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EKONOMIKOS TEORIJOS PAGRINDAI ( 4 – tas, pataisytas ir papildytas leidimas )
$-DNXWLV93HWUDãNHYLþLXV$6WHSDQRYDV/âHþNXW 6=DLFHYDV
Vilnius, 2003
Ek 34 EKONOMIKOS TEORIJOS PAGRINDAI/ Algirdas Jakutis, Vladislavas 3HWUDãNHYLþLXV$UW UDV 6WHSDQRYDV/DLPDâHþNXW 6WHSDQ=DLFHY- Kaunas: Smaltijos leidykla, 2000 - 344 psl.: iliustr. ISBN 9986-965-35-7
Šioje knygoje pateikti ekonomikos teorijos pradmenys. Knygos turinys - tai tas minimumas, kuris bus pamatDVSHUWHLNLDQWLUSHULPDQWHVPLQHVåLQLDVDSLH N ãL GLHQ V O\JRPLV0RNVODVWLULDQWLVYLVXRPHQ V NLQ YHLNO VHQLDLLãVLUXWXOLRMR LãVLNHURMXVL HNRQRPLNRVPRNVO VLVWHP HNRQRPLNRVWHRULMRVNXUVDVOLNRMRV YDGLQ LQWHJUXRWD mokomoji disciplina,WHLNLDQWLSLUPXRVLXV J GåLXVQRULQWLHPVWDSWLSURIHVLRQDOLDLVãL ODLN HNRQRPLNRV .DOERVUHGDNWRU $LVW äXNDXVNDLW Vyr. redaktorius Aivaras Kirejevas © Smaltijos leidykla, 2000
UDK 330. Ek 34
©A. Jakutis, 93HWUDãNHYLþLXV$6WHSDQRYDV© /âHþNXW 6=DLFHY "Rekomendavo spaudai: $XNãW M PRN\NO EHQGU M YDGRY OL OHLG\ERVNRPLVLMD UAB Smaltijos leidykla, Gedimino g. 47-134, LT3000 Kaunas tel. (27) 228122, el.p.
[email protected], www.slknygos.lt 8åVDN\PR1U 6SDXVGLQRVSDXVWXY Ä0DåRMLSROLJUDILMD$6PHWRQRVDLLT3016 Kaunas, tel. (27) 34 56 98, el.p.
[email protected]
6XWUXPSLQW å\P MLP V UDãDV BFK – bendrieji fiksuoti kaštai BK – bendrieji kaštai BKK – bendrieji kintami kaštai BNP – bendras nacionalinis produktas BN – bendras naudingumas BP – bendros pajamos BP – bendras produktas GNP – grynasis nacionalinis produktas GP – grynosios pajamos MRPP –PDå MDQWLVULELQLVSDMDP SURGXNWDV RDK – ribiniai darbo kaštai RK – ribiniai kaštai RN – ribinis naudingumas RP –ULELQ V SDMDPRV RPP –ULELQLVSDMDP SURGXNWDV RPT – ribinis polinkis taupyti RPV – ribinis polinkis vartoti RU –ULELQLVXåGDUELV VBK – vidutiniai bendrieji kaštai VFK – vidutiniai fiksuoti kaštai VKK – vidutiniai kintami kaštai VP –YLGXWLQ V SDMDPRV VP – vidutinis produktas
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YDGDV .DOERVUHLNãP åPRJXLVXQNXSHUYHUWLQWL7DLJLODEDLVYDUELLUHNRQRPLNRVNDOED- VXGDUR HNRQRPLNRVQXRVWDWRVRãLRVVXVLGHGDLãWHUPLQ NDWHJRULM .DWHJRULMRVM DSLEU åLPDLSDODLSVQLui turi tapti standartiniais. Ekonomikos tekstai yra nevienodi: vieni -ODEDLDEVWUDNW VDNDGHPLãNLNLWL -NRQNUHW VSRSXOLDU V-LH WRNLHWRG ONDGWHNVWDPVNRQVWUXRWLPRGHOLXRWLQDXGRMDPRVVNLUWLQJRDEVWUDNFLMRVODLSVQLRHNRQRPLNRV kategorijos. KateJRULMDVSDJDOM DEVWUDNFLMRVODLSVQ JDOLPDVXULNLXRWL SDNRSDV7RNLDSDNRSLãNDHNRQRPLNRV NDWHJRULM VLVWHPDSDURG\WDãLRVNQ\JRV YDGHâLVLVWHPDSDQDXGRWDSHUWYDUNDQWWREXOLQDQWHNRQRPLNRV SDJULQG SDVNDLW WHNVWXV7HNVWDLSHUWYDUN\WLWDLSNDGMXRVHY\UDXW YLHQRVDUJUHWLP SDNRS NDWHJRULMRV QHE W ãXROL LãYLHQRVSDNRSRV NLW 7HNVWDVQHSHUWYDUNRPDVWXRDWYHMX-HLHVDPDVNDWHJRULMRVYDUWRMLPDV QXVLVWRY M V VLãDNQLM V HNRQRPLQ MHNDOERMH.HLþLDPDEORJDNDWHJRULMD JHU RQHJHUD - JHUHVQ .RG O NRQVWUXRMDPDSDNRSLãNDHNRQRPLNRVNDWHJRULM VLVWHPDRQHFLNOLãNDDUNRNLRVQRUVNLWRV NRQILJ UDFLMRVVLVWHPD"7RG ONDGYLVXRPHQ VXIRUPXRWDNDLSKLHUDUFKLQ VWUXNW UD QXRSUH]LGHQWRLNLNDOLQLR6WXGLM VLVWHPDLUJLSDNRSLãND QXRSLUPRVNODV V LNLSURIHVRULDXVDUDNDGHPLNR 'HãLPWDLQ VNDLþL VLVWHPDWDLSSDWSDNRSLãNDL QXRQXOLRLNLEHJDO\E V(NRQRPLNRVNDWHJRULMRV\UDSUDNWLQ SDW\ULP WHRULãNDL SUDVPLQDQþLRVIRUPRVEHLHNRQRPLNRV QXRVWDW SDJULQGDV SDNRSLãN NDWHJRULM VLVWHP WUDXNWRVNDWHJRULMRVLUM DSLEU åLPDLSDWHLNLDPLåHPLDX 3DWHLNWXRVHHNRQRPLNRVNDWHJRULM DSLEU åLPXRVHSDEUDXNWRVSODþLDXVLDLSDSOLWXVLRVLUODELDXVLDLYDUWRMDPRV kategorijos. Šioje knygoje pateikti ekonomikos teorijos pradmenys. Knygos turinys - tai tas minimumas, kuris bus SDPDWDVSHUWHLNLDQWLUSHULPDQWHVPLQHVåLQLDVDSLH N ãL GLHQ V O\JRPLV0RNVODVWLULDQWLVYLVXRPHQ V NLQ YHLNO VHQLDLLãVLUXWXOLRMR LãVLNHURMXVL HNRQRPLNRVPRNVO VLVWHP HNRQRPLNRVWHRULMRVNXUVDVOLNRMRV YDGLQ LQWHJUXRWDPRNRPRMLGLVFLSOLQDWHLNLDQWLSLUPXRVLXV J GåLXVQRULQWLHPVWDSWLSURIHVLRQDOLDLVãL ODLN HNRQRPLNRVåLQRYDLV (NRQRPLNRVWHRULMRVNXUVDVEHYHLNNDVPHWSDSLOGRPDVQDXMDLVWHLJLQLDLVLãYDGRPLVNHLþLDVDYR VDQGDU 9LVEHVLSOHþLDQWLJDP\EDGDUQHVS MRXåWLNULQWLYLVLHPVåPRQ PVHOHPHQWDUL DSU SLQWRJ\YHQLPR V O\J R-DXVXN U QDXM SUREOHP - HNRORJLQL JDPWRVLãWHNOL LãVHNLPRUHSURGXNXRMDQRUVLUQDXMX pavidalu, "tradicines" problemas -VRFLDOLQHVLUHWLQHV9LVXRPHQ QHSDLOVWDNHOWLHNRnomistams vis naujus NODXVLPXVLUIRUPXOXRWLYLVQDXMDVXåGXRWLV 9DGRY OLVSDUHQJWDVWUDQVIRUPXRMDQWHVDPXVWHNVWXVLUSDQDXGRMXVSDNRSLãN HNRQRPLNRVNDWHJRULM VLVWHP äHPLDXSDWHLNLDPHVLXWUDQVIRUPDYLPRPHWRGLN
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Kategorijos (gr. kategorija-nuURG\PDV WHRULQ V V YRNRVUHLãNLDQþLRVVYDUELDXVLXVWLNURY V DWN ULPR DVSHNWXV.DWHJRULMRV\UDSUDNWLQ SDW\ULP WHRULãNDL SUDVPLQDQþLRVIRUPRV.DWHJRULMRV YDUGLMDYHUVOR HNRQRPLNRVUHLãNLQLXV.DWHJRULMRVSDWHLNWRVLUQDJULQ MDPRVYDGRY OLXRVHåLnynuose, enciklopedijose. Kategorijos yra susijusios tarpusavyje, nes verslo ekonomikos reiškiniai. kuriuos atspindi kategorijos, \UDVXVLM 7DUSNDWHJRULM \UDDLE V U\ãL âLHV U\ãLDL\UDO\JWLQNODVDUEDPHGLVNDGDQJLYLHQDNDWHJRULMD\UD susijusi sX NHOLRPLVNLWRPLVNDWHJRULMRPLVRãLRVGDUVXNLWRPLV.DLSSDY\]G JDOLPHQDJULQ WLNDWHJRULM LQYHVWLFLMD,QYHVWLFLMDDSLEU åLDPDNDLSNDSLWDOR G MLPDV PRQ .DSLWDODVJL\UDYLVDWDLNDVVXNXUWDåPRQL darbu ir naudojama galutiniam produktui gDPLQWL PRQ \UDJDP\ERVDUSUHN\ERV NLQLVYLHQHWDV7ROLDX UHLN W DSLEU åWLãLDVNDWHJRULMDV GDUEDVQDXGDSURGXNWDVJDP\EDSUHN\ED NLV3RWRUHLN W DSLEU åWL NDWHJRULMDV HLQDQþLDV N WLNSDPLQ W NDWHJRULM DSLEU åLPXVLUWW Iš aptarto SDY\]GåLRPDW\WLNDGLãYLHQRVNDWHJRULMRVDSLEU åLPRSDNRSRPLVJDXQDPHDLE NDWHJRULM 6XVLGDURGDXJLDSDNRS NDWHJRULM VLVWHPD $NWXDOXQDJULQ WLVYDUELDXVLDVNDWHJRULMDV6YDUELDXVLRPLVJDOLPDODLN\WLGDåQLDXVLDLYHUVOR ekonomikos tekstuose pasitaikanþLDVNDWHJRULMDV/DEDLGDåQDLNDUWRMDVLWLNQHGLGHO åRGåL GDOLV9RNLHþL VWHQRJUDIDV6.HGLQJDVLãQDJULQ M V 10POQåRGåL QXVWDW NDG 15 GDåQLDXVL åRGåL VXGDUR 25% teksto. /LHWXYL NDOERVGDåQLQLDPHåRG\QHNDWHJRULMDGDUEDV\UD 12 vietoje - tirtame tekste pavartota 1759 kartus. Kitos GDåQDLYDUWRMDPRVHNRQRPLQ V NDWHJRULMRV\UD NLVåHP - JDP\EDGDUELQLQNDV PRQ SODQDV .LHN\UDåLQRPDNDWHJRULM " ,ãVDPLDXVLHNRQRPLNRVWHUPLQ åRG\QDLSDWHLNLDLNL 75000 NDWHJRULM 'DOLVãL NDWHJRULM SULNODXVRQHJDP\ELQ V VIHURVHNRQRPLNDLRNLWRV\UDYHUVORHNRQRPLNRVNDWHJRULMRV5\ãL
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9HUVORHNRQRPLNRMHVYDUEXUDVWLSUDGLQHVNDWHJRULMDVLãNXUL JDOLPDPRGHOLXRWLHNRQRPLQHVQXRVWDWDV palaipsniui prijungiant kitas kategorijas. ieškant pradLQL NDWHJRULM QDJULQ WLWDVLãM NXULRVSDDLãNLQDPRV PLQLPDOLXNLW NDWHJRULM VNDLþLXPL
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3DNRSLãNDHNRQRPLQL NDWHJRULM VLVWHPD
Išvada: kategorija ,,akceptas" priklauso 1-ai pakopai.
3DNRSLãNDHNRQRPLQL NDWHJRULM VLVWHPDVXGDURPDUHPLDQWLVHNRQRPLQL NDWHJRULM SDNRSRVQXPHULX Sudaryta sistHPD>@VXVLGHGDLãSDNRS 6LVWHPRMHQ UDãXROL WDUSSDNRS W\VLVWHPDQHWXULWXãþL SDNRS 7DLSDVLHNWDY\NXVLDLSDVLULQNXVNULWHULM SDJDONXU VNDLþLXRMDPRVSDNRSRV
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Teksto recenzavimas 3DNRSLãNDHNRQRPLQL NDWHJRULM VLVWHPDJDOLE WLQDXGRMDPDWHNVWDPVUHFHQ]XRWL ir jiems tobulinti. 3ULLPDPHSULHODLG NDGYLHQRMHHNRQRPLQ MHQXRVWDWRMHDUNHOLRVHJUHWDYLHQDLãNLWRVLãG VW\WRVHQXRVWDWRVHWXUL E WLWRVSDþLRVSDNRSRVHNRQRPLQ V NDWHJRULMRVDUEDJUHWLP SDNRS NDWHJRULMRVRãXROL QHWXU W E WL 3DQDJULQ NLPHNRQNUHW SDY\]G 3DVLULQNLPHDNWXDO WHNVW LUMDPHSDEUDXN HNRQRPLQHVNDWHJRULMDVVNOLDXVWHOLXRVHQXURG\NLPHM SDNRSRVQXPHU ,,Rengiant statybos (1)SURMHNWXVQXVWDWRPDVNDLþLXRMDPRMLstatybos (1) kaina (4), kuri yra SODQXRMDPRMLSURMHNWR Y\NG\PRkaina (4): M HLQDYLVRVXåVDNRYR (1) išlaidos (4), susietos su projekto J\YHQGLQLPX
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,ãYDGRVLUSDVL O\PDL Išvados
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7HNVWDLSDUHQJWL9HUVORHNRQRPLNRVNDWHGURVSRV GåLR (1995 06 22)QXWDULPXâLDPSURMHNWXLSULWDU 9HUVORYDG\ERVIDNXOWHWRLU9*787DU\ERV3URMHNW SDU P /LHWXYRVYDOVW\ELQLVPRNVORLUVWXGLM IRQGDV Knyga susideda išGYLHM GDOL PLNURHNRQRPLNRVLUPDNURHNRQRPLNRV3LUPRVGDOLHVSDUHQJLPXLYDGRYDYR doc. A.Jakutis, VI.3HWUDãNHYLþLXVGRF/âHþNXW LUGU$6WHSDQRYDVDQWURV - doc. S.Zaicevas. Knygos EHQGUDDXWRULDL\UDJUXS VWXGHQW NXUL GXRPHQ\VSDWHLNLDPLãLRMHOHQWHO MH Bendraautoriai: 7HPRV1U9DUGDV3DYDUG $NDGHPLQ JUXS 1. 5-DQXãNDLW 97ULþ\W 2. %/DSLHQ\W %-RQLNDLW VV-4/1 3. R. Mituzas, V. Korsakas 4. -/XNLQDLW 60HG NãDLW 5. -%XþL W /3HþLXO\W VV-4/2 6. E. Kaminskas, I. Šukys 7. D. Nalivaika, D. Šiuparys 8. R. Bukelis, R. Valacka VV-4/3 9. /1DãOL QDV06WHSRQ QDV
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1. Ekonomikos teorijos objektas äPRQ VSUDGHGDQW\VQDJULQ WLHNRQRPLNRVWHRULM SDSUDVWDLQRULWXU WLWUXPS DLãN LUOHQJYDLVXSUDQWDP EHWRYLVN DSLPDQW MRVDSLEU åLP *DOE W G O WR\UDJDQDGDXJ YDLULDXVL ãLRVWHRULMRVDSLEU åLP 3DWHLNVLPH NHOHW • ekonomikos mokslas yra veiklos, susijusios su mainDLVLUSLQLJLQLDLVVDQG ULDLVWDUSåPRQL U ãLV • HNRQRPLNRVWHRULMD\UDPRNVODVDSLHWDLNDLSåPRQ V QDXGRMDUHWXVDUEDULERWXVJDP\ERVLãWHNOLXV åHP GDUE JDP\ELQ V SDVNLUWLHV SUHNHV SDY\]GåLXL PDãLQDV LU WHFKQLQHV åLQLDV YDLULRPV SUHN PV JDPinti NYLHþLDPVP VDLGUDEXåLDPVPHQRN ULQLDPVLUYHLNODLNHOLDPVLUNW LUVNLUVW\WLMDVWDUSåPRQL NDG MLHJDO W MDVQDXGRWL • HNRQRPLNRVWHRULMD\UDPRNVODVDSLHNDVGLHQLQ åPRQL J\YHQLPLãN YHLNO DSLHWDLNDLSJDXWLSULHPRQL savo gyvenimXLXåWLNULQWLLUNDLSWDVSULHPRQHVSDQDXGRWL • HNRQRPLNRVWHRULMD\UDPRNVODVDSLHWDLNDLSåPRQLMDVXVLWYDUNRVXVDYRXåGDYLQLDLVYDUWRMLPRLUJDP\ERV srityje; • HNRQRPLNRVWHRULMD\UDPRNVODVDSLHWXUW %HDEHMRNLHNYLHQDVLãP V WDLSSDWJDO W SULG WLSRNHOHW VDYRSDWLHVDSLEU åLP äLQRPDV WHRUHWLNDV 3 6DPXHOVRQDV [16] SDå\PL NDG HNRQRPLNRV WHRULMD \UD PRNVODV DSLH WDL NRNLXV LãWHNOLXVåPRQ V LUYLVXRPHQ LOJDLQLXL VLJ\MDSUHN PVJDPLQWLLUSDVNLUVW\WLWDUS YDLUL YLVXRPHQ V JUXSL NDG E W JDOLPD MDV YDUWRWL GDEDU LU DWHLW\MH 9LOQLDXV XQLYHUVLWHWR HNRQRPLNRV WHRULMRV PRNRPRVLRV SULHPRQ V [4] autoriai rašo, kad ekonomikos teorija - WDL PRNVODV DSLH åPRQL NLQ YHLNO NXULRV PHWX QDXGRMDQW YDLULXV LãWHNOLXVWHQNLQDPLåPRQL SRUHLNLDi. % W JDOLPDDSLE GLQWLHNRQRPLNRVWHRULM LUNDLSPRNVO DSLHåPRQL WDUSXVDYLRVDQW\NLXVJDP\ERVPDLQ LUYDUWRMLPRVULW\VH YDLULDLVåPRQLMRVY\VW\PRVLHWDSDLV 0HVVWHQJ P V DWVDN\WL NODXVLP - kas yra ekonomikos teorija.
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P. Samuelsonas [16] SDå\PL NDG ãLXR PHWX SDåDQJL SUDPRQLQ WHFKQRORJLMD QDXGRMDGLGHOHV NDSLWDOR PDVHV GDXJ VXG WLQJRV PDãLQLQ V UDQJRV GDXJ VWDPEL PRQL LU IDEULN GLGHOLXV NLHNLXV SDJDPLQWRV SURGXNFLMRV SXVIDEULNDþL LU åDOLDYRV 0 V HNRQRPLND JDYR SDYDGLQLP NDSLWDOL]PDV WRG O NDG ãLV NDSLWDODV DUED WXUWDVLãHVP V \UDSULYDWLQXRVDY\E W NXULHYDGLQDPLNDSLWDOLVWDLV 'LGHO GDOLVHNRQRPLVW SUDGHGDQW$6PLWXLU'5LNDUGXNDSLWDOXYDGLQDSURFHV NDGDJDPLQWRMDV DWVNLUWDVQXRJDP\ERVSULHPRQL JDPLQD QDXM SUHN NXULRVYHUW GLGHVQ QHJXDYDQVXRWDYHUW MRVJDP\EDL NLWDLSWDULDQWNXULDQDXM YHUW YDGLQDP SHOQXRSHOQDVLU\UDYLVRJDP\ERVSURFHVRYDULNOLV äLQRPDV LWDO HNRQRPLVWDV $ 3H]HQWL SDå\PL NDG NDSLWDOLVWDV DWHLQD ULQN NDLS SLQLJLQLR NDSLWDOR VDYLQLQNDV VLJ\MD SUHNL JDP\ERV SULHPRQL LU GDUER M J %DLJ V JDP\ERV SURFHV MLV JU åWD ULQN VX SURGXNWXNXU Y O SDYHUþLDSLQLJDLV 3URFHVDV SUDVLGHGD SLQLJLQLX NDSLWDOX LU EDLJLDVL SLQLJLQLX NDSLWDOX 7DþLDX WDL Y\NVWD WLN G O WR NDG galutinLVSLQLJLQLVNDSLWDODVJDXWDVUHDOL]DYXVSUHN \UDGLGHVQLVXåSUDGLQ NDSLWDO ,NL PDãLQLQ MH JDP\ERMH SDJULQGLQLV JDP\ERV YHLNVQ\V EXYR åHP DWVLUDGXV PDãLQRPV MXR WDSR NDSLWDODV3OHþLDQWLV PDãLQLQHLJDP\EDLGDUERYHLNVQLRUHLNãP YLVGLG MDLUGLG MD- V O\JRMDNDSLWDORUDLGD %H WR WDUS åPRQL NLQL IXQNFLM VDQW\NLQDL VDYDUDQNLãNDV WDPSD YHUVOXPR YHLNVQ\V NDåNDGD QHDWVNLULDPDL VXVLM V VX NDSLWDOR YHLNVQLX NDLS NDSLWDOR VDYLQLQNR IXQNFLMD GLG MD DXWRQRPLQ PRNVOR LQIRUPDFLMRV profesinioSDVLUHQJLPRLUEHQGURMRLãVLODYLQLPR NLQ UHLNãP RWDLV O\JRMDåPRJLãNRMRNDSLWDORNDWHJRULMRV DWVLUDGLP LUMRYDLGPHQVGLG MLP Gamyba - WDL HNRQRPLQL LãWHNOL JDP\ERV YHLNVQL QDXGRMLPDV JDPLQDQW SURGXNWXV LU WHLNLDQW SDVODXJDV åPRQL SRUHLNLDPV WHQNLQWL (NRQRPLNRV WHRULMRV SRåL ULX YLVLãNDL QHVYDUEX NRNLH WLH SRUHLNLDL PDLVWR SURGXNWDL GUDEXåLDL DYDO\Q DU J\YHQDPDVLV E VWDV SRUHLNLDL åLQLRPV DU SRLOVLXL EHL ODLVYDODLNLXL VYDUEXWLNWDLNDGMLHåPRJXLUHLNDOLQJLLUMXRVSDWHQNLQWLE WLQD(VPLQLVJDP\ERVEUXRåDV\UDMRVWHFKQRORJLMD W\ E GDL NXULDLV VXNXULDPL NRQNUHW V SURGXNWDL - SUHN V LU SDVODXJRV Technologija lemia gamybos proceso RUJDQL]DYLPR E GXV - WLHN DWVNLUR JDPLQWRMR DWVNLURV PRQ V WLHN LU YLVRV YLVXRPHQ V PDVWX o gamybos RUJDQL]DYLPDV V O\JRMD NLQLXV HNRQRPLQLXV åPRQL VDQW\NLXV NXULXRV NRQNUHþLDL LãUHLãNLD IRUPLQD HNRQRPLNRVLQVWLWXW LUQXVLVWRY MXVL YHLNORVIRUP YLVXPDâLYLVXPDNDUWXVXHNRQRPLQLDLVVDQW\NLDLVVXGDUR YLVXRPHQ V HNRQRPLQ NLR VLVWHP äLQRPL WU\V LVWRULQLDL HNRQRPLQL NL VLVWHP WLSDL - QDW ULQLV NLV FHQWUDOL]XRWDL YDOGRPDV NLV LU ULQNRV NLV -RNV Lã M QLHNDG QHSDVLUHLNãGDYR JU\QX SDYLGDOX NLHNYLHQR WLSR DWVNLULHOHPHQWDLDSWLQNDPLLUSULHãNHOLVW NVWDQþLXVPHW LUGDEDr. 7DþLDX QDJULQ MDQW NLR VLVWHP ODEDL VYDUEX VXSUDVWL SUHNLQ V JDP\ERV LU SUHN V DWVLUDGLPR V O\JDV MRV \SDWXPXV DWVNLUXRVH YLVXRPHQ V UDLGRV HWDSXRVH -XN WLN SUHNLQ V JDP\ERV SDJULQGX VXVLIRUPDYR ãLXRODLNLQ ULQNRV VLVWHPD LU SLQLJDL NDLS \SDWLQJD SUHN âLRV SUDGLQ V SDVWDERV OHLGåLD PXPV SDVLWLNVOLQWL DQNVþLDXSDWHLNWXVHNRQRPLNRVWHRULMRVREMHNWRDSLEU åLP YDULDQWXV Ekonomikos teorija yra mokslas apie tai, NDLS åPRQ V LU YLVXRPHQ SDVLUHQND YLHQ Lã YDLUL JDOLP ULERW JDP\ELQL LãWHNOL QDXGRMLPR YDULDQW VLHNGDPL JDPLQWL YDLULXV HVDPDP LU E VLPDP YDUWRMLPXL UHLNDOLQJXV SURGXNWXV LU SDVNLUVW\WL MXRV WDUS YLVXRPHQ V QDUL EHLM JUXSL (VDQW ULERWLHPV LãWHNOLDPV NLHNYLHQDV JDPLQWRMDV PRQLQLQNDV PRQ VXVLYLHQLMLPDV LU QHW YDOVW\E su sDYR ELXGåHWR O ãRPLV \UD SULYHUVWDV ULQNWLV NDLS MLV QDXGRV VDYR LãWHNOLXV .LHNYLHQ YDULDQW JDOLPD YHUWLQWLDOWHUQDW\YLDLVNDãWDLV
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I
14
0
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13
1
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11 9
2 3
2 2
V
7
4
2
VI VII
4 0
5 6
3 4
3UHN A 1 pav. Gamybos JDOLP\EL NUHLY
0
1 2
3
4
5
6
Prek %
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2.3. Pusiausvyra rinkoje 3DNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVV YHLND .DGDQJL SDNODXVD LU SDVL OD LãUHLãNLD VNLUWLQJXV YDUWRWRM LU JDPLQWRM LQWHUHVXV WRG O MXRV VXJUHWLQXV JDOLPD VXSUDVWL NDLS NLQWD NDLQRV NRQNXUHQFLQ MH ULQNRMH 7DþLDX NDLQD LU SHUNDPRV EHL SDUGXRGDPRV SUHN V NLHNLV ULQNRMH \UD EHQGUL WLHN SLUN MXL WLHN SUHNL VDYLQLQNXL QHV SULHãLQJX DWYHMX VDQG ULV WDUS M QH Y\NW 9DGLQDVL SDNODXVD LU SDVL OD WXUL E WL SXVLDXVY\URMH 7DL JDOLPD SDYDL]GXRWL JUDILãNDL 9LHQDPH JUDILNH QXEU åWRV SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV NUHLY V E WLQDL VXVLNLUV WDP WLNUDPH WDãNH *UDILNH åU 9 pav.) pavaizduotas taškas E yra pusiausvyros taškas,NXULDPHGYLM JRVDWVWRMDYLHQD NLW 9LHQDLãW M J - tai vartotojo siekimas VLJ\WLNXRGDXJLDXSUHNL M YHUWHLNULQWDQWRNLWDM JD -WDLJDPLQWRMRVLHNLPDVUHDOL]XRWLNXRPDåLDXSLJHVQL SUHNL 3XVLDXVY\URV WDãNH HVDQW SUHN V NDLQDL 3E, SDNODXVRV G VQLV VNDWLQD SLUN M SLUNWL SUHNL NLHN 4E, o SDVL ORVG VQLV -SDUGDY M SDUGXRWLWRN SDWSUHNL NLHN (VDQWEHWNXULDLNLWDLNDLQDLGLGHVQHLXåSXVLDXVY\URV NDLQ SDVL OD\UDGLGHVQ XåSDNODXV 7DLURGRNDLQRV3OLQLMRVVXVLNLUWLPRVXSDNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVNUHLY PLV WDãNXV DWLWLQNDQW\V SUHNL NLHNLDL 4DI ir QSI . 7DLJL GDOLV SUHNL OLNV QHUHDOL]XRWD 3LUN MDL JDO V ULQNWLV SDUGDY MDLNRQNXUXRVVWHQJGDPLHVLYLVN SDUGXRWLLUEXVSULYHUVWLPDåLQWLNDLQDV7RNLDSDG WLVULQNRMHYDGLQDPD vartotojo rinka.-HLJXSUHNL SHUWHNOLXV\UDGDXJHOLRSUHNL ULQNRVHYLVDHNRQRPLNDYDGLQDPDSHUWHNOLQH
9 pav. Rinkos pusiausvyra
(VDQW JU\QDL NRQNXUHQFLMDL SDUGDY MDL VXGDUR V O\JDV GLG WL SDNODXVDL PDåLQGDPL NDLQ -HLJX SDVWDURMLVXPDå V WLHNMRJWDSVPDåHVQ XåSXVLDXVY\ULQ SUHNL SDVL ODULQNRMHEXVPDåHVQ QHJXSDNODXVD (9 pav. paklausos kiekis QD2 LU SDVL ORV Niekis QS2 3LUN MDL LPV WDUS VDY V NRQNXUXRWL *HUDL åLQRPD NDG NRQNXUHQFLMRMH ODLPL WDV NXULV WXUL GDXJLDXVLD ODLNR LU NDQWU\E V VWRY WL HLO MH SDUGXRWXY MH 3DUGDY MDL JDOL pasirinkti, kam parduoti, o kam neparduoti, kokia tvarka parduoti. Tai - gamintojo rinka. .DL GDXJHOLR SUHNL ULQNRMH\UDSUHNL VW\JLXVYLVDLHNRQRPLNDLWLQNDVW\JLDXVDUEDGHILFLWRHNRQRPLNRVSDYDGLQLPDV .DLSDVL ODULQNRMHPDåHVQ XåSDNODXV SLUN MDLNRQNXUXRMDQHYLHQVWRY GDPLHLO VHEHWLUVL O\GDPL GLGHVQ NDLQ -HLJX ULQNRMH OHLGåLDPD JU\QD NRQNXUHQFLMD NDLQ GLGLQLPDV Q UD ULERMDPDV LU MRV GLG V LNL SXVLDXVY\URV NDLQRV SDNODXVD PDå V R SDVL OD GLG V 7LN SXVLDXVY\URV NDLQD HVDQWL SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV NUHLYL VXVLNLUWLPR WDãNH JDOL HJ]LVWXRWL LOJHVQ ODLNRWDUS NDL Q UD NRQNXUHQFLMRV EDUMHU WDUS SLUN M LU SDUGDY M
Voratinklio teorema 3DNODXVRV SDVL ORV LU NDLQRV GLQDPLN JDOLPD SDDLãNLQWL QDXGRMDQW VXSDSUDVWLQW PRGHO NXULV vadinamas voratinklio teorema. 3LUN M UHDNFLMD YDUWRMDPRVSUHN V SLQLJLQ V YHUW V SDVLNHLWLP JDOLE WLJUHLWDWRG O JDOLPDWHLJWLNDG SDNODXVRVG\GLV\UDSUHN V NDLQRVIXQNFLMD *DPLQWRMDVSDSUDVWDLQHJDOLPRPHQWDOLDLUHDJXRWL NDLQRVSDVLNHLWLP SDVL ORVNLHNLRSDGLGLQLPXQHV JDP\ERVDSLPþLDLSDNHLVWLUHLNLDWDPWLNURODLNRSHULRGR SY]åHP V N\MHWDPUHLNLDLãWLV PHW WRG O UHDOLDX LãUHLNãLPHSUHN V YHUW V LUSDVL ORVU\ã ULQNRMHMHLJXODLN\VLP V SULHODLGRVNDGSDVL ODSULNODXVRQXRSUD MXVL PHW NDLQRVDUEDãL PHW NDLQRVV O\JRMDLUDWHLQDQþL PHW SDVL ORVG\G JeLJX HVDP PHW NDLQD \UD P1, DWHLQDQþL PHW SDVL OD EXV 42 åU 10 SDY D JUDILN 7DþLDX ãLV NLHNLV EXV nupirktas tik esant kainai P2 'DUNLWDLVPHWDLVSDVL ODVXPDå V LNLQ3 Bet toks kiekis, kaip matome iš grafiko, EXV QXSLUNWDV Xå GLGHVQ NDLQ P1. T VGDPL ã V O\JLQ SDY\]G SDPDW\VLPH NDG NDLQD VY\UXRMD WDUS 31 ir P2 SDUGXRGDP LUSHUNDP GDLNW NLHNLV - tarp Q2 ir Q3 0RGLILNXRWDV YRUDWLQNOLR PRGHOLV URGR VDYDLPLQ NDLQRV DUW MLP SXVLDXVY\URV WDãN *UDILNH E pavaizduotas kainos ir paklausos EHLSDVL ORVNLHNLRVY\UDYLPDVNDLSDVL ORVNUHLY \UDPDåLDXSDVYLUXVLQHJX SDNODXVRVNUHLY ãL NUHLYL SDVYLULPRUHLNãP LUYHLNVQLDLDLãNLQDPLHODVWLQJXPRWHRULMRMH
Q3Q0Q4Q2 a)
b)
Kai kaina yra P1 ML OHPLD SDVL ORV G\G DQWUaisiais metais Q2 EHW MLV EXV SDUGXRWDV PDåHVQH NDLQD 32 7DþLDXãLNDLQDOHPVGDUNLW PHW SDVL ORVNLHN NXULVEXVO\JXV43. Bet toks kiekis bus parduotas kaina P3 dar NLWDLV PHWDLV SDVNDWLQV SDVL ORV NLHNLR NLWLP LNL Q4. 7RNLH J VWDQW\V SDNODXVRV - pDVL ORV NLHNLR LU NDLQRV VY\UDYLPDLQHLãYHQJLDPDLDUW MD WDãN NXULDPHNDLQDO\JL30, o kiekis Q0. Tai ir yra pusiausvyros kaina.
3DNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVNLWLPDV Pusiausvyros taškas - EHQGUDV SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV NUHLYL WDãNDV JDOL NHLVWL VDYR SDG W , veikiant SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV NLWLPR YHLNVQLDPV NXULH NDLS MDX EXYR SDURG\WD V O\JRMD NUHLYL SRVOLQNLXV .RNLRV SXVLDXVY\URV WDãNR MXG MLPR SDJULQGLQ V NU\SW\V NRNLD MR : NRRUGLQDþL - NDLQRV LU SUHNL NLHNLR – kitimo WDUSXVDYLR SULNODXVRP\E NLQWDQW QHNDLQLQLDPV SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV YHLNVQLDPV" $WVDN\PXV ã NODXVLP pateikia 11 pav. .DLSDVL ODSDVWRYLRSDNODXVDGLG MDSDVLVOHQNDQWSDNODXVRVNUHLYHLLãSDG WLHV'1 '2 (grafikas (a)), WLHNNDLQDWLHNSDUGDYLPRDSLPWLVGLG MD .DLSDVL ODQHPDå MDRSDNODXVDPDå MDNDLQDLUSDUGDYLPRDSLPWLVVXPDå MD JUDILNDV E
*UDILNXRVH F LU G SDYDL]GXRWDV SDVL ORV NLWLPDV HVDQW SDVWRYLDL SDNODXVDL .DL SDVL OD GLG MD MRV NUHLY SDVLVOHQND Lã SDG WLHV S1 62. *UDILNH F SUHN V SLQLJLQ YHUW ULQNRMH VXPDå MD R SDUGDYLPR DSLPWLV SDGLG MD .DLSDVL OD PDå MDRSDNODXVDSDVWRYLSDVL ORV NUHLY SDVLVOHQND NDLU Lã61 62 SDG W SDUGDYLPR DSLPWLVVXPDå MDRNDLQDSDGLG MD *UDILNXRVH H LU I SDYDL]GXRWDVSDNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVNUHLYL Vinchroninis pasislinkimas - paklausa ir SDVL OD NLQWD NDUWX .DL SDNODXVD LU SDVL OD DXJD JUDILNDV H SDUGDYLPR DSLPWLV SDGLG MD R NDLQD LãOLHND QHSDNLWXVLHVDQWYLHQRGDPSDVL ORVLUSDNODXVRVSULHDXJLXL 3DNODXVDL GLG MDQW MRV NUHLY SDVLVOHQND GHãLQ Lã SDG WLHV '1 D2, R SDVL OD WRNLX SDW G\GåLX VXPDå MD - NUHLY SDVLVOHQND NDLU Lã SDG WLHV S1 62 NDLQD SDGLG MD SDUGDYLPR DSLPWLV QHSDVLNHLþLD åU JUDILN I 3DWHLNWLJUDILNDLURGRSDUGDYLPRDSLPWLHVLUNDLQ VY\UDYLPXVNLQWDQWSDVL ODi ir paklausai. Per SDVWDU M VDQW\NLRNLWLP SUHN V NDLQD\UDYHLNLDPDPDGRVSLUN M WXULP SLQLJ NLW SUHNL NDLQRVSLUN M VNDLþLDXVWHFKQRORJLMRVLãWHNOL NDLQ JDPLQWRM VNDLþLDXVSLUN M LUSDUGDY M SRåL ULR ULQNRVDWHLW LUNLW NLQWDP M 7DþLDXWLHVLRJLDLNDLQD\UDYHLNLDPDE WHQWSDNODXVRVLUSDVL ORV 3UHNL SLQLJLQ V YHUW V LUSDNODXVRVEHLSDVL ORVSULNODXVRP\E GDåQDLYDGLQDPDNDLQ DUEDSDNODXVRV - SDVL ORVG VQLXSDNODXVRV -SDVL ORVNDLQ DUEDULQNRVPHFKDQL]PX
3.Elastingumo teorija 3.1.3DNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVHODVWLQJXPDV Elastingumo samprata ekonomikoje $QNVWHVQLDPHVN\ULXMHDSWDU PH NDLQ LUSDNODXVRVEHLSDVL ORVU\ã ULQNRMH'LG MDQWL NDLQD V O\JRMD SDNODXVRVPDå MLP LU SDVL ORVGLG MLP LU DWYLUNãþLDL7DþLDXNLHNNDLQRVNLWLPDVNHLþLDSDNODXV LU SDVL O " $NLYDL]GX NDG NDLQRV DXJLPDV WXR SDþLX ODLSVQLX WXU V QHYLHQRG WDN REXROL LU EHQ]LQR SDNODXVRV SRN\þLXL 3DNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV SRN\þLDPV YHUWLQWL HNRQRPLNRMH YDUWRMDPD HODVWLQJXPR V YRND (ODVtingumas SULNODXVRPDLQXRMRDSLEU åLPRWLNVORQXVWDWRPDVGYHMRSDL • NDL QRULPD HODVWLQJXP SDDLãNLQWL MLV DSLEU åLDPDV NDLS SDNODXVRV DU SDVL ORV NLHNLR NLWLPR SURFHQWDV kainoms pakitus vienu procentu; • NDL QRULPD PDWHPDWLãNDL DSVNDLþLXRWL MLV DSLEU åLDPDV NDLS SDNODXVRV DU SDVL ORV NLHNLR SURFHQWLQLR SDGLG MLPRLUNDLQ SURFHQWLQLRSDGLG MLPRVDQW\NLV Paklausos
E=
¨' ¨ 3 %
¨ 6 3DVL ORVE = ¨ P %
)RUPXO VHSDNODXVRVSDVL ORVLUNDLQRVNLWLPDVSDWHLNWDVSURFHQWDLVVLHNLDQWHODVWLQJXP LãUHLNãWL NRHILFLHQWXNXULVOHLVW SDO\JLQWLVNLUWLQJ U ãL SUHNHV
3DVL ORV LU SDNODXVRV HODVWLQJXPR NRHILFLHQWDV VNDLþLXRMDQW SDJDO ãLDV IRUPXOHV \UD VNLUWLQJR åHQNOR 3DVL ORV G VQLV LãUHLãNLD WLHVLRJLQ NDLQ LU SDVL ORV NLHNLR SULNODXVRP\E WRG O SDVL ORV HODVWLQJXPR NRHILFLHQWDV \UD WHLJLDPDV 3ULHãLQJDL SDNODXVRV G VQLV LãUHLãNLD DWYLUNãþL NDLQ LU SDNODXVRV NLHNLR SULNODXVRP\E WRG O SDNODXVRVHODVWLQJXPR NRHILFLHQWDV \UDQHLJLDPDV7DþLDXWROLDXWHNVWH PHV QHQDXGRVLPH QHLJLDP NRHILFLHQW QHVMDXSDWLSDNODXVRVHODVWLQJXPRV YRNDNRQVWDWXRMDã IDNW (ODVWLQJXPRNRHILFLHQW IRUPXO V URGRNDGWLHNSDNODXVRVWLHNSDVL ORVHODVWLQJXPDVJDOi keistis nuo 0 LNLEHJDO\E V7DþLDXWROHVQLDPULQNRVWHRULMRVVXSUDWLPXLSDNDQNDVNLUWLSHQNLVVNLUWLQJXVHODVWLQJXPRG\GåLXV ir juos pavaizduoti grafiškai.
*UDILQ HODVWLQJXPRLãUDLãND
Absoliutus elastingumas pavaizduotas 12 SDY D %H JDOR PDåDV NDLQ pasikeitimas nuo P1 iki P2 V O\JRMDGLGHO SDNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVSDGLG MLPRSURFHQW 6NDLWPHQLQLVHODVWLQJXPDV yra begalinis. Santykinis elastingumas parodytas 12 SDY E 7DP WLNUDV NDLQ NLWLPDV QXR P1 iki P2 OHPLD GLGHVQ SDNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVNLHNLRSDVLNHLWLP QXRQ1 iki O2 6NDLWPHQLQLVHODVWLQJXPDV\UDGLGHVQLVXåYLHQHW Vieneto elastingumas. 7DP WLNUDV NDLQ NLWLPDV LãUHLNãWDV SURFHQWDLV VXNHOLD WRN SDW SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORVNLHNLRSDVLNHLWLP SDYFNDLQDLSDNLWXVQXR31, iki P2 paklausosLUSDVL ORVNLHNLVSDVLNHLþLDQXR41 iki Q2 Skaitmeninis elastingumas lygus vienetui. Santykinis neelastingumas..DLQ SDVLNHLWLPDVV O\JRMDPDåHVQ SDNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVSDVLNHLWLP SDYGNDLQDSDVLNHLþLDQXR31 iki P2,RSDNODXVDLUSDVL ODQXR41 iki Q2 6NDLWPHQLQLVHODVWLQJXPDV\UDPDåHVQLV XåYLHQHW EHWGLGHVQLVXå Absoliutus neelastingumas. .DLQ NLWLPDV QHSDNHLþLD SDNODXVRV EHL SDVL ORV SDY H SDYDL]GXRWD jog kainai pakitus nuo P1 iki P2 SDNODXVDLUSDVL ODOLNRWRNLRVSDWWDãNH41. Skaitmeninis elastingumas lygus 0.
SDY SDWHLNLDPRV NUHLY V WLN YL]XDOLDL LOLXVWUXRMD D YDLUDXV ODLSVQLR HODVWLQJXP 7DþLDX QRULQW SDVDN\WLDUSDNODXVDEHLSDVL OD\UDHODVWLQJDDUQHQHSDNDQNDUHPWLVYLHQNUHLYL SDVYLULPRNDPSX7RVSDþLRV krHLY V WDãNXRVHHODVWLQJXPRNRHILFLHQWDVQ UDYLHQRGDVQHVM VNDLþLXRMDQWQDXGRMDPLSURFHQWLQLDLG\GåLDLRMLH DSVNDLþLXRMDPLUHPLDQWLVVNLUWLQJDED]H YDLULXRVHNUHLY V WDãNXRVH
Paklausos elastingumas ir bendrosios pajamos 3DUGDY MDVJDOL YHUWLQWLSDUGXRGDP SUHNL SDNODXVRVHODVWLQJXP ILNVXRGDPDVNDLSNLQWDMRSajamos, NLQWDQWSUHNL NDLQRPV
%HQGU VLDV SDUGDY MR SDMDPDV VXGDUR SDUGXRW SUHNL NDLQRV LU NLHNLR VDQGDXJD SDY D JUDILNH EHQGURVLRV SDUGDY MR SDMDPRV SDUGDYXV VNDLþL SURGXNW NXUL NDLQD 31 \UD O\JLRV VWDþLDNDPSLR 31AQ1O plotui.
3ULNODXVRPDLQXRSDNODXVRVHODVWLQJXPRNHLþLDVLLUEHQGU M SDMDP SULNODXVRP\E QXRNDLQ NLWLPR .DLHODVWLQJXPDVPDåHVQLVXåYLHQHW NDLQ NLWLPDVQXR31 iki P2 VXPDåLQD pajamas nuo P1AQ1O iki P2BQ2O åUSDYD .DLHODVWLQJXPDVO\JXVYLHQHWXLNDLQ NLWLPDVQHSDNHLþLDSDMDP NLQWDQWNDLQRPVQXR31 iki P2, SDMDP G\GLV32BQ2O liko toks pat kaip ir esant kainai P1 - t.y. P1AQ10. Esant paklausos santykiniam elastinguPXL GLGHVQLDPXåYLHQHW PDå MDQWNDLQDLSDUGDY MRSDMDPRV GLG MD SDYF
3DNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVHODVWLQJXPRYHLNVQLDL .RNLH YHLNVQLDL YHLNLD SDVL ORV LU SDNODXVRV HODVWLQJXP "
UHDJXRMD VXPDåLQGDPL SDNODXV LNL 42. Pasiekiama pusiausvyra trumpu laikotarpiu taške E4 %HW SUD MXV LOJHVQLDPODLNRWDUSLXLYDUWRWRMDLSDM J V GDUVXPDåLQWLYDUWRMLP LNL45 ir taške E5 SDVLHNLDSXVLDXVY\U LOJDP periodui. Per pusiausvyros taškus E1 E3 ir E5 QXEU åWD QDXMD SDNODXVRV NUHLY '4 yra ilgo laikotarpio paklausos NUHLY .DLQDLSDGLG MXVQXRP1 iki P3 LOJXSHULRGXSDNODXVDVXPDå MDQXR Q1 iki Q5. Ilgo laikotarpio paklausos NUHLY '4 \UD å\PLDL QXRODLGHVQ Xå WUXPS SHULRG NUHLYHV D1, D2 ir D3. Tai reiškia, kad ilgo laikotarpio SDNODXVD\UDJHURNDLHODVWLQJHVQ .DLNXULHYHLNVQLDLYHLNLDDWVNLUDLWLNSDNODXVRVDUEDWLNSDVL ORVHODVWLQJXP 3DNODXVRVHODVWLQJXPXL SRYHLN WXULYDUWRWRMRELXGåHWRGDOLVVNLULDPDSUHNHLSLUNWL'HJWXN GUXVNRVGDQW ãHSHW OL SLUNLPRLãODLGRV VXGDURODEDLQHGLGHO YDUWRWRMRELXGåHWRGDO WRG O WRNL LU MDVSDQDãL SUHNL SDNODXVDODEDLQHVLNHLþLDSDNLtus M NDLQRPVâL SUHNL SDNODXVD\UDQHHODVWLQJD 3UDEDQJRVLUE WLQLDXVL SUHNL SDNODXVRVHODVWLQJXPDV \UDVNLUWLQJDV9DUWRWRMDVQHJDOL DSVLHLWLEHE WLQLDXVL SUHNL PDLVWRSURGXNW NDVGLHQLQL GUDEXåL YLHãRMRWUDQVSRUWRSDVODXJ LUSDQ 7RG O WRNL SUHNL SDNODXVD yra neelastinga.
3UDEDQJRVSUHNL YDUWRMLPRDSLPW YDUWRWRMDVJDOLNHLVWLQHMDXVGDPDVGLGHOL QHSDWRJXP 7RG O SDNLOXVM NDLQRPVJDOLJHURNDLVXPDåLQWLYDUWRMLP 7RNL SUHNL SDNODXVD\UDHODVWLQJD 3UHNL VDXJRMLPRJDOLP\E V LUNDãWDLVWLSULDLYHLNLDSDVL ORVHODVWLQJXP âYLHåL PDLVWRSURGXNW JUHLWJHQGDQþL YDLVL EHLXRJ SDVL ORVHODVWLQJXPDV\UDODEDLPDåDVQHVM SDUGDYLPRQHJDOLPDDWLG WL Y OHVQLDPODLNXLMHLJXNDLQRVNUHQWD7DLSSDWQHJDOLPDVXGDU\WLDWVDUJ SDVL ODLSDGLGLQWLGLG MDQWLUNDLQRPV
3ULHãLQJDL QHJHQGDQþL OHQJYDL VDXJRMDP SUHNL DWVDUJRPLV SDUGDY MDV JDOL PDQLSXOLXRWL, UHDJXRGDPDV NDLQRVNLWLP , LUVSDUþLDLGLGLQWLDUEDPDåLQWLSDVL O
Paklausos elastingumas pajamoms 3UHNL SDNODXVDNLQWDPDå MDQWYDUWRWRMRSDMDPRPV5\ã\VWDUSãL SDUDPHWU JDOLE WLJODXGHVQLVDUED PDåLDXJODXGXVNDLSLUWDUSNDLQ EHLSDNODXVRV7DLSULNODXVRQXRSUHNL SDVNLUWLHV
.DVGLHQLRYDUWRMLPRSUHNL SDJULQGLQL PDLVWRSURGXNW GUDEXåL QDP DS\YRNRVGDLNW YDUtojimo DSLPWLVGLG MDWLNHVDQWQHGLGHO PVSDMDPRPV 15SDYDWDLSDURG\WD'NUHLY V 2$DWNDUSDNXULVSDUþLDLN\OD DXNãW\Q3RWRHVDQWQRUPDOLDPYDUWRMLPXLãL SUHNL YDUWRMLPDVGLG MDQWSDMDPRPVDXJDODEDLQHå\PLDLDUED net yra pastovus. 15 pav. Paklausos elastingumas pajamoms
Pajamos
D .DVGLHQLQL SUHNL vartojimas kintant pajamoms
Pajamos b) Prabangos SUHNL vartojimas kintant pajamoms
Pajamos
F 1HNRN\ELãN DUPDåDL SHUGLUEW SUHNL YDUWRMLPRNUHLY
7DLJL WRNL SUHNL SDNODXVRV HODVWLQJXPDV SDMDPRPV NLQWDQW \UD PDåDV SDNODXVD neelastinga. Prabangos, pasilinksminimo, poilsio, iOJR YDUWRMLPR SUHNL SDNODXVD VSDUþLDL GLG MD DXJDQW pajamoms. Kaip matyti 15SDYESDNODXVRVNUHLY VSDUþLDLN\ODDXNãW\QGLG MDQWSDMDPRPVQXRWDV NR$NDLMDX\UDSDWHQNLQWLE WLQLDXVL SUHNL SRUHLNLDL7DLJLSDNODXVDODEDLHODVWLQJDSDMDP NLWLPXL <SDWLQJRVIRUPRVNUHLY WXULPDåDLSHUGLUEW DUEDQHNRN\ELãN YDUWRMLPRUHLNPHQ SDNODXVRV SULNODXVRP\E QXRSDMDP 3DVWHELPDNDGDXJDQWYDUWRWRM SDMDPRPVWRNL SUHNL SDNODXVDGLG MD WDþLDX SDVLHNXV WDP WLNU G\G NDL YDUWRWRMDL JDOL SLUNWL JHUHVQ V NRN\E V EUDQJHVQHV SUHNHV QHNRN\ELãN SUHNL SDNODXVD VSDUþLDL PDå MD DXJDQW SDMDPRPV 15 pav. c šis paklausos ryšio su SDMDPRPLVSDVLNHLWLPRWDãNDV$SDYDL]GXRWDVSDNODXVRVNUHLY MH
.U\åPLQLVHODVWLQJXPDV
9LHQRVSUHN V SDNODXVRVU\ãLRJODXGXP VXNLW SUHNL - VXEVWLWXW LUNRPSOHPHQWDUL J U\EL - NDLQ NLWLPX QXVDNRNU\åPLQLRHODVWLQJXPRV YRND .RPSOHPHQWDUL SUHNL SDNODXVRVHODVWLQJXPDV\UDQHLJLDPDVQHVSDGLG MXVYLHQRVSUHN V NDLQDLVXPDå MD VXMDNDUWXYDUWRMDP SUHNL SDNODXVD SDY\]GåLXLEUDQJVWDQWEHQ]LQXLPDå MDDXWRPRELOL SDNODXVD 3UHN V VXEVWLWXWDL WXUL WHLJLDP NU\åPLQ SDNODXVRV HODVWLQJXP QHV SDGLG MXV YLHQRV SUHN V NDLQDL YDUWRWRMDLQXNUHLSLDVDYRLãODLGDV NLW SUHN NXULJDOLSDNHLVWLSDEUDQJXVL SUHN
3.2. Elastingumo teorijos praktinis taikymas 9DOVW\ELQ NDLQ NRQWURO Paklausos-SDVL ORV G VQLV LU HODVWLQJXPR WHRULMD JDOLQD WLHVLRJLDL DLãNLQWL UHDOLDV SUREOHPDV ýLD DSåYHOJVLPHGYLSUREOHPDV NDLQ NRQWURO V LU YDOVW\E V PRNHVþL SDVHNPL SULNODXVRP\E QXRSDNODXsos bei SDVL ORVHODVWLQJXPR 7REXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV ULQNRV V O\JRPLV NDLQRV MXGD SXVLDXVY\URV OLQN NXULDL HVDQW SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV NLHNLDL VXWDPSD 9DOVW\E NRQWUROLXRGDPD ULQNRV NDLQDV SDåHLGåLD SXVLDXVY\U DWVLUDQGD SUHNL perteklius arba deficitDV 7XRPHW PDLQRP SUHNL NLHN V O\JRMD WLNWDL SDNODXVRV DUED SDVL ORV NLHNLV SULNODXVRPDLQXRWRNXULVLãM \UDPDåHVQLVHVDQWNDLQDLQXNU\SXVLDLQXRSXVLDXVY\URV Tai pavaizduota 16 pav. Kai kaina P1 \UD PDåHVQ Xå SXVLDXVY\URV NDLQ 30 PDLQRP SUHNL NLHN OHPLDSDVL ORVNUHLY 6 LUMLVEXVO\JXV41 W\PDåHVQLVXåSDNODXVRVNLHN 42. Kai kaina P2 \UDGLGHVQ XåSXVLDXVY\URVNDLQ PDLQRP SUHNL NLHN Q4 OHPVSDNODXVRVNUHLY QRUV SDVL OD\UDGLGHVQ W\Q3.
