Freight Transport and the Environment

FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT

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Studies in Environmental Science 45

FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT Edited by Martin Kroon Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environmenr, Leidschendam, The Netherlands Ruthger Smit Ministry of Transport and Public Works, The Hague, The Netherlands Joop van Ham TNO Study Centre for Environmental Research, Delft, The Netherlands

ELSEVlER Amsterdam - London- New York -Tokyo

1991

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V. Molenwerf 1 P.O. Box 21 1 , 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands Distributors for the United States and Canada: ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY INC. 655, Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10010, U S A .

ISBN 0-444-88770-9 Q Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1991 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V./ Physical Sciences & EngineeringDivision, P.O. Box 330, 1000 AH Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Special regulationsfor readers in the USA -This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem, Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside of the USA, should be referred to the Publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. This book is printed on acid-free paper Printed in The Netherlands

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Studies in EnvironmentalScience Other volumes in this series 1 Atmospheric Pollution 1978 edited by M.M. Benarie 2 Air Pollution Reference Measurement Methods and Systems edited by T. Schneider, H.W. de Koning and L.J. Brasser 3 Biogeochemical Cycling of Mineral-Forming Elements edited by P.A. Trudinger and D.J. Swaine 4 Potential Industrial Carcinogens and Mutagens by L. Fishbein 5 Industrial Waste Management by S.E. Jargensen 6 Trade and Environment: A Theoretical Enquiry by H. Siebert, J. Eichberger, R. Gronych and R. Pethig 7 Field Worker Exposure during Pesticide Application edited by W.F. Tordoir and E.A.H. van Heernstra-Lequin 8 Atmospheric Pollution 1980 edited by M.M. Benarie 9 Energetics and Technology of Biological Elimination of Wastes edited by G. Milazzo 10 Bioengineering, Thermal Physiology and Comfort edited by K. Cena and J.A. Clark 11 Atmospheric Chemistry. Fundamental Aspects by E. MBszaros 12 Water Supply and Health edited by H. van Lelyveld and B.C.J. Zoeternan 13 Man under Vibration. Suffering and Protection edited by G. Bianchi, K.V. Frolov and A. Oledzki 14 Principles of Environmental Science and Technology by S.E. Jargensen and I. Johnsen 15 Disposal of Radioactive Wastes by Z. Dlouhj, 16 Mankind and Energy edited by A. Blanc-Lapierre 17 Quality of Groundwater edited by W. van Duijvenbooden, P. Glasbergen and H. van Lelyveld 18 Education and Safe Handling in Pesticide Application edited by E.A.H. van HeernstraLequin and W.F. Tordoir 19 Physicochemical Methods for Water and Wastewater Treatment edited by L. Pawlowski 20 Atmospheric Pollution 1982 edited by M.M. Benarie 21 Air Pollution by Nitrogen Oxides edited by T. Schneider and L. Grant 22 Environmental Radioanalysis by H.A. Das, A. Faanhof and H.A. van der Sloot 23 Chemistry for Protection of the Environment edited by L. Pawlowski, A.J. Verdier and W.J. Lacy 24 Determination and Assessment of Pesticide Exposure edited by M. Siewierski 25 The Biosphere: Problems and Solutions edited by T.N. Veziroelu 26 Chemical Events in the Atmosphere and their Impact on the Environment edited by G.B. Marini-Bettolo 27 Fluoride Research 1985 edited by H. Tsunoda and Ming-Ho Yu 28 Algal Biofouling edited by L.V. Evans and K.D. Hoagland 29 Chemistry for Protection of the Environment 1985 edited by L. Pawlowski, G. Alaerts and W.J. Lacy 30 Acidification and its Policy Implications edited by T. Schneider 31 Teratogens: Chemicals which Cause Birth Defects edited by V. Kolb Meyers 32 Pesticide Chemistry by G. Matolcsy, M. Nadasy and V. Andriska 33 Principles of Environmental Science and Technology (second revised edition) by S.E. Jargensen and I. Johnsen 34 Chemistry for Protection of the Environment 1987 edited by L. Pawlowski, E. Mentasti. C. Sarzanini and W.J. Lacy

vi 35 Atmospheric Ozone Research and its Policy Implications edited by T. Schneider, S.D. Lee, G.J.R. Wolters and L.D. Grant 36 Valuation Methods and Policy Making in Environmental Economics edited by H. Folrner and E. van lerland 37 Asbestos in the Natural Environment by H. Schreier 38 How to Conquer Air Pollution. A Japanese Experience edited by H. Nishimura 39 Aquatic Bioenvironmental Studies: The Hanford Experience, 1944-1 984 by C.D.Becker 40 Radon in the Environment by M.Wilkening 41 Evaluation of Environmental Data for Regulatory and Impact Assessment by S. Ramamoorthy and E. Baddaloo 42 Environmental Biotechnology edited by A. Blazej and V. Privarova 43 Applied Isotope Hydrogeology by F.J. Pearson, Jr., W. Balderer, H.H. Loosli, B.E. Lehrnann, A. Matter, Tj. Peters, H. Schrnassrnann and A. Gautschi 44 Highway Pollution edited by R.S. Hamilton and R.M. Harrison

vii

FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT The free movement of goods is a cornerstone of the trading systems that we have and want. Goods movement has increased steadily and at a faster pace than economic growth. Dismantling physical, fiscal and psychological barriers to trade will also undoubtedly lead to more traffic. More and more of these goods are moving by road. In twenty years, road transport in Europe had doubled and has increased its market share from just over a half to nearly three-quarters. In cities, where the vast majority of people live, almost all freight transport is by road. This trend is not likely to change since road transport responds best to present and emerging industrial demands. But this is only one side of the story. It is now widely accepted that transport is a significant and growing source of environmental nuisance. There is an emerging hostility to trucks. Many people find them dirty, noisy and frightening. Progress in reducing polluting emissions from cars has not yet been matched for large vehicles. The share of air pollution emissions due to trucks is increasing and the prospects are worrying, in the short term for nitrogen oxides and particulate emissions and in the longer term for carbon dioxide. It is therefore entirely appropriate that attention should focus on goods transport and its environmental consequences. So many questions need to be answered or clarified. Among these questions are: Why can we not use railways or waterways more? How can we charge prices that reflect total costs including the environmental costs? How can logistic trends be made more compatible with the environment?Can the environmental consequences of our industrial and trading habits be tolerated in the longer term? These and similar questions are high on the political agendas of Governments and Transport Ministers nationally and internationally. The papers in this volume do not answer them all but they make a valuable contribution to increasing knowledge and to raising the level of debate. They should be read carefully by all those involved in moving goods or in making transport policy so that the debate can be well informed and solidly based. Jan C. Terlouw Secretary General of The European Conference of Ministers of Transport

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ix

PREFACE The present volume on Freight Transport and the Environment originates from a symposium, ENVIROTRANSPORT, that was planned to be held in Scheveningen, The Netherlands in July 1990. Unfortunately, the attendance from outside the Netherlands as known a few weeks before the symposium, promised to be disappointingly low, which induced the organizers, the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment and the Ministry of Transport and Public Works to cancel the symposium. Instead, the prospective speakers at the symposium were asked to write a contributionfor a monograph at the subject of freight transport and the environment. The present volume contains the collected papers which, for the major part, cover the elements intended to be dealt with at the symposium. Most of the papers date from the end of the summer of 1990; some, including those that were originally intended to be presented in German and have now been translated, were received during the autumn of that year. The book has an introductory part referring to the present situation with the environment and transport of goods and continues with the prospects for improvements during the next decade and the beginning of the next century along three main tracks: - the potential for technological solutions -the new approaches in logistics and transport policies -the new concepts in distribution and their application in cities. The editors hope that the present volume will help the transport sector and governments to find the solutions which are necessary to ensure a sustainable transport system in Europe in the future. Martin C. Kroon Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment Ruthger C.J. Smit Ministry of Transport and Public Works Joop van Ham TNO Study Centre for Environmental Research Leidschendam/The Hague/Delft, The Netherlands, February 1 99 1

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xi

CONTENTS PROBLEM AND FRAMEWORK FOR SOLUTIONS The present environmental crisis R.B.J.C. van Noort ................................................................. Growth scenarios and corresponding emissions for the transport of goods by truck and train in Europe H.G. Graf ............................................................................... Sustainable development and goods traffic G. Maier-Rigaud ..................................................................... Facts and figures on environmental effects of freight transport in The Netherlands Th.J.H. Schoemaker and P.A. Bouman ..................................... New policy developments concerning traffic, freight transport and environment in The Netherlands M. Kroon and R. Smit ............................................................. A California and United States perspective on the impact of air quality policies on goods movement by heavy duty trucks J. D. Boyd .............................................................................

3 15 31 41 63 81

TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS Prospects for the reduction of noxious emissions from diesel vehicles and the role of alternative fuels and power sources C.C.J. French......................................................................... Current and future emission standards for exhaust gases and noise, and test procedures for goods vehicles C. Cucchi and M. Bidault ......................................................... The heavy-duty diesel engine: prospects for reduced emissions and improved fuel efficiency T. Bertilsson .......................................................................... Prospects for the reduction of noise from heavy duty diesel vehicles F. Filippi ................................................................................ Fuel effects on road transport engines - emissions and cold starting J.R. Puttick and G. W. Dwyer ................................................... Noise pollution from railway traffic and possibilities for improvement a t source A. Zach ................................................................................. New progress in designing inland cargo vessels. A winner for fuelefficiency H.H. Heuser ...........................................................................

93 99 1 13 1 19 13 1 143 151

xii Emissions from inland and coastal shipping and potential for improvement L. Kolle, 0. Melhus, K. Bremnes and G. Fiskaa ........................... Emissions from aircraft: standards and potential for improvement D.M. Snape and M.T. Metcalfe ................................................

163 175

NEW APPROACHES IN LOGISTICS AND TRANSPORT POL1ClES Cost-benefit-analyses for goods transport on roads W. Rothengatter .................................................................... Possibilities for a shift in modal split in favour of rail and inland shipping traffic A. Eisenkopf.......................................................................... Determining the prospect for a shift in modal split in freight transport Y .H.F. Cheung and P.M. Blok.. ................................................. Innovation in logistics: the impact on transport and the environment J. Cooper .............................................................................. Is European marine transport a way to escape from inland congestion? J. Duquesne .......................................................................... Speed limits, effects and benefits in terms of energy efficiency and reduction of emissions W.A.M. den Tonkelaar ........................................................... Road transport and environment. A view by the Dutch Road Haulage Association (NOB Wegtransport) M.G. W. Hallmans and J.M. Handel6 .........................................

187 2 15 223 235 255 26 1 27 1

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT, DISTRIBUTION AND URBAN INFRASTRUCTURAL MEASURES Freight transport and the quality of the environment in towns R. Kurer ................................................................................ Minimizing traffic nuisance (in cities) by optimization of logistics and means of transport T. Postma ............................................................................. Strategies to rid the environment of pollution by inner-city freight transport-case studies in Cologne and Gelsenkirchen M. Garben .............................................................................

