Communicating in Groups: Applications and Skills

Orientation to Small Group Systems

art One introd uces you to the study of small groups. In

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Chapter 1 we explain why small groups are important to understand, and we define many of the terms you will en-

counter in yo ur study of small groups. We discuss the types of small groups you are likely to experience, we address the ethics of small group co mmunication, and we explain the participant-observer

perspective used throughout the book. Chapter 2 presents you with a framework, general systems theory, to help organize the many concepts important to understanding how groups function.

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: I. Explain why groups playa vi tal role in the personal and professional li ves of individuals. 2 . List criteria for determining w hether a group or an individual should be used to solve a problem .

1. Define a group, a small group, a team, and small group commu nicatio n . 4 . Differentiate between small group communication, public co mmunication, interperso nal com munication, and intr~personal co mmunication.

S . Describe how groups use technology to enhance their interactions.

6 . Explain and give exa mpl es of primary groups. 7. Explain and g ive examples of secondary groups.

B. Compare and contrast the different organizational groups. 9 . Explain the four ethical standards any member of a group should be held to. 10. Explain and give examples of a member being an effective participant·observer.

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

The Best Friends Animal Society Sinjin the cat was near death when he arrived at Best Friends Animal Sanctuary in Angel Canyon, Utah. ' Someone had set him on fire after dousing him with gasoline, badly burning three-quarters of his body. The care at Best Friends, however, pulled him through; Sinjin the one-eyed cat became a sleek, confident creature who loved his treats! Best Friend~ Animal Society runs the largest animal sanctuary in the world, with over 1,500 resident animals at anyone time. Best Friends has been a prime mover in the No More Homeless Pets movement, promotes spay-neuter programs and no-kill animal shelters, provides consultation services all over the world for those who want to set up no-kill shelters and spay-neuter programs in their communities, offers internships for veterinary students, runs a large volunteer program, provides wildlife rehabilitation, schedules educationa l programs and seminars, and, of course, takes in abandoned animals. What does this have to do with small groups? Best Friends Animal Society started out, nearly 40 years ago, as a small group of friends on a quest for spiritual fulfillment. In the 1960s a group of friends from Great Britain traveled together to the Bahamas, Mexico, the United States, and Europe seeking a meaningful life. These diverse individuals were bound together by what members called the Universal Law and what we know as the Golden Rule: "As you give, so shall you receive. So do unto others as you would have them do unto you.'" The "others" included animals. Although individual members ended up living in different places, they stayed in touch, with love of animals the constant that united them . In 1982 the opportunity arose to buy 3,000 acres in Angel Canyon for an animal sanctuary. A core group of 20 members pooled their personal resources to establish what would ultimately become Best Friends. The group included an architect, an artist, a real estate professional, several community organizers, and workers from another animal sanctuary run by some of the members. Over the years the group has learned (among other things) to build dwellings, raise funds, tend sick and injured animals, and communicate with the media. The sanctuary is now one of the best known in the world. Several of the original members remain active, but new members have joined to contribute their expertise and energy.

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CHA PTER'

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he true story of Best Friends illustrates vividly what Macbrarel Mead said: " Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful , co mmincd citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is th e only thin g that ever has."J This group ofinruviduals. united by a vision of a world in which animals are respected and loved, shows what a small gro up can accomp lish that an individual co uld n ever hope to achieve alone. T he group d emon strates qualiti es that characterize effective gro up behavior: Members had a vision for what th ey wanted to accomplish; they appreciated and used th e many different tal ents of thei r members; they trusted each other to work for the good of th e group (and the animals); leadership was shared among them , as different needs and chall enges arose; and the group conti nu ed to learn and develop by setting new goa ls that would increasingly stretch th e abilities of its members. Throughout this text we will share what we know about how groups can achieve success like this. The glue that holds a group together and enables it to do its work is commuuicatiou. Our focus is on: how you can comm unicate effectively to help a group succeed. The gro up that fo rm ed and co nrinues ro oversee Best Friends is a vo luntary gro up of members who choose [0 work rogether. H owever, many of the groups yo u belong ro, especially where YO ll work or study, may not be voluntary. You may be ass igned ro a gro llp beca use you have a parti cular expe rti se you r empl oyer believes is imporram to [he group's task or because sma ll groups are an esscllIiai com ponent of a coursc in which you arc enro ll ed. No mancr what rhe reason, you must be ab le to work well in teams, task forces, com mittees, and all kinds of special problem-solvi ng groups if you wall( to succeed in the organized world of loday. In fact, Monsler Campus, pan of Monsler.com's website geared ro college srude nrs, nores that teamwork is o ne of the seve n "hor skills" most employers want, no marte r their size or type of industry.4 Moreover, Monster Cam pus rem inds stud ems rh ar you can develop rhis skill during coll ege. Teams of all kinds, especially multidisciplinary ream s, are becomi ng more co mm o n in all areas of American life: business, indusrry, educario n, health carc, rh e no nprofit secror, and governmelll. For exa mpl e, some of th e biggest co mpani es in the United States, including every Fortune 500 co mpany. has some version of small groups and tea ms in place. 5 Com pan ies use reams in a number of ways. For instan ce, Mororola has more th an 5.000 [cams operating. E.1srman Kodak uses process teams ro follow a product through rhe design, manufacture, and marketing processes. Rjrt.-Car!ton H orels employees can choose ro participate in team-based work in additi on to th eir regula r jobs. ~tnd 5 perce nt of the Texas lnstrumenrs wo rkforce pa rticipates in self-di recred wo rk rca ms (described laler in this chapter). Bm rh ere's a da rk side [Q small group work. in o ne stud y of 179 rea ms, o nl y 13 perce nt werc rated high ly cffectivc. 6 A Newsweek article highlights some of the problems. 7 The arricle reports that managers spend one to one-and-a-half days in meerings each weekand half of rhat is wasted rime. Some co mpa ni es, including Nestle USA and SC Johnso n, ban meetin gs on Fridays. One managemenr consultanr estim ares th at rh e average meeting in a large co mpany costs approximately $15,000. If mee ti ng rime isn't lIsed effectively, rhar waste ca n be staggeringly cxpensive. We rake the posi tio n rhal effective small group work- \\'hether in meetings, on teams, on commirrecs, and so forth-cannor be Icft ro chance. When individuals come together. particularly indiv iduals from differing backgrounds, perspecrives, and areas of expertise.

Small Groups as the Hea rt of Society

teamwork does n't just happen. T ra inin g in how to be an effecti ve tea m member is essential. If you wam ro succeed as a team member, yo u must lea rn how small groups fun ction and what you personally can do ro help ensure team success. C hapter I will help YO ll Starr this process by askin g you ro co nsider how impo rtanr groups are in your own life and by introducing yo u ro co ncepts cencral ro understa nding small group processes, the variety of groups you will encounter, and the impo rtance of being an eth ical participant-observer in groups.

Groups in Your Life L1wrencc Frey, a leading advocate for studying small grou ps in their narural settings, believes that the smaJi group is rhe most important social formation: "From birth ro death, small groups arc interwoven into th e fa bric of our li ves."8 T he fi rst group you encoun ter is your fam ily, and in many ways [his group fo rms the fo undatio n for other groups that fo llow. T hi nk abom your fa mily of o rigin fo r a moment, and consider how much of yo ur identi tywho you think you are-was fo rm ed by that in itiaJ group. Devel opment and maintenance of idcnri ry remain importam functions that only groups c.1n provide for li S. This is obvious when we co nsider gro ups such as fraternities or sororities, spiritually based groups (churches, synagogues, o ther rel igio us organiz..1ri ons, and eve n spiritually guided activist groups like Best Friends), ga ngs, book clubs, and poker clubs. G roups fo rmed at work also conrribure ro who we thin k \ve are. Are you a member of a un ion, fo r exa mple? A managemem group? A classroo m gro up? A neighbo rhood coali tio n tryi ng ro prevent a zo ning change in you r neighborhood? E.1ch of th ese groups, though not expressly fo rmed as an identi ty-suppo rting group, will affec t how you see yourself in rclation ro other people. Profess io nall y, th e hi gher you go in any orga ni zatio n (governm ent, se rvice, manu facturin g, education , communicari on, th e mili tary, or wh ateve r), th e mo re time yo u will spend wo rk ing as a member of small groups. No matter what spec ific gro up yo u are in , YO li need ro kn ow how to behave in ways that arc appropriate and hel pful to th e group and to any larger o rga nizar io n ro whi ch th e group may be attached. If YO li do n' t work we ll in gro ups. you are more li kely to be laid off o r froze n at a low-level job. A survey of 750 leading American co mpani es as ked businesspeople to describe characteristi cs of rhe ideal M BA (M aster of Busin ess Administration) graduate.,) The top preference was possession of good o ral and written co mmunica tio n skill s (listed by 83.5 percent of res po ndents). T he fourrh -r:l.Ilked preference, rh e abili ty to wo rk in ream s, was listed by 7 1.4 percent. These co mmun icat io n skill s far surpassed even cutting-edge knowledge of the co mpany's field (14.8 perce nt) and previo us wo rk experience (3 1.9 perce nt) in impo rtance. C learly, kn owin g how to wo rk in a small grou p ca n be of pract ical benefit to you. Even as a student, YO li may be surprised to discove r how many groups yo u belo ng to. Fo r mos( students th e list goes lip ro 8, 10, 15, or even 20 o r more small gro ups. W hy do most of us belo ng to so many groups? H umans are social bein gs with powerful geneti c needs to belo ng to small gro ups. We need to affi liate with o th ers of o ur ki nd, just as do many other animals.

GROUPS AS PROBLEM SOLVERS You are co nstantly solvi ng problems: how to find a job, where to ea t lun ch, how to keep your ca r runn ing o n a limited bud get, and eve n how to keep yo ur co mpany o n rhe cuttin g

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CHAPTER 1

edge of its industry in a rurbul clH eco no mi c climate. Life can properly be called an un ending se ries of problem-solving episodes. Sol vin g any problem mea ns coming lip with a pla n and execuring it. In rim es past, o nly high statu s people-mo narchs. ge nerals, manage rs, and so fo rth- were given rh e pri vil ege of planning solutions to problems, and lowe r status people-pri va tes, secretari es. wo rkers, orher subordinates-had ro carry our the plans. Bm rim es have chan ged . and now so-called ordinary peopl e ex pect ro be includ ed in pl anning soluti ons to proble ms th at affcC[ th em , and most o f (hi s pl a nnin g occurs in small groups. Thus, eve ryon e needs ro know how to be an effecti ve grollp membe r.

PARTICIPATING IN GROUPS Improving group probl e m sol vin g requires focusi ng no t onl y on rh e ra ri o nal sid e o f human behavior bur al so knowin g som erhin g abom human feelin gs and be ha vior. Effecti ve grou p problem so lvin g d epe nds o n how well m e mbers unde rsta nd a nd m a nage such things as informational resources, how m embe rs feel abom ea ch oth e r and abom th e tas k o f th e gro up . how skill ed th ey are at exp ressin g th e m sel ves a nd liste nin g to oth e rs, and how well they coll ecrively process th e information rh ey have co wo rk with . G roup members must make Slire rhey have th e ma terials (info rm atio n , tan gible resources, time, and so forth ) co compl ete the task, but they al so must lea rn to man age their interperso nal rel atio nships effecti vely eno ugh to complete th e task well. T hus. co mmuni cation in groups perform s two key fun ctions: It accomplishes rhe group 's task. and it creates " the sociaJ fabri c of a gro up by prom oring relationships betwee n and among members."l0 This fun ction- rh e group 's relati o nal communication- is jusr as imporrant as the task-oriented functi o ns o f group work. Samantha Glen 's book about Bes t Fri e nd s desc ribes several vivid examples of com muni ca tion that convey just ho w muc h membe rs of this group care about eac h o th er and how they express it. 11 Ar variolls Ii mes several m embers of th e Bes t Fri end s core group e ncounrered probl el11S th a t see med overwhelming and faced rh e real dueat o f burnollr as th ey tri ed , in rh e ea rly days, to keep rh e san cwary running wirh lirri e help , less mo ney. and the eve r-growi ng po pul ati o n o f anim als oth ers had thrown away. In o ne encounter Fai th lost ir whe n she publ icl y confromed a promin enr. well- respected local m an who had ad opred a puppy fro m rhe san c wa ry bur the n aba ndo ned it by rh e side of the road. Fellow group membe r, Mi chael , gently bur firml y made Faith face th e fac t rh ar she was gerting burned o ut af'lld need ed help. Hi s o bvio us co ncern all owed Faith to realize how d ee p he r ex hausti o n was and [0 accepr help from th e othe rs. In anoth er exa mpl e the gro up's vc terin a ria n . Bill , bro ug ht two gifts to th e sa nctu ary: a n Airstream trail e r, acce pted in li cu of payme nt from a client, that would se rve as d edi ca red space for an o pe ratin g tabl e, a nd a goa t to keep Spa rkJ e th e ho rse company wh ile her leg healed. Faith, ex press in g th e whol e group 's gratitud e, said to Bill, " W e love you. YO ll know."' ! This co mm ent may no r be typical of whar YOll hear in most wo rk groups, bur communi cation that co nveys appreciation, graritud e, and likin g goes a lo ng way in creating a grou p th at is also a co mmuniry, and th a r can be a d eepl y satisfy in g expe ri ence. The Best Fri e nd s group succeed ed because members fo cused on both task and rela tion ship aspects o f wo rkin g in tea ms. O rgani za tion al and wo rk skills and peo pl e

7

Sma ll Groups as the Heart of Society

The Instinctive Need to Group Together ---Some scholars have assessed situations in which a collection of individua ls begins to group together. Such effort is common in face-to-face interaction where a particular force, problem, or crisis has created th e need for indivi duals to group. Yet little is known about how and why individuals with nothing apparently in co mmon or with no mediating force begin to group. A good example is in a computer-mediated environment. To examine this unique g~ouping process, Tom Postmes, Ru ssell Spears, and Martin Lea co llected data on students who volunteered to complete a computerized statistics course, which offered participants e-mail options for contacting staff. Participants also used the function to send about 1,200 e-mail messages to fellow students. Th e messages were later classified into nine categories reflecting both task and relational functions (e.g., requests, complaints, reaction s, humor, emotion, personal revelations). The researchers found that 11 groups formed, in which members spent most of their time (74 percent) interacting about socio-personal topics (reactions to contributions of other group members, humorous contributions, displays of affection and emotion). Despite having little impact on th e successful co mpletion of the course, these students grouped together to fulfill their need for rel ational interaction with fellow classmates. SOURCE: T. Postmes, R. Spears, and M. Lea, !he Formation or Group Norms in Compu ter·Mediated Communication. ~ HUrTl{1n Communication Resrorch 26 (2001). pp. 341 - 71 .

skills are essenria l. We hope our book furt hers your und ers tandin g of an d yo ur knack for effective grou p participatio n. Participa ti on in a group always requires trade-o ffs. You give up th e freedo m to do what yo u wall( when you wan t for the adva m ages of affi liating with oc hers to produce the kind of work possible o nly when seve ral peo ple coordinate the ir effor ts. H oweve r, when individuals musc coord in ate thei r efforts, tensions always arise. T his is true in all small groups, from a classroo m work gro up ro a task force of engineers designing a rocker. This is what Communicating in Groups is abo m: knowin g what produces tensions in a group (both in the in d ivid uals and in the grou p as a whol e), an d knowi ng how (Q manage rhe te nsions so that th e gro up's dec isions are the bes t that ca n be made, th e members ga in from (he group. and the organi za ti on tha r gave birth to the group is improved by the group's work.

Groups versus Individuals as Problem Solvers If group work is so ((icky and has slich potential fo r problems, why nO[ have indi viduals plan the so lu tions to all problems? The benefits of having a grou p tackle a problem can (bur not necessa rily will) outweigh the COStS in rime and te nsions.

Go to

www.mhhe.com / adamsgalanes8e for additional weblink activities.

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CHAPTER 1

Research has shown that gro up soluti ons ca n be fa r morc effective than individual o nes for solvin g many types of problems. U G roups rend [0 do mu ch better than individuals when seve ral ah e rnari ve solu tions afC poss ible, none of which is known to be superior or "co rreer." They also are ben cr at co njunct ive tasks~ where no one perso n has all the infor mation needed ro solve a probl em, but each member has so me needed informarion . 14 These are the ve ry so n s of prob lems most groups and organizations face. For exa mpl e. which of seve ral designs for a ca r is most likely [0 sell well? What benefit o ptions shou ld be available to employees? How can th e federa l government give citizens a tax cur and still ensure sufficient fund s for health ca fC and ho meland defe nse? M any co ll ege courses require small gro up activ iry of so me son. When in structO rs move from teacher-centered to more stud ent-ce ntered in struct ion, they use small groups. This forces students (Q become active, not passive, learners. l~ Students ca n improve problem solving, criti cal and creative thinkin g, and soc ial skills in sma ll group learning co nrexts. M o reover, group activiry is a preferred way to lea rn for some cultures (e.g., Latinos, Native Ameri ca ns, African Am eri ca ns, a nd females). 16 The Best Frie nds s[Qry illustrates how a gro up 's greater resources help so lve problems. When the fri e nds boughl Angel Ca nyon , on e of them was an a rc hitect and seve ral had rudim entary cons truc ti on sk ills-e nough (Q design and build pl aces for th e animal s and shelte r for themselves. Th e fri e nds were also co mmitted to rh e a nimal s and willing to wo rk , including feeding th e growi ng number of animals twice daily a nd taking a nimal s to publi c eve nts where they might be adopted. Bill , loca l veterinarian, initiaHy provided low-cos t spay- nem er in g and Q[he r veterinary care se rv ices-t hese have sin ce bee n expanded to {he point thai Bes t Fri e nds now has a vete rin ary internship program with mu c h ex pand ed animal ca re. Estelle, who had polio as a c hild and dllls was unabl e to pe rfo rm ph ys ica l labo r, had ex perie nce runnin g an office and provid ed adminisrrative se rvi ces. Marrhias, a tec hnical whiz, used hi s expenise to set up a me mbership database and ro o rga ni ze the sa nc tu a ry's records. jana used he r photograp hy skills to rake pi ctures of th e animal s a nd in c rease th e likel ihood fhat they would be adopted. In recent yea rs, Best Fri ends h as used man y diffe relH kind s of expenise to ex pand [he reach of what it ca n do for animals: National Geogrllphic produ ced a television se ri es abo ut Dogcown, wildlife re habilitation specia lises wor k wi th injured wild animals to return Ih em ro the wild o r, if [hat is nor poss ibl c, co lise eh e m in educati onal progra ms. Vo lulHee r coordi n:Hors work with [he man y people who co me (0 Best Friends co vo lunree r (h ei r efforts as dog feede rs, poop scoo pe rs, train e rs, foste r pare ncs, and so fo rth. Odlef's work with sa ncruaries across th e count ry co help es tablish no-ki ll sheltcrs na tio nwid e. The Bes t Friends website is rem a rkabl e and frequently updated wirh sto ries of [he a nimals. One person working alone co uld have accomplished non e of this.

WHEN A GROUP IS A GOOD CHOICE G roups working on probl e ms wir h multipl e so lmion s typi call y mak e hi ghe r-quality d ec isions th an do in divid uals for seve ral reasons. Gro ups usually have a mu ch large r number of poss ibl e solutions from w hi c h ro choose. Group m embe rs ca n help each o th e r think c ritically by co rrec tin g one a nOther's mi sinfo rm ation, fau lry assumptions, and invalid reasoning. Seve ral peo ple ca n ofte n think of iss ues ro be handl ed in th e process of solving a problem that m ight be overlooked by anyone me mber. In

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

9

addition , seve ral peop le ca n co nduct mo re thorough investigative research than one perso n working alone. Grou p members often counte ract each ot her's tendencies to engage in self-defeatin g beha vior.1 7 An example from th e Today Show illustrates the va lue of group problem so lving. Doctors at the University of Michigan studied rhe value of a multidisciplinary team approach 18 (0 providing breast cancer patients with a second opinion. Patients who were diagnosed with breast cancer and whose doctots had recommended a course of treatment were referred for a second opinion to a team that included a variety of cancer treatment specialists: a rad iologist. surgeo n. pathologist,.med ica l onco logist, and radiation oncologisL The team met, usuall y with th e patient, to discuss op tions. Over hal f the time, the team recommended an approach differenr fro m th e one the o ri ginal physician had. Sometimes, a team member was awa re of new treatment protocols or techniques the or iginal doctor hadn 't known. Other times, the original docror had not followed national treatment guidelines. Having qualified , dedi ca ted team members work together to address an important iss ue can produce bene r results. A further advantage to having a team work out a problem is that group members who are in vo lved in solv ing a problem or planning a procedure usually understand that procedure and wo rk hard to impl emenr if. In addition, people are more likely to accept a solution they had a hand in designing. Satisfaction, loyalty, commitment, and lea rning tend to be higher when people have a voice. Th is is clearly evidem with th e Best Friends group, who continue [Q expand their skills, stretch their com fan zones, and care for one anmher as they care for the animals. These principles have resulted in Sti ch small group techniques as quality control circl es, self-managed work groups, and collaborative learning groups.

WHEN A GROUP IS NOT A GOOD CHOICE Nor all prob lems are suitable for groups, nor is group decisio n making always a wise or produ ct ive use of time. When a problem has a best or correct solut ion (suc h as an arithmeti c or accounting task), a skilled perso n working alone often performs bener than a group of less knowledgeable people, even if th e group includes the highly sk illed person as a member. When co ndition s are changing rapidly (as in a weather disaster. battle, o r ballgame), coord inatin g the work of seve ral people may be done best by one person (a com mand er, chi ef, or coach). Likewise, if small groups have certain social, procedural, or persona lity-mi x problems, the o utput may be inferior, even though members may be confident of the results. Much of our text addresses how to apply small group theory-based as mu ch as poss ible on sc ientific resea rch- to make sure that groups work on the kinds of problems for wh ich rhey are best suited, and to do so in ways likel y to produ ce a high qual ity solutiol1 (see Table 1. 1). Your ex perie nces in task-orienred groups may have been unpleasant ones. In fact, you may dread heari ng a teacher rell YOll that you' ll be working on a group project. Unfortunately, this kind of grouphate is common, probably beca use many groups do nor function as well as they shou ld . If this is how you feel about group participarion , it is especially important for you to become fami li ar with group processes because you won't be ab le lO avoid group participation but you will be expected to perform well . Thus fa r, we have seen that small gro ups are co mmonly in vo lved in problem solving. We now illlrodu ce you to th e types of small groups that engage in problem

GLOSSARY

Grouphate Hating or dreading participation In groups

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Problems Appropriate for Groups versus Individuals

TABLE 1.1

Problems Suitable

Problems Suitable for an Individual

for a Group • The problem is complex; one person is not likely to have ali relevant information.

• There is a best solution, and a

• There are several acceptable solu-

• Conditions are changing rapidly (such as during a fire or natural disaster), and coordination is best

tions, and one best solution does

not exist. • Acceptance of the solution by those who are affected is critica l. • Sufficient time exists for a group to meet and discuss and analyze the problem,

recognized expert is most qualified

to determine that solution.

done by one person. • Time is short and a decision must be made quickly, • Group membe" have peoonality, proced ural, or social problems that make it difficult or impossible for them

to work as a team on the solution.

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--

••

UYou toke two oj th ese at the fir st sign of th e onset of boardroom turbulellce." Many organizatIOn memben. have (ome 10 dread pilrtKipiition in group~ . C The New Yorker Collecbon; 1985 Donald Reilly

from urtoonbilOk.(Om. All Righ t} Reserved.

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

11

Individual or Group? What would you do if you were the president of a university and you r university was faced, as many are during these tough economic times, w ith massive budget cuts? Supposed that you have to cut $15 million

from next year's budget. As president you have the power to make this happen by appointing a high-level person to decide where cuts must be

made, or you can appoint a committee to accomp lish the same thing. 1. How would you weigh

t~e

factors (time, energy, expertise) in

making your decision? 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having your appointee placed in charge of this effort compared with having an appointed committee placed in charge? 3. If you appoint a committee, those members will spend untold hours making sure that budget cut decisions wi ll be made carefully and thoughtfully. What benefits do you think they may gain by working on this time-consuming project?

solving and th e situ ati o ns that create them. We will first defi ne ter ms necessary ro und erstand group co mmuni ca ti o n . We encourage yo u to use our defin it ions when you think aboUl , di scuss, and co mplete assignments aboul sma ll groups as you read thi s boo k.

Groups, Small Groups, Teams, and Small Group Communication Befo re we discuss small group com munication, yo u must first understand how we conce pmalize rh e terms group, team, and small group.

GROUPS What is a group~ While the answer may seem simpl e, scholars from disciplines such as socio logy, soc ial psychology, and co mmunication have all rri ed to pinpoim the essenrial features of a group. Marv in Shaw, an important early small group th eorist, defin es a group as "perso ns who are interacting with one anot her in such a mann er thar each person influ ences and is influenced by each orher perso n. "I,) The essence of "groupness" is that members have inrcrdependent rel:Hionships, act inrerdepend enrly toward a common purpose, and are aware that, together, they act as parr of a unit. Just purring a bun ch of peo pl e in the same place does nor mean that a group has bee n crea ted ; it takes rime for members co develop th eir inrerdepe ndenr relat io nships. Th e following exa mpl e will illustrare what we mea n. At a recent co mmuni ca tion co nvention, one of LI S stood waiting for a streetcar late at ni ghr. Three other convent io nee rs,

Group Three or more individuals who have a common purpose, interact with each other, influence each other, and are interdependent

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CHAPTER 1

idenrified by their badges. stood at the sam e srop. At (his poinr a group as we defin e it had not been formed ; what ex isted was a co llec tion of individuals who happened ro be in rh e same place at th e sa me rime. This was not a group beca use no ilHc racr ion had occurred , members were nor pan icul arly aware of eac h other as indi viduals, (h ere was no common purpose (altho ugh there were fou r individual goals chat happe ned (0 be si milar). and no mutual influence had occu rred. T here was no sense of co ll ective idcnriry. and members had no anachm enr co each ot her or lO rhe grou p. After about 15 minutes with no srreetca r in sight. one perso n mention ed, ro no o ne in particular, that the Streetcar was "awfully late." Others chim ed in abou t the unreli ability of th e stree tca r sys tem, the late ness o f the hour. the city's reputatio n for being un safe late at ni ght, and th e fact that th ey had o th er places wh ere they need ed ro be. We introduced ourselves and chitchatted about the convention. Ar (his point rh e co ll ec ti o n of individuals began ro fo rm into a gro up . This process starred with o ur mutual awareness of th e other individuals and (h e dawnin g rea li zat ion th at perh aps we were all in the same boat. Howeve r, we srilliacked mutu al inAue nce and co mm o n purpose. Those came when o ne of us sugges ted that we share a cab to o ur va rio us hotel s, which were close together. That suggestio n- t he first altemp t at mutual inAuence by o ne member- helped us beco me an actu al group of people w hose indiv idua l goa ls merged in tO a com mon goa l, that of sharin g a ride to ou r respecti ve horels. Even rhou gh thi s g roup was shorr-lived and rel at ivel y unimporranr , it met all the cr iteria for being a group: We interaC[ed with and mutuall y inAu cllced on e anorh er. became interdepe nd ent, had a co mmon purpose, and we re aware, for th e shorr rim e we we re toget her, ,hat we acted as a uni t to achieve our mmual goal.

SMALL GROUPS

GLOSSARY Small Group A group of at least three people {hoI is small enough for

individual memben to perceive one another o.s indiViduals

during interact ion

Groups ca n range in size from ve ry small (three) ro very large. Small. perraining ro gro ups, has usually been defin ed either by an arbitrary number or in term s of human perception. We prefer to defin e it in te rm s of psychological perce ption: A small group refers to a gro up in whi ch individua l members perceive each orher and are aware of each other as indi viduals when they inreracr. This definition is precise o nly for a give n poim in rime. A comminee of fi ve new members may be pcrce p(tlall y large unril after each member has had a chance to speak repea tedl y. but rhe inirial Besr Friends gro up of20 see med percep(tIally small beca use members had known each other well and had worked togeth er o n orhe r projects over many years. At [he poi nt when they met to discLiss buying Angel Ca n· yon. members kn ew and could desc ribe every Other member and co uld also say so merhin g about what each person co ntributed to rhe discuss ion. T hat is the idea of smnll gro up as we use ir. We intentio nally exclude the dyad (twO peo pl e) beca use dyads fun cti on differ· endy. They do nor form netwo rks o r leadership hierarchi es and if one member leaves, rhe dyad ceases to ex ist. In gro ups, however, members often leave. to be rep laced by new members, and rh e group cont inu es. Some of the original 20 Best Friends members have left, but new members have joined and Best Friends endures. More practi call y. small grou ps usually co nsist of three to seve n members. This seems to be the idea l range, so lo ng as members possess sufficient knowledge and skill s to d o the job faci ng th e group and have a diversiry of perspectives and informa rion rcl eva lll to rhe task. The more members, th e more likely [here will be in equiry and cOllllllun icat io n overload for some members.

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

How Small Is Small? The Best friends core group con sisted of 20 people who committed their personal resources to buy Angel Canyon and create an animal sanctuary. 1. What evidence suggests that this group is actually a group and not a collection of individuals? 2. Would you classify this group as "small"? Why or why not? 3. What kinds of problems might a group of this size encounter? What kinds of advantages might it have over a smaller group? 4 . Why is this story used as an example of small group communication?

In o ur text we focus o n cominuing smalt gro ups, in which the members meet regularly face-ro-face o r o nline to co mplete a tas k o r tasks. These include work crews, task forces, Sports teams, co mminces, qua li ry circles, classroom groups, one-meeting gro ups, and virrual groups whose members never meet face-to-face.

SMALL GROUPS VERSUS TEAMS Is there a difference berwcen a small gro up and a tcam ~ Some people bel ieve there is. For exa mple, Steve n Beebe and John Masterso n say that a rea m is more hi ghly st ru ctured than a typi cal small group.20 They id entify four characte ristics th at differenti ate teams from groups: T eam member responsibilities are more clearly spelled o ut (such as positions on a sports team); team rul es and o perating proced ures are exp li ci tly defined; team goa ls are clear and specifi c (e.g .• to in crease sales by 15 percell! ove r the previous year); and tcams ope nly d iscuss how members will work rogelher. In our view th ese characteri stics are positi ve ones th at we thin k wou ld benefit mOSt grou ps. Most co mmittees, for exa mpl e, can improve th eir performan ce if members discuss how they will ope rate together, what group procedures (hey will use, and what their spec ific goals will be. O thers believe th at a team represe ms a parti cularly effecti ve small gro up. For exa mple, Frank LaFasto and Carl Larson, over a li fet ime of wo rking with a va riery of groups, have described five dimens ions that maHer most for a team [Q be effective.~ J Team members are co ll aborative and easy to work wi th; relati onships among members arc easy and supporti ve: gro up processes and proced ures are ali gned well wit h what th e team wants to achi eve; rea m leaders help rea m members accom pl is h rheir goals rath er than getling in (he way; and th e team 's parent organizat ion encourages and supports the tca m rather than interfering and creating obstacles to its success. Alth ough o thers d istingui sh berwec n groups and teams, we lise the terms interchangeab ly th roughout (his book. In rea l life, th e differe nces menrioned here are nOt clear Cut, and there is no relationship berween what a group may be called and how it actual ly perfo rm s. We have participated in co mm inees and task forces that had all th e hallmarks of high ly effec tive reams but we re not ca ll ed teams. Likew ise, we have partici pated in

13

14

C H AP TER 1

groups ca ll ed rcams {hal were loosely organi zed and perform ed mise rably_ W hat we do GLOSSARY Communication

hope. though. is that you will pay ca reful anemian [0 rhe dim ensions th at differcIHiarc or teams from inefficlive ones. There are clear differences! A majo r purpose of ou r tex t is (Q help you understand what helps create an effective group and what you,

The transactional

as group member or leader, can do to help yo ur tcam succeed.

~ffictive groups

process in which people sImultane-

ously create, inter-

pret, and negotiate shared meaning through their interactIon.

Small Group Communication The verbal and

nonverbal inter·

action among members of a small

group

SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION Our definitions of group and small group have emph as ized rh e process of members co mmunicating with each other [Q beco me inte rdcpendc nr. Co mmunica tion amo ng members is the esse nriaJ feature of a gro up. regardless of th e group's size or purpose. Thus, to und erstand sma ll group dynami cs, yo u mu st tackle th e co mplex ities of co mmun icarion. 22 Communicatio n is th e transactional process in whi ch people simultaneo usly create, interpret, and negot iate shared meaning through their interactio n. In small groups, the mUlU ally negot iated meaning allows members ro coo rdinate th eir activities. We develop thi s idea furthe r in Chapter 3, bur this defin itio n means that gro up members simultaneo usly send and receive verbal and no nverba l messages-words, f.1cial ex press ions, and so forc h- to and fro m o ne ano ther. During this process, th ey develop shared mea nin gs and are able to coo rd ina le thei r activities within [he group. They pay an emia n to Oll e anm her, inrerpret (or misi nrerpret) one anorher, negoria te what th in gs mean, create inte rdepe ndence and accomp lish so mething (we ho pe what they acco mplish is th eir assigned tas k! ). The communication itself creates rh e group and forges th e interd ependence necessary for ind ivid uals to call rhemsel ves a group. Small gro up communi catio n focuses o n the verbal and nonve rbal inreracrio n amo ng group members. Pu members crea te, perceive. interp ret, and res pond [Q messages from o ne anoth er, th ey are engaging in small gro up communicarion. W hile small gro up co mmuni ca tion shares factors in co mmon with comm un ica tio n in mh er contexts, th ere are differences. In public spea1cing situations, such as wh en someone gives a speech, the speaker's role (to talk) is clea rly differenriated from [he audi ence's ro le (to listen). whereas in a small gro up , these roles are inrerchangeable. Public spea kers plan their remarks, but small group participanrs respond rela ti vel y spo ntaneo usly. Verbal feedback is delayed during a publ ic speech, but in a small group it is immed iate. although mu ch non verbal feed back is insr3ntaneolls in born co ntex ts. In interpersonal situations. such as in a dyad, on ly one interperso nal relationship is poss ible. bur in a fi ve- person gro up , 10 unique inrerpersQllal rel ationsh ips ex ist, making sma ll group co mIllunication much mo re co mpl ex. Intrapersonal co mmunication, the co mmuni cation thar occurs within an individual (s uch as thinkin g o r self-calk) is always prese m no marre r th e context, including small gro ups.

GROUPS AND TECHNOLOGY Today, because rechnology is readi ly ava ilable and easy to use, mos t groups make lise of it in some way [Q make their work easier. Radler than tallcing about face-tO -face gro ups or vi rtual groups. it makes more se nse to co nsider the degree ro whi ch groups use rechnology co do their wo rk and develop their reiarionships.2J So me grou ps may meet o nly face-to-face, neve r usin g any fo rm of tec hn o logy; o th ers, such as so me o nlin e support groups or geographica ll y distributed multinational groups. always meet vircuall y, never

Small Groups as the Heart of Society face· to· face, rel ying o n technologies such as tel eco nferencing and e· mail. Many groups do something in between : combine face·to·face meetings with technological (Ools to complete th eir work. Teleconferencing and applicacion s such as Skype allow members to meet at the sa me rim e aJchough (hey may be widel y sca((ered geographica1ly. Inrern et di scussion boards and e· mail permit members to interact at differelH times and places th at are conveniem fo r each individual member-a real benefit when members live in differenr tim e zones o r have varying work schedules. Still other appli catio ns allow members to wo rk collabo ra· tiveiy on tasks whether they are in the same place o r not. Fo r instance, wikis and applica· tion s simi lar to Dropbox allow group members to work collaborarively o n documents and to track changes mad e by each member. Thus, even if members li ve in rh e same city or wo rk for th e sam e organization , each may contribute ra collaborati ve wo rk from ho me or fro m their indi vidu al offices. G lo ria's work with her church's An fo r Haiti commi((ee illustrates how face· to· face groups supplem ent regular meetings with techno logy. T he committee was charged with planning an art ex hibit and reception to benefit relief efforts for H aiti , with local arti sts selling Caribbean -inspired paintings and sculpture. Members of th e planning commi((ee were recruited via e· mail; an application called Doodl e let members mark th eir available times to meet, and the commirree's chair sem the first mee ting agenda as an e- mail arrachmem. At th e first face-co-face mee tin g, members discussed what needed ro be done and divvied up th e tasks. The artist o n the co mmitt ee se nt an e- mail to rec ruit local artisrs, as king them ra se nd jpeg images with th ei r compl eted appli cati o ns. One member agreed to find a group to play Afro-Ca ribbean music, anorher to create the Ayer, a third to co nract poss ible caterers, and a fou rth to bo rrow moveabl e walls and pedes tals to display th e works in the church's fellowship hall. In th e twO weeks between th e first and second meerings, members completed rh eir indi vidual tasks, ga thered necessary information, and e- mailed one another with informatio n, questi o ns, o r suggestion s. Fo r exa mple, th e person creating rhe Aye r posted it using Dropbox and o rhers helped edit her work. Several people did nor like the graphic image on the Ayer, so th e artist e- mail ed jpeg images of twO of her new wo rks that could be used insread, whi ch group members liked better. By rhe rime of th e second meeting, because members already knew what each of them had do ne, decisions were made quickJ y and work progressed well. The Art for Haiti group planned ro publicize the art exhibit and reception almost exclusively via electroni c technology--e-blasrs, radio promotion, and inclusion in e-newslcners-rath er than relying on traditional printed pieces. Many groups and organizati o ns use Facebook to let interes ted peo ple know of upco ming eventS and , in creasingly, appli cations like Twirter for qui ck, regular upd ares of their activi ties. T hese days, technology is integrall y woven into th e fabric of group and orga ni za tio n acti vities. Communication that is mediat ed- via computers, telephones, and so fo rth- is thought to lack social presence, or the feeling that the comillunica tion is sociall y and emotionally similar co face-to· face cOlllmunication. 24 For instance, becau se computers do nOt convey the full complement of nonve rbal communicatio n (e.g., ran e of voice, facial cx pressions, body movemenrs), th e person 0 11 the receiving end may feel less co nnected IO the perso n sending the computer message. In parricular, beG'lUsc social presence is an issue in co mputer-mediated co mmunication (CMC) some believe C MC may impair a group's abili ty [Q form stro ng relationships amon g members. Howeve r, reccll( work calls this view inro question. Walther

15

16

C HAPTER 1

and his associates notc that human beings adapt [0 whatever communicat ion environm ent they face. 25 Thus, when members cannot lISC nonverbal com munication naturally, as rhey ca n with face-to-face communication, they substitute verbal communi cat ion instead. These resea rchers found tha l virtual groups, using primarily verbal communication, formed bonds of attachment that were JUSt as stro ng as face-to-face groups. although the process may take longe r with CMC. We elaborate on these idt.'as in C hapter 3. when we explore rhe communication process in more deta il. We will address th e impact of technology o n small grou p dynamics throughour o ur texc. Thus, we consider many co mpurer. mediared groups in our definition.

Classifying Groups by Their Major Purpose How a specific small gro up fun cri ons in part reHects (h e purpose for whi ch [he group exists. \Y/e have classified small groups acco rding [Q (he reasons (hey exist.

PRIMARY OR SECONDARY GROUPS Many small gro up writers accepr (he th eory proposed by psychologist Will C. Schu t? that three major forces motivate hum an inrcracrion. These are {he needs for inclusion, affection, and co nrrol. The firs( fWO co ncern needs for belonging and caring from O(her peo ple. The third, cOll(rol, refe rs ro our need for power (Q influence (he world in which we exist, includ· ing th e people we encoullrer. 26 A group is class ified by soc iologists as primary or seco ndary depe nding upon which of (h ese needs is the major reason it exists.

Meeting Member Needs and Handling Membership Changes The membership of Best Friends has changed over the years. Some of the people who started the group have moved on to other thing s while new members have found their place at Best Friends. Membership changes can present unique challenges to a group. 1. Why might a member who was initially fully committed to a group's goals and willing to work hard on behalf of a group choose to leave the group?

2. Why might a new member choose to join? 3. What challenges does member fl uctuation present for group members, existing and new?

GLOSSARY ]

4 . What can current members do to make new members fee l wei· comed and part of the group?

Primary Groups Croups formed to meet primary needs for inclusion and affection

Primary Groups. Primary groups form ro meet rhe first [WO rypes of needs, inclusion and affecrion. They may acco mpli sh work, bur (har is 110( rheir primary objective. Loving, ca rin g. avoiding feeli ngs of lo nelin ess, sharing, feeling cared abour- th ese are rh e mo(ives for which we willingly give lip so me freedom as individ uals to be members of

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

17

primary groups. We are all familiar with fami lies, fri endship groups, sororities and fraternities, drinking buddies, cl iques. ga ngs, and those many small gro ups that see m to form spolHaneo usly to meet interpe rso nal needs for inclusion and affection. AI. we meruioned ea rli er, yo ur fam ily is proba bly yo ur first group and mirrors , in many ways, th e many gro ups you belong to now. The co mmunication pa{{e rns yo u learned in your first group likely affec t the way you co mmunica te in groups nowY In addition , many of th e needs that were mer by your first group are now met by other gro ups yo u belong to.

Secondary Groups. Secondary groups, or task groups, exist mainly [Q meet control needs: solving all so n s of problems. A.secondary group may create or implement a plan (so luti on) (0 provide co ntrol. Co ntrol , in thi s se nse, may include supplying phys ical needs, such as providing water, food, and shel ter to vicrims of Hurri cane Katrin a, prevelH ing rhe spread of cho lera in H ait i. or comba ting global wa rming, or eve n more mundane maners such as fixi ng a Rat tire o r designing a co mputer program to o rganiz.e recipes. This book is mostly about seco ndary groups. Task forces. co mmittees, work crews, quality circles, and lea rnin g groups are all seco ndary gro ups. No gro up is purely primary o r secondary in its fun ctioning (see Figure 1. 1). Primary groups enco unter and so lve prob lems. Secondary gro ups supply members with a se nse of inclusion and often with affect ion. In fact. so metim es the most productive and satisfying seco ndary groups have st rong primary components, so members feel included , appreciated , and eve n loved. Think of th e best group yo u eve r belonged (0. C han ces are, nor o nly was chis group prod ucrive, but yo u also formed close friendships with the ocher mem be rs. Most likely, a number of yo ur psycho logical needs-for inclusio n, affectio n, and co nrrol- were met. Our morives for joining groups are often mixed; we may wam to participare in so lvin g a problem, but ex periencing pleas ure in the inreraccion wit h m hers is also a main reason for our involvement. 28

Secondary Groups Groups formed to meet secondary needs for control and problem solving

Support Groups Groups formed for members to help each other under-

I stand, address, and cope With personal issues or problems

TYPES OF SECONDARY GROUPS Secondary groups rackJe a range of tasks. T hey may be formed ro co mplete one specific job or a va ri ety of related rasks. Examp les include suppOrt groups, learnin g gro ups, organi7..a tion al gro ups (s uch as co mmittees, work team s, self- managed wo rk tea ms, and qual ity co ntrol circles), and activity grou ps.

Support Groups. Sup port gro ups exist ro help members understand and address personal iss ues or proble ms. Sup pOrt groups may be ca ll ed rherapy or perso nal growrh

FIGURE 1.1

Groups with Both Primary and Secondary CharacteristIcs

Purely

Pu rely

primary

seco n dary

Poker club Sk; club

Family

Close friends

Therapy

group AA support group

I

learning

circle

group

Class project group

I

Production group

Quality Commi ttee at work

Task

force

18

CHAP TER 1

For more information on finding groups on

the Internet, go to the Online Learning

Center at www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanes8e

groups. Regardless of what they are called, their purpose is not to solve a problem as a group but to help indi vid ual members address or solve perso nal issues or cope with persona l prob lems. Gro ups based on rhe well-known 12-srcp p rocess developed by Alcoholi cs Anonymous are examples of SUppOr( groups, as are groups such as breast ca ncer support gro ups, anger management groups for abusive spouses. and so forth. The premise of these groups is that individuals can better understand and cope with their own problems if they interact with ot hers with similar problems. For example, one of our friends, after completing treatmenr for ovarian cancer. started a support group-on ly the seco nd such group in Missouri-for women diagnosed with the same disease. T he treatment prognosis for such women is usually not optimist ic. so Joy believed it was especially important for such women to su pport each ot her. She felt rhe need to taJk with Others who had been through th e same expe rience. particularl y those women whose trearmems had been successful. But mo re importantly. she was eager to share her experiences and her message of hope to women newly diagnosed. In another example. during the aftermath of the Wo rld Trade Ce nter atracks on September 11.2001. police office rs. firefighters. and rescue workers assembled in New York City. Although these people came to help rescue efforts and clean up the devastation. they also provided emOtional support to each other and ro shocked New Yorkers. Primary and seco ndary functions were equally important. The easy ava ilability of compu ters has made it possible for people ro form support groups of members who never meet face-to-face. yet who experience stro ng support and comfort from their computer contacts. In a recent study com parin g o nline and face-to-face

"O. K, who else has experienced the best-jriend relationship as inadequate?" Suppon groups are used by members for penooal growth. 0 The New Yooer Collectioo; 1991 Mischa Ric hter from cattoonbank.com. All RighU ResetWd.

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

suppOrt groups, Kevin Wright found that peo ple benefited from berh types. l9 Online groups have the ad va nrages of providing 24-ho ur access, greate r participanr d iversity of experience and information, and freedom to discuss risky wpics. The on lin e support networks also tend ed to be large r, thereby providing members wit h more resources. Interestingly, the online SUppOH grou ps d id nOt evo lve imo face-co-face groups. Learning Groups. Learn ing groups of many sons, as we memioned earlier, exist w help members und erstand or co ntro l events in their lives and th e world around th em. Your class is a lea rning group (probab ly a large one) that may be further organized into several small learning groups. Learning gmups of people from preschool to retirement age discuss all sorts of interests. 5rudy groups are types of learning grou ps. So are coho rt groups; many universities group students into cohorts, whose members emer a particular program cogether and stay wgether throu ghout the ir course of study. Cohorts are encouraged co smdy wgether and to help each orher learn, much like the group of you ng donors in Grey's Anatomy. In a smdy of adult und ergraduate learning cohorts, researchers found a significa nt relationship between the level of group development and rhe individual ach ievem ent, measured by grade point average, of the members. 30 Not all groups ach ieved equally, which further emphas izes the impo rcallce of understanding group commu ni cation and devel opm ent. AJrhough our text does nor specifically focus on support or lea rning groups, learning is a fi rst step in many problem-solving groups, and pe rsonal affirmation and su pport are crucia l by-products of effective group inreract ion in all ki nds of groups. Organizational Groups. Organizations such as corporations, schools, agenc ies, legislatures, bu reaus, large departmenrs, hospitals, and even social clubs create problemso lving gro ups w serve rhem. Organizational groups include any such probl em-solving gro up form ed with in th e context of a larger orga nization.

Committees. Most com mittees are created by larger organizations to perform a service for the organiza tion. The organization comm ies a problem o r task to the small group (co mmittee) created for that purpose. For exa mp le, at Kathy's uni vers ity, a fact-finding com~ mittee was asked to investigate the possi bility of estab lishing an honor code and report irs findings to the faculty and president. Occasionally, a special committee is empowered both to seiect a plan and to execute it, though in most cases problem-solving comm ittees do not go beyond making reco mmendations. Instead , they are usually advisory, reponing to an executive or a board that has fi nal authority and responsibility for deciding. A different COIllminee is created to carry alit the chosen plan, o r an individual may be ass igned to execute [he solution. Committees in organ izations may be standing, ad hoc, or conference. A standing committee is a permanent com mi({ee. Often, an organization's bylaws in ~ elude a procedure for creating it and a descript ion of its purpose and area of freedom (0 act. For exam pl e, a membersh ip commiuee may be responsible for recru iting new mem bers and for screening the ap plica nts' qualifications. "Standing" implies that a COIllminee co ntinues in definitely. However, its mem bership is usuall y chan ged by election or appointment on a per iodic basis. Ad hoc committees are created to pe rform one special ass ignment and rhen go our of ex istence. The end product might be a report of findings or recommended so lutionsfor example, evaluations of seve ral si res for a new plant or sugges ti ons about how to cut costs. This repo rt is often delivered in writin g and o rall y to whoever created the special

19

GLOSSARY learning Groups Secondary groups whose members meet to understand and learn about 0 particular topic

Organizational Groups Groups created by organizations, usually to solve organizational problems

Committee A type of secondary group that performs

a specific service for an organization

20

CHAPTER 1

commirrce. A couple of yea rs ago, o ne o f us headed a facuhy ad hoc co mmince rormed to prevent rh e loss of a d epanm cm 's graduare program . This commi ttee pur togeth er a plan (0 bui ld rhe graduate program , which included a newly designed gradume curriculum , a pl an fo r recruitment , and th e po li cy fo r a new ly fo rmed department graduare cO lTImince. T his plan was presenred o rall y and in writin g [0 lhe dean of gradu:tlc srudies. Irs wo rk thus completed , rh e commiuce di sband ed . Such groups are often ca ll ed task forces. with members selected beca use their knowled ge and skill s are thou ght necessary ( 0 d o (h e group 's work. Presidem s have created many (ask forces co in vestigate and make reco mm endati o ns on such national conce rn s as ill egal dru g traffi c. acid rain. rhe condit io n o f nat io nal parks, health care, and what was respo nsibl e for the oil spill off th e Louisiana coase.

I

GLOSSARY Quality Control Circles

Orgamiotlonal groups thot address issues of job performance and

work improvement Self-Managed Work Teams Also called autonomous work groups; groups of peen who manage Iheir own work schedules and

procedures

Quality Control Circles. Amer ica n, fore ign, and multinational co mpani es (such as Xerox , Procter & Ga mble, Westin ghouse, Fo rd , Ge neral Motors, Dow C hemi ca l, and Paul Revere Insurance G ro up) use q u ality con trol ci rcles. QuaHty cOlJlrol cirrii' o r quality circle is a generic name for smaJi gro ups of co mpany empl oyees wh o vo luntee r ro raclde any issue that may affect jo b perfo rm ance. All such circles are con ce rn ed with the quali ty and quanti ty of their wo rk o urpur and 3n cmpt to improve [heir co mpetiti ve ness with other o rga niza ti ons. They ca n be found in all types of organiz..1l ions. ranging fro m manufacruring and servi ce organizati o ns. to State gove rnme nts, ro school sys tems, to voluntary orga nizati ons. and sometim es to ind ividual fa milies. T hey help invo lve empl oyees in th e o rgan iza tio n 's dec ision-making loops. If instituted pro perly, qu ality circles can improve company effecriveness by in creas ing worker produ cti vity. ideIH ify ing pro bl ems and poss ibl e so lutions. and enh ancin g wo rker involvement. For instan ce, qua lity circles helped o ne international hotel chain cur losses on unused complimentary fruit baskets by over $5.500 per quarter.,1 Howeve r, a number of problems ca n occ ur with qualiry circl es. So metim es un ions see th em as a ploy to in crease produ cti o n with out improv ing w:tgcs or benefits. Managers can be rhreatened if they perce ive th at sugges ti ons from qualifYcircl es und ermin e th eir managerial prerogati ves. Quali ry circle programs stagnare if [h e co mpan y fails to ac t promptly on sugges rions provid ed by the quality circl e o r ex plain why a sugges tio n is not being impl emented. Quality circles often wo rk bes t in co njun Cl ioll with an overall o rga ni 7...1tio naJ development program thal' suppo n s th e con ce pt o f employee pani cipario n and [heir impl ementati o n IllUSt be ca refull y pl ann ed. Self-Managed Work Teams. So me~ i mes called autono mo us wo rk gro ups o r mod ules, self- managed work team s arc groups o f peers who manage th ei r own wo rk sc hed ules and p rocedures within certa in prescri bed limits. Members are highly trai ned and cross-train ed-each is able to perfo rm several tas ks for the tea m. Th e process is similar co having a ream of peopl e building a house: "Wh en you Il eed 1110re carpcl1Iers. th e painters ca n put down their brushes and pick lip hamm ers for a coup le of ho urs. O r rhe carpenrer goes and helps rh e plumber wh en he's behind. "32 Not onl y is this efficienr. bue it also helps workers devel o p a va ri ety o f skills and reduces boredom and frustrati on. Selfmanaged work rea ms have been lIsed with grea t success at sllch co mpani es as Procter & Gamble. Sherwin -Willi ams. G M , and TRW. A sel f- managed \..,o rk tca m el ects its own leader, who is a co-wo rker, not a supervi so r o r man age r. The lead er acts as a coo rdin ator, no r a boss. Th e o rga nizati o n establishes the work group 's area o f freed om . bur often these groups have a great deal o f Iatirude in

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

21

how th ey operate. So me work groups estab lish th eir own sched ules and annual budgets, prepare their own reports, develop specifi cations for jobs and procedures, solve tech nical problems that occur while complet ing jobs, and even prepare bids in attempting to ~tt rracr new co mpany busin ess. For example, at one office furn iture manufacturer, th e custo m-orders ream has co mplete authority to bid jobs und er $ 10,000, custom-design rh e furniture for the cl ient , and sched ul e its manuf:.1.cture. Fo r complex jobs the whole team goes ro the client's office (Q listen and offe r suggestions. The tcam's success has mad e th e cusrom-o rder pan ion of the busi ness ex tremel y profitable. H

What's in a Name? The SC Johnson Company has a meeting-intensive culture that has spawned its own vocabu lary to describe various kinds of meetings. Generals are weekly one-on -one meetings that bosses hold with their subordinates. Nice- to-knows are optional informational meetings that employees often skip, and huddles are meetings designed to provide quick updates. 1. What kinds of group meetings do you attend? 2. What nicknames would you give to them?

Compa nies that have effec ti vely inslirU(ed such progra ms report thar self-managi ng wo rk rea ms have a 20-40 pe rcell[ edge in productivity ove r morc traditional wo rk systcms.}4 They require less superv ision and surveillance, produce hi gher-quali ty products, have less losr rime, and generall y produce high mora le and job satisfactio n.

Being an Ethical Group Member Throughom this chaprer we have emphasized how important it is for you to understand small gro ups so you ca n be a va luab le panicipanr in them. You want to be the kind of grou p member orhers ca n co um on, rhus making rhe small group experience a sarisfacrory and successful one for alt members. In IllOSt small gro up co mmunication classes, we have found one or lWO project groups plagued by slackers who wam crcdir for rhe work but arc unwilling to do thei r share of the work. They fail to show lip for meetings, miss report dead lines. disa ppear with essen ti al info rmation , o r are absent from rehea rsals for presentation s and even the prese ntarions th emselves! Such ind ividu als are the bi gges t source of animosity amo ng group members and are respons ible for derai ling many projects. Other problem membe rs incl ude bu lli es, know-it-ails. and indi vidua ls who are JUSt plain inse nsiri ve ro the needs of orhers. Idea ll y, evc,),one in a grou p wants ro be a member o th ers can co um o n. Members need ro know what is expected of res ponsible, et hica1 members. Ethics arc the "rules o r standards for ri ght conduct o r pracrice,"J'i that is, what is considered appropriate behavior in certain co ntex ts. Our profess ional associatio n, the National Commu ni cation Association, Ius developed a credo that desc ribes guidelin es for ethical co mmuni cation in all co ntex ts (see Figure 1.2). We have used rhis credo as the basis for devel oping principles of

[ G LOS S A R-;:] Ethics

l

Standards an.d rules for approprloce group member and leader behaVior

j

22

CHAPTER 1

FIGURE 1.2

National Communication Association Credo for Ethical Communication

Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communica-

tion is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by

fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe thai unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well -being of individuals and the society in which we live. Therefore we, the members of the Notional Communication Association, endorse and are committed to practicing the following principles of ethical communication: We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essentia l to the integrity of communication, We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making hmdamental to a civil society. We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluoting ond responding to their messages. We promote access 10 communication resources and opportunilies as necessary 10 fulfill human potential and contribute to the well-being of famili es, communities, and society. We promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respecl the unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators. We condemn communication thai degrades individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression of intolerance and hatred . We are committed 10 the courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice. We advocate sharing information, opinions, and feelings when facing significant choices while also respecting privacy and confidentiality. We accepl responsibility for the short- and long-term. consequences For our own communication and expect the same of others.

SOURCE: National Communication Association. A<:cessed January 6, 2007: www.natcom.org/ncafTemplate2.asp?bid=5\4

ethical communication in small grou ps. The way you interact with other group members determ ines, in large pan, whether you r groups succeed or fail and whe ther yo ur group outcomes are winners or (fain wrecks. Therefore, you must pay anemion to whether you r communication in groups meets the standards of ethical behavior we presenr here. In a small group, ethical behavior concerns members ' willingness to communicate, treatmem of fellow members, treatment of information, and commi(m ent ro the group.

Small

Groups as the Heart of Society

1. Members must be willing to communicate and share ideas, information, and perspectives within the group. Groups succeed because severaJ heads are beuer than one. However, mis advantage will nor be real ized if group members are unwill ing to speak up or engage in group dialogue. Being silenr deprives the group of your vo ice. Even jf you are shy about talking, mere are other ways to co ntribute, such as encouraging other members, being auentive during discussion, and volumeering for work mat needs to be done outside of meetings.

2. Group members should treat their feUow members with respect and consideration. If members are (Q respect each other, dley musr operate from rhe belief that all group members have the same rights. Egalitarian arritudes enco urage all membe rs (Q co ntribute fu lly to the tas k at hand and value good id eas no matter who contributes them. To do otherwi se undermines rhe potential effectiveness of the group. If members fear being sco rned or bel inled, mey wi ll think twice abo ut venturing an idea or opinion, wh ich derails the gro up process. Treating ome rs with respect is a cultural val ue embedded in our democratic traditions and is th e right ming ro do. When members d isagree with each orner, as is normal , they sho uld do so without being offensive or perso nalizing the disagreement.

3. G roup members should use their best critical thinking skills when they evaluate information, ideas, and proposals in a group. Members shou ld evaluate information in a thorough and unbiased way. Earlier, we noted that an ad vantage (Q group processes is that members can co rrect each other's misi nfo rmation and f..1.ulry reasonin g. In fact, it is unethical fo r them not (Q do so, because decisions are on ly as good as the information and reaso ning on which they are based. Perhaps the li ves of the Columbia space shu ttle crew could have been saved had NASA officials paid auention {Q safety warn ings more thoroughly and with less bias. Tragically, important info rmation abo ut the structural integri ty of the shutde was ignored. Group members must make a co nscient ious effort {Q find and present all releva nt informa tion and points of view, must no t falsifY data or information, and must evaluate all the information in an objective manner. This is the heart of effective group problem solving.

4. Members must demonstrate a commitment to the group. Some people simply arc unable or unwilling {Q commit {Q a group, and mey make horrible group members. For as long as meyare in me group, members shouJd place the good of the group allead of meir own ind ivid ual goals. Comm itted, responsible members are highly involved in the activity of me gro up. All members are needed, and mere is no room for freeloaders. A committed member supports (h e gro up's actions and decisions, even if the decision is not what the member would have chosen. If a group you belong to makes a decision you si mply cannot suppo rt, it may be better fo r you to leave me group. Remember, gro ups exist beca use members' idemiries are intertw ined with a recogni zed and valu ed group identity. Gro up member co mmunication matters because it affects other members as well as the gro up. Whenever you are faced with choosing how to behave in yo ur small gro up, fo ll owing these four principles should help you. Stand back and co nsider rhe impact of yo ur communication on others and th e group because membership in grou ps is nor only abom participation bm ruso abo ut observati on. We turn now to th e va lue of a participant-observe r perspective.

23

CHAPTER 1

24

GLOSSARY Particip a ntObserve r (P e rspect ive) A group

member

who partICipates but a/50 observes

the group and

adapts as necessary

The Participant-Observer Perspective Earlier, we asked you to co nsider all the groups [Q whi ch YOli belo ng. Even as you learn about the princi ples of communicating in gro ups from reading our text, YO LI will comin ue co be a member of these groups. This mea ns th ar yo u will be in rh e role of a participantobserver, so meone who is a regu lar member of rhe grou p Ilnd, at lh e same rim e, actively observes rhe gro up and adapts to irs processes and procedures. This is especially important for the group leader or leaders. Because most grou p members have nor been rrain ed to be effective group participanrs, it is especially importan t for you (0 monitor th e groups' discuss ions and help yo ur groups perform as well as poss ib le. As a skilled parricipanrobserver, you ca n help a group by suppl yin g information, procedural suggestions, and inrerpersonaJ co mmuni cation skills it needs. This is an importanr rocus of our text- to help you beco me a more va luab le group member as yo u sharpen your skills in observing small group processes. We encourage you to beco me a participant-observer for th e groups yo u are in. As yo u read our rexr, try to chink of examp les from your own gro up experiences that illustrate the principles descr ibed in the text. Starr paying arrenrion in a co nsc ious way to the processes of small group communi c.1. tion . In addition, use the case study and applicat io n boxes in each chaprer to improve your awareness or group d ynami cs. As YO li lea rn more about communicating effec tively in groups, yo u will feel more comfo rtabl e making suggestions (0 serve [he gro ups to which you belong. We prov ide addi(ional information about the participant-observer and o ther types of observers in th e Appendix.

Would You Falsify Data? Your five-member class project group has been assigned to serve as consultants to another group. You are cha rg ed with observing this group, gatherin g data about it, evaluating the group's communication, and making recommendations to improve the group's functioning . The problem is that each of your project group members is very busy, and you're having a hard time agreeing on a time to observe the other group. Two of you are graduating at the end of the semester, and one of you, planning to spend the summer working in Europe, is scrambling to get all assignments finisbed in time to leave. Two members suggest making up data for your final project. The chances of getting ca ught are slim, and this "solution" wou ld save you all several hours of observation and work. You personally strongly object to this form of cheating. For one thing, you don't want to chance having a plagiarism charge against you. But mainly you object to this form of lying, and you don't want to damage yo ur relation ship with you r professor. 1. Do you speak or remain silent? 2. If you speak, w hat do you say? 3. What do you do if the entire group-except you-is in favor of falsifying data? 4. Do you ta lk to the teacher? Why or why not?

Small Groups as the Heart of Society

2S

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

•

People in modern society need to be able to function effectively in small groups if they want to succeed and if they want to be fuJi participants in contemporary organizational life.

• Small group members participating in decision making create and consider more issues, correct each other's misinformation, accept solutions more often, and are more loyal to the organization man members who don't participate in decisions. •

Perceptual awareness makes a group "small"; the group must be small enough for each member to participate and for each member to be co nscious of and aware of the other members.

1. List all the groups to which you belong. Be sure to include family groups, friendship and other social groups, activity groups, committees, work teams, athletic teams, classroom groups, study groups, political action groups, and interest groups. Categorize them into primary or secondary groups (recognizing that no group is solely one or the other). Discuss yorn list with the class or in small groups. 2. Ask individuals how they have used technology (e.g., e-mail, Facebook,wikis,Twitter, and so forth) as supplements to face-to-face meetings. In what ways do chese technologies help or impede group performance?

•

Contemporary groups use a variety of technology tools to enhance their performance.

•

Groups can be classified according to their purpose. Groups can satisfy inclusion, affection, and co ntrol needs.

•

Ethical group members are willing to communicate, treat others with respect, evaluate information thoroughly, and demonstrate commitment to the group.

•

Participant-observers. members who know something about the small group process, can help a group succeed.

3. Break. up imo small groups. Devise your own list of ethical standards for group members. You can do thi s for a general class discussion, or you can develop a class list of standards that will be used for all future group work in che class. If the class is structured around a major group project, then individual groups can create their lists relevant to the standards of the group members. ~

Go co www.mhhe.oomladamsgalanes8e

~1fI..t\ and www.mhhe.oomlgroupsfor

nn

f1!1

self-quizres and weblinks.

Committee

Organizational Groups

Self·Managed Work Teams

Communication

Participant·Observer (Perspective)

Small Group Small Group Communication

Group

Primary Groups

Support Groups

Grouphate

Quality Control Circles

Learning Groups

Secondary Groups

Ethics

Groups as Structured Open Systems

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After readIng this chapter you should be able to: I . Explain what a theory is and why systems theory is a useful perspective for studying small group communication.

2 . Define and give examples of a system. 3. Define inputs, throughput processes, and outputs of a group system. 4. Explain why communication is the heart of a group's

throughput process. S . Describe the role of the group's environ ment.

6 . Compare and contrast open and closed systems. 7. Describe what interdependence means to the functioning of a small g roup system. 8. Exp lain the role of feedback in he lpi ng a system adapt to changing circumstances. 9. Explain why all groups experience multiple causes

and multiple paths. 10. Explain why nonsummativity is a syste mic

characteristic of groups.

Groups as Structured Open Systems

The Jamaican Winter Olympic Bobsled Team A jamaican Olympic bobsled team is about as unlikely as a Popsicle stand in the middle of the Mohave Desert-but that is the true story told in the film Cool Runnings! With only 3 months to find equipment, secure financial backing, and qualify for the Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, in 1988, four of the most incompatible, untrained Jamaicans come t<;,gether to compete for an Olympic gold medal. Sanka is the best pushcart driver in all jamaica; his friend Derice is jamaica's beloved track sprinter; Yul is a moody, angry sprinter; and junior is a wealthy sprinter who tripped both Derice and Yul in the Olympic track qualifiers. junior's mistake cost Derice his chance to follow his dad's legacy and compete for Olympic gold in track. Not to be denied, Derice searches for another way to try for a medal. He hears about Irving Blitzer, a disgraced Olympic bobsled medalist stripped of his medals for cheating, but who believed track sprinters would make outstanding bobsledders. Derice pleads with Irv to coach the first jamaican bobsled team. Sanka signs on as a favor for his friend, Yul joins to get off the island, and junior joins to get away from his domineering father. This unlikely collection of three track sprinters, one pushcart driver, and a disgraced coach has no money, no sled, no ice and snow to practice on, no fan support, skeptical and cruel responses from fellow bobsledders, and animosity among team members. Any betting person would predict from these initial factors that they would fail. Even the jamaican Olympic committee would not give them the money to go to Canada for the bobsled trials. Overcoming one obstacle after another, these athletes slowly emerge as a cohesive OlympiC team. During the last run for gold, this unlikely jamaican bobsled team crashes before the finish line because of a loose runner on the sled. Injured but not deterred, they pick up their sled, named "Cool Runnings," and walk over the finish line to the cheers of the other bobsledders and all of jamaica. What does "Cool Runnings" mean? It translates into "peace be the journey.'"

27

28

C HAPTER 2

~ LOSSARY J

he story of Coot RUllnings illustrates several important aspects of system s th eory. We will return (0 the story throughout the chapter to provide exampl es of how various elements of systems theory apply to the Jamaican bobsled team. First, we consider what a theory is, exam ine an overview of general systems theory. and look at how it furnishes a useful and popular framework for examining small group co mmunication.

Theory

A "mop of reality'"

T

that helps us

navigate unfamiliar

territory and make decisions

What Is a Theory? Most srudcm s [lin e our when they know a discuss ion abo ut th eory is loomi ng. Many people believe theor ies arc bori ng, irrelev31H, and un necessary. However, rh e {ruth is chat all of us lise theories eve ry d ay, although we probably do not think about ir. Em G riffin, in hi S introd ucrory cOlll lllunicat ion th eo ry text, d efin es a theory as a "map of rca lity,"2 so mething that helps us naviga te unfamiliar te rrain and make decisio ns. Like a map. a theory describes relarionsh ips between elements (fo r example. Kansas City is 180 mil es northwest of Sp rin gfield) and shows you how ro get from one element to anothe r (fro m Sp ringfield , take Rome 13 to C linron, Rome 7 to Harrison, and Ro ute 7 1 to Kansas City) . This helps make a drive from Sp rin gfield to Kansas C ity predictable and orde rl y. Good theories are practical and reliable: You can-and do---use them to improve you r decision making. For exa mple, assume you've agreed (Q meet your friends for a "Thank God It's Friday" celebration. but you' re short of funds. You wi ll have to cash Friday's paycheck before you can join the group. But you know that if you wait until 5:00 r.M. on Friday. you' ll be sruck in a long lin e at the bank's drive-through because everybody else who gOt paid on Friday will be doing the sa me thing! So yo u ask your boss if yo u can leave at 4:00 P.M. eo beat the rush. You have just formulated a theory, used it to pred ict eve nrs. and made a decision abo ut how ro an. Your theory probably goes something like this: (1) Long lines at bank are related to the number of people tryin g to d eposit or cash paychecks; (2) in yo ur city many peopl e receive paychecks on Frid ays; (3) the workday for most businesses e nds berween 4:3 0 and 5:00 P.M. ; the refore, (4) you'll be held up at the bank if you wa it until 5:00 P.M. ro cash yo ur check. Sol ution: Leave at 4:00 aJld beat the crowd . You have just th eorized abou t rhe relationsh ip bet\veen the day of the week, the tim e, and the likelihood of a crowd and taken app ropri ate action, and you've used you r own implicit theory to help you. There a re many theories rhat have a bearing on sm all gro up commun ication. So me of these are broad in scope, w hich means they app ly fO all or mOSt grou ps; other th eor ies a re more lim ired, app lyi ng in particular group situati o ns o r ro a few dea rl y defined phenomena. We will discuss a number of theories (hrou gho ut thi s book. These theories wi ll be useful in helping YO ll assess what is working well in a gro up and why, what isn 't working and why, an d whar you might do abo l({ if. The theory we rurn to now, gene ral syste ms theory, is a comprehens ive theory fhat app lies to all living o rga nisms. including socia l systems such as groups. We usc (his theory as a broad framewo rk for orga nizin g rhe many elements (hat const irure a small gro llp.

me

Overview of General Systems Theory General systems th eory was developed by a biologist, Ludwig von Bertalanffy, as a way to examine and explain com plex living organisms. Because living organisms, in cl uding groups, are constantly changing, they are difficu lt ro study. Only processes and relationshi ps d isplay

Groups as Structured Open Systems

any constancy. Think for a momenr about your own body. one of the most complex of all organisms. Although it appea rs ro operate as a sin gle unit. in reali l)' it is composed of many smaller units that wo rk inrcrdependenrl y ro sustain your life. Fo r exa mple, when yo u walk across th e room , your Illuscular, skel etal , nervo us, ci rcularory, and rcspirarory systems all cooperate in movi ng yo u to your destination. Even if you are sitting still, your body is invo lved in conStant activi l)'-your eyelids are bl in king, yo ur heart is bearing, you are breathing auromatically, and so forth . Your individual cells consta ntly change as they take in no uri shment du ollgh the blood, resro re themsel ves. and excrete was te duough the cell walls. T his compli ca ted, continuous process is hard ro ca.pture. Fortunately, sysrems theory provides us with a way of examining and d~c ribing how a system's parts are intcrrelated, eve n while they are co ntinu ously chan ging. Systems theory rcminds tiS that when we want ro understand any li ving entity-s uch ..3 a 5rvuy--we not only study irs co mponem parts but also ex..1.mine how rhe parts operate wgether ro understand the o rga nism as a whole. Although a group is co mposed of in d ividual members, those members are interdependent; each one influences and is influenced by the others. Whe n th e members start to interac t, they form a social system that beco mes an emil)' of its ow n, d istin gu ishabl c from all other groups. The members' shared parrerns of communi cation create and maintain a uniqu e grou p cul tu re that co nstantl y evo lves as the mcmbers inreract w co mplete the work of the gro up. We ex plote this imeracti on in depth in subsequcnr chapte rs. Sys tem s theory has helped social scientists, fami ly therapists, busin ess professionals, and orhe rs by providin g a useful framework for lookin g at groups. Ma ny ind ividual elements affect rh e dynami cs of a group-the reason [he group was formed, the perso nal ities of group members, the information members have, rh e rype of leadership , [he way rhe grou p handles conflict, and how successful th e gro up has been in accomplishing irs ass igned

'-----------------------------/

"1 guess we'd be considered aJamily. We're living together, we love each other, and we haven't eaten the children yet. " SociClI systems Clre composed of interrelClted PClrtS. Q The New Yorker Collection; 1995 SClm Gross from CClrtoonbClnk.(om. All Righ t s Reserved.

29

30

CHAPTER 2

F OSSARVJ

task, ro name only a few. But no Jingle (femme functions alone; the elements interact can· rinuously. Systems theory concepts warn liS not to oversimplify our description of group imeracrion. All parts inrerac[ to produce the cnricy called a "s mall group ." C haracterizi ng a group as a social system was a significant advance in small group com· muniC3rion th eory. The assumptio n that communication connects th e releva nt pans of a sysrcm is fundam ental to understa ndin g a small group as a sys rclll . This moves rh e role of co mmunicatio n ro rhe forcfronr of small grou p theo ry. We now take a closer look at the und erlying principles of systems th eory.

System

l

A set of elements rhat functions as

a whole becouse: J of interdependent

rela tionships

The Small Group as a System Several concepts are impo rtant to understa nding a small group as a system. We will use [he Jam aican bobsled case study we prese nted at [he beginning of rh e chapter to illustra le these co nce pts.

DEFINITION OF A SYSTEM A system consists of elements that function interdependently. The SYSlem, in our case a small group, also functions inrerdepe ndemly with its environmenr as part of a la rger sysrem. No r on ly is a gro up made lip of seve ral elements that inAuence o ne another, bur the gro up also both affects and is affected by its surround ings. The sysrems componentssuch as rhe members of a grouI>--a re imerdependem, mutually inAuencin g o ne ano th er and also the environment in wh ich the gro up ope rates. With ol!( ml!(ual inAuence, th e group is merely a co ll ecrion of pans with no interdependence. T hink back to that unlikel y Jamai ca n bo bsled tea m (see also Figure 2. 1). Seve ral e1emelHS and their unique interaction affected rh e tca m. Consider fi rst th c members th emselves, with their var iolls ab ilities. A winning bobsled (earn needs a driver and three strong runn ers ro push rh e sled- and thi s tCHIn had th em. Sanka \Vas loyal to Derice and was, after all, th e best pushca n dri ve r in all of Jamai ca. Yul was stron g and fast. Junior was also quick and sharp. And Dcrice was born to co mpete in rhe Olympics-both fast and driven. A seco nd element was the team's ga me plan. For exa mple, how should (he coac h match th ese abilities with the va ri ous positions? Shou ld th e pushcart driver be the d ri ver of rhe sled? The ream's firsr co nAi cr in volved this very issue. Sanka thought he should be the driver, yet the coach pointed our thar the driver had to be focused ar all tim es and was res ponsi ble not only for rhe course bt1t also for th e lives of the others. So Derice was se· lec red as th e driver, and Sanka became the brakeman . The other rwo were the middl emen. The third element was the leade rship within (h e ream. Derice, for instan ce. had to figure our how to manage th e hard feelings berween Yu l and Junior. In addition, Yu l had a personal mOtive that had nothin g to do with the team- he wanted to use rh e "tea m" to get off the island. The fourth e1emenr was ltv's abi li ty ro assess the team 's competency, ea rn members' tru st, and motivate them to find th eir own style of sledding. Nor ice also the interaction of the team wirh its surroundin gs. The 3rrirudes of the Jamaicans. th eir fami lies, o th er O lympi c bobsledders and coaches, as wel l as (h e media, at first thwarted (hen later inspired th e tea m. In return , th e ream 's success influenced the entire country of Jamai ca and the rest of the winter Olympic com mun ity.

31

Groups as Structured Open Systems

FIGURE 2.1

Bobsled Team as a Small Group System

Environment Competing teams Recru iters International Alliance on Winter Sports

Jamaican fans

------EqUipment

Uniforms Team leadership, Strategy

Skills

------- ........ "

Attitudes

Physical characteristics

CONCEPTS VITAL TO UNDERSTANDING SYSTEMS T o understand systems theory, you need to understand four bas ic co ncepts {fU e of all systems: inputs, throughput processes, outputs, and environment. O Uf explanatio ns of these arc based on scholarly wo rk by Daniel Ka tz and Robert Kahn .}

Inputs. El ements involved in a group's dynami cs can be classified into three broad categories: inputs, throughputs. and Outputs. Inputs consist of all the faccofs-people, info rmation, energies, and other resources such as co mputer programs des igned to facilitate group problem sol vin g- that are bro ught in to the group from th e o uts ide (see Table 2. 1). In puts are the "raw materials" mat ini tial ly fo rm the group and that are used by members to perform th eir work. For example, the abilit ies of the bobsled players-wheth er they we re sman or no t, wh eth er they were rel atively fast or slow, how well th ey "read" th e subde nature of th e course-were all input characteristics th at the players brought with them to th e gro up and that influenced how well the team perfo rmed during a run . O ther inpu ts included th e instructi ons o n how to sy nchron ize the movements of al l four bobsledd ers and th eir sled, the continuo us Stream of info rmat ion that Irv gath ered abo ut th e strengths and. weakn esses of o ppos ing team s, the three- mo nth time limit th ey had to

r-------,

II GLOSSARY

;o:=======i Inputs AI( the elements of a system that are present at the outset, or the initial raw materials of the system

CHAPTER 2

32

TABLE 2.1

==== =--

Examples of Small Group Inputs Environmental

Members

Resources

Factors

Personal ities and characteristics

Information about task

Physical surro undings

(e.g., age, gender) Needs Attitudes Values

Knowledge and expertise Time availabl e for group work

Degree of support

from parent g roup or organization

Tang ible resources (e.g.,

money, materials) Computer softwa re

Abilities and skill s

qualify for the Olympics. and rhe att itudes of rhe team members roward each mher, rhe sPOrt, and their coach . Perhaps you r class has bee n divided inca grou ps to complete a group project. Examples of inpurs ro your project group include th e group's pu rpose (begi nning with the assignmen{ your insrfu cro r gave you). rhe members' au irudes roward rhe project, the abi lities an d expe riences of the members, the informatio n members have or are able to find about th e top ic, and the physical or soc ial features of th e environm ent that may affect the group, such as class room noi se th at makes it hard to hea r ot her members.

Throughput Processes. T he throughput processes are the activities rh e gro up

l GLOSSARY Throughput Processes Influences on

the ~yslem thai result from o(tual oC/lVities within the

group as

It

goe~

about its busineH

engages in as it goes abo ut its work (see Table 2.2). These activities transform the inputs into so mething else by doing so methin g with the m, JU St as a ca r manufa cturer rurns th e inputs of metal, plastic. and rubber into a ca r. A grou p's through pur p rocesses refer ro bow the group works, including how ro les, rules, and leadership develop; how members hand le conflict; and how members eva luare rhe info rm at ion rhey receive. Co mmuni carion is the central activiry in this transformation process. Mem bers are awa re of on e another. As rhey imeract, they simultaneously send and rece ive messages, imerpret rhe messages, and negotiate with one another to co nStruct epough common mea ning that rhey ca n coord inate rheir act ivi ties. They mutually influence o ne another's percept ions, ideas, op inions. goa ls, and so fo rth , thro ugh rheir di scussion. For exa mpl e, ir is through com munica tion that a group receives information (an input), then di scusses rhat informat ion, argues about its cred ibi li ry and what it means to th e group, and finally decides to incorporate it inro the final report. The discussion, debate about cred ibi li ry, and process of decid ing ro include the info rm ation are exa mpl es of the gro up 's throughput processes. In our bobsled team exam pl e, the coach's placement of Derice as rhe dr ive r insread of Sa nka, the obv ious choice, is an exa mpl e of a th ro ughput process. The info rm al leaders hip of Sa nka, whose enthusiasm motivated the other m embers, was also parr o f rhe ream 's throughput processes. Significa nr for this ream was how Yul and Junior reco nci led rh eir differences and develo ped a mutual respect across soc ioeconomic lines.

Groups as Structured Open Systems

TABLE 2.2

Examples of Small Group Throughput Processes

========~----~-

MEMBERS' BEHAVIORS

Degree of encou rag ement for presenting ideas Demonstration of members' willingness to work Dogmatic or otherwise stifling behaviors Methods of exp ressi ng and resolving dJsagreements Degree to which cohesive ness is expressed GROUP NORMS

Support for using critical thinking skills to test ideas versus uncritical acceptance of ideas Support for open disagreement versus suppression of conflict Support for relative equality among members versus strict hierarchy COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Extent to which eac h member talks to every other member Extent to which participation is distributed evenly STATUS RELATIONSHIPS Type of leadership

Degree to which power and influence are shared PROCEDURES

Communication Decision making and problem solving Method for implementing solutions

In anoth er exa mple, members of your classroom group may have developed the habit of examining critically all the information they bring to meetin gs and arguing openly before they reach any decision. This style of handlin g conflict is an example of a throughput process. Thorough and critical eva luation of info rm atio n will have a different effect on th e group 's decisions than if the members uncritically accept any and all information. Recall from C hap te r 1 that all fo ur ethi cal principles for group members are anchored in the Nal ional Communication Associati on 's Credo for Eth ical Com muni cation and desct ibe how effective com muni cators interact. Whether yo u are showing a willingness to co mmunicate, d is playing respect for others, cri tically assessing information, or demonstrating commitmelH (Q yo ur gro up, you are engaging in a variety of communicative behaviors- all four standards are grounded in what and how you commun icate (Q others. Group co mmuni catio n is the focus of C hapter 3.

33

34

CHAPTER 2

TABLE 2 .3

Examples of Small Group Outputs

Tangible Outcomes

Intangible Outcomes

Reports

Feelings among members (cohesiveness, trust; disharmony, dislike)

Recommendations Solutions and decisions

Physical objects (e.g., table

decorations, assembled cars)

Personal growth of members Personal satisfaction of members Modifications in throughput procedures (e.g ., alterations in the status relationships, use of different conflict resolution strategies)

Outputs.

Outputs Those tangible

and intangible product!; or achieve·

ments of the group system emerging

from throughput

processes Environment Systems do not exist in a vacuum but Ofe embedded in multiple surround·

Ings or contexts

Outputs are th e "resuhs," [he products of (he group's rhrou ghput processes (see Table 2.3). They include tangible outcomes, such as decisions th e gro up has made, written repons it has co mpleted , or O lympic races it has won. However, they also include less obvious results, such as cohesiveness, member satisfaction , perso nal growth of individua1 members, and chan ges in the group's structure. In our bo bsled example. a clear result of the members' respect for each other was, alt hough not a gold medal , pride in themselves and adulat ion from thei r co untry. Other OutputS included the sledders ' increased cohesiveness and new skills, Junior's independence from his father, Yul 's pride in the team, and Derice's reali zation that a gold medal does not make one a whole person. AJthough we hope that th e outputS of a small group's imeraction are positive and helpful, some Outputs are destru cti ve to both the group itself and its parem o rga nizat ion. Hasty decisions, d issatisfaction of group members, and shoddy products are examples of destructive outputs. H armful group outputs are like toxic waste. dangerous to everyone involved, including the organization to whi ch the group belongs. Input. throughput. and output elements are interdependem. Sma1 1 group sys tems are evolving, changing all the time. OutputS thus reenter the group system as inputs affecting throughput processes and inAuencing new outputs. For example. if a group member enters the group unwi lli ng to commun icate to orher members, this input affects th e overall group communication by creating a climate of suspicion (th roughput), which leads to low group satisfaction among other members (o utput). The members' subsequent lack of co mmitment [Q each other becomes a new input e1 emem, wh ich continues to destroy the group's climate (throughput), leading to a group repon that is never finished (o utput). Th is downward pattern will co ntinue unless group members notice the prob lems and adjust their communication [Q change the climate of the group. We will take up the issue of group feedback after we di scuss the relationship a small group has with its environment.

Environment. A group does not ex ist apart from its surroundings, or environment, which consists of everything outside the group, much of which potentially affects the group. Groups are not like lead boxes that keep things from getting in or ouc. The "walls" between a group and its environment are porous, allowing information in and OUt as well as providing the opportunity for mutual influence between rhe group and irs env ironment.

Groups as Structured Open Systems

In our example, the Jamaican fans and the other bobsledders influenced the team's morale and enthusiasm. Notice also that the team affected its environment as well. When the other bobsledders discovered the courage of this Jamaican team, their disrespect turned into support, and those who had rejected the coach for his past cheating accepted him back into the bobsled fraternity. Your classroom group's immediate environment is the classroom. Your group is affected by whether the classroom is pleasant or ugly, noisy or quiet. In addition, what your friends in other classes say or do may cause your group to change .1 procedure, a topic, an approach, and so forch. These friends and their classes are parc of your group's environment, too. The effect of a group's environment, or .itS context, is an important but understudied factor in how well a group operates. 4 To understand a small group in depth, we must consider the influence of the group's environmem. Linda Putnam and Cynthia Stohl, two leading scholars of group communication, call this .1 bona fide group perspective. 5 They emphasize chat real-world groups both influence and help shape those same environmems. This imerdependence occurs for several reasons. First, members of groups often belong to other groups that simultaneously influence and are influenced by them. Second, groups typically have to coordinate their actions with other groups within the same parem organization or across organiz..1.tions. Third, there is frequem imernal and external communication over interpretation of group goals, the extent of the group's authority, and support for group actions that helps define a group's accoumability for its task. Finally, members bring to their groups a variety of interests, ways of speaking, and mental models of effective group problem solving. This in turn affects how members create their sense of "group." All group interaction directly and indirectly reflects this back-and-forch relationship between the group and its environment. For example, a studenr group on campus decided to investigate traffic safety when a student was killed crossing a street on her way to class. Although group members had not known the victim, they wamed her death to result in positive actions to make the campus safer. The student's death- part of the group's environmenr- was the catalyst for motivating the group to act. The street where the studenr died, bordering the cast side of the campus, was controlled by the city; the students did not have the authority to decide, on their own, what safety measures should be taken, but they could recommend various options. The group's written report and recommendations were summarized in an oral repon given to on-campus groups chat included staff from the offices of Student Affairs, Administrative Services, and rhe president. In addition, several off-campus groups, including the city offices of Planning and Developmenr, Traffic Engineering, and Street Maintenance, heard the group's presentation and received the written repon. These groups-also part of the studenr group's environmenr-had to be persuaded to adopt the group's recommendations before any changes could be implemenred. In order to produce .1 compelling report, the group had to research local and state laws about changing street configurations and present their information professionally, in the formar preferred by these various groups. The city ultimately accepted the students' recommendations to build a retaining wall down the center of the street and reduce the speed limit. The group's work thus brought about a lasting change to its environment. This story illusrrates the complexity of group work and the mutual influence operating between a group and its environment. Nowhere is this complexicy of interconnened group work seen more dearly than in modern organizations, where a group's work can have lasting effects on other groups and the organization itself.

35

I G LOSSARY Bon a Fide Group Perspective The focus on the relationship between a group and its environment, which is a characteristic of real-life, naturally occurring groups

36

CHAPTER 2

Bona Fide Groups: The Jamaican Bobsled Team The jamaican Olympic bobsled team was not an isolated group, separate from its environment. As a bona fide group it was connected to its environment, and vice versa. Four reasons explain the interdependence between this bobsled team and its envi ronment. Using the information from the case study at the beg inning of the chapte r, surmi se possible answers to th e fo llowing questions: 1. Fo r each member of the tea m (sledders and coach), what were all the possible groups these individuals could belong to while they were members of the team (e.g., Julian was part of a controlling fam ily)? 2. Bona fid e groups are faced with coordinating their actions w ith other groups. Considering the list of groups fo r eac h member of the leam, w hat actions would have had to be coordinated (e.g., junio r was supposed to leave the country and attend school to be an accountant)? 3. What kind of internal and external co mmunication about team goals, team au thority, and support existed for this tea m (e.g., the jamaican Olympic committee wou ld not financially su pport the team to attend Olympic trials in Canada)? With each example, discuss how the communication impacted the group.

4. How was th e unique nature of this Olympic tea m shaped by the interests and pa st team experiences brought to it by each member? Once you have co mpiled some answers to these question s, examine the complicated manner in which this bobsled team was interd ependently connected with its environment.

G roup inrerdependcncc wilh th e enviro nm enr is stro ngly supported by resea rch. Benj amin Broome and Luann Fulbright asked rea l-life group members within larger orga ni zations to list which faclOfs hurr (h~ir group cffo rrs. 6 Th ey fo und chat o rga niza ti o nal factors in the enviro nment beyo nd a gro up 's ca mra l o ften had stron g nega ti ve effects o n the group's performan ce. These find ings emphasize rh e complex iry of rh e group process. <; uggesring that group outcomes depend on several thin gs: input factors relatin g to membe rs (e.g .• motivation , inrcrcs r), on rhroughput processes (c.g. , group leadership), and on environ mental facrors often beyond the group's ca mral (e.g., informacion and resources from the parent o rga nizal io n). Th is and other studi es of actual o rgani7..at ional groups supPOrt the overallu ti liry of the systems fram ework, wh ich remi nd us to pay Jttcl1 cion to th e , group s envlronmcnL Interestin gly, for groups dealing wi rh comp lex tasks in a very unce rtain enviro nment , how often members imcract with others in [he surrounding en vironment is more crucial to their performance than how ch ey communicate within [he group.8 This demo nstrates

. .

Groups as Structured Open Systems

how important it is for groups to match their internal abilities to process information with the external informational demands of their environment. Most of the research in small group commun icat ion has focused on groups whose members meet face~to-face with easi ly identifiable environments (e.g., an office space or a small group co urse). However, we noted in Chapter 1 that in our global world, many companies now collaborate on tasks with the help of computer technology thar all ows the members of multiple groups to interact with each other without being on the same si te. For instance, the Boeing 767 airplane is the resu lt of collaboration among Boeing engineers, who designed [he fuel system and cockpit; Aeritalia SAl engineers, who developed the fins and rudder; and mult ipl e Japanese firms, whose responsibility was the main body of the plane." Even face-co-face groups use multiple technologies to help them get their "York done. Modern organiza ti ons are increasingly composed of employees who may not work in the same place or at the same time. Some employees belong to virtual groups whose members complete most or all of their work without meeting face-to-face. Members of such groups may work online at the same time or participate in telephone conference calls for their group work, or rhey may work asynchronously, at different times, as each indi vidual's schedu le permits. The group's "location" is actually an electronic network of members who may see each other infrequently or perhaps not at all. As discussed in C hapter 1, members of these work groups may contact each other on ly via e-ma il, text messaging, or videoconferenc ing. Bona fide group theo ri sts have begun [Q study such virtu al grou ps. Because collaboration is primarily a communicative phenomenon, they ask how group members manage their roles, mu ltipl e COTHexts, boundaries, and tasks whe n rhey perform most of their work without meeting face-to-face. T radirional small gro up concepts are thrown into new li ght. For instance, traditional groups manage their knowledge internally and can more eas ily find out where to get needed information; in co ntras t, vi rtual groups often assume tasks that are so innovative and multidimensional as to be beyond the know ledge of any member. In add ition, members may have no clue who m to contact for infor mation. 1n collaborating groups, composed of members who represent other organizatio ns, members have loyalties and responsibilities [Q those other groups and organizations, whi ch can reduce their commitment [Q the collaborating group. Formal positions of power (for example, chai r, secretary, vice-chair) often don ' r ex ist, which means that power positions must be continually negotiated. Decision-making procedures are often created internally in traditional groups, but, in virrual groups, such procedures are affected by the norms of parent companies, cultural chan ges, orders given by external agents , and even decisions made outside the group. For examp le, UNIX, a computer desktop environment, is the result of co ll aboration among a variety of computer companies. Any decisions made by one or more of those companies on products unrelated to UNIX could have affected the decisions made during the UN IX collaboration.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SYSTEMS The paragraphs that follow describe several important characteristics of social systems, including groups. These characteristics help ex plain how a system fu ncti ons, both internally and with its surrounding environment.

37

GLOSSAi i j Virtual Group A group in which members do not communicate with each other in the same time and place

38

C H A PTER 2

I GLOSSARY Closed System A system with lim·

ited low of information between itself

Open and Closed Systems.

W heth er a sys te m is relatively o pen or closed is determin ed by the amount of interactio n th e system has wi th its enviro nment. A dosed system {we kn ow of no co mp letely closed human sys tem} has litd e interaction with its enviro nmem , whereas an open system has a grea t deal. The model in Fi gure 2. 2 illustrates that inputs enterin g an open gro up sys tem are worked on a nd co mm uni catively tra nsform ed d uring th e duo ughput process [0 be sent out from th e system as outpurs. The m odel also illustrates that the enviro nmem 's respo nse b ecom es feedback th at is recycl ed

and irs environment Open System A system with

Q

free exchange of information with its

FIGURE 2.2

Model of a Small Group as an Open System

Environment

environment-that ..

is, with inputs and

Interfaces

outputs flowing back and forth

between the system and its environment

Environment

Members

Physical Social • Parent arg o charge • Society and culture • Competing groups

Needs ond

Reso urces

Knowledge

motives ANitudes Beliefs and values

Funds Tools Time etc .

Sk;lIs

Input variables

Number of participants

..

Interfaces

fv\embers' behaviors and roles Norms Status and p::>wer relationships Conflict/ cooperation/cohesiveness Communication nel'work Procedures • Communication • Decision making • Investigating • Problem solVing • Action

..

Interfaces

Solutions Personal satisfaction fv\odifications in throughput (structural and procedural) Personal growth Organizational development Changes in cohesiveness/status/relotionships

..

Throughput (process) variables

Environment

Output variables

Groups as Structured Open Systems

39

to the group as further inputs. The group-environment interchange should he apparent from the model. The facr rhat the United Srates is an exceptionally open system made it easier for the 9111 terrorists to enter the coumry, tra in as scudenr pilots, and rravel freely from state to state. Groups too are open systems experiencing varying levels of interchange with their environment. Our bobs led team had a moderare amount of interaction with its surroundings. The team was affected by the fans' reactions, and the fans and general public were inAuenced by the team's successes as well. Your classroom groups also experience degrees of openness with the ir env ironm ents. You may not learn what another group has been doing until group presenrations because its members had linie interaction with other class members and the insrructor. Other groups may often interact with each other in class, getting ideas from those outside groups, and may meet regularly with the ins[fuccor to clarifY requiremenrs for gro up projects and presentations. These groups choose more open exchanges with their environments. Openness has advantages and disadvantages. For example, some American companies, resisting the changes brou ght by "outsiders," prefer co stay as closed co outside influence as possible. This enab les managers to mainrain more control over what happens internally, but it also cuts off the company from information that might improve its operation and profits. Classroom groups that remain relatively closed in an effort to control information may miss valuable information and ideas that could have improved their critical thinking. On the other hand, groups that choose to be more open with their environmenrs may have more information CO coordinate and may run the risk of becoming overloaded; however, they can take advanrage of that information in their critical thinking and in carrying out their task. Openness and free interchange with the environment arc distinct advantages for most groups. For example, Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E), a large utility company in California, engaged in a planning and marketing process that deliberately so lici ted customer feedback at every step in the process. 10 Called "Voice of rhe Customer," the process first sought to determine how satisfied PG&E residential customers were with the company's overall service, which services customers felt were most important, and how the company might improve its services in those key areas. Among other things, custOmers complained about being kept on hold for a long time, experiencing unpredictable scheduling of service, and being rransferred to several offices in th e course of so lving a problem. The company's restructuring of its service delivery processes, accomplished in teams of employees, sought and used custom er feedback throughout rhe process. Success with the residential pilot program led to rh e same approach with business and commercial customers. PG&E deliberately in creased its openness to consumers, with profitable results.

Interdependence. Interdependence refers to the fact that each element of a system simultaneously influences and is inAuenced by the other elements. JUSt as the system as a whole is affected by its environm ent, so are the system's individual components affected by each othe r. Geese Ay fanher together than any individual bird can Ay. They can do this by taking advantage of the draft each hird 's wings create together. Within small groups one element, idea, behavior, or person can change the functioning of the entire group. In our bobsled story, we saw how the sledders' abilities determined, in part, the coach's strategy, and how the personality of individual players such as Sanka, the eternal optimist, could spur a team to greater effort, which in turn increased the likelihood of team success.

I GLOSSARY Interdependence When the elements of a system mutually influence each other

40

C H APTER 2

Anmher characterisei c of inrcrdependence amo ng elem ents of a sm all group is the inrerdcpe ndenr goal (Qw3rd which all grou p members work. The members of th e gro up rely on each other as they strive to reach th eir objective; o ne member cannO[ reach rhe objective alone. As w it h the bobsled rcam, group members w in and lose as a group. Spons teams cannot have one member win a nd the rest of t he rea m lose. So it is with most small groups as they work to acco mplish a tas k as a group. If o ne member is to achi eve rhe goal, rhe n all members muse achi eve it. For exam pl e. every member of your proj ect group w ill receive t he same grad e; one membe r w ill nor receive an A wh ile others rece ive Cs. Interdepe ndence is a key cha racte ri stic [0 look fo r in dete rmi n ing whe th er a co llecti on o f individual s has becom e a g roup.

•

Go to

www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanes8e for additional weblink activities.

The Influence of Computer· Mediated Communication on the System The integration of technology, and the potential for va rious modes of computer.mediated communication (CMC), has begun to influence th e way we view small group systems. Technological advances have increased the potential for group members to interact more freely w ith the environment by opening the lines of comm unication between those inside and outside of the group. For instance, an input such as the time a member ca n allocate to the group has become less restrictive as technology has allowed interaction any time or place. The Internet also has increased group access to information about the ta sk (i.e., search engines), increased the flow of information (i.e., e-mail and instant messag ing), an d allowed for telecommuting opportunities (i.e., netmeeting and group computer software systems) . What other group inputs de· scribed in this chapter may be enhanced as a result of an increased reliance on technology? What about throughputs an d outputs? Although each of these resources functions to create a more open group system, integration of technology also has a variety of drawbacks that may discourage its use. Think about how the types of inputs you bring to the group (persoQality, abilities, and expertise) are influenced by your phys ical presence. If you were relegated to working off·site for a group meeting, wou ld it be possible for you to exert the same input? In an examination of telecommuting, Mallia found that individuals using thi s approach lose status within the group. They also reduce their pros· peets for upward mobi lity in an organizational hierarchy chain beca use of the lack of face-to·face interaction . Can you think of other disadvantages that may result for a group or org anization fostering CMC interaction? To learn more about the advantages and disadvantages of the integra· tion of technology into an organiza tion or group, visit www.gllgordon .com for a comprehensive list of available resources on the subject.

Groups as Structured Open Systems

Feedback.

One valuab le feature of human systems is that they are able to adap t to changin g conditions and ci rcumstances. In part, they can do this through the use of feedback, the part of the system's output that is returned to the system as input. Feedback enables the syste m to monitor its progress toward the goal and make correc~ tions when needed. In our bobs led story, Irv saw that his arrangement of sledders was successful. This feedback indica ted that what he was doing was working, so he didn't need to chan ge their positions. In anorher example, during practice runs and after study~ ing pictures of th e co urse, Derice made adjusrmenrs in rhe team's movements for more successful runs. Open systems, as you recaJl, interact fr~ely with their environments. Feedback is the enviro nm ent's response to a system's output. Coming in the form of informatio n or tan~ gibl e resources, it helps rhe sys tem determi ne whether it needs to make adjustments to reach its goa ls. For instance, the cri tical response you receive from your instructor on grou p assignments provides your group with informat ion on how well you are accom~ plishing your grou p task. Yo ur project gro up can assess this information and decide wh ich changes need ro be made and how they should be made. The uncertain ty group members experience motivates th em to seek feedback and gives the feedback its value. 11 You might ask, Are we on the right track? Did we select the best service organization to work with for our project? Is our group report comprehensive enough? Are our meetings gening us an)'\vhere? These and countless other ques tions reAect the uncertainties in group work and prompt yo u to search for feedback to help you answer the numerous quest ions raised during gro up work. However, not all feedback is equally useful. Group members evaluate feedback along vari ous dimensions that incl ude both the charac teristics and the sou rce of the feedback. 12 C lear, accurate feedback that is relevant to the task helps a group more than feedback that is ambiguous, inaccurate, not grounded in sound reasoning, or irrel eva nt. Critical feedback, regardl ess of its clarity and accuracy, is hard to give and rece ive. However, it is necessary for effect ive group problem so lvi ng. Th e best way to give it is to san dwich it betwee n favorable feedback and pose it as a group issue, not a personal one. 13 For exa mpl e, assume that Irv noticed that the bobsled team was nor bonding enough to be a championship team. Rather than tell members he was disappointed in them, he could have as ked them how they co uld work together to be more cohesive. He might have done thi s by first sharing with them how much their track speed had increased, then observing that, when ptessed, they seemed to fall apart, but that they had become closer than when they first met as a collection of individuals in terested in go ing to the O lympics. The cr i ti ~ cal observation that they seemed to fall apart under pressure was sandwiched between two more favorab le observations. Feedback is eva luated by its source as we ll as its coment. Originall y, Irv did not have much credi bility w ith hi s bobs led team because he had left the sport in dis~ grace. Hi s feedbac k about who shou ld play wha t role on the ream and how members sho uld work toward th e medal was not received well initia ll y. He had to earn the tea m 's res pect for hi s feedback to have any credibility. Groups receive feedback from a va ri ety of sources and must ascertain how trustwort hy the source is, how responsive ir is to th e needs of the gro u p, and what the stams is of the person giv ing the

feed back. 14

41

I GLOSSARY Feedback

The return of system outputs as system inputs, which allows the system to monitor its movement toward goals and make necessary changes

42

CHAPTER 2

GLOSSARY Multiple Causes The idea thal no single system input

determines system outputs; instead,

system outcomes are the result of

numerous, interde· pendent (actors

Multiple Paths The ideo thot sys-

tem objectives can be reached in a

variety of ways

Nonsummatlvity A system's ability to

take on an identity separate from it s individual elements

Multiple Causes, Multiple Paths. O ne feature of all living systems, including small groups, is complexiry. This complexity and the fan that group members have choices about their behaviors make it impossible to predict where a group wi ll end up. The concept of equifinality (literally, "equal ends") suggests that groups can start our at very different places but end up at the same place. For example, the Jamaican bobsled team held its own with more experienced groups. The factor of expe ri ence didn't seem to matter because the Jamaican team ended up performing wel l. The concept of multifinality (literally, "d ifferent ends") suggests thar groups starting our the same may end lip in very different places. For example, given two experi enced, successful sports teams, one may end up losing many of its games while the othe r wins a championship. Too many variab les and rnoment-to-ffioment decisions can lead the groups in different directions, even ifboth started out sim ilarly. It is important to remember that, with groups, many factors combine to produce the final ourcome, a co ncep t we refer to as multiple causes. As an examp le of multiple causes, the Jamaican bobs led team had high morale at the end of the Olympics. This occurred for several reasons: They became medal comenders, th e co umry supported them, they had a leader who was well liked and effective, and all the members contributed to th e team's success. Too often, individuals try to pinpoint a single ca use for a group outcom e. For example, you may have heard someone say, "We would have co me up with an excellem proposal if our chair had listened to our suggestio ns. As it was, everybody hated rhe group." The behavior of th e group's chair certainly co ntribured to the gro up's low morale, bur other factors probably had an impact as well. Perha ps members did not like each other, the task was not an interesti ng one, or the group did not have sufficient time or information to do its best. All these factors likely interacted to produce the dissatisfaction. A related principle of groups is tha t there is usually more than one appropriate way to reach a particular goal or endpoim. T his principle is indicated by the co ncept of multiple paths. For examp le, there are a number of ways to plan a fun parry, and a variery of ways to develop a respectable undergraduate curr icu lum for commun ication majors. Which is the "right" way? Various ways are right-the most effective approach depends on the characteristics of all the participants. Also, th e concept of multiple paths implies thar two or more gro ups could come up with similar solurions to a problem, even though each group had members with different abilities and areas of expertise, leadership sryles, and ways of resolving differences of opinion. Like multiple causes, the concept of multiple paths encourages us to recognize the comp lex iry of small groups.

_I For more information on multiple paths in a tangled web, go to the Online Learning Center at

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I

Nonsummativity. Nonsummativity refers w the concept that a system is nOt the sum of its parts. Sometimes, as with the Jamaican bobsled team, a small group performs better than the sum of irs parts, and sometimes it performs much worse than expected. The Los Angeles Lakers were favored to be the National Basketball Association's 2004 champions-----even at the start of the season. They had arguably the two best players in the league and had acqu ired two other ourstanding players. Yet they lost to the Detroit Pistons, a team whose roster did not match the Lakers' in talent or salary. How couJd this be? A small group is an enti ty of its own and takes on a life of its own, so it can perform better--or worse-than anyone predicts. Small group researchers have long been aware of this phenomenon. Groups often achieve an assembly effect, or a positive syne rgy, in which the Output is superior to the averaging of the outputs of the individual members. For instance, we heard a television story about a T ucson, Arizona, Little League team call ed the Diamondbacks that won the

Groups as Stru ctured Open Systems

1998 champio nship, 26-0. W hat was so unusual about this team w in nin g the champio nship? T he tea m was made up of all the kids who were not picked for the other teams, the "Iefto vc rs"! On th e o th cr hand , groups can often ex peri ence what so me have ca lled process IOIl, or nega ri ve synergy. Fo r example. even gro ups ofimell igenr. knowledgeab le individuals ca n make an ex tremely poor decisio n, such as dle NASA scientists and managers who dec ided to laun ch rh e space shuttl es Challenger and Columbia o n their fa tal trips. Al tho ugh no o ne knows exacdy why o ne group ex periences pos iti ve synergy and another negative sy nergy, it may have so mething ro do with how much ambiguiry the group faces, whether th e group enco unrers obstacles d uring its problem-solvi ng process, an d how it deals w ith those obstacles. IS T he J al~ai can team faced numerOllS obstacles: a sha n

CNN 's Reporting Disast er : Wh at H appened ? CNN, during its premiere of NewsStand: CNN £< Time, a television news venture with Time magazine, reported in the lead story, "Valley of Death," that the United States had used lethal nerve gas in 1970 as part of a secret mission to kill American defectors in Laos. This report was broadcast June 7, 1998, on NewsStand: CNN £< Time and reported in Time despite several oral and written complaints from journalists in both news organizations questioning the validity of the story. A military consultant resigned in protest. On July 3, 1998, the Fresno (California) Bee reported CNN's retraction of the story by Tom Johnson, CNN News Group chair, president, and CEO. Johnson admitted to serious faults with the broadcast and apologized, saying that CNN was not able to confirm the story. Time 's managing editor admitted that he, too, could not confirm the story. A group of television producers and print journalists conducted 200 interviews as they worked together for 8 months on the story. The group was headed by two successful producers and included an awardwinning documentary producer and a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist. An independent investigation into the validity of the story concluded that the group members had not intentionally made up the story. Instead, the reporting team drew conclusions based on questionable evidence, led sources into thinking that their suspicion s could be supported by unseen evidence, and made decisions based on interview responses to a variety of hypothetical questions. The CNN investigation concluded that those involved in putting together the story so firm ly believed what they were reporting that they ignored information contrary to what they were finding . How could a team of talented individuals, after an eight-month investigation and in the face of cautionary criticism, produce a report that ended in people being fired, resigning, and facing reprimands-not to mention embarrassing two highly respected news organizations? Using the concepts of open and closed systems, interdependence, feedback, multiple causes/ paths, and nonsummativity, develop your own "systems" explanation for this reporting disaster. You can do this in groups or as a class.

43

44

CHAPTER 2 time in which ro train and qualify, iirde money. members with no experi ence, a COll IHry with no snow, a coach lacking respect, ridi cul e from ochers, ouste r from the Olympics, poss ible loss of one member, and rh e list goes all. Yct rhe team membe rs worked together to overcome each obstacle, finding new pride in themselves and th eir own style of sledding. Communication among members is rhe key to makin g rhe most, instead of the least, of group members' abilities. Group members must understand the probl em -solving process and be taught how to use com muni cat ion that facilitates effective discuss ion and probl em sol ving. which we discuss in Chapter 8. Systems theory's co ntriburion (0 small group communication research and to our understanding of the process of small group interaction is obvious. However, the theory is not without its detractors. Any theo ry is a human const ruction and therefore lim ited in scopeit gives a panicular view, not the view. Some, for instance, have ques tion ed wh ether systems theory research is merely a descriptive framework bur nor a useful explanatory one. 16 Others take issue with the systems theory assumption of homeostasis, o r dynamic balance-the idea that systems are self- maintaining and work roward keeping on track. This em ph asis on balance, so me argue, draws a([enrion to system stab ili ty rather than change. However, we have chose n systems theory as our theoretical framework because of its centrality in small group research and its focus on patterns and wholes. Even so, you should know th at it is but one theory used by scholars to understand small group communicatio n. Despite th e criti cisms of systems theory, we bel ieve it is important for you to understand the idea of a system as parts mat link together. In t1Ct, modern organizations can be viewed as interlocking systems of groups. For example, your fraternity. sorority or service club may have an executive com mittee, a membership co mmittee, a finan ce committee, a special events committee, and a publicity co mmittee. Each of these com mittees is affected by what the other committees do. The special events committee's event may bomb if the publicity co mmittee falls down on the job. Your organizarion must ensure that communication amo ng mese committees flows freely, so that each committee can coo rdinate its work to the benefit of the entire organ ization. This between-group co mmunication has not received much anention from small group researchers, but it is criti cal to th e long- term survival of the gro up. 17 Thus, we hope the usefuln ess of rhe sys tems perspective is d ear to you- it helps identi fY the individual co mponents of the system , bur it emphasizes that each part fun ctions in relation to all rhe other parts of the system; what affects one part affects them all.

CNN and Time as a System of woups The previous application example describes the rather complex system of groups that can make up the modern news organization. CNN, or the Cable News Network, together with Time produced NewsStand: CNN &. Time. Both CNN and Time are owned by Time Warner. Using this information, and the information in the previous application example, con struct your own diagram of the system of interlocking group subsystems. Then discuss the role of "extra-group" communication in this example. What went wrong? At which level? What could they have done differently? Is there a way to guarantee a valid, successful story all the time? M

Groups as Structu red Open Systems

45

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW ANO OISCUSSION

• A theory is a "map of reality" that helps us describe relarionships, explain how phenomena operate. and make decisions abour what to do. •

General systems theory is a useful framework for studying small gro ups because it reminds us that systems are complex, with all parts of the system being interdependent

• All syste ms use inputs to engage in throu ghpur processes and produce ou tpu ts. Feedback helps systems monitor their performance, which cannot be predicted by

1. Bring to class a box of toothpicks an d glue. Take out 12 toothpicks and use the glue to create some form out of the toothpicks. After you have finished, display your creation. Discuss all the creations and the concept of nonsummativity. Then move from discuss ing toothpicks to behavio rs and from creatio ns to small gro ups. 2. Select classmates to form one primary group: a family. Select parents, children, and any other members you want. Then select members of the class to be mher individuals who may be involved in the family's life, such as a pastor, professor. and boss. W ith a ba1i of string. loosely connect all of these individuals CO relevam individuals, and as you do so create a story about them. For instance. only one spouse may work and so is co nnected co the boss. the mher spouse. and a parent. A child may be connected to o nly one parent, and so

summin g the individual performances of the co mpon ents. • All syste ms try to survive by adapting to changing conditions. Open systems freely exchange resources with th eir environmems, bur closed systems do nor. • T he bona fide gro up perspective focuses on narura1iy occurri ng gro ups, which are interdependent with their enviro nmems. Sometimes, a gro up 's success is due more to what happens outside the gro up than within the group.

on. Then insrruct the vario us individuals to role-play their parts by periodically pulling on the strings and requesting something of the individual. Use this activity to show the concept of interdependence. 3. Bring a large muffin to class. Use the muffin to discuss inputs, throughputs, and outputs. Make a list of the inputs for making the muffin. Discuss the kinds of throughputs necessary for the creation of the muffin, and then point our the Outpur. Discuss how the environmenc may inAuence the muffin. After thi s discussion, compa re the making of a muffin, as a relatively closed system , to the creation of a group. a relatively open system. How are they similar and how are they different? ~

Go to www.mhhe.oomladamsgalanes8e

~f1T1~ and www.mhhe.com/groups for self-

nn

rrrt

quizzes and weblinks.