Minimalios kainos.9DOVW\E ULQNRV N\MHGDåQDLQXVWDWRQHWDPWLNURG\GåLRNRQNUHþLDVNDLQDVRWLN DSULERMD M NLWLP 'DUEXL LU åHP V NLR SURGXNWDPV GDåQDL QXVWDWRPDV NDLQ PLQLPXPDV åHPHVQ PLV NDLQRPLVãL SUHNL QHJDOLPDSDUGDYLQ WL-HLNDLQ PLQLPXPDVQXVWDW\WDVåHPHVQLVQHJXSXVLausvyros kaina, jis Q UDHIHNW\YXVQHWXULSUDVP VQHVSDþLDLULQNDLRULHQWXRMDQWLV SXVLDXVY\U NDLQRVEXVGLGHVQ V XåQXVWDW\W ULE 7DLJL YDOVW\EHL Q UD WLNVOR QXVWDW\WL NDLQ PLQLPXPR MHL MRV SDþLRV QHQXNUHQWD LNL ULERV NXUL nebepatenkina valstyb V WLNVO - XåWLNULQWL PLQLPDO GDUELQLQN SUDJ\YHQLPR O\J åHPGLUEL NLDPV LãODLN\WL E WLQDVSDMDPDVLUSDQ .DLNDLQ PLQLPXPDV\UDQXVWDW\WDVDXNãþLDXSXVLDXVY\URVNDLQRV SUHNL NLHNLVNXU SDUGDY MDLQRUL SDUGXRWL \UD GLGHVQLV Xå W NLHN NXU SLUN MDV QRUL SLUNWL WXRPHW DUED VXVLGDUR QHSDUGXRW SUHNL SHUWHNOLXV DUEDYDOVW\E WXULVXSLUNWLDWVDUJDV7RNLRV\UDQHLãYHQJLDPRVNDLQ NDLMRV\UDGLGHVQ V XåSXVLDXVY\URVNDLQ NRQWURO V SDVHNP V$UWRVSDVHNP V \UDSULLPWLQRVDUM QHLJLDPDVHIHNWDVYLVXRPHQ V J\YHQLPXLYHUWDVWRV QDXGRV NXUL JDXQD SDUGDY MDL VXJHEDQW\V SDUGXRWL SUHNHV HVDQW QXVWDW\WDP NDLQRV PLQLPXPXL QHV MLH DWVLGXULDJHUHVQ MHSDG W\MHQHJXNDGSDUGXRGDQWSUHNHVSXVLDXVY\URVNDLQRPLV"$WVDN\P ã NODXVLP GXRGD ekonomin SROLWLND(NRQRPLNRVWHRULMDWHJDOLSDURG\WLWLNIXQNFLQ UHLãNLQL U\ã Maksimalios kainos. 9DOVW\E VLHNGDPD SDJHULQWL SLUN M SDG W JDOL QXVWDW\WL PDNVLPDOLDV NDLQDV DUED NDLQ PDNVLPXP NXULR QHWXUL SHUåHQJWL SDUGDY MDL SDUGXRGDPL VDYR SUHNHV 'DåQDL WLNVOLQJD QXVWDW\WL NRPXQDOLQL SDVODXJ HOHNWURVHQHUJLMRVGXM EXW QXRPRVPRNHVþLRNDLQ PDNVLPXP ,QIOLDFLMRVV O\JRPLV WDL SDSUDVWDL SDVLUHLãNLD NDLQ ãDOG\PX W\ YLVXRWLQDL N\ODQW SUHNL NDLQRPV GDOLHV SUHNL NDLQRV OLHND stabilioVW\QHOHLGåLDPDM GLGLQWL
.DLQ PDNVLPXP SUDVPLQJDQXVWDW\WLWLNåHPLDXSXVLDXVY\URVNDLQRVQHVNLWDLSULQNDSDWLXåWLNULQW W PDNVLPXP W\SDVLHNW SXVLDXVY\U 7DLJLYDOVW\E V UHLNDODYLPXVXPDåLQDPRVNDLQRVRWDLVXPDåLQD SDVL O SDGLGLQDSDNODXV LUVXNHOLDSUHNL GHILFLW 7DL\UDWLHVLRJLQ NDLQ VXPDåLQLPRSDVHNP 7ROHVQ SLUN M LUSDUGDY M HOJVHQDJDOLE WL YDLUL3DUGDY MDLJDOLSDUGDYLQ WLGHILFLWLQHVSUHNHVSDJDOHLO JDOL QXVWDW\WLNDLNXULHPVSLUN MDPVSLUPHQ\E ,UYDOVW\E JDOLQXVWDW\WLSLUPHQ\E NDLNXULRPVSLUN M JUXS PV VXWHLNWLSULYLOHJLMDVDUEDDWYLUNãþLDLOHLVWLQXVLSLUNWLYLVLHPVYLHQRG NLHN SUHNL LãGXRGDPDNRUWHOHV
9DOVW\EHL NRQWUROLXRMDQW SUHNL NDLQDV HIHNWDV SULNODXVR QXR WR DU SUHNL NXULRPV QXVWDWRPDV NDLQ PDNVLPXPDV DUED PLQLPXPDV SDNODXVD LU SDVL OD \UD HODVWLQJD DL QH -HLJX QHHODVWLQJD NDLS SDYDL]GXRWD 17 pav., nedidelis kainos P1 nukrypimas nuo pusiausvyros kainos PE VXNHOLD PDåHVQ SHUWHNOL DUED GHILFLW NXU vaizduoja atstumas tarp pardavimo apimties QE HVDQWSXVLDXVY\UDLLUQXVWDþLXVNDLQRVULEDV – Q1. -HLJXSDNODXVDLUSDVL ODHODVWLQJDWRNVSDWNDLQRV31, nukrypimas nuo pusiausvyros kainos PE (17 SDYE V O\JRMDå\PLDLGLGHVQ SUHNL GHILFLW DUEDSHUWHNOL 4E – Q1. Juodoji rinka..DLQ PDNVLPXPRVXNHOWDVGHILFLWDVVDYRUXRåWXV O\JRMDMXRGRVLRVULQNRVNXULWDLSSDW SULNODXVR QXR SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV HODVWLQJXPR DWVLUDGLP -XRGRMRMH ULQNRMH SUHN V QHOHJDOLDL SDUGXRGDPRV didesne kaina negu nustatytas kainos maksimumas. Efektyviai kontroliuoti juodosios rinkos negalima, nes yra VXLQWHUHVXRWLVDQG ULX-GLGHO PLVNDLQRPLVWLHNSDUGDY MDLWLHNSLUN MDL Juodosios rinkos modelis pateiktas 18 SDY .DL SDNODXVD LU SDVL OD QHHODVWLQJD QXVWDW\WR NDLQ maksimumo sukeltas preki GHILFLWDV V O\JRMD GLGHO V MXRGRVLRV ULQNRV DWVLUDGLP -RMH SDUGXRGDP SUHNL kiekis Q1 \UDDUWLPDVSUHNL NLHNLXLNXULVE W SDUGXRWDVHVDQWULQNRVSXVLDXVY\UDLW\QE. Spekuliacinis pelnas pavaizduotas 18 SDY D VWDþLDNDPSLR 31P2BA plotu sudaro diGHO SDMDP OP2BQ1 GDO .DL SDNODXVD LU SDVL OD HODVWLQJD VXVLIRUPXRMD PDåHVQ MXRGRML ULQND QHV GDOLV YDUWRWRM HVDQW GHILFLWXL JDOL å\PLDL VXPDåLQWL vartojimo
a) paklausa ir pDVL ODQHHODVWLQJD
QE
Q1 Q
E SDNODXVDLUSDVL ODHODVWLQJD
D QHHODVWLQJRVSDNODXVRVSUHN
E HODVWLQJRVSDNODXVRVSUHN
DSLPW 6SHNXOLDQW SHOQDV JHURNDL PDåHVQLV QHJX HVDQW QHHODVWLQJDL SDNODXVDL LU SDVL ODL W\ DSLPD WLN VWDþLDNDPSLR31P2%$SORW 18 pav. b. J RGRVLRV ULQNRV PRGHOLV DNLYDL]GåLDL URGR NDG YDOVW\E NRQWUROLXRGDPD NDLQDV QHJDOL QHL XåWLNULQWL GHILFLWLQL SUHNL YDUWRMLPRO\J\E VQHLSDODLN\WLPDå NDLQ QHVMRVSDGLG MDMXRGRMRMHULQNRMH7DþLDXNDLQ NRQWURO SDM JLSHUVNLUVW\WLUHVXUVXVLãYLHQRVãDNRV NLW \SDþNDLSUHN V SDNODXVDLUSDVL OD\UDHODVWLQJD (ODVWLQJXPRSRYHLNLVPRNHVþL HIHNWXL
(ODVWLQJXPR WHRULMD SDGHGDVXSUDVWL LUWDL NDV JDOLDXVLDL PRND PRNHVþLXV 1XR SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV HODVWLQJXPRSULNODXVRNLHNSLQLJ YDUWRWRMDLLãOHLGåLDSUHNL SDUGDYLPRDSPRNHVWLQLPXLSDGHQJWL7DLSSDWQXR HODVWLQJXPR SULNODXVR NLHQR QDXGDL JDOLDXVLDL WHQND VXEVLGLMRV QHLJLDPL PRNHVþLDL VNLULDPRV JDPLQWRMXL (ODVWLQJXPRLJQRUDYLPDVNDLSSDPDW\VLPHJDOLPRNHVþL HIHNW QXNUHLSWLQHpageidaujama linkme 0RNHVþLDL UHQNDPL DSPRNHVWLQDQW NLHNYLHQ SDUGXRGDPRV SUHN V YLHQHW 7DUNLPH NDG SUHN V SDNODXVD \UD HODVWLQJD LU ãL SUHN \UD DSPRNHVWLQWD 5 OLW PRNHVþLX 7DL UHLãNLD NDG HVDQW EHW NRNLDL SUHN V NDLQDLMRVG\GLVWXU W LãDXJWL 5 litais. 19SDYDãLVSDVLNHLWLPDVSDYDL]GXRWDVSDVL ORVNUHLY V 6SDVLVOLQNLPX ST- YLHW 3DVLVOHQNDLUSXVLDXVY\URVWDãNDVLã( (T 9DOVW\E SDLPD 5OLWXVXåNLHNYLHQ SDUGXRW SUHN WDþLDX vartotojui kaina išauga tik 2 litais. Tuo tarpu 3 litus apmoND SDUGDY MDV NXULR SDMDPRV Xå NLHNYLHQ SDUGXRW SUHN VXPDå MDãLDVXPD1DXMDNDLQDSDUGDY MDVUHDOL]XRVQHEH 30000, o tik 20000SUHN V YLHQHW 0RNHVþL QDãWD ODELDX XåJXOD YDUWRWRMR SHþLXV MHLJX \UD DSPRNHVWLQDPD WRNLX SDW PRNHVþLX SUHN kurios paklausa neelastinga. Tai iliustruoja 19 SDY E ýLD 5 OLW PRNHVWLV SDNHLþLD SXVLDXVY\URV WDãN ( DWLWLQNDQW 10OLW NDLQ LU 30000YLHQHW UHDOL]DYLPRDSLPW QDXMDSXVLDXVY\UDWDãNH(T esant 14OLW NDLQDLLU 27000YLHQHW DSLPþLDL7DþLDX 4OLW G\GåLRPRNHVþL QDãWDWHQNDYDUWRWRMXLRSDUGDY MXL - tik litas. 7DLJLHVDQWQHHODVWLQJDLSDNODXVDLSDUGXRW SUHNL DSLPWLVVXPDå MDPDåHVQLXG\GåLXRNDLQDODELDX SDGLG MD QHJX WDGD NDL SDNODXVD HODVWLQJD .XR SDNODXVD \UD HODVWLQJHVQ WXR GLGHVQ PRNHVþL QDãWD WHQND gamintojui. $SPRNHVWLQGDPDSUHNL SDUGDYLP YDOVW\E WXULDWVLåYHOJWLLU SDVL ORVHODVWLQJXP 3DO\JLQNLPH 19 SDYDLUFJUDILNXVNXULXRVHSDYDL]GXRWDHODVWLQJRVSDNODXVRVNUHLY LUVNLUWLQJRHODVWLQJXPRSDVL ORVNUHLY V 19 pav. grafikeDSDVL ODHODVWLQJDRJUDILNHEQHHODVWLQJD
(VDQW QHHODVWLQJDL SDVL ODL NDLQRV LU SUHNL DSLPWLHV NLWLPDV \UD JHURNDL PDåHVQLV WDþLDX SDUGDY MR PRNHVþL QDãWDGDUODELDXGLG MDQXRLNLOLW åU SDYDLUF $QNVþLDX SDWHLNWD WLHVLRJLQL SDUGDYLP DSPRNHVWLQLPR SDVHNPL SULNODXVRP\E QXR SDNODXVRV LU SDVL ORV HODVWLQJXPR OHLGåLD WLNVOLDX SDDLãNLQWL LU NLWXV UHLãNLQLXV NXULH Lã SLUPR åYLOJVQLR QHDWURGR VXVLM VX HODVWLQJXPR SUREOHPD LãWHNOL DORNDFLM SDMDP SDVNLUVW\P QHGDUER O\J YDOVW\E V SDMDPDV -HL YDOVW\E VLHNLD SDGLGLQWL VDYR SDMDPDV QHVXNHOGDPD GLGHOLR NDLQ DXJLPR ML WXUL DSPRNHVWLQWL QHHODVWLQJRV SDVL ORV prekes. Kartu tokia politika QHVNDWLQVå\PLDLPDåLQWLJDP\ERVDSLPWLHVLUXåLPWXPRO\JLR*DPLQWRMDLQHJDO V OHQJYDLSHUNHOWLLãWHNOL NLW SUHNL JDP\EDLQRUVLUEXVSULYHUVWLQHãWLGLGåL M PRNHVþL QDãWRVGDO 9DOVW\E V SDMDPDVODELDXSDGLGLQVSUHNL NXUL SDNODXVD\UDQHHODVWLnga, apmokestinimas. Perskirstyti SDMDPDVQRULPDOLQNPHJDOLPDLUJLWLNDWVLåYHOJLDQW HODVWLQJXP .XRSDNODXVDPDåLDXHODVWLQJDWXRGLGHVQ PRNHVþLR GDO DSPRND YDUWRWRMDL ,ãWHNOL DORNDFLM PRNHVþL SDJDOED JDOLPD OHQJYLDX SDNHLVWL DSPRNHVWLQDQW prekHVNXUL SDVL OD\UDHODVWLQJHVQ
4.Vartotojo elgsena 4.1.
Naudingumo teorija
(NRQRPLVW NYDOLILNDFLMD QHOHLGåLD DWOLNWL LãVDPLRV YDUWRWRMLãNRV SVLFKRORJLMRV DQDOL] V NXULD NYDOLILNXRWDLXåVLLPDVRFLRORJDLLUSVLFKRORJDL3DQDJULQ Vime tik labai bendrus klausimus, tiesiogiai susijusius VX SUREOHPRV HNRQRPLQLX SDDLãNLQLPX $SWDUVLPH SULHPRQHV QDXGRMDPDV YDUWRWRM HOJVHQRV DQDOL]HL WLUWL EHL SUREOHPDVVXVLMXVLDVVXQHLJLDPXSDNODXVRVNUHLY V QXRO\GåLX 6YHLNDV SURWDV VDNR NDG PDå MDQW NDLQRPV YDUWRWRMDV SDM JLD QXVLSLUNWL GDXJLDX SUHNL 3DMDP LU VXEVWLWXFLMRV HIHNWDV WDL SDDLãNLQD ODELDX IRUPDOL]XRWDL )XQGDPHQWDOLDL YDUWRWRMR HOJVHQ JDOLPD SDJU VWL naudingumo teorija. Ji remiasi tokiomis prielaidomis: • vartotojas disponuoja rLERWD SLQLJ VXPD LU VLHNLD JDXWL PDNVLPDO SDVLWHQNLQLP QDXGLQJXP LãOHLVGDPDVãLXRVSLQLJXVSUHN PVEHLSDVODXJRPVSLUNWL • MLVJDOLODLVYDLSDVLULQNWLNRNLRPVSUHN PVLãOHLVWLSLQLJXV • visi kiti veiksniai yra nekintami. Vartotojas nuolat turi spU VWLDUMRSDVLULQNWDSUHN YHUWDVDYRNDLQRV
Ribinis naudingumas 3UHN V WHLNLDPDV YDUWRWRMXL SDVLWHQNLQLPDV YDGLQDPDV QDXGLQJXPX .DG QDXGLQJXPR V YRND E W ODELDX DSþLXRSLDPD WDUNLPH MRJ DWVNLURV SUHN V QDXGLQJXPDV PDWXRMDPDV PDNVLPDOLXSLQLJ NXULXRVDVPXRSDVLUHQJ VXåM PRN WLNLHNLX7DLNDGåPRJXL\DUWRMDQW YLV GDXJLDX LU GDXJLDX NRQNUHþLRV SUHN V WDP WLNUX ODLNRWDUSLX NLHNYLHQR WRV SUHN V SULG WLQLR YLHQHWR QDXGLQJXPDV MDP PDå MD \UD IDNWDVNXULXREHWNXULVLãP V JDOL VLWLNLQWLJ\YHQLPH Bendrasis naudingumas yra- WDP WLNUR SUHNL NLHNLR WHLNLDPDV SDVLWHQNLQLPDV 5LELQLV QDXGLQJXPDV UHLãNLDSDVLWHQNLQLPRSDVLNHLWLP YDUWRMDQWYLHQXSUHN V YLHQHWXPDåLDXDUGDXJLDX-LVLãPDWXRWDVSLQLJDLV\UD PDNVLPDOXVSLQLJ NLHNLVNXU DVPXRQRULPRN WLXåSDSLOGRP SUHN V YLHQHW 5HLNLD DLãNLDL VXYRNWL VNLUWXP WDUS EHQGURMR LU ULELQLR QDXGLQJXPR .DOE GDPL DSLH EHQGU M QDXGLQJXP WXULPH JDOYRMH SDVLWHQNLQLP NXULV JDXQDPDV VXYDUWRMXV YLV SURGXNW 5LELQLR QDXGLQJXPR atveju, priešingai, kalbama apie paVLWHQNLQLP NXU VXWHLNLD SDVNXWLQLR W\ ULELQLR SURGXNWR YLHQHWR VXYDUWRMLPDV3DY\]GåLXLNHWXUL REXROL EHQGUDVLVQDXGLQJXPDV\UDO\JXVWDPSDVLWHQNLQLPXLNXU YDUWRWRMDV patiria juos visus suvartodamas. Tuo tarpu ribinis ketvirto obuolio naudingumas yra lygus pasitenkinimo SULHDXJLXL SDGLG MLPXL VXYDUWRMDQW ã NHWYLUW REXRO DUED NLWDLV åRGåLDLV WDULDQW EHQGUR QDXGLQJXPR skirtumui vartojant 3 ir 4 obuolius. Bendrojo naudingumo pokytis Ribinis naudingumas = ———————————— Vartojimo kiekio pokytis %HQGU M QDXGLQJXP LUULELQ QDXGLQJXP JDOLPDSDO\JLQWLSDYDL]GXRMDQWMXRVJUDILãNDL7XRWLNVOX GDURPHSULHODLG NDGQDXGLQJXP JDOLPDPDWXRWL7DPWLNURSURGXNWRYDUWRMLPRQDXGLQJXPDVSDYDL]GXRWDV leQWHO MH
$WLG M OHQWHO V GXRPHQLV NRRUGLQDþL grafiškai (20 pav.).
VLVWHPRMH EHQGU M LU ULELQ QDXGLQJXP
SDYDL]GXRMDPH
'LG MDQWSURGXNWRYDUWRMLPXLWLHNbendrasis naudingumas (BN), tiek ribinis (RN) auga iki maksimumo WDãNRRSRWRLPD PDå WL7DþLDX PDNVLPXP ULELQLV QDXGLQJXPDVSDVLHNLDWLNLãSUDGåL RSRWRNULQWD7XR tarpu bendrasis naudingumas auga ir jo maksimumo taškas sutampa su ribinio naudingumo nuliniu tašku. 5LELQLRQDXGLQJXPRNUHLY V IRUPDQ UDDWVLWLNWLQ 'DXJXPRVSURGXNW SLUPXRVLXVYLHQHWXVYDUWRWRMDV SDSUDVWDLYHUWLQDODELDXMLHVXWHLNLDGDXJGLGHVQ SDVLWHQNLQLP QHJX
SDVNXWLQLHML YDUWRMDPL WRV U ãLHV SURGXNWDL VLYDL]GXRNLPH NRNL SLQLJ VXP VXWLNWXPH PRN WL Xå WDL NDG P V SUDVWDV YDQGHQV YDUWRMLPDV QHE W VXPDåLQWDV YLHQX OLWUX SHU VDYDLW 9DUJX DU WRNV YDQGHQV YDUWRMLPR VXPDå MLPDVSULYHUVW PXVLãVLWUDXNWLLãNLãHQ V SLQLJLQ 7DþLDX VLYDL]GXRNLPHWRNL GUDPDWLãN VLWXDFLM NDG yra vandens deficitas ir jo vartojimas normuojamas iki 10OLWU SHUVDYDLW .RNLRVSLQLJ VXPRVQHSDJDLO WXPH VLHNGDPL SDGLGLQWL YDQGHQV YDUWRMLP YLHQX OLWUX" .XR PDåLDX åPRQ V WXUL WXR ODELDX YHUWLQD $UED NLWDLS WDULDQW NXR GDXJLDX åPRQ V WXUL WXR PDåLDX MLH YHUWLQD SDSLOGRP YLHQHW .LHNYLHQR SDSLOGRPR YLHQHWR WHLNLDPDVSDVLWHQNLQLPDVDUEDQDXGLQJXPDV\UDYLVPDåHVQLVLUPDåHVQLV
0Då MDQþLRULELQLRQDXGLQJXPRG VQLV
7DPWLNUXSHULRGXHVDQWQHNLQWDQþLDPYDUWRWRMRVNRQLXLNLHNYLHQDVYDUWRMDPRSURGXNWRYLHQHWDVWHLNLD PDå MDQW ULELQ QDXGLQJXP âLV G VQLV WHLVLQJDV HVDQW SULHODLGDL NDG NLW SURGXNW YDUWRMLPDV QHVLNHLþLD W\ Q UD VXEVWLWXFLjos HIHNWR7DþLDX UHLNLD DWVDUJLDL WDLN\WL ã G VQ QHV JDOL E WL HLO LãLPþL 3DY\]GåLXL DQWUD VOLGLQ MLPR SDPRND JDOLGXRWLGDXJLDXQDXGRVQHLSLUPRML0DåLDXNULWLP LUGDXJLDXPDORQXP 7DþLDXNDLYLVGDXJLDXLUGDXJLDX WXU VLPHSDPRN ULELQLVQDXGLQJXPDVWXU W PDå WLâLPWRMLSDPRNDSHUVH]RQ VXWHLNVPDåLDXSDVLWHQNLQLPR negu devyniasdešimt devintoji.
Vartotojo pusiausvyra 5LELQLR QDXGLQJXPR VDPSUDWD SDGHGD VXSUDVWL DWVNLU SUHNL SDNODXVRV NUHLY LU SDDLãNLQWL YDUWRWRMR sprendimus paskirstant VNLUWLQJ U ãL SUHNL SLUNLPRDSLPWLV 3DO\JLQNLPHGYLHM VNLUWLQJ SUHNL ULELQ QDXGLQJXP âLRVSUHN V JDOLWHLNWLYLHQRG SDVLWHQNLQLP EHWYLHQDLSUHNHLYDUWRWRMDVWXULLãOHLVWLGLGHVQ SLQLJ VXP QHJXNLWDL7DLULELQLVQDXGLQJXPDVWHQNDQWLV vieQDPYDUWRWRMRLãODLG OLWXL9DUWRWRMDVVLHNGDPDVPDNVLPL]XRWLEHQGU M QDXGLQJXP JDXQDP YDUWRMDQW YLVDVSUHNHVWXULSDVNLUVW\WLLãODLGDVSHUNDPRPVSUHN PVWDLSNDGNLHNYLHQDVOLWDVLãOHLVWDVDWVNLURVU ãLHA SUHN V SDVNXWLQLDPYLHQHWXLSLUNWLVXWHLNW MDPYLHQRG ULELQ QDXGLQJXP 7DLJDOLPDLãUHLNãWLIRUPXOH
RN1/P1 = RN2/P2 = RN3/P3 = RNn/Pn, þLDQ -SDVLUHQNDP SUHNL U ã\V .DL WRNLD VLWXDFLMD YDUWRWRMDV QHVLHNLD SLUNWL YLHQRV SUHN V GDXJLDX NLWRV V VNDLWD 7DL -pusiausvyros SDG WLV9DUWRWRMo bendrasis naudingumas yra maksimalus.
âL IRUPXO JDOLPH SDSLOG\WL SLQLJXV ODLN\GDPL SUHNH WXULQþLD ULELQ QDXGLQJXP 51P LU NDLQ 3P . %HWNDGDQJLYLHQROLWRNDLQDO\JLOLWXLWRG O RNm/Pm = RNm o RN1/P1= RN2/P3 = RN3/3, = RNn/Pn = RNm 9LVDVSUHNL ULnkinio ribinis naudingumas lygus SLQLJ ULELQLDPQDXGLQJXPXL
5LELQLVQDXGLQJXPDVLUSDNODXVRVNUHLY
5HPLDQWLV YDUWRWRMR SXVLDXVY\UD EHW NXULRV SUHN V D 51a/Pa = RNm arba RNa/RNm = Pa âLIRUPXO OHLGåLDQDXGRMDQW SUHN V ULELQ QDXGLQJXP UDVWLMRVSDNODXVRV IXQNFLM 7XRWLNVOXUHLNLDGDU\WL SULHODLG NDG SLQLJ ULELQLV QDXGLQJXPDV \UD SDVWRYXV WHLJLDPDV VNDLþLXV 7DP WXULQW SUHN V ULELQLR QDXGLQJXPROHQWHO åU 4.2OHQWHO JDOLPDQXEU åWLSDNODXVRVNUHLY (21 pav.). Ribinio naudingumo ir paklausRVU\ã GDUODELDXVXSUDVWLQVLPHMHLSLQLJ ULELQ QDXGLQJXP ODLN\VLPHO\J 1.7DGD3D 51DW\ULELQLVSUHN V QDXGLQJXPDVO\JXVMRVNDLQDL 21 pav. Ribinio naudingumo ir paklausos NUHLY
OHQWHO 3UHN VLUSLQLJ
3UHN VYLHQHWDL
1 2 3 4 5
ibinis naudingumas.
U
3LQLJ ULELQLV3UHN VULELQLV
naudingumas RNm 5 5 5 5 5
naudingumas Rna 25 20 15 10 5
Produkto kaina P=RNa/RNm 5 4 3 2 1
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6PLWRYHUW V SDUDGRNVDV
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a) vandens
b) šampano
2SWLPDODXVSLUNLPRWDLV\NO
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2 OLWXVGUDEXåL 10OLW WXRPHWJDOLPHJUDILãNDLSDYDL]GXRWLYLVXVJDOLPXVYDUWRWRMRSDVLULQNLPRYDULDQWXV (23 pav.). .LHNYLHQDVWLHV V $%WDãNDVURGRNRN PDLVWRLUGUDEXåL NLHN ULQNLQ JDOLQXVLSLUNWLYDUWRWRMDVHVDQW SDVWRYLRPV SUHNL NDLQRPV LU SDMDPRPV MHL YLVDV SDMDPDV LãOHLV ãLRPV SUHN PV SLUNWL 7DãNDV & URGR SUHNL ULQNLQ NXULR YDUWRWRMDV QHSDM JXV QXVLSLUNWL R WDãNDV ' å\PL ULQNLQ NXU JDOL QXVLSLUNWL QHLãOHLVGDPDV YLV SDMDP 3DMDP SDGLG MLPDVDU
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SDY'UDEXåLDL
Indiferentiškumo NUHLY
0DLVWRSUHN V YQW
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26 pav. (vnt.) Indiferentiškumo kreivL åHP ODSLV
0DLVWRSUHN V YQW
9DUWRWRMRSXVLDXVY\UDLU,QGLIHUHQWLãNXPRNUHLY V 9DUWRWRMRHOJVHQ V O\JRMDMRQRUDLLUJDOLP\E V1RUXVLãUHLãNLDLQGLIHUHQWLãNXPRNUHLYL åHP ODSLVR galimybes - ELXGåHWLQ WLHV 7RG O SDYDL]GXRNLPH DEX JUDILNXV YLHQRMH NRRUGLQDþL VLVWHPRMH .LHNYLHQDV ELXGåHWLQ V NUHLY V WDãNDVURGRNRNLDPSUHNL ULQNLQLXL 27 pav. 9DUWRWRMR
'UDEXåLDL
(vnt.)
SXVLDYVY\U D
0DLVWRSUHN V YQW
YDUWRWRMDV WXUL SDNDQNDPDL SLQLJ 6LHNGDPDV PDNVLPL]XRWL SDVLWHQNLQLP VDYR SLUNLQLX YDUWRWRMDV SLUNV WRN SUHNL ULQNLQ NXULV WHLNLD MDP GLGåLDXVL QDXG LU NXULDP SLUNWL SDNDQND SLQLJ $NLYDL]GX MRJ WDV ULQNLQ\V LãUHLNãWDV LQGLIHUHQWLãNXPR NUHLY V LU ELXGåHWLQ V WLHV V OLHWLPRVL WDãNR NRRUGLQDW PLV 27 pav. šis taškas SDå\P WDV(UDLGH âLDPHWDãNHGYLHM SUHNL VDQW\NLQ ULQNRVNDLQD\UDO\JLãL SUHNL ULELQLDPVXEVWLWXFLMRVODLSVQLXL 7DLJLYDUWRWRMDVãLDPHWDãNHSUHNL VDQW\N YHUWLQDWDLSSDWNDLSWDVVDQW\NLV\UDYHUWLQDPDVULQNRMH7DLLU\UD vartotojo pusiaXVY\URVWDãNDVULQNRMHNXULDPHMLVQDXGLQJLDXVLDLLãOHLGåLDVDYRWXULPDVSDMDPDV
3DMDP - YDUWRMLPRLUNDLQ - vartojimo linijos %LXGåHWLQ OLQLMD \UD QXEU åWD ODLNDQWLV GYLHM SULHODLG 3LUPD SDMDPRV \UD SDVWRYLRV DQWUD GYLHM SUHNL NDLQ VDQW\NLV yra pastovus. 3DMDP PDå MLPDV V O\JRMD ELXGåHWLQ V WLHV V SDVLVOLQNLP %HVLVOLQNGDPD ãL WLHV WDPSD YLV NLW LQGLIHUHQWLãNXPR NUHLYL OLHVWLQH VXVLGDUR YLV QDXML SXVLDXVY\URV WDãNDL âL WDãN WUDMHNWRULMD URGR YDUWRWRMR HOJVHQ ULQNLQLRNLWLP NLQWDQWMRSDMDPRPVLU\UDYDGLQDPDSDMDP -YDUWRMLPROLQLMD åU 28 pav.). Kiekvienas ãLRVOLQLMRVWDãNDVURGRYDUWRWRMRULQNLQ HVDQWWDPWLNURPVSDMDPRPVLUSDVWRYLRPVSUHNL NDLQRPV 3DQDãLDLJDOLPDDWVLVDN\WLNDLQ VDQW\NLRSDVWRYXPRSULHODLGRVLUQXEU åWLNDLQ - YDUWRMLPROLQLM NXUL URGRNDLSNLQWDYDUWRWRMRULQNLQ\VNLQWDQWSUHNL NDLQ VDQW\NLXLRSDMDPRPVOLHNDQWSDVWRYLRPV åU 29 pav.). 'UDEXåLDL
(vnt.) 28 pav.
3DMDP
vartojim o linija
0DLVWRSUHN V YQW
'UDEXåLDL
(vnt.) 29 pav. .DLQ vartojimo linija
0DLVWRSUHN V YQW
3DMDP LUVXEVWLWXFLMRVHIHNWDLLQGLIHUHQWLãNXPRWHRULMRMH .DOEDQWDSLHYDUWRWRMRHOJVHQ ULQNRMHQDW UDOLDLN\ODNODXVLPDV NDLSMLVUHDJXRMD YLHQSUHN V NDLQRV SDVLNHLWLP " 9DL]GXPRG OHLWDUNLPHNDGSUHN V NDLQDVXPDå MR3UHN V NDLQRVPDå MLPDVGLGLQDMRVSDNODXV G O GYLHM SULHåDVþL 3LUPDG O VXEVWLWXFLMRVQHVDWSLJWSUHN YDUWRMDPDYLHWRMEUDQJHVQL SUHNL NXULDVJDOLPD SDNHLVWL $QWUD G O SDMDP DXJLPR QHV SUHN V DWSLJLPDV NDUWX UHLãNLD VDQW\NLQ SDMDP SDGLG MLP âLDV GYL SULHåDVWLVJDOLPHSDYDL]GXRWLJUDILNHNDLSELXGåHWLQL WLHVL EHLLQGLIHUHQWLãNXPRNUHLYL SDVLVOLQNLPXV
30SDY$SUHN V SDNODXVDGLG MDPDå MDQWNDLQRPVLUSHUHLQDQWLãSXVLDXVY\URVWDãNR 1 WDãN (0 G O SDMDP LUVXEVWLWXFLMRVHIHNW
30 pav. 3DMDP
LU
VXEVWLWXFLMRV HIHNWDL
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Gifeno paradoksas % QD NDG PDå MDQW SUHNL NDLQRPV M SDNODXVD QH GLG MD R DWYLUNãþLDL PDå MD 19 a. R.Gifenas 5*LIIHQ SDVWHE MRNDGEUDQJVWDQW'LGåLRMRMH%ULWDQLMRMHNYLHþLDPVRNDUWXLUGXRQDLSDGLG MRMRVYDUWRMLPDV 7RNLDVLWXDFLMDJDOLPDMHLGDXJXPDLåPRQL GXRQD\UDYLHQDVSDJULQGLQL PDLVWRSURGXNW LUMRVSDEUDQJLPDV nuskurdina vartotojus. Jie privalo atsisakyti prabangesnio maisto ir dar daugiau vartoti duonos. 6XEVWLWXFLMRVHIHNWDV PDåLQDYDUWRMLP GLG MDQWSUHN V NDLQDLWDþLDXSDMDP HIHNWDVJDOLE WLGLGHVQLV ir, veLNGDPDV SULHãLQJD OLQNPH DWVYHUWL VXEVWLWXFLMRV HIHNW 7DLS JDOL DWVLWLNWL LU *LIHQR SDVWHE WX DWYHMX QHV SDEUDQJXVGXRQDLVDQW\NLQDLVXPDå MDSDMDPRV åU 31 pav.).
31 pav. Gifeno paradoksas
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5.KAŠTAI $OWHUQDW\Y V NDãWDLLUSHOnas Kaštai pirmiausiai asocijuojasi su išlaidomis. Tai yra pinigai, išleisti siekiant tam tikro tikslo. Verslo PRQ VH SLQLJDL LãOHLGåLDPL PRNHVþLDPV DSPRN WL LãPRN WL SDO NDQDV UHQJLPDPV SLUNWL VNRORPV PDWHULDOLQ PV JHU\E PV åDOLDYRPV NXUXL GDUER XåPRNHVþLXL LU SDQDãLHPV WLNVODPV 7RNLH NDãWDL YDGLQDPL HNVSOLFLWLQLDLV DUED DLãNLDLV NDãWDLV 9LVRV ãLRV PRQ V SLQLJLQ V LãODLGRV UDãRPRV EXKDOWHULQHV NQ\JDV WRG O MRPVWLQNDLUEXKDOWHULQL NDãW SDYDGLQLPDV 7DþLDX UHDO V NDãWDL PDWXRWLQL QH YLHQ LãODLGRPLV EHW LU YHUWLQDQW SDSUDVW QDXG SDO\JLQXV SDVLULQNW UHVXUV SDQDXGRMLPRDOWHUQDW\Y VXDWPHVWD7DLLU\UDDOWHUQDW\Y V NDãWDL3DY\]GåLXLVWXGHQWDVSDVLULQNGDPDV VWXGLMDVVNDLþLXRMDQHWLNSLQLJLQHVLãODLGDV NXULRV QHLãYHQJLDPRV PRN\PRVL PHWXEHWLUSDSUDVWXVSLQLJXVXå DWO\JLQLP NXU MLV JDXW YLHWRM VWXGLM SDVLULQN V GDUE JDP\ERV DOWHUQDW\YLXV NDãWXV YHUVOLQLQNDV WXULQWLV VDYR NDSLWDO PRQ V SDVWDWXV LU SDWV YDGRYDXGDPDV YHUVOXL WUDXNV QH WLN PLQ WXV EXKDOWHULQLXV NDãWXV bet ir QHJDXWDVSDMDPDVNXULRVMDPWHNW • $WO\JLQLPRXåGDUE SDVDPGåLXVVYHWLPRMHILUPRMHDWOLNWLWDVSDþLDVIXQNFLMDVIRUPD • 5HQWRV IRUPD åHP V VNO\S LU GDUER REMHNWXV W\ QXRVDY\E LãQXRPRMXV NLWDP YHUVOLQLQNXL Xå WDPLNU PRNHVW • 3DO NDQ IRUPDLQYHVWDYXVO ãDVEHLVDQWDXSDV DOWHUQDW\Y YHUVO
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6NLUWXPDVWDUS PRQ V EHQGU M SDMDP LUEXKDOWHULQL NDãW YDGLQDPDVbendruoju pelnu.
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pajamos, kaštai ir pelnas
Ekonominis Normalusis pelnas pelnas Bendrasis pelnas Bendrosios pajamos Ekonominiai kaštai Buhalteriniai kaštai
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esant fiksuotoms kapitalo V QDXGRPV
L 0 1 2 3 4 5
BP 0 150 340 480 600 620
VP 150 170 160 150 124
RP 150 190 140 120 20
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1HULERWDV LãWHNOL PRELOXPDV 7REXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV VLVWHPRMH EHQGURY V JDOL ODLVYDL SHUHLWL Lã
YLHQRVJDP\ERVVIHURV NLW JDOLVWDLJDQXWUDXNWLYLHQRVSUHN V JDP\E LUSUDG WLJDPLQWLNLW -RV JDOLODLVYDLSHUNHOWLLãWHNOLXVLãYLHQRVãDNRV NLW 6DNRPDNDGQ UD MLPRLULã MLPR EHWNRNLRV SUHN V ULQN EDUMHU -HLJXNXULRVQRUVSUHN V NDLQDN\ODQLHNDVQHJDOLVXWUXNG\WL PRQHLWXULPXV LãWHNOLXVSDQDXGRWLãLRVSUHN V JDP\EDLQXWUDXNXVNLW SUHNL WLHNLP UHDOL]DYLPXL •
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7REXODVLQIRUPXRWXPDV9LVLSLUN MDLLUSDUGDY MDLWXULLQIRUPDFLM DSLHSDNODXVRVLUNDãW NUHLY V -LHåLQRNRNLRPLVNDLQRPLVJDOLSLUNWLLUSDUGXRWLSURGXNWXVâLLQIRUPDFLMDLUXåWLNULQDWDLNDGWRV SDþLRVNRN\E V SURGXNW NDLQDEXVYLHQRGDNDGLUNDVMDVSDUGXRW DUSLUNW Tobulos konkurencijos modelis gali paskatinWLGDU\WLLãSLUPRåYLOJVQLRVWXOELQDQþL LãYDG NDGWREXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV WULQNRMH Q UD JDOLP\EL QHL VWLPXO NRQNXUXRWL âL LãYDGD QRUV SDUDGRNVDOL \UD WHLVLQJD -HLJX SDUGDY MDVQHJDOLYHLNWLODLVYRVULQNRV NDLQRVLUNLW SDUGDYLPR V O\J RWHJDOLMas priimti kaip duotas ir joms SDNOXVWLMLVVDYRHOJVHQDQHJDOLSDYHLNWLLUVDYROLNLPRGUDXJ – NLW SDUGDY M VXNXULDLVWXULWLNWLHNEHQGUD MRJYLVL\UDYLHQRGDLSDNOXVQ V ODLVYRVULQNRVV O\JRPLV- WDUSXVDYLRLQWHUHVDLQHVXVLNHUWDQHVNLHNYLHQDs gali UHDOL]XRWLWLHNSUHNL NLHNM SDJDPLQD 7DL UHLãNLD NDG DWVNLURV PRQ V DWåYLOJLX SDNODXVD \UD DEVROLXþLDL HODVWLQJD -RV JDP\ERV DSLPWLV QHSDYHLNLD ULQNRV NDLQRV 3DVWDU M IRUPXRMD YLV WDP WLNURV ãDNRV JDPLQWRM SDVL OD LU YDUWRWRM SDNODXVD santykis nulemia, kokia kaina jos parduoda savo produktus. SDYSDURG\WD ãDNRV SDNODXVRV NUHLY LU DWVNLURV PRQ V SDNODXVRV NUHLY 3DVWDURML \UD DEVROLXþLDL VNLUtingus produkcijos elastinga - KRUL]RQWDOL OLQLMD ODLVYRV ULQNRV NDLQRV O\J\MH % WLQD DWNUHLSWL G PHV DSLPWLHVPDWRYLHQHWXVSDYYDL]GXRMDPDãDNRVSURGXNFLMRVDSLPWLVPDWXRMDPDãLPWDLVW NVWDQþL YLHQHW R PRQ V SURGXNFLMRVDSLPWLVVXGDURQHGLGHO ãDNRVSURGXNFLMRVDSLPWLHVGDO LUPDWXRMDPDGHãLPWLPLVYLHQHW •
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Bendrosios pajamos ir bendrieji kaštai. 1RU GDPL SDYDL]GXRWL SHOQ JDXQDP PRQ V WREXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV ULQNRMH VXJUHWLQVLPH EHQGU M SDMDP LU EHQGU M NDãW NUHLYHV MDV QXEU åGDPL YLHQRMH NRRUGLQDþL VLVWHPRMH SDY SDURG\WDV SORWDV WDUS WDãN $ LU % åHPLDX EHQGU M SDMDP NUHLY V LU DXNãþLDX EHQGU M NDãW NUHLY V YDL]GXRMD PRQ V SHOQ PRQ XåGLUEVMHLJXJDPLQVSURGXNFLMRVQHPDåLDXNDLS4A ir ne daugiau kaip QB šiame intervale BP > BK. AtiWLQNDPDL JDPLQDQW NLWRN NLHN SURGXNFLMRV %3 %. LU PRQ SDWLUV QXRVWROL 'LGåLDXVLDV SHOQDV JDXQDPDVJDPLQDQWSURGXNFLMRVNLHN SDYDL]GXRW WDãNH4FNDLQXRWROLVWDUS%3LU%.NUHLYL \UDGLGåLDXVLDV 0Då MDQWJDP\ERVDSLPþLDL%.LU%3NUHLY V DUW MDYLHQDSULHNLWRVR PRQ V SHOQDVPDå MD
6.3. Pusiausvyra tobulos konkurencijos rinkoje PRQ V WUXPSDODLN SXVLDXVY\UD5LELQL NDãW NUHLY SDY\UDNDUWXLU PRQ V SDVL ORVNUHLY QHV NLQWDQWNDLQRPVEHWNXULVM OLQLMRVVXVLNLUWLPRWDãNDVVXULELQL NDãW NUHLYHUHLãNLDPDNVLPDODXVSHOQRWDãNXV VNLUWLQJRPLVNDLQRPLV PRQ VLHNGDPDSDGLGLQWLSHOQLQJXP WXU V NHLVWLJDP\ERVDSLPW NDGMLDWLWLNW 5.LU 53 DUED 3 VXVLNLUWLPR WDãNXV SDYHLNVOH SDå\P WXV UDLG PLV 01, M2, M3 3DVWDULHML WDãNDL \UD ULELQL SDMDP NUHLY VH NXUL SDG WLV \UD ODEDL QHYLHQRGD YLGXWLQL NDãW NUHLYL DWåYLOJLX LU WRG O SDURGR VNLUWLQJ PRQ V SHOQLQJXP 7DãNH0 PRQ JDXVHNRQRPLQ SHOQ QHVNDLQDLUULELQ V SDMDPRV\UDGLGHVQ V XåEHQGUXRVLXVNDãWXV (RP > BK). Taške M2 PRQ QHJDXV HNRQRPLQLR SHOQR EHW QHWXU V LU QXRVWROL -L JDXV QRUPDO M SHOQ QHV ULELQ V SDMDPRV O\JLRV YLGXWLQLDPV EHQGULHVLHPV NDãWDPV 53 9%.). Taške M3 PRQ WXU V QXRVWROL EHW JDO V ODLNLQDL W VWL JDP\E WUXPS ODLNR WDUS QHV NDLQD LU ULELQ V SDMDPRV SDGHQJLD YLGXWLQLXV NLQWDPXRVLXV NDãWXV 53!9.. %HWNXULDPHWDãNHHVDQþLDPHåHPLDXYLGXWLQL NLQWDP M NDãW NUHLY V åHPLDXVLRMRWDãNR PRQ QHJDO V W VWL JDP\ERV QHV ULELQ V SDMDPRV QHEHSDGHQJV YLGXWLQL NLQWDP M NDãW 0DåLQDQW JDP\E PDå MDLU PRQ V QXRVWROLDL
Tobulos konkurencijos rinkoje taškai M1, M2, M3 yra trumpo laikotarpio pusiausvyros taškai. Esant skirtingoms kainoms P1, P2, P3, PRQ JDPLQD WDP WLNU SURGXNW NLHN 41, Q2, Q3, kuris jai garantuoja PDNVLPDO SHOQ DUED PLQLPDO QXRVWRO 7RG O ML QHVXLQWHUHVXRWD NHLVWL JDP\ERV DSLPWLHV WRO NRO QHVLNHLþLD rinkos kainos. Pusiausvyra ilguoju laikotarpiu.7UXPSXRMXODLNRWDUSLX PRQ JDXQDHNRQRPLQ SHOQ NDL5. 53LU ãL NUHLYL VXVLNLUWLPR WDãNDV \UD DXNãþLDX 9%. LU 5. NUHLYL VXVLNLUWLPR 7DþLDX LOJXRMX ODLNRWDUSLX ekonominis SHOQDV QHJDOLPDV ,OJR ODLNRWDUSLR PHWX ãDN NXULRMH JDXQDPDV HNRQRPLQLV SHOQDV YHUåLDVL NLWL JDPLQWRMDL7DLGLGLQDSURGXNW SDVL O LUSDVL ORVNUHLY SDVLVOHQNDSDYDYDL]GXRMDPDãDNRVSXVLDXVY\UD o b - PRQ V SXVLDXVY\UDWRG O KRUL]RQWDOLRMRMHDã\MHDWLG WLG\GåLDLVNLUWLQJDLVPDVWDLV
3DGLG MXVULQNRVSDVL ODLSDVLVOHQNDULQNRVSXVLDXVY\URVWDãNDVLã(S (L. Kaina krinta nuo P1 iki P2, o kartu LUEHQGURY V ULELQ V SDMDPRVQXR531 iki RP2 5LELQL SDMDP OLQLMDL532 VXVLNHUWDQWVXULELQL NDãW NUHLYH 5. VXVLGDUR QDXMDV PRQ V SXVLDXVY\URV WDãNDV LOJDPH ODLNRWDUS\MH W\ SXVLDXVY\URV WDãNDV Lã (S SDG WLHV trumpame laikotarpyje pasislenka ilgameODLNRWDUS\MH (L SDG W PRQHLSDVLHNXVQDXM SXVLDXVY\U HNRQRPLQLVSHOQDVGLQJVWDRWDLVXODLNRQDXMDV PRQHVSHUHLWL ãL ULQN 3DVL OD QXVWRMD DXJWL -HLJX NXUL QRUV PRQ VLHNGDPD HNRQRPLQLR SHOQR WHEHSDUGDYLQ W SURGXNWXV DQNVWHVQ PLV NDLQRPLV GXRGDQþLRPLV ULELQHV SODXNDV 531 SLUN MDL MRV SUHNL QHEHSLUNW QHV ULQNRV NDLQD VXPDå MDSDGLG MXVULQNRVSDVL ODL 7DLJL LOJXRMX ODLNRWDUSLX SXVLDXVY\UD SDVLHNLDPD NDL 3 53 5. 9%. PRQ V QHJDXQD HNRQRPLQLRSHOQREHWJDXQDQRUPDO M 3XVLDXVY\UDODLNRVLWRONROSDNLQWDSDVL ODDUEDSDNODXVD Analogiškas aprašytam atvejui, nuostolingos šakos pavyzdys yra, kai esant ekonominiam pelnui ilgo ODLNRWDUSLR PHWX ãDN VLOLHMD QDXMRV EHQGURY V VXPDåLQD NDLQDV LU SDQDLNLQD HNRQRPLQ SHOQ .Di gamyba WDPSD QXRVWROLQJD GDOLV PRQL SDVLWUDXNLD Lã ãDNRV SDVL OD PDå MD NDLQD DXJD R WDãNH NXULDPH 3 53 9%. SDVLHNLDPD SXVLDXVY\UD PRQ V JDXQD QRUPDO M SHOQ LU MDX Q UD VXLQWHUHVXRWRV SDOLNWL ULQNRV 1DXMRV PRQ V WDLSSDWQHVXLQWHUHVXRWRV HLWL ULQN QHVQ UDHNRQRPLQLRSHOQR Optimali gamybos apimtis. 3XVLDXVY\UD LOJDPH ODLNRWDUS\MH QXOHPLD LU PRQ V RSWLPDO G\G 1HRSWLPDOL JDP\ERV DSLPWLV OHLGåLD LãVLODLN\WL PRQHL WLN WUXPSXRMX ODLNRWDUSLX HVDQW ekonominiam pelnui. Tuomet, net irHVDQWGLGHVQLHPVNDãWDPVXåRSWLPDODXVG\GåLRJDP\ERVNDãWXVJDOLPDJDXWLSHOQ 7DþLDXLOJXRMXODLNRWDUSLXNDLHNRQRPLQLVSHOQDVGLQJVWDHVDQWQHRSWLPDOLDPJDP\ERVPDVWXL PRQ V NDãWDL \UD GLGHVQL Xå RSWLPDOLRV JDP\ERV DSLPWLHV NDãWXV LU ILUPD WXU V QXRVWROL -L QHJDO V LãVLODLN\WL 2SWLPDODXV JDP\ERV PDVWR E WLQXPDV LOJXRMX ODLNRWDUSLX SDYDL]GXRWDV SDY PRQ V WUXPSR ODLNRWDUSLR YLGXWLQLDL EHQGULHML NDãWDL 79%. WXUL VXWDSWL VX ULELQ PLV SDMDPRPLV 53 LU YLGXWLQLDLV LOJR ODLNRWDUSLR bendraisiais kaštais (IVBK
46 pav. tai atitinka gamybos apimtis taške QE. Bet kokiu kitu atveju vidutiniai bendrieji trumpo ODLNRWDUSLRNDãWDL\UDGLGHVQLXåPLQLPDOLXVYLGXWLQLXVEHQGUXRVLXVLOJRODLNRWDUSLRNDãWXV PRQ SULYHUVWDVLHNWL RSWLPDOLRVJDP\ERVDSLPWLHVDUEDSDOLNWLãDN
6.4. Tobula konkurencija ir efektyvumas 0HVMDXVXVLSDåLQRPHVXYDUWRWRM HOJVHQDWREXORVNRQNXUHQFLMRVULQNRMH7DLSSDWVXVLSDåLQRPHLU su JDPLQWRMR HOJVHQD 'DEDU WLNVOLQJD SDåYHOJWL ULQN Lã YDUWRWRMR LU JDPLQWRMR SXV V NDUWX 7DL OHLV LãVLDLãNLQWL WREXORVNRQNXUHQFLMRVULQNRVPRGHOLRYHLNLP LU YHUWLQWLã PRGHO YLVRVYLVXRPHQ V LQWHUHV SRåL ULX Vartotojo ir gamintojo elgsenos efektyvumas. Vartojimo teorija teigia, kad vartotojas maksimizuoja VDYRQDXG NDLMRSHUNDP SURGXNW ULELQLVQDXGLQJXPDVO\JXVW SURGXNW NDLQDL9DUWRWRMDVJDOLSDVLHNWLãL V O\J SULLPGDPDVVSUHQGLP NRN SUHNL NLHN SLUNWL7DLSDYDL]GXRWDSDY
Vartotojo mokama kaina XåSURGXNW VXGDURMRribinius NDãWXVLUSDYSDå\P WDlinija PMM. Vartotojo JDXQDP ULELQ QDXGLQJXP SDYHLNVOHYDL]GXRMDištisine paklausos NUHLY V dalis. Siekdamas maksimaliai patenkinti savo poreikius, jis didina SHUNDP SUHNL NLHN kol ULELQLDLNDVWDL\UDPDåHVQLXåULELQ QDXGLQJXP 7DLJLYDUWRWRMR elgsenos efektyvumas rodo, kokiu mastu vartotojui pavyksta priartinti RN prie P, RSHUXRMDQW SHUNDP SUHNL kiekiu. Efektyvumas GLGåLDXVLDV kai RN = P.
