Early Medieval Architecture AS BE A R E R OF M EA NI N G
••
GUNTER BAND MANN TnuuUJd by
Kendall Wallis
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Early Medieval Architecture AS BEARER OF MEANING
ndU· Qi,,· a.l..ti",~ aM ExivO<;" tv I'E1(1 The fo. know! many thing., but tho hedgehog knnw$ ')OC big thing. AOC HI LQC H Il !
For my wif., Faith, who has mad . ,hi •
.,..,.,ibl".
'" .he <1",,, ,11 ,hing •.
GOlUMBI" 1'"b1i,~~a Nf. W
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Tra,,,lalion wpyrighl ID
All righI'
PR£U
UNIV£K~ITY
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W {5 T
Colu mbia
Uni"~"ily
Pfl"S'
r~",n'e<1
Ihnd,n"nn. Glimcr: Mir"l.JIt~dir~~ A"'hit~krur ~/; IIrti~"""'g'lriig~r
Berlin, Gchrlidcr Mann
Vcrl~g:.
19'i1
O rigi na il)' I'"b!i,hed '95 I. I 1Ih prim; ng (Mann Studio·lkihc) I<j<Jo'i
Li brary of Conllr"" Cnaloging-in_Public3lion D:ll a Bandmann . Gumer. IMillciaile,iiche .... rchilc k\uf
al~
Earl)' medic".1 architrnurr as
an inl",ducti,,". b),
K~"dall
IkdeuluIIgstdgcr_EnJ:lishl
be~rer
of meaning I GUmer Bandmann : ('amlmed. with b~ H~ n ' 100~f
Walli, ; afterword
RQkc r,
em.
p.
Tr~n~lalinn
nf; Millda herlidlC Archilcktur .1.lk
Indudes bibliographic,l refoconce. and
;ndc~ .
ISBN 0-23'-127<'4.-<J (durh: alk. pap"r) t. ....
,chi."""'re. " ' edinal. l. Syrnholi'm in
>r~ h i1<'('u rc-Ell r"f><"
J. Chri"ian
HI
"nd
symholi.".,, _ Mctlic,'. I. 50<)- t 5"'-'. 4. [keuTa! ion and ornament. Archit.,..-mral-Euwpc. ) . Dc:cofalion and or n:lfllCnt. Medina!. 1. Tide.
NAJso. B33'3 21)05 j20'.94 '09'H t-
Columbia
Uni,·~,,;t)· I-'r~!
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pr int ed on [,"'m;.ncn t ~nJ durnh!c ;"i,j·fr« p"p"r
Printed in the Unilro Slale, of America '1098j65~3Z' D~lign~d hy
Chlll1g JIl~
U~
Contents
ILLU ST RATION S
XI
,\CKNOWLEIlG,,·rICN TS
Xlii
Bearillg Bandmallll! Meaning: A T1'tJ11S/utor's Int roduction by Kelldall Willis
I. The Pmblem oj Meaning;11 Architecture
I
15
The Essence of Meani ng . 8 The ivh:dievnl Work of An 21 ACSlhdic Meaning
26
The Current State of Rcscn Tch on Symbolic and H istorical Meaning in Architecture 32Sources and Methods: The Sources 39
Sources and Methods: T he Methods 2.
H
The Symbolic Meaning of Buildings Accol'dillg /0 WriueIJ and Visual Sources 47 The Written Sources The Role of the
47
nr1l1h~I'f
47
The Med ieval Copy 49 H istoric:!1 Consciousness in the Middl e Ages 51 The Standards of Mcdi(:\'al Architectural Theorists
T he Intended Purpose
54
The Allegorical M C~lf1ing 59 The C hurch :15 H C:J\"cnly C ily
The Visua l Sources
54
6,
67
The Formol Consequences or Aliegoric:l l MC;'ln ing
67
Tht' Mt'tlIl ing of tht' Keystone
70
74
Tht' Column as Trn:
75
Tht' Colllm'l as Figm'e
83
City and Castle as Model of the Chunh
88
The Two-Towt'red CifY Gate Tht' Cil), Wall
96
Tht' Thrl'l'- TOWl'r Group
99
108
The Niche-Porlal
The Th ree -Archl'd Opt:nil1g
Summary
3-
11 5
Hhtorical Meaning
119
Tradition and Habit
1[ 9
Turning Towa rd H istoricity State. Religion, ami Law Sncred Kingship Writing
I 13
[28 11 8
[30
131
Portra iture
133
Images of Evems 134 The Dema rcated :\rea
[35
Dwelling. Tomb. Temple
Building in Slone The Holy Pl;lCe
136
'4 3 146
Spoli:! '46 Axi,') 1 Arr;H1gemcm Within a Structured _-\ rea Axi:!l ArT:lngernem Within ,I Building
The Effects of H istori cal Mea ning
147
158
t6j
The Empe ro r and Architecrure The Tramept
<1$
Throne H ,[11
The C ruciform Tomb
180
The Three-Ch:.lrnbered Layout
184
185 The Tran5ept Basilica and Cruciform Frank s Before C h;Jrlem;Jgne 191 The Central-Plan Building 194 The Westwork 2 0 1 Tendencies of the \Vcstl'rn Imperium The ArchiteClural Baldachin
B~ si l i(a
of the
l J2
The Beginnings of Norman Architecture in Relation to the Architectu re of the Empire
214
T he Roman Idiom of the WeSlern Imperium
217
The Double C hoir 219 Architectu r;.I Orn;unem 2n The Emperor"s Rj \'als 225 The Romon Cllriu 22.6 Thi" MOllllslie Onlers Thl! //II/iul/ Cilies
227
230
Bishops u1Id Rrgiol/ul umls The
4.
~NUliolls"
2jl
233
The Decline oj Symbolic and His/orical Me(ll1ing 237 Re ro rm and Sec ul ;l riz:ltion 237 The Predom inance of Artistic Tende ncies T he New Awareness or Space Summary
247
Afterword by Hails Josef Baker
l'O T B
.2;7
fH IIl.! 0 (; II A P I I\' I NO !; "
343
243
3u7
249
24 J
Illustrations
Figllfr :!./. Ct'rtl;lJ, Sf, 1" 'It'rtlllt/ Sf. I'au/ 5(;
Fij!lIrc 1.1. Rome, SI./uhl/ Figurr
2.
loll/elY/II
57
i. Ely. aHArt/,ul, emSling fK"lugul/ 71
Figurt." 2.4. Spqr': rafhrlil"uf 72
Figllrt' .205. Dillkl'lsbiihl. SI, (;rorg 71 Fig"~(, 2.6. Cohmlll from a rill/reI! ill /IIf/,lIId 7N Figure 2. 7. Char/us. ciJ/lwJI\lI. 11'(11 prJr/ul 79 Figlll"" 1.8. Churl'ri, futh(,dmf. Norlh pureh 80
Figllrt' 2.9- SII"U.rbo1l!'g. milwn: Writ portal iii Figlll'l' ;I.. It!. Spl;" /)iud,'liulli pil/'/{'(' 86 Figlm: 1.. I I. CoM mfdulliu!! of CMum, rrcl'Ivillg
III"
hvmllW of 1h<' ('ily
of L l",dirll'lIm (L."",/",,) Y!!
Figllr(' 1.11. /m/Xriu{ hulla of Chllrlemagllt' 91 Figure 2. /1. Rllnlr, SUllt11 SlIbll/{/ , IVuI'J(/'ell door; 92 Figufr 2. 1'1' V..,:w ofUII imfXnal oulb ujCollmd II (lilt! 1-It'l/r)' III 93 Figltre L/} Mllin:. I'IlfhrJ,.uf 94
F'gllrt'
2.16.
Spq ..r, rutllt,tIral 94
Figu/"r 1.17- Maria ullld, 95 Figl//'l' 218. Hm ry ( [I fnlllsmirJ rhc coronaliOIl imignid 10 Nell!")' [I g(J Figl/re L 19. Pm"y of J..lWi, lh,· Pious 96 Figl/tr 2.. 20. RaV<:lIl1l1, Slim' ApoJ!i/lllr,. Nuow. Mosait· mifh rh,. £"II}' af Ra~'rmlll lind {Ill/ocr nfThrodoric 97 Figm'" 2..21. Raj;ill/: of J.A~I·I/J. /wry 97 Figur(' L22 City stal of Hagl/el/au 9B Figllre L2J. Bulla af Henry II 99 Figllre L14. Obadiah's K/1II(II/ at f:tiam. From rh,' Bih/,. afSulit Pert' dr Rada
Fi{!ul't'
2.25.
11/0
Ill/gd mith SII;IIIS (Upoil!t:S Ilr pt'mHliji<'lJlifHl'/. "'mm U
cuskt'l with rhe brll lilud.·s WI Figur,.
226.
CO/ogllt', Sr. Mllrill im Kllpiro/ rlJl
Figllt"
2..27.
CO/llg1/t', 51. P!/IIwltyNj 10:1
XII
ILl.USTRATIONS
Figurc 2.28. Cil}' .
Fig,.,.r 1- 17. ROllle. cdb cirnircrialis of
II helwulI 111'0
hishop! 104
San Sir/a Vecchio 180
P'Ku r" 2.p. AI/chen. mimla. Three-towrr reliquary' with Christ hnwt"t:n St.lohn Figure 2.)2. MC/(ll hulla of He my IV 107 Im~rial ical of Char/c,
Figllrr ).18. Toml/n::a. Pal/ughia. and Sirm·h"a r. Kidl Kil"e 181 Figw ... ]. 19. OI"<'II.>r, Santa Comha dc
and 51. Suphen /()j Figure 2.]3.
51. P"w's, 51. Jnhll £.o lr,.,11I , and Sun PaolofilOl"i I" 'III/Ill 175
Ollcdlil/hurg 1(/3 Figurc 2. )0.
Figure ]- 16. Rom.:. lmn.cpu of Old
IV 107
Figurc 2.3+ Rome, Old St. /'nt'l" $. MlliQic in Ihc ap,.,:, 108 Figllrr L)5- )l<Jchm, Char/ewagm'$ Plllalin,. Ch"p,.1 110 Figur,. 2.)6. U:plis Magna 112
Band" 182 Fig,,,,, 3.20. Zamora,
SiW
I'.:lil'(l d,'
I\'o£'c 182 Fig""" ] .2J. Richel/, CiJm/i1lC';'" crllcifo"m chlm:h 183 Fig"re 3.2:z. S,chnn, Church oIllJrob'; lI't:fI 188
Figur,. 2.) 7' Trier, ""lmp,0alBarh,'" 113
Figure ].2). Ephc"u,.. 51. l(Jh" 188
Figurc:z. 38. Coin flum Srra.bou'g 114 Figlln 2.39, St. MCIlfIS. f lfOI) ' 116
Figure 3-:l4- U , Aix-d'Angil/on,
Figurc
2.4U.
h'OI)' {"(ukn 116
Figurc Fil5. Ah" MillU , Shrill': of
Figllr,.
2.41.
P1'Iqingmil1l.lv01y 117
Figurc
2.42.
Apocolyp'" of Urgrff 117
Figllr.: 3.1. Hrrif.:Id,l1bb,,), church, firil pho.i~ f2J gwnd ph,u" 12]
190
Figll,.,. J. 26. Nil(opolii, Basiliwof Duml'tio, 19 1
Figurc J.+ PU"urgodae,jim mll mUllwuelH of CYrIIS 139 Figurc 3.5. Schema of a laIC Aiiyrial/ long -llalled temple 140 Figlll't: J. 6..'{mll; Irmple of Kar-Tukl'!li. i\'illUrtlJ '42 Cit)'
pu/" C(' ch urch 198 Figllrc ]. 18. Main:;, ,'athed'al, Chapel of
Fig"r.: ]-). Hilde,h";m, St. Mi<'huc! 123
Fig" rc ].8. Babylon,
51. ,H.,lUlJ
H)O
FIg"'': ]-2]. ()HT-ihn _WOIdl1l1.