46

CHAPTER 2

Bona Fide Group Perspective

Interdependence

Outputs

Closed System

Multiple Causes

System

Environment

Multiple Paths

Theory

Feedback

Nonsummativity

Throughput Processes

Inputs

Open System

Virtual Group

Foundations of Small Group Communicating

or groups to function effectively, they must create and

F

sustain a solid foundation that supports members' efforts. Part Two focuses on this foundation, the communication

process itself. As discussed in Chapters 1 and 2, communication is at the heart of group throughput processes, so your understand-

ing of this process is essential. Chapter 3 presents basic

communi~

cation principles you should understand to be an effective group

member and discusses the verbal and nonverbal messages most relevant to small groups.

Communication Principles for Group Members

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: J. Define communication. 2 . List and explain the five major characteristics of

communication. 3. Describe the difference between listening and hearing. 4 . Describe the four listening preferences and explain their

implications for sma ll groups. S. Describe paraphrasing as a technique for active listening. 6. Define

r;'essoge.

7. Explain four ways to use language for maximum effectiveness in small groups. 8 . Describe the principles and functions of nonverbal

communication. 9. Discuss the significance of the major categories of nonverbal communication to sma ll groups.

10. Discuss how computer-mediated communication compares to face-ta-face communication in groups.

Communication Principles for Group Members

Students for Alternative Medicine Students for Alternative Medicine is a group of nursing students interested in alternatives to traditional Western medicine. Each month, the group sponsors a seminar, open to everyone, where the featured speaker is a practitioner of some form of alternative medicine. The group operates with a small budget and usually relies on volunteers to present the seminars; volunteers are given a token gift, such as a T-shirt with the group's logo, but are generally not paid an honorarium. The group's executive committee is responsible for scheduling and publicizing speakers. At one meeting, member Rhea suggested that they invite Chief Robert, a Cherokee medicine man, to address the group. She further suggested that, as compensation for his talk, they buy Chief Robert a piece of equipment he wanted for his work. Members agreed that Chief Robert, a prominent local healer, deserved a substantial gift, but the equipment was expensive ($200), and paying him would set a precedent for future speakers, which the group cou ld not afford. Wade, chair of the executive committee, said, "I don't know how we'll be able to afford something like that, though I agree that he's certainly worth the money." Rhea then said, "OK, that sounds good to me." The group went on to discuss other matters, and Chief Robert was forgotten . At their next group meeting, Sonya reported that publicity for Chief Robert's seminar was proceeding well, and the upcoming Sunday paper was planning a feature story on him and the seminar. Rhea noted how pleased she was that they had agreed to buy the chief his equipment and especially how grateful he was for their generosity. At that point the meeting exploded into cries of "What? What do you mean buy his equipment? We didn't agree to buy that for him!" Members had misunderstood each other, and as a result Rhea had obligated them to a $200 gift that would come close to wiping out their savings. However, at this point, members believed they couldn 't back out. It took them several meetings to overcome their anger and beg in to trust each other again.

49

50

CHAPTER 3

"Frances leJlI me you're Q communuQtWns major.'J C> The New Yorker Colleclion; 1991 Danny Shanahan fro m the Ciu toonbank.com. All Rights Reserved .

S

cenes Like this occur every day in small groups and illustrate what can happen when people fail to understand each other. To function effectively as a team, members must work together to create mutual meaning and understanding. However, glitches can (and often do) occur as members attempt to do this. In our example Wade said, " He's certainly worth the money." He meant, " It would be great [0 pay him and all of our speakers-mer do such a wonderful job--but there's no way our budget can handle it, so let's stick to T-shirts." Rhea heard his actual wo rds: " ... I agree that he's certai nly worth the money," yet interpreted them to m ean, " He is certainly worth the expense, so we'U figure out some way (0 pay him." She said, "OK," meaning. "Great, I'll tell him we'll make an exception in his' case." W ade heard her, yet he interpreted her meaning as, " . see what you mean about the expense, and I agree with you." These collective failures in message interpretation and failure to check understanding between group members cost the group time, money, and energy. Unfortunately, this misunderstanding within a small group is not unusual. We know you can think of plenty of instances you have experienced in your own groups! The p rim ary purpose of Chapter 3 is to help you understand in more detail communication, which is central to group dynamics. Many of you have had a previous course in communication; if so, this chapter will serve as a brief review of verbal and nonverbal commun ication most relevanr to small groups. A secondary purpose is to help you improve your own contribu tion to your group's communication.

51

Communication Principles for Group Members

Communication: What's That?

I GLOSSARY

The word communication has been used in dozens of slighrly different ways by different writers. We use communication (0 refer (0 the transaC(ional process in which people simul(aneously create, interpret, and negot iate shared meaning through their interaction. There are five major characteristics to this seemin gly simple defi ni tion.

process of simulta-

COMMUNICATION IS SYMBOLIC

neously creating, interpreting, and

Co mmunication involves verbal and non verbal messages that include words and messages, including gestures, so unds, and actions. All' of these are sym bolic. 1 A symbol is anything people use arbitrarily to represent so mething else: things, ideas, people, experiences, and so forth. There is no inherent or direct relation ships between any symbol-such as a word-and what it represents. For instance, there's no natural reason we call something we sit in a chair instead of pig or une chaise. Even within a single language, the same food mi ght be called dinner, supper, or the evening meat by different people. There is no natural reaso n why you have the name you do or the student group in Case 3.1 is called "Students for Alternative Med icine. " In addition, mOst of our sym bols stand for concepts that have no tangibl e form , such as a relationship, cohesiveness. tove, and democracy. Even th e conce pt of communication holds no tangible form. Symbols allow people to talk about ideas, things, and other people without those bei ng present. In Case 3. 1 the members can talk meaningfully about C hief Roben , even though only Rhea had met him. Moreover, symbols can take a variety of forms. Words are the most co mmon, but we also use numbers, pictographs (such as the international signs for cars and restfOoms), Morse code, emoticons such as those used in e-mail to convey feelin gs Ot objects, and gestu res like those we use for OK Because symbols are arbitrary, their meaning must be interpreted. Two people ca n use a symbol to represent different co nce pts and therefore misinterpret each other without knowing it, as Rhea and Wade did. A perso n may believe that there is a relationship between symbols and tangibl e events when non e really exists. In addition, a symbol ca n evoke d ifferem responses than a co mmunicato r intended. Misunderstandings and multipl e interpretatio ns are likely in small group co mmuni cation , which makes it necessa ry to monitor the com muni cation processes in our gro ups more thoughtfully than we normally do in our everyday conve rsa tions.

COMMUNICATION IS PERSONAL Because communication is sym bo li c, meanings are in people, not in th e words themselves. Words can and do have different mean ings for different people. For exa mpl e, when you say "I love you," do you mean the same thing as your boyfriend or gi rlfriend does? Even when two people agree on the di ctionary definition of a word, they may disagree vehemently about what that word means to them. For instance, to your group an excellent group report may mean one that is free of typographical errors and turned in on time. To your teacher excellent may be reserved fo r a group repon that not on ly is grammatica lly perfect but also shows co nsiderable insight and creativi ty. You both are using the same word, but not mean in g rhe sa me thing. This fact leads direc tl y to rhe next principle of co mmunica tion.

Communication The transactional

negotiating shared meaning through interaction

Symbol Anything that arbitrarily stands for something else

52

CHAPTER 3

COMMUNICATION IS A TRANSACTIONAL PROCESS Transactional has two major mea nings rel evant to communication among members of a sma ll gro up. First, co mmunica ting is a simultaneous, multidirectional process. That is, regardl ess of who is speakin g at any given moment, every member is simultaneously send ing verbal and nonverbal messages that every other member (including the speaker) could potenti all y receive and interpret. This process is difficult to portray visually. Older models of co mmuni ca tion depicted it as a lin ear, back-and-forch process, like nvo peopl e playing a tenni s match. Bur this overly sim plisti c view fails to capture the fact that two people interacting are simultaneously engaged in sending, receiving, and interpreting verbal and nonverbal messages. As they do so, they are crealing a d egree of shared meaning, a1though they also retain some degree of individual mean ing. We a[(empt to contrast these views of the co mmuni cat ion process in Figure 3.1. Mo reover, adding additional peo ple to the mix- as in sma ll group co mmuni cmio n-complicares the process even more! The im plication is clear: T o be most effective as a grou p member, you must be aware of actions from all m em bers, eve n when YO ll are speaking. For exa mpl e, a speaker may notice from facia l ex press ions that grou p members are reacting negatively to her suggestion s and thus

FIGURE 3.1

Picturing communication as a transactional process

Sender

Receiver

Feedback

O lder view

of communication

as a linear process

Member 1's meaning

Member 2's meaning Shored meaning

Shored meaning

Communication a s a tra nsactiona l process

Communication Principles fo r Group Members

modify her ideas as she speaks. Commu ni cation, rather than being a linear, one-way process, occurs among all members simultaneously. This illustrates the complex, transactional nature of comm uni cat ion. Second, transactional im plies that members together create mutual understanding for what words and concepts mean and that members can conscious ly help each other in this process. For example, consider the following hypothetical exchange between Rhea, Wade, and Mary, another member of the Swdems for AJtcrnativc Medicine group. Notice how Mary, an alerr member, co uld have helped prevcnr the misunderstanding from happening. I don't know how we'll be ab le to afford something like that, though I agree that he's cerrainly worch the money. Rhea:

OK, that sounds good to me. Whoa, I'm confused! Rhea, what sounds good to you? That we will pay C hi ef Roberr, or that we will not because we can't afford it? I'm not sure you're both on the same page here. Which parr of what Wade said are you responding to?

Rhea:

Wade, I thought you said chat you thought he was worth it, and we wou ld make an exception in his case. Did I hear you wrong? You heard me that I think he's worth it, and if we ever made an exception we'd do it for him, but I didn 't mean that we would make an exception here- we just can't afford iL

Rhea:

Oh, okay. I completely misunderstood what you mean. I'll tell him we can't pay him. This didn't happen, but if it had, it would have ensured Rhea's, Wade's, and the rest of lhe group's muwalunderstanding of how they would handle Ch ief Robert's visit. Notice the carefullisrening on Mary's part and the amount of transacting for Wade's meaning to become clear to all of them. Meanings are not so much received intact from each person, but instead conceived or created in context between persons.

SHARED MEANING IS THE RESPONSIBILI T Y OF ALL MEMBERS As can be seen in the previous exchange, shared meaning is [he responsibility of all group members. In the case of the Srudenrs for AJternative Medicine, Wade could have been clearer in his statement about Chief Robert being worth the money and Rhea could have tested her understanding of his message more explicitly. In rhe hypothetical exchange, Mary demonstrated her superior listening skills to keep everyone on the same pageshared meaning. Senders are responsible for being as clear as possible and receivers are responsible for checki ng their understanding. In fact, the last principle of the Nationa l Communication Association's Credo for Eth ical Communication, discussed in Chapter 1 and displayed in Figure 1.2, speaks to this. The principle calls for all communicators to accepr responsibility for the short- and long-term consequences of their communication. The communication problems between Wade and Rhea in Case 3.1 resulted from messages that were unclear as sent but were also never clarified by the receivers and thus were interpreted according to what receivers wanted to believe. Group members behaving ethically, such as Mary in our hypothetical

53

CH A P TE R 3

54

CMC and Communication Richness Businesses and organizations are increasingly relying on computermedi-

Go to www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanes8e for additional weblink activities.

ated communication (CMe). Therefore, it is important to understand how different forms of (Me influence how one's message is received.

Richard Daft and Robert Lengel developed the concept of media richness to describe the extent to which different media reduce the uncertainty behind different types of messages. From this theoretical perspective a medium's richness is determined by four factors: the personal focus, or the amount of personal information the medium carries; the medium 's capacity for immediate feedback; the number of cues and senses involved; and the medium's use of natural language. A rich medium, such as face-ta-face interaction, wou ld possess all four factors to a large extent, whereas a lean medium, such as e~mail, is much more limited in the number of cues, personal information, and immediacy of feed~

back afforded by the medium. The concept of media richness directs our attention more to the decision-making processes that individuals go through as they match their communication objectives to the medium that facilitates optimal understanding. Another factor that influences the effectiveness of a medium is whether the communication is synchronous or asynchronous. With synchronous communication members interact in real time, and each participant is simultaneouslya sender and a receiver. With asynchronous communication delays occur in the communication interaction, and each participant must take turns being the sender and receiver. E~mail is asynchronous communication because this medium does not allow for interactive, real~time communication between people. SOURCE: R. Daft and R. Lengel, "Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richne$s and Structural Design,N Research in Organizational Behaviar 6 (1984), pp. 191 - 233.

script, wo uld have tried to clari fy Wade's and Rhea's co mmuni cation before it had a cha nce to harm the grou p. Even though we have stressed the responsibili ty o f all gro up m em bers to help create shared mea ning and m ut ual und erstand ing, you must kn ow o ne thin g: Perfec t understanding amo ng group members is impossi ble. Because of all the communication characteristics we disc ussed ea rlier-that it is symbolic, personal, transactional, m ultidimensional, and so forth- perfect u nd erstand ing can no t occur. Sin ce we have di ffe rent experiences with th e sam e words, our assoc iati o ns with wo rds and ges tures di ffe r. H ence, some degree of difference in meaning always exists between two or mo re peo ple in teractin g. Fonunately, perfect understandin g isn't necessary. In a group you need only com m uni cate well enough [0 coo rd inate your behavior [Owa rd a co mmon goaL W hen you ca n do th is, you are com mu nica ting wel l enough for group success, even though you haven' t achieved perfect understandi ng.

Communication Principles for Group Members

55

COMMUNICATION INVOLVES CONTENT AND RELATIONSHIP DIMENSIONS The content dimension of a message in volves the message's ideas or the what of the message. When you listen [0 a teacher's lecture, the coment of her or his messages is what you reco rd in yo ur nOtes. When you listen [0 a resea rch report from a group member, you often attend to the ideas the member is sum marizing fo r the group. The relational dimension of a message is how the message is expressed and what mat implies about the rel ations hip between the speake r and listener. Both dimensio ns help determine mea ning. 2 For instance, the teacher's lecture ca n be given in a va riety, of ways. Docs the teacher raJk down [0 you as if yo u are a child who muS[ be told what to think , or does the teach er share rhe information with you as if you are so meone with your own vaJ id experiences and knowledge? You usuaJly do nOt write this dim ension in your notes, yct you may talk about it [0 your friends during and after a Iccrure: " I reaJl y like how Professor Jones treats us like we have something to say, roo," or "I am insulted by the way Professor Jones treats us like we are children with no opinio ns worth listening to! " These same messages are processed in small groups as members offer how it is they sec them selves in relarion [0 each other through thei r messages. We often

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GLOSSARY Content Dimension

Communication and the Student. for Alternative Medicine

The ideas or "what" of a message

The Students for Alternative Medicine is composed of people with a common interest: alternatives to Western medicine. It is an organized, productive group. However, as we saw, even groups composed of members with a common interest can encounter communication problems. Perfect understanding is never possible in small groups. Reflecting on the five characteristics of communication in small groups, cons ider the following: 1. Which symbols do you think were the most problematic for the group? Why? 2. What different forms did the symbols take in this case study? 3. Explain how there is no definite beginning and ending to their story. 4. How was the communication among the members transactional? S. How did the group members work together to create the misunderstanding? 6. Change the script of the meeting, and show how the members together could have produced a better outcome. 7. List what you think are the content issues and then list what you believe are the relational issues expressed in how the messages may have been expressed. 8. How can the conflict between Wade and Rhea be seen transac· tionally, or as one with no clear cause but as mutually created by both of them?

Relational Dimension

The "how" of a message expressing the perceived relationship between communicators

56

CHAPTER 3

me

focus morc explicidy on content of messages; however, the relational as pects of messages are always present and just as integral to the communication dy namics of groups. We cannot suess enough how important it is [Q pay 3ncnrion CO the relational elements

of messages. Ethical co mmunicators, according

(Q

th e NCA's credo, strive to understand

and respect orner commun icators before evaluati ng and responding to th eir m essages and

also wo rk to promote a climate of caring and understanding. In small gro ups they avoid cond emning o r belitding others because chat creates a toxic atmosphere preventing all m embers from doing their best work on behalf of the group. You ca nnot work crea tively and enthusiastical ly wh en you are being attacked or ridiculed by others. As group m embers yo u have a responsib il ity to co nsider how you talk to each other. We urge you to moniror yo ur behavior to avoid se nding relatio nal m essages t hat poison th e group's cl imate. Coordinating th e efforts of gro up members in a fun ctioning system is m o re d ependent on good listening than on good speaking skills, although we often concenrrate o n speaking. We turn now co a discuss ion of listen ing and its importance in small group com mul11ca(1on.

Listening: Receiving, Interpreting, and Responding to Messages from Other Group Members If a small group is to operate effectively, m embers must understand each other. Listen ing well helps this process. A recent survey reponed in Monster.com noted th at 73 percent of business leaders rated listen in g as an extremely important sk ill. J Both members and lead ers of small groups must be good li ste ne rs. Members who are perceived as poo r listeners a re not likely CO be chosen as g roup lead ers, and leaders usually are perce ived as good listene rs.4 Thus, as a good listener, YO ll will not o nly b e helpful to your group bur be inAuential as well.

LISTENING DEFINED

I GLOSSARY listening A complex process involving perceiv-

ing, interpreting, and responding to

messages

Listening is a four-step process that begins w ith perce iv ing a message, th en interpreting ie, decidi ng what it means, and finally res po nd ing ro it. 5 Listening is not th e sam e thing as hearing. Hearing is the phys ical process of receiving sound waves , but listen ing is an active process that also includes paying attentio n'to and interpreting w hac is heard . Most peop le do no c li sten wel l. T he sa me su rvey repo rted in Monster. com noted thar th ose same busi ness people t ho ugh t on ly 19 percent of h igh schoo l graduates have good listenin g skills. 6 Effective li stenin g req uires that the listener hear what the speaker said , inrerprer ir accurately, and respond appropriately. Usual ly, hearing what the speaker said presents li ttle problem. G roup members are accusto med to asking a m ember ro repeat a statem en t they weren't able co hear. H owever, the interpretation and response steps can be tri cky becau se o f the nature of symbolic co mmunicatio n we discussed earlier. Different people mean di fferem things with the sam e words and actio ns. Major factors that influence what words and actions m ean [Q us include our cu lture, gender, age, sexual oriemation , learn ing sryle, and personalities. We take a closer look at such di versiry in sm all group imeraction in C hapter 5.

Communication Principles for Group Members

In add ition , the relational dimension of messages in groups gives members all sorts of information about how they see themselves in relationship to each other. This requires that members listen "between the lines" for this information, because it often is nor directly stated but found in how (e.g., tone) the message is expressed. When members of the Students for Ahernarive Medicine expressed their displeasure with Rhea, they did so with raised voices and harsh tones, something that would have been hard for Rhea to misinterpret. Steps can be taken to become a more competent listener in small groups. In the next sections we describe four listening preferences, list several bad listening habits, and provide suggestions for improving your listening behavior.

LISTENING PREFERENCES Over time and in a multitude of conversations, we all develop listening preferences. When do you enjoy listening? When is listening difficult for you? Our preferences can greatly affect the quality of comm uni cation in a small group.

Students for Alternative Medicine and Listening Earlier you met two members of the Students for Alternative Medicine's executive committee: Wade and Rhea. Now let's meet three other members: Sonya, Bob, and Eric. Each of these members has his or her own listening preferences, some of which may be seen in the case study. Rhea is a people-oriented listener, and Wade is an action- and contentoriented listener. Sonya is a content-oriented listener, Bob is a timeoriented listener, and Eric avoids listening situations but is required to show up and vote. Wade and Rhea do not get along at most meetings, often arguing over who should be supported by the group. Wade thinks that Rhea gets too upset when others are upset, and Rhea thinks that

Wade is overly critical. Sonya is close friends with Eric, who often votes with Sonya. Bob contributes to the group only when he has something worthwh ile to say and does so in a very precise fashion. He gets along well with Rhea and Sonya.

Imagine you are a community member who is interested in bringing Dr. Jessica McGehee, a leading practitioner of holistic medicine, to the attention of the group. You would really like the group to sponsor a

seminar with Dr. McGehee. You also know the group is low on funds due to the most recent expenditures, but Dr. McGehee will be in town and will be available. You know a generic presentation to the group will not work, so you decide to tailor your presentation to the listening preferences of the group. 1. Whom would you select as the target of your presentation, and why?

2. What specific strategies would you use in your presentation to appea l to those you believe you need to convince most?

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58

GLOSSARY People-Oriented Listener A listener who ;s concerned about how her or his

listening behaviors affect relationships

Action -Oriented Listener A listener who is

concerned about

how her or his listening behaviof5

contribute to the task ot hand

ContentOriented Listener A listener who prefers information

from perceived credible sources and is

drawn to analyzing the information she

or he hears

Time-Oriented Listener A listener who

values time and is focused on efficient discussion

Active Listening Listening first

to understand

another's message before critically

judging the

message

CHAPTER 3

There are four general lisrening preferences: people-. action-, contento, and rimeo riented.? Each preference has irs advantages and disadvantages. Being an effective group member means identifying your own preference and those of the other members. It may mean shifting your preference co meet the needs of the group. People-oriented listeners focus on how th eir listening behaviors affect relationships. These are the members others go [0 when th ey want someo ne ro listen. They are auemive and nonjudgmelHal. Their listening behaviors may include th e use of we more often than I, and they incorporate emotional appeals into th eir discussions. For instance, they might be heard telling a human -interest story ro calm members who are upset. Showing concern for others is importam, bm people-oriented listeners ca n atrend roo much ro others' moods and get dist racted from (he gro up's (ask. The action-oriented listener focuses on (he job at hand. Such listeners help the group stay on task by paying attention to the details and givi ng feedback abom the goal and how the group may achieve it. They enjoy listen in g if material is presented in an organized fashion. Howeve r, sometim es these liste ners may appear overly critical, may run e out when the discussion seems aimless, and may interrupt roo much if the di scussion gets off track. The content-oriented listener is drawn to rhe highly credibl e source and enjoys analyzing the things she or he hears. These listene rs dissect information and ca n show a gro up (h e many sides to an issue. At times, though. they can be seen as overly critical and intimidating. In addition, their listening preference slows the gro up's problem solving because they like to spend cons iderable time analyzing information. They also minimize nontechnical information such as anecdotes and devalue informa tion from unknown sources. The time-oriented listener values rime, sets meeting times. reminds members of their rime co nst raints, and disco urages wordy disc ussio ns. Such members discourage discussio n as the time nears fo r th e meeting to end and grow impariem with the more creative. spo ntaneous activities in groups. No preference is the best. Our preferences are influenced by many factors, including the nature of the relationships among group members and time co nstraints. Each one has positive and negative tendencies. summa rized in Table 3.1. Use them productively and curtail the negative characteristics of each one. Do this by knowing yo ur own and the others' preferences and encouraging the productive use of each preference. Regardless of your listening preferences, there are seve ral habits of poor listeners that we all have to guard aga inst. These are Ji sred and briefly described in Table 3.2. The more you wo rk to overcome these bad habits, th e bener a listener yo u will be, no mauer your listening preference.

LISTENING ACTIVELY One way to overcome poor listening habits is to listen actively. We mentioned earlier that listening is active, nor passive. behavior. When you pay close attention in an effort to understand what a speaker means, your heart speeds up as your metabolic rate rises. Active liste ning is partly a matter of choosing to focus on the ocher perso n and of selecting what parts of a message to focus on and try to recall. A good rest for active listening is to paraphrase (put in your own words) what you think the orher person meant. Merely repearing anmher's words, like a parrot, does nor

Communication Principles for Group Members

TABLE 3.1

Listening Preferences

PEOPLE-ORIENTED LISTENERS Focus on relationships. Advantages:

Show concern for others. Are inclusive and nonjudgmental. Disadvantage:

Can become distracted by others' moods.

Example:

"Tell me more about how you would feel if we went ahead with that option."

ACTION-ORIENTED LISTENERS Focus on the job. Help the group stay on task.

Advantages:

Help the group stay organized.

Disadvantage: Example:

May sacrifice relationships in favor of task. " I know you're upset, but we have a lot of work to do so

we'd better get down to business. '1 CONTENT-ORIENTED LISTENERS Advantages: Help the group analyze information.

Look at issues from many sides. Disadvantages:

Seem overly critical. Dismiss anecdotal or nonexpert information.

Example:

"We aren't ready to decide yet because we haven't really heard every side of the issue."

TIME-ORIENTED LISTENERS Help the group stick to schedule. Advantages:

Discourage rambling discussions.

Disadvantage:

May stifle creativity by expressing impatience with spontaneous discussion.

Example:

"Let's make up a schedule so we know we can get done by our deadline."

demonstrate that you understood, because paraphrasing requires the listener to process the information cognitively. When you paraphrase what you thought the speaker said or the relational message you inferred from how it was expressed. you give the speaker a basis for deciding whether you understood the original message adequately or whether you missed or distorted parts of it. T he original speaker, after hearing the paraphrase. should accept it if it is accurate or correct the parts that were distorted or omitted, then

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CHAPTER 3

Habits of Poor Listeners

TABLE 3.2

PSEUDOLISTENING Pretending to listen while thinking about something else or while daydreaming.

SILENT ARGUING Mentally rehearsing objections to the spea ker's idea without first understanding

what the speaker meant. ASSUMING MEANING Interpreting the speaker's behavior by using the cultural rules appropriate for the listener.

FOCUSING ON IRRELEVANCIES Becoming distracted from a speaker's message by unimportant details such as dress, accent, physical appearance, or things in the environment. SIDETRACKING Changing the topic because they weren't paying attention to the speaker; not

connecting remarks to statements of the previous speaker. DEFENSIVE RESPONDING Failing to listen or failing to try to understand what a speaker is saying because they feel psychologically threatened by something the speaker said or did; reo

sponding with "chips on their shoulders."

ask you ro try paraphrasing again. Only when the origin al speake r is comp letely satisfied that you have understood adequately should yo u proceed to agree, disagree, elaborate, or cha nge topics. Here is a bit of dialogue that illustrates active listening between two group members di scussing medical insurance:

Karla:

Med ical costs are incredibly high. On average it cos ts about $4,400 per day in the hospita l. No wonder 20 percent of nonelderly ci tizens lack hospi tal insurance! Too many people are making too much money ~ff th e illnesses of others. We've go[(a Sto p that!

Jeannie:

You're saying that the reason so many peop le lack hospital insurance is that hospital COStS are high , and they are so high because a lot of people are paid too much in the health ca re business. Is that ri ght? Ueannie attempts to check whether she und erstand s what Karla sai d by paraphrasing so as to clarify Karla's reasoning.]

Karla:

Well, basically, but T really don't mean people don't have insurance because th e hospital costs so mu ch, but because th ey can' t afford it. T hat may be partly beca use it costs a lot for (h e insurance- like $600 a month for a yo ung couple with no

Communication Principles for Group Members

'I'm sorry-did you say something? I was oJ!creating my own ,·cality. " Pseudolistening is nol an effeclive way lo listen. Q The New Yorker Collection; 1999 William Haefeli from cartoonbank .com, All Right5 Reserved.

kids-and pardy because the insurance companies have to pay such high hospital and other medical bills. [Karla corrects the paraphrase and clarifies her own reasoning.] Jeannie:

Now ler's see ifl understand your thinking: 20 perce nt of nonelderly citizens lack hospital insurance because they feel they can't afford ir. Part of the reason they can't afford it is that high medical costs have made premiums very high, like $400 a month for a young person. And a lot of people are making more money than you think they should out of the illnesses of others. [Jeannie's second attempt at paraphrasing Karla's statements.]

Karla:

Right. [Ka rl a confirms the second paraphrase as accurate.l

1 partly agree and partly disagree. r think ... [The paraphrase accepted, Jeannie now begins to exp lain her position on the issue about why so many people lack hospital insurance.] Active listeners confirm their understanding before they state evaluations. Then, confident of what the speaker meant, active listeners evaluate what they have understood. One effect of active listening is that the discussion slows down. Most of us are our own best listeners- we like to talk and, given half a chance, we will. We may become Jeannie:

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62

C HAPTER 3

Poor listening Habits and Misunderstandings Reconstruct the Students for Alternative Medicine meeting. Your agenda

item is the discussion of whether to sponsor a seminar featuring Chief Robert, a Cherokee medicine man and prominent local leader. Get together with six other members of the class to role-play group members. Before your discussion, hand out envelopes to each member. Four of the envelopes will contain a description of one poor listening habit (pseudolistening, silent arguing, assuming meaning, focusing on irrelevancies, or sidetracking). The other three envelopes will instruct the

member to practice active, focused listening. Allow yourselves to roleplay the meeting for about 25 minutes. Ask your classmates to watch

the meeting and take notes on the listening behaviors. After the meeting, discuss how the poor habits were displayed and what their impact

was on the discussion. 1. Were any behaviors particularly destructive? How so? 2. How well were the members practicing active, focused listening, and did they reduce the effects of the poor habits? How typical

are some of these poor habits? 3. How was the role-play of the meeting different from a real meeting?

impatient, not taking tim e [0 paraphrase eve n when we should. Yo u sho uld listen acti vel y all the time bm paraphrase on ly part of th e time-when a controversial issue is being discussed, when you ca n see some poss ibili ty that th e speaker has a different mea nin g fro m what you thin k, when yo u are confused by what the speaker has said , an d when there has bee n a lot of ropic switching or misunderstand ing. Now th at we have establ ished the fundamental principles for understandin g co mmunicati on, we turn specifi cally to how members create through th eir verbal and nonverbal messages.

Creating Messages in a Small Group

Message Signals interpreted as Q whole by group members

A message is any actio n, so un d, o r word in interaction that is interpreted as a whole by another person. 8 Messages ca n be entirely ve rbal, no nverbal , or a mi xture of ve rbal and no nverbal. For instance, a "thumbs up" gest ure mea ns "OK" to Amer ica ns. In human communicatio n- incl uding small g roups-verbal and no nverbal messages operate together to crea te mea nin g; they are indivisible. All communica tive acts are ex pressed via multiple ve rbal and no nverbal channels, which togeth er create mea nin g. Think of an orchestra.9 No single note co nveyed by one instrum ent co nstitutes the sympho ny. Notes played together via a mul titude of instruments create a symph ony. Meaning is fou nd in particular combin ati o ns of no tes played within a larger sy mpho ny. W hen YO li

Communication Principles for Group Members

document and analyze yo ur group's com munication (sym phony), you are, in fact, scor ing both th e notes (words) and how they are played (nonverbals).

Verbal Communication in Small Groups We have noted seve ral times verbal and nonverbal messages work together to create meaning among people. However, studying verbal and nonve rbal messages together can get co mplicated. To make them eas ier for you to understand , we di scuss them separately. We start with verbal communicat ion by focusing on the key characteristics of language and providing suggestions so yo u can use langu~ge appropriately in yo ur groups. These suggestio ns are summarized in Table 3.3.

ADJUSTING TO THE SYMBOLIC NATURE OF LANGUAGE You know that words are symbols, but (his fact carries important impl ications for co mmunicating effectively in groups. Beca use words are symbols. th ey do not have mean ings in and of themselves. Thus. good listeners ask. "What does the speaker mean?" rather than, "What do those words mean ?" or "What would I mean ifT said that?" Be on guard

TABLE 1.1

Use Language Appropriately to Help Your Group

ADJUST TO THE SYMBOLIC NATURE OF LANGUAGE • Guard against bypassing.

• Be as concrete and precise as possible. • Give specific examples of what you mean when you have to use an abstract term. • Quantify when possible. ORGANIZE YOUR REMARKS AND THE GROUP'S DISCUSSION

• • • •

Relate your statement to the preceding statement. Make one point at a time. State your case directly and conCisely. Keep yourself and other members on topic.

BE SENSITIVE TO THE EMOTIONS OF OTHERS

• Recognize trigger words that may trigger strong emotional reactions in others. • Substitute neutral word s for potential trigger words.

• Never name-call. FOLLOW THE RULES OF THE GROUP • Code-switch appropriately: Use the language, terminology, jargon, and rules of the group.

• In a professional, business or ed ucational group, use standard sentence structure, vocabu lary, and correct grammar.

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CHAPTER 3

When to Code Switch and When Not to? We have suggested that group members adapt to the different rules for communication, or code switching, when the context of the social sys-

tem changes. A characteristic of communication competence is being aware that different groups use different rules of communicating and being able to change to meet the expectations and obligations of those

different groups. However, the various ways we use language to communicate is highly personal and often resistant to change. 1. When you move from group to group, how easily do you adopt the rules of co mmunicating in that group? 2. Are there times when your personal way of communicating should not be given up? 3. Are there appropriate ways of blending both your own personal style and that of the group?

4 . Is adapting to the rules of comm unicating in a particular group a violation of personal language use?

F

OSSARY Bypassing Occurs when group members think

they hove the same meaning for a word or phrase but In

actuality do not

agai nst bypassing, in which (\.1,10 or more people have different meanin gs for a word but do not realize ir. Bypass ing call lead either ro a false agreement or to the perceptio n that a disagreemelH ex ists when it really does n' t. For exa mple, rhe mea ning of patriotism in th e wake of th e 9/11 terrorist attacks has become increasingly complicated for man y America ns. Imagine yourself in a small group class tryin g to figure a lit what yo ur gro up 's community service task is go in g to be for the se mes ter. Members begin (Q brainstorm ideas about how they ca n show their patriotism in their local co mmunity. Everyone appears eage r to show th eir patriotism, so th ey dec ide that patriotism will be their th eme. During a subsequenr meeting, wh ile the group begins to figure out what to do spec ifi cally, Lucinda suggests they organ ize a peace rally. Other members immedi ately challenge th e idea by claiming it is nor ri ght to oppose our co untry's military actions while we are at war. In addition, they become angry with Lucinda because they thought they had 311 decided to do a patriot ic- theme projecc. This group bypassed o n the mean ing of patriotic. which led to a false agreemenr affectin g a furure meecing. Many words, es pecially abstracr ones, wi ll be interpreted differently by differenr peo ple. T he mOSt co ncrete words refe r to one and on ly one thing: Dr. Galanes'desk. radio personality Howard Stern. o r goldm retriever number PD736251. However, abstract words and phrases such as liberal. e.!fictive, spiritual. democracy, and love are highly ambiguous and likely to be undersrood quite differently by differenr group members. However, usi ng abstract words is OK; in fact, havin g a meaningful discussion without them would be im possible. Many of the ideas group members discuss must include fairly abstract words such as consensus, criteria. kadership, mlSl, success, and c!imau. Even so, yo u can take steps ro help make your remarks more specific and thus dearer. Fi rst, speak as co ncretelyas poss ible ro exp ress what yo u mean. Don't use jargon to show off. Group members,

Communication Principles for Group Members

in addirion to rhe ir own ethnic cultures, belong {Q a ll1ulriwde of co-cultures (e.g., athletes, musicians, compurer garners, bloggers, business professionals, reachers), which use their own jargon. In a group of members wirh mixed computer literacy and experience, not everyone may know thar [he sandbox refers {Q the research and development departments of software companies and dlat beani refers ro the Macintosh computer key with rhe cloverleaf sign. Second, whenever yo u use a high ly abstract term that may be problematic, give concrete examples of what you mean-for instance, "He was a really controlling chai r [absr ract concept]. He decided, by himself, when the group would meet, what would and would not be on the agenda, who could and cou ld not speak at rhe meetings, and what the committee should recommend to the presiderI'l: of rhe fraterniry [concrete exam ples of th e abstract idea of controlling]." Third, define highly abstract terms by using sy nonyms or descriprive rerms or by explaining an operation rhe term refers to. Thus, yo u might define drunk driving as "having a level of .08 percenr alcohol in rhe blood as measured immediately afre r driving by a machine called a Breathalyzer," which is the Driving While Intoxicated (OWl) definition used in many srares. This definition combines bmh a procedure (i.e., measured by a Breathalyzer) and precise quantification for the term (i. e., .08 percent alcoho l in the blood). Fourth, quantify when possible. Frequen tly, groups use relarive terms for comparisons when precise quantification is poss ible. For instance, ins tead of sayin g, "The chances of developing lun g ca ncer are higher [a rel at ive term] if you smoke a pack of cigarettes a day than if you don ' t smoke," you can state quite precisely what the increase in the percentage of people developing lung cancer will be. Up to this point, we have focused on what the speaker ca n do to make communication clear, bur remember from earlier in the chapter that group members are mucuaily responsible for effective com munication. As a listener you can ask speake rs who use highly abstract language ro quantify, give examples, or define the ir terms with less abstracr language: "Sam, when you say thac you want us to pick an ' interesting' ropic for our debate, I'm not sure what you mean by 'interesting.' Could you give me an example or two of whar would be interes ting to you?" You can paraphrase in more concrete terms, then ask the spea ker to accept or revise the paraphrase. This will help you interpret the speaker's meaning more accurately.

ORGANIZING REMARKS Group discussions go more smoothly \\'hen the discussions are organized. Frequently, gro up discussions jump almost aimlessly from tOpic ro ropic, with no one responding to prior comments. It is ofte n hard to tell exactly what issue or question a speake r is addressing, or even what the point is of some remarks. Good organization ca n do a lot to overcome these communication problems. Co nside r the following discussion by a group of students planning publicity for an upcoming ca reer day se minar: Lori:

OK, the seminar is planned, so now ir's rime to start working on the publicity. Any ideas'

Deidre: To ny:

We forgot to include a session on porrfolios. One of the things we could do is send a memo to all the people in the dorms. That worked weillasr rime.

65

•

For more information on defining words with precision, go to the Online Learning

Center at www.mhhe.com / adamsga lanes8e

66

C HAPTER 3

Chris:

I know someo ne who wou ld do a great job with portfolios, and I'll be glad to call her.

Kevin:

r chink a memo is a rea ll y tacky idea, and we ought to do somethin g more profess ion al.

Lori:

I don't like memos either. I'd be happy if we didn't do one.

Ie's hard ro [ell fro m that discussion who is respond ing to what question, or even exactly what is meant. Lee's help the individuals orga nize thei r remarks so the d iscuss ion is morc organ ized as a group process:

Lori:

OK, th e se minar has been plann ed , so now it's time to Stan working o n publicity. What ideas do yo u have for how we co uld promote rhe career day semin ar? [No t a big chan ge here, but Lori's question [0 the gro up is more focused man befo re. We discuss [he imporrance of forming appropriate focusin g questions later in the chapter.]

Deidre:

Lo ri , cou ld we postpone our discussion of publicity? I'd like to talk first abom so methin g we overlooked in the planning. We forgot to schedul e a portfolio session. (First, Deidre responds directly to Lori and Lori's ques ti on before suggestin g a differem initial top ic.]

Lori:

That's a good idea, Deidre. OK, guys, let's spe nd time making su re the plans are fi nal ized before we talk about publicity. What did you mean by a portfolio session? [D irect response to Deidre, ackn owledgmem of the legiti macy of her request to post pone discuss ion of publicity and req uest for clarifica tion]

Deidre:

That was the sessio n where someo ne showed us how to put toge th er a public rel at ions portfolio so that when we app ly for jobs we' ll be able to show people what kinds of assignments we've completed . Ie's like a res ume with specific examples of yo ur wo rk. [Direct clarification response from D eidre]

Lori:

You're right; we need that. Big ove rsight. G lad yo u th ought of it. (Affi rming Deidre's good thinkin g on behalf of th e group's project]

Tony:

One thin g we co uld,d o is send a memo to all the people who live in the dorms to let them know about the seminar. [Thi s remark seems to be about publi city and does not appear to res po nd directly to the porrfolio top ic.]

Chris:

That might be a good idea, Tony. but I'm not sure we' re ready to go o n to that yet. Were we finished with the portfolio sessio n planning? [C hri s doesn't ignore Tony or put him down, but he does help th e group keep focllsed on the topic, and he makes it a group issue by using we.}

Tony:

Sorry! I thought we were ready to move on. What do we need to do yet with portfolios? [Apology and direct acknowledgment of the topic under discussion]

Communication Principles for Group Members

Chris:

Well, for one ching, we need [0 figure out who wou ld be a good person [0 handle that session. [Direct response to Tony, moves the discussion forwardJ

Kevin:

1 know someone at Walker, Beard, and Korma Public Relations. I'll call and see if she's available, and, if she isn't, maybe she can suggest somebody else. [Direct response [0 Chris]

Lori:

OK, Kevin, do I understand you right? You'll take care of getting someone [0 handle the portfolio session and let us know who that is by next week? [Lori has detected an ambiguity in Kevin's ea rlier remark ("maybe she can 'suggest somebody else"), so she helps him clarity.]

Kevin:

Yes. [Di rect answer clears up the ambiguity.]

Lori:

OK, Kevin will find someone to handle the portfolio sessions. Now, are we ready to turn [0 publiciry? [Group members nod.] Th at's great. What ideas do we have for publicizing career day?

67

In the second version each comment begins with acknowledgment of the prior speake r, often using the other member's name. No one swi tches topics abruptly. Statements are right to (he poim. In almost all cases, the speaker stays with one point. Notice, [00, that this discussion takes longer-members do not assume they understand but work to make the connections between speakers and tOpics expl icit. The following is a list of gu idelines [0 facilitate coherent, orderly, and clear discussion:

1. Relate your statement to the preceding statement. Sometimes this will have to be done expl icirly in a statemem; sometimes it can be done with a word or phrase (e.g., Lori: "That's a good idea": Tony: "Sorry.") 2. State one point, not give a multipoint speech. If you talk about two or more issues, the discussion is likely to go off track because no one can predict which issue the next speaker will pick up on, even if she or he responds direcrly to your remarks. The one major exception to this rule occurs when you present an initial description of a problem or give a planned report that has more than one point. In that case, preparing a handout that includes the main findings, facts, statistics, quotations, formulas, and so on is a good idea. 3. State the point as directly, concretely, and concisely as possible. In the dominane culture of the Un ited States, simple declarative sentences are preferable [0 flowery language and emotive terms. Phrases such as "My point is that ... " and "This is the idea: ... " may help focus listeners.

BE SENSITIVE TO THE FEELINGS OF OTHERS Emotive words are terms that ignite strong feelings. Often these are called trigger words because rhey trigger almost instantaneous emotional responses that could interfere with good listening. The example in the Ethical Dilemma box illust rates such a trigger word. Among the worst trigger words are sexist terms and racial epithets (such as raghead, jeminazi, or faggot). Again, we are calling attention co the importance of monitoring your lingu istic choices in group interaction. The nature of your communication creates that climate over

GLOSSARY Emotive Words Words that trigger strong emotional responses

68

(HAPTER 3

HS orry, Chief, hut of course J didn't mean 'bimbo' in the pejorative unse," Don't use trigg er words that may offend others. Cl The New Yorker Colle
Wha t Do You Do Whe n Emotive Words Are Offensive? Two African American members of your group refer to each other as "nigga" when they greet each other at the beginning of group meetings. 1O You and one other member find the use of the term highly offensive and do not believe any person, no m atter her or his colo r, should use the term. One other member really does not care and does not see the point in making a big deal out of it. This racia l epithet is a highly emotive trigger word in the American culture, and people weigh in with all sorts of opinions on its use.

1. As a group what do you do? How would you discuss this issue? 2 . When do the references in personal member greetings become an issue for a group?

3 . What new ru les might this group create to allow for emotive words yet avoid the consequences of their use?

rhe course of your group's rim e rogether. Are you crearing the kind of climate you want? Avo id emotive words yourself and suggcsr alternatives when someone else uses one of them. Suppose someone said [0 you, " He's just a failed politician, nor a scienrisr, and he's grandstanding as he looks for a new platform. What could he know aboU[ global warm ing?" You could paraphrase as follows: "So, in other words, you think that the opinions of a non scienrist are not valid on scienrific issues such as global warming. and you mistrust hi s Illotives?" This helps defuse rhe trigger words (foiled po/iricifll1, grandstttnding) so the

69

Commun ication Principles for Group Members

group can foc us on the merits of th e message itself. It also provides th e speaker an oppor(Unil:)' to cla ri fy if you have misunderstood . Defusing the trigger words helps the grou p begin a more objective, less emotional eva luat ion of the pe rso n's qualifica(ions.

FOLLOWING THE RULES OF THE GROUP Because differenr groups and cultures have different rules for com municating, yo u will increase you r chances of being accepted and understood if you follow the rules for the particular group yo u arc in. For exam ple, some groups are formal: Members address each other by ririe (e.g., Dr. Adams or Ms. Galanes) and use many absrract words with a co mplex sentence structu re. However, these ru1 es would be inappropriate in a sel f-managed work team in an auto factory, where concrete language with a dear and concise sentence StruCture is more effective. Virtual groups have eve n created a language of their own, using abbreviat io ns to save tim e: LOL (laughing out loud), IMHO (in my humble opinion), TM (text me), and so forth. Be aware of and adapt to appropriate standa rds of behavior for the particular group. This kind of code-switch ing happens all the time, often without your conscious thought. You wo uld not speak to your grandparents' ca rd dub the same way you speak wir hin a group of your friends, would you? For exa mpl e, in 200 I, l{jck Ayers's Commun icatio n Ans and Sciences Engl ish class at Berkeley H igh School in California created its first slang dictionary.l1 Each enr ry in the dictionary contai ns its etymological source, a pronunciation key, and a sentence using th e entry-t he students have laid our the word or phrase and the ru les for its use. "Off the hook" was appropriare for 1999, "off the heazie" for 2000, and "off rhe hizlle" for 200 l. The purpose of this slang dictionary project was to give students an opportun ity to usc their own rich home language as a viable avenue for creativity in their classroom. Even as we advise chis, however, we note that many of the secondary groups you parti cipate in will rake place in th e mainstream of the U.S. business, profess ional, and education al co mmuniti es. In such cases you should confo rm to the vocabu lary and grammar rules of standard English. This will help other peop le understand you and inc rease your inAuence because numerous studies have shown that nonstandard dialects and usage lower the credibili l:)' of speakers with a variety of listeners. A5 Rick Aye rs recognized, "I wam to make them [h is students] awate of th eir brilliance, that the way they speak is not wrong, it's JUSt anorher form of discourse .... The trick is teach ing them how to translate it into standard English when thcy need to. "12 Now rh at we have cons idered th e im pl ica tions of verba l communication in the group, we [urn o ur attcm ion to nonverbal com munication. We rem ind YOll agai n that separating ve rbal and nonverbal communication is artificial; they work together to create meaning.

Nonverbal Communication in Small Groups Nonverba1 behavior is anything in a message except th e words themselves. However, as we poinred out ea rly in this chaptcr, mea ning is created when we co nsider verbal and non verbal com muni ca tion together. Two co mmuni ca ti o n scholars, John Stewart and Carol Logan, believe we make sense of this complexi ty by using a co nrinuum. 13 At one ex treme are primarily ve rbal behaviors such as written words; in the middle are mixed behaviors such as spoke n words, vocalics (e.g., pitch, rare, volume), pauses, and silences; and at the other ext reme are primarily non verbal behaviors that can occur without words such as eye

E OSSARVl I Nonverbal

I Behavior

Anything in a message that is not the word itself

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gaze, touch, and facia l express ions. Verba l and nonverbaJ behavio r are inseparable, juSt as [wo sides of a paper arc inseparable. 1" For the following discussion we will focus on {he mixed and primary non verbal behav iors. These nonverba l behav iors serve a number of purposes. We will ex plain seve ral irnporram prin ciples of non ve rbal behavior, exam ine key functions performed by th ese behavio rs, and finally explore brieRy so m e commo n caregories of nonverbal behavio r that have an impact on srnall grou p co mmuni cat ion.

PRINCIPLES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Most of the time in a small group , o nly on e perso n is spealcing, bur all members arc sending nonverbal signals all the tim e. U nde rstanding something ahoU( nonverbal behaviors is crucial ro understa nding what is happe ning in yo ur groups. H oweve r, inrcrp rering nonverbal behaviors can be rri cki er rhan imerprering ve rbal signals.

1. Nonverbal behaviors are ambiguous. Do you think thar a smile means someo ne is happy? In many culrures thar is usually the case, bur in Japan so meone who is feel ing quite miserable may smi le ro avoid upsetting the person to whom he is speaJcing. Do you th ink that someo ne who has her arms fo lded across her chesr is u ninterested in heari ng what you say? Maybe. But maybe she is merely crying to keep warm. Many factors inAuence the mean ing o f nonverbal behavio rs, includ ing cultural d ifferences. Nonverba l behaviors shou ld be imerpreted in context and in conjun ction with the words group members are using.

2. People cannot stop sending nonverbal behaviors, even when they are not talking. Usually, only one perso n in a gro up speaks at a tim e, but all members co ntinu ously process non ve rbal behavio rs. Even if yo u choose to be quiet in a gro up mee ting, you will likely lea k you r feel ings non verbally. For example, a church boa rd member unhappy wirh th e way the church secretary was han dli ng office business chose nOt to say anythin g when perso nnel matters were discussed. However, after rhe meeting th e board chair asked him whar was wrong and why he had see med unimerested at rhe meering. This example po im s our two features of nonverbal behavior. First, even though the member chose nOt to say anyth ing, he certainly was co mmunica ting something non verbally. Second, no nve rbal behaviors are easy to m isi nterp ret. The em otion the board member was feeli ng was anger at the church secretary, but the board chair thought he was uninterested in the meeting. T hus, we shouldn ' t jump co conclusions withom firs, checkin g them out.

3. When verbal and nonverbal behaviors dash, most people believe the nonverbal behaviors. In fact, when a person is trying to interpret what so meone else means in a face-toface interaction, the nonverbal part of [he message co unts alm os t t"vice as mu ch as rhe verbal. ls When the verba l and no nverbal b ehaviors don ' r fit, most people trusr rhe nonverbal ones beca use they are less subject to deliberate CO ntrol. Many non verbal behaviors, such as sweari ng, blus hin g, and shak ing, are co mrolled by primitive structures of [he brain over whi ch we have littl e or no conscious co mro!' Yo u can choose your words, but your nonverbal behav ior often gives you away. Wh en you clench your fists, turn red , and scream at another group mem ber, "No , I'm NOT mad!" no one will believe you.

Communication Principles for Group Members

FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS Nonve rbal behaviors perform what a friend of ours would call the "heavy lifting" in communication; without nonverbal behaviors we would no t know how to "take" the words that people say. "Right," says member Sarah. How she says it-a nonverbal behaviorca n make that " Right" a Statement of agreement ("Yes, you are right and I agree") or one of disagreement (if said sa rcastically, as in "Yeah, sure you're right" but mean ing exactly the opposite) . One of the most important fun cdo ns of nonverbal behavior is to express how we feel. We co nvey emotions, such as anger, sadness, and happiness, through our nonverbal behaviors. We laugh when we are happy, frown an d glare when we are angry, and so forth. • Nonverba l behaviors also perform the important fu nction of indicating how we perceive our relationships to other people. For instance, status and likin g are co nveyed non verb all y. In o ne recent smdy people were asked what nonverbal behaviors are ex hib ited by peo ple who have social power (s cam s) and by those who do no t. 16 T hose with high social power were perceived to hold themselves more erect, gest ure more, invade othe rs' space and be more successful at interrupting ot hers. be more open and expressive, and have speech that was smoother and more co n fidem. Also, whet her so meon e likes anot her perso n seems to be stron gly associated with that person's nonverbal-but nOt verba l- behavior Y In o ne smd y teac hers liked swdenrs who were non verbally respons ive. such as si ttin g upri ght (nor slouching), making direct eye contact, having posirive fac ial expressions, and takin g notes in class. Interesti ngly, teachers we re also more will in g to com pl y with students' requests (e.g" exrend in g a du e date on an assignmenr) if the stud ems had been nonverba lly respon sive to rhe teacher. This applies directly to small gro up behavior. Most studem s want ot hers to like them , and likin g is clea rl y linked ro no nverbal behavior. In add itio n, showin g signs of li king produces signs of likin g in return. Kory Floyd and George Ray found that people interacting with so meo ne who showed th em signs of likin g (e.g., eye co ntact, smi lin g, leaning fo rward) co minu ed to increase their own likin g behavior. 18 Findings like these have clea r im pli cations for small groups. Anot her function of no nve rbal commu nication is to supplemeru words by emphasizing them o r, in effect, repeating them, just as underl ined or boldfaced words in a text are emphasized. Thus, non ve rbals can call special attemi an to the words they accompany. For instance, a perso n may say, "Look at the rise in air po llution in th e Valley du ring peak traffic hours" whil e poi nting at a bar graph . No nverbal behavio rs ca n substitute fo r spoken o r wr itten words. In this case a gesture becomes a symbol, substituting for the more co nventional wo rds. For instance, a circled th umb and index finger can express "O K," o r a beckon in g finger ca n indicate that yo u wam so meo ne ro lean closer ro yo u. Ka th y and so me of her graduate students bri ng [heir two forefingers together to indicate a "shared moment," a gesture they picked up from the movie Chasing Amy. Mu ch of the co mmunicating among members mu st be with un spoken substitutes fo r spoken words. If yo u aren' t co nscious of these behav iors and do n't look for them, you will mi ss many important messages among group memb ers and misinterpret other non ve rb al messages. In a sense you will be only hal f-listening. Another major functio n of nonverbal behaviors is to regulate th e flow of ve rbal interaction among members. The coo rdinator of a discuss ion group may use nods, eye contact,

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•

Go to www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanes8e for additional weblink activities.

The Symbolic Nature of Avatars In its infancy computer-mediated communication «(Me) was primar-

ily text based (i.e., typed messages on a computer keyboard). Because (Me relies so heavily on the text to create meaning, it is hard to guess at the qualities of the individuals you are interacting with in a (Me environment. To adapt to this drawback, Internet providers have begun to use avatars. An avatar is a visual representation of yourself that you

construct and display next to the textual dialogue. Most sites that offer the use of avatars allow you to select things such as gender, hair color, clothing style, facial expression, and even pets that you want depicted in you r visual representation. Ambiguity still exists with avatars; however, users are able to select stronger nonverbal characteristics and cues to

accompany the textual dialogue.

These websites provide an opportunity to experiment with the constru ction and implementation of avatars in chat rooms or during instant

messaging: http://avatars.yahoo.com/lndex.html and http:// www.121chat.com. If given an opportunity to create your own avatar to use in a chat room, which types of features would you select,

and why? What things sho uld you consider about other people based on the way they present therflselves visually? How do you think avatars illustrate the notion discussed in the section on principles of nonverbal communication? Does the potential for CMC interaction using these media contradict some of the face-to-face principles described?

and hand signals to indicate who should speak next. Direct gaze from listeners means, "Continue," whereas looking away is a nonverbal way of sayi ng, "Shut up!" People who want to speak lean forward, slighdy open their mouths, extend a hand or fi nger, and even utter a sound such as "urn." Speakers who ignore such cues are judged in considerare and rude. One of us observed a group char contained a blind person who obviously could not

Communication Principles for Group Members

What If ... ? Earlier you met a group of students planning publicity for a career day seminar. In their meeting they discussed adding a portfolio session and then how best to publicize the seminar. Recollect the following dialogue: Lori:

You 're right; we need that. Big oversight. Glad you thought of it.

Tony:

One thing we could do is send a memo to all the people who live in the dorms to let them know about the seminar.

Chris:

That might be a good idea, but I'm not sure we're ready to go on to that yet. Were we finished with the portfolio ses· sion planning?

Tony:

Sorry! I thought we were ready to need to do yet with portfolios?

Chris:

Well, for one thing, we need to figure out who would be a good person to handle that session.

move on. What do we

The goal of this application is to show you how much the context and nonverbal behavior influence the meaning of what we say. Select four trios. Each trio is to role-play the dialogue but from a different relational context. The first trio is composed of close friends who have worked together on several committees. Members of the second trio have never met before, and one member is not sure he or she even wants to be on this comm ittee. The third trio has a highly aggressive member who believes he or she knows how to run this group. The fourth trio is composed of individuals who really dislike each other but are trying to be civil. During the role-plays, have audience members take notes. Ask them to observe the nonverbal behavior and how it changes the meaning of the conversation. When the trios are through, discuss the principles and the functions of nonverbal behavior. You can even discuss how the trios used such things as gestures, facial expressions, movements, and spacing to create the relation al context.

see such regulating cues. Other members began to judge rhis member as arrogant and selfcentered for "talking Out of turn. " Some discussion of visible regulatory cues in creased the members ' sensitivity co the communicative problem experien ced by their blind member and helped the group pull rogether. Finally, as nored ea rli er, non ve rbal behaviors can contradict words we liner. A person who says, " I agree," hesitatingl y. with a rising pitch at (he end of rh e words, may be perceived as having reservations. or even as disagree ing. A person who says, "I heard you," but who will nor anempt a paraphrase has indicated nonverbalJ y that he probably was not really listening. When you observe nonverbal behaviors th at seem co contradict what a person has just said, and it marrers CO you what the person really thinks, try saying,

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"I heard you say ... , but the way you said it co nfuses me," Th en exp lain rhe apparent contradiction you percei ved. and ask the person [0 clarify it for you.

CATEGORIES OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIORS Several categories of nonverbal behavior are especially imporram co your understanding of small group communication. Perso nal appearance, space and seating. facial ex press ions and eye con race, gesmces and body movements, vo ice, and time cues are among the major types of nonverbal behaviors most relevant to small gro ups.

Appearance.

Members of a group form impressions of each other, accu rate or not, long before anyone says anything. Sex, race, height, build, dress, groom in g, and othe r visible cues have been shown CO inAuence res ponses. Cues sllch as sex. body shape, and ethnicity particularl y affect how group members il1[eract with each other inirially. l,) Such personal characteristics as stams and wisdom may be associated with a member's age and sex. Members also create impressio ns of each orher's physical characteristics based on c1orhing. makeup, and orh er bod y "arrifacts." These impressions may very wel l dete rmine whether a group member il1[erac[s with anmher member and, if so, what type of interaction they have. For instance, vio lac ing societal norms about dress, grooming. makeup , and accessories can arouse suspicion or even misrrusr. Dressing noticeably differendy from ocher members will almosr certainly be ilHerpreted as a sign lhat you do nor idemify with them. You may have co prove yo urself in mher ways co be accepted. To dare, no research has examined rh e impacr of the relative physical anractiveness of group membe rs on group throughpur and outcome variables. 20 This is surprising given how mu ch acrention is placed on physical anracriveness in America n cul ture at large and in inrerpersonal co mmUnic.1rion research specificall y.

Space and Seating.

GlOSSA ~ Group Ecology A group '5 space as created by seating

choices and furni-

ture arrangements

Many scienrists have examined how people use space to co mmunicate. The amount of space people prefer between them depends on a variety of faccors, including culrure and ge nder. For example, in the United States mosr business transactions are conducted at what Edwa rd Hall calls social distance, which is between four and eight feer. !1 We are co mfortable allowing only our intimate friends within a foot or two. However, four feet is much too far for someone from rhe Arab world or from L1tin America. In these countries people rransac[ busin ess at what we consid er close pe rso nal disrance, which often makes Americans very uneasy. In rhe dominant culture of th e Unired States, females rend to sit closer together than males. as do people of rhe same age and soc ial status and those who know each orher well. The searing arrangements in groups and even the way furnirure is arranged is ca lled group ecology.22 In a group, sicring dose together, especially if rhe room is large enough for members to spread out, indicates that members like each other and share a sense of cohesiveness. A member who sits aparr from the others may be signaling (hat he o r she does not feel a part of the group. Group eco logy and group processes such as status, leadership, power, and member participation are linked to each other. Dominant people often claim more than their fair share of space, and a group's leader usually is given more space by the mher members rhan they claim. In addition. group leaders generall y sir in a central position, such as at rhe head of a recrangular rabie, where [hey ca n see as many of th e Other members as

Communication Principles for Group Members

poss ible. Quite simpl y, the most ceorral place in a group 's eco logy aJlows members who occupy that space mo re influence, panicipation, domination, and opportunity to foster attriburions ofleadership. 23 People who sit across from each other respond to each other mo re than peo ple sining side by side o r on th e edges of eac h other's vision. The ideal table for most small group disc uss ions is a round tabl e, where members have easy eye co ntact with each other. If that is not possi ble, group members are advised to position themselves around th e rabie, whatever shape it happens to be, in something close to a circle or oval. Violating space no rms may spell trouble for group members, depending on th ei r statu s with in the group. 24 Hi gh-status members ca n get away with moving both closer ro o th ers and farth er away. These violations in expectation actually increase their statu s. Gro up members who are high in Status have a kind of ext ra credit within thei r groups and can deviate from group norm s with little or no punishment. Low-status members are not so fortunate beca use th ei r dev iations are framed within the context of their negative status. Thus, if rh ey move closer to others they ca n be see n as pushy, and if they move fanher away th ey ca n be seen as aloof; in both cases their anractiven ess and persuasiveness diminishes. Altering seating arrangements may also appear nonco nsequ ential; however, the searing choi ces you and your group members make indicate how sociaJty accessible yo u have made yo urselves (Q each other. Social accessibili ty is impOrtalH if mem bers are (Q promote social contact and enhan ce the more relational group outcomes, such as respect and cohes iveness. 25 For example, a srudelH group one of us advised had developed {he custo m of having the six-perso n exec uti ve co mminee meet just before the large organizational meetin g. Unfonunately, exec utive committee members co nducted th eir meeting sining in th e sa me places rh ey used for the organizational meeting- at a long head tabl e, with all six members on rh e same side of the table. Members showed signs of frustration , anger, co nfusion, and so fonh, umit th ey rook the suggestion to use a round table instead of the head table for (he execur ive meeting. Both the co ntent of th e meetings and (he relationships among members improved dramatically with that simple space change.

Facial Expressions and Eye Contact.

Sitting where yo u can see every orher membe r of th e group is imponam because it allows you to make eye co ntact with other members. Eye co ntact and facial exp ressio ns are among the most important non ve rbal behaviors for g roup members, as you ca n see in rhe ca rtoon on the nex t page. For Amer icans, makin g eye co nract signals (hat the channel for communication is open. This is why many smd ents look down at th eir notebooks when a teach er asks a question- they avoid eye co nract so they won't be ca lled on to answer. Prolonged eye co ntact can signal coope rativen ess or competitiveness, dependin g on [he circum sta nces. Most Am eri ca ns es tablish eye contact before spea king and continue it intermittentl y when talkin g ro so meo ne they like. Howeve r, people from other cultures are so metimes offended by Americans' direct gazes, wh il e o thers prefer to main ta in an intense, unbroken sta re when co nversi ng, wh ich is un co mfortabl e for America ns. As with other nonverbal behavior, num erous cultural facrors inAuence what a person co nsiders ro be appropriate eye co ntact. In unifi ed and co hesive groups, members tend to look continuously at each other during a discuss ion. In host il e or tense groups, members avoid eye co nta ct.

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Judging from their facial expressions, what do you think Washington, Jefferson. Roosevelt, and Uncoln are thinking 7 Cl The New Yorker Collection; 1998 Donald Reilly from cartoonbank.com. All Righl'> Reserved.

People can accurately determine the rype of emotion someone in a photograph is ex· periencin g from lookin g just at th e face and eyes. Anger, sadn ess, happin ess. sup porr, disagreement. interest. liking-all are ind ica ted by fac ial expressions. 26 In addition , the emoti on does nor need to be di splayed fo r a long time. Peop le ca n recogni ze mi croex pressions that last as link· as one-fifteenth of a seco nd, and they ca n be train ed (0 improve their ability to detecr mi croex pressio ns. 27 Some people have " poker" faces; rheir facial ex press ions c han ge very littl e. They tend to be trusted less than those whose faces express their feelings more openly. Most of us monitOr th e fac ial ex press ions of others because th ey provide clues about what is going o n in the group. Even if a group member isn' t sayin g anythin g about yo ur proposal, you can tell by h er spontan eous frown a nd grimace th at she doesn' t think mu ch of it. Th at gives you inform ation about what your next steps should be-drop the proposa l, modify it, ask the orh e r member directly wh a t she thin ks, or speak with her privately after the meeting .

•

Movements.

Moveme nrs of the ha nds, arms, and body signal many feeli ngs a nd aniwd es. For exa mpl e, peopl e turn direcdy toward others they like and away from those they dislike. Leaning toward each other indi ca tes a sen se of mutual inclusive ness, whe reas lea ning away signals rejection. 28 When gro up memb ers feel a se nse of uni ty with each other, th ey tend to imitate each other's posture and body movements. This takes place automati ca lly, without co nscioll s awareness. Edward Mabry found that body orientation can change significa ntl y from one m eetin g (Q anorher. 2~ fu group members get to kn ow, like, and trust one another more, th ey te nd to increase their eye co ntact and angle their bodi es more directly toward each other. Both tens ion and status ca n be reveal ed with movem ents. M embers who are swi nging a foot, r.visting a lock of hair, or tapping a pencil may be indicating tension. It may be hard

Communication Principles for Group Members for the other members to know wherher the move menrs indicate frustration , impatience, or annoyance with th e group's progress. Movement ca n also indicate who has high status in the group. High ~s ratus members rend to be th e most relaxed , so th ey lea n back and look around. 30 Members are more likel y to imitate the movements of high ~status members than those of low ~statu s members.J)

Voice. Vocal cues include such fac tors as pitch, speed, fluency, loudness, and pauses. We rely o n ton e of vo ice to interpret so meone's mood. Someone who says, "Yeah , I co uld li ve with that " softl y in a ques tionin g [One of voice is nOI likely [0 be believed. In addition , listeners tend re judge the stams, edu cation~llevel , erhnicity, and attitud es of speakers on the basis of VOG II cues. J2 In the United States people who speak in a monotone have less credibility and are less persuasive than [hose who speak in a more animated rene of voice. However, those who are extremel y an imated may appear to be irrational or hyste rical. Nonve rbal voice signals th at regulare interact ion express group member involvement , dominan ce, co mpetition , and coo perativeness. u For insrance, people make nonverbal backchannel so unds, such as " mm ~ hmmm " and " uh ~ huh ," to indi ca te involvement and understandin g when listenin g. Interestingly, cu ltures vary in the use of the backchannel. Most people from western European backgrounds use rh e backchannel less frequendy than Afri can Amer icans , Hispanics. o r people with so uth ern European backgrounds. If conversational panners do not share rh e same backchannel norms. th ey can begin to stereorype each orher and develop negative perceptions..14 In addition , when people from the same culture converse, the fact that they use the backchannel similarly helps increase their recall of the conversa tion Iarer. J5 However, wh en people with different backchanncl norms conve rse, they seem to give each mh et misleading feedback that reduces their later recall. We disc uss backchannel differences between African Am eri ca ns and Europea n Americans in more detail in Chapte r 5. Backchanncl so unds may be inrerep rered as s h ow~ ing either inte rest or agreemeIH. These d ifferen ces ca n cause mi sund erstandings if group members are not aware of them and thu s influence how smoothly members can agree on iss ues. If. for example, you believe grou p members agree wirh your ideas based on their "uh -huhs ," only (Q discover later rhat they were JUSt trying to show that they were paying auemion to yo u. yo u' ll probably be upser! Dialect refers to regional and social variations in pronunciation, vocabulary. and grammar. The different dial ects you hear in your groups can influence perceptions of intelligence. co mpetence, and credibil iry.J6 Counrries such as the United States, G reat Britain, and Japan have regional and social class language deviations from the "standard " dialect. Group mel11 ~ bers who use nonsta ndard dialects-saying, for example. ain't instead of isn't- are often given lower starus and credibiliry ratings. General American dialecc is rated higher on pleas~ an mess and socia- intellectual statuS {han the dialecc ofSomh Boston or the Bronx. Be very cautious about stereoryping group members with dial ects different from your own.

Timing.

Time cues are both culture- related and relational. In some Olher cultures and in co-cultures of this coumry. no one would expect to get right to work in a group meeting; first, one must get (h e feel of the mher people. Most rural people tackle business at a slower pace than th eir urban co unterparts. In the fast- paced U.S. busi ness world , people who come late to mee tings are judged inconsiderate and undisciplined. North Americans will allow only abom a five-minute leeway before th ey expect an apology from someone who is late. J7 In rh e predominant culrure of this cou ntry. co ming late and leaving early

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indica tes to fellow group members that yo ur time is precious but it's OK to waste theirs, In dozens of case studi es of studenr groups. one co nsistently late member was the subject of bitter compl aints by the others. Time is a vi tal commodiry during meetings, People who talk litde and those who talk excess ively have linie impacL Excessive talkers are co nsidered rud e and selfish. AJrho ugh they did not protest at the time, many students have complained about fellow project gro up members who waste time by chattering at length about social matters or other topics irrelevant to the group's purpose. On rh e Other hand, those who calk just somewhat more than the average are judged favorably on leadership characreristi cs. )8 In fact, talkativeness. or speaking time, is co nsidered a stron g factor in determining how much power a group member is perceived to have.)') Likewise, people who structure rhe group's time so chat every item on an agenda can be discussed are appreciated, If YO li are inse nsitive to time cues in your group, you will have little influence and will not be co mpletely accepted by the others. No rype of nonverbal behavior can be overloo ked if yo u wam ro understand what is goi ng on in a group. However, much remains to be discovered about how nonverbal communication operates in small groups; group researchers must broaden their efforts to understand this important phenomeno n, Relatively litde, for instance, is understood about the influence o n group behavior of member touch behavior, artifacts such as clothing, emotion, and different kinds of grou p co ntex ts (e.g., groups in submarines}.<40 Remembe r also that you can nOt state with co nfid ence exactly wha t someone else is thinking or feeling from nonverbal cues alo ne. We hope the list of nonverbal behaviors presented here enco urages you ro increase yo ur awareness and se nsiti vity, bur you should not co nsider this list exhaustive. We summarize thi s list, in rongue-in-cheek fash ion, in Table 3.4, which reminds you how to behave in a gro up if yo u want rhe others to di slike yo u.

TABLE 3.4

Nonverbal Behaviors Guaranteed to Get Other Members to Dislike You

Nonverbal behavior plays an especially important role in creating and maintaining group relationships. Here are several suggestions for getting you r fellow group members to dislike you: 1. Show the others that you don't like them: • Don't smile. • • Don't lean forward. • Don't make eye contact. 2. Be unresponsive to the others: • • • •

Slouch. Don't pay attention. Scowl. Text message on your cell phone when someone else is talking.

3. Keep a poker face to make the others guess what you're thinking. (continued)

Communication Principles for Group Members

TABLE J.4

Continued

4. Violate an important group appearance norm : • If your group dresses casually, wear formal attire. • If business casual is the norm, wear torn sweats. Thi s is especially important if your group is giving a presentation; that's when you should wear your grungiest clothes. 5. Violate your group's space norms: • • If group members sit far apart, move in close to another member (and watch him or her squirm). o If members sit close to each other, you sit farther apart. It might be especially helpful to turn your body so that you seem to have your back to the group. 6 . Indicate rejection by leaning away from the group.

7. Violate your group's movement norms: o Gesture wildly. • Don't gesture at all. • Get up and leave the room without explanation; when you return, don't tell them where you've been .

S . Violate your group's voca l cues: o Talk r-e-a-I-I-y s-I-o-w-I-y. o Talkasfastasyoucan. o SHOUT. o Whisper so others have to ask you to repeat. • Use jargon the others won't understand . o Refuse to use t he jargon or special vocabulary of the group. o Overuse the backchannel when others are speaking. o Don't give any backchannel cues at all-don't do anything to indicate that you're paying attention. 9 . Violate your group's norms about timing : o Come late to meetings (especially without explanation). o Leave meetings early (don't explain thiS, either). o Hog the group's time by talking constantly. o Don't say anything at all.

Nonverbal Behavior in Computer-Mediated Groups As chaHengin g as ir is ro understand nonverbal behavior in facc-ro-face (F[F) groups, i[ is even morc chall enging in vi rrual groups and groups using CMC.

79

80

GLOSSARY

CHAPTER 3

l

Computer· Mediated Communication (CMC) Any Interaction via computer technol· ogy, such as clwl

rooms Net Conference Any conference

connected by net worked computers

Webinar Any computer-

mediated pre5etlta· lion or workshop that is often Interactive

Social Presence The degree to which

a penon feels that another is actuoffy present dUflng un

Interaction

J

COMPARING FACE-TO-FACE AND COMPUTER-MEDIATED GROUP COMMUNICATION Our discussion so far has emph as ized com muni cat ion in face·ro·facc groups, bur as we expl ained in C hapter I , many gro ups lise so me form of technology to enhan ce th eir work. In fact, it makes se nse to co nsid er gro ups as falling alo ng a conrinuul11 from purely f.'leeto-face, (Q combining face-fa-face (FtF) and comp uter-mediated interactio n, lO purely co mpurer-mediated:H Wi th Technology, members ca n get messages ro one another d uring meetings or oU(side mee ting times. They ca n be in differem places and "talk" ro each oche r simultaneously or retri eve messages when it's co nvenient. Us ing co mputcrs ro in teract with fellow group members, inside or outside gro up mcctings , is called computermediated communication, or CMC. C M C ca n take a variety of form s, in cluding e- mail, chat room discuss ions. electro nic bullct in boards, listservs, nel co nferc ncing (audi o, video, or com puter conferencing). webin ar, and text messaging. to nam e a few. New technologies are crea ted alilhe time. and exist ing technologies evolve at a rapid rate. The corporate wo rld has embraced co mpurcr technologies to enhance gro up work, with organizarions using C M C for stral egic planning, assessment, product eva luation, and proj ect coord ination . and even to replace o r enhan ce rouline meetin gs.>i2 Such technologies save an orga nizat io n time and money. For example. many uni versities save rrlve! cons for job cand idates by scheduling relephone or video co nference calls to inrervicw job candidates. These facro rs make CMC impo nalll to study! Verbal co mmunication-words- provides the foundation for bOth FtF and C M C. Rece nt research by Amy Go nza les, Jeffrey H ancock, and James Pennebaker on lingui sti c style co nfirms this.'B Th ese researchers analyzed the lan guage style of 4 1 FtF and 34 CMC groups and found that similari ty of sly le amo ng gro up members p redicted the degree of co hes iveness in both types of groups. This was tru e rega rdless of the scx of (h e members o r the number of peo ple in rhe group. Members o f co hesive gro ups rend to mimi c o ne another's verba l styl e, sugges ting that suc h members have developed similar rnelllal model s of how to work and interacr. This is tru e borh for face-to-face and o nline groups. Nonverbal co mmunic..1. rio n, howeve r, ope rates differenrly in C MC environments. Fo r examp le, in a net conference-any meeting where members are el ectroni cally connccted by networked compurers-o r a webinar-a co mputer-mediated prese nlalion or workshop that is ofren imeracti ve-no nve rba1 messages su ch as facial expressio ns and body language may be miss ing entirely o r exagge rated, d epending on the type of co nference. 44 If members are all at keyboards, ges tures and tone of vo ice are reduced. If the net conference provides audio but nor video lin ks. me';lbers ca nn ot see each other's fac ial express ions, bU( they can hear to ne of voice. Turn taki ng may be awkward because (here is often a ha1f-seco nd delay in transmiss io n. which can make CMC di scussions choppie r than FtF. For some tasks, such as brainsrorming a list of ideas. t hese non verbal challenges may nOt maner mu ch. However, if thc grou p needs to achieve consensus on an important d ecision , CMC ca n impair a gro up 's se nse of shar ing, involvement, and team s pirir.>i ~ Co mpared ro FtF co mmunicatio n, CMC has less social presence, which is th e ex tent to which group mem bers perce ive the CMC (fo r example , a tel ephonc, a video co nfcrence, com puter e- mail) to be like FtF interaction socia tl y and emotionally. M embers' perception depends on the degree to which they perceive rh at oth er members are actually tlure during the interacrion.>i6 For example, asynchronous co mmunicat ion, or communi catio n

Communication Principles for Group Members

81

He lping a Group with Sche d u le Challenges Assume you are a member of a five-person group with serious schedule challenges. You have one month to complete a group report and pres-

ent it to your class, but there is literally no way all five of you can meet at the same time. Wally commutes; he lives 90 miles away and comes to campus only on Tuesdays and Thursdays, when your cla ss meets. Sandy

and Raj work afternoons and evenings, but are free on weekends. As soon as your class ends at 3 P.\,., they each rush off to their jobs, from

4 to midnight. Esther can meet during the week, but as an observant Orthodox Jew, she cannot leave home or do class work from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday. You are free during the week, but have a

weekend job at a juvenile shelter where you have to stay all weekend. You have decided the only way you can get your project finished is to use technology. All of you have Facebook pages; four of you have

computer access at home and one of you accesses the Internet from the library; your class has a Blackboard site where your teacher ca n set up Dropbox for you to work on documents collaboratively; all of you have cell phones.

How are you going to use what you have to get to kn ow one another and get your task completed? What, exactly, will you suggest to your

fellow group members about how yo u ca n proceed?

with a delay between messages (e.g., e-ma il), promotes less socia l prese nce than synchronous , more simultaneous co mmunication (e.g .• electronic chat rooms). However, group membe rs can become very inventive when it comes ro creat ing the sa me kind of social presence found in FtF co mmunication Y For exa mpl e. group members can choose ro sa ndwi ch net confere nces in between FtF mee tings, th ereby enhancing their "groupness." W hen ind ividuals do not know each m her, they use cues such as e- mail names ro for m impress ions of one another, thereby increas ing social prese nce.48 For instance, rh e more crea tive nam es (e.g., srinkybug) were attributed [Q whi te males, whil e ordi nary nam es (e.g., jsmith ) were see n as more productive. Emoticons, rh e typograph ic symbols used in C M C to convey a variety of emotio ns (e.g., :-) for happiness or :-( for sadness), also help increase th e social presence of CMC. Peop le find ways ro adapt computer-mediated interaction so that it does everyth ing face-co-face co mmuni ca tio n does, includ ing form rela tio nsh ips. Walther and hi s associates, who have smdied how people adap t CMC. no te th at hum ans need to get to know one another and to affiliate with o ne another.49 W hen their "norm al" ways to do rhis are nor availab le, they will use whar is available. In CMC, that means th at word s rake over the job that no nverbal communication does in face-w-face interaction. In fact, groups usin g CMC can form relationships that are JU St as strong an d JUSt as high qual ity as face-w-face panners do. Social p resence is imporranr to a group . and we are JUSt beginning [Q lea rn how gro ups create social presence withi n the limira ri ons of technology.

GLOSSARY Emotlcons The typographic symbols used in (M( to convey a variety of emotions

82

CHAPTER 3

-

'"..

~

:

. ,,; " .1". ."'. ;

. J

, ' ~'I

j, "

,

.

t, '

I

•

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

Communication is the transactional process in • Verbal communication Rows more smoothly • -which when m embers clarifY abstract concepts, keep people simultaneo usly create, interpret, discussion organized. are sensitive to others' feelings, and follow the language rules of the group.

and negOtiate shared meaning through their interaction.

including words, are arbitrary. which • Nonverbal behaviors, more believable because • Symbols, they are harder to conerol, are especially hard makes perfect understanding impossible and to interpret accurately; they supplemenc or substitute for verbal communication. regulate the flow, and express feelings.

means that effective communication among members is the responsibility of every member. and hearing are not the same. Each • ofListening the four listening preferences-people. cootent, action, and time-have strengths, weaknesses, and implications for small groups. listening by paraphrasing helps mem• Active bers understand one another more clearly. Group members communicate via messages. • verbal and nonverbal signals they send and interpret.

categories especially relevant to un• Nonverbal derstanding small group communication include appearance, use of space, facial expressions, eye contact, movements, vocal cues, and timing.

•

Group members increasingly use computers to communicate. and computer use dramatically influences the nature of a group's nonverbal messages in particular.

1. Recall three recent conversations you have had. (If you are taking pare in a major project, think about three recent conversations in yo ur group meetings.) For each conversation, write down who participated, what you talked about. how well you liscened (on a scale of1 [not well at all] [0 10 [very well]) and what some of the reasons were for your good or poor listening (e.g., boring topic, time of day, monotone delivery. preoccupation with somethi ng else). During a class discussion, look for factors common to good and poor listening.

a. A discussant may not have the Roor or add anything to the conversation until she or he paraphrases what the previous speaker said to that speaker's satisfaction.

2. This exercise is designed to help you apply and practice active listening. Divide into groups of five or six members. Select a controversial topic and practice active listening as you discuss the topic. Remember that paraphrasing is not simply restating the previous speaker's words. Each group should use the following rules:

After the activity. discuss the difficulties encountered in active listening. Look for the benefits of paraphrasing and the problems that may be encountered. Discuss why it may be so hard for group members to understand others before contributing to the discussion.

h. If the paraphrase is not accepted, the discussant may try again until the speaker accepts the paraphrase.

c. One member of the group should keep track of the number of times paraphrases were accepted or rejected. Each attempt should be recorded.

Communication Principles for Group Members

83

3. Browse through several magazines for interesting advertisements. Cut out a variety of advertisements and bring them to class. Discuss with your group or your class each of the advertisements. Identify what the audience for each ad is and how the language of the ad is designed to appeal [0 irs aud ience.

facial expressions and eye concact, and nOte voice qualities and timing. When you are finished, discuss your observations. How do you think these nonverbal behaviors contributed to [he overall comm un icative character of [his group?

4. Tape-record a group meeting. Watch [he tape, and note the group's seating arrangements and th e space between members. Examine the

Go to www.mhhe.eom/ adamsgalanes8e and www.mhhe.eoml groups for self-quizzes and weblinks.

Action-Oriented Li stener

Content-Oriented Listener

Nonverbal Behavior

Active Listening

Emoticons

People-Oriented Listener

Bypass ing

Emotive Words

Relational Dimension

Communication

Group Ecology

Social Presence

Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)

Listening

Symbol

Message

Time-Oriented Listener

Content Dimension

Net Conference

Webinar

From Individuals 'to Group

P

art Three focuses on the interaction among group m embers as they begin to merge their own individual personalities, cultu res, behaviors, and so forth into a functioning group.

Chapter 4 looks at how a group develops from an initial collection of individuals into a team, with roles, norms, and a unique group

climate. Chapter 5 continues this discussion of group formation by examining various aspects of diversity among members and explorin g how this diversity can be managed so the group can perform at its best.

Becoming a Group

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: 1. Explain how communication creates and maintains a group through the process of structuration.

2. Describe the two major tasks groups must manage and how these create an equilibri um problem for a group. 3. Define primary, secondary, and tertiary tension, and give

examples of each. 4. Describe luckman's model of group development and Gersick's model of punctuated equilibrium and how each

describes phases many groups experience. S. Describ~ the communicative dynamics of each stage of group socialization. 6. Describe each of the three main categories of roles in groups. 7. Differentiate between formal and behavioral roles, and describe how behavioral roles emerge during group interaction.

8. Differentiate between rules and norms, and describe the four methods by which norms develop. 9. Explain what you would say and do if you wanted to change a group norm. 10. Describe each of the three main components that contribute to a group's climate.

Becoming a Group

The Man of La Mancha Cast and Crew

Noel, his church's choir director, broke his back in an airplane crash. To make his hospital time pass more quickly, he imagined the choir performing one of his favorite plays, Man of La Mancha. When he got out of the hospital, Noel decided to realize his dream by directing the play; he cast all the roles with choir members and performed the lead role of Don Quixote himself. Geoff, an experienced actor, was sidekick Sancho. Geoff couldn't carry a tune, but his acting experience and his unfailing good humor helped the cast mesh into a cohesive team. Gena, in the role of Aldonza, was also an experienced actress but had never before sung solo; however, she had a good sense of rhythm and was able to coach the dancers. Very few of the choir members could sing well, but they had an amazing array of other talents. Davida, who was both shy and clumsy, nevertheless was an outstanding artist and created two fabulous horse heads out of papier-mache. She also created a minimal but effective set that could be positioned and removed qUickly from the sanctuary. There were not enough men for all the roles, so Noel cast women in several parts, including the Barber and the horses. Delores had no sense of rhythm and could sing only whatever part the person next to her was singing, but she was a whiz at creating costumes out of Salvation Army thrift shop treasures. The cast had only three weeks to rehearse, from the play's first read-through to opening night. Given the lack of singing and acting talent, lack of experience, lack of money for costumes and set materials, and time constraints, this play should have been a disaster. Instead, it was a great success. Several experienced theatergoers said that, although they had seen more professionally mounted productions of Man of La Mancha, this performance had touched them emotionally more than other performances. The cast and crew had grown into a cohesive team whose output far exceeded reasonable expectations. Members contributed all their talents (singing and otherwise) to make the performance a success. Why did this small group work when all "objective" assessments suggested it would fail?

87

88

GLOSSARY Structuratlon

The idea that group

communication creates, maintains, and continually re-

creates a group's norms and the way it operates

(HAPTER 4

T

he mutual influence that occurs when group members communicate with each

other is at the heart of any group's throughput process. This chapter explores more fully some of the throughput processes indicative of an emerging group and how groups such as the Man of La Mancha cast and crew become an effective group. Groups whose individual members develop into a productive team consistently figure out how to manage their tensions and create and maintain constructive roles, norms, and a supportive group climate. These groups must also develop and support a stable leadership structure. Leadership is so central to group dynamics that it will be covered more completely in Chapter 9.

How Communication Structures the Small Group The way members create and maintain a group, including establis hing a group's ro les, norms, rules, and climate, is called structuration. Developed by Marshall Scott Poole, David Siebold, and Robert McPhee, this theory is complex; however, the main point is this: Verbal and nonverbal communication among members creates the group norms, operating procedures, and climate and maintains them once they are estab lished. t Communication among members, the essential throughput process, inA uences the content of discussion, relationships among members, and structures (e.g., roles, leadership) that form a group. The theo ry contains three important assumptio ns. First, group members do not come to a group with a clean slate about how to behave. They have been tau ght what is appropriate by their general culture, by their participation in other groups, and by the organizations they belong to. Fo r example, Gena and Geoff, from their commun ity theater experience, knew how to behave professionally, with their lines learned, and how to help the others feel comfo rtable on stage. T hey brought theater va lu es and expectations into this particular group. Notice their communica tion behavior involved both the group's task (puning on the play) and the group's relarionships (being helpful and supponive to other cast members). This group was beginning to develop into a supportive, welcoming cast. The more members continued to behave supportively, the more that standard of behavior became entrenched: "This is how we ope rate in our group." Second, although people pick up rules and standa rds for behavior from the general culture, no law forces them to follow those rules. Goeff and Gena could have taken the ani rude, "We're experienced community theater actors, we know more about theater than the rest of you, so you have to do what we say." Individuals may choose to ignore norms and rules for supportive behavior. If they had chosen to ignore the rules for polite behavior, do you think Davida would have felt comfortable creating her papier-mache horse heads, or Dolores constructing invent ive costumes from scraps? More likely, they would have hesitated to volunteer and the production have missed au( on several creative ideas and suggestions. The third imporrant assumption of structura tion theory is that th e group is never finally created; instead, it constantly re-creates itself through communication so that it is

Becoming a Group always in a state of becoming. Thus, change usually happens incrementally. Once having esta blished a climate of supportiveness, th e 1110memum within th e Man of La Mancha cas t would have co ntinued along this path. That's what structuration is all about- how co mmunication creates and maimains the group over ti me. We especiall y like the communicative focus of th e th eory of structurationj it rem inds us to look at members' communicative behavior- what th ey say and do in the group.

Challenges in Group D.e velopment All groups must reso lve ce rtain issues on their way to becoming fully fu nction in g groups and teams. Among those are handlin g the two key iss ues all groups face: managing social tens ions an d moving smoothly from one stage of development to another.

A GROUP' S MAJOR FUNCTIONS The first key issue, managing socia l te nsio ns, involves both the group's task and the relationships among members. These twO functions, task and socioe motio nal, must be han dl ed simultaneo usly, rhus producin g whar gro up members may ex per ience as a rug-of-wa r betwee n grou p task and social demands. When members spend emoti onal and mental ene rgy on th e interpersonal iss ues, t hey take away from the energy needed to atte nd to their work. O n the other hand, when membe rs attend to the task at hand, they pay less attent io n to each other's human needs. Robert F. Bales calls thi s the eq uilibr iu m pro ble m. 2 A gro up's attent io n must sh ift between co ncent rating on irs task and conce ntrating on the rel ationships betwee n members. Firs t, the group mUSt develop depend able, harmoniou s relationships that will give it stability- th e socioemotional co ncern. Seco nd , the group must focus on its charge, o r task co nce rn. Both need to be attended to, in some degree , throug hout the life of the grou p, if the group is to succeed . Tas k and socioemotio nal co ncern s surface at predictable periods in a group 's life cycle. initiall y, befo re members have go tten to know eac h other well and developed smoot h wor king rel at io nships, the group must necessarily spend more time on socioemotional issues. Members work out their relationships wi th each othe r in a srruccuratio n process durin g whi ch norm s, rul es, roles (including leaders hip), and the gro up 's climate emerge. in Case 4. 1, for insta nce, Geoff co uld not sin g well but had valuable act in g expe ri ence. Davida had not sung so lo but had the danc in g skills necessary to help coach the dancers. Both were encou raged to put their talents-whatever they we re- to use for the grou p. The Man of La Mancha cast and crew did a particularly good job of working Out th ei r relat ionships effectively an d finding a valuable role for everyone. NOt ice that, while the indi vidual relationships were being worked o ut, the group was engaged in rehearsin g and preparing for its performances. In other words, it could not ignore its task while members got to know each oth er. In fact, th e group relationships developed in the process of wo rking o n the group's task. Rarely docs a group have the luxury of members getting to know each other well before they have ro sta rt worki ngthey usually have to get to work right away! Thus, instead of a group's task and socioemotio nal fun ctio ns occurring sepa rately and sequential ly, the group works on bOth at

89

CHAPTER 4

90

the same time (i.e., [he equi librium probl em), but at any given time one may be more important than the other. In groups that mature smoothly and effectively, socioemorio nal issues are hand led appropriately in the beginning so lh at (h e group can move on to ocher things. If [he gro up does a good job of working our its initial socioemmionai concerns and relationships among membe rs. th en as it matures it can focus more e nergy on irs rask. One final nore: Groups neve r s[O P dealing with borh main functio ns. Task co nce rns are always present, and relati o nships amo ng members must be monito red, with probl ems addressed as they ar ise. One fun ction may be in the foregrou nd at any given mom ent, but rhe orher hasn 't disappeared from view. Borh task and socioe motionaI concerns remain key func ti ons groups must manage.

SOCIAL TENSIONS IN GROUPS There are three typ ica l tensions most groups experience. Primary tension often characte rizes a gro up's ea rly interactions, as members are ge nin g [0 know each other. During periods of primary tension, imeracrion is overly polite, with long, un co mfortable pauses in the co nversatio n.) This kind of socia l tension is similar to stage fright.4 Reca ll how you typ ically feel the first time you meer with a new gro up. Like mosr peo pl e yo u

probably worry whether the others will like you and whether yo u will belong. You want be valued by the group, and so does everyone clse. This makes most members ca reful not to say or do some thin g that might offend rhe o th e r members; behavior is tenrati ve, st iff, and ca utiou s. That is why newly formed gro ups ofte n seem overly formal and excessively polite. Secondary tension usually occurs later in a group's life cycle. 5 This tens ion is wo rk related and stems from differing opinions about subs tantive issues. It is inevitable in cask gro ups because members bring different perspectives to their group's task concerns. If secondary tension is not managed well, it can continue [0 resurface. 6 O ne of th e best markers of seco ndary rension is an ab rupt move away from the grou p's rouri ne. This co uld happen with a sudden outbu rst from a member fo llowed by an a ngry exchange between members and then a rarher unpleasa nt long pause. Poor ma nagement of secondary rension porentiall y threatens rhe interperso nal health of the group an d ca n evolve into a destructive group climate. Much of rhe tensio n we have observed in gro ups is nOt stri ctly prim ary or secondary. Instead, gro ups often become bogged down in argumencs that seem to recycle over a nd over. This inability or even unw illingn.ess to man age iss ues often represents a powe r or sta tus struggle between members. This is a mod ified form of primary tension that ca n appear on the surface ro be seco ndary rension over co nte nt issues. When exa min ed more closely, however, it is a sn uggle over how gro up me mbe rs d efine themselves in relations hip ro eac h o th er. Th ese power st ru gg les produce tertiary tension among mem bers. Members struggle ove r wh o wi ll decid e rh e rul es and procedures for the gro up . Con fli c t may occur over how to make d ec isions, how to reso lve co nfli cts, who has the a uthority to de termine what will h appen in the grou p, w ho ca n make assignmenrs, w ho is an expert at what, what are the righ ts a nd privi leges of gro up me mbe rshi p, and so forth. Jury del iberat ions, fo r instan ce, a re rife wit h te rtiary tensio ns. 7 J urors have been kn own to pick up th eir chairs and toSS th em through windows, e ngage in fistfig hts, attempt escapes from heated delibe rations , wr ite angry notes to the judge, to

GLOSSARY Primary Tension Anxiety arising early

in

Q

group's (orma·

tion, as members work out their rela· tionships and roles

Secondary Tension Task-related tension

thal stems from differing opinions

about the substantive work of the group

Tertiary Tension Tension thot stems from power and

status struggles in group

Q

Becoming a Group

"Before we begin this family meeting. how about we go around and say our names and a little something about ourselves. " Primary tension indudes very polite conversa tion wi th uncomfortable pauses and is usually reserved for strangers. CI The New Yorker Collection; 2002 Matthew Diffee from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved .

and shout so loudly rh ey can be hea rd ourside their room. Jurors ca n be di smissed for such beha vio r. These actions have prompted co unrooms to develop booklets for jurors explaining how they can co nsrrucri veiy manage di ve rse opi nions during jury deliberarion. One of us obse rved a classroom group ex perienci ng tertiary tension. The group 's assignment was ro obse rve a task group and ga ther dara about it, either rhrough obse rvarion or by talking to th e members. Mike insisted that the group use his question naire as one method of gat hering clara. Mi chelle demanded insread that rhe group use her ques tionnaire. This endl ess argument was a rhinly masked power struggle. If this really had been only seco ndary tension, Mike and Michelle co uld easily have combined th eir qu estionnaires. Instead, each demanded to be in charge of deciding rhe

91

92

C HAPTER 4

group's procedures whi le the others frustrated rhem se!ves trying to come up with a co mpromise rhat neith er would accept. This destructive power str uggle is an example of tert iary tension. For a group to perform ar its best, social tension mus t be managed appropriately.

1. Group members can move through the primary tension stage more qukkly if they know each other. The choir described in Case 4. 1 had an ad vantage in that members already kn ew each ot her fairly well when rhey began play rehea rsals. A get-acq uainted period helps members do rhi s-eve n when members do know each other. Don't hes itate to suggest rhis, eve n if yo ur gro up's designated lea der doesn't. The members . . . .·i!l !Je .;.~!.: i:v "'':'':viiij:llish thei r task much more effec ti vely and quickly if rhey know where th e othcr members are coming from, what th ey do on the job, an d even wha t hobbies and ourside inte rests th ey have. Jok in g, laughi ng, srorytell ing, shar ing a mea l, and having fun rogerher before gett ing down ro work help as well.

2. Members can reduce both primary and secondary tension by sharing what they know about the problem at hand. For instance, if a comm ittee is charged with reco mmending sol urions to a ca mpus parking problem , each member's perception of the scope and seri ous ness of the problem can bc shared so chac all will have so me common understanding of rhe problem. This mapping process wi ll be described in C hapter 7.

3. Secondary and tertiary tensions can be managed if group members demonstrate tolerance for disagreement. When group members believe that their opi nions and ideas are app reciated, eve n if these opinions are contrary to rhe ideas of others, rhe n they feel valued by the group. They also are less likely to demand high statu s if they already believe rhe group appreciates chern. Showing that YO ll appreciate someo ne else's th oughtful analysis, even if YOll don't fully agree, can help. For example, sayi ng, ") see what YO ll mean about the hidden cos ts of that option , Tom, and that's so merhin g I hadn't considered" shows Tom that yo u were listening and that you appreciate th e careful thought he gave {Q rhe iss ue. Statemems that acknowledge confidence in the group (e.g., "We'll be ab le to find an ansv.'er-we've done a good job so far") help develop solidarity in the group sys tem.

.

4. Humor is also an effective way to handJe secondary and tertiary tension in a group. A well-timed, li ghrhcarted commem ca n move a gro up past an obstacle thar see ms insu rm ountabl e. Joking and lau gh ing together increase the members' good feelings toward each mher. This in tllrn helps members become more open toward each other, which ca n lead to resolutio n of their substantive and status differences. Howeve r, never joke to change the topic or to pur someone in his or her place because this can destroy th e co hes iveness rhe group has developed. T erriary tension is always tri cky to handle; indirect methods often don ' t work. G roup members may have to address th e prob lem directl y by sayin g so merhing to rhe offending members. Either a group's des ignated leader or one of the m her members can politely but

Becoming a Group

Managing Tertiary Tensions A situation that arose between Gena and Geoff on the set of Man of La Mancha illustrates the type of situation that often leads to tertiary tension. Gena had been in several plays and had studied acting informally.

She loved the process of uncovering a character from the inside out and discovering the meaning of a scene or a line through the rehearsal period. Geoff was a more experienced actor with some directing experience as well. He had strong ideas about how certain lines should be read and certain scenes played. When he took it upon himself to advise Gena about how to read certain lines, she was both irritated and confused. She liked Geoff and respected his experience, but she had

her own preferred way of developing a character. She knew she had several choices about how to handle the emerging conflict with Geoff, with some choices likely to be more effective than others for the entire enterprise. Consider Gena's situation: 1. What were several options Gena had for handling this situation? For example, she could do nothing or she could quit the cast. (List at least five in addition to these two.)

2. How was Geoff likely to react to each of these choices? 3. What were the likely outcomes for the group as a whole of each

of these choices? 4. If you were faced with this choice, what would be more important to you-keeping control of "your" character or maintaining harmony among the cast? Are there other things that would be

more important to you in this situation than harmony or control? If so, what would those be? 5. What choice would you be likely to make, and why? How effec·

tive do you think this choice would be? Ask two class members to select one of Gena's options and to roleplay this situation. After discussion about what worked and what didn't, ask two different class members to role·play a different option. Which

communication strategies seem to be more effective? Why?

firmly co nfront the members involved in the status struggle by pointing out the negative effects the power struggle is having on the rest of the group. The process of managing task and socioemotion al demands and their accompanying social tensions ca n be further complicated if a group uses electronic technology as a tool. Many people believe char computer-mediated techno logy increases a group's task communication while it decreases its socioemotio nal communication: This occurs because electronic tOols keep groups focused on such task-related processes as keeping records, listing ideas, and structuring the problem-solving process. In addition, tools such as e-mail,

93

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wh ich provide limited ways [Q exp ress nonverba l cues, may encou rage members nor to think of each other as individuals. However, as we noted in Chapter 3, groups llsi ng CMC have discovered ways to co mmunicate socioemorional information that is the same as the information exchanged in face-co-face gro ups,!!

PHASE MODELS IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT Small group scholars have observed that man y gro ups experience predi cta ble phases as they develop; several group development model s describe such phases. We will discuss twO such models: Tuckman's model of group development and Gcrsick's punctuated

equilibrium model.

Tuckman'. Model of Group Development. Bruce Tuckman's model of group development is one of the best-known models for describing typical stages in how grou ps develo p. 9 This linear model assumes that gro ups move through five stages from beginning [Q end. Fanning occurs when group members first meet. Mem bers form ini tia l impress ions of onc another, starr (0 ge t a handle on the group's cask, and fo cus on gcning alo ng. The group avo ids conRict and co ntroversy as it deals wit h primary tension. Next, storming occurs when membe rs sta rt (0 tackle {he group 's important issues and strong feelings stan ro surface. In [h is stage members argue (0 defend their poilHs of view. In (he norming stage, (he group has worked through its initial conflicts to estab lish its rul es and norm s about how it will operace. Members have gotten to know and app reciate one another's ski ll s and abi li ties and feel like they are part of a group. During th e performing stage. gro up members are ab le to work smoot hl y and effectively together. Not every gro up reaches this stage of developm ent, but for groups that do, members are inte rdependent, respon si bilities shi ft ap propr iately. and group identification is hi gh. The fifth stage. adjourning, was added to the model later. In th is stage, as the group co mpletes its task, members prepare fo r the group to disband. They may agree to keep in touch , and, in fact, so m e relation ships are likel y to continue after the gro up 's life has ended. Many small gro up schola rs consider phase models tOo simpl ist ic. There are multipl e facrors that ca n affect whether a gro up progresses through stages in an orderly way, what stages a group expe ri ences, what orde r those stages occur in , and how long a stage may last. However, phases such as those in T uckman's model seem ro describe what many people have exper ienced. Thu s, even though these stages are not uni ve rsal, they do seem ro capture the co mmon expe riences of ma tlY of us. Gerslck'. Model of Punctuated Equilibrium.

GLOSSARY Punctuated Equilibrium Periods of group stability interrupted by periods of signifi-

canlchange

Connie Gers ick's model of punctuated equilibrium stands in comrast ro linea r models such as Tuckman's. lo In her examination of rea l-time wo rk teams, Ge rsick d iscove red that th ese ream s moved back and forth between periods of stabil ity (she referred ro this as inertia), with members working steadily but unremarkably on the tas k, and shorr periods of signi ficant change. Thus, the change pun ctuated the long periods of stabil ity, o r equilibrium, ro create punctuated equilibrium. No ma[(er how long rh e gro up had to co mp lete its task, rhe key punctuation point occurred at the gro up's midpoint. For example, if the group had six month s ro co mplete its task, a significant transition point likely occu rred at the three- l11omh point. If the group was given three months, the transition occurred at one and a half mOlHh s.

9S

Becoming a Group

Before the midpoint, team members figured out what their charge was and how they would approach the task; they then worked steadily within that framework. At the halfway point, however, rhe groups suddenly seemed to realize that their rime was beginning to run out. Members broke from their routine work to assess what progress was being made toward the group's task; successful teams made adjustments in the ir work procedures. time lines, and so forth. If constructive changes were not made at this midpoint. rhey likely wou ldn't be made at all because, during the second half of rheir time frame. teams moved into another long period of stability in how they went about their work. Then, as teams approached the end of their time period, they rushed to meet the expectations of outsiders, such as the boss, the teacher, or the parent organization. If the initial work procedures were appropriate, or the team made the righr adjustments at midpoint, the team succeeded. Otherwise, the team failed to achieve its goals. We see this kind of development all the time in small group communication courses. In itially, groups layout how to proceed. stick to their plans, and th en at midterm or midsemcster realize th ey mayor may not have understood the ass ignment well enough to receive a positive final evaluation. They make all SOrts of changes. Some groups effectively co rrect their path while others do not. Then. as the rime nears for group presentations, many groups spe nd a co ncentrated time with each other, sometimes all night, preparing for final presentations. When students receive their grades on their written and oral assignments, they experience the consequences of meering, or not meeting. outside expectations. Groups can beco me set in their ways very earl y in their life cycle, resist ing change umil midway. Then at midpoint they are most open to assess their progress; however, they mUSt be willing to make co nstructive changes. At the end there is another Aurry of activity, and the expectations of outsiders become particularly relevant. Group members ca n assess how well they are proceeding by paying attemion to imporrant factors (hat affect th e group's development. One such factor is the change brought on by the addition of a new member to the group, as is common. We now turn our attent ion to how both individuals and groups deal with socializat ion of members.

Group Socialization of Members Socialization generally refers to someone learning to become parr of something, such as a gro up. JUSt as children are socialized into families and school, group members are also socialized into newly formed and establ ished groups. Carolyn Anderso n, Bruce Riddle, and Matthew Martin, recognizing the central role of commun ication in group processes, define group socialization as a reciprocal process o/social influence and change in which both newcomers and/or established members and the group ac{just and adapt to one another through verbal and nonverbal communication as they create and re-create a unique culture and group stmctures, engage in relevant processes and activities, and pllrrue individual and group goals. 11 There are three implications worth noting in this definition. First, the adapting and adjusting that happens when new members enter an established group occur through communication among group members. For group socialization to be effective, everyone involved-new and old members-must practice open communication, be accepting of one anocher, and welcome the positive change new members can bring.

GLOSSARY Group Socialization The process by which new and/or established members learn to fit together through ::ommunication

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Integrating a New Member One week before a community theater's opening night of Hotel Paro· diso, leading man Richard, who had been complaining of shortness of breath, was told by his doctor that he needed heart bypass surgeryimmediately! The cast was devastated . Members were concerned about Richard, of course, but they also were concerned about watching their six weeks of rehearsals go down the drain. The cast and crew had become a tight, cohesive group. Rehearsals had been going we ll, with the play promising to be the season's top moneymaker. The director debated canceling the run but prevailed on his talented friend Ted to assume Richard's part. Opening night was delayed for a week to give Ted time to learn the lines and the cast time to integrate a new cast member. 1. If yo u were the director, what would you do to help the reformulated cast get through its formation phase so members could focus on the play? Is there anything that can speed up the cast's formation phase? 2. If you were Ted, what would you do to help the other cast members feel comfortable with you? 3. If you were the cast members, how would you help Ted feel at ease? For more information

on antecedent socialization in

online groups, go to the Online Learning Center at

www.mhhe.com / adamsgalanes8e

GLOSSARY

STAGES OF GROUP SOCIALIZATION

Antecedent Stage socialization during which members

bring previou~

group experien£t't altitudes, beliefs, motives, and (om· mUnication trOllS

Anderson, Riddle , and Marti n describe fi ve stages of group socialization: anrecedenr, all ri cipatory, encounrer. assimilation, and exit. 1I Each stage has its own unique co mlllllni ca (ion demands, and behaviors in one stage have a rippl e effect o n subsequent stages. The stages arc summarized in Table 4.1. Indi vidual characte rist ics playa key role in the antecedent stage of group socialization. before the member has joined- o r perhaps eve n thought abom joining-the group. All members bring their own att itudes, motives, and co mmunication behaviors ro a gro up. T his profoundly affects how ready and able th ey will be to engage in [he soc iali z.ation process and how willingly rh ey approach group work and bu ilding relationships. For exam ple. consider the 3rritude of grolipha reY A potential group member with se rious w

Tile stage in group

the process

Seco nd, the definiti o n recogni zes (har effecrive soc iali 7..3t ion requires a balance between individual member and group goa ls. In the Apply Now box, for Ted to become inregrared infO rhe cas t, borh hi s needs to do a good job and rh e other cas t members' needs to have a good performance had ro be met for th e soc iali 7...1tion ex peri ence [Q be a positive one. Finally, the definition acknowledges socializatio n as an ongoing process that is nor only abom the new member bm also abom rhe gro up. The process is a mmual one: Borh the newco mer and the group membe rs initiate and engage in soc ialization acti vities. and although the newcomer must adjust to the group, so must th e gro up adjust to the new member. \Y/e now co nsider, specific.1 I1 y. th e phases typical of thi s soc ializa tion process.

to

w

Becoming a Group

TABLE 4.1

97

Stages of Group Socialization

Socialization Stage

Description

Antecedent

Before new members join the group, new and old members have attitudes, beliefs, motives, and behavior patterns that affect how they will function in the group .

Anticipatory

New and old members have expectations about one another; the new members have expectations about the group. Welcoming activities that introduce old and new members (informal dinners, getting·to·know·you meetings) help memo bers overcome primary tension.

Encounter

New and old members begin to work together and adjust to one another; the new member's rol e is negotiated in the group, and old memo bers' roles may change.

Assimilation

The new members are fully integrated into the group; role relationships have been worked out.

Exit

Members must cope with the loss of a member or the termination of the group. Discussion and formal disbanding activities help members say goodbye.