279 295 301

...

Xlll

Measures to guide traffic of dangerous goods transports in the Federal Republic of Germany H.-G. Triebel .......................................................................... Inland transport of dangerous goods - an overview P.T. Mabbitt .......................................................................... Logistical developments in urban distribution and their impact on energy use and the environment R. ter Brugge ......................................................................... The perspective of urban traffic and its pollution control in China Zi-Zhu Jia ..............................................................................

31 3 3 19 331 343

AUTHOR INDEX ......................................................................

349

INDEX .....................................................................................

351

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M. h'ruon, H . Smit und J . vun Hum (&ditors), FreiRht Trunspori und rhe Environment IYYI &/sewer Science Publishers B. V . . Amsrerdum. Printed i n rhe Nerherlund.7

3

THE PRESENT ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS R.B.J.C. van Noort National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM), P.O. Box I , 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands

SUMMARY Increasing environmental pollution poses a serious threat to the human environment, even on a global scale. It is realized too little that environmental problems have a time scale, so that the effects only become apparent after many years of environmental pollution. Emissions must be cut by 50 to 80% to make sustainable development possible, as defined in the Brundtland report. Freight traffic plays a part in this pollution, also when viewed against the background of the strong growth which may be expected in this sector. The environment will have to be regarded as a production factor the use of which carries a price. Technological developments, including those in the field of new fuels and environmentally acceptable modes of transport, must be stimulated in order to cope with the growing environmental crisis with regard to freight traffic. 1.

INTRODUCTION

Our society has woken up to the fact that the increasing environmental pollution poses a threat to our environment. Visible effects in particular, such as damage to forests caused by acidification, contamination of drinking water, mass mortality of fish in rivers, and impairment of health by air pollution in Eastern Europe, demonstrate that acceptability limits have been widely exceeded. "Have reports of the serious consequences of environmental pollution not reached us before now?" This would appear to be a legitimate question. The answer to this is in the affirmative. I only need to draw attention to the report of the Club of Rome "The Limits to Growthgf,published in 1972. Certainly, the discussion on the predicted increasing environmental pollution did receive attention, but interest subsequently ebbed away. The same is true of the destruction of stratospheric ozone as a result of the sharp rise in the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), predicted by scientists in the early seventies. Measures have been announced after the depletion of the ozone layer recently became observable. Society apparently reacts only after effects have occurred. Insufficient account is taken here of the time scale of the environmental problems. 2.

TIME SCALES

The factor time plays a very important part in the development of these environmental problems. Our environment the possesses, as it were, a buffer capacity, so that consequences of many years of polluting the environment become noticeable only after this capacity has been exceeded. The problem of the time scales can best be illustrated by means of the following example: a study carried out by IIASA in Big Moose Lake in the United States has established the

4

relationship between the increase in SO, emission from the use of fossil fuels and its acidifying effect on the surface water. emissions in mln tons sulphur per year I

60

l 4

02emission

55

50

1780

J '

1880

1900

1920

1940

1960

1980

time (in years) lime u a k of acidic emission and acidity of sii Moose Lake, s u p p l i by gmundwrhr. (Souno:IlASA)

figure 1 The 70-year delay which can be observed in figure 1 between the increase in SO, emission and fish mortality can be explained by the delayed leaching of acid from the soil into Big Moose Lake by way of the groundwater. After the emissions have ceased, it will again take decades before the original situation in the lake has been restored. This time scale problem makes it necessary to take preventive measures much earlier. Measures taken before the environmental effects become evident cost much less than cleanup measures taken after these effects have already occurred. DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS INTO SPATIAL SCALES

3.

The report "Our Common Future" , the Brundtland report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, published is in 1987, has emphasized that sustainable development essential to prevent further disruption of our society as a result of environmental pollution. In the Netherlands the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM) has published in 1988 the report "Concern for Tomorrow11,National Environmental Survey 1985-2010, which has served as a scientific background document for the National Environmental Policy Plan issued by the Dutch government in 1989. In IIConcern for Tomorrow1@,the environmental problems have been classified according to five spatial scales (see figure 2) :

-

global level

: greenhouse effect and depletion of the

ozone layer; continental level : acidification, ozone in the biosphere; fluvial level : eutrophication, dispersion; regional level : overfertilization, dispersion and waste disposal ;

5

- local level

: disturbance by noise, air pollution in

inner cities.

inner region

1

ChdraCtellStIC processes

lake rural

conslruction lormalion and demolition 01 soil 01 buildings

4

ocean/ continent 4 movement 01 air

sea lluvial m0vemen I

of water

planet

L flows 01 energy and radiation

1

characteristic environmental problems

noise odour air pollution inner cities interior environment

overlertil izalion dispersion drying out waste storage

oveder liI ination dispersion

acidilication ozone life level dispersion of dust nuclear accidents

greenhouse effect depletion 01 ozone layer

Spatial rrakr d environment probkmi; Ih. chamctarirtkrand pmb*mr at Ih.global, rontinantml, Rwhl, maional and h l kwl. (Source: RIVM)

figure

2

Environmental pollution caused by traffic has consequences especially for the global, continental and local scales. The environmental pollution load will be greater in the Netherlands than in other countries using the same environmental technology. This is because energy consumption, density of population, number of vehicles, industrial production and number of farm animals in the Netherlands, calculated per square kilometre, are some of the highest in the world. For road traffic, the transport performance per square kilometre in a number of OECD countries, for both passenger and freight traffic, is presented in figure 3. In this figure, too,

Road traffic volumes in some OECD countries (1 9 8 7 1 Nethdud. W-QemUny B.lgiun Qroot-Brlttdn Qood-

JP .n .

v ~ k .

Itdy

UJ1.d 8tot.e CWd. J

0

figure 3

600

1000

thouund km

1600

zoo0

y.u/.qwr.

km

2600

6

it is obvious that the environmental situation in the Netherlands is critical. The report glConcernfor Tomorrowgghas demonstrated that serious disruptions can be expected if the current trends in production and consumption are extended into the future. For example, without taking stringent measures, the forests in the Netherlands will be lost as a result of acidification. Many emissions will have to be cut by more than 50%, often by 70-80%, to arrive at a situation in which development is sustainable, as defined in the Brundtland report. 4.

ROAD TRAFFIC

The major environmental problems caused by road traffic relate to disturbance by noise and air pollution, and a substantial contribution to this is made by freight traffic. One specific problem of road traffic is the great increase in volume which may be expected in the years to come. For example, in 1988 the Netherlands foresaw a growth of over 50% in road traffic and even of 80% in freight traffic by the year 2000. These growth expectations are meanwhile being revised downwards, under pressure of the anticipated increase in environmental pollution. However, it is not clear which measures can effectively reduce transport mobility. A s regards the technical development of quieter and cleaner trucks, I can only express disappointment about the slow pace at which truck producers have succeeded in developing cleaner and quieter vehicles. The very slow decision-making within the EEC on a tightening of the product specifications in particular, has hampered progress. More stringent environmental requirements outside the EEC, such as the recent ban in Austria on noisy freight traffic during the night, have often induced others to take similar action. That the engineers have by no means yet reached the end of their technical capability can be deduced from figure 4 , which

Noise level of trucks as a function of the price

88

.

-

8

t

. ' . 8

noise- 86 level 84 -

5.

m U

.

.I

Measure-method: 811334lEEG 841372lEEG 841424lEEG

82 -

80

-1 0

.. I

I

100000

I

200000 300000 price in guilders

figure

4

DGM 400000

7

shows the relationship between the purchase price of trucks and the measured sound levels in accordance with the current EEC type test requirements. The same price range includes both noisy and quieter types. Considering the expenditure governments have to incur in order to reduce noise pollution by means of sound-proofing provisions such as screens and improved insulation of dwellings, it is not unreasonable to state that noisy trucks are underpriced compared with quieter ones. Because of the anticipated strong growth in traffic, especially freight traffic, and also in the light of the slow pace of development of clean technologies, it may not come as a surprise that more stringent measures are being considered to curb the increasing environmental pollution caused by traffic. The role of freight transport in the noise pollution from road traffic is significant. More and more international freight transport is taking place by night, so that the noise standards then in force are increasingly being exceeded along busy highways. This situation exists in busy urban areas too. Since noise pollution from freight traffic is expected to increase, it seems justified to ask whether in those areas where the noise standards are exceeded, freight traffic should be restricted to trucks which meet the most stringent noise criteria. The periodical tightening of these criteria will give industry an extra incentive to design quieter trucks. A market for quieter trucks can only develop if the government creates a demand for them. Industry will then certainly be able and willing to satisfy this demand. The principal air pollution constituents from road traffic, expressed as a percentage of the total emission in the Netherlands, are presented in figure 5 . Contribution of (duty) traffic to some priority pollutants in 1988

=

Traffic t~

Duty trdflc I 9 0 11.0

co NOX

Lud

0

26

60

76

P r a for U n Nbthuknd.

figure

5.

100

8

Traffic accounts for as much as about 50% of the total emission of nitrogen oxides. Of this, 4/10 comes from freight traffic. The proportion contributed by freight traffic to the sulphur dioxide and fine particles emitted by traffic is very high indeed. Here follows a more detailed account of the consequences of a few atmospheric pollutant emissions, namely carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide and black smoke. a. Carbon dioxide The consumption of fossil fuels leads to a rise in the carbon dioxide (CO,) concentration in the atmosphere. It has increased by 30% in the past century alone. If the current trends continue, the CO, concentration will have doubled by the middle of the next century. When the atmospheric concentrations of trace gases, which include Coal increase, less heat radiating from the surface of the earth can escape into space, as a result of which the lower layers of the atmosphere will warm up. The climate will change and the sea level rise. It is estimated that CO, is responsible for half of the greenhouse effect. Traffic accounts for about 2 0 % of the CO, emission in the Netherlands, and approximately 1/3 of this stems from freight transport. When the atmospheric concentration of CO, doubles, the global mean temperature can be expected to rise by 1.5 to 4.5 degrees Celsius. This will have far-reaching consequences for life on earth. It may be assumed that it is generally known that the greenhouse effect is not taken seriously everywhere.

GLOBAL TEMPERATURE TREND 0.6

0.4

oe8

0.2

0

-0.2

-0.4

Estimates (95%

-0.6 1880

1890

1900

_LLL 1910

1920

1930

1940

Date

figure

6

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

9

Here, I merely want to direct attention to similar voices heard in the seventies concerning the damage to the ozone layer as a result of the use of CFCs, among other causes. At that time, too, some governments preferred to defer taking action until the effects became apparent. In the past few years, a rise in the global mean temperature has already been observed, as is shown in figure 6. Nevertheless, statistically, this cannot be interpreted as conclusive evidence that global warming has begun to occur. However, the postponement of further decisionmaking on a reduction of CO, emissions is not a realistic alternative because of the long recovery period following a drastic cut in these emissions. It can be deduced from figure 7

6 - 5

5 a, 2.