Figul'c J.2. Hrr,fr/J, ab",,), Chlll'Ch,
Fig",c 1- 7- Spt')'c>:
Sa/III -Germain
layoul 1)6
Nebuchadnr..w,.~
SI, Gorrhard 198 Fig",,, 3.29. N<'r1Y Ollir(/o, San ,\Iigll,,1 dr Lillo 199 Figu/"" ~.30' Near O,.'icdo, San Migucl J" Lillo 199 Figul"( ). ) 1. Wcrdol, 51, Pl'I"r. IVrstliiOrk
'"'
Figure j .p . MlJill: , Willrgii.>" calhedral
'"
Figl//"r 3.9. Halr/l, Building 1/ 16-1
Figl
Figro'(" ].10. Romt:, Fomm ofTrajan 16-1
Figure ].3+ Sp<,}'rr, aJthedrlJ! n 5
Figlll"<, ;.11 . Aql/ilria, cillhedral rompla
Figllr"
throm' "oom III/h" SOllTh Forlrr;$ 16-1
"9 Figl/rc j . u. "li'iCl; Comtalllinion allhrdr." complrx 171 Figllrr 3.1; . Tr'ia, eathdral 172 Figure 3.14. Altllo~' royal hlJlI '73 Fig,,/"" 3· /).Altila$camp 17;
~. j j.
C/imy, ie(,01ld ab",,)'
chl/I'ch 227 Figllrc ].J 6. CllIny, third abbrJ' ('hurch 229 Figure 4- 1. Regrnsblll'g, M inorile ch llrch 239 Fig,,,,e +2, Angcrmiinde. FronCliw n t'hurch 240
Acknowledgments
hi s deep and heartfe lt than ks to Warren a nd Edi th Sanderson, fo r first nurturing his f.u cina tio n with wCSlwo rks a nd then cultivating it in del ig htful co mpany; Hans Boker, fo r first assu ring him thaI the text was impossible to tra nslate and then helping him sec i, 10 compl!:' ion with wisdom and cha rm ; Malco lm Thurlby a nd Roger StaIley, fo r ~' n co ur ;Jgi n g him:lt rhe rig ht time; Wendy Lochner of Columbia U ni ve rsity Press, for believing in the book; Irene Pav itt, of Colum bia Uni ve rsity Press, :md AlmUlh Sccbohm and Sabi ne Seile r,
T
HE TR A N S l. ATOR W IS HE S TO EX TE N D
for m:lking
Slife
that he wrote what he both w anted ;Jod
needed to write; Eric Ormsby. Cal vin Evans, a nd Frances Groen of the McG ill Unive rsit y Libraries. for believ ing that this decade-long gestation would bring forth a worthy contribution to scholarship; a nd his beloved Faith , without whose love, wit, patience, schola rshi p, gift for the r ight word at the rig ht time, and tolerance fo r " Mr. 13," this book could never have happe ned.
Eady Medieval Architecture AS BEARER OF MEAN I NG
Bearing Sandmann's Mctming: A Trrlflslator's Introduction
NNOV'TtH w oo", o r .C II OU"' ", ., "I"",I.lIy ' h = w;,h . ,hcoKtic.l or;"nu,i"" ,I"<M:n, . '1>«;.1 ch,lkngc lho: ".n,l.. or bcc;,,, .. .,.,,' iok31 requl"" . nd ''''''iuhly cnJl"ntlcr, DCW 'CTTTlinol"11)'. New "'" n•• '" <mo'..1 ;n .... ny .... y.. SCi....i .... j>h iloo<>pIY .., and , heoIogian. , ,,,,li'''',,,,II)· (""'ion , ..... hub'}· by fomng ne>o. >hoot. fro... oM G .-k 00Lo, in
----<:'·<1)',hing f",, " "'........ b.tom .. ".ngOo-pI... y." \'~m>e_w...-Id'" T. ,m. on .1", "" ru ,;..;! "'·c. unch.ngc:d from . "",he. 1'''gu.g< where ,h.:y wc. r roi nrd . ml en
I
'0
'ion"."
' I"",;fi< rnedllillg'. like DII,";" .nd l~i'Krit' . Bu, ,h.,., i, .1I",her way 10 J <>r ,i"" ,he h;,hwo ind~ .. ,ib. blc . • nJ ,ha' i, '!trough ",etaphor. When . .. Iy Chris,i. n, tr ictl lO n p on.. new <...tIC< Good Shopherd of h" ....:... i,y, . he bi,hop •• 1»<'01 of .he f.i, hf..1 flock), e<>n'"<")"ro .n en" .dr ..., • .1 '00>«1": ' piri,,,,,1
''''''''"'f grounded in scr,·....,.nd ..eri~...
w.,
G Onte. Band ...... n. pc rh.ps 1I«.,,,c ho: I"im. rily in, • •a ,rd in how "I<.,ning' .rc """,.d .y ",I",,;..II)' hy ,Ilp« itlt . "ni ,cting Ge rm.n ",,,,,I • .,thor ,han.. n neologi"n" From ,h ~ ".n.1,,0.·, pc.. pte,i,'., 'he eh.lIenge ,hen i. ' 0 find C4u;v, \cn, Enllli,h ... m. '""I"Ufe B.oom.nn·, ' l_i. 1me' " I....'" and ., ,he .. m. , ime .cknowlcJ):e 'he li'e,.1 mc.ni nll uf ,ho: word,
,h.,
who><; 'ignihco,,'" I\,."dlllan " )"" <)(<<"d<:<:l, Sometim e. 'h o metaphor hn' worh, 'he met"]lhor!(.1 Of impli ....1 m,aning w,,," times m"k ~ . plicj" throu~h rep<,ition, of kc)' term . ,nd con«p" or p>renthetiml d.rifi,.tion, H.ndmnnn us.<s lOme ' l'P"ruch .. "form" .",1 - type: III tochniGlI w.y. that Me ha",d On hi • • rt hi . .nd metapho,_ i<,1 u"'g'" and will . !temp' '" make them mme mmpfthen.ihlc, The tem" th"' ho>'c p'o"",i m",' difficult t" tr,,,,bte ~n: pf<" iscly th"", m"., iminm,'_ I)' conn«t
I" f;"dy Medin,,/ A".h itc ..",,,, a; Rcu'", of Mcuning, Gfl' Of, ,,, ,,,,,1 '" " ""< ,1I"ISu.1 p,e! ill 'he Plnton;, kn"', Th< ' ,",cm ", .. >t".em< n! .,bo", ..."ne IX, ,,;cul,r and ",,,,,I ,10m"" 1><" "''' " II . Fin"lIy, the, '~' m -,"on",, " ,Ie"",,,, "II I''''tiwlo" ow,,1 ,10m',.,,, th o)' might 'ppe" on 0 po5'.c ' entitlod -Domo, of ,tt o World ." -I),,,,,,, <"me in.1I ';7.<> on,] , h'I""- i, un;,,,,,,,, lly ,mo, hut i, i, ,flte f>lnicubr ond (oncre" dom,... Ily con' ''''', 'o~ ,,"cmen' -the .10m. i" n imag< of th~ ,'ault of hc",'cn ,- ",fe,", in Ihnd",.nn', "" Y of'l""'ki ng, TO til< .h",.ction or ideo of tOe ,Iom<:
,f",
''')tI'
m",ko: ><)< til< notion u[ the chmch ~, uni,'<=1 ei ,y " f C,.I o"d " ,01",<,1'"" ~f ,he Hc,w own right, "'... trongl)' ,f· ("",cd hy th.: (0.", ,,[ the ci ty_ tn.,.., "i,u. l. ,tructur" l. , nd ,-,'~"ni"_"i"n,,1 markc" that m. "'l"irc,1 ""-",,,. "'en,"1 cntf,nc<' modeled 'H\ ci,), g"tc, .nd ],,,,.<1 .i,b .ui"hl" .ion •. TI,i. i, what IhnJmann me,,,, when h ~ ebim . ,h:" "'he me'"l'h u ' uf tho city h,,, fo,mal ,'on"'" . c,mh", Ie,,' .. , In.,,., ;WJn _ ,hu, I~~,,<. m,y be «.liS!ic.lly c.""xl. ". the c!."ic.1 Rom,m on<>: tigh tl )'
or""
""c
f", 1""""'_
"r.
,k" "r,<"
,h~
1"";'" of
o c,ft"on." 'h o Moft"'ingi "n o n"" Bu, wh"e"e' ,h oi, p",!;,inthi;m '"pi"k- 1'0"'" (e,g .. the column) hove id"" >tanding behin,I ,hem ("'''Pl'",,''\' while 1)'{>4 kg" thr Co:" i nthi.n capi",l) h"e ;""'/:" ,"'oding b C;m bear moo"ing>, The (i,,,,n«i,,,, I><:, w"",,, ')'1''' i. auci, 1 '" Bandm,nn', onalpi.,
«"''''
ro,m ,,,d
"'''r<
but it moy b< "nf"mili", to engli,h " fl<"kin~ rcatlcrs "e~""'xno:
,ro',e
w"'
Why the Uilitotl Stat« C.,pitul huil, with" dome" A,. parti cul,,, imtance of thc form We might ,.11 "monumental domed building," the Unit, ed S",,", C,ri'oI hoclong' to, venerable d,,, of "'"Ctme< , Thi. d,s> includ", Hod,i,o', P.,n,h."n in Rome. Cons.,ntine·, An,st.,i, Rotund, in Jom>alem, Ju,tini,n', ,hurch of Hagi. Sorhi. in Constantinople, Mi,hdangdo's ,,",_ Pc· to'" Ih,ili "" in R"mc, Wren', St. Pou l', Cothed .. 1in London, and M,m"rt', dlUrch of I "" I",·.,Iim in h•• «n. The di",ibu';()n of monument"1 domed rdigioH' rm ", the gr<." ki,·." "reh""" C.ny.", in New Mexico to the Tcmple of Heaven in Ikiiing would .1«", t.O ind i"t.c th" ,h i. perccption i. hard·wired in om ,pecies_ Ch, rl,.. Ilulfinch', plam for the fir" C,pirol in Wa,hington includtd 3 p,..,,,,iocnt tlomc_ Th i. "'., by no me,,,, • •df..",idont choice. The Capitol might h,1\'C b<;.;n r« "ngular like tho B,iti.h P~d i~ mont: it might h,,·o had a ~"'. <,-,lTc,,,! ceiling like. Roman la w (ourt: or it c()lJld hove been , ""mieir· c k lik ~ " R,Mmn tho"", tlv. fo.m , dop«d ["r ,h~ F",neh Ch.mbro .I.. 0.,. 1>U't'" Bu, th< form ,hat W", ch"",n W3S th~ oome, hi,herto , = ,,'. d for ",. ,wi ",u"""", "od thot ehpicc led ,hat 'he: "\'en," Th~ Amcrican dom", building "f,h~ lning of "tho Union_"
>I"''''''''''
It,,'.