.

grouphare may have a hard rime becoming socialized co mfortabl y or fully into an ex isting group. The pessimism about group parricipation that characterizes group hate will likely tran slate into a bad attitude about the group and make it hard for other group members ro welcome that person into the group. In contrast, a group member who is extroverred, eager to participate, and likes group work comes mentally ready to become part of the group and will likewise make it easy for the others to welcome him or her to the group. In rhe anticipatory stage, the potential member has begun to see him- or herself as becoming part of the group and has formed initial expectations of what group membership will be like. Group members, too, have formed expectations of how the new member will fit in. These mutual expectation s lay the gro undwork for rhe new member's eventual entry. In the Apply Now box, the director had several communicative options he cou ld have taken regarding Ted's entry as a su bst itute cast member. For example, he could have prepared the cast by talking Ted up as an experienced actor or he could have just inserted Ted into the production without much cast preparation. Each of these choices would have set up a different socialization experience for both Ted and the cast. Generally, group socialization is en hanced when groups have systemati c ways in place to integrate new members.14 Examples include the orientation programs many clubs and

C;LOSS~ Anticipatory Stage The stage in group socialization describing individual and group initial expectat ions of each other

98

I GLOSSARY Encounter Stage The stage in group socialization in which members'

expectations meet with reality as members adjust and fit with each other

Assimilation Stage The stage in group socialization in

which group

members show full integration

Exit Stage The stage in group

socialization in which individuals

leave a group or the group disbands

CHAPTER 4

organizations use. In the case of the community theater cast, this might have included a meeting with Ted in whom members introduced each other and talked about their expectations, an informal dinner with Ted, and a (Our of the theater, stage and dressing rooms. Stewart Sigman calls these kinds of activities audition practices; they help both the new member and the group draw a realistic picture of what the relationship will be between the new member and the group. 15 The third stage of group socialization is the encounter stage, where the member actually joins the group. This is the stage where the expectations of the prior stages meet the reality of the group, and lasts for an indefinite period. 16 In this stage, the member and the group mutually adjust to one another as the member negotiates his or her role. Even when that role is given- such as a "pledge" in a fraternity or sorority- the new member's personality, attitudes, expectations, and so forth, will affect how the role is performed. N ewcomers who seek information proactively about role expectations are socialized more effectively than those who do not seek this type of information Y We talk more about roles and norms later in the chapter. The assimilation stage is characterized by full integration into the group and its structures. IS In full integration new members have become comfortable with the group culture and show an active interest in the group's task and relationships. In turn, rhe existing members demonstrate acceptance of the new member. Members show a productive and supportive blending, enacting communication necessary to sustain the group's culture. If this integration does nm occur smomhly, as is often the case, secondary tension can throw the group back into the anticipatory and encounter stages. Do not be surprised if these regtessions occur because, over a group's life span, members will often have to negotiate a good fit between themselves and the rest of the group. The fifth stage of group socialization is the exit stage. The process of socialization is experienced at both the individual and the group level and actually ends when a member leaves or when the group ceases to exist. Exiting a group, whether because an individual leaves or a group breaks up, can be a difficult transition and is one that group members often minimize. 1,) If a member leaves, such as Richard in the community theater example, the group must deal with why he left, how he left, how his departure changes their communi cation, and what comes next. When an entire group disbands, members deal with variations of the same issu es. In some cases, the member may have left psychologically earlier than she or he left physically. Kathy, one of your authors, watched as a colleague and good friend retired. Almost a year before he actually left the de~artment, he mentally pulled out. Kathy watched his interest in department issues fade, which affected what issues he fouglu for and how he voted in faculty meetings. Should you or anyone else leave a group voluntarily, it is a good idea to let others know you are leaving, help the group adjust to your departure, and try to remain in some sort of contact after you leave. Group turnover is common. How many times have you watched as a member left, and then found yourself dealing with th e loss and the adjustment to a new member? This process can be filled with uncertainty and resentment, or it can be managed quite well. Your group can effectively manage turnover by developing a positive group attitude toward turnover- seeing it as a way to redefine who you are. When an entire group ends, do not treat it lightly- how you disband affects the kind of experiences you take into the next group. Joann Keyton recommends that groups give themselves an opportunity to say good -bye and to process their experience. 2o

99

Becoming a Group

The socialization process in CMC groups is similar to that in face-to-face groups in that it, too, is bidirectionaJ- newcomers did not wait for the group to begin the socialization process but were proactive in initiating and managing that process. 2 1 For example, newcomers to online groups often lurk w get w know the group before they start participating. They do such things as emphasizi ng their identiry with the mher members by describing their similarity to the group's social category and they ask for help from group members. This emergi ng area of research underscores, aga in, that online groups---despite the so-called limitations of nonverbal communication with technology- form and manage relationships, just as f..1.ce-to-face groups do. Group social ization is a complex process.spanning the entire life of a group as groups adjust to members coming and going. We turn now to a discussion of group member roles and their importance to group dynamics.

Group Roles Your role is the part you play in a group. It emerges as a fun([ion of your personaliry, your behavior, your expectations, the expectations of other members, and any formal titles or instructions you may have been given regarding that group. Just as an actor has a role in a play, so do we all have a part to play in each group we belong to. And just as an actor has different parts in different plays, so do we have a unique pos ition in each group we join.

TYPES OF ROLES Member roles are formal or informal. Formal roles are assigned on the basis of a member's formal position or title and are some tim es called positional roles. For example, secretary is a formal role that car ri es with it certain requirements and expectations, which the group's rules will state: "The secretary shall write and distribute minutes of all meetings and provide a written summary of the group's work to the president of the student senate." Informal roles, some times called behavioral roles, are the parts people play that reflect their personality traits, habits, and behaviors in the group. Through trial and error, every member of a group begins to specialize in certain behaviors within rh e group. For example, one work group included a member who knew how to use databases to find pertinent research reports. She became the group's bibliographer, as well as irs prodder by constantly encouraging everyo ne to finish assignments when promised. Specific roles result from an interplay between the indi vid ual 's characteristics and other members of rhe group; they eme rge from gro up interaction.

ROLE FUNCTIONS IN A SMALL GROUP Members' roles in small groups are catego rized according to what they do for the group: How does this behavior help or hinder rhe group in achieving its goal? Small group roles are typ ically classified inw three main behavior catego ries: task, maintenance, and individual. The first two are helpful to the group; the th ird is not.

Task Roles.

A task role contributes directly to the accomplishment of the group's task. You probably can think of many task-related behaviors you have seen performed in groups. Recently, one of us served on a church bui ldjng committee trying to find a new place to meet. One member said, "Let's make a list of all the possibilities in Ollt price range." After the committee completed the list, the member said, "Now, let's split up [he list and each

GLOSSARY Role The part a member plays in a group

Task Roles Roles that encompass behaviors that contribute directly to accomplishment of a group's task

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CHAPTER 4

visir one or (wo before Ollr next meering. Who will volunteer ro look at the fWO buildings on Glensmne Avenue?" These remarks, which suggested procedure and aJso helped coordinate the work of [he group, are examples of (ask behavior. Some other helpful task roles are:

•

Initiating and orienting: proposing goals, activities. or plans of action; defining rhe group's position in relation ro the goal. (" Let's gec srarred by assigning ourselves (asks to complete before rhe next meeting. ")

•

Information giving: offering bcts, information, evi dence, or personal ex perience relevam to the group's task. ("L1sr yea r, the libra')' spe nt $50,000 replaci ng stolen books.")

•

Information seeking: asking for facts, information, evidence, or relevant personal experience, ("John , how many cam pus burglaries were reported last year?")

•

Opinion giving: staring beliefs, va lues, and jud gm cnrs; drawing co nclusions from evidence. (" I don 't think theft of books is the worst problem fac ing our library.")

•

Clarifying: makin g ambiguous sta tements clearer o r interpreting issues. (" I co uld supper[ that as long as th e COSt isn't outrageous, meaning cha t it is less than $ 10,000. ")

•

Elaborating: expressi ng judgmenrs about the rela tive worth of informacion or ideas; proposing or applying criteria. (" Here are three prob lems I see with rhc production. ")

•

Summarizing: rev iewi ng what has been sa id p revio usly; remi ndin g the group of items previously menrioned or discussed. ("So by next week, Delores wi ll have the costu mes made and oel wi ll have cas t members commirred ro (he play.")

"Would you please elaborate on •then something bad happened'?" Clarifying is an important RighU R~erved.

ta~k

function in a group. 0 The New Yorker Collection; 2004 leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All

Becoming a Group

101

•

Consensus testing: askin g if the group has reached a decision acceptable to all; suggesting that agreement has been reached. ("We seem co all agree that we do not have enou gh men for the pans and it is OK for me to nnd women for those parts.")

•

Recording: keeping group records; prepari ng repons and minutes; serving as group memory. ("I have a laptop so ] can bring it to our meetings to take notes.")

Maintenance Roles

•

Suggesting procedure: suggesting a method or procedure co follow. ("Why don't we try brainstorming to help us come up with something new and different?")

Roles that encompass behaviors that

Maintenance Roles.

Maintenance roles help the group maintain harm on ious relationships and a cohesive interpersonal climate. One member of the church building committee welcomed another member back from a three-week trip by saying, "It's great to have you back! Here's a sum mary of everything we did while you were go ne. We held off making a decision until you got back because we really wanted to know what you thought." These remarks demonstrate a gatekeeping function by allowing the absent member to contribute to the discussion, and they show solidarity and support. Other helpful maintenance roles are: •

Establishing norms: suggesting ways to behave; challenging unproductive ways of behaving; callin g attention to violations of norms. ("Let's not call each other names because it does not get us anywhere.")

•

Supporting: agreeing; expressing support for another's idea or belief; following another's lead. ("1 think Noel is right. We should consider putting women imo some of the male parts.")

•

Harmonizing: reducing tension by reconciling disagreement; suggesting a compromise or new alternative acceptable to all; combining proposals into a compromise alternative; calming an angry member. ("Gena and Geoff, r think there are areas where YOli arc in agreement. Let me suggest a comprom ise.")

•

Tension relieving: joking and otherwise relieving tension; making strangers feel at ease; reducing status differences; encouraging informality. ("We're starting to get on each other's nerves, let's take a break. ")

•

Dramatizing: swrytelling and fantasizing in a vivid way; evoking fantasies about other people and places. ("You just reminded me about the time ... ")

•

Showing solidarity: indicating positive feelings toward one another; reinforcing a sense of group unity; promoting teamwork. ("We've done a great job pulling together. I have no doubt our performance will win rave reviews.")

Individual Roles. Individual roles consist of self-centered behaviors. A self centered member places his or her needs ahead of the group's. These roles do not help the group in any way and may be exrremely harmful. Self-centered members generaJiy are less well liked and have less influence within rhe group. Members prefer colleagues whose communication is other~ rather than self-centered. 22 Unhelpful individual roles are: •

Withdrawing: giving no response to others; avoiding important d ifferences; refusing to cope with co nflicts; refusing to take a stand. ("Do whatever you want; I don't care. ")

•

Blocking: preventing progress toward group goals by constantly raising objections, repeatedl y bringing up the same topic or issue after the group has considered it and rejected it. (" I know we already voted, but I want to talk about this aga in.")

I GLOSSARY

help a group maintain harmonious relationships and contribute to a cohesive interpersonal climate

Individual Roles Roles that encompass selfcentered behaviors that place the individual's need ahead of the group's needs

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•

Status seeking and recognition seeking: hogging the stage, boasting, and calling attention to one's experience when it is not necessary; playing games to elicit sympathy. ("1 think we should do it the way I did it last year. I won Committee Chair of the Year award, you know.")

•

Playing: refusing CO help the group with the task; excessive joking, dramatizing, and horsing around; making fun of others who are serious about the work. ("Don't be such a stick-in-the-mud; we've still got lots of time to finish. One time I remember ... ")

Acting helpless: trying to elicit sympathy by constantly needing help (Q complete tasks; showing inability for independent thought or action; forcing others co complete or redo work turned in. ("I don't know what you want me to do here. f have never done research online and I don't th ink I can do it.") The task, maintenance, and individual roles category system has held up well and has been described as fairly accurate. 23 In addition, different types of behavio rs and ways of approaching issues are needed at different points during a group's life cycle; having individuals who provide a balance of roles and whose roles complement one another en hances a team's performance. 24 •

THE EMERGENCE OF ROLES IN A GROUP Through communication with each other, members gradually struc(Ure their uniqu e contributions and roles. Think for a moment abom the groups you belong to. Do you act exactly the same way in each one of them? Probably no(. There are variations in your behavior because each group brings out different combinations of your skills, abilities, and personality characteristi cs. Normal people want to contribute the ir unique talents and abilities so they will be valued by the group. When the other group members appreciate and reward those behaviors, they perform them more often. In that way roles and a division oflabor develop in the group. Let's look at an example of how this occu rs. Jan had a gift for storytelling. Because j an felt uncomfortable whenever there was a lull in her seminar's discussion, she generally filled the silences with a story. Stories about her extensive travels easily captured the other members' attention and relieved the uneasiness that silence sometimes caused. T he rest of the group encouraged her to relate her stories. Because of both Jan's abi li ty to entertain and the other members' desire to listen, she carved out an informal (behavioral) role as the group's storyteller. The other members of the group must reinforce a member's behavior if a role is to become stable and strong. If the orher members had not been eager to set as ide their work momentarily to listen to jan, they WQu id not have encouraged the developmem of her storytelle r role. Instead, they wou ld have discouraged her by paying little arrenrion o r reminding her that she was deflecting the group from its task. In that case jan might have down played her storytelling and searched for another way to conrribure. For examp le, she also was an active listener who clarified and summarized what others said. If she had not won esteem as the gro up's stOryteller, she might have become the group's recorder or historian. From th is example you can see how a member's role in a group depends not on ly on that member's characteristics, but also on how the other members respond. The advent of new communi ca ri on technologies such as net conferences and gro up decision suppOrt systems can produce unanticipated effects on group dynamics, including role emergence. 25 Members skilled with technology may assume leadership roles they might not otherwise be open to. In addition, the anonymity of some commu ni cation

Becoming a Group

Creating a Space for Yourself in the Group Everyone needs to feel valued and appreciated by his or her fellow group members. Sometimes, it isn't clear what your contribution-your roleshou ld be. It was especially hard for members of the Man of La Mancha extras to know what their contributions should be. Most of them were not actors or dancers; quite a few were not even very good singers! Assume you are Davida, one of the people cast as extras, with limited performing ta lent. However, you like the idea of the project, you like your fellow cast members, and you really want the project to succeed. What can you personally do to make this project your own? 1. As Davida, do a brainwriting assignment: List your assets and talents. (In addition to the artistic talent we know you have, list at least five other assets.) 2 . How could those assets and talents be used for this project? 3. Of the ta lents/assets listed in step 1, which one or ones would you prefer to use to help this project? 4. What strategies could you use to help ensure that you get to contribute in this way?

technologies and their asynchronous nawre can alter who in the group typically dominates, horses around, or fills the leadership functions.

MANAGING GROUP ROLES Members bring to their groups roles from other groups they participate in. The bona fide group perspective we touched on in Chapter 2 acknowledges that group members are often simultaneously members of other groups. Role demands in one group may conflict with the time and commitment expectations of our roles in other groups. Most of liS want to be a part of volunteer "life enrichment groups" such as church and commun ity groups. Anyone who has been a member of such groups knows they can clash with the demands of work and family. The trick is finding a balance bet\veen the multiple group demands on our time and commitments. Michael Kramer, who swdied one community theater group extensively, found that members used [wo main strategies to manage these multiple group demands. 26 They can either segment or integrate their membership. In segmenting, members make clear the limits of their involvement with a group. For instance, the Man of La Mancha cast and crew could have given priority to family and work during the day, then committed their evenings to the theater group. They could also have been clear about the limits of their commionent: "1 cannot rehearse on Saturday because I'm going to my son's soccer tournament." rn integrating, the boundaries berween groups are less defined and members may try to perform multiple roles simultaneously. For instance, a cast member who was a student brough{ her homework to do when she was not actively rehearsing. Roles emetge from the strucruration processes of a group as members seek to balance the demands of the task and {heir interpersonal relationships. Out of this same trial-and-error

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interaction, groups will create their rules and norms. We rum our focus to a discussion of how rules and norms form and change over a group's life cycle, as well as how they affect group dynamics. Rules

Formal, explicit standards of behavior and procedures by which a group operates Norms

Informal, implicit standards of behav-

I jar and procedures by which members

operate

Rules and Norms The premise throughout this text is that communication is the essential throughput process within a small group. Srrucruration theory, introduced earlier, helps explain how a group's communicative panerns create and sustain the group's norms and operating procedures. Recall from this earlier discussion {hat group members do nor come to a group with a clean slate about how to behave. Instead, rhey bring ideas about how to behave from past group experience. These past experiences do not force members to act in a certain way but act as guides for behavior. Group member behavior can maimain these standards, modity them, or even ignore them and create new ones. The whole process of communication among group members is rule-governed. l 7 Rules and norms are the standards of behavior and procedures by which group members operate. Norms (informal standards) arc not wrinen down. In contrast, rules are more formal and usuaJly are written in minutes or bylaws. Norms and rules tell members what they are allowed ro do (e.g., "Members may call for a soda break after an hour"), what they are nO( allowed to do (e.g. , "The seat at the head of the £able is reserved for rhe group's chair, and no one else may occupy ir")' and what they should do (e.g., "The designated leader is responsible for reserving the meering place"). Rules and norms differ from each O(her only in their degree of formaliry. Norms are enforced by peer pressures, whereas rules are usually enforced by rhe designated leader. Rules must be changed by vO(ing, bur members may agree to change norms afrer an informal discussion. Rules and norms serve several functions for the group. By lening group members know whar is and is not acceptable behavior, rules and norms reduce the uncerta inty members feel about how to act. They esrablish procedures for working as a coordinated team. In the long run , productive rules and norms help rhe group achieve a high level of efficiency and qualiry control so that it can accomplish its assigned task well. Can you imagine how hard it would be if, every time you had a meering, YOll had to negotiate the procedures by which rhe group should operate? You would be wasting aJl your valuable rime deciding hoUJ you should work insread of getting your job done. Formal rules are constructed in a couple of ways. Sometimes comminees and other small groups establish their own formal ruks for how they want to operate. Other times rhe parem organization that created the group also gives it ru les by wh ich to operate. For example, many large organizations use the committee procedures in Robert's Rules ofOrder Revised to govern meetings. Norms usually are not discussed openly, but they still have a strong effect on the behavior of the group members. A friend of ours served on the ciry council of a small town. The council had developed a norm of mecring until all old business had been cleared, which meant that they sometimes mer until midnight. Carla, a new member appointed to fill a vacancy fat a council member who had been transferred, started to pack up her materials ro leave at 9 o'clock. She explained that she assumed the group would end rhe meeting by 9 whether members had finished or not, and she had not made child care arrangements past that time. The other membcrs looked at her in surprise. Some were sympathetic, but all continued ro meet after she had left. At subsequem meetings Carla, who realized her

105

Becoming a Group

mi staken assu mption about meet in g norms, changed her child care ar rangements so she could Stay until the meetin g's end .

DEVELOPMENT OF GROUP NORMS How do yo u suppose the coun cil mem bers esta bl ished their norm of workin g umil th e o ld business was cleared business? There are four ways no rms are set in a small group.2H 1. Behaviors that occur early in the group's history often establish norms through primacy. Wh en group members fi rst meet, they feel unccnai n and un comfortable. Anything that reduces th e un ce rta in ty is welcomed. Thus, what first occurs in a group ca n easily beco me habit because it helps red uce th e feeling of uncertainty. For example, suppose you serve on a co mmi ttee that includes fac ulty and srudents. Ini ti aJly, you aren't sure wheth er to address the faculty members by their first names; if you hear a fellow student member addressing [hem by titles, chances are yo u will follow that lead. 2. Sometimes norms are established by explicit statements that a leader or another member makes. For exam ple, one member might tell a new member, "The boss likes to have proposaJs in writing. If you want to make a suggestion about wo rk procedures at the staff meeting, you should bring a handout for everyone to use." This s£atement relays information about the group leader's preferences and aJso subtl y lees the new member know [hat suggestions are supposed to be wel l thought out before being presented to the group.

Norm Enforcement in Internet Groups Participants in an Internet chat room sometimes experience flaming, or a personal attack (Le., insults, sarcasm, intense language) on someone for a posting. Flaming has become a distinct characteristic of CMC and has been interpreted by many providers to be unsuitably hostile. These behaviors range from personal attacks to a mild form of teasing, and a number of researchers have found that flaming can serve an unintended purpose in chat rooms. In his examination of Internet mailing lists, Hongiie Wang found that flaming was one of the only tools users had to enforce the informal rules they believed to exist. Flaming was used as a form of policing or a method to "educate th e ignorant" about the rules and norms of the Listserv. Additionally, findings indicated that flaming (when handled appropriately) helped to foster effective communication by encouraging participants to write clearly, thereby reducing the potential ambiguity that may produce flaming. Despite the unintended consequences that flaming has to facilitate the norms and rules for Internet groups, most Listservs or chat room providers attempt to hinder this practice by establishing their own explicit norms for the behavior of members. These sites include examples of explicit guidelines developed by chat room providers: www.ybrt .org/guldelns.html and www.fortnet.org/ fapg / postlng.htm. SOURCE: H. Wan g, "Flaming: More Than a Necessary Evil for Academic Mailing Lists," Electronic Joumol of Communica/ioll6 (1996).

Go to

www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanes8e for additional we blink activities.

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C H A PTER 4

3 . Som e norms are established th ro ugh critical events that occur in a group. Fo r example, one of us o nce ta ught a graduate seminar of nine people who ca me co trust each other, often revealing perso nal information in class. Two of [he s[udem s told nonmem bers so me of what occurred in the class. When [he o rncr members d iscovered rhis, they fel t angry. At rhe nex t cl ass meeting, members ex pressed their feelings o f betrayal Before (he cri tical inc ident , some members thought it was all right ro reveal in-class informatio n ro selecred o utsiders, but after the meeting it was clear to allmcmbers that such behavio r was a se riolls violati on of a group confidenr ialiry norm.

4. Many norms are taken from the general cuJture in which the group members live. For example. yo u know a lo t abo ut how to behave as a stud enr, no ma tter what rh e class. Tru e, some p rofesso rs a re mo re fo rmal than oth ers. but cerrain stand ards of behavio r (s uch as ra ising yo ur hand when you have a q uestio n o r a co mment and nor callin g rhe professo r or o th er students rud e na mes) carry ove r fro m o ne class to ano th er. T hus, many ca rryover behavio rs in a g roup are ones we have learned as members o f a pa rticu lar cul t ure. T his pa rtic ula r o rigin of sma ll gro up nor ms m ay becom e tro ubleso me when we ime rac[ wi th members fro m d iffe renr cultures. Fo r example. we have observed stude nts fro m As ian c ultures be have very submi ss ivel y in gro ups of Am eri ca n stude nts. T hese im ern atio na l srud elHs were foll o wing th e norms o f the ir na tive c ulrures. just as were the Ame rican studem s. Lik ew ise, Afr ican Ame ri ca ns a nd Hispa ni cs te nd ro use the vocal backcha nnel (saying th in gs li ke " mm -hmm " a nd "O K" wh ile a nOt her is spea kin g) mo re freq ue n tl y th a n Europea n Am e ri ca ns. Lac k of unde rstandin g of ano th e r's cu ltura l no rm s can cause prob le ms in a gro up .

ENFORCEMENT OF GRO UP NOR M S

(;LOSSAR ~ Deviants Members who consis!ently violate group norms

If no rms are not wrirren down , how do group members learn them ? To in fe r w hat th e no rms are, pay attentio n ro twO rypes o f behav io rs: those that occu r regularly and t hose th at incur di sa pproval. Behavio rs th at occur co nsisten tly fro m one meet ing ro the next probab ly reAect a group no rm . For example, if at every meeting each group member sits in t he sam e seat and waits for the leade r to stan the d iscuss io n. yo u are seeing evidence o f [wo no rm s. Behavio rs that are pun is hed by peer pressure also ind ica te no rms. T he strongest ev iderlCe of a group norm is me mbe rs' nega ri"ve reaction to a particular behavio r. Most pee r press ure co mes in the for m of no nve rbal signals. as group members roll th eir eyes at each other, glare. shake the ir heads. or t urn away fro m the vio lawr. Sometimes they po intedly ignore the offending me mber's co nrriburio ns. Carla , the new co unci l member w ho left early. received on ly mild ex press io ns o f surprise and eve n some verbal exp ress io ns o f sympachy, bur there was no doubt th at she had violated a n orm , a nd she qui ckly ca me in ro co mpliance w ith t hat norm at the nex r meetin g. M embers who consistently violate important grou p norms are call ed deviants, and rh ey make the other group members very uncomfortable-eve n angry. To consciem ious gro up mem be rs, deviants seem to thumb th eir noses at t he group by implyin g t hat their own needs and wishes a re mo re imporca nt t han [hose of the group . The othe r mem bers t ry to force th e devia nts ro fa ll in line by applying in creasin g pressure ro co nform

Becoming a Croup

TABLE 4.2

How Groups Deal with Deviant Members

FIRST, MEMBERS TRY TO PERSUADE THE DEVIANT MEMBER TO CONFORM TO THE GROUP NORMS: • They try reasoning with the deviant: "When you aren't here, Carla, we miss your important input." • They try to persuade the deviant, first with teasing and then more insistently: "Your husband can survive one evening without you, can't he, Carla?" and "Look, Carla, it really messes up the rest of our schedules when you leave

ea rly. Why don't you get a babysitter for one night a week-that wouldn't be so bad, would it?" • They may attempt to punish or even coerce the deviant "If you really want to be a part of this council, Carla, you're going to have to put in the same amount of effort as the rest of us. Otherwise, we can't support that ordinance yo u've been promoting."

SECOND, SOLIDARITY BUILDS AMONG THE OTHER MEMBERS AGAINST THE DEVIANT:

• "I don't see why we should go out of our way to help Carla pass that ordinance-she doesn't seem to care about any of our schedules!"

THIRD, MEMBERS IGNORE AND Will EVENTUAllY ISOLATE THE DEVIANT:

• "Carla, we've all agreed that it would be better if you resigned from the council. We need a full-time member."

(see Table 4.2). 29 This is what the rest of the city council might have done had the new member not corrected her behavior right away. JUSt because groups usually pressure a deviant to conform does not mean the deviant should automatically cave in to such pressure. Sometimes groups consider people deviant if they disagree or won't go along with the group's plans. However, such people can actually be helpful to a group if they cause the other members to examine information and ideas more carefully. Even so, the other members may not recognize that such disagreement, or idea deviance, can be helpful, so they try to force agreement. This pressure can be hard to resist, even when the deviant has a good case. We present more information about the effect of idea-deviant disagreement in Chapter 8.

CHANGING A GROUP NORM We nored earlier rhat behaviors occurring at the nrst few meetings may become norms that can cause problems later. For example, recall that when members first meet, they experience primary tension, which makes them so polite and stiff that they do nOt confrom

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C HAPTER 4

When Is It OK to Be Deviant? In the 1980s Beechnut, the second-largest producer of baby food in the United States, was found knowingly to have sold adulterated apple juice." The company had been losing money, and using concentrate with artificial ingredients saved millions of dollars. Beechnut officials argued that other companies were also selling fake juice, that it was perfectly safe, and that their own research and development laboratories couldn't prove that their suppl iers were providing artificial concentrate. Assume you are a Beechnut executive who strongly disagrees with

the action the rest of the Beechnut officials seem determined to take. You've mentioned your disagreement a couple of times and have been getting both subtle and not-so-subtle pressure to keep quiet. Members have said things to you like, "We've been over this and over this. You keep bringing this up after we've decided." You're marketing the juice as "100 percent pure," which isn't accurate. But on the other hand, no one is claiming that the impure juice is unsafe. Is that really so bad, when it's saving money and jobs for the company? Groups can be vicious to members who are deviant, and you are

definitely a deviant in this group. 1_ What do you say to the other members? 2. How can you withstand the pressure the others are placing on you? Should you withstand it?

3_ For what reason s would you go along with the other members? 4 . For what reason s would you resist?

5_ What would you do?

or disagree wim each ot her. T his ca n easily devel op imo a no rm of "no conAi ct," whi ch StOpS members from expressi ng disagreemems o r do ubts. Th is "no co nAi ct" norm ca n be detrimemaJ to the group's larer decis ion-maki ng ab ili(i es. Al tho ugh it isn't always easy. gro ups reco~ni zin g and using th eir own structtlrari on process can change unp roduc tive no rms. O ne effecti ve approach is to focus the group's atte ntio n on th e norm and rhe harm it is c rea ting rath er rh an o n the person vio lating th e no rm . In addition , do not try to fo rce Oth er membe rs to acce pt your sugges tions for chan gin g th e no rm. Th ey are likel y ro become defensive , refuse ro change, and resent you r atl el11pr ( 0 cam ro l th em. Instead , YO ll wam (h e gro up ro think o f ways to change rh e norl11 so (h at all rhe members parricipa re in es tablishin g a mo re produ cti ve group no rm , for onl y rh e group can make a lasting c hange in a no rm . Th e guidelin es in Table 4.3 will help YOli. The elements we have d iscussed rhus fa r- how group membe rs manage th eir rensions, how rh ey work th ro ugh il11po n am (asks in th eir devel opl11elll and fo rmatio n, and w hat roles, rul es, and no rm s they es tabl ish-all help crea te [he group 's clim ate. We now exa mine how the group's clim ate cO lHri bures to rhe for matio n of an effective rea m.

Becoming a Group

TABLE 4.3

109

Changing a Group Norm

PREPARATION

1. Make sure you are seen as a responsible, loyal member of the group; others won't appreciate your comments if you have been unreliable or act "holier than thou." 2. Ask yourself, "What harm is the norm causing?" Observe the effects of the

group norm on the members and th'e group as a whole; count the offending behaviors and make notes of your observations. CONSTRUCTIVE CONFRONTATION

1. Select an appropriate time to sha re your information with other members. 2. Share your observations about the effects of the unproductive norm on the group; explain what you have observed the norm to be and what problems it causes.

3. Ask whether others also have observed these effects or sha re your concerns. 4. Express yourself supportively, not defensively: Q.

Defensive comment: "I'm sick and tired of always being on time while the rest of you wander in any time you please!"

b. Supportive comment: "For the past four meetings we have started between 15 and 25 minutes late. We seem to have developed a norm that

scheduled starting times do not need to be observed. Two of us have had to leave these meetings before they were finished in order to go to class. As a result we have missed several key decisions, and the rest of you have had to bring us up to date on what happened. Does anyone else see this as a problem?"

Development of a Group's Climate Maintaining a pleasant interpersonal climate was the most frequently mentioned co mmuni cation skill needed, as reported by managers of work groupS. 31 Joseph Folger and Marshall Poole, experts in group conRict, defin e group climate as "the relatively en during qua lity of the group situation that (a) is ex perienced in co mmon by group members, and (b) ar ises from and influences th eir interaction and behavior."32A few key ideas are important to keep in mind when you consider your group's climate. This general environment, atmosphere, emotional tone, or "air" of a group is pervasive; emerges from and impacts the group's communication; and is experienced by all members of (he group. Climates, whether positive or negative, are the ongoing co nseq uences of member co mmuni cation and relationships. Members who cou ld disagree without being disagreeab le, who could admit mi stakes, and who could keep emotions on an even keel were particularly valued by the work group

I

GLOSSARY

Group Climate The atmosphere or environment within a group

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CHAPTER 4

Changing a Norm You Believe Is Harmful Carla, our city councilwoman, chose to accept the group norm of meeting as long as it took to complete the group's work. However, there are pros and cons to that norm. Yes, the work was not permitted to pile up, and the group achieved closure at each meeting. But members were visibly fatigued at midnight, and there was a noticeable loss of concentration and productivity after 10 P.M. Assume Carla's position for a moment and address the following questions: As Carla you genuinely believe the group would be more productive and make better decisions if they had more, but shorter, meetings. List

at least three choices you have for dealing with this norm. 1. What are the consequences, both to you and to the group, of

each choice? 2. What strategy do you think would be most likely to succeed? Why? 3. If you decide to try to change this group norm, how would you go about doing it? In your answer include any planning you might do for bringing this up to the group. Also, describe exactly what you would say to bring this up. Select five people, including one to play Carla, to role-play a City council meeting where Carla brings up the question of the meeting length norm. After the role-play, discuss as a class what worked and what did not. Make sure to let the participants in the "meeting" express any feelings they might have experienced during the role-play.

managers mentioned earlier. 33 Yo u probably have attended group meetin gs in whi ch you felt th e warmth and affectio n of th e members for each other. The cl imate was empowering, flexible, and participatory. Co nversely, yo u probably also have observed meetings in which yo u fel t cension and distrust. T he climate was defensive, ri gi d, thwarting, hostile, and au th ori tari an. These are but two exampl es of types of gro up climates or atm ospheres. T here are many dim ensions of a grou p's cl iln ate. We explain three we consider most important: crust, cohes iveness, and supportiveness.

TRUST GLOSSARY Trust The general belief

that members can rely on each other

Trust refers to the general belief tha t members ca n rel y on each o th er. W hen gro up members trust each other, they do no t have to wo rry th at others mi ght be lying to th em or may have secret reaso ns for th eir behavio r. Instead of being suspicious and secretive, mem bers who trust one anoth er are more likely to create a n o pen climate in which people share freely. T wo kinds of trust are particul arly important to groups: task-related and in terpe rsonal. A mem ber who is trustworthy rega rding the task can be counted on to complete ass ignments and produce top-notch wo rk for the gro up. The hi gher the quali ty of {he ind ividu al

Becoming a Group

111

Can You Be Trusted? Imagine that thi s is a particularly busy semester for you, and you feel as if you barely have time to breathe. You w ill graduate at the end of the semester, and yo u don't know how yo u'll man age all you r coursework, to

say nothing of job hunting. One of you r courses entails a group project; you have just met with your team members for t he first time in class. The

others are enthused about the project and have already started to make a schedule of meeting times fo\ the semester. You think they are planning far too many meetings-many more than the project will need. Privately, you think you can get your own wo rk on the project finished and attend perhaps half of the meeting s the others have scheduled . But if you say that to your fellow group members, you're afraid that they'll think you don't care about the project. And if you just skip meetings without saying anything now, you're afraid they'll think you' re a slacker. But then again, you'll probably never see these people again. Either way, though, it seems like you can't w in.

1. What other choices do you think you have besides saying no to th e meetings now and just not showing up later? 2. Do you stay silent and make a private decision to make the m eeti ng s you can and not wo rry about the rest?

3. Do you say something to th e group? If so, what? 4. For each of the options you came up with, w hat are the consequences to the group of that action? S. What action is least likely to undermine the group's trust in you?

work that members do fo r the group , the higher w ill be the quaJi ry of th e group's ompms. Fai lu re to comp le te assignments for the group quickJy des troys trust. A member who does not co me through fo r the group forces the other members to pick up th e slack. This is on e o f the mOSt common sou rces o f confl ict and ca n po ison a group's cl imate. Interpersonal trust refers to the bel ief that the members of the gro up are operating in the group's best interes ts and that they vaJue th eir fellow members. Suppose a member you trust says to yo u, "I think there are lots of problems with yo ur idea ." Yo u are likely to as k that member for reaso ns and to pay careful attentio n to the reaso ns given. On the other hand, if th e sam e statement comes from someone yo u don't trUSt, yo u may wonder wh at's behind the statement, ignore it, get into a shouting match, o r try ro find subtle ways of sabotaging that member's suggestion s. Members wh o appea r to operate from hidden agenda motives, or personal and private moti ves, are seen as untrustworthy by oth ers. So are "politicians" who aJways seem ro have a personal angle fo r their behavi or that has nothin g to do with the group. In fact, politi cians can be so destru ctive to a group that Carl Larson and Frank LaFasro , who studied excell ent gro ups, reco mm end that the group leader get rid of th em as soon as poss ibl e.34

GLOSSARY Hidden Agenda

An unstated private goa/ a member wants to achieve through Q group

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CHAPTER 4

Recc m resea rch on truSt 5u ggcsrS that rhe (WO components of interperso nal and task-related trust em erge at di ffercnr rim es over rh e life of rh e group. J5 Early on, trust among members is o ne-dim ension al and is especiall y influenced by how familiar m embers are with one another's srrengrh s and weaknesses. H owever, once members begi n (Q work toge th er, they have th e actu al behavio r of the other members o n which to base th eir judgmcnrs of tfust. Interperso nal truSt d evelops when members are willin g ro help one another and take a personal interest in one anorher and th e team. Task-rela ted rrust develo ps when members prove th emsel ves to be reliabl e perfo rm ers at the task. Alth o ugh th ese (wo tru st factors develop se parately after members have had time [0 work together, interperso nal trU St actua ll y has a stro nger rel ationsh ip with tea m performance and lasts longer. Id ea lly, gro up members are trustworth y on bo th co unts.

COHESIVENESS

[ GLOSSARY

Cohesiveness The bonds of at-

tachment members have for each other

Groupthlnk The tendency of highly cohesive

groups not to evaluate thoroughly and critically all aspects of a decision or problem

Cohesiveness refers ro the altachment members feel towa rd each other, the gro up , and the task-the bonds that ho ld the group togeth er. In a highly cohesive group, members feel a stro ng sense of belonging, speak favorably about th e gro up and the other members, and co nform (Q th e norm s of the group. In a gro up that is nor cohesive, members do nOt feel mu ch sense of belonging. T hey may nOt attend fa ithfully or may eve n leave rh e group because th ey find Other gro ups mo re rewa rd ing. A5 with tru St, there arc f\VO types of cohesive ness: (ask cohesiveness and social (o r interpersonal) co hesiveness. 36 In a group th~u has high task co hesiveness, members understa nd and accepr the tas k, are co mmitted to co mplet ing it, may be excited about working o n ir, and expe ri ence what has bee n ca ll ed group drive, or motivation to accomplish the task Y This describes th e Mlln of LII Mllnchll cast very well. Interpersonal , or social , co hes iveness means that members like and are attracted ro each other as people. They like (Q spend tim e together and enjoy each other's co mpany. These two form s of co hes iveness affect group productiviry and decis io n-maki ng quality in different ways.38 When a gro up's cohesiveness is due ro interperso nal arrracri on, rhe task may take a back sear, wh ich ca n lower th e quali ry of a gro up 's decisio ns. In addition. so metim es groups high in interperso nal cohes iveness develop norms that keep productivity low or find th emselves getring off track easily. A frie nd of ours so rred letters for the PostaJ Service. His co-wo rkers ler him know that he was wo rking roo fasr and rhar ifh e wanted ro stay in their good graces he wo uld not exceed the info rmal producrion no rm they had develo ped. In co ntrasr, groups with high task co hesiveness generatly are more productive. and decisio n mak in g is enhan ced. Thus, the presence of cask-focused norms in a group mode rares the effect of cohesiveness- groups wirh scrong task norms and hi gh cohesiveness ourperform cohesive groups without srrong rask norms. )? Highly co hesive gro ups need ro be particularly careful to guard againsr grouprhink, th e tendency not ro exam ine critica lly all aspects of a decision or problem. 40 The rerm was co ined by I rving Janis, who cond ucted an exhau stive study of the disastrous 196 1 decision made by Pres ident Kennedy and hi s advi se rs to invade Cuba ar the Bay of Pi gs. This nowclassic srudy co ncluded thar alrhough rhe advisers we re well-info rm ed ex perts. the group 's co hes iveness contributed to th eir poor dec ision making. Members made it difficult for th ose who di sagreed to speak up by implyin g, both subtl y and overtl y. that di sagreement was ra ntamo unt to di sloyalty [a the gro up. This is si mil ar to the si ruation Beechnut faced.

Becoming a Group

TABLE 4.4

Increasing Cohesiveness in a Group

1. Develop a strong group identity. 2. Encourage group traditions, su ch as annual parties, special greetings and handshakes, and rituals. 3. Develop inMgroup insignias, such as TMshirts and sweatshirts, pins, or hats. 4. Refer to the group members as we crnd us. 5. Give credit to the group as a whole when representing the group to outsiders or other groups. 6. Give credit to individuals within the group for contribution s they make

toward the group's goa l achievement. 7. Support both disagreement and agreement by encouraging openness and freedom of expression. 8. Create a climate of supportiveness in which every individual feels appreci M ated and believes his or her ideas are valued.

9 . Set clear and attainable goals for the group. Q.

Goals should be difficult enough to provide a challenge and produce group pride when they are met.

b. Goals should not be so hard that they are nearly impossible to attain, because failure wi ll lower cohesiveness.

as described in th e Ethi cal Dilemma box on page 108. We d iscuss grou p think in detail in C hapter 6. Hi ghly co hes ive gro ups are also more sa ti sfyi ng to their members. Yo u have no doubt belo nged to a cohes ive gro up in which yo u fel t the warmth and cl oseness amo ng the members. T erry, o ne o f our form er srudem s, decided to campaign for office in a ca m pus o rganiza ti on because she had so envied rhe obv io us co hes iveness exp ressed by the previous yea r's office rs-she wam ed the experi ence of bein g part of such a group. T ab le 4.4 provi des suggestio ns you can use to increase th e cohesiveness of a grou p.

SUPPORTIVENESS In a supponi ve climate members encourage each m her, ca re about each other, and treat each other wi th respect. Supporti ve members uphold ethical princ ipl es about how to treat each o ch er. Because members feel safe fro m psychological assa ul t, they are free to di rect most of their energy toward helping th e group acco mp lish its task. O n th e other hand, a defensive cl im ate emerges wh en members try to comro!, manipula te, and cr iticize each ocherY If members are afraid they will be atracked by other members, they hes ita te to

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TABLE 4.5

====-

CHAPTER 4

Defensive and Supportive Communication Behaviors and Statements

Evaluation Judging the other person; indica ting

Defensive Behaviors

Supportive Behaviors Description Desiring to understand the other's

by words or tone of voice that you disapprove of a person : "That's a pretty dumb ideal "

wrong: "Tell me more about how you r idea

point of view without making the other person

would work."

Control Trying to dominate or change the other person; insisting on having things your way: "I want to do it this way, so that's what we're going to do."

Problem orientation Trying to search honestly for the best solu tion without havi ng a predetermined idea of w hat the solution should be: "What ideas do you all have about how we might solve

this?" Strategy Trying to manipulate the other person; using deceit to achieve your own goals: "Don't you really think that it would be better if we did it

Spontaneity Reacting honestly, openly, and freely: " I really like that, and here's something else we cou ld do .... /1

this way?" Neutrality Not caring about how the other group members feel : "We don't have time to hear about your car accident right now; we have work

to do."

Empathy Showing by your words and actions that you care about the other group members: "You had a car accident on the way here? Are you OK? Is there anything we can do to help?"

Superiority Maximizing status differences; pull ing rank on other members with title, wealth, expertise, and so on: "Well, I'm chair of the committee, and I believe I make the final decision about how we do this."

Equality Minimizing status differences; treating every member of the group as an equally valued contributor: " I know I'm the chair, but the solution belongs to the whole committee, so don't give my ideas any more weight than anyone else's.1I

Certainty Being a know-it-all; acting positive

Provlslonallsm Being tentative in expressing your opinions; being open to considering others' suggestions fairly: " I have an idea I think might work .... "

that your way or belief is the only correct one: " I know exactly what we ought to do here, so 1.' 11 take ca re of it. 1I

ofTer their opinions. Thcy spend so much tim e defending themselves or being on (he alert for psychological assault rhar rhey do no r pay much anemion to rhe rask of the group. Table 4.5 provides a list of supportive and contrasting defensive behaviors wirh sample sra[cmcnrs for each. All rhe defensive behaviors include an elemem of nega ti ve judgmem that hurts interpersonal relatio nships within a group. In stead of criti cally evaluating ideas, members are crit ica l of each othe r as persons. No tice, also, the re latio nship betwee n co hes ive ness and suppo rri vencss. It is hard to feel srrongly anached ro a group if YOli don't know from one momcnt to [he next when you are going ro be anacked. Can yo u begin to see how each e1emenr of [he group system is related to all rhe other elemems?

Becoming a Group All th e facm rs we have discussed in chis chapter comribute (Q the structure that creates a tea m out of individual members. The way members develop over time and manage their rensions, the roles and norm s that develop, and the climate members create-all work mgether m co nsnuct each team's unique culture.

Ethical Behavior during Group Formation Members need m pay anemion (Q the ethi cs of their behavior particularly as a group 's roles and nOfms develop. Patterns that fOrIT\early in a group 's life ca n be difficult to break later. That is why it is cr itical fOf those patterns to be productive and (Q adhere m rhe highest standards of ethi cal behavior. The following ethical guidelines emerge from the Narional Comm unicatio n Association Credo for Ethi cal Co mmuni ca ti on that we introduced in Chapter 1. They speak to those issues, such as the development of norms and group culture, that have been the focus of this chapter. 1. Group members should communicate in ways that help establish a supportive dimate.

Members wi ll not do their best th inkin g if they feel they have (Q hold back for fear of being ridiculed o r anacked. Ironi call y, honest disagreement is more likel y to occur in a supportive climate of trust. Members must monitor th eir own and one another's behavior to ens ure th at the ir comm un ication encourages others (Q share freely. Working actively to create a supportive climate is the responsibility of each member. 2. Communication that degrades other members must not be tolerated. T his principle represents the Aip side of [he previous principle. Behaviors that degrade, ridicule, attemp t to intimidate, or coerce others must be s(Qpped immediately. Such behaviors violate the mutual respect that shou ld be presem among group members and co mribmes to poor decision makjng. 3. Freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of disagreement must be encouraged. If every member of a group has exactly the same perspective (un likely in any case) and believes exactly the same thing, why bother to assemble the group ? T he best group work emerges when members share the ir diverse perspectives and points of view. This means char disagree ment will surely occur-and shou ld be welcomed! We discuss gro up conA ict fully in C hap ter 8. 4. Members must be willing to express their genuine personal convictions, even if this requires courage to disagree with other members. Ultimately, members are responsible for their own behavior. Ideally, a group's climate enco urages free exp ressio n and tolerates d isagreement, but even when it does not, individual members must be willing to speak their minds. T o say chat you agree with a course of action the group plans to take when you priva tely disagree is un ethi cal. Be willing to hea r what the other members have to say and to be persuaded, but in the end, if you think rhe group is abo ut to make a big mistake or engage in unethical behavior, you must be willing to speak out. Doing so cou ld prevent a disaster down the road.

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RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

Communicatio n among group members creates, maintains, and changes a group through a process of structuration.

G roup socialization continues throughout th e life of group until the new member leaves or the emire group di sbands.

• As groups form , members must handl e both

• T as k, maintenance, and individual roles are three main categori es of roles members perform in the group.

•

task and socioemotional iss ues simul taneously, as well as deal with primary, secondary (task-related), and tertiary tension over power struggles. •

•

Many groups experience predictable phases in their development. Tuckm an's model describes five phases of forming, storming, norming, perfo rming, and adjourning; Gersick's model of punctuated equilibrium describes a makeor-break transirion occurring at the midpoint of a group 's time frame. G roup socialization of new and/or established members and the group is a complex process of learning how to fit tOgether. Effective communication between all parties is crucial to successful and posirive socialization, which in turn influences other group processes such as leadership , roles, norm s, and climare. The process can be described in fi ve phases: antecedent, anticipatory, encounter, assimilation , and exi r.

1. Watch a film that shows group form atio n (classic examples include The Breakfast Club, The Commitments, and Lord of the Flies), and discuss the following questions: d.

How did the group manage important issues in its fo rmation ph ase? W ere there any unresolved issues that later hurt the group?

b. What instan ces of primary, secondary, or tertiary tensions did you observe?

c. Who became the emergent leader of the group ? Why did this person emerge? Wh at were the sources of this person's power as a leader?

me

•

Rules and norms, the standards of behavior for members of the group , differ only in their degree of formality. Group norms, or informal rules, are established through primacy, explicit statements members make, critical events in the group's hi story, and carryover behaviors from the culture at large.

• The group 's climate is (he atmosphere in which m embers work. Three impon3nr aspects of a group's climate are trust, co hes iveness, and supportiveness.

• Four ethical principles are particularly important during group formarion: creating a supportive climate, stopping behaviors that degrade others, encouraging freedom of expression, and being willing to speak hon estly.

2. Observe an actual group or watch a video of a task-o riented g roup. (Two videos produ ced especially for this textbook contain suitable seg~ents for this exercise.) Make a chart based on th e task, maintenance, and indi vidual behaviors described in the chapter. List the people's names at the top and the task, maintenan ce, and individual behaviors along the len side. Whenever each perso n speaks, categorize his or her remarks by making a nOte in the appropriate category. For each person in the group you obse rve:

a. What sort of role profile would you draw for that person?

Becoming a Group

b. How would you label that person's informal

117

group was so cohesive (or uncohesive), Which su pporti ve (or defensive) behaviors were most prevalent in the group? What forms of trust did yo u observe (o r no t observe) that made the biggesr difference in the group's climate?

role? c. Do you th ink the person's behaviors were

helpful or not? Why?

d. How wo uld yo u change the category sysrem

.Jj

ro be more useful for you?

3. Think of [he most (o r least) cohesive group you have ever belonged ro, and, explain why this

Go to www.mhhe.comladamsgalanes8e

a..f1n~ and www.mhhe.comlgroupsforself-

nn

IjrJ quizzes and weblinks.

Group Socialization

Role

Anticipatory Stage

Groupthink

Rul es

Assimilation Stage

Hidden Agenda

Cohesiveness

Individual Roles

Secondary Ten sion Structuration

Deviants

Maintenance Roles

Task Roles

Encounter Stage

Norms

Tertiary Tension

Exit Stage

Primary Ten sion

Trust

Group Climate

Punctuated Equilibrium

Antecedent Stage

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: J. Define diversity and give several examples of diversity within a group. 2. Explain how diversity benefits a group. 3. Describe the four learning styles identified by Kolb and

explain how each can benefit a group. 4 . Describe the four dimensions of the Myers·Briggs Type Indicato ~

personality inventory.

S . Define culture, describe three dimensions on which cultures differ, and explain how each can affect group interaction.

6. Explain how racial or ethnic, gender, and generational

differences can be considered cultural. 7. Explain why symbolic convergence and fantasy can help group members bridge differences by contributing to a group identity. 8. Explain the principles that will help group members make the most of their differences.

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

The Misfit

Judy, a gregarious and sociable class member, had the gift of making everyone laugh. When the class formed task groups that would stay together for the entire semester to complete a major project, several groups wanted Judy to join them. She chose to join a group with two other women and two men who, from their participation in class discussions, seemed.bright and conscientious students. This group had a good mix of talent-members who could organize a task, members who could write well, members who had many contacts throughout the university to help them find the resources they needed, and members, like Judy, who could make the task enjoyable. The group appeared to be headed for success. All the elements existed to make this a productive and fun experience. Several weeks later, group animosity ran dangerously high. Three members wanted to fire Judy from the group. The fourth member, Misty, liked Judy well enough but was also frustrated by her constantly pulling the group off-task. Her incessant joking, socializing, and attempts to ensure that everyone was having a good time had backfired. Instead, the others concluded that Judy was an airhead; they were frustrated by her inability to stay on task and what they perceived as her lack of seriousness. The members wanted an A+ for this major project. They had decided to give the finished project to their instructor a week early for feedback about how to revise and polish it. Judy's constant socializing had slowed them down. The others blamed her for missing their original, self-imposed deadline. By the end of the semester, Misty was the only member who would speak directly to Judy and thus served as the only link between Judy and the others, who ignored Judy whenever they could. The project was turned in on time but not early enough to receive instructor feedback; it received a B, for which everyone (but Judy) blamed Judy. These students' journals revealed that none of them had much insight into their own or other members' behavior during the semester. Misty and the others held Judy responsible for everything that went wrong. But Judy was the most puzzled and frustrated member of all. She never understood why the others were so "cold ." She had looked forward to making some new friends during the project, but her group members didn't seem to be interested in her. The harder she tried to take an interest in them, the more she felt rebuffed.

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One of us had the chance to observe a meeting of this group . Judy's socia bility and humor could have added quite a bit to the process-if she had only recognized that the others' priorities were not social. But the others, with their extreme task-orientation, were unable to see how Judy's personality could potentially have benefited their group. Instead, group members were locked into a struggle for control over their priorities, and no one won the struggle.

T

his sic uacion is all (00 typical. Many groups self-destruct because they m ismanage members' diverse perspect ives and perso nalities. Most of us think others should share our goals, priorities, commun icatio n patterns, and working styles. When they don't, we often blame them for being wrong. Few of us appreciate others who are quite djff'erent from us. Ironically, it is our very differences that contribute to making a group potentially morc effective than an individual. After al l, if yo u and I think alike, act alike, and process information alike, one of us is unnecessary to the process! Diversity itself is central to effective group problem solving. It is the ineffective management of diversity that causes the difficulti es so many groups experience. This chapter will show you how you can accept and capitalize on diversity to produce a better gro up outcome. We discuss several types of diversity. including differences in motives for joining a gro up. in learn ing styles and personality. and in cultural backgrounds. We conclude by discussing symbolic convergence and fantasy as a way mem bers can bridge their differences.

What Is Diversity?

l GLOSSARY Diversity Differences among group members, from personality

and learning style differences. to differences of opinion

Small grou ps are central to our lives and provide a ri ch mea ns for so lvin g all so n s of problems. si mple co co mpl ex. To be effective. groups must process all kinds of reso urcesincluding each other-and thi s req uires coordinatin g diffe rences. This chapter addresses one of th e mos t fundam ental features of effective group work: diversity. Diversity in a group refe rs to differences am ong members. There are endl ess ways in which members ca n differ. from how members learn , to perso nality differences, to differences of opinion. For example. Cl ifton may remember everything told ro him , but Tia is ben er recalling infor mation she has read or seen. Misty may want to ge t ri ght dow n to busi ness; fo r her, ch itchat is a waste of time. Judy, on th e othe r hand. is bener ab le to focus o n the task once she has co nnected informall y with orhers. A main reaso n to assemb le a small group is to ca pture diverse views and ideas. Wotkin g with diversity mea ns finding th e "good mi x" of member and gro up character istics th at promotes but does nOt impair effecti ve g roup omcomes. From th e outse t we wa nt ro emph asize that simpl y recognizin g that differences are esse ntial to

121

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

"In the interest q/cultural diversity, we've hired jason,

here,
group problem so lving and then "mixing up" group member characteristics are not enough. Finding the different pieces and then throwing them cogether is a recipe for disaster, as our classroom group found out. Successful group members reAecr on how those differences can best be applied to solving their task effectively, something our classroom group was not able or willing to do. The diversity of group member composition has intrigued small group researchers for years. Homogeneity (similar ity) and heterogeneity (difference) are terms typically used ro capture the degree of variance in group composition. Marvin Shaw, an early pioneer in small group research, said, "The general assumption is that most group activit ies require a variety of ski lls and knowledge; hence the more heterogeneous the group, the more likely the necessary abilities and information will be available and the mote effecrive the group is likely [0 be." 1 Sounds simple enough, but as the early group researchers found, getting that "good mix" is not easy. Group members can d iffer in any number of ways, but those differences must be coordinated, no easy undertaking. Research has shown that, early on, homogeneous groups operate more smoothly; however, given time to find ways to work with their differences, diverse groups perform more effectively.2 This is because, when members are homogeneous, they can take more for granred about their values, perceptions, perspectives, and so forth. In other words, there is more overlap, more shared meaning bet\'leen chern, at the beginning of their interaction, which makes communication easier. In conrrast, when members are more heterogeneous, there is less initial overlap or shared meaning, so they have to do more explaining and pay more conscious attention (Q their communication. This is depicted in Figure 5.1. Today the issue of group diversity and its effect on group processes and outcomes is more relevant than ever. William Johnston and Arnold Packer tell us chat the workplace in the twenty-first cenrury will be characterized by unprecedented diversity in terms of gender, age, ability, and minority and immigranr status. J Creativity and the development of new

Homogeneity Group5 comp05ed

of members who are 5im/lar or alike in member characteristics

Heterogen e ity GroUp5 composed

of member5 who

l

ore different on one or more dimensions

122

CHAPTER 5

FIGURE S. l

Homogeneous versus Heterogeneous Interaction

Shored meanings

Shared meanings

HeIer

Homogeneous interaction

eneous interaction

knowl edge depend on embracing divers ity and open discuss ion. 4 Lea rning to work with diversity is:l mUSt and requires identifying those member differences that are most relevant and effectively coordinating the obvious and less obviolls diversity in small groups. Often , it is nm rhe obvious characteristics of diversity-facrors such as race, age, sex-that pose rhe greatest challenges, bue morc subrlc factors such as members' values and how they go abom solvin g prob lems. s The best rea ms have a balance of member abilities, with individual approaches and ski lls comp lementing one anorher.6Too often we assume that we are doing things ri ght and that someo ne else needs to conform to our preferences. So working with diversiry in yo ur groups is a marrer nOt only of understanding why diversity inAuences group processes as it does but also being willing to lislcn to and work with others' explanations for their behaviors. Understanding, sensitiviry, and appreciation of the differences are more likely to produce a willingness on everyo ne's part to adjust behavior so differen ces ca n enha nce, nor detract from, yo ur gro up's relationships and its work. Early inte rest in grou p diversity focused on gender, personality. and race. Today, many differenc dimensions of group compos ition have becn idcnrified. 7 Our {ask was to select enough areas of diversiry to ca pture its co mplex iry but not overwhelm yo u. We have organized our discussion into twO broad categories of diversity: those thar are associared with individual personal differen ces (morives, learning styles, and perso nality) and [hose rhar are linked with culture (ethniciry, gend er, and age) .

•

Diverse Member Characteristics DIFFERENCES IN MOTIVES FOR JOINING A GROUP One of the most obvious differences to face group members is realizing they haven't all joined a group for lhe same reasons. Members who join primarily ro meet concrol or achievement needs will be task-oriented. whereas members whose needs for affect ion an d belonging predominare will be socioemotionaJ , focusing o n the inrerpcrsonaJ relati onships in rh e grou p. These twO sets of needs, and th eir co rres pondin g approaches to th e group's work, ca n often co mpete with each other in a group, as yo u saw in Case 5. 1.

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

Task-oriented individuals, with their focus on control and achievement needs, believe the group's task is the reason for the group's existence. They perceive any digression from the task as a waste of members' time, so they keep chitchat co a minimum. They become frustrated when the group digresses and may give dirty looks CO those who pull the group off task; they are likely co be the ones who bring the group back on task when the group has digressed. Task-oriented members, like Misty in Case 5.1, value accomplishment and feel a tremendous sense of achievement and relief when the group's task is completed. Relationally oriented individuals, like Judy in our opening case, value human relationships more than they do (ask accomplishment. These individuals want to get to know the others in the group and want to expe rience each member as a friend. Their needs for affection and inclusion take precedence over their needs for control. Thus, if a member is having a personal problem, socioemotional individuals will usually perceive that member's needs as being more important than the group's task and will willingly sacrifice the group's task accomplishment to help th e member. Carolyn Ande rson and Matthew Martin suggest that some motives, particularly the needs for control and affection, may be traits that are consistent across situations. 8 This poses particular challenges for members with control needs, who tend to focus solely on the task and may downplay the importance of camaraderie and ch itchat. These authors note that cohesiveness and satisfaction increase when group members help each other meet their needs. 9 Group members may actu ally do a better job of accomplishing their tasks when their personal needs for affection are met. Thus, it is important for group members to recogn ize and help all members meet their needs in the group. Task-oriented members must recognize the val ue of social talk. Both kinds of members are valuable to the group. \0 The most effective and rewarding teams are often those that integrate secondary (task-oriented) and primary (reiationshiporiented) eiemenrs. In addition, most of us participate in groups for several reasons, of which accomp lishing the task is only one. We wanr to experience the pleasure of each other's company and the fun of interaction. \ \ John Oetzel, in his studies of effective group decision making, reminds LIS not to assume that a task-focused member does not care about the social needs of a group or that a socially focused member does not care about the work to be done. \ 2 First, members can and do care aboU{ both needs at the same time. Second, their differences become apparent in how they get to the goal. Task-focused members can use work to facilitate good relationships, and socially focused members can use relationships to facilitate work dynamics. Judy's group failed to see the interrelatedness of these behaviors and failed to understand each others' social realities. Each expected the other to change or to switch focus instead of realizing that they needed both funct ions in their group and asking how members could all be both task and socially focused. Appreciation and open discussion, rather chan harping in private journals, could have helped them work with chese hvO relevant dimensions of group dynamics.

DIVERSITY OF LEARNING STYLES Group members bring different learning styles to cheir group experience, and we believe learning styles are relevant [0 group problem solving. Working on a problem as a group first encails th at members learn new information, integrate chis information imo commonly shared information, and [hen coordinate the informational resources of the group and ics members. \3 Ou r learning preferences affect how and what we talk about, whecher

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CHAPTER 5

Handling Different Motives and Orientations toward Work Judy and her fellow group members were highly frustrated by each other, in part because their needs and corresponding orientations toward the group's work were so different. However, instead of recognizing this as a potential plus, they responded by blaming each other for not doing things "right." Assume you are Judy, and you're having a hard time understanding why your group members seem constantly to be rebuffing your attempts at friendship. 1. What is your perception of the group's situation? If you were to describe the situation to a friend, what would you say about it? 2. What effect is your perception of the situation having on your behavior in (and outside) the group? 3. What could you do to make the situation better, from your perspective? List at least five possible things you could do. 4 . Which of those actions do you think is most likely to improve the situation, and why? Assume you are one of the other members of the group, and you

don't understand why Judy isn't getting the message. S. What is your perception of the group's situation? If you were telling a friend about it, what would you say the problem was? 6 . What effect is your perception of the situation having on your

behavior in (and outside) the group? 7. What could you do to make the situation better, from your perspective? List at least five possible things you could do. 8 . Which of those actions do you think is most likely to improve the situation, and

why?

we unde rstand one another, and what aspecrs of a gro up's {ask we feel m OS t co mfo rtabl e raking 0 11 . O ur lea rning sryle differences can se t us up fo r misunde rstandings if we are n't careful. For example. Gloria is a visual learner. In one group meeting a member rried ( 0

ex plai n something [Q her in several differenr ways. none of which got rhrough. Then a third gro up member drew a simpl e diagram and Gloria inscand y "saw" what th cy we re talking about. Had th e thi rd member not observed that she needed a different type of ex planatio n and been flexi ble enough to prov ide it. both G loria and th e rcs t of th e group would have stayed stuck on one point. O ther group members may be kin csth etic. or rouch. lea rn ers. who proccss informari on best if th ey ca n phys icall y do somethin g with the information. Group members ofren revea l these preferences in th eir talk. For in stance, Gloria often says, "I see what you mean ," when she understands someone. Anorher member says. "I bellr yo u," (0 indi cate understanding, while a Ih ird member may say, "I've gOI id" Each of these mecaphors for "I understand"

Wo rking w ith Diversity in the

Small Group

reveals a clue as to the do minan t sensory (e.g., sight, hea ring, touch) lea rn ing style of the speaker. In cohesive groups, members tend to conve rge on a single domi nant senso ry metapho r witho m even kn owing itY! Fo r instance, after a whi le group members wi ll al l start (0 say thin gs like " It fits," " I grltSp what you're saying," o r "T here's a ho le bi g enough (0 walk through in that argument" if th e kinesthetic or (Ouch metaphor is bein g used. T here are strength s to havi ng all three preferences included in a gro up. For example, in a pro posal crea ted by the gro up, G lor ia will co nr ribute di agrams and visual d isplays that co mmunicate well to other visual learn ers. John may be the mem ber bes t suited for prese ntin g the proposal o ral ly to th e paren t orga nization. So metimes JUSt talki ng abo ut these prefe rences is enough to help members apprec iate th em and wo rk a litde harder to co mmuni cate well with members whose preferences are di ffere nt. David Kolb has developed another model that demons trates seve ral key di ffe rences in lea rnin g styles that ca n affect how group membe rs work togerher. ' 5 He sugges ts [hat people have one of fou r basic prefe rences fo r lea rn ing new info rmation, and theyemer rh e lea rnin g cycle by way of th eir prefe rred style (see Figu re 5.2) . T his informatio n can heighren your awa reness of rhe learning style d iffe rences amo ng your gro up members and hel p you identify rhe adva ntages of each style for your group. T he concrete experience learni ng style describes those indi viduals who lea rn well from evenrs they actuall y o bserve or activ ities in which they actu ally participa te. T hey arc concerned wi th uniq ue, parti cul ar expe ri ences ra ril er than rheories and ge nerali zatio ns.

FIGURE 5.2

The Kolb Learning Cycle

Abstract conceptualization

Active experimenlation

ReAective observation

Concrete experience

125

l

~:=;~:~;c:tYle

A preference for learning by partici-

pating and dOing

j

126

GLOSSARY Reflective

Observation Learning Style A preference for

gaining perspective about one's experience by thinking reflectively about it

Abstract ConcepluallzaUon

Learning Style A preference for reading and solitary

study Active

C HAPTER 5

They trust their feelings and arc intuitive. As gro up members rhey are "doers" and may become impatient with theo retical discussion s o r resea rch o n background information. For examp le. if you r gro up is cha rged with invest igating a parking problem on campus. a concrete experience learner may vo lunteer to count cars illegally parked or observe how many cars leave a lor witho ut finding a parking place. But such a person may be uncomfonab le if as ked to synthesize three theoretica1 articles about traffic flow and facili ty usage. The reflective observation learning style describes individuals who prefer to get perspective on their direct ex perience by standing back, ga ining psychological di stan ce frol11 it, and thinking about it refl ec tively. They emphasize undersra nd ing rather th an practi cal application; they are the grou p "t hinkers." They mull information over in their minds, may talk to others about it, and lea rn parricularly wel l by writin g about the ex perience. As gro up membe rs they are likel y to benefit from gro up discuss ion abo ut iss ues. Th ey may help the grou p think through a group project or show how theoretical concepts are applied, but they may be less comfortable jumping in to help implement a group project. The abstract conceptualization learning style describes learners who process a considerable amount o f info rm at io n by read ing and sol itary study. Th ey are com fo rtable working alone, c.1n perceive broad parrerns, readily unde rstand theoreti cal material, and ca n pull togeth er information from a va riety of so urces in a way that makes se nse. They

Experimentation

are logical and emphasize thinking as opposed to feeling. In a group they are the "synthe-

Learning Style

sizers" and enjoy pulling toge ther available resea rch for rhe gro up's project; however, th ey may be less enthused abo ut conduct ing observat io ns o r implern enring the project. The active experimentation learning style describes ind ividuals who learn by trying different things until they fi nd one that works. Such peo pl e are co mfortable trying so mething new. They ca n apply info rm ati on in a var iety of ways. T hey like to actively inAuence others and prefer to do rath er than observe. As gro up members th ey are effective in a crisis because they can think and probl em-solve o n th eir fee t. Such a member might like to be give n res ponsibiliry for co ndu cting a pilot test of yo ur group's recommended solurian to the parking problem bue is likely to have less patience for so litary thinking and wriring abo ut the problem. Ge neraJly, our preferences lead us ro develop strengths in so me sryles more than others. In a balanced group. though, all sryles are represented; the grou p has members who c.1n research a problem . extract the importanr information from the resea rch, develop a plan. test th e plan and modify what doesn't work , then fina ll y implement the plan. An effcctive group needs the benefits of all the learni ng sryles, because the sryles complement on another. Un derstanding what each ca n bring ro a group. asking hawaII three can be used to f.1.c ilitate your problem so lvin g, and assess ing the balance of th e styles are important to an effect ive outcome. Sho uld YO ll discove r th at yo ur gro up is missing one o r more of these styles, you need to try to bring the missing sryles inro rh e group eit her by expa nd ing the abilities of members or by using trusted outsiders to supply rhe resources {hat are lack ing. Likewise. should you discover rhat one o r more of th ese preferences is producing behav iors th at clash, you need to talk abou t how to better lise the styles togethcr rat her th an treat one sryle as negating another.

A preference for trying different things to see what works

PERSONALITY DIFFERENCES M ishan dl ed perso nali ty di ffere nces create as much havoc in gro ups as any other factor. As mentioned ea rlier, it isn't rhe fact th at members have differe nt perso nal sryles that causes

127

Worki ng wi th Diversity in the Small Group

the problem- it's the fac t that many members do n't kn ow how to work wi th others whose personalities are markedly different. They waste thei r energy trying to ge t Others to change, are simply unwilling to work with peo ple different fro m themselves, o r treat these differences as mutually excl usive wi th room for o nly o ne perso nality. Hund reds of personali ty characteristi cs have been investigated by sociaJ scientists. Instead of maki ng an inventory of characteristics that affect gro up interacti on, we have chose n to loo k in depth at o ne pop ular classi ficatio n system, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI). The MBTI , based on the work of psychologist Carl Jun g, is a perso nali ty meas ure developed by Isabel Briggs M yers and Katherine Briggs. 16 T he sys tem looks at fo ur dim ensio ns that relate to how indi viduals interact wi th the world. Each dimensio n is a continuum with opposite characteri stics at either pole. Each of us leans, a littl e o r a lot, toward one or the other of the poles. Thus, MBTJ assesses our preferences, describes the characteristics we display and the behaviors with which we are most comfon able. H oweve r, no o ne is a "pure" type-we al l di splay so me characteri stics of aJl the perso nali ry types. In th is next sectio n, we wi ll describe the four dim ensio ns {hat underpin the MBT I (see Table 5. 1) as th ey may relate to grou p dynamics. T he extraversion/introversion dimension bears o n whether yo ur energy is directed towa rd the o urer, observable world o r your inner, menral landscape. Extraverts as group members look a 1m like Judy in Case 5.1 . They are tu ned in to the o uter world, are outgo ing, and usually like and get along well with Other members. T hey tend to be open to Others' ideas yet ca n be see n as impatient and. as in Judy's case, "not very ser io us. " Extraven s also tend to use group discuss ion to figure o ut what they thin k rather than co me to a meeti ng with their minds made up. During group prese ntati ons yo u may wa nt to turn to yo ur ex travens as the primary spea ker or moderato r. These members may also be the o nes yo u as k ro interview key sources for yo ur resea rch beca use th ey like to interact with others. i ntroverts may nOt like wo rking in groups at all; however, th ey enjoy workin g on ideas and ca n co ntribute effectivel y to group problem solvi ng. They may prefer, fo r example, to work independendy and th en bring their wo rk to the group ra th er than wo rking o n a tas k toge th er durin g a mee ting. Introverts tend to co me to meeti ngs havi ng th ought carefull y abo ut how they sta nd o n group tas k iss ues and ca n lose pati ence with the discussion. If extraverts and introverts do not unde rstand the underl yi ng values of o ne anoth er's wo rk sryles, th eir approaches ca n appear so different (h ar mi sunde rstand ings can easil y occur. T he sensing/intuiting dimension refers to the rype of informatio n yo u naturall y tu ne in to. Do you prefer to focus on facts in the here and now, or are you more likely to d rea m of possibilities and imagine new co nn ectio ns? T he seming group member is ca reful and fact ual and may lose patience wi th abstract theor ies. Sensing members can provide a gro up widl specifi c and concrete exam ples for reports. In addit io n, these members can provide specifi c examples to enh ance other members' secti ons if a discllssion appea rs too abst ract. D uring group presentations th ese members can repo rt o n the background of th e project as well as the detail s of th e solution the group is propos in g. The intuitive gro up member ca n be ve ry creative and imaginative, los in g pati ence with detail but very interested in the novel. Whereas the se nsor may be focused o n the details of a complicated iss ue, th e intuiti ve member is focused o n the bigger picture that co nrextualizes the problem . Intui ting members can be invaluable when brai nstO rmin g possible solutions to problems; rhey are ve ry good at arriving at innovative plans or novel ways to present a project for class presentati ons.

GLOSSARY Mye rs-Briggs Type Indicator'"' A permnality mf'Osure, hml'c/ 011 /ung's work, t hoI clossifies people ml o 16 basic fler~onalily Iypes according to their scores

all fOllr

dimensions

Extraversion! Introversion Dime nsion The

Myers - B"'99~~)

dimension tho/ descr;be~

whether

someone's ('Ilergy is directed olllword toward ob~efVable events or toward an inner, nWIlIa! lanriscapI'

Senslng/ Intuiting Dimension The MYf'n -8riggs dimension fllal describes w/lelfwr someone fotU\I!)

on prescnt forts or future pOHiIJiJilie5

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CHAPTER 5

====-Strengths --=-- and Weaknesses of the Myers·Brlggs'" Dimensions TABLE S.l

• Can work independently

Extravert • Interacts well w ith others

• Likes working with ideas

• Is open

• Is ca reful before acting

• Is an active doer

• Dislikes being interrupted

• Is impulsive and impatient

• Misses opportunities to act

• Needs change and va riety

• Can be secretive or appea r unsociable

• Needs others to work best

Introvert

STRENGTHS

WEAKNESSES

STRENGTHS

WEAKNESSES

STRENGTHS

WEAKNESSES

Sensor

Intultor

• Pays attention to details and facts

• Sees possibilities

• Is patient and systematic

• Likes complicated issues/problems

• Is practical

• Likes working on novel problems

• Can 't see the forest for the trees

• Lacks patience with tedious work

• Cannot see possibiliti es or imagine the future

• Is inattentive to detail or practical co nsiderations

• Is frustrated by complexity

• Jumps to conclusions

Thinker • Is logical, analytical, organized

Feeler • Is co nsiderate of others' feelings

• Has good critical ability

• Understands others' needs/feelings

• Is fai r but firm

• Is interested in maintaining harmony

• Doesn't notice others' feelings

• Can be disorganized

• Is uninterested in harmony; shows

• Is overly accepting (of others, of informatio n)

less mercy • Misunderst ands others' values

Perceiver STRENGTHS

WEAKNESSES

• Is not logical or obj ective

,Judger

• Sees all sides of an issue

• Is decisive

• Is fl exible, sponta neous

• Persists in staying with a task

• Is nonjudgmental, accepting

• Makes plans and sticks to them

• Is indecisive

• Is stubborn and inflexible

• Is easily distracted; does not finish tasks

• Is co ntrolled by the plan/tasks rath er th an in charge of the plan

• Does not plan

• Decides w ith insufficient data

SOURCE: Adapted from John N. Gardner ilnd A. Jerome Jewler, Your College Experience: Strotegie5 for Succen, 2nd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1995), pp.83- 89.

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

The thinking/feeling dimension concerns how individuals make decisions, whether by analysis and objective evidence Ot through empathy for others and subjective feel ings. The thinkers in groups are those who enjoy evaluating information critically, SpOtting Aaws in arguments, and producing logical plans. They do not jump to conclusions; rather, they use evidence and careful analysis, essent ial to cricical chinking in a group. The feelers in a group use empachy for ochers as their standard for making decisions and are more willing to adjust sta ndards to meet individual circumstances, with a focus on group harmony. You will see feelers making efforts to take members' feelings into account and helping to ensure chat a decision is acceptable to those most affected by the decision. The perceiving/judging dimension refeps to the way people organize (h e world around them, whether they are spontaneous and Aexible or planned and orderly. The perceivers in you r group are like sponges, gathering as much information as they can and putting off a decision for as long as they can. They are open to new perspectives and mulciple sides to issues. Perceivers roll with th e circumstances and are not freaked out if the group's work plan is disrupted. These members can have difficulty reaching closure, and when the task is finished, they can second-guess by wondering aloud whether there was a different or

Balancing the Church Board

129

Thlnklng/ Feeling Dimension The Myers-Briggs dimension that describes how people make decisions, by analysis of objective evidence or empa· thy and subjective feelings

Perceiving / Judging Dimension The Myers-Briggs@ dimension that describes whether

A friend of ours served on the board of directors of a Unity church. The

someone is sponta-

board and congregation were having problems getting things done. The

neous and flexible

board made decisions and set policies, but no action resulted. For ex-

or planned and

ample, the board noticed that, although many new members had joined the church, they often drifted away after a few months. Board members

orderly

decided to create a program that would help new members integrate

themselves quickly into the church community so that they would feel part of the congregation and be motivated to stay. They instituted a volunteer program to help members, especially new ones, identify their tal-

ents and find places where they could make their talents available to the church. However, this program never got off the ground, and although new members continued to join, they also continued to leave. About this time, a representative from the Association of Unity Churches came to conduct a board/congregation seminar based on the Myers-Briggsl8l classifications. Of the seven board members, six were identified as intuitive feelers and one as an intuitive thinker. 1. What relationship do you see between the classification of board members and the kinds of problems the church was experiencing?

2. What classifications do you think would be most helpful in supplying balance to this board? 3. If you were the board president, what would you do with this information? For instance, would you ask potential board members to construct their profile before endorsing them to run for the board? What ethical problems might this create?

CHAPTER 5

130

better way to have solved the problem. Group members who are judgers set plans and stick to them. They finish tasks and are ready to move on, much like Misty in Case 5.1. They are less willing to roll with changing circumstances. These group members can help the group get their work done by establish ing a work plan and encouraging members to follow the plan. Perceivers and judgers can drive each other crazy, yet group dynamics req uires both stability and change, not one or the other process. If you noticed some common themes between individual motives, learning styles, and personality types, you have been paying anemio n! For example, introversion and reRective observation exhibit similarities, as do extraversion and active exper imentation. Concrete experience preferences are related to sensing; abstract preferences are related to intuiting. Thinkers and judgers may exhibit strong task motives. Likewise, feelers and extraverts may be motivated by social needs. AIl group members we need to be sensitive to the benefits and drawbacks of each characteristic and recognize that we are often a mix of these apparently contradictory preferences, which do not have to be mutually exclusive. Each group together needs to find their balance. In the next section we will discuss differences that have come to be most associated with diversity: cultural differences.

Cultural Diversity MHHE.com/

groups For more information on exploring cultural

diversity, go to the

Cultural differences represem a major form of diversity in a group , and as we indicated previously, groups in the twenty-first century wi ll be increasingly diverse. Some small group resea rch today is dedicated to exploring why culturally heterogeneous groups experience difficulty.1 7 If we can explain the complex interplay between cultural factors , individual factors, and group composition on group problem-solving processes and the quality of a group's output, then we are in a better position to know how best to work with, not against, cultural diversity.

Online Learning

Center at www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanes8e

GLOSSARY Culture The system of beliefs, values, and symbols shared by an identifiable group of people

DIMENSIONS OF CUtTURE Culture is the system of beliefs, values, symbols, and rules that underlie communication patterns within a discernible grouping of people. It doesn't necessaril y refer to people from another coumry. A co-culture is a smaller identifiable group contained within a larger cul(Ural grouping and has its own norms and patterns of communication. For example, you belong ro the co-culture of "college students." I n our teX( we use (he word culture to refer also to race , gender, and generational differences, wh ich we' ll discuss later. Unless someone calls our attention to a f&ature of our culture, we don't think roo much about the significant role it plays in shaping our behavior. In addition, we tend to assume that individuals from other cultures share our values, behaviors, and commun ication patterns, but they don't! Cultures differ along a number of dimensions that affect comm uni cation rul es and preferences; we discuss three of them here (see Table 5.2).1 8 Knowing so mething about them wi ll help you communicate better in groups made up of individuals from diverse cultures so that you can capitalize on the strengths of these cultures. Moreover, because American business is increasingly becoming global in scope, at some point you likely will belong to a group composed of members from more than one country. In that case it will be especially important for you to be sensitive to cultural differences, not only so you don't offend others bur also so you can participate profitably in a global economy.

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

TABLE S.2 Three Important ========~------

131

Dimensions of Culture

Individualism/Collectivism HIGH INDIVIDUALISM

Values independence, autonomy, and privacy; encourages dissent; encourages people to "do their own thing." • " I won't be at the meeting tomorrow. I've got a chance to go skiing

with a friend and I really need some time off from school." • "I k~ow you all agree, but I don't, and I won't support that decision." HIGH COLLECTIVISM

Values harmony, conformity, and loyalty to the group; discourages

dissent. • " I'm taking my mother to the hospital for surgery in the morning, but I'll be at our meeting for sure at noon. I can call from there to see

how she's doing." • "I'll go along with whatever yo u all want to do."

Power Distance HIGH POWER DISTANCE

Maximizes status differences between members; values hierarchical

structure and strong authoritarian leadership. • Leader says, "I've decided that we're going to do it this way." LOW POWER DISTANCE

Minimizes status differences between members; va lu es sharing power, participatory decision making, and democratic leadership. • Leader says, "We've all got to live with the decision we make, so we should all have a say in it. Tell me what you think?"

Context LOW CONTEXT

Lets the words themselves carry most of the meaning; va lu es direct, unambiguous communication. • "Your idea is intriguing. Maybe we should explore it in more detail" (said wi th a smile) means, " I'm interested and I want to explore it in

more detail." • "I love that idea" means "I love that idea." HIGH CONTEXT

Lets the situation, or context, carry most of the meaning; communication is indirect; nonverbal signals are crucial to understanding a message. • "Your idea is intriguing . Maybe we sho uld explore it in more detail" (sa id w ith a sm ile) may mean, " I hate it" or "I really like it" or " It might have some possibilities but I can't commit yet."

132

(HAPTER 5

[ GLOSSARY

dimension. An individualistic culture, such as the predominant culture of the United

Individualistic Culture

A culture that va'· ues individual needs

and goals more

than group needs and goals

Collectivist Culture A culture that volues group needs and goofs more

I than mdividual

needs and goa~J

The first imporcant dimension along wh ich cu lwres vary is the individuaiisr/collcnivis[ States, values individual goals more than co ll ective, or group, goals. In a collectivist cuJture rhe needs of the group rake precedence over rhe needs of the individual, and co nformity ro the group is va lu ed. So, for example. a group member from a co ll ect ivi st cul ture will willingly abandon personal plans to arrend a gro up m eeting. bur a member from an indi vidualistic cul ture will say so meth ing like, " I've already got pl ans, so you' ll either have ro meet withom me or reschedule th e meetin g at a tim e th at 1 can make. " The underlying value-what's mOSt imporralH-differs. Group mcmbers who va lue co ll ec ti vism can become eas ily frustrated with a high ly indi vidualistic member, whom rhey will perceive as selfis h and uncarin g. However, it is also easy for individualistic members to perce ive co ll ectiv ist ones as caring roo much abom what others think. Asian, Nat ive American, and Latin Ameri can cultures (includin g the Mexican American co-culture within the Un ited States) rend ro be Illore co ll ectivist than the cultu res of the United States or Western Europe. 19 For instan ce, in Asian c ulwres relationships arc c rucia l. If your company sends you to negotiate a con tract with a group of execu ti ves in Taiwan, yo u must plan on a perhaps lengthy soc ial engageme nt bcfore business can be discussed. Americans who rush the process have inadverten riy insultcd their Taiwanese hosts. Individualisti c Americans also rend to be co mpetirive and argumenrarivc, particularly in co mpari son with co ll ectivi st culwres, where allowing group members to "save face" is necessary [0 preserving grou p harmony. In conA ict situations they a re comfortable forcing their opponents to capitulate. But instead of assuming that so meo ne must win and so meo ne must lose, it may be more productive to find the common groun d instead. Indi vidua ls from collectivist and individualistic cu ltures have developcd different communication preferences. For instance, individualistic members value clear and direct communication that is unambiguous. 2o In contrast, members from collectivist culrures, which va lue harmon y, prefer ambiguous commu ni cation that is more subtle and tentative. For examp le, suppose both Nguyen and Sam disagree with something cOlHained in a group repon being prepared. Nguyen, the collectivist member, says, " I wonder if we should look more closely at Parr 2 of the report? Was anyone else confused in that section?" Bur Sam, the indi vidualist member, says, " I think Parr 2 is terr ible and has to be don e over." Nguyen likely thinks Sam is selfis h and rude, whereas Sam sees Nguyen as wishy-washy and sp ineless. Each way of stating th e sa me opi nion has Gdvantages and di sadvantages. Nguyen's way is polite and allows th e writer of Part 2 to save face; however, we ca n't tell how strongly Nguyen feels about it, so Part 2's writer can easily misinterpret Nguyen. In contrast, there's no mistaking how Sa m feels, but hi s stateme nt may so insulr rhe autho r that nothing in Parr 2 gets cha nged. Degrees of individualism and co ll ect ivism also inAuence parterns of turn raking in heterogeneous groupS. 21 Turn taking was mu ch more un equal in mixed groups of Japanese and European American stude nts than in hom ogeneolls groups of either all -Japan ese or 311European American students. Thi s shows how hard communication ca n be in heterogeneous groups, especially ea rl y in th eir development. The mix of individualistic and co llectivist values inAucnced rhe eq uitablc distribution of turns, with the European Amer ican sUidents taking more turns. G roups sho uld work tOward an equ itable balancc of turn

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

tiling because this kind of member contribution is important to effec tive decision makIng 111 groups. The seco nd dimension of culture we discuss is power distance, or the extent to which a culture maximizes or minimizes status and power differences among individuals. In a low-power-distance culture (the United States has relatively low power distance), status and power differences among individuals are downplayed. Individuals believe chac power should be distributed even ly, that juSt because someone has a tide or money does not entitle (hem to privileges under the law that others don't have, and so forth. In a gro up, members from a low-power- distance culture believe that they have as much right to speak up and participate in decisions as the group'~ leader. In high-power-distance cultures such as Mexico and the Philippines, status differences are magnified and a rigid hierarchy exists. Members of such cu ltures believe that each person has a preassigned place in the society and should not seek to step Out of that niche. In a group, members from high-powerdistance cultures expect the leader to control and direct the group and may become frustrated with participatory leaders hip. Members from low-power-d istan ce cultures expect to participate in decision making, prefer a democratic leadership style, and assume that everyone else wants to participate in decision making as well. For instance , group leader Sa rah says to her group, "What ideas do you all have for solving the parking problem?" Members from high-power-distance cultures value authoritarian leadership and may see a democratic leader as weak and in comperent. They expect low-status members to conform to hi gh-status members. They assume others will accept the leader's co ntrol and direction. For example, group leader Jose says to his group, "1 believe the parking problem is due to bad class schedu lin g. Here's what I want YOll to do. .." You can see the possibiliry for misunderstanding and hurt feelings here! The third dimension is that of context. In a low-context culture, such as that of the United States, th e verbal part of the message carries the meaning- what you say is exactly what you mean. If you say that you like my proposal, I can trust the fact that you really do like it. In a high-context culture, such as most Asian and Native American cultures, features of a situation or comext are more important than the words themselves. So if you tell me you like my proposal, I'd have to take into account the setting, the people, the purpose of our conversation , and ocher factors to know for sure whether you really liked it or you were just being polite to avoid hurting my feelings. High-context cu ltures tend to be co ll ect ivist, with group harmony an important value. Ambiguity and indirectness may help preserve this harmony by allowing disagreemem to happen gently, in a way (hat doesn't upset rhe balance of the group. For examp le. context differences have produced problems between U.S. managers and their Mexican counterparts at the maquiladoras, th e assembly plants in Mexico near the U.S. borderY Expectations about how managers should express disagreement differ. Mexican managers use an indirect communication style in conflict situations, but U.S. managers expect disagreements to be expressed openly and unambiguously. These diffetences in expectations ca n cause problems and misunderstandings. Group members from low-context cu ltures so metimes try to force others to be direct and clear. They may perceive members who are not straightforward as manipulative or insincere. On (he other hand, members from high-context cultures perceive members who are verbally blunt as rude and aggressive. As the earlier example demonstrates,

133

I

GLOSSARY

Power Distance Whether

Q

culture

maximizes or mini· mizes status and power differences

Low-Context Culture A culture in which the words used convey more meaning than the situation

or context High-Context Culture A culture in which features of the situation or context convey more meaning than the words people use

134

(HAPTER 5

Euro-Dlsney Stumbles According to Carl Hiaasen in Team Rodent: How Disney Devours the World,. Disney's venture in France, Euro-Disney, got off to a slow start when it opened in 1992. Disney executives decided to import the Disney concept intact when they created their European theme park. The Disney parks in the United States have a clean-cut image- at least, as Americans define clean-cut. Those who work in the park, mostly young people, abide by strict rules of dress and demeanor. For example, they must not wear bright nail polish, heavy makeup, or facial hair. In addition, the parks do not serve wine or other alcoholic beverages, which contributes to the clean-cut image in the Un ited States. However, these rules seemed offensive and rid icu lous to Europeans, particularly the French. Not serve wine in France? Unthinkable! These factors contributed to Euro-Disney's dismal ea rly performance. However, Disney rethought its rul es and relaxed several, in particular the makeup, facial hair, and wine rules. Euro-Disney is beginning to catch on in Europe, the way it has in the United States. 1. Are there any other "rules" or communication patterns observed by North Americans that Europeans might consider silly? 2. Are there any "rules" or communication patterns observed by Europeans that North Americans might consider silly? 3_ What does the above story suggest to you about cultural practices, particularly app lying in one culture practices that are normal in another?

4 . Disney executives are intelligent and experienced . What factors do you think might have contributed to this not-well-thoughtout decision by Disney? ' C(lri Hi(l(lsen, Teem Rodent: How Disney DeVOUr) the World (New Vork: B.1Ii(lntine Books, 1998).

rh e advantage of being cl ear, like Sa m , is thar your mea ning is unmistakable. Howeve r, th e adva mage of bein g tentat ive, like Nguy~n , is that YO LI al low discuss ion co occur withour polarizing members' opinions or making them lose face. Appreciation of cultural differen ces in a gro up is very important. Th e Un ited States is a pluralistic cul ture [Q which many different cultures have conrribmcd a nd co nrinue ro co ntribute. This mea ns that littl e can be assumed or taken for granted, includ ing assum ing that a perso n's culrurai id enriry predicts everything said and done in a group. Small group researchers like John Oerzel rem ind us, that individu als within a culrurc vary. 2J As Oerzel points out, we are individuals JC(ing within cultures; rhus, we must not oversimplify th e situati on by using only culture ro predict individual behavior. Oetzel argues thar whet he r we defi ne ourselves as inde pendent or interd epend enr has a significa m bea ring on our socia l behav ior. Those group mcmbers who havc an indcpende m image of themselves see th em selves as uniqu e, w it h th eir thoughts and

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

feelings as their own. They are goal-driven, seek clarity, and attend less to nuances of comext. Those who hold imerdependenc images of themselves define themselves in connection to others. They value helping others meet their goals. They value fitting in, work to uphold the self-image of the other, and also try to avoid negative assessmencs of themselves. These two types of self-image are found in everyone, regardless of their cultural idemity. What is important co note is that Oetze! has found that both cultural inputs and personal self-images influence the conrriburions of members.

RACIAL AND ETHNIC DIFFERENCES We began our discussion of cultural divers icy with a global emphasis, talking broadly about differences group members from different countries may bring to a group. In this section we focus more on those same culmral and co-cultural dimensions within the boundaries of the United States. Discussions of racial and ethnic differences are complicated and often very difficult in the United States. We seem (Q shout at each other, producing more heat than light, or pretend there are no differences or problems anymore. However, if we do not find ways to effectively negotiate one another's relevant ethnic and racial differences with in a climate of mutual respect while solving problems impacting all of us, we will not find the benefits in cultural diversity. In the twenty-first century multiracial and multiethnic groups are the norm, so we have (Q do better than we have in the past. Major ethnic and racial groups in our country include African Americans, Asian Americans, European Amer icans, and Hispanic Americans. We know quite a bit abom the communication with in many cultures, but we don't know very much about interaction between individuals from a variety of cultures. In this section we provide information about some of the major differences in communication styles and patterns in these groups, but we focus on differences between African Americans and European Americans because relationships between these two groups are among the most discussed and debated in this coumry. We offer a very important caution. We discuss each culture as if members from that culwre display a single consistent parrern of communication, but this is not the case. There are as many communication style differences within these co-cultures as there are between them. Although we know we are overgeneralizing, if you aren't aware of differing cultural practices, your lack of knowledge may imerfere with effective group discussion. If you find yourself uncomfortable in an encounter with someone whose race or ethnicity is different from your own, and your impulse is to blame rhe other person for your discomfort, stop! Your discomfort may be due to unexamined differences between two culwres; the other person may be just as uncomfortable as you are. Earlier we presented information about collectivist and high-context cultures. Asian cultures rend ro be both. Asian Americans who are close to their original family cultures may communicate indirectly. Group harmony takes priority, so conAict will be expressed indirectly and ambiguously. Non-Asian Americans may have to pay careful arrention to recognize they've been disagreed with, because actions in context are trusted more than words. Most Hispanic cultures are collectivist and have a high power distance. This means that individuals are expected to subordinate their wishes to the group, and strong, authoritarian

135

136

C HAPTER 5

leade rship is expec ted. Th ese ex pectati o ns and values m ay clash with th e individualism a nd relati vely low power di stance in rh e predominanr Euro pean Am eri can culture in the U nited Scates. T he relationship betwee n African Americans and Euro pea n Am ericans ca n be pani clIlarly compli ca ted . These n 'lo cultural groups have t raditi o nally mi sunders{Ood each mh er, often w ith se rious consequences ro both. We hope rh e information we provide about communication differences betwee n th ese groups will prevcnr you from saying or doin g something insensiti ve th ar contributes ro group self-destruction. T he Afri can Am eri can cul (ure values sha ring, emotionality, verba l express ion , and in reracri viry.24 Th ese valu es exp ress themselves in a vari ety o f ways . African Am eri ca ns apprec iate verbal invenrive ness and ex pression. Verbal p lay as a type of perfo rmance is pani cularly valued . H owever, what Afr ican Ame ri ca ns intend as a playful display is ofte n in terpreted by Euro pea n Am eri can s as braggin g o r strurting. Afr ican Ame ri cans are ge nerall y mo re ex pressive and im cract ive. Open ex press io n of feelings is e ncouraged as a n impo rtam way to share a nd co n nect. However, this roo can be misimerprcted. Afri can Amcri ca ns think European Ameri can s are cold and und erreacti ve because they don ' t share feelin gs as readil y a nd are not as ex press ive. Similarl y, European Americans think Afri ca n Am eri cans are overl y emotional a nd overreactive. Each group pcrceives th e Oth er negatively. I S A numbe r of communi cation pattern s may conrribute (0 thi s. Fo r in stan ce, African Am eri cans stand closer to eac h orh er tha n European Am erica ns, w ho may inrerprer rha r nonvcrbal behavior as threatening. Euro pean Ameri ca ns make mo re direct eye conracr w hen they listen tha n when rh ey talk. Fo r Afr ica n America ns the parrern is reversed ; they mak e mo re direct eye conract w hen they talk tha n w hen they listen . T his can seriously affect perce pti ons of trust, interes t, and acce ptance. Th e Afri can Am eri ca n co mmuni ca tion style is much more interactive than the typi cal European Am eri can sryle. For in sta nce, traditional African Am eri can church servi ces ofren di splay (he call -response Style, wh ereby congregation members shout " Am e n~ " and "Tell it like it is, bro cher! " whil e t he preacher is talkin g . They also use the backchannel more rhan Europea n Am eri cans. This mea ns tha t rh ey say thin gs like " Uh-huh " a nd " Mm -hmm " in eve ryday co nversarion to sign ify inte res t and attention. However, Europea n Ameri ca ns ca n eas il y ilHerp ret som eone ralking during anoth er's calk as rud eness. On {he orhe r haml, Afri ca n Americans, who are used [0 getting such ve rbal signs o f arrention , may inre rpret tha t lack of backchanncl res po nses fro m Europea n Am erica ns as lack of interest. Afri can Ame ri can conversarional sryle is a narrati ve, storytelling sryle. Eu ro pea n Ame ri ca ns may in te rpret it as disorga nized, ra mblin g, o r o ff-task. To Europea n Am eri ca n teache rs a paper written in traditional Afri can Am eri can narrative style can appear di sorganized and rambling. Mosr Afri can Am eri cans have had more practi ce in understa ndin g European Am erican culture than vice versa bec.:'l u se th ey have been forced to ..!.f, Man y Afri can Am eri can s CO I1 sider themsel ves bi cultural beca use they can negotiate " rypical " African American con ve rsa tion al conrexts as well as the European American contexts that currentl y predominate in th e business and educari o n arenas. H owever, it is d ifficult for m inority group me mbers to ex press th emselves full y in grou ps composed prima rily of individuals from och er cultures. 27 U nforrunately, rhis suggests (hat multi cultural groups a rc no t rea lizing their full porenrial as groups because rhey aren 't incorporating fully rh e ideas of (h e minority group members.

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

Different Voices for Making Ethical Decisions Assume you are on a student judicial committee charged with deciding the punishment of students who have violated your institution's rules and policies. Rob, the student before you, is charged with plagiarism. He submitted a paper very similar to one that another student had turned in the previous semester to another teacher for the same course. Sections of Rob's paper are identical to the earlier paper, but some parts of the paper co nta in new research and. appear to be Rob's own work. Rob has admitted that he plagiarized portions of the paper but pleads extenuating circumstances and asks for your committee's mercy. Soon after he started his research for the paper, he learned that his younger sister, still in high school, had been diagnosed with leukemia. She is being treated, so far successfully, but for the last few weeks Rob has driven home on weekends to be with her. He and his sister are close; she relies on him for emotional support, which he has been happy to provide. But helping her has d rained him of the ability to concentrate and consumed all his time. He took the easy way out but made sure that he incorporated his original research into the paper he "borrowed." Rob asks you to let him drop the cou rse with no penalty so he can take it again the next semester. However, your institution has an honor code all students sign as freshmen; the code specifies a minimum of one semester's suspension for all honor violations, including plagiarism. In practice, though, the student judicial committee's recommendations are accepted. Here are your choices: • Let him drop the course with no penalty. • Give him an F in the course. • Give him an F in the course with a notation that the F is due to plagiarism; this remains on his permanent record. • Give him an F in the course and suspend him for one semester. • Give him an F in the course and expel him from school permanently.

1. Before you form groups of five or six, what would you personally recommend for Rob? What is your reasoning for your recommendation? 2. Get together in groups, as if you were the student judicial committee, and come to consensus about what you would recommend. Then discuss what your reasons were for your ultimate recommendation. What considerations were most important to you? 3. How did you balance being fair to Rob, being fair to other students, and upholding your honor code?

(continued)

137

138

C HAPTER 5

Continued This example allows for a number of individual differences in ethical reasoning to emerge. Educa tor Carol Gilligan, in her book In a Different Voice, * suggests that men and wome n use different ethical logic systems when making decisions like this. Men are believed to make ethical deci-

sions from so·called objective positions that focus on abstract concepts such as justice, freedom, and truth. Women, Gilligan believes, make eth-

ical decisions based on concerns for people, taking compassion, desire to all eviate suffering, and loya lty into account. 4_ Did you observe either of these ethical systems during yo ur discussion? Did any other ethical systems emerge during your discussion?

5. To what extent do yo u ag ree with Gi lligan's assessment of men's and women's reasoning during ethical dilemmas like this? 6_ What implications m ight the conflict of different ethical systems have for small groups? ' Carol Gilligan, In a Different VOf{<": P1..,::holcJ9kol Theoty and Womt'n'J Development (Cambridge, MA: Harv<Jrd Un~rsity Press, 1982).

GEND ER DIFFERENCES Yo u will neve r be abl e to esca pe o ne of (h e mos t impo rta nt inAuences of culru re: [he effecr o f ge nd er rol es in a gro up. Th e masculin e- feminine conri nuu m is often li sted as another dim ension o f culture, alo ng with individualism /co ll ectivism , high or low co ntex t, and power distan ce. 28 Broadly speaking, mo re feminin e culm res (e.g., No rway, C osra Ri ca, Sweden) prefer an overl ap of rol es such th ar borh mal es and femal es are ex pected to be modes t, nun-urin g, and ge nerall y orher-oriented. In more masculine cultures (e.g., Australia, Mexico, th e United States, Japan), gender roles th at co mplement eac h or her are reinfo rced , with men actin g asserti ve and wo men actin g modes t. T he ge ndered com mun icatio n rules we all use have been [augh t and reinfo rced by o ur culrures. C ulture, and o ur own constructio n of ge nd er. inAu ences how we ex peri ence behaviors in groups and what cho ices we make. in a Reich and Juli a Wood examined research studi es abour male-female behavior in small groups. Fo ur areas emerged in which women and men show di ffe rent tend encies; these are not absolute differences bur rath er are matters of degree.!'} T he fi rst area of d ifference is betwee n expressive and instru mental behaviors. Ex pressive behavio rs focus o n feel ings and relatio nships. Fo r instance. befo re the meeting gets und er way. Susan may ask Allen how he did on the ca lculus tes t he was wo rried abou t. Instrumental behav iors focus 0 11 accompl ishin g the g ro u p's tas ks . Al len may tell Susa n he'll talk to her about it after rh e meeting, but first they have to assess where rh ey are o n thei r gro up projecL A seco nd , rel ated difference is task ve rsus reulliomhip foc us. Wo men generall y pl ace mo re emph as is o n rela ti o nships and are m ore likely to show, by th eir communica ti o n

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

behavior, that they care and wanr to help. One woman we know, a particularl y effec~ tive leader. touches base with members betvveen meeti ngs, es pecia ll y if there has been a disagreemenr, ro make sure everyo ne is OK and no one's feelings are hurt. She believes that things go better when relationships are harmoniou s. As with exp ress ive and instru~ mental behavior, men and women bmh co mmuni cate caring as well as interest in the group's task. Third, there are differences in forcefulness, which involves how much someone talks, interrupts others, claims perso nal space, or otherwise calls attention ro him- or herself in the co nversa tion. It also refers ro how directly and assertively so meo ne comm uni cates. Men tend to be more forceful {han wo men. They talk more (han women, interrupt more, engage in more self-promorion, claim more space, and arc more assert ive. A man is more likel y ro say, "OK, here 's what I think we should do," bur a woman is more likely to say, "This seems like a good idea, bur what do the rest of you think?" The first smtement is more direct and powerful, but th e seco nd is more polite and inviting. Finally, male~female differences have been observed belween individual and group oriemation. Men ex hib it more individualistic behavior thal calls attemion to their own personal status. They tend to see k the spotlight 1110re often and to highlight their own individual accomplishments: "I think I did a great job of researching our topic." In contrast, women show more co ll ect ivist behavior that emphasizes the group as a whole: "We have done a wonderful job of gathering all the information we need. " They stress building th e tealll rather than increasi ng their own indiv idual status. Interestingly, sex itself see ms ro funnion as a status characterisric in small groups, with men having higher status. In one study in which group members interacted anonymously via co mputer-mediated communication, men were more likel y than women to reveal that they were men. 30 Women hid identifying information or even represented them selves as men. Women believed that their cont ributi ons were more readily accepted when they we re anonymous dun when th ey engaged in face-m-face interaction and could clearly be identified as women. They preferred m remain anonymous dur ing computer-mediated interactions because they believed they had more inAuence that way. Genera lizing about male and fema le behavior is misleading for all SO rtS of reasons. Multiple facto rs-s uch as the narure of {he task, group co mposition, member ro les, the behaviors lIsed to cue stat us, and individual identiry preferences-ca n mediate the inAuence of gender. As with any culrural variable. we should stay away from either~or thinking-that is, thinking that men are only this way and women are only that way, and one way is better. Lindsey Grab and colleagues. in studying gender differen ces in small gro up communication CO lHexts, make (he case rhar tOO mu ch scholarship in this area focuses on the differences betwee n men and women and not the similarities ..!) When men and women are (reared as being socialized in two different cu ltures, we tend to stereotype men as instrumental/powerful and women as affiliative/ powerl ess. You see (his dichorom y in rhe previous exp ressive/ instru mental. task/relationship, and individual/group tendencies. T yp icaJly, powerful speech has been defined as speech heavy in interruptions (seen as assertive) with minimal use of speec h that can be seen to soften discourse, such as di sclaimers (e.g. , "This could be wrong, bur don 't we need more cas h?") and tag ques· tions (e.g., "Increasing tuirion will lead m higher dropout rates, won't ii?"). Women arc stereotyped as using more di sclaimers and tag questions. and men are stereotyped

139

C HAPTER 5

140

Diminishing Implicit Assumptions of Group Diversity

-'-------

Diversity in experience, expertise, and perspective is encouraged in Go to

www.mhhe.com / adamsgalanes8e for additional weblink activities.

group interaction because of the potential it adds to the quality of group decisions. However, a number of implicit assumptions about diversity (personality, cu lture, gender, etc.) ca n sometimes diminish the rewa rds that wou ld otherwise be gained by having a group w ith a mixture of

personali ties and experiences. Think how yo ur group interactions might differ if you had no preconceived assumptions about the members you we re about to work with. How would that change the way you r group started its meetings? What things would you ta lk about to develop relationships? One feature of group support systems is anonymity, a feature that

can be used to help circumvent many assumptions members bring to the group (e.g., males are better at workin g on task, or younger group members know more about technology). Consider some of the stereo-

types you have about male and fema le g roup members. Do you have different expectations for male group members compared to females? Are there tasks that you feel certa in genders are better at? In her ex-

amination of gender masking on th e Internet, Brenda Danet found that, when given the opportunity, individuals (both male and female) enjoyed experimenting with altering their identity because of the freedom that came from gender-free interaction . The anonymous interaction of a CMC environment gives people a chance to understand how social and cultural information about others is used to guide interaction. To learn more about the potential for gender masking, go to www.newcastle

. edu. auf d Isclpllne/ soclal-anthrop / staff / k ibbymarj/ gender .html for a comprehensive list of available resources on the subject. SOURCE: Based on Brenda Danet, "Te",t as Mask: Gender, Play, and Performance on the

Internet,~

in

CybenoClely 2.0 ed. S. Jones (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998).

as using mo re inrerrupti o n and be in g ilHerrupted less. W hen we change our th eo retical approach (0 o ne of emphas izing (h e similarities becwee n men and wo men, we are no r as apt (Q di cho to mi ze male and femaJ e behav io r. G rab and colleagues found that males and females ilHerrupted Others with similar frequ ency and used di sclaimers and tag qu estions simi larly. In (.,1 C( , th ey fo und that it was rh e mllies in the groups who we re inrerruptcd more. Howeve r, th ey also fo und that when ma les imerrupr others, (hey are mo re successful than fe males. Mo reove r, men seem (0 be penalized less than wom en when rh ey do imerrupr, in part because co nve rsat ional dominance-of whi ch incerrupri oll is an exam ple-is expected of men.-'2 In additi on, the ge nd er com pos ition of a group seems to make a diffe rence in acrual behavio r and perceptio ns of behavior. When indi vidua ls are dissimil ar ro other rea m

Working with Diversity in the Small Group members on the basis of sex (for exam ple, rhe lone man in a group of women or vice versa), and when th ey have a strong se nse of idemifica tion wilh their own sex, they perceive a hi gher level of relational conflict within (heir gro upsY As th e lone member of yo ur sex in a group, you are likel y to place more importance on sex than if th e gro up we re mixed. In addition, ir seems (hat grou p composition affects how men's and women's co ntributions are eva luated. Rajhubir and Valenzuela exa min ed episodes of the tel evision program The Weakest Link and co ndu cted simulations modeled on the show. J4 Women vo ted males off when there were fewer women in rhe gro up, when the women overall performed well, and when (h ere was greater variation in the performance of the men (even if the top perfor mer was a male). Likewise, men vo ted women off when there we re fewer men in the group, when men overall performed well, and when there was greater var iatio n in th e performance of wo men (even if a woman was th e top performer). These {\yo studies found a co mplex relationship among sex, sex composition, and performance that suggests men and women lI SC sex straregically, with both sex compos ition and performan ce ex plainin g rhe srraregy. What are we to make of all this? Once again, it's importanr nor to lose sight of the fac t thar rhere are many similarities betwee n cultures, and cultural gro ups have a lot marc differences within groups than between rhem. Also, when we approach differen ce from an either-o r perspecrive, we rend ro draw desrructive value judgments about behaviors-we have to behave this way or 'hilt way, bur nor borh ways. C hapter 3 on communicatio n fund amentals emphasizes rhat our co mmuni cative choi ces are nor limired or mutllally excl usive. In addition, any co mmunica ti ve cho ice can serve multiple fun ctions rather than just one, no maner \"ho th e messenge r may be. For instan ce, interruption s can show supPOrt for another individual's arguments, di sclaimers can be used ro help rhe orher person save face or maintain positive face, and tag question s may be important as group memhers begin 1'0 co nverge all iss ues. Finally, remember that we are sllldying male and female behavior in groups, not dyad s. In mixed groups we see less stereorypi cal behavior, with members showing different patterns of muwal inAlience as groups develop over time. 35

GENERATIONAL DIFFERENCES A few yea rs ago , G loria served o n {he board of directors at her church. C loria is a baby boomer and was rhe yo ungest member of rhe board. As a boomer she believes all peoplewo men included- have the right 1'0 ex press o pinions; she also values frank and open discllssion in the course of making decisio ns. It simpl y never wou ld occur 1'0 her that she shouldn't say what she rhought. Most of rhe other members of the seven-member board were a generation older. During th eir board meetin gs they signal ed- primarily throu gh their nonverbal behavi or-rhat th ey were un comfortable with her hi gh level of participation. It seemed to her that she was violating an unspo ken rul e of "be seen and not heard until yo u've paid yo ur dues." Her values and beliefs see med ro clash with rhe others' values, and she inrerpreted the clash as stemmin g from generat ional differences. These kinds of generational differences ca n nega ti vely inAuence feelings of trust, for instance, amon g group members of differenr ge nerations. When age differences are not apparent, such as in virtual work reams in which members interact via com puter, rhe impact of age on (ru s( is not as readily apparenr. J6 Understanding the potential effect of generational differen ces on grou p processcs at schoo l or at work is imporrant.

141

142

GLOSSARY

:=1 r from 190' to '945; mfluenced by the

Great Depression

and World War II Boomers Individuals born from 1946 to 1964; influenced by TV and the social upheaval of 19605 Gen- Xers Individuals born

from 1965 to 1976; influenced by Watergote and general mistrust

C HAPTER 5

Think, for a moment, about your parcms' and their friends' generatio n. Do you live your life in rhe same way as your parents? \Vhar differences do you observe? If you are o ld enough to have children, what differences do you observe between your own beliefs, behaviors, and val ues and (hose of yo ur child ren? A number of writers ha ve characterized ma jor generat ional d ifferen ces th at appear in the U.S. workplace coday. Much of thi s informatio n has bee n synthesized by Rick and Kathy Hi cks an d others.)7 Alth ough the Hickses do not use rhe rerm co-culture. (hat is in fact what they d escribe. Their key ass umpti o n is that each ge neration forms a parricul ar co-c ulture, with similar values, goals, and ou dook on life based on th e majo r evenrs, people, and aC(ivities prominenr during their fo rm at ive years, parricu larly wh en th ey were about 10 yea rs o ld. Ar 10 yea rs o ld, forces outside the family-friends , reac hers, rhe med ia-begin to assume in creased and lastin g impo rtan ce in our li ves. To rea ll y under srand rh e core va lues of a parricular generatio nal co-culrure, ir is necessary to take a loo k at those inAuenrial events. T he Hi ckses describe four broad generations th at are fo und in today's wo rkp lace: b uild ers, boomers, generarion X, and the net generation. Tab le 5.3 summ arizes th is info rm ation. As we d escribe these generations, we remind you (ha t we are aga in overgeneraliz.ing and oversimplifying. H oweve r, you are bound to experience ge nerational clashes in every arena of life-including in small gro ups you join. App reciating some of the diffcrcnccsand perhaps the reaso ns fo r them-will help yo u draw fro m th e strength s of these ge nerational d ifferences instead of being mired in resentm ent. Please nore that differe nr so urces provide different ending years for Cell-X; we have chose n 198 1 as the mOS t CO lllm o n. Th e builders, born berween 190 I and 1945, li ved through twO world wars and th e bust of the G reat Depressio n. They lea rned ro wo rk very hard, (0 save mo ney, an d ro postpone grati fi cat ion, preferring to save money for the things they need rar her th an use cred it ca rds. Many of this ge neratio n are retired bur remain active in American governmenta l and civic life. Th ey arc com fortabl e wit h hi era rchy, willingly climbed (h e co rporate ladd er by pl aci ng th eir perso nal interests aside to co mpl ete tasks. Perso nal disc ip lin e and self- sacrifice are centralIa th eir o utl ooks on life and work. Th ese values may appear old-fas hioned, bUl builders can provide loya lty and stabi lity to gro ups. Although th ey ca n resist change and may act very reserved during co nAi ct, their perseverance in seei ng a job through is tremendously beneficial ro a group. The boomers, born between 1946 and 1964, arc the children of me builders who, because [hey tried to make rhe world eas ier for their kids, created a generation of people who believe in [heir own importance! Televis io n and the wc ial unrest of me 1960s produ ced individuals who arc impatient for answers and wam immediate solutions. T hey resist authority and value educatio n as a means of add ressi ng societal ills. They value hard wo rk for the personal gratificar ion they get from it, and nOt SO mu ch for me produC[. They G.1.n appea r idealistic and self-centered, bur they do bring valuable resources to th e group. Boomers are respo nsible for [he team concept in business and dle co ntinuing foclls on service. Their confidence and ease with alternative views mat may be co nrrary ro those of the csrablishmenr ca n help in projec[S. Boomers valu e being noriced for their co nrribu(i ons and can help group members show grati tude to other members. Boomers arc still in man y leadership positions in industry, education, and government-holding those places the gen-Xers wou ld like ro have! Gen -Xers were born between 1965 and 198 1. Th ey are commonly refe rred lO as the latcbkry grnertltion and often emotionally neglected by their boomer parent s, with their

14!