$4 v)

C

0

temperature increase

c

9 3 C

.-0 v)

.v,

E

2

a,

1 -

0 I1900

I2000 figure 7

that even after cessation of all CO, emissions, the temperature will still continue to rise and it will take a few hundred years before it has fallen again to the original level. This time-scale effect calls for stringent measures now. This applies especially to traffic because of the anticipated growth in this sector. b. Nitrosen oxides In the Netherlands, road traffic is responsible for over of the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx). Of this, approximately 4/10 is produced by freight traffic. Excessive concentrations of nitrogen oxides damage human health, and for this reason a Directive came into force within the EEC in 1985 which requires the EEC member states to reducg the concentrations of nitrogen oxides to no more than 200 pg/m by 1. January 1994 at the latest. Figure 8 shows the NO, concentration for a number of European cities. The EEC limit is considerably exceeded in cities such as Cologne, London, Lyons and Milan. In view of the approaching date of 1 January 1994, compliance with this 50%

10

98-P NO2 in cities 1985-87

wna

o

so

100

is0

E.C.

200

, 2so

aoo

310

400

4so

Figure 8 Directive will only be possible by taking measures designed to curb traffic. In warm sunny weather, solar radiation acts on nitrogen oxides and volatile hydrocarbons to produce ozone, which leads to an increased health risk in risk groups such as persons with respiratory disorders and people engaged in heavy physical exertion outdoors. A study carried out by the RIVM has shown that halting the traffic limited only to the Netherlands during this summer smog has only a small favourable effect on the ozone level. There is a better result in combination with measures in the surrounding countries. The contribution made by traffic to the acidification problem in the Netherlands is increasing. It has risen from 19% to 21% since 1980. On the other hand, the proportion contributed by industry is falling as a result of the reduction in SO, emissions. The acid deposition in the Netherlands consist of 40% sulphur compounds (particularly from industry), 32% nitrogen oxides (particularly from traffic) and 2 8 % ammonia (from agriculture). Foreign sources account for over half of the acid deposition in the Netherlands. The Dutch contribution to acid deposition has risen from 37% in 1980 to 41% in 1985 as a result of the growth in intensive animal farming and traffic. Actually, the Netherlands is a net exporter of acidifying air pollutants. The average acid deposition rate in the Netherlands is currently about 5000 mol/ha/year, with a range of 3000 to 7000 mol/ha/year. In the medium-long term, forests and other natural areas can only be preserved when the average acid deposition does not exceed 800-1500 mol/ha/year. Figure 9 shows that only stringent measures, both in the Netherlands and in neighbouring countries, can reduce acid deposition. It is inevitable here that traffic will have to make a substantial contribution. Acidification is not a typically Dutch problem. It also occurs in the rest of Europe as well as in the United States and Canada, and is potentially a risk to the other continents.

11

Acid depositions in the Netherlands compared to standards related to drinking water quality and the vitality of ecosystems acid depositions in mol/haly 6000

1980

-

5000

-

4000

-

3000

-

established measures additional measures in the Netherlands additional measures in Europe

drinking water standard for nitrate

deciduous forest 2000

-

deciduousforest coniferousforest heathland,coniferousforest 1000

vitality of ecosystems

-

deciduous forest 0-

Figure 9 c. Sulphur dioxide and fine Darticles During a winter smog-period, excessive concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO,) and black smoke have serious effects on health. Unlike the summer smog situation, where the largest risk group consists of mostly healthy persons doing heavy physical exercise outdoors, the group at risk during winter smog comprises persons who are especially susceptible to the acid winter smog mixture and stay mainly indoors. These include cardiac patients, persons with chronic lung diseases and elderly people in very poor physical condition. Winter smog can result in hospitalization, and possibly even increases the risk of death. In the Netherlands, winter smog occurs during cold spells in conjunction with a strong high-pressure area over Central Europe, so that more fuel is used. A study carried out by the RIVM has shown that measures designed to curb traffic on very busy streets during these periods may reduce the health risk by approximately 3 0 % . 5.

AIR TRAFFIC

The environmental effects of air traffic cannot be passed over at this symposium because of the vigorous growth foreseen for freight transport by air. For example, Schiphol Airport, Amsterdam, expects the total number of arrivals and departures to increase by about 7 5 % between 1987 and 2 0 0 0 , whereas the growth in freight transport by air is calculated at about 300%. Consequently, the noise near airports, especially during the night, will become more and more a dominant factor. The people in the neighbourhood increasingly appeal to the courts for better protection of the environment around airports.

12

Recently, a judicial decision in the German Federal Republic imposed a ban on nighttime flying at the new Munich airport. In the Netherlands, the court has already decided upon a noise standard to be met at the North-South runway of Maastricht airport in the south of the Netherlands. The relaxation of this standard proposed by the government for a new East-West runway to be built there will certainly give rise to further discussion. This proposal was influenced by the fact that no agreement could be reached with the neighbouring countries on optimization of the prescribed flying routes, especially over Belgian territory. In this context, I should merely like to mention the obvious damage to public health caused by aircraft noise. Air pollution near airports too, poses a growing problem, which incidentally is caused chiefly by the road traffic they attract. The air pollution around Schiphol, and the associated cancer incidence, are comparable with the situation in densely populated areas. The emissions from aircraft in the troposphere and, in the near future, also the,stratosphere will cause a growing problem in aviation. This is because these airplanes inject their exhaust gases directly into the air at higher altitudes. These emissions therefore have a relatively large effect. Figure 10 shows that the NO, emissions from air traffic are

Global emission of NO2 (tonnes/year) by aircraft 1987 ~~~~

<1

<10



<10000 loo000

Figure 10 highest over Europe and the United States. The emissions from subsonic planes (altitude up to 12 kilometres) increase the ozone concentration in the troposphere, resulting in an enhancement of the greenhouse effect. A study carried out by the RIVM in collaboration with the University of East Anglia (GB) expects that with a doubling of the volume of traffic, the tropospheric ozone level will rise by approximately 2 0 % . The aircraft industry is currently discussing the development of a new generation of super- and hypersonic planes with altitudes of more than 15 kilometres, which will spend a large part of the flying time in the stratosphere. This development is likely to contribute significantly to the depletion of the ozone layer. The resulting increase in ultraviolet radiation could raise the incidence of skin cancer. The question of whether it is advisable to develop such

13

airplanes, seems justified. When the Concorde I was developed some time ago, insufficient attention was paid to social aspects such as disturbance by noise and energy consumption. The proposed Concorde I1 will likewise carry a great risk. In view of the public-health and environmental aspects related to aviation, one recommendation would be a shift from continental air traffic to high-speed train connections, thus counterbalancing in particular the growth in intercontinental air traffic. 6.

ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMICS

To date, too much emphasis has been placed on a is contradiction between Economics and Environment. It gradually being realized that developing an environmental policy too late places a great financial burden on our society. The Dutch National Environmental Policy Plan has calculated that an estimated 150 billion guilders will have to be spent to clean up the already existing serious contamination of the environment. The significance of this sum can be judged from the current Dutch national debt of about 320 billion guilders. If these cleanup costs were related back to the periods in which these expenses have been incurred, then the calculated economic growth would have been considerably lower. The scarce production factor environment has not been priced at all, or underpriced for too long. This has led, from a national economic point of view, to ineffective decisionmaking, so that the cleanup expenses have to be defrayed by future generations. In my opinion, instruments in conformity with the market in particular, such as subsidies, and levies related to environmental pollution, should accelerate the development of clean and quiet technologies. The purchase and use of clean products will have to be encouraged, creating a market demand of which the producers can take advantage. Physical regulation is only useful if it has a stimulating effect on technological developments, which is certainly not the case in the EEC today. In my opinion, the establishment of phased requirements should be considered, with the standards to be met in, for example, 15 years' time, already being set now. These should be based on assumptions regarding technologies not yet developed. This promotes and rewards technological research. Returning to the environmental pollution which has already occurred, I dare to put forward the proposition that future economic growth will only be possible if stringent environmental measures are taken. Economic models have thus far taken no, or insufficient, account of the consumption of our natural environment. It is already becoming evident in the agricultural sector that air pollution causes damage to agricultural production. Because of the international nature of environmental pollution, especially air pollution, a more stringent environmental policy must be drawn up within the EEC in particular. Until this has been accomplished, countries such as the Netherlands with a high density of activities per square kilometre, will have to choose between a more seriously damaged environment than other EEC countries, or a more area-oriented approach, for example by favouring environmentally acceptable vehicles. 7. CONCLUSIONS More

intensive environmental

research, using

advanced

14

measurement techniques and mathematical models, has convincingly demonstrated that a potential environmental crisis exists. Only by taking stringent measures, and especially by thinking differently about the consumption of the production factor environment, will an inevitable environmental crisis be averted. Waiting any longer, referring to further research, means choosing the inevitable. This is because of the time scale within which environmental problems arise and can be remedied. Freight transport plays an important role in this discussion, also in the light of the growing demand for it. In addition to technological developments, including those in the field of new fuels and those encouraging the use of the most environmentally acceptable trucks, stimulation of freight transport by rail and inland waterways will become more attractive because of the associated environmental benefits. This can be done especially by placing a cash value on the services provided by natural environments. The environment is no longer primarily a collective property for recreation and relaxation, but a condition for human life and for a sustainable economic growth.

hf. Rrooir. R . S n r i r on11 J . yon /loin IEdirorr), Freighr Troncporr ond rhe Environitienr 1 Y Y l Elsei,ier Science Publislier~ H. c'. , Aiir3rerdoin. Primed in ihe Nerherlunds

15

GROWTH SCENARIOS AND CORRESPONDING EMISSIONS FOR THE TRANSPORT OF GOODS BY TRUCK AND TRAIN IN EUROPE H.G. Graf The Center f o r Futures Research, Falkensteinstrasse 27, CH 9006 St. Gallen, Switzerland

SUMMARY Two socio-economic scenarios are constructed to show the economic development trends in the 12 EEC countries plus Switzerland until the year 2010. These scenarios are the background for future growth of goods transport, where a policy shift with regard to road transport is also being simulated. In combination with different emission abatement policies in the two scenarios, the contribution of the policy changes assumed in scenario 1 becomes clearly visible. 1.