In the .. ate c.pitoh, the form of the br!:" <.Iom«l buitdin~ wa, '''~ ('< )pi"I become of on)" me.ning the ""me·form might no origin.,1 ,ec"pti()n. R,ther, thc 'YP" of tho United S"ro, C>.pitol woo c""k<1 bee.,u,", of its phil"",pni<11 . od rolili<.1 ,ignilie, n"". Ir .ew"", n,.• " rho logi,r"iloch i, con ,inu"" 'OJ ."",«hing ofi" pri",iti'" <:<>smic me.,ning ond the weight of it, history in W..,I1,Ii".,1 wi,h in"'g<> ,h"r rh"", ,Ii",n! meaning •. S",.·....d.«,i. 0, p"i"'nll=;{)r" with 'h e der",,,,,",i, ""d rc· publicon "inues of ,no;en , Grtt« ."d Rome; .lIq;uricol."J h; ,wr ;o. 1I"i", . ing. consti,ute a >ccul" n,giogropo/ly and a poli,ic"l st"roon. The v"iou, "'f< wpies were ""vcr cnet r<prod"",;"n. of 'he W.. hing_ torl p"'''''n'''. nor were 'hey intcmkd to be. The prc>cnce of a dome OIl a leg_ i.la,iy< building mffi«d en' ure 'he 'ron'mitted meaning of 'he '),pe. B)' rop)"ing the 'ype of the dome of 'he Uni,e C. pi,ol. ,talc I.wmo\;~r> drew p"ra lld, not with he,ven. bu, with W",hingw", The exception ,ha' pro,'", , he ,ul<; , , 10< Nebra,ka >JJr< c' pi",l. ",h Kh k lf..""",:i,,",ly '1,,«1 fo, • tow« instead of, tate "riwi to th. notion. 1capitol ",a' irresi"ibl•. Ironically. by bcrorni"g a ' ypc. the domcd Icgi,la'i,'~ building was rcnder«! u",I<-" for .11 practical Purl"""" The 'p"C< thu. CO,'crM bec.m o .(Ou"i~lIy unu..,hk (, nd .. , lullow«! 'p"ee I"'rh,p, morolly uneomfort:lhk). ond :octu,1 ,Ic!>.,," 'o<,k rI'cc dsewhcrc. The impon~me of Bulfonch ', thofYu ghly !lCcu l" dome ««1 mc, ni,,!: .,nd ,«ribed • radically K
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Goo.- n,t ",cani flg' of ho.b fon'" ,'"<,e irr< ,·oc3hl)· mooifi. f,om lib",i", to "tr",I')ffi~ Fo,m. ,.., n anJ do become 'ypc'. bu, i, i, importa nt rec,1I 'hoI form. , 1\,1 'YP'" or" ,>01 ~\(. "' mc. MC":lningful . , chi.!i · 1«". fo,m,. ,\ goud <0"" !a ntl y "'"<'1lni:r..~bl< .ype. with il> cl."ic.1 pc. "Exp<<' .0«<.1 ,,'~ !on". 'he Clt>rlCl ton IOwn h,,,,'" with it< piau... , nd 'he Monlrd ' uw hous< witb i" ", i... Of • • 11 id<mili,iJle t)' P«. bu, .hc), hea, no me"ning •. Tyl''''. in , ho rt. arc 'ypic, l: thq am ,ypify. mc.ni,,~ 0' 'i mply he 'ypic. 1 of "lnc,1 build ing Ir.dition,
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Recep{;On The oI. ,<"< hni«:". The W"' enti ,'"'" he" long f"",,, f"\H ili ", m 1<1I" II,i"",)' .",I']'eo,y. because whik" I<<<1 0' ' ei« ,plie"i"" of tbi, i.I." to lit,·wllt< . h.,w~,·~,. b.·gon ""Iy in .h o 10.< 'if"". It eft_ tOf,~1 >rt hi",o ,y in th" ' 97<" and and emerged in {h. h;,{o,\" "f ",eh;_
roo:u.
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"'''''''0 "fi ll' in ,1" '9')'.,.1 Th< con"el" "f >ro!< " building ')'1'" th." hu, ,".. mified in ""'era l d iffc«nt di'«o'ion" 'hr Rom. " bo tlt . by CO"tr~ ... h.. ,,0 Si\eh continuou> tradi,ion. On" athing practice. h.,-< ch. ngc,1 kyo nd « «>g_ "i,io~ , ;"",. Ao, iqui, y, n,i." tbe older - tr,,,"ni ,,ion" I""'I,,-"<,i,'c: fo,m, I><"i" by inh",~m m om~fI\Um ...... pc'" 0", ],ct,use lh~y I"'e thot ITlOm< » ;,1 !I\< " '<> Ithy pi,,, ,nei, tomb; wuil.ling< tb"}' lik< .nd to tel"' .]u« .hem. ,\ "l.1u,.. k"", ~fl
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mausoleum. pos,ibi), h<:<.use mau .olc, are not c.;y til ~Jop. II' othe, PUT' p<>«<. More<>l'orn e ",he, impOrlon t f'O,"'n might w. nt to emul,.o ce nturie, iate,. Thi, i, the P''''pe<:ti,'c ,dop'od by moocm ""' p.ion .hwTY: .he m.ur ion. for from being p., ,,i,-,,. i" oQnsciO 'l> deci'ion . I,.,u. tho ", I,Ic "f ,h,- ,hing , <:«i"cd , A, in :t ",b y ,"CO, on",h or mnn! "ke the haton "'1(-1 (on,in",,_ ,,,".notimcs ,h < r~ ~'c ""'0,,1,unn ~'g< ' '0 nm wi,h rh~ ""ron. ,nJ ..,n""im~. n"bo ", ""fry it f, ,,hu. R"c~pt ion th,n ry therefore « mccrn, i""lf wi,h 'he ,<\lI.1Ii7., _ 'ion of ,h~ teX' or p-'iming ," hui l,ling in ,he min,1 "f the 'e>'ion i,"" " 1>«1 of re~doT ·r<'ponlcnti,J, of. t~x' in their Own bch,,-iuf . nd .« io n, _ Re« p.iQn hi;10r), ~,"mi n c, how r.,ding> chan ge m'cr 'he t« l., "te.,," in lhe " m< wo)". Ilt The Sdfi;h Gene. Richard Dawkins p'''p",Id ~k in on .neicnt tongue. one might ,i mp.lr . mile , nd tum the poge or decide ' 0 .pend , life.im . lo,,,n · ing the !.,ngll.,ge. In ,he r."" of .1rchi''''',!lI r< . Ih. moo, dll,,,bl . and "'PC"';'-" of .,n>, th.1I dfon <, n tong< f,o m glon,he.ie. intell ectual. philo. ,""phi«,I. )~,Ji,i,~J. r" . ny <., rnl~"",i",, of tho>< ,~d • "(}«~ <x)u: weal dirlTlO\J' in"estmcnts "f ,im<. cne'llY, and munc)' (}O .ho p"rt of e« lIb, ' Ille' ..
'0
Cbim The Ge,nun AIU/WWIt meo ... "d.. irn" or "ptnen,;on." In I4ndnunn', "'1;_ qui,•• ho ... ,=,""" di".ndy. Suoh prctens.ion '0 ""u' will b" ~k-(", ... tttpk """ing .o . ju._ .i« (Of .he 1""«' bo:-cuttti n~ ,,~ol\cl uf ,he h:al "'R;m~nl. ,,,,l,irti"lt in the >qu;,,,', pe'" j" church. I" • ""'",I)' <nofmoo,ly '''1><"<"1(111 ,,( ",dition•• " eh ., ,h". of ,h" Middl, Ag«. 1<~i,irn"cy mo .. be pe .. i.tcntly d.irneJ OIld cb im«! in ". v"l...,. .".. bed "'.~ mcon_ inp. Thi, d.;m ;. 'lur..: cant,etc.nd li'e •• I: ro """ form, • ...,..;.,'w with the Koman cmperot" i. '0 claim. on """'e ,....,,1. .h. offit" of em!,,,"" itodf.
nuI"', ..
AuJMbnt i•• tin with.n eX'.CI>ded m.. ning. A• • verb in <",,)·d.y di ......""'. it I". ""'",1 Ottmingly OCt ", id~:' •• • I,w m;~I" he "1(' " iJ,"; .nd "to ,tu,~ ,w,y. or p, .... One might "put 01' v"get.hk.- for ,he wiM"'. E"~ry G",m." di«i(>tl.:l,y hos mony "",fut iIl".." .. ion" AlohouJ;h not 0 Hegeli,n, F\o"dm.nn Hplicitly ...... ,he ... m in Hq;d·. ocnoc .... here all ,hnc CUflu,.jic' o'y mcaning ••..., """hined and '«OR~"8 iO"oIva ,he di_ .Iccticol . econo:iling of opp<>Oing ronttpts in 0 w.y by "'ising th" dis· CUll. '" to. hijthc. tcvel «rrnbincs . h. forme,l, conu"dictory ekmcnlS into . g""'"''' ' eD ['Ion of Solvation' . 1I"wod r,uri>lie Ch,i.«i.n; ,y '" e"comp'" ooh ,he F.;th and the Empire, while .t the .. m" .ime mo,fo,min): "'>lh. Some ••peelS of p,imi,ive ChristianilY .nd nf .he impe.;.1 ilk. We.e inc';IODly .""ndoned in .he r "><'''. but mOlt. ekmen .. .,( bo
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To " '·c " r<> the ",r\ier <<>m[>le of the United St,tes C'l'iwl, when (h< dome uf hoov. " (., .<>n)--two wdl ·k,,,, wn b,,( Unto' latwmu, ru,e;--" ,,,,,,,hing new \Va> created thot cornbinc«>ph y mu,lly tran,lat"" Ho~e\'< A uforou~g" ' ",ubi. · 'ion,", term ,h" c.nnot be ..,id to help 'he nnn' p« i;,l i" r<;"l c', 1« 1 1 ",,~ make l:I>ndmann', meaning tran ' paw", /kcau"" "f) ""ti'toc\ory Engli sh cqui,',len' h., been found, Auforb<~ ,no it> d~ri".ti'< f".m, h" vc b«n lef' in G. rm,n. The clement> of di,lC'cticol c"gog«TI O"t, r= H,
'0
IJauh",' i, . nother tcrm with no cx"'t Or e''1:n ., pp",x;",ote f.ngli, h "'Juivalont. Thc pcr"'" who ",ward. the build;ng ronrr",,'" Vlufi"'IIJ i, 'ho Aufilagg
wurJ we h;Ye lran. bt"" " "p"t""'. " The ratron ray' tbe bill' and ha.n legal, fin,nci, I, , nd >«i.1 rd,1t.m, h;p with the building proi«t. Bu, thc Bau~" (pI. Hauh.,.,...n ), 1i,.", ll )' ,k "lord of 'he build ing: i. the PC'''''' in lOn " ,h~ I""uilding, It i. tempting to u"" a term like "gene",1 l'k of<
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", Iuc! I>lu , h like ,1« p",d=r yf, mOlion I~"'''~' ,11< /Ia""~,.,\ ",1\<<1,<< 0 f"" ,un '>r an .....ga"i«",;oo, i, thr "n. "'fl<, i, 'rsprm;ibl, fo,- b,,'nein(( aboullhe ""jut, popical crin""c<, and i, i, no ""i. Although tho:: .u bde di_ I~i'it in B;md",,,nn'.< «x,, ",ing "I'(\",~ ." to cu"<, &~hcrr n,b ,r thi' ","" "t, tho:: Germ,n ' w !] Bauh= h;,; Ix<:" rola"x:J.
