion Recognition category. The company switched from plastic to a recyclable glass jar, supplied by glass container manufacturer Verallia, for its organic cottage cheese. This furthers Traders Point Creamery’s goal to offer award-winning products that benefit the health of its customers and the planet.

2011 Friends of Glass

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ach year, the Glass Packaging Institute (GPI) awards businesses, organizations and its members’ customers who are at the forefront of using innovative glass packaging, leading the charge for glass recycling, and promoting the use of 100% pure and recyclable glass bottles. These recognitions help the GPI advance innovators within the packaging industry and promote model glass recycling programs.

Clear Choice Awards For the past 22 years, the GPI has awarded its Clear Choice Award in recognition of consumer product manufacturers who expand the frontiers of glass packaging design. It is the only award program that recognizes the contribution glass packaging makes to the environment—and shelf impact. Awards were presented during September’s Recycle Glass Month in 10 categories to top glass packages. Entries were judged on innovation, package design (including container, label and closure), and consumer appeal by judges from the world of design and printing, packaging trade press, and packaging schools. In addition to industry-wide recognition and brand-building media, award recipients were given the opportunity to display their winning products at PACK EXPO 2011 in September at the Las Vegas Convention Center. One standout company, Organic TruBee, was recognized for the decision to package its raw gourmet honey in a glass container manufactured by Owens-Illinois, Inc. (O-I). Organic TruBee chose glass packaging because it is 100% recyclable, and glass best showcases the purity of the honey. Traders Point Creamery, a leader in the trend to package

During Recycle Glass Month 2011, the GPI also recognized seven Friends of Glass by honoring those companies, organizations, and persons making significant and innovative efforts to choose glass packaging and further glass container recycling for bottle-to-bottle use. Eden Foods, Inc. and Two Guys in Vermont were selected as Best Friends of Glass. Eden Foods packages its line of organic crushed tomatoes and sauces in amber glass jars to protect flavor and nutrients from light damage. The driving force at Eden Foods for glass packaging vs. cans was to avoid bisphenol-A (BPA), a potential issue for acidic foods in plastic-lined cans. Two Guys in Vermont, a brand of all-natural soups, also specifically chose sustainable glass jars for its product package to avoid BPA.

Spearheading Glass Recycling Blue Skies Recycling and Glass Act took home Friend of Glass awards in the glass recycling category. Blue Skies Recycling (St. Louis, Mo.) collects organics, cardboard and glass containers for recycling from 35 bars/restaurants, Busch Stadium, and the Jones Dome convention center. Nearly 10 tons per month of mixed glass is used to make new bottles and other glass products. The company’s goal is to make it easier for the foodservice industry to recycle glass. Glass Act of Marion County, Ohio, is another bar/restaurant recycling program. It was initiated by the county with public and private grants in January 2011, and collects over eight tons per month of mixed glass bottles and jars for recycling into new glass containers. Grant funds were used for indoor and outdoor collection bins at 35 participating bars and restaurants—everything from an Applebee’s to local sports bars. To learn more about all the award winners, visit the GPI website at www.gpi.org. 

Lynn Bragg is president of the Glass Packaging Institute (GPI). Founded in 1919, the Washington, D.C., area-based GPI represents the North American glass container manufacturing industry. To find out more about the strong environmental position of glass containers, visit www.gpi.org and sign up to receive the institute’s monthly e-newsletter. Any views or opinions expressed in this column are those of the author and do not represent those of Ceramic Industry, its staff, Editorial Advisory Board or BNP Media.

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November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM

³ CASESTUDY

special section | brick & clay record

by Don Mannon, Industrial Networking Consultant, Siemens Industry, Inc., Oak Ridge, N.C.

Going Wireless New wireless automation options enable technology to meet art in brick manufacturing.

A

s an art, brick making can trace its roots back at least 7000 years. While the process has evolved, the science of brick manufacturing did not receive a major technology boost until recently, when brick manufacturers initiated an investment in automation and robotics to increase efficiency, productivity, and

safety while reducing their environmental footprint. Moreover, it is only in the last two years that one brick manufacturer has turned another technological corner by connecting its processes wirelessly to create a totally integrated automation (TIA) package. This innovation enables each phase of the company’s manufacturing process

to communicate for overall control and data collection without the installation of a costly network of cables and wires.