SOME DEFINING REMARKS

Some definitions have to be made at the beginning. The Iffashionable" word scenario needs such definition first, because it is used today in quite a number of contexts. The concept is actually theatrical in origin, describing the scenic setting of a stage play its infrastructure, so to speak. In the theatre - as indeed in reality - this can only be modified over a longer period of time; scenarios therefore always describe longer-term developments. Herman Kahn, the American futurologist who died some years ago, defined scenarios as follows: IIScenarios describe hypothetical sequences of events constructed forthe purpose of focusing attention on causal processes and working toward decisions." This definition implies, on the one hand, that scenarios must be conceived multidimensionally, i.e. political, social, technological, ecological, demographic and economic factors must be taken into account. On the other hand, they remain hypotheses in the sense that conceivable lines of future development are the reflection of various social and political values and objectives, whose long-term shape cannot be predicted conclusively. A third feature of useful scenarios is the inherent consistency of the development picture they provide; after all, scenarios are not intended merely to paint attractive pictures, they are supposed to assist in decision-making. However, allowance must be made for the fact already mentioned above, namely that there are in principle a large number of conceivable routes into the future, so that on a longer-term view only a few of the possibilities for future development(of the world, a country, or parts of it ...) can be outlined. Secondly, our analyses comprise the 12 EC countries plus Switzerland. We would have liked to include a larger number of countries. The main problem here is however the availability of comparable statistics. Within the EC the Statistical Office has prepared such a data base which serves our purposes well. The data for Switzerland could be adapted to the underlying definitions. Other statistical sources, mainly OECD/ECMT, proved to show quite important differences when compared with the EC-data, which could not be cleared up satisfactorily.

16

Finally, our analyses are dealing mainly with goods transport by rail and truck. Data on barge transport arrived too late to be included in our calculations. With goods transports by plane the question arises which routes would have to be included, leading again to severe statistical problems. To be sure: train and truck together represent by far the largest transport flows. A change of shares in goods transport between these will have by far the largest effect on emissions. 2.

TWO DIFFERENT SCENARIOS

While forecasters are largely in agreement about the economic trend in the year to come, opinions diverge on the question of economic development beyond that, i.e. in the longer term. Some expect the economic situation to improve again with time, while others predict a further deterioration. One could, of course, take the standpoint that there have always been pessimists and optimists, so the "truth" should turn out to be somewhere between the two extremes. In this case this approach is not valid. The differences of opinion we have referred to are not simply a matter of viewing the development outlook for the global economy through spectacles of different hues. The widely diverging views of development prospects are based much more on two fundamentally different - but equally possible - economic and political approaches. One reading is based on the idea that the forecast slackening of growth throughout the world is not the result of the economic cycle, but rather a reflection of errors made at all important decision-making levels in business and politics. The slowdown - according to this version represents the foretaste of an impending development crisis which will break out sooner or later as the inevitable consequence of an increasing build-up of unresolved structural problems, since the will to solve these problems is largely absent. This would need a much greater degree of international cooperation, a more consistent economic policy, more deliberate government encouragement of structural change, a greater appreciation on the part of sectional interests in business and politics that in a national economy no more can be distributed than is produced, the willingness of employees in all positions and functions to accept a higher degree of job mobility, and finally an increase in corporate innovation. Since these conditions do not exist to a sufficient extent at present, only a genuine crisis situation can induce the insight, the good sense and also the will of people involved in the economy vigorously to seek a solution to the urgent existential structural problems by a change in their attitude, rather than merely postponing the action that needs to be taken. Diametrically opposed to this is the view that the slackening in economic growth which is generally foreseen for one of the next years is of a temporary nature. A kind of "breathing space1' before a renewed "take-offll,especially by the western European economies, which have very noticeably lost momentum since the break in the trend which occurred in the 'seventies. These two views obviously differ in their assessment of the process of structural adjustment to which all national economies are subject due to the fundamentally different and continually changing basic conditions in the global economy. There can be no disputing the fact that this process of adjustment has been too little encouraged in almost all western European countries. On the contrary, in many cases it has been hampered, not to say prevented. On the one hand by defensive corporate strategies designed to protect existing production structures, which have also been largely supported by the trade

17

unions; on the other by government policies which attempted to maintain structures which were no longer internationally competitive by means of extremely costly supportive intervention. The situation on the western European labour market, where millions are unemployed for structural reasons, indicate that the national economies in this region still have a backlog of adjustment to cope with. This adjustment backlog is related to all three of the basic directions of development mentioned above, i.e. global markets, European integration, and the inevitable adjustment to the overall conditions prevailing on Ilspaceship Earth". Viewed from this standpoint, two different development scenarios - as outlined in figure 1 - can be derived for the future of our national economies. Which of these actually materializes will depend upon our response at all relevant decision-making levels in business and politics, and especially on our attitude to structural change in the economy and the processes of adjustment this requires. 1. One scenario leads to healthy further development of our national

economies on qualitatively strengthened structures adjusted to the fundamental changes in the world's economic and ecological environments. However, this development path presupposes passing through a "lean period" during the next 3 to 5 years, since coping with structural change involves the kind of adjustment difficulties and problems we have described in the short term. 2.

3.

The other scenario - which is characterized by defensive action by employers and employees, as well as massive government intervention to maintain the status quo - will lead to an existential structural crisis in the long term. On the other hand, in the short term, action of this kind can enjoy a certain degree of success, which is why there is a danger, in the final analysis, of taking the wrong path - both in business and in politics. SOME BASIC TRENDS

As already mentioned, scenarios must start out at the global level in order to take into account the impulses directed at our countries. It also has to be borne in mind that the current situation of the European industrial countries cannot be viewed only in rosy tones. A number of problems have to be faced and the rather frantic rounds of summit diplomacy has done little towards finding a solution to date. In the medium term three areas are apparent which depending upon the emphasis placed on them will affect the environment of our economy to varying digress in future:

-

-

On the one hand it must be noted that the emerging global economy and the growing importance of the development process mean that the third world is an increasingly significant factor in all spheres of economic activity on both the economic and the political plane of the world economy as such; the narrowly national view has declined markedly in importance. However, it is impossible to predict the pace and direction of this process.

- The integration process taking place within the EEC is also working basically in the same direction. The discussions now under way regarding the enlarged European house including with different intensity some countries of the comecon past, will finally have strong quantitative effects and show also qualitative impact on the economic development in all European countries. Since nobody actually can foretell what will happen on the political stages we

18 GDP a t constant prices (index)

Sound and s t e a d y development based on a qualitatively stronger st r u c t ur a1 basis

-

Defensive behavior government supported leads t o short term sucess

-

/

i 01

Structural crisis: r e q u i r i n g new l i n e s of t h o u g h t t o a v o i d breakdown

"Lean p e r i o d " due t o s t r u c t u r a l a d a p t a t i o n (qua 1 it a t ive renewal of t h e economic s t r u c t u r e t h r o u g h i n n o v a t i o n ) : reduced p r o f i t margins, l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f wage i n c r e a s e s , i m p o r t a n t adjustment requirements f o r l a b o r and managment.

I

I

1 9 8 7 88

I

I

I

I

89

90

I

I

I

I

I

I I

I

I

91 92

93

94

95

96

97

I

1

I

98

I I

I

I

99 2000

Fig. 1. Two possible development scenarios f o r the nineties

-

-

19

can only reflect differing decisions in our scenarios. In principle, therefore, there are still four conceivable routes open to Europe on the basis of a differing combination of the degree of liberalization both within the single market itself and in its relations with non-EEC countries. Although GATT agreements restrict the freedom of action of the individual countries and of the European Commission - especially as regards the international exchange of merchandise - a large number of hitherto bilateral arrangements are also in force in this area, and the international exchange of services is not yet even included. In schematic form, these possibilities can be characterized as shown in figure 2 .

\

Relations of EC to other countries Restrictions

Liberal

sl

4J 0

u

' Start as planned "Adjusting "

I Retardation "Rougher qoing"

I'

Seclusion Fortress Europe "

I11 Trade wars " Ho st1 .1 e Fortre s s es"

IV

Fig. 2. Possible routes for the EC

- Thirdly, it must also be emphasized that the social and political foundation on which economic development has been able to unfold securely over a long period has lost some of its stability. Not least under the ecological threat of climatic changes and an increasingly hostile attitude to technology, there has been a marked shift in the socio-political environment! Economic and political attitudes reflect these changing social values, but follow them only with more or less of a time lag. Value systems have thus become less stable: values are in the process of changing, but there is little or no sign of the re-thinking process that must take place if people are to act in everyday life as required by changing moral concepts. On the contrary, broad sections of the population, despite loud protestations in favour of a "better environment1'and a more economical use of resources, continue to indulge in a hedonistic philosophy directed towards consumption with a so far undiminished and indeed rather increased fervour. The illustration shows that, during the past ten years, consumption has tended to increase at a higher rate than the long-

20

term trend. The demand for individual freedom - in spite of many appeals and demonstrably harmful effects - continues unabated and, taken together with the increasing preference for the private car, for example, makes it safe to deduce that the protection of the environment is something that is preferably left to 'Ithe other fellow". The assertions heard from time to time that these ideas are receiving more attention today is still in flagrant contradiction to reality. 4.

THE UNDERLYING SCENARIOS

For our analyses of future trends in goods transports in Europe two scenarios have been developed. These differ primarily in the readiness and the will to pursue vigorously a solution to the existing ecological, social and economic problems. 4.1 Scenario 1: structural Droblems and adjustment

Scenario 1 assumes that appreciation of the global development problems and recognition that these cause structural problems in the western economies will result in social and political reactions, and that there will be a gradual change in the socio-economic environment which will occur initially on the social and political plane. The stalemate often encountered on the political plane in dealing with problems can be broken, even allowing for the inevitable need for adjustment. A development of this kind assumes in particular that the selfish prosperity which is becoming more widespread in the industrial countries will again take second place to common interest, and that a sense of responsibility extending beyond the sphere of purely personal self-interest will prevail. In this kind of social environment a process of qualitative renewal of structures gets underway in the old industrial countries, which succeeds at least in mitigating, if not resolving, the socioeconomic and ecological problems. The subsequent progress of development then corresponds to the theoretical visions of harmonious economic growth which - supported by broad sections of society permits governments to implement a consistent, longer-term policy within a system of clearly defined objectives while adhering strictly to the principles of free enterprise. The selective employment of new technologies and the further development of industrial production in the direction of the service economy promotes the transition to processes which are economical with resources, consume less energy and are more environmentally compatible. The dismantling of arrangements not based on free market principles and designed to preserve positions of power encourages a wave of investment in the infrastructure, which through improvements in systems of supply and automated remote control also permits adjustment in settlement structures and helps to reduce interpersonal barriers through more decentralized structures. Economic development also enables the necessary capital to be made available. A further increase in the division of labor, intensified by the process of integration in Europe (incl. eastern countries), leads to strong growth in traffic demand. Emission abatement policies are enforced throughout Europe, railways claim a larger share of goods traffic. Toward the end of the time span under consideration a slight reduction of goods transports and ton kilometers is achieved.

21 4.2

Scenario 2: muddlins throush

In contrast to scenario 1, it is assumed in this scenario that, during the period under study, the western democracies do not summon up the strength to regenerate themselves and to resolve the existing and steadily worsening problems. Small-minded nationalism takes hold, slowing down European integration to a mere crawl. Short-term measures are implemented under political pressure, without reference to their damaging long-term consequences. For example, working hours are reduced across the board in order to contain unemployment, thus impairing still further the competitive position of these countries in the global economic context. Environmental protection and peace movements attempt to force through their demands without compromise, which can result in the political and economic process being brought to a standstill. Missing political will and coherence, the lack of clear cut investment strategies, reduced competitiveness as a consequence of insufficient means and lacking will to perform are the characteristics of this scenario, thus slowing down economic development as well as the possibility to introduce effective policies to reduce ecological problems. Slower economic development than in scenario 1 also reduces growth of traffic demand, deferred structural adjustment, however, leads to a continuation of transport growth after 2005, thus reaching approx. the same levels as in the more dynamic scenario 1, which is characterized by a much higher degree in efficiency with regard to production processes, logistics or use of resources 5.