Working wi th Diversity in the Small Group

TABLE S.!

BUILDERS

(1901-1945)

Characteristics, Strengths, and Weaknesses of Four Dominant Cenerations Characteristics

Strength.

Weaknesses

• Major influences: Depression and WWII

• Are careful with

resources (e. g ., money)

• Are too cautious with resources

• Are cautious about spending money

o

Plan ahead

o

o

Are reliable, dependable

May lack spontaneity and fl exibility

0

Are disciplined

• Are confident

o

• Will put in whatever time task takes

Think they're right all the tim e

o

Expect others to hold similar beliefs/ values

o

May break rules of ethics if they think it's best for them

o

Will work hard at single task until compl eted

• Put own interests aside for comm on good

BOOMERS

(1946-1964)

• Major influences: TV, Vietnam War, the Pill, assassinations, civil rights movement, size of generation

• Major consumers; value

"good life" o

o

o

Will challenge "old ways" of doing things Will take on big causes

Are self-absorbed; believe they're special

• Work as end in itself; expect to be fulfilled at work • Value education

GEN-XERS

(1965-1981)

• Are independent thinkers • Appear pessimistic and negative • Are sensitive to people; va lue relationships o Are unwilling to put • Are tolerant; accept personal life/concerns • Distrust institutions, competing points of aside to complete task particularly government view o May seem alienated and o Are co mfortable with o Are comfortable with unmotivated diversity change o Work as means to an end 0 Are highly computer

• Major influences: rising divorce rate, Watergate, Pentagon Papers, MlV

o

Value family (broadly defined)

o

Are co mfortable with technology

literate

• Endure education (continued)

144

CHAPTER 5

TABLE 5.3

Continued Characteristics

N-GENERS ( 1982- 1997)

Weaknesses

Strengths

• Major influences: AIDS, technology and Internet, death of Princess Diana

• Were the most wanted generation in history; raised by overinvolved (helicopter) parents • Va lue diversity; highly tolerant • Are major consumers

• Are open· minded and tolerant; welcome different viewpoints • Are comp letely technology and m edia

sawy

• Seem to lack initiative; seem unmotivated • Are unlikely t o conform

to burea ucracy, hierarchy, organiza tional " rules"

• Are optimistic

• Seem to need co nsta nt

• Are innovative

praise and do not take criticism well

• Are comforta ble with and like collaborative work, networkin g

• Are nonlinear thinkers

• Do not link reward s (grad es, promotions) to performance

• Va lue family

1,/ ~

~ T(lI..'f!

(I

"

load off, Leontll'd -we 'rrJ ll'atcbh'8 Gen eratiou X and )' duke it 0/11. ~

Generational d iverSity in group! can be a~ ilgnlficant an InfllJt'l'Ke a~ cu hure. () Tne New Yorker Collection; 2001 l ee l orenz

from ( arloonbank,(om. All Rig hts Reserved.

Working with Diversity in the Small Croup

high divorce rates. Living through Watergate and President Nixon's tesignation, they do not so much resist authority as mistrust ic. Seen by boomers and traditionalists as lacking in job skills and self-confidence, as well as being pessimistic in their outlooks, they have the ability (0 balance work and their personal lives. They are not willing to sacrifice their personal relationships for work and thus bring multitasking to group work. This generation has grown very adaptable; gen-Xers build careers not in one place or with one company but around themselves. Although they may not appear to be team players or interested in long-term commitments, they are Aexible and are much more at ease with diversity than previous generations. They speak their minds more than boomers or traditionalists might and are mmivated best wHen they perceive that they have control over their tasks and can still value aspects of their personal lives. They have a broad concept of family, which encompasses people they feel emotionally connected to, whether related by blood or noc. The net generation (or N-gen) was born after 1981. They are sometimes referred (0 as the echo boom, millennia! generation, and generation Y. This group is particularly large and the first truly wired generation; this generation uses computers for everything. In fact, they are the most receptive to the use of emoricons in e-mail correspondence (the builders are rhe most uncomfortable with emoticons and prefer instead more personal correspondence, such as handwritten leners).J8 More hopeful than the Xers, N-geners are even more comfortable with diversity and more confident in their skills (especially computer skills), and they have better relationships with their parencs. This is the most wanted, anticipated generation in his(Ory. Many of their parents waited a long time to have them and wanted to be the best parents they could be, so they became heavily caught up in every aspect of their children's lives. In fact, rhey have been called helicopter parents, constantly hovering over their children (0 protect them from life's disappointments. Consequently, [his generation expects to get a gold star or a trophy just for participation, not for actual accomplishment. N-geners are accustomed to collaborative work in school and via the net, which makes them value peer relationships rather than hierarchical relationships. In groups they value others based on their contributions not their ascribed status. They have a strong live-and-Iet-live philosophy tempered by the stress of relying on their day planners. They look to men(Ors to provide guidance and ate multitaskers who can be in more [han one place at one time, accomp lishing several different things at once. We see this more and more in our classroom groups, with several members doing group work via the Internet and personaJ computer devices. The bui lders are gradually fading from the scene as the boomers assume and hang onto power. The N-geners because of their mastery of technology and their numbers, will be a huge force in the workplace, and some foresee a major values clash between them and the boomers. In many ways, because the N-geners have used collaborative learning in schools and are used to intetacting with people from all over the world, chey are well suited to small group collaboration. But they won't sit quietly and wait to be called on. They want to be respected for their competence and contributions, regardless of (heir age or position in the company. If you're a boomer, with the expectation that you will command and lead, expect to be challenged! The previous discussion, as we mentioned earlier, represents overgeneralization and oversimplification. We all can see characteristics of each generation in ourselves. We also know people who display few or none of the characteristics that are supposed to exemplify their generation. However, the point to remember is this: Our early influences from

145

GLOSSARY Net

Generatl~

Individuals born

from 198210 1997; influenced by computers and lhe information/digital revolution

146

C H A PTER 5 fa mily. fr iends, and inst itutio ns such as rh e media affcC( rhe way we perce ive the wo rld aro und us and rhe way we co mmuni cate, which in [Urn affects our behavior in small

groups. Understanding so mething abol!( generations different from yours-what their ho pes and fears are, what pressures operate on them , wh at the fo rmati ve events were in their lives-will hel p yo u make the most of you r d iffe rences in small groups instead of bogging you down. We have no t intended to reach yo u everything there is to know abou t cultural di fferences. Rat her, we have tried to ale rt yo u [Q so me co mmon causes of m is interpretatio ns in (he listening process and facto rs that make creati ng a co mmon soc ial rea li ry challengin g. Remember [hat culcural rul es are nor au ro m ati c; they are ta ught and co nstantly evolving. Rem ember also that culcural diffe rences are nOt a matter o f ri ghc o r wron g and that yo u have abso rbed the rul es of your culture so completel y th at they are in visible ro you umil yo u scart ro exa min e chern o r ro imerac[ wich peopl e fro m a ve ry di ffe rent cultu re.

Mom's in My Group! In the early 1990s one of us observed a classroom group of five members who included two men and two women in their early 20s and

one woman in her mid-40s. This group had made some progress on its assignment, but tensions were beginning to build between one of the young women, Mindy, and the older woman, Sarah. A single mother with teenagers at home, Sarah had a very full schedule. She tried hard to keep the group task-focused so the project could be completed early,

in time for feedback from the instructor. The more she made suggestions about the content of the project, about meeting more often, or about establishing deadlines for the members' individual assignments,

the more Mindy resisted: "I can't meet then, I've paid for tickets to a concert and I'm not going to give them up," and "Chill, Sarah, it'll get done" were typical remarks. Mindy, exasperated with Sarah's task focus, complained to one of the other members that Sarah reminded her of her mom- " Always hassling mt about something!" This conflict threatened to derail the group's progress.

1. What generations do Mindy and Sarah represent? 2. In what ways does each seem typical of her generation?

What communication behaviors seem rooted in generational differences? 3. With whom do you personally have more sympathy? Why? 4 . Assume that you are one of the other students in the group. How

might you use what you know about generational differences to help the group resolve this problem?

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

147

Working with Diversity/Bridging Differences So far in this chapter we have stressed the value of diversity and provided information and examples [0 illustrate how member and cultural diversity ca n make small group co mmuni ca tion more complex. We emphasized that the value of diversity does not just happen by mixing [Ogether people with differences. Those differences have [0 be recognized and deemed releva nt [0 the effectiveness of th e group. This takes work, and the National Communication Association Credo for Ethical Communication reminds us that ethical communication transcends cultures and en hances human worth and dignity (see Figure 1.2). The credo's principles give us ideas for good practice: listening actively [0 un derstand before passing judgment, building communicative climates that foster respect for rhe unique needs of members, and avoiding com munication that is harmful [0 the humanity of another. Stella Ting-Toomey, a respected scholar of interculrural comm un ication, has written ex tensively on the complexities of difference in our com munica tive lives. Working with divers ity does not happen without mindful communication.}') We have [0 be alert, open, willing, and refleC(ive if we are to bridge differences. No practice or helpful rips will work unless group members are rhe reflenive participant-observers we discussed in C hapter 1. YOli si mply can not stay stu ck in your routine ways of doing things, unwilling to experiment, listen, learn abom others, or be o pen [0 new possibilities. Our goal is [0 help group mem bers blend in[O a well-functioning team rhar cap italizes on member diversity. Th e key to mindful com muni cation is obtaining knowledge of the values behind those differences and being flexible enough to create new possibi lities. Symbolic co nvergence is one way groups merge into a cohesive, productive team through falHasy chains (see below) that promote a team identity O ut of individual cultural and personal identities.

CREATING A GROUP IDENTITY THROUGH FANTASY Diversity is potentially usefu l, and somehow group members mu st find common ground if they are to transce nd their diverse styles, talents , and perspectives and operate as a team. Developing a symbolic life meanin gful [0 all members can help accomp lish this. Even in th e most hardworking, task-oriented groups, members do not stick [0 business all the time. They often get sidetracked, as if rhey have made a tacit agreement to "take a work break." Whenever a group is not talking about the here and now of the grou p, it is engaged in fantasy. This technical definition of fantasy docs not mean "unreal" or "untru e." It simply means that group mem bers are not discuss ing rh e present task of the group but are di scussi ng an apparently unrelated topic. The study of fantasy stems from the theory of symbolic convergence. 40 This theory recognizes that human beings crea te and share meaning throu gh their talk, a central element of our definition of the co mmunica tion process: Members simultaneo usly create, iIHerpret and nego tiate shared meaning. For a gro up to exist, chere has to be some shared meaning among the members; orherwise, there would be no gro up. Convergence signifies that members have "come together" on what certain events, id eas, words, and so forth will mean. Members have developed simi lar feelings and beliefs abo ut certai n things (e.g., "We hare the boss's pep talks because she has no clue whatsoever about our work"). They may have in -jokes, a shared identity, or spec ial mea nin gs for words that only they understand

GLOSSARY Mindful Communication Communication that is open to multiple perspectives, shows a willingness

to see the world from another's standpoint, and shifts perspective if necessary

Fantasy Group discussion not focused on the present task of the group

Symbolic Convergence The idea that humans create shared meaning through their talk; the basis

of group fantasy

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(e.g., "We use 'fish face' as a term of affection beca use everybody in our gro up loves [0 go trout fishing"). They may also have developed riruals th at are meaningful [0 them (e.g., "We always go out for a pizza on Friday aftern oo n before everybod y goes their separate ways on the weeke nds"). These shared symbol s hel p estab lish co mmon ground and common bonds an d help groups ove rcome differences among members. Fantasy helps such shared sym bols become a reali ty (Q a group. The process works like rhis. One member introduces a fantasy. and other members pick up on it and add to it. This grou p storytellin g, call ed a fontasy chain, is sim ila r to a party game most of us played as ch ildren. O ne person starts a scory, the person to th e left adds somethin g, and this cominues around the room umil each person has co nn ib med w th e final sw ry. Group fantasy chains are created in a simi lar way, and like t he party game they have a ce ntra] idea, or fontasy theme. that suggests what rhe fantasy is about. T he followi ng is an examp le of a fantasy theme tha t occurred at a studem governmem association executive comm ittee meeting, in which members were bemoani ng the lack of a day care faci lity on campus and were trying to figure ou( what to do about it. This gro up includes three men and two women, one of whom (Nan ) was a nontradition al srudem wi th child ren.

Char:

I'm not surprised that we don't have a ce m er! We have such a rerro-adm inistratio n. [Char introduces the Fantasy, w hi ch con tain s the retro idea.)

Rob:

I know; th ey're stuck in th e 1970s. Next they'll probably let their sid eburns grow! [Ro b picks up rhe fa ntasy and starts th e cha in.]

Bill:

Can 't you just see President Kramer co min g to schoo l in a riedyed su it? lBi ll adds h is part in a vivid , co lorful way.]

Nan:

Better yet-a tie-dyed leisure sui t! That wo uld be about hi s speed.

Joel:

I can just see a bi g, tie-dyed sunspot on his chest and peace-sign ea rrings in his ears! And they ought to change th e sign on the administ ratio n building to Retro-Administration Building! Uoe! joins in, embellish ing Na n 's an d Bill 's comments.]

Rob:

I feel like we're try ing w drag all of them into the twenty-firsr celUu ry. [Rob's comment hints at what this fantasy might mea n to

Char:

J know they' re really behind the rimes, but we really need to get back to the day care ~enter. How can we get our retroadministration to liste n to our id eas about that? [Char end s rhe fantasy and gets the group back on track.]

this group.]

What do you t hink this fantasy is about? Famasies act ua ll y have two th emes- th e manifest, or obvious, theme an d the latent, or underlyi ng, theme. Th e manifest theme is what the fantasy chain is abo ut at th e surface level . The srudent government co mmittee members were imagining rh e 70s attire of th eir reno-admin isrration. The manifest theme was "Wouldn't that kind of clothin g be funn y?" T he latent theme, w hich was actually nor very far below the surface, was hinted at by Rob: "I feel like we're trying to drag all of th em into th e twenty-first centu ry." In other wo rds, "We, the students, are ve ry forwa rd thinking, but our rerro-admin ist ra tion has to be forced to move forward, and we're the ones who

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

have to drag th em forward ." (r's an "Aren't we wo nderful , but are n't rh ey a mess" ty pe of self-idelHiry. T he opernrive word here is we- th ese stud ents, di ffe rent th ough th ey may be, have defin ed th emsel ves as "we" and rh e rerro-administration as "th ey." Fanras ies-digressio ns apparentl y unrel ated to the group's tas k- are introdu ced by me mbers aJI the time, bu t nor aJl fantasies are picked up on by th e rest o r th e members or are meaningful to the gro up. W hen a fanrasy capt ures the group's imagina tion, it usually means th at it has some deeper releva nce co rh e members. Thus, alth ough it may appea r during a fanrasy chain th at a group is goo fing off, th e group may be accomplishing so mething quite impo rtant. First, fantas ies ca n help the group defin e itself by creating symbol s that are mea ningful and that help dctcrm ine its valu es.41 Fo r example, th e student government committee members wh o sid ctracked inro a di scussion of ti c-dyed clothing were actually using fa ntasy to help define rheillselves as forward -think ing represelHati ves of the student body. Second , fantasies enable a g roup to discuss indi rectly matters th at might be toO painful. emotionally "weighty," o r diffi cul t to bring ouc into rhe open:!! For exam ple, Cassie, one of o ur stud ents, managed a social se rvice age ncy. A parricular cl ient had become adept at getting what she wanted by manipulating th e social workers against o ne anoth er. The social workers were po inting fingers at each mh er fo r the dienr's problems. Cass ie, as th e perso n in charge, dreaded chairing th e meetin g in whi ch th e social work ers had ro come co a decision about what to do with the client. Befo re th e meeting starred, one social worker starced co taJk about the movie Erin Brockovich (clearl y an off-th e- ropic fa ntasy). In particul ar, she thought the mai n character exhibited "bo rderline personality d isorder." O rhers picked up on rhis idea and added examples fro m the movie to suppo rc the "d iagnos is." Soo n, o ne social worker mention ed how Erin Brockovich reminded her of rhe c1iem they were gathered to di scuss. The rest of th e social workers started lau ghin g. Th ey had an "aha" reaction wh en rhey realized how th e client had been abl e to jerk th em around. Cassie reponed tha t th ey we re able to co me ( 0 a quick, co rdial conse nsus about what to do. Their shared fantasy had allowed them ro talk about this potentiall y diffi cult topic.

PR INCIPLES FOR BRIDGI NG DIFFER ENCES In thi s chapter, we have described a number of personal and cultural fac to rs that make members differem from one anocher, th ereby in creas in g the challenges of communicatin g effectively in groups. The more similar members are, the easier it is ro develop shared mea nin g; however, a major strength of group work is that members prov id e diffirent perspecti ves, information, approaches to problem solving, and ex penise. Di ve rsity- wheth er from indi vidual or cul tural o rigins, is absolutel y necessary to take ad va ntage of th is potential grou p strength- despi ce the f..'lCt that di versity makes communica ti o n amo ng members more chall enging. In thi s section we prov ide seve ral principles fo r helping group members overcome the chall enges of d iversity and cap italize on th eir d iffe rences to improve group outcomes. Specific tips based o n these principles arc suggcs ted in Table 5.4.

1. Appreciate the value of diversity. This may see m obvious, but most of us prefer worlcin g with others like oursel ves. It's eas ier- yo u don 't have to wo rk as hard! Bur there is ampl e ev idence [hat di versity imp roves gro up outcomes. Di ve rse groups produce ben er solu tions, are more innova ti ve, and more effective. And aJtho ugh cultural di ve rsi ty makes things more d ifficul t and less cohesive in it iall y, groups can

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TABLE 5.4

Tips for Appreciating Diversity and Bridging Differences

1. Decide that you want to appreciate the differences among you. Making understanding and appreciating your diverse talents, approa ches, and styles a priority for your group is th e single best thing yo u can do. 2 . Schedule plenty of "get to know you" time. This can be a purely social gathering with no business conducted, or you can set aside a brief

"check-in" time before you get started on your business. However, don't rush this process. You wi ll need time to lea rn abo ut each other.

3. Be wi lling to ta lk about and praise the differences among you. When people believe their unique approaches or contributions are valued, they relax and are w illing to contribute more to the group process.

4. Be open to new ways of doing things. Nothing dampens the positive potential of diversity more than rigid adherence to doing things the same way they've always been done. Be willing to listen and to try new ideas.

S. Avoid seeing difference as a zero-sum game. Think of ways to integrate differences. For example, consider how you ca n both work on the task and build relationships. 6. Find ways yo u can create com mon experiences for group members. For

instance, you may want to schedule a retreat, an outdoor activity, or a baseball game-anything that gets all members participating in the same experience. 7. Create rituals for the group. Meaningful ritual s can go a long way toward reminding members that their purpose in coming together is greater than any individual differences t hey may possess. For example, one church board always begins its routine meetings with a prayer and its annual retreat with a communion selVice. However, rituals don't have to be serious. Some wo rk groups pass out cookies or bagels at the beginning of the meeting, wi th members taking turns bringing the snacks. 8 . Encourage members to create symbols that represent the group. Many groups have T-shirts with a meaningful saying or symbol. Sometimes members participate in creating symbols or log05 for the group.

overcome prob lems assoc iated wi th diversity [0 omperform ho mogeneous gro ups in the range of perspectives co nsidered and the number of alternatives generated .43 Working in a diverse group requires members to pay grea ter attemion to th eir comm unication behaviors, but the payoff ca n be significant! Remembering that diversity can be a strength is an important first step to bridging di ffe rences. 2. Openly acknowledge the differences. Many of us think it is rude [0 poim out differences, or we pretend that, at hea rt, we are all alike. We hope we have made the point in this chapter that we are not all alike; we do nOt approach work, solving pro blems, and relating in the same way-an d that's a good thi ng! But we need

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

a way {O be able w talk about our differe nces without judgment or blame. We have found that finding a commo n vocabu lary to talk about our differences ca n help us app reciate them and also ca n be fu n. For example, our studems appreciate perso nality or work style in ve ntori es and self-tests, such as the Myers-Briggs instrum em , that idemi fy our individual styles. W hen we offer such invenwries in o ur classes ea rly in the semester and spend a class period talking about the specific strengths and blind SPOtS of va rious characteristi cs, we find that our smdem gro ups go smoother! Members understand one another ben er, apprec iate thei r differences mo re, and recognize that people who are different are not tryi ng to make things difficult but are trying to get their own needs met. T he in ventories give group members a vocabulary {O talk and even joke about rh eir differen ces: "Mary, that's yo ur perceiver side coming our! But we reaJly need to decide so mething, not gather more information," or "Sam , we know that you wam W get th is projecc over with-your judging nature screams for it-but we haven't finished getcing aJl th e information we need yec" Openness to such diversity facilitates co ll aboration and open discussion.44 3. Talk openly about how you will integrate your differences. In one recem smdy of grou ps that included diverse expe rts, groups improved th eir performance when th e members exp li citly discussed how they would coordinate and integrate the individual members' work. 45 The expertise of the members, by itself, did not necessa rily im prove [earn perfo rmance because it d id not guarantee that members would be able co inco rporate those d ive rse pers pectives into the problem-solving process. The teams th at received inrervemion about how [Q co ll abo rate we re better able to integrate in format ion, capitalize on members' strengths, and utilize all the information ava il able in an appropriate way. Th is is, essemially. a co mmunication process that, we emph as ize again, does not happen automa tically. You should consider bringing in a process expert to help you o r you can spend time, yo urselves, understandi ng one another's strengths and discussing how, specifically, yo u each can contribute to the group's project. 4. Form a group identity around your differences. Rink and Ellemers constructed dyads that were similar in wo rk goaJs and information, or different in one or both of these characteri stics.46 The dyads that we re different on both quaJities actually came to use thar difference to define rh eir dyads in positive ways. The sociaJ identiti es th ey crea red revolved around those differences, in a const ructive way. Common ident ity among members affects how well a group function s. You can use your d ifferences to create a common identi ty and set yo ur group apart: "We are reaJ ly d ifferent in how we approach thin gs, and mat has helped us think through our sol utions much mo re thoroughly." 5. Use communication practices that build coUective competence. We hope that, throughout our text, you have been lea rning about competent co mmunication practices. Jess ica Thompso n recently compl eted a study of interdi sciplinary resea rch team s..(7 In such teams, members are experts in certain areas-a form of cognitive d iversity-but may have a hard rime negotiating mutu al understanding and meanin g beca use of their different app roaches, assumptions, and so forth. She found that there we re distinct co mmunicative practi ces that set the effective gro ups apart. Two sli ch practices were listening with genuine interes t and using

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reflexive talk-in other words, talking abollt rhe team's processes and their social behavior (e.g., "I think, at the last meeting, we did a particularly good job of hearing each other out and trying to understand where we were each coming from."). Reflexive commun ication builds mu(Ual trllst and promotes sha red learning. An ocher pranice of effective teams was backstage commu ni ca tion-communication exchanges thac take place oU(s ide rhe formal meetings- that provides members with opportunities to get to know one another and bond. \Vhcn members get to know one another on a personal basis, rhe team's work performance is en hanced. The final practice was lIsing humor and sha red laughter to relieve stress, defuse potemial problems before they became overwhelming, and stre ngthen group bonds. 6. Re&ain from using practices that detract from competence. Thompson also id entified practices that interfered with members app reciating one another's diversicy.48 Specifically, using negative humor and sarcasm, getting into chest-beating contests about one another's expertise, jockeying for power, and acting bored with the group, its discussion topic or process prevented diverse teams from working together well. Group members can easily make negative anriburions about others whose communication styles and practices differ from ours. We have to learn to avoid interp reting others' actions through the lens of our own culture bur to app reciate whar orher cultures have to offer. We have presented severa l ways in which group members can bridge their differences and cap italize on their diversity. But the most imponant thing thar members can do to transcend their differences is to want to do so. Assum in g you want to work together productively and mindfully, the suggest ions we have provided will help you find the potential in your diversity.

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

•

Diversity is the essence of group problem solving. The differences by themselves are not a problem, but members often don't know how to or don ' t want to manage their diversity so the group can benefit.

•

Diversity comes in many forms. Members may have different morives for joining a group; they may differ in their learning and personaliry styles.

•

Another major way group members differ is in their culture or co-culture. Three main dimensions along which cultures differ are collectivist/ individualistic, power distance, and context.

•

Gender and racial or emnic differences are, at heart, cultural differences. Men and women c~nsistently differ in four ways; similarly, African, Asian, European, and Hispanic American cultures have developed different communication patterns that can be misunderstood by outsiders.

•

Diversity is valuab le, and group members can bridge their differences through fantasy and intentionally addressing their differences.

Working with Diversity in the Small Group

1. Look at the descriptions of four different work styles below: • Task-oriented people. who believe a group's main job is to get down to business as soon as possible •

Relational people. who believe that group work can be fun and that getting to know each other is part of the fun

• Systematic decision makers, 'who believe in gathering all the facts and we igh ing them before deciding

• Jnruitive decision makers, who assess a simation instantly and leap to a conclusion a. Each of the four wo rk styles should be assigned to a different corner of the room. Then, without thi nking about it (00 long or (00 hard, go to the corner of the room that represents the work style moS[ like yours.

b. Elect a reporter

to record your group's responses and report to the class at the end of the session.

c. In five to six minmes, write down all the advantages people like you have to offer a group.

d. In five

to six minutes, write down all the disadvantages people like you bring to a group.

e. Reconvene the class as a whole, and have each group report, first the advantages and then the disadvantages, whi le a class member or your teacher writes each one on the board for all to see.

f.

After each group has presented its list, the other groups may add advantages or disadvantages to the list.

g. Talk as a class about what you learned from this exercise and what you perceive can be the advantages such diversity of approach represented in the group.

151

2. Your family represents one example of a coculmral grouping. Form into groups of four to six, and ask each person to assume that he or she has invited the rest of your group members home for Thanksgiving dinner with the family. Each person should describe what the "rules" are for Thanksgiving dinner. For example. where does everyone sit? When do you know you may start to eat? Does the food get passed around, or does someone pm food on each person's plate and pass the plate down? What are acceptable topics of conversation? Is conversation lively or mmed~ How did the "rules" become established in the family, and so forth? When everyone has finished, discuss the differences you discovered among each other's "cultures." What dimensions of culture seem to be most important in each family grouping? Were there any surprises? What does each family do when it encounters a violation of the rules? Are the rules ever discussed openly among family members? Are there rules that prohibit what you can talk about? 3. Class members should divide themselves into groups of four to six along gender. racel ethnicity. or age lines. For example. the class might form several single-sex groups. Each group should first appo int a recorder! spokesperson to take notes. Then each group should discuss the following two questions: How do you see yourse1ves as group members? What characteristics do you believe you have?

IL

b. How do you see the other group as group members? \X'hat characteristics do you believe they have? Finally, when each group is finished, all should share their results with the class and the class should take this opportunity to talk about the stereotypes they hold and how accurate those stereotypes are (or are nor). ~

a..'rl~ fTl

rn

Go to www.mhhe.oomladamsgalanes8e and www.mhhe.com/groups for selfquizzes and weblinks.

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154

Diversity

Mindful Communication Myers-Briggs Type Indicator'"

Active Experimentation Learning Style

Ex traversio n/ Introversio n Dimension

Net Generation

Fantasy

Perceiving/ Judging Dimension

Boomers

Gen-Xers

Power Distance

Builders

Heterogeneity

Collectivist Culture

High-Context Culture

Reflective Observation Learning Style

Concrete Experience Learning Style

Homogeneity

Sensing/ Intuiting Dimension

Individualistic Culture

Symbolic Convergence

Culture

Low-Context Culture

Thinking/ Feeling Dimension

Abstract Conceptualization Learning Style

Understanding 'and Improving Group Throughput Processes

I

n Part Four we continue the discussion of throughput pro-

cesses we began in Part Three. As members form into a productive team and learn to manage their differences, they are

simultaneously engaging in several important throughput processes. Chapter 6 explains why both creative and critical thinking are important and shows how group members can enhance both

processes. Chapter 7 discusses group problem-solving procedures and describes what members can do to help ensure effective prob-

lem solving. Chapter 8 describes the dynamics of group conflict and how it can be managed to improve the group's problem solv-

ing. Finally, Chapter 9 explores important leadership principles

and their successful application.

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: 1. Define creative thinking and explain why it is important to small group problem solving.

2. Describe brainstorming, synectics, and mind mapping, and explain how they can be used to help

enhance group creativity. 3. Define critica l thinking and explain why it is important to small group problem solving.

4. List and describe the attitudes most cond ucive to

.

critical thinking in a group .

S . Expla in how group members should use critical thinking during the information-gathering stage of problem solving. 6. Describe and give examples of each of the five steps crucia l to evaluating information. 7. Define and give examples of each of the five reasoning errors: overgeneralizations, attacks on a person instead of the argument, confusing causal relationships, either·or thinking, and incomplete

comparisons.

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

Ozark. Greenway., Inc. The "Rails to Trails" movement in the United States is committed to converting unused railroad tracks to biking and hiking trails and establishing usable greenways for citizens to enjoy. Several years ago, a group of committed citizens in Springfield, Missouri, formed Ozarks Greenways, Inc. (OGI), whose mission is to preserve green space through the creation Qf linear parks. This long-term project requires members to raise funds to buy and acquire access rights for the greenway. One proposed spur of the Ozarks greenway system would connect a park near the center of Springfield to Wilson's Creek Battlefield, a national Civil War battlefield 10 miles to the southwest. Bikers and hikers prefer trails that allow them to proceed at a steady pace without worrying about traffic and traffic lights. That presented a major challenge for OGI because to connect the park and the battlefield, the greenway would have to cross Kansas Expressway, a busy highway dangerous for bikers and hikers. The most obvious solution was to reroute the greenway to have it cross Kansas Expressway at a traffic light. But this would have meant rerouting the trail to run parallel to two major highways- a major hazard for bikers, who travel not on sidewalks but on highways next to speeding cars. In addition, rerouting the greenway would have forced OGI to acquire additional access rights along commercially developed areas. Even if that could have been done, it would have been prohibitively expensive and would have delayed completion of the greenway for years. OGI's goal was to establish a route that was both safe and able to allow steady biker and hiker movement by avoiding travel on major highways and stoplights. The OGI committee decided to stick with the original route. The problem OGI faced could be stated thus: How can the greenway path cross Kansas Expressway safely and without forcing long waits at traffic lights? OGI needed (and eventually found) a creative solution that met all its main criteria: safety, cost, and ease of use. Read the chapter to find out what OGI did.

T

hi s chapter examines two processes essen tial for problem solvi ng in small groups: creative and critical thinking. Both kinds of thinking are necessary for effective discussion grou ps; neither one alo ne is sufficient to ens ure effective solu tions. In addi tion, they cann ot be done simultaneously; that would be like trying to

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GLOSSARY

CHAPTER 6

drive a car with one foot on the accelerator and one foot on the brake! Group members must learn when to he creative, when to he critical, and what kinds of procedures help

the group do both. Creative

Thinking Encouraging use of

hunch, intuition, insight, and fan -

tasy to promote creativity

What Is Creative Thinking? Typically, when we think ahom the dynamics of problem solving in groups, we focus only on work that is rational, logical, and critical to the process and neglect creativity. In Chaprer 5 we showed that creativity is an important componenr of working with diversity. We saw it as members converged symbolically on central , unifying fantasy themes and as a necessary part of mindful comm uni cation. Members have ro be open [0 the innovative possibilities difference can bring ro a group. A group can overcome an impasse by com ing up with an unusual or novel solution to any number of task or social issues in the group. Creativity "involves the generation, app lication, combination, and extension of new ideas." 1 Creative thinking is fostered in small groups when members use imagination, intuition, hunches, insight, and fantasy to devise unusual or innovative solutions that probably would not emerge from ordjnary group discussion. Contrary to the popular myth of the solitary genius working alone. groups produce many of roday's creative ideas and innovations. 2 American business and industry, in parricular, recognize how imporrant crearivicy and innovation are ro their success and have focused on how ro enhance creative processes. An investigation of more than 2,000 sen ior managers from around the world found four factors relared to an organiz.ation's abi liry ro innovate: how much support there is for risk taking, how much tolerance there is for making mi stakes, how effectively members can work together as a team , and how qui ckly decisions can be implemenred. J A ream 's climate is especiaJly important, particularly suppOrt for innovation and task or ientation, or the ab ili ty ro get things done:1 Creative thinking in gro ups helps liS invent bener, less expensive products or services thar improve ou r lives. How to enhance that creativity is important for you ro understand. Group creativity involves both divergent and convergent thin!cing, each requiring slightly different communication behaviors to succeed. ~ During divergent thinking, ideas should vary-members must think as differen tly as possible from one another so the ream will have a wide array of options from which to choose. Quantity of ideas and breadth of rhi nking are important. A climate of safety is essential for divergent thinking because members must feel safe in the tearn ro be willing to share new and perhaps crazy ideas. Being overly critical at this point stiAes creativity. For example, in one sludy of an electronic problem-solving group. the group's leader gave members feedback privareiy via computer; even this feedback, designed ro motivate. was interpreted as critical and choked group creativity.6 However, at some point members must seleC[ the bcs r ideas or co nverge them in ways that will actual ly work. During this phase "constructive debate" among members helps them identify the best ideas and eliminate the less useful ones? Too much emphasis on harmony prevents the group from weeding out unworkable ideas. For a group to be creative, both individual and group crea rivity are needed. Creative individuals tolerate ambiguity, have low levels of co mmuni cation apprehension, and aren ' t afraid ro violate soc ietal norms and rules (rhink of the studenr whose hair is dyed purple).!! They don't fear rejection by others, arc open to new ideas. and like to play and have fun. As important as individual creativity is, however, group creativity is just as important.

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

That is why a friend of ours st ruCtures her group meetings so that they wi ll feel like parries-she reasons that people are more creative when they are relaxed and having a good tim e. She makes sure food is served, people are introduced, and no one feels left our. Ironically, she works hard to help others have fun so that members' pOtent ial for creativity isn't derailed by the grou p's ow n no rms and processes. Bernard Nijstad and Paul Paulus synthesized considerable research on group creativity and grouped the bctors inAuencing group creativity into four areas.? Firsr, creative groups are diverse. Members bring a variety of ski Us, knowledge, problem-solving approaches, and perspectives to the table. Group diversity doesn 't guarantee creative thinking-some groups can not overcome the challenges that diversil)' brings (we discuss some of th ese in Chapte r 5). In general "though" heterogeneous groups produce more diverse id eas. Second, creative groups srrucrure their discussions to enhance not lose their creative potential. Be mindful, however, because both individuals and groups prefer closure, or completing discussion, because they fear being judged, grow tired during and after intense discussions, or feel pushed to make a decision. 1O Stay alert to premature closure tendencies by avoid ing early

"Never, ever, think outside the box.• Despite any hesitations W1! may haV1! about being creativt> in groups, creative thinkIng is essential. CI The New Yorktf" Collection; 1998 leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All RJ9hts Re~rved .

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160

CHAPTER 6

consensus and refrainin g from pressu rin g o chers to co nform. We saw in C hapter 5 that in heterogeneous groups it takes rime for members (Q un derstand and appreciate one another's special contrib utions. Alert, mindful groups must do (wo things: enco urage d iverse ideas and hel p each other mutually understand what co nnects all these diverse ideas. A multi tude of differenr ideas is wo rthless ro a group unless members can help each othe r see th e similarities connecting those ideas. I I Third, the impo rtance of a gro up's cl imate canIlor be overemphasized. Human communi catio n, we learned in C hapter 3, is about both content and relat ionship messages. Born in what they do and how th ey do it, members can fa cilitate a climate of open ness (Q new ideas, high levels of trust, and a w ill ingness to disagree with respect. H owever, balance is im porram. because devel oping extreme levels of cohesiveness increases the potential fo r groupthink . introdu ced in C hapter 4. During period s of divergem thinlcing is th e best tim e un critically w encourage unusual ideas; during co nve rgenr thinking. members should encourage co nstructive debate. Final ly, a group's creativity is affected by the enviro nment in which it operates. If a group's parent o rganization doesn 't value creat ivity or won 'r allow the group w operate with some autonomy. group creativity will be hurt. Tabl e 6. 1 summarizes the individual, gro up. and envi ronmental characteristics thar p romote both individual and group creativity.

TABLE 6 .1

Individual, Group, and Environmental Factors That Promote Creative Thinking

MEMBERS Are wi lling to com municate Are w llling to be unconve ntional and violate societal norms Tol erate ambiguity Are not afraid of rejection Are open to new ideas Are playful and like to have fun

GROUPS Have diverse knowledge, skills, perspectives, approaches Work to overcome norms that interfere' with creativity (premature co nsensus, pressures to conform, groupthink) and prom ote norm s that foster crea tivity (take time to learn each other's unique contributions, enco urage shari ng of diverse ideas) Develop an appropriate group climate (foster trust, encourage constructive debate)

ENVIRONMENT Place high va lue on creativity Give the g roup autonomy and room to breathe

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

C reative thinking is always appropriate, yet it is es pecia lly useful at the begi nning of a group's prob lem-solving process. An ideal time to use creativity-en hancing procedures is after members have learned somet hing aboU( a problem bur befo re they delve into the details. Members ca n create a number of innovative id eas that they later can exam ine ca refull y and criti cal ly. C rear ive processes can take tim e, so reserve this kind of thinking for imporralH decisions.

Enhancing Group Creativity At so me point grou ps wi ll be faced with the task of discovering a creative sol ution to a problem-an idea for a new product, an eye-catching prim advert isin g campaign, a way to bridge two very differe nt perspecrives on the problem. a novel group presentation that will earn an A, or an innovative way to build a safe greenway across a busy expressway. The group may need to be shocked our of irs habitual ways of thinking to find a creative idea. You Gln use brainstOrming, synecti cs, or mind mapping to help a group tap its creative potential.

Creative Fund-Raising for the College Several years ago, members of the Advisory Council of the College of Arts and Letters where one of us works met to discuss creative fund-rai sing ideas to enhance the college's endowment for studen t scholarships. One council member mentioned a combination lecture/dinner fund-raiser a museum in New York City had initiated, which had become a highly successful event. Members began to talk about ways that event cou ld be modified to work in Springfield, Missouri . They decided to have faculty give presentations or performances based on their expertise, combined w ith a dinner at one of the council member's homes. For instance, a film professor fo llowed his lecture about a particular film director with a special showing of one of the director's lesser-known films, followed by dinner. Another professor gave a brief piano concert followed by an elaborate dessert. These events, known as the A La Carte Series, have become so successful that the college has a long list of volunteers wanting to host one of the dinners. In addition, the events sell out quickly, sometimes the first day that tickets become available. This is an example of how a group can modify an existing idea to arrive at something unique. Before you read furth er in this chapter, address the following questions: 1. What communication behaviors and skills would group members have to demonstrate to encourage the kind of creativity demonstrated by the advisory council? 2. What member behaviors wou ld interfere with this kind of creativity? 3. What group rules, norms, and procedu res would support this type of creativity? 4 . What group norms wou ld interfere?

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CHAPTER 6

FIGURE 6 .1

Guidelines for Brainstorming

1. Group previews

2. Group is presented with a problem to

the rules

fOf

brainstorming.

3. fv'\embers generate

solve.

as many solutions

os possible, without

4. All suggestions _

ore recorded for

5. Ideas are evaluated 01 another session.

group to see.

any criticism .

•

For more information on using the Internet to brainstorm, go to the Online Learning Center at

www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanes8e

BRAINSTORMING Many groups use b rai nsto rming, a procedure designed especially [0 rel ease a group's creariviry. 12 Brainsto rming is a popular techniqu e used often when groups are generating ideas. Brainstorming co nsciously separates idea creation from idea evaJ uation by not allowing any cri ti cism to occur wh il e me group is generating ideas. Years of research inro th e practice has helped us understand how ro use it effectivel y ro help gro ups generate ideas and avoid group tendencies to close off discuss ion prematurely. Two measures help ensure quanriry and quali ty of ideas: If you have th e time, all ow members to ge nerate ideas initially aJone and then to th e group and fo llow tested ru les fo r getting the most out of this technique.13 Later, th e gro up evaluates th e ideas, co mbin es o r modifi es them, and selects the best ones. The basic procedure is described below. Figure 6.1 summari zes these brainstorming guidelin es.

1. Any technique used to promote creative thinking does no t just happen. You need to preview the spirit of the procedure before beginning rh e process in an effo re to avoid borh individual and group tendencies toward premature closure. The best way to do thi s is to set th e scene by calling for alert, conscious participation and reviewing th e stages of brainsrorming and th e ru les members will be ex pected to fo llow and mo nitor. 2. The group now is ready ro turn its focus on a problem to solve. The prob lem can range from so meth ing specific and co ncrete (" H ow ca n we raise more money for student scholarships?") (Q so methin g abstract and intangible ("How ca n we improve rhe quality of work life for employees?").

Brainstorming A procedure designed fa lOp members ' creativify

by asking them to

generate as many ideas as possible

without evaluation

3. Members are encouraged to co me l~p with as many solutions as poss ible to the problem. Quantity is th e goal here, and several rules must be fo ll owed. Most importa ntly no evaluation is permiued during brainstOrming. W ith judgment temporarily suspend ed, members are encouraged ro turn lheir imaginations loose, to let wild and crazy ideas surface, to build on each o ther's ideas, to co mbin e ideas, and ro strive for mo re and more suggestio ns. Second , do nOt srop generatin g ideas roo soo n. Often, the best ideas-the ones a gro up evenrually seiects-are listed during the laner part of th e brainsto rming session. 14 T hird , groups mUSt stay focused on the task of generating ideas. The bes t brainsrormin g occurs when th e fewest words arc spo ken. This means avoi d srorytel li ng tan gents and explanations of ideas-the gist of the idea is what yo u are after. Founh , during lulls in discuss ion, keep generating ideas by enco uraging mo re or rev iewi ng the ca tegor ies developed earl ier in the

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

163

discussion. Good brainstorming occurs when members fo ll ow its rules in an effon to stay focused and minimize evaluation. '5 4. All ideas are recorded so that the whole group can see them. Usually, rhe group' s re~ corder will write ideas on a large pad of paper. How the ideas are recorded, on paper or electronically, is nO( as important as all group members being ab le to see the ideas. Seeing ideas often triggers other ideas and prevents premature closure of the creative process. 16 5. The ideas are evaluated at another session. Just because brainstorming requires temporarily suspending critical evaluation does not mean critical thinking is unimponant. Also, incubation is an imporrant feature of creative thinlcing allowing for the diverse ideas to find their connection. After brainstorming has generated a lot of ideas and rhe group has had a chance to let the ideas sit for a while, critical thinking is used to evaluate each idea and to modifY or combine ideas into workable solutions to the problem. The basic brainstorming technique has several variations. Often groups have one or two vocal people who are highly creative, share many innovative ideas, and intimidate others into not participating. ]n this case it may be more productive for each person to brainstorm silently rather than openly in a group. In this form of brainstorming, called brainwriting, each person quietly records as many new and different solutions as possible. Then each person shares one new idea, round-robin fashion, as the facilitator posts it for all to see. The sharing continues until all ideas have been posted. Members are encouraged to add to the list as new ideas occur to them. Both brainwriting and brainstorming is work, and members can become tired. When this happens their ideas decrease and they tend to get stuck on similar ideas and idea cat~ egories. 17 Hamit Coskun suggests that when your group begins to show signs of fatigue or premature convergence, take a break from the task and complete a divergent thinking activity unrelated to the problem at hand. This can be as simple as throwing out a list offun terms and asking members to generate opposite terms. The key is to take a mental break so members can get back to divergem thinking mode. After the activity is completed, move back into the brainstorming or brainwriting task. Electronic brainstorming, another variation, has proven useful in addressing the factors that can lead face~to~face groups into early convergence or premature closure. The anonymity can help prevent individuals from censoring themselves. In this variation each group member sits at an individual computer terminal (all of which may be in the same room) and types out her or his ideas. The ideas are posted onto a large screen visible to everyone, so the group can keep track of previous remarks. In addition, members who may tend to remain quiet in face-to-face group interaction find it easier to comribute online, and members do not have to deal with the fatigue or frustrations (hat can come from people talking all at once. IS Because no one knows who contributed what, electronic brainstOrming, especially with 8- to 1O-member groups, often generates more and better ideas than traditional brainstorming. 19

GLOSSARY Synectics A procedure designed to stimulate creative thinking by using metaphors

SYNECTICS Synectics is a technique that stimulates thinking in metaphors and analogies. 20 Why is (hat important to creativity? Consider the example of how Velcro was created. One day

and looking for similarities in different things

164

CHAPTER 6 after a walk , Swiss engineer George de Mes eral not iced co ckJeburs snic k

(0

his jackct.2 1

Examining one under a microscope, he observed how rh e hooks latched ontO rhe fabric, and saw its potential as a hook-and-Ioop fastener. It rook him eight years to develop an d perfect. bm roday Velcro rums up everywhere. from shoes to children's clothing [Q camping equ ipment. The cockleburs served as the natu re-based analogy, or metaphor, for the manufactured fasten er.

Serendipity helped de Mesetal link bu rrs from the natural world manu factured fas tener. The synectics technique fri es

to

(0

this new kind of

st imulate such chan ce con nec-

tio ns between appare ndy unrel ated elements. Fi rst, rhe gro up idenr ifies rhe esse nce of

rhe problem. For instance, "sti ckin g wgether" co uld ha ve been rh e metaphor that led (0 Velcro: "How can I create a fastener that sticks rogcther like burrs do to clothing?" Second, the group is asked to crea te analogies th at capture chat essence. For in stan ce, group members might ask, "Where in everyday lifc do we find thin gs that stick togcther?" Answers could include things like burrs, gooey stu ff fro m plants, white glue. and zippers.

Creating Suggestions for Crossing Kansas Expressway Ozarks Greenways, Inc., had to come up w ith a solution to the following problem . Land had been acquired on either side of bu sy Kansas Express· way for a greenway, a bicycle and hiking path to link Springfield with Wi lson's Creek Battlefield . However, there was no traffic light where the land reached the expressway, and the City had no plans to put a light there. Your task is to co me up with a solution for the greenway that will

keep bikers and hikers moving and that wi ll be safe and inexpensive. Divide the class into groups of five or six. Appoint a faci litator to record suggestions and make sure the group follows the "no criticism"

ru le. Ask each group to brainstorm a list of suggestions for the green way problem. The groups should brain storm fo r 10 minutes and think of as many suggestions as possibl e. At the end of the period, all the sugges· tions should be posted at the front of the cla ss so that all can see. The class should then address the following questions: 1. Was it easy or difficult to follow the brain storming rules? What was th e hardest to do? • 2, How did members feel during the process? 3 . What do members remember thinking during the process?

4 . Did anything stand in the way of being imaginative and hav· ing fun? If so, how might the process be modified to encourage more imagination and fun? As an alternative to this exercise, so me groups can brainstorm in th e traditional way while others use brainwriting. If this is done, class members can compare the efficacy of each techn ique. Groups can also use a facilitator to help members stick to the brainstorming rul es.

165

Creative and Critica l Thinking in the Small Group

Finally, group members look for metaphors or analogies that use a different sensory perception than the one being observed. For example, if the analogy relates ro touch, such as the cocklebur example, members might be asked to think of a visual or hearing metaphor. A visual metaphor could include a fishhook; an auditory metaphor might include the sound of a zipper closing and opening. A different kjnd of metaphor could be just the thing producing the "aha" insight that leads ro a solution. Asking the group to consider the following questions helps trigger such insights.

1. Change your perspective. Sometimes, changing the angle from which you view a problem gives you a different insight. For example, if you are an Ozarks Greenways member, imagine that you are Superman and can view the city's streets from above. 2. Look for a direct comparison, something from another field that is similar to your problem. This is exactly what happened in the Velcro example-the physical attachment of the burrs provided the idea for this new type of fastener. 3. Temporarily suspend real ity to use falHasy and imagination. Ignore objective reality for a moment to learn what you can discover. Imagine that your bicycle has wings and can Ay over Kansas Expressway to solve the greenway problem. Synectics may seem strange at first because it forces group members ro jump out of their self-imposed conceptual boxes and stimulate rather than reduce ambiguity, but that's exactly why it works. Some corporations, such as General Electric, deliberately send groups of employees away from their normal work settings to jolt them out of possible ruts so they can come up with new ideas. 2! In one such group meeting benveen GE middle managers and colonels from the Army War College, GE's long-standing rule about having to be number one or two in every business it entered or product it produced was challenged. One of the colonels asked whether that rule caused the company to miss profitable opportunities. His statemelH produced an instant "aha" reaction from the GE managers, who recognized that they dismissed good ideas if those ideas wouldn't lead ro the top market share. The managers were able to persuade CEO Jack Welch (now retired) to rethink the "G£ must be Number 1 or 2" rule. The limitations of this rule would never have been questioned from the safety of the GE home base- the executives needed to be in a new setting to see things from a different perspective. This is exactly what synectics promotes.

MIND MAPPING Mind mappi ng is a technique that tries to jolt a group out of linear ways of thinking by encouraging the rad ialH thinking produced by free association. 23 Radianc thinking can lead to insights that linear thinking misses. Developed as a technique to foster individual creativity, the technique has also been adapted for small groupsY In mind mapping a facilitator places a word or phrase that is rhe essence of the problem in (he center of a large sheet of paper or a white board for all group members (Q see. That central concept forms the nucleus for the spin-offs that group members will add. Sometimes a facilitator adds rhe connections as instructed by group members, but often group members themselves use colored markers to print or draw the phrases, ideas, or concepts they associate with the central concept. The final mind map looks like colorful multiple branches of a tree shooting off from the central idea. Because (he branches are more like a web than a line, group members often see connections they might otherwise miss.

GLOSSARY Mind Mapping A technique encouraging radiant thinking produced by free 05sociation

166

CHAPTER 6

FIGURE 6 .2

Model of Mind Mapping Crossing Kansas Expressway

--"'Whnt

about

an overpass?"

For instan ce, assum e yo u belon g ro the Ozarks Grecnways group trying ro find a safe way to cross Kansas Expressway witho ut asking bikers to scop for traffi c. The facilitator prints rh e phrase "Crossing Kan sas Expressway" in the ccmer of [h e sheet an d draws a circle around ir. (As an ahernativc, a line draw ing of a busy highway co uld be placed in thc cemer.) E.1ch membe r rhen adds his or her Ol emal associations [0 thi s ccor ral idea. One member connects a bicycle with wings [0 th e cc nrra l concept. Anorhcr draws an arch spanning the busy highway. A third mem ber co nn eCtS "Sto p light" to th e cenrral idea. Someone else connects rhc words "a nnoying" and "inrcrfe ring with the Row" ro the "scop lighc." The picture ohhe winged bi cycle nex t ro the arch suggests CO ye t another me mber the idea of co nstru cti ng an overpass that would allow bike rs co cross withour scoppin g. In fact, constru ction of an ove rpass was rh e so lutio n chose n by Ozarks Creenways. Inc. (see Figure 6.2). Mind mappi ng ca n be a lot offun, parricularly if me mbe rs draw their associations using colored marke rs. Th e process taps inro members' crea tiviry by encouraging rh em co make visual co nn ecti o ns they othenvise would miss. In addition, drawing is differem enough from what groups usuall y do that members enjoy the process. As with brainscorming, members shou ld not c rit icize the associations that appear on rh e mind map. As rhe group mi nd map is being developed, members need co feel men rally and emotiona lly un inhibired so they can make unusual connections. Fea r of be ing ridicu led or criticized co uld make them feci self-co nscious. After the mind map has been developed , members can begin to eval uate the ideas on rh e map. C reative think ing plays a significant role in group problem so lving. Croups trained in c reative thinking have been found [0 show more hutnor and CO have high er rates of

167

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

participation than those not trained to think creatively. Members of such groups support more ideas and criticize less, both of which arc important to creative thinking. 25 Creativity in group members and group processes is essential to productivity and effective problem solving, and it mllst work alongside critical thinking. Critical thinking, like creative thinking, is found boch within individuals and in a group's norms. Critical thinking involves careful and systematic examination of the information used by the group. Informational resources have to be critically assessed, as do the potential solutions the group derives. Surprisingly, groups have more problems being critical than being creative, wh ich can have dire co nsequences. Failure to be critical is more dangerous than failure to be creative, because it can lead to groupthiltk, discussed in Chapter 4. Group problem solving can be effective because several heads are potemially better than one. However, simply placing divergent talents and perspectives in a group does not make critical thinking happen! Groups are nororious for not being vigilam or critical in their discussions because members tend to avoid challenging each other and also develop their own argumems. 26 We now turn our discussion to how groups can help ensure good decision making and problem solving to complemem thei r creativity. We will use a case study (Case 6.2) to help show the im plications and conscquences of poor critical thinking.

What Makes Thinking "Critical"? We have seen that creative thinking is intuitive, unsystematic, and spomaneous. In contrast, two principles differentiate critical from creative thinking: (1) the use of evidence (facts, data, opinions, and other information backing a claim or conclusion) and (2) the logical arguments speakers and writers make with that evidence to support what they believe are valid reasons to accept their claims and assertions. Critical thinking occurs when a problem is analyzed thoroughly, using as much relevant information as possible. Then the solution is developed on the basis of all that information and the best reasoning and logic you can use. Critical thinking, like creative thinking, is both necessary and time consuming. You should be able to determine when you need to take the extra time that critical thinking demands and when you can make a decision that is JUSt "good enough" without analyzing all your choices. For example, suppose your committee is charged with deciding whethcr to give coffee mugs or comparably priced pens with your organization's logo as souvenirs at your annual banquet. Does it really maner which favor is selected? Will anyone be hurt by your choice? Such a dec ision probably does not warrant taking the time to agonize over every aspect of the choice. However, with decisions for which human lives are at stake, such as whether to launch a space shuttle, critical thinking is essential.

I

GLOSSARY Evidence FacB, data, opinions, and ocher information that back a claim or conclusion

Arguments Claims supported by evidence and reasoning

Enhancing Critical Thinking in a Group Enhancing critical thinking in groups is not o nl y necessary- it is also a central principle of ethical communication. In the world of business, critical thinlcing has been thc focus of organizational training workshops for managers and staff. Treated as an important skill for meeting the complex demands of rapid ly changing and diverse organizational environments, it is often placed front and cemer in models of ethic.-u decision making in organizationsY No

Critical Thinking Systematic thinking using evidence, reasoning, and logic to promote soundness

168

C HAPTER 6

Problems at NASA On February 1,2003, many of us watched in horror as the space shuttle Columbia disintegrated upon reentry after what had been a successful mission in space. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration's

(NASA) investigation into the causes zeroed in on pieces of foam insulation that detached at liftoff, damaging or knocking off some insulation tiles designed to protect the shuttle from the extreme heat of reentry. " No longer shielded from the heat, the fuel tank exploded. NASA records disclosed that foam insulation had caused damage to the tiles since the very first shuttle launch! One NASA official lamented, "How were the signals missed?" In early 2004, NASA released the results of an internal survey of its employees, which showed that the culture of NASA contributed to why these signals were missed. 29 The survey, completed by only 45 percent of employees, revealed that

many employees are afraid to speak out about safety concerns and are reluctant to "express dissenting views in a large group." One NASA administrator pointed out that in NASA's cultu re, both managers and peers pressure dissenters to conform, even when they have safety concerns: "We don't have time to listen to everybody moan and groan about every issue out there ." NASA concluded that this mind-set contributed to the Columbia disaster. This isn't the first time NASA's culture has been implicated in a disaster. The 1986 explosion of the shuttle Challenger shortly after takeoff was caused by malfunctions of the O-ring seals on one of the solid rocket boosters- a particularly distressing event because, like the problems with the foam insulation, NASA knew about potential problems with the O-rings failing to seal in cold weather. In other words, the Challenger disaster was predictable. The decision-making procedures should have revealed the O-ring safety concern-but did not. Communication scholars have had time to analyze the decisionmaking procedures leading to the Challenger disaster and have concluded that the procedure was flawed in several ways. lO NASA officials were biased in favor of the launch because of several previous postponements. The engin eers, who showed the most concern about the O-rings, were reluctant to bypass their chain of command to demand that superiors pay attention to their concerns. But the engineers also failed to make their objections clear-they used ambiguous language that minimized the significance of their concerns. Several decision makers discounted the relevance of pertinent technical information that, had it been seriously considered, would have led to postponement of the launch. So even a group of highly trained experts can arrive at a fatally flawed decision that ignores relevant information- in other words, the group doesn't think critically.

Group

169

marrer the serring of yo ur group--work, school, church, or something else-crici cal chinking is so important that it is the first principle in th e Nat ional Commu nication Associatio n's C redo for Ethical Co mmunication, introduced in C hapter 1: "We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, hon escy, and reason as essential to the inregricy of communication." C riti cal thinkin g in gro ups is not just one acti viry that members and the group do all at o nce. It in vo lves man y factors, including how members view information, gat her infor matio n, carefu ll y eva luate th e pooled informacio n, make reasoned judgments o n th e basis of that in formatio n, and how alert th ey are to fac il itatin g group processes that foster critical thinkin g.

(;lOSSA~

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small

HAVING THE RIGHT ATTITUDE Th e most important "tec hni que" to help groups do a good job of criti ca l thinkin g is not a techn ique at all- it is th e atrirude of the members. The mos t important attitude necessa ry for criti ca1 thinking in g roups is the desi re to make the best possi ble decisio n. You have to want to make a good decis ion, because doin g so takes a great dea l of time and effort , Criti ca l thinkers are open- minded, or willing and eager to co nsider new information and ideas, eve n if tha t infor mation cO IHradi cts what they prev iously believed. They go ou( of th eir way to look for relevant information and tap a wide va ri ety of so urces in th eir attemp t to gat her information th at suppOrts all sides of an iss ue. Finally, they pr ide th emselves on bein g objec ti ve and fair about evaluating info rmation . Being open- minded and fos teri ng a climate of open ness helps to co unter th e group tend ency to move to closure tOO soo n. Gro ups eas ily "seize and freeze" OntO ea rl y pos itions, es pec iall y o nes th at appear to be shared by others. 3 1 The NASA officials in vo lved in makin g the or igi nal Challenger laun ch decision were apparently prejudiced in favor of the laun ch (Case 6.2). This lack of objectivity limited their search for information, so th ey did not work as hard to find infor mati on that opposed the laun ch as they did to ge t information that supported it. T hey evaluated that information in a biased way-they un cri t ica ll y accepted prolaunch information bUI were hypercriti cal of antilau nch data. A second importa nt att itude is a "show me" skepticism that indicates members want ro think for themselves rarh er than bei ng told what ro think by others. Critical thinkers do no t assume that anything they read or hea r is true or acce pt so mething as (rue just becau se a parent, fri end , or teacher "said so." They chall enge any in formation, even when it co mes from ex perts, hi gh ~s tarus indi vidual s, or the group's majority, by ra ising questions about ; (.32 This also means th ey are wi ll ing to hold off making a decision until the facts are in , whi ch sugges ts they can tolerate ambigui ty. at least for a wh ile. They don 't larch OntO a premature co nclusion just to get a rough decision-making process ove r with. They know that better decisions res ult from app lyi ng the sa me skeptical approach to all claims, includi ng their ow n. Skeptical decision make rs try to test in fo rm atio n and opinions as well as their sources. T hey do not accept information just because it so unds good, supports what they already believe, uph olds the majority stance in th e gro up, co mes from someo ne in authority, or is prese nted in an entertaining way. A signifi ca nt way members ca n test the adequacy and quality of information, reaso ning. and sou rces is by asking eac h other probing questions like th e ones in Table 6.2.

Open-Minded

l

Willing to consider new information and ideas, even if they contradict pre· vious beliefs

Probing Questions Questions designed to help critical thinking byexamining mformalion onJd reasomng m more depth

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C HAPTER 6

TABLE 6 .2

Probing Questions to Evaluate Evidence a nd Reasoning

=====--

• What evidence do you have to suggest that the statement is true? • Where did that evidence come from?

• Does anyone have any evidence to contradict the statement we just heard? • If we make that decision, what will it lead to? • What might the consequences be if we are w rong? • How much danger is there that we have reached the wrong conclusion? • How did you arrive at that conclusion?

According to De nnis Co uran and colleagues, failures (0 ask probing questions at several stages of the decisio n-makjng process were prime conrriburions to the Challenger disasrer. The problem with the O -rin g seals in cold remperarures had bee n o bserved for yea rs before the launch, but no o ne as ked (h e tough ques tions about what was being done to correct th e Aaw. One enginee r wh o opposed th e laun ch ass umed that his objection s had bee n passed on to superiors. witho ut asking whether (his was acruall y th e case. Wh en represenratives from N orth Am eri ca n Rockwell. the manufacturer of the shUfde. rel ayed their co ncerns abo ut the lau nch in vague terms. no o ne asked whether they were tryin g to tell NASA to postpon e the launch. All these isolated incidents. in which no o ne asked probing question s. co nrribured ( 0 th e disaster that followed. The "show me" skep ticism o f a good cri ti cal thinker needs to be ex pressed by grou p members and su p po rted as a gro up norm. Probing qu es tion s reAect a willingness to inquire into rh e acc uracy of th e information and th e appropriateness of th e reasoning gro up members are bein g asked to acce pt either by oU(side sources or by each other. This is tOugh work. because if rhis kind of skeprism is no r communicated wirh res pec t fo r Other group memb ers, it can be seen as threatenin g and could backfire-by shuttin g down criti cal thinkin g. Ques tion s, lik e any of our messages. have both content and relatio nship d imensio ns (see C hapter 3).33 W e often focus onl y on th eir co ntent and fo rge r that how they are as ked ca n mea n the di fference ben vee n respectful cri tical thin ki ng and harmful bad ge ring o f group members. One wa y members ca n do thi s is to ex plain rh e purpose of the question- for exa mp le. " I a m asking this beca use I wa m to make sure rhat I co mpl etel y understand what yo ur main poim is abo ut thi s iss ue." In additio n, remember th at your ques tions can be asked of a group member and / or th e emire g roup. Sometim es directing a probin g question co the group deAec ts it from any one member and reinforces the norian that th e group itself engages in criti cal thinkin g. Finall y. critical rhinkin g is an acti ve (rath er th an pass ive) process of testing inform atio n. Ir demands hard wo rk to find th e information necessary (Q und erstand the problem and subject solutions to the mos t rigorous tes ts poss ible. M ent ally lazy group members object to this hard work. bu t critical th inkers look forward to if. The info rmat ion just presented describes anirudes essential to criti cal rhinkin g in a small group. Seve ral ani[Ud es and behaviors make it diffi cult for group members ro engage in critical rhinking, and th ese are worth looking at brieRy. It is just as important

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

TABLE 6.3

=====-

Attitudes and Behaviors Counterproductive to Critical Thinking

• Oversimplification of the thinking process; evaluation of information and ideas in either·or, black·and·white terms • Impulsiveness; jumping to premature conclusions • Overdependence on authority figures; wa iting for someone else to tell you how to think, what to conclude, or what to do • Lack of co nfidence; w ithdrawing if someone challenges your ideas • Dogmatic, inflexible behavior; closing your mind and being afraid of change o Unwillingness to make the effort to think critica lly; taking the easy way out

for you to know what not [0 do as counterproductive behaviors.

(0

know what to do, so Table 6.3 summarizes th ese

GATHERING INFORMATION One ski ll essemial ro criti cal thinking is the ab ility to organize ideas. J4 Groups create com· plica ted informational environments; members not only process the information brought into the group but also must assess information from multipl e so urces outside of the group. J5 The first step to organizi ng your ideas is to assess the information you already have, identify gaps in that information, and then establish and carry throu gh with a plan for plugging those ga ps. In the informati on gathering stage, you ca nnot tell what is important and what is no t, so you should act like sponges-absorbing as mllch information as you can about you r topi c or issue and watching for that "seize and freeze" habit of groups mentioned earlier. 36 Information gathering activities are just as essential to critical thinking in groups as evaluation of that information in later stages.

Assessing Information Needs.

Before gro up members begi n th eir resea rch, th ey need to ta ke stock of th e information they possess (see Table 6.4). The q uality of an output, sllch as a plan or policy, ca nnot be bener than the info rm ation mem· bers have or the way th ey share and process it. The first step is to make an oudine or li st of the information you have to help you assess what YOll need. For example, a university committee was charged with rev ising (he curriculum for co mmunication majo rs. Members first pooled all the information they had, such as the cu rrent major requirements, th e problems and iss ues they had observed, and information about what nearby colleges and universities required of co mmuni ca tion majors. Committee members soon realized that they needed to fill several imponanr information gaps befo re they could beg in any adequate disc ussio n of th e problem . For instance , [he co mmittee members hadn ' t assessed th e perce ptions of current stud ents and alumni abo lit the strengths and weaknesses of th e ex isting program-a major oversight! In add it ion, prospective emp loyers could provide information about the ski lls and deficiencies of rece nr g raduates and current stud ent interns. Finally, co mmittee members knew they must have information abour current practices in the field of communication , including what co mmunication profess ionals were say ing about the direcrion of [he field.

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TABLE 6.4

Gathering Information in the Critical Thinking Process: Assessing Information

1. Take stock of existing information.

2. Identify holes and weaknesses. 3. Make a master list of what information is needed and where it can be found.

4 . Collect needed resources by assigning members specific responsibilities for items in the master list.

5 . Use all appropriate information gathering tech niques: • • • •

Direct observation Reading Interviews (individual or group) Other sources (radio, television, casual conversatio n)

Information lists help determine 11m only what information is miss ing bur also w here it ca n be found. The next step in rhe c ritical thinking process is rhe ca refu l gathering of inform::aion to fill rhe ga ps.

Collecting Needed Resources .

Group members should organ ize th eir informarion ga thering procedures before proceedi ng. Firsr, from rhe master li st, list all {he information you st ill need. Then assign research responsib ili ties on the basis of membe r preferences, strengths, and time schedules. Play to group member stre ngth s, which you should know if YOll have mindfully worked with the diversity in your group and beco me familiar wirh member lea rning sryles, morivarions, personality chara cterisri cs, cu ltural preferences, and so on (see Chaprer 5). Finally, as yo u proceed with yo ur research. yo u will discover additional info rm at ion you need thar should be added ro rhe list and assigned to the appropriate group members. The informat ion a group needs is rarely found in one location. Usually, a variety of informarion is needed and will have ro be gathered in va ri ous ways. So me of these are described brieAy.

Direct Observation. So metim es infofli)ation YO ll need will come from firsthand observarion. Recenrly, at California State University, Fresno, the demolition and renovation of the library meanr rhat student study areas had to be c reated across campus. Members of a group from a senior small group comm unication course rook it upon themselves to advocate for a study area in their Speech Arts building. Their primary means of information ga th ering was to visit the different a reas of campus and note the study a rea arch itecture. From those field notes they designed a sUldy area for th ei r own building. One campus admin istrator, who had been sent the proposa l, remarked at how impressed he was thar these students had vis ited each sire and rhen used thar informarion as the basis for their proposal. Reading. A wealth of information can be found in many kinds of primed sou rces, sllch as newspapers, books, magazines, scholarly and professio nal journals, technical and (rade

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

publications, and governmem documems. The sheer number of sources available can be inrimid~ting. A reference librarian can help save hours of wasted effort by pointing you in helpful directions and steering you away from likely dead ends. Gloria and Kathy have learned over the years that reference librarians are most appreciative of srudenrs who come w the library prepared with their wpics and assignmem instructions. This kind of preparedness will also increase your chance of a successful trip w the library! In addition, a number of publications can save you time and effon in locating primed information. Annotated bibliographies and abstracts provide a preview of the type of information in a publication so that you can decide whether it will be worth the search. Encycloped ias summarize vast amounts of information. Specialized indexes and abstracts frequendy can help you save time in locating relevant information. For example, the Business Periodicals index summarizes articles from numerous business and trade journals.

The Internet . An easy and convenient way to access information is duough the Imernet. Usc top-rated browsers such as Firefox, Coogle Chrome, Internet Explorer, Opera, or Safari, to connect to your favorite search engine. No single seatch engine covers the enrire Inrernet so use mo re than one. Use keywords for your search, following the rules of the particular search engine you're using. Although you may have thousands of hits, most search engines give you rhe most likely hits first, so search those carefully. You may have to try various keyword combinations. For example, if you are seeking information about the effect of college-age gambling on academic success, you may have to try "college sports gambling," "gambling," "academic success," and so fOlTh. Be particularly careful to evaluate information you derive from the Internet. Anyone can put anything on the Internet; no review procedure evaluates the information for accuracy or truth. Wikipedia, a user-written online encyclopedia, could be edited by anyone with access w the Inrernet, although new edits of particular articles have to be verified before they appear. Wikipedia, we have found, is very popular with students. However, neither of us allows it as a main source of information for group projects given that its editing policy is still not as strong as it cou ld be, thus impacting the credibility of its information. Any claim- no matter how outrageous-can be made on the Internet, and websites have been created (hat contain lies and misinfotmation. We found a website (hat advertised manbeef, or human meat, for consumption; it was a spoof, but some people had accepted ir as (rue. To help you use your best critical thinking ski lls to evaluate online information, we have provided some criteria in Table 6.5. 37 Tn addition, you can go to the following websites w learn mo re about evaluating Internet informacion: W\V\V.

vi rrualsa l(.coml evalu8 i(. h (m

www.library.come ll.edu/o linuris/ref/research/webeval.htm I http://gemini.ljb.purdue.edu/core/files/evaluati ng3. h tm I After all, on the Internet no one knows you are a dog! (see p. 175 for carroon)

Electronic Databases. Electronic databases available at most academic and public libraries provide a very efficient way to find printed informat ion and can now be accessed at home via the Internet. Electronic databases contain titles, abstracts, and sometimes the full text of magazine and journal articles, newspaper articles, and books on thousands of topics. Commonly used databases include InfoTrac, a general-purpose database

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TABLE 6.5

Criteria for Evaluating Web-Based Sources

AUTHORITY

Can you find the source of the information? If not, how can you trust the information? If you can, ask whether you woul d trust that authority and whether the authority is held to any standards for information, like the American Medical Association. AUDIENCE

Could the audience slant th e information, and if so, in which way? Web designers do not just design for the fun of it; they have an audience in mind and tailor the information for that audience. In addition, determine jf the informatio n is too technical, simplistic, or jargon-filled for your purposes. PURPOSE Why is the information being offered? Is it offered to inform, persuade, entertain, or advocate? You can get some clue to its purpose by noting what comes after the dot. The ".gov" government notation is probably intended to inform

whereas the ".com" or commercial notation may bring with it something to se ll. The " .edu" or education notation w ill identify faculty and sources at colleges and universities that inform and persuade. RECENCY Can you determine how current the site is? Th e Internet allows for instant post· lng, but often sites are not updated regularly_ Be careful with information from a site in which you cannot find when or how often it is updated. Many sites have e-mail contact information for the authors of the site. Use that information to ask questions about updating. COVERAGE Does the site provide the depth you need on your topic or issue? Sites will often have links to other sites; use these because the use of a variety of sources

is preferred.

that accesses business and trade journals; ERIC, which hold s education-related materials gat hered by the U.S. Department of Education; LexisNexis, which accesses legal and business resources; ComAbstrac[s, which contains information from all commun ica ti o nrelated journals; and EBSCOhost, another general-purpose database of thousands of periodicals, with fu ll text for many of {hem. In additio n, many news papers, sllch as The New York Times, ca n be accessed electronicall y. As with Internet sea rch engines, electron ic da tabases typica ll y operate using keywords or author names.

Interviews. Members of your gro up may need to co nduct seve ral interv iews. These may be face-to-face individual inrerviews, group interviews, or those conducted over rh e phone or via e1ecrronic ma il. For example, the cu rricu lum co mmittee members interv iewed rheir

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

"On the Internet, nobody knows you're a dog. " Q The New Yorker Collection; 1993 Peter Steiner from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved.

colleagues in person, phoned or e- mailed colleagues at other schools, and call ed a sample of alumn i to ask for their perceptions and opinions.

Other Sources.

Usefu l information may come when you least expect it. Listening to the radio, watching television, conversing with family or friends, browsing through electronic bulletin boards, smmbling onto relevant information in a magazine while wa iting to get a Au vacci ne-all are potential sources. Be prepared to take advantage of these sources by recording the informa tion as soon as possible so you don't forget it. O nce you have gathered the information yo u need, you must decide how useful it is to you.

EVALUATING INFORMATION The next step in the critical thinking process is to evaluate the information you have gathered. Like a spo nge, you've abso rbed all the information you th ink you'll need. Now you must "pan for go ld" by trying to find the nuggets of information that are valuable to you. J8 If a group bases its decision on inaccurate or outdated information, its decision will be Aawed, no maner how systematic the gathering process has been. For example, the curriculum comminee described earlier recommended that commun ication majors take several writing courses offered by the English depanment. H owever, even though the recommended courses we re listed in the school's current catalogue, the English department had revised its curriculum , eliminating several courses and changing mhers. This mistake was not a disaster, bur it would nOt have occurred if curriculum committee members had checked with the English department to determine whether any course changes were anticipated.

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CHAPTER 6

How ca n you tell whedlcr a piece of information is accurate and up-to-date and whether a sou rce is credible? Evaluatio n of available information is perhaps rhe most crucial step in the critical thinking process. Several factors playa role in evaluating inform ation: determining whac someone means, distinguishing fact from opinion, clarifying ambiguous terms, assessing rhe source's credibility, and assessing the information's accuracy and worth. M. Neil Browne and Smarr Keeley's eighth edition of Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking is an excellent summary afhow you can assess rhe val ue of information.

Determin ing the Meaning of What Is Being Said . T he firs< thing YOli m ust do is decide exaccly what the speaker or writer means-no easy task. Frequen rly, people bury rhe mea nin g of what rhey are saying among a jumble of opinions and irrelev3m srarcmem s. You should idcmify rh e author's co nclu sion , reasons for the concl usion, and evidence ( 0 support the reasons. First, ask yo urself what conclus ion rhe aurhor is drawing. What does he or she wa nt YO li to do, think, or beli eve? Is there an action (such as vQ[ in g for a particular candidate, w riting len e ts ro a tel evision producer. or buying a particular product) thar the author wants you [0 take? Next, deter mine what main arguments rhe amhor provides to suppO rt the conclusion or reco mm e nded action. For instance, look at rhe sa mpl e iener provided in rhe Apply Now box on page 178 . W hat conclusion does {he author wam YOll to reach, and why ? Often, keeping rrack of the arguments and evidence rhat suppOrt rhem is easie r if you ou tline the argumenr. Write the main co nclusion at the [OP; rhen li sr each argumenr beneath it with space after each one. In this space list every piece of evidence rhe author or speaker offers in support of the claims. This will simpli fy your larer task of eva luating how good rhe autho r's evidence and reasoning a re and how valid the co nclusions are. Taking the time [Q translate the information from or igi nal so urces into yo ur own material for gro up projects is cru cial if you are to ethi call y represent th e information correcrly. This involves not on ly citing the sources of your information but also paraphrasing that information in you r own wo rds. Good paraphrasing does not mea n simpl y changi ng a word or two or creatively "cllning and pasting" materia l; it is a sk ill that rakes time and effort. The misuse of another's informatio n, or plagiarism, is a co mmon occurrence. You are responsible for familiarizing yourself with your own schoo l's plagiarism po licies and their exa mples of plagiarism. In addition, visit the fo llow in g websites: h np:/ Iwww.plagia ri sm .orgli ndex.html

hrrp:i lowl.english.purdue.edu/owllreso urce/560/0 I I These sites provide detailed examples and your group oral as well as written work.

[

GLOSSAR ~ Fact

Something that con be verified by

observation and is not arguable

l

~oncrete

rips on how

[Q

avo id plagiarism

111

Distinguishing Fact from Opinion and Inference. You must be able to recognize the difference between a statement of fact and sta temenrs of opinion or inference based on th at f..'lCt. Facts are descriptions that ca n be verified by observa tion s and are not arguable. For example, we can verify that the popu lalion ofCreene Co uney, Missouri, in 2009 was approximately 269,630 by looking in any of severa l gove rnment publi ca tion s that record population data. Be careful , though-some statemen rs presented as facts are not facts at all bU( f..1..Ise statements. For example. the sraremenr "Gree ne County. Missouri, has 500,000 residents" is not true; therefore. it is not a f..1Cr. YOli need [Q determine whether statements presented as facts are actually true and up-to-da te .

177

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

Opinions and inferences go beyo nd what was observed directl y and imply so me degree of probability or uncertainty. Opinions, unlike facts, are nor all equal , although everyone has an eq ual right to express an opinion. So me opinions are more valid than orhers. Einstein's opinion about the way the universe operates shou ld ca rry more weight than the opinions of the authors of th is book because we are nor theoretical phys icists. The val ue of an opinion depends on the evidence supporting the opinion and the qualiry of the reasoning [hat ties the evidence and opinion together. Determining an opinion's value is part of your job as a cri tical thinker. For example, someone might say, "G reene County, Misso uri , is growing rapid ly." That is not a fact; thar is an opinion. It is your responsibility to deter mine rhe va lidity of the opinion by asking qucsrions such as the following: What was Gree nc County's populatio n 10 years ago? Whar is rhe average annllal rare of growth in the United States? In Missouri? How does Greene Co uney's rate compare with char of othcr cities in M issouri? If you learn that Greene Co uney's annual rate of growth for the last 10 yea rs has been 2.4 percent, compared to Missouri's 0.9 percent. yo u can reasonably conclud e that "Greene Couney is growing quickly." T hus. opinions are arguable and shou ld be eval uated systematically during a group's deliberations. Groups that make poor decisions do so in pan because inferential errors impair their critical thinking. J ?

Identifying and Clarifying Ambiguous Tenns. Authors and speakers often make it hard to evaluate information because they use terminology th at is am biguo us, or unclear. For example, cand idate Beasley in the Apply Now box is termed "experi enced. " What does that mea n? What kinds of experiences has she had ? Is she ex perienced as a reacher, a parem, or an admin istracor? Is she experienced at working in a small group ? Each of these expe ri ences is difTerem and paims a slightly different picture of th e candidate. Earlier in the chapter, we ment ioned the decision made by NASA officials (Q laun ch the Challenger. In the ir analys is of (he decision -making process. Gouran and his associates discovered thar failure to clarifY ambiguous terms comributed to that terrible decision. They ex plain: No one went so for as to say, "We recommend that Y0lt do 110t launch. "instead, they claimed milking such statements as, "W'e do not hlwe the dfltll base fom which to draw any conclusions for this particular situation ':. "We did flot have a sufficient datil base to absolutely assure that nothing would strike the vehicle. "40 What do those statements mean? This kind of doublcspea k confuses iss ues because it leaves room for a var iety of interp retations by permirring others (Q read their own favorite interpretations into the message. At NASA no one asked explicitly for clarification of the ambiguous terms.

Evaluating Opinions by Determining the Credibility of the Source. \Vle noted earlier that not all opinions are equal. How can yo u tell whether an author or a speaker is so meo ne whose opinions are worth your attention? Ask yo urself several key questions to help you decide how much trust to place in an opinion. •

Is th ere any reaso n to suspect the pcrson(s) supp lying th e op inion of bias? For example, if you find a sou rce that debunks rh e idea that smoking ca uses lung cancer, yo u should treat that information with suspicion, especiall y if it co mes from the Am eri ca n Tobacco Institute. On th e other hand. if that statement appears in the scientifi cally respected New England JournaL of Medicine, you would have grea ter reason to expect objectivity.

GLOSSARY Opinions Inferences rhat go beyond facts and contain some de· gree of probability

Ambiguous Refers to a term thOI 1105 more than one pOHible meaning

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CHAPTER 6

Should You Support Mary Alice Beasley for School Board? Your local parent-teacher organization has received the following letter from one school's si te council. The executive com mittee, of which you

are a member, is meeting to decide what to recommend to the entire PTO . Practice evaluating the information and arguments in the letter. D~ar

Partnt- T~nch~r Organization M~mb(r,

/JOlt /0 eke! a new mtmb" to the school board will occur on Apn"' 5. We want you to know that the Parents' £Xu/fmC( in Schoab

AJ you know, th(

Commitut' supports candidau Mary Alice Bemley for our school board Mary Alia Bt'osky is the best candidate we have runningfor the Cmtral City school board We need p~pk lilu h" who cart' about our kids. She has livt'd in Ct'n"ai eil] all her lift and now has thTU childrm ofher own in

the school systtm. Slu has bun an activt' member ofthe P. T.o. for the past six ytars and was chair ofthe fond-raising committu for W~rwood School H~r aperi~nu

will b~ invalUllbk.

In h~r ucond term as city councilwoman. sh~ was th~ chiif'author ofth~ piAn to tUugugau tht city Ichools; as wt ali know. oth" citits havt ustd this plan as th~ mod~1 for thtir own tUugr~ation efforts. Mary Aliu can repr~­ smt the mtir~ community w(/J-sh~ lilught for nine Jean bifore sh~ ran for city council. and sIN has a masur's degr« in education. Hers is txIlctly the kind of caring, o:pn-imud leaLIaship we nted on th~ school board Mary Beasky tUstrVtS your tndorsemmt. Remnnber to VOl( on April 5. Either individually or in groups of four to six, answer the following

questions and then discuss them as a class: 1. What conclusion are you being asked to reach? Is there an action you are being asked to take in this letter? 2 . Like most letters of this type, this letter interchanges fact and inference, or opinion. Make a list of all the facts presented in the letter and a list of all the inferences presented . 3. Ambiguous terms are sometimes difficult to spot because we each think we know what words such as experienced mean. Make a list of all the ambiguous terms (terms that can reasonably be understood in more than one way) presented in the letter. Before you assess how the letter's writer interprets each of these terms, what do you mean by each of them? For instance, what does experienced mean to you?

4 . For each of th ese terms, what evidence is presented in the letter that supports the author's opinion about Beasley? For example, what facts are presented to support th e author's view that Beas-

ley is "experienced"? S. Would you vote for Beasley on the ba sis of this letter? Why or why not? What other inform ation about this candidate would you like to have to help you make your decision? Where would you go for the information you need?

Creative and Critical Th inking in the Small Group

•

Is the source a recognized expert on the subjece Is this someone whom other experts respect? Would you feel proud or silly quoting this person? W e may feel comfortable citing Kobe Bryant's opinions about basketball but very uncomfortable citing Aunt T illy's.

•

Is th e op inion consistent with ot her o pini ons expressed by the same source? Med ia so metim es misq uo te people. Are you reasonabl y sure the op inion stated is accurate? Is th ere a later in te rview o r quote that reverses th e in consistent opinio n? So metimes peopl e do change their mind s fo r good reaso ns. W hat is the reason given for th e change of opi nion? Does the ev idence offered to expl ain th e change seem reasonabl e to you? If not, suspect inaccuracy or some u nknown bias.

Assessing the Accuracy and Worth of the Information. Now that you have established a co ntext for evaluating the informatio n by determining exactly what is being said and how credible the sou rce is, yo u are in a position to eval uate how good that in fo rmation is (see Table G.G). After all, it co uld be misin fo rmation. You should ask you rself a nu mber of q uestions abo m the information before usin g it during gro up decision making.

TABLE 6.6

Evaluating Information in the Critical Thinking Process

DETERMINE WHAT THE SPEAKER OR WRITER IS SAYING

• What is th e conclusion? • What does th e author want you to do? • What are the main a rgume nts in support of th e conclusion? DISTINGUISH FACT FROM OPINION AND INFERENCE

• What are the facts? • What are the opinio ns? IDENTIFY AND CLARIFY AMBIGUOUS TERMS

• What are the a mbig uous term s? • What do yo u thi nk the autho r means by eac h te rm? • If you ca n't decide with confidence, what problems does t his create? DETERMINE THE CREDIBILITY OF THE SOURCE

• • • •

Who is the auth or or spea ke r? What are his or her creden ti als on this issue? Is this a recog nized expert? Is this a biased source or one with something to gain by expressing this opinion? Is the information co nsistent with other credible sources?

ASSESS THE ACCURACY AND WORTH OF THE INFORMATION

• What type of evidence (e.g., personal expe ri ence, statistical suppo rt, opi n· ions of ex pe rts) is being offered in su pport of the author's arg uments? • Is the evidence supported by oth er ex pe rts or a uth orities, or just this author? • Is the info rmation based on the scient ific meth od ? • If the information is based on interviews or questionn aires, was the sa mple large enough and representative e no ug h? Were the questi ons clea r and not biased or loaded?

179

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•

What rypes of evidence arc offered to su pport th e argument? Is it a persona l experience? Statistical suppOrt ? The co mbin ed opinions of a number of recognized experts? AJrhough many people do so, it is unsafe [0 accept perso nal experience as th e sole basis for supporrill g an opinion. For example, assume yo u were once in a successful and productive group led by a dominant lead er who decided everything and delegated these tasks to mher members. Thus, your personal exper ience may lead you to believe that gro ups work best under strong. (oorrolling leaders. Bur someone else's experience may differ. Assu me a fellow group member worked in a democrat ic group, in which rhere was no one leader bue all members co ntributed to leadership based on their areas of expertise. This member thinks that th e on ly good group is a democrati c one. Which of you is righ t? Each of you is righr, for the particular circumstances of yo ur ex peri ence, bur neither of you is right to try to apply yo ur experience to eve ryone else.

•

Is the information based on rhe testimony of a number of experts in the field? If so, you can place greater truSt in it, es pecially if these experts are widely recognized and accepted by their peers. Be su re to determine whether other experts disagree and why. Be es peciaJly careful abour accepting information from an expert in one field about anot her field. For example, movie stars frequently express strong opinions abour the American political scene. Whi le some may be well informed, others are nor.

Is the inform ation based on valid sc ien tifi c or sta ti sticaJ reasoning? You should as k how the information was gathe red, how the questions were worded, whether the data came from a properly designed survey. a nd so forth. Information mll st follo w srr iC( guidelines before it can legitimately be termed scientific. First, such information mllst be ve rifiable by ochers. Thus, although an experien ce (har happens to so meone may be true, it is nor scie ntifi c unless the event is observed or ca n be re-created by other peop le. Second. scientifi c information must be obtained und er co ntrolled conditions by cO lHrolJ ed observations. Having an informal conversation with yo ur classmates abom the death penalty and concluding char "Ameri ca n college students have the follow ing anirudes coward capital punishm ent ... " may be interesting, bur it is not scienrific. But if you surveyed a representative sample of stu dents, asked each of thcm the same quesrions, and systematically a nal),lcd th eir answers, you cou ld reasonably co nclude: "S tudents at my college believe the following abour capital punish ment ... " Fina ll y, sc ientific information must be expressed precisely. Anorher resea rchc r, after reading an acco unt of a scientifically co ntroll ed research scudy, should be able ro ca rry our a study in exactly (he sa me way, usin g the sa me procedures, equipmem, and sratist ical tests. Information gathered by questionnaires or interviews poses addicional questions regard ing the individuals who were queried. Were th ere enough of them, and were they representative of a larger population? In most cases random sampl in g is mOSt likely co ensure a represenrarive response. For exam pi c, assume your committee is charged with making recommendation s regarding parking on your campus, and you dec id e to poll scudenrs who drive to ca mpus. If you survey o nl y stu denrs who park in one parricu la r lot between 7 and 8 A.M., your results are not likely to reAec( the views of th e entire srudent populat ion. Making parking reco mm endations that will affect thousands of studc nt s on the basis of respon ses from a few stude nts is irrespo nsible. On the other hand , if YO ll sys tema ri ca lly survey stude nts from all campus lots at va ryin g rimes during •

Creative and Critica l Thinking in the Small Group

181

the day and evening, your responses will be more represemative and your co nclusions more val id.

[ GLOSSARY -]

CHECKING FOR ERRORS IN REASONING

Fallac:les

The final element in the critical thinking process is assessing the quality of the reasoning people provide for their opinions or for supporting one co nclu sio n over anothe r. Unfortunately, most speakers and writers often make a variety of common reasoning erro rs, called fallacies, that makes assessing reaso nin g challenging. Fallacies tend to divert a listener's attention from the issue or sidetrack the discussion so that members of a group begin to debate something other than evid ence an~ claims. However, cri tical thinkers working together in a small group should be able to spot each other's fallacies. T he differing bur complementary bases of information thar individual members bring to a group discussion can help them compe nsate for each o th er's weaknesses ro produce, on the whole. a superior group resulr. 41 There is no end to the kinds of fallacies you can find in a group discussion. The following ones are common ones and are offered as examples. For a more detailed list of fall acies and ways to co rrec t them, see Richard Paul and Linda Elder's The Thinker's Guide to Fallacies: The Art oJMen1fl1 Trickery and Manipulation, a useful resourceY

Mistakes in

Overgeneralizing.

Ge neralizations are made when information about one or more instances is said (Q apply to many or all instan ces of the same type. For examp le, someone may read in the newspaper that a cenain number of co ll ege students have

What Would You Do? You and your group have been working on your panel presentation

about the death penalty for several weeks, with one week to go before you are responsible for conducting the panel discussion in your class.

This project represents a major portion of your grade in the small group class, and you are required to conclude your presentation by taking a position-your group must come out either in favor of or against the

death penalty. After hashing this out for weeks, you have sorted through all your evidence and have almost reached consensus that you will come out in favor of the death penalty. This week, while doing library research for another class, you happen upon a new study, based on systematic

examination of states with the death penalty, that strongly suggests the death penalty does not deter crime. The study seems well done; you don't think you can dismiss it as a piece of biased or poorly done re-

search. But you know if you present it to your group, you'll push your emerging consensus further away, and you hate to do that! You are so close now to agreement, and you know this study will set you back.

What do you do? 1. For what reasons would you present the article to your group? 2. For what reasons would you withhold the article? 3. What would you actually do?

reasoning and faulty reasoning

182

C HAPTER 6

I GLOSSA-;;V]

defaulted on their gove rnmenc-gua ranteed student loa ns. If chat perso n co ncludes from thi s that "college stud ents are irresponsible borrowers," he or she has mad e a generaliza tion and implied tha t nil co ll ege stud ents are irresponsibl e bo rrowers. An overgeneralization, like rhe loan defau lt examp le, is a conclusion that is nor supported by enough dara. Generalizations by themselves are not automatically wro ng. Conclusions based on ca refu lly gathered data that were analY-led with appropriate statistical procedures are often very accurate and the goal of good scientifi c th eory. Usually, such generalizations are qualified and not stated as app lyi ng to all cases. Rem ember, for a ge neraliza ti on [Q be facrual for all cases, someone would have ro observe all of th ose cases. To decid e wheth er a generalization is a val id co nclusion or an overgenera li za ri on, ask yourself a few questions:

Overgenerallzatlon

conclusion not supported by

A

enough data

•

How many cases is the co nclusion based o n?

•

Are there any exceptions ro the concl usion ?

•

W hat form of evid ence is the so urce as king us to accept; personal or other form s?

•

Is th e generalization expressed as probabi li ty or in «allness" terms?

Attacking a Person Instead of the Argument . Arracking a person instead of th e argument, eve n if subtly done, is a form of name-calling used ro direct artenrion away from someo ne's ev idence and logic (or lack thereof). Sometimes called ad homi (wo man, nem anacks, sllch arguments rake thi s form: " Because S o~a nd-So is a Catholi c, foreigner, intellectual snob, atheist, liberal , etc.)' you can' t believe hi s/ her op inions abollt the topic." Such an anack on the speaker moves the foclls ro th e spea ker and away from the merits of his o r her opi nion; more information is needed to criti ca ll y eva lu ate the op inion. Confusing Causal Relationships. Another common reasoning error occurs when the speaker o r writer mista kenl y stares what caused an event. Frequenrly, peopl e eith er imply that one cause ex ists for an event or reason or (hat because two events are related so mehow they mu st have ca used each other. For example, we have hea rd students say that if a manager implemelHs quality co ntrol circles in a company, the co mpan y's profits will increase, implyi ng that qualiry circles cause hi gher profits. In actllaliry, berrer employee train ing, lower COStS of raw mater ials, increased prices for a co mpany's producrs, improvements in technology, and improved upward communica tion and morale produced by the quality circle may conniblJ(c to the increased profits. Neith er can we assume that, just because one event preceded another in tim e, the first ca used the second. It may be that both are ca used by a third event or condirion. For example, one of liS overheard so meo ne ment ion statist ics indicating that graduates of al lwomen's co lleges are more likel y to become members of th e U.S. Congress and serve on the boards of Fortune 500 co mpanies than are fema le graduates of coed schools. The perso n speaJci ng was argu ing that arrenda nce at wome n's coll eges caused this type of career achi evement. However, many women's co lleges are academicall y selec tive as well as ex pensive. Women attending such schoo ls are often both exceptionally brigh t and from families who own or are connected CO Fortune 500 co mpani es. It is plausible that these addirional factors-ability and fami ly co nn ccti o ns-"cause" both th e arrendance at women 's colleges and the career achievement. Th e relationship between college attendan ce and later

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

achievement is likely to be a complex o ne that does not lend itself well ro simple causal descriptions.

Either-Or Thinking .

Either-or thinking (sometimes called a fal se dil emma) says that you must choose one thin g or anoth er, and no other choices are poss ible. Seldom is {his th e case. We ralked about this lUnd of thinking and its consequ ences to group discuss ion when dealin g with di ve rsity in Chapter 5. In anoth er exampl e, ass ume your group is preparing a panel discuss ion about sex education in th e schools, and you enco unter the following statement: "Sex educa tion is an important element of a young perso n's edu cati on. If the parents won 't re<\Ch their children about sex, th e schools have ro. " Most people would readily agree with rh e first semence. The seco nd , however, reveals either-or thinkin g; eirher the parents will teach the child about sex or the school wi ll. In fact, orher alternatives are poss ible. Perh aps church es, synagogues, or Camp Fire USA leaders could take o n th e job; or parents and school officials together co uld design a cooperati ve program. Do not be blind to other alternati ves.

Incomplete Comparisons . Compari so ns, es peciall y analogies, help us un derstand iss ues mo re vividl y. These play an im portant role in symboli c converge nce (C hapter 5) and wh en rh e group is being creative. However. th ere are limitations to such compariso ns wh en rh e group has moved into critical thinkin g. C omparing two thin gs works to a point at whi ch th e rese mbl ance can break down. An incomplete analogy (sometim es call ed a faul ty analogy) asks us to stretch a similarity too far. For exa mpl e, ass um e yo u and o ther students are di scuss ing how well the public relati o ns major at your school pre pares stud em s to be public relati o ns profess io nals. One studem says, "Yo u rea ll y can ' t learn mu ch about public relations from sc hool anyway. It's like trying to rid e a bi cycl e by readin g boo ks about it but never ge rrin g on an actu al bi cycle. " At first glan ce, this remark hits home with many of us who complain th at school can't prepare us for the "real world." However, let's look more closely. Yes, there are public relations experi ences th at cannot be dupli cated in school. But there are many activities that do prepare students for professional practice. Des igning Ayers and brochures, wri ting news releases, taking phorographs, plannin g a mock public relations campaign, and designing a survey are all examples of typical activities (h at public relations students perform in school that are also necessary on the job. Thus, whenever yo u see or hear someone make a com~ pari son, first determin e in what ways the twO things being compared are similar, and look for ways they are different. Does the analogy break down at any point. If so, where? H ow does [his affect th e reaso ning you are bein g as ked to accept? These fallacies prev io usly described , as we no ted earli er, are some of the most comm on o nes. Be alert for fallacies by asking the ri ght probing ques tio ns about the ideas, opinions, inter pretati ons, and co nclusions someone is askin g you to accept. Then pay careful anen[io n to the answers you receive {or don ' t receive} . A number of group system s support (GSS) tools can help members probe and evaluate inform ation (see C hapter 7) . GSS tools include electronic brainstorming (discussed previously), electronic outliners, id ea organizers. and topic commentators. Working with neutral facilitarors, groups can lessen the inAuence of biased information and can be guided in th ei r attempts to track arguments, confront each o ther's claims, and develop their own lines of reasoningY

183

GLOSSARY Either-Or Thinking Asking members to choose between only two options, as

if no other choices existed

Analogies Comparisons tha t help cfarify ideas and issues

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CHAPTER 6

Gun Control The shooting rampage on the Virginia Tech campus April 16, 2007, turned out to be the largest mass shooting in our country's history. In

a dorm and classroom building, 33 people lost their lives. This school shooting revived the ongoing debate over gun control. 44 Wh ile news

of the tragedy was still fresh, many news programs featured reports about the national debate over how to solve the problem of gun-related violence on college campuses. A heated debate occurred in Virgin ia's

own state legislature as representatives fought over whether concealed weapons should be allowed on their campuses. Vi rginia and 48 other

states do issue gun permits allowing state residents to carry concealed weapons. The issue was whether to lift gun restrictions on college campuses: Virginia voted not to, but Utah voted to allow students to carry concealed weapons on the University of Utah campus. Advocates for allowing firearms on college campuses argued that Virginia already has gun control laws that obviously do not work. If someone plans to kill

a bunch of people and then themselves, regulations wi ll not help, but com ing face-to-face with another gun will. A concealed weapon is there

for self-defense, and had faculty or students been armed, they could have used those weapons to stop the Virgin ia Tech killer. Opponents

argued that allowing guns on college campuses is not going to solve the real problem, which is the reason for the vio lence; thus, we have to find ways to prevent people from using guns to express how disturbed

they are. Opponents suggest attending to and treating the reasons for violence, not issuing gun permits to college students and faculty. Try the following exercise. In a small group or as a who le class, to get a more vivid idea of the types of arguments made in th is case, briefly research the issue of gun violence on co llege campuses and then simulate the point-counterpoint discussion, either between two class members or two large groups role-playing each position. 1. How many arguments can you create to support each position?

Put them on the board for all to see. 2 _ What fallacies can you idel1tify in the arg um ents presented? 3. Assume the two "debaters" are members of a small discussion

group charged with ide ntifying a policy to prevent college shootings. What wou ld you say and do if you heard the kinds of fallacies being expressed during the discussion?

AVOIDING GROUPTHINK We introduced groupthink in C hapter 4 when we discussed the consequ ences of excessively hi gh cohes iveness in wh ich di sagreeme nt is see n as disloyalty or as "making waves." Coi ned by Irving Jani s and ini tially applied to th e di sast rou s Bay of Pigs

Creative and Critica l Thinking in the Small Group

decisio n by th e John F. Kennedy admini stration , grouplhink commonl y refers (Q bad decision makin g due (Q poor informatio n processing in gro ups. Group think is a hard price to pay for lazy criti cal thinking and co hes iven ess taken to its extremes. W e examin e thi s group ph enom eno n further ro hel p us summarize our discussio n o f critica l thinking in groups and to reinforce irs importance to effec tive decision makin g. W e will use primarily C ase 6. 3. Groupthink is a failure of criti cal minlcing and leads to Aawed decisions grounded in partial information in effectively analY-Led. Our class project gro up igno red all sorts of information

The Class Project

-----

A group of students in a communication course was given two major aSSignments: a class presentation of material from one of the book chap-

ters and a research project to be presented to the class. As they prepared to present the book chapter, Cary emerged as the group's informal leader. A theater major, he was charismatic, fun, and creative. At his suggestion the

group created a short play dramatizing the chapter content. The members had a blast preparing the presentation. They bonded tightly to become close friends. Th e presentation received an A, with high praise from the professor. This made them even more cohesive. When time came to plan

the research project, they decided, at Cary's urging, to follow the same creative format. They skimmed over the instructions for the research proj-

ect and concluded that they could rely mostly on material from the text. They focused all their energies on creating a lively, dramatic presentation. But Soshanna, another member, had doubts about their approach. Afraid they were ignoring several criteria their professor required, she timidly

expressed her reservation about the direction they were headed. Cary and the rest of the members teased her for being a worrywart: "We got the highest grade in the class last time, and everybody else was envious! The professor loved it! We are the golden group-there's no way we can fail here. Chill, Soshanna- you are way too compulsive." Soshanna stifled her

doubts and climbed on the bandwagon. But things didn't turn out so we ll this time. The group had ignored several key criteria, including the number of outside references they were required to include, the types of references, the length of the research paper, and the format. Their efforts- as much fun as they

had been-€arned them a low C. This highly cohesive group suffered from groupthink. The members ignored information available to them that would have helped them earn an A, such as the professor's written description of the assignment and her invitation for students to consu lt with her about the project. Members with reservations, such

as Soshanna, kept quiet. The group got overconfident and stumbled badly.

185

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CHAPTER 6

me

including professor's criteria for the proj ect. Nso during groupthink behavior some members may privately have had doubts about rhe group's direction. Soshanna had reservations about the project group, but she didn't want the orner members to think of her as a "compulsive." Thus, the group was deprived of the full benefit of all members' opinions and reasoning. Soshanna's behavior is not unusual- few people want ro be perceived as nuisances. A swciy of upper-management teams in 26 American corporations found that 19 percent of members said rhey best went about company business by nO[ making waves. 45 Nine percent prefer to maintain good relationships with their co-workers at the expense of gcccing the job done. That suggests a lor of flawed decision making happening ar all levels! Ler's look ar how this kind of group dynamic can happen.

Symptoms of Groupthlnk.

We have em phasized rhar group members. perhaps counrer ilHuitively, do not automatically sha re information that runs coumer to what appear to be group preferences. 46 They "seize and freeze" on early positions expressed by members and on those they think most members prefer, as well as resist positions that may be different from those ea rli er positions. One reason groupthink is most likely to occur in highly cohesive groups is the pressure to achieve consensus. In particular. cohesiveness based on interpersonal attraction is related to gro upthink. but task-related cohes iveness is notY Members of groups that exhibit high degrees of cohesiveness based on their interpersonal attracrion to each orher tend to be more psychologically connected to each other. and so they resist challenging each other. 48 This is a problem because groups in general tend to favor discussing what they already know as opposed to discussing new information. 49 Under conditions of groupthink. this rendency is even harder to monitor. In addition. groupthink is mote likely to occur in groups with a long history. groups strongly embedded in their larger organizations, and groups that insulate themselves from their outside env ironm ents. so Spotting groupthink thus becomes crucial if decision-making groups are to be effective as they cr itically analyze problems and draw conclusions. H ere are three important symptoms to help you spot groupthink. I. The group overestimates its power and morality. Group members believe their cause is so right that nothing can go wrong with their plans. The student group in Case 6.3 became so excited about the creative aspect of their project that members ignored the requirements for the rest of the project. They prepared a dynamic presentation but left out important information relevant to the topic. They had managed to convince themselves that they were giving the professor what she wanted: "She'll lo~e it. No one else has tried anything like it. I just know we'll get an A."

2. The group becomes dosed-minded. Closed-minded people. instead of looking open-mindedly at all rel evant information. consider only information that supports their beliefs. Group members may also have a preferred course of action and ignore any information that co ntrad icts their preference. In the class project group, Soshanna's fears abom ignoring certain crite ria were down played: "O h, that won't be a major problem. Even if we do leave something out, the presentation will be so crearive it will more rhan make up for it." Members talked each other into believing that some crireria didn't marter by ignoring information to the comrary.

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

3. Group members experience pressure to conform. The pressures to co nform show up in several ways. First, members ce nsor their own remarks without appa rem pressure from other membe rs. W hen all the ot her members of a group favor a certai n action, most people are hesitant to express their doubts. This is natural-you want th e people in your group to like and res pect you, and you don ' t want ro be seen as "poppin g others' balloons." This self-censorship, altho ugh understandab le, can block conAicting opinions from problem-solving discussions. Second, a mem ber who does voice a comradictory opinion can be seen as a deviant, as "making waves," and receive o\Tert pressure from the group. G roups are un comfortable with deviants (even idea deviants) and pressure them to go aJong with the group. The initial teas in g Soshanna received about being a worrywa rt served as a subtle form of pressure to conform. It worked-she quit openly disagreeing. If she hadn 't, the pressure wou ld have intensified. The teasing and jokes would probably have turned ro persuasion and ulrimatel y coe rcio n to force her co mpliance. Finally, because self-censors hi p and group pressure suppress disagreement and doubt , the gro up experiences the illusion that members unanimously supPOrt the deci sion or proposal. Sos hanna's dec ision to keep sil ent made it seem to the rest of the group members that they had a co nsensus about the project. Assuming that the group is in accord, members carry out th e decisio n without testing to see whethe r th e consensus is gen uine.

Preventing Groupthink. You ca n take a number of steps [Q prevent groupth in k from occurrin g. Following are suggestions for bQ[h group leaders and members, also summarized in Table 6.7. 1. Encourage members to "kick the problem around" before they start focusing on a solution. One group behav ior that fosters groupthink is arriving at premature consensus. 51 The group has shortchanged th e recommended first step of most structured problem-solvi ng procedures. which is exploring the problem before trying to solve it. In addit ion, enco uraging disagreemem at this stage can help group members un derstand the problem bette r. Active disagreemem at an early stage of problem ex plorati on promotes increased knowledge and understa ndin g. 2. Establish a norm of critical evaluation. T he most important thing a group leader and other members can do to prevent group think is to establish a group norm (Chapter 4) to evaluate carefully and critically aJl information and reasoning. Such a norm can offscr the proven human tendency to ignore or reject information that co ntradicts o ne's existing beliefs and values. Especially helpful is a no rm promoting membe rs' expressions of all disagreements. A norm supporti ng open exp ression of doubts and disagreements makes it OK for members CO be in conflict with eac h other. One study found th at, in a group in which eve ryone seems to hold the sa me viewpoint, even one member who is wi lling to share an oppos ing view can redirect the group's attention so that members exam ine their decision more thoughtfullyY Had Soshanna stuck to her guns, she might have saved the gro up's grade!

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TABLE 6.7

Preventing Groupthink

= = '-----

ENCOURAGE MEMBERS TO "KICK THE PROBLEM AROUND"

1. Be alert to prevent premature consensus. 2. Explore the problem thoroughly before attempting to develop a solution. 3. Encourage freewheeling argument before settling on a solution. ESTABLISH A NORM OF CRITICAL EVALUATION

1. Encourage members to express disagreement. 2. Encourage critical thinking rather than the appearance of harmony.

3. Assig n a devWs advocate to argue against popular proposals.

4 . Be sure the leader accepts criticisms of his or her ideas open-mindedly. PREVENT LEADERS FROM STATING PREFERENCES AT THE BEGINNING OF A GROUP'S SESSION

1. Let other members express opinions first. 2. Offer an opinion only as another alternative (not the alternative) to be considered. 3. Encourage the group to meet withou t the designated leader present. PREVENT INSULATION OF THE GROUP

1. Invite outside experts to present information.

2. Discuss tentative solutions with trusted outsiders to get an unbiased reaction. 3. Be alert to information that contradicts the prevailing opinion of the group.

1 GLOSSARY

I Devil ' s Advocate A group member who formally

is expected to challenge ideas to foster critical thinking

Anmher way of enco uragin g hon est di sagreements is to assign th e role of dcvil's advoca te to one or more members of the gro up. A devil's advocate is a person who has been assigned the task of arguin g aga inst a popular proposal. Thus, thi s perso n se rves as an "official" idea devianr beeause rh e dev il's advoca te helps spm porcnrial Raws in a plan or hol es in argum ents. If Josic agrees to be th e devi l's advocate for a panicular meeting, it is unlikely the ocher members will take her criticisms perso nall y. Groups have also used group suppon systems and co mpmer-mediared communication (CMC) to encourage honest opin ions. We have mentioned that comp mer use in grou p problem solving is val ued for irs ano nymity. Use rs believe that thi s produces less pressure to conform and thu s enco urages more hon esty. However, a member operating from behind a co mputer is still aware of expectations from others. Thus, CMC can both enhance and limit th e impact of indi vidual members' inAu ence and powerY So metimes th e effect of perceived srants differences is actually stronger in C MC.

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

The norm of critical evaluarion must also be supporccd by the leader's behavior. One of us worked with a boss who asked staff members to idenrify any problems we saw with a plan he had devised to improve the working environmenr. Taking the boss at his word, a couple of staff members began to question various elements of the plan. As they spoke, the boss beca me defensive, minimized their concerns, defe nded his proposal, and appeared ro view rh e questionin g members as d isloyal. The rest of the membe rs rema ined silent without voicing their objections to the plan. The meeti ng concluded with th e boss thinking the staff su pported the plan, although it did nor. In the future, whenever the boss asked for hon es t reactions ro proposals he favored, no one was wi Bi ng to go on the "hot sea t" by expressing a cn(1Clsm.

3. Prevent leaders from stating their preferences at the beginni ng of a group's decision-making or problem-solving session. One imporcant so urce of groupthink is a strong o r charismatic leader's preference. Cary's fellow group members really liked him- he had a way of making group work fun. They would have done almost anything not to dampen his enthusiasm or their earlier success under his guidance. A5 group leader, in addition to not sta ting your preferences early in a group's discussion, ask rh e group to meet without you, especially if you are the su pervisor rather than an elected chair. If you suspect rhat your presence or personality inhibits the group members from saying what th ey really feel and think , schedule one or tWO meetings rhar you do not a([end. T his will make it easier for other members to express their opinions freely. 4. Prevent insulatio n of the group. Gro upthink often occurs when group membe rs become so co hesive and caught up in their own ideas that they are insu lated from external opinion and expercise. Cary and Soshanna's professor encouraged her students to consult with her as they formulated the ir resea rch projects. She even offered to pregrade the projects in advance, so students could take her feedback inro account to improve their final projects. But Cary convinced his group members that they didn't need outside help---after all, their first project, completed withollt outside advice, was wildly successful. Leaders and members of the group can offset this tendency. They can encourage members to presenr tentative decisions to trusted associates outside the group, then report back to the group with the feedback. They can hold public hearings, at which any interested perso n can speak on the issues facing the group, as zoning commissions do regularly. They can also arrange for outside experts to talk to the group. Most importa ntly, they can be alert themselves for any relevanr information from outside th e group, rather than protecting the group from outside inAuence. Groups get caught in groupth ink because they do not promore a co nstructive "show me" skepticism, which thwarts openness to new information, damages the evaluation of gathered information , and lim its questioning of the reasoning behind arguments. Ad· ditional pressure to co nform by ineffective leaders and by members nOt listening to outside so urces of suppOrt ca n inhib it both creative and criti cal thinking in groups. Getting caught in groupthink leaves groups open to paying a heavy price, sometim es one paid in human life, as we saw in the Cbalknger disaster and other national rragcdi es.