Moving Beyond Manual Columbus Brick Co. was founded in Columbus, Miss., in 1890 by Willis N. Puckett. At that time, clay was mined with picks and shovels and transported by mules to be formed into bricks via wooden molds and heat from red-hot coals. Finished products were shipped A totally integrated automation (TIA) package enables each phase of the company’s manufacturing process to communicate for overall control and data collection without a network of cables and wires.

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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CASE STUDY by mule, railcar and steamboat, and all processes were completely manual. Now a business in its fifth generation (with Willis Puckett’s great-grandson Allen Puckett III as owner and president), the company is leading the way for other brick makers to realize cost management and savings by implementing wireless communication throughout its automated processes. “By the 1970s, Columbus Brick ran certain processes in its plant from PLCs and analog technology that were considered state of the art at the time,” says Nigel Hough, engineering director for the company. “However, many of its processes, such as loading cars, were still done by hand. In the late 1990s to 2000, the brick industry as a whole was about 15 years behind other industries when it came to automated processes. Around that time, a revitalization fueled by the building boom came about in the industry, and some companies felt the need to invest in technology.”

Columbus Brick Technology Investment at a Glance* • Wireless radios (six): SCALANCE® W • Motor control centers (three): Siemens Smart MCCs • Networks: ASi® (low level), PROFIBUS (mid level), PROFINET Ethernet (high level) • Unmanaged switches: Scalance® X005 (upgrading to managed switches throughout) • Truck scale controller: Simatic® ET200 • Modular I/O: ET200S • Mid-range controllers: Simatic S7-300F • Upper-range controllers: Simatic S7-400 • SCADA software: WinCC® Simatic HMI *

Siemens technology throughout.

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Hough says it was not the large, multinational companies that first paved the way for automation in manufacturing clay brick, but smaller, family-owned companies within the U.S. “There were about eight or 10 independent manufacturers in the United States that first invested in robotics 10 years ago,” he says. “Allen Puckett, as owner of Columbus Brick, had the foresight to invest in technology and build what we now call ‘Plant 2’ in 1999 to 2000. At the time, it was completely state of the art, with robotics and other automation, and it doubled manufacturing capacity for us.”

Expanding Automation During Columbus Brick’s expansion, Hough was working for Krumbach, Germany-based machine manufacturer Hans Lingl GmbH & Co. KG, which supplied many of the automated machines for Plant 2—machines that routinely employed controller hardware and software developed by Siemens Industry, Inc. Once the expansion was complete, Hough remained in the U.S. with Columbus Brick as the company worked to continuously improve processes. “With Plant 2, we went from 1970s push-button PLCs to a facility with the type of robotics that had only really been used in the automotive industry until then,” says Hough. “We reduced the manpower requirements for Plant 2, while the manufacturing capacity remained comparable to that of Plant 1. Overall, our capacity doubled.” With all of its automated processes, however, Plant 2 still lacked a means of collecting and managing data in some areas. The company’s decision to go wireless two years ago initially came about as a cost-effective, practical means of measuring and recording weights from the truckloads of clay that enter the plant— something Columbus Brick had not been doing up to that point. Most truck-weighing systems use a PC to record measurements from an adjacent load cell, and the pairing is usually hardwired with a serial connection. Hough says Columbus Brick wanted to be able to weigh trucks of clay so it could more accurately manage produc-

tion data. To install a weighing system, however, the company would have had to build a scale house, and then wire that zone to the rest of the factory. Because of the layout of existing plant and office buildings, especially the location of the clay hopper to the crusher, the only logical place to install a scale was some distance from the buildings. “At that point, we decided wireless was the most beneficial way to install a truck scale,” Hough says. “It prompted the decision to connect the entire plant wirelessly.” At first, Hough started integrating such improvements as managed switches on his own, working with the network to give the company better control. But when Columbus Brick began upgrading to a wireless backbone for a better level of control, Hough contacted Siemens for more direct assistance. Hans Lingl’s widespread use of Siemens computer automation in its machines had familiarized Hough with

Manufacturing phases now communicate from the point of weighing the trucks entering the facility through crushing, extrusion, drying, firing and packaging.

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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CASE STUDY the automation company and its TIA capabilities. Plant 2’s robotic machines use Siemens controllers, PLCs, and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA). “I had seen Siemens’ progression of technology throughout my career,” Hough explains, saying it was this familiarity and trust that prompted him to ask Siemens for help as Columbus Brick integrated wireless systems for communication, data storage and project planning into Plant 2.