*DPLQWRM HOJVHQRVWHRULMDURGRNDGGLGåLDXVL SHOQ JDOLPDJDXWLSDVLULQNXVWLQNDP JDP\ERVDSLPW kuriai esant ribinis gamintojo efektyvumas yra lygus gamintojo ribiniams kaštams tai prekei gaminti. 48 pav. SDYDL]GXRWDVJDPLQWRMRHIHNW\YXPDVURGDQWLVJDPLQWRMRV NP SULDUWLQWLribinius NDãWXVSULHNDLQRVVXVLGDUDQþLRV rinkoje.
Visuomeninis efektyvumas. Vartotojo ir gamintojo elgsenos tobulos konkurencijos rinkoje teorijos paaiškina M veiklos efektyvumo kriterijus. Dabar tikslinga YHUWLQWLWREXORVNRQNXUHQFLMRVPRGHOLRYHLNLP YLVRV YLVXRPHQ V LQWHUHV SRåL ULX7DPE WLQDSDO\JLQWLYLVXRPHQ V JDXQDP QDXG sujos NDãWDLV NLXLIXQNFLRQXRMDQW pagal tobulos konkurencijos principus. 3DSUDVþLDXVLDV E GDV identifikuoti YLVXRPHQLQ QDXG LU YLVXRPHQLQLXV NDãWXV -DWLWLQNDPDL VXG WL YLV YLVXRPHQ V QDUL LQGLYLGXDOL QDXG LU individualius kaštus. Ne YLV J U\EL SRåL ULX tai yra teisinga. 3DY\]GåLXL VNLHSDL QXR XåNUHþLDP OLJ duoda indLYLGXDOL QDXG SRWHQFLDOLDP ligoniui ir tuo pat metu visai visuomenei, nes jos narys liks sveikas, bet tuo nauda visaiYLVXRPHQHLQHDSVLULERMD3DSLOGRPDLYLVXRPHQ ODLPL ta prasme, kad potencialus ligonis ne tik QHVXVLUJVSDWVEHWQHXåNU V LUVDYRDUWLP M DUEHQGUDGDUEL 7DLišorinis WHLJLDPDVVNLHS HIHNWDV Galimi ir išoriniai neigiami efektai, išoriniai kaštai, kurie padidina LQGLYLGXDOL NDãW VXP 3DY\]GåLXL j ei gaminant produktus teršiama gamta, reikalingos išlaidos neigiamoms SDVHNP PV likviduoti. Šios išlaidos GDåQDLQH HLQD LQGLYLGXDODXVJDPLQWRMRkaštus, bet yra reikšmingos visai visuomenei. Siekdami parodyti tobulos konkurencijos modelio YLVXRPHQLQ HIHNW\YXP supaprastinsime YLVXRPHQLQ V QDXGRVLUYLVXRPHQLQL NDãW U\ã VXindividualia nauda ir individualiais kaštais.
9LVXRPHQLQHSUHN V QDXGD(RN S ) ODLN\VLPHWRVSUHN V QDXG individualiems vartotojams. Taip pat ir ribinis SUHN V QDXGLQJXPDVYLVXRPHQHL\UDO\JXVribinio individualaus SUHN V vartotojo ribiniam naudingumui, kuris gali E WL išreikštas paklausos NUHLY V DXNãþLX 3DQDãLDL LU YLVXRPHQ V NDãWXV 5.S SUHNHL JDPLQWL JDOLPD ODLN\WL O\JLDLV LQGLYLGXDOL NDãWDPV5LELQLDLYLVXRPHQ V NDãWDLVXWDPSDVXULELQLDLVLQGLYLGXDOL SUHN V JDPLQWRM NDãWDLV
JDPLQWRM
Alokacinis efektyvumas. 3UL PXV V O\JDV 5. 5.S ir RN = RNS JDOLPD WHLJWL NDG LU YLVXRPHQ V PDVWX WRNLD JDP\ERV DSLPWLV XåWLNULQV HIHNW\YXP NXULDL HVDQW ULELQ YLVXRPHQ V QDXGD EXV O\JL ULELQLDPV visuomeniniams kaštams. 49 pav. pavaizduota gamybos apimtis QE, kuriai esant YLVXRPHQLQ QDXGD \UD O\JL YLVXRPHQLQLDPV ULELQLDPV NDãWDPV WDãNH ( QHV SLUPRML VXWDPSD VX YDUWRWRM ULELQH QDXGD R DQWURML - VX JDPLQWRM ULELQLDLV kaštais.
-HLJX NLHNYLHQD SURGXNWR JDP\ERV DSLPWLV WHQNLQD O\J\E 51 5. YLVXRPHQ MH LãWHNOLDL \UD SDVNLUVW\WLJHULDXVLXE GX7DL\UDGLGåLDXVLDVJDOLPDVSDVNLUVW\PRDUEDDORNDFLQLVHIHNW\YXPDV 7REXORVNRQNXUHQFLMRVULQNRVV O\JRVDSLPDODLVY LãWHNOL SHUVLOLHMLPRLãYLHQRVãDNRV NLW JDOLP\E âL JDOLP\E J\YHQGLQDPD YHLNLDQW NDLQ PHFKDQL]PXL .DLQ NLWLPDV VLJQDOL]XRMD NXU \UD DORNDFLQLV QHHIHNW\YXPDV LU LãWHNOLDL SHUNHOLDPL Lã ãDNRV NXU M \UD SHU GDXJ 5. ! 51 ãDN NXULRMH LãWHNOL WU NVWD (RK < RN). Technologinis ir dinaminis efektyvumas - WDL JHULDXVLDV SDVNLUVW\W LãWHNOL SDQDXGRMLPDV SURGXNW JDP\EDL-LVJDOLE WLLãUHLNãWDVPLQLPDOLRPLVV QDXGRPLVSURGXNFLMRVYLHQHWXL 7REXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV ULQNRV PRGHO\MH WHFKQRORJLQLV HIHNW\YXPDV XåWLNULQDPDV PRQ PV VLHNLDQW PDåLQWLJDP\ERVNDãWXV7DLSULHPRQ VNXULRPLVJDOLPDPDNVLPL]XRWLSHOQ 'DXJXPD ãDNRV PRQL JDPLQD HVDQW QRUPDOLDP SHOQXL LOJDPH ODLNRWDUS\MH - NDãW NUHLY 9%. JDOLPD SDYDL]GXRWL SDY -HLJX YLHQDV Lã JDPLQWRM G O QHWLQNDPR JDP\ERV YDOG\PR QHXåWLNULQD WRNL JDP\ERVNDãW MRNDãW NUHLY 9%.SDYHLNVOH \UDDXNãþLDX7DLNDUWXUHLãNLDNDGWRNLD PRQ QXRVWROLQJDLU QHJDOL LãOLNWL LOJ ODLNRWDUS 7REXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV ULQNRV PRGHO\MH \UD E WLQRV SULHODLGRV LU GLQDPLQLDP eIHNW\YXPXL NXULV UHLãNLD LQRYDFLM RULHQWDYLP GLGåLDXVLR UH]XOWDW\YXPR OLQNPH PRQ GLHJXVL QDXM WHFKQRORJLM VXPDåLQDJDP\ERVNDãWXVNDãW NUHLY NDLSSDURG\WDSDYSDVLVOHQNDåHP\QLãSDG WLHV9%. LNL LQRYDFLMRV SDG W 9%.-, - po inovaciMRV /LNXV ãDNRMH DQNVWHVQ PV NDLQRPV PRQ GLHJXVL QDXMRY LU VXPDåLQXVL NDãWXV JDXQD HNRQRPLQ SHOQ 7RNLRV JDOLP\E V VNDWLQDPL YLVL JDPLQWRMDL VLHNLD QDXGRWL QDXMDV WHFKQRORJLMDVLUWXRE GXSULVLGHGDSULHYLVXRPHQLQLRHIHNW\YXPR Pareto optimumas. -HLJX GDOLV PRQL JDPLQD SURGXNWXV QHVDQW PLQLPDOL YLGXWLQL EHQGU M NDãW LOJ SHULRG MHLJXQHQDXGRMDPDJHULDXVLDWHFKQRORJLMDDUMHLJXYLHQ SUHNL JDPLQDSHUGDXJRNLW - SHUPDåDL JDOLPD SDGLGLQWL YLVXRPHQLQ HIHNW\YXP YLVXRPHQLQ QDXG QHSDGLGLQXV YLVXRPHQLQL NDãW 9LVXRPHQLQ QDXGD SDGLGLQDPD MHLJX SDGLG MD EHQW YLHQR MRV QDULR QDXGD R YLVXRPHQLQLDL NDãWDL QHSDGLG MD MHLJX QHSDGLG MDQ YLHQRYLVXRPHQ V QDULRNDãWDL.DLVXVLGDURWRNLDSDG WLVMRJQ UDNLWRNLRDOWHUQDW\YDXVLãWHNOL SDQDXGRMLPRE GRNXULVSDJHULQW EHQWYLHQRYLVXRPHQ V QDULRSDG W QHSDEORJLQXVQ YLHQRNLWRSDVLHNLDPDV Pareto optimumas. SDYSDYDL]GXRWRVJDOLP\E V SDVLHNWL3DUHWRRSWLPXP NDLJDPLQDPDVSURGXNWRNLHNLV\UDGLGHVQLV DUEDPDåHVQLVQHJX4E, kuriam esant RK = RN.
-HLJX SUHN V JDPLQDPD GDXJLDX QHJX 4E SDY\]GåLXL 41 WXRPHW ULELQLDL NDãWDL \UD GLGHVQL Xå ULELQ QDXGLQJXP 7DLUHLãNLDNDGGDOLVNDãW Q UDSDJU VWL GDO LãWHNOL JDOLPDE W SDQDXGRWLNLW SUHNL JDP\EDLR NDUWXSDJHULQWLM YDUWRWRM SDG W LUG O ãLRLãWHNOL SHUVNLUVW\PRQHQXNHQW W Q YLHQDVYDUWRWRMDV -HLJXSUHN V JDPLQDPDPDåLDXQHJX4E SDY\]GåLXL42 WXRPHWULELQLDLNDãWDL\UDPDåHVQLQHJXULELQ QDXGDRWDLUHLãNLDNDGGLGLQDQWJDP\ERVDSLPW E W WHLNLDPDGLGHVQ QDXGDYDUWRWRMDPV7ULNDPSLDL$%(LU CDE vaizduoja efektyvumo nuostolius, kai.-Q UD 3DUHWRRSWLPXPR
0RQRSROLQ ULQND 7.1. KDLQDLUJDP\ERVDSLPWLVPRQRSROLQ MHULQNRMH 0RQRSROLMRV WHRULMD NDLS LU WREXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV PRGHOLV QHDWVSLQGL YLVRV UHDOLRV WLNURY V EHW JDOL E WL QDXGRMDPD HNRQRPLQLDPV UHLãNLQLDPV DLãNLQWL 7REXOD WHRULãNDL DLãNLQDPD PRQRSROLMD \UD SULHãLQJDV tobulai konkurencijai ekonominio pasaulio ašigalis.
Tobula konkurencija ir monopolija 3DJULQGLQLVPRQRSROL]XRWRVULQNRVEUXRåDV\UDYLHQRV PRQ V YLHãSDWDYLPDVMRMH-HLJX PRQ JDPLQD WDPWLNU SUHN QHWXULQþL VXEVWLWXW ML\UDPRQRSROLMD Tobulos konNXUHQFLMRV ULQNRMH \UD GDXJ PRQL LU Q YLHQD M QHJDOL SDNHLVWL SUHNL YHUW V EHW JDOL UHDOL]XRWL YLVDV VDYR SUHNHV ,QGLYLGXDOLRV PRQ V SDNODXVRV NUHLY \UD VX ULQNRV NDLQD VXWDPSDQþLRV KRUL]RQWDOLRVWLHV V IRUPRV7XRWDUSXULQNRVSDNODXVRVNUHLY \UDNULQWDQWLåHP\QLãNDLU V GHãLQ .LWDLS QHJX WREXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV ULQNRMH PRQRSROLQ MH ULQNRMH PRQ YLHãSDWDXMD YLHQD -RV SDNODXVRV NUHLY \UD NULQWDQWL åHP\Q LU SUHN V YHUW SULNODXVR QXR UHDOL]XRMDP SUHNL DSLPWLHV 6NLUWLQJRV ULQNRV VWUXNW URV NXULRVH IXQNFLRQXRMD PRQ V QXOHPLD LU M VNLUWLQJ HOJVHQ VLHNLDQW PDNVLPDODXV VNLUWXPR WDUSSDMDP LULãODLG
0RQRSROLQ V SDMDPRV 5\ã\V WDUS SDMDP LU JDP\ERV DSLPWLHV PRQRSROLQ MH ULQNRMH \UD NLWRNV QHJX WREXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV ULQNRMH6NLUWXP OHPLD PRQ V SDNODXVRVNUHLY V \SDW\E V0RQRSROLQ MHULQNRMHYLHãSDWDXMDYLHQD PRQ LUMRV SDNODXVRVNUHLY VXWDPSDVXULQNRVSDNODXVRVNUHLYH7RG O ML\UDNULQWDQWLåHP\QGLG MDQWSDUGDYLPRDSLPþLDL 7RNLDSDNODXVRVNUHLY V IRUPDOHPLDPRQRSROLQ V PRQ V SDMDP NLWLP Bendrosios pajamos (BP) (VDQW NULQWDQþLDL SDNODXVRV NUHLYHL EHQGURVLRV SDMDPRV JDOL GLG WL DUED PDå WL GLG MDQW JDP\ERV DSLPþLDL7DLSULNODXVRQXRWRNRNLXPDVWXSUHN PVQXYHUW MDQWGLG MDYLVXRPHQLQL SRUHLNL DSLPWLV 53 pav. pavai]GXRWDPH SDY\]G\MH SUHN V NDLQDL PDå MDQW QXR 31 iki P2 bendrosios pajamos, SDYDL]GXRWRVDWLWLQNDPDLVVWDþLDNDPSLDLV31 E1 Q1 0 ir P2 E2 Q2 SDGLG MDG O SDGLG MXVLRVJDP\ERVDSLPWLHV nuo Q1 iki Q2. 7DþLDX SDNLWXV SUHN V NDLQDL QXR 33 iki P4 GLG MDQWL JDP\ERV DSLPWLV QHXåWLNULQD SDMDP DXJLPR $WYLUNãþLDLMRVPDå MDNDLSPDW\WLLãSDYHLNVORQXR33 E3 Q3 0 iki P4 E4 Q4 0.
teorija.
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Kaip matyti iš 54 pav.JHLSDNODXVRVHODVWLQJXPDVGLGHVQLVXåYLHQHW EHQGURVLRV PRQ V SDMDPRVDXJD LUM NUHLY N\OD.DLSDNODXVRVHODVWLQJXPDVO\JXVOEHQGURVLRVSDMDPRV\UD
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5LELQ V SDMDPRV 53 LUULELQLDLNDãWDL 5. PRQRSROLQ MHULQNRMH
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7DþLDX WREXORV NRQNXUHQFLMRV ULQNRMH 53 3 93 LU ' NUHLY V VXWDPSD 9DGLQDVL SDUGDYXV SUHN V YLHQHW JDXQDPDVYLHQRGDVSDMDP SULHDXJLV7XRWDUSXPRQRSROLMDGLGLQGDPDSDUGDYLPRDSLPW WXULPDåLQWL NDLQDV WDLJL Xå SDSLOGRPDL SDUGXRW YLHQHW JDXQD PDåHVQHV SDMDPDV 7RG O ULELQL SDMDP NUHLY PRQRSROL]XRWRMH ULQNRMH \UD QH KRUL]RQWDOL NDLS NRQNXUHQFLQ MH ULQNRMH R NULQWDQWL åHP\Q NDGDQJL QRULQW UHDOL]XRWL SDSLOGRP SUHN V YLHQHW UHLNLD PDåLQWL QH WLN SDSLOGRPRV SUHN V YLHQHWR NDLQ EHW YLVDV SUHNHV realizuoti pigiau. Jei paklaXVRV NUHLY VDQW\NLQDL HODVWLQJD ULELQL SDMDP NUHLY \UD åHPLDX SDNODXVRV DUED NDLQRVNUHLY V åUSDY
-HLJXSDNODXVRVNUHLY QHHODVWLQJDWDLULELQ s pajamos neigiamos. Tokiu atveju monopolistui naudinga VXPDåLQWL JDP\ERV DSLPW DUED SUDG WL GLGLQWL VDYR SURGXNFLMRV NDLQDV LU WDL GDU\WL WRO NRO SDNODXVD QHEXV elastinga. -HLJX SDNODXVRV NUHLY DSLE GLQDPD DEVROLXþLX HODVWLQJXPX WDL ULELQ V SDMDPRV Lr kainos sutaps. %HQGUDVLV SURGXNWDV SDVLHNLD PDNVLPXP NDL ULELQ V SDMDPRV LU ULELQLDL NDãWDL VXWDPSD *DP\ERV DSLPWLV SDVLHNLDWRN O\J NXULDPHVDQWULELQLDLNDãWDLO\J V SURGXNFLMRVNDLQDL åUSDY 0RQRSROLMDQXRNRQNXUXRMDQþL ILUP VNLULDVLWXRNDGPRQRSROLQ V NDLQRV\UDGLGHVQ V XåMRVULELQHV SDMDPDVSDYHLNVOXRVHWDãNDV0URGRJDP\ERVDSLPW NXULDLHVDQWSHOQDV\UDGLGåLDXVLDVQHV53 RK.
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NDL ULELQLDL JDP\ERV NDãWDL PDå MD LU ULELQL NDãW NUHLY V SDVYLULPDV DSOHQNLD SLUPLQ SDNODXVRV NUHLY V SDVYLULP WDL ãLXRDWYHMXSDNODXVRVNUHLY V SDVYLULPDVPDå MD NDLQDWXULPDå WL • jeigu ribiniai kaštai PDå MD R ULELQL NDãW NUHLY V SDVYLULPDV PDåHVQLV QHJX SDNODXVRV NUHLY V SDVYLULPDV WDL MHLJX SDNODXVRV HODVWLQJXPDV E W SDVWRYXV WDL NDLQD PDå W R MHLJX E W SDVWRYXV SDNODXVRVNUHLY V SDVYLULPDVWDLMLDXJW
$QDOL]XRMDQW LOJ ODLNRWDUS PDW\WL NDG ULELQLDL JDP\ERV NDãWDL YLHQRMH PRQ MH PDå MD WDþLDX QHJDOLPDDWVDN\WL NODXVLP NDLSJUHLWDLSDVLNHLVNDLQRVG O GLG MDQþL YLVXRPHQLQL SRUHLNL 9DGLQDVL PRQRSROLQ NDLQD QHE WLQDL \UD GLGHO NDLQD QHV NDL ML PDåD LU VNDWLQD YLVXRPHQLQL SRUHLNL DXJLP PRQRSROLVWDV JDOL GLGLQWL JDP\ERV HIHNW\YXP LU PDåLQWL NDãW O\J -LV JDOL SHOQ\WLV Lã ekonomijos, gaunamos gaminant dideliu mastu.
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Technologinis efektyvumas 0RQRSROLQ PRQ SDVLHNLD WHFKQRORJLQ HIHNW\YXP NDL ULELQL susikertD YLGXWLQL EHQGU M NDãW NUHLY V PLQLPXPHSDYWDL\UDWDãNDV
SDMDP
LU ULELQL
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SDE JWLQXRSRWHQFLDOL WRVSDþLRVSURGXNFLMRVJDPLQWRM NDLSWLNVNDWLQDLQRYDFLMDV2MRPVUHLNDOLQJRV išlaidos JDOLGLGLQWLJDP\EDLVXQDXGRW LãWHNOL YHUW QHSDYHUþLDQW PRQ V QXRVWROLQJD YDLULDL JDOL E WL YHUWLQDPDV LU PRQRSROLQL PRQL SURGXNFLMRV JDP\EDL VXQDXGRW LãWHNOL YHUW V DXJLPDV GLGLQDQW GDUER XåPRNHVW GDUEXRWRMDPV DU JHULQDQW GDUER V O\gas. Tai yra teigiamas reiškinys, nes PRQ V SHUVRQDODV \UD YLVXRPHQ V GDOLV *DOLPD LU ãLRV SDVHNP V NULWLND DNFHQWXRMDQWL GLG MDQþL WXUWLQ QHO\J\E
Alokacinis neefektyvumas 0RQRSROLMD VXWUXNGR YHLNWL QHPDWRPDMDL UDQNDL WRG O VXPDåLQD DORNDFLQ HIHNW\YXP 3DGLGLQ V SUHNL NDLQ PRQRSROLVWDVDWVNLULDULELQ YDUWRWRMRLUYLVXRPHQ V QDXG SUHN V NDLQ QXR VDYR LQGLYLGXDOLRV QDXGRV ULELQL SDMDP $ORNDFLQLV HIHNW\YXPDV E W PDNVLPDOXV JDPLQDQW WRN SURGXNFLMRV NLHN NXULDP HVDQWULELQ YLVXRPHQ V QDXGD 51V E W O\JLULELQLDPVYLVXRPHQ V NDãWDPV 5.V), kai laikomasi prielaidos MRJSDVWDULHML\UDO\J V PRQ V ULELQLDPVNDãWDPV 5. SDYWRNLDJDP\ERVDSLPWLV\UDWDãNH42-
7DþLDXPRQRSROLQ PRQ VXPDåLQDJDP\ERVDSLPW LNL41 LUSDGLGLQDSUHNL NDLQ LNL31 9LVXRPHQ V QDXGDSDGLG W MHLJXE W GLGLQDPDJDP\ERVDSLPWLVLNLWDãNR42 kuriame RK=RN. Alokacinio efektyvumo nuostolius galima išmaWXRWL SDGDXJLQXV SURGXNFLMRV DSLPWLHV VXPDå MLP G O monopolizacijos Q1 Q2 iš RN ir RK skirtumo šioje gamybos apimties atkarpoje. 66 pav. tai parodyta trikampiu ABC, kurio plotas yra alokacinio efektyvumo nuostoliai.
.DLQ GLVNULPLQDFLMD YDLULRPV YDUWRWRM JUXS PV NDUWDLV E GLQJDV VNLUWLQJDV SDJHLGDXMDPRV SURGXNFLMRV HODVWLQJXPDV 7DL UHLãNLDNDGWRVSDþLRVSUHN V NDLQRVNLWLPDVVNLUWLQJDLYHLNLDMRVUHLNDOLQJXPRNLWLP 6HJPHQWXRWDULQNDOHLGåLD diskriminuoti kainas, jeigu tie vartotojai, kurie perka SURGXNWXVSLJLDXQHJDOLM UHDOL]XRWLNLWLHPVGLGHVQHNDLQD 5HDOL]DFLMD\UDODEDLDSULERWDSDVODXJ VIHURMHWRG O þLDJHULDXVLRVV O\JRVNDLQ GLVNULPLQDFLMDL
9LVLHPV åLQRPRV OHQJYDWRV YDLNDPV NLQRWHDWUXRVH YLHãDMDPH WUDQVSRUWH 5HNODPXRMDPL OHQJYDWLQLDL WDULIDL Xå WHOHIRQLQLXV SRNDOELXV QDNW EHL ãYHQþL GLHQRPLV 7DþLDX SDY SDYDL]GXRWD PRQRSROLMRV NDLQ diskriminavimo iliustracija rodo, kad tokios lengvatos naudingos monopolijai. Esant vienodoms kainoms P1 WDãNH$PRQRSROLQ V PRQ V ULELQLDLNDãWDL\UDO\J V ULELQ PVSDMDPRPVLUPRQRSROLMRVSHOQDV\UDPDNVLPDOXV Tuomet visa produkcijos apimtis yra lygi Q1 'DOLDLSLUN M PRQRSROLVWDVJDOLSDGLGLQWLNainas iki P2 ir parduoti MLHPVGDO SUHNL 42 .LWDLGDOLDLYDUWRWRM JDOLE WLVXPDåLQWRVNDLQRVLNL33 LUSDUGXRWDSUHNL 43 7DLS PRQ SDGLGLQD VDYR SDMDPDV (VDQW YLHQRGRPV NDLQRPV SDMDPRV EXYR O\JLRV VWDþLDNDPSLR 31 A Q1 SORWXL R G O NDLQ GLVNULPLQDYLPRMRVSDGLG MDLNLWULM VWDþLDNDPSL 32 B Q2 0, P1 A Q1 0 ir P3 C Q3 0 ploto. 7RNLX E GX VXPDåLQDPDV LU DORNDFLQLV QHHIHNW\YXPDV 5LELQL NDãW LU ULELQL SDMDP NUHLYL susikirtimo taškas pereina, jis yra ne be AQ1, o CQ3 VWDWPHQ\MH WRG O ULELQL SDMDP NUHLY SULDUW MD SULH SDNODXVRVNUHLY V
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Antimonopolinis reguliavimas
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'DUERM JRVSDNODXVD
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5LELQLVSDMDP SURGXNWDV 533 'DUER 533 \UD EHQGU M PRQ V SDMDP SRN\WLV VXVLM V VX JDP\EDL SDQDXGRWR GDUER SDGLG MLPR YLHQHWX SY]SUL PXV GDUE SDSLOGRP GDUEXRWRM ). Jei papildomas darbuotojas firmos pajamas padidina 10 Lt SHUGLHQ 533O\JXV/W0DNVLPL]XRGDPDSDMDPDVILUPDGDUEXRWRMXLQHJDOLPRN WLGDXJLDXQHLJDXQDSDWL 7DLJL/W\UDGDUEXRWRMXLVL ORPRXåPRNHVþLRPDNVLPDOLULED
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11. 4. Valstybinis reguliavimas 9DOVW\E Y\ULDXV\E V SDYLGDOXVSUHQGåLDHNRQRPLQHVSUREOHPDVLUNLWRPLVIRUPRPLV9\ULDXV\E V NLQL IXQNFLM V UDãDV\UDJDQDLOJDVWRG O SDPLQ VLPHWLNNDLNXULDVLãM
Y\ULDXV\E SDGHGDRUJDQL]XRWLJHOHåLQNHOL WUDQVSRUW QXVWDWRWUDQVSRUWRSULHPRQL VDXJDXV eksploatavimo standartus;
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1DFLRQDOLQLVSURGXNWDVLUMRVNDLþLDYLPDV Kiekviena šalis nuo Lenkijos iki Peru, nuo Naujosios Zelandijos iki Nigerijos, gamindama prekes ir SDVODXJDVVDYRJ\YHQWRMXVDSU SLQDPDLVWXGUDEXåLDLVSDVWRJHW\WHQNLQDM SRUHLkius. 9LHQRVãDO\VSDJDPLQDODEDLGDXJåDOLDYRVSDY\]GåLXLDNPHQVDQJOLHVDUEDPHGLHQRVWXRWDUSXNLWRV JDPLQD GDXJLDX SUDPRQLQL JDPLQL SDY\]GåLXL SOLHQR LU DXWRPRELOL .DL NXULRV ãDO\V JDOL VSHFLDOL]XRWLV JDPLQWL PDLVWR SURGXNWXV NDLS DQWDL U\åLXV DUED VYLHVW R NLWRV WHLNLD SDVODXJDV - kino industrijos, draudimo arba banko. Jeigu ta produkcija arba paslaugos nesuvartojamos šalies viduje, jas galima parduoti kitoms šalims eksportuoti. âDOLHV HNRQRPLNRV DSLPWLV \UD QXVWDWRPD SDJDO EHQGU ãDO\MH SDJDPLQDP SUHNL LU SDVODXJ NLHN *DPLQDQWYLVGDXJLDXSUHNL LUSDVODXJ HNRQRPLNDN\ODRSDWVJHULDXVLDVE GDV YHUWLQWLã DXJLP - pinigais NDLQRWLYLVXVSLUNLPXVLUSDUGDYLPXV1RUVSLQLJDLQ UDYLHQLQWHOLVHNRQRPLNRVDSLPWLHV NDLQRMLPRE GDV juos pasitelkus lengviausia susumuoti visa, kas šalyje buvo pagaminta bet kuriais metais: obuolius ir apelsinus, DXWRPRELOLXVLUNRPSLXWHULXVIXWERORUXQJW\QHVLUNROHGåRPRN\P
.DLVXVXPXRMDPDYLVDãL SUHNL LUSDVODXJ SLQLJLQ LãUDLãNDJDXW URGLNO JDOLPD O\JLQWLVXNLW ãDOL URGLNOLDLV,UQRUVYDOLXWDMRVHVNLUWLQJDNLHNYLHQRVãDOLHVEHQGUD SUHNL SDVODXJ VXPDQDXGRMDQWYDOLXW NXUVXVWXULE WLSHUVNDLþLXRWDNDGSDO\JLQWXPH YLHQRVNLWRVãDOLHVHNRQRPLNRVDSLPWLV3DY\]GåLXL-DSRQLMRVHNRQRmikos apimtis, DSVNDLþLXRWDMHQRPLV -$9GROHULXVSHUVNDLþLXRWLQDWDPNDGJDO WXPHM SDO\JLQWLVX Amerikos ekonomika.
12.1. Nacionalinis turtas. Bendrasis nacionalinis produktas Gamybos apimties matavimo problema.äPRQL NLQ YHLNOD\UDQHQXWU NVWDPD3URGXNW LUSDVODXJ JDP\E O\GL M YDUWRMLPDV NXULV \UD QDXM JDP\ERV SURFHV SULHåDVWLV V O\JD .DGD LãVLY\VþLXVLRMH ULQNRV HNRQRPLNRMH LãN\OD E WLQXPDV M UHJXOLXRWL SDJDO YLVXRPHQ V LQWHUHVXV SLUPLDXVLD VXVLGXULDPD VX JDP\ERV apimties matavimo problema.
5LQNRV NLR V O\JRPLV EHYHLN YLVD YDLUL SURGXNFLMD WXUL YLHQ EHQGU YDUGLNO - SUHNL LU SDVODXJ NDLQDV .DLQRPLVPHVYDUWRWRMDLDLãNLDLSDVDNRPHNDGSDY\]GåLXLUDQNãOXRVW YHUWLQDPHWLHNSDWNLHNJYD]GLNRåLHG YLGXUåLHP Xå DEX PRNDPH SR SHQNLV OLWXV ãDPSDQR EXWHOLV /W PXPV \UD NHWXULV NDUWXV YHUWLQJHVQLV Xå GLHQLQ NLQRVHDQV /W 9DGLQDVL QRULQW DSVNDLþLXRWL YLVRV SDJDPLQWRV SURGXNFLMRV QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR QDFLRQDOLQLR YLVXRPHQLQLRSURGXNWR DSLPW UHLNLDVXG WLYLV JDPLQL LUVXWHLNW SDVODXJ NDLQDV Iškart kyla klausimas -NXUL SUHNL NDLQDV"$UW NXULDVã PRPHQW WXULPHDUW NXULDVSHUWDPWLNU ODLN SDJDPLQRPH" 3LUPXRMX DWYHMX VXG M ãLXR PRPHQWX WXULP SUHNL NDLQDV JDXQDPH QDFLRQDOLQLR WXUWR URGLNO -LVDSLPDYLVDVYLVXRPHQ V VXNDXSWDVPDWHULDOLQHVJHU\EHVNXULDVVXN U GDEDUWLQ LUDQNVWHVQ V NDUWRV $QWUXRMXDWYHMXWXU VLPHSLUPLDXVLDDSVLVSU VWL- NRNLRVWUXNP V JDP\EDPXVGRPLQD YLHQRVGLHQRVP QHVLR PHW " $LãNX NDL SHU PHWXV SDJDPLQDPD PDåGDXJ NDUW GDXJLDX QHJX SHU P QHV -HLJX VXG VLPH NDLQD SUHNL NXULRVSDJDPLQWRVSHUWDPWLNU ODLN SDY\]GåLXLSHUPHWXVJDXVLPHQDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW 5RGLNOLDLQXVDNDQW\VQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRDSLPW ILNVXRMDQHPRPHQW RSURFHV -LHURGRJDP\ERV VURY V PDVW JDOLQJXP LU WRV VURY V NLWLP 3DSUDVWDL ãDOLHV YLVXRPHQLQ QDFLRQDOLQ JDP\ED YHUWLQDPD SDJDOMRVPHWLQLRSURGXNWRG\G 3Då\P VLPH NDG ULQNRV NLR WHRULMRMH QHLãN\OD YDGLQDPRML JDP\ELQLR GDUER SUREOHPD /DLNRPDVL aksiomos, kad jeL U\ãNDXVGDUERSDVLGDOLMLPRV O\JRPLVNXULVQRUV NLRVXEMHNWDL LQGLYLGDVILUPDYDOVW\E LPD QDXGRWL LãWHNOLXV WDL YLHQLQWHO WRNLRV YHLNORV SUDVP \UD SDWHQNLQWL YLVXRPHQLQ W\ QH VDYR SDWLHV R NLWR YLVXRPHQ V VXEMHNWR SRUHLN 5LQNRVV O\JRPLVYLVDWDLLãUHLãNLDPD NLQ V YHLNORVUH]XOWDW ULQNRVYHUWH VXWDP WLNURPLV LãLPWLPLV .RQNUHWXV ULERW LãWHNOL QDXGRMLPR UH]XOWDWDV - daiktas ar kokia paslauga - šiuo atveju QHWXUL UHLNãP V -HL GDUEDV åHP LU NDSLWDODV WXR DU NLWX E GX DYDO\Q V JDP\ED DGYRNDW DSPRN MLPDV DHURGURP UHQJLPDV QDXGRMDPL- YDGLQDVLYLVXRPHQ MH\UDDWLWLQNDPRYHLNORVUH]XOWDWRSRUHLNLV7RUH]XOWDWR ULQNRV YHUW DUED MRV NLWRNV SLQLJLQLV HNYLYDOHQWDV \UD QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR VXG WLQ GDOLV . 0DUNVR HNRQRPLQ MHGRNWULQRMHNDLSåLQRPHYLVXRPHQ V LãWHNOL QDXGRMLPDVWDPWLNUDLGDOLDLSDVODXJ WHLNWLODLNRPDV QHJDP\ELQHW\YLVXRPHQLQLR QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWRLUMRYHUW V QHVXNXULDQþLDYHLNOD
Bendrasis nacionalinis produktas. Pagrindinis nacionalinio produkto rodiklis yra bendrasis QDFLRQDOLQLVSURGXNWDV %13 %HQGUDVLVQDFLRQDOLQLVSURGXNWDV\UDYLV EDLJWLQL SUHNL LUSDVODXJ SDJDPLQW SHUWDPWLNU ODLNRWDUS SDSUDVWDLSHUPHWXV SLQLJLQL YHUþL VXPD 7DLJL %13 DSLPD WROL JUDåX QH YLVDV SUHNHV LU SDVODXJDV NXULDV SDUGDY WDLV PHWDLV ULQNRMH M gamintojai. 3LUPD NXUL QRUV PHW %13 HLQD E WHQW WDLV PHWDLV SDJDPLQWD SURGXNFLMD 7DL UHLãNLD NDG HOLPLQXRMDPRVYLVRVWXUWRSHUSDUGDYLPR DXWRPRELOL QDP LU RSHUDFLMRVâL SUHNL YHUW MDXDWVLVSLQG MR QDFLRQDOLQLDPHSURGXNWHM SDJDPLQLPRLUSLUPRMRUHDOL]DYLPRPHWDLV -HLSUHN WDLVSDþLDLVPHWDLVSDJDPLQWD EHWOLHND QHSDUGXRWDMRVYHUW SDWHNV %13WXRDWYHMXMHLG O WRSDGLG V JDP\ELQL DWVDUJ EHLQHUHDOL]XRWRV gatavos produkcijos apimtis -ãL DWVDUJ SULHDXJLV HLQD %13 $QWUD%13VXGDURYLHQEDLJWLQL SUHNL LUSDVODXJ YHUW
%DLJWLQ SUHN LUSDVODXJD -WDLWDNXULSDVLHNLDVDYRJDOXWLQ YDUWRWRM W\NXULQHE UDYDUWRMDPDNDLS V QDXGRV NLWDL SUHNHL DU SDVODXJDL SDJDPLQWL 7DLJi savo esme baigtinis produktas arba paslauga - tai DVPHQLQLDPVåPRQL SRUHLNLDPVSDWHQNLQWLVNLUWDVGDO\NDV(VDQWãLXRODLNLQLDPJDP\ERVVSHFLDOL]DYLPRO\JLXL GDXJHOLV PRQL LUILUP JDPLQDP SURGXNW SHUHLQDSHUNHOLDVJDP\ERVLUYDUWRMLPRVWDGLMDVNROM YDUWRMLPDV EDLJLDVL EDLJWLQLR SURGXNWR VXN ULPX DU EDLJWLQ V SDVODXJRV VXWHLNLPX -HL YLVXPLQLV PHWLQLV SURGXNWDV E W VNDLþLXRMDPDV NDLS ãDOLHV PRQL LU ILUP WDLV PHWDLV SDJDPLQW YLV R QH YLHQ EDLJWLQL SUHNL LU SDVODXJ YHUþL VXPD E W QHLãYHQJLDPDV GDOLHV SUHNL YHUW V SDNDUWRWLQLV NHOLV NDUWLQLV VXVNDLþLDYLPDV .DUWRWLQLDL VNDLþLDYLPDL SDGLGLQW QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW WDUSLQLR SURGXNWR G\GåLX $QJOLV QXSLUNWD LQGLYLGXDODXV QDPR NURVQLDL N UHQWL \UD EDLJWLQLV SURGXNWDV anglis, kuri bus sunaudota kaimo mokyklai šildyti, yra tarpinis SURGXNWDV %13MRVYHUW SDNOLXVQHWLHVLRJLDLRSHUWRNDLPRJ\YHQWRMDPVWHLNLDP ãYLHWLPRSDVODXJ YHUW 5HOLDW\YL LãLPWLV GDURPD LQYHVWLFLQ PV SUHN PV - JDP\ELQL IRQG SULHDXJLXL ãLRV SUHN V GDUER SULHPRQ V WDLSSDWODLNRPRVEDLJWLQ PLVSUHN PLVLU HLQD %13VXG W SDJULQGLQL JDP\ELQL IRQG SULHDXJLRG\GåLX .DUWRWLQL SUHNL LU SDVODXJ VNDLþLDYLPR LãYHQJLDPD MHL DSVNDLþLXRGDPL EHQGU M QDFLRQDOLQL SURGXNW VXPXRMDPHNLHNYLHQRMHJDP\ERVVWDGLMRMHVXNXUW SULG WLQ YHUW
3ULG WLQ YHUW - WDLVNLUWXPDVWDUSILUPRVSDJDPLQWRVSURGXNFLMRVULQNRVNDLQRVLUMRVJDP\EDLSLUNW SUHNL LUSDVODXJ NDLQ 3DQDJULQ NLPH SDY\]G SDWHLNW OHQWHO MH -RMH SDWHLNWRV NHWXULRV WDUSXVDY\MH VXVLMXVLRV PRQ V ILUPRV SOLHQRSDGDQJ SODVWPDVL LUDXWRPRELOL JDPLQWRMDL3OLHQRJDPLQWRMDLSDW\VVDXNDVDJHOHåLHVU G LUM SHUGLUED SOLHQ WRG O M YHLNORVSULG WLQ YHUW \UDW NVWDQWLVOLW
Analogiška situacija gaminant padangas ir plastmases. VieninWHO SHUNDQWL LU QDXGRMDQWL JDP\ERV SURFHVH YDLULXV WDUSLQLXV SURGXNWXV SOLHQ SDGDQJDV SODVWPDVHV \UD DXWRPRELOL JDP\ERV PRQ -RMH VXNXUWD SULG WLQ YHUW DSVNDLþLXRMDPD PLQXVXRMDQW Lã DXWRPRELOL JDP\ERV PRQ V UHDOL]XRWRV SURGXNFLMRV NDLQRV (700 OLW MRV SLUNW LU VXQDXGRW JDP\ERV SURFHVH WDUSLQL SURGXNW NDLQ OLW 7DLJL ãDOLHV EHQGURMR QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR DSLPWLV \UD O\JL NLHNYLHQRV JDP\ERV VWDGLMRV SULG WLQ V YHUW V VXPDL - OLW DUED EDLJWLQL SUHNL NDLQ VXPDLLUJL- 7000 lLW $QDORJLãNDL QDXGRMDQW SULG WLQ V YHUW V VXPDYLPR E G JDOLPD DSVNDLþLXRWL LU YDOVW\E V EHQGU M QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW %HQGUDMDPQDFLRQDOLQLDPSURGXNWXLDSVNDLþLXRWLQDXGRMDPLLUNLWLGXE GDL- pagal išlaidas LUSDJDOSDMDPDVEHWDSLHWDLSDãQHN VLPHY OLDX 7UHþLD NDL NXULRV EDLJWLQ V SUHN V LU SDVODXJRV GDåQLDX \UD NXULDPRV LU WHLNLDPRV YDUWRWRMXL EH M pirkimo - SDUGDYLPR SDY\]GåLXL YDOVW\E V ELXGåHWR O ãRPLV WHLNLDPDV QHPRNDPDV ãYLHWLPDV NLWL QHPRNDPL SDWDUQDYLPDL SLOLHþLDPV VNDLWDQW LU SROLFLMRV JDLVULQLQN JLQNOXRW M SDM J SDVODXJDV 'DEDU WRNLRV U ãLHV SDVODXJRV GDXJHO\MH ãDOL VXGDUR å\PL QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR GDO - DSLPWLV WDLJL LQG OLV %13 DSVNDLþLXRMDPDVSDJDOW SDVODXJ NDãWXV(NRQRPLVWDLSULSDå VWDNDGWDLLãHLWLV, bet ne ideali.
.HWYLUWD%13VNDLþLDYLPDVDSLPDåLQRPDWLNRILFLDOLDLSDWYLUWLQWDWYDUNDDWOLHNDPDVULQNRVRSHUDFLMDV 1HOHJDO V VDQG ULDL ãHã OLQ V HNRQRPLNRV SURFHVDL %13 G\G\MH QHDWVLVSLQGL QRUV NDUWDLV MLH JDOL VXGDU\WL å\PL GDO 3HQNWD %13 QH HLQD ILQDQVLQ V WUDQVDNFLMRV - YHUW\ELQL SRSLHUL SLUNLPDV LU SDUGDYLPDV NHLþLDQWLV DNFLM LUREOLJDFLM VDYLQLQNXLMRNLRSDSLOGRPRYLVXRPHQLQLRSRUHLNL SDWHQNLQLPRQ UDWDLJLQ UDLUJDP\ELQLR LãWHNOL QDXGRMLPR
12.2. Nominalusis produktas
ir
realusis
bendrasis
nacionalinis
6XPXRGDPL YLV EDLJWLQL SUHNL LU SDVODXJ NDLQDV LãPDWXRMDPH ãDOLHV PHWLQ V SURGXNFLMRV G\G %HWJLNDLQRVNHLþLDVL7RG O VXVNDLþLDY NDGãDOLHV%13SDO\JLQWLVXSUD MXVLDLVPHWDLVLãDXJRQHJDOLPH E WL WLNUL NDG WLNUDL SDJDPLQW SUHNL LU VXWHLNW SDVODXJ NLHNLV SDGLG MR GHãLPWDGDOLX 9LVLãNDL JDOLPDV GDO\NDV NDG å\PL GDOLV %13 YHUW V SULHDXJLR JDXWD G O NDLQ O\JLR SDGLG MLPR 9DGLQDVL QRU GDPL O\JLQWL SDVNLU PHW %13URGLNOLXVWXULPHHOLPLQXRWLSUHNL NDLQ NLWLPR WDN Tuo tikslu nustatomas ED]LQLV NDLQ O\JLV - SDVLULQNW NXUL QRUV PHW SUHNL NDLQ O\JLV 9LV NLW PHW %13 PDWXRGDPL ED]LQL PHW NDLQRPLV JDXQDPH WLNVOLXV GXRPHQLV DSLH UHDO M %13 G\G (LQDP M PHW kainos vadinamos IDNWLQ PLV NDLQRmis. %D]LQL PHW NDLQRV QDXGRMDPRV LU NLW PHW %13 DSVNDLþLXRWL YDGLQDPRV VXJUHWLQDPRVLRPLV NDLQRPLV $SVNDLþLXRMDQW EDLJWLQL SUHNL LU SDVODXJ DSLPW IDNWLQ PLV kainomis, nustatomas nominalusis (arba piniginis) BNP,DSVNDLþLXRMDQWVXJUHWLQDPRVLRPLVkainomis - realusis BNP. 5HDODXV EHQGURMR QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR SDGLG MLPDV SHU WDP WLNU ODLNRWDUS YDGLQDPDV ekonominiu augimu.%13SDGLG MLPDV -1996 metais išreiškiamas formule: %13SDGLG MLPDV P Realusis bendrasis nacionalinis produktas 1996 m.
Realusis bendrasis nacionalinis produktas 1991 m.
x 100
%13NLWLPRWHPSDLSULNODXVRQXRJDP\ERVDSLPWLHVLUNDLQ VY\UDYLPR
$SVNDLþLXRNLPH QRPLQDO M LU UHDO M EHQGU M QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW QDJULQ GDPL V O\JLQ SDY\]G NDL JDPLQDPLWLNGX$LU%SURGXNWDL åUOHQWHO
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.DLS MDX PLQ MRPH %13 DSVNDLþLDYLPDV VXGHGDQW YLV PRQL LU NLQL RUJDQL]DFLM HWLQ SURGXNFLM LãHLJ LULãJDXWRVVXPRVDWLPDQWWDUSLQ SURGXNW IDNWLãNDLUHLãNLDNDGNLHNYLHQRV PRQ V LQG OLV %13O\JXV YHUWHL NXUL WRML PRQ SULG MR SULH VLJ\W PHGåLDJ LU SDWDUQDYLP PDUNVLVWLQ MH HNRQRPLkos teorijoje ši SURGXNFLMRVYHUW V GDOLVDWLWLNW PRQ V \Q M SDMDP LUDPRUWL]DFLMRVVXP %13 VNDLþLDYLPDV SDJDO SULG WLQ V YHUW V G\G YDGLQDPDV VNDLþLDYLPX SDJDO SURGXNFLM HLJ %13 DSVNDLþLXRWLQDXGRMDPLLUGXNLWLE GDL- pagal išlaidas ir pagal pajamas.