Indica'ing Hin,,ncrct~ th.n ei,her of th" ", ",o,d •. A HilJwt'iJ i, ~ n "i nd i".tor'" in the k nk of. n ceon"",ic indira'''r "r a di ,«, iu,,:ol , igr1 0' 'he . ide "f ,h. ",,,d. Whil < no. io i" d f., ru mm'"'I.., Hi,,,«,, unm; srabbl)' "poi"" to: "i",I' ",1(<-.<: u, "d r""" "" <,,,ion to" ",-,m.. hi,,!: 01", tlccmctl impu". ", . TI.< c.."i",hi;n "'1' iml, fo, e" "'ple, l'''in «,1 di'igu<)0l,1), ", Augu".n R" me, ,h~ c"lt,, ~ 'h.u "~",,,,I this 'Yl"" By e"~n,io n, it -"",,,I fo'" Rom~ .",1 . 11 th .. Rome "ood fOf, iu" 0' 'he «o"omi< indica,or ··".nd. for" a country', prosf"ri' f' Tne dome on a "ate c.pitollikewisc point< unamhiguousl y '0 'he legiola ';,'" m.ernc",m in W" hington, Hillw,jmJ has u,ually been tr,n, b,ed .. · i,,
Coining P';;gU"K nO. Ix<: " >'"Tiou,lf ".",1;"",1,. "'oil\i"g:' - .niming: "i "'pT<""i ng: "". mping: . nJ ""i.,ion' of ,nok lerm'. r, Iig>l"rf. In B, nd""nn', leT"" . ,h e form ,,'a, '''~mpcd'' wi,h • '1'<"<;1... mc,,,,ing. io", "' " coO" i.... ml>ctl wi,h ;.. J i"ingui;hing f<"IOTe< ,11., «I"f"", il< ,'"1,,<. h en , h" ugll i, " '"f , <mo i" in , i" "I;"iun (or , long ,im c, " w in
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Irnl";",i"g "" n I,.. \x.lh phy,,,,, 1 , nd figural;"<. While th< Cori,,,!,i,,,, c~pital i< lit~,"lly ittci« ()f .mmthus le.,'c<. (>ullin .. ,~ maining "irehit«'Uf~1 winag<> ()f An,iquity 1""""""",1 , .i mibr ten,t fllt · roofed Ro· m." oo,iI",,, defined the form of the ehu r
Deputy Vcr,,,,/,, m.y h< ,,,",b'ed ,. "ag< n'" or -fepre,""ntati,-c.- but Band"""n "Iso U><,< ,ho '""" Sull",,,,,,,,,,, which c,rrie.. , 'tf<>n~ >c n" or I>t n", to inoni",",". 'l'c< ific. ll), arehite" "'" 01. obj.:<:u, While ,h. "Kuthority .nd yu ..i_",aeJ I're"i~,<. In, . imi!;, r."hiY'll, Ron,",n , ",luted the empewr". portrait . s i( it w
If""""
<mperu" portrai, led hi, into 001110. Hi , phy'ico.llikcn<'" ()" euin, gu"r"",<<p".k wi,h til< ."t~·, ,'oi,e, l1w: deputi'ing agmt ,,<:,,< «p'es<:m, fhe king', ruling plt"",n« ",'en when it,. <mpt)'; ,h. 1"',10,< f~p",-", n" 'he m()n.,c.h ev~n when unoc< upicd , Mos, Uni,ed St,tc> cmrcnp,ndcd ", n", ho> u,ua ll), b«,,, tra,,,I,,<J ;" -d< ruty_- If , uon l"',,,,,,iiicotion of , a inaaim.. e ""i con <0")' me,ning. Th. ";"-0,"1 W'j' in w[,i
()r.
Wmbau Wmb.m (pI. Wetlbuuun ) Ii""ll ~ "'e."" ,h o ··",ucturc. huilt at the w<"crn onJ of.tt edifi«: It i, ne.t unrk'''ood ,~ fd"rring to all the .rchi,«wnic >tructurc< that oro h,hi""II )' Woup<.1 "round ,h, .... ",km
and "rtruer"",' """,.. ion all)' but u.ually in a
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In ito or;g;n.1 ;n soy on in'imidating on •. Th. CUtrent ,'cr_ .ion ttie> to wear ,h.. form id,hl~ ,nd <"".ordinarily wide.tonging scholar . •hip • linlo mot< ligh'I)" Th. perv.,ive Ge"''''' ~Pf""~I'," bibliQgraphicur h •• bee n "" n,·.,,m. pI. which oblig",~ ,he rc."kr '" uS< on ,ux. iliary bookm"k, Gunter Bondm.nn·, origi n.1 f"",nnteo nby.d w;,h th.1I on . "pho"al rcio,ionsh ip, indulging in 0 di.logue with hi , r."d.", Often, foot""tc I.d of (01)' a phr.« or a word or ""<'. ' gl"" "n 'hc p"rcn' text. not .. document:rry or bihliog",phic .. ference. Th" I>ockootc. Ukl •. 'he rcaJcr wi ll find ,h'l 'mny of 'h< «1, ,hi, i, perh.ps underst,ndahle. For ,hi, ".,,,,I.ui,-,,,. the original il1um"ion. h,,'c bc.:n teu;n",l, but thoy h"e b«n 'nltio",. The... tOt>, ha« b«rt r were 0<>' t""cd con,iS!entiy. l , .nd the m,in h.,ding< ,rc 1,,,«.1 in 'he ,"bl. {Or com.n«. a, i, euw,m"y. In the I." ,h'pter, "The I).din. ofSym_
,,,,i
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holie .nd Histori"l Mo.ning: tho OLlhh",d •• ftcr the fi,,, heading, "Rdorm ,mJ Sc-cul"izotion" ho,'c l>
Joser I:!Iihr. The to"' conrain, rdc,"oc<:> to litcr>ry gniu ,,,d thu, idemir.",I ..",I)· hy • p;"«n I.f, in th.1t form. on lh •• "umplion that"n ox,,, refer
A,cit;,,,,,,,,,,
Kendall W.lli.
I The Problem of Meaning in Architecture
~' E F A1; T TH A T CE RT A I N II UI L D I "C, FO II :" I .';
T p resen t in ce rtain per iod s o r a re no t is an im pon :lnt are e ither
as pect ,)[ mcdicva l archi tect ure tha t has not hn:: n
~ urfi
cie nt l}' app rc::ci:u cd in art hisw ry. Thost: responsible for the bu il d ing's ex istence-whet her lo rds. monasl ic orders. ( ilies, o r m hcr ind ividual or collecti ve panom-e ither selccled :tnd promoted specific bui!d in ~ for ms fro m Ih e rq)crto ry of for rns t r; tns m itted fro m the 13:151. or th ey rejected Ihose fo rm s. An historica l n::sca rch. howcver, has p rinci p:lll )' co ncc n tr;llcd n n del,.ilc:d ohsc(v;ltiu ns or p hcnor m: n a such :I.~ th e mod ifiClti on o f ;tTchi lt:Clura l furms withill reg ions o r pe riod s :l nd the int crrda tionships betwee n sc hools and regions. peoples a nd eras. a nd has in vestiga ted these dow n to thdr tiniest ram ifi c:ltio ns. T he in vestig:ttio n of a problem such as o urs docs not beg in with sume k inc! of stylistic e)(plo r:ltion of huild ing typt:s in n rde r to produce a logical arr:mgemem, either by com pa ring thei r variations on the basis of stronger or wea ker formal d ifferenccs or by exam ining rhe geographical or chronological coo rd inates of lhe works of art. On the cont rnry, nu r in vestigation will wke as its ohject th e simple f lct th:lt iI spec ific g round pla n (or vaulting. col umn. or gallery) ('xisls. No chameleon-l ike K"'lSutJUlfm l is sufficient to explain the crc::u ion. reception. or rejection of a type; such a force is satisf:lclory on ly itS an incent ive fo r in iti ating ch:tnge wi thi n tht: lYIX·.1 Hathe r. rcl igiou.~. political. sociological . a nd other such fac l()r.~ O!'t;Til\ing: in the larg:cr histo ry o f mank ind arc d ecisive: filT the selectirm of the lype in the first pb cc:.
16
TllE
Just
PROBLEM
OF
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1:< .\!
the recognizahle concept of Kumtwollen might explain the steady de\'{~loprnent of a type toward ;J recognizable "coinage" or its modification but cannot explain why a form might be received from the distant past or from an alien cultural context, so also invoking "habit" (the unconscious retention of transmitted forrns) is not a lways sufficient to explilin persistence in the use of a specific ground plan or in the shaping of masses. I n order for its phenomena to be understood, medieval architecture must be firmly simated in the context of the period's conscious respect for tradition. As f:lr as works of art are concerned~and more particularly works of architecture~this outlook takes on a much more profound significance as We come to undCrst.lnd the meanings that Jetermined the r~(eptinn or rejection offorms. Those meanings can be deduced only partially using methods such as the comp
the obvious ital ian relationships I() tri\·i:l lities and turn ing the roll/aci"I into wanderin,lt uonc:workers. si milar to the iti nerant Il;I li:ln bborcrs of thl' nineteent h cent ury. J Even tu;llly the question was r;lised whether Speyer ( ::nhedr'l l might h'lvc pn:d;lteci the rdated northern it.ll ian buildings. and whethe r. CU Il tra ry tu t'x pe:ClOl tions. the Olrchiu:cUJrc: of northe rn ItOl ly might hl! vc Ocen m! fld ed by thcSali.Hl arc hitecture ufthe uppe r R.him: (Plihri ngcr 193 1).'1 Strn ngly ch;lrged with nalion:llisl grudges. schularly research arrived :It this conclusion withoUl ever h;l\'in~ shed ;my ligh t on the historical reasons fo r the ex istence of those forms in Speye r. U llIil f{·ccntl y. the out k" fk of a rt hisLOry seems In have suffered (r{)ln a weakn es.~ or. more ;lCcur;ud y. a n inhi bition that has prevented it (rom int rod ucing, alongside ;m exceptionally well -developed sensitiv ity to the change and devd opment of for ms. a corresponding unde rst;mding of the cont inuity of ;HI imprinted form. In other words. it seems to 1;lCk ;1 percertion of wh at re1l1 ;Lin s rccognizably cun sl:mt throug h()ut ;IIl the 1llct:1Il1Orphoscs of a fmlll and what, in m()~t cascs, was [he main rca son for the reception of thc form in the first place. The trad itiona llll crhodok,!,'Y took ~c netics fo r its mode! (Ti;wt· J()39j. In recent decades. it h.ts been su hjected to cri ticism that has upened up 01'1>o r(Un ities ror posing new q uestions (some exalllpies among many: Kihchclt 1938; Andre 1939; Evers 1939: KraUlhc:ime r 19pb: Sed lmayr 19-1 &1, 1950; Smith 1950). R:llhe r th an explain ing the e mergence of arch itectuml components :I S th l: n;suh either of K 11lISfwo1l1'f1 or nr thl· ch;lI1ging W:lys III which sha pes or cle ments of surface rdief or dec(muion an~ rormea- ways perceptible to the eyes alone- this newer criti cist1l consickrs these compone nt s in the contex t of the forces that compc1 the meaning with in ;l work of an IU manifest itself. In othe r words, there is an effort to rei nstate wha t was trul y char:lcteristic of medieval arch itecture- th;1t it was no! so much the: :!nisl, bur rat he r the patron who was of decisive importance. We m USt also assume. however, that the meani ng the architecture held was intended tn he Ha nsmined , ,lOd tha t therefore the primMY concern of the person responsible for the building. the Bauhur or pa tron . was to imprint the form with me:lning and to bri ng abo ut the pe rception or th at mea ning through the instru men t {)f the arti st's hands. [n rhe Middle Ages, if rece ivcU forms laid claim from fhl:i r ca rliest occu rrence to a sym boli c meaning. ;l1ld if the transmiut'd c()nfigur;l ~ tions of the past cou ld be appli ed in support of symbol ic rela tionships the P:I t ron wished to reasse rt by means of a similar represent.nion (Kr:lUtheimer 19pa :l ff.: Paat z t9,)0). then those rorms we Tt: ag;lin ut i lized .~ T hus il was the mea ning contai ned withi n these rorms that dele rmined their attractive ness, which meOlnt that tradi tion limi ted the sclectinn- ;lIld. evcn more so, the creation--o f new ty pes. H owever, thl' spec ial rcl;ttion ship
IS
T UE
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MF. A ~I t< G