189

C HAPTER 6

190

Terrorism, TV, and Groupthink --'----

Go to

www.m hhe.com/ ada msgalanes8e for additional weblink activities.

--

On September 11 ,2001, people around the world watched images of violence on their televisions. In the wake of terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, TV news organizations documented

the new focus on the war on terrorism. Nonstop coverage of the attacks transitioned into the war with Iraq, which presumed to be connected with 9/1 1 terrorists and weapons of mass destruction (WMD). However, the lack of WMD and concrete evidence connecting terrorists

to Saddam Hussein has caused many to question the decision to go to war. Consider your own experiences watching TV reports of the terrorist

actions and the subsequent war on terrorism. To what extent do you think mediated reports of these events made the public susceptible to groupthink? Are there ways that our culture can reduce the effects of

groupthink on the way we assign meaning to mediated messages? In the summer of 2004, the U.S. Senate Intelligence Committee reo

port on pre-Iraq war intelligence emphasized that many mistakes were made because of "groupthink." Committee members said their findings

were based on a presumption that misled the intelligence community. That presumption was that over the years Iraq both had and used WMD. Over time that knowledge led to a belief that Iraq would continue to try to build and obtain WMD. This belief led to groupthink in which the

intelligence community interpreted all new data as consistent with that basic presumption, although, the report concluded, that presumption was flawed. Copies of this report and information reflecting the commit· tee's conclusions can be found at the following addresses:

http://a .rocket ·clty.us/ intelllgence. gOY .html http://inteilige nce.senate.gov/ conciusions.pdf

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

• To be effective problem solvers, group members must do a good job with both creative and critical th inking. Creative individuals are willing to communicate. co be unconventional. and CO play in the group. Creative groups are willing to examine their norms and change those that interfere with creativity. • Creativity requires freedom from judgment and can be enhanced through the use of three techniques: brainstorming. synectics. and mind

mapping. Brainscorming explicitly suspends criticism, and synectics works by attempting CO make the fam iliar unfamiliar. M ind mapping seeks co avoid linear thinking. • Critical thinking involves a concentrated effort CO assess the value of ideas and conclusions by gathering relevant information, examining that informacion carefully, and judging the reasoning that suppOrtS the conclusions and decisions. Critical thinking in small groups

-",------------------

Creative and Critical Thinking in the Small Group

involves knowing when to use critical thinking and requires certain attitudes of group members. a methodical search for information, thorough evaluation of the information, and careful assessment of the reasoning behind

opinions and beliefs based on that informuion. • In gathering information. group members first should pool their knowledge and identifY any gaps char are apparent. Then they should fill those gaps by using appropria~e research methods, including direct observation, reading, using electronic databases, imerviewing individuals or groups. and consulting other sources such as television, the Internet, and radio. • When members evaluate information , they first should determine what is being said.

1. Form groups offam to six students. Each of you should be given some ordinary. tangible object. such as a clothespin. an alarm clock. or a ballpoint pen. Find a new use for the item that has nothing to do with the item's ordinary use. To do this, you must perceive the item in entirely new ways. To help you do this, your instructor can lead you in a guided meditation. For instance, imagine that the clothespins are alive and are sending you messages about what they would like to be used for. After you have discussed the problem in your groups for 15-20 minutes, present your favorite solution to the class. Then all of you should vore to select the mosc creative idea. (Perhaps your insuuctor will award prizes to the winning group.)

2. The following exercise helps clarifY the difference between statements of fact and statements of inference. Place a familiar item (such as a

191

which statements are facts and which are inferences or opinions, what terms are ambiguous, how believable the source is, and how accurate and valuable the informacion is. • When they check for errors in reasoning, group members should be especially alert to the common fallacies. Critical thinking consists primarily of asking rhe righc probing questions. which can prevent harmful throughput processes such as groupthink. • Groupthink is the tendency of highly cohesive groups not to examine critically all aspects of a decision. Groups experiencing groupthink overestimate their power, evaluate information in a closed-minded and biased way, and experience pressures to conform.

coffee cup. a chair. or a ballpoint pen) in front of the class so everyone can see ic easily. Make statements of fact abour it. Each scarement should be written on the board. After about 15 statements, identify as a class those statements thac go beyond what was actually observed. Discuss why these statements are inferences rather than facts.

3. Videotape one of the many television programs that feature panel interviews with public figures (such as Mut the Press). Look for errors in reasoning, places where the interviewee seemed to camouflage what she or he was saying. or places where the interviewee was evasive. Discuss the program in class. Ir will be panicularly helpful if you can show your tape in class. ~ Go to www.mbhe.oomladamsgalanes8e a.'1'1~ and www.mbhe.comlgroupsforself-

nn

I1Il

quizzes and weblinks.

Ambiguous Ana logies

Devil's Advocate

Open·minded

Either·Or Thinking

Opinions

Arguments

Evidence

Overgeneralization

Brainstorming

Fact

Probing Questions

Creative Thinking

Fallacies

SynectiCS

Critical Thinking

Mind Mapping

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: 1. Explain w hy using a systematic procedure for group problem solvi ng usually produces better solutions than random or haphazard problem solving.

2 . Define key te rms such as problem solving, decision making, and area of freedom with examples. 3. Describe five characteri stics of problems.

4. Explain why and how you wou ld adjust the problem solving process to accommodate any of the characteristics of problems .

•

S. Describe th e functional theory of problem solving and

decision making.

6. Describe each step of P-MOPS. 7. Explain how you could use techniques such as focus groups, group support systems, RISK, and PERT to help at various

stages of P-MOPS. 8. Apply P-MOPS to fit a simple or complex problem.

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

Helping the Children of Springfield

Springfield, Missouri, has a child abuse and neglect rate double that of the rest of the state. A group called Every Kid Counts (EKC) formed several years ago to bring public awareness to this issue and lower the abuse and neglect rates. EKC included community leaders, some public officia ls, and individuals knowledgeable about children's issues. Everyone was dedicated to helping the children of Springfield, yet for a long time the group made little progress as it struggled to get its arms around what, exactly, its activities would be. Although dedicated to the cause, some members wanted to provide direct services to children and their families. Others did not want to compete for funds with the Ozarks Area Community Action Commission and the Women's and Infant's Clinic who provided direct services. They saw EKC's role as a supporting one for such organizations. The struggle over its directive, and the fact that the group's members were volunteers who had other jobs, meant very slow going initially. Despite this problem EKC was proud to point out that it received nonprofit status for its goal of increasing awareness of child abuse and neglect in southwest Missouri. A couple of years after the formation of Every Kid Counts changes in city government meant changes in EKe. The city of Springfield chose to focus its efforts on improving the situation for chi ldren and folded EKC into city government, renaming it the Mayor's Commission for Children (MCC). The addition of city funding allowed MCC's finances to stabilize; the group hired an executive director and progress speeded up. However, the issue of "What does MCC actually do?" continued to be an issue. If MCC does not provide services directly to clients in need, what kind of value can it add to existing service providers? After continued discussion and brainstorming, MCC decided to focus on three major goals: increasing public awareness of the issue of children's well-being, encouraging collaboration among service providers, and providing information of value to service providers. After further discussion, the group selected severa l specific activities to help accomplish these goals. For example, it sponsored a summit, free to the public, to present information about children's issues in the area. MCC's new funding from the city allowed it to bring in knowledgeable experts regarding children's needs. In addition,

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corporate sponsors were found to cover the costs of materials, snacks, speaker fees, and so forth. A second activity was to focus on children's readiness to enter kindergarten. This large-scale project needed the expertise of researchers able to conceive and direct the study; universities and other agencies collaborated on a research team to answer the question about local children's readiness for kindergarten. The study found that about 20 percent of children are not ready for kindergarten; this information supported programming of service providers to target efforts toward readiness for school. MCC took several years of discussion, brainstorming, and wheelspinning, before the group was able to add value to other organizations' work without itself providing direct client services. These activities met MCC's mission of increasing awareness and providing information to help service providers and helped the organization refin e and focus its mission.

T

he challenges faced by the Mayoc's Commission for Children in our opening case highlight all sorts of issues groups face as they cackle the work of problem solving together. People with a common desire [0 change current situations they find problematic come together to pool their talents and resources. Although the desire is there, they quickly discovered that finding a mutually acceptable focus can he very hard. In addition, the group is constrained by outside factors like large organizations, which provide parameters within which the group must work. Circumstances change and groups can find their ability to function altered for the better or for the worst. In our case this group's name was changed, it was rolled into city government, and financial resources improved its ability to finalJy find a focus that it could sustain. The process though took years of perseverance and constant analysis of multiple problems. In C hapters 1 and 6 we maintained that groups can produce solutions to complex problems that are better than solutions produced by individuals (see Table 7.1); they also produce greater member understanding and more satisfaction. 1 The assembly effict is achieved when the group solution is superior both to the choice of the group's most expert member and to an averaging of opinions of all members-an exceptional example of the whole becoming greater than the sum of the parts. That is because group discussion can help members collectively recall information some may have forgotten. correct Hawed information, help members understand information so that it is more useful, identify gaps in the information base, and help each other appropriately evaluate and weigh the importance of information.2 However, this kind of synergy and its benefits do not happen if group members work independently.) They must work interdependently with each other on their project. Working alone on group assignments is okay; however, as we learned in Chapter 6, although generating ideas alone during brainstorming has its benefits, the group is responsible for merging those ideas and assessing them (see Table 7.1 ). In this

Group Problem.Solving Procedures

,

TABLE 7.1

Advantages and Disadvantages of Solving Problems In Groups versus as Individuals --

Advantages

Disadvantages

• Solutions for complex problems are usually superior.

• Groups take more time.

• Groups have more resources, including information and methods. • Members accept the solutions more readily; satisfaction is higher. • Members understand the solution more completely.

• Participation may be uneven; some members may dominate, and others withdraw. • Interpersonal tension, disagreements about the task, and conformity pressures may interfere with critical thinking.

case, thinking you can simply string together a bunch of smaller assignments into a final project without discussion by the entire group and get the benefits of dle assembly effect is naIve and will produce a poorer product. The synergy of the assembly effect is possible only when members communicate with each other throughout the entire process. 4 We have emphasized throughout Chapters 5 and 6 especially that the advantages of group work are not automatic. Groups experience production loss, if you will, due to all sorts of reasons: Members dominate the group, members become fatigued during discussion, some members are quieter than others, members do not help each other see the connections berween their ideas, and so on. ~ Group problem solving is not different. Simply because a gro up has been charged to solve a problem does not guarantee success. As with any effective group throughout process, remain vigilant of your actions and follow systematic procedures to avoid as best as you can any production loss. Systematic procedures usually produce better decisions than unsystematic discussions. 6 This chapter identifies the nature of problems, reports on factors that improve problem solving, and describes tools for enhancing group problem-solving discussions.

A Systematic Procedure as the Basis for Problem Solving There are a number of ways to solve problems. One way is by turning to an expert or someone yo u consider to be an amhoriry, the way many people rum [ 0 doctors for dealing with illnesses. Or, you may solve problems at an inruirive level. For exam ple, you may be wondering whar [Q do abom an assignment. and suddenly [he answer occurs [Q you while you're taking a shower. There's nothing wrong wirh rhese methods, parricularly for problems thar will affect only YO li . However, intuirion ca n have se ri ous limitations for group problem sol ving if YOll lise it alone, withou t also using a sys remati c procedure for checking om rh e hun ch. Ca reful, criri cal analysis of informat ion, like rh e kind derailed in Chapter 6, is imponant roo. What would you say if you went ro [he doctor beca use of ches t pains and, withom doing any tests, she said , "My inru irion tells me YO ll need a shOt of penici ll in"? Ideas derived only rhrough intuirion musr be examined criri cally before rh ey are implemented beca use critical thinking can reveal Raws in the ideas rhat may nor be apparenr at first. Ir's possible rh e hun ch is ter rifi c and may only need to be tweaked ro solve yo ur problem,

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but ie's also possible that the hunch may cause more problems than it solves. Systematic problem solving is a way for groups CO assess ideas and to manage the moumain of informatio n unearthed by the problem-solving process. In our opening case seve ral differenr kinds of ind ividuals were willing ro bring their expertise to rhe group to help rhe chi ldren of Springfield. Nor only did they have to sys tematically assess their information, rhey had (Q gather and assess information ahom ch ildren's issues from multiple organizations and do so over rhe course of several years. Had they nor kept ro their key fo cus and remained systematic in their process, informarion wou ld have bee n losr and opr ions ove rl ooked. Thus, no ma([er how a group discovers the poss ible solutions (0 a problem~through intuition, logic, or authority-the group mllst use a systematic process and the best creative and cricical chinking it can muster (0 develop solutio ns and assess how well they will work. These procedures help groups (0 stay focused and manage the complexities group work brings to bear on its member. There is also an ethicaJ imperative [Q systematic problem solving. The Narional Communication Association's Credo of Ethical Communication rells us that one component of ethical communicarion involves taking respo nsibility for the shon- and longterm co nsequences of our communication. Being systematic in our problem solving mea ns being responsible. Th is shows we are wi llin g ro c.1.refully co nsider our choices, realizing that our group decisions have co nsequences both ro the group and ro chose oucside the group who are affected by those group decisions. Those consequences can range from a poor evaluarion on a project (0 the loss of life, as we saw in the Challenger case from C hapter 6. The rest of th is chapeer is divid ed into twO main sections, each dea lin g with group problem so lving. The first section focuses on rhe nature of a problem, no matter irs specific focus: what defines a prob lem, how a problem can va ry, and how to generate problem questions for discuss ion. The seco nd section detai ls how you can organ ize your group problem solving by llsing a systematic, yet Aexible. procedure called the procedural model of problem solving, or P-MOPS.

Capturing the Problem in Problem Solving We have been discussi ng problem solvin g throughout rhi s book as rhe central task of groups. Yet we have nOt yer discussed a key facror: JUSt what is it that groups are solving? Th e opening case shows us that even well-intentioned individuals can get bogged down for years trying to figu re out how to best word their problem and what they need to do solve the problem. This section will clarifY whar a problem is. rega rdless of its topical focus, and how varying characteri st ics of prob lems ca n inAuence the d egree of systematic planning necessary to so lve them effectively. We will also show YO ll how you can generate sensible problem questions for group work in order to best facilirare creative so luti ons. This sectio n is important because how a problem gets d efined initially can have a profound impact on how rhe group treats the prob lem and its assessment in later stages of p rob lem solving?, a recurring theme from Chapter 6. Problem The difference

between what exists presently and what

you expect or want

HOW DO WE KNOW A PROBLEM WHEN WE SEE ONE?

Problem refers to rh e difference between whar you want or ex pect and what actually is the case. For example, YO ll need your entire grou p [Q show up for a class presentation , bur on the day of rhe presentation three members are no-s hows. You have a problem!

Group Problem· Solving Procedures Problem solvi ng and d ecisio n making are related concepts yet they are different. Problem so lving is a more co mprehensive process that includes decision making (choosing). Problem solving involves all the thin gs you have to do to move from the ex isting situation to the goal. It is a mul tistep process that includes d efi ning the problem, identi fy in g or creat in g possib le so lutions, and choosi ng amon g th e so lutions. Decision making refe rs to th e act of selectin g one o r more available options; ir does not involve crear in g possible o ptions. The entire process of so lvin g a prob lem ofte n involves makin g many d ecisions, such as how to define the problem. wha t so lutions to co nsid er, which to suggest or act upon, and how to ca rry out the chose n so lution. Th e steps yo u take and rhe o rd er in which yo u do them can grea tll inAuence the qual ity of your final product. Imagi ne crea ting a group projecr without instructions from your inst ructo r to guide your efforts. Every problem-whether it is about dealing with absent members, lowerin g child neglect and abuse, improving ca mpus safety, or decreasing ga mbling debts for coll ege studen ts-has three com ponents that toget her create what is commo nly called a problem. A group needs to understa nd and talk about these components in detail in order to have a richer und erstanding of what members will attempt to solve. Neglecting to do th is can set your group up for failure. 1. An undesirable existing situation.

if peop le believe that so mething is perfectl y satisfacto ry as it is. there is no problem. For exam pl e, when Grupo Larino Americana's meeting place was accessib le and affordable, it had no problem. Sue when the landlord suddenly tripled the rent. it needed to find a new place to meet. The undes irable present situation in this case was an exo rbitant rent the group couldn't afford. 2. A desired situation or goaI. At the starr a goal can vary from a vague im age of a better cond iti on (being able to meet) to a very precise, detailed objective (meeting at the Yomh C lub on F St reet). Effective problem solving involves establishing a precise goal that is achievable, doesn't sugges t a so lution, and is understandable [Q aJl members. Ouesta nding groups have clear goals that all members suppOtt. 8 3. Obstacles to change. These are condi ti ons and forces that must be overcome by the chosen sol ution to achieve the goal. Typ ical obstacles include insufficient information, th e com peting il1terests of other peo pl e. lack of tools or ski lls, and insufficient funds. For example, whe n the G rupo Latino Americana's rent tripl ed, members had no idea what other facilities were available, what si milar facilities rented for, how soon another faci lity cou ld be located, whether members wou ld be willing to move, what (he group could afford, an d so fort h.

AREA OF FREEDOM Once you have a bene r handle on what the probl em is. where you might like co go, and what stands in your way, your group needs co talk abour the exrent of its power ro do anything about th e problem it is abo ut ready to tackle. The area of freedom is (h e am ount of au thori ty and the limitations given to a group charged with solving a problem. A fact-find in g group, for instance, may be asked only ro investigate a prob lem. not solve

197

I GLOSSARY Problem Solving Everything you need to do to move from your present undesirable situa· tion to what you want, including creating solutions and choosing among them

Decision Making Choosing from avaifable options

Area of Freedom The amount of authority and the limitations given to

a group

•

For more information on

the digital divide problem, go to the

Online Learning Center at

www.mhhe.c:om/ adamsgalanes8e

198

C HAPTER 7

Improving Airport Security After September 11, 2001, it was clear that the United States had a problem with ensuring security on its airline flights, since terrorists had been able to hijack four different airplanes on the same day. Map this problem according to the problem co mponents described above.

1. An undesirable existing situation: What w as the airplane boarding situation on 9/11? What was undesirable about that situation (e.g., rules permitted box cutter knives to be carried on planes)? 2. A desired situation or goal: What would the desired situation look like? For instance, passengers wou ld like to board quickly and efficiently, but they would also like to be protected from other passengers carrying weapo ns. 3. Obstacles to change: What are obstacles to achieving these goals? For instance, do we lack information about how terrorists bypass safeguards in our system? Do we lack technology at airports to improve baggage screening?

it. Another small gro up may have authority on ly to interpret information , as in the case of a ju ry that ca n decide gu ilt or innocence but not the penaJry for guilr. Many advisory committees and conferences ca n recom mend a so lution bU( nO[ make it binding. For example, a comrnince one of us observed was charged with making recommendations about rhe types of student activities on cam pus. Instead, this committee created a sweeping proposal co fire certain individ uals and restru cture the student activities depa rtm ent. Even th ough comm irree members worked long and conscientious ly to develop the plan, it was nOt accepted because the comm ittee wem far beyond its area of freedom. In our opening case, the Mayors Commission on Chi ldren snuggled with how direct it cou ld be with any action and, when folded inco city government, was bound by th e directives of that governin g body.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEMS We have shown yo u th e three compo nef)(S that together const itute a problem: discontent over prese nt condit ions, a more desirable future goal, and obstacles that prevem movement coward thar goal. These need co be talked about by the group, as well as the ass ignme nt and any limitations to its problem so lving. By discussing these matters, yo u are beginning co shape your overall problem-solving proced ures to fit th e uniqu e detai ls of your pro bl em. To fin ish this assessment of your prob lem , yo u need to ask several questions about th e parti cular nature of you r problem so that you ca n fur th er make important adaptations to yo ur prob lem-so lving procedures. So me problems are com pl ex while others are relatively simp le. It makes intu iti ve sense that you would not use exacrly the sa me process for all probl ems. Us in g a systematic process for problem solvi ng doesn't mean force-fini ng the procedure Onto eve ry kind of prob lem. Rather, it involves modi fy in g that procedure to fit the particular problem yo u r

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

gro up faces. The three co mponenrs we discussed earl ier define any prob lem; however, a problem's specific characte risti cs vary. The five we discuss here are among the most important.

Task Difficulty.

How co mpl ex is the issue or problem? A complicated task is high in difficulty while a simple task is low in difficulty. For a diffi cult task, members should make sure rhey fu lly understa nd th e nature of the problem , do a thorough job of unearthin g information , carefu ll y coo rdinate their efforts, and expect to ~ure nd many meetings before they fini sh. Groups are asked to work on difficult tasks, such as redu cing child abuse and neglect in a commu nity, beca use their sol u[ions are beyo nd what one perso n alone can accom plish. Extensive problem mapping will be imporranr.

Solution Multiplicity. Are th ere many poss ible ways ro solve th e group's problem, or is there one correct answer? For insta nce, the re are many fun and appropriate ways ro plan your high school class's cemh reunion , bur th ere may be only o ne solution to a math problem. When a problem has high solution multipli city- in ocher words, has many possible solutions-you will want 1'0 make sure that your group id entifies as many of th ose solutions as possible. This foe LI S on crea tively gene rating ideas (see C hapter 6) will be the key to success. Intrinsic Interests. Are group members real ly interested and exci ted about working on this problem (high inrrinsic interes t), or wou ld rh ey tather go to the dentist than have to tackle the problem? You learned in Chapter 5 abou t differe nt member characteristics and motivations that affect group processes. W'hen members are excited and interested, th ey want to talk about th e problem o r issue, tell th eir own stor ies about it, or ve nt their feelings. The members who created what evenrually became th e Mayor's Commission on C hildren vo lunteered to be a parr of rhis effort and stuck with it ove r the years beca use of th eir high interest. H ad they bee n forced to be a part of this gro up, grown bored, an d uninrerested, th ey may have quit or would have bee n happy for so meo ne else to do the work for them. Member Familiarity. Has the group ever co nfro nred a si milar problem? Did it so lve the problem successfull y? If so, rhe members have high fa mili ariry with the problem. They may wam to focus on es tablishin g criter ia for eva lu at ing options. Bur if they have never undertaken anythin g si milar, or if they have JU St formed a new gro up. they will need so me tim e to get to kn ow each other and to fam iliarize them selves with all aspects of the problem (pa rticularl y if it is complex). Gro up members initially do not tend freely to share all th eir information about a problem bur share only information co mmonly known by th e group. 9 Groups need co find o ur nor only what members know in common bur what they also know uniquely if they hope ro find th at best so lution. Detailed problem mappin g helps to pool this information, and usi ng outside ex perts may also help th e group.

Acceptance Level .

Is acceptance of me solution by people who will be affected by it critical for success? For instance. if a company is considering changi ng its ove rtim e policies, lack of employee accepta nce can derail th e "solmion" and cause lasting bad feelin gs. In such a case, the acceptance level needs to be high, makin g it crucial for th e group to solicit the o pinions and id eas of those who will be affected. Before committing fully

199

C HAPTER 7

200

FSSARY

l

(he so lution , rhe gro up may want to suggest partiall y implem enting the sol ution and reevaluating it with those who are affected. But if the so luti on won't matter much to most

to

people-such as whi ch parry favors to buy for that high school reuni on-then members Discussion Question The discussion question is the central question of policy facing the

Lgroup.

do n't need ro spend rime see kjng o utside opinions. Table 7.2 summari zes these nve charac teri stics of problems and al so offers suggestions for modifying any problem-solving procedure your group is using. Having a clear picture of the nature of your problem and how it va ries in relationshi p to o th er problems is necessa ry prior ro mov ing ahead with your systemati c procedure. Sometimes probl ems are obvious-your landlord triples the re nt , your treasure r emp ~ ties the bank account, yo u can't get a nyo ne ro come to meetings. But most proactive orga niza tions don't wait for a crisis to id entify probl ems. Spotting proble ms in advan ce is a good idea.

GETTING THE DISCUSSION QUESTION RIGHT Id emify in g yo ur probl e m requ ires unde rstandin g initially th e fund amelHal el e me nrs of any probl e m: th e und es irable prese m siruation, a future desirable sicuarion, and th e ob~ stades sta ndin g in rhe way of thar furure desi re. As yo ur gro up beco mes more art ic ulate about its problem, it ca n go imo fu rth er d etail a ro und rh e specifi c characreristics of th e prob lem . Formulatin g rh e right kin d of question ro la unc h rhe group's disc uss ion is so impo rtant ro gening started on th e right path to a n effective so lution. Differe m types of qu est ions and differe nt ways that qu es tion s are phrased lead a group's discuss ion along different paths, a nd ensu re that yo ur group takes the right path. The discussion question is the ce ntral problem, question, o r issue the g roup must a nswe r. Th at is, it as ks rhe g ro up to see k an a nswe r to how so me furu re state mi ght be ach ieved-th us, it uses the language of "should." For discussions ro b e effec ti ve, a group's di sc uss ion qu est ion must be dear, and each member shou ld be abl e ro state whar it is. Havin g a clear discussion qu estio n helps rh e gro up begin its task in the ri gh t way, whateve r th e task may be. In our opening case, the Mayor's Commiss io n on C hildren got hung up for years, because they were initially nor ab le to figure our what th ey sho uld do about reducing child abuse and neglect in Springfield. They kn ew th eir problem- unacceptabl e child abuse and neglect in their community. H owever, th ey rea lly struggled ove r which di scussion qu estion th ey wanted to define thei r purpose. T hey got stu ck berween asking " How should MCC provide di rect se rvices ro their cl ients in Springfield ?" and " How should MCC provide indirect services to th eir cliems in Sp ringfield ?" MCC's iss ue initially was figuring out which ques ti o n shou ld be their focus. Unfortunately, many other gro ups enco un ter rhe problem of starting with a vague or limiting quest ion that sends them in rhe wrong direction. A careful analysis of many discussio ns will show that different mem bers are attempting to answer diffe re nt questions at rh e same time. Consid er anmher gro up: Mary may be tryin g co eval uate a suggestion Thuy has proposed- to so lve rh e lack of parkin g spaces on cam pus-while So nya is explaining how student-parking fees are being spent, a nd LaShonda is presenting he r proposal to so lve the parking probl em. This creates a disorganized discussio n with a kind of confused rop ic switching we explored in C hapte r 3. Esta blishing an effective d iscussion question can determine whethe r the group produces a good o r poor so luti on. For instan ce, imagin e you r gro up decides to tackle overcrowding

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

TABLE 7.2

Problem Characteristics and the Problem-Solving Process

TASK DIFFICULTY Adaptation for high difficulty: 1. Plan to meet often. 2. Use detailed problem mapping.

3. Include many subquestions to the

p~obl e m- so lving

procedure.

4. Form a detailed implementation plan, in writing. SOLUTION MULTIPLICITY Adaptation for high multiplicity:

1. Use brainstorming or one of its variations to generate many ideas. 2. Use synectics or another creativity-enhancing technique to help members relax and be creative . 3. Leave plenty of time for generating ideas; don't rush the process. INTRINSIC INTEREST Adaptation for high interest: 1. Set aside a "ventilation" period early in the problem-solving process for members to express their feeling s. 2. Leave plenty of time for early ventilation.

3. Don't overcontrol the ventilation process or introduce structured procedures too early. MEMBER FAMILIARITY Adaptation for high familiarity:

1. Focus on establishment of clear criteria. 2. Focus on evaluating the options using the criteria developed. Adaptation fo r low familiarity:

1. Use detailed problem mapping . 2. Use consu ltants and outside experts for help. ACCEPTANCE LEVEl Adaptation for high acceptance requirements: 1. Include representatives in your group from groups that must accept the decision. 2. Use techniques to spot potential problems before finally deciding on a solution. 3. Pretest a solution by partially implementing it and agreeing to pull back if it doesn't seem to work.

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on ca mpus. A single word for a problem is (00 ambiguous and needs (0 be transformed int o rh e discussion question your group can fo clis o n for its project. Consider rhe following rwo discussion questions developed by members ro try and capwre their problem: " How should we raise money CO build anorher classroom building?" versus " How should we relieve the overcrowding in classrooms?" Borh do usc "should" yet on ly one asks for action withom prematurely calling for a specific action. The first question focuses on an already-decided so lurion , which mayor may nor be rhe best so lution ro the problem. The seco nd question focuses on the problem (overcrowding) withom biasing the so lurion in advance. Building 1110re classroo ms may work, but perhaps rhe problems arc due to poor sched uling of existing facilities. Maybe holding classes ar off-campus locations such as shopping ceme rs, facro ries, and offices throughom the ciry wou ld be more effective in reduci ng the overcrowding as well as provide better service to s[Udenrs. Howeve r, these options will never be discovered if rh e group is determined to solve the problem by building more classrooms. As an input va ri ab le, the discussion question has a far-reaching effect o n the system's throughpm process and its subsequem Output. The following guidel ines help you phrase your discussion question s rhat focus and faci lirate group interaction. I. Unless the group has already narrowed a list of alternatives to two, avoid either-or questions. Usually, these oversimplify the iss ue by rrearing questions as if there were only two legit imate answers instead of a wide range, a type of f..1l1acy we discussed in C hapt er 6. In th e list rhal follows, the first ques tion of eac h pair is poorly worded in either-o r t("rms; the seco nd version is worded as an open-ended question: a. Should our university's central admini stration be more divetse ? (Implied is a yes or no answer.) How should our university's cem ral administration improve irs diversiry of programs? b. Should we implement more exams or decrease papers? (Provides only [wo options.) How should we improve how students demonstrate knowledge in a subject? 2. Word questions as concretely as possible. Double-barreled qu es tions that co mbine tWO questions in one arc co nfusing. For example, " Do you think we should increase funding ro th e public schools by insti[Uting casino gamb lin g in the stare?" is a double-barreled quest ion. Listene rs may want ro res pond differently to each parr-maybe someone wams ro incre~se fund ing to the schools but doesn't want to allow cas in o gambli ng in the stare. Perhaps borh issues need ro be addressed. If so, each quesrion should be asked sepa rately: "Firsr, do you rhink funding ro the public schools should be increased? Second, should we approve a measure to allow cas ino ga mbling in our state?" 3. Avoid suggesting the answer in the question. A question that suggests an answer is nor an hon es t question, but an indirect way to make a point. For insta nce, "Don't you think we should encourage co ll aboration between se rvice providers~ " prematurely suggests a so lmion. Had the Mayor's Co mmission on C hildren posed this question instead of "How should we provide indirect services to your cliems?" th ey would have been predisposed to only one solution rather than the three they eve ntually supporred.

Group Problem -Solvi ng Procedures

Toyota's Reputation on the Line Toyota has long stood for quality in the automotive business. Ranked consistently as producing some of the best automobiles in the world, it saw its reputation begin to crumble in January 2010 when it recalied millions of vehicles due to sticky gas pedals. Already the company had recalled millions of vehicles for the same issue in Europe and China. Compounding Toyota's problem, one of the leading consumer advocate magazines, Consumer Rep((rts, revoked its "Recommended" status for eight problematic vehicles. In subsequent hearings before Congress, Toyota CEO Akio Toyoda appeared unsuccessful in convincing anyone that the company had taken and were going to take the necessary steps to repair Toyota's image. Toyota has a huge problem! Think of yourself as a member of a small crisis management team hired to help Toyota restore its reputation. Conduct an analysis of the problem by using the information in the following online article, "Experts See Flaws in Toyota's Handling of Crisis" (http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/35110529/). 1. Identify the elements of this problem: the undesirable existing situation, the goal, and the obstacles to change.

2. Craft a clear discussion question that serves as the focus for your problem solving. 3. Using Table 7.2 as your guide, evaluate Toyota's problem in terms of each characteristic, explaining you r evaluation. Task difficulty: High, medium, or low? Why Solution multiplicity: High, medium, or low? Why? Intrinsic interest: High, medium, or low? Why? Member familiarity: High, medium, or low? Why? Acceptance level: High, medium, or low? Why?

Once a group has idemifi ed th e pro blem it is goin g to add ress, discussed the parti cular namre of the problem, and developed its discussion qu es tion , it is ready to begi n th e task of idenrifyin g so luti o ns. Takin g tim e to really talk about the nature of the prob lem helps a group avo id becoming solutio n-mind ed to O qui ckly. Th is is a co mm on prob lem in busin ess groups. to Jumping inro discll ss ions of so lut ions with out a comprehensive, ini tial und erstandin g of th e problem is like a ca r mechani c tellin g you that yo u need new val ves without even looking und er th e hood! Definin g the problem , detailing its specifi cs, and wordin g it inro a clea r di scussion ques tion enabl es yo u to make modi ficati o ns in your problem-sol ving procedure and provides important initial insi ght inro rhe problem before you begin th e detail ed work outlined in th e nex t section of th e chapter. The procedure described below is easil y modified so yo u can take ad vanrage of its fl exibili ty and adapt it to rh e parti culars of your group problem tha t have already bee n d iscussed.

203

204

C HAPTE R 7

Effe ctive Prob lem Solv ing and Deci sion Mak ing Functio nal Theory A description of how commUnicatIOn affects group

problem solving

e mental steps people In [he early 19005, Ameri can philosop her John Dewey described rh the direc tion of conin us poinced g inkin th rake when rhey so lve problems. ReA ecrive The steps look process. rd haphaza (han sidering problem solving as a systema tic rather it , think of describe and ne efi d we [hen y; difficult a like thi s: First, we beco me aware of n abo ut decisio a make and s, solution l potelHia some possible so lmio ns, evaluate th ese how it's see to it monitor we , solution the ent what (0 do. If poss ible, wh en we implem ll ving -sol problem p Groll ir. ng ti tes after it working , then keep it, ad just it , Of replace nda , age standard the as es nam such under go e procedu res adap ted from Dewey's sequenc ideal so luti on, and si n gle ~question formats. and thei r assoc iates As Dewey did with ind ividuals, Denn is Coura n, Randy Hirokawa, functio nal theory heir T ! I groups. in making decision have examin ed problem so lving and n helps or hinde rs nicatio commu how be descri to has evo lved over the past two decades se it focu ses at~ becau nal" "functio ed call is It group problem so lving and dec ision malcing. is to do a good group a if med perfor be mUSt that rentio n on the co mmuni cative functions decision , good a make to want s member job. Coura n and Hirokawa assum e th at group i ca~ commun the have and so, do to need they s have all the informa tion and other resource whether present, are nditions co those If job. tive and thinking skills necessa ry to do a good a group solves problems effectively depends on three factors.

1. The first factor pertain s to the task require ments. fo r a group ro According to function al {"heory, five task requ irement s must be met discussed succeed. First, members must underst and rhe problem or iss ue, a necessity m re~ minimu e th in the prev ious section of rhis chapter. Seco nd , they must know in~ For t. mee must quireme nrs of a successful solution, includin g what cr iteria it support whose Stance. is th ere a budger membe rs can not exceed or an outside gro up ro ensure that is essential ~ Members of effective groups discuss the criteria openly ves fro m eve ryo ne underst ands them. Third, the gro up mu st identifY rhe alternati crea ting r o g in which it will make its cho ice. Recall that many groups srop identify the from, choose alternatives too soon; without sufficient real isti c alternat ives to lu~ eva y hl group may miss the besr o ne. Fo urth , rh e alternat i ves mu st be thoroug Finally. iteria. cr ated , for both strength s and weakn~ ses, again st the agreed-u pon the bes t so lu tio n- the one that best meets the criteri a-shou ld be chosen. commu nicatio n to 2. The second factor pertain s to how well membe rs use their . solving overcom e obstacle s to effectiv e problem t to [heir For instance, so metim es membe rs f..1il to di scover informa tion pertinen membe rs how problem or fail to share rel eva nt informacion. We di scussed ea rli er know). all they cend to share and bel ieve informa tion they have in CO lllmo n (chat (hem of number but ro ho ld on to uniqu e informa tio n th at only one or a small more other each know. 1J So meti mes membe rs conside r their relat io nships with from refrain will s imporralH than finding the best solution ; in that case member Finally, . conform disagreeing with each other and may try to press ure others ro g the group. so me membe rs may be more sel f- inrerestcd rh an inreres ted in helpin

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

205

How [he rest of [he group deal with such members directly affeC(s the quality of decisions the group makes. 3. The third factor pertains to the degree of willingness members have to review their process and reconsider their decisions. If they find Aaws, members must be willing (0 second-guess themselves, even to the point of starring over. They must not remain committed (0 a so lution when it is clear the solutio n is flawed. Their communication to each other shou ld remind members of the importance of reviewing the process and of being fair in making the ultimate choice. Many researchers have found that fo\lowi~g a planned problem-solving procedure helps groups make better decisions and solve problems more effectively. Much like the focus rules and facilira(Ors can provide a group during critical thinking activities (see Chapter 6) such procedures can minimize the bad habits typical of small groups, including gening off ttack, being pressured by domineering members, prematurely rejecting ideas, and focusing on sol ution s (00 early in the process. The procedures help balance participation, improve a group's rcAecriveness, coordinate members' thinking, and establish important ground rules for proceeding. 14 It doesn't seem (0 matter which problem-solving proccdure a group uses; any systematic procedure or outline produces better decisions than using no procedure. IS Srcp-by-srep procedures improve the quality of solutions because they provide logical priorities and steps that must be taken; they remind members of thin gs they might otherwise forgeL 16 Evidence suggesls that gro ups arriving at high-quality solutions have made a thorough analysis of the problem, gene rated a variety of solutions, and conducted a detailed assessment of both the positive and negative aspects of the alternatives being considered.!7 In addition, these groups have focused on a solution's possible problems and have avoided pitfalls. !8 In other words, usin g a systematic problem-solving procedure encourages a group (0 consider the functions (according (Q functional theory) necessary (Q arrive at an effective so lu tion by helping ensure that an important step doesn't get overlooked. Croup members have said that one of their most urgent needs is for gu idance about methods and procedures (Q use during group work. 19 The lack of strong procedural guidelines is one of their most troublesome barriers to effective problem solving. In particular, participants want methods that help them generate and organize their ideas about complex problems. One such guideline, the procedural model for problem solving, has been used with good Sllccess.

THE PROCEDURAL MODEL OF PROBLEM SOLVING (P-MOPS) Several different guidelines can help groups solve problems effectively; we favor P-MOPS for its adaptabi lity and because it focuses a group's attention on the essential tasks outlined by the functional theory. The procedural model of problem solving is a Aexible framework that can guide each phasc of problem solving; it applies all the principles we have learned about effective problem solving by groups and individuals. P-MOPS reminds the group to analyze the problem thoroughly bcfore trying to solve it and to think critically about the posirive and negative outcomes likely to occur with each alternative solution. We have sho rtened its name to P-MOPS to remind you that it will help yo u "mop up" the details needed for good problem solving. The five steps in this general problem-solving procedure are: (1) describing and analyzing the problem,

GLOSSAR v.=] Procedural Model of

Problem Solving (P-MOPS) A flexible framework

to guide each phase of the problem-

solving process

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(2) generating and explaining poss ible so lutions, (3) eva luating all so lutions, (4) choosing rhe best solution, and (5) implemenring rhe chosen solution.

1. Describing and Analyzing the Problem. During rh e first stage of prob lem solvi ng, the group concentrates on thoroughly understanding rhe problem. Members should consider al l three major eiemencs of the problem: what is unsat isfacrory, what is des ired, and what obstacles exist. This phase of problem solving may require nothing more [han sharing the knowledge members now have, ill ustrated by rhe mapping procedure dep icted in Figure 7. 1. That's easier said than done, though. Group members arc apt (0 share freely that informacion rhey already ho ld in comrnon. 20 Shared information can appear more credible and creates common ground among members. who th en tend [Q with ho ld more diverse information later. To co mpli cate matters, C harles Pavi( and Lindsey Aloia d iscovered that members in business groups blUff our their individual preferences regarding possible solutions CO their problem prior co even understanding their problem. 2 1 This leads to first impressions about those solutions that proh ibits later critical thinking in steps twO and three ofP-MOPS. Groups with the time should consider letting individual members th ink about the problem first before even tal Ici ng about it as a group. 22 Members have to overcome their natural rcluccance [0 share cenain kinds of information (where they diverge) and natural urge to share other kinds of information (where they agree) and be will ing to make sure all information is shared and owned by the group.23 The description and analysis of a problem should never be rushed-it is crucial to effective problem solving. If this stage so unds fanliliar to you, it should because it refers to the preliminary work of understanding the problem that we calked about in the first section of this chapter. As we move into a detailed discussion of a systemati c procedure for problem solving. we bring this initial work into the first stage ofP-MOPS.

FIGURE 7.1

Maps of a Problem Before and After Members Discuss It

Alter d iscussion, a g rou p mop of the problem

Before discussion, indivi dua l a nd subgroup mops of the problem

o

Shmed by Iwo members of g roup

•

Shored by three members

Shored by 011 •

fou r members

207

Group Problem· Solving Procedu res

Fo ll owing are several principles ro guide you r thi nki ng and discuss ion in step I of problem solving.

GLOSSARY

1. Be sure you understand the charge precisely. The charge is your assignm ent of bo th responsibili ry and limitations, give n by dle organizatio n or perso n who created the gro up. C lari fyin g rhe charge mea ns fh at yo u make sure you und erstand an assignment exacd y as imended. Get the charge in hard copy if possi ble. A com mi tree sho uld ask for clarificatio n of any un clea r ter ms fro m the person prese nting rh e charge. For instance, yo u need ro know what for m yo ur final product is to take: a reco mmendation, a resea rch reporr, a bl uep rint with perspect ive d rawings, or any o ther tangi ble object. Yo u will certainly need ro know what lim itations are placed o n your area of freedom, such as infor mation yo u can obtain fro m co mpa ny reco rds, legal restra ints, and spending lim its. You wi ll want to kn ow when yo ur work m ust be done; deadli nes are parr of mos t charges ro groups. 2. State the problem as a single, clear problem question. A well word ed discuss io n ques ti o n is essenti al. A qu es ti o n (hat suggests the so luti on biases the group and limits its effecti veness. "How ca n we co nvin ce [he adm ini stration to pur in a new parkin g lo r?" is a solution question [hat ass umes the solu tion to the parkin g prob lem is to create a new parkin g lor. T his probLem question is ben er: " How can we imp rove the pa rking situat ion o n cam pus?"

3. Focus on the problem before discussing how to solve it. We have tal ked co nsistentl y abo ut th e fac t that one common sou rce of poor solu tions is getting solu tio n-centered before the pro blem has been thoroughly in vestigated , described, and analyz.ed . If a gro up membe r suggests a so lut ion roo ea rl y, the discuss ion leader o r anot her member should then remi nd the group to refrain from any talk about wh at to do unt il after the gro up has com pleted its analys is of th e problem. 4. Describe the problem thoroughly. Be sure to answer all qu es tio ns abo ut what is go ing o n and what you hope co accom~ pi ish, as wel l as possi ble obstacles to that goal-rhe way a successful investigative reporter or detective does. A good way to describe the problem is to thin k of it as an uncharted map with o nl y vague boundaries. Your fi rst job as a gro up is to make a complete. detai led map of the problem . As we mentio ned earlier, thi s process of information sharin g is critical-don't be tempted to shortchange it! Table 7.3 Outlin es questions you will need ro answer. 5. Make an outline and a schedule based on the procedural model of problem solving. T his is es pecially impon anr if it is a majo r prob lem req uiring extended wo rk over seve ral meetings. T his o utl ine and sched ule ca n be modi fied latc r if needed, bur ae leas t now the gro up will rea p the be nefits of a plan befo re gening too dee ply into the problem analys is. 6. Summarize the problem as a group. This ensures that yo u act interd epe ndently and th at everyo ne understands ir in the sa me way. In the case of a large pro blem , this summa ry may be done in writing by o nc member and edited by the emire group until all members are satisfied with it.

Charge

The group's

assignment

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TABLE 7.3

Questions to Ask as You Analyze the Problem

WHAT ARE ALL THE RELEVANT FACTS?

1. Who is involved? When? Where? How? 2. What complaints have been made?

3. What is the difference between what is expected and what is actually happening? 4. What harm has occu rred ?

S. What exceptions have there been? 6. What changes have occurred? 7 . What other information d o we need? WHAT MAY HAVE PRODUCED OR CAUSED THE UNSATISFACTORY CONDITION?

1. What events precipitated the problem 7 2. What other factors may have contributed to the probl em? WHAT DO WE HOPE TO ACHIEVE?

1. What form will our solution take? 2. What would be a minimum acceptable solution for each person concerned? WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF OUR PROBLEM?

1. How difficult is our probl em? 2. How many possible solutions are there to our problem? 3. How interested are we personally in this problem? 4. How familiar are we with the problem? S. How important is it that those

mos~

affected accept the solution?

Sometimes {he problem you arc addressing wi ll affect a number of people, and you may need informa tion ahom what is imporranr to them. Other times a particular problem may have several aspects. and you may need ro know which ones are [he main issues or conce rns. When rhe Mayor's Commission on C hildren fina lly decided exactly the kind of services rhey wou ld provide. they were able to focus on th ree goals chat would in volve several people and multiple issues. In order to in crease public awareness of children's wellbeing {hey wou ld need to know who rhar publ ic is and whar {hey should know. Encouraging collabor:uion between se rvice prov iders requires know ledge of each provid er and how besr (0 help (hem collaborace. Providing those service provide rs widl informar ion of value

209

Group Probl em-Solving Procedures

(Q them mean s MC C has (Q find out what information is of value (Q th em . One technique you ca n use (Q find our what is imporrant (Q orhers is rhe focus gro up.

Spotlighting Key Issues with Focus Groups. The focus group technique, which enco urages unstruccured discuss ion about a give n top ic, is ofren used to ana lyze people's imerests and values. It is a great way for a group or an organization to find ou( what the imporrant issues are regardin g a problem facing the gro up; however, it is such a Aexible procedu re thar it can be used at several steps in the problem-solving process. In a focus group discussion, the facilitator imrodu ces a topi c to th e gro up and instru cts group members to discuss the (Opi c any wa)' they choose. The facilitator gives no fu rth er direction to th e group bur may probe or as k questions. Usually, the group discussion is tape- recorded for later analysis. After th e group is finished, the facili(ator or represematives of the parent organization listen to the rape for usable ideas. For exam ple, a publ ic relations officer at a small campus used a focus group to discover more effective ways of scheduling and promoting evening classes. A group of evening srudems was instructed simply (0 talk about what it was like to be an even in g srudenr. From the discussion it was clear that evening students were often tryin g to juggle full -time jobs, families, and other responsibilities in addition to school. The school's sched ul e was forcing th em to come to the ca mpus four nights a week (0 complete two co urses. But the focus group discussion indicated that the students would be happy to stay later in the even ing if th ey co uld take those two courses by coming to the campus on ly two nights a week. Campus officials found a way to "stack" the evening classes to allow thi s. In addition, the scudem com ments spu rred many imaginative ideas for advertising and promoting the even ing offerings.

2. Generating and Explaining Possible Solutions.

The quality of [he so lu tion (0 a problem will not be better dmn the qualiry of the pool of ideas the group cons iders. Studi es of problem sol ving have shown that the ideas di scovered later are more likely to be innovative and of higher qualiry than the ideas first mentioned. 24 You wam (0 avoid what is co mmonly called the "group communication flaw" we have addressed most seriously sin ce C hapter 6; groups close down prematurely thei r problem-solving activities as a consequ ence of early agree menr.25 This is why th e observation in th e participant-o bservation perspective we introduced you to in C hapter 1 is so critical. You have to remain vigilanr to your processes and use proced ures like problem-solving agend as to help you remain focused on things such as the creative generation of soluti ons and their cri tical assessment. T hus , the major issue of step 2 is not "What should be done to so lve the problem?" bur "What might be done to solve the prob lem?" This subd e change in wording is importan t. During step 2 the group focuses on creat ively find ing and listing possi ble solutions, not on critically determining th eir relative merits or on trying to decide what to do. C rea ti ve thinking is crucial to this step and was discussed in detail in C hapter 6. The leader may need to remind the group not to argue (yet) the relative merits of proposed solutions. No cr iti cism should be allowed durin g step 2, bur ideas may be explained and clarified. Someo ne may ask, "What do yo u mean?" or "Could you please explain how that wo uld work?" Descriptive exp lanations help everyon e understand the idea and may eve n stimulate further ideas. Remember from C hapter 6; however, no side talk or sto ry tangents. Use the rules for brainstorming prese nt in C hapter 6. So metimes, while ge nerating ideas, a member will recognize detai ls of the problem that ought to be explored more fully. The gro up may then cycle back to the P-MO PS step 1 for

I

GLOSSARY Focus Group An unstructured technique in which members freely explore thoughts and feelings about a topic

21 0

CHAPTER 7

~OSSAR~

funhcr exploration of that issue. For example, faculty on a commirree charged with rev ising the communi catio n major reali zed , in the middle of evaluating options for the rev ision. thar they had forgotccn co so licit feedback from an imponanr group- their alumni. Th e members conducted a qui ck telephone survey of sel ected alumni , thus temporarily scni ng aside th eir eva luation to return ro analys is of rh e prob lem. When they finish th e additional analysis for step I, members return to listing alternat ives. Once a group has completed its li st of alternatives, it is ready ro proceed with eva luating them.

Criteria

Standards and guidelines used to

evaluate ideas and solutions

3. Evaluating All Possible Solutions.

During [he third Stage of problem

so lving, all proposed so lutions should be evaluated. C ritical th inkin g, as disclissed in C hapter 6, is especially c rucial durin g rh is stage, and you want (0 avo id groupth ink. For instance, a rguments in undergraduate groups rend (0 consist of simple assertions al most half of rhe time, and members seldom cite rules of logic or criteria as standards. 26 The o p~ {ions must be tested against rh e criter ia the group has es cablished , and members must be sure the solution is co nsisrem with the fa cts brought out during di scliss ion, rh e goals of th e gro up, and the res rricrions imposed by the group's area of freedom. It is especially imponanr to consider all poss ibl e negative consequences of each solution, or new pro blems it mi ght crcate for the group or other peop le.

Criteria for Evaluating Solutions. Criteria are sta rem em s that set standards and limits for comparing and evaluating ideas. For example, search committee members assessing applicams for a library dean's position streaml ined their evaluation process by using criteria sheets the members developed. Committee members made a list of the essential qualification s (e.g., academic degrees req uired , years of ex perience required) and me other desirable characteristi cs (e.g., fund-raising experience, team approach to manag ing). Then they decided which or th e criteria were most important and placed them in a priority listing. This gave each member a set of very specifi c guidelines to use as he or she read each application. Serious seco ndary tension (see C hapter 4) may arise as peopl e argue and disagree while they di scuss the pros a nd cons of proposed so lution s. Having agreed -upon c riteria helps make argumelHs as construc tive as poss ib le a nd keeps perso nal defen sive ness to a m inimum. Establ ishing criter ia is very important- gro ups that spend time di scussing and establishin g criter ia a re more effective than groups that don't. 2? For example, a public utility where one of us lives recendy was crit icized by the publ ic for its "excess ively" ge nerous emp loyee co mpensation and benefits pac kages. To determine fa ir co mpensa tion and benefits, the utility's lJoa rd of directors examined co mpensa tion of other public utiliti es and p rivate companies of similar size and complexity. The directo rs used this information to develop objective criteria, based on evidence rather th a n their own hun ches, in redesigning the benefits package. Thus, group members shou ld discuss, agree upon, and possi bly rank (from most to least important) rhe c riteria for judging thei r ideas and so lutio ns. So me criteria are absolute, which mean s they must be Illet (e.g., "Th e lib rary dean must have at least a master's degree in library science from an Ameri ca n Library Associationaccredited school "). Other c riteria a re important bur give the group some Aex ibili ty (e.g., ''A Ph. D. is a preferred qualificarion for the library dea n"). Some criteria are virtually universal in judging a mong solutions: Will the proposed so luti o n actually solve th e problem ? Can the proposed solution be done? Wi ll th e benefits

Group Problem-Solving Procedu res

outweigh the costs? Is thi s soluti on within our area of freedo m? and How acceptab le is thi s id ea to the people most likel y to be affec ted by it? Such criteri a encourage rhe grou p ro consider whether rhe id eas proposed are legal , moral , wo rkab le, within th e competence of the group or organization, within the co ntrol of th e parent orga ni zation, and so on. There is some debate ove r whether groups need to discllss criteria explicitly. When groups are give n their criteria as part of th eir charge and th e criteria are undersrood by the group, some evidence suggests that gro ups do not need ro discuss cri ceria. 28 We believe, however, that it is never wrong ro di scuss cri ter ia beca use di sc llss ion ca n confi rm how mllch members both understand and agree (Q th e criteria. In add ition, di scussi ng cri teria ex poses th e values held by group members', and these value d iscussions are cen rral (Q effective consensus building in groupS. l9 Narrowing a Long List of Proposed Solutions. W hen a list of ideas has been ge nerated by braills(Qrmin g or any ocher technique, the group will need to reduce this list (Q a manageable size for discuss ion. T hi s can be done in a number of ways after th e group has established its cr iteria. Here are three useful techniques:

1. Combine any id eas that are similar or overlapping. Fo r ex ample, " Hold a goodw ill party" and "H ave a get-acq uaimed cocktai l party" co uld be co mbined into "Plan a social event." 2. Allow every member to vote fo r his or her top th ree choi ces. Tally the votes. Any pro posed solutions that do nor have at least (We votes may be removed from the list.

3. G ive each member a se t of 10 or 15 st ickers and as k (hem (Q "vore" on thei r preferred solutions. Members ca n distribute th eir stickers any way they want. They ca n put all th eir stickers on one item, if they srrongly prefer that item, or put each sti cker on a different item. T he items receiving st ickers are easy (Q spot and list in priority order. The gro up th en discllsses the pros and co ns of th e options that received at least one sti cke r. Charting the Pros and Cons. During the eval uat ion di scuss ion, a recorder can help greatl y by creating a chart of rh e id eas be ing di sc ussed, with [he pros and cons mentioned for each idea, as shown in Tab le 7.4. Instead of Pros and Cons, rhe chan headings might be Advantages and D isadvantages, For and Against, o r eve n + and - . Using such a charc thac everyo ne can see helps the gro up remember majo r arguments and think criti ca lly about the proposals und er consideration. This, roo , can be done electronically, either with specialized software o r by o rdinary e- mail , with someo ne co mpiling rhe comments. Using Technology to Help Group Problem Solving. In previo us chap ters (see especiall y C hapters 1, 3, and 6) we have touched on the increasin g role of co mputer tech nol ogy in small groups. Techno logical hardwa re and software that yea rs ago were accessible to o nly a few gro ups th at could afford it are now widely ava ilable. These co mputer tools range from th e simp le to the hi ghly complex. Electronic mai l (e· mai l) lets group members co mmun icate via their personal com pu te rs asynchrono usly, whenever it is conven ient for th em. j() Croup writ ing systems permit membe rs to simultaneo usly co-a uthor their writing by allowin g them to create, analyze, edit, and revise a single docu ment Y Instant messaging (1M) allows for the morc rapid·fire exchange of messages than with e- mail and voice mai l. People who use 1M like how qui ckly rhey ca n access others, but the jury is our o n rh e impact ofinsc3nr messag ing o n worker producti viry. 32

211

212

(HAPTER 7

TABLE 7.4

Charting the Pros and Cons of Two Proposed Solutions

HOW TO REDUCE PASSENGER INJURIES IN AUTOMOBILE ACCIDENTS Pass Federal Law to Require

Require New Cars to Be

Use of Seat Belts

Equipped with Alrbags

Pros

Pros

• Wou ld reduce or eliminate many injuries. • Would be inexpensive.

• Technology currently exists.

• Precedent exists in many states.

• Wou ld be extremely effective.

Cons

Cons

• Would increase the cost of ca rs. • Infringes on individual rights;

• Infringes on individual rights; expect heated legal fight.

• Airbags might inflate incorrectly

• Difficult to enforce. • Some injuri es could be worse

expect heated legal battle. and ca use accide nt.

with seat belts.

L~-LOSSARY

! ~roup Support System. (GSS) Compuler-bmed systems designed to improve various aspects of group

work

In srrll ctors in creas ingly use asynchronous eleclronic bull elin board se rvices (BBS) and synchronous chat enviro nments, like the I nternet Relay C hat (I RC), to facilitat e class room learni ng or as parr of an online cou rse.]] More and more instructors are using se rvices sllch as Blackboard as platforms for their classes that also allow srudents rh e opportunity to ta lk to each other. These technologies all ow teachers and stud ents to talk (0 each Q[her when it is co nven ient and ca n equalize participation , increase student self-respo nsibili ty, allow srudenrs to sce each other's perspectives, give srudcnrs rime to think abollt their responses, and [cach va luable co mpmer-mcdiated skills for their furure professio ns. In a co mpariso n of classes using BBS and I RC, BBS was mOSt use fu l for promoting group criti caJ thinking and reRcction, parti cularly when making decisions and evaluat ing solurions ..l 4 The downsid e is that BBS docs nor promote co llaboratio n and soc ial interaction , and group members have to be mol"iv:ued to use it. In COntraS t, the sy nchronous charactcr of IRC does promore co llaboration and works really well for brainstorming. Howeve r, dle informal, freew heel ing nature of I RC- so important for brainstOrming-is dangerou s if not monitored because groups ca n get off nack. Wh ether your group uses char rooms or el ectronic bull eti n boards beca use you choose to or an ins tructo r or superviso r req uires it, YO ll li se {hem mOSt effectively when yo u co nsider th eir purpose and make use of th eir st rengths. You shou ld not use rh em just to use them! Group support system s (GSS) are computer techn o logies des ign ed to improve the quality and speed of group prob lem solvin g. Specifically, GSS exists to help groups with such tasks as idea genera(ion, information o rganiza (ion, evalua(ion of op ti ons. and decision making. Many are designed (Q allow group members (Q work co ll aborat ively on a problem cven though they may be mee tin g in different" locations a( different times.

Group Problem-Solvi ng Procedures

Two of th c morc well-known suppon sys tems for problcm solving arc GroupSystcms and Softwa re Ass isted Meeting Management (SAMM). Borh include modul es crcatcd to help groups in evc ry area of problem so lvi ng. J5 They are parri cularly helpful durin g th e evaluation stage because they stru cture {he procedure by which members can honestl y react [Q each other's suggestions and ideas. Such sys tems have rapidl y increased in number, ease of use, and effecti veness. especiall y as more and more organiz.1.tions use local area ncnvorks th at allow seve ral computers [Q be connec ted to cach other. Peop le can employ GSS for either long-term use or for one problem-solving task. For example. workers in geographica ll y dispersed areas can connect via co mputer to perform group work t'ven thou gh th ey may be far apan. Often, however. people meet electroni cally in th e same room , each at his or her own co mputer terminal. This allows several mcmbers to "talk" at once by enrering th eir mcssages into the co m purer, which compiles them quickly. lr also permits anonymity; who submi tted a panicular comment, idea, criti cism, and so forr h is not recorded. Some GSS are highly specialized. For example. seve ral are des igned to improve the idea-ge neration step of brainsto rming. Others, such as SAMM, are more ge neral and are design ed ro improve the enrirc problem-solving and decision -making process, in parr by providing structure. Group dec ision making usin g computer support systems seems [Q be at least as good as traditional group decision making. M Members are often more satisfied and li ke the fact that the computers permit simultanco lls taJk. Studies conducted in organ iz..·u ions lI si ng GSS suggest that bigge r groups are even more sarisfied than smaJler ones, tha t the systems seem to help group members sllstain their tas k foclls bener and th at less time seems to be spenr in meetings. GSS also helps improvc organizarional record keeping and memory. In addition , the anonymity such systems provide is important, more so for groups with individuals of widely varied statlls than for groups of peers. In mixed-status groups, members use the anonymity feature of GSS to their advamage. J7 For example, sex is a statuScharacteristic that , left hidden, can level the inAuence of members' sex in group inleraction. Males generaJly enjoy more status. Online they tend to reveal that they are maJe. which circunwenrs the anonym ity feature ofGSS, making it more like face-tO-face co mmunication. J:emales, on the other hand , try to preserve th eir anonym ity, hid ing th eir sex so as to be more inAuentiaJ in the group. Group members shou ld recognize that usi ng GSS is not always beneficial. Problems include so me group members' di sco mfort with using compute rs, GSS procedurcs that may strucrure group interaction too ri ghrly, and managers who may nor want group members under ('heir supervision to have fu ll access to information easily obtained via co mput ers.}8 Be careful with any conclusion drawn about GSS. They are changing daily. They seem to be es peciall y beneficial for certain rypes of cas ks, such as idea generation and decision making ..~9 Howeve r, face-to-face groups see m to be su perior for negmiation and co mplex, cognitive casks. Whether GSS improves performance depends on a va ri ety of factors. 40 Gro ups Ll sin g sup pOrt sys tems generally make better decisio ns; such groups ge nerate more alternatives; and participation am ong members is more eve n. On the other hand , groups take longer to reach deci sions, experie nce less conscnsus, and are less satisfied than faceto-face groups. An important key to satisfaction appea rs to be user familiari ty-users' reactions are usually negat ive at first. Several reviews ofGSS have found that group members need tim e to become fami li ar wi th the spirit or intention of GSS. As long as a GSS program is used consistently wirh its intentions, it ca n be very effective; howeve r, merely usin g a GSS program without co nsidering its iment may lead to f.1ilure. GSS do nor do

213

214

CHAPTER 7

Using Chat Rooms for GSS

Go to www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanes8e for additional weblink activities.

Group support systems can be as simple as using e-mail to facilitate information exchange between group members or as complex as using specialized group meeting software programs. An important character-

istic of effective GSS is anonymity. Group members can feel free to share ideas without fear of reprisal or ridicule if their statements are anonymous. Unfortunately, many e-mail systems make anonymity difficult.

and specialized meeting software can be expensive. One alternative to using GSS is to create a chat room and have group

members log on using anonymous nicknames. Chat rooms are special websites that allow any number of users to interact in real time (syn~ chronous communication). Thousands of chat rooms already exist on the Internet. Many online services allow users to create free chat rooms that can be used for private discussions among friends or for anonymous group discussions. Here are directions for creating a free GSS resource for your group:

1. Go to http://groups.yahoo.com/.This page will display general categories of groups available on Yahoo!.

2. Click the "click here to register" button on the left. You should register using anonymous information. Remember to write down your anonymous user identification and passwords so you can access the group in the future.

3. Have one group member (or your teacher) create a new group. As you will discover, groups provide more resources than

simply chat rooms, including the abi lity to create po lls, share files, and create databases. You should create a public group so that other group members can easily find it. Let other group members know the name of the group a nd the category (e.g., School and Education-Classmates-Our Group) you placed the group in. 4. Have each group member log in using anonymous nicknames

and then navigate to th,e newly created club. Members can chat, create discussion boards (discussion boards are saved whereas

chats are not), and even take part in po lls created by group members. Resources such as the Yahoo! Groups provide an easy way to create functional GSS for your group. Using Internet chat rooms is easy once you are familiar with their many features. Group members should fa~ miliarize themselves with the chat room or group interface before the

group uses this technology to faci litate a group discussion.

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

the work for the gro up, nor do rh ey work if group members fail ro use good com muni ca rion skills. The same co mmuni ca rion skills crucia l (0 traditional face-ro-face problem solving are srill needed when gro ups use GSS as (Ools. For exa mple, anonymity is usually beneficial; however, members who neve r see each orher may not co me ro identify with the group or each other like they can in face- ro-face groups. Groups should combine both f..1ce-to-face and computer-med iated communication. 41 The most we can say definitively is that GSS is generally good for groups although not in eve ry circumstance. 42 After all proposals have been choroughly evaluated, the group has sec the srage for th e emergence of a final decision o n a solution or policy. A favored solution may already have begun (0 emerge during rh e discuss ion. •

4. Choosing the Best Solution. JUSt as groups ex perience predictable ph ases in (heir overall development, they also go wough identifiable dec ision-making phases. Several well-respected researchers have co ntributed to our underscanding of group decision-making phases. 4J For example, Do nald Ellis and B. Aubrey Fisher found that many groups firs[ encer an orientation phase, proceed to a conflict phase when rhey argue about their various options. and finally encer the phases of decision emergence and reinforcement. 4~ Decision emergence may begin during step 3, as members gradually move toward a consensus and coalesce around one proposal. The members will usually know when this has happen ed. Onen a discussion leader can hasren th is by asking something like, "I (hink we may have decided on a solution. Is that right?" If members agree aloud or nod their heads, having a straw vote or simply asking, "Does everyo ne agree?" or "Does anyone disagree?" can co nfirm this consensus. Reinforcement refe rs ro the co mplim eming and back paning that mem bers give each other after a job well done. They will say things like, "Thar rook a lo ng rime, but we re· ally came up with a workable solution," "I really think we did a fine job with that," or "We don e good, folks!" Such back paning expresses and reinforces the positive feelings members have toward each orher. Nor al l groups ex perience exacrly the same phases during decision making. That would be roo simplisric. Marshall Poole. for exampl e, found that many facto rs influence th e types of phases groups ex perience and th e order in which they occur. 4$ We present the idea of group phases to help yo u analyLC what may be occurring in groups you belo ng to, bur remember that the subject is more complex than we have described here (see Chapter 4).

Methods of Making Decisions. A group can make decisions in many differenr ways. bU( so me met hods are likely to produce worse results [han others. In so me groups the leader has authority to make decisions and may do so frequendy for rhe group. One person may be perce ived as the mOSt expert member on the problem th e group is discussing; [hat perso n may be asked to make th e decision for the group. As a way of avoiding conflict, the group can use a meth od of chan ce, such as flipping a co in , drawing straws, or roll ing dice. Sometimes numbers can be averaged to produce a decision, such as averaging individual appl icanr rankings [Q decide who shou ld be offered a job. Often groups decide by vorin g. wh ich is mandarory in committees gove rned by Robert's Rules for Co mmittees. Common ways of making gro up decisions are for the leader or another des ignated member to decide without co nsulting the group, for the group leader to co nsult with ocher members but then make th e final decision, for members ro vote, or for the group to make the decision by co nse nsus. The firs[ method , dec ision by leader or designated member, is appropriate for minor decisions, such as wh ere [Q meet' , what refreshments to serve,

215

216

C HAPTER 7

The School Board Breaks a Deadlock The school board in a city near where one of us lives had been stymied

for several meetings over an issue related to a tax increase for schools and the arguments members should make in the local media to support the tax increase. Most of the members wanted to stress that the tax increase would mean higher salaries for teachers, more teachers in

the system, and smaller class sizes. One very vocal member wanted to emphasize the deterioration of the buildings and the necessity for basic facility maintenance. The board was stuck over this and other issues. Members didn 't want to alienate the "buildings" member, so, wanting

to be polite, they worked hard to find positive things to say about his arguments . However, this just fueled his enthusiasm. The school board

president decided to use the university's "Decision Room," a room that had 20 terminal s with capacity for full group support systems (GSS). Two faculty members assisted the school board; one served as "chauffeur" to run the software while the other served as a neutral facilitator. The school board members typed their ideas into a terminal, where they appeared on a large, overhead screen that all could see. They were able to make anonymous comments about each idea. Finally, they rated each idea on a scale of 1 to 5 and rank-ordered each one as well. The ratings and rankings were instantly tallied, and a bar chart was produced that visually reproduced their numerical assessments. It was clear from the ratings and rankings that the "buildings" member was an outlier in the group. His ideas were not supported at all, which became obvious to everyone in the group, including him. This visual representation on the computer screen got through to him when the members' gentle oral comments had not. He dropped his insistence on the building maintenance platform for the tax levy. 1. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of using GSS? 2 . Why do you think members were direct and dear using GSS where they had not been in face·to·face discussion?

3. What was persuasive abbut the visual representation that was not persuasive about the oral discussion? 4 . For what other kinds of decisions do you think GSS would be helpful?

5. Are there situations in which you would not want to use GSS?

what col o r norepads (0 pUl in the meeting roo m, o r even who m to as k ro type rhe report. It is also appropriate for those dec isions for whi ch rhe leader {o r designared me mbe r} has all th e in fo rm ac io n needed ( 0 make the decisio n, and suppo rt from group members is ex· pecred. The second meth od , rhe consultative merhod, is appropri ate whe n rhe leader does

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

not have aJl th e needed informatio n, when the gro up membe rs are likely to accept the dec isio n, when members ca nn Ot agree bur a decision must be made, o r when tim e is short. T he third method , votin g, occurs when th e major ity decides for th e gro up. T hi s meth od merel y weighs the power of numbers, not the relative mcrits of ideas. T he majo ri ty may be wron g and a mi no ri ty of o ne member may have the best idea. Further, voting may spli t a group , wi th so me members resenti ng th e decisio n and trying to sabocage it. Vot ing can be uscd to get a se nse of where membets stand o n an issll e or to co nfirm that a dec ision has been reached. Scientifi c research and experience both co nfirm that you should make a majo r decision with a majo ri ty vote only wh en the group must make a decision with om eno ugh tim e to reach a co nse nsus or when tht gro up has exhau sted every poss ib le way of achi ev ing co nse nsus. A co nse nsus decision is o ne that all members agree is the best o ne they ca n make that is acceptable to all ; it does n't necessarily mean that th e fi na l choice is anyone's first choice! Do not co nfuse co nse nsus decisio n makin g with a haph aza rd , coincidental co nvergence of member o pinio ns. Consensus as we mea n it here is abo ut bo th a method of careful . o pen dec isio n makin g and a product (o r decision) that everyo ne SUPPOf[S bur that may nO[ be rh e top choice fo r one o r mo re members.46 It is a fo rm of decisio n making preferred by indiv iduals if rh ey have the time and the resources it requi res. Conse nsus decisio n making is pervasive across all kinds of gro ups and is even requ ired in so me beca use group members recognize th at co nsensus decisio n making. do ne well. builds commun ity and support for the fi nal decisio n."? We nored ea rlier that o nce a solmio n has been tentat ivel y adopted , it is a good id ea to test th at decisio n amo ng the peo ple who will mOS t be affected . It is especially useful to id cnrify any nega ti ve co nseq uences that may occ ur to ot hers but th at the comm iu ee has ove rl ooked . The RISK techniq ue helps accomplish this.

Testing a Tentative Solution with the RISK Technique. T he RISK techniq ue is designed to help an organ ization assess how a proposed change or new poli cy wi ll negati vel y affect th e indi viduals and groups mOSt involved . Suppose YO ll are responsible fo r implementing a new emp loyee benefits program at your co mpany. Before yo u start pu tting the plan imo effect. you wa ll{ {Q make sure all problems [hat co uld come up have been identi fied and , if poss ible. dealt with in advan ce. RI SK wi ll help you do this. The steps fo r a face-to-face RI SK meeti ng are summ arized in Figu re 7.2. Like ot her gro up techniqu es, RISK ca n also be co nducted electroni cally.

FIGURE 7 .2

Proposed solution presented in detail; members identify risks or problems with it_

Steps for Conducting the RISK Technique In a Face-to-Face Meeting

RiSKS posted without evaluation on a chart in round-robin fashion.

fv\aster lis! of risks compiled and Circulated 10 participants.

Second meeting held to discuss the list; problems perceived as serious retained .

Retained problems processed into on agenda and handled as in the problem census .

217

GLOSSARY Consensus A decision oil members agree is the best they con 011 support but isn't necessarily everyone's first choice

RISK Technique A technique to help a group ossess potential problems or risks with a polential solution

CHAPTER 7

218

F

SSARY PERT Program evaluation and review tech-

nique tho r helps group members

manage and keep track of Q complex

task

A group may have selected an airernarive and discovered , with RISK or some mhcr technique, that the solution is acceptable [0 all co ncerned. However, its job still isn't fin ished! Most groups are then responsible for seeing to it that the so lution is impl emenred. Some times, that task is given (Q another group. Nevertheless, rh e problem-so lvin g process is not complete umil rhe solution has been pur inro effect.

S. Implementing the Chosen Solution. The final step in group problem solving is imp lemenring the solution. Sometimes groups break off their disclIss ion as soon as they have decid ed on a solulion without work ing ou r a plan to put their decision into effect. They may feel finished, but they truly are not. Good leaders see thar the group works Oll[ th e derails of implementation. Durin g this stage of problem so lvin g, the group answers questions such as the following: •

Who will do what, when, and how so that our decisio n is enacted?

•

How will we write and prese nt ou r repon?

•

How will we word ou r motion to the membership meeting, and who will speak in support of it?

•

What follow-up should we cond uct to monitor how well thi s sol ution is working?

Some implementation plans are simple, bur others are complicated and detailed ) especially if me solution involves many peo pl e and numerous assignments. Program evaluation and rev ie\'1 technique (PERn is a procedure designed ro help group members track the implementation of a complex solu tion; however, it is useful for implementing simple solutions as well. Using PERT to Implement a Solution. PERT is a set of concrete suggestions to help a group keep track of who will do what by when. Some of you may be familiar with GANTf charts which are popular with program managers in a va ri ety of different professions. It can be difficult ro follow a co mplicated imp lementatio n plan th at in vo lves many people, groups, and tasks. PERT helps do this by ask ing dlOse respon sible for impl ementation ro make a chan showing deadline dates for completion of variou s tasks and the nam es of individua ls or groups responsible. Following are th e main pans of the process:

1. Determin e th e final step by describin g how the solurion should appear wh en it is fu ll y implemented. 2. List all the eve nts chat must occur before the final goal is realized. 3. Order these steps chronologically. '

4. For complicated solmions, develop a Aow diagram of the procedure and all the steps in it. 5. Generate a list of all the activi ti es, materials, and people needed to accomplish each step. 6. Estimate the time needed to accomplish each step; then add aJi the estimates to find rh e total tim e needed for implementation of th e plan. 7. Compare the rotal time estimate with d eadlines or ex pectation s, and correct as necessary by assigning more o r less time and people ro complete a given step. B. Determin e which members will be responsi bl e for each step.48

An oth er way ro co nstruct a PERT chart is ro wo rk backward from a target date. For instance, the st ud enrs who created the chart in Figure 7.3 worked gradually backward

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

fry ou mum

110

olle remembered to bring a rock?"

Implement.:ltlon reqUires C.:Ireful planning to !>ucceed. 0 The New Yorker CollectIOn; 1985 Charles Addams from cartoonbank.com. All Right! Reserved

219

220

C HAPTER 7

FIGURE 7.3

Sample PERT Chart for a Student Group Project

r--

Dale Tues Apr.

S

Aretha

Candy

Barney

Decide group tooPee~

prel im~rv.

prelim O~IV.

Thu Apr. 10

Prelim report..

Prelim report.


k:l5hlp

Tues Apr. 15

Complete lib re!le8rcl1. Conflict.

Thu Apr. 17

Ob6t;rve aroup.

ObDer'll!

BPM

BPM

Compl/:te 5YMLDG of group

Complete 5YMlDG of group

Apr. 22

Entire Group

Repon; 0'

""poet on

Tues

Den2il

Thu Apr. 24

decide variaUlee Prelim report.

Complete lib

rtp0rt6: declde methode of SnAly&le

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group.

ol;1~rv

materiale

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flMlng'

O*rve group.

group.

e PM

Have tape recorder

8P"

",ad, Oi5<;UM tM:r1iIn

Tues Apr. 29

~rvllt.ion6:

liete" to tape

Com~'" flret draft,

Thu

May 1 Men

MayS lues

May 6

-

Wed

May 7

Thu

MayS

Conflict

&gin

Final draft,

OIIer1ilU editing

Conflict: Intro done

and typing

Com~'"

Com~

Concluelon dcrIe

.....

fI~t

draft. leaaerehlp f inal draft, Leat.ter&h ip:

flret. draft, Rolee Final draft.

otyIe

--t= Tables and c harte to",""",

Tablee/Ch.rt& to Arethll

(
("""''''''p)

..

r. blee/Charte to Aretha ("" )

Fri May 9

'>1' ........

Sol

",.""..

Proof ;

May 10

make copie5

malee

Sun

May 11 Men May 12

Look: at each OWer'. eectione to Improw:

Edlti~

,!Ind

•

cople~

Make large c::h.tr't6 for cI.t5tl

Dl6trllluU

~mblefull

A~mblefull

copie& to all

report by5PM

"'PO" by5PM

Read full

.... run

ReM fun

paper

paper

paper

b'y8PM

pre~nt.ation

Reheareal. t A~'6,

7PM

Tues

Final pr'C6erlt.atlon

May 13

to cltte.e

Group Problem-Solving Procedures

from the due date for th eir presentation by taking inro account how long each major step of the process would take. By do ing that, they had a clearer picture of when they'd have co start working on the project co get it completed without undue haste. We recommend PERT CO o ur students whenever they have complex group assignments ro complete. Although groups rarely stick exactly to the P-MOPS (or to any problem-solving guidelines), if you attempt to follow this sequence in the form of an outline of questions written about the problem, you will help guaranree that no important question, issue, or step is overlooked, and thereby create a good so lmi on. The flexibility of the procedure allows you to tailor it to the characteristics of any problC!m. So that you can understand better how such adaptations are made, we next present examples of outlines writren, adapted, and followed by problem-so lving grou ps.

Applications of P-MOPS Use the information abom problem cha racteristics in Table 7.2 to help you determine how to modify the P-MO PS to suit your particular problem. Th e first example of a procedural otaline, shown in Table 7.5, was created by a self-appointed advisory committee of students concerned about pedestrian safety on a street just east of campus. The group of students first decided on the general problem they wanted to tackle, then created an outline to guide their investigation over a 6-week span . They devised possible so lu tions, decided on what to recommend, and finally presented their report to both the city counc il and the president of the university. You will notice that it closely follows P-MOPS. The students' work was tragical ly timely-shortly after their presentation, a student was killed cross in g that very street.

TABLE 7.S

Sample Outline Using P-MOPS for a Complicated Problem

Discussion question: What shall we recommend that city council and university administration do to reduce pedestrian Injuries on National Avenue east of campus? I. What is the nature of our problem involving vehicle-pedestrian accidents on National Avenue east of campus? A. How do we understand our charge?

1. Wha t freedom do we have in this matter? 2. What limits do we have (such as cost, structure of report, etc.)? 3. To what does the general problem question refer? (continued)

221

222

CHAPTER 7

TABLE 7 .5

Continued

B. How do we feel about this problem? C. What do we find unsatisfactory about the way traffic and pedestrians currently affect each other on National Avenue?

1 . Diagram of present street, buildings, crossing, medians, lights, and so on. 2. How serious is the problem of injuries to pedestrians?

a. What kinds of accidents and injuries have occurred? b. When do these accidents happen? c . Do they tend to occur at any specific times? d. What kinds of persons are involved?

e . How does this compare to accidents and inju ries elsewhere?

f. Are there any other facts we need to learn? D. What seems to be causing these accidents? 1. Characteristics of the location?

2. Human behavior?

3. Other factors? E. What do we hope to see accomplished? 1. In reducing the number of accidents and injuries? 2. In practices of city council and administration?

3. Any other features of our goal? F. What obstacles exist to prevent achieving our goal?

1. Financial? 2. Priorities of council or administration?

3. Vested inte rests, such as businesses?

4 . Other? II . What mig ht be done to improve the safety of pedestrians crossing National Avenue east of campus?

Group Problem· Solving Procedures

TABLE 7 .S

Continued

A . Brain storm for idea s.

B. Do we need explanations or descriptions of any of these proposed solutions? III . W hat are the relative merits of our possi ble so lu tions to accidents and injuries on National Avenue? A. What criteria shall we use to eva lu ate our list of possible solutions?

1. Costs? 2. Acceptabi lity to involved persons? 3. Probable effectiveness in solving the problem? 4 . Appearance? 5 . Other?

B. Shall we eliminate or combine any ideas? C. How well does each remaining potential solution measure up to our

criteria and the facts of the problem?

IV. What recommendation can we all support? A. Has a decision emerged?

B. What can we all support? V. How shall we prepare and submit our proposal? A. In what form sha ll we communicate with counci l and administration?

B. How w ill we prepare the recom mendation?

1. Who w ill prepare the recommendation? 2. How w ill we edit and approve this report? C. How will we make the actual presentation? D. Do we want to arrange for any follow·up on responses to our recommended solution?

The o url ine in Table 7.6 is mu ch shorter and sim pler; it is des igned to be used for a br ief class d iscussio n.

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CHAPTER 7

224

TABLE 7.6

Sample Outline Using P-MOPS for a Simple Classroom Discussion

==========-----

----------------------

I. What sort of final exam wo uld we like for Communication 315? A . What is our area of freedom co ncerning the exam?

B. What facts and feelings should we consider as we discuss what so rt of exam to request? II. What are our criteria in deciding on the type of exam to recommend? A. Learning objectives?

B. Grades? C. Preparation and study required? D. Fairness?

E. Other? III. What types of exams are possible? IV. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each type? V. What will we recommend as the type of final exam?

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DiSCUSSION

•

• A problem consists of a si tuation perceived to be unsatisfactory, a desired simation or goal, and obstacles to reaching that goal . •

important fun ctions that must be fulfilled for a gro up [0 solve problems effectively. Members must do a thorough job of meeting the task requirements. use their communication ski lls to help the group overcome potencial problems. be willing to review th eir process, and even re, consider th eir solution if necessary.

Effective group problem solving uses guidelines to help members think critically rather than relying on their intuition, overrelying on expert authori ty, or overrelying on personal expe rience.

Five characteristics of problems should be considered by members when they adapt their problem-solving procedures to fit th e specific problem: task difficulty, so lution multiplicity, intrinsic interest. member familiarity, and acceptance level.

• The functional theory of effective problem solving and decision making identifies

•

The proced ural model of problem solving (P-MOPS) provides a flexible sequence of steps. based on extensive research , for effecti ve problem solving. These steps include thoroughly describing and analyzing the problem. listing a variety of solutions, carefully and critically evaluating their positive and negative e1emems, selecting the one that best meets the criteria, and planning how to implement the chosen solution.

Group Problem-Solving Procedures • Several specific techniques can help at each step. For instance, focus groups can help identify key issues pertaining co the problem; group su ppOrt systems can help, especially with evaluation; the RISK technique can identify problems with a proposed solution the group is

1. Th ink of a current o r recent problem you have encountered. Analyze yo ur problem by id enti fying its co mponent parts (p;esent situation, obstacles, and goal). Pay particular anention co the obstacles you identify. Fo rm into gro ups of four to six, and discuss each of th e problems. Ask your team members to help you brain sco rm ways of overcoming the obstacles you have identified.

225

seriously considering; and PERT helps a group follow its path while implementing its solution. •

Group decisions can be made by the leader, by voting. or by consensus.

3. View Parr 3 ("An Ineffective Problem-Solving Discussion") of th e videotape Communicating Effectivrly in SmaIL Grollp' that was designed co acco mpany this text. This segment depicts a group doing a terrible job of problem solving. After viewi ng the tape. explain wh at you would do to correct the deficiencies. The following can gu ide your cririque:

2 . As a class, choose two problems, one that is relatively simple and has few options and one that is relatively complex with high solution multiplicity (such as how the university should spend its contingency reserve money of $500,000). Write a leader's o udine for structuring a discussio n of each of these twO issues by adapting P-MOPS ro fit the discussion ropic. After eve ryo ne has created an oudine, select twO leaders, one to guide each of the di scussio ns usi ng his or her outline. After the di scussion. talk about what wo rked and what did not in the oudine. How would you modify each oudine to improve it?

a. Give specific examp les of either poor or excellent problem-solvi ng ski lls demo nstrated by the group members.

b. Examine the behavior of the leader. Alyce. What could she have done to improve the discussion process?

c. Ask what specific behaviors helped the prob lem-solving process and what behaviors hurt it. Why did they have such an effect?

Go to www.mhhe.comladamsgalanes8e and www.mhhe.comlgroups for selfquizzes and ,veblinks.

Area of Freedom

Discussion Question

Problem

Charge

Focus Group

Problem Solving

Consensus

Functional Theory

Criteria

Group Support Systems (GSS) PERT

Proced ural Mode l of Problem Solving (P-MOPS)

Decision Making

Risk Technique

Managing Conflicts Productively

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: , . Define conflict. 2. Discuss the three prevailing myths about conflict in small groups. 3 . Differentiate between task and relational group

conflict. 4. Compare and contrast the five major conflict styles.

s.

Explain how group members can disagree ethically.

6. Discuss how members can maximize their chances to influen~e the group. 7. List and explain the steps of the nominal group technique. 8. Describe the four steps in principled negotiation, and explain how to use them to help manage a conflict.

Managing Conflicts Productively

The Cask and Cleaver Work Crew

The Cask and Cleaver is a local restaurant in California's Central Valley. Its servers (usually students) meet semiannually to select their sh ifts. At these meetings eight or nine servers take turns, in roundrobin fashion, picking a shift. The server with the most seniority picks first, and so on, until all shifts are covered. The servers want to choose shifts that make the most mpney in the least time so that they can survive financially and stil l have enough time to study and play. The stakes are higher for those with greater financial needs because they must live with the schedule for six months. One recent meeting has become legendary as the most contentious in the restaurant's 20-year history. Mark, the senior server, took charge and chose first. At his fourth turn, he realized an earlier turn had been skipped and servers with less seniority had taken one more turn than he had. Mark suggested that they start over again. Some supported his idea, but Tom and Paul did not. They were pleased with thei r shifts after having lived with very poor schedules during the previous six months. After discussing it, the group decided to start over. During the second round it became apparent that the members were choosing differently; furthermore, the new schedu le heavily favored Mark and Beth (Mark's wife), whereas Tom and Paul were not faring well at all. Opposition to starting over was voiced again with greater emphasis. Mark and Beth became defensive, arguing that it was not their fault Tom and Paul had two night classes. Tom and Paul perceived this reaction as callous and reminded Mark and Beth that they had no alternative class sections to choose from. Mark replied, "That's not my problem." Another server, Nathan, sided with Paul and Tom, forming a clique that characterized Mark and Beth as self-centered and unsympathetic to the financial needs of others . Mark, Beth, and another server, Maria, all believed that the others' school schedules were not their concern and that shift scheduling was a hit-or-miss process anyway: Sometimes you do well and sometimes you don't. To them Tom and Paul were "crybabies" who wanted special treatment because they were university students. Tracey and Jeremy, two other servers, remained neutral, moving between the two cliques, listening to both sides, and conferring between themselves without ever sharing their views of the conflict.

227

228

CHA P TE R 8

B

y now you sho uld realize th at the payo ffs of s mall group decisio n making and

problem solving can be incredible. Yet these benefits do not just happen- they come after hard work, thoughtful modifica tio ns, and the knowledge that COI1Rier wi ll be a parr of the process. Members have to work wim th eir collective kn owledge and skill s, which will so metim es compl ement each other and sometimes d ash. When group members do rhe work of vigilant problem solving and the critical thinking it requires, di sagreement will occur. Co nRicr, expressed and managed well, can help members sharpen their thinking and dec ide wisely. In contrast, unexpressed disagreement co ntributes to gro upth ink (discussed in Chapters 4 and 6). hann s gro up task and social processes. and can des troy a grou p. We discuss conAict in this chapter- its myths. the different types and styles you will encou nter in yo ur g roups, the effects it can have o n a gro up. and ways it ca n be managed well.

What Is Conflict? Conflict can range from simp le disagreement to war. Joyce H ocker and William Wilmot's

definition desc ribes conflict as "an expressed struggle berween ar leasr rwo ime rdependcJ1{ parties who percei ve incompatible goals. scarce reso urces. and interference from the other parry in ach ievi ng their goak'" This defin ition emphasizes the ce ntral role of communi cation. ConAict can be experienced wi thour being exp ressed; group members Co1 11 be acutely uncomfortab le without sayi ng a word, mu ch like Tracey and Jeremy in our opening case,l But how conAict is exp ressed and how it is hand led arc co mm uni cative aCtS, which we explore in this chapter. Yo u have probably observed conA ict in a small group, such as when rwo or more people express different ideas. fight with each Other over group procedures, or simply do not like each Other. These kinds of primary and secondary tensio ns (sec Chapter 4) in groups are common and have to be managed. In our opening case, rhe co nfl ict began ro surface initially over a procedure used to determine their shifts. Once the crew began ro sra rt over and ot her options emerged, the co nAict over procedure got very perso nal. Some co nfli cts will beco me heated and others will pass with linlc noti ce. ]f conflict is hand led well, it can help improve a group's performance.

~LOSSARY Conflict

r Occurs when discordant ideas or feelings are expressed

or experienced between two interdependent

l parties

Myths about Conflict You have learned from previous chapters thar group membe rs often do nor freely ex press thei r uniqu e opinions about the task and tend roward ea rly closure of (he ir problem-solving processes eliminating any detai led di sc uss io n of th e reasons behind d ifferent member prefe rences for ce rtain options. G roup members do this for all so rts of reaso ns , which range from ge neral reason s associated wir h members ' perso na lities and cultures [Q rhe specific demand s of the si tuat ion, such as runn ing out of rime. Anothe r reaso n pertains to (h e co mmon myt hs abou t conflict members bring into rhe group. \Vle would like ro di spel rhree of the Illosr co mm o n ones (s ummari zed in Table 8.1).

Managing Confl icts Productively

TABLE 8 .1

Myths about Conflict and the Reality

Myth 1

Myth 2

Myth 3

• Conflict is harmful and should be avo ided.

• Conflict represents a misunderstanding or breakdown in communication.

• Conflicts can be resolved if parties are w illing to discuss

Reality

Reality

Reality

• Conflict can help members

• Some conflicts occur over differences in va lues, goals, m ethods

• Conflicts over basic va l-

understand an issue more

clearly • Conflict can improve group

of achieving goals, and limi ted resources.

decisions. • Conflict can increase member involvement. • Conflict can increase

cohesiveness.

the issues.

ues and goals may not be resolvable. • Conflicts over limited resou rces and methods

of achieving goals may be resolvabl e through co mmunication if the basic values

and goals of the parties are compatible.

1. Conflict is harmful to a group and should be avoided.

We all have seen examples of how conAicr can hun a group. Minor mi sunderstandings can lead (Q hun feelings, and a group may dissolve over a co nflict. Clea rly, conAict can harm a group. T hi s harm is evident in our Cask and Cleaver crew, with servers throw· ing all so n s of blame around and showing defens iveness because they believe they are bei ng faulted maliciously. Too many srudents see on ly the harm and don't realize that co nflict can be beneficial (Q the group ifit is expressed and managed properly. Conflict ca n help members understand the issues surrounding a decision or problem more co mpl etely. Whe n members di sagree, rhey can discover that there are perspectives ocher than their own. Karl Smith and co lleagues found that when students in learning groups heard other op inions, they became unce nain about their own, sought o ur inform ation about the different positio ns, and were berrcr able to remember info rmation abou t both rheir positio ns and those of others.J Expressed disagreement early in the problem-solving process and at the beginn ing of meetings ca n help facilitate learnin g about rhe issues. 4 There is a difference be{\veen sharing yo ur prefere nce for an opt io n (e.g., I want a different shift) and sharing your reaso ns for rhe preference (e.g., I need a different shift because I cannot find a babysitter). Groups in early agree ment are more inclined ro on ly share their preferences whereas gro ups who exp ress disagreement are more apt [Q go in (Q th e reasons for the ir preferences. 5 One of us served on an advisory board fo r a nonprofi t o rga ni1.Jtion. The adm in istrative officer of the organ ization wanted to fire an employee immediareiy. without issui ng a warn ing or givi ng the employee a chance (Q co rrect the offending behavior.

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CHAPTER 8

One member. ex perienced with personnel laws, d isagreed srrongly with what appeared ro her ro be a lack of due process in me proposed di smissal. When the other members und erstood the legal and ethical problems with discharging employees before giving th em a chance to improve their performance, rhey agreed to give rhe employee a clea r set of guideli nes and expecta tions to be followed. One group member's wi llin gness to disagree enabled the others to understa nd rhe iss ue more co mpletely. This rype of disagreement illustrates idea deviance, mentioned in C hapters 4 and 6. Co nAi ct also can improve a group's decisio n, which is a logical outcome of members understanding an issue morc clearly. [n the previous example the dismissed employee could have sued the o rga niz.'uion and the board for arbitrarily firing him. Clarifying his job duti es and the board's expectati ons gave him the best possible chance ro perform effectively. The disagreement helped members understa nd these possi ble consequences. \X'hat if some board members initially agreed with the administrative office r? Hearing this agreement early probably would have led to members hea rin g a conse nsus and ending their discussion without talking abour the reaso ns for their preferences. W hy discuss more when we all agree? This group comm unication Aaw can be avoi ded by sharing instead differenr reaso ns for member preferences. 6 Only after they had argued, ove r the course of several meetings. did they truly appreciate

that giving the employee a chance

to

improve both was fair

to

him and protected

them in case onegal challenge. Exp ressed conAi ct over the reaso ns for member preferences is a much more effective way to inRuence each other compared to simply agreeing to an opt ion because it looks like it is an option most members prefer. 7 ConRict also tends ro increase member involvement and panicipation. Group discussions can become boring, but when a controversy occurs, members perk up and voice meir opinions. In the previous advisory board example, members who had begun {Q skip meetings starred to come regularly agai n. Usually, members become more interested when they believe their opinions can make a difference in the group's outcomes. Finally, conRi ct can increase cohesiveness. Have you eve r had an argum ent with yo ur dating parmer, spouse, or friend, then observed how close you both felt afrer you had made up? If so, you know how conRict ca n increase your positive feelings toward one another. During the advisory board's discussion about firing the employee, members expressed strong feelings o n several sides of the issue. After all members aired th eir views, the group eventually came to a co nsensus decision. As co nsensus emerged, members became closer than ever. Several members expressed thei r appreciation to the member who initially spoke up'against the firing. They believed that her commems forced [he group to anricipate possible problems and to creare a better solution, al though at the time they did nOt see her disagreement as hel pful. Members realized that they could disagree, express themselves in forceful terms, and emerge more united than before the conRict; cohes iveness increased. Consenslls decision making, int roduced in C hapter 7, is not superficial agree ment on issues. It emerges o ut of members wo rking through ofren difficult di scuss ions of their va lues, which eventually converge in collective suppOrt of a solurio n.8 After the Cask and C leaver crew managed to deal with their issues constructively, lighthearted banrer about thi s meeting being the "ugliest sched ulin g meeting of all time" followed, as well as a promise never to let such co mention happen again. 8mh task success and interpe rso nal rol eran ce co mbine to st rengthen cohesiveness.

231

Managing Conflicts Productively

So, although conRict can be harmful to a group, it doesn't have to be. Appreciating that conflict itself is nor the problem, but how it is handled helps shift members away from avoiding it altogether to focusing on how to best manage it as it emerges in group interaction. 2. Conflicts stem only &om misunderstandings and breakdowns in communication. Certainly, some conRicts occur due to misunderstandings and communication failures, but others do not. Often conflicts occur when individuals understand each ocher perfectly well but disagree on basic values or the distribution of rewards. For example, a classroom group trying to agree on whether to recommend the repeal of the Roe v. \Vttde court decision malcing abortions legal in the United States was unable to arrive at an anS\ver acceptable to everyone. Several members believed that life begins at conception and that abortion is murder. Other members believed that a woman's life should take precedence over the fetus, at least until the fetus reaches a certain stage of development. Each subgroup understood the position of the other subgroup. Misunderstanding and communication breakdown did not occur. However, the subgroups' differing values and assumptions made agreement seem impossible. Managing conflict well entails figuring out why the conAicr is occurring; assuming that all conAicts occur because communication is rhe problem is dangerous. ,) When we do this, we trivialize communication by turning it into a cure-all and come to believe that more communication or less will solve the problem. Too often increasing communication may do li ttle to help and may even make a situation worse. Focusing on communication as a cure all deAecrs interest in figuring out the nuances of the problem as we rush to communicate more or less.

3. All conflicts can be resolved if parties are willing to discuss the issues. As, you

can see from the previous example, not all confl icts are resolvable, nor is simply talking more about it always going to help-it may even make it worse. Conflicts vary in their degree of perceived resolvability, which depends on the underlying reason for the conflicr. Conflict over basic values is highly subjective. The abortion question is not resolvable at the present time because the two assumptions represemed(l) a fetus is a person from conception and has rights equal to those of the mother, versus (2) a fetus becomes a person sometime after conception, until which time the woman's rights take precedence-are not reconcilable. Conflicts over perceived scarce resources are also difficult to resolve. If a library committee has limited funds to disperse to a variety of academic programs, then discussion of how best to distribute those funds can be filled with acrimony. Members may very well agree that other programs deserve funding, but ifit is at the expense of their own program, discussion could get difficult. Conflicts over goals can sometimes be difficult to resolve as well. Assume that you want an A on your group project while someone else is satisfied with a C. If you can't convince the other person of the value of striving for excellence, and the other person can't persuade you to lighten up, you are at an impasse. Simply discussing the issues does not automatically guarantee a satisfactory outcome. Some co nfli cts appear irresolvable and a few may be unless the parties to the conflict, through careful ana lysis, can figure out how best to manage them. Conflict itself is not the issue. Any social system, due to the interdependence of the system's compo nents, will experience some kind of conflict. Conflict is key

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group. For more information on conflict resolution,

go to the Online Learning Center at

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CHAPTER 8

[0 effective mutual influence during group discllssion of iss ues, even [hose times when [he confl ict seems irresolvable. We prefer [Q calk about managin g conflict than reso lving it, recogni zin g that co nflict is fluid in groups and rarel y goes away. T he real iss ue rhen is "ow members man age th e co nflict in th eir groups. Mishan dling of disagreemenr ca n produce problematic grou p o utcomes slich as fa ulty dec ision making and th e destr uction of relationships. Before we discliss ex plici rly how to manage co nAi c[ in groups, lees rake a close r look at rhe different types of conflict YOli may find in your groups. ldcnr ifying lhe ca use of {he co nfli cr is imporranr ro manag in g it effec tively.

Types of Conflict The types of conAict [hat emerged between the Cas k and C leaver servers is not unusual in groups. Group co nAi ct wi ll often starr our as one thin g and th en branch off inro Other issues. The Cask and C leave r crew had previously es tabl ished a group norm for fair distribution of reso urces- shi fr rimes. Mark, however, lIsed his se niori ty (anoth er resource) to press ure other members to redo the shift sel ec tion procedure thus alte ri ng th e group norm . Some members did not see a prob lem with rh e schedul es, but Others d id. Coalitions formed, blame was rossed around, and others JUSt kept qui et. Most obviously, th e underlying resou rces at issue for the servers were money, rim e, and power. Co nAi ct ove r an estab lished procedure moved quickly into more interpersonal o nes. Imeres tingly, th ese procedu ral and interpersonal co nAicts are th e (wo most co mmon wo rkplace co nAi cts encou ntered by co ll ege students in their ea rly workplace cx periences. 1O In addition, college students report that it is commo n for proced ural co nAi cts, such as how ro decide shift schedul es, ro turn into interperso nal co nA icr. Con flict in and of itself is neither automati cally helpful nor harmfu l to a group. What does maner is what th e co nAi ct is about. how it is initi:Hcd, and how it is managed . Lea rn ing th e nuances of th e twO mOst co mmon types of co nAi ct- task and relat ional--ca n help you idenrify them in your gro ups and assess how (0 manage them.

TASK CONFLICT

l GLOSSARY

r Task Conflict Conflict resu/ring from disagree-

ments over idem, [ ;nformot,on, reosoning, or evidence

Tas k co nfli ct , also known as substa nti ve co nAi ct, is found in disagreement ove r ideas, mean ings, issues, and other maners relevant to [he ta sk. t1 You we re introduced to thi s kind of co nAi ct in C hapter 4 when ·we di sc ussed seco ndary tension in groups as well as o pinion, idea o r inn ovative devia nce. Task co nAi ct is work-related and is the bas is for effec ti ve dec ision making and prob lem so lvi ng. Managed well , task co nAict all ows gro up memb ers to chall enge and evaluate ideas, proposa ls, ev idence, and reaso nin g. Doubts are brought o ut inro the open, and group Illembers work rogeth er ro find the best so luti o n. Task co nAi ct is a regular fea rure of [ask gro ups in business and edu cation , yet surpri sin gly, task co nAi ct is not common ly noted by co ll ege stud ents al work. 12 Instead co llege students focus o n a specifi c kind of task co nAict- the co nAict ove r procedures. W hen the task conAict focuses on the bow of group work or how to accomp lish work goa ls then the conA icr is over procedure. For instan ce, group members Illay disagree about whether they should make dec isions by co nse nsus o r whethe r they should vore. In o ur

Managing Conflicts Productively

233

Cask and Cleaver case, th e conAict bega n over the procedure members had chosen to use for six months to determine their sh ifts. However, sometimes what appears to be procedural task co nfli ct may actually be a interperso nal conAict in disgui se. Members who gen uinel y disagree over procedures yet who use ineffective behavio rs ro manage (his co nAi ct c.1 n find themselves in a nasty con fli cr like our Cask and C leaver crew did. In addit io n, members so metimes withdraw from a tas k co nAi ct by forc in g a vOtC or otherwise regulating the group's work, rhus using procedural confl ict to steer clea r of the task and interperso nal co nAict. 13

GLOSSA ~ Relational Conflict Conflict resulting from personality

clashes, likes, dislikes, and

RELATIONAL CONFLICT

competition for

ReiationaJ conflict, also known as affective co nAi ct, originates from interperso nal power clashes, likes and dislikes unrelated to the gro up's task. It represents th e who in rhe conAi ct and is generally detrim ental to the eflicienr functioning of any group. It is associated with the terriary tensio ns (see C hapter 4) (h at ca n plague groups. Much of the Cask and C leaver server co nAict involves power struggles benveen serve rs- who gets to decide the rules and change [hem? These kinds of co nfl icts also emerge over clashes of personality characteristics, lea rnin g styles, and perspectives due to age and cultu re. Reca ll Judy in our openin g case for C hap ter 5 o n diversity. Mahmut Bayazit and EIi .....a bedl Mannix found that relational co nfli ct, not task conR icl, was the main reason team members gave for ex press ing a desi re to leave the team. 14 Ou r o bservation s of num erous groups sugges t th at mu ch rel atio nal con Aict is rooted in o ne member's acting as if she or he is superior, and ano ther member 's refusal to accept th is differe nce in statu s or powe r. Most of this "1 am berter, mo re impo rtan t, more knowledgeabl e" signaling is non ve rbal, proj ected by subtl e pauerns of voca l (ones, postures, and head /body angles. Grollp memb ers are able ro tell the difference between more task (depersonalized) and in terpersona l (petsonali zed ) co nAi ct and recog ni ze that more perso nal conRict harm s co nse nsus. 15 Dev iants who obs truct group processes, as opposed to idea dev ianrs, are perceived less favorab ly in work groups, and the gro up tries to redu ce th e dev ianr's impact on th e grou p.16 In addition, these work g roups repo n [h at th e dev iant produced mo re harm to th eir task co hes ion th an to the social co hes ion. In equity may also be at th e root of relational co nAi ct. G roup members may nor ca rry the same workloads or make eq ui table co mriburions to the gro up. This is why equitable distribution of speaking turns is so impo rtant to effective decision makingY Inequity reduces satisfaction with the group and is associated with hi gh levels of co nAict. 18 In our case srud y, Mark set off a firest'Orm by usi ng hi s se ni o rity to force recons ideration of a procedure already acce pted by members as fa ir. Coali tions formed betwee n membe rs in response to Mark's behav iors. Coalitions often emerge in gro ups when memb ers with access to few resources, minimal powe r, o r li rtl e bargaining leve rage see k out other memb ers in an aucmpt to level rhe playin g field. Coali tions ca n be fun ctional in group s but are detrim ental when members beco me wi llin g (Q hurt their own calise in an effort to defeat th e member perceived as wielding th e heavi er bat. Coalitions tend to di sa ppear when group members believe th ey are on mo re common gro und. I n o ur Cask and C leaver case, group members alrered an esta blished no rm of fairn ess, producing instability, whi ch th ey th en had to manage to prevent servers from quittin g o r wo rking co nditi o ns frolll deteriorating.

power

l

234

C HAPTER 8

Conflict Types and Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) A£ yo u will recall from ea rli er discussions. small groups often use a blend of face-to-f..1.ce inreraction and co mputer-mediated communication (CMC). Group members ca n use computers to talk to each mher online, and some may use group support systems (GSS) to help them during th eir problem-solving discuss ions. In fact, we have discussed how rhe use of computers has been hail ed as a way ro reduce a status inequiry and to in crease member contributions. Early research co mparing conflict in CMC with face-co-face (F eF) groups produced inconsistent rcs ults. 19 For example, CMC groups engaged in morc inflammatory, profane, and negative co mmunication than FrF groups. H owever, grou ps that used GSS, like the ones di scussed in C hapter 7, exhibited less substantive and affective co nfli ct if members used the methods as they were meant co be used. Thus, we might co ncl ude that if groups using CMC gave members tim e to get to know each orher (a co mmon recommendation when usin g CMC) and adapted GSS appropriately, th en computer use could lessen the poremial damaging effects of co nflict. In a rare s[Udy comparing type of co nflict in CMC and FtF groups, differences were fo und.20 CMC groups in itiall y displayi ng more reiationaJ and task confli ct over procedures than FtF gro ups saw rh ese types of confli cts lessen over time. Both CMC and FtF groups displayed similar amo ulHS of broader task conflict. Due to rhe anonymity of CMC, CMC groups initiall y have fewe r social norms that can be used to support and maintain posi ti ve self-images. The higher levels of task conflict over procedures in C M C groups are related to members initiall y nor kn owing how to use rh e technology-so nor surpri singly, it beco mes an iss uc. Othcr rescarch has found that CMC groups are better ab le to manage their conflict after they beco me competent users of rh e rechn ology. 21 Although CMC gro ups do nor follow th e sam e pancrn of confli ct rypes as FrF groups. they do go on CO reach comparabl e levels. If yo u use any type ofCMC for informal or forma l group interaction , make sure you give yo urselves time for social developm enr. Groups whose members primaril y co nn ect usin g computcrs should cons ider rim es for meet in g face-co-face, especially early on, CO givc thcmselves the opportun ity to crca tc social and procedural norms acceptable to their group.22 Although we describe these types of co nflict as though they are distinct, remember they are not mutually excl usive and often blend into one another. In our Cask and Cleaver case, the co nflict occurred not just because Mar~ wanted to change a proced ure; certainly, groups can revisit established proced ures. T he conflict emerged due to how he moved to change the procedure. Members may not like each other (relational) and may be prone to disagrce more often with each other when ideas are challenged (task). CMC groups initially show an interrelationship between proced ural-based (ask conflict and relational conRicr-struggles with technology get tied into interpersonal struggles-whereas FtF groups show a blending of procedura1 wirh broader task co nRicts. u Learning about th ese different conRict types and how they are manifested in groups is essential to understanding how conflict can help or hinder a group. 24 Groups have been shown to be rather adept at creating ways to help manage task conAict and steer clear of negative emotio ns.25 T ask conflict is needed in a group. bur affective conflict should be managed early to avoid destructive patterns that produce grea t emotional cost to members.

Managing Conflicts Productively

Managing Conflict in the Group We ho pe we have co nvinced yo u of the vaJue of consrructi ve task conflict during small group problem solving. Co nflict is inev itable when people must re~tch decisions together. Tryin g ro squelch conAict does nOt elimin ate it- it JUSt se nds it und erground. If managed inap~ propriarcly. confli ct ca n hun th e group and its members and , we wou ld argue, is un erni m l. AJI [h e erhi cal principles of the National Co mmunica tion Associarion's C redo for Ethical Communi cation (see C hapter I) remind liS rhat co nA icr mishandled destroys respect and truSt, shms down honesr and open com munication, a nd can be degrad ing, coercive, and irrespo nsible. In this seC[ ion we discllss how 00 manage conAict productively and ethica lly.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES There are many different ways of describing how people manage co nAict. Co mmo n models desc ribe from (\.yo to five styl es. We have chosen a typic.'l l fi ve-style co nfli ct management model because we beli eve that it berrer caprures subrl e nuances amon g the styles that can be lost in other, popular rhree-s ryle models. 26 Th e five sryles we discuss here were described by Kenneth Thomas.!7 Whatever sryle an individual chooses is based on rhe answers to (WO questi o ns: (I) How im portant is it to satisfy your own needs? and (2) How important is it (Q sarisfy the ot her perso n's needs? Figure 8. 1 shows how these (\,\'0 dimensions intersect

FIGURE 8 . 1

High

Conflict Management Styles

Calm. D cdlon

Competition

lworking loge"'" lor a mutually satisfactory soIutionl

!pushing for your own point of view without regard for the ather personl

Comp~

rv\ohvation 10 meel your own needs

leach pe,,",: '. "':"' up something)

Accommodatio n Low

Avoidance lsaying nothingl Low

iV\otivaiion 10 meet Ihe needs

!giving in 10 the other person's Wishes)

of

the o ther person

High

SOURCE: Adapted from K. Thomas, ·Conllict and Conflict Ma nagement.· Handbook oIlnduJlriol and Organilolionol PJYChoiogy. ed. by MilfVin D. Dunnette (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976). Used by permission of Marvin D. Dunnelle.

235

236

TABLE 8.2

CH A PTER 8

Statements That Illustrate the Five Conflict Management Styles

Mary, th e coll ege financial director, wants the snack shop to close at 5 P.M. Roger, the evening student counselor, wants it to stay open until 8 P.M. Following are examples of how Roger might respond to

Mary, using each of the conflict management styles discussed in the chapter: Mary: We'll have to close the snack shop at 5. There isn' t any money to keep it open later.

Avoidance

Accommodation

Competition

Compromise

Roger: [Says noth ing; accepts Mary's statement, even though he d isagrees.]

Roger: I'd really like to keep it open, but, if there's no money, I guess there's nothing else we can do.

Roger: I won't accept that! We can't let the evening students down that way. Cut something else to get the money!

Roger: I wou ld accept keeping it open just until 6:30 if you could cut some money from another

program.

Collaboration Roger: I understand that it's necessary to contain

costs. It's also important to serve evening students. Is there some way we can provide them food service without increaSing

costs? Th is was an actual problem faced by a student services co m mittee. The solution? Provide ve ndin g m ach ine service. This maintai ned constant labor costs but gave students food service after 5 P.M .