%13VNDLþLDYLPDVLãODLGRPLVLUSDMDPRPLV %13VNDLþLDYLPDVLãODLGRPLV
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7DUSQDP NL LU PRQL QXRODWVXGDURPLWDPWLNULVDQG ULDL åUOHQWHO NXULXRVDSLE GLQD SUHNL LUSDVODXJ EHLSLQLJ VUDXW FLUNXOLDFLMD åU SDY 9LGLQLVVFKHPRVNRQW UDVURGRGDLNWLQL LãWHNOL MXG MLP WDUSãL GYLHM NLRVHNWRUL RLãRULQLV- SLQLJ VUDXW MXG MLP
SDYSDURG\WLWU\VE GDLNXULDLVJDOLPDQXVWDW\WLHNRQRPLQ V VLVWHPRVYHLNORVUH]XOWDWXV VXPXRMDQWSDJDPLQW SUHNL LUSDVODXJ NDLQDV VXGHGDQWLãODLG G\G SUHN PV LUSDVODXJRPV VLJ\WL DSVNDLþLXRMDQWJDP\ERVYHLNVQL URGDQþL SDVODXJ YHUW O\J Vartojimas (privatus vartojimas), (C).9DUWRMLPDV\UDHNRQRPLQ V YHLNORVJDOXWLQLVWLNVODVäPRQ V GLUED LUJDPLQDGDLNWXVWDPNDGJDO W MDLVQDXGRWLV$VPHQLQLRYDUWRMLPR
LãODLGRV & VXGDUR GLGåLDXVL QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR GDO -RV DSLPD YLVDV LãODLGDV NXULDV SDGDUR QDP NLV LQGLYLGDV DUED ãHLPD EHL QHNRPHUFLQLR SRE GåLR VWDLJRV SLUNGDPRV SUHNHV LU SDVODXJDV LãVN\UXV J\YHQWRM išlaidas gyvenamajam namui arba butui pirkti - tai priskiriama investicijoms). Jos dalinaPRV LãODLGDVSUHN PVLU LãODLGDV SDVODXJRPV EH WR LãODLGRV SUHN PV VNLUVWRPRV LãODLGDV WUXPSDODLNLR YDUWRMLPR SUHN PV PDLVWDV GUDEXåLDL LOJDODLNLR YDUWRMLPR SUHN PV DXWRPRELOLDL VNDOELPR PDãLQRV OHQWHO MH SDWHLNLDPH DVPHQLQLR vartojimo išODLG VWUXNW U PHWDLV-$9
Investicijos (I).,ãODLGRVLQYHVWLFLMRPV LQYHVWLFLQ PVSUHN PV - tai išlaidos pagrindiniams fondams ir DWVDUJRPVEHLUH]HUYDPV5LQNRV NLRV O\JRPLVWHRULMDVNLUVWRãLDVLãODLGDV ,QYHVWLFLMDV JDP\NORPV LU UHQJLPDPV âLDL NDWHJRULMDL SULVNLULDPRV LQYHVWLFLMRV VNLUWRV IDEULN VDQG OL LUNLW QHJ\YHQDP M SDWDOS QDXGRMDP YHUVOHVWDW\EDLWDLSSDWLUPDãLQ LUNLW UHQJLP VLJLMLPXLW\SDJULQGLQLDPNDSLWDOXL ,QYHVWLFLMDV J\YHQDP M QDP VWDW\EDL *\YHQDP M QDP VWDW\ERV LãODLGRV WDLS SDW VNDLWRPRV QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR YHUW V GDO LãUHLãNLDQþL LQYHVWLFLMDV *\YHQDP M QDP VWDW\ED ODLNRPD LQYHVWLFLMRPLV QHV MLH SDQDãLDL NDLS JDP\ELQLDL UHQJLPDL \UD WXUWDV JDOLQWLV WHLNWL SDMDPDV -HLJX ateityje g\YHQDPLHMLQDPDLEXVLãQXRPRWLWDLM VDYLQLQNDLJDXVUHQW
Visus gyvenamuosius pastatus patogiau priskirti vienai nacionalinio produkto kategorijai. Ir nuosavi, LU QXRPRMDPL EXWDL WDL YLV SLUPD J\YHQDPDVLV SORWDV 3ULYDW V namai priskiriami šiai kategorijai, VLHNLDQW QXRVHNOXPR /DLNRPD MRJ ãHLPD O\J LU LQYHVWDYR SLQLJXV VWDW\E R SR WR SDWL W QDP QXRPRMDVL$WNUHLSNLWHG PHV MRJQDPXVVNLULDPHSULHNDSLWDOLQL LQYHVWLFLM *DP\ELQL DWVDUJ EHL JDWDYRV SURGXNFLMRV SULHDXJLXL MHL W DWVDUJ DSLPWLV PHW JDOH QH LãDXJR R VXPDå MRWDLVXPDå MLPRG\GLVWXULE WL DWLPWDVLã*13QHVVXPDå MLPDVUHLãNLDMRJYLVXRPHQ ãLDV metais pirko daugiau negu pagamino). 9LVD LQYHVWLFLM VXPD YDGLQDPD bendrosiomis investicijomis. Jas sudaro dvi dalys -atstatymo investicijos, VNLUWRV VXVLG Y MXVLRPV GDUER SULHPRQ PV DWVWDW\WL LU grynosios investicijos, skiriamos naujoms, SDSLOGRPRPV GDUER SULHPRQ PV VLJ\WL $WVWDW\PR LQYHVWLFLMRV GDURPRV DPRUWL]DFLMRV NDSLWDOR YDUWRMLPR V VNDLWD LU XåWLNULQD SDJULQGLQLR NDSLWDOR LãVDXJRMLP JU\QRVLRV LQYHVWLFLMRV -M LãSOHþLD 9LVD LQYHVWLFLM VXPD VXGDUR %13 GDO QHV YLVRV LQYHVWLFLQ V SUHN V - WLHN SDJULQGLQLDP NDSLWDOXL DWQDXMLQWL WLHN MDP SO VWL -yra HLQDP M PHW JDP\ERVSURGXNFLMDNXULQHSDNOL QDWDUSLQLRSURGXNWRVXG WLQ 9\ULDXV\E V LãODLGRV (G). âLDV LãODLGDV Q UD WDLS SDSUDVWD YHUWLQWL QDFLRQDOLQLDPH SURGXNWH 7DP WLNUL Y\ULDXV\ELQLDLSLUNLPDLJDOLE WLYHUWLQDPLNDLSJDOXWLQLDL7DþLDXNLWRVY\ULDXV\ELQ V LãODLGRVJDOLE WLWDUSLQLDL SURGXNWDL 3DY\]GåLXL NHOLDLV YDåLQ MD DXWRPRELOLDL NXULH YHåD DWRVWRJDXMDQþLXV WXULVWXV WDL JDOXWLQLV SURGXNWDV LU SUHNHV JDEHQDQW\V VXQNYHåLPLDL WDL WDUSLQLV SURGXNWDV 7DLJL JDOLPD PDQ\WL NDG NHOLDL QDXGRMDPL WDUSLQLDLV WLNVODLV R WDP SDGDU\WRV LãODLGRV QHWXU W E WL VNDLþLXRMDPRV QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR YHUW 1XVWDWDQWQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRYHUW ãLSUREOHPDDWPHWDPD3DSUDVWDLODLNRPDNDGYLVRVY\ULDXV\ELQ V LãODLGRVDWLWHQNDJDOXWLQLDPSURGXNWXLLUWRG O MRV VNDLþLXRMDPRV QDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRYHUW VyrLDXV\E V LãODLGRVQ UDYLHQDO\W V -MRVDSLPDWLHNLãODLGDVHVDPDPYDUWRMLPXLYDOVW\E V LãODLNRPRVH VWDLJRVHLURUJDQL]DFLMRVHWLHNLULQYHVWLFLQHVLãODLGDV%HWRNDLSåLQRPH Y\ULDXV\E V LãODLGRVVNLUWLQJDL QXR IL]LQL DUMXULGLQL DVPHQ VDYRYDOLDGDURP LãODLG Q UDYLHQLQJDLYLV SLOLHþL WUDNWXRMDPRVNDLSUHLNDOLQJRV YLVXRPHQ V SRUHLNLDPVWHQNLQWLE WHQWWRNLXG\GåLXLUWRNLDVWUXNW UD W\ WUDXNWRV %13 ,ãODLGRVGDURPRV WHLNLDQWPRN\NO OLJRQLQL RURWUDQVSRUWRNRQWURO V DUJUHLWNHOL SDVODXJDV\UDSDNDQNDPDLDNLYDL]GXVLQG OLV %13 QHV M G ND WLNUDL SDWHQNLQDPL DNWXDO V J\YHQWRM SRUHLNLDL R NLWX DWYHMX - LãODLG SHUNDQW JLQNOXRW Y\NGDQWNRVPRVRHUGYL W\ULP SURMHNWXVWHLNLDQWWDPWLNURVVWUXNW URVSDJDOE XåVLHQLRYDOVW\E PVDUSOHþLDQW ELXURNUDWLQLR SRE GåLR IXQNFLMDV -LQG OLV %13 JDOL E WL NYHVWLRQXRMDPDV 9 OLDX GDU DSWDUVLPH VRFLDOLQHV LU HWLQHV%13VNDLþLDYLPRSUREOHPDV GDEDUSDå\P NLPHNDGQDFLRQDOLQ V V VNDLW\ERVPHWRGLNDQHNHOLDVDXWRNLR SRE GåLRNODXVLP - visos v\ULDXV\E V LãODLGRV WUDXNLDPRV %13O\JLDLNDLSWHQSDWDWVLUDQGDWRNLHDSGLUELPR SUDPRQ V JDPLQLDLNDLSN GLNL PLW\ERVSURGXNWDLLUNRQMDNDV ,ã Y\ULDXV\E V LãODLG DSVNDLWRP NDLS %13 GDOLV WXUL E WL HOLPLQXRWL WUDQVIHULQLDL LãPRN MLPDL W\ tiesLRJLQLDL Y\ULDXV\E V O ã SHUYHGLPDL 7UDQVIHULQLDL LãPRN MLPDL SHUYHGLPDL \UD O ã LãPRN MLPDL DVPHQLPVDUEDRUJDQL]DFLMRPVQHXåM SUHNHVDUSDVODXJDVREHMRNLRHNYLYDOHQWRGRYDQDLýLD HLW YDLULRV SDãDOSRVãHLPRPVLULQYDOLGDPVYDOVW\E V VNRORVDSWDUQDYLPDV SDO NDQRVY\ULDXV\E V REOLJDFLM VDYLQLQNDPV EHL O ã SHUYHGLPDL Lã DXNãWHVQL M åHPHVQLHVLHPV YDOVW\ELQ V YDOGåLRV RUJDQDPV 9LVL ãLH SLQLJ SHUYHGLPDL QHSDGLGLQDQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRWRG O MLHQH WUDXNLDPL Y\ULDXV\E V LãODLGDVVNDLþiuojant BNP. Grynasis eksportas (E-l).%13\UDWDXWRV NLRYLVXPLQLRSURGXNWRLãUDLãND9DGLQDVLWDLNDVHVDPDLV PHWDLV EXYR YHåWD Lã XåVLHQLR LPSRUWXRWD LU SDQDXGRWD SULYDþLDP YDUWRMLPXL LQYHVWLFLMRPV DU Y\ULDXV\E V SURJUDPRPVY\NG\WLWXU W E WLLãVNDLþLXRWDLã%13URGLNOLR ,PSRUW SDå\P GDPLVLPEROLX,JDXWXPH%13, .LWDYHUWXVEHWNXULãDO\MHSDJDPLQWDLUXåVLHQLRVXEMHNWDPVSDUGXRWDSURGXNFLMDQHSDWHQNDQHL YLHQRVWRMH ãDO\MH SDGDU\W LãODLG JUXS V Q UD NXULR QRUV WRV ãDOLHV NLQLR DJHQWR VLJ\WD 7DL UHLãNLD NDG HNVSRUWR ( DSLPWLVWXU W E WLSULG WDSULHLãODLG VXPDYLPRE GXDSVNDLþLXRWR%13 %13( 6XSUDQWDPD NDG ORJLãND WRNLX DWYHMX QXVWDW\WL JU\Q M HNVSRUW W\ UDVWL VNLUWXP WDUS HNVSRUWR LU importo (E-, LU M SULG WL SULH DUED DWLPWL Lã MHL JU\QRMR HNVSRUWR URGLNOLV \UD VX PLQXVR åHQNOX EHQGURMR QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR 1DW UDOX NDG QHW LQWHQV\YLDL GDO\YDXMDQþLRV WDUSWDXWLQLXRVH HNRQRPLQLXRVH PDLQXRVH ãDOLHVJU\QRMRHNVSRUWRURGLNOLVVXGDU\VQHå\PL MRVEHQGURMRQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRGDO 6XG M PLQ WDVNHWXULDVLãODLG JUXSHVJDXQDPH EHQGU VLDVQDFLRQDOLQHVLãODLGDV -privataus vartojimo, LQYHVWLFLM Y\ULDXV\E V LãODLG LU JU\QRMR HNVSRUWR VXP (NRQRPLQ MH OLWHUDW URMH WDL SDSUDVWDL YDGLQDPD YLVXPLQ PLVLãODLGRPLV (AE).%HQGUDVLVQDFLRQDOLQLVSURGXNWDVDSVNDLþLXRWDVLãODLG VXPDYLPRE GXEXVWRNV BNP = AE = C+I+G+(E-I).
%13NDLSSDMDP VXPD âLXR PHWRGX EHQGUDVLV QDFLRQDOLQLV SURGXNWDV DSVNDLþLXRMDPDV VXGHGDQW YLVDV SDMDPDV NXULDV JDXQD YLV JDP\ERV YHLNVQL IDNWRUL VDYLQLQNDL Xå VDYR SDVODXJDV EHL SULGHGDQW DPRUWL]DFLQLXV DWVNDLW\PXV LU QHWLHVLRJLQLXV YHUVOR PRNHVþLXV 5LQNRV WHRULMRMH DNLYDL]GX NDG YLHQR HNRQRPLQ V RSHUDFLMRV DJHQWR LãODLGRV \UD WRV SDW RSHUDFLMRV NRQWUDJHQWR SDMDPRV % WLQD WLN SDEU åWL NDG YLVRV HNRQRPLNRV PDVWX LãODLG VWUXNW UD WROLJUDåXQHVXWDPSDVXSDMDP VWUXNW UD
3DMDPRV MRV YDGLQDPRV JDP\ERV YHLNVQL SDMDPRPLV VXVLGHGD Lã NHWXUL SDJULQGLQL HOHPHQW DWO\JLQLP QXRPRVPRNHVþL SDO NDQ LUSHOQR Atlyginimai.7DLVWDPELDXVLDSDMDP JUXS MLDSLPDGDUERXåPRNHVW LUDOJDVPRNDPDVVDPGRPLHPV GDUEXRWRMDPVâLSDMDP U ãLVLãUHLãNLDW SURGXNFLMRVYHUW V GDO NXULSULVNLULDPDGDUERYHLNVQLXL$WO\JLQLPDL QDFLRQDOLQ MH V VNDLW\ERMH DSVNDLþLXRMDPL M JU\QXRMX SDYLGDOX VXPRN MXV LQGLYLGXDO SDMDP PRNHVW ãL SDMDP JUXS HLQDQHWLNYLVRVVDPGRP M GDUEXRWRM SDMDPRVJDXWRVGDUERYLHW MHEHWWDLSSDWLU PRQLQLQN QDãDL YDOVW\ELQLXVLUSULYDþLXVSHQVLM EHLNLWXVVRFLDOLQLXVIRQGXVW\YLVRVLãODLGRVVXVLMXVLRVVXGDUERM JRV išlaikymu (atstatymu). 1XRPRVPRNHVþLDL7DLPRN MLPDLXååHP V SDVWDW NDUWDLVLUNDLNXUL NLW LOJDLWDUQDXMDQþL GDLNW QDXGRMLP SHUWDPWLNU ODLNRWDUS 1DFLRQDOLQ MHV VNDLW\ERMHNDLSJ\YHQWRM ãHLP SDMDPRVDSVNDLþLuojama LUM QXRVDY QDP EXW WDULDPDQXRPDSDWLHPVVDX7DLGDURPDNDG%13DWVSLQG W YLV J\YHQDP M QDP SDVODXJDVQHSDLVDQWNLHQRQXRVDY\E MLH\UD7DLåHP V LUNLWRQHNLOQRMDPRMRWXUWRSDMDPRV 3DO NDQRV Tai piniginio kapitalo pajamos. Jos apiPD SDO NDQDV Xå LQG OLXV EDQNH NRPSDQLM REOLJDFLM WXU WRM JDXQDPDV SDMDPDV EDQN JDXQDP SHOQ NDLS VNLUWXP WDUS MR LãPRNDP Xå LQG OLXV LU JDXQDP Xå SDVNRODV SDO NDQ SDGHQJXV YHLNORV NDãWXV 9\ULDXV\E V REOLJDFLM LåGR YHNVHOL NLW vyriausyb V YHUW\ELQL SRSLHUL WXU WRM JDXQDPRV SDO NDQRV ãL JUXS QH HLQD -MRV DSVNDLþLXRMDPRV NDLS WUDQVIHULQLDLLãPRN MLPDL Pelnas.3HOQDVQDFLRQDOLQ MHV VNDLW\ERMHVNLUVWRPDV GYLGDOLV SDYLHQL DUVXVLMXQJXVL VDYDUDQNLãN VDYLQLQN SDUWQHUL DUNRRSHUDW\Y JU\Q VLDVSDMDPDVLUEHQGURYL NRUSRUDFLM SHOQ 'DOLVEHQGURYL SHOQR \UD LãUHLãNLDPD NDLS GLYLGHQGDL DNFLM VDYLQLQNDPV ãL GDOLV VXGDUR SDVNLUVW\W M SHOQ /LNXVL GDOLV \UD nepaskirstytasis (sulaikytasis) pelnas; jis apskaitomas bruto, W\LNLVXPRNDQWEHQGURYL SDMDP PRNHVW .
Amortizacija. $XNãþLDX QXURG\WL NHWXUL %13 HOHPHQWDL \UD SDMDPRV WLHVLRJLDL SULVNLUWRV NXULDP QRUV YLHQDP JDP\ERV YHLNVQLXL - VXPD QHDSLPV YLVR %13 'DOLV EDLJWLQL SURGXNW YHUW V J\MD DPRUWL]DFLMRV IRUP t. y. pasireiškia kaip kapitalo vartojimo atskaitymai. Jie atspindi per metus suvartoto kapitalo (darbo SULHPRQL YHUW $PRUWL]DFLMRV O ãRV QHSULVNLULDPRV NXULDP QRUV JDP\ERV YHLNVQLXL NDLS MR SDMDPRV MRV \UD UHLQYHVWXRMDPRV JDP\E LãVDXJDQWSUDGLQ GDUERSULHPRQL JDP\ELQ SDM JXP 1HWLHVLRJLQLDL YHUVOR PRNHVþLDL âLDL PRNHVþL JUXSHL SULNODXVR EHQGUDVLV DS\YDUWRV SDUGDYLP PRNHVWLV SULG WLQ V YHUW V PRNHVWLV DNFL]DL PXLWDL -XRV YLVXV YHUVOLQLQNDL WUDNWXRMD NDLS JDP\ERV NDãW elementus. Šie mRNHVþLDL\UDQHWLHVLRJLQLDL-MLHQXVWDWRPLQHSDþLDLILUPDLRMRVJDPLQDPDL DUEDLPSRUWXRMDPDL NLR WLNVODLV SURGXNFLMDL )LUPD VXPRND MXRV Lã SDMDP JDXW UHDOL]DYXV SURGXNFLM 7DLJL ãLWRNLX E GX GDOLV %13 WLHVLRJLDL SDWHQND YDOVW\E V FHQWULQ DUED YLHWLQLXV ELXGåHWXV LU WXUL E WL DSVNDLWRPD DWVNLUDL %HMH MHL Y\ULDXV\E WHLNLD VXEVLGLMDVLãYDOVW\E V LåGRNXULRPVQRUV SUHN PVDUSDVODXJRPVW VXEVLGLM VXPDWXULE WL DWLPWDLãQHWLHVLRJLQL PRNHVþL VXPRV Bendrasis nacionalinis produktas, apskaiþLXRWDV LãODLG VXPDYLPR E GX \UD SHU PHWXV JDXW DWO\JLQLP SDO NDQ QXRPRVPRNHVþL SHOQRDPRUWL]DFLMRVEHLQHWLHVLRJLQL YHUVORPRNHVþL VXPD 'DEDU VXVLSDåLQNLPH VX YLHQRV QDFLRQDOLQ V V VNDLW\ERV PHWRGLND QDXGRMDQþLRV ãDOLHV %13 DSVNDLþLXRW LãODLG LUSDMDP VXPDåLQLPRE GDLV åUOHQWHO
12.4. Kiti nacionalinio produkto rodikliai %HQGUDVLV QDFLRQDOLQLV SURGXNWDV %13 QXVDNR EDLJWLQL SUHNL LU SDVODXJ YHUW NXUL LãUHLãNLD YLV NXULRVQRUVãDOLHVSLOLHþL NLQ V YHLNORVUH]XOWDWXV7DL\UD%13QXVDNRNRNLRG\GåLRSURGXNWDVSULNODXVRWRV
ãDOLHV SLOLHþLDPV VNDLWDQW LU SDMDPDV JDXQDPDV Lã LQYHVWLFLM XåVLHQ\MH EHL DWVNDLWDQW XåVLHQLHþL WRMH ãDO\MH JDXWDV SDMDPDV -HL DSVNDLWRPD WRMH ãDO\MH VXNXUW EDLJWLQL SUHNL LU SDVODXJ ULQNRV YHUW LJQRUXRMDQW XåVLHQ\MH JDXWDV SDMDPDV Lã LQYHVWLFLM LU SULGHGDQW ãLRMH ãDO\MH XåVLHQLHþLDPV SULNODXVDQþLDV LQYHVWLFLQHV pajamas, gaunamas EHQGUDVLV YLGLQLV W Y\QLQLV SURGXNWDV Skirtingai nuo BNP, jis apskaitomas ne rinkos
kainomis, bet gamybRV YHLNVQL NDãWDLV NXUL VXPD QXVWDWRPD VXGHGDQW SULG WLQ YHUW NLHNYLHQRMH ãDNRMH LU PRQ MH
Grynasis nacionalinis produktas (GNP) 'DXJHOLV HNRQRPLVW SDå\PL NDG GLGHVQ SUDVP YHUWLQDQW WDXWRV SDMDPDV QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR VNDLþLDYLPDV EH DPRUWL]DFLMRV VXPRV âLXR DWYHMX E W QXVDN\WD SURGXNFLMD MRV ULQNRV YHUW NXUL OLHND YLVXRPHQHL YDUWRWL EHL JDP\ELQLDP NDSLWDOXL GDUER SULHPRQ PV LãSO VWL JU\QRVLRPV LQYHVWLFLMRPV -XN DPRUWL]DFLMRV VXPD LãUHLãNLD W EDLJWLQL SUHNL LU SDVODXJ NLHN NXULV E WLQDL LU QHLãYHQJLDPDL WXUL JU åWL JDP\E NDG NRPSHQVXRW VXVLG Y MXVLDV GDUER SULHPRQHV LU XåWLNULQW OLJ WR EXYXV JDP\ELQ SDM JXP 3UREOHPD WLN WD NDG UHDODXV GDUER SULHPRQL QXVLG Y MLPR PDVWDL JDOL E WL LU \UD QXVWDWRPL ODEDL VDQW\NLQLDL. WRG O LUDSLEU åWLDPRUWL]DFLMRVVXP %13 \UDVXG WLQJDLU WLNVOLDLQH PDQRPD' O WRGDåQLDX \UDQDXGRMDPDV BNP rodiklis, o ne GNP.
1DFLRQDOLQ V SDMDPRV
1DFLRQDOLQL SDMDP V YRND ãLXRODLNLQ MH ULQNRV NLR WHRULMRMH YDUWRMDPD NDLS QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWo VLQRQLPDV .DGDQJL YLVRV SURGXNFLMRV LãVN\UXV WDUSLQ SURGXNFLM YHUW SDVLVDYLQL SDVLGDOLQD YDLU V NLR subjektai - JDP\ERV YHLNVQL VDYLQLQNDL EHL Y\ULDXV\E WDL QDFLRQDOLQLV SURGXNWDV LãUHLãNLDPDV %13 LU NLWDLV URGLNOLDLVJDOLE WLYDGLQDPDVLLQDFLRQDOLQ PLVSDMDPRPLV 7DþLDX NDUWDLV QDFLRQDOLQL SDMDP V YRNDL VXWHLNLDPD VDYDUDQNLãND UHLNãP -DX PLQ MRPH NDG Lã %13 DWVNDLþLXV DPRUWL]DFLM JDXQDPDV WLNVOLDX YLVXPLQHV YLVXRPHQ V SDMDPDV LãUHLãNLDQWLV URGLNOLV 'DU tiksliau visumines pajamas YHUWLQVLPH MHL Lã *13 DWLPVLPH QHWLHVLRJLQLXV YHUVOR PRNHVþLXV MLH NDLS MDX åLQRPHWHONLDPLYDOVW\E V ELXGåHWH WDLLUEXVQDFLRQDOLQ V SDMDPRVâLWDLSDSVNDLþLXRWDVQDFLRQDOLQL SDMDP URGLNOLVLãUHLãNLDW YLVXRPHQ MHVXNXUW SDMDP GDO NXUL JDO WXPHSDYDGLQWLYLVXRPHQLQ V JDP\ERVJU\Q MD LãHLJD QHW RXWSXW VXGDUDQþLD JDP\ERV YHLNVQL SDMDP YHLNVQL NDãW VXP .LWDLS VDNDQW QDFLRQDOLQ V SDMDPRV QXVDNR YHUW NXUL DWLWHQND LãWHNOL VDYLQLQNDPV NDLS VDPGRP M GDUEXRWRM DWO\JLQLPDL LQGLYLGXDOL YHUVOLQLQN SDMDPRVEHQGURYL SHOQDVSDO NDQRVQXRPRVPRNHVþLDLâLVURGLNOLVUHWDLQDXGRMDPDV
$VPHQLQ V SDMDPRV $VPHQLQL SDMDP URGLNOLVLãUHLãNLDW %13GDO NXULIDNWLãNDLDWLWHQNDLQGLYLGDPV EUXWRW\LNLVXPRNDQW DVPHQLQ SDMDP PRNHVW 0DW GDOLV SDMDP QHSDNOL QD VDYR ãHLPLQLQN UDQNDV $VPHQLQ V SDMDPRV QXR QDFLRQDOLQL SDMDP VNLULDVL GYLHP HOHPHQWDLV 3LUPD WDP WLNUD GDOLV NDSLWDOR VDYLQLQN SDMDP M UDQNDV QHSDNOL QD - DNFLQ EHQGURY \UD DNFLQLQN QXRVDY\E EHW GLGåLRML Selno dalis neatitenka akcininkams, o yra DWVNDLWRPD YDOVW\E V ELXGåHW NDLS EHQGURYL SDMDP PRNHVWLV EHL VXQDXGRMDPD NDLS QHSDVNLUVW\WDVLV SHOQDV EHQGURYHL SO VWL LU NLWLHPV WLNVODPV 7DLS SDW \UD LU ILUP QDãDL VRFLDOLQLR GUDXGLPR IRQG GDURPL JDP\bos NDãW V VNDLWD LU IDNWLãNDL HVDQW\V VDPGRP GDUEXRWRM XåGDUELR HOHPHQWX $QWUD GDOLV DVPHQLQL SDMDP DSVNULWDLQ UDXåGLUEDPD7DLYDOVW\E V WUDQVIHULQLDLLãPRN MLPDL EHLO ãRVJDXQDPRVLãEHQGURYL VRFLDOLQL LU NXOW ULQL IRQG QHGDUER GUDXGLPR LãPRNRV VRFLDOLQLR GUDXGLPR LãPRNRV VRFLDOLQ V SDãDOSRV WDLS SDW þLD HLQD LU SDO NDQRV Y\ULDXV\E V REOLJDFLM WXU WRMDPV 7DLJL DVPHQLQ V SDMDPRV DSLPD DVPHQLPV ãHLPRPV DWLWHNXVL %13 GDO NDLS M NLQ V YHLNORV UH]XOWDW EHL JDXQDPXV LãPRN MLPXV Lã YDOVW\E V ELXGåHWR DUED EHQGURYL O ã ,QGLYLGXDO V DVPHQLQLDL PRNHVþLDL VXVLGHGD Lã WULM HOHPHQW SDMDP PRNHVþLR WXUWR PRNHVþLR LU SDYHOG MLPRPRNHVþLR,ãDVPHQLQL SDMDP VXPRN MXVDVPHQLQLXVPRNHVþLXVOLHNDGLVSRQXRMDPRVLRVSDMDPRV
Disponuojamosios pajamos 1HYLVRPLVDVPHQLQ PLVSDMDPRPLVM JDY MDVODLVYDLGLVSRQXRMD'DO M MLVSULYDORPDWYDUNDVXPRND YDOVW\EHL NDLS DVPHQLQ SDMDP PRNHVW 'LVSRQXRMDPRVLRV SDMDPRV \UD OLNXVL GDOLV - O ãRV NXULDV LQGLYLGDV (šeima) gali laisvai naudoti vDUWRMLPXLDUEDWDXS\PXL1HWHQND URGLQ WLNDGE WHQWãLVURGLNOLV\UDODEDLVYDUEXV ekonominei analizei. ,ã%13DW P WDVGDOLVNXULRVQHDWLWHQNDLQGLYLGDPV ãHLPRPV EHLDVPHQLQ SDMDP PRNHVW LUSULG M VRFLDOLQLXVLãPRN MLPXVãHLPRPVLULQGLYLGDPVJDXQDPHGLVSRQXRMDP M SDMDP URGLNO
7DLJLWXULPHWRNL QDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRURGLNOL JUXS • bendrasis nacionalinis produktas; • grynasis nacionalinis produktas; QDFLRQDOLQ V SDMDPRV DVPHQLQ V SDMDPRV • disponuojamosios pajamos. 9LV SHQNL URGLNOL GLQDPLND DSVNDLþLXRWD LOJHVQLDP ODLNRWDUSLXL SUDNWLãNDL \UD YLHQRGD 7RG O HNRQRPLVWDPV \UD SUDVWD LU SDJU VWD NDOEDQW DSLH YLVXPLQ V JDP\ERV SURGXNWR LãHLJRV SDMDP NLWLP naudotis BNP rodikliu. 3DWHLNVLPH-$9 PHW %13DSVNDLþLDYLPRSDY\]G åUOHQWHOH
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13. Nacionalinio produkto dinamika
9LHQRVSUHN V SDNODXVRVLUSDVL ORVPRGHOLVQHDWVDNR GDXJ\E HNRQRPLQL NODXVLP NRG O NDLQRVN\ODLUNUHQWD" NRG O EHQGUDVNDLQ O\JLVYLHQXPHWXSDVWRYXVNLWXPHWXJUHLWDLN\OD" NDVQXOHPLDDWLWLQNDP SUHNL SXVLDXVY\U YLGDXVULQNRMHW\UHDO M QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW " NRG O UHDOXV QDFLRQDOLQLV JDP\ERV SURGXNWDV PDå MD WDP WLNUDLV SHULRGDLV SDO\JLQXV su ankstesniu periodu, o kitu - greitai kyla? .DGDWVDN\WXPH ãLXRVNODXVLPXVWXULPHVXMXQJWLYLVDVDWVNLUDVãDOLHVULQNDV YLHQ W ULQN 7LNVOLDX VDNDQW WXULPH VXMXQJWL W NVWDQþLXV DWVNLU NDLQ - SHUVRQDOLQL OLXWHUL EULOLDQW QDIWRV SDUIXPHULMRV LU NW YLHQ EHQGU NDLQ NXULYDGLQDPDNDLQ 7DLSSDWWXULPHVXMXQJWLDWVNLU SUHNL LUSDVODXJ SXVLDXVY\URVNLHN YLVXP NXULYDGLQDPDQDFLRQDOLQ V JDP\ERVUHDOLDDSLPWLPL$WVNLU SUHNL LUSDVODXJ NLHNLRVXMXQJLPDV O\J WDLS SDW YLV SUHNL LU SDVODXJ NLHNLR VXMXQJLPDV QDFLRQDOLQ V JDP\ERV UHDOL M YDGLQDPDV DJUHJDYLPX .DLQ NDLQ O\JLR LU SUHNL SXVLDXVY\URV NLekio (realaus nacionalinio produkto) sujungimas YDGLQDPDV DJUHJDYLPX 3DSUDVWR PDNURHNRQRPLQLR PRGHOLR URGLNOLDL VXGDUR NDLQ O\J R QH DWVNLURV SUHN V NDLQ LUUHDOL M QDFLRQDOLQ V JDP\ERV RQHDWVNLURVSUHN V DSLPW 7RG O PDNURHNRQRPLNRMH QDXGRMDPRV YLVXPLQ V DJUHJXRWRV SDNODXVRV LU YLVXPLQ V DJUHJXRWRV SDVL ORV V YRNRV 3DY\]GåLXL MRV SDGHGD SDDLãNLQWL NRG O VY\UXRMD HNRQRPLQLV DNW\YXPDV 1DJULQ GDPL EHQGUXRVLXV HNRQRPLQLXV G\GåLXV KRUL]RQWDOLRMH Dã\MH å\P VLPH YLVXPLQ DJUHJXRW JDP\ERV DSLPW W\ UHDO M QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW 4 RYHUWLNDOLRMH- YLGXWLQ NDLQ O\J 3 %U åLDQW YLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRV LU YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV NUHLYHV QHJDOLPH GDU\WL SULHODLGRV VXPLQ V SDNODXVRVNUHLY OHLGåLDVLåHP\QLU GHãLQ YLHQWLNWRG ONDGWRNL IRUP WXUL SURGXNWRSDNODXVRVNUHLY 7DLS SDW QHJDOLPD GDU\WL SULHODLGRV NDG YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV N\OD DXNãW\Q LU GHãLQ WLN WRG O NDG WDLS N\OD DWVNLUR SURGXNWRSDVL ORVNUHLY 7DG SDJDO NRNLXV SULQFLSXV UHLNLD EUDLå\WL YLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRV LU YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV V" ,VWRULãNDL VXVLIRUPDYR GX SRåL ULDL DWVDNDQW ã NODXVLP 3LUPDVLV \UD NODVLNLQLV SRåL ULV - WDL GDXJHOLR HNRQRPLVW SRåL ULV NXULV Y\UDYR LNL -LRMR GHãLPWPHþLR LU SHU SDVNXWLQLXV WULV GHãLPWPHþLXV Y O JLMR SLUPLQ UHLNãP $QWU M SRåL U SDWHLN 'åRQDV 0HLQRUGDV .HLQVDV NHWYLUWDMDPH GHãLPWPHW\MH DLãNLQGDPDV 'LGåLRVLRV GHSUHVLMRVSULHåDVWLVSDVHNPHV .DGDQJL 'å .HLQVDV LU NODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHV HNRQRPLVWDL ODLN VL YLVLãNDL VNLUWLQJ QXRPRQL G O YLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVLUYLVXPLQ V SDVL ORVWRG O VNLULDVLM LãYDGRV.ODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHVHNRQRPLVW QXRPRQH ULQNRVHNRQRPLNDVDYDLPHNU\SVWD YLVLãN XåLPWXP HNRQRPLNDSDVLHNVSXVLDXVY\URVE VHQ HVDQWYLVLãNDP XåLPWXPXL'å.HLQVDVVXDEHMRMRãLDWHRULMDLUWHLJ NDGHNRQRPLNDJDOLSDVLHNWLSXVLDXVY\U WLNHVDQWGLGHOLDP QHGDUER PHWXL W\ GDU QHSDVLHNXV YLVLãNR XåLPWXPR O\JLR 5LQNRV PHFKDQL]PDV QHJDOL XåWLNULQWL YLVLãNR XåLPWXPRWRG O 'å.HLQVDVPDQ NDGY\ULDXV\E WXULSDVLU SLQWLMRJE W SDVLHNWDVYLVLãNDVXåLPWXPDV.
13.1. VisumLQ SDNODXVD
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7RNL NUHLY V IRUP lemia trys veiksniai: SDO NDQ QRUPD PDWHULDOLQ V YHUW\E V • importas. 3DO NDQ QRUPDâLVYHLNVQ\VSDURGRNDGYLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVNUHLY V WUDMHNWRULM QXOHPLDSDVLNHLW V SDO NDQ QRUPRVNDLQ O\JLVRNDUWXLUSDVLNHLWXVLRVYDUWRWRM LãODLGRVLULQYHVWLFLMRV7LNVOLDXVDNDQWNDLNDLQ O\JLVSDGLG MDGLG MDLUSDO NDQ QRUPDNXULVXPDåLQDYDUWRWRM LãODLGDVLULQYHVWLFLMDV 'DURPH SULHODLG NDG SLQLJ PDV V NLHNLV HNRQRPLNRMH \UD SDVWRYXV .DL SDGLG MD NDLQ O\JLV YDUWRWRMDPV UHLNDOLQJD GLGHVQ SLQLJ VXPD SUHN PV SLUNWL YHUVOLQLQNDPV WDLS SDW UHLNDOLQJDV GLGHVQLV SLQLJ NLHNLV DWO\JLQLPDPV LãPRN WL LU NLWRPV E WLQRPV LãODLGRPV 7DLJL GLGHVQLV NDLQ O\JLV GLGLQD SLQLJ SDNODXV .DL SLQLJ NLHNLV QHNLQWD SDNODXVRV SDGLG MLPDV VPDUNLDL SDGLGLQD SDO NDQ QRUP (VDQW GLGHO PV SDO NDQ QRUPRPV PRQ V LUDVPHQ\VVXPDåLQDLãODLGDVW\ JUHLWDLUHDJXRMD SDO NDQ QRUPRV SDVLNHLWLP 6DN\NLP NDGILUPDWLNLVLJDXWLSHOQRLQYHVWLFLQ PVSUHN PV VLJ\WLâLVSLUNLQ\VMLHPVEXVSHOQLQJDVMHLJXSDO NDQ QRUPD VXGDU\V SDY\]GåLXL %HW SLUNLQ\V EXV QXRVWROLQJDV MHLJX SDO NDQ QRUPD LãDXJV LNL ' O SDO NDQ QRUPRV SDGLG MLPR YDUWRWRMDL QXVSU V QHSLUNWL QDPR DU DXWRPRELOLR 7DLJL SDO NDQ QRUPRV SDGLG MLPDVVXPDåLQVNDLNXULDV PRQL LUYDUWRWRM LãODLGDV 9DGLQDVLGLGHVQLVNDLQ O\JLVVXPDåLQDUHDODXVQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRSDNODXV
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.DGVXSUDVWXPHNDVSDNHLþLDQDFLRQDOLQL LãODLG DSLPW UHLNLDDWVNLUWLQDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWRSDNODXV NXUL SDNHLW NDLQ O\JLVQXRSDVLNHLWLPRYLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVNXUL SDNHLW YLHQDVDUNHOL.HLQVRYLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVYHLNVQLDL
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.LWDLS VDNDQW JUDILNH SDURG\WL YLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRV SDVLNHLWLPDL DWVLUDQGD WDGD NDL NHLþLDVL YLHQDV DU NHOL YHLNVQLDL NXULH DQNVþLDXEXYRODLNRPLSDVWRYLDLV9LVXPLQ VSDNODXVRVYHLNVQLDLNXULXRVLãVN\U .HLQVDVSDURG\WLOHQWHO MH
Asmeninio vartojimo Išlaidos.3DWLGLGåLDXVLDYLV LãODLG GDOLVWHQNDDVPHQLQLDPYDUWRMLPXL 'LG MDQW JU\QRVLRPV SDMDPRPV VXPRN MXV PRNHVþLXV PRQ V LãOHLGåLD GDXJLDX MRV JDOL GDXJLDX LãOHLVWLLULãOHLGåLDGDXJLDX VartoMLPRLUJU\Q M SDMDP VDQW\NLVYDGLQDPDVYDUWRMLPRIXQNFLMD9DUWRMLPRIXQNFLMDSDURGRNLHN SDNLQWDYDUWRMLPRLãODLGRVSDVLNHLWXVJU\Q M SDMDP NLHNLXL7XULQWYDUWRMLPRLUJU\Q M SDMDP G\GåLXVJDOLPDDSVNDLþLXRWLVDQWDXSDV6DQWDXSRV\UDWDLN PRQ V SDVLOLHNDLãJU\Q M SDMDP VXPRV SRWRNDLLãOHLGåLDGDO SLQLJ YDUWRMLPXL Santaupos = grynosios pajamos ~ vartojimo išlaidos 1DXGRGDPLãL O\JW JDOLPHDSVNDLþLXRWLVDQWDXS G\G OHQWHO 3DY\]GåLXL'HLOXW MHJU\QRVLRV pajamos sudaro 2000 mlrd. Lt, o vartojimas - 1800 mlrd. Lt. Vadinasi, santaupos sudarys 200 mlrd. Lt. Tai kiekis, kuris liko po vartojimo. 6DQWDXS NLHN WDLS SDW JDOLPD QXVWDW\WL UHPLDQWLV YDUWRMLPR WLHVH IXQNFLMD NXUL SDURG\WD SDY 1RULQW WDL SDGDU\WL UHLNLD QXEU åWL NDPSX WLHV Lã QXOLQLR WDãNR -HLJX SDY\]GåLXL JU\QRVLRV SDMDPRVVXGDURPOUG/WWDLYDUWRMLPRLãODLGRVWDLSSDWDWLWLNVPOUG/WVXP 6DQWDXSRV\UDYHUWLNDOLDWNDUSDWDUSYDUWRMLPRWLHV V LUWLHV V.DLJU\QRVLRVSDMDPRVVXGDUR000 POUG /W WLHV V DXNãWLV *+ WDGD YDUWRMLPR LãODLGRV SULO\JVWD POUG /W YDUWRMLPR NUHLY V DXNãWLV*' 6DQWDXSRVSULO\JVWDãL GYLHM DXNãþL VNLUWXPXLW\POUG/WSDYDL]GXRWDPDWNDUSD '+âLPOUG/WVXPDSDURG\WDVDQWDXS WLHV je (funkcijoje) 98 pav. Kai grynosios pajamos sudaro POUG/WVDQWDXSRVVLHNLDPOUG/WWDãNH' åU SDY -HLJXJU\QRVLRVSDMDPRVVXPDå MDLNLPOUG/W Y\NVWDSRVOLQNLVLNLWDãNR09 O JDOLPDPDWXRWL SDMDPDV DXNãþLX LNL WLHV V W\ DXNãþLX LNL WDãNR % 7DãNDV % WDLS SDW \UD LU YDUWRMLPR WLHV MH YHUWLNDOL DWNDUSD LNL WDãNR % UHLãNLD YDUWRMLPR LãODLGDV 7RG O WDãNH % NXULDPHNHUWDVLYDUWRMLPRWLHV LUWLHV YDUWRMLPRLãODLGRVLUJU\QRVLRV
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ašies. Vadinasi, santaupos yra neigiamos.
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3DQDJULQ NLPHOHQWHO LãVDPLDX I ,ãWHNOL NDLQRV ,ãWHNOL NDLQRV \UD UHLNãPLQJDV QHNDLQLQLV YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV YHLNVQ\V (VDQW VNLUWLQJRPV V O\JRPV LãWHNOL NDLQ SDN OLPDV SDGLGLQD YLHQR SURGXNWR LãODLGDV LU NDUWX PDåLQD YLVXPLQ SDVL O ,ãWHNOL NDLQ VXPDåLQLPDVYHLNLDSULHãLQJDL Vidaus ištekliai. (VDQW EHW NRNLDP NDLQ O\JLXL YLVRV ILUPRV JDPLQV LU SDWHLNV GLGHVQ UHDODXV QDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRNLHN ULQN QHJXDQNVþLDX,UDWYLUNãþLDLVL ORP LãWHNOL VXPDåLQLPDVSDGLGLQV M NDLQDVLUVXPDåLQVYLVXPLQ SDVL O 3DQDJULQ VLPHNHOHW SDY\]GåL NXULHSDG V SDDLãNLQWLNDLSåHP VGDUERM JRVNDSLWDORLUYHUVOLQLQN JDOLP\EL LãWHNOLDLYHLNLDYLVXPLQ V SDVL ORVNUHLY äHP äHP V LãWHNOLDL JDOL SDGLG WL SDY\]GåLXL G O QDXGLQJ LãNDVHQ DWUDGLPR GU NLQLPR WHFKQLNRV SDWREXOLQLPR NXULH OHLGåLD SDYHUVWL DQNVþLDX EXYXVLXV QHLãWHNOLXV YHrtingus JDP\ERV YHLNVQLXV äHP V LãWHNOL SDVL ORV SDGLGLQLPDV VXPDåLQD LãODLGDV åHPHL LU NDUWX VXPDåLQDLãODLGDVYLHQDPSURGXNWXL *DOLPD SDWHLNWL GX SDY\]GåLXV OLXGLMDQþLXV DSLH åHPHV LãWHNOL VXPDåLQLP SODþLDL SDSOLW GU NLQLPDLLUYLUãXWLQLRVOXRNVQLRSUDUDGLPDVG O LQWHQV\YLRVåHPGLUE\VW V3DJDOLDXYLHQDVLã ãL YHLNVQL JDOLSDGLGLQWLLãWHNOL NDLQDVLUSDVWXPWLYLVXPLQ V SDVL ORVNUHLY NDLU 'DUERM JD$SLHYLV PRQ V LãODLG WHQNDGDUELQLQN LUWDUQDXWRM DWO\JLQLPDPVLãPRN WL(VDQW kLWRPV V O\JRPV O\JLRPV GDUER XåPRNHVþLR SDVLNHLWLPDV GDUR WDN YLHQR SURGXNWR LãODLGRPV LU YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV NUHLY V SDG þLDL 3DY\]GåLXL SDVNXWLQLDLV GYLHP GHãLPWPHþLDLV -$9 ODEDL GDXJ GDUER YLHW Xå P PRWHU\V WXR VXPDåLQGDPRV GDUER XåPRNHVW LU SDGLGLQGDPRV YLVXPLQ SDVL O 'DUELQLQN HPLJUDFLMDLãXåVLHQLRSHUYLV -$9LVWRULM WDLSSDWSDGLGLQRGDUERLãWHNOLXV,UDWYLUNãþLDL dideli praradimai per II- M SDVDXOLQ NDU å\PLDL VXPDåLQR GDUER LãWHNOLXV SRNDULR PHWDLV LU NDUWX padidino išlaidas vienam produktui. Kapitalas.9LVXPLQ SDVL OD JDOLSDGLG WLNDL YLVXRPHQ GLGLQDNDSLWDORDWVDUJDV7DLSE W SDY\]GåLXL WDGD MHLJX YLVXRPHQ QXVSU VW WDXS\WL GLGåL M GDO VDYR SDMDP LU VDQWDXSDV SDYHUVW LQYHVWLFLMRPLV 7RNLX E GX HVDQW GLGHVQLDP NDSLWDOXL PRQ V LãODLGRV SURGXNFLMRV YLHQHWXL VXPDå MD R YLVXPLQ SDVL OD SDGLG MD MHL ILUPD NHLþLD EORJXV UHQJLQLXV QDXMDLV ,U DWYLUNãþLDL YLVXPLQ SDVL OD VXPDå V MHLJX SDEORJ V ãDOLHV NDSLWDOR NRN\E 3DY\]GåLXL SDþLDPH 'LGåLRVLRV GHSUHVLMRV NDUãtyje 3-DPH GHãLPWPHW\MH SDEORJ MR UHQJLQLDL QHV QDXM EXYRSHUPDåDLNDGJDO W NRPSHQVXRWLVXG Y WXVLUSDVHQXVLXV UHQJLQLXV 9HUVOLQLQN JDOLP\E V'DXJHOLVYHUVOLQLQN SHUWDPWLNU ODLN SDVLNHLþLDHNRQRPLNRMHLUWRG O NHLþLDVLYLVXPLQ V SDVL ORVNUHLY V SDG WLV3DY\]GåLXL\UDJDOLP\E NDG\SDWLQJDVG PHV\V E W VNLUWDVWDPNXULV JLMRVDYRSDG W HQHUJLQJXPRG NDSDGLGLQRVLHNLDQþL YHUVOLQLQN\VW V åPRQL VNDLþL LUWDLSSDVWXPLDYLVXPLQ V SDVL ORVNUHLY GHãLQ ,PSRUWXRMDP LãWHNOL NDLQRV. .DLS SDNODXVD DPHULNLHWLãNRPV SUHN PV XåVLHQ\MH SDGHGD GLGLQWL YLVXPLQ SDNODXV WDLS LU LPSRUWXRMDPL LãWHNOLDL SDGHGD GLGLQWL YLVXPLQ SDVL O ,PSRUWXRMDPL LãWHNOLDL VXPDåLQD LãODLGDV LU WRG O VXPDå MD LãODLGRV YLHQDP SURGXNWXL ,ã WR JDOLPD SDGDU\WL išvadas: LPSRUWXRMDP LãWHNOL NDLQ VXPDåLQLPDV SDGLGLQD YLVXPLQ SDVL O ãL LãWHNOL NDLQ SDGLGLQLPDV VXPDåLQDYLVXPLQ SDVL O Viešpatavimas rinkoje. 9LHãSDWDYLPR ULQNRMH DUED ULQNRV PRQRSROLMRV QXVLOSLPDV DUED VXVWLSU MLPDV WDLS SDW JDOL WXU WL WDNRV LãWHNOL NDLQRPV LU YLVXPLQHL SDVL ODL 9LHãSDWDYLPDV ULQNRMH - WDL JDOLP\E nustatyti aukštesnes kainas negu tos, kurios buvo konkurencijoje.