SOME QUANTITATIVE RESULTS

5.1 Develovment of soods transoorts

The calculations are based on a simple model of regression analyses. Analyses (whenever possible) have been made on a gliding time scale in order to introduce parameter changes according to the different economic development of the two scenarios as well as to reflect structural change. Calculations are made on the level of the different countries as well as for the EC as a whole, in order to double-check the shares of the different countries. Break down into rail and road transport is based on regression techniques in Scenario 2, thereby continuing past trends, whereas in Scenario 1 deviating policies as well as infrastructural developments are simulated based on a shift-and-share method'. We have chosen this direct approach because with this analyses we only try to show rather rough tendencies as well on the level of goods transports as with respect to the effectiveness of emission abatement policies. This is also why we deem the analyses of train and truck flows as representative for the problems posed in this field. Results of these calculations are best reflected in graphical form. The following figures contain the relevant information, comparing the results of the two scenarios. The policy shift comes to show very clearly when regarding goods transports by train. In scenario 1 volume of goods transports by train is about one third higher than in scenario 2 in the year 2010, whereas ton kilometers are even expected to be nearly 50 % higher. While this can be regarded as a massive change from the viewpoint of train transports,

'

For Switzerland a more detailed approach was used as outlined in: Graf, H.G.: Perspektiven des Schweizerischen Verkehrswesens, Teil 4 Guterverkehr-Perspektiven 1985-2010, St. Gallen 1988

22

Goods traffic EC 12000

+

CH road

Mio t

1

6oool

40001Q~0

1886

1885

lQ80

-

Scenario 1

2005

2000

2010

Scenario 2

( c ) SGZZ/bwv

800000

-

400000 -

200000 -

-

" 1080

1986

I (c)SGZZ/bwv

1990

1996

Scenario 1

2006

2000

scenario 2

c

2010

23

Goods traffic EC

+

CH rail

Mio t

2ooo

1

0 '

1980

1985

1990

1995

1 --

Scenario i

2000

.

Scenario 2

2005

2010

1

( c ) SGZZ/bwv

Goods traffic EC

+

CH rail

Mio t k m

300000 250000

200000 150000 100000

50000

1988

I ( c ) SGZZIbwv

1990

-Scenario

1995

i

2000

Scenario 2

2005

I

2010

24

Goods traffic EC 12000

+

CH rail and road

Mlo t

10000

8000

6000

-

Scenario i

Scenario 2

1

( c ) SGZZ/bwv

Goods traffic EC

+

CH rail and road

Mrd t k m

lV1

1

1980

1990

I(c) SGZZIbwv

Scenario 1

2005

2000

1995

9

Scenario 2

I

2010

25

Goods traffic EC

CH

+

Scenario 1 Mio t

12000 10000

8000 6000 4000 2000

0 1980

1985

1990

Road

1995

-Rail

2000

2005

2010

-Total

( c ) SGZZ/bwv

Goods traffic EC

+

CH

Scenario 2 Mio t

12000 10000

8000

. ...

6000 4000 2000 (1 1980

1990

1985

*

( c ) SGZZIbwv

Road

1995

2000

-Rail -Total

2005

2010

26

for transports by truck the difference seems only minor (3 % in 2010) In combination, however, with different emission abatement policies in the two scenarios the contribution to an improvement of the environment becomes more visible.

.

5.2 Corresvondina emissions

Calculations of the emissions corresponding to the projected development of goods transport as presented above are based on emission factors as supplied by Mr. Rijkeboer from TNO in Delft for road transport. Emission factors used for inland waterway vessels and diesel freight trains draws on work being carried out by P. Bouman and others at the Technische Universiteit Delft. These again have been derived from a CBS publication’ which analyses these factors by different types of vehicles for good transports, different fuels and several types of traffic flows. These factors partially are further broken down by weight and age of the trucks. In order to link these two sets of figures, it is therefore necessary to have functions which distribute the total freight volumes between categories of vehicle and categories of road type. Distribution functions have been estimated by Mr. Pearse using data from a number of different sources. Some additional remarks are deemed necessary:

-

far as rail is concerned, an apportionment was made f o r each country between diesel and electric traction on the basis of figures from EUROSTAT for the base year. A certain amount of further electrification in the future was assumed.

As

- For electric traction, emissions arising indirectly in generating the necessary electricity were attributed to the transport of freight by this relevant substance per KWh generated in the given country for the given year. This was obtained from the study Energy 2010 over the period of interest. Arguably this should be done using emissions in respect of the fuel used in respect of marginal demand, but this is not very practical.

-

The emission factors for road vehicles supplied allow for the expected tightening of the NO, standard for diesel engined vehicles in 1992/93 and l995/96, and can therefore be regarded as allowing for a minimum NOF reduction. These facors were therefore used in estimating emissions under scenario 2. In scenario 1, a further reduction was allowed for, corresponding to the maximum reduction which is thought to be feasible with existing engine design. Scenario 1 has also been evaluated using lower NO, emission factors, the values of which are rather speculative, and assume further reduction technology, e.g. catalytic reduction (“Scenario 1 with further NO, abatement”). Scenario 1 also assumes that more efficient locomotives will be introduced for rail freight Given the set of data and assumptions the following six cases of emission estimates have been made f o r each country of the EEC and for Switzerland:

.

-

year 1986; year 2000, scenario 1; year 2000, scenario 2;

Luchtverontreiniging emissies door wegverkeer 1978 Centraal Bureau voor Statistik

-

1984,

27

-

year 2010, scenario 1; year 2010, scenario 1, with further NO, abatement; year 2010, scenario 2.

The substances looked at are NO, (as NO,) , hydrocarbons (including other volatile and gaseous organic substances), carbon dioxide, and particulates. The results for the total of the region under analysis are presented for these six cases in the figures below. Scenario 1 leads to lower emissions than scenario 2 . This is due to the fact that in scenario 1 emission abatement policies are assumed to be more effective as well as that rail will have a larger role in freight transportation in the future, also as a result of political measures intended to lead to a change in this distribution. This, finally, is the point where barge transport has to be dealt with. It has not been included in the calculations because the statistical situation in this field is confusing: comparing EUROSTAT and ECMT statistics the latter figures are approx. 20 % higher, allthough both statistics are not complete. When looking at the data available total volumes transported by inland waterway appear to have remained stagnant since a number of years. As emission factors per ton-kilometer for transport by barge are generally an order of magnitude lower than in respect of road tranport a shift of some parts of road tranport to barge transport would result in a further decline of emissions of the transport sector as a whole. How large this shift of tranports from road to barge might be is partly a political question, would have to be analyzed secondly with a high degree of detail with regard to the aptitude of different goods for barge tranport, e.g. given the trend to just-in-time production and transport cycles.

28

NOx Emissions 1000 tons 1400 I -

1200 1000

/

800 600 400 200 0

1986 ( c ) SGZZ/bwv

2000

2000

2010

Szen 1

Szen 2

Szen 1

2010 Szen

la

2010 Szen 2

CxHy Emissions 1000 tons

250

1

200

150

100

50

0

1986

( c ) SGZZIbwv

2000

2000

2010

2010

2010

Szen 1

Szen 2

Szen 1

Szen la

Szen 2

29

CO 2 Emissions Million tons

60

40

20

A

U

1986 SGZZ/bwv

2000 Szen. 1

2000

Szen. 2

2010 Szen. 1

2010 Szen. la

2010

Szen. 2

Particulates 1000 tons 1 oc

1

80

60

40

20

0 1986 ( c ) SGZZ/bwv

2000

Szen. 1

2000 Szen. 2

2010

Szen. 1

2010 Szen. la

2010

Szen. 2

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

31

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND GOODS TRAFFIC Gerhard Maier-Rigaud Institute for European Environmental Policy, Aloys Schulte Strasse 6, 0-5300 Bonn 1, Germany

SUMMARY

The European community becomes more and more transport intensive. Especially the long distance road transport of goods has grown for a long time significantly faster than industrial production. This is due to the regime of competition and relative prices. It compels to exhaust all economic chances lying in the division of labour. This is the reason why market economies have a superior efficiency and show a dynamic development which cannot be sustainable as it is. Transport policy is challenged to set conditions in a way that market dynamism works in favour of sustainable development. Today the internalisation of the overall social and ecological cost of the transport sector is therefore seen as one possibility. But the outcoming prices do not easily guarantee a transport of goods compatible with sustainability. Prices covering all costs are not identical with prices in a market economy. These are the outcome of the interaction between supply and demand. But what is the supply of environment available to the transport sector? What are the economic consequences of supply volume of environment which is compatible with sustainable development? 1.

THREEHUNDRED YEARS OF LAISSER-FAIRE

Around 1 7 0 0 the Dutch merchant and cosmopolite Bernard d e Mandeville formulated basic thoughts for a free economy. In his famous fable of the bees he outlined his thesis - which at the time was revolutionary and provoked the old order - claiming that the pursuance of selfish interests is for the common good of all. This laid the foundation, already some 8 0 years before Adam Smith, for the liberation of the citizency from the guardianship of the nobility and the Church. The road to a market economy, to capitalism and to an unthought as prosperity was prepared. Today, 300 years later, we are faced with the unavoidable question how long this kind of economy will last. The answer to it has an important significance especially today, because after 70 years of manifold endeavours the socialist experiment has turned out to have been a historic blunder. Virtually all over the world the hopes of people are once again placed in the auspicious operation of the 'invisible hand'. This should be a good opportunity t o r e m e m b e r that the sustainability of the capitalist system has been questioned several times. Apart from Karl Marx, certain epigones of John Maynard Keynes, for instance, have also predicted the emergence

32 of crises and stagnation in capitalism. Joseph Schumpeter, too, developed a point of view on the collapse of this economic system. In his view the capitalist development will come to an end, because the dynamic entrepreneurs will somewhere lose their spark and will be satisfied with what they achieved’. In addition to the economically influenced view of the end of time of Marxists and Keynesians and Schumpeter’s psychologicalsociological view, now also doubts of an ecological nature about the sustainability of the capitalist development system are voiced. Is it possible to achieve compatibility between a market economy and a sustainable ecology? So far we have been more o r less successful in controlling the worldwide instability of the market system by taking measures in the field of economic politics. Moreover we have largely managed to meet the monopolistic tendencies of the markets with success by conducting policies favouring competition and in particular we have accomplished social corrections in the market mechanism. There is no reason to believe that the coordinating instrument, the market, should not be able to cope with additional ecological framework conditions. 2

PRIVATE WEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL POVERTY

It has long been known in economics and most people who are interested in environment politics are by now familiar with the fact that in the markets only those goods are exchanged which allow the transfer of individual rights of ownership. Only for such goods scarcity prices can develop in the market. So the ’invisible hand’ does not reach into the domain of free and public goods. The provision, the production or the stock-piling of such goods must either be ensured directly by the state, or the state must impose certain conditions on the market process. In many other areas of politics this has been an accepted fact for a long time. There is, however, less awareness of the power and dynamism activated by market systems to rigorously launch free goods and to generally take advantage of cost disparities. This matches the logic of competition. All actors are subjected to the competitive regime without mercy. They are not free to somehow take care of the environment in accordance with their own judgment. All decisions are to be subordinated to the profit motive or simply to the objective of economic survival. And as it is, profits are only made on private goods and services rendered. The process of economic development therefore was aimed virtually exclusively at the production of private goods as well as at the creation of needs for new private goods. With this objective in view our present technology came into existence. Our training systems and the contents of our training programmes are orientated to this objective. Likewise it guides our scientific interest in knowledge in many ways. It hardly needs to be emphasized that obviously our transport and communication systems, too, serve this kind of economic development.