New Backbone Plant 2’s automation backbone had been PROFIBUS (fieldbus) for eight years. With the new wireless capabilities, the backbone is now PROFINET (Ethernet) and uses Siemens switches. “Parts of the manufacturing process had been linked with a PROFIBUS network, from PLC to PLC,” Hough explains. “It was a hardwired fieldbus system. For more flexibility, we leveraged the PROFIBUS but added the Ethernet network to overcome the limitations of the PROFIBUS.” Scalance then brings all of the information back to the control room and office for viewing and control via HMI. The next stage of the upgrade was incorporating wireless radios to overcome the distance between processes. Areas of the plant that had not been included in the PROFIBUS network because of the cost associated with distance and wires

now could be made accessible to the network through wireless communication. Columbus Brick’s old SCADA was upgraded to enable the control room and main office to view data on an HMI. While Columbus Brick’s Plant 2 had ASi safety zones installed in places, Hough wanted to incorporate safety PLCs on conveyors for the material preparation phase. Siemens’ Smart motor control centers (MCC) were installed using Siemens Simocode modules to provide greater control of the motors. “We wanted to be able to extract operating conditions for the motors, such as tracking increases in torque, which can indicate mechanical wear,” Hough says. Starting with the truck scale in late 2007, Columbus Brick has upgraded Plant 2 so that all processes can communicate within the TIA package. Manufacturing phases now communi-

Wireless communication will also improve the kiln area, which sustains increased wear on its wired communications. cate from the point of weighing the trucks entering the facility through crushing, extrusion, drying, firing and packaging. Hough says Columbus Brick is using a modular approach with its Smart MCCs and wireless communications, which will enable the company to continue to upgrade the plant for enhanced safety. Areas such as the drying room in Plant 2 that currently have wired I/O through buttons and switches are being converted to the wireless system. This change will provide additional options for controlling the cars stacked with brick as they move through that area. Wireless communication will also improve the kiln area, which sustains increased wear on its wired communications as a result of the high temperatures produced by the kiln. “Our most recent project was to tie in the electrical utility so that we can monitor our consumption,” Hough says. A Siemens PLC measures the pulses from a smart meter with a modem. The utility and Columbus Brick can both read the meter from the modem, which currently runs over a telephone line. “We could have connected this wirelessly, but the utility couldn’t use that technology. However, as a result of our new monitoring capability, the Simicode module in the Smart MCC at the compressors allows us to pull up a report on energy consumption, which enables us to track not only costs, but also how well the motors are working over time. We are currently in the process of expanding that philosophy to other MCCs for larger motors in the plant. It is going to mean a difference between theoretical consumption and real consumption,” Hough says.

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Maintaining its Art While its manufacturing processes have taken advantage of robotics and the latest in wireless automation, Columbus Brick has continued the traditional art of manufacturing brick in the “papercut” method, in which paper covering the clay is cut along with the brick, leaving a softer, more rounded edge. The practice of putting the paper back into the brick (i.e., burning off the paper during the firing process) is more environmentally sound than trying to recycle it in other ways. Today, the process is rare, but papercut brick are valued for their unique aesthetics. “The characteristics of the brick are essentially the same whether they are made in Plant 1 or Plant 2, but getting there is different,” Hough says. “Plant 2 is more efficient. It is safer, and there is not as much physical labor involved.” In Plant 1, seven employees are required for packaging because the brick

have to be manually stacked. However, as a result of the automation in Plant 2, only two employees are required for packaging. While some aesthetic differences to the brick result from the different packaging processes (physically stacking the brick in Plant 1 creates more chippage, which is a physical characteristic sought by some builders), forming a pack of stacked brick through an automated process creates less waste material because there is less chippage.

Overall Improvement “Adding wireless capabilities to the plant has been very cost effective,” says Hough. “Without the wireless, it would be a huge task to upgrade with wired stages. In addition, the groundwork that was laid with Plant 2 will allow us to upgrade Plant 1 more easily. For instance, it will be easy to add the Siemens Safe I/O to the conveyors in Plant 1.”

Hough says the next planned upgrade is to start introducing wireless safety features to the PLCs in Plant 1. “From a preventative maintenance aspect, we are adding intelligence to Plant 2 to control the number of starts per hour, for example,” he says. “We can also bring in the aspects of monitoring bearings and temperature, which will require sensors. Wireless opens it up. We no longer have to use wires for every aspect of an upgrade or expansion in intelligence, which has given us the flexibility to add technology and cross boundaries that were restrictive before.” 