II. Našumo pasikeitimai. Našumas -WDLYLGXWLQ V JDP\ERVDSLPWLHVURGLNOLV DUEDUHDODXVQDFLRQDOLQLR produkto) vieno produkto išlaidoms. 1DãXPR SDGLG MLPDV UHLãNLD NDG HVDQW WDP WLNUDL LãWHNOL DU LãODLG DSLPþLDL JDOLPD JDXWL GLGHVQ UHDODXVQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRDSLPW
.DLS YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV NUHLY SULNODXVR QXR QDãXPR SDGLG MLPR" 3ULHã WDL UHLNLD LãVLDLãNinti, kaip NHLþLDVL LãODLGRV YLHQDP SURGXNWXL SDVLNHLWXV QDãXPXL 7DUNLPH NDG UHDOL QDFLRQDOLQ V JDP\ERV DSLPWLV KLSRWHWLQ MH HNRQRPLNRMH O\JL YLHQHW LãWHNOLDL E WLQL WRNLR NLHNLR SURGXNWXL SDJDPLQWL VXGDURYLHQHWXVRLãWHNOL UHLNDOLQJ YLHQDm produktui pagaminti, kaina lygi 2 Lt. Kokia bus vieno SURGXNWRYHUW " 3URGXNWRYHUW JDOLPDDSVNDLþLXRWLSDJDOIRUPXO 9LHQRSURGXNWRYHUW ,ãODLGRVLãWHNOLDPV3URGXNW NLHNLV âLXRDWYHMXSURGXNWRYHUW O\JL/WJDXWDGDOLQDQWLãODLGDVLãWHNOLDPs, lygias 10 Lt: YQW 3DGLG MXV GDUER QDãXPXL NDUWXV SURGXNFLMRV NLHNLV SDGLG V LNL YQW 7DL LãODLGRV YLHQDP SURGXNWXL VXPDå V QXR /W LNL FHQW LãWHNOL YHUW /W YQW SURGXNW ,ãYDGD VXPDå MXV GHãLQ LU vieno produkto išlaidoms, našumo padid MLPDV SDVWXPLD YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV NUHLY DWYLUNãþLDL QDãXPR VXPDå MLPDV SDGLGLQV LãODLGDV YLHQDP SURGXNWXL LU SDVWXPV YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV NUHLY NDLU ///. 7HLV V QRUP SDVLNHLWLPDL 7HLV V QRUP SDVLNHLWLPDL JDOL SDNHLVWL LãODLGDV YLHQDP produktui ir SDVWXPWLYLVXPLQ V SDVL ORVNUHLY
13.3. Pusiausvyros nacionalinis produktas 7DP NDG LãVLDLãNLQWXPH YLVXPLQ HNRQRPLQ SXVLDXVY\U SDO\JLQVLPH GX HNRQRPLVW NODVLNLQ LUNHLQVLVWLQ
SRåL ULXV
.ODVLNLQ XåLPWXPRWHRULMD'XSDJULQGLQLDLNODVLNLQ V WHRULMRVWHLJLQLDL\UDãLH • SituaFLMDNXULDLHVDQWLãODLG QHSDNDNVNDGJDOLPDEXW QXSLUNWLYLV SURGXNFLM SDJDPLQW YLVLãNR XåLPWXPRV O\JRPLVYDUJXDU PDQRPD 1HW MHLJX EHQGU M LãODLG O\JLV E W QHSDNDQNDPDV WXRPHW WDNRV WXU W NDLQD XåGDUELV G O NR EHQGU M LãODLG VXPDå MLPDVQHV O\JRVJDP\ERVDSLPWLHVXåLPWXPRLUUHDOL SDMDP VXPDå MLPR .ODVLNLQ WHRULMDQDXGRMRGDULUWUHþL QHWRN WLNVO WHLJLQ - 6 MDXVG VQ 6 MXV SDVL O SDSUDVW PLQW NDG SDVL OD VXIRUPXRMD VDX SDNODXV .DL åPRQ V SDUGXRGD SUHN DU paslaug WDLGDURWDPNDGJDO W QXVLSLUNWLNXUL QRUVNLW SUHN DUSDVODXJ 7DþLDX 6 MDXV G VQLR QHSDNDQND WHLJLQLXL NDG HNRQRPLND SDWL SDVLHNV YLVLãN XåLPWXP 6 MXV SDSUDVþLDXVLDL GDU SULHODLG MRJ åPRQ V LãOHLV YLVDV VDYR SDMDPDV 6DYR WHRULMRMH MLV QHSDWHLN MRNLR PHFKDQL]PR NXULV SDDLãNLQW NDLS DWVWDW\WL YLVLãN XåLPWXP 7XR WDUSX GDXJXPD NODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHV HNRQRPLVW SDWHLN GXPHFKDQL]PXV EHQGU M NDLQ ODQNVWXP LUSDO NDQ QRUPRVODQNVWXP %HQGUDVLVNDLQ ODQNVWXPDV Esant dideliam nedarbuLNDLQRVNULVDWVWDW\GDPRVYLVLãN XåLPWXP 3DO NDQ QRUPRVODQNVWXPDV Jeigu santaupos viršija pageidautinas investicijas, kai ekonomikoje Y\UDXMDYLVLãNDVXåLPWXPDVWDLSDO NDQ QRUPDNULVVXO\JLQGDPDVDQWDXSDVLULQYHVWLFLMDV SVU NUHLY URGRNLHNEXVVXWDXS\WDHVDQW YDLULRPVSDO NDQ QRUPRPV YLVLãNR XåLPWXPRV O\JRPV .UHLY , URGR NLHN YHUVOLQLQNDL SDVLVNROLQV SLQLJ VDYR LQYHVWLFLQL SURMHNW ILQDQVDYLPXL HVDQW YDLULRPV SDO NDQ QRUPRPV .ODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHV HNRQRPLVWDL WHLJ NDG MHL VDQWDXSRV YLUãLMD LQYHVWLFLQ SDNODXV WDL SDO NDQ QRUPDNULVNROVXVLO\JLQVVDQWDXSRVLULQYHVWLFLMRVQHSDVLHNLDQWGLGHOLRQHGDUER
7DLSSDWNODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHVHNRQRPLVWDLSDGDU LãYDG MRJSURGXNFLMRVNXUL JDOLJDPLQWRMDLSDUGXRWL gamybos lygis pULNODXVRQHWLNQXREHQGU LãODLG EHWLUQXRNDLQ O\JLRWDLSURGXNFLMDL 7DLJLMHLYDUWRWRMDLODLNLQDLVXWDXS GDXJLDXSLQLJ QHLJDPLQWRMDLNHWLQDMXRVLQYHVWXRWLWDLVXPDåLQD EHQGU VLDVLãODLGDVEHWQHVXNHOLDLOJDODLNLRJDP\ERVDSLPWLHVSDMDP LUXåLPWXPRO\JLRVXPDå MLPRVXV O\JD NDGWRVSURGXNFLMRVNDLQRVNULWRSURSRUFLQJDLLãODLG PDå MLPXL .ODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHVHNRQRPLVW QXRPRQHWDLSLUWXULE WL.RQNXUHQFLMDWDUSSDUGDY M XåWLNULQDNDLQ HODVWLQJXP
.HLQVRXåLPWXPRWHRULMDYLVLãNDLVNLULDVLQXRNODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHVHNRQRPLVW WHRULMRV .HLQVR XåLPWXPR WHRULMD .HLQVR DQDOL] VNLUWD VLWXDFLMDL NDL \UD GLGHOLV QHGDUEDV (NRQRPLND \UD YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV NUHLY V KRUL]RQWDOLRMH GDO\MH NHLþLDQWLV LãODLGRPV NHLþLDVL JDP\ERV DSLPWLV EHW QHVLNHLþLD kainos. .HLQVDVWHLJ 1HHJ]LVWXRMDWRNVPHFKDQL]PDVNXULVJDUDQWXRW YLVLãN XåLPWXP (NRQRPLNDJDOLE WLVXEDODQVXRWDW\JDOLSDVLHNWLYLVXPLQ V JDP\ERVSXVLDXVY\U HVDQWJDQDGLGHOLDP nedarbo lygiui ir egzistuojant infliacijai. • VisiškasXåLPWXPDVJUHLþLDXVLDLDWVLWLNWLQLVRQHVDYDLPLQLV 1HGDUERSULHåDVWLV- QHSDNDQNDPDYLVXPLQ SDNODXVD
7DLSSDW.HLQVDVSDQHLJ NODVLNLQ WHRULM DSLH/DLVVH]IDLUHSROLWLN W\HNRQRPLQ SROLWLN EHYDOVW\E V VLNLãLPR-LVSDGDU LãYDG NDGMHLNHWLQDPHLãYHQJWLLãWHNOL QXRVWROL E WLQDDNW\YLYDOVW\E V SROLWLND Pusiausvyra paprastoje ekonomikoje NDL Q UD Y\ULDXV\E V NLãLPRVL SDY SDURG\WD NDLS SXVLDXVY\URVQDFLRQDOLQLVSURGXNWDVQXVWDWRPDVSDSUDVWRMHHNRQRPLNRMH NDLQ UDY\ULDXV\E V Nišimosi). 3DJHLGDXWLQRV LQYHVWLFLMRV VXGHGDPRV VX DVPHQLQLR YDUWRMLPR LãODLGRPLV LU WDLS JDXQDPRV YLVXPLQ V LãODLGRV 9, 7HUPLQDV YLVXPLQ V LãODLGRV QDXGRMDPDV NDL QRULPD SDURG\WL NDLS LãODLGRV SULNODXVR QXR QDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWR9LVXPLQL LãODLG NUHLY URGRNDLSUHLNDODXMDPDVSUHNL EHLSDVODXJ YLVXPLQLVNLHNLV SULNODXVRQXRQDFLRQDOLQL SDMDP DUQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWR SDY KRUL]RQWDOL DãLV LU WLHV URGR QH JU\Q VLDV SDMDPDV *3 R QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW 13
2000
1500
Pusiausvyra pasiekiama tDGDNDLYLVXPLQ V LãODLGRVO\JLRVQDFLRQDOLQLDPSURGXNWXL WDãNDV( âLDPH WDãNH NHUWDVL YLVXPLQL LãODLG WLHV VX QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR WLHVH $WNDUSD /1 YDL]GXRMDQWL QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW VXGDU\WDLãWULM GDOL $WNDUSRV/1DSDWLQ LUWDUSLQ GDO\VYDL]GXRMDYLVXPLQL LãODLG VXP NXUL\UD PDåHVQ XåQDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW 9LUãXWLQ /1 DWNDUSRV GDOLV HVDQWL WDUS YLVXPLQL WLHV V LU QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR WLHV V YDL]GXRMD SHUWHNOLQ SURGXNFLM -RVQHLãSHUNDWRG O MLNDXSLDVLSUHNLDXWRM OHQW\QRVHLUVDQG OLXRVH7DLQHSDJHLGDXWLQ DWVDUJ NDXSLPDV.DXSLDQWLVSUHN PVSUHNLDXWRMDLVXPDåLQDVDYRXåVDN\PXV*DP\ERVDSLPWLVNUHQWDWRONRO YLVXPLQL LãODLG WLHV DWVLGXULDåHPLDXQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRWLHV V.LWDLSVDNDQWJDP\ERVPDVWDLPDå Ma WRO NRO HNRQRPLND SDVLHNLD SXVLDXVY\U WDãNH ( NXULDPH 13 9, âLV WDãNDV WDLS SDW UHLãNLD NDG QHEHOLHND QHSDUGXRW SUHNL Kai nacionalinio produkto kiekis susibalansuoja, svarbu išskirti faktiškas ir pageidautinas investicijas. Faktiškos Investicijos (I) -WDLNLHNLVNXULV WUDXNLDPDV RILFLDOL QDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRDSVNDLW âLRV LQYHVWLFLMRVDSLPDYLVDVJDP\NO UDQJRVQDP VWDW\ERVLQYHVWLFLMDV-RVSDå\P WRV/1DWNDUSRVYLUãXWLQ MH dalyje.
Planuotos investicijos (I*) arba paklausa investicijRPV \UD WRNLRV LQYHVWLFLMRV NXUL SDJHLGDXMD YHUVOLQLQNDL-DVYDL]GXRMD/1DWNDUSRVWDUSLQ GDOLV -HL Lã SUDGåL JDP\ERV DSLPWLV VXPDå MD ODELDX QHL SXVLDXVY\URV G\GLV WDL EXV VNDWLQDPDV JDP\ERV SO WLPDV-HLWDãNH-SDJDPLQDPDPOUG/W YHUW V SURGXNFLMRVWDLãLXRDWYHMX YLVXPLQL LãODLG OLQLMD \UD DXNãþLDXXåQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRWLHV 3LUN MDLOLQN SLUNWLGDXJLDXSUHNL QHLM GDEDUJDPLQDPD$WVDUJ LãHLNYRMDPDGDXJLDXQHJXM UHLN W 7DLQHSDJHLGDXWLQDVDWVDUJ VXPDå MLPDV3UHNLDXWojai nori atnaujinti savo DWVDUJDVLUGLGLQDXåVDN\PXVJDPLQWRMDPVRSDVWDULHMLSOHþLDJDP\E 3ULDUW MDPDSULHSXVLDXVY\URVWDãNR( SDY SDURG\WD NDLS JDOLPD QXVWDW\WL SXVLDXVY\URV QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW YLHWRM VXPRV &, SDQDXGRMXVDOWHUQDW\YL VXP 6, NXU6\UDVDQWDXSRV Pusiausvyra pasiekiama, kai gamybos apimtis prilygsta 2000 mlrd. Lt, o santaupos sutampa su SDJHLGDXWLQRPLV LQYHVWLFLMRPLV -HL 13 GLGHVQLV SY] POUG /W WDL SXVLDXVY\URV QHEXV 1HV SLQLJ QXWHN MLPDLLãFLUNXOLDFLQLRLãODLG VUDXWR VDQWDXS SDYLGDOX \UDGLGHVQLXåLQMHNFLMDV LQYHVWLFLM SDYLGDOX 13VXPDå MDLNLSXVLDXVY\URVG\GåLRW\LNLPOUG/W.
Faktiškos investicijos I -WDLLQYHVWLFLMRVVNLUWRVQDXMRPVJDP\NORPV UHQJLPDPVLUQDPDPV VLJ\WLSHr WDPWLNU ODLN WDLSSDWDWVDUJRPVSDGLGLQWLýLD WUDXNLDPRVYLVRVVXNDXSWRVDWVDUJRVQHSULNODXVRPDLQXRWRDU tos atsargos pageidautinos, ar ne. Pageidautinos investicijos I*, dar vadinamos planuotomis investicijomis arba investicine paklausa, yra iQYHVWLFLMRVVNLUWRVQDXMRPVJDP\NORPV UHQJLPDPVLUQDPDPV VLJ\WLSHUWDPWLNU ODLN WDLSSDWSDSLOGRPRV DWVDUJRVNXULDVJDPLQWRMDLSDJHLGDYRWXU WLâLRPVLQYHVWLFLMRPVQHSULNODXVRQHSDJHLGDXWLQ DWVDUJ NDXSLPDV
1HSDJHLGDXWLQ DWVDUJ NDXSLPDV - tDLVNLUWXPDVWDUSIDNWLãN , LUSDJHLGDXWLQ , LQYHVWLFLM 1HSDJHLGDXWLQDV DWVDUJ VXPDå MLPDV O\JXV SDJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM , LU IDNWLãN LQYHVWLFLM , VNLUWXPXL7DLSDWVLWLQNDNDLQHSDJHLGDXWLQ DWVDUJ NDXSLPDV\UDQHLJLDPDV ,ãODLG DS\WDND SLQLJ QXRW NLVLULQMHNFLMD1RULQWSDDLãNLQWLNRG O SXVLDXVY\UDSDVLHNLDPDWDGDNDL VDQWDXSRV O\JLRV LQYHVWLFLM SDNODXVDL UHLNLD SDQDJULQ WL SDY NXULDPH SDURG\WD SDSUDVWD HNRQRPLND NXU Q UDSDJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM LUYDUWRWRMDLSHUNDYLVDs pagamintas prekes. *DPLQWRMDLLãSUDGåL SDUGXRGDSUHNL XåWDPWLNU VXP 7XRVSLQLJXVMLHVXPRNDJ\YHQWRMDPVGDUER XåPRNHVþLR UHQWRV DU NLW SDMDP SDYLGDOX %H WR J\YHQWRMDL JDXWDV SDMDPDV LãOHLGåLD SODWDXV YDUWRMLPR SUHN PVSLUNWL YLUãXWLQLVODQNDV 'DUNDUW JDPLQWRMDL
SDUGXRGDSUHNL LUSDVODXJ XåW VXP LUYLVDVSURFHVDVY O SDVLNDUWRMDRQDFLRQDOLQLVSURGXNWDVOLHNDVWDELOXV
%HWDWVLUDQGDNDLNXUL VXQNXP 9LHQDVM VXVLM V VXVDQWDXSRPLV6DN\NLPNDGåPRQ V QHVXYDUWRMD VDYRSDMDP LUGDO M VXWDXSR7DGDSODWDXVYDUWRMLPRSUHN PVMLHLãOHLGåLD PDåLDXSLQLJ *DPLQWRMDLSUHNL JDPLQD Xå W SDþL VXP NDLS LU DQNVþLDX R YDUWRWRMDL GDEDU M QXVLSHUND PDåLDX WRG O GDOLV SUHNL OLHND QHSDUGXRWD *DPLQWRMDL VXPDåLQD JDP\ERV DSLPW WDLS SDW VXPDå MD LU GDUER XåPRNHVWLV LU NLWRV SDMDPRV 9DGLQDVLVDQWDXSRV\UDSLQLJ QXWHN MLPDVLãFLUNXOLDFLQLRLãODLG VUDXWR
,ãQDJULQ VLPHSDNODXV LQYHVWLFLMRPV 6DN\NLP NDG JDPLQWRMDL SDGLGLQD VDYR NDSLWDO WDP WLNUD VXPD 7DGD SDGLG MD SDMDPRV åPRQ V VXYDUWRMD GDXJLDX SUHNL SDJUHLW MD QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR EHL SDMDP DS\WDND 9DGLQDVL LQYHVWLFLMRV VWLPXOLXRMDQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWREHLSDMDP DXJLP 6DQWDXS LUSDJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM SXVLDXVY\UD6DQWDXSRVUHLãNLDSLQLJ QXWHN MLP LãFLUNXliacinio LãODLG VUDXWR SDGLG MXVSROLQNLXLWDXS\WLVXPDå MD13 ,QYHVWLFLMRV UHLãNLD LQMHNFLMDV FLUNXOLDFLQ LãODLG VUDXW GLG MDQW SDJHLGDXWLQRPV LQYHVWLFLMRPV GLG MD13 Pusiausvyra pasiekiama, kai santaupos susilygina su pageidautinomis investicijomis. Šiuo atveju kuo GDXJLDX GHGDPD LQYHVWLFLM WXR GLGHVQLV EXV SDMDP VUDXWDV SDY 'LGHVQLV VUDXWDV VNDWLQD GLGHVQ SLQLJ QXWHN MLP VDQWDXSDV 'LG MDQW SDMDPRPV GLG MD LU WDXS\PDV 6UDXWDL VWDELOL]XRMDVL NDL VXVLO\JLQD ,,injekcijos" LUSLQLJ QXWHN MLPDL
.DVV O\JRMDVDQWDXS LULQYHVWLFLM SXVLDXVY\U " 'å .HLQVDV PDQ NDG WDXS\PR LU LQYHVWDYLPR VSUHQGLP DWVDN\PDV QHJDUDQWXRMD SDJHLGDXWLQRV LQYHVWLFLMRVEXVWRNLRSDWG\GåLRNDLSLUVDQWDXSRVHVDQWYLVLãNRXåLPWXPRHNRQRPLNDL-HLãLHG\GåLDLQHVXWDSV YLVLãNR XåLPWXPR JDP\ERV DSLPWLHV WDãNH ) L WDL QDFLRQDOLQLV SURGXNWDV PDå V LU DWVLUDV QHGDUEDV 9DGLQDVLQDFLRQDOLQ V SDMDPRVVPDUNLDLVXPDå WLNDGVDQWDXSRVVXVLO\JLQW VXSDJHLGDXWLQRPLVLQYHVWLFLMRPLV
Apibendrinant galLPDSDVDN\WLNDGSXVLDXVY\UDSDVLHNLDPDNHOLDLVE GDLV 3XVLDXVY\UDSDVLHNLDPDNDGQDFLRQDOLQ V JDP\ERVDSLPWLVVXWDPSD VX YLVXPLQ PLVLãODLGRPLV7DL gamybos apimties (išeigos) -LãODLG WUDNWXRW WDLNRPDSXVLDXVY\UDLQXVWDW\WLLULãUHLãNLDPDWDãNX( (103 pav.). • Pusiausvyra pasiekiama, kai faktiškos investicijos (I) susilygina su pageidautinomis investicijomis , W\ NDL DWVDUJRV \UD SDJHLGDXWR O\JLR 1 UD QHSDJHLGDXWLQ DWVDUJ SRN\þLR NDLS SDURG\WD DWNDUSRV /1 YLUãXWLQHGDOLPLHVDQþLDWDUS13WLHV V LUYLVXULãODLG WLHV V SDY • Pusiausvyra pasiekiama, kai santaupos ir pageidautinos investicijos susilygina tai (104 pav.). Tai SLQLJ QXWHN MLP - LQMHNFLM WUDNWXRW âLRVWU\VWUDNWXRW V - tai skirtingi to paties teiginio aiškinimai. 1HGDUER SULHåDVW\V JDOL E WL DSLE GLQDPRV GYLHP DOWHUQDW\YLDLV E GDLV 1HGDUER SXVLDXVY\UD EXV tuomet, kai: 9LVXPLQ V LãODLGRV \UD SHU PDåRV LU M QHSDNDQND QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR NLHNLXL QXSLUNWL HVDQW YLVLãNDP XåLPWXPXL 3DY\]GåLXL YLVLãNR XåLPWXPR WDãNH ) YLVXPLQL Lã WLHV \UD åHPLDX OLQLMRV YDL]GXRMDQþLRV13 SDY 3DJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM LQMHNFLMRV\UDPDåHVQ VQHJXSLQLJ QXWHN MLPDV VDQWDXSDVNDLQDFLRQDOLQLV SURGXNWDV \UD SDVLHN V YLVLãNR XåLPWXPR NLHN 3DY\]GåLXL YLL XåLPWXPR WDãNH ) SDJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM WLHV \UDåHPLDXWDXS\PRWLHV V S
13.4. Pusiausvyros nacionalinio produkto kitimas Multiplikatorius -WDLVDQW\NLVWDUS13SDGLG MLPRLUSDJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM SDGLG MLPR-LVJDOLE WL išreikštas formule: Multiplikatorius = 3XVLDXVY\URV13SRN\WLV3DJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM SRN\WLV '13, 0XOWLSOLNDWRULXLDLãNLQWLJDOLPDSDQDXGRWLVDQWDXS - LQYHVWLFLM GLDJUDP 7DLJDOLPDSDPDW\WLSDY
$XJDQWSDJHLGDXWLQRPVLQYHVWLFLMRPVGLG MDQDFLRQDOLQLVSURGXNWDVLUSDMDPRVRWDLVNDWLQDåPRQHV GDXJLDXYDUWRWL3DSUDVWRMHHNRQRPLQ MHVLVWHPRMHUHDOXVQDFLRQDOLQLVSURGXNWDVSDGLG MDWLHNNDUW NLHN SDGLG MDLQYHVWLFLM PXOWLSOLNDWRULXV3DVWDUDVLVQXVWDWRPDLWDLS
Multiplikatorius = 1/1-RPV. Kadangi santaupos yra lygiosSDMDP LUYDUWRMLPRLãODLG VNLUWXPXL tuomet: Ribinis polinkis taupyti = 1-RPV.
7RG O SDSUDVWRMHHNRQRPLNRMHPXOWLSOLNDWRUL JDOLPDLãUHLNãWLGDULUWDLS Multiplikatorius = 1/RPT. Keinsistinis multiplikatoriaus modelis buvo sugalvotas, siekiant paaiškinti, kaip gali keisti gamybos DSLPWLV LU XåLPWXPDV NHLþLDQWLV LãODLGRPV 7DPH PRGHO\MH LãODLG SDGLG MLPDV SDURGR UHDODXV QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR SDGLG MLP 7DL UHLãNLD NDG HNRQRPLQ VLWXDFLMD DWLWLQNL SRVOLQN YLVXPLQ V SDVL ORV NUHLY V horizontalia dalimLNXULRMHNDLQRVQHVLNHLþLD Santaupos ir Investicijos. .DLS LU 'å .HLQVDV NODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHV HNRQRPLVWDL SULSDåLQR NDG SDJHLGDXWLQRVLQYHVWLFLMRVLUVDQWDXSRVWXU W E WLO\JLRVMHLHNRQRPLNDSDVLHNWLSXVLDXVY\U 7DþLDXNLWDLSQHL 'å .HLQVDV SDY MLH PDQ NDG UHDOXV 13 QHPDå MD MHLJX SDJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM \UD PDåLDX QHJX VDQWDXS .ODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHVHNRQRPLVWDLWHLJ NDGNDLQ PHFKDQL]PDVVXUHJXOLXRVSDJHLGDXWLQD LQYHVWLFLMDV LU VDQWDXSDV HVDQW YLVLãNDP XåLPWXPXL âLDPH PHFKDQL]PH SDJULQGLQH NDLQD UHLN W ODLN\WL SDO NDQ QRUP -L LãUHLãNLD DWO\JLQLP NXU JDXQD WDXS\WRMDL 7DLS SDW SDO NDQ QRUPD UHLãNLD NDLQ NXUL YHUVOLQLQNDLPRNDXåSDVLVNROLQWXVSLQLJXVSDQDXGRMDPXVVWDW\E DUNLW LQYHVWLFLM SURMHNW ILQDQVDYLPXL
SVU kreLY URGRNLHNEXVVXWDXS\WDHVDQW YDLULRPVSDO NDQ QRUPRPVLUYLVLãNDPXåLPWXPXL.UHLY , URGR NLHN YHUVOLQLQNDL SDVLVNROLQV SLQLJ VDYR LQYHVWLFLQL SURMHNW ILQDQVDYLPXL .ODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHV HNRQRPLVWDL WHLJ NDG MHL VDQWDXSRV YLUãLMD LQYHVWLFLQ SDNODXV WDL SDO NDQ QRUPD NULV NRO VXVLO\JLQV santaupos ir investicijos, nepasiekiant dideli’ nedarbo.
.ODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHVHNRQRPLVWDLWHLJ NDGVDQWDXSRVWDLSSDSUDVWDLQHQXWHNDLãHNRQRPLQ V VLVWHPRVR ILQDQVLQ MHULQNRMHMRV\UDVXMXQJWRVVXinvesticijomis, kaip parodyta 106 pav.
3XVLDXVY\UDWDãNH% SDY UHLãNLDGLGHO QHGDUERO\J -HLJXLQYHVWLFLQ SDNODXVD QHSULO\JVWD YLVLãNR XåLPWXPR VDQWDXSRPV QHW WDGD NDL SDO NDQ QRUPD \UD PLQLPDOL DWNDUSD $% WXRPHW JDP\ERVDSLPWLVXåLPWXPDVLUSDMDPRVVXPDå VRVDQWDXS NUHLY SDVLVOLQNV SDG W 62. 'å.HLQVDVWHLJ NDGNODVLNLQLDPHSRåL U\MH VDQWDXSDVLULQYHVWLFLMDV\UDNODLGD-LVVDN NDGYLVLãNR XåLPWXPR VDQWDXS NUHLY 6VU JDOL NLUVWL LQYHVWLFLQ V SDNODXVRV NUHLY , NDL SDO NDQ QRUPD \UD åHPLDX QXOLR%HWQH PDQRPDNDGSDO NDQ QRUPDE W QHLJLDPDQHVQLHNDVWXRPHWQHQRU V VNROLQWLSLQLJ 7DLJL'å .HLQVDVSUL MRLãYDGRVNDGSDO NDQ QRUPDQ UDQXOLQ -L\UDWDPWLNUDPHWHLJLDPDPHO\J\MHLmin (109 pav.). Pagrindiniai teoULQLDLVNLUWXPDLWDUS'å.HLQVRLUNODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHVHNRQRPLVW \UD
.ODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHV HNRQRPLVWDL WHLJ NDG VDQWDXS SDGLG MLPDV PDåLQDQW SDO NDQ QRUPDV VXNHOLD LQYHVWLFLM DXJLP LUWRG O VWLPXOLXRMDHNRQRPLNRVDXJLP 6DQWDXSRVWHLNLDQDXG YLVXRPHQHLLUJHULDX PXVDSU SLQDDWHLþLDL 'å.HLQVDVWHLJ SULHãLQJDL3DJDOM VDQWDXSRVJDOLE WLDQWLVRFLDOLQLVUHLãNLQ\V-R JDOL VXPDåLQWL QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW LU XåLPWXP %H WR 'å .HLQVDV WHLJ NDF LQYHVWLFLQ V SDNODXVRV pokytis sukeliaVDQWDXS SRN\W SDY Taupumo paradoksas.6DN\NLPNDGåPRQ V VXWDXSRYLVGDXJLDXLãJDXW SDMDP WDGDVDQWDXS WLHV kyla iš S1 SDG WLHV 62 SDG W 3LQLJ QXWHN MLPDV VDQWDXSDVYLUãLMDLQMHNFLMDV
šie:
(AE|). 7RG O 13 VXPDå MD LNL % QDXMRV SXVLausvyros taške E2 kuriame santaupos ir pageidautinos investicijos susilygina. âLXR DWYHMX NDL SDJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM NUHLY \UD KRUL]RQWDOL SDGLG MXV SROLQNLXL WDXS\WL SXVLDXVY\URVWDXS\PDVQHGLG MD0Då MDWLNJDP\ERVDSLPWLV 'DURPH SULHODLG NDG SDJHLGDXWLQRV LQYHVWLFLMRV \UD SDVWRYLRV âLXR DWYHMX SDJHLGDXWLQ LQYHVWLFLM WLHV GLG MDNDLSSDURG\WDSDY
âLXR DWYHMX SDGLG MXV SROLQNLXL WDXS\WL VDQWDXS WLHV SDVLVOHQND Lã S1 62 7DL VXNHOLD ODEDL å\P nacionalinio produkto pusiausvyros aSLPWLHVVXPDå MLP QXRWDãNR$LNLWDãNR%%HWRSDNLOXVVDQWDXS WLHVHL VDQWDXS LU LQYHVWLFLM SXVLDXVY\URV DSLPWLV VXPDå MD LU SDVLVOHQND QXR $(1 iki BE2 Atsiranda taupymo paradoksas. 7DXSXPR SDUDGRNVDV DWVLUDQGD WDGD NDL SROLQNLR WDXS\WL SDGLG MLPDV SRVOLQNLV Lã SDG WLHV S1 62) VXNHOLDIDNWLãN VDQWDXS VXPDå MLP QXR$(1 iki BE2). 3ROLQNLR WDXS\WL SDGLG MLPDV VXNHOLD GLGHVQLXV SLQLJ QXWHN MLPXV Lã LãODLG VUDXWR WRG O JDP\ERV DSLPWLVVXPDå MD,QYHVWLFLM NLHNLVWDLSSDWPDå MD3XVLDXVY\UDDWVWDWRPDWLNWXRPHWNDL13VXPDå MDWLHNNDG åPRQ V SDVLWHQNLQDVXWDXS\WXNLHNLXNXULVQ UDGLGHVQLVXåVXPDå MXV LQYHVWLFLM NLHN WDãNH(2 0Då MDQW13 LQYHVWLFLM NLHNLV PDå MD R 13 WXUL VXPDå WL WLHN NDG DWVWDW\W VDQWDXS LU LQYHVWLFLM SXVLDXVY\U WRG O VDQWDXSRVPDå MDLUVOHQNDDWNDUSDQXR(1 iki E2. 7DþLDXWDXSXPRSDUDGRNVDVQHYHLNLDHNRQRPLNRMHNXULRMH\UDLQIOLDFLQ SHUWHNOLQ SDNODXVD (VDQWVNLUWLQJDPNDLQ O\JLXLSDMDP LULãODLG JUDILNDVWDLSSDWLUSXVLDXVY\U DWLWLQNDQWLV%13Eus skirtingi.
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5HPGDPLHVL SDY LãVLDLãNLQVLPH NDLS VXUDVWL WDãN NXU SDVLHNLDPDV YLVLãNDV XåLPWXPDV .DL LãODLG WLHV NHUWDWLHV WDãNH(WDL%13 POUG/W7DþLDXWDLYLUãLMDJDP\ERVO\J NDLYLVXVQRULQþLXV JDOLPD GDUELQWL7DGDNDLQRVDXJVWLHNNDG &, WLHV NULVLUHLVSHUWDãN )$WVWXPDV%(SDURG\VNLHNUHDOXV %13\UDGLGHVQLVXåSRWHQFLDO M âLVVNLUWXPDVYDGLQDPDVLQIOLDFLM V O\JRMDQþLXDWRWU NLX ,QIOLDFLM V O\JRMDQWLVDWRWU NLV -%13DSLPWLVNXULRMHDWLWLQNDQWLVSXVLDXVY\U %13\UDGLGHVQLVQHL YLVLãNRXåLPWXPR%13O\JLV âLV WU NXPDV SDVLUHLãNLD DXNãWHVQ PLV NDLQRPLV LU NLWDLV SDNODXV PDåLQDQþLDLV YHLNVQLDis. Be to, kai UHDOXVLV%13\UDGLGHVQLVXåSRWHQFLDO M ODEDLSDGLG MDGDUERM JRVSDNODXVDSHUQHO\JDXNãWDVNDLQ O\JLVLU GDUERXåPRNHVþLRGLG MLPDVV O\JRMDLQIOLDFLM
14. Cikliniai svyravimai 14.1. Ekonomikos svyravimai 9HUVORFLNORV YRND 1DFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR DSLPWLV QXRODW NHLþLDVL ,OJ ODLNRWDUSL SRåL ULX WDV NLWLPDV UHLãNLDVL NDLS QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR DXJLPDV R
,OJDODLN WHQGHQFLMDDSLE GLQDSHUGLGHO ODLNRWDUS LãU\ãN MXVL WHQGHQFLM Jei BNP ir kiti YLVXRPHQLQ V JDP\ERVDSLPWLHVURGLNOLDLWXULWHQGHQFLM DXJWLGLG WLWDLSY]QHGDUE DSLE GLQDntys duomenys QHGXRGDSDJULQGRNDOE WLDSLHDSLEU åW WHQGHQFLM - kilti arba kristi. Sezoniniai svyravimai.'DXJHOLXLHNRQRPLNRVSURFHV E GLQJDVVH]RQLãNXPDVSY]åHP V N\MH GDUE DSLPWLVYDVDU \UDGLGHVQ QHLåLHP WDVSDWVåYHM\ERMHDLãNXVVH]RQLãNXPDVE GLQJDVWXUL]PXLTai daro WDN NLWLHPVHNRQRPLQLDPVURGLNOLDPV XåLPWXPXLSUHNL DS\YDUWDL-HLQDJULQ MDPLWUXPS ODLNRWDUSL HNRQRPLQLDLSURFHVDL VH]RQLãNXP DWVLåYHOJWLE WLQDPaprastai tokiais atvejais rodiklis yra koreguojamas DWVLåYHOJLDQW VH]RQLãNXP VH]RQR\SDW\EL VXNHOWDVQXNU\SLPDVHOLPLQXRMDPDVSDVLQDXGRMDQWSUD MXVL SHULRG VH]RQLQL VY\UDYLP VFKHPD Cikliniai svyravimai.-HLNXULDPQRUVSURFHVXLQHE GLQJLVH]RQLQLDLVY\UDYLPDLDUEDMXRV eliminuojame/jis anaiptol nesirutulios tolygiai, remdamasis savo ilgalaike tendencija. 'DXJXPRVSURFHV SDUDPHWUDLQXRODWNLQWDWDþLDXEHQGUDWHQGHQFLMDOLHND7LHSRN\þLDLQ UDDWVLWLNWLQLDLQHUHJXOLDU VMLHVXVLNORVWR VLVWHPLQJ UHJXOLDU SDVLNDUWRMDQþLRVNRQILJ UDFLMRVMXG MLP Ekonominio pakilimo metai pertraukiami EHQGURV NLQ V SDG WLHVVDQW\NLQLXLUDEVROLXþLXSDEORJ MLPXã G VQLQJDLSDNHLþLDQDXMDV NLRDNW\YXPR pakilimas. Tokie svyravimai vadinami cikliniais. Nuolatiniai nacionalinio produkto gamybos ir vartojimo pakilimaL LUDWRVO JLDLMRLOJDODLN V WHQGHQFLMRV U PXRVHSDãDOLQXVVH]RQLãNXPRDSUDLãNDVYDGLQDPL verslo ciklais. 9HUVORFLNORV YRNDDSLE GLQDEHQGU YLV SDJULQGLQL HNRQRPLNRVLQGLNDWRUL GLQDPLN .LHNYLHQDV HNRQRPLQLVSURFHVDVLUMRLQGLNDWRULDLWXULVDY FLNOLQ V UDLGRV\SDW\EL &LNODVFLNOXLQHO\JX
WUXPSDLVODLNRWDUSLDLV%13NLQWD DELSXVHV
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Ciklo stadijos ID] V
3HULRGLãNDV HNRQRPLQL SURFHV VY\UDYLPDV DSLE GLQDPDV DWVNLU FLNOR VWDGLM FKDUDNWHULVWLNRPLV SDY SDURG\WRV NHWXULRV YHUVOR
kai -WDLYHUVORDNW\YXPRO
FLNORID] V(NRQRPLNRMHSDNLOLP NHLþLDQXRVPXNLV7DUSLQLDLWDã ELXUDV QXVWDWR NDGD
åLVLUYLUã Q 1DFLRQDOLQLVHNRQRPLNRVW\ULPR
Y\NVWD ãLRV ID] V 3DNLOLPDV QHE WLQDL WXUL EDLJWLV DXNãWX NOHVW MLPR EHL XåLPWXPR O\JLX .DUWDLV YLUã Q GDU
nepasiekiama, o jau vyksta naujas nuosmukis.
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Nuosmukio ekonominiai kaštai .DLHNRQRPLNDVPXQNDQHJU åWDPDLSUDUDQGDPDJDP\ERVSRWHQFLDOLDSLPWLV7RODLNRNXU EHGDUELDL SUDOHLGRG\NLQ GDPLMDXQHEHJDOLPDVXJU åLQWL%HWREHGDUELDLNHQþLDPDWHULDOLDLLUPRUDOLDL1HGDUEDV- tai ne WLNQHSDJDPLQWDSURGXNFLMDEHWLUåPRQL GHPRUDOL]DFLMD+DUYLV%HPHULVLã'åRQVRQR+RSNLQRXQLYHUVLWHWR QXVWDW NDGQHGDUEDVLUNLWRVHNRQRPLNRVSUREOHPRVEORJDLYHLNLDåPRQL VYHLNDW LUSVLFKLN WUXPSLQDM J\YHQLP 3UDQHãLPH-$9.RQJUHVXLMLVWHLJ NDGQHGDUEDVLUGDUWU\VIDNWRULDLVLHMDVLVXPLUWLQJXPX 7DLPDåHVQLVGDO\YDYLPDVGDUERULQNRMHWUXPSHVQ GDUERVDYDLW LUSDGLG M V EDQNURW VNDLþLXV (NRQRPLQ QHO\J\E YHGD EORJHVQ GYDVLQ E VHQ PDåHVQ JHURY åPRJåXG\VþL QXVLNDOWLP SVLFKLQL OLJ JDXV MLP 3UDQHãLPHSDWHLNLDPLQDXMLGXRPHQ\VDSLHU\ã WDUSEORJRVHNRQRPLNRVE NO V LUDONRKROL]PR U N\PRQDUNRWLN YDUWRMLPRVN\U\E VNDLþLDXVLUYLHQLã åPRQL VNDLþLDXVDXJLPR -$9GXRPHQLPLVQXR LNL PQHGDUEDVFLYLOL GDUERLãWHNOL ULQNRMHSDGLG MRQXR LNL 3DY\]GåLXL PPLUWLHVDWYHM G O ãLUGLHVLUNUDXMDJ\VOL OLJ SDGDXJ MRPLUWLHVDWYHM G O NHSHQ FLUR] V - VDYLåXG\EL - *\G\P SVLFKRQHXURORJLQ VHOLJRQLQ VH- QXVLNDOW OL VX PLPDL- VPXUWLQLDLXåSXROLPDL - 7DLJLãLHVNDLþLDLURGRNDLSQHGDUEDVVXNHOLDPLUWLQJXP G O SULHåDVþL VLHMDP VXGYDVLQH WDPSDEHL SDGLGLQDQXVLNDOWLP VNDLþL âL VWDWLVWLN QHJDOLPDODLN\WL URG\PXEHWJUHLþLDXWDLSHUVS MLPDV EORJD HNRQRPLNRVE NO JDOLSDNHQNWLVYHLNDWDL %HQGURVJDP\ERVDSLPWLHVVXPDå MLPDVYDGLQDPDV%13DWRWU NLX6NLUWXPDVWDUS%13DSLPþL EXvo ODEDLGLGHOLV'LGåLRVLRVGHSUHVLMRVPHWXWDLSSDW- 1981-1982 ir 1981 - 1985 metais. Pastaraisiais metais BNP DWRWU NLVVXGDU 9HUWLQDQW PNDLQRPLVQXRVWROLVG O %13DWRWU NLRVXGDU PLOLMDUG GROHUL DUEDNLHNYLHQDP-$9SLOLHþLXLSRGROHUL ýLDWXULPHSHUVS WLNDG\UDLUNLWLVNDLþLDYLPRPHWRGDLRM rezultatai gali skirtis.) %13DWRWU NLV- WDLNLHNLVNXULRIDNWLQLV%13\UDPDåHVQLVXåSRWHQFLDO M %13
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9LVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVSRN\þLDL
9LVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVQHVWDELOXPRYHLNVQLXVSDQDJULQ NLPHSDJDOMRVHOHPHQWXV
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3DO NDQ QRUPRVLULQIOLDFLMRVLãDXJLPRJU VP 3DO NDQ QRUPRVLãDXJLPDVJDOLE WLDNVWLQDV VPDUNLDPLOJRQDXGRMLPRSUHNL SLUNLPRVXPDå MLPXLNDGDQJLWRNLRVSUHN V SDSUDVWDLSHUNDPRV kreditan. Kita vertus, pDO NDQ QRUPDWLHVLRJLDLVXVLMXVLVXLQIOLDFLMDLUNLQWDWLHVLRJSURSRUFLQJDLMRV WHPSDPV7RG O YDUWRWRM LãODLGDVOHPLDQHQRPLQDOLRMLEHWUHDOLRMLSDO NDQ QRUPD .DLSDWVNLUDVYDUWRMLPRLãODLG YHLNVQ\VLQIOLDFLMDYHLNLDGYHMRSDL GDXJGLGHVQ V E VLPos infliacijos ODXNLPDVVXNHOLDGLGHO LãODLGDYLP VLHNLP VLJ\WLNXRGDXJLDXSUHNL NROM NDLQRVQHSDãRNRWXR WDUSXEHVLNDLWDOLRMDQWLVLQIOLDFLMRVO\JLVNDLSYLHQDVLãGLG MDQþLRHNRQRPLNRVQHVWDELOXPRSRå\PL JDOLYHLNWLNDLSSDVNDWDPDåLDXLãOHLVti, daugiau taupyti. $SPRNHVWLQLPRLUSLQLJLQL LãPRN MLP WUDQVIHU SRN\þLDL1DW UDOXNDGNHLþLDQWLVPRNHVþL O\JLXLNHLVLVLUYDUWRMLPRLãODLGRV-HLLQGLYLGXDOXVSDMDP PRNHVWLVVXPDåLQDPDVSDGLG MD GLVSRQXRMDPRVSDMDPRVSDGLG V LUYDUWRMLPDV-HLY\ULDXV\E SDGLGLQDELXGåHWRO ã VUDXW SLQLJLQLDLV SHUYHGLPDLVLQGLYLGXDOLHPVSLOLHLDPVYDUWRMLPRLãODLGRVSDGLG MD7DGVXSUDQWDPDNDGãLRSRE GåLR VYHUWDL PRNHVþLDLLUWUDQVIHULQLDLSHUYHGLPDL- LãPRN MLPDL Y\ULDXV\EL SLUPLDXVLDQDXGRMDPLNDLp DQWLFLNOLQ V SULHPRQ V 9\ULDXV\E V LãODLG SUHN PVLUSDVODXJRPVSLUNWLSRN\þLDL9\ULDXV\E V LãODLGRVSDSUDVWDL\UDFLNOLQLR vystymosi veiksnys tik potencialiai -LãVN\UXV\SDWLQJXVDWYHMXVSDY\]GåLXLNDU NDGDY\ULDXV\E V XåVDN\PDL JLQNO LUNLWRPV PRQ PVVPDUNLDLLãDXJDLUNXULDPODLNXL VXNDJDP\E LNLSRWHQFLDODXVQDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWRULERV1RUPDOLRPLVV O\JRPLVãLVYLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVHOHPHQWDVV PRQLQJDLSDODLNRPDVGDXJLDX PDåLDXYLHQRGRO\JLRLUNHLþLDPDVNXULDQRUVNU\SWLPLQHGLGHOLXPDstu ir laipsniškai. (NVSRUWRDSLPWLHVSRN\þLDL Jei šalis aktyviai dalyvauja tarptautiniame darbo pasidalijime, eksportas, NDLSLULPSRUWDVVXGDURå\PL MRVQDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRGDO 3UHNL LUSDVODXJ SDUGDYLPDVXåVLHQLXLGDXJ SULNODXVRQXRLãRULQL SULHåDVþL EHQGURVHNRQRPLQ V NRQMXQNW URVSDVDXO\MHDWVNLU SUHNL ULQNRVVLWXDFLMRV WDUSWDXWLQL YDOLXWLQL LUILQDQVLQL VDQW\NL SDG WLHVWDLSSDWLUQXRYLGDXVYHLNVQL HNVSRUWXRMDP SUHNL NRQNXUHQFLQLRSDM JXPRYLGLQL NDãW VDQW\NLRVXWDUSWDXWLQLDLVäRGåLXDWYLURMHHNRQRPLNRMHHNVSRUWDV\UD svarbus cikliškumo veiksnys.