’

J o s e p h A . Schurnpeter, ( 1 9 4 2 ) , Munich 1 9 8 0 .

Kapitalusrnus,

S o z i a l i s m u s und

Demokratie

33 The entire economic machinery, including its institutes, the accumulated knowledge as well as the experience of billions of people are devoted to private goods. Seen from this premise, it really is trivial that this development, that is so very onesided in its orientation, can never be sustainable. A competitive economy which is ecologically disordered, even forces the disruption of its natural basis for existence. What I mean is that it is immediately clear that one cannot build in a sort of catalyst in this refined and complex aggregate of the economy in order to make it sustainable. Much rather should a thorough overhaul of this machinery be undertaken. To achieve this the economic interests of all actors in this system should be directed at ecological objectives. A million or more long term research activities towards sustainability should be given a start. And if we are only a little as energetic, rigorous and imaginative as we are in the production of private goods, then there is no need for us to worry about the future. 3

DISTRIBUTION OF WORK, TRANSPORT AND PROSPERITY

It is obvious that on the way to sustainability we shall have to abandon many value judgements that we have been taking for granted. This is not easy, but it is not a tragedy either. All the same many of our preferences are nothing but the offspring of the total economy-technical development process. For example, our conviction that we cannot live without cars any more has been cultivated in the past decades. We can exchange this conviction for one which is in harmony with the demand for an economy of a permanent nature. The same goes for the uninterrupted fast increase in goods traffic, especially road traffic, and the accompanying notions about distribution of work and prosperity. The significance of goods transport for the distribution of work which furthers prosperity is not challenged. It was already emphasized by Adam Smith that, for instance the early prosperity in Egypt initially had its origin in the extent and ease of its inland shipping, and he added, in an almost identical dense network of waterways as we see in Holland with its Rhine and Meuse today'. An other economist, Alfred Marshall, demonstrated in his 'Principles of Economics', published in 1890, the importance of cheaper transport possibilities. It was his opinion that probably over three quarters of the total profit, which England drew from the development of draperies in the 19th century, was indirectly owed to the low costs of transport of people and goods, electricity and information3. Finally I would like to mention Friedrich List, who around 1840 looked at the railways and said: 'The cheap, fast, safe and regular transport of people and goods is one of the most powerful

In the following Adam Smith's 'Prosperity of Nations', edited by Rechtenwald, Munich 1978, is quoted. cf. page 21 cf. the 8th edition in English (paperback 1982), page 561

34

driving forces behind national prosperity and civilisation.' Between the above quotes, which were selected at random, and the Cecchini report on the cost of failure to realize the internal market we find not only parellels, but as an obvious common philosophy: The better transport facilities there are, the larger the markets are. The larger the markets are, the more pronounced the distribution of work is and accordingly prosperity. Against this background it is hardly surprising that governments have paid special attention to transport. In particular providing the necessary infrastructure was considered a government task something Adam Smith had already claimed anyway4. 4

THE DYNAMISM OF THE DEMAND FOR TRANSPORT

In the course of economic development certain goods and services always lost some of their absolute and relative significance and were replaced by others. There was the phenomenon of satiation in specific markets. In the transport services sector, however, there is no sign of satiation whatsoever. Technical changes not only improved the efficiency of transport services many times, but also caused an explosive expansion in the demand for transport services. Therefore the modern means of transport have not only optimized as existing interregional trade interactions from a traffic-technical and economic point of view they have permanently expanded it as well. Just like a pebble thrown into a pond draws ever larger circles, so the traffic techniques have expanded the economic areas. The world economy has become a global agglomeration. Through the interaction of economic interests, the imagination of scientists, competitive pressure, government grants and the successful externalisation of costs practically all markets in the world have been amalgamated to one big market. Nowadays the world economy is organized as a fair as far as the interdependence of transport and communication are concerned. It is as if everything happens at the same place and at the same time. Economists revealingly call this a point-market. Apparently the decisive factor here is not the ability, which in principle already existed in earlier days, to bridge great distances, but the unparalelled higher speed that is realized nowadays. Space implodes, whereas speed explodes. With equal transport times distances continually increase. Today one can, for instance, travel from any point to any other point in Europe and return the same day. Distances of 50 km covered in the old days correspond with distances of 1000 km and more today, when measured in time. Together with the radius of transport, however, traffic intensity grows, too. The traffic services rendered are on the increase. The extension of the traffic infrastructure and the increase in transport speeds do not yield a reduction of congestion, but almost in a single act a growth in demand. But that is not all. With each new development in traffic additional customers are drawn into the economic interaction of relations. The markets cf. Adam Smith, page 6 1 2 ff.

35 become larger, the number of transport services and the volumes transported grow. Each improvement in the transport facilities invites additional demand. The Moloch traffic seems to be insatiable. As long as there are any discrepancies in costs between the various regions of the world, that exceed the cost of transport, this process will continue. This is the unavoidable consequence of competition and the dictates of the market. A single entrepreneur cannot get away from these dictates. He is faced with the pressure of competition and the daily bottlenecks in our roads and airports. He therefore demands more and better roads as well as,the extension of air freight capacity. And government traffic policies, which do not recognize the total interdependence between a greater supply of traffic infrastructure and the consequential greater demand for traffic services, will time and again allow themselves to be at the service of such an obvious demand. We should understand that this will end in a development without perspective and certainly without sustainability. Traffic congestions cannot be evaded by roadbuilding. A solution which is in harmony with a market economy and leads to sustainability is one of increased prices for transport. Only this will in an economically viable way have the effect of only very great discrepancies in costs in the world markets bringing about profitable transport processes. Only in this manner the individual economic demand for transport services will be reduced or at least maintained at a certain level. 5

THE CORRECT PRICE OF FUEL

The damaging effects on the environment of the various means of transport are, as we know, quite varied. Therefore it will certainly not be possible to create environmentally optimal transport structures with one single instrument, such as the cost of fuel. But the price of fuel or generally the cost of energy should be at the centre of all considerations. After all it is only as the transport sector that has contributed to the increased energy consumption in our national economy during the past two decades. For that reason stabilisation of the climate and the policy on reduction of C0,-emissions inevitably have to focus their attention on this sector. Therefore I would like to deal briefly with three approaches to a C0,-reduction policy in the following paragraph: Most wide-spread and for most people very familiar is the technical approach. This means that the technical potential to economize on energy is assessed in all consumption areas, that is in the transport sector, in industry and in households. Depending on the state of economisation techniques as it is known in each of these sectors, consevation targets are set, technical standards are defined and government implementation programmes are imposed. This technical approach is miles away from the means employed by a market economy to save on energy. Energy consumption is not reduced where it is particularly economic, but especially where technical solutions offer themselves and where these can also be processed administratively in a relatively easy manner. In practice this may mean that, for instance in heat insulation in

36

houses drastic steps are taken, and in other areas the status quo is more or less maintained. A s a result we see greatly differing costs of energy saving or C02-reduction respectively. Besides, this process totally lacks any incentives to promote the development of techniques for the avoidance of emissions. In the long term this is the gravest weakness in the technical approach. The much-praised way of 'Internalisation of external costst also shows considerable flaws in spite of its theoretical fascination. The determination alone of external costs is difficult, over longer periods highly arbitrary and, for instance in relation to the C02-problem, just absurd5. Apart from that this approach can not claim the quality seal of the steering function of a market economy for the simple reason that the cost concept on which it is based is inadequate. The simple idea that cost-oriented prices (including external costs) would be correct prices and that moreover correct prices would lead to correct structures, namely in this context to permanency, is a misguided notion. What is forgotten is that cost-oriented prices may play an important part in an economy with a central management and generally in state controlled areas, but in a market economy they are just calculation aids. Enterprises aiming at nothing but cost-reflecting prices will not be able to survive in the competitive arena. Such prices, therefore, have little to do with sustainability, neither in the economy nor in the ecology. Market prices are not formed by cost calculations, but by supply and demand. In relation to our subject it means that we should seriously consider what, for instance, would be the maximum allowable supply of C02-emissions. And this brings us to the third, and in my opinion the only justifiable, approach. Its object is to under- stand and enforce the stabilisation of the climate and the quantity of C0,-emissions respectively as a limitative factor for the economic process6. Ecological objectives are thus correctly introduced as quantitative objectives. Technical potential, economic assessments of external effects and prices so become instruments or are simply taken to be the result of ecological, technical and economic conditions. Where and from which sector the limited emissions emanate is determined purely marketwise in this approach. In the market a price is formed for C0,-emissions which is the same for all emitters and to which they have to adapt. This unit-price is correct, because each CO, unit contains the same damage potential. And economically it is correct, because so the best economic reaction is invoked throughout the entire spectrum of the economy. Decisions on the manifold technical-economic and behavioural adaptations are made i n the market process. Perhaps cf. e.g. the critical discussion with David Pearce, a.0. Blueprint for a Green Economy (The Pearce Report), London 1989, by John G.U. Adams, Unsustainable Economics, in International Environmental Affairs, A Journal for Research and Policy, V01.2, Number 1, Winter 1990, pages 14-21 Such an approach is leading directly to tie implementation of tradeable permits for CO2-emissions. See m y study: Kohlendioxyd-politik mit handelbaren Emissionsrechten", Bonn 1990 (manuscript).

the transport sector may be able to 'afford' a large quantity of emissions owing to the elasticity of the demand. Perhaps the process of adaptation will, exactly in this sector, have farreaching effects. Nobody knows. However, it is certain that an emission structure arrived at by a concerted effort will be the economic optimum. And this will be compatible with ecological sustainability when the quantitive objective will be properly laid down by the politicians7. The following graph shows hypothetical demand functions for C0,emissions in the traffic sector and all other sectors accumulated as well as a deduced function of the total demand, against which an inelastic 'total supply function' f o r CO, is set down. The emissions emanated by the individual result from the equilibrium price applicable to all. On the right-hand side of the supply curve is, as it were, economic no man's land.