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of the Middle Ages to form, together with blent region.1l.1nd temporal artistic forces. so enlargt'd Ihe possibilities of variation within Ihe type that formal congruence between copy and type can actually be ohserved in only very few points even in cases where written records explicitly st;l[e the huilder's intt:ntion tu receive the form and cop}' the content. Recent research in the a rea uf:1 rchitectur:ll iconogr:lphy h:ls ;nrived at these conclusions, but these nndi.ng5 h:n'e not been applied to the l:lrgl'r contexts of architectural history, nor has there been a description of the spc::cinc beb:lVior of the Christian i'.'liddle Ages vis-a.-vis the n.""ccption o f building form s. and that is what we will attempt hert:. To what degree did tht: meanings :I lluded to e:lrlier change durinA" the Middle A!-!es~ \Vhat new meanings wcre read infO rhe fortlls ~ Did tbe church and the empi re behave differently? Were the types aln:
The Essence of Me~ltling Various circumSTances 1t";IJ people
to
:lCcept th.\! "Ihe huilding" as well ;\s its
parts may have specinc meanings. These circumst:lnces ha ve had important
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conseq uenn.:s fu r the sdenion of the cumpo nents ,_o m prising the h tlil, li ng ;I ~ well as ji,r their execution. T hese me:mings ;In: nOt concerned wi th ~t;tl i , pe rlilrrnallcc in the huiIJi n,l:'s tl·, I(>Il i ~· rd alj"llships, nur d o dll:y rd ah: to the a n istic me rit or si,t::nifican ce o f thl' b uildi n,t::. for that arises :mcw in each ac· tLI:ili ;wtio n IIf a fo rm. The mCJning~ ,ITC: I'ery much of an a prinri n,lI L1 rC in th at t h ~·y jlo int Illward;l higher n llltrnl, lOw;lrd;l spc.:cinc Cf.lIlt cst\laliz(·d .l~· soc iatinn of ideas. III tilt: Midd k· AJ.i e~ . mC:ln ing parti cipated in the making (I f a \\" ,rk uf an to o ll1e ar ra n~e m ent
withi n a wid er nex us of idc:l s that tra nscends Ih .... mat erial and form al organ izat ion of the work o r art. The realm of r h ~ art istic i~ fr:ln ~ sccnded in that tht: work of :ITI co mcs 10 he understoud as a rm:r aphor. as a n:present:Hive, as the rn:!! c r;" l crn;m:tt ion of somethi ng el se. T I1i s ; d l u.~ i o n is alwa ys present if th t: work "I' tiT! IHlrtra ys. Tl'llfeSl,nt s, (lr "indi cates" ~ ",n t· thing, "t\ symbol does not have tu Ilt: a work o f a rt; ind eed a work of art C:ln. by mean s of the comexi Ilf its Jllc:lllin~, h:tve :l symbolic clTcct that is 11.)t :It all (or not exdusi vdy) due to its natur!," as :lftistic object" (Fre), 1l).J fiti :l. l). T his ~ ymholic charaner is not jusl some special fo rm o f an. howeve r: it i ~ the precond ition that [onsti lUies ;J rt . II is neither an accid enta l nl.r a hackgr.,u nd phenomenon but thl' property Ih:11 integrates the whole. The importa nce o f this symbolic cha r:lcter of a rt lies in the \,:Iryin,l.! dl" g rees of inte mity wi th which, at d iffe rent times. the work of art eng.lges with a highe r mea ning and the \':! rying d eg rees to w hich th~ power o f thi s high l: r meaning can be preStrH in the wor k of art. T he possibili ties range fmlll id enlity ofl hc mcaning with the object that embodies it to purely spec ulative and dia leClic:lI!), based associations applied to it by the beholder. In earli er limt's , the v:Hyi n).! d cgrecs 10 which the work of art partook of th~ s pcl l - b i nd in ~. magical esscnCt,ofits model d d lned the necessilY la r the wo rk o f .. n :lnd b id the fl>u nd:l tiu n for. in C. F. \'on RUlllohr's phr:lsc. "the jlI)sitiun 'If ti n in tht.: spiritua l economy of m an." "T he soc illlugic il fu nerton of a rt is IXIO(Cd in the sym holi c" {Frc}, rg.j6d:21 ).
2()
T il l!
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OF
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IS
A M,: IIITIOCT l' lI £
.>\ work of art has the cap.1city of "poim ing Inward" or "being indicati\'c
somcthing-a ca pacity ofbcing the:: spellbind ing or enchanting emh<xlime::nt of somcthi ng. This capaci t}' J cpc:nds on the cxtem 10 which the work of art "denotes" and is equipped with spec ific formal char:lctt'ristics--C\"cn inscri ptioll5- that ensure instrumenta l efficacy and establi sh the con nectioll5 with th at to which thc work of :m points. As the ;lnduoIXliogic;11 context in which the \vork of art se rved as an instrument lor enchanting ;and "binding" a higher idca 10 physic:!! matter altered over time, that higher meaning, and c\'entually its very existence, fell into obli vion. In Ihis process. the work of :I([ freed it ~ lf fro m the goal and obj ~'cl uf ils fo rmer co n text and became :In ohjecti ve creatiun. :In :lest heli,alIy enduring composition. The reconstruction of that former context should becomt' the primary ,oncern of art history. Even if the clucid;ltion of the prin1<>rdi al me:1ning of the work of :Lrt dues not seem ro S:ly much ;1!xlUt its inJividu:ll constituent qU:l li ties. it nevert heless provides infurll13fion of the highest impflrtance for undt' rst:lnding why this form or that form is present in its typi c:l] - as opposed to indi vidual- m:lIlifesr:uion and why it was sclected from the transmitted rC:["leriory (If fo rms and was em ph:lsized in pa rticula r \Va}'s. T he point is nuw 10 limit thc problem of meaning 10 a specific subject and period: to architecture. because architectu re diffe rs in cena in ways from aU the ~J th e r arts. And hert' \\"l" llso come 10 the Middle Ages. to the extent thaI they ca n be d istinguished from Antiquity :1 nd thc: J\'lodern period, al ways bea ring in mind that thc Midd lc Agcs "ullflu'b('u" Antiquit)" in the H egelian sense. Because our own "mythi c" commit men t toward the now profaned objects is a tten uated. we na\'c now;tdays only ;1 very in:l(lequatc sense of the sym bolic. and we undcrstand it in ;In ahstractly intellectual sense :1$ me re allegory." It is only through the study ,-,f primi ti ve (prehistorkl and a r, hai, (ea rl y historic) wnditions thai we ,an undt' rstand the growt h and existence of the sym l~:Jl i c and its particular rel ationship (0 the ;Hchi tecturc of the Middle Ages. For ea rly cultures. rh e aCI of designating:l particubr form to reify a givt' n meaning, which was then embodi ed il1th3t thing or sh3 1"lC, and then impri nting this form on phYl;ical m:l1 eri:l1 (ll),I!ethcr \\"ith acwmpanying artistic dements), represented something quite t'xtraordinary. To borrow a lerm from Rudolf Otto. the act of depining mea ns putting- a spell on som<:lhin~ "n umi nous:' In the process of re-crc.1Iing a nd conserving thaI numinous some::thing. a dcAccting of irs power, indeed a d isem poweri ng or what is depicted, happens in the here and now. T hese arc the tools and instruments of prirnc\'al people who thought only in images anJ responded through images? (Jr'
Thc reality of the world of im.goo Ower ove r the world of n,1f"re hy rendering the indf.hle "i,ible, Mme .u; .. blc, more -ur.. icc, or. now ,v.il· .bl e . on"" that no long., I"rl.kc oft h•• ph .,e ofth •• rti,tic.' l:lc"Us< of the in",umemal ,haracter uf ,hese -.i~nifying" and "rneon· ing" fottn" ,he imcractiun of the bdwld.. wi,h the wurk of art was hardly a noi,'e une. Rother, 'he OOser .. r originally engaged in an .tutypo>, and copie •. Hawe"Cf_ .nd thi. primarily cancern. higher cul _ ture> with their differentiated, ".nKcndent•.! rdigia<>ible for the work of art to h< on inotrument thot ill<1$tr"<> and indicate> ",mething Mnohjoctive. 0 comprehen, i" e concert of .n urder that is not bound '0 oojcc", . uch .. til< kingdom of. furmb. god he. d. for exa",plc_t USin.., in thi , ,ho im"g' doc> not expreu til< whok me~ning but r>ther [>Oint< .ow"d i. and ,lInd .. . o it . •iI< rneUphm i< chu· >ct." of the meaoing co", .. ,h . for •• 11 the d ••1tly. The work of art Derome' the "m"tJphoric.1 circumlocution of, taboo' (Worn" t9IW. " For 'he Middle Age •. the coneept that "on ideo .. kes precede",c over the con _ crote char. cter of. vi,ual fcpre""o"tion" (Hegel) w" "i ll ch>rged wirh cf. fico'ed a rt b. d the power ··to bind invi.ibl< , piri" to the corpore.1 materi,l of vi,ible objcc"_" Works of >ft thu, bee.n", "like the bOOies of ido),; eert.in >eductivc .piri" dwdl in the"" im. go ,hat arc not ",ithout powef to eith.r injure or to g,ant certain wi,hes to thoo< who . how them divine honor'- (IIorin,\:i ' 9 1 t~'92t:l 5ff)."
c.'"
,0
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The Medieval Work of Art Ther. i," primary. prein",um~"'31, nonr,gurative "' f>«"' to the work "f Ort th." owes n",hing to ito ' J><'Cifico ll), artistic dimen, iuns. It i, the power-filled object tha, we .. ill know--in . n "embalmed " form~J ' an amulot . The lat· ter'. effiOldy in it> e~i"en ""''"' ''P' (wuw
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'933; Lowy '930; K.ochnit7,· Weinn.:'g '944' $chi.,..." '9'7f:" 9' H"llo"gh '9'4:63; Happ '950) In .1 oceond ."ge. the work 1<»<> it> cuenti.1 immooi.1cy .1nd hc<:"m.,. ". I"w w ,he "in.: ," ,,' an .mhrupO"lO'phi 'hrOllgh thi •• ignifying, thr<>ugh ,,,rr),ing meaning. A, 'he U me ,imo:. ,he>< im.ge ••1", become .. ,,,lli«, of. g"OIer, fmmle« .,crcdnOl and ore pfovided wi,h form. 'u which me.ning i. ,scfibed, "In con"." tu the f«i,h. ,he wurk of Or! i, un ly!he ",hid. uf artiotic meaning; in reali,), who, i, mean< ,nd what i, i.,rc nor une and the '''me" (Frey '!I-!60 :88). W. c,n re_ ally ' I'",k of, "wuf k of "n" o"ly when ""lOf"Ii,';. form. Of' . ppli«l to on "nre,li .. ic >li""lIy cfCaled. The form thus bc<;e>ma th< vehide "f the eQnten'. Thfough il'l m<Jniltg-the meonin);, ,hot the work of "n hoth .)'mboli _ ""lIy ;ndic.toJ .nd repre<ented---'h < m«li<".1 work of.ft wo. fill«l wi,h powe, and Cuncrel< fe,I;,)' "ltd wa, more inten,ely ,ff",i"e ,hUn on ubje," intended merdy ... me .. phof, "1 n tl>! ohjcct in r.. lity beeom" iden,;,,1 with wno< i, Illc~m . ... Through 'he inseri",ion of 'he n,me. the consccra'cd ".rue thu, become, 'he pcr"'n him;clf, ... h m>l only repreocn" 'he pefron nu, [>"rt,k", of him" (Frey ,,,,,60:~).