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IQYHVWLFLMRV JDP\ELQHVDWVDUJDV.LHNLRDWåYLOJLXJDP\ELQL DWVDUJ SDSLOG\PDVYLVDGDVXGDUR QHGLGHO GDO LQYHVWLFLQL LãODLG 7DþLDXGLGåLXOLVãLRVU ãLHVO ã MXGUXPDVM NLQWDPXPDVGDURLQYHVWLFLM DSLPþLDLQHPDå SRYHLN 1XVWDW\WDNDGDWVDUJ GLQamika susijusi su produkcijos realizavimu. Augant SURGXNFLMRVSDUGDYLPXLILUPRVVLHNLDWXU WLGLGHVQHVSDUXRãWRVSURGXNFLMRVDWVDUJDVLUDWYLUNãþLDLâLWDLS SURGXNFLMRVUHDOL]DFLMRVVY\UDYLPDLLDSDWVXNHOLDLQYHVWLFLM VY\UDYLPXV ,QYHVWLFLMRV JDP\ELQHVDWVDUJDVVXVLMXVLRVLUVXSDO NDQ QRUPD.XRMLDXNãWHVQ WXREUDQJLDX DWVLHLQDDWVDUJ GLGLQLPDVQHVMLVVXULãDSDSLOGRPDVSLQLJLQHVO ãDV7RG ONXRDXNãWHVQ SDO NDQ QRUPDWXR VWLSULDXYHLNLDSDVNDWDQHSO VWLDWVDUJ PRQ VH%HVLNHLþLDQWLSDO NDQ QRUPDYHLNLDNDLSLQYHVWLFLM DWVDUJDV didinimo veiksnys. ,QYHVWLFLMRV J\YHQDP M QDP VWDW\E ,ãY\VW\WRVHãDO\VHãHLP LãODLGRVJ\YHQDP M QDP VWDW\EDL VXGDURå\PL GDO %13- 3-RYLVRVHLQYHVWLFLMRVH LãVN\UXVY\ULDXV\E V GDURPDV - nuoLNLSURFHQW M apimties. 1DXM J\YHQDP M QDP VWDW\EDSUDNWLãNDLYLVD\UDILQDQVXRMDPDLãEDQN SDVNRO JDXW SDVWDþLXV QDP LUXåVWDþLXVVNO\S LSRWHNLQLVNUHGLWDV 3DO NDQRVXåNUHGLW SDSUDVWDLVXGDURGDXJLDXNDLSSXV QDPR VDYLQLQNRPRNDP XåSDVNRO PHWLQL QDã 3DO NDQ QRUPRVNLWLPDVYHLNLDãLRVU ãLHVLQYHVWLFLMDV SDJULQGLQLVLQYHVWLFLM J\YHQDPXRVLXVQDPXVLUEXWXVYHLNVQ\V– ãHLP SDMDPRV7RG O SUDG W QDXM J\YHQDP M QDP VNDLþLXV\UDYLHQDVLãHNRQRPLNRVVDYLMDXWRVURGLNOL ,QYHVWLFLMRV SDJULQGLQ NDSLWDO âL LQYHVWLFLM U ã VXGDURSLQLJLQL O ã SDQDXGRMLPDV UHQJLQLDPVLU NLWRPVGDUERSULHPRQ PV VLJ\WLEHL NLQ V SDVNLUWLHVREMHNW VWDW\EDL7DLSDWLGLGåLDXVLDLQYHVWLFLQL LãODLG GDOLV.DLSLUJ\YHQDP M QDP VWDW\EDLQYHVWLFLMRV SDJULQGLQ NDSLWDO SLUPLDXVLDSULNODXVRQXRLQYHVWLWRULDXV SDMDP ãLXRDWYHMX- QXRILUP QHSDVNLUVW\WR W\QHLãGDOLQWRDNFLQLQNDPV SHOQR.XRGLGHVQLVQHSDVNLUVW\WDV SHOQDVWXRGLGHVQ V ILUPRVLQYHVWLFLMRV.LWDVYHLNVQ\V- paO NDQ QRUPD'LGåLRMLGDOLVLQYHVWLFLM JDP\E GDURPDLãVNROLQW O ã 7UHþLDVJDP\ELQL LQYHVWLFLM YHLNVQ\V\UDQDFLRQDOLQL SDMDP SDNLWLPDLNXULH V O\JRMDYLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVSRN\þLXV
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3LQLJDLEDQNDLLUPRQHWDULQ
SROLWLND
3LQLJDLLUM NLHNLV 3LQLJ NLOP Pinigai yra maLQ SULHPRQ WDUSLQLQNDL,NLWRNL SLQLJ NRNLXVPHVWXULPHGDEDUSLQLJ IXQNFLMDV DWOLNLQ MRDNPHQ\V YDLULRVNULDXNO VåY UL NDLOLDLVLGDEUDVDXNVDVLUNLWRVYHUW\E VNXULRVEXYRYLVXRWLQDL SULSDå VWDPDPDLQ SULHPRQ ,NLSLQLJ DWVLUDGLPRPDLQDLY\NRWLHVLRJLDLW\YLHQDSUHN DUSDVODXJDEXYR PDLQRPD NLW 7RNLHPDLQDLYDGLQDPLQDW ULQLDLV,UãLDLVODLNDLVQDW ULQLDLPDLQDLQ UDLãQ\N MLHNDUWDLV QDXGRMDPLVXLUXVDUJHUDLQHVXVLIRUPDYXVSLQLJ NLXL 3LQLJ DWVLUDGLPDVEXYRSDåDQJD-LHDWOLNRYLVXRWLQLRHNYLYDOHQWRYDLGPHQ 7DþLDXGDåQDLNLOGDYR SUREOHP NDLHNYLYDOHQWDVWXU MRE WLGDORPDV7RG O VLGDEUDVLUDXNVDVWXU MRãLXRDWåYLOJLXGLGHOL SDQDãXP G O M GDOXPRJU\QXPRLUWYDUXPR3LUPRVLRVLãM NDOGLQWRVPRQHWRVDWVLUDGRPDåGDXJPSUPH 1HWUXNXVPHWDOLQLDLSLQLJDL VLJDO MRYLVDPHFLYLOL]XRWDPHSDVDXO\MH 3UDGåLRMHEUDQJLHMLPHWDODLSLQLJ IXQNFLMDVDWOLNLQ MRQDW UDOLXSDYLGDOXW\PRQHWRVYHUW EXYRO\JL brangiojo metalo, sunaudoto monetai, vertei. Ilgainiui moQHWRVWDSRWLNVLPEROLQLDLVSLQLJDLVQHVM QDW UDOL YHUW SDVLGDU GDXJPDåHVQ XåM QRPLQDO 0RQHW LãUDGLPDVODEDLSDOHQJYLQRDWVLVNDLW\P LUVDYDLPH VXSUDQWDPDVNDWLQRSUHN\E -RVWDSRYLVXRWLQDLSULSDåLQWXSLQLJXNXULXRJDOLPDEXYRDWVLVNDLW\WLXåSUHNHVLU SDVODXJDV3RWUXSXW JU\Q M PHWDO PRQHWDV PDLãDQWSLJHVQL PHWDO YDGLQDPRVLRVOLJDW URVQHLãYHQJLDPDL LU MRDWVLUDVWLGDUSLJHVQ DWVLVNDLW\PRSULHPRQ DWOLHNDQWLSLQLJ IXQNFLMDV7RNLHEXYRSRSLHULQLDLSLQLJDL Popieriniai pinigai sDYRHVPH\UDWLNSLQLJ åHQNODL0DLQ LUPRN MLPRSULHPRQ V JDOL MLHPVVXWHLNLD YDOVW\E WLHNVDYRILQDQVLQLXSRWHQFLDOX YDOVW\E V LåGRSDMDPRPLV WLHNVDYRLULGLQLXDXWRULWHWX.LWDLSWDULDQW SRSLHULQLDLSLQLJDLWXULSHUNDP M JDOL WRG ONDG\UDYLVXRWLQDLSULSDå VWDPLWXU M
3LQLJ IXQNFLMRV
Pinigai atlieka tokias pagrindines tarpusavyje susijusias funkcijas, jie yra: 0DLQ FLUNXOLDFLMRV SULHPRQ -HLQHE W SLQLJ WDLNDLSLUVHQDLVODLNDLVUHLN W WLHVLRJLDL NHLVWLVSUHN PLVQRULQWSDWHnkinti visus savo poreikius. Tokie tiesioginiai mainai dar vadinami QDW ULQLDLVPDLQDLV.DGDQJLWRNLHPDLQDL\UDQHSDWRJ VWDLSLQLJ VLVWHPDY\VWRVLVDYDLPHQHWMHL Q UDYDOGåLRVNLãLPRVL(VDQWSLQLJDPVSDWVPDLQ DNWDVVN\OD GYLGDOLV SLUNLP LUSDUGDYLP %H SLQLJ YLVXRPHQ QHE W JDO MXVLSDVLHNWLWRNLRVVRFLDOLQ V LUHNRQRPLQ V SDåDQJRVNRNLD\UD dabar. $SVNDLWRVYLHQHWDV3LQLJDLVLãUHLãNLDPRVNDLQRVNXULDVSDVLWHON JDOLPHRULHQWXRWLVSUHNL LU SDVODXJ ULQNRMH 9HUW V PDWDV3LQLJDLNDLSSUHN ãL IXQNFLM DWOLNRWLHVLRJLDLNDLSUHDOXVNRQNUHþLRVSUHN V YHUWLQLVHNYLYDOHQWDVâLXRODLNLQLDLSLQLJDLWDLGDURLGHDOLDL0HVåLQRPHNDGNLHNYLHQRVSUHN V YHUW LãUHLãNLDPDSLQLJDLVNRQNUHþLXSLQLJLQLRYLHQHWRNLHNLXSLQLJDLVLãUHLNãW YHUW YDGLQDPH kaina. .DXSLPRSULHPRQ .DGDQJLSLQLJDLJDOLE WLSDQDXGRWLSUHN PVEHLSDVODXJRPVSLUNWLEHWNDGD NDLWLNDWVLUDQGDSRUHLNLVWRG O SLQLJDL\UDSDWRJXVWXUWRODLN\PRE GDVäLQRPDSLQLJDLQ UDWREXOD NDXSLPRSULHPRQ QHVM SHUNDPRMLJDOLDJDOLNLVWL,QIOLDFLMDUHLãNLDNDGSLQLJ SHUNDPRMLJDOLD PDå MDW\XåOLW QXSHUNDPDYLVPDåLDXSUHNL LUSDVODXJ -HLLUQHE W LQIOLDFLMRVWDLSLQLJXV YLVYLHQE W SDWRJLDXNDXSWLQHJU\QDLVRLQYHVWDYXVMXRV YHUW\ELQLXVSRSLHULXVDUNLWus aktyvus, NXULHJDOLGXRWLSURFHQWXV(VDPRPVLãODLGRPVGDåQLDXVLDLODLNRPDVQHGLGHOLVSLQLJ NLHNLV
âLXRODLNLQLDLSLQLJDLLUM NLHNLV
$QNVþLDXNDLSLQLJDLEXYRDXNVDVNRQNUHWXVYLVXRPHQHLUHLNDOLQJDVSLQLJ NLHNLVQXVLVWDW\GDYRSDWV savaime: aukso PRQHW DWVDUJRVWDLVXPDå GDYR N\ODQWJDP\EDLLUSOHþLDQWLVSUHNL FLUNXOLDFLMDL WDL SDGLG GDYR JDP\EDLVPXQNDQW 7DþLDXWDLQHWXU MRMRNLRWLHVLRJLQLRSRYHLNLRQHLSDþLDLJDP\EDLQHLDXNVR SHUNDPDMDLJDOLDL7DþLDXGDEDU\UDNLWDLSQHVDXNV SDNHLW SLQLJDL WLNVOLDXM åHQNODLSRSLHULQLDLSLQLJDL .DUW LãOHLVWLSLQLJDLMDXJDOLE WLLãLPWLLãDS\YDUWRVWLNMXRVSDNHLWXVNLWDLVSLQLJDLVW\MLHYLVYLHQOLNVWRG O
SLQLJ NLHNLV\UDVYDUEXVHNRQRPLQLVYHLNVQ\V1XRM NLHNLRSULNODXVRLUNDLQ lygis, ir nacionalinio produkto DSLPWLV7DþLDXNRQWUROLXRWLSLQLJ NLHN Q UDWDLSSDSUDVWDQHVSLQLJ IXQNFLMDVDWOLHNDQHYLHQWUDGLFLQLDL EDQNQRWDL'DXJLDXVLDDWVLVNDLW\P SDVDXO\MHY\NVWDþHNLDLVýHNLDLDWVLUDQGDNDLDWLGDURPDLQGLYLGXDOL einamojiV VNDLWDEDQNH-LDWLGDURPD QHãXVSLQLJLQ LQG O GHSR]LW 3DWVþHNLV\UDUDãWLãNDVQXURG\PDV EDQNXLNXULDPHDWLGDU\WDHLQDPRMLV VNDLWDSHUYHVWLQXURG\W SLQLJ VXP WDPWLNU NLWRDVPHQVHLQDP M V VNDLW NXULJDOLE WL WLHNWDPHSDþLDPHWLHNLUNLWDPHEDQNHýHNLRJDY MDVM JDOLSDWHLNWLEHWNXULDPEDQNXLLU RSHUDFLMDEXVDWOLNWDEHVXWULNLP 7DþLDXSDW\VþHNLDLODLVYDLQHFLUNXOLXRMDâL IXQNFLM MLVDWOLNVNDLWLNEDQNXL EXVSDWHLNWDDSPRN WLNDåNLHQRLãUDã\W þHN 9DGLQDVLJDOLPHWHLJWLNDGþHNLDLNDLSFLUNXOLDFLMRVSULHPRQ SDNHLþLDSLQLJXVQHVSUHNHVJDOLPDDSPRN WLþHNLDLVLUWDGDSLQLJ JU\Q M QHSULUHLNVQHVSDUGDY MDVLãNHLV M V LãUDã\W þHN M V HLQDPRMRMHV VNDLWRMHHVDQþLXVSLQLJXV9LVDVãLDVRSHUDFLMDVEDQNDVDWOLHNa nemokamai, WDþLDXQHJDXVLPHLUSDO NDQ *DOLPHGDU\WLLãYDG NDGSLQLJ SDVL ORVNLHNLV\UDJU\Q M SLQLJ LUSLQLJ þHNLQLXRVHGHSR]LWXRVH VXPD7DL\UDSLQLJ VLDXU MDSUDVPHNLHNLVNXULVå\PLPDV0.DLSPDWRPH ãL VDYRN HLQDYLVDWDLNDV tiHVLRJLDLQDXGRMDPDNDLSPDLQ SULHPRQ 7DþLDXLãJ\YHQLPRSDWLUWLHVåLQRPHNDGSLUNGDPLåPRQ V GDåQDL QDXGRMDNUHGLWLQHVNRUWHOHVRQHSLQLJXVDUþHNLXV7DþLDXLãVDPLDXSDQDJULQ MXVãL SUREOHP SULHLVLPHLãYDG NDGJDOXWLQLVPRN MLPDVYLVYLHQDWOLHNDPDVJU\QDLVLDLVSLQLJDLVDUEDþHNLXQHVNUHGLWLQ NRUWHO \UDQHNDVNLWD NDLSV VNDLWDEDQNHLãNXULRVLUSHUYHGDPDUHLNDOLQJDVXPDXåWDPWLNUDVSUHNHVDUSDVODXJDV$QWUDV VXG WLQJXPDVVXNXULXRVXVLGXULDPDDSLEU åLDQWSLQLJXVVLDXU MDSUDVPH\UDWDVSLQLJ NLHNLVNXU ODLNR EDQNLQ V LQVWLWXFLMRVDUNLWLUH]HUYDLW\WLHSLQLJDLNXUL Q UDDS\YDUWRMH,ããLRVSUREOHPRVLãVLVXNDPDODEDL SDSUDVWDL 0ONDUWXVXWLNN DSWDUWDLVSLQLJDLVå\PLPL0OD 6NLUWLQJDLQHJXþHNLDLSDO NDQDVGXRGDNLWRVU ãLHVEDQNRV VNDLWRV- WDXSRPRVLRVV VNDLWRVâLRV V VNDLWRVSDEOXNLQRULE WDUSþHNLQL V VNDLW LUSDO NDQDVGXRGDQþL VDQWDXS YDLULRVHWDXS\PR VWDLJRVHQHV SDGLG MRM OLNYLGXPDV $NW\YDV\UDOLNYLGXVMHLM EHMRNL GLGHOL LãODLG LUVXQNXP JDOLPD paversti JU\QDLVLDLVSLQLJDLV .DGDSDO NDQ QRUPDLãDXJR HVDQWQHGLGHOHLLQIOLDFLMDL LãDXJRLUVXVWLSU MRNOLHQW LQWHUHVDVODLN\WLSLQLJXVWDXSRPRVLRVHV VNDLWRVHRQHDVPHQLQ VHHLQDPRVLRVHV VNDLWRVHEDQNDLUDGRQDXM LãHLW - MLHSDVL O þHNLDLVQDXGRMDPDVWDXSRP VLDVV VNDLWDVâLXRDWYHMXNOLHQWDVJDOLLãUDãLQ WLþHNLXVVDYR LQG OLDPVYLVWLHNJDXGDPDVWDPWLNU GDO SDO NDQ 1XRãL LQG OLQL V VNDLW VNLULDVLWHUPLQXRWLLQG OLDL GHSR]LWDL -LH\UDSDQDã V WDXSRPXRVLXVWLNãLXRDWYHMXQXVWDWRPDVNRQNUHWXVLã PLPRWHUPLQDV6DYDLPH VXSUDQWDPDNDGXåWRNLXVLQG OLXVPRNDPRVNXUNDVDXNãWHVQ V SDO NDQRV7RG O SLQLJDLWHUPLQXRWXRVH GHSR]LWXRVH\UDSRWHQFLDO V SLQLJDL-MLHQ UDQDXGRMDPLPDLQDPVDWOLNWL7DLJLSODWHVQ SLQLJ V YRN 0JDOima XåUDã\WLNDLSIRUPXO 0 0OQHþHNLQLDLWDXSRPLHMLLQG OLDLDVPHQLQLDLWHUPLQXRWLLQG OLDL GDåQLDXVLDLWLH NXULHPDåHVQLXå/W SLQLJ ULQNRVLQG OLDLSLQLJ ULQNRVVDYLWDUSLRIRQGDL3LQLJ ULQNRVLQG OLDL XåWLNULQDULQNRVQXVWDWRPDVSDO NDQ QRUPDVNDLSLUSLQLJ ULQNRVVDYLWDUSLRIRQGDLNXULDLVQDXGRWLVVL OR EURNHUL QDPDLDUVDYLWDUSLRIRQG RUJDQL]DFLMRV3DVWDURVLRVGYLWXUWRIRUPRV\UDQDXMRY VNXUL SDJDXV MRSHU SDVNXWLQLXRVLXVGHãLPWPHþLXVLUNXULDVVXN U ILQDQVLQ V LQVWLWXFLMRV3LQLJ ULQNRVLQG OLDLLUSLQLJ ULQNRV VDYLWDUSLRIRQGDLVL ORþHNLQHVSULYLOHJLMDVSDQDLNLQDQþLDVVNLUWXPXVWDUS0OLU01RUVMLHPVLUJDOLPDLãUDã\WL þHNLXVWDþLDXMLHQH WUDXNLDPL SLQLJ PDV 0 QHVMDLVQHJDOLPDQDXGRWLVQHULERWDL LQG OLQLQkai gali išrašyti WLNGXDUWULVþHNLXVSHUP QHV DUEDQHJDOLLãUDãLQ WLþHNL PDåHVQHLQHL/WVXPDL3ULH0SULG M GDU QHDVPHQLQLXVWHUPLQXRWXVGHSR]LWXV GLGHVQLXVNDLS/WNXULXRVSDSUDVWDLWXULYHUVOLQLQNDL EHLXåVLHQLR YDOLXW DVPHQ ODLNRP EDQNRV VNDLWRVHJDXVLPHSLQLJ SDVL O 0NXULLU\UDLãVDPLDXVLDVSLQLJ SDVL ORV NLHNLR WDXWRV N\MHDSVNDLþLDYLPRYDULDQWDV
3LQLJ SDVL OD
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'DOLVQHGDUERPDåLQLPRSULHPRQL RULHQWXRWRV NRQNUHþLXVQHGDrbo tipus. Migracinio (frikcinio) nedarbo atveju svarbus vaidmuo tenka darbo rinkos informacinei tarnybai. Šios WDUQ\ERVRSHUDYLPRNDãWDLWXU W E WLSDGHQJLDPLQDXGDNXUL GXRGDGDUERYLHW SDLHãN WUXNP V PDåLQLPDV 6WUXNW ULQLR nedarbo minimizavimo prREOHPD VSUHQGåLDPD GYLHP E GDLV pirma, švelninant, SULVWDEGDQWVWUXNW ULQLXVSRN\þLXVHNRQRPLNRVDXJLPRV O\JRPLVLUDQWUDSULVLWDLNDQWSULHM QXVWDWDQWMXRV &LNOLQLVQHGDUEDVDWVLUDQGDQWLVVXVLGDUDQWQHSDNDQNDPDLSDNODXVDLSLUPLDXVLDPDåLQDPDVmonHWDULQ V EHL ILVNDOLQ V politikos SULHPRQ PLV VNDWLQDQþLRPLV SDNODXVRV DXJLP ,ã SDåL URV SDSUDVWRV LU HIHNW\YLRV ãLRV SULHPRQ V WXULYLHQ SDYRMLQJ VDY\E - VNDWLQDLQIOLDFLM 'DEDULãVDPLDXSDQDJULQ NLPHQDW UDO QHGDUERO\J 1DW UDOXVQHGDUERO\JLV yra toks nedarbo lygis, NXULVVXVLGDURHVDQWJDOLPDP SRWHQFLDOLDP %13LUDSLPDPLJUDFLQ EHLVWUXNW ULQ QHGDUE 1RU GDPLJHULDX VXSUDVWLã NODXVLP SDQDJULQ NLPHJUDILQ GDUERULQNRVPRGHO SDY
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Prarandantieji. ' O LQIOLDFLMRVVXPDå MDSLQLJ YHUW 7DLJLSUDODLPLYLVLWLHNXUL SDMDPRVišreiškiamos pastovia SLQLJ VXPD7DL\UD äPRQ VNXUL DWO\JLQLPDLLãUHLãNLDPLILNVXRWXG\GåLX 9HUVOLQLQNDL VLSDUHLJRM DWHLW\MHSDWHLNWLSUHNHVEHLSDVODXJDVXåSDVWRYL NDLQ • Pensininkai, gaunantys pastovias pensijas. 7LH NXULH SLUNR REOLJDFLMDV DU SDVNROLQR SLQLJXV NLWDLV E GDLV QHV MLHPV JU åLQDPD VNROD QXYHUW MXVLDLV pinigais.
/DLP WRMDL Beveik visiems aišku, kad kai kuriH åPRQ V SUDODLPL G O QHWLN WRV LQIOLDFLMRV Tuo tarpu ne visi pastebi, jog kai kas ir laimi. Tie verslininkai, kurie darbuotojams moka SDVWRY DWO\JLQLP JDOLSDVLSHOQ\WLMHLM SDUGXRGDP SUHNL NDLQRVDXJVJUHLþLDXQHJXgamybos kaštai.
-HLREOLJDFLM VDYLQLQNDLSUDODLPLWDLWLHNXULHLãOHLGåLDãLDVREOLJDFLMDVlaimi. Jei 10000 GROHUL VNRODJU åLQDPD SR VSDUþLRV LQIOLDFLMRV SHULRGR WDL NDLS PDW PH VNROLQWRMDV SUDODLPL QHV JDXQD QXYHUW MXVLXV SLQLJXV R VNROLQLQNDV LãPRN GDPDVVNRO QXYHUW MXVLDis pinigais, laimi. 'DXJ ODLP MR WLH NXULH 9DNDU ãDO\VH VHSWLQWRMR GHãLPWPHþLR SUDGåLRMH P SDVNRODV QDPDPVSLUNWL ' O VWDLJLRVLUQHWLN WRVLQIOLDFLMRVM VNRORVEHYHLNLãQ\NR-LHOHQJYDLLãVLSLUNRXåVWDW\WXVQDPXV7DþLDXM YDLNDPVGDEDUNXU kas suQNLDX VLJ\WLQDPXVQHVvisi tikisi infliacijos. 1HWLN WDLQIOLDFLMDSHUVNLUVWRWXUW SDLPDLãVNROLQWRM LUSHUGXRGDVNROLQLQNDPV7DLJLekonomikoje atsiranda GDXJLDXQHWHLV\E V
Infliacijos turinys. ,QIOLDFLMD YDGLQDPDV EHQGURMR NDLQ O\JLR NLOLPDV G l kurio krinta piniginio vieneto SHUNDPRMLJDOLD-LSDSUDVWDLPDWXRMDPDYDUWRMLPRSUHNL LUSDVODXJ NDLQ LQGHNVRSDGLG MLPXSHUPHWXV
Vienos, NHOL SUHNL DUM JUXS V NDLQ LãDXJLPDVQ UDLQIOLDFLMD*DP\ERVWHFKQRORJLMRVSDåDQJDEHLSDNODXVRV svyraviPDLVXGDURV O\JDVDWVNLU SUHNL NDLQRPVWLHNNLOWLWLHNNULVWLInfliacija yra tuo atveju, kai kyla EHQGUDVNDLQ O\JLV %H WR GDOLV HNRQRPLVW OLQN SDEU åWL kad infliacija YDGLQWLQDV QH YLHQNDUWLQLV EHQGURMR NDLQ O\JLR SDNLOLPDV R EHVLW VLDQWLVilgas jo kilimas.
9LVXRPHQ ODEDL MDXWULDL UHDJXRMD SUHNL NDLQ NLOLP WRG O þLD QHLãYHQJLDPD VXEMHNW\YL YHUWLQLP .DLQ kilimas reiškia SLQLJ perkamosios galios PDå MLP W\ realiojo GDUER XåPRNHVþLR NULWLP .LWD YHUWXV LQIOLDFLMRV V O\JRPLV GDUER XåPRNHVWLV visada DXJD 'DåQDV DOJRV JDY MDV OLQN V PDQ\WL NDG DWO\JLQLPDV GLG MD G O MR LU EHQGUDGDUEL YLVJHUHVQLRLUQDãHVQLRGDUERRNDLQ O\JLRDXJLPDVÄQHWHLV WDLDWLPDLãMRGDO ar net YLV XåGDUELRSULHDXJ ' O WRNLRNDLQ LUDOJ V VDMRVignoravimo, matyt, dauguma SLOLHþL SDVLMXVW nejaukiai, jei, tarkime, kainos ir atlyginimai VWDLJDSDGLG W GYLJXEDL Infliacijos tipai. Skiriami du infliacijos tipai:
ãOLDXåLDQWL LQIOLDFLMD - tai ilgai trunkanti, QHDXNãW LU JDQ SDVWRYL WHPS infliacija. Jos numatymas QHVXG WLQJDV - SDSUDVWRV HNVWUDSROLDFLMRV E GX SULH MRV JDOLPD prisitaikyti. äLQRPD VYDUEX LU vidutinis jos lygis - kuo jis åHPHVQLVWXRJHULDXHNRQRPLNDL šuoliuojanti infliacija - WDLNDLQ O\JLRkilimas dideliais tempais, kurie rodo tHQGHQFLM GDUGLG WL
-$9 HNRQRPLVW QXRPRQH - PHWLQLV NDLQ O\JLR NLOLPDV \UD ãOLDXåLDQWL LQIOLDFLMD R 25 • 30% jau ãXROLXRMDQWL LQIOLDFLMD WXR WDUSX /RW\Q $PHULNRV ãDOLPV NXU PHWLQLDL LQIOLDFLMRV WHPSDL LãUHLãNLDPL WULåHQNOLDLV VNDLþLDLVNDLQ kilimas per metus 25 -\UDãOLDXåLDQWLLQIOLDFLMD'DXJN OHPLDEHQGUDV NLR kontekstas.
NLRLVWRULMRMHåLQRPDVLUhiperinfliacijos atvejis - NDGD NDLQ O\JLV N\OD PLOåLQLãNDLVWHPSDLVSUHN V EUDQJVWD EHYHLN NDVGLHQ SLQLJ FLUNXOLDFLMD Y\NVWD SDã lusiu tempu, kyla NLR VXLUXW +LSHULQIOLDFLMD EXYR 9RNLHWLMRMHSR3LUPRMRSDVDXOLQLRNDUR PMLSDVLUHLãN Lenkijoje. ,QIOLDFLMRVSULHåDVW\V,UY\NVPDV1XVWDW\WLLQIOLDFLMRVSULHåDVWLVQHOHQJYD-L- visos HNRQRPLNRVE NO V atspindys, nors ir pasiUHLãNLDSLQLJ VIHURMH $PHULNLHþL HNRQRPLVWDV0LOWRQDV)ULGPDQDVWYLUWLQDNDGLQIOLDFLMDYLVDGDLUvisur -piniginis reiškinys. 3DVDN MR LQIOLDFLM VXNHOLD SHU GLGHOLV SLQLJ NLHNLV 3UHNL SDNODXVRV SHUWHNOL PRQHWDULVWDL PRW\YXRMD SLQLJ SDVL ORVDXJLPX.ODXVLPRDQDOL] SUDG VLPHQXRSLQLJ SDVL ORVLUSDNODXVRV
6NLULDPDQRPLQDOL LUUHDOL SLQLJ SDVL OD5HDOL SLQLJ SDVL OD \UDQRPLQDOL SLQLJ SDVL ODSDGDOLQWD LãNDLQ O\JLR- SUDVWDUHLNãWLVLPEROLDLV03 þLD0- SLQLJ NLHNLV3-NDLQ O\JLV 7XUWRNLHNLVNXU YLVLWDXWRV NLR GDO\YLDL QRUL WXU WL SLQLJLQH IRUPD YDGLQDPD SLQLJ SDNODXVD 7HJXO JU\Q M SLQLJ SDNODXVRV NLHNLV EXV SDå\P WDVVLPEROLX/ <U þLDY - realiosios pajamos, r -SDO NDQ QRUPD 5HDOL M SDMDP DXJLPDVGLGLQDJU\Q M SLQLJ SDNODXV QHV åPRQ V GDXJLDX SHUND 3DO NDQ QRUPRV DXJLPDV PDåLQD JU\Q M SLQLJ SDNODXV QHV GLG MD JDOLPL SLQLJ ODLN\PR NDãWDL QDXGLQJLDX WXU WL REOLJDFLMDV DUED WDXSRP M V VNDLW EDQNH -HLJX \UD SLQLJ ULQNRVSXVLDXVY\UDUHDOL SLQLJ SDVL ODJDOLDWLWLNWLJU\Q M SLQLJ SDNODXV âL SXVLDXVY\URVV O\J JDOLPDLãUHLNãWL lygybe: M/P = L (Y, r)
1DJULQ GDPLWHP ODLN\VLP V SULHODLGRVNDGSDO NDQ QRUPDODEDLODQNVWL.DLDWVLUDQGDSLQLJ SDNODXVRV SHUWHNOLXVSDO NDQ QRUPDSDN\ODSDNODXVDMLHPVLPDPDå WLLUDUWLQWLVSULHSDVL ORVNLHNLR3ULHãLQJDLDWVLUDGXV SHU GLGHOHL SLQLJ SDVL ODL SDO NDQ QRUPD NULQWD SDVNDWLQGDPD M SDNODXVRV DXJLP 9DGLQDVL ODQNVWL SDO NDQ QRUPDSDODLNRQXRODWLQ SLQLJ ULQNRVSXVLDXVY\U Dabar pabandykime keisti NDLQ LU DWO\JLQLP G\GåLXV -DX åLQRPH NDG M SULVLWDLN\PXL reikia laiko. -HLJXSDGLG MDQRPLQDOL SLQLJ SDVL OD LãSUDGåL LãDXJDLUUHDOL SLQLJ 03SDVL OD QHVNDLQRVSHUWUXPS
ODLN GDUQHVS MRSULVLWDLN\WLprie SDGLG MXVLRVSLQLJ SDVL ORV' O WRDWVLUDQGDUHDOL SLQLJ SDVL ORVpertekliai, NXULH VPXNGR SDO NDQ QRUP .ULWXVL SDO NDQ QRUPD SDGLGLQD YLVXPLQ SDNODXV SUHN PV ' O SDGLG MXVLRV SDNODXVRVN\ODSUHNL NDLQRVRLãDXJXVGDUERM JRVpaklausai, N\ODGDUERXåPRNHVWLV.DL kainos ir atlyginimai visiškai prisitaiko prie vienkartinio QRPLQDOL SLQLJ SDVL ORV ãRNWHO MLPRDWVLUDQGDSLQLJ rinkos pusiausvyra. 7DUNLPH NDG JU\Q M SLQLJ paklausos kiekis yra pastovus. Jau PDW PH NDG LãDXJXV QRPLQDOL SLQLJ SDVL ODL vyks kain kilimas. Dabar SDåYHONLPH iš kitos SXV V
VLYDL]GXRNLPH NDG VDPGRPRMR GDUER åPRQ V SULYHUþLD GDUEGDYLXV PRN WL MLHPV DXNãWHVQLXV atlyginimus. Netenka DEHMRWLNDGG O WRILUPRVSDNHOVSUHNL NDLQDVVLHNGDPRVNRPSHQVXRWLaukštesnius gamybos kaštus. Kas bus toliau'.'
5HPLDQWLVDQNVþLDXLãUHLNãWDO\J\EHJDOLPDPDQ\WLNDGWXULDWVLWLNWLEHQWNDVYLHQDLãGYLHM -HLJXY\ULDXV\E ãRNWHO MXVSUHNL SDVL ODL G O JDP\ERVNDãW LUNDLQ išaugimo, QHSDGLGLQVQRPLQDOL SLQLJ SDVL ORVUHDOL SLQLJ SDVL OD suPDå V' O WRpakils SDO NDQ QRUPDRWDLVDYRUXRåWXQHWUXNVVXPDåLQWLJU\Q M SLQLJ SDNODXV %HWDXNãWHVQ SDO NDQ QRUPD VXPDåLQV YLVXPLQ SDNODXV SUHN PV DWVLUDV M SHUWHNOLXV 0Då V NDLQRV DWO\JLQLPDL LU XåLPWXPDV 3LQLJ ULQNRV pusiausvyra atsistatys.
$OWHUQDW\YDDWO\JLQLP LUNDLQ ãRNWHO MLPRVDYLUHJXOLDFLMDL\UDY\ULDXV\E V PRQHWDULQ SROLWLNDâLSROLWLNDUHDJXRMD SDVL ORVãRNWHO MLP YHUVGDPD Y\ULDXV\E SDGLGLQWL QRPLQDOL SLQLJ SDVL O WLHN NDGE W LãYHQJWDUHDOL SLQLJ SDVL ORV pRN\þLRSHUWUXPS ODLN .DL NDLQ NLOLP UHDJXRMDPDSLQLJ SDVL ORVGLGLQLPXUHDOL M SLQLJ NLHNLVlieka SDVWRYXVLUQHNLQWDSDO NDQ QRUPD(NRQRPLNDSDVLOLHNDYLVLãNRXåLPWXPRE VHQRMHWDþLDXHVDQWDXNãWHVQ PVNDLQRPVLUQRPLQDOLHPVDWO\JLQLPDPV
Dabar galima suprasti Fridmano WHLJLQ kad infliacija - piniginis reiškinys. Jeigu DWO\JLQLPDLLUNDLQRVWXU MR ODLNRSULVLWDLN\WLHNRQRPLNDYLVDGDEXVYLVLãNRXåLPWXPRJDP\ERVDSLPWLHVE VHQRMH.DLSDNODXVDrealiam SLQLJ NLHNLXL\UDWD pati, tik dvi apOLQN\E V SDNHOVNDLQ O\J 3LUPD- SLQLJ SDVL ORVSDGLG MLPDVVLHNLDQWDWVWDW\WLUHDOL SLQLJ SDVL O O\JL SDNODXVDL HVDQW YLVLãNDP XåLPWXPXL $QWUD -jeigu GDU NDV QRUV VXNHOLD NDLQ O\JLR SDNLOLP LU Y\ULDXV\E VXUHDJXRMD ã SDNLOLP SLQLJ VSDXVGLQLPXWDLNDLQRVGDUODELDXLãDXJD7DLJLY\ULDXV\E VSDXVGLQGDPDSLQLJXV\UDWLHVLRJLDLDUQHWLHVLRJLDL DWVDNLQJDXåDXNãWHVQ NDLQ O\J Infliacijos tempas nustatomas taip: augimas
Infliacijos WHPSDV DUED ODLSVQLV QRPLQDOL SLQLJ SDVL ORV SDGLG MLPDV – gr\Q M SLQLJ paklausos
.DLJU\Q M SLQLJ SDNODXVDQHDXJDLQIOLDFLMRVWHPSDVEXVO\JXVQRPLQDOL SLQLJ NLHNLRaugimui. Kyla NODXVLPDV DU JDOL E WL DWYHM NDL JU\Q M SLQLJ SDNODXVRV NLWLPDL EXV PDåL SDO\JLQXV VX QRPLQDOL SLQLJ kiekio ir kaiQ NLWLPDLV"7DLS.DGDQJLUHDOLRVLRVSDMDPRVLUSDO NDQ QRUPDNHLþLDVLSHUPHWXVQHå\PLDLSLQLJ SDNODXVDNHLþLDVLO WDL7XRWDUSXVSDUþLDLGLG MDQWLVQRPLQDOL SLQLJ NLHNLVQHLãYHQJLDPDLVXNHOLDGLGHO NDLQ NLOLP Dabar išanalizuokime infliacijos r\ã VX SDO NDQ QRUPD â U\ã DWVNOHLG -HLOR XQLYHUVLWHWR (JAV) profesorius Irvingas Fišeris.
)LãHULRKLSRWH] WHLJLDNDGSDGLG MXVLQIOLDFLMRVWHPSXLSDO NDQ QRUPDWXULSDNLOWL1%. Tarkime, LQIOLDFLMRV O\JLV \UD SHU PHWXV âLDQGLHQ DVPXR Xå 0 OLW gali nusipirkti NQ\J VXPRN GDPDV Xå NLHNYLHQ SR OLW EHW SUD MXV PHWDPV jam UHLN V jau 110 OLW norint nusipirkti tiek SDW NQ\J -HLJX QRPLQDOL SDO NDQ QRUPD \UD SHU PHWXV WDL DVPXR XåXRW SLUN V NQ\JDV šiandien, gali W OLW SDVNROLQWLLUSRPHW WXU WLOLW 3DVLEDLJXVPHWDPVjis nusipirks tiekSDWNQ\J LãOHLVGDPDVOLW o MRNDQWU\E EXVatlyginta 2 litais. Vadinasi, paskolinimo G NDreali SDO NDQ QRUPDLãDXJR 5HDOLSDO NDQ QRUPD QRPLQDOLSDO NDQ norma infliacijos tempas
Daugelio ãDOL statistikos duomenys rodo, kad nors ir nevisiškai tiksliai, Fišerio KLSRWH] UHDOL]XRMDPD DXNãW LQIOLDFLMRVODLSVQ atsiliepia atitinkamos SDO NDQ QRUPRVSDGLG MLPDV ,ãWRLãHLQDNDGSLQLJ NLHNLRDXJLPDVVXNHOLDQHWLNLQIOLDFLM EHWLUQRPLQDOLRVSDO NDQ QRUPRVDXJLP ' O WRNHLþLDVL JU\Q M SLQLJ paklausa ir kol prie jos prisitaiko SDVL ODreikia, NDGSLQLJDLLUNDLQRVGLG W skirtingais tempais.
,QIOLDFLMD LU SDO NDQ DSPRNHVWLQLPDV Infliacija sunkina QDãW tiems, kurie turi REOLJDFLM LU OHQJYLQDWLHPVNXULH\UDJDY SDVNRODV1RU GDPLWDLDUJXPHQWXRWLSLUPLDXVLDSDQDJULQ NLPHVLWXDFLM NDGDQ UD infliacijos, o nominali bei reali SDO NDQ QRUPRV VXGDUR äPRJXV WXULQWLV REOLJDFLM PRND SDMDP mokHVþLXV -LV WUHþGDO SDO NDQ W\ M VXPRND NDLS PRNHVW LU MDP OLHND QRPLQDOLRV EHL UHDOLRV SDO NDQ QRUPRV -2 lent.).
-HLJXSUDVLGHGD LQIOLDFLMDWDLMLVXWULNGRWLNN DSUDã\W SDO NDQ QRUPRVLUPRNHVþL VLVWHP åUOHQWHO Ji paVLNHLþLD1RPLQDOLRMLSDO NDQ QRUPDSDGLG MDiki 12%, o UHDOLRMLWHE UDG\GåLR
2EOLJDFLMRV VDYLQLQNDV PRNDQWLV SDMDP PRNHVW WUHþGDO QXR GY\OLNRV SURFHQW SDO NDQ VXPRN V NDLSPRNHVW LUjam SDVLOLNVSDO NDQ 7DLJLMRrealiosios pajamos SDVLNHLVVXPRN MXVPRNHVþLXV -HLLãJDXQDP SDO NDQ VXPRVDWLPVLP LQIOLDFLM WDLPDW\VLPNDGVXPRN MXVPRNHVþLXVMDPQHtik nieko QHOLNVEHWGDUWHNVSULPRN WL7DLS\UDG O WRNDGPRNHVþLDLLPDPLQHtik QXRUHDOLRVLRVSDO NDQ QRUPRVNXUL SDURGR UHDOL VLDV MRSDMDPDV EHW LU QXR NXULH IDNWLãNDL QHEH HLQD UHDOL VLDV pajamas, o tik kompensuoja LQIOLDFLM 1HLJLDPRV UHDOLRVLRV SDMDPRV NXULRV OLHND VXPRN MXV PRNHVþLXV Q UD YLHQ WHRULQ JDOLP\E 7DLS DWVLWLNRVXYLVRPLVWUXPSDODLN PLV-$9,åGRREOLJDFLMRPLV - 1981 metais.
7RNLD PRNHVþL VLVWHPD DSVXQNLQD REOLJDFLM VDYLQLQN WDLS SDW LU NLW VNROLQWRM SDG W EHW OHQJYLQD VNROLQLQN SDG W 7DLS \UD G O WR NDG SDO NDQ LãPRN MLPDL VXPDåLQD GDXJHOLR VNROLQLQN DSPRNHVWLQDPDV pajamDV3DY\]GåLXLSDO NDQDVPRNDYHUVOLQLQNDV7DGDVXPDå MDjo pelnas, o kartu ir jo mokami PRNHVþLDL Panašiai gyventojai gali atimti iš savo DSPRNHVWLQDP SDMDP SDO NDQDV PRNDPDV Xå XåVWDWXV 7DGDMLHPV WHQND PRN WL PDåHVQLXV PRNHVþLXV 6NROLQWRMDL SULH VDYR DSPRNHVWLQDP M SDMDP SULYDOR SULG WL QRPLQDOL SDO NDQ Rskolininkai WXRVSDþLXVDWLPDLãDSPRNHVWLQDP SDMDP LUPRNDPDåHVQLXVPRNHVþLXV 0RNHVþL LULQIOLDFLMRVEHQGUDVSRYHLNLVQHQDXGLQJDVREOLJDFLM VDYLQLQNDPV-LQHVNDWLQDtaupyti.7DþLDX verslininkus LUNLWXVSDVNRO JDY MXVVNDWLQDskolintis.
Infliacija ir nedarbas. 1958 m. Londono Ekonomikos mokyklos profesorius Filipsas, pasinaudodamas 'LGåLRVLRV %ULWDQLMRV NLR GXRPHQLPLV SDURG NDG infliacija JODXGåLDL susijusi su nedarbu. Panašios SULNODXVRP\E V EXYRatskleistos kitose šalyse ir pavadintos )LOLSVRNUHLY PLV9LHQDLãM SDYDL]GXRWDSDY )LOLSVRNUHLY URGRNDGHVDQWPDåDPQHGDUEXLLQIOLDFLMDE QDDXNãWDLUDWYLUNãþLDL.LWDLSWDULDQWGLGHVQ QHGDUE galima „išmainyti" PDåHVQ LQIOLDFLM arba priešingai.
7DP WLNU ODLN HNRQRPLVWDL SODþLDL QDXGRMR )LOLSVR NUHLY kaip SULHPRQ VL O\GDPL Y\ULDXV\EHL DWLWLQNDP SROLWLN 9\ULDXV\E WXU MRSDVLULQNWLåHP QHGDUERO\J LUDXNãW LQIOLDFLMRVO\J LUDWYLUNãþLDLDUED siekWLDXNVRYLGXULR%XYRODLNRPDVLSRåL ULRNDG)LOLSVRNUHLY YDL]GXRMDNLHN\ELQ SDVLULQNLP WDUSQHGDUERLU infliacijos. 9 OLDX pasikeitus HNRQRPLQ PV V O\JRPV WRNV SRåL ULV EXYR SDQHLJWDV 7DþLDX )LOLSVR DWVNOHLVWDV G VQLQJXPDVgaliojantis trumpu laiNRWDUSLXQLHNDPQHNHOLDDEHMRQ V$SWDUVLPHM LãVDPLDX SDY HNRQRPLNRV SXVLDXVY\UD SDå\P WD WDãNX ( NXULDPH LQIOLDFLMD O\JL QXOLXL R nedarbas yra QDW UDODXVO\JLR'LG MDQWYLVXPLQHLSDNODXVDLHNRQRPLNDY\VWRVLMXG GDPD)LOLSVRNUHLYH WDãN $ Šiame taške NDLQRV MDX SDNLOXVLRV EHW LãDXJXVL YLVXPLQ SDNODXVD LU JDP\ERV DSLPWLV SDGLGLQD XåLPWXP QHGDUEDV VPXQND åHPLDXQDW UDODXVO\JLR
7DþLDXWDãNH$HNRQRPLNDQHSDVLOLHNDLOJDP6PDUNLDLLãDXJXVGDUERM JRVSRUHLNLXLpakyla ir darbo XåPRNHVWLV WXR SDþLX PHWX GLGLQGDPDV PRQL JDP\ERV NDãWXV 3DNLOXVLRV NDLQRV LPD PDåLQWL YLVXPLQ SDNODXV 9LVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVVXPDå MLPDVDSULERVYLVXPLQ SDVL O LUGLGLQVQHGDUE 7DLJLHNRQRPLNDMXG V )LOLSVRNUHLYHåHP\Q- QXRWDãNR$ VDYRLOJDODLN V SXVLDXVY\URVSDG W WDãNH(
)LOLSVRNUHLY V ILNVXRMDPDVEHQGUDVG VQLQJXPDV \UDWRNV MHL NLQLVDNW\YXPDVVY\UXRMDG O YLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVNLWLP WDLWRNLRPLVV O\JRPLVåHPDVQHGDUERO\JLVEXVDXNãWRLQIOLDFLMRVODLSVQLRDWYHMXRDXNãWDV nedarbo lygis susLGDU\VHVDQWåHPLHPVLQIOLDFLMRVtempams. .RNV LQIOLDFLMRV U\ã\V VX QHGDUEX NDL HNRQRPLNRV VY\UDYLPDL LOJDODLNLDL LU MXRV VXNHOLD QH YLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVRYLVXPLQ V SDVL ORVãXROLDL"
VLYDL]GXRNLPH NDG YLVXPLQ SDVL OD išauga G O staigaus importuojamos naftos pabrangimo. Tai SDGLGLQD YDUWRWRM LãODLGDV EHQ]LQXL LU QDP ãLOG\PXL %HW NDUWX SDGLG MD LU JDP\ERV NDãWDL LU WRG O YLVXPLQ SDVL O DWLWLQNDQWLNUHLY SDMXGDDXNãW\Qkaip pavaizduota 129 pav.
Šis poslinkis URGRNDGG O SDVLNHLWXVL V O\J WDVpats nacionalinio produkto dydis gali E WLSDJDPLQWDV tik HVDQWDXNãWHVQ PVNDLQRPV Situacija gali WDSWL GDU VXG WLQJHVQ NDL N\ODQþLRV NDLQRV skatina GDUEXRWRMXV NRYRWL Xå DWO\JLQLP SDGLGLQLP JDP\ERVNDãWDLGDUlabiau išaugs.
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7DL SDGDU\WL ODEDL VXQNX QHV YLHQR DJUHJXRWR G\GåLR VWDELOXPDV QHUHWDL J\YHQGLQDPDV WLN NDLWDOLRMDQW NLW agrHJXRW G\G 7DUNLPHNDGYDOVW\E VLHNGDPDQHWULNG\WLULQNRV NLRIXQNFLRQDYLPRVWHQJLDVLQXRODWWXU WL VXEDODQVXRW ELXGåHW NDGDQJL nacionalinio produkto JDP\ED Q UD VWDELOL \UD cikliška) NHLVLV LU ELXGåHWR SDMDPRV JDXQDPRV PRNHVþL NHOLX ValstyE QHJDOL NDVPHW keisti PRNHVþL QRUP QHV WDL GH]RUJDQL]XRW N 9DGLQDVL ELXGåHWR subalansavimo labui jai teks kaitalioti ELXGåHWR LãODLG DSLPW %HW tai LUJL EORJDL Y\ULDXV\E V LãODLG VY\UDYLPDV\UDGHVWDELOL]XRMDQWLVQHWLNUXPR NLQ QHãDQWLVYHLNsnys. Laisvas rinkos NLVturi E WLWLNUDVNDG VWDELO V bus tiek DSPRNHVWLQLPDVWLHNY\ULDXV\E V SUHNL LUSDVODXJ paklausa. Išeitis randama JDO W E WLUDQGDPD WXRE GXNDGišlaikant VWDELO apmokestinimo PDVW LUY\ULDXV\E V LãODLG G\G DUGDO pats ELXGåHWDVEDODQVXRMDPDV viso ciklo mastu, o ne kasmet. /DLN\GDPDVLV PRQHWDULVWLQ V stabilizavimo politikos SULQFLS centrinis EDQNDVWXU W QXVWDW\WLSDVWRYL SLQLJ SDVL ORV DXJLPRQRUP DWLWLQNDQþL JDOLP YLGXWLQ PHWLQ SDMDP DXJLP GDUDQWprieODLG NDGSDMDP JDY MDLQHNHLþLD VDYRSDMDP QDXGRMLPRVWUXNW URV
7DLSHOJGDPDVLVFHQWULQLVEDQNDVDWVLVDNRJDOLP\E V GDU\WLYLHQNDUWLQHVLQYHVWLFLMDV SLQLJ ULQN RWDLNDLStik gali E WL UHLNDOLQJD SDY\]GåLXL NDL \UD SDODXåWD LOJDODLN infliacija, kainos nustoja kilti, bet yra didelis nedarbas; YLHQNDUWLQLVSLQLJ SDVL ORVSDGLGLQLPDVNDLSWLNSDG W SDGLGLQWLXåLPWXP W\OLNYLGXRWLUHFHVLQ WDUSVQ /DEDL SDGLG MXV Y\ULDXV\E V NLãLP VL HNRQRPLNRV SURFHVXV PRQHWDULVW QXRPRQH E WLQD VPDUNLai VXPDåLQWL%HWNRNVNLãLPDVLVWULNGRODLVYRVULQNRVRUJDQL]DYLP PDåLQDMRHIHNW\YXP LUMRSO WURVSRWHQFLM
.HLQVLQLQN SDåL URV NLWRNLRV 0HV MDX åLQRPH NDG MLH NLWDLS QHJX PRQHWDULVWDL \UD išorinio poveikio SULHPRQL ãDOLQLQNDLLUVWDELOL]DYLPRWLNVODLVVL ORQDXGRWLYLV ULQNLQ ILVNDOLQ V LUPRQHWDULQ V SROLWLNRVSULHPRQL -LH \UD YLHQNDUWLQL ÄLã UHLNDOR GDURP Y\ULDXV\E V DNFLM NLR UDLGDL VWDELOL]XRWL šalininkai. - RSRQHQWDL monetaristai, tvirtina, NDG Y\ULDXV\E WXUL DSVLULERWL WYLUWRPLV WDLV\NO PLV NXULDV QXVWDW\GDPD ML VXNXUV VWDELO NOLPDW ODLVYLHPV ULQNRV VXEMHNW VSUHQGLPDPV 9\ULDXV\E V ILVNDOLQ V LU PRQHWDULQ V SROLWLNRV SULHPRQ V PRNHVþL QRUPRV NHLWLPDV Y\ULDXV\E V REOLJDFLM PDVLQLV VXSLUNLPDV DU SDUGDYLPDV M PDQ\PX QRUV VNLULDPRV NLXL VWDELOL]XRWLIDNWLãNDLM GHVWDELOL]XRMDQHVNXULDQHWLNUXPRNOLPDW LULãHVP V WUXNGRLOJDODLNLDPVILUP VSUHQGLPDPV Keinsininkai SULHãWDUDXMDWDPWHLJGDPLNDGY\ULDXV\E V LQWHUYHQFLMD ULQNRV NLRJ\YHQLP GDURPDWDGDLUWLNWada, kai WDPH N\MHMDX Y\NRGLGHOL VXWULNLP SDNLORQHGDUEDVDU VLE J MRLQIOLDFLMDG O QHODXNW YLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVSRN\þL QHGDUERLUSDMDP VY\UDYLPDLJDOLVXNHOWLWLHNSDWU SHVþL LUQHWLNUXPRILUP LOJDODLNLDPVVSUHQGLPDPVNLHNWDLSDGDUR apmokestinimo ar Y\ULDXV\E V LãODLG NHLWLPDV WRG O PRQHWDULVW DUJXPHQWDL Q UD YLVD WLHVD .LWDV GDO\NDV N YLVDGD SDå\PLPRQHWDULVWDLNDGLQYHVWLFLQ V SULHPRQ V VWDELOL]DYLPRWLNVODLVVXYHLNLDWLNSRNXULRODLNR9DGLQDVLILVNDOLQL DU PRQHWDULQL DNFLM UHLNDOLQJXPDVWXULE WLQXPDW\WDVJDQDDQNVWLRWDLDSVXQNLQDLQWHUYHQFLQ YHLNO
18. Ekonomikos augimas (NRQRPLNRVDXJLPRHVP (NRQRPLNRV DXJLPDV LVWRULQLX SRåL ULX J\YXRMD tik tris ãLPWXV PHW $XJLPR WHPSDL SDJUHLW MR NDL gamyboje buYR SUDG WRV QDXGRWL PDãLQRV LU PHLVWUDL EHL DPDWLQLQNDL SUDUDGR VDYR GDUER VWDWXV âLXRODLNLQLDL DXJLPRWHPSDLWDLSSDWVXVLM VXNRQNUHþLDLVWHFKQRORJLQLDLVpakitimais.
Ekonomikos augimas - WDL SDVWRYXV NLR JDP\ELQLR SDM JXPR NLOLPDV SDVLUHLãNLDQWLV QDcionalinio SURGXNWR SDMDP DSLPWLHVGLG MLPXâ SURFHV DSLE GLQDGXpagrindiniai rodikliai: • realiojo bendrojo nacionalinio produkto (BNP) arba grynojo nacionalinio produkto (GNP) augimo tempai, kurie nusako, kaip GLG MDHNRQRPLNRMHVXNXULDP SUHNL Lr WHLNLDP SDVODXJ DSLPWLV %13DUED*13WHQNDQþLRYLHQDPãDOLHVJ\YHQWRMXLDXJLPRWHPSDLNXULHDSLE GLQDkaip kyla tautos gyveninio lygis. (NRQRPLNRVDXJLPDVJDOLY\NWLGYLHPE GDLV • Šalyje gali E WL DXNãWDV QHGDUER O\JLV GDXJ QHQDXGRMDPRV åHP V ir didelis kiekis nenaudojamo NDSLWDOR-HLJXãLXRVLãWHNOLXVSDOHLGL GDUE WDL%13SDGLG V%HWWDLtrumpalaikis augimas. Jei viskas nesikeis, tai vos tik ištekliai baigsis, tolesnio augimo nebus. 7DþLDX QHWJL WDGD NDL visi ištekliai išnaudoti, ekonomikos augimas yra galimas. Darbo ir kapitalo GLGLQLPDV EHL M SDQDXGRMLPR HIHNW\YXPR GLGLQLPDV padidins EHQGU JDP\ERV DSLPWLHV DXJLP 7DL vadinama ilgalaikiu augimu. (NRQRPLNRV WHRULMD VNLULD HNRQRPLNRV DXJLP QXR QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR SDGLGLQLPR VLDXUinant ar OLNYLGXRMDQWUHFHVLQ WDUSVQ 'DåQDVWDXWRV NLVNXULXRQRUVNRQNUHþLXPHWX\UDQHSDVLHN V JDOLPRQDFLRQDOLQLR produkto gamybos lygio -- G O QHSDNDQNDPRV SDNODXVRV LU MRV V O\JRWR QHGDUER DUED G O VWUXNW ULQLR QHGDUER 3DGLGLQXVVXPDå MXVL YLVXPLQ SDNODXV NUHLY 9'0 SHUVLNHOLD 9'1 WDUNLPHPRQHWDULQ V SROLWLNRVSULHPRQ PLV recesinis tarpsnis Q0 –Q1 EXVOLNYLGXRWDVYLVXPLQ V SDNODXVRVNUHLY NLUVYLVXPLQ V SDVL ORVNUHLY 96WDPHtaške, NXULDPHSDVWDURMLDWLWLQNDJDOLP QDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRO\J W\WDãNHNXULDPHNUHLY 96NHUWDYHUWLNDOL M OLQLM å\PLQþL JDOLPRnacionalinio SURGXNWRDSLPW *UDILNDVURGRNDGOLNYLGXRMDQWVWUXNW ULQ QHGDUE SDGLG V JDOLPR nacionalinio produkto apimtis - M å\PLQWLvertikali linija persikelia iš taško Q0 WDãN 41. Recesinio tarpsnio PDåLQLPDV sukelia YLHQNDUWLQ ULERMDP JDOLPRnacionalinio produkto apimtimi.
nacionalinio produkto gamybos SDGLG MLP
.LHNYLHQX PRPHQWX JDOLPD QDFLRQDOLQLR SURGXNWR DSLPWLV \UD DLãNLDL DSLEU åWD 7HRULãNDL M JDOLPa DSLE GLQWL JDP\ERVJDOLP\EL NUHLYH-Lgali persikelti aukštyn tik SDGLG MXVgamybos YHLNVQL produktyvumui.
,OJDODLN QXRODWLQ HNRQRPLNRVDXJLP sukelia kitokios SULHåDVW\V- gamybos YHLNVQL SDJULQGLQ V M U ã\V - darbas, kapitalas LU åHP apimties LU M SURGXNW\YXPR DXJLPDV Matuojant ilgais laiko tarpais, visi esminiai NLR SRN\þLDLSULVNLUWLQLE WHQWãLHPVveiksniams. - G NDnetgi saikingas ekonomikos augimas tarkime, 3% per metus -- per trejus metus
padidina nacionalines pajamas dešimtadaliXRSHUPHWXVMRVSDGYLJXE MDKitaip tariant, ekonomikos augimas yra LOJDODLNLR NLR Y\VW\PRVL VDY\E DWLWLQNDPDL HNRQRPLNRV DXJLPR teorija tiria ilgalaikius procesus ir atsiriboja nuo WUXPSDODLNL JDP\ERVDSLPWLHVVY\UDYLP
Ekonomikos augimas daugiDXVLD\UDVXVLM V VXLQYHVWLFLMRPLV%HWRLQYHVWLFLMRPLVãLXRatveju laikytina ne bet NRNLD LQYHVWLFLQ YHLNOD NXULQDFLRQDOLQ V V VNDLW\ERV VNLOW\VH kvalifikuojama kaip investicijos, o tik tokia, kuri iš WLNU M GLGLQDWDXWRVJDP\ELQHVJDOLP\EHV
IlgalDLNL ODLNRWDUSL SRåL ULXNLW DVSHNW JDXQDLUSDMDP WDXS\PDV QHYDUWRMLPDV äLQRPHNDGWDXS\PR GDOLHVSDGLG MLPDVQDP NLR ãHLP SDMDPRVHSHUNHOLDYDUWRMLPRIXQNFLM åHP\QWDLJLPDåLQDYLVXPLQ SDNODXV LU SXVLDXVY\URV QDFLRQDOLQ SURGXNW 7DL EXYR YDGLQDPDVLV ÄWDXS\PR SDUDGRNVDV 3HU LOJ ODLNRWDUS YDL]GDV NHLþLDVL ãHLP VDQWDXSRVVXNXULDO ã IRQGXVLQYHVWLFLMRPVILQDQVXRWL.XRGDXJLDXWDXSRPDW\NXRVDQW\NLQDLPDåHVQLV ãHLP HLQDPDVLV YDUWRMLPDV WXR GLGHVQ V LQYHVWLFLMRV JDOLPRV YDOVW\E MH .XR GLGHVQ V LQYHVWLFLMRV WXR GLGHVQL gamybos augimo etapai. Vadinasi, ilgu laikotarpiu taupymo SDUDGRNVDVQHEHYHLNLD GDXJLDXWDXSDQWLYLVXRPHQ Y\VWRVL VSDUþLDX
18.2. Augimo veiksniai 9LHQDVLãDXJLPRYHLNVQL \UDJDP\ELQ IXQNFLMD*DP\ELQ IXQNFLMDQXVDNRPDNVLPDO SURGXNFLMRVNLHN NXULV gali E WL JDXQDPDV SDQDXGRMDQW QXVWDW\W G\GåL išteklius, t.y. JDP\ERV YHLNVQLXV NDSLWDO GDUE åHP LU åDOLDYDV Bendras produkcijos kiekis, kuris gali E WLSDJDPLQWDVHNRQRPLNRMHSDQDXGRMDQWãLXRVJDmybos veiksnius, priklauso nuo PRNVOLQL LUWHFKQLQL JDPLQWRMRåLQL *DP\ELQ IXQNFLMD SDURGR SRWHQFLDO SURGXNFLMRV NLHN WDL \UD SURGXNFLMRV kiekis, gaunamas esant visiškam XåLPWXPXL *DP\ELQ IXQNFLMD QDXGRMDPD ilgalaikio ekonomikos augimo analizei, kadangi ilgu laikotarpiu atsispindi potencialus produkcijos kiekio DXJLPDV 5HPGDPLHVL JDP\ELQ V IXQNFLMRV DSLEU åLPX GDURPH LãYDG NDG \UD GX ekonomikos augimo ãDOWLQLDL QDXGRMDP LãWHNOL didinimas - NDSLWDOR GDUER åHP V åDOLDY LU WHFKQLQL åLQL tobulinimas -QDXM LUSDåDQJHVQL JDP\ERVPHWRG DWVLUDGLPDV procese.