D, S

P

- Demand of Transport Sector - Supply of C 0 2 - E m i s s i o n R i g h t s - Price

Dother - Demand of other Sectors Dot - Total Demand Po - Equilibrium Price

Graph: Hypothetical distribution of C02Temissions among the sectors traffic on the one hand and private households and industry on the other by limitative supply. 6

THE SEARCH FOR SUSTAINABILITY

The consequences of a stringent policy of climate stabilisation on the economy as a whole or specifically on goods traffic can, of course, not be precisely measured. Even a seemingly perfect computer aided economic model can never do that. The dynamic adaptation potential of market economies can on principle not be simulated. At best we can design a few rough scenarios, indicate trends or 'patterns' (v.Hayek). Three questions are essential in my opinion: Firstly, on what prices for C0,-emissions o r fossil fuels respectively should we base ourselves? Secondly, which adaptation processes can be expected?

We shall never be able to indicate permanent limits for the pollution of the atmosphere with CO . Exactly for that reason we must cut back emissions quickly and clearfy .

38

Thirdly, what are the possible consequences for our prosperity and for the overall economic objectives, namely stability of the price level and employance? When the worldwide increase in C02-,emissions is halted and the emissions are, for instance, halved in the next twenty years, the price of fossil fuels could double and at its peak reach ten times today's price. That would be much more than OPEC aimed at, but did not achieve in the end. For, after deduction of the general increases in price levels, the prices of mineral oil today are roughly at the same level as at the end of the sixties. The way to accomplish a sustainable development of the world economy therefore requires a strong political willingness to create a totally credible and reliable strategy for the long term. What we need is something like an ecological OPEC, a powerful Organisation of C0,-Emission Avoidance (OCEA)'. It should be allowed to operate autonomously, similarly to some of our central banks. A search process that would thereby be set in motion towards sustainable forms of economic activities is hardly different from the process which the economy has presented under the competitive regime to step up the supply of private goods during the past 2 0 0 years. Different are only the direction of the countless adaptation processes and the moment they are started off. It is not up to the dynamic entrepreneurs themselves to set the new dates, but to the community of nations. This community acts, s o to speak, as the dynamic entrepreneur for the commodity 'stable climate' and pursues sustainability of the economy instead of maximisation of the supply of private goods.

This adaptation process, too, is strictly subject to the criteria of a market economy in all its elements and stages, also in the sense that it is carried and propelled by self-interest of each individual for the good of all. So we can expect that it will get off to a flying start. And just like a change in structure up till now has produced growth, so will this new change in structure lead to a sustainable development. How the transport sector will meet these new conditions, is - as we said before - unforeseeable. The inevitably higher cost of transport will in any case change the location criteria all over the world. As is the case in any change in structure there will be winners and losers. The worldwide expansion of many markets will shrink. This will create new regional opportunities and trade interdependence, for instance along waterways and railways, which because of lower energy consumption will yield a cost advantage for example against road transport. When we compare the invaluable advantage that a sustainable development will bring with the price that will have to paid for it, then this price is ridiculously negligible. It only exists in the otherwise possible increase in the supply of customary goods, in other words in the sacrifice of the traditional increase in prosperity. But that now is the exact purpose of the exercise. We want the economy to produce c.q. not to destroy the goods matching our preferences. And what purpose of economic activity could have a higher priority than the conservation of the natural living conditions on this earth?

39 7

ILLUSORY CONFLICTS AND CONCERN

Seen in this way the often quoted conflict or antagonism between economy and ecology manifests its utter absurdity. How could it be that the absolutely primary economic goal, namely the conservation of the natural basis of human life on earth is inconsistent with the undisputed secondary goal of a further improvement in the supply of traditional goods? We would call one single person an idiot, if he were to spend his entire income on luxury goods and at the same time were unable to raise the money for a easy and life-saving medical operation. Seen in this light the conflict between economy and ecology is nothing but the result of the reductionist and private market fixed ideas about the ends of economic activity. Although the task before us is of a clear and simple structure and we do not strike out upon new territory with regard to the adaptation process and its intensity, or have to fear any surprises, two major obstacles must be removed: The concern about the risks for the overall economy and the opposition of the business world that is directly involved. Both will be briefly dealt with. The dreaded risks of unemployment and inflation on the way to a sustainable development are deduced from simple relations. Here the concept of national income or national product is centrally placed. It comprises essentially private goods and services. Their availability is accepted as a measure for the efficiency of an economy. The adaptation of the economy to forms of sustainable growth means the commitment of additional capital and labour resources for this purpose. However, since purely for reasons of definition the result of this adaptation process will not, or in any case not fully, be reflected in an increase in the national product, the impression is created that the environmental policy may reduce the efficiency of the economy, as more resources are required for the same quantities of goods and services. In other words, the measured productivity of labour falls or rises less, respectively. In addition the measured rate of inflation goes up due to the way this adaptation process is financed, namely as a rule on the prices of traditional goods. The reduced increase in productivity and the comparatively smaller growth of the national product on the one hand, and the higher prices for traditional goods on the other seemingly lead to an inflation problem and according to the textbooks to a problem for the utilisation of capacity. Nevertheless, these consequences for the overall economy are not real, but exclusively a consequence of the handed down limitation of the concepts national income and national product. In fact only the relationship between private goods and the public commodity environment has changed. The production structure has adapted itself to the new preferences. But, since we do not recognise this sufficiently and ignore it in the systems of concept of our national accounting, we take the appearances measured there to be events in the real world. From this error stems the belief that environment protection and a sustainable development are fraught

40 with danger’. The second obstacle on the road to a sustainable development is the opposition from trade and industry who are compelled to adaptation. To an environment-conscious politician it should be abundantly clear that he must play the part of the dynamic entrepreneur towards the economy. The dynamic entrepreneur gets his combinations and products through in the face of competition, irrespective of statements of possessions, market shares and individual places of employment. Only because he was successful in this regard economic development took place at all. In strict analogy to this it should be recognized that the transition from the present self-destructing development to a sustainable development can only succeed when the politicians act in a similarly rigorous manner. That is the message from the theory of economic development by the Austrian Joseph Schumpeter that all of us should embrace today, around 80 years after it was first publishedg. Finally we should pay some attention to Adam Smith again; he warned against putting the interests of merchants on the same footing as the public interest. In his ’Wealth of nations’ he wrote: ’ The interests of merchants in all branches of trade and industry always deviate in many respects from the public interest, at times it hinders them. ( . . . I Each proposal for a new law or a new regulation regarding trade which comes from them should always be treated with the utmost prudence. It should never be accepted without first examining it thoroughly and accurately, yes, even with some mistrust and suspicion, for it stems from a group of people whose interests never correspond exactly with the public good, and who as a rule are much more interested in misleading, or even abusing the general public. In many instances it has actually had to experience both”. These quotes unmistakably convey the order to the environment politicians to firmly restrain the invisible hand, also if this is contrary to the interests of trade and industry. This is in harmony with a market economy and is a precondition for bringing the economic development in harmony with the ultimate goal of the economy, its sustainability.

Further expositions on this problem c a n be found in: H. Flassbeck/G. Maier-Rigaud, Umwelt und Wirtschaft. Zur Diskriminierung des Umweltschutzes in der okonomischen Analyse, Tubingen 1982, and in: G. Maier-Rigaud, Umweltpolitik in der offenen Gesellschaft, Opladen 1988. Joseph Schumpeter, Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung (1911), Berlin 1964. l o Quoted from the edition published by von Recktenwald, Munich 1978, page 213 (last paragraph of chapter 11.

41

FACTS AND FIGURES ON EVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN THE NETHERLANDS The0 J.H. Schoemaker and Peter A. Bouman Department of Transportation Planning and High way Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5048, 2600 G A Delft, The Netherlands

Abstract Without discussing the need of a good freight transport system, it is obvious that freight transport threats the environment in many ways. The present study investigates these threats to the environment in the Netherlands as complete as pssible, in order to find solutions for a less polluting and less disturbing freight transport. The aim of the study was to analyse what kinds of threats to the environment are caused by what transport modes, to what extend. A difference is made between types of air pollution and other aspects concerning the quality of life such as unsafety and noise. Other differences are made between transport by road, inland wayerway and rail, between different types of road transport vehicles and between the different commodity categories. Moreover the caused threats are related to the different kinds of origin-destination patterns in transport and to different kinds of areas in which transport takes place. Finally attention is given to ways of of the problems. CONTENTS - Introduction - Delimitation of the problem

- Results of the study * Emissions * Other threats to the environment - Ways out of the problems

- Freight transport policy

It is obvious that our transport system not only offers benefits like accessibility and mobility, but also causes a very serious problem with regard to a growing impact on the environment. Particulary the consequences of the emissions are alarming; the results of acid rain are already visible on the quality of the forests. Another aspect of the problem is the growing traffic nuisance. The share of the freight transport in this threat to the environment is considerable. On the field of characteristic emissions of diesel engines it can be more than half of the total emissions caused by traffic. It is also a fact that the increase of the freight traffic as a result of the the used logistic conceptions is bigger than the growth of the freight production. When tendencies continue in this way it can be expected that the emissions of the treight transport alone will exceed the Dutch limits on air pollution. In other words, when the present-day development does not change, some targets with regard to limit the emissions of the total traffic will be spend only by the freight traffic within one or two decades. 'The lack of a sufficient capacity on the road network is

another problem. An increase of the freight traffic means a continuing growth of traffic flows with added problems. Freight traffic troubles other traffic, but threats also the environment directly. For instance, the share of the freight transport in the noise by traffic is disproportinately high. A l s o from this point of view it is necessary to think about a new approach of the freight transport. The problems above mentioned were the reason for a study concerning an analysis of all kinds of threats to the environment by freight transport, that is carried out by order of the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment and the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. In this study the Duch inland and international freight transport is taken into consideration. With regard to air pollution a difference is made between the total air pollution by freight transport and air pollution within build-up areas and in inner towns. Also attention is paid to the other effects on the quality of life, mainly caused by road transport. The latest complete data-set on the freight transport of CBS (Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics) was from 1985. Because this CBS-data-set is the most important data source, 1985 is used as starting year. In cases where more recent data were aivalable, from a point of uniformity also 1985 is used. Next point is the definition of the studied problem. After that a specification of the used approach will be given. Most attention will be given to the study-results, after which recommendations are given for ways out of the problems.