GLOSSARY Avoidance Conflict style describing Q person's unwillingness to confront or engQge in conflict

to produce the five common conAicr managemenr styles of avoidance, accommodatio n, co mpetition , collabo rati on, and compromise. Table 8.2 g ives examples of statements illustratin g each style. No one conflict style is best to use in all circumstances. The most appropriate conAic( style depends on rh e situation. Factors to consider include how imponam th e issue is. how serious th e consequences will be if th e gro up makes a mista ke, whether the group is under any tim e pressures, whether cultural praCtices limit what can and cannot be do ne, and how imponanr it is that the positive relation ship between th e conAicting pani es be mainrained. In most groups, preserving and enhancing relation ships among th e members is imponam. So conAict managemem styles inco rpo rating rhe legitimate needs of all parties are preferable to those producing winners and losers. T he co nAict style that group members ,use depends largely on how th ey perceive th e situatio n. 28 The situati o n is more imponam. in £'1 Ct, than what members believe "staned" th e conAict. Factors sllch as how often th e members have been in conAict in th e past, how many negative feelings th ey harbor against each other, how mutual th eir goals are, and how ambiguous or structured the solution is all affect how a member will app roach handling rhe conAict. Ideall y, members recogni ze [hat they have a mlltu al stake in [he so luti on and are moti vated to coo perate in resol vin g rh e conAict.

Avoidance. Avoidance occurs wh en any group member chooses nOt

to di sagree or to bring up a conAictin g po ine, dllls down playing her o r his own needs and (h e needs of others. When gro up members fighr abo ut o th er people in rhe group, rhey rend ro avo id further co nAicr with each other. H oweve r, if the co nA ict is abo ut rhe [ask, group membe rs [end to be more willin g [Q work toge rh er. 2?

237

Managing Conflicts Productively

We have talked about th e dangers o f avo id ing conAict, bm the avoidance style is someti mes approp riate. If the issue is nOt very important, an d you are certa in that th e group's decisio n will not be hun by your failure (Q speak up, ~wo iding a possi ble con fli ct is appropriate. One of us se rved on a co mmittee plannin g an award's ba nquet. The rest of th e members fa vored a differelH restaurant from the o ne yo ur author preferred. Borh restaurants were co mparable in pri ce, service, an d atmos ph ere. This was not an importa nt enough iss ue to argue abou r. beca use there was no ri sk o f making a se ri ous mistake. In Mary and Roge r's case (Ta bl e 8.2) Roger cou ld certa inl y avoid challenging Mary's stand on th e snack sho p, after all wha t seriou s mi stake could ensue to the student services co mmittee if th e sho p closes? HO\veve r, no other opr1o ns had bee n prese med and avo idance cou ld close down th e discussion thus preventi ng o ther voices (Q emerge.

Accommodation.

Accommodation (also ca lled apperLsement or giving in) occurs when o ne person or facrion gives in (Q rhe other withom argu ing stro ngly for a different point of view. In our student serv ices examp le, Roger docs speak up , reinforcing Mary's poim that there is no money an d , although he wishes rhe snack shop wo uld remain open, con cedes to Mary. Th is sryle is similar ro avoidance in thaI a person down plays her or hi s ow n needs, bm it differs in th at the perso n works harder to meet the needs of others. You shou ld be honest with yourself if you choose to accommodate. Don 't give in if the issue reall y is important (Q yo u. The questio n Roger would have (Q ask himself, as a vo ice for s{tJdents, is how imporranr food service is to students after 5 P .M. We realize this could be hard fo r rhose group membe rs who fea r talking in from of others. 10 However, if YO li give in but pri va tely rcsetH it, in rhe futllre you are likely to find yo urself argu ing with the othe r perso n fo r no apparent reaso n. O n the o ther hand , if the issue is nOt cruc ial to YOll but you know it is importanr to th e o rh er person, then accommodat ion is ap propriate. In another exa mpl e, a faculty/student co mminee was charged with redeco rati ng a st ud ent loun ge. Th e chemis try professo r did not like the color scheme recommended by the art professor and sa id so. Bur si nce the srudcnrs liked it, the chem istry professo r willin gly accommocbted th eir prefe rences. This is an app ropriate use of accommodation to resolve con fli ct. /lJjll~/ose uyle, occu rs when you fig ht hard (Q win and you don 't ca re whether the other perso n is sa tisfi ed with the so lurion. Most of the tim e, highly co mperirive ways o f handling co nAicr are harm ful to a group. If one person tries ro impose his or her witl on a gro up , rh e other members will probably fig ht back, like Tom and Paul did in ou r opening case. Co mpetitive tact ics often esca late a co nfli ct, es pecially when peo ple Stop listening to understa nd each other. Each side tries harder and harder to force the OIher side to go along. For example, at an advisory board meetin g, one mem ber, Sherman, argued stro ngly for one so luti o n to a particu lar problem. Two members di sagreed with Sherman, who rhen began LO use a variety of tactics to win the argument, starting with persuasion but mov ing quickly to attempted coercion and imimidation. Sherman's behavior ind icated that he was more co ncerned wit h winn ing the argument than prese rving rh e gro up. Th e visible conAict ended when rhe rest of the group reacted negatively ro the inrimid arion taer ics by voring agai nst Sherm an 's suggestion. W hen a gro up is doi ng something YO LI bel ieve is harmful or wro ng or goes againsr your values and beliefs, [h en competition is appropria(e. Don't accommodate or avoid conAict if yo u think your basic val ues are being co mprom ised or if youlhink the group is about to make a major mistake. Roger's comperi tive response to Mary shows he obviously is agai nst dosin g

Competition . Compethion, so metimes called th e

C;LOSS~ Accommodation Conflict style describing a person's willingness to engage in conflict; however, she or he backs away from the conflict by giving in to appease the other party

Competition Conflict style showing a preference for coming out ahead in the conflict at the expense of the other party

238

CHAPTER 8

"The mot;t", hal bee" mruie a,uJ uconded that we stick our hetul, in the 10'14." Avoiding conflict, even if deSired, may not be the best choice. C The New Yorker Collection; 1986 Misc ha Richter from (artoonbank.com. All Righ ts Reserved.

down [he snack shop, yet look at how he presents [his position to Mary-ifhe had said this to yo u how would you feel? Co mpare this competi tive response to rhe member opposed to firing the employee, described earl ier in th is chapter. She was wi lling ro face rhe group's disapproval because she genuinely believed they were abom [0 make a big mismke. and she was nor wi lling to compromise. Remember, though, that a conAicr where one person wins bur mhers feel ilke a decision has been forced down thei r throats will almost cenainly erode teamwork. Until me other members came to agree with her position, the member who disagreed about the firing was left out of th e group's informal camaraderie and felt very uncomfonable.

~lOSSARY

l

Collaboration Conflict style

showing a

preference for working with the other to fmd a so/ulion that pleases

both parties

l

Collaboration. Collaboration, the win-win style of conflict management, occurs when the people in (he confl ict want to mee t opposi ng panies' needs along with thei r own. Like competition , collaboration ass umes individuals may argue strongly for rheir poinrs of view. Unlike competitors, collaboracors rake care nor [Q an3ck each oc her as people or co say or do anyrhing thar will Mo.UIl1 th e relat ionship. They behave ethi cally by trea ting each mher as eq uals. They invest a great deal of energy in sea rching for a solution [har will satisfy everyone. Group members whose co mmunic.1cion is collaborative are more satisfied wi th th eir group outcomes than members who avoid conflict. J1 Collaboration can reveal options thar orner sryles miss. For exa.mple, the srudent services committee thar served as me model for Table 8.2 initially struggled with nvo apparently competing goals-making sure that evening students had food available and making sure overhead costs stayed me same. During the discussion, dlaraCteriz.ed by genuine attempts to help both Mal)' and Roger ach ieve thei r goals, another member suggested the creative option of expanding vending services. This would meet student needs while costing the college nothing, since the vending company wou ld pay for machine cos(s. Bur if the committee had VQ[cd without discussing the issues, or if either Mary or Roger had kept quiet, {his option would never have surtaced.

Managing Conflicts Productively

You may chink that co ll abo rative sol uti ons are ideal for gro ups beca use they anempt CO preserve positi ve relationships among conAictin g parties while members ham mer our mutu all y acceptable so lutio ns. However, co ll abo rative soiU(io ns ofte n require much rime and energy, wh ich groups don't always have. Nor all decisions are important enough for the grou p CO co mmit the time or energy to create a co ll aborative solution. Ifbasic va lues differ or truSt is lacki ng, co llaboratio n may be im possible.

Compromise. Compro m ise represems a middle-ground conAic[ management style [hat can be called a partial-winlpartial-lose solution fo r each party. Unlike collaboration, part ies using co mpromise give up someth ing to get s? mething in return. T his type ofho rse-nad ing is rypical oflabor-management and government bargaining: ''I'll senle for a $ l-per-hour raise if you give up the demand for mandatory overtime," or ''I'll vote for your bill if you support my amendmem. " If you know you are goi ng ro have ro compromise, YO ll will be rempted ro inAate you r original demands. For instance, if you know yo u wi ll have to settle fo r less money chan you want, you'll ask at first for a hi gher figure than you really need. Alt hough there may be pro bl ems with co mprom ising, it is app rop riate for many co nAices. Whe n co ll abo rarion is imposs ibl e due ro rime pressu res or differences in values, co mpromise may represe nt the besr option avai labl e. W ith co mpromise each party docs nO( co mpletely receive what it wanted to begin wirh. However, if what each party had to give up seems balanced and (he so luti on appears foir co all sides, then co mpromise can wo rk quite well. We call110t emphasize too strongly the importance offilirness. Had Mary accepted Roge r's com pro m ise offer, the stud ent services comm inee wou ld have to ask whet her the co mpromise would be fair to the area that would lose mon ey. A co mpromise can wo rk only if all parties feel th e soluti on is fair, and th at no one has won. But parti es cannOt assume th ey know what "fair" means. Instead, both pa ni es should explai n ho nes tly what they believe is fair, and these individual co nceptions of fairness shou ld be included as absolute cr iteri a by which to eval uate the final decis ion.

Working with Conflict Management Styles. There are app ropriate times and situ ations to use each of the co nflict management styles described here. H owever, approaches that are integrative-in other wo rds, that focus on helping panicipants integrate thei r goals and needs-generally lead to better group decisions for comp lex tasks. Tim Kuhn and Marshall Scon Poo le loo ked at naturally occu rring groups in two major U.S. o rga nizations.32 Integra tive co nAict styles-col laboration and some times compromisewe re more effective than avo idance and co nfrontatio nal styles. Their observations of these groups also revealed imporrant insigh t into how they were able to productively manage their co nAi ct styles. Members worked to establish stable ro les, rel ationsh ips, and no rms for accomplishing th eir tasks. They for mulated no rms for handling conA ict early in their development and generally didn 't change their pacrerns much. The lesso n here is to pay atrention to your group's emergi ng norms for handling co nAict and ro discuss them if you believe they could be co unterproductive to good problem solving. In an insightful study of rhe process of co nse nsus in a naturally occurrin g gro up , Mary Ann Renz showed how groups that value consensus develop norms thar all ow them to deal with the push and pull between their efforrs ro be open with each ocher and the demands to finish the rask.H T his kind of te nsion can produce frustration and conAi ct in co nsensus dec isio n-maki ng gro ups. Building consensus over rime involves making Jors of Ji rri e decisions and requires [har groups maintain a wi llin gness to review their process and make

239

[ GLOSSA~Y

I Compromise

l

Conflict style show-

ing a preference for giving a little and gaining

a little to

manage the issue

]

240

C HAPTER 8

adaptations. So what happens when a previous proposal has bee n accepted bur sOlll eo ne now wants to challenge it? Rcnz di scovered that o nc part icular group used C. T. Burler and Am y Rothstein 's 199 1 book Ou Conflict find Consensus, which they caJled their "little wh ite book," as a procedural guide ro help them decide what they should do if so meo ne was blocking consensus on a proposal. Th is wo rked fo r them because rh ey had all decided on rhe validiry of rhe iinle whi te book and agreed ro fotlow its reco mmendations; rhe guidelines had already been dete rmin ed (Q be fai r. This is o ne exampl e cfhow a group effecti vely d eveloped its own norm s for managing conAict- in [his case procedural co nflict-fairly. Your group norms are a way of produ cti vely managing different co nAi ct sty les in yo ur gro up. T his di scuss io n reveals an impo rtant insight into how groups judge whi ch style is best for its dynami cs. Eac h o ne ca n be evaluated nor only in terms of its effectiveness but also in term of its ap propriaren ess.34 Effectiveness is judged by the perso n engagin g in the action , and approp ri ateness is judged by the o lh er m embers in acco rdance with soc ial no rms. For insta nce, more co ll aborat ive styles are seen as both effect ive and appropri ate, whereas co mpetition can be effective in reach ing your goals bur probably wi ll nor be see n as appropriate by othe rs. In our C ask and C leave r serve r group, Mark probably t ho ught he was being effec tive in p ursuing hi s inrerests, but o thers certain ly did not see his behav ior as app ropriate. Often we f.1. il to see rhar what is happening in our group co nA icts is a clash berween effcn ivcncss and appropriarc ness. J5 Conflict managem ent sryles are based o n culruraJ norms and expectatio ns like the o nes we talked about in C hapter 5. Th e advice we give you here, particul arly about openl y ex pressing yo ur disagreeme m , is co nsistclH with norms for th e individu ali stic cultures of the Un ited Sta tes and Western Europe. An analysis of co nAi ct managem ent stu di es has q ues tioned th e view that it is aJways ben er to exp ress co nAict directly. JO In Asian cultures, whi ch tend to be co ll ectivist, prese rving ha rmony and hel pin g othe rs save fa ce a re paramount in g ro up wo rk. A more direct, co mpetirive behav ior may be effective in getting so m ethin g don e in a gro up but would not be seen as approp ri ate by th ose who are more co llectiv ist o r interdepend ent w ith oth ers. Open disagreeme l1l is considered rude, in part because it ca n damage relationships. Avoidance, acco mm odatio n, and indirect expression of disagreement are co nsidered appropriate respo nses. Although more collectivist culrures such as Japan may prefer collabo rativc styles th aI value harmony and preserving the self-esteem of others, they m ay change the style depending o n whom the conAict involves and what it conce rns. In conAicts over vaJues and o pinions, Japanese (cnd to avoid co nAict wi th acq uaintances more with close fri ends; they are m ore collaborative with close fr iends. 37 T hey can act collectivist a nd interdependent with members of their in-groups but can turn very compet'itive toward members of Out-groups; thus, their intergrou p communication is not the same as their intragroup communicatio n.J S Each style is appropriate und er certain c ircumstances. bur having a more co llaborative sryle is preferred in most problem -solving di scuss io ns. YOli m ay have found yourself in temporary task groups like the o nes found in many sm all group cou rses. You usually have nOt m et yo ur group members before, do not plan on see ing th em after the class is fini shed , and have only a short amount of tim e-at leas t it ce rtai nly feels like it- to finish yo ur task. In temporary, highly task-focused gro ups, m embers generally perceive co llaborative styles as more co mpetent and avoidance styles as incompetent. 39 However, tim e may leave little room for collaborative sty les. Co nfronta tional, compet itive styles may be effective for fin ishing the task under [he g un , but they a re nor perceived as appropriate by other m em bers. So what do you do if you want to be both effe ctive and appropriate? Stay so lutio n-oriented

man

Managing Conflicts Productively

When Relational Conflict Gets In the Way

-----

We often assign our student groups to observe and gather informa-

tion about other real-life groups. One of our groups observed another group of students working on a project for a marketing class. This group of six included two men and four women, one of whom was

lesbian. When other group members talked about their girlfriends and boyfriends, Mary talked about her wife as well. Charlotte, one of the women, snickered and smirked whenever Mary shared personal information- though this behavior was expected and accepted for the other stud ents in this group. Our observing group couldn't help noticing Charlotte's disdain for Mary and became really upset when Charlotte's antagonism toward Mary escalated . Charlotte made fun of Mary and her wife when Mary wasn't there. She labeled Mary's ideas for the project "stupid" even though, according to the observing group, Mary had the most creative ideas for the marketing project and was able to back up her suggestions with factual information. In

addition, Charlotte forgot to tell Mary about a meeting the group had scheduled. In one particularly hostile instance, the marketing group had planned to meet in one room but decided to change rooms

after they got there. Mary had told them she would be a little late because she was coming from work. After the group changed rooms, Charlotte e-mailed Mary about the change but did not tell Mary where they had moved. Mary eventually found the right room, after wandering all over the building searching for her team. Instead of apologizing, Charlotte yelled at her for being later than she had said. Through all thiS, Mary remained polite, engaged, and friendly. The observing students were horrified! They felt bad for Mary, couldn't believe how badly Charlotte treated her, and also were distressed that no one in the group called Charlotte on her hostile behavior or came to Mary's defense. We have discussed in several places how conflict over the task and procedures can turn into relational conflict rather easily. In this case, we see a situation whe re, from the start, a relational conflict con-

sistently interfered with the effective management of group task work. 1. Although we did not address sexual orientation in the diversity chapter, it is an individual difference that can elicit strong feel-

ings. Charlotte obviously felt strongly opposed to working with someone of Mary's sexual orientation. What do you think Charlotte should have done, knowing that she felt so strongly? 2 . This situation was a no-win one for Mary. If she kept silent about the mistreatment, she seemed to be condoning it. But if she said something, she would have put herself in a vulnerable positionher grade depended on the team's work. What do you think Mary should have done about being bullied? (continued)

241

242

CHAPTER 8

Continued 3. The other members of the marketing group stood by and watched Charlotte bully Mary. What options did they have? What would you have done if you had been a member of this group? 4. The observing group was a guest, in a way. They had permission

to observe, but were not expected to interfere in the marketing group's interactions. What choices did they have? What would you have done if you had been on the observation team?

in you r conflict strategi es. and stay away from avoidance sryles. If YO li believe the circu m5(ance calls for morc controlling behaviors, which can be effCClive bur which may jeopardi7"c appropriateness, then alen members to what you are doing--ex plain your behavior so you don 't seem arbilrarily confrontat ional. A comment such as " We are running out of tim e. and I know lhis will sound pushy, bur could we consider voting o n this to see where we all stand? " could act to so ften the arrempt at comra!' There is a deli cate balance between

[he effectiveness and appropriateness of our behaviors in groups, especially in conA icL Keep this in mind as we discliss more specifically how to ethically ex press di sagreement.

EXPRESSING DISAGREEMENT ETHICALLY When yo u express disagreemenr. [he bow is just as important as the whal. This di stin ct ion is sign ificanr; no maner how valid your disagreement is, if yo u express it in a tactless or arrogam way, you hurt yo ur chance of bene firing the group. A legitimare concern (the wbat) can be expressed so insensiti vely (me how) thac even a rati onal group member becomes defensive rach er lhan receptive to what you have to say. The following suggestions. sum marized in Table 8.3, will help you disagree without damaging relationships with other group members.

1. Express your disagreement. A disagreem ent' has no chance of helping a group if it is nor expressed. An un ex pressed disagree ment does nm disappear- it goes und erground, CO resurface in inappropriate ways. Avoiding a conAict is only a te mporary "solucion." Issues ca n pile up so that evenrually a large blowup occurs when each issue could have been ha ndled individually. Remember that disagreements ca n help a group arrive at the best possible dec ision or so lution, and [hat failure to express disagree menrs ca n lead (0 poor deci sion making.

2. Express your disagreement in a timely way. Research demonstrat es that when you disagree may be JUSt as imponam as what you say.40 When group members approach a deadline or have already decided on a proposal, rhey are less ro leranr of a member who introduces a dissenring opinion or wanrs (Q reconsider a prev ious decision because this threatens closure. 41 Members ca n respond rather emoti onally to a late disagreement. Group members should check regularly with each other on their position s a nd watch nonverbal behavio r for signs of dissent. Anorher idea is (Q hold smaller informal meetin gs specifically to talk abom proposals, which e nco urages more reti ce nt m embers to vo ice their concerns. Some groups al so li se "seco nd-chance" meetings to try CO avoid lare disagreement.

Managing Confli cts Productively

TABLE B.3

How to Disagree Productive ly

EX PRESS YOUR DI SAGREEME NT 1. Remember that fa ilure to express doubts and disagreements deprives the group of potentially valuable information and reason ing.

EXPRESS DI SAGREEMENT IN A TIMELY WAY 1.

Don't wait until the deadline is near to speak .

•

EXPRESS DISAGREEMENTS WITH SEN SITIVITY TOWARD OTHERS 1. Disagree w it h the idea, but do not criticize the person.

2 . Use neut ral, not emotionally cha rged, language. 3. Be respectful of diffe rent face needs of members.

REACT TO DISAGREEMENT WITH A SPIRIT OF INQUIRY, NOT DEFENSIVENESS 1 . Ask for crit icism of your ideas and opinions. 2 . Show yo u are interested in the other's opinion by listening actively and sincerely.

3. Clarify misunderstandings that may have occurred. 3. Exp ress your disagreements with rhetorical sensitivity toward the rest of the group.

Disagree wirh the idea, o r parts of th e idea, without crit icizing the person. Suppose yo u have just sugges ted thar your ca m pus shut down its snack bar at 5 P.M. to cut costs. Which response would you rat her hear: "Thar's stupid! What are the even in g stude nts supposed to do, starve?" or "One problem I see is ("hat your suggest ion does not consider eve nin g students' needs for food service"? The first respo nse impl ies that th e spea ker is stupid , arouses defensiveness, and cu ts off further exam ination of rhe issue. The seco nd response describes a major problem with th e sugges ti on bur leaves room for di scuss ion regarding how ro cu t food service costs. The second response is helpful; the fi rst is not. Another way to show you r sensitivity is ro use neutral instead of emotionally charged language. Na me-call in g or otherwise pushing people's emotional buttons is never helpfu l. One of us recently ane nded a meeting where one member, John, who disagreed with anoth er member, Janos, made a sni de play on words using Janos's lase nam e. Naturally, Janos was offended, and rhe atmosphere remained tense until John apo logized . Disagreeing by making fun of others does not improve the group 's decision-making process. Stee r dear of wo rds that yo u think might be offensive; be rh eto ri call y sensitive. Review Chapter 3's lessons on the powerful ways our language cre~Hes the cl imate and tone of grou p imeraction. The material on man agi ng tensions in your group in C hapre r 4 and on worlci ng with diversity in C hapter 5 offers additional suggestions for being rhetorically sensitive to others. Reca ll that rhe cen tral fearu re of working wirh divers ity is human respect and rhe belief rhat f.."1irness applies (Q everyone:i2 We all, no matTer what our cultural

243

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CHAPTER 8

backgrounds, have face needs, but we achieve th em difTeremly. Srella T ing-T oomey suggests that morc of LIS need lO "give face" more ohen to orhcrs:43 For someone who is morc ind ividuali stic, this means avo id ing behaviors that wo uld hum iliate a no ther member in fro m of alh ers. Fo r someone who is more collectivist, th is means atte nding more ro substantive issues rather tha n bei ng rela rionaiJy focused a1l rhe rime.

4. React to disagreement with a spirit of inquiry, not defens iveness. W hether yo u are rhe group's leader o r JUSt a member, every g roup member contributes

w rhe climate of rhe group through their behaviors. W hen so meo ne disagrees with YOll, if you show that you arc inrercsred in what the other member is saying and in his or her reasons for disagree ing, you send rhe right message to the rest o f the group. Even if the disagreement was ex pressed poo rl y, you do not have to let so m eo ne else's insensit ivity co mrol your reaction . Group members' reactions to argument are mo re important than th e arguments themselves in cre~1[ in g group divisiveness over isslles. 44 Listen acrively (Chapter 3) ro the person who disagrees, make sure that person has undersrood your pos ition accurately, cla ri fY any misunderstandings that may have occurred, and show that YOll are will ing to work together to find the best possible solution. For exam ple, Karee ma's co mmittee had wo rked for several month s o n a proposal to c hange rhe c riteria fo r promorion in her department. A new membe r, appo inted to rhe committee ro replace so meo ne who had IeFr rhe depa rtmenr, qu estioned rh e co mmittee's preliminary in vest igation, saying, " ) don ' t see how that's go ing ro work. Seems to me you' ll have more problems than yo u had before." Altho ugh Kareema Jelt defensi ve, she reacted calmly and asked, " Derek, what problems do you see w ith the proposal?" Derek explained his co nce rns, several of whi ch un covered prob lems Kareema's comm irree had over looked. T he co mminee's revised proposa l accommodared Derek's co ncern s. Th e final proposa l was mu ch stro nger and was overwhelmin gly approved by the rCSt of th e depa rtm ent. Exa mples like thi s show how you can make di sagree ment and co nflier wo rk for you r gro up rather than against it.

MAXIMIZING YOUR CHANCES TO INFLUENCE THE GROUP Exp ress ing YOllr d isagree ment is rhe on ly way to make your ideas and reaso ning avai lab le to t he group. Even so, ir is ofren diffi cult for people who are perce ived as group devia nts,

cven benefi cial idea deviants, to inAu ence th e othe r members of th e gro up . W hether you sta nd alone as an idea devia nr o r belong ro a minor iry subgroup, t he following suggest ions w ill help you max imize yo ur inAu ence when YO ll ex press your d isagreement.

L. Make sure your arguments are of ~igh quality. Th is is the single most imponanr t hing that yo u can do. Rick Ga rli ck and Paul Mo ngea u found t hat, although severa l factors-incl uding the id ea deviant's expertise, attracti veness, and job status-affect that person's status wi thin the gro up, o nl y the qualiry of the deviant's argulllenr directl y inHuences rhe other mcmbe rs' ani rude c han gc.~ ~ That m eans YO LL must think th e probl em throug h ca refull y and be willing to liste n to th e objeclio ns others may have.

2. Make sure your arguments are consistent. Lisa Gebhan and Re nee M eye rs found thar su bgroups expressi ng minoriry op in ion s are more successful if rhey generally stick to a co nsistenr message. 46 T hi s is especially imponant during th e latte r pa rt of a di scuss io n. These auth ors recommend,

Managing Conflicts Productively

245

however, that a minority subgroup not be so consistent tha t it appears rigid and unable (Q understand others' views.

~ Loss~l

3. If you are a member of a subgroup, make sure all the subgroup members publicly agree with each other. Subgroups, or coa litions, are a powerful way group members have of inAuencing each other in conA ictY They occu r for a varie!:), of reasons. Some form around popular members, some because members are not sure who has the power and who does not. Often, group members form coalitions because they lack resources or power and hope to increase their inAu ence~"power in numbers." However, coal itions containing members who 'disagree with each other are less inAuenrial than coaliti ons presenting a united front. 48 The subgroup members shou ld meet privately and hash OUt any di sagreemems among themselves before they meet with the rest of the group so that they can agree on a consistenr message.

THE NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE A major advantage of group over individual problem solving is thar several heads can be bener than one. But cap italizi ng on that advantage can be difficult. While the number of ideas increases with additional members, the opportunity for conAict also increases. One techn iqu e, the nominal group technique, can be used by a group to help members reach a decision on a comroversial issue without bitterness from a win-lose conA ict. Nom inal means "i n name only." The nominal group technique capitalizes on the finding that sometim es people working individually while in the presence of others generate more ideas than while interacti ng as a group. In addition, sometim es dominant members inhibit the participation of quieter members. The nominal group technique gets around this potemial problem by alternating between solitary work and group interaction. One organization used the nominal group technique as part of a detailed decision analysis procedure to decide what type of comp uter system ro buy. This complex organization cons isted of many different units and subunits that coordinated work with each other, but it also had unique co mputing needs that had to be satisfied . The nominal group technique helped all these individual units achieve consensus about the best compute r system to buy. Participants were satisfied with both the process and rhe ourcome. 49 In the nominal grou p technique, members (usually six to nine) work individually in each mher's presence by writing their ideas. Then members record the ideas on a chart, discuss them as a group, and finally evaluate them by a ranking procedure until members reach a decision. The following steps, summarized in Figure 8.2, make up the process.

1. The problem, situation, or question is stated clearly and concisely. Elements of the problem or question are described, and d iscrepancies bervveen what is desired and what currently exists are explained, often by a member of top management. Care must be taken not to mention possible solutions. Group members can ask qu es tion s to clarifY or add information about the problem. If the group is large, it may be subd ivided into smaller groups, each with its own facilitator. 2. The coordinator asks participants to generate a list of the features or characteristics of the problem or question. Steps 1 and 2 may be combined; the fac ilitator presents the problem and moves the group d irectl y to step 3.

r

Nominal Group Technique A technique that alternates between individual work and group work to help a group hear from every member when discussing a contro· versial issue

246

CHAPTER 8

FIGURE. 8.2

Problem is staled dearly and concisely; features of

problem ore listed.

Steps for Conducting the Nominal Group Technique

Each

Eoch person places a Slicker

Group

Group reaches

suggestion is

discusses

a decision.

recorded on a

by his/her

lop-rated ilems.

chari in round-robin

ilems.

top-ronked

fashion.

\ / \ / \ / \ / Porlicirxmls

f'.Aembers

work silently to

clarify items jf necessary.

creole

Average rollngs are compiled .

Group revotes if necessary.

individuol lisls

of possible solutions.

3. The coordinator gives the g roup 5-15 minutes to work silently.

E.1ch person brainwrires as m ~my soimions or answers to the original question as possible. 4. Each suggestio n is listed a nd recorded in round-ro bin fashion on a chart visible to aJl members. The first perso n gives one i(cm from his or her list , and th e recorder lists ir. Then th e next person gives one item, :lnd so fo[th , until rhe mastcr list is complete. If any additional id eas or items occur (0 people whil e the list is bein g compil ed. th ey should add them to th e Illaster list. During thi s step no discuss ion of (h e merits of th e suggestions is permitted.

5. Members clarify the items but do not yet evaluate them. Th e group di sc lisses each item on the list, bur on ly to clarify or elaborate on if. Any member may ask what a parricular item mean s, bur argu ing, criricizin g, and disagreeing are nO( permitted during step 5.

6. Each person chooses his or her

top~ranked

items.

The eas iest way (0 do rh is is (0 give each perso n :1set of sti ckers [0 place next m hi s or her most imponant itcms. Sometimes particip:uHs arc instru cted to place one sti ch r by the five most important items. O ther tim es participanls are mid they ca n di stribute their stickers however th ey wanr. includin g placing all five o n one item. Th en th e items with the Illos t stickers become rh e agenda items for the group's discuss ion.

7. The group engages in full discussion of th e top- rated items. This discussion should be a freewheel ing and tho rough eva luative di scllssion. C riri ca l thinking. d isagreemcnr, and ex hausti ve analys is of the items are encouraged.

8. A decision is reached. Often thc discuss ion in step 7 will produce a co nsensus decisio n. If so, th e gro up 's work is completcd. If nOt, group members can revore on rhe items and continue their discuss ion. Steps 6 and 7 may be repeated as often as necessa ry unt il support

247

Managing Confli cts Productively

for one id ea, or for a comb ination of ideas, emerges. Th e decision is then acted on by the group or the parem organization that established the group. This tech nique minimizes the disadvantages of group discussion and maximizes the benehts. The so litary work neutralizes the stifling effect of domineering members and the tendency for lazy or shy mem bers (0 let others carry the ball. The open discussion frequently produces well-thought-out group decisions. However, be carefu l not to overuse this technique when you wish (Q create a sense of teamwork. Ie doesn't always create cohesiveness and sometimes produces lower sati sfaction ratings than normal discussion. BO(h of lIS have lIsed thi s technique, or n1odifications of it, with great success. One of us employed it to help a major manufacturer identify problems with package instructions for a product and to suggest possible solutions for these problems. Recently, we used a modification of the nominal group technique with students to help plan changes (Q the communication curriculum. In each case it was nO( important for th e group members providing the information (0 develop a sense of cohes iveness; thus, the nominal gro up technique was ideally suited for th e si tuations. Working to balance the effectiveness and appropriateness of our behaviors when we express disagreement and attempt (Q maximize our influence in our groups is cen tral (Q productive conflict. The nominal group technique helps (Q facilitate this balance. In addition, another technique has been found to be useful to groups.

STEPS IN PRINCIPLED NEGOTIATION Each member of a group, along with the group's leader, is respo nsible for helping manage the conA icts that arise within the group. However, even though yo u may want to resolve a co nfli ct effectively, you may not know how to proceed or previous attempts have not worked. The following helpful steps are suggested by Roger Fisher and William Ury in their book Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In. 50 following these suggestions will help a group engage in principled negotiation, a conRict management procedure that encourages people to search for ways of meeting their own needs without damaging their relationships with others. Members can use this procedure collectively, or the designated leader or O(her facilitator can guide members through the process (Q a so lution. 1. Separate the people from the problem. Sometimes confl ict produces such strong emotions that people can not be objective. What may start as a disagreement about how to get someth ing done becomes a personal declaration of war in which combatants try to hurt each other. Our Cask and C leaver crew started out selectin g shifts and ended up calling each other names. Earlier, when we discussed con fli ct types, we explai ned how important it is to separate the peop le from the issues. People believe and act in ways that make sense to them. Try not to take di sagreement personally- usually, it is the result of strong beliefs that someo ne else holds. The administrative headquarters of a church recently experien ced serious conflict among administrators. Members on both sides of the fence began to talk about the other side as the enemy. After several long sessions with a trained mediator, people on each side began to listen carefull y to those on the other side. Each side learned that the other side cared deeply about the issues; they also realized that they shared many concerns. Even tually, the conflict was resolved and the bad feelings healed. Th is occurred in part because both sides demonstrated that they cared abom each other and because they focused on the issues that divided them rather than on personalities.

I GLOSSARY Principled Negotiation One way af dealing with conflict thot promotes finding ways to meet the needs of conflicting parties and respecting their relationship

248

CHAPTER 8

Helping the Cask and Cleaver Crew The Cask and Cleaver work crew sti ll must come up with the next six-month

shift schedule. They almost had their schedule until Mark discovered he had been skipped. Now they are taking sides, acting defensive, and ca lling each other names. Your job is to take the role of each crew member and use the nominal group technique to create a shift schedu le that is satisfactory t o all

the crew. Mark and Beth are married, and Beth has major health problems. Mark is a full-time student, and Beth works full time. Maria is married and recently started her own business. Tom and Nathan are students at a local university working toward a teaching credential. Paul is a graduate student

and single. Tracey is an undergraduate and recently divorced. Jeremy, an undergraduate, is single and lives at home with his parents. Select a facilitator to help the "crew" go through the eight steps of the nominal group technique. After a solution is derived, the class can discuss the following: 1. What was difficult about the procedure? 2. Did the "crew" think that the technique helped in any way? If so, how? If not, why?

3. Read ahead and see if this crew's solution is anything like the one the real crew devised. 2. Focus on interests, not positions.

Croup members are tempted co stake out positions from which rhey cannot be budged. ffRoger says, "I insist that we keep the snack bar open in the evening," and Mary says, "We have to close the snack bar in the evening to save money," there is no way to reconcile those positions-they are incompatible. The harder individuals cling to them, the more difficult it will be to resolve the conAict. However, people stake out positions for reasons that seem good to rhem.1r is the reasons for the positions (personal interests) [hat should be the focus of the negoriation. In our earl ier example, Mary wanted to save the campus money while Roger wanted to make sure the evening students were provided with food service. Nor only are these legitimate interests, but they also are probably interests commo n to both Roger and ~ary. Roger cared about financial solvency, and Mary cared about serving even ing students, but each of them emphasized a different prioriry. One way to reframe this issue was to dose rhe snack shop at 5 P.M. (thereby saving on labor and utility costs) but provide vendi ng machines with a variety of sandwiches and snacks. In this way, the legitimate interests of each individual were served. T he work crew of the Cask and Cleaver all had reasons for their positions. Mark and Beth faced huge doctor bills because Beth has a congenital heart defect. Maria recently started a new business. Paul, Mark's former roommate, felt hurt by Mark's indifference to his schedule. All were legitimate feelings and interests and had to be dealt with in the discussion if members were to manage their conflict productively. 3. Invent new options for mutual gain.

Group members shou ld become creative at inventing alternatives. A number of techniques, such as brainstorming, are designed to help groups become more inventive.

Managing Conflicts Productively

Should He Go Back to School? Sam and Tashie have been married for 12 years. Sam wants to quit his job because he is bored and believes they had an agreement that he would be able to complete his education after they had been married a few years. Tashie owns her own company, which is finally getting off the ground, and she doesn't believe they have the money for Sam to leave his job. Select two students to role-play the discussion between Sam and Tashie in front of the class. After the role-play, use th e principled negotiation pro-

cedure with the entire class to help Sam and Tashie manage the conflict. 1. People: Ask the role-players how they feel about the argument,

themselves, and the other person. Emphasize the importance of recognizing feeling s. 2. Interests: Distinguish between the irreconcilable positions and the interests behind each position . Have the class and the ro l e~players participate in discovering what each person's interests may be. 3. Options: Ask the class and the role-players to brainstorm creative options for this couple. Emphasize the point that interests

may be met in a variety of ways, one of which is bound to be

ac~

ceptable to both. 4. Criteria: Explore whether any objective criteria might apply to this couple's dilemma.

If Roger and Mary's committee had assumed there were only two available op~ tions-keeping the snack shop open past 5 P.M. or clos ing it-members could never have effectively managed the issue. The same committee later resolved a similar issue with the bookstore by inventing a solution that was nor apparent when the commit~ tee first began to discuss the issue. You can probably remember other examples in which a group was able to invent a new option that met everyone's interests. Initially the only options our Cask and C leaver crew presented were ro start all over again or keep going and ignore Mark's skipped turn. Another option, one that the crew did not consider, was ro go back to the point where Mark was skipped, keep everything the same up until then, and start anew from Mark's skipped turn. In fact, Tracey's option effectively so lved the problem. She pointed our that while it was not Mark and Beth's fault that Paul and Tom had night classes, it also was not Paul and Tom's fault that Beth needed surgery. She suggested that Mark give his night shift to Tom so he and Berh, who didn't work that night, could spend some time together. Mark saw the logic in Tracey's solution and gave his valued shift to Tom. All members apologized to those whom they had offended. The crew was able to come up with an option that gave them murual gain given their reasons for their positions. 4. Insist on using objective criteria. Much wasted time can be saved if members use criteria they agree are fair and ap~ propriate for evaluating solutions, much like the "little white book" in an earlier example. For example, the Kelley Blue Book establishes a price range rhar helps

249

250

CHAPTER 8

both used-car buyers a nd sel lers determine the f..1.ir price for a ca r. You may want

$10,000 for your 15-year-old T ayota Corolla, but bmh you and potential buyers know that you won't get it! Using prices supp li ed by the Blue Book as criteria allows the negotiation {O take place within narrower, morc realistic limits. The same use of objective criteria occurs in other siruarions too. One of our students, a residence haJl adviser, recently used the principled negotiation technique with four roommates having problems devising an equitable schedule for leaving their suite clean at the end of rhe school year. Instead of doing what she normally would do (that is, assigning specifi c responsibilities to each roommate), Amanda met with all four women together and asked them what was most important to each regarding this endof-year task. It turned out that each woman wanted the tasks to be divided fairly and to be assured that the last woman to leave the suite would nOt be stuck with tasks the others had not completed. Amanda asked them how they would divide the tasks and establish consequences to ensure that each woman completed her assigned duties. The roommates themselves divvied up the work and suggested several options for holding one another accountable. Amanda was delighted because the women owned the solution and were more likely to carry it out than one she had imposed on them. Even with the best of intentions, sometimes a group becomes deadlocked in its conAict. We recommend that groups rry to resolve their own conflicts first, but if that isn't possible, a group can try mediation o r arbitration. The principled negotiation procedure can be used by an outside facilitator. This may be necessary if the leader has been actively involved in the conflict. Finally, a group may bring in an outside arbitrator with power to settl e the dispute. However, these are last resorts. It is far better if a group can resolve its own conAic(s.

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

•

Three common myths abo ut conflict are that conflict is always harmful, it is due to misunderstandings. and it can be resolved by good communication.

•

Group norms for expressi ng disagreement and influencing each other should balance both the demands of effectiveness and appropriateness ~specially during confli ct.

•

Two co nflict types in groups involve the task and relationships between group members.

•

Group members can use the nominal group technique, which balances solitary and gro up

•

The five common conflict management styles of avoidance, accommodation. competition, collaboration, and comprom ise are each appropriate in certain circumstances, but styles that encourage members to look for ways to satisfy all participants are usually preferable.

work, to help work rhrough poten tially co ntentious discussions. •

Group members can also use procedures such as principled negotiation, which focuses on people's interests rather than positions, finding creative options, and using objective criteria to resolve conflicts.

M anaging Conflicts Productively

1. Rent either Twelve Angry Men or Lord of ,he Flies. Watch the movie and observe types of co nflicts: how these conflicts were handled, what th e effects of the conflicts were on the group, how decision making was affected by the various conflicts, and what the group co uld have done to improve its ability to manage conRict. You can do this yourself, or you can discuss your observations with others in dass who have also watched the video. 2. Think of a group you currently belong to. Recollect two recent conflicts in the group. Write an essay describing the conflict, labeling the type of conflict, and reporting how it was managed. Draw some conclusions abom co nflict in group inreracrion from these observations.

3. Divide yourselves into groups and come [Q a consensus regarding what you would do abom each of the following group problems.

251

a. Ann has missed the first three meetings of the group. For the firsr two she said she had to work, but she offered no reason for missing the last one. She also has completed none of the work she agreed to do for the group.

h. Bob is a domineering individual who attempts to control me direction of me group. He evaluates each idea as soon as it is presented. As a result, the rest of the members have stopped volunteering suggestions and ideas.

c. The members of the group have fal len into rwo subgroups, and competition has arisen between the subgroups. If you didn 't have to work together, you would have split apart long ago. ~

a.1'fI1'I

nn

1V1

Go to www.mhhe.oomladamsgalanes& and www.mhhe.oomlgroups fOr self· quizzes and weblinks.

Accommodation

Compromise

Relational Conflict

Avoidance

Conflict

Task Conflict

Collaboration

Nominal Group Technique

Competition

Principled Negotiation

Applying leadership Principles

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: 1. Distinguish between leadership and a leader; differentiate a designated from an emergent leader.

2. Describe the seven sources of a leader's power, and give an example of each. 3. List and discuss the myths of leadership. 4. Discuss different approaches to understanding leadership.

S . Describe the administrative duties leaders are expected to perforrg, and explain how leaders can perform these effectively. 6 . List and explain six tips for leading group discussions. 7. Explain how establishing a climate of trust, developing

teamwork, and promoting cooperation can help develop the group.

8. Define distributed leadership and discuss what it means

to encourage it. 9 . List and explain the ethical guidelines for group leaders.

Applying leadership Principles

The College Service Club

TerryAnn was so envious of the close, cohesive executive committee of her service club that she decided to run for office so she could be part of the team. When she was elected president as a junior, she was thrilled. She wanted the club and the executive committee to continue experiencing the same success she had witnessed as a member. Unfortunately, things didn't turn o~t that way. TerryAnn and the rest of the executive committee met soon after the spring election to make plans for the upcoming fall. Although many good ideas surfaced at this meeting, no one wrote them down. TerryAnn was somewhat intimidated by all the seniors on the executive committee, and she was reluctant to assign tasks or even ask the other members to do things. No one else picked up the ball either. Consequently, no one remembered what they had decided or knew who was supposed to do what. Committee members lost valuable summer planning time because they weren't organized. When fall came, they had to scramble to catch up. TerryAnn's reluctance to guide the process affected both the executive committee and the regular org anizational meetings. She made no effort to start the meetings on time, so members got into the habit of com ing late. Because there was no agenda, members did not know what they would be discussing or what materials they shou ld bring to the meetings. Discussion was haphazard, jumping from one topic to the next without ever finishing a single subject. No meeting minutes were ever compiled or distributed, so members weren't sure what actions had been decided or who was assigned to what tasks. As a result of the disorganization in the executive committee, service club members became disenchanted with the organization. Membership decreased. As the frustrating year drew to a close, TerryAnn was increasing ly depressed because her high hopes for the club had not come close to being realized.

T

his story could have had a different ending if T erryAnn had kn own what the other members expected of her. Because she was afraid to be seen as a dictator, she did the exact opposite. But th e group members we re practi cally begging for TerryAnn to give them structure and organ izati on so tha t th e club's jobs wouJd get done. TerryAnn 's "leadership" did not match what the gro up needed and expected from her.

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CHAPTER 9

254

In this chapter we will differentiate leadership from leaders, describe th e sources of a leader's power, discuss myths abom leadership and different ways (Q understand effective leadership, and explain rhe typical duties of designated small group leaders. In addition, we suggest guidelines to encourage distributed leadership and describe erhicalleader behavior.

leadership and leaders Effective leadership is an cssemial element in successful groups. Most scholars believe that

every member of a group, nOt juSt the leader, can help provide leadership. We now look more closely at how leaders and members actually provide leadership to the group.

WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?

I GLOSSARY I Leadership The use of communication to modify

attitudes and behaviors of members to meet group goafs and needs Influence

The use of inter-

personal power to modify the actions and attitudes of

members Legitimate Power Influence bosed on Q

member's title

or position in the group

I

Michael Hackman and Craig Johnson define leadersh ip as "human (symbolic) communication which modifies the attirudes and behaviors of others in order to meet shared group goals and needs. '" This definition of leadership matches the ideas behind our defi nition of communication presented to YOll in Chapter 1. Communication involves people creating, interpreting, and negotiating shared meaning and that included leadership and what it means (Q a group. Communication is (he central defining activity of leading and implies three things. First, leadership is accomplished through communication- what a group member actually says and does in person-co-person interaction. Leadership involves persuasion and discussion , not psychological coercion or physical force. Second, leadership consists of those behaviors that help the group achieve shared goals. A rebel-even a popular one others admire- would not be considered a group leader if the rebellious anions interfered with the group's accomplishment of its goals. Finally, the term modifies in the definition suggests that group leaders must be adaptable to the changing conditions of the group. Thus, leadership is a dynamic process bervveen leaders and followers, not a fixed quality. Leadership does not exist in a vacuum; it is a shared property of the group that is created through communicative interaction.

SOURCES OF POWER AND INFLUENCE Leadership implies influence, which is the use of interpersonal power to modifY others' actions- a communicative activity. The capability co influence is the central defining characteristic ofleadership. 2 Where does this ability to influence others come from? Why do some people have an easy time getting. others ro work for them, but others do not? Bertram Raven and John French identified five sources of interpersonal power that capture the different kinds of influence between leaders and followers: legitimate, reward, punishment, expert, and referene) Although these five sources of power are the most widely cited, we will also include two other sources of power recognized in theories of leadership: informational and ecoiogicaL 4 Tabl e 9.1 summarizes (he seven. A member's tide or position confers legitimate power. For instance, other members expecr their president or chair (Q call meetings, esrablish an agenda, and coordinate tasks. JUSt having the tid e of "chair, " whether the individual was appointed or elected to the position, gives that individual th e ability and right to influence the others. T erryAnn did not recognize that she had the legitimate power, as president, co do such things as asking another member to take meeting notes or assigning tasks.

255

Applying leadership Principles

TABLE 9.1

Sources of Power and Influence

LEGITIMATE POWER

Leader is elected or appointed; has a ti tle (chair, coordinator). REWARD OR PUNISHMENT

Leader can give or take away items of value; may be tangible (money, promotion, titles) or intangible (praise, acceptance). EXPERT POWER

Leader has information, knowledge, or skills needed and va lued by the group. REFERENT POWER

Leader is ad mired and respected; other group members try to copy his or her behavior.

GLOSSARY ]

INFORMATION POWER

Leader has access to information and controls distribution of information.

Reward power: -

ECOLOGICAL POWER

Influence derived from someone's

Leader directs how a task is organized and can alter a group's working physical environment.

ability to give members what they want and need

Reward power comes from so meo ne's ability to give ochers what they want and val ue, and punishment power co mes from the abili ty to take those things away. Both rewa rds and punishments can be tangible or intangible. For instance, Sa ndra rewards her fellow members with praise and encouragemenr. These intangible items, along with others such as attention and smilin g, have great power to inAue nce others. Sim ilarly, frowning, ignorin g someo ne, askin g a member to redo an assignmenr, and so fonh are inrangible ways of punishing group members. Tangible rewards ca n include such things as special privil eges, monetary bonuses, and promotions. Tangible punishments may include taking away special privileges, giving so meo ne undes irable assignmems or work shifts, or even firing a member. Coercion is o ne ex treme form of punishment involving threats o r force to make a member co mply. Such tactics can breed resentment, sa botage, and rebellion. We think coe rcio n is inappropriate to use in small groups. Another form of power is expertise. An individual with expert power is perceived by other members to have knowledge o r skill valuable to the group. Fo r instance, Becky's group called her the " PowerPoint Queen" because she could do anything with PowerPoint and had a good eye for design. Members took her advice wheneve r they had to design a public prese ntation of any kind. IlHeresti ngly, expen power does nO( guarantee that a member will be rh e leader of a group. Somerimes, for exam ple, the most analytical member of a group can demonstrate th e mosr inAuence yet nO( be recognized by members as th e gro up's leader.5 A person with referent power is someone others ad mire and want [0 be like. Most of us want rhe people we like to like LI S back. T hat desire gives them tremendous power over us.

Punishment Power Influence derived from someone's ability to take away what members want and value

Coercion Using threats of force 10 make a member comply

Expert Power Interpersonal influence that stems from someone's perceived knowl. edge or skill

Referent Power Influence due 10

a person's ability to be liked and admired

256

CHAPTER 9

~OSSARY~

Si nce we wam them to like liS, we will often do what we think they wam us ro do-even , sometimes, when we know [har what they're asking us to do is wrong! In high school one of liS belonged to a social group led by a "cool" informal leader with conside rabl e referent power. Members of her grou p accepted Sue's op inions abo ut a variety of iss ues: how ro dress. whom ro date, what schoo l activi ties ro join. O ne day Sue suggested that the gro up d itch sc hoo l for the afternoon. Group members did- much [0 rh eir dismay when rh ey all go, caugh,' Two other sources of power ex tend ou r understanding of rh e kind of inAuence leaders enacr in groupS.6 Information power involves the d egree of co mrol a leader ca n have over info rmatio n. This co ncrol ca n invo lve rhe actual amoulH of informa tion a leade r has as well as rhe leader's access [Q info rmation usefu l ro th e group . which can impact the leader' s perceived ex pertise. A leader's control of informarion ca n leave her or him as the gro up 's o nly so urce of impo rtant infor mation , thus in creasing members' dependence o n the leader. We pointed out in C hapre r 4 that so metimes managers resist rhe adopt io n of new rechnology because rhey do nor want others havi ng access to chat information. In addition. a leader's distribution of informat ion ca n greatl y influence how orhers interpret the information. For example. if a leader wams in creased suppOrt for hi s or her position. he or she can edit out informat io n that might weaken evidence supporting that posit ion. Fin ally. ecological power involves a form of indirec( infl uence sremmin g from rh e abi liry [0 co ntrol rhe organi zation of wor k and rhe physica l environm ent of the group. We often do nor recogn ize th at so methin g as simpl e as being able to arrange a gro up's work ing environment ca n influence member beh av io r. Recall from C hapter 3 rhat who sits next to whom, for example. guides who has access to who m in a gro up . In additio n, direc ring rhe procedures a gro up wi ll usc to co mplete its task or influencin g rhe kind of technology rhe group will usc influences members' satisfaction and their relati ons hips to each o th er. Because TerryA nn did not wa nt to jeopardize her acce ptan ce by o thers. she was relu cranr ro take charge by orga nizing the gro up 's processes. Th is lack of ecolog ica l power th en redu ced her power in other ways-s uch as her legirimate power as des ignated leader. A gro up leader's influ ence usually stems from more [han JUSt o ne of these powe r sou rces. Sue, for example. had referenc power because she was cool. Bur she also had power ro reward and punish-she co uld invite you to he r nex t parry. o r she cou ld punish yo u by leaving yo u out. Presid cnc Saraek Obama, roo, possesses referent power among his c10sesr circle of advisers. as well as legitimare power, and the abil iry ro rewa rd and punish. Debate so meti mes surrounds his abili ry to co nt rol the information co ming out of [h e W hite House. This ability co co nrrol info rm ac io n would not be so co ntrove rsial if it were nor associated wir h power- who has it and who does nor. As you ca n guess. rh e more sources of power within a group, th e grea ter th e leader's abi liry to inA uence ot hers. Thus [1. r. we have equated groll p lead ership with th e abili ry to influence orh ers, and we have exam ined the sources from wh ich rhar influ ence may stem. Now we tu rn our ancnrion CO rh e specific people who exe rcise inAuence- th e leaders of a gro up .

nform.tlon

~

Power

Influence based on

a person's ability to control information

Ecological Power

Influence derived

from

Q

penon's

ability to monipu-

IDle the logistics of the task os well as the physlCol envi· ronment of a group

Leader

Any penon in the group who uses interpersonal mflu-

ence /0 help the group achieve its goofs

WHAT IS A LEADER? A leader is Ilny person who exerc ises interperso nal influence (Q help a group anain its goa ls. That's whar makes di stribured leadership , discussed in C hapter 1, poss ible. There arc seve ral important impii ca ri ons to thi s statement. First, [his definition of leader implies

257

Applying Leadership Principles

that all individuals in a group can (and should) supply some of the needed leadership serv ices to the group. Second, it does nOt require that a leader hold a particular tirle or office. Any member of a group, with or without a title, can at times function as a group's leader. Third, the defin ition assumes that communication is the process duough which a person accually leads others. In other words, rather than assuming that leaders are born or must have particular tides, this definition suggests that leaders perfonn behaviors that help a gro up achieve irs goals. We next discuss the two types of leaders found in groups.

Designated Leader.

The designated leader is the group 's legitimate leader who holds a tirle (e.g., chair, coordinator, moder~tor, facilitator, president) (hat identifies him or her as having a spec ific position in the group. Usually, group members expect the designated leader to perform a va ri ety of coordination functions for th e group. For example, Michael Kramer found in hi s smdy of a comm uni ty theater group that members expected their designated leader to provide the directions for completing the (ask, coordinate othet secondary leaders in the group, and provide them with a vision .! The designated leader may be elected to the position by group members, or may be appointed by the group's parent organization or supervisor.

Emergent Leader.

An emergent leader is a person who starts out with the same stams as other members in a group of peers, but who gradually emerges as an informal leader. Sue, in our earlier examp le, was an emergent leader- her group didn't elect her to the post, but by virtue of her personality and inAuence, she emerged as the group's leader. Many of the groups you will belong to will have designated leaders; however, you will also belong to several that do not. Typically, for instance, the groups YOll arc in as part of course assignments do not have designated leaders, so understanding how informal leaders emerge will give you insight into what constitutes elfective group leadership. Studies conducted at (he Universiry of Minnesota reveal how informal leaders emerge from an initially leaderless group.R Researchers observed college students placed in leaderless task groups and found that, at first, all members initially have the potential to be recognized as leader by the others. However, members who don'r speak up or arc uninformed are quickJy eliminated from conside rati on. Nex t to be eliminated are mcmbcrs who, compared to the rest, arc overly bossy or dogmatic. Those who remain as pmenrial leaders speak frequently, are well informed on rhe issues facing the group, and are openminded, democraric, sensitive, and skilled in expressi ng ideas for the group. The individuaJ who ultimately emerges as a group's leader is the member who seems able to provide the best bl end of task and people ski lls for that particular group. Especially important is the abiliry to coordinate (he work of other members by commun icating elfecrivcly with them. Subsequenr studies have found t ha t commu ni catio n rel evant to the group's task is the one facror that significantly predicts leadership emergence. 9 Other behav iors or character isti cs related to leadership emergence have been found. They include effective listening,!O self-monitori ng (the ability ro pay attention to hov., others are responding to you and to adjust your own behavior in response),! ! being extraverted and sociable, 12 and intel ligence. \3 AJchough early small group research suggested thac men usually emerge as leaders, biological sex now seems irrelevant, although psychological gender is nor. Task-or iented women emerge as group leaders as often as task-oriented men. In one study of groups of women, chose who emerged as leaders combined inrelligence with the personality characteristics of masculinity or androgyny

I GLOSSARY D esignated Lead er An appoinled or elecled leader whose tille (chair, president) identifies him or her as leader Emergent Leader A person who storts oul with the same status as other members but gradually emerges 05 informal leader in the eyes of the other members

258

CHAPTER 9

(exhibiting both masculine and feminine charancrisr ics).14 In mixed -ge nder groups, regardless of sex, masculin e and androgynous members emerged as leaders more often than feminine and undifferenti ated membc rs.1 5 Groups appea r to choose leaders based on performance. Resea rch inco gender and lead ers hip shows that men and women lead equally well, and group membe rs are equally satisfied w ith both male and femaJe leaders.16 Although most groups have a designated leader, the process of leade rship emerge nce teaches yo u two thin gs about being a designated leader. First, emergent leaders inAuence primaril y through referent, expert, rewa rd, informational, and ecological power. Witham a tide, they must rely on communication skills ro lead rhe gro up. By definition , they have th e SlIppOrt of oth er group members. So, even though you may hold rhe ritie of leader (o r chair, pres ident, coord inator, and so forth) in your group, it will benefit yo u to act like the kind of person who would also emerge as the group's leader. Second, the perso n who emerges as a lead er in one group may nor emerge as lead e r in anorh er. Each group 's s itua~ tion is different, requiring a different ble nd of leader skills. The eype of rask as well as the perso nalities and prefe rences of the members inAu ence what type of leade rship is comfort~ able to a given group. For exampl e, in grad uate schoo l o ne of LI S participated in a grollp where all orher members were engineers. They we re hi ghl y task~o riented and impari ent with chitchat , wh ich they saw as irrelevant to the task. in contrast, many groups of communi cation studc ms are sociable and would perceive an excl usively [ask-focused leade r as hostil e or uncaring. As leader, pay arrenrion to the group's needs so yo u can adjust your behavior app ropri ately. Now that we have talked about leadership and leaders, including how they emerge in a group, we w ill rum our anemion to several mi sconceptions people have about lead ership .

Informal Leadership in the Group Think of a group you belong to that does not have an official leader. Most such groups w ill have an informal leader. Picture that person as yo u answer the questions below. When you are finished, divide into groups of five or six, and share your observations with one another. Are there any common cha racteristics or behaviors that the emergent leaders demonstrate?

1. What are the sources of power that give your informal leader the ability to influence? List as many as apply, and provide specific examples of how you r lea der used his or her power. 2. If you found yourself in a high·stakes project group with thi s person (e.g., in a group that had to complete a project for a major portion of a course grade), wou ld this person emerge as leader in that group? Would this person's leadership skills be a good fit for the project group? Why or w hy not? 3. Are there other individuals in the group w ho demonstrate leadership skills? If so, who are th ey? What sources of power do they possess? Provide examples.

Applying leadership Principles

259

Myths about Leadership Stude nts usuall y say that leaders "comrol the actions of th e orher members," "give orders," and ge nerall y "rell people what [Q do." In this section we exa min e several O[ her pervas ive myth s about leadership. I . Leaders hip is a personality trait that individuals possess in varying degrees. Up unril the 1950s, the study of leadership consisted of a search for the traits that make peo ple leaders. These traits in cluded intelligence, anractiveness, psychological dominance, group size, and, most rece,uly, co mmuni cation tra its such as communicarion app rehens ion, ve rbal aggressiveness, and abi li ty ro argue a position wel l, or argumentativeness. 17 However, strict trait approaches to studying leadership have seve ral Raws. First, [here is no trait or set of traits that leaders have but followers do not. No trait d ifferent iates leaders from members. A second Aaw in the trait approach is th e und erl ying assumption that all leadership situations call for the same crair or set of traits. Think about this for a mom em. Docs the leader of a class room di scussio n group need the sa me tra its as the leader of a military platoon ? Do borh si tuations require the same approach? No si nglc set of rraits wi ll ident ify rhe best leader for any given group or situatio n. A thi rd flaw in the trait approach relatcs directly to the conce pt of trait as so mething innate, th e belief that leade rs are born, not made. If YO li aren't born wi th the cha racteristics of a leader (whatever those may be), you will nor beco me a leader. Instead, leadership co nsists of behaving in wllys that ClUJ be teamed (a t least up to a poinr). Co nsider, fo r a moment, Candy Lightner , [he woman who developed MADD (Mothers Agai nst Drunk Driving). Lighrner was an ordi nary single parent, nor a recog nized leader, before a drunken driver killed her daughte r. Nothing in her prev ious backgro und or experience could have predicted rhat she would become the leader of a national organization. Bur she cared enough to do rhe hard work of learning to lead. So can you. 2. T here is an ideal leadershi p style, no matter what the situation . Sin ce the 1950s a number of researchers have exam ined the behaviors associated with leadership, including the styles displayed by various leaders. Several stud ies ind icated that leaders perform both task-oriented and relationship-oriented behavio rs.18 Leaders could rare high on either, neither, o r both of th ese dimensions. Many peop le believed that the ideal style of leadersh ip was one rated high on both task and relarions hip dimensions, so many o rganizations inst iruted training programs to teach rhei r employees how to be sim ul raneolls ly rask- and relationship-oriented. Other resea rchers have examined different ki nds ofleade rshi p styles, summarized in Table 9.2. First, we will talk abom the three most co mmon styles: autoc ratic (author itar ian), democratic (partici patory), and laissez-faire (noninvolved). Autocratic leaders are primarily task-orienred people who perso nally make the decisions for the group and cont rol the group's process. They say things like, "Here's what I've decided we'll do." They alone decide the group 's age nda, select procedures the group will follow, and decide who will speak when. Highly authoritarian leaders can stifl e group members who are expert, creative, and enthu siast ic, bur their groups ca n be very productive.

For more information on analyzing famous

leaders, go to the Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/

adamsgalanes8e

260

CHAPTER 9

,

TABLE 9.2

Styles of Leadership

AUTOCRATIC LEADE RSH IP Characterized by decisions made solely by the leader, with little to no consultation with group members and a primary focus on the task but not

relationships.

DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP Characterized by decisions made by leaders in consultation with group members and a primary focus on both task and social d imensions of the group equally.

LAISSEZ· FAIRE LEADERSHIP Characte rized by a passive, hands-off attitude th at trans lates into behavior providing li ttle leadership; requi res that others step in and ta ke over if the

group is to succeed. TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP Characterized by the exchange of resources betwee n the leader and followers

as a way to infl uence member behavior.

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP Characterized by a lea der's ability to inspire fo llowers to act towa rd a g reater

good beyond the ir own self-interests. CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP Cha racterized by a leade r w hose power is co nnected to hi s o r her pe rceived extrao rdinary q ualiti es.

Democratic leaders want all the group members to participate in decision makin g, and so their co mmuni ca tion is more relationship· oriented than aurocratic leaders. They say things like, "What ideas do yo u have for so lving our prob lem?" Democratic leaders suggest but do not coerce. They try ro discover th e wis hes of th e group membe rs and help th em achieve theit commo n goa ls. Th ey encourage members to develop (he grou p's agenda and (0 dete rmine what procedures rhe group will use. Discllssants ca n speak freely within the grou p. When members propose ideas, they arc co nsidered ro be th e property of rh e group as a whole. D emocrati c leaders see their funcrion as helping the group accomplish what the members wam, as long as it is part of (he group 's purpose or charge. Members of grou ps with democratic leaders (end to be more satisfied. to participate more actively in meetings, ro dem· onstrare morc co mm itm cJ1( to group decisions, and to be more innovative than members of grou ps with ei th er aurocratic or laisscz-faire leaders. 19 Lilissez-foire "leaders, " who cons id er themselves to be no differem from the other members, are hands-ofT and do not provide much leadership. They say things like, "Do what you want; it doesn't maner [Q me. " They create a void that forces the

Applying leadership Principles

other members ro step in or Rou nder without coordination. This is the mistake TerryA nn mad e, but th e others we ren't able or will ing ro step inro the void she created. Occasionally, the other members of gro ups led by laissez-fa ire leaders blend th eir efforts ro lead the grou p successfully, but more often such groups en d up wasting a lot of time or fo ll owing the structure prov id ed by an autocratic leader who emerges and takes charge. Only groups of highly moti vared expe rts te nd to be more prod uc£ ive and satisfied with laissez.-fai re leaders th an democrati c leaders.!O Kramer's study of the co mmuniry theater group supported this co nclu sion. 2 1 When this group's des ignated leader failed to lead. both its seco ndary leade rs and other members step ped up [Q fill th e void . Kram er noted, however, that these members were highl y motivated and specu lated (hat had they not bee n lllQ[ivared from the beginning thei r production probably wou ld have fai led. Research looking for an ideal leadership style came up with incons istent findin gs. W hil e most group members prefer the democra tic to rh e aUfOcratic sryle, some grou ps composed of authori tarian members actually prefer rhe more authoritarian sryle. Plus, aurocratic groups so met imes co mpl ete mo re work (han democratic gro ups. About the o nly co nsistenr finding was that groups prefer either the democratic or th e 3. urocratic style to the laissez.-faire style. A recem rev iew of studies of democratic and autocrati c leadership suggests that seve ral factors in co mb in ation with leadershi p style inRuence a group's productiviryY Democra ric leade rship see ms to be more productive when it occurs in natural, real-life settings and when th e group 's task is a complex o ne. In addit io n, member sa tisfaction wi th democrat ic leadersh ip is nOt guaranceed. Ot her leadership styles have also cap tured th e attention of organ iza tional and management resea rchers.2.l You may have hea rd, for instance, about transactional, transformational , and chari smatic leaders hip styles. All three of these styles provide a way for people to capture the more emotional and symboli c attributes of leade rship in addit ion to th e more com mo n focus on leadership's rational processes. Leaders, afte r all , are nor o nly a part of gro up exper ience; rh ey also inAuence the meaning given tha t experience (see. for example, th e process of symbo lic converge nce in C hapter G). Tmmactiotlalleadership involvcs a leade r's willingness (Q trade or exchange one reso urce for another. Political leade rs, for exa mple, trade votes for fund ing of hom etown pet projects. Tramfonntltive leadership, in concrast, involves a high er degree of sy mboli c behavior in that the lea der is ab le to rally others to bu y inco and support a co mmon good beyond that of anyone pe rso n. These leaders are often ca ll ed vis ionary leaders who inspire and mot ivate their fo llowers. Gandh i and Marrin Lu ther Kin g Jr. were associated wirh (his kind of leadership. Closely related and often used inrcrchangea bly with transformational leadership is charismati c leadersh ip. Bill C linton, Steve Jobs of Apple Computer, and Sarah Palin are often referred to as chari smatic. \Vhile both involve leaders who communicate a visio n to fo ll owers, charismatic leadership is more foc llsed o n th e leader and hi s or her ex traord in ary qualities that move followers to act. T hus, followers are more depen dent on chari smati c leaders whereas t ransformat ive leaders behave in ways to cm power th ei r followers and ca n be found in any gro up at any level. 24 Wh ile di sc uss io ns of these styles are usually fo und in manage ment studies, th e styles are similar to those st udi ed in small group resea rch in that they invo lve

261

26 2

C HAPTER 9

se ts of behavi o rs relevanr to lead ership: tradin g resources, enco uragin g members to work for somethin g grea ter than th emselves, and reAectin g th e power of o ne person's cha racter to move people. The sryles approach ove rsimplifies the complexi ties of groups as open systems. For exa mpl e, co nsider the following fWO groups: (1) an adverrisin g agency's creat ive rcam, in which the members have worked rogcthe r successfully for tWO yea rs, and (2) an outdoor survival group of adolesccm boys, stran gers ro each ocher, none o f whom has ever been camp ing. Wou ld you recommend rh e sam e style of lead ership w th e coorcl inawr of the creati ve rea m and w the adult advise r of th e survi va l group? Eve rythin g suggests a democratic app roach with th e creative team and a more co ntrolling approach with th e young boys. Most of us would agree that no o ne style is right for all situations. Th e styles approach also assum es that a particular grou p will have the sam e needs over its li fe time. But just as d ifferent groups vary in th eir needs for differem leadership services, a single gro up's needs wi ll change gready over time as well. Ea rly in a group's his[Q ry, th e more in ex peri enced members may appreciate a take-charge leader, but as gro up members become more ex perienced, th ey may prefer less CO ntrol.

Most peo ple today discredit the idea that there is an ideal leadership style no maner what th e occasion. Rather, a number of factors, such as how ex peri cnced th e membcrs are, how long they have been toge th er, how success ful th ey have bcen in the past, how interes ting rh c job is, and whether th ere is an impending deadlin c, all co ntribure to d eterminin g the mOSt appropriate style.

3. Leaders get other people to do the wo rk for th em. W hen some students arc el ccted o r appointed to leadersh ip positions, th ey ass um e that th eir job is to tell orher peoplc what re do and often see m surprised th at it does n't work. Rece ntl y, th c pres id ent of a ca mpu s organization was disgusted that a co lleague fail ed w co mplete an ass ignment for rh e organization. "I to ld her what to do, and 1 reid her we needed th e informati o n for today's meetin g," shc sa id. She didn ' t understa nd that just te lling someone to do something does n' c ensure th at if will happen. If yo u think YO llr pos ition as lcader makes yo ur job casier, think aga in.

Figuring Out the Oync:'mics of leadership [ GLOSSARY r-;:-nctlonal

I c~-ncept

Now (hac you know th at small gro up leadership isn ' t a crait, a style, or the act of bossin g people aro und , let's di scllss what it does involve. Severa l leadership ~lpproach es will help YOll be more effective as a group Icader.

The idea rhot

THE FUNCTIONAL CONCEPT OF GROUP LEADERSHIP

groups need to have

The functional co ncepc of leadership co ntains [\\'o prcmises. First, this concepr assumes that certain imporranr funccions mUSt be performed for the group to rcac h its goals: tas krelated an d people-related functions. Task-related fun ct ions, such as initiating discussion or accion, offering opi ni ons, makin g suggestions, and elabo ratin g on other mem bers' ideas, are behaviors directly related to gcrring the group 's job done. Peo ple- related fun crio ns, such as harmonizing, gatckeep ing, and rel ievin g tension, help members work as a (cam.

certain functions performed, and all group members can and should perform needed functions

Applying Leadership Principles

263

Second, the functional concept suggests that performing those functions is rhe responsibility of all the group members, not just the individual designated as the group's leader. One individual cannot give a group everything it needs. We haven't seen anyone with all thac knowledge and skills. Also, having only the leader supply everything a group needs deprives the other members of the chance to develop their skills and talents. People wam to comtibure. Every member of a group needs ro know that he or she is valued. When that occurs, members tend to be committed and loyal, and group cohesiveness is high. For example, one project manager at a Fortune 500 cotpotation was terrific at motivating and developing her staff. Staff member Tina was a fabulous presenter. Carol could interpret dara and incorporace it effective!), into the group's reports. Roger was a gifted writer, and Ty was super-organized, with the ability to keep track of where everyone was on a project. Tamika had a quirky sense of humor and could always lighten things up jf meetings got tense. These staff members worked as a team, with no one member dominating and the leader encouraging them to use all their talents on behalf of the team. If all members are responsible for providing needed leadership functions, what is your job as a group's leader~ rn Chapter 1 we suggested that the leader's job is compLeting rhe group by supplying any needed functions (services) that other members are nO( providing or at least seeing that someone supplies rhem. 25 This gives the designated leader a lot to do. The leader must constantly monitor the group's progress, identify what the group needs at any time, decide whether those functions are currently being performed adequately by other members, and, if not, provide them or encourage someone else to do so. For example, when John notices that Rada has not offered an opinion about an important issue, he deliberately asks Rada her opinion. If the group seems confused, John summarizes and clarifies or calls on Kim, the group's recorder, to reorient the group. When he sees (he group becoming tense, he may offer a joke or suggest a 1O-minute break. The functional approach requires leadets to diagnose what functions are needed and to supply them . That means you have to be smart, to figure out what is needed, and Aexible, to adapt accordingly. Bm YOll can call on your fellow members to help you, because this approach assumes that all members can learn a variety of behaviors and can function as leaders in certain circumstances. Kramer's study of the community theater group provides suppOrt for (his key assumption of rhe functional approach.26 Even when the designated leader failed to lead, the other group members were capable of stepping in at various times to supply the needed guidance and attention the group needed to mount a successful production. Group members attended to boch task and relational functions; they did so directly by stating what needed to be done and how it could be done and indirectly by starring the (ask Ot suggesting what needed to be done and how.

I GLOSSARY THE CONTINGENCY CONCEPT OF GROUP LEADERSHIP Related to the functions approach, the contingency concept holds that appropriate leadership behavior depends on the situation. As we noted earlier, it doesn't seem reasonable that the same leadership style should be used for a classroom discussion group as fot a platoon during a firefighr. TerryAnn's laid-back manner of leading did nor work in her particular service club, but with a group of experienced pros, it could have been quite effective. There are several contingency approaches; we will focus on those developed by Paul Hetsey and Kenneth Blanchatd.

Contingency Concept The idea that features of the situation determine appropriate leadership behavior

264

CHAPTE R 9

FIGURE 9 .1

Model of Situational Leadership'"

LEADER BEHAVIORS (High)

t

High

High task and high

relationsh ip

and low task

~

relationship

54

51

Low

High task and low

relationship

and low task

(Low)

relationship

TASK BEHAVIOR (Low) - - DIRECTIVE BEHAVIOR ~ (High)

(High)

•

f OLLOWER READINESS

(Low)

Unable but Unable and

Able and

Able but

willing and confjdent

unwilling or insecure

wjlljn~ or confj en!

or insecure

R4

R3

R2

Rl

unwilling

SOURCE: C Copyright 2006 Rep rinted with permission of the Center for leadership Stud ies, Inc. Escondido, CA 92025. All rights

reserved

Comingency approaches suggest that leaders should conside r severa l factors before decid ing o n (he spec ific leadership services appropriate for rhe group. Among th ese facrofs are rhe type of (ask, how well rhe mem ber, work togeth er, and how well members work with rhe leader.l" A maj o r facror that affects rh e way a leader should acr is the matu riry level, o r readiness, of the followers. lll Hersey an d Bla nchard have provided a model , shown in Figure 9. 1J ro help march leadership style ro the read in ess level of th e followers. I n ge nera l, rhe more experienced , inrcrcsred , and mori va ted [he mcmbcrs arc, {he less direction is needed from (he leader. Hersey and Blanchard 's model, tempered with your co mmon se nse and knowledge of group leadership , helps yo u know how to adapt. If group members are unabl e or unwill ing or don't have enough information ro co mplete [he task on their own, they are low in readi ness. Telling ca n be an effective leadership style. Th e leade r need s ro give th em specific instruct ions and provide close superv isio n of {heir work: "O ur goa l is ro increase sa les by 15 percent, and here's what I wam YO ll to do ... " The leader rells [he members

Applying l eadership Principles

what, how , and when to do someth ing, and the members have litde say in the maHer. Telling demon strates hi gh-task and low-relationsh ip behavior. With low to moderate read in ess, group members are usually willing bur do nm have the ski lls or experience necessary to perform well. In (his case the leader takes a selling approach by providin g mu ch of the d irection but seek ing members' support for this d irection: "One of our goals is (Q in crease sales by 15 percenr, and I'd really like your input about how we can do thac." T wo-way comm unicat ion occurs as the leader encourages members to ask for exp lanations and ad d itional information. The leader's goal is (Q promme member enth usiasm while p rovi d ing the guidance needed (Q com plete the task well. Sel lin g is both high-task and high -relationship or ienred. With members of moderate to high readiness, the leader can pay less aetenrion (Q the demands of the task and co ncencrate instead on the relationships amo ng members: "How is the sales campaign goi ng? What can r do ro help you?" Here, fo ll owers have the skills to perform the job but may feel insecure about taking act ion or need coordination to work out a set of rol es and division of labor. The leader's supportive, democratic style is called participating because decision maJcing is shared and the leader's role is mostly one of facilitatio n and coordination. AJI members share in leading the group. When members reach ehi s level of readi ness, anyone in the gro up co uld probably serve as its designated leader. In a fully ready, mature gro up , members are both ab le and willi ng (Q perform. They need litd e task-related supervision or encouragement. I n this situation the delegating style is approp riate; the leader turns the responsib ili ty for the group over to the group: "Let me know if yo u need anything." All members (in clud in g the leader) are equal in responsibili ty. This relatively low-task, low-relationship style is appropriate where a more active leadersh ip style might be perceived as inrerference. However, even whe n the group is fully ready, the leader must sti ll moniror the changing condi ti ons of (he group and be ready to step in (Q perform additional services th e group may need. This was TerryAnn's style, but her followers were not at th is level of readiness. The contingency ap p roac h to leadership is highly popular and used widely to train leaders in th e military, management, and educa tion. 29 Interestingly, it has rece ived mixed results when tested in research. For instance, there is not conclusive evidence that ifleaders follow the gu idelines in Hersey and Blanchard's model th ey will be more effecti ve. H owever, stu dies of this model have shown th e importance of paying attention to members who are low in read in ess and mentoring them into higher levels of maturity. Leaders are warned not to make oversi mpl ified generalizations from the model and force-fit members into categories bur ro remain Aexible and alert to the nuances of interpersonal relationships benveen themselves and the ir followers. 3o At minimum, this model reminds us to take the group members' level of readiness and the group's situation in to account.

THE DISTRIBUTED CONCEPT OF GROUP LEADERSHIP Th e functiona l co ncept of group leadersh ip foc uses on specific actio ns that must be identified and carried out by leaders and group members in their efforts to move effectively toward gro up goa ls. Galan es studied several group leaders, for instance, and found four functions critical to their effectiveness: shaping the task's objenive, creating the team, adj usting behavio rs to best meet the changing needs of {he group goa ls, and keepin g the group on task. 31 The conti nge ncy co ncept of group leadership moves us to recognize that leade rship does not occur in a vacuum, it occurs in context. T he dynam ics

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GLOSSARY Distributed Leadership

The ideo that each group member can and should provide

leadership services

to

Q

group

of inAuence between leaders and their groups is connected to rhe variety of situational consrrailHs any group finds itself in including the type of task, member readiness, and the interpersonal climate among group members. In both approaches we emphasized that leadership is the property of the group and not the individual who happens to have the title of "leader." Yet both approaches, while recognizing leadership as a group phenomenon, still tend ro focus directly on leader behaviors adapti ng to members and rhe situation. Distributed leadership explicitly acknowledges that leadership is rhe properry of rhe group and that leaders hip and followership are so intertwined that they cannot be separated from each otherY The exclusive focus on leader behaviors is not wrong. We have learned a lot about rhe practice of leadership in trait, style, functional and contingent concepts of leadership. Yet, we often commented that the research was inconsistent and multiple approaches to leadership have emerged to try and figure our its secrets. These approaches, if anything, rell only parr of the scory. Leaders and followers together create the dynamics of a group. Traditional approaches to leadership overplay the singular influence of a leader implying that all a leader has to do is figure our the follower and the situatio n, select the appropriate behavior, and then, like magic, the group will be successfu l! It does nor work that way. Followers are not passive wa iting only for the guidance of th e leader's act ions. They are also smart, resourceful, and quite capable of being just as inAuemial in a group as a leader and just as capable of influencing a leader's actions. Distributed leadership asks us (Q recognize this interdependent relationship between leaders and followers in which they mutually influence each other. Overall leadership activity by all members has been found (Q be more related to productivity than activity of the des ignated leader alone. 33 Distributing leadership functions is good not only for members, but for the group. However, distributed leadership is not simp ly a matter of everyone pitching in. This interplay between the influence of a leader's actions and those of other members of the group is com plicated, often messy, and filled with contradictions. 34 The push and pull of tensions is common (0 group Iife. 35 You feel rhe pull of belonging to a group while also feeling rhe push ofwanring nothing (Q do with it. You feel the pull of your own influence in a group yet at the same time often feel the push of yourself being influenced. Distributed leadership helps us recognize that leadersh ip in a grou p is immersed in contradictions and to be successful a group has to recognize the contrary demands these tensions place on a group and its leadership. In addition, leadership itself is characterized by its own contradictions that are no rmal (0 the dynamic interplay between leaders and followers as both seek to influence each other and ~e group as a whole. Two such tensions discovered by Galanes in her recent study of leadership are the tensions felt between control from the leader and control from the group as well as the tensions berween the demand of task work and nontask work. 36 The issue of control is not whether control in your group should be either from a leader or from the group. Instead, control emerges from both sources and produces a constant contradictory demand in the group. Leaders often talk about trying to figure out when to be more comrolling and when to let others exert control. Leade rs are instrumental in creating the vision for the group, yet no vision will motivate members if they themselves do not have something to do with creating it. We have cons tantly addressed the competing demands of staying on task and going off task. Work groups are notorious for going off track to talk about other issues, relationships in the group, their own processes, and to simply gossip. The chaJlenge

Applying Leadership Principles

for a group's leadership is not to push a group to either side of these demands but to realize group dynamics are about both leader and group co ntrol and task and off-task imeraction. The key is balancing these demands, not gett ing rid of one or the other. Both leaders and followers participate in meeting these contradictory demands and distributed leadership opens the door to understanding this kjnd of comp lexity in a group. We have discussed major myths surrou ndin g gro up leadership, and presemed alterna(ive insights into leaders hip. It is now time to investigate what members expect from their leaders keeping in mind that these expectations apply to any group member raking a parr in his or her group's leadership.

What Good Leaders Do A group leader has a lot of work ro do, sometimes more than any other member. Recent studies have described what good group leaders do to help their teams succeed Y

1. Good leaders establish the group's goal and make sure the group starts in the right direction. Usually, the goals are put inro writing, perhaps as parr of a team charter that spells our the cha rge, area of freedom, and scope of the project. They take the time to ensure that everyone understands and supports the goal, even to the extenr of asking a completely ullsupporrive member (0 leave the team.

2. Good leaders mold the group members into a team with a collaborative climate for working together. They take team building seriously and recognize that to accomplish good group work members mLlst trust one another and feel free to comribure. Good leaders constantly monitor the group's interactions (0 ensure that members are working co llaborat ively and inrervene when they perceive a problem.

3. Good leaders never lose sight of the group's task and its progress toward completion of that task. That means they keep track at all times where the group is in relation to its goals. Along with keeping rhe group moving forward, they are able CO paine the "big picture" so that members know what has been accomplished and what sti ll needs to be done. Thus they manage group members' ullcertaimy about complex tasks. They manage the group's priorities by understanding that there are competing demands of both [ask work and noI1task activicy.J8 Group members wi ll show a desire (Q talk aboul side issues (Q the main issue, social issues of the group, and the actual process they are using to accomplish their task or goal. Good leaders do not push rhe group only wward cask discussion dismissing these desires but instead realize groups do both. Their challenge is w balance the conrradicrory demands of both task work and off-task interaction.

4. Consistent with the leadership approaches discussed earlier, good leaders develop their members' talents by encouraging them to assume leadership responsibilities for the group. Good leaders understand thac often they need to exerr more connol initially, bU( as the group progresses they can ease up on control allowin g members to build confidence in themselves and the ream.J9 Good leaders encourage and appreciate the work members do on beha lf of the team.

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Which Contingency Style Is Most Appropriate? You have been asked to conduct a workshop on group leadership for a major corporation in your city. You have selected the co ntingency

approach to leadership as the focus of yo ur workshop. The corporation has asked that your workshop contain several activities to give the participants "hands-on" experience with current thinking about group

leadership. You have decided that one of those activities will involve application of the contingency model to several different kinds of groups. Your task now is to construct the activity. To do so, you need the ma terials to set up th e activity and the answers to the activity. You first wi ll ask the participants to crea te a matrix that lists the four Hersey and Blanchard lea dership styles (participating, selling, delega ting, and telling) across the top. Under each style, list the contingencies that make that style appropriate, along w ith how each contingency is likely to affect the style. Next, you will give partici pants a list of situati ons and ask them to determine w hat style is most appropriate using their

matrix. The list of situations includes the following: • A group of college students studying tog ether for a final exam • A heart transplant team

• A task force of neighbors trying to rid the neighborh ood of crack dealers

• A group of student senators planning the senate agenda for the following month • A self-managed work group of employees assembling an automobile • A group of four grown children planning their parents' fiftieth wedding anniversary party You will ask participants to use their matrix to determine the appropriate style for each of these. To be prepared to direct discussion after the participants have finished this part of the activity, you must first participate in th e activity yourself.

1. Construct the matrix, as you will ask the participants to do. 2. Apply the matrix to the ~ix situations listed.

5. Good group leaders do not take their leadership for granted. They work at it, think abo ut it, and conscio usly try to improve their o wn leaders hip skills realizing the jmerdependenr relationship between them and the rest of the gro up.

WHAT GROUP MEMBERS EXPECT LEADERS TO DO G roup members expeCl [hat th eir leaders will be co mpele nt and committ ed and w ill wo rk fo r lhe good of rhe gro up. In panicul ar, most group members in the U nited Sta les ass ume th at thei r des ignated leaders w ill provide services in three major ca tego ri es, described

Applying Lead ership Principles

TABLE 9.3

Major Duties Leaders Are Expected to Perform

PERFORMING ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES

Planning and preparing for meetings; keeping members informed; following up between meetings; making sure the group keeps complete written reco rds

LEADING GROUP DISCUSSION

Starting discussions and keeping them on track; encouraging participation;

stimulating members' creative and critical thinking DEVELOPING THE GROUP

Fostering a productive and supporting climate; developing teamwork,

cooperation, and trust

brieRy in Tahle 9.3: performing ad mini strative c\uries, leading group discussions, and developing the group, 40 The behaviors of good leaders presented earl ier fall imo these three categories. The follov.,jng info rmation can serve as you r co ncise leader's manual whenever YOLI find yourself elected or appoimcd designated leader of a group.

PERFORMING ADMINISTRATIVE DUTIES Leaders shou ld plan for meetings , follow up on members' assignmems, and make sure the group's written records arc comp lete. TerryAnn's performance was particularly weak in th ese areas.

Planning for Meetings.

As leader you must pl an meetings so you don ' t waste other members' time. Here is a set of guidelines you can follow.

1. Define the purpose of the meeting and communicate it dearly to the members. Don't have a meeting if there is no reaso n for iL If a meeting is needed, sta te th e purpose clearly. "To talk about what we're going LO do lhis year" is too vague; "to establi sh a list of priorities we want to accomplish within rhe next six months" is clear and specific. Tel l rhe members exac dy what outcomes should be produced at the meeting, sllch as a vaitten report, an ora l recommendation, plans for a parry, or a decision.

2. Make sure members know the place, starting time, and dosing time for the meeting. Let members know this ahead of time, and stick to those startin g and ending times. In ad dition , state the meetin g place exactly. "A t the library" is vague and confusing. Some members may go to the lobby wh il e others go to the student lounge. " In room 302 of the library" eliminates co nfus ion . Although the leader is responsible for commu ni cat ing this informatio n to members, this task can be delegated to someo ne else (e.g., a secretary).

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C HAPTER 9

'CHow ahout some little pads and pencils ?" tt'~ the Ie
3. If special resource people arc needed at the meeting. advise and prepare them. Groups often need informatio n and advice from speciali sts. A personn el cO l11l11ince may need (he advice of a psycho logis t or lawyer; a studenr group may need to co nsult wit h the parking serv ices manager before reco mm endin g changes in parking poli cies. Make Slire invited g uestS know what ro prepa re ;l.Ild what (0 expect" at the meetin g.

4. Make al l necessary physical arrangements. Reserve rhe room, arrange [he sea ts properl y. and bring needed m:ucri als (c.g., note pads. penci ls, mi croph o nes. tape recorders).

Following Up on Meetings. Generall y,

tWO kinds or rollow-up a re needed: reminding grou p members of assignmcms, and se rving as lia iso n with otht:r groups.

1. Keep track of member assignm en~.

The leader must make sure (h at members know wh:u their assignmeills arc and when rhq are due. Keep wrinen reco rds of assignm ents, perhaps as part of the group's regular minutes. Keep in touch with members between meetings by telephone or c-mail to moniwr {heir progress. Had TerryAnn done {hese {hings "Houghom rhe summer following her initial planning meeting as president, her term might have bt:cn memorabl c for positi ve rather dUll nega ti ve reasons. 2. Serve as liaison with ot her groups.

The leader is the gro up 's spokesperson. This mean s rh e leader represclHs {he group to ot her groups and rhe media, answers ques{ions abo U( (h e gro up and its work. and keeps rhe parent o rgani z.1(ion info rm ed.

271

Applying leadership Prin ciples

Managing the Group's Written Communication. Any group needs writ· ten messages (Q provide cOlHi nui ry from meeting to meeting and to serve as the group's collective memo ry. W e lea rn ed in C hapters 6 and 7 that a gro up without memory loses track of argum ents, ca n ge t off topic, and may tend toward premature clos ure on a decision. The management of wrinen communicarion in a gro up is a key tool groups can use to archive their work. As leader you may delegate these activities to a secretary or ask fot a volunteer, bm yo u are st ill responsible fo r makin g sure they get done. 1. Send a meeting notice and agenda to each member before each meeting. Meeting notices are remi nd ers of a m!eting's date, startin g and endi ng times, location, and purpose. Often, a mee ting noti ce is mailed or e-ma il ed along with the mee ting's agenda, the list of items to be discussed at the meeting in chronological order. The agenda helps members prepare for the meeting- norh ing wastes time like hav in g a meeting where members have no clue what will be discussed and no ability to prepare. If a meeting invo lves cons id eration of so methin g like a special report, (hat report should be provided along with the agenda. In this age of computers and faxes, it is easy to help members do a good job by givi ng them all the rel evant inform acion they need ahead of time. 2. Keep personal notes to keep track of what is going on. T aking notes helps you focus you r listen in g so you wo n' t forget what the gro up is discussing. Th ese shou ld be very brief-ju st eno ugh to help you keep track of such things as key [,ns, proposed ideas, major interpretations, assignmenrs you and others have accepted, and anything else impor£ant to th e di scussion. 3. Keep minutes of each meeting so you will have a record of what you did. Minutes are notes of what occurred at each mee ting. They are distributed (0 mem bers after th e meeting and are lega lly required for so me gro ups, such as governmental committees. Even if nor required, keeping minutes is a good idea-otherwise, like TerryAnn 's group , members forget importam information and neglect to complete assignments. Minutes conta in summary information, nO( details. Records of important actions shou ld be nmed in a group's minutes, including all conclusio ns, decisions, and assignments. However, because members need to express th emselves freely, some things should not be recorded in group minuees. These include such things as co nfidential and se nsitive inform ation, as well as who proposed a course of acrion, how anyone voted (unl ess th at is required by law), or who p ro vided what info rmation. Minutes can be presented in a variety of formats, (W O of which are shown in Figure 9.2. 4. Keep in a permanent file copies of any reports, resolutions, or recommendations made by a group. As with minutes, these should become parr of the group's permanent record. Often a group 's end product is a maj or written report submined to the parent organization , with a brief o ral presentation by the des ignated leader. The leader is respon sible for submining th e repon by a particular deadline , bu t normally one or two members actually write the report. Usually, a draft is given to all members ahead of time for suggestions and rev isions, followed by discussion and agreement on the final ve rsion. All co mmittee members sign the final report.

GLOSSARY

Agenda The list of items to be discussed a/ a meeting

Minutes Notes of what occurred at a meeting

1

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CHAPTER 9

FIGURE 9.2

Examples of Group Minutes Using Two Different Formats

Minutes of November 16, 2011 , Meeting of Committee A. (Version 1) Committee A held a special meeting at 1 :30 p.m . on Wednesday, November 16, 2011, in room 14 of the jones Library. Attendance: Walter Bradley, Marlynn jones, George Smith, Barbara Trekheld, Michael Wi ll iams Absent: jantha Calamus, Peter Shiuoka 1. The minutes of the November 6 meeting were approved as distributed. 2. Two nominations for membership in the graduate faculty were considered. A subcommittee of Bradley and Trekheld reported that their investigation

indicates that Dr. Robert Jordan met all criteria fo r membership. It was moved that Professor Jordan be recommended to Dean Bryant fo r membership in the graduate faculty. The vote was unanimously in favor. The nomination of Professor Andrea Long was d iscussed; it was concluded

that she met all criteria, and that the nomination had been processed properly. It was moved that Professor Long be recommended for appointment to the graduate faculty. The motion passed unanimously. 3. Encouragement of grant activity. Discussion next centered on the question of how to encourage more faculty members to submit proposals for funding grants. Several ideas were discussed. It was moved that we recommend to President Yardley that Q.

A policy be established to grant reduced teaching loads to all professional facu lty who submit two or more grant proposa ls in a semester.

b. Ten percent of all grant overhead be returned to the department that obtained the grant for use in any appropriate way. This motion was approved unanimously.

Applying leadersh ip Principles

FIGURE 9.2

Continued

Minutes of November 16, 2011, Meeting of Committee A (Version 2) Attendance: Walter Bradley, Marlynn Jones, George Smith, Barbara Trekheld, Michael Williams (chair) Members absent: Iantha Calamus, Peter Shiuoka

Topic

Discussion

Actlons/ recommendations

Minutes of 11/16/11

None

Approved as distributed

Nominations for graduate faculty membership

Subcommittee of Bradley and Trekheld reported that both Dr. Robert Jordan and Dr. Andrea Long meet all criteria and should be recommended to Dean Bryant for membership.

Recommendation passed unanimously, for Drs. Jordan and Long

Grant activity

Discussion centered on how to encourage faculty members to submit pro· posals for funding grants. After discussion of several proposals, motion was made to recommend to President Yard ley that

Motion to submit the two recommendations to Pres. Ya rd ley passed unanimously

1. Professional faculty who submit two or more grant proposals in a semester be given reduced teaching loads. 2. Ten percent of all grant overh ead be returned to the department that obtained the grant, to use in any appropriate way. Respectfully submitted, George Smith, Secretary

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Sometimes a group's final product is a resolution of a motion the leader will make during a meeting of the parent organization. In that case members of the group often accompany the leader and are available to answer questions, make supporting speeches, and counter objections. A common format for motions and resolutions can be found in any comprehensive parliamentary manual, such as Robert's Rules of Order Revised, if the organization does not have its own manual that must be followed.

LEADING GROUP DISCUSSIONS One of your most important duries as designated leader is coordinating di scuss ions so that they are productive. Plan how yo u will start the meeting, kee p the discussion organized, encourage all members to participate, and stimulate both creative and critical thinking. Monitor what was accomplis hed so that unfinished business can be taken up in the next meeting. This so unds dauming when faced with trying to do it all yourself and letting group members take responsibility as well. Galanes found all the leaders she studied emphasized that despite being torn in different direction s they all planned for group work and remained Aexible. 41 This was TerryAnn's most crucial fa ilin g.

Initiating Discussions.

Opening remarks set the stage for the meeting and help members begin to focus on the group's task. Here are g uidelines for you to follow.

1. Help reduce primary tensions, especially with new groups. Members may need to be introduced to each other. Name tags may be needed. An icebreaker or other social activity may be llsed to help members get to know one another.

2. BrieRy review the purpose of the meeting, the specific outcomes desired, and the area of freedom of the group. Members should have been informed of these before the meeting, but some members may wam clarification. Discussing them early helps prevent misu nderstandings later. Food helps! It's amazing what coffee and snacks can do to relax people.

3. Give members informational and organizational handouts. These may include informational sheets, an agenda , outlines to guide the discussion, and cop ies of things to be discussed.

4. See that special roles are established as needed•

•

Decide what roles are needed and how they will be handled. Most groups appoint a recorder to keep written records of meetings. Decide whether these positions will be rotated or handled by only one individual.

5. Suggest procedures to follow. Members should know whether decisions will be made by co nsensus or majority vote and whether the gro up will follow [he small group procedures recommended by Robert's Rules of Order Revised or anmher grou p technique. We recommend that you suggest procedures to the gro up , then ask the members to accept, modify, or suggest alternative procedures. (If bylaws or other laws impose specific procedures on the gro up , such as on a jury, you wo n't have this

Aexibility.)

Applying Leadership Principles

Group Leaders and the Use of Technology This chapter has introduced a number of leadership functions. The leader must facilitate communication before, during, and after meetings; ensure that appropriate materials are provided to group members; and guarantee that a historical record of the meeting, usually in the form of minutes, is kept. Technology ca n help group leaders manage information. For example, e-mail ca n be used to ,disseminate agendas and other written material before meetings; Web pages can display minutes of previous meetings; and computer networks can store documents and other materials used by the group. For groups with virtually unlimited access to technology, someone must help coord inate how technology w ill be used. If you were designing a "wish list" for technology resources for a group you belong to (e.g., a study group, a student group, a work team), what wou ld you want? Your group may already have access to e-mail, for example. How should group members use e-mail? What other technology resources would be useful to your group, and how would you suggest using them?

6. Ask a clear question to help members focus on the first substantive issue on the

agenda. This helps launch the group into the subsmmive ponion of the meeting. A group leader might open th e group's meeting this way: "At this meeting we must decide which two of our five job applicants we should imerview in person. You all received copies of the resumes prior to the meeting. Unless you'd rather proceed in a differem way, I suggest we go in alphabetical o rder and assess each person's strengths and weaknesses against the criteria we adopted at our last meeting. After we've talked about each one, we can compare them ro determine our rop two. Does that seem OK? [Wait fo r feedback.1 Fine, (hen let's look arJames Adams's res ume firsr. " Such a statement makes the meeting's goals, procedures, and desired o utcomes clear from the beginning.

Structuring Discussions. Once the gro up members know each other and are oriemed ro the task, the leader should organize the di scussion. Effective leaders help majnrain productive relationships among the members, but their primary foc us shouJd be on the group's task. This is what most group members ex pecr. 42 That includes co nstantly moniroring the group's process and making needed adjustments. Following are Some suggestions. I. Keep the group goal-oriented; watch for digressions and topic changes.

Be sure the members understand and accept th e goa l. A ce rcain amO llJ1[ of digressio n is normal and desirable because it ca n foster team spirit. You don't want to stifle every digression , but if a length y digress ion occurs, help bring the group back on track: "We seem to be losing sight of o ur o bjective" o r "We're ge tting off track. What we were talking about was ... " Topic switches are common, so be on constant watch for them. When you noti ce one, point it out and sugges t that the group

275

• Go to

www.mhhe.com/ adamsgalanesSe

for additional weblink activities.

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finish one mpic before going on to another: "We' re jumping ahead. Let's finish our parking reco mmendation before we starr talking about schol ars hips." When a change of iss ue, irrelevant topic, or premature so lution crops LIp, ask if that person would mind wait ing ulHil the group has finished its analysis of rhe current issue or post it on a Aip chart-the "parking lor"-for later co nsideration. 2. Put the discussion or problem-solving procedure on the board or in a handout. If rhe group is using a procedure such as brainsmrming, help the group remember the steps by summarizing them brieAy in writing. This helps keep co mments to the point. 3. Summarize each major step or decision.

It is easy for members to lose track of what the group is doing. Before the group proceeds to the nex t iss ue or agenda item, help all members keep track by su mmarizing and asking members for feedback. In many cases a secretary ca n help summarize. This also helps make a clear transi tion to rhe next step in rhe discuss ion. 4. Structure the group's time. Nothing is more frustrating than running Out of rime before you have a chance to di scuss an issue important ro you. Since members often get caught lip in a discussion, it is up m th e leader [0 keep track of time and remind the group of what sti ll needs to be done and how much time is avai lable. 5. Bring the discussion to a definite dose. Do this no later than the scheduled ending time for the meeting, unless all members agree to extend the time. In yo ur conclusion, include a brief summary of progress the group has made, a review of assignments given, a statemenr of how reports of the meeting will be distributed ro members and o th ers, commenrs about preparation for the next meeting, commendations for a job well done, and , periodically, yo ur evaluation of the meeting to improve the group's future inreractions.

Equalizing Opportunity to Participate. Along with keeping the group's dis· cuss ion o rganized, (he leader is responsibl e for seeing to it that everyone has an equal opponuniry to speak. This is cenrral to wo rking with diversity (Chapter 5) and problem so lving (Chapter 7). You ca n do several things to produce such equality. 1. Address your comments to the group rather than to individuals. Un less YOLI are asking someone for.specific information or responding direcdy to what a member has sa id, speak to the group as a whole. Make eye co ntact with everyone, especially th e less- talkative members. It is natural ro pay the IllOSt attention to those who talk a lot, but (his may furthe r discourage quiet members. 2. Control dominating or long-winded speakers. Occasionally, a member monopolizes rhe discuss ion so much [hat othe rs give up. This imbalance can destroy a group. The other members expect YO li to comrol domineering members and will thank YO LI for it. Here are several techniq ues [Q try. First, avoid direct eye conraCL Second, sir where you can overlook them naturally when you ask questions of the group. Third, cut in tactfully and say so merhing like, " How do the rest of you feel about that point?" FOllrth, help the group establish rules about how long someone may speak; then appoint a timekeeper to keep track of members'

Applyi ng Leadership Principles

remarks. Fifth, describe the problem openly to the group, and ask the members ro deal with it as a group. So metimes even more drastic meas ures arc needed, such as talking with rhe offending individual privately or even asking the perso n to leave th e group. This is a last resort; use it on ly when other measures have failed. 3. Encourage less-talkative members to participate. Quiet members may feel overwhelmed by talkative ones. Encourage Jess-talkative members: "Roger, finances are yo ur area of expertise. Whe re do yo u think th e budge t co uld be cut?" or "Maria, yo u have n't said anything about the proposal. Would yo u like to share yo ur opinion?" Make a visual survey of members contin uously to look for nonverba l signs chat a memb~r wants to speak, seems upset. or disagrees with what so meo ne else is saying. Give such members a chance to speak by aslci ng a d irect qu es tio n such as, "Did you want to comme nt on Navida's sugges ti on?" Other techniques for in creasing the participa ti on of qui et members include assigning them [Q investigate needed info rmati o n and reponi ng back to the group or inviting them to co ntribute with th eir spec ial areas of knowledge or slcill. You might say, "Kim, yo u' re a stati st ical wh iz. Wi ll YO ll take charge of the dara analysis for th e project?" Liste n with real interest to what an infrequ enr pani cipant says and encourage others to do so as well. Nothi ng kill s participat ion fas ter than the other members' apparem lack of interest. 4. Avoid commenting after each member's remark. Some discussion leaders co mment after each person has spoken. Event ually, members start wa iting for the leader to comment. which inhi bi ts the free Aow of co nversation. Listen, speak when you are really needed, but as a rule don't repeat or imerp ret what orhe rs say. 5. Bounce questions ofinterpretation back to the group. Some groups blindly fo llow the designated leader's opinions. (See C hapters 4 and 8 fo r more on grollpthink.) Especially in a new group, hold back until others have had a chance to express thei r views. Then offer yo urs only as another po in( of view to be co nsidered. If a member asks, "What do you th ink we shou ld do?" yo u can reply, "Let's see what everyone else thinks fi rst. Wha t do the rest of you think abom ... ?" 6. Remain neutral during arguments. If you are heav il y in vo lved in an argum ent, yo u wi ll have a harde r time being objecti ve. encouragin g others to participa te, and seein g (hat each point of view is represented. If you stay neut ral , you ca n legitimately serve as a mediator for resolving disputes. Of co urse, feel free [Q suppo rt decisions as they emerge and encourage critical thin ki ng by all members.

Stimulating Creative Thinking .

Many prob lem-solving groups crea re med iocre solutions. So metim es invenri ve so lutio ns are needed. C hapter 6 discussed th e impo rtance of crea ti ve thinkin g. H ere we elabo rate further on how to enco urage group creativity. 1. Suggest discussion techniques that are designed to tap a group's creativity. Several techniques. such as brainstOrming. synecti cs. and mind mapp ing, are designed especially to help a group create inventive soluti ons. Many techniques employ deferred judgment-the gro up postpones evaluation unti l all poss ible solutions

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are presented . Whe n people know their ideas will nor be judged, they feel freer to suggest wild and crazy ideas, many of which may turn ou t to be useful. 2. When the flow of ideas has dried up, encourage the group to search for a few more alternatives. Often the bes t ideas appear late in a period of creati ve brainstorming. You might use these idea-spurring ques tions: "What else ca n we think of to ... ?" or "I wonder if we can think of any more poss ible ways to ... ?" In addir ion, you can rake a break and return to the activity later (see C hapter 6). 3. Discuss the components of a problem one at a time. For instance, ask, "Is there any way to improve rhe appea ran ce of. .?" or " ... the durability of ... )" 4. Watch for suggestions that open up new areas of thinking and then pose a general question about them. For example, if someone sugges ts putting up signs in the library that show the cos t of losses to the users, you might capitalize on that idea by aski ng, "How else co uld we publicize the cost of losses to the library?" S. Force an alternative perspective or switch senses. For example, if yo u' re trying to find a new way to remove plaque from blood vessels, pretend yo u are a mi crobe traveling aJon g [he bloodstrea m, getting a mi croscopic view of clogged arteries. Or if yo ur problem is visual (" How can we create an eye-catchin g gra phic for the new sto re?"), think in sound ("Wha t would an attention -gett ing ad for the new store sound like?")

Stimulating Critical Thinking. C hapter 6 also cove red cri tical thinking in detail. We remind you here of your respo nsibili ty as leader for ensuring that group members ca refully evaluate the decisions they make. Here are spec ifi c suggestions. 1. Encourage group members to evaluate information and reasoning. Ask ques tions to make sure [he group evaluates the source of evidence ("Where did that information come from ?" "How well respected is D r. Gray in the field ?"), rhe relevance of [he evidence (" How does [hat apply to our problem?"), the accuracy of [he information (" Is that information consistent with m her information about [he issue" "Why does [his info rmation contradi ct what others have said?"), and th e reaso ning ("Are the conclusions logical and h.ased on the information presented?"). Bring in outside experts [0 challenge the views of the group or [0 help evaluate information. 2. See that all group members understand and accept the standards, criteria, or assumptions used in making judgments. Fair, unbiased judgmems are based on criteria that are clear to all members. You might ask, "Is that criteri on clear to us alJ?" "Is this something we want [0 insist on?" or "Do we all accept this as an assumption?" Criteria were discussed in C hapter 7. 3. See that all proposed solutions are tested thoroughly before they are accepted as final group decisions. Make sure that gro up members di scuss tentative so lu tions with relevant outside rs, that pros and co ns of each so luti on have been eva luated, and {hat members have had a chan ce (0 play devil's advocate in chall enging proposals. For a major problem,

Applying l eadership Principles

Red Ribbon Committee and Sober Graduation The Red Ribbon Committee is a community group in California's Central Valley. The committee develops, plans, and presents several com munity events each year that promote a sober and drug-free lifestyle. Each year the committee debates w hether the sober graduation party should last all night or end at 2 or 3 A.M. Students, noting that their parents wou ld not approve of an all-night event, have said they'd be willing to go even if it was not all night. Lupe (a 50-year-old Hispanic woman with strong com munity ties) and Tracy (a divorced Caucasian woman in her late 40s who is quite voca l about how things should be done) argue that it should end early because the students and chaperones get too tired. In addition, they note that the majority of problems usually happen after 2 A.M. They suggest that the main goal of sober graduation is to get as many students as possible to attend, and that means guaranteeing their safety. The other four members of the group (a Caucasian female and former school board member, a wealthy female Portuguese dairy owner who is feared in the community, a Portuguese man who is very active in the community, and a young Caucasian man employed by the school district) argue that the goal is to ensure the kids are safe all night. Traditionally, they add, these events have been all-night affairs. Lupe and Tracy have become increasingly adamant; they want the others to try their idea at least once to see how it wou ld work. You are the leader of this group. At th is pOint, how wou ld yo u stimulate creative and cri tical thinking in this group? 1. Offer suggestions, relevant to this com mittee, about how members can stimulate creative thinking?

2. Offer ways the group can critically examine the suggestions gen· erated by creative thinking?

propose holdin g a seco nd-chan ce mee ting, where all doubts, co ncerns, or untested assumptions ca n be explored.

4. Establish a devil's advocate individual or competing subgroups to poke holes in potential solutions. Ass ignin g o ne o r more group members the ro le of devil 's advoca te, described in Chapter 6 , encourages group members (0 spot Raws in an argument o r problems w ith a solutio n. Establishing twO subgroups in friendly co mpetitio n w ith one anoth er ca n be a fun way to think critically. As k each gro up to find as many problems as poss ibl e with th e options th e group is co nsidering. Whicheve r gro up "wins" gets treated to dinn er or drinks. This forces the group to co nsider deficiencies in poss ibl e solutions, bu t does so in an enterta inin g way.

Fostering Meeting-to-Meeting Improvement. Effective group leaders spend time evaluating each meeting to discover how it could have been imp roved. As k the group itself to participate in evaluation. Usually, yo u w ill priva tely rev iew yo ur notes

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ro determine whether the major meeting goals were met and how smoothly th e meeting wenL Then, es tablish yo ur goals for improving furo re m eetings and adjust your own behavior accordingly to meet th e group 's goals. Several smdies o f effective leaders have shown that good leaders adjust th eir be havior from o ne mee tin g ro (h e next, depend ing on the specifi c goals of the meeting. Good lead ers monitor their own and th e orher members' behavio rs so th ey can modi fy th eir actions ro help the group .

I. Review personal notes of the meeting. Keep personal nOtes of important happenings during the meeting. After the mecciog. ask yourself. Did we acco mplish our purpose? Did everyone have a chance to participate? Did anyone hog rhe Roor? Was rh e group borh crea rive and criri cal in irs th in king? and, mosr impo rrantiy of all , Whar could I perso nally have done (Q ensure a better meeting?

2. Decide bow the meeting could have been improved. The answers (Q the prev ious questions wi ll guide you. For exam ple, if So nya believes tha r rhe group jumped on an early solution without carefu lly assessing rh e problem jusr to get rhe meering over wirh, she mi ght decide thac rhe group needs to loo k at

the problem again. IfTerryAnn had eval uated her meetings, she would have discovered mar rhe group needed more direcrion and guidance rhan she was providing.

3. Establish specific improvements as goals for the next meeting. After dererminin g where the meering cou ld have been im proved, incorporate this information into plann ing for rhe nex t mee ting. Sonya, for exampl e, co uld place rh e problem back on the age nda, explain (Q rhe group rhar she perceived a lack of critica1 thinking, and invire rhe group (0 assess rhe probl em aga in.

4. Adjust behavior accordingly. Once you, as leader, have diagnosed areas of grou p communica ri on wh ere im provement could occur and have decided what needs to be d one. you shou ld adjusr yo ur behavior to help ensure improvemem . For exa mple. T erryAn n needed to be more clear, direct, and co ncise in her co mmuni ca ri on. S he also needed to keep rhe group o n track instead ofieni ng them digress. Notice tha t these are communication behaviors (not perso nalicy characterisrics) that TerryAnn should change. We now co nsider specific areas in which rh e des ignated small group leader ca n help grou p members devel op, a topic we exp lortd in deta il in C haprer 4.