Kapitalas - WDL UHQJLPDL SDVWDWDL LU SDJDPLQWRV SURGXNFLMRV DWVDUJRV NXULRV QDXGRMDPRV WROHVQLDPH JDP\ERV
'DUER LãWHNOL DXJLPDV didina LãOHLGåLDPRV SURGXNFLMRV NLHN äPRJLãNDVLV NDpitalas -WDL åPRQL åLQLRV LU NYDOLILNDFLMD'DUER QDãDV SURGXNFLMRVJDP\E SULNODXVRQHtik QXRMRNLHNLREHWLUQXRNRN\E V 7LQNDPDDSGLUELPXLåHP \UDVYDUEXVåHP V NLRHNRQRPLNRVYHLNVQ\V
0DOWXVRVS VWDL;,;DPåLDXVHNRQRPLVWDLEXYRODEDLVXVLU SLQ G O åHP V ULERWRNLHNLR.DGDQJLåHP V NLHNLR SDGLGLQWL QHJDOLPD WRG O jie QDJULQ MR åHP NDLS HNRQRPLQ DXJLP ULERMDQW YHLNVQ - PDQ\PX G O J\YHQWRM VNDLþLDXVDXJLPRYLHQDPLUWDPSDþLDPåHP V SORWXLåPRQL NLHNLVYLVGLG VRPDLVWRSURGXNW JDP\EDQHJDOLWDLSJUHLWDL GLG WL*\YHQLPRO\JLVPDå VLUSDJDOLDXVXVWDEG\VJ\YHQWRM VNDLþLDXVDXJLP
3DJULQGLQLV ãLRV LG MRV DXWRULXV EXYR 7 0DOWXVDV -LV WYLUWLQR NDG åPRQL VNDLþLXV GLG MD SDJDO JHRPHWULQ SURJUHVLM RåHP V NLRJDP\ERVDSLPWLVDXJDSDJDODULWPHWLQ SURJUHVLM 7DLJL0DOWXVRWHLJLPXPDLVWRSURGXNW kiekis YLHQDP J\YHQWRMXL PDå V SDJDO J\YHQWRM VNDLþLDXV NLOLP *DO JDOH DWHLV EDGDV LU åPRQL VNDLþLXV VXPDå V 7DþLDX 0DOWXVDVQH YHUWLQRåHP V NLRJDP\ERVSURGXNW\YXPRDXJLPR0RNVORLUWHFKQLNRVSDåDQJDåHP V N\MHJHULQDåPRQL VNDLþLDXVDXJLPRSHUVSHNW\Y äDOLDYRV QDIWDJHOHåLVanglis)WDLSSDW\UDJDP\ERVYHLNVQ\V(IHNW\Y V UHQJLPDLLUJDP\ERVPHWRGDLOHLGåLD JDXWLW SDW SURGXNFLMRVNLHN SDQDXGRMDQWPDåLDXåDOLDY . Neatstatomieji ištekliai. Kai kurias åDOLDY U ãLV SDY\]GåLXL PHGLHQ JDOLPD DWVWDW\WL 7DþLDX EHQGURV SDVDXOLQ V åDOLDYRVNDLSQDIWDDQJOLVYDULVQHJDOLE WLSDGLGLQWRVLUDWVWDW\WRVâL åDOLDY QDXGRMLPDVPDåLQDM NLHN NXULV potencialiai gali E WL SDQDXGRWDV DWHLW\MH 7DL VXN O EDLP NDG YLVRV pasaulio ãDO\V VXQDXGRV QXURG\WXV LãWHNOLXV LU M LãQ\NLPDV VXVWDEG\V HNRQRPLNRV DXJLP 7DLN\GDPL HNVSRQHQWLQLR DXJLPR V O\JDV SDPDW\VLPH NDG QHDEHMRWLQDL DWHLV laikas, kai šie ištekliai išseks. Romos klubo pranešimai teigia, kad DUWLPLDXVL 50-100 PHW ODLNRWDUSLXåPRQLMDVXVLGXUV su PDWHULDOLQL LãWHNOL WU NXPX 7DþLDX LU ãLXR DWYHMX nepamirškime, kad ekonomikos funkcionavimas yra daug VXG WLQJHVQLV QHL SDO\JLQWL SULPLW\YL HNVSRQHQWLQLR G VQLR prielaida. 3DQDJULQ NLPH kaip ULQNRV HNRQRPLND UHDJXRMD DWVLUDGXV kokio nors vertingo ištekliaus WU NXP 9LV SLUPD VXPDå MXV SDVL ODL Lã NDUWR SDGLG MD NDLQRV .DLQ sistema šiuo atveju atlieka NHOHW IXQNFLM • Greitai GLG MDQþLRV kainos VXPDåLQD tr NVW DP åDOLDY SDNODXV - bendras panaudojimas gerokai VXPDå VNDUWXGLG MDQWribiniam naudingumui. 3DY\]GåLXL
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išaugus naftos kainai, SUHN PV SDNXRWL JDPLQWRMDL SUDG V QDXGRWL SRSLHUL DQNVþLDX QDXGRMR SODVWPDV JDPLQDP LãQDIWRV .DLQ DXJLPDV\UDHIHNW\YLDXVLDVE GDVOHLGåLDQWLVLãVSU VWLãL SUREOHP $XJDQþLRVNDLQRVYHUþLDJDPLQWRMXVLHãNRWLQDXM WU NVWDP åDOLDY JDYLPRE G Esant tam tikroms V O\JRPVEXVSHOQLQJDLãJDXWLQDIW LãYDQGHQ\QRGXJQR $XNãWRVWU NVWDP LãWHNOL NDLQRVUHLNDODXMDLHãNRWLSDNDLWDO 7UDGLFLQL HQHUJLMRVU ãL SDNDLWDOXJDOL WDSWL6DXO V HQHUJLMD .DLS PDWRPH NDLQ VLVWHPD UDQGD E G NDLS SULVLWDLN\WL JDP\EDL SDVLNHLWXV LãWHNOL SDVL ORV V O\JRPV $WHLWLV SDURG\V DU PRNVOR LU WHFKQLNRV SDåDQJD EHL QHDWVWDWRP LãWHNOL SDNDLWDO JDP\ED XåWLNULQV HNRQRPLNRVDXJLP (NRQRPLMDG O PDVWR.LHNYLHQDVJDP\ERVYHLNVQ\V QHãDVDYRGDO SURGXNFLMRVJDP\E -HLJXYLHQR YHLNVQLRNLHNLVVXPDå MDWDLWDPSDþLDPSURGXNFLMRVNLHNLXLSDJDPLQWLUHLN V GLGHVQLRNLHNio kito veiksnio. O NDVE W SURGXNFLMRVJDP\EDLMHLJXYLVLJDP\ERVYHLNVQLDLE W GLGLQDPLNDUWX"7DLSULNODXVRQXRHNRQRPLMRV G O PDVWR (NRQRPLMD G O PDVWR DWVLUDQGD WXR DWYHMX MHLJX LãOHLGåLDPRV SURGXNFLMRV NLHNLV SDGLG MD GX NDUWXV dvigubai padidinXVJDP\ERVYHLNVQL V QDXGDVJDP\ERMH-HLSDGLGLQXVV QDXGDVdu kartus, produkcijos kiekis WDLS SDW SDGLG MD GX NDUWXV NDOEDPD DSLH SDVWRY QDãXP G O PDVWR -HLJX SDGLGLQXV V QDXGDV GX NDUWXV SURGXNFLMRV NLHNLV SDGLG MD PDåLDX QHL GX NDUWXV kalbama apLH QHLJLDP HNRQRPLM G O PDVWR DUED QDãXPR NULWLPDVG O PDVWR /HPLDPDLQYHVWLFLM NDLSSDJULQGLQLRDXJLPRYHLNVQLRUHLNãP HNRQRPLNRVWHRULMRMHSULSDå VWDPDEH LãO\J WDþLDX MRV LQWHUSUHWDYLPDV LOJDLQLXL NHLW VL âLXRODLNLQL HNRQRPLVW SDåL URV VNLULDVL QXR W WHLJLQL NXULXRV VXIRUPXODYR NODVLNLQ V NU\SWLHV HNRQRPLNRV DXJLPR W\ULQ WRMDL .DLS YLVDGD E QD VX WLNU MD SDåDQJD NODVLNLQLDLWHLJLQLDLQHEXYRSDQHLJWLROLNRNDLSEHQGUHVQLDEVWUDNWHVQLQHNRQNUHWL]XRWLDSLE GLQLPDL
9LHQDVLãM \UDWHLJLQ\VDSLHPDå MDQW NDSLWDOR LUEHWNXUL NLW LãWHNOL HIHNW\YXP SURGXNW\YXP $LãNLQGDPLHVL ã WHLJLQ WXULPH WUDXNWL V O\J NDG YLVXRPHQ WXUL JDOLP\EL kaupti kapitalo investicijas, o WHFKQRORJLQLDLSUHNL JDP\ERVLUSDVODXJ WHLNLPRE GDLQHVLNHLþLD7RNLXDWYHMXSLUPLDXVLDEXVLãQDXGRWRV SDODQNLDXVLRV GXRGDQþLRVGLGåLDXVL JDP\ERVSULHDXJ LQYHVWLFLM JDOLP\E V7ROHVQ V SDSLOGRPRVLQYHVWLFLMRV NDVNDUW GXRV YLV PDåHVQ NLHN SDSLOGRPRV SURGXNFLMRV SDY NDSLWDOR NLHN SDGLGLQXV LNL .0, gamybos SULHDXJLVVXPDå V QXR$LNL%G\GåLR'DUODELDXSDGLGLQXVWXULP NDSLWDO QXR.0 iki K:1, SULHDXJLVVXPDå V LNL &LUWDLSWROLDXNROJDOLDXVLDLSDSLOGRPRVLQYHVWLFLMRVDSVNULWDLQHåDG V jokio JDP\ERVEHLSDMDP SULHDXJLR
Vadinasi, nuolat darant papildomas investicijas, ribinis NDSLWDOR HIHNW\YXPDV W \ JDXQDP PHWLQ V SURGXNFLMRV DUED SDMDP SULHDXJLR LU W PHW LQYHVWLFLM sumos santykis) PDå MD 7DL EHQGUR PDå MDQþL SDMDP G VQLRNRQNUHWLišraiška. Ribinio kapitalo efektyvumo PDå MLPDs reiškia, kad kapitalo ir produkcijos VDQW\NLVGLG MD- produkcijos vienetui pagaminti reikia kaskart vis daugiau kapitalo.
3UDPRQ V DWVLUDGLPDV LU VSDUWL SO WUD VXNXULD YLVDL QDXM LQYHVWDYLPR JDOLP\EL 'DURVL PDQRPD papildomo kapitalo investicijomis gDXWLQHWLNQHPDå MDQW EHWQHWJLGLGHVQ JDP\ERVLUSDMDP SULHDXJ SDO\JLQWL VX DQNVWHVQ PLV LQYHVWLFLMRPLV 9LVD WDL YDL]GXRMDPD SDY .DL DWVLUDQGD QDXM SDSLOGRP SURGXNW\YL LQYHVWLFLM JDOLP\EL ULELQLRNDSLWDORNUHLY SDVLNHOLDGHãLQ Q - iš RKEQ 5.(1 SRWR 5.(2.
$XJDQWLV NDSLWDODV . LQYHVWLFLM G ND GLG MDQWLV QXR .0 iki K1 ir toliau iki K2) tokiomis V O\JRPLV GXRGDDWLWLQNDP SDMDP SULHDXJ â SULHDXJ QXVDNRWU\VNDSLWDORLULãHLJRVsantykio variantai, kuriuos grafike å\PL URG\NO V SDYLGDOR NUHLY - PDå MDQþLX YLHQRGX LU GLG MDQþLX VDQW\NLX 6NLUWLQJDV NDSLWDOR - išeigos santykis grafike matomas kaip skirtingas NDSLWDOR SULHDXJLR G\GLV HVDQW WRNLDP SDþLDP LQYHVWLFLM JDOLP\EL pasikeitimo mastui, t. y. kaip skirtingi K1 - K(1 ir K1 – K2 G\GåLDL HVDQW YLHQRGLHPV 5.( NUHLY V SHUVLN OLPR G\GåLDPV SDY D GDOLV DSLE GLQD SDG W NXULRV ODLNRVL WLH HNRQRPLVWDL NXULH GDU OLQN SULSDåLQWL NODVLNLQ PDå MDQþL SDMDP G VQ QHW LU WXR DWYHMX NDL MLH VXWLQND NDG HNRQRPLNRV UDLGD kuria papildomas investavimo galimybes. 'DO\VELUFRULHQWXRWRV PRNVORLUWHFKQLNRVSDåDQJRVNXULDPDVLQYHVWLFLM JDOLP\EHV
Gamybinis kaupimas. Gamybinio (produktyvaus) kapitalo kaupimas buvo ir lieka svarbiausiu JDP\ERVLUQDFLRQDOLQL SDMDP GLGLQLPRYHLNVQLX.XRGDXJLDXPDãLQ LU UHQJLQL QDXGRMDYLVXRPHQ NXR GLGHVQLVM NLHNLVWHQNDQWLVYLHQDPGDUEXRWRMXL- tuo didesnis nacionalinis produktas. -HL NLVišlaiko QHLQIOLDFLQ YLVLãN XåLPWXP LUkapitalo - išeigos santykis nekinta, nacionalinio produkto augimo tempai tiesiogiai priklauso nuo gamybinio kapitalo dalies nacionaliniame produkte.
.DSLWDORNRN\E 'DO nacionalinio SURGXNWRSDYHUþLDQWJDP\ELQLXkapitalu, YLVGLGHVQ UHLNãP WXULQH tik jo kiekis LQYHVWLFLM apimtis), EHWLUMRHOHPHQW WHFKQLQ V-HNRQRPLQ V VDY\E V NDSLWDORNRN\E *DOLPD VLYDL]GXRWL HNRQRPLNRV DXJLP DSVNULWDL EH NDXSLPR W \ EH JU\Q M LQYHVWLFLM taip bus, jei VXVLG Y M UHQJLPDLEXVDWVWDWRPLYLHQLãDPRUWL]DFLMRVIRQGRO ã YLHWRMVHQ M SDVWDWDQWQDXMXVtiek paW NDLQXRMDQþLXVEHW produktyvesnius. Šiuo DWYHMX VDYR YDLGPHQ atlieka PRNVOR LU WHFKQLNRV SDåDQJD - vystantis mokslui, gamybos SULHPRQ V LUWHFKQRORJLMDWREXO MDG O WRWDVSDWVEHWIL]LãNDLDWQDXMLQDPDVNDSLWDODVteikia JDOLP\EL JDXWLGDXJLDX nacionalinio SURGXNWRVNDLþLXRMDQWNDSLWDORYLHQHWXL1HPHQN YDLGPHQ YDLGLQDLUorganizaciniai gamybos SURFHV veiksniai - gamybos ir darbo organizavimas, rinkodaros ir vadybos sistemos.
.DSLWDORNRN\E V DXJLPRãDNQ\V- PRNVORSO WUD NLQ MHYHLNORMHPRNVORODLP MLPDLUHDOL]XRMDPLLQRYDFLM forma -NHLþLDQWJDP\ERVSURFHVXVSDJDOPRNVORSDVL O\WXVLUeksperimentine tvarka pademonstruotus principus. .XRJUHLþLDXLQRYDFLMRVLãSOLQWDWDXWRV N\MHWXRGLGHVQ WHLJLDP SRYHLN MRVGDUR NLRURGLNOLDPV NLRSO WRMimasis nesustos tik WXRDWYHMXMHLNDVNDUWYLVQDXMLSDWREXOLQLPDLEXV GLHJLDPL JDP\E
'DUER GDUER M JRV NRN\E åPRJLãNDVLV NDSLWDODV 9LVXRPHQ UHDOLDL VNLULD GDO savo nacionalinio SURGXNWR åPRQL VXJHE MLPDPV GLUEWL ODYLQWL WREXOLQWL LU UHDOLai sulaukia atitinkamo efekto darbo našumo augimo SDYLGDOX7DLJLLãODLGDVãYLHWLPXLNYDOLILNDFLMDL J\WLVYHLNDWRVDSVDXJDLSDJU VWDLJDOLPDWUDNWXRWLNDLSLQYHVWLFLMDV åPRQHV GXRGDQþLDVDWLWLQNDP QDFLRQDOLQLRSURGXNWRSULHDXJ .XRJHUHVQ YLVXRPHQ V QDUL VYHLNDWRVE NO WXRGDXJLDXODLNRVXQDXGRMDSURGXNW\YLDLNLHNYLHQDVYLVXRPHQ V QDU\V SHU VDYR GDUELQJ DPåL .XR GLGHVQ LãVLODYLQLP åPRJXV JLMR WXR OHQJYLDX MLV SULVLWDLN SULH ãLXRODLNLQ V JDP\ERVUHLNDODYLP
Tiek sveikatos apsaugos, tiek ãYLHWLPRLUSURIHVLQLRUHQJLPRV O\J JHULQLPDVåLQRPDQHDSVLULERMRWHLJLDPX SRYHLNLX YLHQ HNRQRPLNRV URGLNOLDPV 'DU VYDUEHVQ \UD M VRFLDOLQ IXQNFLMD NXUL UHDOL]XRMDQW PDå MD VRFLDOLQLV YLVXRPHQ V QDUL VXVLVNDOG\PDV N\OD EHQGUDV NXOW URV O\JLV SODþLDX LãVLVNOHLGåLD åPRJDXV J\YHQLPR YDLURY LU SLOQDWY
'DUER GDUER M JRV NLHNLV 'DUER M JRV NLHNLV WLHVLRJLDL SULNODXVR QXR J\YHQWRM VNDLþLDXV âDOLHV J\YHQWRM VNDLþLXVJDOLGLG WL .DLJLPLPRNRHILFLHQWDV\UDGLGHVQLVXå PLULPRNRHILFLHQW WDLYDGLQDPDVLVQDW UDODXV J\YHQWRM SULHDXJLR koeficientas). .DLLPLJUDQW VNDLþLXVYLUãLMDHPLJUDQW VNDLþL Bendras gimimo koeficientas -WDLSHUPHWXVJLPXVL J\Y N GLNL VNDLþLXVW NVWDQþLXLJ\YHQWRM
Bendras mirimo koeficientas -PLUXVL VNDLþLXVSHUPHWXVW NVWDQþLXLJ\YHQWRM
1DW UDODXVJ\YHQWRM SULHDXJLRNRHILFLHQWDVO\JXVJLPLPRNRHILFLHQWDVPLQXVPLULPRkoeficientas.
9DLN PLUWLHVNRHILFLHQWDV- WDLVNDLþLXVPLUXVL N GLNL (iki YLHQHUL PHW W NVWDQþLXLJLPXVL 7DLVYDUEXV gyvenimo lygio šalyje rodiklis. ;; DPåLXMH äHP V J\YHQWRM VNDLþLXV DXJD ODEDL JUHLWDL 7DLS \UD QH G O GLGHOLR JLPLP VNDLþLDXV EHW G O PLULP VNDLþLDXVVXPDå MLPR0HGLFLQRVODLP MLPDLSDG MRSDJHULQWLJ\YHQLPRVDQLWDULQHVEHLKLJLHQRVV O\JDV -HL NLW JDP\ERV YHLNVQL DSLPWLV EHL YLVXRPHQ V åLQL YLHQLQWHO DXJLPRYHLNVQ GDUERM JRVNLHN
O\J ODLN\WXPH QHNLQWDQþLDLV WDL HNRQRPLND WXU V
2SWLPDODXV J\YHQWRM VNDLþLDXV NRQFHSFLMD QHLãYHQJLDPDL LãNHOLD GYL NLWDV V YRNDV -ekonomika, esant SHUG WDPJ\YHQWRM VNDLþLXL LUHNRQRPLNDNDLJ\YHQWRM VNDLþLXVQHSDNDQNDPDV3LUPXRMXDWYHMXWXULPHWRN N NXULDPHSDSLOGRPDVJ\YHQWRM RLUNDUWXGDUEXRWRM SULHDXJLVVXPDåLQD nacionalinio produkto NLHN gyventojui, antruoju kai J\YHQWRM SULHDXJLVW URGLNO SDGLGLQD
6WUXNW ULQLDLSRå\PLDL3DGLG M V NLR dinamizmas išryškina santykinai VDYDUDQNLãN VWUXNW ULQLRveiksnio YDLGPHQ HNRQRPLNRVDXJLPRPHFKDQL]PXL
3DY\]GåLXL YLVXRWLQLV GDU WHEHVLW VLDQWLV åHP V NLR EHL JDY\ELQ V SUDPRQ V O\JLQDPRMR VYRULR PDå MLPDV bendroje gaP\ERV DSLPW\MH LU GDUER M JRV išlaisvinimas MRVH V O\JRMD GDUEXRWRM SHUVLN OLP DSGRURMDQþLRV SUDPRQ V ãDNDV -RVH GDUER QDãXPDV \UD DXNãWHVQLV WRG O WRNV NLR VWUXNW URV SDNLWLPDV NRO jis W VLDVL SDVSDUWLQD ekonomikos augimo tempus. Jei energijos gDP\EDSHUHLQDQXRYLHQRVNXURU ãLHVSULHNLWRVVPDUNLDLLãDXJDQDXM kuro U ãL gavybos investicijos. 7DþLDXãLXRDWYHMXYLVRVHNRQRPLNRVDXJLPDVPDåDLWHSDJUHLW MDQHVQDXMRVLQYHVWLFLMRVNHLþLDVHQ M Q\NVWDQþLRMHãDNRMHHVDQW NDSLWDO EHWnepapildR YLVXPLQLRNDSLWDOR%HQGURVLRVLQYHVWLFLMRV\UDGLGHO VEHWJU\Q M LQYHVWLFLM EHYHLNQ UD 0RNVORLUWHFKQLNRVSDåDQJDäLQL kaupimas yra pagrindinis ekonomikos augimo veiksnys. Išradimai ir QDXMRY V - WDLGXPRNVORLUWHFKQLNRVSDåDQJRVDVSHNWDL,ãradimai VXVLM VXQDXMRPLVåLQLRPLV1DXMRY V - WDLWXULP åLQL gerinimas.
,ãUDGLPDLLUQDXMRY V WXULVYDUEL UHLNãP HNRQRPLNRVDXJLPXL%HWSDSUDVWDLNDGGDU\W WDN JDP\EDLMLHWXUL E WL GLHJWLNDSLWDOH- IL]LQLDPHDUEDåPRJLãNDPH.DLLãUDGLPDV\ra VXNXUWDVLUJDOYRMDPDDSLHMR GLHJLP JDP\E reikia LQYHVWLFLM QDXMDL UDQJDL0RNVORLUtechnikos åLQL WREXO MLPDV \UD QH tik LãUDGLP UH]XOWDWDV EHW LU DWVNLU GDUEXRWRM SDWLUWLV(NRQRPLNRVDXJLPRSURFHVHYLHQLODLP MLPDLGDåQLDXVLDLYHGDSULHNLW
Instituciniai veiksniai. 9\ULDXV\E V WHLVLQLDLDNWDLVNLUWLWLHVLRJLDL VLNLãWLLUUHJXOLXRWL NLRSURFHVXVDUEDWLN QHWLHVLRJLDLMXRVYHLNLDQW\VWDLSSDWGDURSRYHLN HNRQRPLNRVDXJLPRVSDUWDL6DYRLQWHQFLMRPLVWRNLHYHLNVPDLGDåQLDXVLDL orientXRMDPL HNRQRPLNRV SO WU VSDUWLQWL R VDYR IDNWLQ PLV SDVHNP PLV tie YHLNVPDL GDXJHOLR HNRQRPLVW QXRPRQHPDåLDXvienareikšmiški. 5HLNLD GDXJ LQYHVWLFLM QRULQW SDJUHLWLQWL HNRQRPLNRV DXJLP 7DL åLQRPD QHUHLãNLD kad pasirinkta LQYHVWLFLM VNDWLQLPRSROLWLNDQ UDWHLVLQJDDUEDNDGMLQHSDGHGDJUHLWLQWLHNRQRPLNRVDXJLPR7DLJUHLþLDXUHLãNLD kad LQYHVWLFLM JDOLP\EL QHUHLNLD SHUYHUWLQWL ,QYHVWLFLM GLGLQLPDL WLNUDL SDJUHLWLQV HNRQRPLNRV DXJLP EHW GLGHOL VWHEXNO WLN WLVQHUHLNLD Ekonomikos augiPR YHLNVQL DWåYLOJLX JDOLPD VXIRUPXOXRWL WRNL LãYDG LãY\VW\WRVH SUDPRQ V ãDO\VH åPRJLãNRMRLUIL]LQLRNDSLWDORNRN\E V WREXOLQLPDVYDLGLQDGLGHVQ YDLGPHQ negu to kapitalo NLHN\E V augimas.
(NRQRPLNRV DXJLPR YHLNVQL YDLURY M JODXGXV WDUSXVDYLR Uyšys reikalauja atsakymo NODXVLP NXULV Lã HVDP YHLNVQL atlieka VYDUELDXVL YDLGPHQ $PHULNLHþL HNRQRPLVWDV('HQLVRQDVSDEDQG YHUWLQWL åLQRP YHLNVQL WDN -$9 HNRQRPLQLDP DXJLPXL - PHW ODLNRWDUSLX ( 'HQLVRQR SDVNDLþLDYLPDLV QDFLRQDOLQ PV SDMDPRPV QDJULQ MDPXSHULRGXGLG MDQWYLGXWLQLãNDLSR SHUPHWXVYHLNVQL WDNDSDVLVNLUVW ãLWDLS SDY 'LGåLDXVL DXJLPRGDO O P GDUERSDVL ORVNRN\E V LãVLODYLQLPRNYDOLILNDFLMRVDXJLPDV LUNLHN\E V XåLPWXPR didinimas) pasikeitimas. Kiti DXJLP teigiamai veikiantys veiksniai SDJDO WDNRVP VW LãVLG VWR tokia tvarka: mokslo LU WHFKQLNRV QDXMRYL WDLN\PDV QDXM LQYHVWLFLM panaudojimas, gamybos masto efektas ir LãWHNOL paskirstymo tobulinimas. (NRQRPLQLR DXJLPR SURFHV QHLJLDPDL YHLN SULHPRQ V VXVLMXVLRV VX DSOLQNRV DSVDXJD (didino vienalaikes V QDXGDVUH]XOWDWXVJDXQDQWY OHVQLDLV periodais) ir WHLVLQ V aplinkos pasikeitimais SY]PRNHVþL VWDW\P pakitimai PDåLQR DNFLQLQN SROLQN investuoti).
8åEXUWDVLV VNXUGR UDWDV NeDLãNX NRG O NDL NXULRV ãDO\V VNXUVWD .DUWDLV DWURGR NDG jas persekioja OLNLPDV$SLHXåEXUW M VNXUGRUDW NDLN SDDLãNLQDSDY 6XQNX LãWU NWL Lã VNXUGR UDWR NDL SDMDPRV QHGLGHO V 3DWHNXV M PDåDL WDXSRPD EHL investuojama, Y\NVWDO WLWHFKQRORJLMRVSRN\þLDLVLDXU MDULQNRV9LVDWDLULERMDHNRQRPLNRVDXJLP
(NRQRPLNRVDXJLPRSDVHNP V 0DWHULDOLQL J\YHQLPRV O\J JHULQLPDVVNXUGRLUQHSULWHNOL HOLPLQDYLPDVYLVDGDEXYRYLHQDVLãVYDUELDXVL HNRQRPLVW PRNVOLQL LQWHUHV REMHNW 9LHQX Lã SDJULQGLQL YHLNVQL JDOLQþL Lã HVP V SDJHULQWL åPRQL J\YHQLPR V O\JDV JUHWD SHUVNLUVW\PR EHL QDXMRV HWLNRV J\YHQGLQLPR LG M EXYR ODLNRPDV HNRQRPLNRV DXJLPDV $XJDQW HNRQRPLNDL W\ GLG MDQW bendrajam nacionaliniam produktui, kyla gyvenimo lygiR URGLNOLDL JHU MD SDMDP SDVNLUVW\PDV YLVXRPHQ MHVWLSU MDYDOVW\E LUN\ODMRVSUHVWLåDVSDVDXO\MH Gyvenimo lygio kilimas. Tai -SDJULQGLQLVHNRQRPLNRVDXJLQLRWLNVODVWRDXJLPRSUDVP LUUH]XOWDWDVäLQRPD EHQGUDVHNRQRPLNRVDXJLPDVQHXåWLNULQDWRNLRSDWJHURY V DXJLPRNLHNYLHQDLãHLPDLLUåPRJXL-HLDVPXRDSVNULWDL QHWXULGDUERMRNLH NLRDXJLPRWHPSDLWLHVLRJLDLQHSDNHLVMRVOHJLDQþLRVSDG WLHV-HLGDUEXRWRMDVQHWXULDXNãWHVQ V kvalifikacijos, ekonomikos augimas ne tik JDOLM DSHLWLEHWQHWJU VWLLãVW PLPXLãGDUERYLHWRV9DGLQDVLaugimas iš WLHV JHULQDYLVXRPHQ V J\YHQLPRPDWHULDOLQHVV O\JDVtik tada, kai jis V O\JRMDatitinkamus perskirstymo procesus. 3DMDP SHUVNLUVW\PDV 7DP WLNUX PDVWX EHW NXUL YLVXRPHQ SHUVNLUVWR VDYR XåGLUEWDV SDMDPDV QHJDOLQþL GLUEWLQDXGDL(NRQRPLNDLQHDXJDQW DUEDMDLDXJDQWQHVSDUþLDXQHJXGLG MDJ\YHQWRM VNDLþLXV EHWNRNVSDJDOERV DWVLG UXVLHPV VNXUGH SDGLGLQLPDV UHLãNLD GLUEDQþL M SDMDP VXPDåLQLP R HNRQRPLNRV DXJLPR V O\JRPLV ãLWR Q UD âLXR DWYHMX SHUVNLUVWRPRV QH SDMDPRV R M SULHDXJLV -- WDL PDQRPD SDGDU\WL WDLS NDG PDåDL DSU SLQW ãHLP
SDMDPRV LãDXJW GLGHVQLX PDVWX QHJX JDXQDQþL GLGHOHV SDMDPDV 7XR XåVLLPD Y\ULDXV\E UHDOL]XRGDPD atitinkamas programas. Šitaip PDåLQDPDSDMDP QHO\J\E visXRPHQ MHNDVVDYRUXRåWX\UDLUDWLWLQNDPRVRFLDOLQ V GLIHUHQFLDFLMRVPDå MLPRV O\JD
Gyvensenos kitimas. âHLP SDMDP GLG MLPDVHNRQRPLNRVDXJLPRV O\JRPLVNHLþLD M QDXGRMLPRVWUXNW U 9LV GDXJLDX SDMDP ãHLPRV LPD LãOHLVWL J\YHQDPDMDP QDPXL UHQJWL NHOLRQ PV SRLOVLXL .DL QXRODW SDWHQNLQWRV J\Y\ELQ V UHLNP VåPRQ V DWVNOHLGåLDQDXM VDYRSDMDP QDXGRMLPRJDOLP\EL NXULRVSDSUDVWDLUHDOL]XRMDPRVWXUWLQDQW ODLVYDODLN aukšto O\JLRNXOW URVPHQRPRNVORVSRUWRLQIRUPDFLMRVSDVODXJRPLV Šie procesaL WXUL LU VDYR ÄãHã OLQ SXVH YLVL MLH UHPLDVL itin GLGHOLX LU WHEHDXJDQþLX GDLNW LU HQHUJLMRV YDUWRMLPX R WDL QHLãYHQJLDPDL GLGLQD J\YHQDPRVLRV LU JDPWLQ V DSOLQNRV DSNURYLP kelia WHUãLPR WULXNãPR DYDULM SDYRM 7RG O WLHN EHQGUR YDUWRMLPR O\JLR kilimas, WLHN J\YHQVHQRV NLWLPDV UHLNDODXMD VNLUWL YLV GLGHVQH YLVXRPHQ V QDFLRQDOLQL SDMDP GDO QHLJLDPRPV DXJLPRSDVHNP PVHOLPLQXRWLDU VXãYHOQLQWLR WDL VXPDåLQDWHLJLDP DXJLPR SRYHLN 9DOVW\E V J\Q\ELQLVSDM JXPDVLUSUHVWLåDVKuo spartesni ekonomikos augimo tempai, WXR OHQJYLDX YDOVW\E VSUHQGåLDVDYRJ\Q\ELQLRSRWHQFLDORSUREOHPDV
NLR DXJLPR JDOLP\E V JUHWD MDX WXULPR HNRQRPLQLR SRWHQFLDOR \UD SDJULQGLQLV YDOVW\E V WDUSWDXWLQLR SUHVWLåR YHLNVQ\V .LHN EHE W DXWRQRPLãND ãDOLHV SROLWLQ VLVtema, jos NXOW ULQLV O\JLV SXRVHO MDPRV QDFLRQDOLQ V tradicijos ir vaidmuo pasaulio mastu, JDO gale visi šie HOHPHQWDLWLHVLRJLDLSULNODXVRQXRWRVãDOLHV NLRUDLGRVQXRMRVHNRQRPLQL ODLP MLP LUQHV NPL
9LVRNHULRSRV SDåDQJRV laidas yra NLR SDåDQJD 7DUSWDXWLQ ÄRILFLDO M DXWRULWHW NL W YDOVW\EL DN\VH šalis gali J\WL LU savo karine galia bei ekonomikos kiekybiniais parametrais NXR GLGHVQ HNRQRPLND WXR GLGHVQ MHL tarptautiniai NLQLDL ryšiai yra pakankamai išvystyti WHLJLDP DU QHLJLDP SRYHLN gali ML GDU\WL SDVDXOLXL VDYR NLR SRN\þLDLV RSUHVWLåDV pasiekiamas tik ekonomikos raidos LUMRVV O\JRW VRFLDOLQL O DL P MLP G ND
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GLHJLPRXåGDYLQLXV
7DUSWDXWLQ SUHN\ED 7DUSWDXWLQ SUHN\EDLUMRVprivalumai 7DUSWDXWLQ V SUHN\ERVHNRQRPLQ V SULHODLGRs .LHNYLHQRV GLGHO V DU PDåRV YDOVW\E V NLV \UD SDVDXOLQLR NLR GDOLV -LV VXSUDQWDPDV NDLS WHFKQRORJLQL LQIRUPDFLQL HNRQRPLQL HNRORJLQL LU NXOW ULQL U\ãL YLVXPD 3DVDXOLQLV NLV SUDG MR IRUPXRWLV WDUSWDXWLQ V SUHN\ERV G ND .LHNYLHQRV ãDOLHV QDW UDOXV VLHNLV - JDXWL HNRQRPLQ QDXG Lã YLVXRPHQLQLR GDUER SDVLGDOLMLPR WDUSWDXWLQLXRVH mainuose. 7LHVD JDOLPDV LU YLVLãNDV QHSULNODXVRPXPDV QXR XåVLHQLR SUHN\ERV LU WDUSWDXWLQLR GDUER pasidalijimo DXWDUNLMD7DþLDXDXWDUNLQLV NLVODELDXWHRULQLVQHLSUDNWLQLVNODXVLPDV\SDþdabartiniais spartaus ekonomikos augimo ir WDUSWDXWLQL U\ãL SO WLPRODLNDLV
Šiuo metu vis akivaizdesni tampa tiek santykiniai, tiek absoliutiniai DWVNLU ãDOL pranašumai WDUSWDXWLQLDPHGDUERSDVLGDOLMLPH YDLUHVQ LUXåVLHQLR prekybos politika. 6 NPLQJDLIXQNFLRQXRMDWDUSWDXWLQ V ãLDV SUREOHPDVVSUHQGåLDQþLRVRUJDQL]DFLMRV âLXR PHWX Q YLHQD YDOVW\E QHJDOL SDVLJDPLQWL YLV UHLNPHQ UHLNDOLQJ J\YHQWRM poreikiams tenkinti. 7DLSMDXVXVLNORVW NDGNLHNYLHQDãDOLVJDPLQDWDVprekes, kurias apsimoka gaminti.
6YDUELDXVLD WDUSWDXWLQL PDLQ SULHODLGD \UD JDP\ERV V O\J VNLUWLQJXPDV 3ULH ãL V O\J reikia priskirti: gamtines, klimatines, LãWHNOL DSU SLQLPR VSHFLDOL]DFLMRV LU NLWDV $QWURML WDUSWDXWLQ V SUHN\ERV SULHODLGD SDVLUHiškia skirtingais visuomeninio darbo našumo lygiais. Kiekviena pasaulio šalis gamina tai, kas pelninga ir efektyvu. Gaminamos ir eksportuojamos WRV SUHN V NXUL WHFKQRORJLMRV O\JLV SUDOHQNLD SDVDXOLR ãDOLV 7DL SDGHGDPDåLQWL JDP\ERV NDãWXV konkuruoti paVDXOLQ MHULQNRMH,UDWYLUNãþLDLNLHNYLHQDãDOLVLPSRUWXRMDWDVSUHNHVNXUL JDP\ERVNDãWDLãDOLHVYLGXMH GLGHVQLQHJXSDVDXOLQLDLWRVSUHN V JDP\ERVNDãWDL 7UHþLDWDUSWDXWLQ V SUHN\ERVSULHODLGDJO GLVNRQL SROLQNL SULRULWHW YDLURY MH*DP\ERVkDãWDLNDLQRVJDOLE WL YLHQRGRVWRG O SUHNL SLUN M VNRQLDLJDOLE WLVNLUWLQJLLUWRG O ãDO\Vtarpusavyje prekiauja. Jei kitos šalys vienodos, PDGLQJRVSUHN V EUDQJHVQ VQRUVM pagaminimo kaštai vienodi. Tai skatina atskiras šalis vykdyti tarptautine SUHN\E tarptautinius PDLQXV7RNLXE GXWDUSXVDY\MHSUHNLDXMDQþLRVãDO\VJDOLSDWHQNLQWLGDXJLDXLU YDLUHVQL SRUHLNL $QWUD vertus, šalys siekia gamybos efektyvumo ir gamina specializuotas prekes. ' O WRDWVLUDQGDGDUERQDãXPRLUJDP\ERV NDãW VNLUWumai, o drauge galima gauti DEVROLXWLQ WDUSWDXWLQ V SUHN\ERVQDXG %UD]LOLMDJDPLQDNDYRVSXSHOHVNXUL O centnerio pardavimo NDLQDGROHUL .DYRVSXSHOL JDP\ERVNDãWDL\UDGROHUL 9DGLQDVLYDOVW\E IHUPHULXLdar VXPRNDGROHUL NRPSHQVDFLM XåFHQWQHU (XURSRMHSDJDPLQDPDLUSDUGXRGDPDW NVWDQþLDLSXRGHOL NDYRVSRO GROHU LUJDXQDPDW NVWDQþLDLGROHUL (XURSRVãDO\VJDXQDGDULUVDQW\NLQ QDXG 7DLJLJDOLPDGDU\WLLãYDG MRNLDãDOLVQHWXU V QDXGRVMHLJXMLJDPLQVYLVDVUHLNDOLQJDV prekes: gamtos ir darbo ištekliai EHWNXULXRPHWX\UDULERWLWRG O SDVLUHQNDPDHIHNW\YLDXVLDgamyba:
SUHNL VUDXW MXG MLPDV\UDSULHãLQJDVSLQLJLQL VUDXW MXG MLPXLWRG O YDOLXW keitimo kursai veikia WDUSWDXWLQ V SUHN\ERVQDXG kiekviena pasaulio šalis VSHFLDOL]XRMDVLJDPLQWLSHOQLQJ HIHNW\YL SUHNHNXUGDUERnašumas pralenkia SDVDXOLQ O\J Eksporto didinimas spartina visuminio nacionalinio SURGXNWRSULHDXJ WRG O VWHQJLDPDVLM YLVRNHULRSDL UHPWL YDLULRPLVHNRQRPLQ PLVSULHPRQ PLV3ULHM SULNODXVR YDOVW\E V SULHPRNRVJDPLQWRMDPVXåHNVSRUWLQHV SUHNHV SUHNL SDUGDYLPDVXåVLHQ\MHPDåHVQ PLVkainomis negu vidaus rinkoje. Labai svarbu ne tik eksportuoti, EHW LU LPSRUWXRWL SURGXNFLM 9DOVW\E V QDXGRMD WRNLDV SULHPRQHV NDLS LPSRUWR OLFHQFLMRV, importo kvotos ir 1.1. Kiekviena ãDOLV SUHNLDXGDPD VX XåVLHQLX VWHQJLDVL UHDOL]XRWL VDYR NLR SUDQDãXPXV $SLH SDVDXO\MH sukurtos PHWLQ V SURGXNFLMRVUHDOL]XRMDPDSHUXåVLHQLRSUHN\E 9DNDU (XURSRVãDO\Veksportuoja 25-30% nacionalinio produkto, JAV -R7DU\E 6 MXQJDHNVSRUWXRGDYRWLN
6YDUEL XåVLHQLR SUHN\ERV \SDW\E WD NDG MRV DXJLPR WHPSDL VSDUWHVQL QHL M EHQGURMR nacionalinio SURGXNWRNLWLPDV'LGåLDXVLD SUHNL DS\YDUWRVGDOLVWHQNDLãVLY\VþLXVLRPVDSLH- EHVLY\VWDQþLRPVir apie WRWDOLWDULQ PVYDOVW\E PV3DVDXOLRXåVLHQLRSUHN\EDLãHVP V UHPLDVLULQNRVHNRQRPLNDVXYLVDLVjai E GLQJDLV EUXRåDLV äYHOJLDQW SDVDXOLRXåVLHQLRSUHN\E QDW ULQLXDVSHNWXGLGåLDXVLDLUGLQDPLãNLDXVL MRVdalis yra mašinos LU UHQJLPDL3ULHãSRU GHãLPWPHþL MLVXGDU SHQNWDGDO YLVRVXåVLHQLRprekybos, o šiuo metu - jau daugiau kaip WUHþGDO 6XSUDQWDPD NDG \SDþ GLGHO ãLRV SURGXNFLMRV U ãLHV dalis \UD LãVLY\VþLXVL ãDOL eksporte. 3DY\]GåLXL -DSRQLMRV HNVSRUWR VWUXNW URMH PDãLQRV LU rengimai sudaro 65%, Vokietijoje - 50%, JAV - 40%.
Vienu iš VYDUELDXVL PDãLQ LU UHQJLP XåVLHQLRSUHN\ERVVWLPXO E WLQDODLN\WLWDUSWDXWLQ JDP\ELQ NRRSHUDFLM 1HVHQLDL NDL NXULRVGHWDO V LU PD]JDLEXYRHNVSRUWXRMDPLtik kaip DWVDUJLQ V dalys. Šiuo mHWX MRV JDYR WYLUW NRPSOHNWLQL GHWDOL VWDWXV 1XR iki PHW LãVLY\VþLXVL NDSLWDOLVWLQL ãDOL PDãLQ JDP\ERV SURGXNFLMRVHNVSRUWHPD]J DJUHJDW GHWDOL O\JLQDPDVLVVYRULVLãDXJRQXRiki (VPLQHUHLNãPH JDXQD NRPSOHNWXRMDP UHQJLP WLHNLPDVQDXM PRQL VWDW\EDL\SDþQDXMRVHJDP\ERVãDNRVH /DEDLVSDUW V SODVWPDVL LUPHGLNDPHQW XåVLHQLRSUHN\ERVWHPSDL% WLQDSDå\P WLLUU\ãNLDLGLG MDQW PRNVORLPOLRVSURGXNFLMRVYDLGPHQ XåVLHQLRSUHN\ERVU\ãLDPV1XRODWGLG MDLUSDVODXJ dalis, kuri šiuo metu jau VLHNLDEHYHLNNHWYLUWDGDO EHQGURVXåVLHQLRSUHN\ERVapimties. 'DUSDO\JLQWLQHVHQLDLXåVLHQLRSUHN\EDEXYRVXYRNLDPDNDLSSDSUDVWDSUHNL LUSDVODXJ pasikeitimo tarp YDOVW\EL YLVXPD âLXR PHWX WDL QHSDO\JLQWL VXG WLQJHVQLV IHQomenas. Jis VXYRNLDPDV NDLS WDUSWDXWLQL LQWHJUDFLQL SURFHV VYDUELDXVLDVIHUD
,QWHJUDFLQLR SRE GåLR SUHN\ELQ V RSHUDFLMRV ãLXR PHWX Y\VWRVL GYLHP SDJULQGLQ P kryptimis. Pirma, DXJD WLHNLPDL NRRSHUXRMDQþLRPV XåVLHQLR PRQ PV NRQWUROLXRMDPRPV WRV SDþLRV korporacijos. Šiuo metu 500 VWDPELDXVL WDUSWDXWLQL NRUSRUDFLM YDGRYDXMD GDXJLDX nei W NVWDQþL PRQL YDLULRVH pasaulio šalyse. Antra, stambios kompanijos sudaro ilgalaikes WDUSXVDYLR VXWDUWLV 7DLS NRQNXUHQWDL SDVDXOLQ MH ULQNRMH WDPSD gerais partnHULDLVEHQGUDGDUELDXMDQþLDLVtiek mokslo, tiek gamybos, tiek SUHNL UHDOL]DYLPRVIHURVH Siekdamos kuo geriau pasinaudoti tarptautinio darbo pasidalijimo privalumais, daugelis ãDOL savo WHULWRULMRMHVXN U \SDWLQJDVHNRQRPLQHV]RQDVýLD galima laisvai YHåWLNDSLWDO NXUWLJDP\NODVVDPG\WLvietinius J\YHQWRMXV GLVSRQXRWL GLGåL MD SDJDPLQWRV SURGXNFLMRV LU pelno dalimi. Tokiuose rajonuose tiek importuojamos, tiek eksportuojamos SUHN V QHDSPRNHVWLQDPRVR PRQ VQDXGRMDQþLRVQDXMDVSHUVSHNW\YLDV technologijas, netgi skatinamos YDLULRPLV HNRQRPLQ PLV OHQJYDWRPLV Dabartiniu metu pasaulyje yra daugiau kaip WRNL \SDWLQJRV HNRQRPLQ V paskirties ]RQ EHYHLN SXV Lã M - JAV teritorijoje. Šiose zonose investuojant NDSLWDO HNRQRPLQ YHLNO JDOLPDJDXWLNXUNDVGLGHVQ SHOQ Tai naudinga tiek vienai, tiek kitai pusei.
7UXPSDL DSåYHOJ XåVLHQLR SUHN\ERV VLWXDFLM SDVDXO\MH SDEDQG\NLPH SDLHãNRWL DWVDN\PR NHOHW ODEDL GRPL NODXVLP .RG O YLHQRV ãDO\V YLHQX PHWX HNVSRUWDYR YLHQRNL SURGXNFLM o dDEDU NLWRNL " . GDY NDL NXULRPV ãDOLPV EDQG\PDV DWVLULERWL QXR XåVLHQLR SUHN\ERV" .RNLX E GX YLVRV ãDO\V JDXQD QDXGRV Lã XåVLHQLR prekybos?
8åVLHQLRSUHN\ERVO\JLQDPRMRSUDQDãXPRWHRULMD ã NODXVLP DWVDNRSDO\JLQDP M NDãW WHRULMD-RVN U MDL'5Lkardas, D.Milis nuosekliai SDDLãNLQDNRG O WDUSWDXWLQ VSHFLDOL]DFLMDWXUWLQDãDO NDLSLUNLHNYLHQDWHRULMDMLWHLVLQJDWDPWLNURPLVV O\JRPLV
3DEDQG\VLPH JODXVWDL SDWHLNWL ãLRV WHRULMRV HVP 7DUNLPH NDG YLHQD ãDOLV VSHFLDOL]XRMDVL WRNL SUHNL gamyERMH LU HNVSRUWH NXULDV JDOL JDPLQWL VDQW\NLQDL åHPHVQLDLV NDãWDLV $WYLUNãþLDL elgiamasi tada, kai yra LPSRUWXRMDPD7XRPHWãDOLVSDVLUHQNDWRNLDVSUHNHVNXUL JDP\ERVNDãWDLE W VDQW\NLQDLDXNãWHVQLSDO\JLQWLVX NLW ãDOL NDãWDLV
Santykinai didesniuV DU åHPHVQLXV NDãWXV DSLE GLQD SDVLULQNWRV JDOLP\E V ãDQVR NDãW V YRND -LH nusako tam tikro pasirenkamo gamybos varianto kaštus kito, alternatyvinio YDULDQWR DWåYLOJLX 7RNLX DWYHMX SDY\]GåLXL YDL]GR PDJQHWRIRQR JDP\ERV NDãWDL \UD WRNV ãYDUN NLHNLV NXU UHLNLD SDDXNRWL WDP NDG E W pagaminta vienu magnetofonu daugiau.
/\JLQDPRMR SUDQDãXPR WHRULM LOLXVWUXRVLPH SDY\]GåLX 3DSUDVWXPR G OHL SDLPVLPH GYL šalis - JAV ir 'LGåL M %ULWDQLM LU SUHNHV YDL]GR PDJQHWRIRQXV LU ãYDUNXV 7DUNLPH NDG efeNW\YXPR O\JL VNLUWXP OHPLD WHFKQRORJLMD LU GDUER QDãXPDV R GDUER M JD \UD vienintelis JDP\ERV YHLNVQ\V O OHQWHO MH SDURG\WL SUHNL gamybos kaštai. ,ã OHQWHO V PDW\WLNDG$PHULNRMHUHLNLDGDUERYDODQG YLHQRYDL]GRPDJQHWRIRQRgamybai ir 5 YLHQR ãYDUNR JDP\EDL 'LGåLRMRMH %ULWDQLMRMH GDUEDV QH WRNV QDãXV WRG O vieno vaizdo magnetofono gamyba WUXNVYDODQG RãYDUNR- YDODQGDV.DGDQJLP V pavyzdyje darbas yra vienintelis gamybos veiksnys, tai YLGXWLQLDLNDãWDLEXVO\J V GDUERlaiko V QDXG SURGXNFLMRVYLHQHWXLLUYDODQGLQLRXåGDUELRVDQGDXJDL-HLQHE W WDUSWDXWLQ V SUHN\ERVNLHNYLHQDãDOLVJDPLQW LUSDUGDYLQ W SUHNHVSDJDONDãWXVQXURG\WXV OOHQWHO MH
5HLNLDSDå\P WLNDG-$9SDO\JLQWLVX'LGåL MD%ULWDQLMDGDUERSRUHLNLs yra kur kas PDåHVQLVDELHP SUHN PV7DþLDX-$9GDUEDVVDQW\NLQDLQDãHVQLVJDPLQDQWE WHQWYDL]GRPDJQHWRIRQXVRQHãYDUNXV'LGåLRMRMH %ULWDQLMRMHYDL]GRPDJQHWRIRQRJDP\EDXåWUXQNDkartus ilgiau nei JAV, o švarko gamyba 1,2 karto (6:5). Jeigu šalys sXVLWDULD SUHNLDXWL LU JDPLQWL WDV SUHNHV NXULRV NDLQXRMD VDQW\NLQDL SLJLDX WDL MRV DEL EHQGUDL SD PXV pagamins GDXJLDXSUHNL
244
Kadangi šalys naudoja skirtingas valiutas (dolerius ir svarus sterlingus), WXULE WLNXULDPDXåVLHQLR YDOLXW keitimo rinka ir pasiekiama valiutos NXUVRSXVLDXVY\UD3DSUDVWXPRG OHLP V SDY\]G\MHSDOLNVLPHQXRãDO\kapitalo NLHN ir darysime SULHODLG kad valiutos kurso SXVLDXVY\UDXåWLNULQDSUHN\ERVV VNDLW EDODQV Tokiu balansu vadinamas skirtumas tarp SUHNL HNVSRUWR LU LPSRUWR YHUW V JDO V E WL WHLJLDPDV VDOGR NDLS P V SDY\]G\MH arba neigiamas (deficitinis).
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palyginimas
Švarkai____5 val.
30 dol.