tt,,,
No
h i. ,ypico l "f 'he MidJIe Ag •• o"J Jemon"'''" the concre .. I",wer of 'ym_ boli, form. 'hm ,h... itn"~", ,,'" unl)' ",,'«1 for 'he inmlKtion of'h< reopi<. bu, hoJ 01' "nrOT«<.n jU>lifico,ion fur their <xi"0 .. telli,,, of,lte ",oem! • .,d do no' Owe 'heir origin to. f", in".n«,
dida«k inlention, ,' ~ The iig ur.. pla",d far from human ~)'''' in til< toW" rs of" e",,,,,1-- « . " ill , h,,,, wi,h th. pr. -C hr inian O,itioned where it i, n()l ,i. ibk inyokco no ra,i liod mncO<),I. on the ..... hole. to.n .d"nce,1 10gi~"I -<'U"tl way of thinking), Roth",. i, ho< ",oro to du with the working. of.n old-fi"hiunN. magical ,tti lude and bd iel"" (H"nbub '9j8;,). The "atUll of the rhy.i'~1 fo,m _ thO! i" the work of ~rt" ohject_ ",<e to the ,Ie_ gr .. th .. the . tat<m I~, wc r. migh'. "nd ine lToblcn.". Thc <mph"i; on the "w., of h"m .• <> ,,,.,,i,·i,y. 1:\0.>.., ,,,,, W(" h.we forgOltcn th. m•., oing, of (h. fo""'----<.,, 00 loog<_, r=>gni? ,h"ir ' 1"' "o,,-<>c.,1. Thi. i. 1,.._ ~,us< only th. m.dium of the form, of p'''''ious epoch. is p"",m (0 " ' . • nd w. ml,,"k~ i, for the ",,,,nee (Ted,""u 'YJ~)." We or. , h. , cfo,e indined to postul ate 0 un ified con« pt of on that bo::comco ma""'ingly inapp' <>p, iat< the f,nhc, we go b.ck into thc p.1St. '" I, is onl y when oni,u , lfi," to p,oduce 'he arlw"rk', effec! pri",,,i l)" br meam of vi.ual ",eJi , ,hal" <'>n<)" ,",io(1 "f 1""1""'" r,oo" ,,,,,h . , ", pl•."u ,. _ Th i, plc"ure in (he work of an".1 form., I,(ruO',if:,lo hy",p"" · iog the form, 1on" "".,ne,icali )' objectified O'" thus m ooUfag< thc ,ecognitiun of artistic exp,e5.ion a< «>me,hing from the "," of hu","n '
' 1'""
tk tion (Frey ,~ 6 h) . Thi. prucc", in which edue,tod pe<>pk c.mc to rcd onl y .n . e"he,ie rel,tion. hip with the im. goo of 'ho god., had .1 .... t. ken pia"" in I.". Antiquity, wIN:re any rc.1 w~. left to the rn,,,",' (Schr,d< ' 9.W"" 940b;;U4fT.1. Ht;tweo n 'h o 'rli,,_ cich in f.nta. )', honored .. . croator-"Ol nd 'he lowbrow craftsm.n who i, merely c~ rrying commi"ion w ~' :llccody ~,·ident. C hri"i.n, criticiud thi, new ~"'thotie interpretation uf the work of ." .nd ,h. eme' gen« nf . new ""me "f tIN: cult .. ~ .rly . , the = " nd '~ ntUf y (Schrark ' 93~ ' ~<>haIOff). I:lemard of Clairv.u~ , .'" J d.nger in valuing wh.1! i, edifying ond boeou" tiful in the "'''rk of art, " Wha, i. ""au,if,,1 i. more odmired th,n who< ;, holy" (Magi. mirOntUf pulchra yu,m "e , o)!) Thi. <>pinion ",uuld ""'" boe ~ n the ri< in the hi,,<>ry o( >rt that the w" rk of ort heg. n taking the human eye into consideration ,nd po),ing p:1rtieulor attention to its ph),.iology. P' ''?<,", .ibcd !o the or," ",o,k" (LOtzd«" eun. id < re cl ,h ~ f,"'he.. r~mo,'«l (rorn "pUTe
n,;,
"u' "
CU"" P'
.rt" (Schlo<><: r ' 9'4. 1: 57). I n kC'C ping with the fu"J 'LT11<",.lI y .y mbolic tha"no, of meclie val ~. pre""ion. the puss ihiliti" io,l se nse ~nd in thc . cchoie. m~gieal >e nsc-the (orm ol pkasm e in or" ti"icall y . haped objet" and th< wur>hip " f holy thing. in connoction with the cult_ were ,imultoneou.ly pre><'" ill the early Middle Ages (Elli!;"r '9)0, ' 934: Lodno r '9.1,,,fT.r" and "1,,,-, in thc tim~ uf Ch,rlemagne (B'''gen ' 9! ,:6jfF.; Dclrm 19z8) and in the ,im< " f Bernard of Clairv.ux (Wei , bach '~5:n), Reformer< of . 1I period. did nnt ~ctu,lly turn .g~in" an •• • mh, hut . gain" both ex!re"'es: .g. in" ,he p,,'el), >en'"al plea.uro in all ,h;ngs--even in th"", onnnected with wor. hi p-.nd ogoin>! ,h. liturgico l """"hip of im.ge< thot noth ing hoI), within them.~ O n th o one h.nd. ,h e "",r. the .ymbol'c. indicoting . en >e cli"ip"ed. tho m"r. btitude w • • given to the play of f.nt ..y within 'he fo.",. On the ",he,. ~, the ,),mbo] grew ;mo . n inor. >jccr, the form', "' phere of .cti",, " , imultaneomly
ooro
be<",me re",;eled, und III< im,ng ible >'olue of it> awheli< oITo<' w"' 'al art came w be delimited by the.e two e.trem. po.. ibili,ie>, which h.,'e I\istori,al, reiigiuu., "nJ anth ro_ ~ogic.l .igni/itedly, medie>'ol >Tt sctm. to be pullod .c[('so the bo"kr be,w""n 'he twO b)' historic.1 e,'en" and Je"ciofHTlents, either back to the ma~';c, ohjoct_bound ,rt hy newly >Tri"ing peo[>loo (m.inl)' h)' the Ger_ m,nic propl«)" Or forward through tion to an .esthctic.lIy h• ..,d nonobj=;\,e an_Huwev"r. as long .. "n '. 'phote of ne,ion was pr;marily dc_ «'mined hy ,he fundomC"I,1 principl« of Chri"iMi,)" med,e>'ol an re_ t.ined it. 'pe'<' ,,,"1m because of on)' legilima"), uf its own; rather~b"se'i.ibie, purified ro~«",ion of the hoa venl)' o,der [Koch '9' i:l3-~; Elliger '930;70). If we Ore willing to ,lIow tha, divinc power es) >tern from God', hond and rotnt to him, He i. 'he "primal image of all im.ges" (Origon, Contra CriJum, 8.1 7- 19, quoted in Koch 19' 7:~o). Any image oreated hy man, however, i, inferior to the prim,l . piritual image , become i, i, made oul of peri.hable m.tcr ial. Chri ... i,nity Ii", h.d to rcj~'l tho pos.ihili,y th,t "oa,.d image. them",lve. could contain magical gu.litio., that imag'"' .r= OUI of thom",h',", and could bc: ",,'crcd in thcm,civ,"" not just" ,'chid •• 0' bridges, a. likcoc" or indic.ot ion .ll The natu", of or' .. repro«n..,ion comple,. l)' det.rmined it> pos.ibilitic< in Christianity. At the sam< lime, thi. ".. rviceat.le" naturc of art ju"ificd its ,,"'u._ Th31lhi., understanding of HI w•• f''''l""nt Iy "",ndoned fmm ,he fourth c,,,,ury '-'" i, ronno<< ",.1« ,,, 1"0"',"< the: ,pi,;tual notur~ of Chri.ti,nity from rcerude,
r«ord . "nd bind. the 'pi,it, "ffc«.d '" .nd l. r, if< ,,"mp LlI~J n il ," A, " r,,_ , ,,It or thi' "'''Y of thinking, the "'ork of "" r.o\ll~ f>e in toc ir cOflfrontation with thooc unron'Kiouo .nimi"i<; curront> tlw wminu" ll)" ori", ."d from whi< hetw«n tlld< tW,-,""""" ,"elrl< 'pi,itu,li"", . <1J "fI«,u>c it indude< both the magical .nd the rational , each in it> own w.y. The C",h<>lic Churffmm the di,,,,n,ion that woo .ubsequentl), renewoo , It did h<>ld firm on ()IlC d<"t",iou. ,horing_ would, oyer the " "''''' of ';me, h,,'c oc.:n dc>troyro ond woold h,,-c \x;come ~ mere ,ymlx~, "~I"}' much l ih th" Aeeting memorial . igo ...,me in ,h~ EIl,h,1f i" ,,,,by_ Ikrcngar'> co""'ptioo of the Eucharist (mid-<,Ie"cnth « nlU'rl i, ,haracteri;ric uf tho ' )'mbolic structure uf me,;!i.",1 th''''gilt (Lori " " ' 9J 6: I SIT.) and toc",rore .1«> ufthe m«.Iicv. 1conceptL"n or Ort. He 1.<1,1 tn. t th. bread " nd th. bud y and wine wer. ,,~d y s.-.c",me",;tl, Or>( ,h,· mat erial .,ubolOn.. blood or C hri>!. "Sacram ental" he« m. an, ... ,m. thi og like ""n"I,>g<~" tu: -. tlO)>< f" r," ,,' "(une, i"ning like " . ign " or "s ignifying __J' Oue '" it> .' pi ri1\l,,1 ohomcter, tho , ymbolic--the , ign _likc-----<, me to L>c much .nor<" highl y "01 · ucd th.n tbo I~,y.iml presence of tnc trwori,1. Ikrcngar j"stifreJ Iti. opinion with dinloctic and gmm"'.tical eXpl an"tion. , Thi; « ".",din,,;I), Ingh c'· t",m for the word ~ •• medium c'p,ble of "'pr=nting .",1 ",.I;z;ng m,tter wi,hou, 'he How, of re.1 oxi>tenoe c.n Ix: traoed h.:rck to the , ,,umptioo that I.mgu.' gt" con e,dude "yil- the " t,n;o ekm,nt inhcren, in ,11 e."hly <xi , . tome. T he thing;, purified in tho , ymlx,\.!J Thu •• in 'he Chri~cl. mcrdy indi","i ng .,nd "'''' ing it_ Wocn 'he ,ymf.c>l por· ,r.)" ",aterial, e",'hl)' thing" howev. r,;, place,
=
"r
divlflc
""kr,"
A~s! hetic
Meaning
What kind, of mc>ningo adhere ,n the work of art, and whO! CO" "'''Iu
",,,,,\inll" h". in """,,,,on i, tim tho)' indicat< <>< 1"';1\\ '" ",,,,ct hing , What they point to. ho",",,«, bcl<>ng' to wi< inrl i.idu,,1 me.ning. wi ll be treJ!ffl e'te",i •• l)' in th~ """iun; "',,' folk)w. H0 thor wmcthing ou"id" rhe >rtw,,,k c,n he gr"pcrl , nd hecom~ "i, ihk ''on of the. work of ,rt. in ;",I.otion from ,," ,·rythi ng d"" i, 'oken", ,he " It;"m~ ~,,,1. TouilJin)!: entl ;Oltaitt i. to rcl'''''''''' i,,,,1f ,,,,,I i" ","'e rial ju"ly. wi,huu, f"l", l',etp,op,iatcnc>. of the rhythmic pottorn •. Those lied IiI« rn.1Ik< with no consider_ ot ion of .ny indi cating mconing, they n",y onco ho". horne. Th"" wo.. i,, deed. no ",nc:I'jff,j. Wh«om< tho h;~h<" outhoril Y .nd , guol in 11,<",,,,,,".,..'"" Since ,he ninet«nth century.•11 ",,,,itivil)" for orchit«"" ,1 el«n
1lI
II . . " " H ' "
0 .