DEVELOPING THE GROUP O ne of the most imporrant fun ctions of rh e leader is to assist in rhe group's development from a co ll ecti o n of individ uals (Q a produ crive unie. This invo lves such things as establishing a climate of trust, promo ring reamwork and cooperat ion. and evaluati ng rhe gro up 's progress.

Establishing a Climate of Trust.

Gro ups perform more effecti vely when mem-

bers [fusr one anorher. Th e followin g suggestions help esrablish a cl im ate of (fust.

1. Establish norms that build trust. Norms building [rust encourage res penful active listen ing, coope rat ion, co nfidenrialiry. rimely co mpletion o r assignmenrs, and the freedom co disagree withom being

Applying leadership Princi ples

considered deviant. Many leaders are far [0 0 slow to speak to members who are man ipulati ve. do poo r work, o r act out of sel f-interest harm ful to the group.43

2. Function as a coordinator rather than a di ctator. Foster a climate of trust by servin g th e needs of th e group , not by o rd ering people around to serve yo ur personal interes ts. That way. members feel free [0 express themselves and ro develop ski lls needed by the group. Ask for volunteers [0 do jobs for the group rather than o rdering: "Cal, could you please get the ... " 3. Encourage members to get to know each other. Usually, members trust each other an~ feel safe in the group if they know one another as indiv iduals. Sometimes an un structured social period helps create a sense of teamwork. G raduate teaching assistalHs in one department have a tradition of planning a Roat trip at th e beginning of each fall se mester. Social ga th erin gs like thi s help people get [0 know each other.

Developing Teamwork and Promoting Cooperation. Altho ugh the leader's principal res po nsibil ity is to see th at th e gro up accompl ishes its task, the development of teamwo rk can help gro up members wo rk productively. H ere are sugges ti ons yo u ca n use. 1. Speak of us and we, rather than I and you. Calling th e group members we imp lies co mmitment [0 th e group and its values. Ask what it mea ns if another member speaks of the group as "you."

2. Develop a name or another symbol of gro up identification. Such items as T -s hirts, logos, "inside" jo kes, and slogans can d isplay shared identifi cation. For exa mple, a successful advertisin g agency crea ti ve group called itself th e "Can-Do T ea m. " 3. Watch for evidence of hidden agenda items that conflict with group goals. If you suspect a hidden agenda item is interfering with the gro up's age nda , promptly bring it to the attentio n of the group. Igno ring such problems makes them wo rse. nOt better. 4. Use appropri ate co nflict management approaches and procedures. ConRict th at is allowed [0 proceed [00 lon g or [0 become perso nal can cause lasting damage. Help prevent this by keeping arguments focused on facts and issues and by immediately stopping members who attack another's perso nality or character. Look for a broader goal that can bring toge th er twO o r more competin g subgroups, o ne that is more important to members th an their indi vid ual subgroup goa ls and behind whi ch they can rall y. Sometimes, despite the best intenti o ns of rhe leader, a group beco mes deadlocked. If this happens, loo k fo r a bas is on whi ch ro compro mi se. Maybe yo u can sy nthesize parts of one perso n's ideas with pans of another's to create a compro mi se o r consensus solutio n. Perhaps you can serve as media tor. If you have been performin g your job well as the group 's leader, you have remai ned detached from the fray. This gives you a broader perspective from which to see a solution all pani es can accept. It aJso helps your credibil ity-you'll be seen as fa irer and more objective. We discussed conR ict in detail in C hapter 8.

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Marcos and His Fraternity Marcos was appointed chair of the service committee of his college fra· ternity. He and Luis were the only experienced members on the committee; the other three members were new to the fraternity. His committee was responsible for organizing the fraternity's service projects and recruiting frat members to participate. The inexperienced members were excited about working on the committee, but they were not aware of all the fraternity's activities, procedures, and past efforts. Marcos faced

a challenge. He did not want to stifle the enthusiasm, dominate the group, or do most of the work for the grou p. On the other hand, he did not want to lose valuable time while the new members felt their way along. He preferred working on a committee where all members could

contribute equally, but he believed that, at least at first, these members weren't ready to contribute fully-they needed strong direction. He and Luis worked together between the committee meetings to

establish an agenda and select some of the early goals and service activities for the committee. During these meetings Marcos kept close control over the agenda and the discussion. He assigned specific tasks, always

making sure the tasks were acceptable to members. He also encouraged newer members to contribute to the group until they could speak on their own. As he recognized that the newer members were becoming capable of acting on their own, he began to encourage them to take over more planning and decision-making responsibilities. He eventually became less involved in the details of committee work, focusing more on the process of discussion and decision making during meetings. He moved from functioning as a director to functioning as a coordinator. Marcos recently heard about TerryAnn's problems with her service

club from a disgruntled committee member. Concerned that he may not be as effective as he thinks he is, he comes to you, a buddy, for advice . He knows you are taking a small group communication course.

1. What are his strengths, and what may be his weaknesses? 2. Given the information Marcos has provided and the material you have read about perfortning administrative duties, leading group

discussions, developing the group, and managing the group's written commun ication, devise a list of specific questions you

think are important to ask if you want to get a good handle on Marcos's situation.

S. Share rewards with the group. Leaders often receive praise from the group's parem organi zatio n, but wise leaders give credi t to the group. Yo ur co mm ents abo ut what the group has don e, your pride in membership, and your acknowledgment o f the service provided by members foster cohes iveness and team spirit.

Applying Leadersh ip Principles

6. Have fun ; share a laugh or joke wit h the group. Don't let the discuss ion get so serious char people can't enjoy themselves. Humor and fantasy help reduce tensions and make people feel good about each other. Most groups take mentaJ "work breaks" in which they digress from the (ask. Wise leaders let the group develop fantasy chains that enrich the group's life and thar help establish shared beliefs and vaJues. T he result can be more co ncerted work effo rt in the long run. Bring the group back to the task once the joke is over or the fantasy has chained o ut. As yo u ca n see, any group's designated leader is expected to perform a variety of duties associated with the tirl e leader. Far from being the perso n who orders orhers around, the leader serves th e group by making sure it has what it needs.

Encouraging Distributed Leadership We have encouraged you to th ink about group leadership in a way that may be different from how yo u've though t about it in the past; not so much what a person does to a group but how leaders and followers mumaJ ly defin e eac h orher as well as share in the process of moving a group roward its goal. We suggested that you as leader encourage other group members to assume respons ibi lity for leading th e gro up. Distributing the leadership in thi s way helps you, in the long run, by using all mem bers' abilities and talents to the full· est. It helps the other members develop leadership skills and also makes a wider scope of abilities avai lable ro serve th e gro up.

The Great Leader The following quote is attributed to Chinese philosopher Lao Tse:

The wicked leader is he whom the people despise. The good leader is he whom the people revere. The great leader is he about whom the people say, " We did it ourselves. "

What do you und erstand th is qu ote to mean? How can a leader lead and still have people say, "We did it ourselves"? SOURCE: Quote from Peter M. Serge. UThe Le~der's New Work: Building Management Review Reprint Series 32 (Fall 1990), p. 22.

le~rning Organilation~.H

Sioon

Distributed leadership is challenging. Not only does it involve all group members behav· in g in ways ro move the group toward its goal, but leaders face all sorts of conr radicrory desires. When should I take co ntrol? \'(!hen should I let other members do the wo rk? When shou ld I get us back on track? When should I let us digress for a momem? There is a level of maruriry and self·confidence that is needed on the part of everyone. That can take time to develop, as Marcos recognized. You can't assume, as TerryAnn did , chat members are fully ready to cake over and run the group! In the co mmunity theater group Kram er studied, the members were ready to take over. 44 Bur until members achieve this level of skill and rna· rurity, you'll need to be as rute in supplying JUSt rhe right amount of direction, parricularly as members try to grapple with the initial ambigu ity that rypica1ly faces a newly formed group. AnQ(her lesson from Kramer's srudy is that shared leadership does nO[ resemble

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equal distribution at all times. Tnsread, who is doing what for the group shifts, and over rime a sense of "sharedness" and "equity" emerges- the key is balance and disrriburion. As you can see, to be an effective leader in a var iety of situations, you must perceive what is happening with rhe individual members and the group as a whole, and adapt your behavior accordingly. Being perceptive requires listening ability, knowledge of group processes and procedures, and analytical ability. Adapting your behavior requires mastering a variety of leader skill s. OUf emphasis on distributed leadership does not mean we are suggesting doing away with designated leaders. We are saying that, even if a group has a designated leader, the other members have capabilities that should be developed and used in service to the group. This may rake some time; however, rhe pay off in rhe long run is a group that can say "We did it ourselves." This section contains several suggestions for effectively leading a group where leadership is disttibuted. These suggestions do not ask you ro change your personality. Instead, they ask you to focus on your communication behavior and adapt it appropriately.

1. Be perceptive; analyze the needs of the group. Effective leaders understand people. They know how ro help others motivate themselves to contribute their besr. 45 In part (hey do th is by listening carefullyactively- to what is go ing on in the group. For example, if group members appear confused, you know that the group should spe nd some tim e clarifying the discussion. Consider the following dialogue: Jerry:

Yeah, we've got to finish everything Monday night, th e chans and all, with the easel, and get the stuff to Maryann. Our presentation on Tuesday should be pretty good.

Maryann:

[Becoming agitated and visibly upset] That's nor going to give me nearly enough time to type them! I have to have them by Friday at the latest! How can you expect me to type the charts, fix the table of contents, copy the paper, and have it ready to turn in by Tuesday if I don't ge t the stuff before Monday night?

Sheri:

[Trying to calm Maryann bur also somewhat annoyed at her tone of voice] Lighten up, Maryann. It won't take that long-we've only got tWO charts to do, and I can help you.

Terrell:

lThe group's coordinator,.sensing this argument stems from a misunderstanding] Hold on, guys. I think we're taJking abom (wo different sets of charts. If I remember right, we promised we'd get the data tables that are supposed to go into our written repon to Maryann by Friday so she can rype them over the weekend. But I thought Sheri and I were supposed to make the twO chart posters for our class presentation on Monday night. Isn't that what we decided?

Here, Terrell senses that the argument is over a misunderstanding and attempts to clarify it for the group. Notice that he states his clarification (" If I remember right" and "Isn't that what we decided?") provisionally, so others can disagree or improve on his understanding ifhe has been mistaken. Terrell can perform this function for the group only because he has been paying arrenrion and listening actively.

Applying Leadersh ip Principles

2. Adapt your behavior to fit the needs of the group; be a completer. Groups need different things at different tim es. In addition [Q bein g able to analyze your group 's nceds, you must he abl e to adapt you r behav ior to perform a va ri ety of functions, bur it doesn' t make se nse to pcrform fun ction s that others are al ready pe rfo rm ing weIl. In the prev ious exa mple, if Sheri had clarified Ma rya nn 's and Jerry's misunderstanding, th ere wo uld have been no reaso n for Terrel l to do so. Terrell jumped in because clarifica tio n was needed and no one else was providing it. He se rved as a completer by "plugging in the holes" for the othe rs.

3. Focus primarily on task needs rather than social relationships. The person mos t likely to emerge ; s a lead er is a task-o ri ented individual who clearly helps the gro up achieve its goal. This doesn ' t mean you sho uld never tend to relations hip iss ues, but it does mea n that yo u should always keep o ne eye on the task. This helps YO ll make the best use of th e members' time and provide th e appropriate amount of coordination and StruCture for your gro up. 4. Balance your active participation with good listening. Emergent leaders are acc ive group partici pants; your fellow members expect yo u ro take an imeres[ and co ntribute. H owever, balance your ta lking with good listening so you don 't dominate the group. Don' t feel yo u have (Q co mment o n everythin g. Let the discuss io n Aow freely without ove rco nrrolling it. 5. Express yourself dearly and concisely. Whe n YO ll do talk, get to the hea rt of the matter being discussed, clarify, and su mmarize what is being said. Don' t ramble; be well orga nized. co herent , and relevant. The ab ili ty to ve rbalize th e gro up's goals, procedures, ideas. values, and ideals is an important leadersh ip skill. 6. Be knowledgeable about group processes and group techniques. This point may seem obvious, but many designated group leaders are clueless about how to lead a gro up. Too often, a com mittee head is appoi nted without anyone checking thar the indi vidual has had adequate training to pe rform well. Like TerryAnn you may be wi lling to do the job, but if yo u don't know what you are doing, you ca n make a sham bles of what could have bee n a produc ti ve group. To be effec tive, know what [0 expec t, what your skills are, and wha t your group needs. 7. Be willing to plan, improvise, and adapt. Distributed leadership is not about either co ntrolling a gro up or lenin g a gro up do what it wa ms. It is about mutually inAuencing each ocher toward the group's goal, which mea ns it is about both controlling whe n necessary and lening go when necessary. T o effectively do this, leaders must find a balance belwee n competing demands and remain Aexible. You also should be familiar wit h a va ri ety of small gro up tec hniqu es, including co mputer-based group support systems, and suggest them when appro priate. Usin g GSS successfully depend s on several factors, such as wheth er the grou p has good faci litative leadership with a leader sensiti ve to group dynamics. 46 Sometimes members ca n become ca ught up with the "bells and whisrles" of GSS and lose sight of its purpose. Effective group leaders use these computer programs wisely and help mem bers overcome their anxiety o r lack of interest in compute r tech nology.

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Ethical Guidelines for Group Leaders We pointed oU( earlier that the essence ofleadershi p is interpersonal inAuence and power. The issue most germane to leadership is not power itsel f but how that power is used and the ethics of leadership. Mi chael Hackm an and C raig Jo hnso n suggest that lead ers be held to the hi ghes t poss ibl e ethi cal stan dards .47 We refer o nce again to the Nation al Co mm u nica tion Association's C redo fo r Ethi cal C ommunica ti on, introduced in C hapter 1, for the following guideli nes to help yo u maintain the highest ethical standards as a gro up leader.

1. Do not lie or intentionaHy send deceptive or harmful messages. Not o nly should leaders tell the m embers the truth , but rh ey also should hold (ruth ro be th e stand ard for the grou p's decision making. T hat means, for instance, that you should welco me all relevant info rm ati on in the group, wheth er it suppo rts yo ur p reference or not. It also mea ns that you must be willing to subject yo ur ideas to the same standards of evaluatio n as th e others' ideas.

2. Place your concern for the group and for others. ahead of your own personal

gain. In ad dition to willingly commi ni ng your time and energy to serving th e gro up, neve r take advantage of your power as leader for personal gai n o r advantage. Lead· ers' hidde n age ndas are as cou nterprod uctive to the grou p as members' hidden age ndas are.

3. Be respectful of and sensitive to the other members. G roups are effective p roblem so lvers because several heads are better than one, bu t only if the mem bers feel free to share th eir th oughts and ideas within the group. Never do anything il1(entionally to rid icule mem bers or their ideas or to discourage thei r participatio n.

4. Stand behind the other members when they carry out policies and actions

approved by the leader and the group. Don't try to enh ance you r own positio n by bet raying your fellow members. If som eth ing goes wrong with a decision the group has made, ass ume perso nal responsib ility fo r the decis ion.

5. Treat members with equal respect, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or social

background. Respo nd to me mbers witho ut regard to thei r sex, crhniciry, social background , age, or other personal or social attributes. M embers should be valu ed fo r their contributions to th e group, not thei r sex or race. AB an eth ical lead er, mini m ize status di ffe rences to encourage eve ryo ne's participatio n.

6. Establish clear policies that all group members are expected to follow. Gro up rul es and proced ures sho uld be d ea rly u nde rstood. G roup members sho uld be encouraged to participate in establishi ng the group 's procedures and po licies.

7. Follow the group rules, just as you expect the others to do. Because of you r status as the gro up leader, you may be given some leeway (Q violate ru les others are expected to follow. Do not abuse th is pri vilege. If others are

Applying leadership Principles

expected to arri ve on time. so shou ld you. If yo u reprimand members for failing to comp lete assignments. make sure you r own assignments are co mpleted well and on tim e. fu much as poss ible. be a model member for the group.

As Lao Tse sa id: "The great leader is he about whom the people say. 'We did it ourselves.''' Will you be that kind ofleader?

Your Needs or the Team's Needs? In 1971 , after the Swann v. Char/otte-Mecklenburg Board of Education decision that permitted busing to achieve racial integration, schools were required to become integrated immediately.· In Alexandria, Virginia, the previously all-white high school was closed, and students were absorbed into the previously all-black school. Bob Yardley, who had been the winning, successful head football coach of the all-white school, expected to be named head footba ll coach of the integrated school. However, Horace Bond, a young African American coach new to the community, was offered the position. At first reluctant to accept the offer, Bond was encouraged by town leaders; he eventually accepted. Bond considered for a long time what he might do to bring his black and white players together-particularly when neither set of students wanted to be brought together! He offered an assistant coaching position to Bob Yardley. If you were Bob Yardley, what would you do? You think you should have had the head coaching spot, and it's not fair that you didn't get the offer. But you also think that achieving racial integration is a positive step, and you want to help the school achieve it. You have several choices. 1. You could accept, refuse, accept and try to sabotage Coach Bond's efforts, and so forth . list at least five options in this situation. 2. Assume you decided to accept Coach Bond's offer. What would be your communication behavior toward him? Respectful? Disdainful? How would you show your feelings through your communication behavior? 3. You truly believe the top spot should have been yours, but assume that you've decided you want to make a positive contribution here. What would you do? How would you behave toward Bond and the players? 4. How would you describe the ethical dilemma you face and on what basis would you make your ethical decision? 'This story is USM with permission 01 Robin Swanson. Names 01 the Khools and individuals have been changed. The actual outcome was positive-the coaches found a way to wo~ together, the players were 1000M 10 operate as a learn (although they initially resisted), and the team won the regiooCtI championship in an undefeCtted seCtson.

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CHAPTER 9

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

•

Leadership consists of usin g co mmunicado n ro modify others' behaviors to meet gro up goals; a leader is anyo ne who exerts influence [0 help a group. Designated leaders are appointed or elected, whereas emergent leaders surface nacurally from within a group of peers.

•

Leaders derive their abilicy [0 influence others from seven sources of power: reward, punishmenr, legitimate. expect, referent, informational, and ecologicaJ. The more sources of power a leader has, the greater is that leader's abilicy to influence the ocher group members.

• Three co mmon myths about leadership are that leaders have speciaJ traits that followers don 't, that there is an ideaJ leadership style, and that leaders get other people to do all the work for them. • The functional approach to leadership encourages aJl group members to perform whatever functions a group needs. T he contin gency approach assumes th at the type of leadership a

group needs depe nds on the group's situation. The distributed approach recognizes the incerdependent re.lationship becween leaders and followers and the often messy contradictions faced by leaders. • Group members expect leaders to perform four broad types of tasks: providing administrative services for a group. structuring a group's djscussions, helping a group develop as a team, and managing a group's written messages. • Distributed leadership involves both leaders and followers enacting leadership behaviors and defining each other. This kind of leadership is often characterized by contradictory demands on the leader and members of the group. • Ethical leaders tell the truth, are sensitive to and respectful of others. support the other members, establish clear rul es that they ex pect to follow th emselves, and put group concerns ahead of their own personal gain.

1. View Part I ("Leadership") of the video Communicating Effictively in Small Groups, and discuss the following questions:

members to be the leader of the group. Ask the group to tackle the following problem:

a. What functions did the leader perform?

An English teacher in a consolidated, rural school bas had atensive dramatic experience. She was chosen by the principal to dirrct thefirst play in the new school The play will be the first major production for the school Its success may detennine whether there will be any foture playsproduced at the schoo/, and if well rkine, it could bring prestige to both the teacher and the school As a result. the teacher is exhausting every means availabk to her to make the play an artistic success. She has chosm all the cast except for the kading femak part. The principalS rkiughter wants the part, and the principal wid the tetU:her he really wants his rkiughter to have it. But

b. How effective was each function? How appropriate? c. Were there any points during th e discussion where the leader failed to supply needed leadership service? Did anyone else step in to provide it? Was the group hurt?

d. O n a scaJe of I to 10, how effective was the leader? Why do you say this? 2. Select five members from your class to act as a problem-solvi ng group. Assign one of the

The Teacber's D ilemma

Applying leadership Principles

she is a poor actress and would jeopardize the success ofthe show. Tentatively, the teacher has chosen someone who should do an excellent job in the role,

is to address nOt only the specinc duties leaders should perform but also the commun ica-

tive skills leaders should exhibit and the ethical principles they should both exhibit and uphold. Each gro up should create a "Guidelines for Group Leaders" manual that could be

but the principal has implied that ifhis tkIughter is not selected, he will appoint another director in the foture. What should she tkI?

distributed to student leaders at your school. Discuss each group's guidelines to determine which ones tend to be common to all groups. Why do you think these tend to be the most common?

Place the group of five in the middle of the class and surround it with the rest of the class members. They are to watch chis group's discussion and to evaluate the leader on hi; or her ab ility to

lead the group di scussion. How well did he or she do? On what do you base your evaluation? 3. Form small groups of four to six members.

Discuss the "ideal" group leader. Each group

289

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nn

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Go to www.mhhe.oomladamsgalanes8e and www.mhhe.oomlgroups rot selfquizzes and weblinks.

Agenda

Emergent Leader

Leadership

Coercion

Expert Power

Legitimate Power

Contingency Concept

Functiona l Concept

Minutes

Designated Leader

Influence

Punishment Power

Distributed Lead ership

Information Power

Referent Power

Ecological Power

Leader

Reward Power

Small Group Public 'Presentations

ust as it is important to figure out the leadership roles and who

J

will perform them, a group must also assess its strengths and

difficulties when it comes to oral presentations. Up to now, we have discussed the complex nature of small group interactions

as they occur within group meetings. The successful development of small group interaction helps ensure a more professional and successful oral presentation by individuals and group members. In Part Five, we discuss a three·step process to prepare your group's oral presentation, by focusing on the planning, organizing, and

presenting stages of these presentations.

Planning, Organizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter you should be able to: , . Explai n the different choices group members can make in the pl an ning, organizing, and presenting

stages. Z. Compare and contrast the three types of public discussions. 3. Discuss the role of the moderator in any type of public discussion.

4. Explain the essential parts of the introduction, the body, and the conclusion of an oral presentation .

•

S . Compare and contrast the four methods of

presenting a speech. 6. Describe and apply relevant criteria to evaluate an oral presentation.

Planning, Organizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

Food for the Homeless

Six students in a small group communication class spent more than half the semester discussing the problems faced by a local homeless shelter. One especially significant problem they noted was the great reduction in contributions, especia lly of food, during the economic recession. The shelter seemed to get more than enough donations during tbe healthy economic times, but contributions dropped significantly during the recession when many people were losing their jobs and their homes. As part of the solution section of their report, the students recommended a way of getting more edib le leftovers from local restaurants to the shelter, a program they had discovered already in operation in a few other communities across the nation. The students' report earned them an A. Their instructor was so impressed that he showed the report to a close friend, the president of the local restaurant association. She, too, thought the students were on to something and invited them to make a 15-minute presentation about their project at the association's monthly meeting. The students were excited that their work might become something more than a classroom exercise and that they might be able to help the homeless shelter, but they did not know how they should respond to th is invitation. Should they let their chair represent them? Should they all go and each say a few words? Should they let their most talkative member make the presentation or the one who seemed to be the best critical thinker? The meeting was coming quickly, and they did not know what to do.

e spend so mu ch tim e focusing on the work that group members engage in while problem so lving that we ca n forget many problem-so lving g roups are not finished when th ey select a so lution to their problem. Many groups , eve n those who can implement th ei r solutions, are asked and even required to publicly present their group work to o th ers. Now the group mu st turn its anention to figuring ou t how to best create and deliver an oral presentation under specified co nditions.

W

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CHAPTER 10

I GLOSSARY

The Planning Stage

Audience

Analysis Studying the unique character of who

will receive a pre-

sentation in order to adapt how a speech will be delivered and what will

be presented

The moment your group is informed that a presentation will be needed, you should schedule a planning meeting [0 work through key details. Oftentimes. you may know in advance that a group project will culminate in a public presentation. If this is the case, when you layout your project schedule, it needs to include preparation for this presentation. Planning to speak to an audience requires advance assessmel1[ of the upcoming speaking situation. Practicing engineers, for instance, report that while oral presentations are a key parr of their jobs, often the time and effort they spend preparing for these presentations is more imponant to and demanding on them than the actual presentation. I The most important areas of assessment include your group's audience, occasion, purpose, topic, member strengths/difficulties, and supplemental logistics. This initial assessment, as well as plenty of preparation, is essential for a smooth production. In this section we look at each area of assessment and describe different types of oral presentations that groups often deliver.

YOUR AUDIENCE Assessing your audience is imponant for creating a comfortable speaking environment for both your group and your audience. Although we often think about our audience when giving presentations, tOO often we do nor carefully figure out who this group of listeners is to us. 2 Audience analysis is a systematic approach to gathering as much information as possible about the audience for the purpose of tailoring your presentation to the information you uncover in that analysis. 3 Audience members listen to material presemed to them through their own perspectives, not those of the person presenting the material. This is why it is so important to gather information systematically about the people hearing what you have to say. In professional contexts such as engineering, for instance, the ability to communicate main ideas in a multitude of ways is critical. 4 Engineers speak to audiences that can include clients, engineers like themselves, staff members, and federal and local agencies-all with varying technological competence. Engineers thus need at least "a dozen ways to state and clarify any individual idea or piece of technical information."5 How might these perspectives affect how audience members listen to your group presentation? Let's explore audience attitudes toward topics. 6 If you know that your audience is not familiar with your topic, then you should stay with basic facts and provide background information. If your group's topic is new to the audience, such as material on pollution rates during peak traffic hours, then you should show why listeners should care abom the topic and demonstrate how this issue relates to air quality issues they do know about. If your audience holds attitudes against your topic, then create a common ground with the audience and relate your group's main points to audience perspectives. For example, suppose your group believes it is necessary to use marijuana for medical purposes; however, you know your audience is against drug use. Show how your group and the audience care about health care for loved ones, and then relate your main poims to the audience's beliefs abom heahh care for those they love. If your audience is strongly against your group's main points, then consider aJtering your positions or make sure you build a sound case for your points. All these recommendations are grounded in knowing your audience. You can find out information about your audience in a variety of ways.7 If you wam targeted information about a panicuiar audience, interview them or conduct a survey.

Pla nning, Organizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

T hi s is easy if your audience wi ll be members of your class. Incerv iews can be co mposed of o pen-ended quest ions and closed-e nd ed ques tio ns. For example an open-ended question might be so methin g like, "How are you planning on managing the increase in yo ur tuition that is bein g proposed?" A closed-ended question would look like, "Do you agree with rhe recent decision to increase stud enr tuition ?" You ca n also answer your questions by giving your audience a wriaen survey. If yo u wa nt only general information about your audi ence, you ca n access published polls, which ca n give yo u informati on about aa itudes o n current ropies. For example, the Roper Cenre r for Public Opinion holds rhe largesr collection of polts and surveys in rhe United Sta res (www. ropercenrer.uco nn. ed u). A vari ety of demographic stati stics about the Uliited States can be found on the U.S. Census Bureau's website (www. census.gov). Once you are aware of who your audience is, yo u can determine the knowledge they mayor may nOt have about th e ropi c you are considerin g for discuss ion. As a gro up you shou ld answer specifi c questions about yo ur aud ience. W ill YO ll be spea kin g only to your class, or will your instructo r be part of the audience? W ill it be the emire membership of yo ur fraternity or jusr the executive committee? Will it be people you kn ow, or will mOS t of th em be st rangers? Will th e audience membe rs be there voluntaril y, o r is so meone forcin g them to attend ? The mood of your audi ence ca n depend on whether yo ur audience feels required to be there. Up to now, we have been talking about vol untary audi ences. These aud iences come to presentations because of a desire to listen to the presentation. Often, however, you might face an involuntary audience like the one in college courses or manda ted ones for employees. 8 Some audience members may very will wish to listen to your presematio n, hue many may not and may even be upset that they are required to sit uHough a group presentation on a to pic they c.1.re litrie for or dislike. You probably have already been a part of a course where you had to sit through lots of presenrations. YOll watched as audience members texted each other, worked on material for other classes, rolled rheir eyes in boredom. Now YO LI find you rself having to give a presentation to an audience required to attend. W hat should you do? A ca ptive or required audience member is goi ng to need a presentation with lots of enrhusiasm and reasons why they should listen. Use the reaso ns for being req uired to be present at these presemations as part of your presemarions. If it is mandatory for your audi ence, address faccor in your imroductio n, and also co nsider maki ng light of ir. If yo u know some people will nor like your ropi c, find ou[ why and work with th eir objections. Use yo urself! Have a group di scussion about how it has been for your group co sit through presemations and use this information ro create a better presentation. Bottom line-show the audience you thought about them. 9 Remember, for more opportunities of audience incl usion, find alit as much as possible about the audience before you start writing yo ur presentation even if your audi ence is an invo luntary o ne.

YOUR OCCASION Depending on who has invited your group to speak, yo u may be able to get much of your information about the audi ence and the occasion from this lead co ntact person. As k if you ca n vis it the facility and room you will be speakin g in before th e event occurs; also check and recheck the time of the event, as well as the major purpose and context. How many people are ex pected? Where will you be placed in the speaking lineup, and how much co ntrol do you have ove r your sening? Before your gro up begins se rious purpose and top ic

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GLOSSARY ] Informative

Speech A speech given with the primary purpose of teaching

something to on

C HAPTER 10

pl annin g, make sure you clarifY why you have been asked ro speak to this audience and whet her (h ere is a specifi c goal that needs to be mer. If yo u afC preparing for a classroom prescnrarion of your small grou p project, you already kn ow the time and place fo r your presentation. C larify with your instructor th e purpose and requ iremcm s of the presentation and how you ca n use (h e room for the presenration. M any class rooms are not very in viting for presenrarions. Do nor be afraid [Q alter (h e cnv ironmcnr to suit your purposcs if you ca n. Move furniturc, open or close blinds, bring in props that suppon your task, and so on. The imponant point to make is that your group take co ntrol of as much of th e occasion as you ca n ~be proactive.

audience

Persuasive Speech A speech containing

a call to acrion by the audience

Entertainment Speech A speech with

the main purpose of amusing I he

audience

YOUR PURPOSE Typically, a speaker wants to have a general purpose of informing, pe rsuading. or ente rraining an audience. Knowing what you are trying to accompl ish is an esse ntial step in any effective p resentar ion. If your group is unaware of the purpose of yo ur presentation. how can the audience members make sense of what thcy are su pposcd to do wirh the information you presenr? The informative speech is used when your gro up wa nts to educa te, en li ghten, or inform. For exam pl e. if yo ur group is reporting on a new community serv ice gro up that has just moved into (he area, and you are offering informati on that desc ribes who they are, where they co me fro m, and what th ey offer, yo ur purpose is to inform . If you r group wanted the audience to donate time or money to ch is co mmunity serv ice organizatio n, yo ur purpose wo uld be to persuade. A persuasive speech is defi ned by the cal l to act ion . Your purpose, as a group, is ro gct you r aud ience to do so methi ng with th e informat io n yo u have given rhem. Ano th er example of a persuasive purpose wou ld be tryin g to influence your fraternity or soro ri ty ro try a new fu nd -raisi ng technique. You wam yo ur audience mem bcrs to agree with YO ll and adopt your suggesr io n(s). On occasion you may be asked to give an entertainment speech, such as to wrap up rh e year's events or "roast" a co ll eague at the annual compa ny picnic. You wam the audi ence members to enjoy thcm selves, to laugh and have a good tim e. So metim es it is hard to get an audi ence to warm up to jokes and different typcs of hum or, so be prepared if you d o nm get the response you wa ne. Also, be aware that most jokes are dirccted at or said at th e ex pense of others. so be very ca reful that yo ur humor is appropriate and tastefu l, and does not turn off aud ience members. What is funny on Comed y Central may nm be approp riate for yo ur aud ience. You ' re speaking to make a conn ec tio n with your audience, nm to alienate th em. Although yo ur purpose may be ro em ertain , this speech could eas ily inform o r persuade as well. We have heard speeches on many serious issues that were deli ve red in a thoughtfu l and entertaining mann er.

YOUR SUBJECT OR TOPIC As soon as yo u dete rmi ne the genera l purpose, establish a spec ifi c subject or topic of you r presentation. Your instructor or employer often will tell YO ll what to talk about, but some times, the cho ice of a spec ifi c ropic will be left up to yo u. T his step is ohen one o f the most difficult. W here do you sta rr? The best topics co me fro m yo ur ow n experi ences, bel iefs, or sk ills. As a grou p. si t down and b rainsror m different ropic ideas from your own individual ex peri ences. What are your imeres ts and hobbi es? What subj ec ts

Planning, Organ izing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

do yo u enjoy, read about, and find imeresting? Often yo u are selected to speak because of some expertise you possess. You can al so as k whoever asked YOLI (0 speak whi ch of several wpics (he aud ience would find mOSt appeal ing. When you are giving a presentation as, part of a project for a course, (h en yo ur project topi c is yo ur presemation's topic. If for insta nce, you have juS{ completed a problem-sol vi ng project, th e topi c of yo ur prese ntation is yo ur problem and the steps in the P-MOPS (see C hapter 7) are yo ur sub-areas. U ndoubtedly, (h ere will be a time limit for yo ur presentation. You may have 5 minutes or 20, or you may be told simply to "be brief" o r CO "fill us in. " Keep yo ur time limit in mind when selecting what to say about yOltr subject. Inexperienced spea kers often make the mistake of corning CO the pod ium with enough material for two or three speeches. As a result rhe audi ence gets restless or your insrru cco r tell s you CO Sto p so that others in rhe class have time to speak. Don 't try to cover everything yo u know about a subject; select those matters mat are most important to you and of special interest CO your audience. One of th e hardest tasks faci ng a problem-solving group is turning a co mprehensive written project into an oral presentation. Your gro up has to carefull y consider what material has to be covered to give yo ur project justi ce, address instructor gu idel ines, and meet tim e limits.

MEMBER STRENGTHS AND FEARS Knowing the stren gths and fears that your members may have with oral presentations will help in the organizing and presenting stages. W hat informacion does each indi vid ual group member have about the topic that has been chosen for discuss io n? What contacts or research leads do yo u have as a group? What is the attitude of the group coward the topic? After assessing th e strength s of group members, deciding who will present different points wi ll be easier. Also, if a q uestion-and -a nswer period will foll ow your presentation, knowing members' strengths will help in dete rmining who is besc qualified to answer the specific questions th ac are asked. In add ition to loo kin g at th e strengths of four CO fi ve members. the group has to focus o n member difficulties in making o ral presentations. Anxiety can prevent members from having a confident and effective delivery. If your group does an early assessment of this co mmun ication apprehension, it wi ll be easier ro co mbat the problem. A group must not rely on the ste reorype that "any leader can lead an effective oral prese nration. " Anxiety is normal and may be experienced in different ways. Just because your group leader or pres idenr has no problem speaking ro your gro up as a whole doesn'r mea n she or he will be co mfortable speaking ro a gro up that may be large r or unknown ro the speake r. Knowing a member's diffi culty or enjoy ment, for that matter, with public speaking will allow you r gro up ro organ ize different prese nring strategies that take the focus ofT of one person. This knowledge wi ll also be a helpful reminder chat yo ur grou p should practice the delivery ro ease tensions.

SUPPLEMENTAL LOGISTICS Nea r th e end of your planning stage, your group should be more kn owledgea ble about what you need. Will you need supplies ro sec lip your speakin g environment? rue yo u using a visual aid? W hat will you need ro run thi s visual aid properly (e.g., TV, DVD player. laptop computer, projector, audio player, sl ide machin e)? Is this hardware already

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GLOSSARY Panel Discussion One of three kinds of group public dis cussions, in which

panel members often bring different points of view to

the di5Cussion

(HAPTER 10

in th e room you will be presenting in? If it isn't, then how do yo u make sure it will be there? Speakers often forge t a si mple item, such as rape. and end up worrying about the poster that will not stand up srrai ght instead of focusi ng on the words that are just as important as (h e visual aid. Do not ex pect a member of yo ur audience, your teacher, or a COlHac( person to provide you with chese items. The lesso n here again is ro be proactive. Even if your presentation is a required element of a co urse project, it is nonetheless still yo ur presentation-act like it is yours. It never hurts to be overprepared. A good rule of thumb is to be prepared enough to give your group presenrarion without any audio and visual aids should something go wrong. Remember, these tOols on ly supplement your presema tioll; they do not rake the place of your presenration. Take, for exam ple, the comm unity service story discussed earl ier. If your group hasn' t go ne the extra mile to find pamphlets, booklets, handouts, bu[(ons, balloons, fact shee rs, or other items rhat this homeless shelter has for distribution , then yo u may be missi ng ou( on updated informatio n. Many organizations would be happy to have a volunteer group inform others about their needs and services, and your presenration would look thar much more profess ion al because yo u obtained original, from-the-source information about yo ur topic.

TYPES OF GROUP ORAL PRESENTATIONS Once you have co mpleted yo ur presentation assessment, yo u must decide which presentation format best fits the purpose and occasion of yo ur preselHarion. These formats all ow for differin g viewpoints to be ex pressed and are often fo ll owed by comments and questions from th e audience. The three most common group presentation formats are the panel di sc ussion, symposium , and forum (see Table 10.1 ).

Panel Discussion . A panel discussion is a public interaction between a small num ber of people, often selecred because of their knowledge of a ropic and usually holding co nfli cting viewpoints. The purpose of a panel is to make the audience more aware of a

TABLE 10.1

Types of Group Presentations

Pa ne l: Conversation among Experts

Symposium: Individual Uninterrupted Presentations

Forum: Questions and Comments from Audience

Topics outli ned in advance

Different aspects of top ic discussed by panelists

Differe nt viewpoints encouraged

Controversy encouraged

No interaction among panelists

Questions directed at individuals or at entire group

Moderator acts as traffic co p

Moderator introduces topiC and panelists .

M oderator selects audience participants

Planning, Organizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

299

significant top ic or to persuade rhem {Q act in a cerrain way (e.g., vote fo r a specific issue o r candidate). Fo r exa mpl e, you r gro up may be asked by your insrru ctor to se rve as a panel and exp lain your semeste r project and co nclusions to rhe rest of your class. The procedure to fo ll ow for a panel di scussio n includes the followin g:

[ GLOS~

1. Select a moderator to maintain o rder, see that all the major issues are covered, and ensure thar everyo ne gets to spea k. The moderato r introd uces {he members of the panel and keeps the discussion movi ng by calling on speakers as necessary. The moderator acts as a conve rsational traffic cop, directing quest ions to the appropr iate panelists and cla ri fyi ng iss ues and.statements as necessary. T he moderamr also makes appropr iate ope ning and closing remarks and directs any subsequent audi ence partiCipation.

2. Before the di scussion, make an outline of all the important points the group wants to cover. and decide in what order to cover them. Follow rhis outline closely during the panel discuss ion. W hat mi ght thi s o utline look like? Often yo ur presentation outl ine mirrors whateve r problem-solving agenda your group lIsed to arrive at a so lu tion for your problem-if that was yo ur task. For instance, if you used the procedural model of problem solving (P-MOPS), derail ed in C hapter 7, then your presentation age nda would look like the o utlin es found in Tables 7.5 and 7.6. 3. Make approp ri ate phys ical arrangements:

a. Seat panelists so rh ey can see each Other and make eye contaCt with the audience; a semi circle is appropriate.

h. Seat panelists at a table or desk so it is easy for them

{Q

wr ite notes.

c. Identi fy panelists with a name ca rd on th e tab le in front of them or their names on a blackboard behind them. T he audience can then address qu estions (Q specifi c panelists easily. d. If the discuss ion is to be held in a large auditorium , place micro phones on the table for th e panel isrs to share. If audience paniciparion will fo ll ow, strategi cally locate at least one stand up microphone in th e aud itorium. e. Make provisions for panelists to present visual aids. Provide an easel or chalk-

board that is easy to reach and will nor block the view of rh e audi ence or panel. 4. Recognize that th e panelists should not hes itate to disagree with each other, but should do so po litely. Even when they are nOt talking, the audience ca n see them, so they sho uld refrain from inappropriate nonverbal communication. Remember thar just because YOll migh t not be speak ing at th e mom ent, yo u are still an active part of the presentation and shou ld look as if you are anentive to the event.

Symposium. A symposium is much mo re st ructured than a panel discussion. Instead of a relatively free iIHerchange of ideas, rh e ropic is div ided iIHo segments, and each d iscussaIH presents an uniIHerrupted speech on a port ion of the topic. The purpose of a sy mposium is similar to that of a panel: to en li ghten an audience on a subj ect of importance. Fo r example, on September 11 ,2001 , afte r the horrific attacks on the World Trade Center in New Yo rk City, Governor George Patak i and Mayor Rudy Giu li ani and other New York dign itaries presented a news conference ro disseminate information to the public. After these arracks New York and the rest of the world wanted and needed informat ion in a quick. co ntrolled manner. This sympos ium all owed each presenrer to deliver

Moderator A participant in a public group presentation whose main responsibility is to regula te the discussion and guide any audience participation

Symposium One of three kinds of group public discussions, in which participants deliver uninterrupted speeches on a selected topic

300

CHAPTER 10

in fo rm at ion in an uninter rupted format. Most symposi ums are usually followed by a forum , which allows the audience to qu es tio n the panelists and permits rh e discussants to answer these quest io ns and COlllm CIl[ o n each ocher's presentations. In rh e New York Ciry press confe rence, reporters as ked questions after the co ncludin g remarks, leavin g rime for each member [Q co mmenr from his or her own ex pertise. For example. Mayor G iuliani provided information from a city perspective, wo rking hard to un ite hi s co mmuni ry and dispense info rmat ion, while Gove rn o r Pataki expressed what rh e state could be prov idin g an d how he was working Wi (\l the president and ot her authorities to keep thin gs runnin g smoothly. Procedures for a sy mpos iulll are as foll ows:

1. Select a moderator to introdu ce rhe speakers, introduce rhe topi c, and make concludin g remarks. 2. Select a small group of experts to prese nt diffe renr aspects of the iss ue. Beca use each indi vidual presentatio n is unilHerru pted. make sure th ere will no r be mllch repetition amo ng the spea kers. Pay parti cu lar : m emion to how YO ll will transiti o n berween speakers so that the overall prese ntation is coherent. 3. As wi th (h e panel prese ntatio n, make appropriate ph ys ical arrange mem s. In a class group prese ntation , this mea ns knowing wha t in th e classroom ca n be moved. how rhe room ca n best be arranged. and where th e gro up will be placed rel eva nt to th e aud ience. Do not wa it for othe rs, including your inst ructor. to make these physical arrangemems for yo u. Take th e initiati ve, and be ready to se t up rhe classroom when it is yo ur turn to spea k.

Forum Discussion . A forum discussion all ows members of an audience for a speech. symposium, panel discllss io n, debate. o r other pub li c presentat io n an opportun ity to comment o n what they have heard and to ask questi ons of the speake rs. All sides of the question should be given an equal amoum of presentation tim e, and no spea ker sho uld be all owed to monopolize th e Aoo r. T he mod erator's rol e is crucial. So me sugges ti o ns for th e moderator are: 1. Let audi ence members know th at a forum will follow rh e panel or sympos ium so they ca n p repare their questions o r comments. 2. Make sure everyone understands any special rules o f the forum segment. How will audience members be recognized ? They mighr raise thei r hands o r step forward to an audi ence micropho ne. W ill speakers from the audience be allowed to ask a follow-up ques tion ? W ill so meo ne who has nor spoken have preference over so meone who has al ready spo ken? If ther~ is a time limit for quest io ns. make sure it is announced and followed.

~ OSSARY Forum

Discussion Structured audience participation oller a

speech, symposium, panel, or debate

3. Make sure everyo ne knows when the fo rum wi ll end , and do nor accepr questions once that time has been reached . Offe r a warn ing befo re the las t questio n or tWO. 4. Try to ensure that a diversity of views is offered. Ask for CO l1llllenrs opposed to those that have just been ex pressed. On a very controversial iss ue, [he mode ratOr might deliberately alternate berwcen a spokespe rso n from o ne side and th e other. 5. Make sure everyo ne ca n hear qu es tions or co mm em s. If necessary, repea t them fo r the aud ience. 6. Following the las r question o r co mm Cnt. offer a bri ef summary and th ank eve ryo ne for th eir participarion.

Planning, Orga nizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

What Type of Group Presentation Should the Group Make to the Restaurant Association? Form groups of about six people, and discuss how you feel about making oral presentations. Next, pretend that you are the members of the discussion group described in Case 10.1, and decide how you would respond to the invitation from the restaurant association. 1_ Would you prefer to work together and put on a panel or a symposium? If so, whom would you select to be the moderator? Why? 2_ Would you prefer to send a single representative? If so, which of you would you send? Why? 3. Compare your group's answers to these questions with those of the other groups in your class. How do you account for differences and similarities?

The Organizing Stage The success of the organizing stage depends on how well group members interact and listen to o ne anmher. If the group allows o ne person to rake the lead, ex pecting that this person will plan and o rga ni ze th e prese nrat io n, many problems will arise. No t only wiil o nly one perso n know what is goin g to be discussed, bur also resentm ent o n both sides may ari se. As with every other stage, it is impo nanr to have every member present durin g the o rga ni zing stage. In thi s secti on on orga nizatio n, we focus on the impo rtance of delegating member duties, we ex plain different types of ve rbal and visual materials that the group ca n use, and we provide a spea ker's bl ueprint for o rganizing these materials and rhe presentati on.

DELEGATING DUTIES Althou gh the del ega ti o n of d ut ies may so und like a functio n of th e leader, thi s is no t always th e case. After assess in g th e strength s and fears of eac h member, it is impo n ant to determin e what each member feels mos t comforrable wi th and where his or her presentati o n strengths li e. If yo u don ' c spea k up at thi s cru cial tim e of o rgani zin g, you mi ght be stuck with a job th at you do n' t know how to perform o r have no des ire to do. W hen presen ting o n spec ific areas, exa mine th e different backgro und s and ex peri ences o f yo ur members, and analyze where th eir stre ng ths lie. T hink abo ut the diffe rent majo rs in a college class roo m. If these students had to build a prese ntati o n about th e parking problem o n th eir ca mpu s, whi ch areas of th e prese ntati o n would be bes t delegated to wh o m? Fo r exampl e, mat h maj o rs co uld demonstrate, with the use of numbers, car/s pace rati os, o r fund ing iss ues. Histo ry majo rs could g ive background to thi s o ngo in g probl em. An art major wo uld be o ur fi rs r choi ce wh en dec iding o n visual aids, a nd commun ica ti o n majo rs mi ght have th e duty of survey in g students and admini strati o n o n solutio ns to t hi s pro blem .

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Knowing each group member 's responsibilities will help when yo u plan speaking duties and each member's order in the presemation. Afte r you are aware of who is speaking when and about what, you will wane co discuss who wi ll obtain ve rbal and visual aid materials. W ho will be required to set up the TV/VCR, (Urn the lights ofT during the slide show, o r set up a meeting with an o utsid e agency? Each duty is extremely important to the success of the group and its presentation and should be planned before the day of the eve nr. Do not hesicare [0 use a PERT chan (see C hapter 7) again here when laying our your prese ntati on. This chart ca n give you a vis ual depiction of duties and a time line.

GATHERING VERBAL AND VISUAL MATERIALS

Verbal Materials.

Once your group is awa re of each member 's duties, you ca n now cond uct much more fo cused research on each person 's item for discussion. Often speakers will try to app roach the audience with on ly the information th ey know , withom obta inin g support in g material. Listed are three of the mOSt important types of ve rbal support in g materials: examp les, statistics, and stateme nts by amhoriti es, or testimony. •

Examples; Aristorle said that examples become "witnesses and a witness is everywhere persuasive. "'o Examp les are used in inductive reaso ning, where a generalization is drawn from a number of specific instances. Examples can range from detailed factual ones (the StOry of a rape victim, complete wirh dialogue, names, and dates), to undeveloped factual exam ples (a list ing of the coum ries in th e world where war is presendy occur ring), to hypothetical ones (how much a dollar will be worth in 10 years given a certain rare of inAation). You should choose typ ical examp les and offer enough to make your po int believable.

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Statistics: Sratist ics are numbers or quamification used ro explain or sup pOrt your position. Audience members can be eas ily confused by stati stics, so make you r statistics d ear and meaningful. For insta nce, it is hard to imagine how large a co unt ry is if the speaker tells us on ly that it is 200,000 squa re mi les in area. More helpful is a com parison: about the size of Cal ifornia and Oregon comb ined. To emphasize how large the state budget in Cali forn ia was in 2000 ($6 1.53 billi on), point Out that m spend that much , the state had to spend $ 168.5 milli on a day, $7 million per hour,

•

or $ 19.511 per second. Testimony: Some people are recognized as autho rit ies on ce rtain issues. To support

you r position, you may want to quote direcrly or paraphrase what these autho riti es have said or written about your topic. Obtain this from library research or inte rviews o r over th e In ternee. T he group mentioned in Case 10.1 got useful mater ials from interview ing the director of the homeless shelter and from newspaper articl es about similar shelters across the country. Three co mmon types of testimony are lay, expert, and celebrity. Lay testimony is a statement taken from an ordinary individual. Information that is reported by a person who has special training or knowledge about the mpic is expert testimony. A person who is famous wou ld offer celebrity testimony. Let's imagine that your group has decided ro give an informarive presentation on tips for a long-las ting, happy marriage. Who might you in terview

Planning, Organizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

for lay, ex pert. and celebrity testimony? Think about the problems that mi ght arise if yo u chose testimony from so meo ne who is known (00 well by the aud ience. For example, picking Britney Spears as your celebrity testimony might cause problems. Although Britney Spears might offer interesting tips for yo ur presentation, the public knowledge of her divo rce might taint her message. The bottom line when assessing verbal supporting material is to be aware of the attitudes that your audience might have toward your research-who o r what is seen as mo re credible? If yo ur oral prese nration is based o n a co mprehensive written project already full of supporting materi al your group needs, assess the supporting material fro m the perspective of the audience and select material accordingly.

Visual Materials.

Look also for visual materials to keep th e audience's interest. Keep in mind what successful attorneys know: A visual aid helps yo ur audience remember yo ur main poin ts. Mos t lawyers know that juri es pay closer attent ion, understand techni cal poi nts better. and remember more when oral testimony is coupl ed wit h a visual prop. T he classic courtroom exa mple is the image of Johnnie Cochran slipping on the leather glove wh il e repeating, " If ir does n' t fit, you must acquit" in the co urtroom whi le he was defending 0.). Simpson, on trial for murder. If visual images were nOt important, we would not have an obsession with television. Imagine listening to your news, sports. and favorite relevis ion programming only on th e radi o. Now that yo u have a better understanding of the importance of these images, here are a number of possi bilities that can en hance your presentation.

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Object: If what you are speaking about is small enough. bring it with you. A small animal is a very effective prop if yo ur talk is about birth control for pets or overcrowding at an imal shelters. If your subj ect is toO large or noisy (0 bring with you, use a model or picture instead.

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Model: A plas£ic model of the object can allow the audience to see what you are talking about when the real object is [00 large. The space shu ttle will be unabl e to land on your ca mpus. but a model can easily be displayed o n a small table in the front of [he classroom.

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Picture or video: A photograph. slide, o r videotape can focus the aud ience's attention on yo ur top ic. To show the problem of traffic congest ion in yo ur city, for instance, take a video of rush hour on a busy street. Slide shows need to be planned and rehea rsed wel l in advance of the performance. Your group does nOt want (0 be known as the group with the upside-dow n slides.

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Map: Most Am eri ca ns' knowledge of geograph y is weak. Don't assume that just beca use yo u know where a city is, everyo ne in yo ur audience will, too. Give them a map o f the place itself, and show it in relation [Q o ther fa miliar poims of imerest.

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Transparency: Putting an outline o f yo ur presentation on an ove rhead projector allows the aud ience to see you r main points and relieves you of having to use th e chalkboard. Make sure the projecto r is ce ntered with yo ur screen , and revea l o nl y part of th e outline ar a t ime to keep th e liste ners focused on what yo u are sayin g and no t loo kin g ahead to what co mes next. If too much

JOJ

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C HAPTER 10

information is given , in the form of an outline, audience m embers will wonder why you are reading to them and quickly ge t bored. Never put every d eta il of yo ur speech on the o urlin e; include only th e main points so th e audience has a map to follow.

•

Chart: C harts are especially useful for showing statisti cs. N umbers are so m et im es hard to grasp in a speech, es peciall y when there are a lot of them. Make it easy for yo ur listeners by putting th e figures on a chart. If you are go in g to com pare stati stics , consider making a pie chan to d emonstrate perce ntages, a bar graph to ex hibit comparisons, andlor a line graph to illustrate in creases and decreases.

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Handout: Many items mentioned earlier can be pm on a handout and given to th e au di ence befo re the presentation begins. If you distribute an outline, leave some blan ks so listeners ca n take notes and stay involved with your presentation. Don't forget to look into free handouts thar might be provided by local organizations or businesses.

•

Chalkboard: Use the board only to illust rate so methin g yo u are say in g at the same time. For examp le, if you use an unfamiliar technical term, write it on the board. But audiences should no t have to watch yo u make a chart o n the board of the in crease in automobile acc id ents over the past 3 0 yea rs. Make a chart of th is the ni gh t before, and have it rea dy to go when you get to that part of your speech.

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Multimedia: Presenta ti on software, suc h as Microsoft PowerPoint or Adobe

Persuasion, ca n make your prese ntation polished and profess ional. You can program everything from charts and slid es to video clips with sound for presentation in yo ur speech. You ca n eve n create a link to the Internet that the audience ca n view on your sc ree n. You will need access to a television m o nitor , a comp uter-projection table, or an LCD panel thar can be placed on a regular overhead projector. There are a numb er of do's and don ' ts to keep in mind when using visua l aids. First, personally make sure that any equipment you are usin g is in operating order before the presentation. Be p repa red to give the speech eve n if yo ur equ ipm en t fails. Seco nd , make sure (he visual is large eno ugh for those in th e back of the room to see easily. A Polaroid snaps hot may pi cture exactly what you want to show, but unless it is blown u p, eve n the front row may have difficulty seeing it. In addition, hold your visua l up or tape it up long eno ugh for everyo ne to see. Otherwise, someone looking away momentarily may miss it. Third, practice with the visua l. Know exactly when you are go in g to use it in you r speech. Stud ents have been known to prepare visual aids and th en, in th eir nervous ness and excitem ent, forget to show th eir hard work. Fourt h, don't pass anyt hin g aroun d during yo ur p resenta tio n. Your audi ence's attention wi ll be o n the object itsel f or on th e perso n handin g the materi al to them rathe r than on you. Pass somethin g out before you begin, o r tell yo ur listeners that they will receive it after you have co ncluded. Fifth, use a visual aid o nl y if it pertains (Q your speech. Alth o ugh vis ual aids ca n make a g reat co ntribution to you r p resentation, th is same visual aid wi ll seem "thrown in" or "i n t he way" if it has no relations hip to the topic.

Planning, Organizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

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Using Presentation Technology The availability and simplicity of presentational software such as PowerPoint have increased audience expectations for the use of professionally created visua ls to aid in understanding presentation content. Despite

the pervasiveness of this type of technology, many public speaking professionals question whether multimedia visual aids help or hinder speakers. Thus, practitioners recommend using the following guidelines w hen using PowerPoint:

1. Don't let technology dictate content. Determine the most appropriate content, and then begin to think about how you can use the presentation software to enhance how the material is conveyed to you r audience.

2 . Ensure that special effects have a purpose. Although they may be fun to include (and show off your knowledge of the software), they distract from your content.

3. Keep wording clear and simple. Abbreviate you r message by outlining thoughts that provide a memory trigger for yo u and the audience. Use a co nsistent font size and style with a combination of upper- and lowercase lettering.

4 . Keep a consistent design. Use color sparingly, with backgrounds that allow your text to stand out. A slide is of little use if the audience can't read the material. Consu lt the following sources for more information on what to do and what to avoid with PowerPoint presentations:

www.anandnartrajan.com/ FAQs/ powerpolnt.html and www.crocker.k12.mo.us/tech/ pptrules.html

ORGANIZING MATERIALS AND THE PRESENTATION The verbal and visual information you have ga thered will be a val uable asset as YOli plan the organization and writing of your presenrarion. Look at [his step of organizing your materials as drawi ng a road map of how rhe audience should follow your speech. As with any road map, d irect ions must be clear, so the audience ca n understand how and why you are taki ng them through your chosen tOpic. Every speec h should have an introduction, a body, and a concl usion, with major transitions bet\veen major ideas. Earlier we pointed ou[ that presentation outli nes often follow the problem-solving agenda used by the group to arrive at a solution to their problem question. Again you c.1 n refe r to Tab les 7.5 and 7.6 to get an idea of how to organ ize your oral presenta ti on. Plan to get the audience's attention, exp lain what you arc goi ng to be talking about, talk about it, and {hen summarize what you have said.

Go to w ww.mhhe.c:om / adamsg alanes8 e for additional weblink activities.

CHAPTER 10

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[

GLO~RY

Introduction .

An introduction has three esscmial e1emems: an anemicn step, a need step . and a thesis stateme nt. First, your goa l is ro motivate you r au di ence ro li ste n. This is called rh e attention step, and yo u can choose from a number of ways to ca pmre an audience's anenrion.

Introduction The first of three components of Q

speech, designed to

catch the attention of the audience, show a need to listen, and clarify the main point of

the speech

1

1. Use h umor. One way of getting audience mem bers to listen to yo u is to make them laugh. How~ ever, be careful if you use this approach. First, what you say mUSt be funny [0 others, not juse to yo u. Preview th e joke or story to Olher people befo re yo u use it in your presentation. If your fri ends enjoy it, chances arc your audience will, roo. Th e humor also must be in good GUi re. You do not want ro offend anyone. You want favorabl e attenti on, with peopl e waming to listen to YOll. Don'[ risk alienating anyone by telling a Story [hat is going to offend. Final ly, yo ur humor should be relevanr to your topic or to [he aud ience and occasion. So mething that Jail Stewart said rh e night before may be humorous, bur if it is not related [Q what you want to talk about, find so mething more ap propriate and relevant.

2. Ask a qu estion . A second way of gerring attemion is by asking the members of the audience a question.

If YOll are going to talk about parking problems on your campus, ask, "How many of you have been late to a class because you cou ld not find a close place to park?" or " H ow many of you have gorren a parking ticket from the campus gestapo this semester?" If you want an answer, [ell rhem how [Q respond: " Please raise your hane!. " However, don't make you r question so personal [hat you won't get an accurate response. " How many of you use cocaine on a regu1ar basis?" will probably get a laugh, but no hands wi ll go up. Finally, lise the information as a transition into [he topic of your speech: "-111at's what I thought. Too many of us are spending tOO much money on parking tickers when [he university should be building more parking strucrures. " You mUSt be able ro use any answer as a tr'J.nsirion. If no one raised a hand , say something like, "Well, you guys are lucky. In my research I've found roo many of us spending ... " A rhetorical question is a question that [he spea ker asks but does not wam th e au dience to answer aloud. The speaker will answe r th e question as parr of the speech: " Is there any way to Stop cheating o n college campuses? I think there is, and today I am go ing to offer you three practi cal so lutions ro what seems to be epidemic at our school a nd at other colleges across the country. " The audience wi ll think about rhe question, but the speaker will provide the answer. 3. Make a striking statement. Say so mething at th e starr of your speech to grab the audi ence's ane mion and make th em wam to li sten. Sayi ng, " I can guara ntee you an A in thi s course and in every mh er course you rake rhis semesrer" will probably ga in the attention of eve ry stu dent in your class. Likewise, "OUf division has bee n wasting at least $50,000 a year for rhe past three years" will gain (he attention of your em ployer. You have to be able ro ca rry out yo ur promise in [he rest of your speech, but you can be sure (hat for [he first few m inmes, at least, people will be listenin g [0 yo u. Anmher good examp le of a striking sratemenr is rhe tagline used by news programs or talk shows to ger yo u to stay tuned to an upco ming segment. This sta tement should make your audience feel like rhey want and need to li sten to what your group has to say during rhe presemation.

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Planning, Organizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

4. Offer a striking quotation. Giving a vivid quotation can an ract attention. For example, if your gro up has been doing research o n date rape, quoting a victim's own wo rds about how she felt d urin g rhe attack wi ll attract anention to your top ic. Reading a quotation from a so ng or a poem is anocher way of attracting favorab le attention. Q uoting someone fam ili ar and well liked or so meo ne saying somerhing unex pected or Ollt of character ca n gain attentio n. For exam pl e, a student givin g a presentation on myths in student academic performance began th is way: ''I've heard it said mar 'a theory is a thing of bea ury, unril it gets run over by a fact.' Nowhe re is th is more true than in the field of education." Although the quote docs not directl y r;\are to education , the speaker makes the co nnection for the aud ience while grabbing their anemion with vivid imagery.

MHHE.com/

groups Go to this site to find out how to use the Net to locate quotations.

5. Tell a short story. Peo ple are interested in other people. Telling a stOry related to your tO pic is a great way to ga in attention. T he story ca n be true or fictional, but it must help you make your poine If a character in the sco ry is someone audi ence members ca n relate to , so much the bener. The second esse mi al parr of an inrroduction is the need step. Follow your attention step with a sho n state menr thar shows audi ence members why rhey need or ca n benefit from the in format ion you are :1 bout to give lhem. A direct pu rpose sta remem shows audience m embers how [he presenrarion is rel eva nt ro rheir lives and how they ca n directl y benefi c by listen in g. If you are talkin g abo ut a new medi cal discovery. tell the audience that yo ur information could help save a life. If your top ic is th e out rageous prices at the college bookstore, rell th em YO ll ca n save th em money. An ind irect need step implies [hat, because the top ic is so signifi ca nr, everyone should know somet hin g about it: "What happens to Social Secu rity will affect all of us no maHer how young or old we are tOday." The third element of a good introdu cti on is th e thesis stlltemellt and preview. H ere yo u tell the aud ience what spec ifi call y yo u will be t;lIking abo ut. Like a road map, it shows yo ur listc ners where you are goi ng, making it eas ier for them to follow along. Use enumeration (i. e., wo rds like .1;'11, second, and third) so listen ers know how many main points you will cove r. A completed inrrodu ct io n wi ll gain th e audi ence's anenri o n, es wblish th e need lO listen, and demonstrate the purpose and main poil1ls of yo ur speech.

Body. Th e body of th e speech is the ma in portion of rhe p rese ntation . in which YOll act ually talk about rhe ideas you want to cover. Prese nt your ideas in an eas il y recogn ized panern so yo ur audi ence G ill see th e relationship amon g them. If your grou p's task was to so lve a pro bl em, then rhe body of yo ur oral presentation co ntains the mOSt important informar ion fro m yo ur pro bl em-solvi ng age nda (see C hapter 7), used du ring your gro up discuss io ns and perhaps in your fin al wri tren repo rr. Remember to lise tra nsit ion scatemenrs thar help move yo ur speech smoorhl y fro m one point to the next. T he followin g arc some of th e most commo n patterns of o rga nization. •

Problem-solution: The problem -so lut ion pattern is especially imporranr if you are tryi ng to persuade your audi ence to accept you r reco mmendation. You state th e problem, discuss irs ca uses and signifi cance, and then prescnt your proposa l as a so luri on fo r th e pro bl em. This panern is also easy to lise if yo u want lO inform , sllch as by show in g how a prob lem has already been so lved. "How rhe U.S. Coast

GLOSSAR ~ Body The second of three components of a speech, where the main ideas are introduced and developed

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"The main body of this Inaugural Address but he wants a happier endinl[."

IS

great,

() Tile New Yorlcer Colle<:tlon; 1989 Edward Fra$(IIlO from (artoonb.:lnk.com. All RighU Re~rved.

Gu~rd managed th e worst oil spill in the nation 's hi s(Ory" could be disclIssed lIsing this panern.

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C hronological: A chronological order is a discuss ion o f things as rhey happen in time. Talkin g about how som ething is made, ex pl ai nin g a hi stori cal eve nt , or list ing th e ste ps o ne needs ro follow when sea rchin g for a job narurall y call s for a duono· logical order. The hi story of you r sorori ty or rhe developmclH of rhe morion pi crure industry likewise cal ls fo r chron ological orde r.

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Spatial: A s pad~\l order is use(\ ro Qcsc ribc thi ngs as they ex ist in space. A prese ntation desc ribing the best a reas ro sk i in Cali forn ia could go fro m norrh to sO ll th within rh e state o r from eas t to wes t.

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Cause and effect or effect to cause: Explaining how a parri cular virus affects millions of people is an example of cause :J.nd effect org:J. n iz3 rion. You descr ibe how the virus W:J.S d iscove red and how it works and (he n di sclIss the suffering of rh e peo pl e who have co mracted it. Yo u ca n also reve rse (h e process by fi rst talking abom th e peopl e who are suffering and th en desc ribin g wh y this situati o n ex ists.

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Topical: A topi cal organization exa mines (he inhe rent parrs ora ropic, its esse nti al co mponents. For in stance, o ur American system of governm ent is made up of rhe execuri ve, legislati ve, and judi cial branches. To cove r th e e ntire lOpic, yo u have co mention all three parts.

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You may discover that pai ring some of the o rganizat ional styles works more efficiently. No organization style is tile best, but using so me type of systemati c approach is essential to the development of your main purpose and ideas. A strea m of consciousness is not conside red a typ ical panern. Members of th e audience may not think along the sa me lines yo u do. Instead of presenting a topic in exacdy the sa me way th e id eas ca me to you, you are beuer off choosing a panern with which aud ience members are likely to be familiar.

Conclusion. If you r purpose was [Q inform , your conclusion should be a su mmary of th e main points you want th e audi ence to rem ember. What do you hope listeners retain after they leave the room, even if they forget everyth ing else? Your conclusion is si milar to you r introduction, bur your final summary 'should be more co ncrete. Remind the audience of the specific items you covered and, whi le summarizin g your position, ex plain what yo u want them to remember. If your purpose is co persuade, this is yo ur last chance to get the audience emotio nally involved in your copie. Use this opportunity to reconnect with your aud ience, offer a challenge. or help them (0 see how things could change for better or worse if action is or is not taken.

The Presenting Stage Surveys show that man y Americans fear public speaking more than they fear spiders, snakes. or even death. I I You may be in a group communication class because YOLI were trying {Q avoid "the dreaded speech. " However, as a group member, YO ll are still faced with this feared endeavor. Many times in your career you may need (0 speak to a co mmittee or larger audience. so it is wise to work through thi s fear of makin g an oral presentation now. We offer advice for checking you r language. practici ng your speech our loud, and, finally, evaluating your speech or the speec hes of others.

CHECKING YOUR LANGUAGE In the English language we have approximately half a million words to express our ideas. The average college stud enr ca n recognize 60,000 words and actually uses about 20,000 .12 The more word choices speakers have. the bener able they are to make language do their bidding and fulfill their purposes. I I Speakers often forget that writing the speech is only hair the battle; th e deli very is JUSt as important. Trying to make your aud ience fee l co mpelled to listen , parcicipare, and take action requires effective lise of language. Speak to yo ur audience in a conversa tional style, just as if yo u arc giving the speech to friends, and nOt in a dry monotonc or reading manner. Should you nor know how to pronoun ce a word learn it before rhe speech and avoid, "1 think it's pronounced ... " during rhe speech. Generally, speakers shou ld srrive for a style that is clear, viv id , and appropriate. Clarity requires language ("hat is co ncrete rather than abstract. Note the difference bc~ tween ex plaining that laSt night you saw Tom "com ing down th e street" and saying you saw him "staggering" or "crawling" or "stumbling" or "skipp ing down the street." Clarity also requires that you avo id jargo n and use words thar your audi ence will understand. Vividness anracts our ancnrion. Using figurative language. repetition , and amplification (supporting details that develop or reinforce an idea) will add vividness to your presentation and make it easier for yo ur audience (0 pay anenrion. Try [Q imagine Martin Luther King's famous "1 H ave a Drea m" speech withom repetition or fi gu rative language- part of what made his speech so memorable.

GLOSSARY

Conclusion The third of three components of a speech, that summorizes the ideas a speaker w;she~ the audience to remember

310

GLOSSARY

CHAPTER 10

1

Finall y, make sure your language choi ces are approprillte fo r rhe audi ence and the occas ion. A formal class room prescmarion probabl y shou ld nor be fi ll ed with expleti ves or street lan guage unless rhey arc being used [Q illustrate so methin g in rh e speech.

Manuscript A speech read word-for-word from a prepared manuscript

Memorization A speech delivered from memory

Impromptu

Speech A speech delivered

without preparation or notes Extemporaneous

Speech A speech that is

prepared and delivered from notes

and not read from

a manuscript

1

PRACTICE ALOUD The re a rc four ways of deli vering an o raJ prese ntati o n: manusc ript , memorization , im promptu , and extem poraneo us. Each method has adva ntages and disadva nrages. If you wrire out eve rything yo u wam [0 say, word fo r word in a manuscript, you won ' t leave anythin g o ut when you presenr rhe speech. Everything yo u wam to say is right th ere in front of YOll. Unfortunatel y, many speakers beco me so depend enr on their manuscripts that th ey pay littl e attem ion ro th e audience. T hey have little eye co ntact with li steners and may 110( notice w heth er listeners unde rsta nd the materiaJ presemed. Liste ne rs may feel that th e speaker has linie inrerest in them and Ill ay find the speech borin g. News broadcasters an d man y politi cal fi gures avoid thi s probl em by usin g a TelePrompTer that makes it seelll as if they a re looking directl y at their listener, bur such eq uipm enr is probably nor avaibble to you. If YO ll must use a manuscripr, work diligently to make a co nnection wirh your audience through eye conraCt a nd body lan guage while occas io nally lookin g down ro find your next po int. You could also memorize yo ur speech. T hu s, yo u ma ke sure you don 'r leave anything our and at the sa me rime mainrain eye contact with your audie nce. H owever, this requires that you have a good memory and do nor forge t eve n minor points. No simation is more ull co mforrabl e for a speake r than drawing a bbnk about what co mes nex[. If you are goi ng to anempt a memorizcd prese ntation, make sure it really is cO llllllirred to memory and that it does nor so und memor ized. Th e deli very of a memorized speec h often so unds robotic. Beca use the speake r spe nds man y hours wo rking on the me morization of the mater ial , she or he doesn't have tim e to work on a naturaJ , conve rsational delivery. Eve n good eye comact will not fool an audi ence if you do nor soun d inll.::resred in th e subjecr or in th em. An impromptu speech is on e delive red off-the-cufT. Th ere are no nores and no specifi c preparation; YO ll speak from rhe knowl edge tha t yo u have gain ed ove r a lifetim e. Nor havi ng to prepare in ad vance is an adva mage, but a di sad va ntage is thar such speeches ca n so und diso rganized or incoherenr. Th e perfect exa mple th a t mi ght have easi ly exp lained yo ur seco nd poim may not co me to mind until yo u are well im o yo ur third point. Th e audience is left to put all rh e littl e pi eces of inform atio n togcrhcr. I n a panel presem3l ion individual panelists may prese nt impromphl w hen th ey answe r a mode rator's question if they do nOt have rhe questions beforehand. Anytime forums are involved , whe re audi ence members ca n ask sponraneolls questions, a respondent's answer will be imprompcu. An extemporaneous speech is a prepared speec h, bur instead of writing our a manusc ript or me morizing it, yo u write a n outline of what' YOLI want to cover, using as few or as many notes as you need to presenr your ideas. This rype of specc h is one typ ically req uired of stud ents in small group di scuss ion courses and the most prefer red beca use it can offe r rhe most imlllcdiacy with th e audience. Don' t prepare too many nares or you might as weJl read a manuscript. H owever, make sure that eve')'ching is in yo ur nOte cards: ideas, stat isti cs, qu otar ions, a final sta te ment. The exact wording of the speech wi ll be differe nt eve,), time you presenr it, bur th e main points will always be th ere. This method permirs YO ll to have mu ch eye contact with the audien ce. It also allows yo u to react to your

Planning, Organizing, and Presenting Smal l Group Oral Presentations

audience's fcedback without fear of losing you r place or forgetting something you wam ro say. If you realize that so me of your listeners do nOt understand you, yo u ca n offer another examplc or repeat your point in a different way to make the point clear, thcn return to where you left ofT in your notcs. O nce you have selected the method of delivery, practice your speech o u( loud. Th inking the speech silently to you rself does not rake as much time as saying it aloud does, so you may mi sjudge rhe length. You also need to hear what the speec h sounds like, because you may find that somethin g said easily in your head is a real tongue tw ister when said aloud. A co lleague of ours remembers his embarrassmem when he wanted to say "needy stud ent" but "nud ey srudent" came oue Aft~r a second and then a third unsuccessful attempt at "needy," he was forced to swi tch to "impecunious." Ifpossible, get so meone to listen to yo ur speech before you present it to an aud ience. That person will be able ro tell you what you can do ro improve the speech. G roup presentations ca ll for not only indi vid ual practice of speeches bur also group practice. Find the time to go through your presentation together, co ncentrating on how yo u will shift between speakers, how yo u witl ac t wh il e others are speaking, wha t members ca n do ro help if so meone for gets to say somcrhin g, and so 011. Showing a sense of co nti nuity and rogecherness durin g a prese ntati o n that involves more rhan one person is challenging and needs to be re hea rsed. You wo uld also do well to talk about how the gro up will handle any spur-of-the-momem failure of equ ipmem and how the gro up can complete a presentation shou ld a member be unable co attend and yo u cannOt reschedule it.

What Makes a Good Oral Presentation? Si nce the time of rhe anciem Creeks an d Romans, a number of crireria have been ge nerall y agreed upon as artistic sta ndards to evaluate oral performances. These sra ndards are ca ll ed the callOJlS o/rhetoric. Karyn and Donald Rybacki write: "Because rh etor ica1 theory was an outgrowth of obse rvations of the practice of public speakin g in classical cultures, rhe canons are particularl y appropria te to the analysis of speeches." '
TABLE 10.2

Criteria for Evaluation (Canons)

1. Invention: raw materials and adaptation to audience 2. Arrangement: organization

3. Style: choice of language 4 . Delivery: oral presentation

3 11

312

CHAPTER 10

Preparing an Individual Presentation Congratulations! The group mentioned in Case 10.' has selected you to make the oral presentation to the restaurant association. Although the other members will be present to help answer questions, the primary responsibility for the presentation rests with you.

1. Based on the information you already have, go through the planning stages of preparing an oral presentation. For example, decide whether you are going to try to persuade you r listeners

to act or to inform them of what your group has discove red. What do you think the audience will be like? How will audience members respond to yo u? What makes you thi nk so?

2 . List the verbal and visual materials you p lan to use. Be specific. What types of visua l aids would be effective? What kinds of statistics?

3. Assuming that all these materials are available, what pattern of organ ization wou ld be most effective in presenting them? What type of introduction would best attract the audience's attention?

4 . Compare you r answers with those of the other members of you r class.

G LOSSARY

I Invention A canon of rhetoric

identifying the raw materials of the speech and how

they are adapted to a particular audience

Arrangement One of {he canons of rhetoric, specifying how a speech

is ordered or puc

together

Style One of the

collom

of rhetoric, referring to the individual manner in which a speech is delivered

The ca non of invention deals wirh rh e raw mate ri als of rh e speech and how they are ad apted ra 3. parricular aud ience. Did th e spea ke r choose an appropriarc rap id Did the spea ker select interesting examp les and iliusrrati o ns ro exp lain an informati ve th es is? Did the spea ke r use significant and suffic ient examp les and statisti cs to suppo rt a th es is when attemptin g ro pers uade~ Did the spea ker relate th e to pic a nd show its sig nifi ca nce to th e audi ence? D id the speaker adh ere to the ethi cs of co mJllunication (see National Co m municarion Association C red o for Ethi cal Commun ica rion in Chap rer I), using accurate information, respecrin g th e views of others, a nd ad apting ro the needs of th e audi ence? D id rh e spea ker complete the presentation within a ny assigned rim e limirs? In a panel or symposi um , did lhe speakers wo rk rogerh c r ro present va ri ed aspec ts of rhe issue? Did rh e moderaror keep rhe discussion fo cused? Did the pa nel cover all rhe m arerial rhat would be of interest ro rh e audience? The ca non of arrangement is conce rned wirh how rh e speech is pm roge rh e r or organized. W ere the main poinrs clear and easy ro follow? Was there an interesting introduction th at ca ptured th e audi ence's atrenr ion and previewed th e body of rhe speech? Were there effec ti ve rra nsi tions? D id rh e co nclusion summ a rize the main points and reinforce the cemral idea? In a sympos ium did th e modera tor provide rh e audie nce w irh rransirions betwee n rhe individu al presentarions? Was rhe re a clea r introduction and a co nclusion to th e discussion ? In a panel did rh e parri cipanrs sr ick to rh e tOpic and make clear when they were movin g from one aspect to a n o th er~ Did the individual prese ntation s work rogether to presenr a co herent who le? The cano n of style is conce rned wirh rh e distin ct ive mann er and appropria te ness of rh e speec h's lan guage. \Vas rhe language clear and accurate? \Xfas it appropriare to the

Planning, Organizing, and Presenting Small Group Oral Presentations

Using the Canons to Evaluate

---

313

F

OSSARY

Demosthenes, the great Greek orator of antiquity, is supposed to have claimed that the most important canon was delivery, the second most

Delivery

important was delivery, and the third most important was delivery.

One of rhe canons of rhetoric pertain-

1. Which canon do you think is the most important? How would

you divide 100 points among the four canons to show their relative importance?

ing to how the presentation is given

2. In a sma ll group, discuss >'{hich of the canons you feel to be most important, rank them from 1 (most important) to 4 (least important), and figure out the average score for each based on the 1OO-point scale.

3. Can your group offer any examples of contemporary or historica l public speakers who rate high on all the canons? Who rates poorly on all?

4 . Compare your responses to those of the other groups in your class.

audience and occasion? Was it free of grammatical errors that make it hard to understand ? Was th e lan guage vivid and likely to hold the audi ence's arrem ion? Did the speaker usc language ethically, witham demeaning or intimida ting the audience? The ca non of delivery deals with how rh e presenrarion is offered to the audience. Did the speaker maimain eye comac( with the aud iencd Did the speaker avoid any di stracting movemenrs and gestures? Did th e speaker vary hi s or her pitch an d rate ? Was the speaker confident? Were approp riate move ments and gestures used ? In group prcscmations do the speakers work with eac h other and not against each mh er? Docs th e presentation Aow and co nvey a se nse of cooperativeness, co hesion, and continuity benveen individual speeches? Did rhe gestures and movements of non speakers distract from the speake r?

,

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

In preparing a speech, the speaker must nrSt determine whether the purpose is to inform, persuade, or entertain.

• Small groups are often called upon to make oral presentations of their work, so members need to understand how to be effective presenters.

•

•

• Speakers must analyze the audience to understand how to get their attention; find the most appropriate and interesting ideas, SUPPOfting materials. and visuals aids to present; and

Public presentation sessions include panels and symposiums, where speakers publicly discuss an issue before an audience; a forum often follows, where the audience can address or questio n the speakers.

314

CHAPTER 10

organize the material so that it is easy for the audience to follow the presentation.

• An effective presentation includes an introduction, body, and conclusion.

1. C-SPAN is a nonprofit cooperative of the cable industry. C -SPAN programming covers a variety of political events, including congressional hearings, press conferences, public policy conferences, and so forth. Watch C-SPAN for examples of panels. forums, or symposiums.

n. Could you diStinguish which kind of public presentadon was taking place?

h. Was there a mocleracor? How effective was the moderator? Why?

c. What did you find interesting about how the public presentation was cond ucted? What did you see that was problematic?

• Oral presentations can be evaluated using four criteria, based on th e canons of rhetoric, which include invention, arrangement, style, and delivery.

2. Take so me time to listen to the persuas ive speech of a car salesperson and a minister. Compare and contrast the "sales pitch" of both. Both presentations are persuasive in nature, but they are delivered to d ifferent audiences. How are their oral presentations the same? H ow are their oral presentations different?

3. Various videos and CD-ROMs contain the text of famous speeches. You can rent these at your local or school library. Find one with excerpts or the entire speech of so meone famous who interests you. Watch the speech and evaluate according to the four canons: invention, style, delivery, and arrangement.

d. Did the public presenration meet with your expectations? Were you surprised? Why?

e. Did you get any ideas about how you might or might not conduct yo ur own public presentation?

~

Go to www.mhhe.comladamsgalanes8e

a..!'fl~ an d www.mhhe.com/groups for self-

nn

r", quizzes and weblinks.

Arrangem ent

Forum Discussion

Memorization

Audience Analysis

Impromptu Speech

Moderator

Body

Informative Speech

Panel Discu ssion

Conclusion

Introduction

Persuasive Speech

Delivery

Invention

Style

Entertainment Speech

Manuscript

Symposium

Extemporaneous Speech

Techniques for Observing ProblemSolving Groups Consulting to the Technical College Executive Committee The technical college's executive committee meetings were boring. Members agreed that communication among the various departments was essential for

the college to function effectively, but the weekly staff meetings somehow were not satisfying this need. Real communication about problems, solutions,

and goals of the various departments was done outside the meetings. Members didn't complain much, but they showed little enthusiasm for the meetings. The chair of the committee, Basil, was concerned. He asked Gloria to observe the meetings, figure out what was wrong, make recommendations for improvement, and conduct training sessions to help members interact

more effectively during the meetings. For two months Gloria systematically observed, analyzed, and evaluated the staff meetings. First, she attended meetings, took notes, and completed a content analysis that showed Basil doing most of the talking. He was almost the only member to initiate new ideas during the meetings. Other members

contributed only when addressell directly by Basil. Thus, a wheel interaction pattern (with Basil at the hub and everyone else as an individual spoke) had become the group's norm. On a questionnaire asking about effectiveness, Basil

indicated that he believed the meetings were very effective, most other members thought they were moderately effective, and two members rated them completely ineffective. Gloria followed up the questionnaire

by interviewing

each staff member to determine how the meetings could be improved. She paid particular attention to the comments of the two dissatisfied members.

Gloria concluded that Basil dominated the meetings but that he was unaware he was doing so. Members felt stifled during the meetings but didn't

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

A-l

know how to express those feelings to Basil or to change the pattern of their meetings. Members wanted to discuss freely the problems that had come up in their respective departments, and they hoped the staff meetings wo uld provide an open forum for exchanging information and ideas. The two members who were most dissatisfied were quite knowledgeable about college operations and felt particularly ignored. Members were suppressing disagreements for fear of retribution by Basil; although Basil was not a ty rant, he made it clear from his behavior (rolling his eyes, interrupting people, speaking sarcastically) that he did not like it when others disagreed with his ideas. In short, this comm ittee displayed some obvious and 50me hidden problem s, all of which could be overcome with training and desire.

T

his story highlights the value of having someone observe a group, describe its behavior. evalu ate that behavior. and make recomm endation s to improve the functioning of the group. In thi s appendix we will present a vari ety of tech niques to help you do that.

The Role of the Observer The ro le of group observe r ca n be va luable an d helpful if th e observer kn ows how w fun cti on. Most group mcmbers have not bee n trained w be effecti ve group participa nts. so it's es pec ially important for those who do know so met hin g about small group communicali on to moniwr the gro up 's discuss ions and help th e gro up perform as well as poss ible. Knowledgeable observe rs fun cti on like ath letic coaches. hel ping players improve their performa nce as a tcam. In C hapter 1 we described the participant-obscrve r, a group member who makes availab le hi s o r her kn owlcdge and skills ro help a group perform more effectively. A second type of observer is th e co nsultan t-observer, an outs ider brought in to observe, evaluate, and make recommcndati o ns to the gro up. The co nsultant-observer may be a member of th e organ ization the group belongs to o r an outsid e co nsulranr train ed in small group cOl1ll1l lll1 ic..1. tio ll . When execut ives lea rn th at so meo ne within the o rga nizatio n has small group co mmuni cal ion expen ise, they often ask Ihat perso n to app ly his o r her skills to help thc group. That was G lo ria's situati on when she observed the techni cal coll ege executive staff, and thar may also be your posi tion so meday. Parricipant- and co nsul ram-observers have unique ad vantages and disadvantages. The co nsul rant-o bserver may be :lble to maimain more o bjecti vity regardin g group members and gro up processes, but rhe participant-observe r ll1:ly have inside inforll1:ltion (hat gives insight regard ing what is happening in the gro up. A gro up that has been ex periencing serio LI S co nflict may view the co nsu ltam-observer as a hatchet perso n for an executive. On th e o th er hand , a participant-observe r may be seen as biased rathcr th an o bjecti ve, the reby undermining his o r her effectiveness as an advise r ro the group. Observers within [he grou p o r outside it c..1. n make use of their adva mages whil e avoiding any disadvantage

I GLOS~ ConsultantObserver An oUBider who observes and evaluates a group

A-2

APPENDIX

with careful consideration of how best to carry OUt the observations and d raw conclusions from those observations. In general, observers seek to answer m!Q qu estio ns: How well is this group performing? and How ca n it improve~ Howeve r, many elements contribute to a group's performan ce. Observers ca nnOt look at everything at once, or they will become ove rwhelmed. They plan their observation srrarcgy in advance. Table A.I lists questions yo u can use as a general guide for observing. Don't try to answer all rhe questions; in stead, use the list (0 screen our clements that see m to be wo rking wel l so YO LI can concentrate yo ur observation on those that can be improved. Both parti cipant- and consultant-observers should follow severa l guidelines when rhey arc giving feedback co a group:

1. Stress the positive and poinr our what the grou p or the leader is doing well. 2. Do not overwhelm the group by {eUing the members each and every thing you think should be improved. Instead, emphasize one or tWO things that most need improvement. 3. Avoid arguing when yo u present your observations and advice. Leave the group members free co decide whether and how your advice will be used. 4. Do not interrupt the whole meeting co give advice to the grou p's leader durin g a meeting. Instead , wh ispe r or write your suggestions. 5. Speak clearly and concisely when yo u are givi ng feedback. Do not ramble or bela~ bar yo ur poinrs. Consider the following remarks by Larry, who observed that group members were switching ro new topics withour completing rhe original one:

One ofthe problems! see is that you are having trouble staying on trark with your disrltSsion! In the past jive minutes, you have talked about a pedestrian overpass at Grand and National, why money WIlS spent on artificiallurfinstead oflibrary books, how YOIl can handle a landlord who won't repair plumbing, and several other topics. Your discus~ sion would be more effirient ifyou helped etlrh other focus 011 the original question: How can pedestrianlcar accidents be eliminated on Nmior/al Avenue? In this examp le of giving feedback, L1rry stares the problem he has observed, gives a few (rather than 10 or 20) exam pl es to clariry what he means, and provides a sug~ gestio n fhat makes th e whole group responsible for solv ing the problem. He doesn't ramble end lessly about the problem or bl a me individual members. 6. Prepare members to use special procedures by ex plaining rhe procedure or giving rh em a handoU{ that ourlincs thc key steps. (Feel Free to use the figures in this book, as long as yo u give cred it to the so urce.) 7. Make individual critical comments in private to rhe appropr iatc perso n so that he or she wi ll not feel arracked or publicly humiliated. Now that you have an idea of what observers look for and how they present their find~ ings, here are a variery of instrum ents ro help you garher information about your group.

Observation Instruments and Techniques The followin g techniques and instruments may be lIsed by group membe rs as parr of their self~evaluarion of the group or by observers. They ca n be used as is or adapted to su it particular situat ions and groups.

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

TABLE

A.I

A· )

Questions to Guide Your Observations

GROUP GOALS

LEADERSHIP AND MEMBER ROLES

• Are the re clea r and accepted group goals?

• What style of leadership is the designated leader providing?

• How we ll does the group understand its charge? • Does the group know and accept limits on its area of freedom? • Do members know what output they are supposed to produce?

SETTING • Does the physical environment (seating arrangements, privacy, attractiveness) facilitate group discussions? COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND INTERACTION PATTERNS • How clearly do members express their ideas and opinions? • Do members complete one topic before they switch to another? • Is verbal participation balanced equally among all members? • Is the pattern of interaction evenly distributed or unduly restricted?

COMMUNICATION CLIMATE AND NORMS • Does the group climate seem supportive and cooperative or defensive and competitive? • What attitudes do the members exhibit toward themselves and each other?

• Do any hidden agenda items seem to interfere with group progress? • Do any norms seem to interfere with group progress or cohesiveness?

• Is the leadership appropriate fo r the group's needs?

• Are the roles performed by members appropriate both for their skills and for the needs of the group? • Are there any needed functions not being provided by anyone?

DECISION· MAKING AND PROBLEM· SOLVING PROCEDURES • Are members adequately prepared for meetings?

• Does the group use an agenda? How well is it followed? Does it serve the group? • Is anyone providing periodic internal summaries so members can keep track of major points of discussion? • Are decisions, assignments, and proposals being recorded? • How are decisions being made? • Has the group defined and analyzed the problem before developing solutions?

• Do members understand and agree on criteria in making decisions? • How creative is the group in generating potential solutions? • Do members defer judgment until all solutions have been listed and understood?

• Are information and ideas being evaluated critically or accepted at face va lue? • Do you see any tendency toward groupthink? • Has the group made adequate plans to implement decisions?

• Are special procedures (brainstorming, focus groups, etc.) being used as needed? • Could procedural changes benefit the group?

APPEND I X

A-4

I

FIGURE A.l

Verbal Interaction Diagram

Group _ _ _ __ Time _ _ _ __

Frequency and Direction of Participation

Begin _ __

End _ __ Place Observer _ _ __

/ \ /

VERBAL INTERACTION ANALYSIS

GLOSSARY Verbal Interaction Analysis A technique to discover who talks fo whom

A verbal interaction analysis shows who talks [0 whom, how ohen each member speaks. and whether rhe group participa tion is ba lanced or dominated by one or more individuals. A model inreracrion d iagram is shown , in Figure A. l . The names of all participants are located around the circle in (he sa me order in which they sir during the d isclission. \Xlhenevcr a person speaks. an arrow is drawn from chac person's positio n roward the indi vidual to whom the remark was addressed. Subsequem remarks in rh e same direction are ind ica ted by the short cross marks on rhe base of rhe arrow. (Fo r exa mple. Ga ll o addressed th ree remarks to Brown in rhe model diagram.) The longe r arrow po inrin g roward [he center indi cates remarks mad e to the gro up as a who le. An interaction diagram ca n look messy or co nfusi ng. For eas ier interprcrari on. d isp lay the numbers and percclHages in a chart (see Figure A.2). From (h e frequ ency of par(ic ipation ro th e group as a whole and to specific members. who might you guess is th e leader of this group? Do yo u co nsid er the participation ba lanced? Does anyone appear to dominat e the discuss ion?

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

FIGURE A.2

Group

How to Display Data from a Verbal Interaction Diagram

CURRICULUM COMMITTEE

Observer

A· S

SMITH

Beginning time _-"-9.:::0,,0:...::.o."'m"'._ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Place

CRAIG HAll

Date

9· 12·20 11 10:30o.m.

Ending tim e

TO: Brown

Jones

.Lingle

Rad ea u

Gallo

Marx

Group

Total

FROM :

23 16.1

Brown

-

5

2

4

2

5

5

Jones

3

-

3

4

4

3

13

30 21

Lingl e

2

2

-

3

2

4

12

25 17.5

Radeau

3

3

4

-

a

2

12

24 16.8

Gallo

3

3

2

a

-

a

6

14 9.8

Marx

8

2

2

3

2

-

10

27 18.9

number 19 Total ················· -------_ .... - percent 13.3

15 10.5

14 13 ---------------- ------------------9.1 9.8

10 7

14 58 143 --- --------------- ----------------- ----------------40.6 100 9.8

CONTENT ANALYSIS PROCEDURES Coment analysis procedures examine rhe type of rema rks bein g mad e by specific members. In Figure A.3 specific rask, maintenance, and self-ce ncered behav io rs are listed along rhe left margin and the participants' names across the rop. Eac h time a member speaks, rhe observer places a ma rk in the appropriate box accord in g ro rhe rype of remark made_ The rally marks are co nven ed to percenrages, as show n in Figure AA. W ho is probably the tas k lead er of thi s group? Who is rhe maintenance lc:tder? Are any individuals acting in self-ce ntered ways? Any ca tcgo ry syste m ca n be used as the basis for a co ntenr ana lysis diagram. Fo r example, you may want to focus on the defensive and supportive behaviors described in Ch:tptcr 5. In [hat case you would record all the indi vidual defensive and supportive co mmuni cation categories (co nrrol , su periority, provisiona lism, empathy, ete.) along rhe left side.

GLOSSARY Content Analysis Procedures Techniques to help analyu the types of remarks being made

1

APPENDIX

A -6

FIGURE A.3

Content Analysis of Task, Maintenance, and Self Centered Behaviors

Group _ _ __ _ _ __

Place _ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _

Observer _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Date _ __ _ _ _ _ __

Beginning time _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Ending time _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Participants' Names

Behavioral Functions

-

1. Initiating and orienting 2. Information giving

3. Information seeking 4. Opinion giving

5. Opinion seeking 6. Clarifying

7. Elaborating 8. Summari zing

9. Consensu s testing 10. Recording

~

11 . Suggesting procedure 12. Gatekeeping

13. Supporting 14. Harmonizing 15 . Tension reli eving 16. Dramatizing

:=

17. Showing solidarity 18. Withdrawing 19. Blocking 20. Status and recognition seeking 21. Playing 22. Acting helpless

L

.

FIGURE A.4

Group

How to Display Data from Content Analysis of Member Behaviors

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Observer

Place _"C"'U...,L.o:O-"BB"-Y'--_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