1/6 vaizdo. 6 val.____VYDU
YDL]GR
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TVF gali bet kuriuo metu pareikalauti iš ãDOL QDUL åLQL apie ekonomikos, SLQLJ apyvartos, PRN MLP EDODQVR E NO DSLH RILFLDOLXV DXNVR YDOLXWLQLXV UH]HUYXV LQYHVWLFLMDV XåVLHQ\MH LU 7RG O UHNRPHQGDFLMRVNDLSSDãDOLQWLPRN MLPREDODQVRGHILFLW VXVLMXVLRVVXSDJULQGLQ PLVNU\SWLPLV QXPDWRPD VXPDåLQWL YLVXPLQH SDNODXV SLQLJ -NUHGLWR LU ELXGåHWR UHVWUXNFLMRV SROLWLNRV G ND W\ didinti PRNHVþLXV racionalizuoti NUHGLW riboti ELXGåHWLQHV išlaidas VRFLDOLQ PV UHLNP PV Y\ULDXV\ELQ PV VXEVLGLMRPV LU YDOVW\ELQL PRQL EHL VWDLJ GDUELQLQN EHL WDUQDXWRM GDUER XåPRNHVþLXL GLGLQWLRILFLDOLXVminimalius UH]HUY reikalavimus; YDOLXWRVGHYDOYDFLMDDUEDMRVSHUN OLPDV SODXNLDQW UHåLP 79)NUHGLWLQ VHRSHUDFLMRVHLãHVP V QDXGRMDPDODELDXVLDLLãVLY\VþLXVL ãDOL QDUL YDOLXWD pasinaudodama WHLVH NHLVWL VWDWXV ML SDNHLW ÄYDOLXWRV NHLWLP ÄODLVYDL SDQDXGRMDP YDOLXW 3DVWDU MD WDSR -$9 GROHULV VokietijoV PDUN -DSRQLMRVMHQD'LGåLRVLRV%ULWDQLMRVVYDUDVVWHUOLQJ 3UDQF ]LMRVIUDQNDV9DGLQDVLSUDNWLãNDL )RQGRUHDOLRVNUHGLWLQ V JDOLP\E V ULERMDPRVVYDUELDXVL ãDOL YDOLXW NHLWLPRLãWHNOLDLV
21.2. Tarptautiniai kreditiniai santykiai Tarptautinis kreditas tarpininkauja XåVLHQLR HNRQRPLQ MH DS\YDUWRMH -LV SDJU VWDL SULVNLULDPDV SULH VXG WLQJ WDUSWDXWLQL VDQW\NL IRUP -LV SDGHGD NRPSOHNVLãNDL VSU VWL ekonomines, socialines ir politines SUREOHPDV7DUSWDXWLQ NUHGLW NLWRPVãDOLPVWHLNLDYDOVW\E V EDQNDLILUPRVEHQGURY V
Tarptautinio kredito šaltiniai yra laikinai ODLVYRV PRQ V SLQLJLQ V O ãRV YDOVW\E V LU privataus VHNWRULDXVVXNDXSWRVO ãRVHVDQþLRVEDQNXRVH Tarptautinio kredito principai: JU åLQWLQXPDV jei O ãRVQ UDJU åLQDPRVWDLVXSrantama kaip finansavimas; ODLNLQXPDV O ãRVWXULE WLJU åLQDPRVSHUVXWDUW ODLNRWDUS DSVLPRNDPXPDV QXPDWRPRVVNLUWLQJRVNUHGLWRJU åLQLPRV O\JRV PDWHULDOLQLVSDJULQGLPDVNDLSJDUDQWLMDNDGNUHGLWDVEXVJU åLQWDV WLNVOLQLVSRE GLV NUHGLWXRMDPLNRQNUHW V SURMHNWDLVNDWLQDQW\VNUHGLWXRMDQþLRVãDOLHVHNVSRUW 7DUSWDXWLQLRNUHGLWRSULQFLSDLSDURGRMRU\ã VXHNRQRPLQLDLVULQNRV VWDW\PDLVLU\UDnaudojami rinkos VXEMHNW EHLYDOVW\E V WLNVODPVSDVLHNWL
Tarptautinio kredito funkcijos: • PersNLUVWR VNROLQDP M NDSLWDO WDUS ãDOL SDWHQNLQGDPDV LãSO VWLQ V UHSURGXNFLMRV poreikius. 6NROLQDPDVLVNDSLWDODVSDWHQND WDVVIHUDVNXUJDUDQWXRMDPDVSHOQDV 7LNULHML SLQLJDL DXNVDV VLGDEUDV NHLþLDPL NUHGLWLQLDLV SOHþLDPRV WDUSWDXWLQ V NUHGLWLQ V operacijos, SDQDXGRMDQWþHNLXVYHNVHOLXVEDQN SHUYHGLPXV *UHLWLQDNDSLWDORNRQFHQWUDFLM LUFHQWUDOL]DFLM 3DQDXGRMDQWNLW ãDOL NDSLWDO SOHþLDVLindividualaus kaupimo ribos, individualios PRQ V WDPSDDNFLQ PLVEHQGURY PLVkuriasi naujos firmos, monopolijos. Tarptautinio kredito vaidmuo gamybos vystymui WXUL WHLJLDP LU QHLJLDP SXVHV -R WHLJLDP SXV DWVSLQGLVSDUWHVQLVJDP\ELQL M J Y\VW\PDVLV7DLpasireiškia šiomis kryptimis: .UHGLWDV VWLPXOLXRMD WDUSWDXWLQ HNRQRPLQ ãDOLHV YHLNO VXNXULD SDSLOGRP SDNODXV rinkoje. 7DUSWDXWLQ SUHN\EDNUHGLW SDJULQGXWDSRWDUSWDXWLQHQRUPD\SDþWRPVSUHN PVNXUL LOJDVJDP\ERV ciklas, vartojimas ir aukšta kaina. 'DåQDLNUHGLWXRMDQWLšalis reikalauja pirkti SUHNHVE WHQWMRVULQNRMH
• Tarptautinis kreditas sudaro palankias V O\JDV XåVLHQLR SULYDWLHPV LQYHVWLWRULDPV QHV jiems paprastai suteikiamos tam tikros OHQJYDWRV SDGHGD NXUWL LQIUDVWUXNW U E WLQ PRQ PV IXQNFLRQXRWL VWLSULQD QDFLRQDOLQL PRQL EDQN VXVLMXVL VXWDUSWDXWLQLXkreditu, pozicijas. .UHGLWDV XåWLNULQD WDUSWDXWLQL DWVLVNDLW\PR LU YDOLXWLQL RSHUDFLM NXULRV V O\JRMD tarptautinius ãDOLHVU\ãLXVWRO\GXP .UHGLWDVGLGLQDWDUSWDXWLQ V SUHN\ERVLUNLWRVWDUSWDXWLQ V HNRQRPLQ V ãDOLHVYHLNORVHIHNW\YXP Neigiama tarptautiniR NUHGLWR SXV SDVLUHLãNLD WXR NDG JLO MD GLVSURSRUFLMRV HNRQRPLNRMH 7DL DWVSLQGL SUHNL SHUSURGXNFLMD VNROLQDPRMR NDSLWDOR SHUVNLUVW\PDV WDUS ãDOL VWDLJXV SUHNL NLHNLR SDGLG MLPDV SDNLOLPR ODLNRWDUSLXLUVXPDå MLPDVHNRQRPLNRVQXRVPXNLRPHUX
KreditLQ SROLWLND VWLSULQD ãDOL NUHGLWRUL SR]LFLMDV SDVDXOLQ MH ULQNRMH 3LUPLDXVLD SHOQDV Lã ãDOL VNROLQLQNL DWLWHQND ãDOLPV VNROLQWRMRPV 7DLS SDW ãDO\V NUHGLWRU V NXULD VDX SDODQNLDV politines ir ekonomines V O\JDVEHVLVNROLQDQþLRVHãDO\VH TarptautinisNUHGLWDV\UDYLHQDVLãNDU ILQDQVDYLPRãDOWLQL
6LHNGDPL VXVWLSULQWL VDYR SR]LFLMDV EDQNDL YDOVW\E V WDUSWDXWLQ V LU UHJLRQLQ V YDOLXWLQ V-NUHGLWLQ V LU ILQDQVLQ V RUJDQL]DFLMRV NDUWDLV Y\NGR NUHGLWLQ V GLVNULPLQDFLMRV SROLWLN .UHGLWLQ GLVNULPLQDFija - tai QHYLHQRG NUHGLW JDYLPRSDQDXGRMLPRLUSDGHQJLPRV O\J VXGDU\PDVWDLNDQWãDOLPVHNRQRPLQ LUSROLWLQ VSDXGLP 'LVNULPLQDFLMRV PHWRGDL -DSULERMLPDL SDO NDQ SURFHQWR SDGLGLQLPDV laiko sutrumpinimas, NUHGLWRG\GåLRVXPDåLQLPDV *ULHåþLDXVLDHNRQRPLQ VDQNFLMD- NUHGLWLQ EORNDGDNDLDWVLVDNRPDVXWHLNWLNUHGLW YLHQDLar kitai šaliai. 7DLGDåQDLVXVLM VXHNRQRPLQHEORNDGD7DLGDURPDRILFLDOLDLRGDåQDLLUQHRILFLDOLDLDWVLVDNDQWVXWHLNWLNUHGLW G O YDLUL PRW\Y Tarptautinis kreditas JDOL E WL QDXGRMDPDV NDLS EHQGUDGDUELDYLPR WDUS ãDOL SULHPRQ LU NDLS SULHPRQ NRQNXUHQFLQ MHNRYRMH
Tarptautinio kredito formos *DP\ERV LU PDLQ LQWHUQDFLRQDOL]DFLMD QDXM WDUSWDXWLQLRNUHGLWRIRUP YDLURY
SDVDXOLR NLR U\ãL
IRUP
DWVLUDGLPDV V O\JRMD
Jie \UD WDUSXVDY\MH VXVLM LU DSLPD YLVDV SUHNL SDUXRãDVJDP\E EXYLP NHO\MH
MXG MLPR QXR HNVSRUWXRWRMR LPSRUWXRWRMXL stadijas
3DJDOãDOWLQLXVVNLULDPDVYLGLQLVXåVLHQLRLUPLãUXVNUHGLWDYLPDVEHLXåVLHQLRSUHN\ERVfinansavimas.
Pagal paskiUW SULNODXVRPDLQXRWRNDLSEXVSDQDXGRWRVVNROLQWRVO ãRVVNLULDPL NRPHUFLQLDLNUHGLWDLWLHVLRJLDLVXVLM VXXåVLHQLR prekyba ir paslaugomis; ILQDQVLQLDL NUHGLWDL SDQDXGRMDPL NLWDLV WLNVODLV WLHVLRJLQLDPV NDSLWDOLQLDPV MXG MLPDPV LQYHVWLFLQL REMHNW VWDW\EDLYHUW\ELQL SRSLHUL VLJLMLPXLXåVLHQLR VLVNROLQLPRdengimui, valiutinei intervencijai). WDUSLQLDLNUHGLWDLVNLUWLDSWDUQDXWLPLãULDVNDSLWDORSUHNL LUSDVODXJ LãYHåLPRIRUPDV 3DJDOU ã gali E WL NUHGLWDLSUHN PVNXULXRVteikia HNVSRUWXRMDQWLãDOLVVDYRSLUN MDPV • valiutiniai, WHLNLDPLEDQN SLQLJLQHIRUPD Pagal paskolas valiuta tarptautiniai kreditai skiriami: • šalies skolininko arba šalies kreditoriaus valiuta; WUHþLRVãDOLHVYDOLXWDDUEDWDUSWDXWLQLRSLQLJLQLRYLHQHWRDSVNDLWRVYDOLXWDSDJU VWDvaliutos krepšiu (SDR, EKIU ir kt.). 3DJDOWHUPLQXVWDUSWDXWLQLDLNUHGLWDLVNLUVWRPL WUXPSDODLNLXV LNLOPHW YLGXWLQ V WUXNP V QXROLNLPHW • ilgalaikius (daugiau kaip 5 metai). Trumpalaikiai kreditai panaudRMDPL XåVLHQLR SUHN\ERMH LU WDUSWDXWLQ MH PRN MLPR DS\YDUWRMH DSWDUQDXMDQW QHSUHN\ELQLXV GUDXGLPR LU VSHNXOLDFLQLXV VDQG ULXV -HLJX WUXPSDODLNLV NUHGLWDV SUDW VLDPDV MLV WDPSDYLGXWLQ V WUXNP V DUEDLOJDODLNLX,OJDODLNLVtarptautinis kreditas skiriamas investicijoms ir iki 80% aptarnauja PDãLQ LUNRPSOHNWXRMDP UHQJLP HNVSRUW VWDPELXVSURMHNWXVPRNVOLQLRW\ULPRGDUEXVLUQDXMRVWHFKQLNRV GLHJLP
8åWLNULQLPRSUDVPHWDUSWDXWLQLVNUHGLWDVVNLUVWRPDV JDUDQWXRW LUEODQN NUHGLW .UHGLW paprastai garantuoja SUHN V NRPHUFLQLDL GRNXPHQWDL YHUW\ELQLDL SRSLHULDL YHNVHOLDL QHNLOQRMDPDVLV WXUWDV LU NLWRV YHUW\E V 3UHN V XåVWDWDVNUHGLWXLJDXWLE QDWULM IRUP WYLUWDVXåVWDWDVNDLSUHNL PDV XåVWDWRPDEDQNRQDXGDL SUHN V XåVWDWDVDS\YDUWRMHNDLSUHN V DWLWLQNDPRDVRUWLPHQWROLNXWLV VNDLWRPDV DWLWLQNDP VXP SUHN V XåVWDWDVSHUGLUELPHNDLLãXåVWDW\WRVSUHN V JDOLPDJDPLQWLGLUELQLXV %ODQNRNUHGLWDVLãGXRGDPDVSDJDOVNROLQLQNR VLSDUHLJRMLPXVSDGHQJWLM SHUDWLWLQNDP ODLNRWDUS 3aprastai šio kredito dokumentas yra solo-vekselis su vienu skolininko parašu. 7DLS SDW JDOL E WL QDXGRMDPDV NRQWRNRUHQWDV HLQDPRMLV VNDLWD RYHUGUDIWDV GLGHVQ QHL\UDHLQDPRMRMHV VNDLWRMHSLQLJ VXPD .UHGLWDL VXWHLNLPR SRåL ULX E QD JU\QLHML NUHGLWDL NXULH UDãRPL DNFHSWLQLDLNUHGLWDLGHSR]LWLQLDLVHUWLILNDWDLREOLJDFLQ V SDVNRORVLUWW 3DJDOWDLNDVWDPSDNUHGLWRULXPLNUHGLWDLJDOLE WL
VNROLQLQNR V VNDLW MR dispozicijai,
SULYDW VVNLULDPLILUP EDQN NDUWDLVWDUSLQLQN EURNHUL • vyriausybiniai; PLãU VNXULXRVHGDO\YDXMDSULYDþLRV PRQ V LUYDOVW\E WDUSWDXWLQL LUUHJLRQLQL YDOLXWRV-NUHGLWRLUILQDQVLQL RUJDQL]DFLM NUHGLWDL Firminis kreditas - WDL SDVNROD VXWHLNLDPD ILUPRV SDSUDVWDL YLHQRV HNVSRUWXRMDQþLRV ãDOLHV NLtos šalies LPSRUWXRMDQþLDLILUPDLNDGE W QXNHOWDV PRN MLPRWHUPLQDV)LUPLQL NUHGLW WUXNP JDOLE WL QXRLNLPHW SULNODXVRPDL QXR SDVDXOLQ V ULQNRV NRQMXQNW URV LU SUHNL U ãLHV âLV NUHGLWDV DSLIRUPLQDPDV YHNVHOLX DUED DWYLUD V VNDLWD9HNVHOLQis kreditas \UDWRNVNDLHNVSRUWXRWRMDVVXGDU V SUHN V SDUGDYLPRVXWDUW SDWHLNLDSHUYHGLPRYHNVHO
importuotojui, kuris, JDY V NRPHUFLQLXV GRNXPHQWXV M DNFHSWXRMD W\ sutinka DSPRN WL MR nurodytu laiku. .UHGLWDVSDJDODWYLU V VNDLW naudojamas, NDLSUHN V SHULRGLãNDLSULVWDWRPRVLUSHULRGLãNDLDWVLVNDLWRPDP QHVLR viduryje ar gale.
Firminio kredito atmaina - SLUN MRavansas, kuris, VXGDUDQWNRQWUDNW suteikiamas XåVLHQLRLPSRUWR WLHN MXLSDSUDVWDL-NDUWDLVXåVDN\W PDãLQ UHQJLP YHUW V7DL\UDJDUDQWDVNDGXåVDN\WRVSUHN V bus tikrai priimtos. Nors firminis kreditas išreiškia VDQW\NLXV WDUS WLHN MR LU SLUN MR jis QHQHLJLD EDQNR O ã dalyvavimo. Bankai suteikia eksporto, finansinius ir valiutinius kreditus. Eksporto kreditas-kreditas, GXRWDVEDQNRãDOLHVHNVSRUWXRWRMREDQNXLNDGMLVNUHGLWXRW LPSRUWXRMDQþL ãDO PDãLQ UHQJLP LUNUHGLWDYLPXL-LHWHLNLDPLpinigine forma ir SDUHLJRMDSDQDXGRWLSDVNRO SUHN PV SLUNWLãDO\MHNUHGLWRU MH9LHQDLãHNVSRUWLQLRNUHGLWRIRUP - kUHGLWDVSLUN MXLWHLNLDPDV- LUGDXJLDXPHW âLXR atveju bankas kredituoja šalies importuotojos firmas ir jos bankus.
Finansinis kreditas sudaro galimybe, pirkti prekes bet kurioje rinkoje, vadinasi, palankiausiomis V O\JRPLV Valiutinis kreditas nesXVLM V VXSUHNL WLHNLPXLUVNLUWDVXåVLHQLR VLVNROLQLPDPVGHQJWLvaliutiniam kursui LãODLN\WLV VNDLWRPVXåVLHQLRYDOLXWDSDSLOG\WL
6WDPE V EDQNDLWHLNLDDNFHSWLQ NUHGLW DNFHSWXRGDPL VDN\WLQ YHNVHO $NFHSWDQWDMWDPSDSDJULQGLQLX skolininku, nes sutinka padengti YHNVHO QXURG\WX ODLNX 9HNVHOLDL DNFHSWXRWL EDQN QDXGRMDPL VXWHLNLDQW tarpbankinius kreditus.
Eksportui kredituoti taip pat naudojamas akceptinis-rambursinis kreditas. Tuomet’! HNVSRUWXRWRMRYHNVHO DNFHSWXRMDWUHþLRVšalies bankas, o importuotojas perveda vekseli SLQLJ VXP EDQNXLDNFHSWDQWXL SDUHLJRMLPDVDNFHSWXRWL VDN\WLQ YHNVHO bankui akceptantui. • Sutikimas akceptuoti. • Pateikimas neatšaukiamo akceptinio akredityvo, VLSDUHLJRMDQW DNFHSWXRWL VDNYHNVHO • 3UHNL iškrovimas.
• Vekselio DSVN DL þL DYL P DV ir N R P H UFL Q L GRNXPHQW perdavim as. • VDN\ WLQLR vekselio ak ce ptav i mu i ir k o m e r c i n i u GRNXPHQW persiuntimas. • A kceptu oto V D N \ WL Q L R v ek selio JU åLQLPDV 7DUSWDXWLQ
ILQDQV
VLVWHPD
3DVDXOLQ VNROLQDPRMRNDSLWDORrinka VDN\WLQLRYHNVHOLRSHUVNDLþLDYLPDV .RPHUFLQL GRNXPHQW SHUVLXQWLPDV .RPHUFLQL GRNXPHQW SHUGDYLPDVLPSRUWXRWRMXLXåXåVWDW • Rambursavimas -YHNVHOLRVXPRVSHUYHGLPDVLUJDUDQWRJU åLQLPDV • Vekselio sumos pervedimas bankui akceptantui. VDN\WLQLRYHNVHOLRSDWHLNLPDVDSPRN WLODLNXLDW MXV <SDWLQJD WDUSWDXWLQLR NUHGLWR IRUPD \UD REOLJDFLM DNFLM LU NLW YHUW\ELQL SRSLHUL HPLVLMD tarptautinio NDSLWDOR ULQNRMH 3DJULQGLQ ãLRV VNROLQLPR IRUPRV \SDW\E WD NDG EDQNDL þLD WDPSD O\J LU WDUSLQLQNDLV WDUS VNROLQLQN LUWLHVLRJLQL NUHGLWRUL - LQYHVWLWRUL GHGDQþL VDYRO ãDV YHUW\ELQLXVSRSLHULXV
/DELDXVLDLSDSOLWXVLILQDQVLQLRNUHGLWDYLPRU ãLVãLXRPHWX\UDVLQGLILNXRWL EHQGUL HXURNUHGLWDLNXUL šaltinis yra eurovaliutos rinkos ištekliai. Paprastai tokius kreditus RUJDQL]XRMDVWDPE V NRPHUFLQLDLEDQNDLNXULH vadovauja konsorbcijoms ir derina su skolintoju NUHGLWDYLPRV O\JDV3DVNRORVWHUPLQDVGDåQLDXVLDLE QDQXRLNL PHW (XURNUHGLWDLSDSUDVWDLVXWHLNLDPLÄUROORYHUV O\JRPLV7DLUHLãNLDNDGSDO NDQ QRUPDQHILNVXRMDPD YLVDP NUHGLWR WHUPLQXL R UHJXOLDULDL SHUåL ULPD NDV DUED P QHVLDL DWVLåYHOJLDQW VNROLQW O ã YHUW V NLWLP WDUSWDXWLQ MH SLQLJ ULQNRMH 3DO NDQ QRUPD SDJDO „roll over" kreditus VXVLGHGD Lã GDOL ED]LQ V QRUPRV LU PDUåRV W\ VNLUWXPR WDUS SLUN MR NDLQRV LU SDUGDY MRB kainos perkant vertybinius popierius. Baze imama SDO NDQ QRUPDSDJDOWULM DUEDãHãL P QHVL WDUSEDQNLQ GHSR]LW DWLWLQNDPRMHULQNRMH Svz., „libor" Londone). 0DUåDSULNODXVRQXRVNROLQWRMRNUHGLWDYLPRJDOLP\EL LUULQNRVNRQMXQNW URV-LJDOLVY\UXRWLQXRLNL NUHGLWRYHUW HLQDWDLSSDWLU YDLULRVNRPLVLQ V LãODLGRV 7DUSWDXWLQ MHSUDNWLNRMHQDXGRMDPRV YDLULRVÄUROORYHUNUHGLW VXVLWDULP IRUPRVLUmetodai. Jie gali NRQNUHþLDL QXPDW\WL YDOLXWRV SDNLWLP LU NUHGLWR VXP SUDGHGDQW eiliniu tarpiniu jo panaudojimo terminu, NUHGLWRDUEDYLVRVVXPRVGHQJLP LãPRN MLPXJDOLP\EHprieš ODLN M SDGHQJWLLU Finansiniai kreditai suteikiami XåVLHQLR skolintojams QDFLRQDOLQ VH kapitalo rinkose, WDþLDX jie nevaidina tokio svarbaus vaidmens, kaip sindifikuoti (bendri) eurokreditai.
$ãWXQWDMDPH GHãLPWPHW\MH SDGLG MR REOLJDFLQL SDVNRO UHLNãP kaip LOJDODLNL O ã pritraukimo forma iš tarptautinio ir n acio nalinio k apitalo rinkos. 2EOL JDFLQL SDVN RO H P L V L M LU LãG VW\P RUJDQL]XRMD YDGRYDXMDQWLEDQNLQLRVLQGLNDWRJUXS - YDG\ELQLQNDLâLRVJUXS V vadovu tampa vadovaujantis vadybininkas, kuris LãHVP V \UDVNROLQWRMRNRQWUDKHQWDVLUDWVDNRXåSDVNRORVRUJDQL]DYLP SDVLUDã\P LULãG VW\P WDUSLQYHVWLWRUL Sindikato dalyviai kartu su vadybininkais JDUDQWXRMD YLVRV SDVNRORV VXPRV LãG VW\P SDJDO VXGHULQW NXUV 1HSDUGXRWDVULQNRMHREOLJDFLMDVMLHSULYDORVXVLG WL VDYRSRUWIHO
TarptDXWLQ MHSUDNWLNRMHQDXGRMDPRVVNLUWLQJRVREOLJDFLQL SDVNRO U ã\V.ODVLNLQHVpaskolas suteikia YLHWLQL EDQN VLQGLNDWDLXåVLHQLRREOLJDFLM YLHãDHPLVLMDYHUW\ELQL SRSLHUL QDFLRQDOLQ MHULQNRMHDWLWLQNDPDYDOLXWD VXWDPWLNURVãDOLHVNRWLUDYLPXELUåRMHâLXRPHUXSLUPDXMDWDUSWDXWLQ V REOLJDFLM SDVNRORVNXULDVHXURULQNRMH HPLWXRMDWUHþLRVãDOLHVYDOLXWDLQWHUQDFLRQDOLQLDLVLQGLNDWRGDO\YLDL 2EOLJDFLQL SDVNRO V O\JRVSDVLå\PLGLGHOH YDLURYH3DO NDQ QRUPDJDOLE WLILNVXRMDPDvisam paskolos termLQXLDUEDUHJXOLDULDLSHUåL ULPDDWVLåYHOJLDQW WDUSWDXWLQLRSLQLJLQLRNDSLWDORNRQMXQNW U 3DVWDUXRMXDWYHMX ji nustatoma tarpbankinio depozito normos pagrindu SULGHGDQW DWLWLQNDP PDUå %H WR GDåQDL QXVWDWRPDV PLQLPDOXVO\JLVåHPLDXNXULRSDO NDQ nRUPDQHJDOLNULVWL5HþLDXHPLWXRMDPRVREOLJDFLMRVVXQXOLQLXNXSRQXSDJDO
kuriuos procentai VNDLWRPL QXVWDWDQW HPLVLMRV NXUV %HW NXULXR DWYHMX SDVNRORV YHUW YDG\ELQLQN LUNLW VLQGLNDWRGDO\YL DWO\JLQLP
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7DLJL GRPXåLQRWLNDLSLãWLHVãLXRPHWXVXVLGDURQDIWRVNDLQRV"3DJDOHNRQRPLNRVWHRULMRVG VQLXVWHRULQLDLJDPWRV LãWHNOL kainos nustatymo principai remiasi ribiniais kaštais, bet ribiniai QDIWRVJDP\ERVNDãWDL$UWLP M 5\W ãDO\VHYLV dar lieka GX-$9GROHULDLXåEDUHO Tuo tarpu naftos gamybos kaštai AliaskojeLU âLDXU V M URVUDMRQXRVHNXU šiuo metu jau LãJDXQDPD QHPDåD GDOLV SDVDXOLR QDIWRV siekia 10- -$9 GROHUL -HLJX WDUS QDIWRV SURGXNWR JDPLQWRM LU SDVDXOLQ V MRVULQNRVGDO\YL E W laisvai tarpusavyje konkuruojama, tai naftos NDLQRVSDVDXO\MHJHURNDLQXNULVW Rtai taip pat reiškia, kad JAV ir dalies âLDXU V (XURSRV ãDOL naftos pramoninkaL åHQJW QHPDå åLQJVQ EDQNURWR link. Realiame gyvenime naftos JDPLQWRM NDUWHOLDLGDUUDQGDE G DSVDXJRWLVDYRQDULXVQXRtokio åLDXUDXVODLVYRVULQNRV veikimo. -DXGDXJHO SDVDXOLQ MHQDIWRVULQNRMHSDVL ODYLUãLMDMRVSDNODXV 7DLDWVLWLNRG O WRNDd naftos eksportuotojams pavyko VSDUþLDL LãSO VWL josJDY\E RQDIWRVLUMRVSURGXNW importuotojams -SDGLGLQWLLãQDIWRVLãJDXQDP MRVSURGXNW NLHN LUUDVWLHIHNW\YL W SURGXNW WDXSHVQLRYDUWRMLPRE G 0DQRPDNDGtokia situacija išsilaikys dar kok GHãLPWPHW Tiesa, daug ko, kas gali veikti pasaulines naftos kainas ir jas SDNHLVWL YLHQ DUNLW SXV QXPDW\WLQH PDQRPDQRUVLU labai QRU W VL Tai gali priklausytiQXRGDXJ\E V YLHQDVQXRkito SULNODXVDQþL LUWDUSXVDY\MHQHVXVLMXVL IDNWRUL
taL QDXM WHONLQL LãW\ULPDV LU YHUVORYL DWLGDU\PDV ãDOL QH HLQDQþL SDVLNHLWLPDVLUGDXJNLW YHLNVQL
23(& HOJVHQD WDL SROLWLQ V situacijos
Naftos importuotojus jaudina \SDþWDLNDGribiniai MRVJDY\ERVNDãWDL\UDGDXJPDåHVQLQHLãLDQGLHQLQ V QDftos kainos. âLXRODLNLQ rinka GDXJHO LãVLY\VþLXVL ãDOL daro priklausomas QXR$UWLP M 5\W ãDOL NXULRVHQHtik išgaunama kas ketvirta pasaulio naftos tona, bet ir VXNDXSWRVDWVDUJRVVXGDURQHWSURFHQWXVYLV pasaulio LãåYDOJ\W UDGDYLHþL /DEDLåemos QDIWRVNDLQRVWXULLUVDYRQHLJLDP SXVL (VDQWSHUQHO\JåHPRPVQDIWRVNDLQRPV\UDVXQNXdiegti efektyvias energetikos sistemas, kurti alternatyvius energijos šaltinius. Siekiant, kad åHPRVLPSRUWLQ V QDIWRVNDLQRVQHWUXNG\W alternatyvios energetikos vystymui, daugelyje ãDOL QDXGRMDPD JDQ VXG WLQJD PRNHVþL VLVWHPD NXUL QHPDåD dalis skiriama ekologiniams tikslams.
23. Aplinkos apsauga
'LG MDQW äHP V J\YHQWRM VNDLþLXL LU QXRODW DXJDQW M SRUHLNLDPV GLG MD LU åPRQL NLQ V YHLNORV WDNDJDPWDLaplinkai. <SDþYLVDWDLPHVMDXþLDPHGDEDUQHVGDUSUDHLWDPHãLPWPHW\MHSDWLJDPWDVXJHE GDYR neutralizuoti jai åDOLQJ YHLNVQL SDVHNPHV 7DþLDX ãLRV XQLNDOLRV JDPWRV VDY\E V NDLS LU YLVD NLWD WXUL ribas. 1H PDQRPD DSUDã\WL YLV E G NXULDLV PHV SDW\V åDORMDPH LU JDGLQDPH DSOLQN -DX SDþL P V HJ]LVWDYLPDV sukelia aplinkos taršos SUREOHPDV0 V SODQHWRMHSDY\]GåLXL\UDPLHVW NXULXRVHQHSDODQNL VYHLNDWDLGLHQ VNDLþLXVSHUPHWXVMDXYLUãLMD20. 1HJDW\Y V åPRQL NLQ V YHLNORV UHLãNLQLDL EHL SDVHNP V EXYR SDVWHE WRV GDU SUD MXVLDPH DPåLXMH WDLJL DSOLQNRV WDUãRV SUREOHPD Q UD WRNLD QDXMD LU QHWLN WD WLN ãLXR PHWX LãDXJ V GLGHOLV VXVLGRP MLPDV MD JDOE W ODELDXVLDLVXVLM V VXWXRNDGåPRQ VSUDG M WXUWLQJLDXJ\YHQWLWDSRODLVYHVQLQXRNDVGLHQLQLRU SLQLPRVLPDLVWX GUDEXåLDLVDSDYXLUYLVGLGHVQLXVreikalavimus kelia gyvenimo aplinkos kokybei. Ekonomikos teorijos mokslo disciplina iš HVP V VXVLGRP MRãLRPLVSUREOHPRPLVPDåGDXJSULHãSHQNLDVGHãLPWPHW
6XSUDQWDPD NDG YLVXRPHQ V HJ]LVWDYLPDV QHLãYHQJLDPDL VXNHOLD WDP WLNUXV JDPWLQ V aplinkos QXRVWROLXVNXUL YLVLãNDLVXPDåLQWLDUYLVLãNDLLãYHQJWLQH PDQRPD7DþLDXJDOLPDVtoks aplinkos apsaugos variantas, NDGD åDOD DSOLQNDL VXPDåLQDPD iki JDOLPR PLQLPXPR 0DåDV NLHNLV NDL NXUL U ãL WHUãDO JUHLWDL LãVLVNODLGR QHSDGDU\GDPDV GLGHO V WDNRV JDPWDL LU QHUHLNDODXMD GDXJ V QDXG QRULQW SDãDOLQWL M QHLJLDP WDN DSOLQNDL Galima ir tokia situacija, NDGDLQIUDVWUXNW URVREMHNW VWDW\EDEXVNXUNDVVYDUELDXQHLDWLWLQNDP WHUãDO GDUDQþL QHGLGHO WDN DSOLQNDL YDO\PR UHQJLQLDL ' O ãLRV SULHåDVWLHV YDUWRMDPD optimalios teršimo normos V YRND 1XVWDWDQWRSWLPDOLDVWDUãRVQRUPDVUHLNLDSDO\JLQWLYLVXRPHQLQ ULELQ QDXG kuri bus gauta papildomai padidinus JDPWRV DSVDXJRV NRQWURO VX YLVXRPHQLQLDLV ULELQLDLV NDãWDLV DWVLUDQGDQþLDLV SDSLOGRPDL GLGLQDQW JDPWRV apsaugos išlaidas.
0 V GYLGHãLPWDVLVDPåLXVNXULDPE GLQJDVQHSDSUDVWDLVSDUWXVJDP\ELQL M J Y\VW\PDVLVSDVLå\PL ir tuo, kad kai NXULRVH SDVDXOLR ãDO\VH VXN O DSOLQNRV XåWHUãWXP JU VLDQW NDWDVWURILãNRPLV SDVHNP PLV äPRQLMD EXYR SULYHUVWD SHUåL U WL QXVLVWRY MXVLXV VDYR YHLNORV SULRULWHWXV LU LHãNRWL WDUS M YLHWRV DSOLQNRV apsaugai. *DPWRV DSVDXJRV SUREOHPRV N\OD Lã HVP V G O WULM SDJULQGLQL SULHåDVþL 3LUPD Lã fizikos visi åLQRPH NDG WDP WLNUDV IL]LQLV REMHNWDV YLVLãNDL LãQ\NWL QHJDOL JHULDXVLX DWYHMX gali virsti kuo nors kitu. Nafta, YLUVGDPD ãLOXPD JDOL SDOLNWL G PXV LU VXRGåLXV SHUGLUEDPD FKHPLQLX E GX - pavirsti, tarkime, plastmase, bet QLHNDGRVMLQHLãQ\NVQHSDOLNGDPDS GVDNR 0HVNRONDVGDUQHDWVLNUDW PHYDGLQDPRMRÄSDVWDW NRPSOHNVRIHQRPHQRSDJDONXU visa, kas gali E WLVXNXUWDQDXGRMDQWEXOGR]HU E WLQDL\UDSDåDQJXLUjuo didesnis ir VS GLQJHVQLVstatinys, juo geriau.
Ir dar viena labai svarbi SULHåDVWLV HNRQRPLQ V åDORV atlyginimas, NXU PRND WHUã MDL paprastai jiems patiems ekonomiškai nelabai MXQWDPDVWRG O jie QHVXLQWHUHVXRWLPDåLQWLWHUãLPRmasto.
Kaip taikliai \UDSDVWHE WDnulinis poveikis gamtai, aplinkai galimas tik esant nulinei JDP\EDL'DUE W galima SULG WL kad net ir esant šiai prielaidai, åPRJXVveikia JDPW jau savo paties egzistavimu. Suprantama, kad tai tik grynai teoriniai samprotavimai, o realiame J\YHQLPH E WLQD išsiaiškinti åPRQL NLQ V veiklos SRYHLN aplinkai, nustatyti aplinkos taršos LU J\YHQLPR NRN\E V U\ãLXV 7LN išanalizavus WRNL LQIRUPDFLM gali E WL panaudojamos YDLULRVSULHPRQ V aplinkos taršos poveikiui minimizuoti. Šioje veikloje \SDþVYDUELvieta priklauso ekonoPLQLDPVPHWRGDPVNXULHULQNRVHNRQRPLNRVV O\JRPLV\UDEHQHSDW\VHIHNW\YLDXVL
.DOE VLPHtik apie pagrindinius šios labai svarbios temos klausimus: l. Aplinkos tarša ir J\YHQLPRNRN\E Aplinkos WDUãRV NRQWURO V kaštai. 3. Ekonominiai aplinkos taršos reguliavimo metodai. 4. Urbanizacijos HNRORJLQ V SUREOHPRV LU PLHVW SHUSLOG\PR kaštai. 5. Ekonominiai eismo reguliavimo metodai ir 6. Aplinkos XåWHUãWXPRPDåLQLPRSURJQR] V
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GDXJLDXNXUR3DY\]GåLXL -siais metais lengvajam automobiliui vieno galono kuro vidutiniškai XåWHNGDYR mylios kelio.
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7DG QDIWRV NDLQ SDNLOLPDV SULYHUW V YDOVW\EHV YHVWL DXWRPRELOL NXUR VXQDXGRMLPR QRUPDV Lã HVP V SDNHLW SDVDXOLQ V DXWRPRELOL JDP\ERV VWUXNW U -siais metais JAV PDåDOLWUDåLQLDL DXWRPRELOLDL VXGDU SURFHQWXV YLV WDLV PHWDLV SDUGXRW DXWRPRELOL 1981-siais-jau 65,0 procentus. Panaã V SURFHVDL Y\NR LU NLWRVH DXWRPRELOLXVJDPLQDQþLRVHãDO\VH9DNDU (XURSRMHDU-DSRQLMRMH -VLDLVPHWDLVYLGXWLQLROLWUDåRODELDXVLDLSDNODXV WXULQWLVDXWRPRELOLVYLGXWLQLãNDLQDXGRGDYRDSLHOLWU NXURG\]HOLQLXYDULNOLX- GDUPDåLDXo šiandieninis tenkinasi 7-8 litrais benzino arba 5,5- OLWUDLVG\]HOLQLRNXUR' O WRSDVDXOLRDXWRPRELOL SUDPRQ MHY\NRDWNDNOLNRQNXUHQFLQ NRYD VLHNLDQWVXNXUWLWXULQW SDNODXV ODEDLSDWRJ NRPIRUWDELO EHWNDUWXHNRQRPLãN DXWRPRELO $QNVþLDXNDLSPLQ Mome, JAV YLGXWLQLãNDLOHQJYDPDXWRPRELOLXLYLHQRJDORQREHQ]LQRXåWHNGDYRWLNP\OLRVNHOLRRMDXPDåGDXJSULHãGHãLPW PHW SUDG WL JDPLQWL DXWRPRELOLDL NXULHPV ãLR NXUR NLHNLR SDNDQND YHLNWL SHQNLV NDUWXV LOJHVQ QXRWRO R ãLXR PHWX pradedami gamLQWLGDUHNRQRPLãNHVQLDXWRPRELOLDLNXULHVX SUDVWLQLXNDUELXUDWRULQLXYDULNOLXVXQDXGRGDPLJDORQ kuro, gali QXYDåLXRWLLNL P\OL RVXG\]HOLQLXYDULNOLX- LNLP\OL 3HUYHG JDORQXVLUP\OLDV PXPV SUDVW YLHQHW VLVWHP PDWRPHNDGWRNLHDXWRPRELOLDLãLPWXLNLORPHWU NHOLRVXQDXGRMDPDåGDXJOLWUREHQ]LQRDUED 2,7 litro dyzelinio kuro. Dabartiniai serijiniai PDåDOLWUDåLQLDL(XURSRVãDOL -DSRQLMRV3LHW .RU MRVDXWRPRELOLDLWDLS pat ekonomiški, QHDWVLOLHNDQXRVHULMLQL DPHULNLHWLãN 0DåGDXJtiek pat kuro, kiek ir JAV, sunaudoja naujai pradedami JDPLQWLãLRVNODV V DXWRPRELOLDLLUNLWRVHpasaulio ãDO\VHRVXG WLQJ HOHNWURQLQL NXUR SXUãNLPRVLVWHP SDQDXGRMLPDV YLHWRMH NDUELXUDWRUL GDU SDGLGLQD M HNRQRPLãNXP ir, svarbiausia, pagerina ekologinius rodiklius. Taigi galime DNLYDL]GåLDL VLWLNLQWL kiek šiuo metu Lietuvoje eksploatuojami automobiliai atsilieka nuo pasaulinio lygio. Jeigu vidutiniškai PDåDOLWUDåLQLVDXWRPRELOLVVXQDXGRMDapie 10 OLWU EHQ]LQRãLPWXLNLORPHWU NHOLRMRšeimininkas yra patenkintas, nes kiti dar labiau rajus... O tai GDXJLDXQHJX9DNDU (XURSRMHJAV ar Japonijoje buvo sunaudojama prieš NHWYLUW DPåLDXV%HWNDLSVDNRPDE GDQHYLHQta. Dauguma DXWRPRELOL seni, techniškai netvarkingi. Nustatyta, kad ir gerai sureguliuoto automobilio variklis,VXGHJLQ V YLHQ WRQ benzino, DWPRVIHU LãPHWDapieNLORJUDP WHUãDO ,ãM DSLHNLORJUDP VXGDUR DQJOLDU JãW iš kituNRPSRQHQW - VPDON V DUEDanglies viendeginis, azoto oksidai ir nesudegusio benzino OLNXþLDL angliavandeniliai, taip pat YDLU V švino junginiai, sunkieji metalai ir kitos nuodingos PHGåLDJRV O techniškai netvarkingas variklis išmeta 2-3 kartus daugiau WHUãDO VLYDL]GXRNLPH kiek P V DSOLQN teršia vien automobiliai, NXUL VNDLþLXs 5HVSXEOLNRMH GLG MD labai VSDUþLDL Vien tik 1989-1994-M PHW laikotarpiu OHQJY M DXWRPRELOL SDGLG MR W NVWDQþLR NURYLQLQL - 11,2, DXWREXV - 3,2 W NVWDQþLR ir tik PRWRFLNO YLV QXRVWDEDLVXPDå MRW NVWDQþLR /LHWXYRV PRNVOLQLQN W\ULPDi rodo, kad pas mus vis GDU GLG MD VLHURV RNVLG PHWDQR LU ODNL M RUJDQLQL MXQJLQL SURFHQWLQ GDOLV EHQGUDMDPH WHUãDO EDODQVH <SDþ LãVLVNLULD DQJOLHV PRQRNVLGR GLG MLPDV WHUãDO bendrosios VDQGDURV GLQDPLNRMH 'LG MD LU D]RWR RNVLG 3DWV svarbiausiaV PLQ W WHUãDO šaltinis -PRELOLRVWUDQVSRUWRSULHPRQ V 0RELO V WDUãRVšaltiniai vien WLN PHWDLV DWPRVIHU LãPHW YLV WHUãDO âLVIDNWDV SDWYLUWLQD &2 GLG MLP EHQGUDMDPHWHUãDO VSHNWUH
GRPXPR G OHL YHUWD SULVLPLQWL NDLS Y\NR /LHWXYRV Dutomobilizacija. Pirmieji automobiliai /LHWXYRMH SDVLURG GYLGHãLPWRMR DPåLDXV SUDGåLRMH -VLDLV PHWDLV 9LOQLXMH YDåLQ MR keli OHQJYLHML DXWRPRELOLDL LU SUDG MR NXUVXRWL DXWREXVDV QXR GDEDUWLQ V *HGLPLQR DLNãW V 9HUNLXV Prieš SDW 3LUP M SDVDXOLQ kDU 9LOQLXMH LU .DXQH EXYR XåUHJLVWUXRWDtik po keliolika DXWRPRELOL
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3RSHQNLDVGHãLPWLHVPHW - 1989-siais jauEXYRW NVWDQþLROHQJY M -NURYLQLQL DXWRPRELOL 13,8 - DXWREXV LU W NVWDQþLR PRWRFLNO - iš viso 766850 PRWRULQL WUDQVSRUWR SULHPRQL DUED OHQJY M DXWRPRELOL NDUWXVNURYLQLQL - 123, DXWREXV - LUPRWRFLNO - 108 kartus daugiau.
1995-M PHW SUDGåLRMHWXU MRPHOHQJY M - W NVWDQþLRNURYLQLQL DXWRPRELOL -DXWREXV - 17,1 ir PRWRFLNO - W NVWDQþLR -siais meWDLVOHQJY M DXWRPRELOL Lietuvoje jau EXYRW NVWDQþLR7LNSHUQHSLOQ GYLHM PHW ODLNRWDUS M VNDLþLXV LãDXJR W NVWDQþL DUED SURFHQWR 7DþLDX PDå MD NURYLQLQL DXWRPRELOL LU DXWREXV SDUNDV- PHW YLGXU\MHWXU MRPHDWLWLQNDPDLLUW NVWDQþLR,ãYLVRãLXRPHWXWXULPHSHUPLOLMRQ PRWRULQL WUDQVSRUWRSULHPRQL DUEDEHYHLNGXãLPWXVWULVGHãLPWNDUW GDXJLDXnegu 1939-VLDLV%HWWDLNDLSPLQ MRPH GRPLRMLGDXJN SDVDNDQWLVWDWLVWLND*U åNLPHprie gamtos apsaugos.
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9LVRSDVDXOLRYLVXRPHQ SODþLDLDSLH5RPRVNOXE VXåLQRMRNDLSDVLURG MRLQLFLDW\YDparengti pirmieji SURMHNWDLQDJULQ MDQW\Vglobalines problemas. Bene GLGåLDXVL VXVLGRP MLP VXN O dar 1972-siais metais išleistas projektas „Augimo ribos", kurio autorius D. Nidouzas, 1989-siais ODQN VLV LU P V šalyje, QDJULQ MD penkias svarbiausias globalines problemas: VSDUþLRV industrializacijos, J\YHQWRM VNDLþLDXV GLG MLPR PDLVWR SURGXNW WU NXPRJDPWLQL LãWHNOL LãVHNLPRLUJDPWRVDSOLQNRVXåWHUãLPR3DVLWHON JDOLQJ VNDLþLDYLPR WHFKQLN SULWDLN
QDXMXV PDWHPDWLQLXV SUREOHP W\ULPR PHWRGXV DSGRURM PLOåLQLãN VWDWLVWLQ V PHGåLDJRV NLHN jie gavo gana pesimistinius rezultatus. Jie DNLYDL]GåLDL URG NDG åPRQLMDL QHVL PXV HIHNW\YL SULHPRQL prieštaravimai tarp gamtos LãWHNOL LU QHSDSUDVWDL VSDUW MDQþL M QDXGRMLPRWHPS GLG MDQWLVJDPWLQ V aplinkos XåWHUãWXPDV EHLVSDUWXV J\YHQWRM JDXV MLPDV gali sukelti JOREDOLQ NUL] GDU X XI-jo DPåLDXV YLGXU\MH LU kaip YLHQLQWHO LãHLW VL O YDGLQDP M JOREDOLQ V SXVLDXVY\URVNRQFHSFLM NXULRVHVP VXGDURE WLQ\E VWDELOL]XRWLJ\YHQWRM VNDLþLDXVGLG MLP apriboti JDP\E LU VXPDåLQWLJDPWRVWXUW QDXGRMLP
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0DåGDXJQXR -M PHW EHYHLNNDVPHWSRQDXM 5RPRVNOXERSUDQHãLP VNLUW aktualiausioms dabarties JOREDOLQ PV SUREOHPRPV SDUXRãGDYR MR DNW\YLDXVLHML YHLN MDL WDL Ä8å HLNYRMLPR DPåLDXV ULE ÄäPRQLMRV WLNVODL Ä1 UDULE ODYLQWLVÄ7UHþLDVLVSDVDXOLV-GXWUHþGDOLDLSDVDXOLRÄPDUãUXWDLYHGDQW\V DWHLW Ä9DQGHQ\Q DWHLWLVLUNLWL - DNWXDOXP URGRMDXYLHQWLNQDJULQ MDP SUREOHP pavadinimai... *DQD GRP V WHLJLQLDL EXYR LãG VW\WL SURMHNWH ÄGLDORJDV DSLH WXUW LU JHURY NXULR åDQJRMH $ 3HþHMLV UDã „naujosios eNRQRPLNRVEUDQGXRO\V\UDHNRQRPLNRVLUHNRORJLMRVVLQWH] 7DLDNLYDL]GåLDLSDWYLUWLQDWHLJLQ kad negali E WLWXUWRHNRORJLãNDLQHSDWYLDULDPHSDVDXO\MH
1998-VLDLV5RPRVNOXEDVSDå\P V VDYRWULVGHãLPWPHW 'DUVDYRGYLGHãLPWPHþLRSURJDMR N U MDLSDEU å NDG galima laikyti VWHEXNOX IDNW MRJ QHIRUPDOL RUJDQL]DFLMD QHWXULQWL QHL VWUXNW URV QHL HWDW QHL ELXGåHWR JDYR WRN GLGHO SULSDåLQLP SDVDXO\MH 1RU GDPD LãVSU VWL NOXER NHOLDPDV SUREOHPDV SDVDXOLR YLVXRPHQ WXUL VXVLWHONWL SHUåL U WLYHUW\EL SULRULWHW 5RPRV NOXER SURMHNWDL VXN O WDNLQJ SDVDXOLR RUJDQL]DFLM LU QHW -72 VXVLGRP MLP -siais metais SUDG WDV EXUWL HNVSHUW NROHNW\YDV NXULDP YDGRYDXWL EXYR SDVL O\WD WDLV SDþLDLV PHWDLV DXNãþLDXVL YHUWLQLP 1REHOLRSUHPLM XåHNRQRPLNRVPRNVO GDUEXVpelniusiam Vasilijui Leontjevui.
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Nors modelis apima globalines problemas, taþLDX yra labai detalus: pasaulio ekonomika suskirstyta UDMRQ kiekvieno LãM HNRQRPLQ veikla buvo detalizuojama VHNWRULXVkurie VDYRUXRåWXEXYRsmulkinami PDåHVQLXV padalinius, kaip, SDY\]GåLXL åHP V NLR sektoriuje buvo išskirti 4 pasektRULDL E WHQW J\YXOLQLQN\VW VMDY RLãM GDUNXOW URVWXULQþLRV GLGHO proteino NLHN ir šakniavaisiai.
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/LWHUDW UD 1. Albrecht W.P. Microeconomic principles. Englewood Cliffs, 1979. 2. Boumol W.J., Blinder A.S. Economics. Principles and policy. N.Y., 1985. 3. Ekonomika. U-tet M.Kopemica. Red. Nauk. P. Jaworowski, Torun, 1993. 4. Ekonomikos teorija. I. MikURHNRQRPLND,,0DNURHNRQRPLND$WV5HG-ýLþLQVNDV9LOQLXV VU leidykla, 1990, 1991. 5. Economics and industrial democracy. London, 1993. *HOEUDLWDV'å.0HQãLNRYDV6.DSLWDOL]PDVVRFLDOL]PDVVDPE YLV9 -DNXWLV$(NRQRPLQL WHLJLQL PRGHOLDYLPDV9 7HFKQLND 8. Jurgutis V. Bankai. K., 1940. -XUJXWLV9)LQDQV PRNVORSDJULQGDL. 10. Jurgutis V. Pinigai. K., 1938. .LWDQRYLþLXV%3ODQHWDLUFLYLOL]DFLMDSDYRMXMH9 /LHWXYRVXåVLHQLRSUHN\ED. 1983 0DOLãDXVNDV95DFLRQDOXVJDPWRVLãWHNOL QDXGRMLPDV9 14. Manafield E. Principles of microeconomics. N.Y., 1976. 15. Rinkos ekonomika ir valstybinis reguliavimas. Red. K.Glaveckas. V: Balticon, 1990. 16. Samuelson P. Economics: an introductory analysis. 2 n. D. N. Y, 1961. 17. Samuelson P. Economics. N. Y, 1970. 18. Vengrys E. Ekonomikos samprata. V, 1988. 19. Weis L.W. Economics and Society. N. Y, 1986. 20. Wonnacot P., VVbnnacot R. Economics. N. Y, 1986. 21. Wonnacot P., Wonnacot R. Economics. N. Y, 1990. :RQQDFRW5:RQQDFRW50LNURHNRQRPLND9'8OHLGLQ\VYHUW =/\GHND. :RQQDFRW5:RQQDFRW50DNURHNRQRPLND9'8OHLGLQ\VYHUW =/\GHND. 24. Ame Jonas Isachsenas, Carlas Hamiltonas. Ekonomikos pagrindai.9 $OW OLWHUD 25. Gerald Klein. Dictozary of banking. London, 1992. 26. Oxford dictozary of Business English. Ozford university Press, 1994. 27. The Oxford dictozary for the Business world. Oxford university Press, 1993. 28. Ekonomika rozvvoju miast. Lodz, 1983. 29. Ekonomika pracy. Red. Nauk S.Borkowska, Warszawa, 1988. /LOHYLþLXV9LQFHQWDV$PHULNRVOLHWXYL HNRQRPLQ YHLNOD- ýLNDJDýLNDJRVlituanistikos institutas. 1980. 0DOLãDXVNDV95DFLRQDOXVJDPWRVLãWHNOL QDXGRMLPDV9, 1985. 32. Wirtschaft spolitische Strategien: Probleme okonomischer Stabilitat und Entvvicklung in Industrielandern und der Europaischen Gemeinschaft. Regensburg O Trans-fer-Verb., 1990 © ª – 42 - -2., 1976