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M< ,here for "oo;,«tu,,1 PU'POleJ, wi,h contriv.d oonmuctions' (Hobsch ,8,S), Sime the h hocn to d;m;n.1t. , u,h cr;teri, "' color. orn,ment>tion. , nd column pattern. ;n o,do' to obta;n, "pure ' building. As .th;,, ]]), ,nd "ti"i<~]])' clo.n .. thi, ,ej<:cen determined by the .fti.tic impli,,· tiun> ufthe cun«pt uf ,h . organism, which has becn aWlied tu a,chitectu,e ,f'e, the foct , The purpose of tIM: building and it> ,ttltic requir.monts provide 'he limi" within which a free, ,rtistieally comei,'cd form (an be opr.o>oOO,JI In p.inting and ""u lrrure. , n emph"i. "" tIM: uniG"" .nd unch,ngo.i>lo, pu_ ,ified from .,'ory ex"a·.rti"ic consi dc,otion , c.n go to ,ueh length, that tho t."k of illu,t"'ti"" disappo'" complctol)'. ,nd ~vof}' ,.btion,hip th>! p.:". take. of -p<.k_ giv<s birth to the «I"tio", uf ,h. >'"'" of the picture to on. am.. he,. The o\>. ",,'er e.porH:: nct. the picturo ,wt through the lugio of oompMi,on wit)' • mood but through the picture'. imm«liate odd,u, to hi, "inne, .. If: which «.pond. to colo" .nd ;hof'<". n'l! to. "tional .upc"tructuro meo;llrcd b)' me.ning (Rothacker '948). Wo rl be mo,'cd hy tIM: n. iveto and fre.hnc" of the ,poti.1 composition •• hut in the Middle Age. the .ublim>!ion of the m>!erial _ the intellectual pmce .. ofinlCg"lting the d · <menU into the .p«u!otive structure of m •• ning......,voked the tran'position .,nd t'ming of ,Il" p,imitive_ It w" " hon,,)' from the ,<:><" •.>nd oit from the hard." Slon." ("'" p_001. Thi .. pccen If.,n.mittcd in wrin.n oliegori,,1 int
appeal of the ,000r.-,,1I of the>< bc<:ame .."turated with th~ .ym l.,lk ime'· connoc«dne<> anJ the function,lil~ of th~ meaning', whorohy the Jircctly porc~ptiblc appc.1 inherent in the m"ori , 1 bec,me """'f><"'--me,"";ng w", alluwed to ;hi,,~ forth. ond ph)"'icol ,u~tancc wo • • llowed to be: fo rj;OIton . Whil e me,llo,".]!,,,,,],]e e"I'''ri~''c. We "ox!"'"c"", rk of, n "".de;,. d, .. n , ehi ,hell, ,,, to 'f'Co k, the f.,..ilizod im_ p,iot "nd <mp'~ mold tIS , it j. primarily th. Ilaroqu~ thot ttlm, "w., ~ frum thi, .1· 1'8Orio.1 oncoding .nd dcn_ Iikc 'he Old T<'~"no"'. particularly tho: So ng of Songs--bc:c~mo d<1odwJ frum it> ;mmcdi.,c ,,,;, fo, a ,u]><'Wtlctur. m'''phor and intcllc<:tu.1 ,.ti onali · '"tion (Overbeck '9'9:75""'93; DoOs<:hii" 19""ff; Vollmcr ' 9'>7). Howe,·cr, Remhrandt 'j;~in wUj;ht ou, tho immctliotc imp.« or tho bibl; ,,1 t..,. ,od di'soh·cd the cnom",.ion or symboli sm that hoJ Clrrictl thc tradition,! mediev.1 w'y of thinking into mooern times (Einem 19"50). Although tho forc<, "f 'ho new <mo,i<)o,1 >cn,,,,lity_ with it> r c li ~ i " ", "'01< in p.."""tami.m----c,·cnte.nth oontury th .. thi, n<:w pe""n,1 m,"'ali,t h" permeated 'ne ,·i.u_ ,I .ut<. Lutn." (TiiCh"d"", n",. • ,150:>-68) ,.id: ··Who:n I w", , monk. I w.. ma" .. of .1I >piri(Ool mconing>. I . llogori«d ne r)"thing; ,fterward, howe,·· er.1 ' ow tn" wirh ,Jlegory .n~ 'piri,u,1 me,ning'. nothing w>' onything ... . St. l
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s.o for a< I Om ron<~rn«l. I do n'>I;n ,I>.., Ie," I;ke ,hi, ,,,im,b';on of tl,,' .~"", I . mlthe oe n.., "fthe di";ne ou~h' '0 bc ,«"" ihk '0 us "'crywh"c, ,"'en in ,h" 'nu;r C\lttlnR>nphc~ ""Mukling» "''''''''I"n)" u, where"ef we"", ,nd hallow c"err ploc< ;nto , tcmple.i Gocthc '97,;>06l" AC,nc'ic •• nd an hi" ..... fy. to, lh~ extent (hey gr"W O,lI .... f the wa y ,hc m",k'f1 an w,,,k function>. ,1,,_ ,'dol",,1 Cfi'ef i, th~, WCTc "'" I"ul,,, rhe ,,,,,. Ii,y or., hu i ldin~ 's e!Teow wI." thfough 'he d"ooro,ion 0(' more nu.,nccd eonoep' of .paco cr<:at<-J a fOfm,1 "'''"gof)' 'hat i, omincn,ly ,u itcd fO f irkn'ifying huild in~,,. uf igin,1 Of ;nd ivi,I".11 "ntit i.. "nJ ,,, da"ify th~m methodic" ll ), ,«ohl ing 'v 'f'-."reibl)' excl"ded . nr jn'~g""in~. instrumental ehar,ctCf fmm the hu;ldin~, TI,e building cOme< '0 be ",,,n ., , ~""I in i,,,,lf. FOf , m.xicrn afChi(c'(l . "'p><"" m.y well be , come;nu, ,esthetic "'fling I"-'io,. but in ,ho :>.1i.1.1I" Age> ",p,«" in 'hi ' k nS!: wo< n"', ouroo. "" ,",d vn ly {Of ,h.: highlc 'nJ ,he i",lividu.,1 c. ~nl"-'''em' to p< rc~jl'~ ,hat ,,' K ","CfY ploc~ hao • >ta'u, ,",'Ofthy of being ,1;"i"gl>;.h,,1 hy • cC>l"In" Of a 1x-Jimcnt. Tod,y, huilding fOfm . arc d"ployed foc ,hoi, ,o"hIhNi( 'nnni,,)!, nO> "I", wken On ,'ofiou; differcnt eolowion' .nd cann'" . lw" y. bc den"".! de." ly .nd \m'm,~igu ouslr. If C'f_ Iy e h,iS!i,n 0' <, Tl y Rom. " o;q"" fOTm< nrc con; picuo",ly .dop'0,,<1 '0 our "e"hclic p,ewn« l)l iu", (,b~ ..., ,,'" of . urfa"c> oml cioaf ormngo",en' of 'j»_ ,;, 1 fd,";"n,h i1") bu. ,I", be<.uoc ,h"Y ' f<
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pLlfg>!ivc function of rdigioll seco" to be be .. cxp""",d in thck 'impl<, deor ron", uet;,,,,,_ For.ll th"t. hi"",i,,1 mCJning plays no ,ol~ in thi' <'.mplc, and e hri";,n "Ikgo')" ",""ciy hgurC'i ;n it cithc,. At be .. , thcs< for"" «110 • primJI""ymb"lic mc,ning (in S-cmpc" se o",) (S-chw",z 194 7], one th .. i, not brought al"JUt by 1"'" of oncient form" howeve', but tOught hy the art;S! ;n ,,<w [o,m' r~klnbling 'he old. The new m,llo,i,,, limn, glo .., «me,",e) .nd the mooem l ,uk (lilt p'ojcr" ion,lI)" being planned,n other ",~a, of m<:wkm ",d,i''''' ''"e with' m<, ni"g in d.... <~rI knl<'----tha< i,. when tbe buildin~ i, intend"hitcrtmc i, b.scd b" a p"",edent in an "nti~n1 "chitC<1m,1 th .... r ~ J c· vclop«! by V;t""i" •. Thi. "org'ni<" w,,""rt h" "",i"od " ,n intc'pr~ti\'c approach Jown to the prescnt d,y_ Acco,ding '" thi, way of int<'pw",io", the wo,k of .rt i, ~"'ncr"lly IInJewooJ ,,' .n u'8aJ\i,m, , imil;, 10 the. hum,n being, or , living unity, the living, unified whol< of the ,,,wo,k in gen! authority of m<><_km times-th," is. n"'Uf< . It i, ,ign ilic,nt that_ primarily in th" Rm,i",n«, but .1", in th< n;Ilet«nth « m"'f-til;, org"";,, urder W", ""t m"ant". romp",hcn> .ive one but w"' I«n mostly ill the oxt AI"""i :",,1 Winehlm,nn wore "r tho opinion th>! the -suhstoncc" of th. hll iIJin~-i'" unformed nudc",-w" delenuin",l hy the huilding', rmposc .nd ,equi"'m~nl> " "d tl,c rcf"r~ did not belong to the realm of "an." The ,i,iblc <xtcrlor ,kirt, I,OW<"<', wa, tho clothing "thot ",''c. to CO", i" nakedne .." (Lotze ,868;515). Slone i, dc"d matter whose vol,," i, ".cn.e to cooceal tho mate,i. l, uf which th" building W"' OOIl"rLlcr
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and hi. follow .... th"", ies conce rning ,h. prohk,n. uf d ... icizing form in medievo l archit«: m.. h,ve disoppcu.ing "" qu es,;on. uf f",m. Sh"" ly "'fo', . ",1 ,f_ ,., Soh"""... huw.,·••. the .. were tWO "",n whose "rr",.. OIC being ,.ken "r ' V i" ,.~l.y. The fi.Ol i. F ried rich Schlcgd; .f... I joufn. ... to CoI"8"" in .8o.tI'Sos.. he tcrofinte the Middle Ag<s. we find there 0 con~pent in min;',,,«. I copy of ,n" " ...... I ..."""rc of ..... ,·. ..: "no. dioi"" me:ming i, , ... .... nti31. which .Ion. m.h" boa,,_ ' iful be.u ,iful and ,... il"-'" i, idle ch."e. wi,h"", roIlICnt·· ( SChlc~l t8.!6h:t8l lT.)_ Theoc 'hougl... or.