For more information, contact Siemens Industry, Inc. at (800) 241-4453; email [email protected]; or visit www.usa.siemens.com/automation. Columbus Brick’s website is located at http://columbusbrick.com.

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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Cylindrical Blender/Dryers This company’s cylindrical blender/dryers are reportedly ideal for the high-temperature processing of slurries, pastes, granular materials, pellets, and powders under vacuum, atmospheric, or positive pressure. Custom-built to meet the specific needs of each individual user, the equipment is offered in sizes from ½ through 515 cu ft capacities, and in industrial or sanitary construction. Pictured is a 10-cu-ft unit designed to blend and dry materials at 775°F and equipped with paddle/ribbon agitator, 200psig baffled jacket, heavy-duty high-performance mechanical seals and RTD thermocouples, pneumatically operated inlet and discharge valves, filter assembly, and vent condenser. Wetted parts of this blender are Type 316 stainless steel; units in carbon steel, Type 304 stainless steel and special alloys can also be supplied. Call (800) 243-ROSS or visit www.mixers.com. 

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³ SERVICESMARKETPLACE ³ CONSULTING & ENGINEERING SERVICES

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Ceralink, Inc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Ceramics Consulting Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

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HED International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

AVEKA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

Jonathan Kaplan Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

CCE Technologies, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

Ragan Technologies, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

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Richard E. Mistler, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Powder Technology, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

Ruark Engineering, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Union Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

Semler Materials Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

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A-Ten-C, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

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Experts in Ceramic Engineering & Materials Science

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Phone: 480-895-9830 FAX: 480-895-9831 e-Mail: [email protected]

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³ LABORATORY & TESTING SERVICES Activation Laboratories Ltd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 Geller Microanalytical Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 Harrop Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 JTF Microscopy Services, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 Micron Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 Netzsch Instruments NA LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 NSL Analytical Services Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 Quantachrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 West Penn, Spectrochemical Labs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

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³ CONSULTING & ENGINEERING SERVICES / CONTRACT MANUFACTURING SERVICES

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CoorsTek is the largest US-owned technical ceramics manufacturer in the world. Call 303-271-7006 or email [email protected] for expert assistance on your next project. Visit us on the web www.coorstek.com

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Phone: 714-538-2524 Fax: 714-538-2589 Email: [email protected] Website: www.advancedceramictech.com

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

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YOUR OU U ULTRASOURCE SOU C FOR MACHINING HARD & BRITTLE MATERIALS

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Contract Machining Company and Ceramic Component Supplier • ISO 9001:2000 & AS9100B • CAD/CAM CNC Machining • Extensive Material Inventory • Material/Technical Support • Over 40 Years of Service Specializing in BN, SiC, Macor, Si N , Al O , ZrO , Quartz, Ferrites and other related materials 3

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November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM

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CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

77

³ GLASS SERVICES / INDEPENDENT AGENTS / LABORATORY & TESTING SERVICES

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BULLERS RINGS • Improve Kiln Yields • Reduce Loss • Improve Production Profits • Guarantee Consistent Firings

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November 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM

Trace Level Analysis Bulk Composition Thermal Conductivity Contaminants Inclusions Failure Analysis

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JTF Microscopy Services, LLC Microscopy, Petrographic Analysis, Training & Consulting • Glass defect analysis and source identification • Furnace refractory failure investigations • Glass technology support services related to glass defect issues • Training seminars – on-site, on your own equipment

• Raw material contaminant identification • Trouble-shooting and correction of microscope equipment problems • Consulting for equipment purchases: microscope, camera & sample preparation • Expert witness services in legal actions

phone: 607.292.6808 • mobile: 607.731.8863 email: [email protected] • website: www.jtfmicroscopy.com

Thermal Analysis Materials Testing • Dilatometry • ASTM Testing • Glass Testing

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Columbus, Ohio • 614-231-3621 www.harropusa.com e-mail: [email protected]

³ MAINTENANCE SERVICES • Mill Lining Installation • Ball & Pebble Mill Parts

Powder and Porous Materials Characterization

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CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

79

³ PROCESSING SERVICES

LOWER COST MILLING SOLUTIONS Holding off on capital purchases? Union Process still has several low cost options for you to get the job done economically and efficiently using the finest size reduction equipment on the market.