ANDY

~~~------------------

Beginning time _-'4-":3:::0~ p".m "-.'__________________

Date __~I~ O-~1"" 8--'-2~ O~ I~ I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Ending time __,, 6.,' 3 ,-'O-'p" .ccm-'._____________________ Participa nts' Names

Mary Behavioral Functions

,1. Initiating and orienti ng 2. Information giving

.

John

5

3

6

5

3. Information seeking 4. Opinion giving

,

Edna

2

8

8

4

5. Opin ion seeking

2

6. Clarifying

3

7. Elaborating

2

8. Summarizing

2

9. Consensus testing

8

'"c:

14. Harmonizing

'" C .;;;

2

3 1

5 3

6

2

1

5

2

6

15 . Tension relieving

::>

3

16. Dramatizing

=

17. Showing solidarity

5

3

18. Withdrawing

2

2.8 1 .7 7 4.9

5

21. Playing

1

4 2

22. Acting helpless number percent

~ 26.8

2."21.9

12...21.1

2.1 7 5 2 1.4 8 5.6 3 2.1 5 3.5 9 6.3 6 4.2 10 7 5 3.5 6 4.2 8 5.6 ~

4 1

20. Status and recognition seeking

Total

2 6

19. Blocking

-

1

2.1 23 16.4 2 1.4

3

12. Gatekeeping

lQ 11.4

3

4

11 . Suggesting procedure

Total number percent

3

3

13. Supporting

'"uc:

Jodi

8 5.7

10. Recording

=

Dave

£L

l.L

17.6

12.6

2.8 2 1.4 142 100

A-7

A -8

APPENDIX

FIGURE A.S

All-Purpose Discussion Rating Scale

Date _ _ _ __

Group _ _ _ __

Ime

Group Characteristic

Observer

5 Excellent

4 Good

3 Average

2 Fair

1 Poor

Organization of disc ussion

Equality of opportunity to speak

Cooperative group orientation

listening to understand Evalu ation

of ideas Comments:

Other rypes of conrcnr ana lyses can be performed . Fo r exa mple, you might wam ro {faCe the developmcm of any fantasy chains in rhe group, the progressio n of an idea from its o ri gina l innoducrion by one member through all irs modifications by the [esc of rhe group. the types of co nAicts. or the types of arguments members use to supporr their ideas. Ir is easier if you tape-record (with permission, of course) the group's inreraction first.

RATING SCALES GLOSSARY Rating Scales Questlom (scales) to help evaluate

specific aspects of a

group

Rating scales are qucst ionnaires rhar ask members or observers to assess any aspect of a group , such as group cl imate, cohes iveness, effic iency, satisf..1.crion, freedom to exp ress d isagrecmclH, and organization of discllss ion. For exa mple, the question "How wcll did the co mm irree chair keep rhe discuss ion organized?" asks YO ll to rate rhe leader 's abi lity to conduct a systemat ic discuss ion. Scalc qu cstions Illay be c1osed~e nded , in whi ch th e responses are already provided for you (such as very well, adequlltely, and very poorly), o r open~ended, in which YO ll arc free to respo nd any way yo u choose. The foll owin g fig ures provide a n umber of exa mples of rating scales. Figure A.5 is a ge neral scale to eva lu ate any group discussion , and Figure A.6 is a scale ada pted from o ne developed by Patlon and

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

,

FIGURE A.6

Problem -Solving Process Rating Scale

Instructions: Indicate the degree to which the group accomplished each identified behavior. Use the following scale for your evaluations:

Poor

Fair Average Good Excellent 2 3 4 5 Circle the appropriate number in front of each item. 1 2 4 5 1 . The concern of each member was identified 3 regarding the problem the group attempted to solve.

.

2

3

4

5

2. This concern was identified before the problem was analyzed.

2

3

4

5

3. In problem analysis, the present condition was carefully compared with the specific condition desired.

2

3

4

5

4. The goal was carefully defined and agreed to by all members.

2

3

4

5

5. Valid (and relevant) information was secured when needed.

2

3

4

5

6. Possible solutions were listed and clarified before they were evaluated.

2

3

4

5

7. Criteria for evaluating proposed solutions were clearly identified and accepted by the group.

2

3

4

5

8. Predictions were made regarding the probable effectiveness of each proposed solu ti on, using the available information and criteria.

2

3

4

5

9. Consensus was achieved on the most desirable solution.

2

3

4

5

10. A detailed plan to implement the solution was developed.

2

3

4

5

11 . The problem -solving process was systematic and orderly.

Giffin to idemify deficiencies in problem-solving procedures. Figure A.7 is rhe Seashore Index of Group Cohes iveness, which measures cohes iveness of a work group .! We encourage YOli to modify rhese scales or create your ow n.

A-9

A-l0

APPENDIX

FIGURE A.7

Seashore Index of Group Cohesiveness

Check one respon se for each question.

1. Do you feel that you are rea lly a part of your work group? _ _ Really a part of my work group _ _ Included in most ways _ _ Included in some ways, but not in others

_ _ Don't feel I really belong _ _ Don't work with anyone group of people

Not ascertained 2. If you had a chance to do the same kind of work for the same pay in ano ther work group, how would you feel about moving?

_ _ Would want very much to move _ _ Would rath er move than stay where I am Would make no difference to m e _ _ Would want very much to stay w here I am

Not ascertained 3. How does yo ur group compare w ith other simi lar groups on each of the following points?

Better than Most

About the Same as Most

Not as Good

Not

as Most

Ascertained

a. The way the members get along togeth er b. The way the members stick together

c. The way the mem be rs help each other on the job _ _ SOURCE: From Stanley Seashore, Group CohesIVeness In the Indus/nol Work Group (Ann Arbor : Institute for SOCial Research, Univers ity of MIChigan, 1954).

SYMLOG SYM LO G is a special kind of analys is from rar ing scale data that ca n help a group "picture" its di vers ity. In C hap ter 5 we talked expl icidy abom th e critical ro le di versity plays in effective group interaction. We also have learned throughout thi s book that so metimes the very diversity that enh ances gro up problem so lvin g may beco me difficult or impossi ble to manage. Somethin g is needed to help members diagnose rheir differences and plan how

A-ll

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

to reconcile those differences so (hat the group's diversity ca n help rather than hurt the group. SYMLOG provides a methodo logy that ca n "show" a group where its most acute differen ces are and in what directions members should move to get the group on track. SYMLOG is an acronym for System for the Multiple-Level Observation of Groups; it is both a com prehensive theory and a methodology that produces a diagram of relationships among group members. 2 We prese nt a simp lifi ed expla nation here so you can understand how SYMLOG can be used [0 describe and help a group. SYMLOG theory assumes that behaviors in a group can be classified along three dimensions: dominant versus submissive, friendl y versus unfriendly, and task-oriented versus emotionally exp ressive. An observer,uses a 26-irem rarin g scale {Q categorize each member's behavior; the rating scale is then tallied in a special way so that each member can be placed on the SYMLOG diagram. An example of a SYM LOG d iagram, or map, ; is shown in Figure A.8. The more a membe r is task-oriented, the closer he or she is to the top of the diagram; the more emotionally expressive, the closer (0 the bottom. (The F sta nds for fOf\vard, or task-oriented behavior, and (he B stands for backward, or emotionally expressive behavior.) The friendlier a member is toward the other members of the

FIGURE A.S

SYMLOG Diagram of a Noncoheslve Group Task-oriented

F

Ann

Bob

B Emotionally expressive

~OSSARY SVMLOC; The System for rhe Mu/riple-Level Observaeion of Croups, a theory and methodology that produces a diagram of relationships among group members

A-12

APPENDIX

group, the closer he or she is to the right; the morc un fr iend ly, t he closer (0 th e left. (The P stands for positive or fri endly behavior, the N for negative or unfri end ly behavior.) Th e third dimension, dominance or submissiveness, is shown by rhe size of rhe circl e; a dominant member has a large circle, while a subm issive one has a small onc. In rhe SYMLOC diagram in Figure A.S, Ann is very dominant, task-o ri ented , and negative roward other members of rhe grou p. In comrast, Bob is fr iendly and emmionally expressive, although he also is dominant. A group w ith two such strong, bur opposite, in dividuals is likel y ro experience (o nAin duri ng meetings. Charlie is moderately dominant, positive, and task-oriented. (This is how democra ti c leaders and members of productive, democratic groups often appear in SYMLOG diagrams.) If you were asked to describe this group, you wo uld probably say that it is unproducti ve, la cks cohesive ness, and appears to waste a lot of time duri ng meetings because there's a struggle between the most taskotienrcd and most emotionally expressive members. The SYMLOG diagram in Figure A.9 shows a un ified, cohesive group. All t he members are in or near the upper right-hand quadrant (the decision-making quadranr), which shows th ar rhey are task-orienred eno ugh to make progress toward th e group 's goal but

FIGURE A.9

SYMLOG Diagram of a Cohesive Group Task·or iented

F

Unfriend ly N I".=-~--------.,-if---'\----+---''''-.,-i'-~-I P Friend ly

B Emotional ly ex press ive

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

friendly enough toward each mher that interpersonal relationships are probably hannonious. Th is gro up is likel y to be produ ctive and effi cient. Thinking in SYM LOG terminology helps YO ll manage th e co mpl exity of gro up interaction as you create a snapshot capturing the texture of a group. Because SYM LOG gives you that visua l represemati on, it is easy to grasp several co mplex rel ationships at once. That makes ("hi s tool particularly effective in helping yo u and your fellow group members analyze and diagnose yourselves. It also gives yo u an id ea of what you mi ght do if problems are reveal ed. A SYM LOG diagram represents the perceptions of th e person who co nstru cted it; thi s provides pot entially va luabl e information ro help group members begin discllssing their perceptions and prelerences. For instan ce, those members whose SYMLOG diagram s show that rh ey perceive Ann ro be unfri endly may be asked to share specifi c exa mples that led {hem to char co nclusio n. Likew ise, those whose diagram s pla ce Bob in th e emotiona ll y ex press ive area ca n explain why they see him lhat way and what they feel about iL If it is too threatening or frig htening for gro up members to co ndu ct sll ch discussions on th ei r ow n, a tru sted facilitator ca n help manage rhe discussion. Co nsulranrs who li se SYMLOG often as k members of rhe group being observed to co mplete rhe SYMLOG forms in advance. From these rhey create SYM LO G diagram s (Q di stribute (Q the grou p. Ha ving the SYMLOG " pictures" prompts members to talk about themselves and their relarionships with each other in a relatively nonrhrea tening way. Th is ca n set the stage tor tremendous growth and developm ent in the group. Take a look at" Figure A. J o. Assume you are a consuhant brought it in to help Basil and hi s group. In preparation for meeting with the group YO ll asked the members to fill Ollt th e SYM LOG raring sca les and from those you constructed SYM LOG diagrams for each member. Basil 's is on the lett in

FIGURE A.l0

Data From a SYMLOG Analysis Average of other members' diagrams

Basil's diagram

8

A-13

A -14

APPENDIX

Figure A.I 0 and since rhe orhcr four were so similar

GLOSSARY

YOli

combined th eir respo nses inca a

single one on rhe fi ghe 1. Interpret rh e gro up fro m Basil's perspecci ve.

Postmeetl ng Reaction ( PMR) Forms

2. Interpret it from rhe others' perspecti ves.

3. How would

after a meeting to

evaluate thot par-

ticular meeting

use this information ro help rhe group ?

4. What would be rh e focus of your work with thi s group and why?

Questionnoires members complete

YO li

There are a variety of ways ro use SYM LOG. It is poss ible ro construct a SYMLOG di ag ram by hand , and so meone with skills on spreadsheet appli cat ions, such as Excell , can crea tc a program (Q perform rhe necessary math for calcul atin g rh e SYMLOG numbers. If [his anal ys is appeals to YO ll , we recommend that YOLI purchase th e SYMLOG Cnse Srudy Kil, whi ch cOlHains all th e ins(funions and form s YOLI need [Q produce a diagram

by hand . POSTMEETING REACTION FORMS Postmeeting reaction (PMR) forms are questionnaires designed ro get feedba ck fr o m members about a particular meeting. PMR form s may focu s o n a particu lar aspen (s uch as leadership) o r d ea l with severa l broad aspects (s uch as how effecti ve members bel ieve th e meetin gs are) . Th e lead er, a member, or an obse rve r di stributes th e PMR for ms; members comp lere th em an o nymou sly, th e res ults are talli ed , and th e findin gs are reported to th e gro up as soon as poss ib le. The findin gs prov ide a basis for the group [Q di sc uss how to improve its co mmun ication and effect ive ness. Bas il , rhe group leader in o ur introductory ex amp le, cou ld have used PMR fo rm s him sel f to get feedback from th e o th er members about ho w the group 's di scuss ions could be improved. PMR form s are tail o red ro fit rh e purposes and needs of th e group. Questions may co nce rn substantive irems, ilHerperson : d relation ships, ma{( t rs o f procedure, or a mixture o f all duee. Two different examp les of PMR form s arc shown in Figures A. II and A.1 2.

I

FIGURE A.ll

Postmeeting Reaction Form

, . How do you feel about today's discl!ssion? Excellent _

Good _

All right _

So-so _

Bad _

2. What were the strong points of the discussion? 3. What were the weaknesses? 4. What changes would you suggest for futu re meetings? (You need not sign your name.)

A· IS

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

FIGURE A.12

Poslmeeting Reaction Form

Instructions: Circle the number that best indicates your reactions to the following questions about the discussion in which you participated:

1. Adequacy of Communication. To what extent do you feel members were understanding each others' statements and positions?

o

2

3

• 4

5

7

6

Talked past each other;

8

9

10

Communicated directly with each other; understanding we ll

misunderstanding

2. Opportunity to Speok. To what extent did you feel free to speak?

o

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Had all the opportunity to talk I wanted

Never had a chance to speak

3. Climate of Acceptance. How we ll did members support each other, show acceptance of individuals?

o

2

3

4

5

6

7

Highly critical and punishing

8

9

10

Supportive and receptive

4 . Interpersonal Relations. How pleasant and concerned were members with interperso nal relations?

o

2

3

4

5

Quarrelsome, status differences emphasized

6

7

8

9

10

Pleasant, empathic, concerned with persons

5. leadership. How adequate was the leader (or leadership) of the group?

o

2

3

4

5

6

Too weak ( ) or dominating ( )

7

8

9

10

Shared, group-centered, and sufficient

6. 5atisfaction with Role. How satisfied are you with yo ur personal participation in the di sc ussion?

o

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Very dissa ti sfied

9

10

Very sa tisfied

7. Quality of Product. How sa tisfied are you with the discussions, solutions, or learnings that came out of this discussion?

o

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Very displeased

9

10

Very satisfied

8. Overall. How do you rate the discussion as a whole apa rt from any specific aspect of it?

o

2

Awful; waste of time

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Superb; time well spent

APPENDIX

A-16

Evaluating Individual Participants I n addition to evaluatin g gene ral group processes, if is often usefu l lO eva luate behaviors of individual pani cipa nrs. An observer or rh e me mbers th e mselves may compl e te th e following form s. Figure A.13 is a simp le rating form that fo cli ses on some

FIGURE A.13

Participating Rating Scale

Date _________________________ Obse~er

________________________

(Name of partiCipant)

1. Contributions to the content of the discussion? (well prepared, supplied information, adequate reasoning, etc.)

5

4

3

2 Few or none

Fair share

Outstanding in quality and quantity

2. Contributions to efficient group procedures? (agenda plann ing, relevant comments, summaries, keeping on track)

5

4

Always relevant, aided organization

3

2 Sidetracked, confused group

Relevant, no aid in order

3. Degree of cooperating? (listening to understand, responsible, agreeab le, group-centered, open-minded)

5

4

3

2 Self-centered

Very responsible and constructive

4. Speaking? (clear, to group, one point at a time, concise)

5

4

3

2 Vague, indirect, wordy

Brief, clear, to group

5. Value to the group? (overall rating) 5 Most valuable

Suggestions:

4

3

2 Least va luable

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

FIGURE A.14

A -17

Participating Rating Scale

Participant's name Instructions: Circle the number that best reflects your evaluation of the discussant's participation on each scale.

Poor

Superior

2

3

4

5

1 . Was prepared and informed.

2

3

4

5

2. Contributions were brief and clear.

2

3

4

5

3. Comments relevant and well timed .

2

3

4

5

4. Spoke distinctly and audibly to all.

2

3

4

5

5. Contributions made readily and voluntarily.

2

3

4

5

6. Frequency of participation (if poor, too low [] or high []).

2

3

4

5

7. Nonverbal responses were clear and constant.

2

3

4

5

8. Listened to understand and follow discussion.

2

3

4

5

9. Open-minded.

2

3

4

5

10. Cooperative and constructive.

2

3

4

5

11 . Helped keep discussion organized, following outline.

2

3

4

5

12. Contributed to evaluation of information and ideas.

2

3

4

5

13. Respectful and tactful with others.

2

3

4

5

14. Encouraged others to participate.

2

3

4

5

15. Overall rating in relation to other discussants.

Comments

Evaluator

of th e most imporrant aspects of participation. A more derai led form is shown in Figure A.14. Figure A.15 is a scale (0 eva luate leadership, and Figure A.16 is a leader's self-rating scale.

APPENDIX

A -18

FIGURE A.15

Barnlund -Haiman leadership Rating Scale

Instructions: This rating sca le may be used to evaluate leadership in groups with or without official leaders. In the latter case (the leaderless group), use part A of each item only. When evaluating the actions of an official leader, use parts A and B of each item on the scale. Influence in Procedure Initiating Discussion

A. 3

o

2

Group needed more help in getting

2 help in getting

started

started B.

3

Group needed less

Group got right amount of help

The quality of the introductory remarks was: Excellent Good

Adequate

Fair

Poor

Organizing Group Thinking

A. 3

o

2

Group needed more direction in thinking B.

2

3

Group needed less direction in

Group got right amount of help

thinking

If and when attempts were made to organize group thinking, they were: Excellent Good Adequate

Poor

Fair

Clarifying Communication

A

3

o

2

Group needed more help in clarifying communication B.

2

If and when attempts were made to cla rify communication, they were: Excellent Good Adequate

3

Group needed less

Group got right amount of help

help in clarifying communication Fair

Poor

Summarizing and Verbalizing Agreements

A.

3

2

Group needed more help in summarizing and verbalizing agreements B.

,

o

3 2 Group needed less help in summarizing and ve rbalizing agreements

Group got right amount of help

If and when attempts were made to sum marize and verbalize, they were: Excellent Good Adequate

Fair

Poor

Resolving Conflict

A.

2 ____~~~3 ~3~____~__2~________~____~__~O~~______~______~~ Group needed more help in resolving conflict

B.

Group needed less help in resolving conflict

Group got right amount of help

If and when attempts were made to resolve conflict, they were: Excellent Good Adequate

Fair

Poor (contmueQ)

SOURCE: From O. C. Barnlund and f. S. Halman, The Dynomk~ of DiKuBion (Boston: Houghton.Mifflin, 1960), pp. 401 -4. Used by permission of Robert Goldsmith, M .D., eJlecutof of B
A -19

Techniques for Observing Problem-Solving Groups

FIGURE A.l S

Continued

Influence in Creative and Critical Thinking Stimulating Critical Thinking

A.

B.

o

3 2 Group needed more stim ulation in creative thinking

2 3 Group needed less stimulation in creative thinking

Group got right amount of help

If and when attempts were made to stimulate ideas, they were: Excellent Good Adequate

Fair

Poor

Encouraging Criticism

A. 3

o

2

Group needed more encouragement to be critical B.

2 3 Group needed less encouragement to be critical

Group got right amount of help

If and when attempts were made to encourage criticism, they were: Excellent Good Adequate

Fair

Poor

Balancing Abstract and Concrete Thought

A. 3

2

Group needed to be more concrete B.

o

,

2 3 Group needed to be more abstract

Group achieved proper balance

If and when attempts were made to balance abstract and concrete thought, they were: Excellent Good Adequate Fair

Poor

Influence in Interpersonal Relations Climate-Making

2 3 A. ~3~~~~~2~________~____r=~~O~c.-______~______-,~~~~~~ Group needed more help in securing a permissive atmosphere B.

Group needed less help in securing a permissive atmosphere

Group got right amount of help

If and when attempts were made to establish a permissive atmosphere, they were: Fair Excellent Good Adequate

Poor

Regulating Participation

A. 3

B.

B.

=-__

~3____~~~2~________~____

Group needed more control

2 3 Group needed less regulation of participation

Group got right amount of help

If and when attempts were made to regulate participation, they were: Excellent Good Adequate

Overall Leadership

A.

o

2

Group needed more regulation of participation

Fair

Poor

2 ____~~~ 3 ~ O ~~____~~______~~

Group got right amount of control

If and when attempts were made to control the group, they were: Excellent Good Adequate

Group needed less control Fair

Poor

A -20

APPENDIX

FIGURE A.16

Leader Self-Rating Scale

Instructions: Rate yourself on each item by putting a check mark in the "Yes" or "No" column. Your score is five times the number of items marked "Yes." Rating: excellent, 90 or higher; good, 80-85; fair, 70-75; inadequate, 65 or lower.

Yes

1. I prepared all needed facilities. 2. I started the meeting promptly and ended on time.

3. I established an atmosphere of permissiveness and informality. I was open and responsive to all ideas. 4. I clearly oriented the group to its purpose and area of freedom. S. I encouraged all members to participate and maintained equal opportunity for all to speak. 6. I used a plan for leading the group in an organized consideration of all major phases of the problem. 7. I listened actively and (if needed) encouraged all members to do so.

B. I saw to it that the problem was discussed thoroughly before solutions were considered. 9. I integrated related ideas or suggestions and urged the group to arrive at consensus on a solution. 10. My questions were clear and brief. 11. I saw to it that unclear statements were paraphrased or otherwise clarified. 12. I prompted open discussion of substantive conflicts. 13. I maintained order and organization, promptly pointing out tangents, making transitions, and keeping track of the passage of time. 14. I saw to it that the meeting produced definite assignments or plans for action, and that any subsequent meeting was arranged. 15. All important information, ideas, and decisions were prolTlptly and accurately recorded. 16. I actively encouraged creative thinking. 17. I encouraged thorough evaluation of information and all ideas for solutions. 18. I was able to remain neutral during constructive arguments and otherwise encourage teamwork. 19. I suggested or urged establishment of needed norms and standards. 20. I encouraged members to discuss how they felt about the group process and resolve any blocks to progress.

No

Techniques for ObselVing Problem-Solving Groups

A -21

RESOURCES FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

• A co nsultant-observer is an outsider brought in to observe a group; such observers may be more objective than participant-observers.

• When chey give feedback. chey focus on a few elements rather than risk overwhelming the group .

Parti cipant- and cons ultant-observe rs ca nnot look at everything at once, so'they concentrate on those e1emems a gro up needs to improve most.

• Observers and group members themselves can use a variety of methods to gather information, including verbal imeraction analyses, co ntem analyses, and rating scales.

•

Consultant-Observer Content Analysis Procedures

Postmeeting Reaction (PMR) Forms Rating Scales

SYMLOG Verbal Interaction Analysis

References

R-1

16.

1b;d.

1.

Synrhesized from information in Samantha G len , 8m Frimds: Tlu Trlu Story ofrlu World's Most Bewved Animal SrU/ rruary (New York: Kensington Books, 2001), and from the Best Friends Animal Soc icty websil e, accessed (again) on December 22, 20 10: http://www.bcstfriends.org.

17.

De nnis S. Gouran and Randy Y. Hirakawa, "Counteractive Funct ions of Co mmuni car ion in EfTccl1ve Group Decision Making, " in Comm uniauion and Group Decision Making. cds. Randy Y. Hi rakawa and Marsha ll Scon Poole (Beverly Hills, CA, Sage, 1986), pp. 8 1-90.

2.

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18.

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3.

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Chapter 1

4.

Michelle Tullier, "The Ski lls YOll Have ... and the Skills They Wam," accessed (again) on February 7, 20 I 1: Imp:llcareer-advice. monster.com/job-seaTchl getting-stanedlskills-you-have-skills-thcy-wantl artide.aspx.

5.

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6.

Neuborne, "Companics Save," p. 1B.

7.

Daniel McGinn , "Mired in Meetings." Newswt'ek, October 16, 2000, pp. 52-54.

8.

Lawrence R. Frey. "The Call of me Field: St udying Communicarion in Natu ral Groups," in Group COfmmmicl1tion in Context. cd. Lawrence R. Frey (Hillsdale, NJ: L1wrence Erlbaum, 1994), pp. ix-xiv.

9.

C harles C. DuBois. " Portrait of the Ideal MBA," The Pmn Stater. September!OclOber 1992, p. 131.

10. Joann KeYlOn, " Relatio nal Communicalion in Groups." in Handbook ofGroup CommuniCtllion nuory 6- Research, ed. Lawrence R. Frey (Thousand 0,1<>. CA S'ge. 1999). p. 192. II.

G len , Best Friends.

12.

Ib;d.,p. 116.

13.

T his line of research began in 1928 and continues 10 the present. For a concise summary of the research up to 1980, see Marvin E. Shaw, Group Dynamics. 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hili, 1981), PI" 57-64.

14.

H erm W. Smith, "Group versus Individual Problem Solving and Type ofPrablem Solved," Small Group Behavior 20 ( 1989), pp. 357-74.

15.

Robert G. Powell and Dana Casea u, Clnssroom

Communication and Diversity: Enhancing Instructional PraCtice (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2004), pp. 193-94.

19.

Shaw, Group Dynamics, p. 8.

20.

Steven A. Beebe and John T. Masterson, Commu· lIiCllting in Small Groups, 7th (.-<1. . (Boston : Allyn & 8:1con, 2003), pp. 6-9.

2 1.

Frank LaFasto and Carl Larson, Whm Teams Work Bm: 6.000 Team MOltbers and Leaders Tell What It Takes to Succeed (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 200 I ), pp. xii-xiii.

22.

Randy Y. Hirokawa, Robert S. Camcart, Larry A. Sa movar, and Linda D. Henman, "Pan IV: Group Processes," in 5nudl Group Communication: Theory and Practice. 8th ed., eds. Randy Y. Hirakawa , Roben S. Cathcart, Larry A. Samovar, and Linda O. Henman (Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury, 2003), p. 83.

23.

Slefa nic K. Johnson , Kenneth Bettenhause n, and Ellie Gibbons, "Realities of Working in Virtual Tea ms: Affective and Attitudinal Outcomes of Using Computer-Mediated Com munication," Sm(dl Group Rrullrch 40 (2009)' pp. 623-49.

24.

Sand ra Keuow, "Nonverbal Aspects of Group Com munication ," in Handbook of Group Commu.nimtion Theory 6- Reuarch, cd. Lawrence R. Frey (Tho usond Oak>, CAe Sage, 1999), pp. 25 1-87.

25. Joseph B. Walther. Tracy Loh, and Laura Granka, " Lei Me Count the Ways: The Interchange of Verbal and Nonverbal C ues in Compurer-Medialed and Face-to-Face Affinity," Jou.null of Langu(lgr arid Soci(1I Psychowgy 24 (2005). pp. 36-65. 26.

William C. Schu rz, FIRO: A Three-Dimensional Thl'ory of Inurpmonal Behavior (New York: Rinehan, 1958).

27.

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28.

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6.

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33.

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12.

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13.

Ibid.

14. Ibid. Chapter 2 I.

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5.

Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn. The Social Psychology ofOrganiZiltions. 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1978). Benjamin J. Broome and Luann Fulbright, "A Multistage InAuence Model of Barriers LO Small Group Problem Solving: A Participant-Generated Agenda for Small Group Research," Small Croup Research 26 (February 1995), pp. 25- 55. Linda Pumam and CyIllhia Stohl. "Bona Fide Groups : An Alternative Perspective for Communication and Sma ll Group Decision Mak ing," in Communimtion and Croup Decision Making. 2nd ed ., eds. Randy Hirokawa and Marshall Poole (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), pp. 147-78.

17 .• Jeremy Rose, " Comm unication Challenges and Role Functions of Performing G roups," Small Group Research 25 (August 1994), pp. 4 11-32.

Chapter 3 I.

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2.

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Ib;d .

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Pu rdy. "The Lisrener Wins."

7.

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7t h ed .. cds. Robert S. ClIhcart, Larry A. Samovar. and Linda H enman (Madison, W I: Brown & Benchmark , 1996), pp. 268~82. 8.

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11 .

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12. This exa mple is a modification of a case where a Fres no. California, high school slUdem was suspended from school for using "nigga" to greet a fr iend on school grou nds.

R-3

23.

Ibid .

24.

Judee K. Burgoon, Do n W. Stacks, and Steven A. Burch, "The Ro le of Interpersonal Rewards and Viola tions of D istancing Expectat ions in Achieving InAuence in Smal l Groups," CommunicQtion: jOlln/al oftilt Association ofthe Pacific I 1 (1982), pp. 114-28.

25.

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26.

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27.

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13. John Stewart and Carol Logan, Tog~/h": Communicating 11lurpt'TloTl/dly, 5th ed . (New York: McGraw-Hili. 1998).

14.

Ib;d.

28.

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29.

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30.

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16.

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17. Timot hy P. Mottet, Steven A. Beebe, Palll C. Ra(fcld. and Michelle L. Paulsel, "The Effects of StUdent Verbal and Nonverbal Responsiveness on Teachers' Liking of Stud cms and Willi ngness to Comply with Studem Requests," Commlmi((1/ioll Quarurly. 52, no. 1 (Wi nter 2004), pp. 27- 38. 18.

Kory Floyd and George Ray, '"'Ada ptatio n to Expressed Liking and Disliking in Initial

3 1. Judee K. Burgoon and Thomas Sa ine, Th~ Un/mown Dialogue: An IIItTOdu(I;orl to NO"/l~rb(11 Communication (Boston: Houghto n Mifflin , 1978). 32.

Joel D . Davin. and Lois Davin, "Nonverbal Vocal Com municat io n of Feelings," jounull ofCommulIi(l1(ioll 11 (1961), pp. 8 1 ~86.

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R-4

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34.

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pp.237-74. 35.

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journal OfC01llpllur.M~dil1ud Commullictllioll, 12, no. I (November 2006), pp. 114-35.

Uuly 2006), pp. 99-116. 36. Donald Klopf, Inurcu/tum/ Ellcountm: The Fundnmmtnls of Intermltuml Communication (Englewood, CO: Morion, 1987), p. 177. 37.

R. G. Harper, A. N. Weins, and

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(New York: Wiley, 1978).

38.

Hall, T/J(' Silmt Language. pp. 175-76.

39.

Kelrow, "Nonverbal Aspects of Group Commun ication. "

40.

Ibid.

41.

Stefanic K. Johnson. Kenneth Bcrrcnhauscn, and Ellie Gibbons, "Realities of Working in Virtual Teams: Affective and Attitudinal Outcomes of Using CompUler.Mediated Communication," Small Group Rt'J(t1Tch 40 (2009), pp. 623-49,

42.

Craig R. SCali, "Nc"'.' Commun ication Technologies and Teams,~ in Smllll Group Communication: TJuory find Pmctiu, 8th ed., cds. Randy Hirakawa, Robert Cathcart, L'lrry Samovar, and Linda Hen ma n (Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2003), pp. 134-47.

43.

Amy L Gonzales, Jeffrey T. Hancock, and James W. Pennebaker, ~L1nguage Sryle Matching as a Predictor of Social Dynamics in SmaH Groups," Com,mmicat;O'1 Rmarc/J 37 (2010), pp. 3-19.

44.

Tyrone Adams and Norman Clark, T/J~ In/mit'(: Effictillt' Onlint' Commllnimtion (Fon Wonh , TX: Harcourt , 2001), PI" 112-19.

45.

S. R. HilrL and M. TuroR', "Vi rtual Meetings: Computer Conferencing and Distributed Group Support," in Computer Augmented T~mnwork: A Guided Tour, cds. R. P. Bostrom, R. T. Watso n, and S. T. Kinney (New York: Van Nostrand

46.

McG"w-Hill , 2009), pp. 138- 150. Chapter 4

1.

M:ushall SCOI( Poole, David R. Siebold, and Robert D. McPhee, ~Group Decision Making as a StructlLfational Process," Quarlf'rlyjolfTflill o/Spueb 7 1 (1985), PI'. 74-102; Marshall SCOtt Poole, "G roup Communication and the Structuring Process," in Small Group CommUl/icaliOIl: Theory 6- PTIlClice. An Anthology, 8t h ed .. cds. Randy Y. Hirakawa, Robert S. Cathcart. i...1fry A. Samovar, and Linda D. Henman (Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2003), pp. 48-58.

2.

Raben F. Bales, "The Equil ibrium Problem in Small Croups," in Working Papers in Ihe Theory of AClion, eds. Talcott Parsons, Robert r. Bales, and Edward A. Shils (New York: Free Press, 1953),

pp.III-61. 3.

The rerms primllry and Il'COlltiary Il'1lS;Oll were fiTS! used by Ernest G. Bormann; elaboration of rhe concepts may be found in Bormann , Discussion • and Group Metbods: Tluory and PTIloiu, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), 1'1'. 181 - 90.

4.

Donald G. Ellis and B. Aubrey Fisher, Small Group Decision Milking: Communication lind the Grollp Pro· cm, 4th cd. (New York: McGraw· Hill, 1994), p. 38.

Reinhold, 1992), pp. 67-85.

5.

Bormann , Discussion and Grollp Methods.

Everett M. Rogers, CommuniCillion T~dmology: Th~ New Media in Sociny (New York: Free Press,

6.

Ellis and Fisher, Small Group Decision Milking, p. 38.

7.

Process: An Introduction 10 Small Group CommlllliCll·

Karnerine E. Finkelstein, "Tempers Seem to Be Shorter in Many Jury Rooms," New York Times (August 3, 200 I). Retrieved July 8, 2004, from www.nytimcs.com/200 1/08/",031 nyregionl 03JUR Y.htm?ex:: 1089604800&en

lion, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffi, NJ: Prentice· Hall ,

·9dlfl46719,4,b93&ei·5070&«.997841696&.

1986). 47.

49. Joseph B. Walther, Tracy Loh, and Laura Granka. "Let Me Count Ihe Ways: The Interchange ofVerbal and Nonverbal Cues in Computer. Mediated and Face·to·Face Affiniry," jOUTlwl ojLlmgllllge and Social Psychology 24 (2005), pp. 36-65; Social Information Pro ces.~ing Theory of Joseph Walrher, C hapter 11 in A First Look III ConUlm· nicll/ion Tluory. 7th cd., Em Griffin (New York :

Compiled from L1rry L. Barker, Kathy J. Wahlers, Kittie W. Watson, and Robert J. Kibler, Groups in

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Joseph B. Walther and Judee K. Burgoon, "Relational Communication in Com pUlerMediated Interaction," Human Communimtion Rl'Sl'flrch 19 (1992), pp. 50-88.

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9.

Bruce Tuckman, " Developmental Sequence in Small Groups," PsychologicaL Buii~tin 63 (1965), pp. 384-99; Bruce Tuckman and Mary Ann Jenscn, "Stages of Small-Group Development Revisited," Group &Org(llliZiltion Studi~J 2, no. 4 (1977), pp. 419-27.

23.

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10. Connie Gersick, "Time an~ Transition in Work Teams," in Smail Group Communication: Theory & Practice. 8rh cd., cds. Randy Hirokawa, Robert Cathcart, Larry Sa movar, and Linda Henman (Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2003), pp. 59-75. I I. Carolyn M. Anderson, Bruce L. Riddle, and Matthew M. Martin. "Socialization Processes in G roups," in Handbook of Group Communication Thl'Ory & ReJl'arch. cd. Lawrence R. Frey (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999), p. 142.

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Anderson et al., p. 152.

19.

Ib;d., p. 164.

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32. Joseph P. Folger and Marshall S. Poole, Working

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Hawkins and Fillion, " Perceived Communication Skill Needs for Work Groups," pp. 167-74.

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Carl E. Larson and Frank M.

J. LaFasto,

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R·6

REFERENCES 35.

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Ib;d .. p. 193.

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38.

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Dirk Scheerhorn and Parricia GciSI. "Social Dynamics in Groups," in Managing Grollp Lift, cds. Lawrence R. Frey and J. Kevin Barge (Boslon: Houghton MifHin. 1997) , pp. 80-103.

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Carol),n M. Anderson and Manhew M. Matlin . "The Effects of Com muni calion Motives. lmeraclion Involvelllcn l. and Loneliness on Sarisr..clion: A Model of Small Groups," Small Grollp Rt'Utlrch

12.

John G. Oe17.ei and Keri Bohon-Oencl, "Ex ploring the RcI.nionship between Self-Conslrllal and Dimensions of Group Effectiveness," Manngt'mmf Commllnication Qllartl'T/y 10, no. 3 (February 1997), pp. 289-315.

26 (Feb""ry 1995). PI'. 11 8-37.

n

41. Jack R. Gibb, " Defensive Communicarion . JounUllofCommllllirntjon 11 ( 1961 ). pp. 14 1--48.

Chapter 5 I.

Marvin E. Shaw, Group Dyllam;cs; Tht' Psychology ofSmall Group Bt'havior, 2nd ed. (New York: MeG",,· Hm. 1971). pp. 219-36.

2.

See. for exa mple, Warren E. Watson. Kamalcsch Kumar, and Lury K. Michaelson, "Cultural D iversity's lmpaci on IllIeraCiion Process and Performance: Com paring Homogeneous and Diverse Task Groups," Acadt'my ofMflIlflgmlrlll Journal 36 (1993). pp. 590-602.

3.

William B. JohnslOn and Arnold E. Packer. \\I'orkforer 2000: Work and Workm for rhr 21st Cmrury (Indianapolis. IN: Hudson Institute. 1987).

4.

Rebecca M il chelJ, Stephen Nicholas, and Brendan Boyle. "The Role ofOpcnness to Cognilive Diversiry and Group Processes in Knowledge C realion. SUUlII Grollp Rmarch 40 (2009), pp. 535-54.

5. James R. Luson. Jr.. " Deep Diversiry and Sirong Syneq,'Y: Modeling Ihe Impaci ofVariabiliry in Members' Problem-Solving Si ralegies on Croup Problem-Solvi ng Performance," Small Grollp Rt'Ullrch 38 (2007). pp. 413-36. 6.

C. M. Parker, Tram Playm and Tt'amwork: Tht' Nt'w Compt'titivt' Businns Stratrgy (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990). and R. A. Eiscnslal, "Fairfield Syslems Group," in Grollps That Work and Thou

13. T o rsten Reimer. Sascha Kuendig, Ulrich Hoffrage. Ernest Park , and Verlin H inz, "Effects of Ih e Information Environment on Group Discussions and Decisions in the Hidden- Profile Paradigm," CommlllljcmjQfI MOllogmphs 74, no. 1

(M,,,h 2007). PI" 1- 28. 14.

William F. Owen, "Melaphor Analysis of Co hesiven css in Small Discussion Groups." Small Grollp Bt'bflvjor IG (1985). pp. 415- 26.

15.

David A. Kolb. &prrirntial Lraming: &prril'IIcr as tbt' Sollrrr ofLMming and Dt'vrlopml'llt (Englewood C liffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall , 1984).

16. ·Symhesi7.cd from Isabel Briggs Myers, /mrodllc·

tion to Typr A Dnrriptioll oftht' Tbt'ory and AppliCtllioll oftht' MyrTS-Brjggs Typ r Indicalor (Palo Aho, CA: Consuhi ng Psychologists Press. 1987); Ono Kroeger and Ja nel A. Thuesen, Type T/llk:

71)t' 16 PrTSorudity Typt's 71)(u Dnrrmillt' How \\7t' Lillt', Lout', flnd Work (New York: Dell , 1988); Ono Kroeger wilh Janel A. Thuesen. Typr Talk flI \l,'Iork: HOlt} the 16 Pmonality Typt's Dumnint' YOllr SIIcm1 on tbr Joh (New Yo rk: Dell, 1992); and Paul D. Tiegcr and Barba ra Barron-Tieger.

Nllrtllrr hy Nnturr: UlUurstalld Your Cbj!d's PI'NOnaliry Typ~AlId Brcomr II Bmrr Pnmlf (BoslOn : Lilde, Brown , 1997), pp. 5-62.

References

17. Sec, for example, John G. Oet'ze!, "Culturally Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Groups: Explaining Co mmunica tion Processes through Individualism-Collectivism and Self-Construal," ll1urlllltional Journal of/nurmltllral R~kltjom 22, no. 2 (M,y 1998), pp. 135-61;John G. Oenei, "Explaining Individual Communication Processes in Homoge nous and Heteroge neous Groups through Individualism-Collectivism and Self-Construal ," Human Communication R~sMrch 25, no. 2 (December 1998), pp. 202-24; and Kim M. Shapcott, Albert V. Cavon , and Paul A. Estabrooks, "Member Diversiry and Cohesion and Performance in Walking Groups," Snudl Group Rrsearch 37, no. 6 (December 2006), pp. 701 -20. 18. T he following information about cuhure is synthesized from a number of sources, including Edwa rd T. HaU , Beyond Cllltllr~ (New York: Anchor Press, 1977); Geen Hofstede, Cllltllr~5 Conuqllnlc~s: Im~T1lational Diffirf'rlCf'S in Work- R~klted Vtllu~s. 2nd ed . (Beverly Hills. CA: Sage, 2001); William B. G udykullst and Stella Ting-Toomey, Cultllre and Inurpersonal Communimtiorl (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1988); Myton Lusdg and Jolene Koester, Interpersonal Compeunc~: 11Iurpasonal Commtmication Across CII/tures (New York: Harper Collins, 1993); and Myron W. Lusdgand Laura L Casot ta, "Comparing Group Communication Across Culture: Leadership , Conform ity, and Discussion Procedures," in Sma/l Group CommlllIimtion: A Reader. 6th cd., cds. Roben S. Cathcart and Larry A. Samovar (Du buque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1992), pp. 393-404. 19.

L1Try A. Samovar and Richard E. Porter, Communicatioll Betwem Cultures, 4th ed. (Belmont , CA: Wadsworth, 2001). pp. 52-88.

20.

Min-Sun Kim and W illiam F. Sharkey, " Independent and Interdependent Construals of Se1 f: Explaining Cultural Patterns oflmerpersonal Co mmun ica don in Multicultural Organizarional Seni ngs," Commllnication Quarterly 43 (Wi nter

African AmeriCilfl Communication: Ethnic Identity Iwd Cultumllmerpretatioll, vol. 2. Language and L'U1guage Behaviors series (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993), especially Chap. 3, pp. 82- 11 3, and Anita K. Foeman and Gary Pressley, " Ethnic Cu lIlIre and Corpor:lte Culture: Usi ng Black Styles in Organizations," Commllnimtion Quarterly 35 (Fall

1987), pp.293-307. 25.

Ocrlel, "Culturally Homogeneous."

22. Judith N. Martin and Thomas K. Nakayama, Experiencing 11Iurctlltuml Communication: An Introdllctioll (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 2001),

pp.I66-67. 23. This seCiion is a summary orOer-l.e!, "Cul turally Homogeneous," and Oet1.ei, "Ex plaining Individual. " 24 . This inrormation is synrhes ir.cd rrom Michael L Hecht , Mary Jane Collier, and Sidney A. Ribeau ,

Rebecca Leonard and Don C. Locke, "Communication Stereorypes: Is Interracial Com munication Poss ible?" Jotlrnal ofBlltck Studies 23 (March

1993). pp. 332-43. 26.

Mark P. Orbe. " Reme mber, It's Always Whites' Ball: Descri ptions of African American Male Communication ," Communication Quarterly 35 (Fall

1987), pp. 293-307. 27. C. Kirchml..j'er and A. Cohen, "Multicultural Groups: Thcir Performance and Reactions with Constructive ConAict," Group 6- Orgrmiultioll Man agnl1em 17 ( 1992), pp. 153-70, and C. Kirchmeyer, "Multicultural Task Groups: An Account or the Low Contribution Level or Minorities," 5ma/l Group Researcb 24 (February 1993), pp. 127-48. 28 . Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences:' 29.

Nina M. Reich and Julia T. Wood , "Sex, Gender and Communication in Small G roups," in Small Group Com municmion: 71)(0,] and Practice, 8th ed., cds. Randy Y. Hirokawa , Robert S. Cathcart, L'lrry A. Samovar, and Linda D. Henman (Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2003), pp. 218-29.

30.

Andrew J. Flanagin, Vanessa Tiyaamorn wong, Joan O 'Con nor, and David R. Seibold, "Computer-Mediated Group Work: The Interaction of Member Sex and Ano nymi ty," Communication Research 29 (February 2002), pp. 66-93 .

31.

Lindsey M. Grob, Renee A. Meyers. and Renee Schuh , " Powerful/Powerless Language Use in G roup Interactions: Sex Differences or Sim ilariti es?" Commill/iention Quarurly 45, no. 3 (S ummer

1997), pp. 282-303.

1995), pp. 20-38. 21.

R-7

32. Jeff Youngquist, "The Effect of Interruptions and Dyad Gender Combination on Perceptions of Interperso nal Dominance," Commlmication Smdies

60 (2009), pp. 147-63. 33. Amy E. Randel and Kimberly S. Jaussi, "Gen de r Social and Persona l Ide ntity, Sex Dissi mi larity, Relat ion ship Co nfli ct, and Assymerrical Effects," Small Group Research 39 (2008),

pp. 468-9 \. 34.

Pri ya Raghubir and Ana Valenzuela , "MalcFemale Dynam ics in Groups: A Field Study or The

R-8

REFERENCES Wt"l1km Link," Small Group Rt"ul1rch 41 (20 I0), pp.41-70.

2.

Susan Jarboe, "Group Communication and Cte· ativity Processes," in Tlu Handbook of Group Com· muniCdtiOll Throry 6- R~S~drch, cd. Lawrence R. Frey (Thousand O,ks, CA S'ge, 1999). p. 336.

3.

David F. Caldwell and Charles A. O ' Reilly, III, ''The Determinants ofTeam·Based Innovalions in Organi1.'lIions: The Role ofSociall nAuence," Small Grollp Rtuarch 34 (August 2003), pp. 497-5 17.

37. This information is taken primarily from Rick Hicks and Kathy Hi cks, Boomt"rJ. Xt"rJ, nnd Otlur 5rrangrrs: Undrrstl1nding rhl" Guurtlliomzl Diffirmcn Thm Di"jdt" Us (WheatOn , I L: TyndaJc House, 1999)' especially pp. 229-35 3.

4.

Paul G. Bain, Leon Mann, and Andrew PirolaMerlo, ~Th e Innovation Imper
Other sources of information include Jeff Feiertag an d Zane L. Berge . "Training Gene ra· tion N: How Educators Should Approach the Net Generation," i:.aucarion 6- Training, 50 (2008). pp. 457-464; Therese Kattner. "Best Practices for Working with Millennial Stu· dents, " Srudmt AJfoin L~ad~r, 37 (2009), p. 5; Lynne C. Lancasler and David St illman, \YIhm Gmnalions Collidt: Who Thry Arr, Why Thry Clash, alld How to Solv~ th~ G(1l(rariollal Puzzlr at Work. (New York: Collins Business, 2002); and Bruce T ulgan, Not Evayonr Gm a Trophy: How to Managr G(1l(rarion Y. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey·Bass, 2009).

5.

Bernard A. Nijstad and Paul B. Paulus, "GrollI' Creativity: Co mmon Themes and Future Direc· tions," in Group Crrativiry: I"novation through Collaboration, cds. Paul B. Paulus and Bernard A. Nijstad (New York: Oxford University Press,

35. Grab, Meyers, and Schuh, "Powerful/Powerless Language u~.

36. Scon A. Krebs. Elizabeth V. Hobman, and Prasham Bordia, "Vinual Teams and G rollp Member Diversity," Small Group R(uarch 37, no. 6 (December 2006), pp. 72 1-41.

38.

39.

Franklin B. Krohn, "A Genemional Approach to Using EmOlicons as Nonverbal Communicat ion, jounJalofTre/mical Writing and Communication 34, no. 4 (2004), pp. 321-2B.

2003), pp. 326--39. 6.

John J. Sosik, Bruce J. Avolio, and Surinder S. Kahai, " Inspiring Group Creativity: Comparing Anonymous and Identified Electronic BrainslOnning," Small Group Rmarch 29 ( 1998), pp. 3-31.

7.

Nijstad and Paulus, "Group Creativity, " p. 330.

8.

Jarboe, "Group Comm unication and Creat ivilY Processes, pp. 336--41.

9. 10.

Antonio C hirumbolo , Lucia Manneni , Antonio Pierro, Alessand ra Aren i, and Arie W. Kruglanski, "Mo tivated C losed·Mindedness and Creativity in Small Groups," Small Group Rtstarch 36 (February 2005), pp. 59-B2.

11.

Asako Miura and Misao Hida, "Synergy Berween Diversity and Similarity in Small Group Idea· Generalion," Small Group Rrstdrch 35 (OClo~r

SleUa Ting.Toomey, Communicating Across Culrum (New York: Guilford Press, 1999),

pp. 45-54, 26 1-76. 40.

41.

42.

Ernest G. Bormann, "Symbolic Convergence Theory and Communication in Group Decision Making," in Communicarion and Group D«is;on Making, 2nd ro., cds. Randy Y. Hirokawa and M. Scon Poole (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), pp. BI- 11 3. Catherine Cobb Morocco, "Developmelll and Funcdon of Group Metaphor," jounJdl for th~ Tluory ofSocial Brhavior 9 (1979), pp. 15-27. Bormann, "Symbolic Convergence," pp. 229-30. References, page R·8

2004), pp. 540-564. 12. AJex Osborn, Applird Imagination, rev. ed. (New York: Scribner, 1957). 13.

Vicky Putnam and Paul Paulus, "Brainslorming, Brainstorming Rules and Decision Making,"jour. nal orCrt'fltiv~ Brluwior 43 (2009), pp. 23-39.

14.

M. Basadur and R. Thompso n, "Usefulness of the Ideat io n Principle of Extended Efron in Real World Professional and Managerial Problem Solving," journal ofCrf'ative Behavior 20 ( 1982),

Chapter 6 I.

Su nwolf, "Gwing 10 'GroupAha!' Provoking Creative Processes in Task Groups," in Thr /-Imld· book of Group Communicarion Throry 6- RrsMrch, ed. Lawrence R. Frc..")' (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,

1999), p. 205.

Nijslad and Paulus, "Group Creativity,"

pp. 326--32.

pp.23- 34. 15.

Putnam and Paulus, "Brainstorming," pp. 23-39.

16.

Chirumbolo et

aJ., "Motivated C loscd· Mindedness."

R-9

References

17.

Hamit Coskun, "Cognitive Srimulation with Convergent and Divergent Thinking Exercises in Brainwriting: In cubation, Sequence Priming, and Group Context," Small Group ReSl'arrh 36 (August

18.

Ch irumbolo et aI., "Motivated

19.

R. Brent Gallupe, Alan R. Dennis, William H. Cooper, Joseph S. Valacich, Lame M. Bastianum, and Jay F. Nunamaker, Jr., "Electronic Brain ~ storm ing and Group Size," Academy ofMfl!wge~ mmtjounwl35 Uune 1992}.pp. 350-70. See also Joseph S. Valacich, Alan R. Den nis, and T. Connolly, " Idea Generation in Compuler~ Based Groups: A New Ending to an Old Story," Organizational Bt'havior and Human Dt'cision J>rousus 57 ( 1994), pp. 448-68.

28.

Columbia Accide m Investigalion websi te, "Columbia Accident Investigation Board Press Briefing," August 26, 2003, accessed (aga in) on February 7, 201 \, http://caib.nasa.gov!events! press_briefings!20030826!default.html.

29.

Marcia Dunn , "NASA Ch iefs: Managers Must Embrace Change," Yahoo! News, accessed (again) on February 7, 20 II, http://www.redorbir.com/ news/space/54411/nasa_chiefs_ma nage rs_mus c embrace_change!index.html.

30.

Dennis S. Gouran, Randy Y. Hirakawa, and Amy E. Mam, "A Critical Anal}'5is of Factors Related to De~ cisional Processes Involved in the Chalkngn' Disaster," CmtTIII SWl'1 Spuch journal 37 (1986), pp. 119-35.

2005), pp. 466-98.

20.

C\osed~Mindedness."

Russell L Ackoff and Elsa Vergara, "Creativity in Problem Solving and Planning," in Handbook for Creative and flU/oMtive Managers, ed. Robert L Kuhn (New York: McGraw~Hill, 1988),

31 . Chirumbolo et al., "Morivated

Closed ~ Mindedness. "

32.

Brashers el aI., "Argumemation and Computer~ Mediated G roup Decision~Making."

33.

Sarah J. Tracy, "When Questioning Turns to Face Threat: An Interactional Sensidviry in 9 11 Call Taking," Wt'surlljourllalofCommlwication 66,

pp. 77-90.

pp. 129-57. 21. Accessed (again) on February 7, 201 I, http://www . ideafi nder .com/h istory!in ven tions! velcro. h tm.

34.

Richard Huseman, Glenn Ware, and Charles Gruner, "Critical Thinking, ReAective T hinki ng, and Ihe Ability to Organize Ideas: A Multivariate Approach," journal oflhe Amn'iCflll Forensic Associmiofl 9 (J 972)' pp. 261~65.

35.

Tomen Reimer, Sascha Kuendig, Ulrich Hoffrage, Ernest Park, and Verlin Hinz, "Effects of [he Information Environmem on Group Discussions and Decisions in [he H idden-Profi le Paradigm, " Communicmiofl Monographs 74, no. I (March

22.

Del Jones, "GE Leader Recalls 'Eureka' Moment: Being No.1 Was Limiting Opportunity," Tilt' Cincinnati Enquirer, April 8, 2001, pp. 01 -2.

23.

See Tony Bll7..1n with Barry Bmall, Tlu Mind Map fj) Book (New York: Plume, 1996), for a de~ tailed description of the process with exam ples and information about the theoret ical underpinnings of mind mapping.

24.

Sunwolf, "Ge tting

25.

R. L Fireslein , "Effects of Creative P roblem~ Solvi ng Training on Comm unication Behaviors in Small Groups," Small Group Research 21 (1990),

36.

pp.507-2 1.

37. Tyrone Adams and Norman Clark, The Internet: tjfrctil/t' On/int' Communication (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), pp. 166-75.

26.

27.

to

2007). PI'. 1-28.

'G roupAha!,'" p. 209.

M. Neill3rowne and Sruan M. Keeley, Asking th~ Right Qllmions: A Guide to Critical Thinking, 3 rd cd. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prcmice~ Hall , 1992), pp. 3~5.

For a clear review of these issues, see Dale E. Brashers, Mark Adkins, and Renee A. Meyers, "Argumentation and Computer-Med iated Group Decis i on~Mak in g,'" in Grollp Com~ mUflication in Context, cd. Lawrence R. Frey (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994),

38.

Ib;d., PI'. 3-7.

39.

Brashers et aI., "Argumentation and Compu[e r~ Mediated Group Decision~Making;' pp. 263-82.

PI'. 263-82.

40.

Gou ran e[ aI., "A Critical Analysis of Factors Relatcd to Decisional Processes Involved in the Challmger Disaster," p. 130.

D. Christopher Kayes, "From Climbing Stairs 10 Riding Waves," Small Group Rm:arch 37 ( Decem ~ ber 2006), pp. 6 12-30, and D. Christopher Kayes, "D ilemma at 29,000 feet: An Exercise in Ethical Decision Making Based on the 1996 Me Everest Disaster," journal ofManagemmt EduClllioll 26

(2002), PI'. 307-21.

4 1. Mark F. Stasson and Scon D. Bradshaw, "Exp lanations of I ndividual~Group Perfo rmance Differences: What Son of'Bonus' Can Be Gained through Group Interaction?" Small Group Research 26 (M,y 1995). PI'. 296-308.

REFERENCES

R· l0

42.

Richard Paul and Linda Elder, Th~ Thill/uri Gltjd~ fO Fallacies: The Art ofMmffll Trickery and Manipulation (Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Crit ical Th inking, 2004) .

43.

For a morc detailed descri ption of and source for these GSS tools and their potential impact on group critical thinking, sec Brashers et aJ., "A rgumcnt:uion and Computcr~Mcdiated G roup Decision-Making."

44.

52.

Markus Brauer. Charles M. Judd, and Vincenr Jacquelin, "The Com munication of Social S[ereorypcs: The EffeCls of Group Discussion and Information Distri bution on Stereorypic Appraisals," jouTllll1 of Pmonl1lity a1ld Socilll Psychology 8 1, no. 3 (2001), pp. 463-75.

53 .

R. Spears and M. Leah, "Panacea or Panopli co n ~ The Hidden Power in Computer-Mediated Communi cation ," Com mllfliClitiofi Research 21 (1994), pp.427-59.

Daniel C. Vock and Pauline Vu, "Va. Tech Tragedy Revives Gu n Controversy, " accessed (again) on December 22, 20 I 0: hnp:llwww.statdinc.orgllive/ dctaiislswry?comendd= 199281; and Whitney

Hodgin, "Concealed-Carry Controversy Ongoing

Chapter 7

I.

Jay Hall. "Decisions, Decisions, Decisions," Psychology TotMJ (November 1971), pp, 5 1-54, 86-87; Jay Hall and W. H. Watson, "The Effects of a Normative Imervcnrion on Decision-Making Performance," Humal1 Relations 23 ( 1970), pp. 299-3 17; Irving L. Janis, Grouptbink: P)"ycholngiml Studies o/Policy DecisiollS and Fiascoes. 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mimin, 1982); R..1.ndy Y. Hirokawa , "Consensus Group Decision-Making, Quality of Decision and Group Satisf.1ction: An Attempt to Son Fact from Fiction," CmfTl1l StaIn Speech jourmil 33 (1982), pp. 407- 15; Lester Coch and J. R. P. French, Jr., "Overcoming Resistance to Change," Humil1l Relations 1 ( 1948), pp. 512-32; and Myron W. Block and L. R. Hoffman , "The Effects of Valence of Solutions and GrollI' Cohesiveness on Members' Commitment to Group Decisions," in Tbe Group Problnll-So//JI'llg Process, ed. L. Richard Hoffman (New York: Praeger. 1979). p. 121.

2.

Kath leen M. Propp, " [n Search of [he Assembly Bonus Effect: Co millued Exploration of Cammunication's Role in Group M emory ," Humlln Communimtiofl Reuarch 29, no. 4 (2003).

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December 22,2010: htrp:llwww.ksr:lrccollcgian. com/2.2506/concealed-carry-controversy-ongoingafter-vHech-shoorings-I.224273. 45.

D. Cole, "Meerings That Make Sense," Psychology

46.

David Henningsen, Mary Lynn Miller Henn ingsen, Jenifer Eden, and Michael Cruz, "Examining the Symptoms of Group think and Relrospt'Ctive Scnsemaking," Smail Group R~setlrch 37 (2006),

47.

Brian Mullen, Tara Anthon)·, Eduardo Sa las, and James E. Driskell , "Group Cohesiveness and Qualiry of Decision M aking: An Integration of the Groupthink Hypothesis," Small Group R~sl'l1rch 25 (M,y 1994), pp. 189-204.

48.

Irving L. Janis and Leon Mann, Decision Makillg: A Psychological Arll11pis ofConflict, Choice, tluti Commitmrllt (New York: Free Press, 1977).

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pp.36-<54.

49.

Lucia Savadori. Lyn M. Van Swol. and Janel A. SniC7.ck, "Information Sampling and Confidence within Groups and Judge Advisor Systems," Communication Rl'Srarch 28 (December 200 I). PI" 737-7 1; Michael G. Cmzand David D. Henningsen , "'nle Presence of Norms in lhe Absence of Groups?" Htmul1I CommlmiclIlion Rrsrarch 26 Uanuary 2000), pp. 104-24; Mark Schietlekane and Alain Van Nid, "Effects of Partially Shared Information and Awareness of Unshared Inform:nion on Information Sampling," Smllll Grollp ResflJrch 25 (May 1994), pp. 189-204.

pp. 600- 606. 3.

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Charles Pavitt and Kelly Kline Johnson, "An Examination of th e Coheren ce of Group Discussions," Commullimtioll Resellrch 26 Uune 1999),

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Vicky Putnam and Paul Paulus, "Brainstorming, Brainsto rming Rules and Decision Making," journalo[Cwuive Behavior 43 (2009). pp. 23- 39.

6.

H irokawa, "Consensus Group Decision-Making,'" pp. 407-15; Hirokawa, "Why Informed Groups Make Faulry Decisions: An Invesdgation ofPossible Inter.lction-[hscd Explana(ions," Small Group

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50. Janis and Mann, Decision MIlking. 5 1.

C harles R. Franz and K. Gregory Jin , "The Structure of Group Co nflict in a Collaborati ve Work Group During I nformuion Systems Development, " journal ofApplied Commtmimtion R~search

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of rhe Functional Perspective," paper preseored at the annual convention of the Speech Communication Association, Boston, 1987; Randy Y. Hirakawa and Kathryn M. Rosr. "Effecrive Group Decision Making in Organizations: Field Test of the Vigilant Interact ion Theory, " paper presented at the annual convcmion of the Speech Communication Associarion. Atlanta, 1991.

BeJ)lwior 18 (1987), pp. 3-29; and Hi rokawa. "Discussion Procedures and Decision-Making Performance: A Test of the Functional Perspective," Human CommuniCflfir)rl Remlrch 12 ( 1985). 1'1'.203-24. 7.

K.lrcn Tracy and Heidi Mueller, "Diagnosing a School Board 's Interactional Trouble: Theorizing Problem Orientation," CommuniCiltion TJ)(ory 11 (200 1), Pl'. 84- 104. Carl E. L1rson and Frank M.

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David Dryden H enni ngsen and Mary Lynn Miller Henningsen . "Examining Social InAlIcnce in Information-Sharing Co ntexts ," Small Croup Rnearch 34 (August 2003), pp. 391-412.

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17.

Elizabeth E. Graham, Michael). Papa, and Mary B. McPherson, "An Applied Test of the Functional Comm unication Perspective of Small Group Decision Making," Southern Communication jour11111 62 (Summer 1997). pp. 269-79.

18.

Among these stud ies were John K. Brilhart and Lurcnc M. Jochem , "Effects of Differem Pattcrns on Outcomes of Problem-Solving Discussion," journal ofApplied Psychology 48 (1964), pp. 175-79; Ovid L. Bayless, "An Alternative Model for Problem Solving Discussion," journal o/Commllnication 17 (1967), pp. 188-97; Carl E. Larson, "Forms of Analysis and SmaH Group Problem Solving," Speech Monographs 36 (i 969). pp. 452-55 ; and Hirokawa , "Discussion Procedures and Decision-Making Performance."

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Benjamin J. Broome and Luann Fulbright, "A MuhiSiage InAuence Model of Barriers to Group Problem Solving: A Participant-Genera red Agenda for Small Group Research," Small Group Research 26 (Feb",,,!, 1995), Pl'. 25-55.

J. LaFaslO, TeamWork: Whllt MllJt Go Rifht. What Clln Go Wrong (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989)' Pl'. 27-38.

8.

For example, see Randy Hirokawa, "Group Communication and Problem So lving ElTccriveness: An Invcstigation of Group Phases," f/l0nall CommuniCiltion Resl'flrch 9 ( 1983), pp. 291 - 305.

11. John E. Dewey, Ilow WI' 71Jillk (Boston: D.C. Heath, 19! 0). 12.

This research is synthesizcd in Dennis S. Goman and Randy Y. H irakawa, "Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups," in Small Group Communication: Theory and Practice, 8th cd., eels. Randy Y. Hirokawa , Robert S. C'uhClrt , L1rry A. Samovar, and Linda D. Henman (Los An geles: Roxbury, 2003) , pp. 27- 38.

R-ll

20. Joseph A. Bonito, "An Information-Processing Approach to Participation in Small Groups," Comfmmimtion RI'lMrch 28 (June 2001), pp. 275-303; Michael G. Cruz, Franklin J. Boster, and Jose 1. RodriquC".£, "The ImpacI of Group Size and Proporrion of Shared Information on the Exchange and Int egra tion of Information in Groups," Com11/uniauiOIl R~st'flTch 27 Qu ne 1997), pp. 291-3 13.

13.

Lucia Savadori, Lun M. Van Swot, and Janet A. SniC".£ek, " Information Sampling and Confidence Within Groups and Judge Advisor S}'5tems," Commun;cari{1f/ Research 28 (2001), pp. 737-7 1; Michael G. Cruz and David Dryden Henningsen. "The Presence of Norms in the Absence of Groups?" Human Commun;mtion Rmorch 26 (2000), pp. 104--24.

21.

14.

Susan Jarboe, "Procedures fo r Enhancing Group Decision Making, " in Commullimtion tlnd Group Decision Making. 2nd cd., eds. Randy Y. Hirokawa and Marshall Scott Poole (Thollsa nd Oaks, CA: S"g', 1996), Pl'. 345-83.

Charles Pavitt and Lindsey Aloia , "Factors Affect ing rhe Relat ive Proponion of Reason and Preference Statements during Problem-Solving Group Discussion," CommulliCfltion Reuarch Rl'ports 26 (November, 2009), pp. 259-270 .

22.

Ib id.

23.

Michael E. Mayer, Kevin T. Sonoda, and William B. Gudykun.n, "The Effect of Time Pressures and Type oflnfornmion on Decision Qualiry," Southern Communication jormuI162 (Su mmer 1997), 1'1'.280- 92.

24.

For example, see Sid ney J. Parnes, "Effects of Exrended ElTon in Creadve Problem Solving," jotmlld oj Educational Psychology 52 (1961), Pl'. 117-22.

15.

16.

Marshall S. Poole. "Decision Devclopmem in Small Grou ps I I: A Study of Multip[e Sequences in Decision Making," Communication Monogrllphs 50 (1983), pp. 224-2 5, and " Decision Development in Small Groups Ill: A Multip[e Sequence Model of Group Decision Development," Communication Monogmphs 50 (1983), pp. 321-41. Randy Y. Hirakawa , "Group Communication and Decision-Making Performance: A Continued Test

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25.

26.

Paviu and Aloia, " Factors Affecting the Relat ive Proportio n," pp. 259-270.

Renee Meyers, David Seibold, and Dale Brash~ ers, "Argument in Initial Group Decision-Making Discussions: Refinement of a Coding Scheme and a Descriptive Quantitative Analysis," Wn"Um Journal of Spuch COTmnut/;CIltion 55 (Winter J 991), pp. 47-68.

27.

28.

39.

24 (Aug"" 1993). pp. 307-33. 40.

lzak Benbasm and Lai- Huat Lim, "The Effects of Group, Task, Conrex t, and T echnology Variables on the Usefu lness of Group Support Systems: A Meta-Analysis of Experim ental Studies," 51111111 Grollp Resellrch 24 (November 1993)' pp. 430-62.

41.

Craig R. SCOtt, "The Impact of Physical and Discursive AnonymiTY on Group Members' Multiple Identifications du ri ng Computer~Supported Decision Making," W't'JIenljolmJlllo/Communication 63 (Fall 1999). pp. 456-87.

42.

Poppy Mcleod , "New Communication Technologies for Group Decisi on Making: T oward an lruegrative Framework," in Communication and Group Decision Milking, 2nd ed., cds. Randy Y. H irokawa and Marshall Scotr Poole (Thousand Oaks, CA:

Graham, Papa, and McPherson , "An Applied Test of the Functional Com munication Perspective of Small Group Decision Making. "

Randy Y. Hirakawa, John G. Oct"l.el, Grlos G. Aleman , and Scott E. Elston, "The Effects of Evallladon Clarity and Bias on the ReI:uionship Bcrween Vigilant In teraction and Group Decision-Maki ng

Efficacy," paper presented at the Speech Commun ication Association convention, November, 199 J.

29.

Mary Ann Renz, "Paving Consensus: Enacting, C hallenging, and Revising the Consensus Process in a Cohousing Comm unity," Jounlill ofAppli/'d Co m~ ntlluicmion R~s{'(lrch 34 (May 2006), PI'. 163-90.

30.

Sue Barnes and Leonore M. Gmeller, "Comptltcr~ Mediated Communication in the Organization," Com~ l111micatiOIl EdIlCiltion 43 (April 1994), PI'. 129-42.

3 1.

Anncltc C. Easton, Nancy S. Eickelmann, and Marie E. Flately, "Effects of an Electronic Meeting System Group Writing Tool on thc Quality of Wriuen Documellls," jOllnlal of BIISill f'SS Commllnication31 (1994), pp. 27-40.

32. Mathew Schwarn., "The Instant Messaging Debate," Compllurworld 36 Uanuary 2002), p. 40. 33.

Judith Pena-Shaff, Wendy Martin, and Geraldine Gay, "An Episremological Framework for Analyzing St udent Interactions in Compurer- Mediated Communication Environments," jOllnlal oflw f'maive Lt'Ilming Rt'St'llrch 12 (Spring 2001)' pp. 4 1-62.

34. Ibid. 35.

For a more detailed description of these support systems, see Joseph E. McG rath and Andrea B. Hollingshead, Groups Intemcting with Technology (Thousa nd Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994).

36.

Leonard M. Jessup and Joseph S. Valacich, cd s., Grollp Support Systems: New Paspecth,es (New York: Macmillan, 1993).

37.

38.

And rea B. Hollingshead, Joseph E. McGrach, and Kathleen M. O'Connor, '" Group Task Pe r~ forman ce and Communication Technology: A Longitudinal Study of Com puter-Mediated versus Face~to- Face Work Groups," Small Grollp Res~arch

Sage, 1996), pp. 426-61. 43.

Robert F. Bales, Inumction Process Allalysis (Reading, MA: Addiso n-Wesley, 1950); Donald G. Ellis and B. Aubrey Fisher, Smllll Group D~cision

Making: Commllllicatiolland the Group Procm, 4th ed. (New York: M cGraw- Hill, 1994); and Poole, "Decision Development in Small Groups II. " 44.

Ellis and Fisher, Smllll Group

D~cisio fl

Mtlking.

pp.144-57. 45.

Poole, "Decision Development in Small Groups II. "

46.

Rem, " Paving Consens us: Enacting, Challenging, and Revising the Consensus Process in a Cohousing Community."

47.

Ib;d.

48.

David R. Se ibold, <; Making Meetings More Successful: Plans, Formats, and Procedu res for Group Problem Solvi ng," in Small Grollp Commun;clltion: A Rellder. 5th cd ., cds. Robert S. Cathcart • and L1.rry A. Samovar (Dubuque. IA: Wm. C. Brown,

1988). pp. 219- 20. Chapter 8 1.

Joyce L. Hocke r and William W. WilmO(, Interpersonal Conflict, 3rd ed. ( Dubuque, IA: Wm. C.

2.

Enhancing Prodtutiviry;1I Nmvork~d OrgllniZlltiom

Ana Zornoz.." Pilar Ripoll , and Jose M. Peir6. "ConAict Management in G roups That Work in Two Different Communication Contexts: F ace~ ro-Face and Co mputer-Mediated Communication," Small Group Research 33 (October 2002).

(NC\v York: Van Nostrand Reinhold , 1992).

pp. 481-508.

Andrew Flanagin , Vanessa Tiyaa mornwong, Joan O'Connor, and David Seibold , "Com pute r~ Mediated G roup Work: The Interaction of Member Sex and Anonymity," CommllniCllt;on ReSt'llrch 29 ( February 2002), PI" 66-93. S. Opper and H. Fresko-Weiss, TechlloWgy for Tem"s:

Brown. 199 1). 1'.1 2.

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6.

Ib;d.

7.

Ib;d.

8.

Mary Ann Rem, "Paving Consensus: Enacting, Challenging, and Revising the Consensus Process in a Cohousing Community," foun/al ofApplied Commtmication Research 34 (May 2006), pp. 163-90.

9.

Rob Anderson and Veronica Ross, Qul'Stiom of

Communication: A Practical Introduction to Theory,

and Self-Construal ," Human Communication Resrarch 25, no. 2 (December 1998), pp. 202-24 . 18.

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II.

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12.

Myers and Larson , "Preparing Students for E., rly Work Conflict."

13.

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14.

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Mahmut Bayazit and Elizabeth A. Mannix, "Should I Stay or Should I Go~: Predicting T eam Members' Intent to Remai n in the Team ," Small Group Rl'search 34 (2003), pp. 290-321. Roger C. Pace, "Personalized and Depersonalized Confl ict in Small Group Discussions," Small Group Rl'seorch 2 1 (1990), pp. 79-96.

16. Jackie M. WelJen and Matth ew Neale, "Dev iance. Self-TypicaJity, and Group Cohesion: The Corrosi ve Effects of the Ba.d Apples on the Barrel," Smllil Group Rl'srarch 37 (April 2006), pp. 165-86. 17. John G. Detzel, "Explaining Individual Comm unica tion Processes in Homogenous and Heterogeneous Groups through Ind ividualism-Collectivism

Victor D. Wall, Jr. , and Linda Nolan, "Small G roup Conflict: A Look at Equity, Satisfactio n, and Styles of Conflict Management," Smail Group Behav;or 18 (1987), pp. 188- 211.

19. Elizabeth Hobman, Prashant Bordia, Bernd irmer, and Artem is Chang, "The Expression of Confli ct in Co mput er-Mediated and Face-w-Face G roups," Smail Group Rl'Uarch 33 (2002), pp. 439-65.

20.

Ib;d.

2 1.

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22 . Hobman et ai., "The Expression of Conflict in Com puter-Mediated and Face-to- Face Groups. "

23.

Ib;d.

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3rd ed. (Boston: Bedford/Sr. Martin 's, 2002), p. 53. 10.

R-13

27 . Kennelh T homas, "Con fli ct and Conflict Management," in Handbook of Industrial al/d OrgalliU1t;ollal Psychowgy, ed. Marvin Dunnene (Chicago : R'nd McN,lIy, 1976), pp. 890-934. 28.

Hal Witteman, "AnalYLing Interpersonal Conflict: Nature of Awareness, Type oflnitiating Event, Si tuational Perceptions, and Mana.gement Styles," Wl'Stern journal of Communication 56 (Su mmer 1992), pp. 248-80.

29 . Victor D. Wall and Linda L. Nolan, "Small Group Conflict: A Look al Equity, Satisfaction, and Styles of Conflict Management," Smali Group Behavior 18 (1987), pp. 188-21 1. 30.

Renee Meyers and Dale Brashers, " lnAuence Processes in Group Inter.J.ction," The Halldbook ofGroup Comm/mum;oll TINo,] and Rntarrh, ed. Lawrence Frey ~hOlL'\:l nd Oaks, 0\: Sage, 1999), pp. 288-3 12.

3 1.

Victor D. Wall, Gloria J. Galanes, and Susan B. Love, "Small Task-Oriented Groups: Conflict, Conflict Management, Satisfaction. and Decision Quality," S11UlO Group Bl'hav;or 18 (1987), pp. 31-55.

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Tim Kuhn and Marshall Scott Poole, " Do Con Aict Manage ment Styles Affect Group Decision Making?" Human Communication Rrs6lrcIJ 26 (OCtOber 2000). pp. 558-90.

33.

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46.

Lisa J . Gebha rt and Renee A. Meyers, "S ubgroup InAuence in D ecision- Making Groups: Examining Co nsistency fro m a Comm unication Perspecti ve, n Smllll Grollp Re5Mrch 26 (May 1995), pp. 147-68.

47.

Dale Br.l.Shers and Renee Meyers, "Tag-T eam Argument and Grou p Decision Making: A Preliminary Investigation," Sph~5 0/Argument: Proceedingr o/Ihe

ing Com munity."

34 . Michael A. Gross. Laura K. Guerrero. and Jess K. AlbertS, " Perceptions ofConflicl Strategies :lnd Communica tion Co mpetence in Task-Orient ed Dyads," Journal ofApplied Communication Rrunrch 32 (A ugust 2004), pp. 249-70.

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35.

Ib;d.

48 . Gebhart and Meyers, "S ubgroup InAuence."

36.

Min-S un Kim and Truman Leung, "A Multicultural View of Confli ct Management Styles: Review and C ritical Synthesis," Commllflimtioll YMrbook 23, ed . Michael E. Roloff (Thousa nd Oaks, C A: Sage. 2000). pp. 227-69 .

49. James B. Thomas, Reuben R. McDan iel, Jr. , and Michael J. Dooris, "S trategic Issue Ana lysis: NGT and Decision Analysis for Resolving St rategic Issues, n jOllrllll1 0/Appli~d Behfll,ioral Scimu 25 (M,y 1989). PI'. 189- 20 I.

37. Judith Marlin and Thomas K. N akayama , E-.:peri-

50.

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39.

John G. OCr'"lel, "Explaining Individual Co mmunication Processes in Ho mogenous and Heterogeneo us C roups through Individ ualis01Collectivism and Sel f-Construal." G ross et aI. , " Perceptions ofConAict St ra tegies and Communicat ion Competence in Task-OricllIed Dyads."

Roger Fisher and William Ury, Cming to Yes: Negotitlting Agretment without Giving In (N ew York: Pengui n Books, 1983) .

Chapter 9 1.

Mich:lel Z. Hackman and Craig E. Johnson ,

&ndership: A Commlwimtion Perspt'CtiVl', 2nd ed. (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1996), p. 14.

2.

Gary Yuki , Lradership ill OrgalliZlltions, 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River. NJ: Prentice-Hall , 2002). John R. P. French and Bertram Rave n, "The Bases of Social Powe r," in Group Dynamics: Research Imd Tht'Ory, 3rd cd., cds. Dorwin Camvright and Alvin Zander ( New York: Harper & Row, 1968), PI" 259-G9.

40.

Arie W. Kruglanski and Donna M. Webster, "Group Members' Reactions to Opinion Deviates and Co nrormiStS at Varying Degrees orProximiry to Decision Deadline and of Environmental Noise," jOllrnal ofPersouality and Social PsycholofJ 61 ( 1991 ), PI" 2 12-26.

3.

41.

Renz, "P:lvi ng Consensus: Enacting, C hallenging, and Revising the Consensus Process in ;1 Cohousing Communiry."

5.

4. Yuki , Leadrrship in OrgtJlliZilfions.

s. M. KetTow, " Nonve rbal Aspects ofCrollp Communication," in TIl( Halldhook ofGrollp Commllnicmioll (1ml Resrarch, cds. Lawrence R. Frey, Den nis S. Couran. and Marshall Scott Poole • (Thousand Oaks , C A: Sage, 1999), pp. 251 - 87 .

42.

Stella Ting-Toomey, Commullication AcrO$l Cullum (New York: Guilford Press, 1999).

43.

Ib;d.

6.

Yuki , Leadership in OrgfwiZilliorls.

44.

Steven M . Alderton and Lawren ce Frey, "Argulllentation in Small Group Dec isio n Makin g," in Communication and Group Decision Making, ed s. Randy H irokawa and Marshall SCO tt Pool e (Beve rly H ills, CA: Sage, 1986), pp. 157-73.

7.

Michael W. Kramer, "Shared leadership ill a Commun iry Th eater G roup: Filling the Leadershi p Rol e," journal 0/Applied Communication ReSt'arch 34 (May 2006). PI'. 141 -G2 .

8.

Ernest G. Bormann , DisCIIssion and Grollp Th~o'y(J!1d Praaiu. 2nd cd. (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), pp. 253-69, and John C. Geier, "A Trair Approach to [he Study of Leadership in Small Groups," journal ofCommtmiCfltioll 17 ( 1967). PI" 3 16-23.

45.

Rick Garl ick and Paul A. Mongeau, "Argument Quality and Group Member Status as Determinants of Alli nldinal Minority InAuence," W'ntt'nljollnllll o/Commu"imtion 57 (Summer 1993), pp. 289-308.

Methods:

References

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Katherine W. Hawkins, "EffcCls of Gender and Communication Cont ent on Leadership Emergence in Small Task-Oriented Grou ps," Small Group RtWlrch 26 (May 1995), pp. 234-49.

10. Scott D. Johnson and C urt Bechler, "Examining the Relationship benveen Listening Effectiveness and Leadership Emergence, ~ Small Group Research

17.

M. Sean Limon and Betty H . La France, "Communicalion Traits and Leadership Emergence: Examining the Impact of Argumentadveness, Communication Apprehension, and Verbal Aggressiveness in Work Groups," Southern CommullimtiofT jOlmwl 70 (Winter 200 5), pp. 123-33.

18.

Ralph M. Srogdill , Carrol L Shanle, Willis L. Scon, Alvin E. Coons, and William E. Ja)'nes, A

29 (A uguSl 1998), pp. 452-71. II.

( ~983),

13.

(Columbus: Th e Ohio Stale University, Bureau of Business Research, 1956); Ralph M. Stogdill and Alvin E. Coo ns, eds., Leader Behavior: lu Dncriplion and MellSllremmt (Columbus: The Ohio State Universi ty. Bureau of Business Research, 1957); and Robert Blake and Jan e Mouton, Tlu MmUlgerial Grid (Houston : Gulf, 1964).

Pl'. 678-85;

Robert J. Ellis and Sleven F. C ronshaw, "Sel fMonitOring and Leader Emergence: A Test of ModeratOr Effects," Smidt Group Research 23 (February 1992), PI" 11 3-29; and Steven 1"=. Cronshaw and Robert J. Ellis, "A Process Investigation of Self-Mon itoring and Leadership Emergence." Small Group Rewlrch 22 (September 1991), PI" 403-20. 12.

Predictive 5wdy ofAdministrative Work Pmu YIIs

David A. Kenny and Steven J. Zaccaro, "An Estimate of Variance Due to Traits in Leadership,"

journal ofApplied Prychowgy 68

Simon T aggar and Rick Hackett, "Leadership Emergence in Autonomous \'(Iork T eams : Anrecedellls and Outcomes," Pasollllel Psychology 52 (Winter 1999), PI" 899- 926. Robert S. Rubin, Lynn K. Banels, and William H. Bommer, "Are Le aders Smarter or Do They JUSI Seem That Way? Exploring Perceived Inrel lecmal Competence and Leadersh ip Emergence," Sodal Beblwior 6- Pmollality 30, no. 2 (200 2), pp. 105-18; Simon Taggar and Rick Hackett, "Leadership Emergence in Autonomous \'(Iork Teams: AruccedelHs and Omcomes," Personnel Psychology 52 (Wi nter 1999), pp. 899-926; Robert G. Lord. C hrisry L deVader, and George M. Alliger, "A Mera-Anal ys i~ the Relation Bcnveen Personali ry Traits and I.cadership Perceptio ns: An Appli c.1.tion ofValidiry Generalization Proced ures," joumal ofApplied Psychology 7 1 (A ugust 1986),

19. 20 .

Ibid., p. 27 .

2 1.

Kramer, "S h:l red Leadership."

22. John Gastil, "A Meta-Analytic Review o f the Prodllcrivity and Satisfaction of Democra tic and Autocratic Leadership, " Small Group Rf"search 25 (August 1994), pp. 384-410, and John Gastil, Drmocrtlcy ill Small Groups (Philadelphia : New Soder), Publ ishers, 1993). 23 . Yuki , L{'(ldf'rship in O':galliZlltions.

24 . Ib;d . 25.

William C. Schutz, "The Leader as Completer," in Small Crollp Commllllicmion: A Rf"IlLirr, 3rd cd., eds. Robert S. Carhcart and LITT)' A. Samovar (Dubuque, IA: \'(1m C. Brow n, 1979), pp. 454--60.

26.

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27.

Fred Fiedler, A Theory ofLttldmhip I:.jJmilltl/(SJ (New York: McCraw-I IiI], 1967).

28.

Paul H ersey and Kennet h II. Blanchard, MlUlflgemel/l o[Orgtl11iZlltio1lld Behavior, 4th ed.

pp. 402-IO. Amy B. GershenofTand Roseanne J. t-:ot i, " Leader Em ergence and Gender Roles in All -Female Groups: A Critical Exam ination ," Small Grollp Research 34 (April 2003), PI'. 170-96.

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall , 1982). 29.

15. Judith A. Kolb, "Are We Still Stereotyping Lead ~ ership? A Look at Gender and Olher Predictots of Leader Emergence," Snlltll Group Resellrch 28

(Augu", 1997), pp. 370- 93. 16.

Susan B. Sh imanoff and Mercilee M. Jenkins, " Leadership and Gender: Challenging Assumptio ns and Recognizing Resources, " in Small Group Communication: Theory and Practice. 8t h cd., cds. Randy Y. Hirokawa. Roben S. Cathcart, Larry A. Samova r. and Linda Henman (Los Angeles: Roxbu ry, 2003)' PI" 184- 98.

Hackman and Johnson, Lel/dership: A Communica-

tion Pf"rspf"clive.

or

14.

R-15

Roben P. Vecchio, R. Craig Bullis, and Donna M. Brazi l, "The Utili ty ofSiwatianal Leadership

Theory: A Replication in:l Military Setting," Small Group Researcb 37 (O ctober 2006), pp. 407- 24.

30.

Ib;d .

3 1.

GloriaJ . Galanes, " In Their Own \'(lords: An Exploratory Study of Bona Fide Group Leaders," SmaLL Grollp RfSflm:lJ 34 (December 2003), PI'. 74 1- 70.

32.

Pefer Gronn, " Distribut ed Leadership as a Unit of Analysis," Leadership Qllflrferly 13 (2002),

pp.423- 52.

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R-16

A Report on the Role of Oral Communication in the Workplace." Communication Education 52

33. ). Kevin Barge, "Leadership as Medium: A Leaderless Group Discussion Model," Communication Quam"! 37 (Fall 1989). pp. 237-47. 34.

David Collinson. "Dialectics of Leadership, " Human Relations 58 (2005), pp. 14 19-1442, and Gloria). Galanes, " Dialectical Tensions of Small Group Leadership," Communication Studits60

U.nu.,), 2003). pp. 2.

Cindy Griffin, Invitation to Public SfNaking (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadswonh, 20(4), chap. 5.

3.

Dan O'Hair, Rob Stewarr, and Hannah Rulx:nstein, A Sptakn-s Guidtbook: T~t and Rtftrmu (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2004), chap. 6.

4.

Darling and Daniels, "Practicing Engineers Talk, " p.13.

5.

Ib;d. p. 13.

(2009). pp. 409-425. 3S.

Kenwyn Smith and David Berg, "A Paradoxical Conceptualization of Group Life," Human

R,lations 40 (! 987). pp. 633-658.

36. Gal::mes, "Dialectical Tensions of Small Group." 37. This information is synthesized from Frank LaFasto and Carl Larson, Whtn T(tnnJ Work Brst: 6000 Tram M(mbm and L(aders T(I/ What It TaJw to Succud(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), and GloriaJ. Galancs, "In Their o.vn Words: An Exploratory Study of Bona Fide Group Leaders," Smnll Group Rnrarch 34 (December 2003), pp. 741-70. 38. Galanes, "Dialectical Tensions in Small Group." 39. Collinson, " Dialectics of Leadership." 40.

Much of the following information is disclissed in detail in John K. Brilhan and Gloria J. Galanes, Ejficrivr Group Discussion, Sth ed. (Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark, 1995), pp. 177-202.

6.

Ib;d .• p. 88.

7.

Ib;d .• pp. 96-99.

8.

Cindy Griffin, invitation to Public Sp(aking (Boston,

MA W,ruwonh. 2009). pp. 103- 105. 9.

Katherine W. Hawkins, "Effects of Gender and Communication Content on Leadership Emergence in Small Task-Oriented Groups," Small Grollp Rmarch 26 (May 1995), pp. 234-49.

43. Ca rl Larson and Frank M. J. LaFasro, Tram Work: What Must Co Right/What Can Co Wrong (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989), pp. 27-33. 44.

Kramer, "Shared Leadership."

45.

Dong L. lung and John J. Sosik, "Transformational Leadership in Work Groups: The Role of Empowerment, Cohesiveness, and Collective~ Efficacy on Perceived Group Performance," SmilIJ Group Rruarch 33 Uune 2002), pp. 313-36.

46.

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47.

Hackman and Johnson, Lmdership: A CommlwiCll-

tion Prrsprctive. Chapter 10

I.

Ann L. Darling and Deanna P. Daniels, " Pracricing Engineers Talk Aboll[ (he Imporrancc ofTalk:

Ib;d.

10. George Kennedy (trans.), Aristotk. On Rhrtoric (New York: Oxford, 1991), p. lSI. II. Spectra IX (December 1973), n.p. 12. Jane Blankenship, A S(mr ofStylr (Belmont, CA: Dickenson, 1965), p. 12. 13.

Ib;d .. p. 41.

14.

Karyn Rybacki and Donald Rybacki, Communication Criticism: Approachrs and Ctnm (Belmont,

41. Galanes, "Dialectical Te nsions of Small Group." 42.

1-16.

CA: Wadsworth, 1991), p. 40. Appendix

I.

Stanley Seashore, Group Cohrsivtnm in tilt IndustriaL Work Croup (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Institute fo r Social Research, 1954).

2. Complete information on constructing a SYMLOG diagram, along with an abbreviated explanation of SYMLOG theory. may be found in a workbook, R. F. BaJes,SYMLOGCtlSrShldy Kil(New York: Free Press, 1980). An even more simplified explanation of SYMLOG theory and method for constructing a • diagram may be found in Joann Keyton. "Coding Communication in Decision-Making Groups, " in Managing Group Lift: Communicating in DreisionMaking Croups (Bosto n: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), pp. 236-69. For readers who are interested in de~ tails of both the theory and methodology, we refer them to R. F. Bales and Stephen P. Cohen, SYMLOC: A Systrm for the Mliitiple-Lrvr/ Obsrrvation of Croups (New York: Free Press, 1979). 3.

Dean C. Barnlund and Franklyn S. Haiman, Thr Dynamics of Discussion (Boston: Houghton Mifflin , 1960), pp. 401-4.

Bibliography

8 -1

Chapter 1

Chapte r 4

Galanes. Gloria J. , and Katherine Adams. l:.1frc/ivt Group Discussion, 13[ h ed. New York: McGraw-

Anderson, Carolyn N., Bruce L Riddle, and Matthew M. Marrin. "Socialization Processes in Groups." In

Hill,2010. LaFasto, Frank, and Carl Larso n. \Vhm Tfflms \Vork

Bm: 6,000 Ttllm Mnnbus lind Ll!Ildm Ttl! Whllt /0 Succad. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001. It Tllku

Chapter 2

Fisher, Aubrey, and Donald Ellis. S'l1Il11 Group Decision Making: CommllniClltion and the Group Process, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1994. Von Bertalanffy. Ludwig. Gl!furn/Sysums Theory: Foundlll/om, Dfvelopmmt, App/icar/om. New York: Braziller, 1968.

The Hllndbook ofGroup CommunicllliOfl Thl'ory 6RtJtflreh. ed . Lawrence R. Frey. Thousand Oaks, Ck Sage, 1999, pp. 139-66. Bormann , Ernest G. DisCIIssiolllllld Group Ml!Ihods: Theory lind PrIlctiu, 2nd cd. New York: Harper & Row, 1975, chaps. 8 and 9. Ellis, Donald G., and B. Aubrey Fishet. Small Group Dtcislon Making. 4dl cd. New York: McGraw-Hili, 1994, chaps. 5 and 8. Galanes, Gloria J., and Katherine Adams. effie/ivt Group DisCIIssion. 13th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 20 10, chaps. 5 and 6. Chapte r S

Chapter 3

Anderson, Peter A. "Nonverbal Communicarion in the Small Group." In Smllll Group Commllniclltion: A Rtllder, 6th cd., cds. Robert S. Cathcart and Larry A. Samovar. Dubuque. lA: Wm. C. Brown,

1992. pp. 272-86. Burgoon, Judee K. "Spat ial Relationships in Small Groups." In Small Group Communication: 7'1JMry 6Pmcfict, 7th cd., cds. Roben S. Cathca rt , Lmry A. Samovar, and Linda Henman. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark, 1996. pp. 24 1-53. C1lhcart, Raben S., Larry A. Samova r, and Linda Henman, eds. Small Group Communicalion: Thtory 6- PraCliet, 7t h ed. Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark, 1996, sections 5 and 6. Ellis, Donald G., and Aubrey B. Fisher. Smllll Group Decision Making, 4th cd. Ncw York: McGraw-Hill, 1994, chap. 4. Galanes, Gloria J.. and Kalherine Adams. Effictivt Group Discussion, 131h ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010, cha p. 2. Ketrow, Sandra. "Nonverbal Aspects of Group Commu nication ." In Tlu Handbook of Group Communication Theory 0- RI'Jellrch. cd. Lawrence R. Frey. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Sage, 1999. pp. 251-87. Stei l. Lyman K., and L1rry Barker. Egretivl' Listl'1ling: Kry to Your Sucws. Reading. MA: Addison- Wesley,

1983. Wat"zlawick, Paul ; Janet A. Beavin; and Don D. Jackson. 71)1' Pmgmmics ofHumllll Communication. New York: Norron, 1967.

Hecht, Michael L, Mary Jane Collier, and Sidney A. Ribeau. AfriCiln Americall CommUlIimllan: Elhllic Jdl'1llity Ilnd Cullurllllllll'rprttfltio!l. vol. 2. L1nguage and L1nguage Behaviors series. Newbury Park, CA.: Sage. 1993. especially chap. 3. Hicks. Rick, and Kalhy Hicks. Boomers, Xers, lind Orher

StTllllgt'rS: Undtrs/f1l1ding tilt Gml'rIltio!lal Diffrrmefs Thllt Divide Us. WheatOn, IL: Tyndale HOllse, 1999. Kolb, David. &ptrimtill/ Ll'aming: Experience lIS the Sourer of LMming lind Dl'velopml!flf. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1984. Kroeger, OHO, with Janet A. Thuesen. Type Talk at Work: How fht 16 Persomdity Types Deunn;,u Your Suecm on the job. New York: Dell, 1992. Samovar, Larry A., and Richard E. Porter. Communiclltion betwf't'f/ Cultures. 4[h cd. Belmont. CA: Wadsworth, 2001, in particular chap. 3, "Cultural Diversity in Perceplion: Ahernative Views ofRealiry, " pp. 52-88. Tannen, Deborah. YOII jllJf Don 'f Umurstllnd: Woml!fl lind Men in Corllll'rsatiQlI. New York: Ballantine

Books, 1990. Ting-Toomey. Stella. CommtwiCilfion Across Culturts. New York: Guilford, 1999. Chapter 6

Browne, M. Neil, and Stuan M. Keeley. Asking tht Right QlleJliOllS: A Gllide /0 Critical Thinking, 8th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2007. Buzan, Tony, with Barry Buzan. The Mi"d Map~ Book. New York: Plume, 1996.

B-2

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jarboe, Susan. "Group Com munication and Creativity Processes." And Keyton, Joann. "Rel:Hional Communication in G roups." In Tbr Handbook

a/Group Communication Throry & Rrm lrcb, ed. Lawrence R. Frey. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999. Nijstad, Bernard A., and Paul B. Paulus. "Group C reativity: Common Themes and Future Directions," [n Croup Creativity: Inl/ovation through Collnbomtioll, cds. Paul B. Paulus and Bernard A. Nijstad. New York: Oxford University Press. 2003 ,

pp.326-39. Sunwolr. "Gening to 'C roupAha!' Provoking Creative Processes in Task Groups." In TIll' Handbook of Group Communication Theory (wd Reunrch, cd. Lawrence R.

Frey. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999. Chapte r 7

Broome, Benjamin J., and Luann Fulbright. "A Multistage Influence Model of Barriers to Group Problem Solving: A Participant-Genera red Agenda fo r Small Group Research. " Sma/l Group Rmarch 26

(Feb,""y 1995), pp. 25-55. D ewey, John . How WI' Think. BasIOn: D.C. H eath,

1910.

Meye rs. Renee, and Dale Brashers. "lnAuence Processes in Group Inte rac tion. " In The Handbook ofGroup Communication Theory and Rest'Ilrch, ed. Lawrence Frey. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1999,

pp. 288-312. Thomas, Kennet h W. "ConAi" and ConAiet Management. " In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, cd. Marvin Dunnerte. C hicago: Rand M cNally, 1976.

Cha pter 9 Galanes, Gloria J. "I n Their Own Words: An Exploratory Stud y of Bona Fide Group Leaders," Small Group Resellrch 34 (December 2003),

pp.741 -70. Galanes, Gloria)., and Katherine Adams. Effrctive Group Disctmion, 13th cd. New York: McGraw-Hili , 2010, c haps. 7 a nd 8. Hirakawa, Randy Y., Robert S. C1 lhea rr, Larry A. Samovar, and Linda D. Henman. Small Group

Communication: Theory and PraCtice, An Anthology,

Goman, Dennis S., and Randy Y. Hirokawa. "Effecrive Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups: A Functional Perspective." In Small Group Communication: Tluory and Prtll"liu, 8th cd., cds. Randy Y. Hirokawa, Robert S. Carhc:m, Larry A. Samovar, and Linda D. H enman. Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2003, PI'. 27~38. Larson, Carl E. , and Frank

M.J. LaFaslO. TeamWork:

\'(Ihl1t Must Go Right, What Cnn Go Wrong. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989. McGrath, Joseph

Janis, Irving L. Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions Iwd Fiascoes, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Miffiin, 1983.

E., and Andrea B. Hollingshead.

Groups Intemcting with Technology. Thousand Oaks, CA S'gc. 1994. Cha pte r 8 Fisher, Roger, and SCali Brown. Gming Togt'''lt'r: Building a ReMtionship That Gets to Yt'J. Bosron: Houghron Mifflin , 1988. Fi sher, Roger, and William Ury. Gettirlg to Yes: Negotiating Agrl't'1llmt withollt Git1ing 111. New York: Penguin Books, 1983.

8th ed. Los Angeles: Roxbu ry, 2003, section 7,

pp.169-2 13. L.1Fasfo, Frank, a nd Carl Larson. \'(Ihm 7~amJ \'(Iork Best: 6000 Tt'lull Memben I1nd Lt'lldt'N Tell Whl1l It Tilkes to Succud. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 200 1, particularly sectio n 4, pp. 97- 154. Robert, Henry M. Roberts Rules ofOrder Rel/iud. Glenview, IL: Scot{, Foresman, 1981.

E. Making Meetings Work.· Achieving High Quality Group DecisiollS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996.

Tropman , John

Chapter 10 Griffin, Cindy. 11I1I;lIltion to Public Speaking (3rd cd.). Belmom, CA: Thomson \Xfadswonh, 2008. Lucas, Stephen. The Art of Public Spl'llking. New York: McGraw- Hill ,2007. Q'Hair, Dan. Rob Stewart, and Hannah Rubenstein. A Speakers Guidebook: Text and ReformCt'. BostOn: BedfordlS I. Marlin's, 2004.

Index

A

Anack ing a person instead of argument, 182

Abstract conceptualization learning sryle, 126

A[remion step, 306

Acct:ptance levels, 199-201

Attitude, 169-1 7 1

Accommodation, 237

Audience analysis, 294

Acting helpless, 101

Audition practices, 97

Acrion-oricnred listener, 58-59

Autocratic (authorit arian) style,

259-261

College Service Club. The, 253 Co nsulting to the Technical College Execu llve Co mmim:e, A-O-A-l Food for rhe H omeless, 293 Helping the C hildren of

Sp,;ngneld , 193- 194 Jamaican Winter Olympic Bobsled T ca m, 27

Acrivc cxpcrimenr:l.lion learn ing style, 126

Avalars,72

Act ive listening. 58--62

Avoidance, 236-237

Man of La Mal/cha Cast and C rew, The, 87

Ad hoc comminccs, 19

B

Misfits, The. 119

Adjourning stage, 94

Bales, Roben F" 89

O:r,arks Greenways, Inc., 157

Adminimative duti es, 269-274

Bayaz.it , M ahmut, 233

Studenrs for Ahernarive Medici ne, 49

meeting follow-up, 270

Beebe, Steve n, 13

meeting planning, 269-270

Beechnut, 108, I 12

Aerlmlia SA l, 37 Aifeclion, 16

Agenda, 271 AJcohol ics Anonymous. 18 Aloia. Lindsey, 206 Ambiguous terms, 177

Analogies, 183

Anderson, Carolyn, 95-96, 123 Antecedent stage, 96-97 Anliciparory stage, 96-97

Appearance, 74 Appeasement, 237 Area of freedom, 197- 198 ArgumcrHs, 167 Arislorlc, 302

Arrangement, 312 Asian cultures, 135

Askillg ,he Right Questions: A Gllide fO Critical 7JJinking (Browne and Keeley), 176 Assembly effect. 42, 194 Assimilation stage, 96-97 Assuming meaning, 60 Asynch ronous co mmunication , 54

Causal rdationships, 182- 183

Behavioral roles, 99

Cause and effect, 308

Best Friends An imal Sanctuary,

Celebrity testimony, 302

3-4,13

Africa n Americans, 136

Certainty, 114

Blanchard, Kenneth, 263-265

Chalkboard, 304

Blocki ng, 101 Body of speech, 307

Challmger disaster, 43, 168-170, 177, 189

Boeing, 37

Charge, 207

Bona fide group perspective, 35-36

C harismatic leadership, 260-261

Boomers, 142-143

C han , 304

Brainstorming, 162- 163,248

C hronological order, 308

Brainwriting, 163

Clarifying, 99

Briggs. Katherine. 127

Clarity. 309

Broome, Benjamin , 36

C losed system, 38

Browne, M. Neil , 176

CNN News Group, 43-44

Builders, 142-143

CNN's reporti ng disaster, 43

Bulletin board services (BBS), 212

Co-cu lture, 142

Butl er, C. T. , 240

Code sw itching, 64

Bypa1>si ng,64

Coercion, 255

C

Cohesiveness, 11 2- 113

Canons of rhetoric, 31 1

Cohort groups, 19

Cases

Collaboration, 238-239

Best Friends Animal Sociery. The, 3 Cask and C leaver Work Crew. 227

1-1

Collect ivist culture, 132

CO/llmbill space shuttle disaster, 23. 43,168 ComAbsrracrs, 174

IN D E X

1-2

Commi tment to the group, 23

Comm inces, 19-20 Communication. Sf( also Listening; Nonverbal behaviors content dimension, 55-56

defined,14,51 ethical communication, 22 mindful communication, 147

as personal, 51

managing grou p conA ict,

group creativiry, 160- 167

23S-242

individual fa ctors, 160

max imizi ng chances to inAuenee group, 244-245

leaders, 277-278 mind mappin g, 165- 167

myths abol![ conAicr, 228- 232

synectics, 163- 165

nominal group technique,

24S-247 principled negotiations, 247- 250 ConAi ct management sryles,

C redibility, 177- 179 Criteria, 210 Critical thinkin g, 167-169

23S-242

attitudes, 169- 17 1

relational dimension , 6, 55-56

accommodation, 237

counterproduct ive attitudes, 17 1

shared meaning, 53-54

avoidance, 236-237

defined, 167

smal l group, 4, 6, 14

collaboration, 238-239

errors in reasoning (f.'lllacies),

structurarion , 88

competition, 237-238

as symbolic. 51

com promise, 239

synchronous/asynchronous, 54

illustrat ive S(3tements, 236

as transact ional process, 52-53

working with , 239-242

verbal message. Sf( L.lngmge C ommunication behavior, 284

Competition, 237-238

Computcr~mediated

rel:n ional conflict, 233,

conflict types, 234

defined , 80 f..cc -to-face grou ps VS., 15- 16 inAuence on system, 40

med ia richness, 54 net co nference, 80

nonverbal behavior in, 79-8 1 Pastilles srudy, 7 social presence, 80 webinar,80 Conclusion, 309 Concrete experi ence learning sryle, 125 ConHict, 228 ex pressing disagreement,

242-243

17S- 181 gathering information , 17 1- 175 in groups, 167- 169 leaders, 278- 279

Conflict types, 232-233

Compromise, 239

avatars, 72

evaluating information.

ConAi ct phase, 215

computer- med iated communication (CMC), 234

communication (CM C), 15, 54, 80, 188. Su also IlHernet; T echnology

181 - 184

probing questions, 169-170 Cult ural diversity, 130-137 dimension of culmre, 130-135

241-242

racial/ethnic differences,

US- U 8

task co nfl ict, 232-233 Consensus, 217

Culture, 130

Consensus testing, 100

D

Consultant-o bserver, A-J

Daft, Richard , 54

Content analysis procedures, A-5

Danet, Brenda, 140

Contem dimension , 55

Dc Mcstral , George, 164

Content-o riented listener, 58-59

Dec isi on emergence phase, 2 15

COlHex[, 13 I

Dec ision making, 197

Con tingency concept, 26.3,- 265, 268 Control, 16, I 14

methods of, 21 5- 21 7 problem so lvin g and, 204-205

Convergent thinking, 158

Defensive behavio rs, I 14

Cool Runnings, 27-28

Defen sive responding, 60

Cooperat io n, 281-283

Dclegaling duties, 301-302

Coskun, I-larnit , 163

Delivery, 313

C reative thinking, 158

Democratic leadership. 260- 261

brainstorming. 162- 163

Democratic (participatory) sryle. 259

defined, 158- 160

Description, 11 4

environmenta l S ctors, 160

Desigt1aled leader, 257

Index

Deviants. 106-108

Electronic brainstorming, 163, 183

F

Df'ViI 's advocate, 188

Electronic databases, 173-174

Face-to-face meelings, 15-16, 37,234

Dewey, John, 204

Ellis, Donald, 215

Dialect. 77

Email, 15,211

Discussion question , 200

Emergent leader, 257-258

Facial expressions, 75-76

Distributed leadership. 265-267. 283-285

Emoricons, 8 I

FaCTS, 176

Emotive words, 67-68

Fallacies, 18 1

Empathy. 114

False dilemma, 183

Divergent thinking, 158 Diversity. Su IIlso Cultural diversity acknowledging differences, ISO- lSI bridging difTerences, 147- 152 collective competence, 151-152 defined, 120- 122 bntasy, 147 gender differences, 138-14 1 generational differences, 141- 146 group identiry, 147-149, 151

. Encounter stage. 96-97 Entertainment speech. 296 Environment, 34-37 Equality. 114 Equifinal ity concept. 42 Equilibrium. 94 Eq uili briu m problem. 89

Facebook, 15

Fantasy, 147 FalHasy chain, 148 Fantasy theme, 148 Faulty analogy, 183 Feedback. 4 1 Feeler, 128-1 29 Fisher, B. Aubrey, 215

ERIC, 174

Fisher, Roger, 247

Establish ing norms, 100

Flaming. 105

Ethics

Floyd. Kory. 71

integrati ng dilTerences, 151

defined ,21

Focus group. 209

learning styles, 123- 126

ethical communication, 22

Focusing on irrelevancies. 60

motives for joining a group, 122- 123

ethical dis:lgreement. 242-244

Fogler, Joseph. 108

personaliry dilTerences. 126--130

group leaders. 286-287

race/ethnic differences, 135-1 38

in groups. 21-23

group formation, 115

Forct'fulness, 139 Ford MotOr Co., 20 Formal roles, 99

Ethnic differences, 135-138

Forming stage, 94

Dow Chemical, 20

Euro-Disney, 134

Forum discussion, 300 French. John . 254

value of, 149-150

Dram:lI i7.ing. 101

European Americans, 135- 136

Dropbox, 15

Evaluation. 114

Frey, Lawrence, 5

Dunnelte. Marvin D., 235

Evidence, 167

Fulbright. Luann. 36

E

Examples, 302

Functional concept. 262-263

Eastman Kodak, 4

Exil srage, 96, 98

Functional theory. 204 G

EBSCOhos<, 174

Expert power. 255

Echo boom, 145

Expert testimony. 302

Galanes, GloriaJ., 265

Eco logical power, 255-256

Expressive behaviors, 138

Gard ner. John N., 128

Effect

Extemporaneous speech . 3 10

to

cause. 308

Either-or questions, 202

Garlick, Rick, 244 Gart'keeping function, 100

Either-or thinking, 183

Ext raversion/in t roversion dimension. 127

Gebhart. Lisa, 244

Elaborating, 99

ExtravertS, 127-128

Gcn-Xers.142-143

Elder. Linda, 181

Eye COlHaCl . 75-76

Gender differences. 138-14 1

1-3

1-4

I N DEX Ge neral Electric, 165

participating in , 6-7

General MomTs, 20

primary groups, 16-1 7

General systems theory. 28-30

as problem solver, 5- 6, 10, 195

development of, 104- 106

Generation Y, 145

roles, 102-103

deviant members, 106--- 108

G roup norms changing, 107-11 0

Generational differences, 141 - 146

rules and norms, 69,106- 110

Gcrsick, Connie, 94

seco ndary groups, 17-2 1

Gersick's model of punctuated eq uilibriu m, 94-95

sensitivity to feelings, 67--69

forum di scussion, 300

shared mea ning as responsibility

panel discussio ns, 298-299

G~tti1/g to

Yt'$: N~()tillti"g Agrt'onmt \'(Iithout Giving III (Fisher and

U,),),247 Gilligan , Carol, 138

of,53-54 socialization of members,

95-96 technology, 14- 16

Giving in, 237

turnover in, 98

Glen, Sa mantha, 6

virt ual, 37

Golden Rule, 3 Gonzales, Amy. 80

Couran, Dennis, 170, 177,204

written commun ication,

271-274 Group climate, 108- 114

Griffin , Em, 28

cohesiveness, 1 12- 113

Grab, Lindsey, 139

supponi veness, 113-114

Group(s), 5-7. Su Illso Leadership; Small group{s)

truSt ,

chances

(Q

in fluence, 244-245

choice of grou p probl crn~

solvi ng. 8-\0 classification by purpose, 16-21 cl imate of truSt, 280-281

communicat ion in, 4, 6, 53-54 canAicr in, 235-242 creati vity in , 16 1- 167

cridcal iliinking in, 167- 169 defined, 11

diversity in, 12 2- 130 ethi cal behavior in, 21-23, 11 5

110- 112

Group con Aict, 229-230 G roup creat iviry, 158 G roup dcvclopmelH challenges in , 89-95

89-90 phase models in , 94-95

arca offreedom, 197- 198 discllssion qllcst ion, 200-203 identifying the proble m,

196-197 individual problem solving vs"

7-8,10,195 overcoming obstacles, 204-205 problem characteristics.

198-200 reasons for use of, 8-9

fo<, 195- 196 task requirements, 204 Group roles, 98-103

social tcnsio ns in, 90-94

emergence of roles, 102- 103

Tuckma n's model, 94

individual roles, 101

Group discussions. 65-67

nominal group tech niquc,

leadi ng o f, 274-280

pa rt ici pa nt-observer perspectivc, 24

Group problem-solving, Su Illso Procedural model of probl emsolving (P-MOPS)

systematic proccdures as basis

group's major functions,

init iating of. 274-275

65- 67

Gro up orientation , 139

Gersick's model, 94-95

motivcs for joinin g, 122- 123

organizing rcmarks/d iscussions,

rypes of, 298-300

reviewing/ reconsidering decisions, 205

informallcadcrship in, 258

nonvcrbal bchaviors in , 78-79

symposium, 299-300

ethi cal behavior, 115

equalizing opportuniry to participate. 276---277

245-247

enforcement of, 106- 107 Group oral presentations

meet ing-ro-meering improvement, 279-280 Group drive, 11 2 Group eco logy, 74-75 Group idemiry, 147-149, 151

maintenan ce ro les, 100- 10 I management of, 103 task roles, 99- 100 types of, 99 Group socializatio n, 95-98 stages of, 96---98 Group suPPOrt systems (GSS), 183,

212-215,234 Gro up writing systems, 211 G rouphate, 9

Index

1-5

Grollpsystcms, 2 [3

Influcnce, 254-255

ImerpersonallTlls[. I 1 1

Grollpthink, [[2,184---190

Informal leadership. 258

Intervention , 312

avoiding, 184-186

Informal roles. 99

Interviews, 174-175

prcverHion or, 187-189

Information

Intrinsic interest, 199.201

sympwms of, 186- 187

accmacy and wonh of,

179-18 1

H

Hackman, M ichael. 254, 286 Hall, Edward, 74 Hancock , jeffrey. 80 Handollt.304 Harmonizing, 101 Hearing. 56 Hersey. Paul , 263-265 Heterogcneity.121-122 Hiaasen. Carl, 134

Introduct ion, 306 IntrovertS, 127-128

assessing needs of, 171-172 collecting resources, 172- 175 credibility of source, 177-179 direct observation, 172 electronic databases, 173- 174 evaluation or, 175-180 fact vs. opinion/inference,

176-177 gathering of. 17[-175

Imuitor, 127-128 Invemion ,3 11 -3 12

J Janis. Irving, 112. 184 jewler, A. jerome, 128 Johnson. Craig, 254, 286 Johnson, Tom , 43 Johnston. William, 121 Judger. 128, 130

Hicks, Kalhy, 142

identifying/clarifying ambiguous terms, 177

Jung. Ca rl , 127

Hicks. Rick. 142

Internet , 173

K

1-1 idden agenda. 1 1 1

interviews. 174

Kahn, Robert, 3 1

I-l igh-caruext culture, 131. 133

reading. 172-1 73

Kan, Daniel. 31 Keeley, Stuart, 176

High power distance. 131

Information giving, 99

Hirakawa , Randy, 204

Information

H ispanics, 135- 136

Information power. 256

Keyton, joann, 98

Hockcr. joyce, 228

I nformation seeking. 99

Kolb, David. 125

Homeostasis, 44

Informative speech. 296

Kolb learning cycle, 125

Homogeneity. 121 - 122

InfoTrac, 173

Kramer. Michael, 257. 261. 283

need~,

171-172

Kennedy. john

r:., [ 12,

185

Initiating and orieming, 99

Kuhn , Tim, 239

Idea deviance, 230

Inputs, 31-32

L

Impromptu spcech, 310

Instant messaging (1M). 211

L1.Fasto, Frank, 13, 1 12

Incomplcte comparisons, 183

I nst rulllenwl behaviors, 138

Individual creativity. 158

Intangible outcomes, 34

Laissez- faire (non -involved) leadership st),le, 259-261

Individual oriem:l.lion, 139

Interdependence. 39-40

I ndividual roles, 101

I Ilternel. Sf"f" also Compmermediated co mmunication (CMC); Technology

Individualism/collcct ivism, 131 Individualistic cu lture, 132 Individuals vs. groups creativity. male-female differences. 139 problem solving, 7-8, 10. 195

accuracy of information, 173 evaluating web sou rces. 174 as information source, 173 norm enforcement, 105

Language emotive words, 67-68 organize remarks, 65-67 rules of group. 69 sensi tivity

to

feelings of ochers,

67-69 symbolic naltlre of, 63-65 Lao Tsc, 283, 287

Inertia, 94

Internet discllssion boards, 15

Larson. Carl, 13. 111

Inference, 176- 177

Int ernet Relay Chat (lRC), 2 12

Latchkey generation, 142

1 N DEX

1-6

Latent theme, 148

democmic leadershi p, 260-26 1

Meeting follow-up, 270

Lay testimony. 302

laissez-faire leadersh ip, 260-26 1

Meeling planning, 269-270

Lea, Marrin, 7

rrans.1crionalleadership,260-261

Member £'lmiliariry. 201

Leader, 256-258

rransformarionalleadership,

Memoriz~Hion,

260-261

administrative duties, 269-274 designated leader, 257 developing {h e group, 269,

280-283

Learning groups, 19 Learning styles, 123-126 Legilimate power, 254

emergent leader, 257-258

Lengel, Robert, 54

ethica l guidelines for, 286-287

LcxisNexis, 174

expect:ltions of group members,

268-269 group discllssions, 269, 274-280

Life cycle, 89 Lightner, Candy, 259 Listening, 56

managing wriHen communicat ion , 271-274

aClion-orielHcd listener, 58-59 acrive, 58--62

meeting~to~llleet ing

aClive listening, 58--62

improvement, 279-280

content-oriented listener, 58-59

stimu lating creative thi nking,

277-278

dennt.'d,56-57

stimulati ng critical thinking,

people-orienled listener, 58-59

278-279

poor listening habits. 60, 62

structuri ng discussions,

preferences, 57-59

275-276

rime-orielHed listener, 58-59

technology and, 275 what good leaders do, 267-268 Leadership, 254

conti ngency concept,

263-265, 268

Logan, Carol, 69 Low-context culture, 131, 133

M Mabry, Edward, 76

defined,254

McPhee, Robert, 88

distributed concept, 265-267, 283-285

Maintenance roles. 100-101

dynamics of, 262-267

functional concept of, 262-263 inAuence and power, sources of,

254-245 informal leadership, 258

myths about, 259-262 situa tiona l leadership model, 264 Leadership styles, 259-260 autocratic leadership, 260-261 charismaric leadership, 260-261

3 10

Message, 62 Message interpretation, 50 Meyers, Renee. 244 Millennial generaLion, 145 Mind mapping, 165- 167 Mindful communication, 147 Minority opinions, 244 Minutes, 271-273 Misunderstandings, 62

Model,303 ModeraroT,299 Mongeau, Paul, 244 Monster Campus, 4 Monsrer.com, 4, 56 Motorola. 4 Movements, 76-77 Multidisciplinary teams, 4, 9 Multifinaliry concept, 42 Multimedia, 304 Multiple causes, 42 Multiple palhs, 42 Myers, Isabel Briggs, 127 Myers-Briggs Type 1ndicator

(MBTI), 127-129, 151

Male-female behavior, 138-139

N

Manifesl theme, 148

N-geners,144-145

Mannix, Eliz.abeth, 233

NASA (Narional Aeronautics and Space Administration), 23, 43,

Manuscript. 310

M,p, 303 Maquilado ras, 133 Marrin , Manhew, 95-96, 123 Masculine·femini nc continuum , 138 Masterson, John, 13 Mead, Margaret, 4 Media richness, 54

168-170, 177 N~Hional

Communication Association, Credo for Ethical Communication, 21-22, 33,

53,56,115,147,169,235, 286,312 Negative synergy, 43 Nestle USA, 4 Net conference, 80

Index

Nct generation. 145

rating scales, A-8--A-I 0

OUtPlIlS, 34

NeUtrality. 114

role of observer. A-I-A-2

Overgeneralizing. 181 - 182

Nijstad. Bernard, 159 Nominal group technique. 245-247

Seashore Index of Group Cohesiveness, A-9-A 10

Nonsummativiry, 42

SYMLOG. AI-AI4

Nonverbal behaviors

verbal interaction analysis, A-4-A-S

appcar:tnce, 74 catcgories of, 74-79 computer-mediated groups, 79-81 eye comact, 75-76 (1Cial expressions. 75-76 funCiions of, 71-74 group ecology, 74 group relationships, 78-79 movements, 76-77 principles of, 70 in small groups, 69- 70 space and searing. 74- 75 timing, 77- 78 voice. 77 Norming slage, 94 Norms, 104- 106 ('srablishing of, 100 in Internet groups. 105 North American Rockwell, 170

o Object, 303 Observation, 209 Observing problem-solving groups, A- I-A-20 comem analysis procedures, A-S- A-8 evaluating individual participating. A 16--A-20 instruments and techniques, A-2-AIS posrmeeting reaction form s, A-14-AIS questions to guide observations, A-3

Oetzel, John, 123, 134-135

• 0" COlljliCllUUI COllSmsllJ (Butler and RodlSlcin), 240 Online groups, 18- 19 Open-minded, 169 Open system, 38 Opinion giving, 99 Opinions, 176--177 Oral presentations audience :tnalysis, 294 body. 307-309 canons of rhelOric. 3 11 - 3 13 concl usion. 309 delegating duries, 301-302 introduction, 306--307 lan guage check, 309-310

p P-MOPS. Set Proced ural model of problem-solving (P-MO PS) Pacific Gas & Elecnic (PG&E), 39 Packer, Arnold. 121 Panel discussion, 298 Panial-win/partial.lose solution, 239 Panicipant.observer perspective, 24 Paul Revere Insurance Group, 20 Paul, Richard. 181 Paulus. Paul, 159 Pavit, C harles, 206 Pennebaker, James, 80 Peo ple-orie nted listener, 58-59 Perceiver. 128- 129 Perceiving/judging dimension, 129 Performing stage, 94 Personality differences, 126-130 Persmsive speech. 296

member st rengths and fea rs, 297

PERT (program cV:lluation and review tcchniquc), 218-221

method of delivery, 3 13

Picture or video, 303

organi7jng stage, 301-304

Plagiarism, 176

planning stage. 294-300

Pbying, 101

practice aloud, 310-31 I prcseming stage, 309-3 1 1

Poole. Marshall Scott, 88. 108, 21S.239

subject or ropic, 296--297

Poor listening sk ills. 60, 62

supplcmcllt31Iogist ics,297-298

Positional roles, 99

types of presentations, 298-300

Postmceting Re;lIion (PMR) forms. A-14

verbal supporting materials, 302-303

Postmes, Tom , 7

visliaimaterials, 303- 304

Power. 254-256

Organiz:ttional groups. 19- 21

Power distance, 131, 133

com minces. 19-20

Presentation technology, 305

quality control circles. 20

Presenting stage, 309-311

self- managed work teams, 20-21

Primary groups. 16-17

Oriellt::uion phase. 215

1-7

Primary tension, 90

I NDEX

1-8

Principled negolialion. 247-250

Provisionaiism, 114

S

Probing qUC5lions, 169-170

Pseudolistcning, 60

SC Johnson Company. 4. 21

Problem (s), 196

I)unctu:ncd equi librium, 94

Schurz. W ill C, 16

3ccCJn:lncc level, 199-20 I

PunishmcllI power, 255

Seashore, Stanley. A-I 0

characteristics of, 198-199.201

Putnam , Linda. 35

Seashore Index of Group Cohesiveness. A-9-A-l 0

discussion question, 200-203

Q

identificat ion of, 196-- 197

Quality circle, 20

intrinsi c interests, 199,201

Quality cOnlrol circles, 20

characteristics of, 17

member familiarity, 201

R

defined. 17

solut io n muhipiiciry. 199,201

Racial differences. 135- 138

task diffic ulty. 199,201

Rati ng scales, A-8

Secondary groups

learn ing groups, 19 o rganiz..1.tiona l groups, 19-2 1

Problem OriC rH:llion, 114

Raven , Bertram , 254

support groups, 17- 19

Problcm -sollllion panern , 307

Ray. George. 7 1

types of, 17-2 1

Problem solvi ng. 197

Reasoning errors, 18 1- 184

decision nuking and, 204-205

Recognition seeking, 101

groups \IS. individual approach, 7-8, 10,195

Recording, 100

Procedural model of problemsolving (I)-MOPS), 205-221 choose best so lution, 215-217 dellned,205 describe/a nalyze the problem ,

206-209 eva luate possible soiUlio ns,

210-213

Referem power. 255

ReAeclive communic;uion , 152 ReAective observ:l.l ion learning

SlYlc, 126

Secondary tension, 90 Self-di rected work teams, 4 Self-managed work tea ms, 20-21 Sensinglimuiting dimension, 127 Sensor, 127-128 Serge, Peler M., 283

Reich , Nina, 138

Shared meaning, 53-54

Rei nforcement, 215

Shaw. Marvin . 11 . 121

Relation:tl co nflict , 233. 240-241

Relationa l dimension, 55

She rwin-Williams, 20 Showing solidari ty, 101 Sidetracking, 60

focus group, 209

Relationship [ocus, 138

generate/explain possible solutio ns, 209-210

Relationship-oriented

group supporl syslems (GSS), 2 12-215

Rem, Mary Ann, 239-240

Silent arguing, 60

Reward power, 255

Siruationalleadership, 264

implcl11cl1I chosen

Rewards. 282

Skype, 15

Riddle. Bruce. 95-96

Small group(s), 4. See 1I1s0 Teams

SiIU:uiol1, 218

PERT,2 18-22 1 pros/cons. 2 1 t RISK technique, 217-2 18

technology me in, 211-215 using P· MOPS (samp le outline),

221-224

Process loss, 43 Procter & Gamb le, 20 Program evaluation and review technique (PERn, 218-221

behaviors, 259

RISK technique. 217-218

Siebold, David, 88 Sigman, Stewart, 97

assembly effecl. 42

Rirz-Cariron II00eiS, 4

bobsled tea m as (exam ple). 31

Robert J Rules for Committrrs, 215

communicuion, 4. 6.14.50

Robm J Rules o/Ortil'r Revisrd,

creating messages in, 62-63

104 ,274 Role, 98 ROlhstei n, Amy, 240 Rules. 104 Rybacki, Karyn and Donald, 31 1

defined, 12-13 effectivcncss 0(, 4 im portancc 0(. 4-5 imputs,32 maintenance roles, 100- \01

1-9

Index

nonverbal communication in,

69-70 open system, 38 otltpms (example), 34 role funclions in, 99-101 strucwration, 88

Superioriry, 114

T eams. 4

SuppOrt groups. 17-18

self-managed work teams, 20-21

Supporting, 101

small groups 'Is. , 13-14

Supportive behaviors. 114

Teamwork. 4, 281-283

Supponiveness, 113- 114

Technology. Su also Co mputermediated communication

as system, 30

Swallll v. Chllr/otle-Mecklmlmrg Board of EdllctltiOll, 287

task roles, 99-100

Symbol. SI

group leaders, 275

team s 'Is., 13- 14

Symbolic convergence, 147

group problem solving and,

throughput processes (example), 33

Symbolic language, 63-65

verbal co mmunicat ion in ,

63--6S Small group communication defined, 14 individual roles, 101

SYMLOG (System for the Multiple-Level Observation of Groups), AIO-AI4 Symposium, 299 Synchronous commun icat ion , 54 Synectics, 163-165 42~3

Smith, Karl, 229

Synergy,

Social dista nce, 74

System, defined, 30

Social presence, 15, 80

Systems theory

Social tensions, 90-94

characteristics of, 37-44

Socialization, 95- 96

concepts of. 3 1- 37

Sofnvare Assisted Meeting Management (SAMM ), 2 13

environment, 34--37 feedback, 41

Solution multiplicity, 199,20!

inputs, 3 1-3 2

(CMC)

211 -2 1S group support sySlems (GSS),

183. 212-2 IS. 234 groups and, 14- 16, 18- 19 net conference, 80 presentation technology. 305 Teleconferencing, 15 Telling style, 264 Tension relieving, 101 Tertiary tension, 90, 93 Testimony. 302 Texas Instruments, 4 Theory. defined, 28 Thinhr, 128-129

Thinker's Guide to r"(lllilcies: The Art of MOItal Trickery and Mallipulation (Paul and Elder). 181

Space and sea ting. 74

interdependence. 39-40

Spat ial order, 308 Spears, Ru ssell, 7

muhiple causes, multiple paths, 42

Thinking/feding dimension. 129

Sponta neity,1 14

nonsummativity, 42--44

Th omas, Kenneth, 235

Standing commincc, 19

o pen and dosed systems,

Thompson, Jessica, 151 - 152

38-39

Statistics, 302

ourputs. 34

Status seeking, 101

overview of, 28-30

Stewart, John, 69

throughput processes, 32-33

Srohl, Cynthia, 35 Storm in g stage, 94 St rategy, 11 4 Strucrunltioll,88

Style. 312 Subgroups, 245 Suggesting procedure, 100 Summaril.ing,99

T

Throughput processes, 32-33

Time, 43--44 Time-ori<,'nled lislcner, 58-59 Timing. 77-78 Ting-Toomey. Stella, 147

Tangible outcomes, 34 Task conAict, 232- 233 Task difficulry, 199,20 1 Task focus. 138 Task-o riented individuals,

123.259 Task roles, 99- 100

Topical organizatio n. 308 Toyoda, Akio, 203 Toyota. 203 Transactional leadership, 260-261 'J'ransactiona l proccss, communica tion as, 52-53