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are intog",,«i into irs rcA«t;"n of nature in th e building. In lhi. w"y. lhe m"..krn rdigiou. ",)(ion or n'Il"..·,,,-~i "inc·,e'·cblio,, in .. ,,«1 LOW 'h< imerp,",,';"": ,,' 'he "'''''' ,im< . the rC'luiml trope of the imi'''ion of not",< prc\',lcnt in An,i'luity ond the. Ren.i ...,nce bec,mc Ch,i"i ani"d , It i, undcr",nd,l;.Ic th", .5<:hlcgd (li ke ,II Rom.nli,,-,! profe"cd Gn,h ;, archi'ctlUf< '0 R"","" cs'lu< bcc-. o« or il< gre"« ' richn"'" of oOlu rali>lic [onIl> "mi it< ot",iou.ly dTcc,i ,'c . fti"ic fa n_ to>y. Here, .gain , it w .. only Sohn.~",'. "lTurt< tha! m.d", pusi ti\'~ ;udg_ ment of the Rom~ne-"l ue po" ibk ITcrmehr '950:86ff.), Thc ",ocr great .«hitt'Ctural ,"'-wi" who to rCCO,Cf and prc><: n'c the MiJdlc Ag'" and !)w<..J hi, in,ights,!) rne<.!ic\'al Chri"i.:m ""'red, Semper toke. hi. prine il"'l iml""'" from 'he m.'eri.li!tic curren,. of the ni npenh,uer, ,nd E T \r,..,h<:r, h ~ """"I hi. th..~ uri", I"" On eh ri,,;'nit ), 'han on mOre general historic, 1d.ta. By a "ronge twist of intdketual hi"nry, it w." n,,1 s..' ml"'r'. pIll'iI , \\,1..., r«<eiv.d hi, io h~ ri,"n <:<:; io"."d. it w os AI,,;. Ri",n<", of Somper, who frui,fu ll ), c~r l ojf<..J tho br1<"" th,wgh" ond "'toriali>t i"'<rpwotiun. tha, hod !xcn pr<>< nteIl) . ml, with hi , «"'_ '~pt of ' he Krm"" .."I1,,,, WOj th. fir>! tu ",,,,idor , h~ problem of m<Jnin~ i" "ystematie w"y. s.,mper was firmly "HlI' ;n<:<:d <" ..~>cd .«or di"g '0 ,he l'.i" , il'l<:> of nJIll«, bu, [or Ric);1 "C'·olu,in,," wo, i",doquate ," " means of uttdin ~ • "'''n~ ..-e"ion to the Mchi,cttu ro uf ,h e Mi ddle Age<, he. ,ook hi •• n ml~C< from . neien t N~a r £'''orn, da",icnl, , nd Rcn,i, .. ncc ,,,hit<:<:'Ufc, Lih Winckclm,nn, he ,,'w tho roo" of ..chitcrture in the .",i,f.etion of "c"" h. in 'he r"'l'0n", to n«",· . i,y. Thc " primal dwelling: the UrMilt<:, (rom thc ~ reen fixed" 'he f>eginning, the formulation of ,he primol dwdl ing <~n be di,;cerm:.l in .11 Iuh><:'1ue"t build _ ing. and cst.bli.hc, li,m:
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, SI~"i,1 tn'" 'hot , how, through. l i nk~d tU " c<",,,in g'Qll P uf fl"'l'k " nJ, e~ ",in c""«ption ,,[ dL"i"ity_ A« o,ding to Sem i"'" ,h< , \",,, ,,,;o n of 'hc furrm fro m th<;, ",at<,;;,1 confine> and Ih! i. the applica_ t,on of 'h< a~;,1 I',;n';pk in ""';'eet""·. whethe, in th< oligomcnt of wm!'l . ,,' in J cd . "i.,1 Jir« ,ioo o r io ,ho .)"mmd ,ic,1"''''''gem, nt " f the hLl;l ding !"''-''. H" bdi"" ",1,t.:" I", " ,,.,. ,he in, I";'" of of,,· , .... ",'" i" 11.i. l',incil'lo. ,h~ ""isf""ti<)" of . "<"' mo!:""i. in" in« - m hmn, ni,)· (S- ,npe' ,8,8. p,<>Icg<>mcn.1:xxiff.j. InJ.....,I, it c,o he ,howo tho, a.• i.,li ,]" p,{"\",i l, whete,"", the ci ,y. ,ho: I~,b,,', 0' tho: church i. «me"" c,1 a, , n im:ogc of ho,," only ",d",. ",h<,<,·., <""hl y ""«\!> Me "",le,,,,,,,,1 ,,, 'q't<><.l ucing cosmic
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p""'dSC\' ("'" 1'1" '-I7- 5M). Scmpo:r', ,,-" . " OOrdinot ">fl and imogr.1Iio" with in ,n.., building" • wlwk. " I" the Helleni,,;, ;",/1"",,,, . • , hl", 1" •.''''''1' fin.,lIy completed ,h c em.'m ipati" " of 'he mon"me","1 fo rr" f,,,Ttl tho ,,,.,,lc m<.' ,, ' "f ' he ,,,<,,I ,ce hn;<.1 w nlfol o,'c, ,1.< I. tter - (S<m p<' ,8 7M. 1:37. 1T.). I r we ta kc ,he wo,d "monu· m<",,, I- in 'h e li,e,,1 "" ,"e h' rcl"ing to • mo"um en' , .. i"",I"" i,,~ m"m",y, , ,,,,, II;" B s<)m«t.;" H- t lw" ;"<1 ,,,,<1 tt.e "'c, ning of ,h" t ",n, it i"" to " hlo, m",om )" ho::rom<:s ~' ''J onlinorily important. Semi"'" ide" .ootl' ,~i, havc been ,"ken "I' ancw ;n art hi"o,)' (E ,-e" ' 93!); K, ,,, hIli ,,,.Wc ;,,b,,,~ '9-\4'"3ff.). Scmf'C' . nJ hi, ;uc=<so" ,lcmon uf th",,, f",m , a, .he)" I,H,I ()n i" othe, """"",1, ,nd in otha tcchnigu<,_ And_ Ii kc \\'.,hor And"" and A I,,~an.t,·, Seh" ,If ( " )-.1-1- ' 9lG)--,hc), """I ", fi nd hI'''' .10,· 100<, .... wloich h,,!
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ple,.ly .Iien eul,ure., 1V;1' enrollnt.. od in hi'lOri •• 1 document<, Coo h.d lon~ bc-cn a,'ailable to "plain theo< 'ppe.H, nce., hrgd)' on "",th",i. grmm'i.. O ne .poke of renai.",ncc>--,.hirth. 0' ,._i_,I, of Mt of the P""in which 'hc oo.crvc,i "ndcnd~ of ,no ["Ii.n Rcn. i, .."". " r <11< [if,,,,,, uh and .ixt"m,h «n'urie, were tran.po«:,] apply '0 "",mi ngly 51milar rearp.",. nr ... in c. rliet tim." Ren"i''''ntt. were disco,'e,od In Antiguitr (R,>""nw.ldt t93t); one ' poke ofC.rolingi.n IPatzelt '9~')' Ottoni.n INau mann '933), and Hohen"'.,ufen (Ha lIe"n claimed that the mood rA' the 1"li." Ron,;".nc. doe, not . uffice to exphin ,he.. e.. Ii<. m,,,\if.~,,,,i,,,,, (Pa"of.k)' '')44' Po",z '95<>' H.e, 1949). Those earlier r<"<eplion> and the actua l beginning, of the bli.,n Renaissance arc indood dlle to the d."i.,l furm. being re<.i,·ed, )'ct nC>t 50 ",uch b«au"" th ",. form. had t.ken on 0 new awhctic mconing but l>e<,us< of their historical meaning. Thot i., form. "'e'e .,riop«ri Ix:cOt'" of the WJ)' th.y h,d bc-cn .mplo)'ed;n the >,1St by pouton, ;"'0 who..,li"e of 'tJtrated by til< parti.1 .nd frag _ mentary copie. of c1,,,ical form. that were made during the Middle Age" in many CO"", they were not ,.othctic. lly dfootive .1I all_for o.'mpl< , Ch."l e magnc'•• doption of th~ C"""anrini.1n ".1n""!'t (K,.,,,1IIcd in the literatme of art hi"ory to ~>pb in the .pl"'a •• ncc or form, (hat are 'imilar til th ..... of cul tmes of the po>!: that of """lld, in growth , The ide. of growth impli"" that the >r t of. ["'''pie 0'" region i"n organi.m that thon exhibits, devolopm.nt f'om o.,d!O h["...,m "nd eventuall ), declines to deCly. Wh"n thi, m(~ld is . w<:<:p ingly 'ppli«l to cultm",. the implied procc" find, in the I~'''_ ding phase. to .."f.li. h the .1nalogi . , til< muJcI re ~"i,e,. lIy th ,lS identifying the fine" flowe" of. cultu'e. on< moy thus 'e""'" "'h" i. "prope'" (0 e'-toriogr could ob><:rve logic.1 dC\'dopmen" with""t having to take into ""count c<w"iI" C,rvlingi;", trall""pt
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,",,,,,,,, he cxpl,i"cJ .. . ;U\ in"e;, ,,,,1 e,",ieh" ..,,,, "f ,h., <'",,,'" 0",1 or 01," (h ur.;:h (('oo<.i ~mwi"g su,ip,ur;1 and '1~"i.1 dndop"'<'" ufbli"d ""a,I<, (Kohl '~39). for i, "PI"';'" fo il )' J~_ "doped un Speyer Ca,hcJ",1 in 'he de"elllil ttlllm y. We coul d lustl y .,gue ,h,- "p,diminar)' ''''1:'''- ,nd "'f"ling ,,,hoe." found in blind orca(k,_ which ot<' to h< f",,,,d only in region, o""iJ o 'he uPP'" j:(hin< V,lky_ >rc , 1m"" r:ond" ml )' ,<:1 « ,«1 hy the r""".Hche" on(1 repre...:nr ." mry or f~".lIei growth in ;"cloi,c<'" ,e should not tx: rom»I«e1)' rul«j l}l" in ~,·"ry i, ,<',\u ir« e,,<" h",c insinu atcd ,hcm",lvu into nur mcthod~I"l:Y:O, ' he re. ult of the ol=",.,i<>o of ,h~ >n of the", concepts and i, wh(~ly incorn _ prdlcn,ihl < in f""", I 'e'''''. In d....wrn . " m,)' ~.i.le"c<: inf""", u, lilA! o"e building w>< i"te"ded to cop)' ","'th«. a"d yet we I"' ,ollcl in growth hut with 0 "'n«iou. intth«ie effcct o"d " isuoi "1'1',:0,",= We mu>l a,«p' ,ha, it w,,' truly bclined that the copy did indccJ ",p",Jucc 'he building on which it w;o. ""-,, Ided. The notion of , copy. thefefore, must h,,,, f><1on differen, from wh" i, i. tod., y, ThO! i., copying did not comi" in compio'e rormal ,ongru_ ent< . The mo.1niog of the form, mu," h,,'~ f><1on ,k"ch,hk from '.h<m: ,h." i•. , hc p.lfl;eu lar fo,m nn"t h,,'c f><1on on ly C<"J,I< 0",1gm"f" in .o< eo",io.1<
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The following kim!, of !<)Urc", will be ou r guiric> to the me.ning ,,r form" r, Th~re Ore the " 'rium and "i.ual source' tnot dir«tl)' npr«. tnc 'ym_ bolic Or . 11egorie,1 meaning, Due to their fu ndarnOure." p,«ent • comp>rati,-dy unified 'pP"',,,mc ("' Ie",.,. f,. os the Middle Age, arc comern«I). ,nd '" the)' will bc Ire"e" "'["""ei)' r""" th"", th" exp''''' the hi"or;cool mo "n;ng._ Th. ,d'lion,h;p of ,h. furm 10 lh~ meaning (wh«h~r [Ile tnc,ning h,J ,Iw,y' " nJe, l,in [he form Or whLng cff(lft to m,ke ind;""to .., which,. iir" h,J been on ly in rellc,t",) .,. culm".1 ",_i,,,io" •. "l<"c ,nd nWr~ .i,uuli)' pcrcn '" rejcction of .-. )""'<>"'< cvid ."._ Thi; mc.,ning Joe. nu< >!anJ in:ln 'lI~go,in ly tho In",t impo, t.,nt. Here. for <xampl<, the " koman · ne,," of the rn,nifc""ion (so oftcn "w.,ing in the w,itten WI"CO' 0' Rnln~n" In"'''') COr\ incl"d" a meaning thO! i, t<> hoc mod o "i,ibl< tnr"""gh cc r~.ir\ fo,m; wh""" me'",· ing 'he &mMrr in«nJ, W re,·i,·c. For example, in the clc\'enth "nd twelfth <enturld. 'he douhl "_c h,,i, byout i:><"<<.>me. connected , for seemingly tho ii,., (,nd <>nly) 'irn~. wilh, ,pccif_ ;0 me,ning. nne th,t g,ew .-."t of tlw imperial me,"phy.ic$ uf III<: 0"0.,;' ." .nd HohenstoLtfen (Un,.rki,ehnc, '9H;5~ft~). Althou gh th c tn-.o h,,1 01_ ,<,or bc;,n prcoent in Carolingian time •• nJ cOTlier, in tho>< e,rlier ca",. it Ow"" irs "t'l",""n« eith~ , to co;nci,knce (Kit>ehelt '938:fIo) m to liturgic,1 'I<:cc"ity . nd [1m' to tho fu lfillment of. porro><. A .imil" .ecru , 1of mc,n;ng lone thot (~n Ix tr,<<:<1 on ly wi,h du