TOLL MILLING

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Save on capital equipment, personnel and space. Let Union Process toll grind your product in our Pilot Plant.

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Expanding the Possibilities for Size Reduction

We specialize in: • Spray Drying • Wet and Dry Milling • Calcining and Sintering Typical Applications: • Catalysts • Electronics • Ceramics • Fuel Cells For more information, please contact Alan Sukovich at 219-462-4141 x224 or [email protected] 5103 Evans Avenue | Valparaiso, IN 46383

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SERVICESMARKETPLACE

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³ REFACTORY SERVICES

Refractory Repair Specialists • Ceramic Welding & Periscope Surveys • Port & Checker Cleaning • Hot Refractory Sawing & Drilling • Furnace Overcoating • Hot & Cold Refractory Repair

³ SPRAY DRYING

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SPIN FLASH DRYING Press Cake or Paste • Continuous Drying • No Post Grinding

The Most Experienced Custom Dryer of Ceramics, Chemicals and Metals GENERAL SPRAY/CVP DRYING SERVICES INC. Ph: 908-353-2477 • Fax: 908-353-0060 E-mail: [email protected] www.generalspraydrying.com

³ BUY & SELL

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RECYCLE! Eliminate Disposal

Wanted: ceramics, refractories, abrasives, kiln furniture, SiC and hi alumina ceramic scrap

A-TEN-C, INC.

Call: 412-821-5566 • [email protected] • www.ceramicrecycling.com

CERAMIC INDUSTRY ³ November 2011

81

³ BUY & SELL

BUY & SELL MACHINERY

Quality & Service First

Detroit Process Machinery TOM SUHY: 586-469-0323 www.detroitprocessmachinery.com

BUY & SELL MACHINERY 586-790-1717 • [email protected] WWW.AADVANCEDMACH.COM

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Online Data Book & Buyers’ Guide s4HEBUYERSREFERENCEFORCERAMIC GLASSANDRELATEDINDUSTRIES s3EARCHBYPRODUCTCATEGORYORCOMPANYNAME s$OWNLOADABLEPRODUCTSPECSHEETS s!LPHACOMPANYLISTINGS s,IVEWEBEMAILLINKS

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place your ad here!

CONTACT Amy Vallance @ 281-550-5855 or [email protected] to place yours today.

³ ADVERTISERINDEX ADVERTISER

PAGE NO.

ADVERTISER

PAGE NO.

* Allied High Tech Products Inc. www.alliedhightech.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Lucifer Furnaces www.luciferfurnaces.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

* Avure Technologies, Inc. www.avure.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

* Midwestern Industries, Inc www.midwesternind.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BC

* Bracker’s Good Earth Clays Inc. www.brackers.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

* Mohr Corporation www.mohrcorp.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

* Carbolite Inc. www.carbolite.us. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

* Netzsch Premier Technologies LLC www.netzsch-grinding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

* Charles Ross & Son Co. www.mixers.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

* Peter Pugger Manufacturing Inc. www.peterpugger.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IFC

* Deltech Inc. www.deltechfurnaces.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

* Ram Products Inc. www.ramprocess.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

* Evans Analytical Group www.eaglabs.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

* Smith-Sharpe Fire Brick Supply www.kilnshelf.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

* FLSmidth Inc. www.flsmidth.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

* Starkey Machinery Incorporated www.starkeymachinery.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

GV Service Inc. www.gvservice.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Stedman Machine www.stedman-machine.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

* Harrop Industries Inc. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

* Swindell Dressler International Co. www.swindelldressler.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

* Hi-Vac Corp. www.hi-vac.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

* Thermaltek Inc. www.thermaltek.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

* I Squared R Element Co., Inc. www.isquaredrelement.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

* Tokuyama America Inc. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

* L&L Kiln Manufacturing, Inc. www.hotkilns.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Tri-Mer Corporation www.tri-mer.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

* Lignotech USA Inc. www.lignotech.com. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Union Process Inc. www.unionprocess.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

* See our ad in the 2011-2012 Ceramic Industry Data Book & Buyers’ Guide. This index is a feature maintained for the convenience of the advertiser. It is not part of the advertiser’s contract, and Ceramic Industry assumes no responsibility for its accuracy.

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October 2011 ³ WWW.CERAMICINDUSTRY.COM

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