43

The threats to the environment by passenger and freight transport can be divided into two main categories: - The impact on the environment by the existence of infrastructure; - The impact on the environment by the use of this infrastructure. These categories can be divided into several specific threats to the environment as indicated in figure 1.

structure

- area of land required for roads

- affected areas

- barrier effect by roads - emissions - other threats by traffic

Overalltraffic performance and traffic volumes

The aspects "area of land required for roadsmtand "affected areas" are directly related to the existance of infrastructure. In the case of the required area of land the surface that is really needed is of interest. In the case of affected areas it is of interest that distuiguished areas are used for traffic purposes. The traverse of a road through a country-side of great value can be an example. The barrier or segregation effect of a road has two sides. On the one side there is the spacial threat to the environment. On the other side the vehicles-flow on the the road cause a functional threat; so it is as a result of higher traffic volumes more difficult to cross a road. In the case of threats to the environment related to the infrastructure it is difficult to distinguish the impact of the passenger transport and the impact of the freight transport. Therefore this study is limited to that kind of threats by freight transport which can be set apart and which can be quantified. These are emissions and other threats, related to overall-traffic performance and traffic volumes. With regard to the impact on the environment it is not only needed to make a difference between emissions and the other effects on the quality of life, but also between source and receiver and between time- and site bound or otherwise. The coherence between these aspects is given in figure 2.

44

Problems related to receivers

Other threats by vehicles - numbers of loading and unloading vehicles - traffic volumes on roads

Problems related to sources

Emissions of vehicles - overall-traffic performance

Time- and site-bound impact on the environment

-------------Not time- and site-bound impact on the environment

I

Figure

2:

Subdivision impact on the environment by freight transport

In this figure can be seen that the division into emissions and the other threats to the quality of life does not exactly coincide with the division into time- and site-bound effects and not time- and site-bound effects. The difference between these two divisions is caused by the locally produced emissions, which are considered as emissions, but also cause timeand site-bound effects. On the field of air pollution attention is paid as well to the polluting emissions of - carbon monoxide (CO), - (volatile) hydrocarbons (HC), - nitrogen oxides (NO,), - sulphur dioxide ( S O 2 ) , - aerolsols (airborne particles), as to the emissions of - carbon dioxide ( C O z ) , which is related close to the energy consumption. On the field of the other effects on the quality of life a difference is made between: - physical inconvenience, - noise, - bad smell, - unsafety. Otherwise, these kinds of threats to the environment are mainly caused by road transport.

As far as not time- and site-bound impact on the environment concerned we investigated the emissions which are spread on the whole country and for which the effects are lasting. As far as time- and site-bound impact on the environment concerned we investigated local concentrations of emissions and the other effects on the quality of life, which are characterized by a limited spread and which are of short duration.

45

The chosen scope of the study is broad. In the following the main lines of the used approach are indicated. Here above all the successive steps to get results are important. The referred framework of the study is showed in figure 3 . An inventory of the transported goods in the Netherlands is made first, by which a difference is made between inland transport and international transport (inward cargo, outward cargo and transit cargo). Beside that a difference is made to the classification of goods, the shape and appearance of goods, transport distances and transport modes. Moreover an inventory is made of the existing infrastructure for road transport, railway transport, inland waterweay transport and also the totally used vehicles/vessels for the different modes. The overall traffic performance and the overall freight volumes are expressed in vehicle-kilometres for the different modes and in ton-kilometres for the different categories of goods (commodity flows). In order to get hold on the impact on the environment by emissions, emission-factors are determined for all kind of vehicles and all sorts of emissions, expressed in gram per vehicle-kilometre. Also the energy-factors are determined for all kinds of vehicles, that is to say the energy consumption per vehicle-kilometre with the connected emission carbon dioxide. Based on the emission-factors on the one side and the overall traffic performance on the other side the overall-emissions for the different categories of vehiclesfvessels are determined. Until1 now the determined emissions are related to the transport modes. A further subdivision of the emissions is made for the different categories of goods (NSTR commodity flows), transported by the different categories of road-vehicles. A subdivision of the emissions is also made for different sorts of areas. The relation between infrastructure and overall traffic performance, which gives traffic volumes in specific cases, is important for the effects on the other threats to the environment. While these kinds of threats to the environment mainly are caused by road transport, in the study work only is done for road-vehicles.

all modes freight

i

-el vehicles

r_l infrastructure

7

I Il emission-factors

i i energy-factors

r - - --- ----I road I transport

Figure 3: Framework of the study

47

As already mentioned at the delimitation of the problem, a difference is made between the emissions and the other threats to the environment by the freight transport. In both cases attention is given to the problems caused by the use of freight vehicles. By emissions the different chemical components of air pollution and the directly to energy consumption related exhaust of carbondioxide are meaned. It is possible to calculate with nation-wide emissions in first instance, although there are in some areas and at some times more concentrated emissions. A s far as the other threats to the environment physical inconvenience, noise, bad smell and unsafety are distinguished. In contrast with emissions these threats are time- and sitebound. This fact in combination with the less availability of data obliged us to a more qualitative approach in some cases.

EM1S S IONS As far as the used modes for the freight transport concerned difference is made between road transport, rail transport and inland waterway transport. The shares of these modes in the inland and international transport are given in table 1. International transport consists of inward cargo, outward cargo and transit cargo.

Table 1: Transported freight in tons, 1985 International 1,000 ton

Inland 1 ,000 ton

--______----_------------------------------------------90,885 343 ,560

Road transport Inland waterway transport Rail transport

213,408 17,591

76,390 5,528

______________--____------------------------------------

Source : CBS (revised) The produced overall-traffic performance by the different transport modes is given in table 2. The overall-traffic performance by railway and inland waterway transport is d i s proportionately small, because of the use of big transport units. By these units big volumes are transported per trip. Table 2: Overall-traffic performance (vehicle/vessel-km) by freight transport, 1905

_____________________------------------------------------Internat. mln km

Inland mln km

Total mln km

1,077 40

3 ,048

4 ,125

21

61

--_____________-____-_------------------------------------Road transport Inland waterway transport Rail transport

12

--____________--_-_---------------------------------------_

48 For road transport the most essential difference can be made between: - trucks and trailers, mostly provided with diesel engines, - (delivery) vans, mostly provided with petrol engines. This division is not complete, because on the one side passenger cars are also used for freight transport, and on the other side trucks are used for other purposes than freight transport. In the first case an example is the use of passenger cars for the provision of shops. In the second case examples are the use of vans at maintenance services and the use of trucks as fire-engines, break-down lorries, a.s.0. Finally foreign trucks are distinguished as a separate category of vehicles. The figures in table 1 and 2 of the road transport concern only the (freight volumes and traffic performance of) the (inland and international) transport by trucks and trailers. Considering the overall-traffic performance by all commercial vehicles ( all vehicles used for other purposes than the transport of passengers), we see the following figure: - trucks and trailers (intern. and inl. transp. 4 , 1 2 5 mln km - foreign trucks and trailers 3 2 9 mln km - vehicles for special purposes 4 1 0 rnln km - (delivery) vans 4 , 7 5 6 mln km

------------

total

9,530

mln km

Because of the size of the used vehicles and vessels railway and inland waterway transport are characterized by low emissions per vehicle-kilometre. One thing and another lead to the overall-emission as given in table 3. The overall-emission by passenger cars is also given in table 3 as a comparison. Table 3: Overall-emissions by freight transport, 1985

Table

3

shows in a clear way that most of the emissions

(84

96 % ) by freight transport are caused by road transport.

Therefore it is necessary to give special attention to road transport. It also will be clear, that the emissions produced by the

to

49 freight transport have not to be neglected in comparison with the emissions produced by the passenger transport. The emissions of NO,, aerosols and SO, are about half, respectively higher, than the passenger-car emissions. This is caused by the fact that the diesel-engine dominates in the freight transport by trucks and trailers. As distinct from the tables 1 and 2 the emissions by road transport in table 3 concern all kinds of commmercial vehicles. Table 4 gives a division of the emissions by road transport into the different categories commercial vehicles, Table 4: Emissions by commercial road-vehicles,

1985

_________________-__---------------------------------------Emissions in mln kg co, co HC

NO,

Aer

SO,

____________________---------------------------------------Trucks in inland tr. Trucks in intern. tr. Foreign vehicles Special vehicles (Delivery) vans

3886 1409 410 1963

16.67 5.37 1.11 8.86 53.52

12.61 5.37 0.98 3.20 12.13

54.79 21.69 5.23 5.41 9.73

7.21 2.48 0.54 1.23 2.91

3.63 1.27 0.10 0.39 1.12

............................................................. Source: CBS (revised)

The emissions by international freight transport by road and the emissions of foreign trucks together cause only a relative small part of the overall-emissions by commercial vehicles; maximum 28 % in the case of NO, and minimum 8 % in the case of

co .

By far most of the emissions of commercial road vehicles are caused within the inland transport. With regard to the inland freight transport trucks and trailers have to be distinguished from (delivery) vans. Vans cause 63 % of the CO-emission and trucks 57 % of the NO,-emission of the overall emission of freight transport by road, respectively typical emissions of petrol-engines and diesel-engines. The share of the emissions of special vehicles indicates that vans are a substancial part of this category vehicles. The freight volume in tons mentioned in table 1, transported by trucks and trailers, are to divide according to the by CBS used NSTR commodity categories. This division for international and inland transport is given in table 5. Also the share of the road transport for each commodity category is given in this table. The share of road transport in the international transport is only very high in the case of commodity category 9. This category concerns many kinds of piece goods, among which a lot of consumer goods. In case of other commodity categories, where the share of piece goods is relatively high, maximum half of these goods

50

are transported by road transport. In the case of typical goods loaded in bulk the share of road transport is very low. In the case of inland transport the share of road transport is high to very high for almost all commodity categories. Only for goods loaded in bulk this share is about a half. Table

5:

Transported volumes by road per commodity category

____________________----------------------------------------

Commodity category

International Inland 1,000 t share 1,000 t of road tr. in %

share of road tr. in %

____________________---------------------------------------agricultural produce other food products 2 . solid mineral fuels 3 . mineral oil and minreal oil pruducts 4 . ores, scrap-iron, pyrites 5 . iron, steel, non-ferro metals incl. semi-man. articles 6. raw minerals and manufactures, building mat. 7. fertilizers 8. chemical products 9. vehicles, engines and remaining goods 0.

1.

11,931 17 , 838 1,718

51 51 12

36,481 78,174 834

92 88 52

1,475

4

16,540

52

1,451

2

2,061

77

6,830

44

6,416

91

16,207 1,297 16,268

28 15 51

119 ,514 5,655 24 , 133

74 68 90

15,871

87

53 ,772

95

________________________________________-------Source: CBS (revised)

Besides of the fact that the volume of freight by inland road transport is more than three times the volume by international road transport, there also is the fact that the inland transported goods for three fourths consists of the following three commodity categories: - tons commodity category 1 23 %, - tons commodity category 6 35 %, - tons commodity category 9 16 %. Looking at the overall-traffic volume, related to the different kinds of goods, the role of commodity category 6 is only very small. Only 6 % of the truck-kilometres are related to this category. For this an explanation can be the fact that also sand belongs to this category, which mostly is transported at short distances. It is obvious that the commodity categories 1 and 9 cause a disproportionate part of the overall-traffic performance. Besides that also trips of empty vehicles causes a substancial part of the overall-traffic performance. The overall truck kilometres in the inland transport concerns more than three quarters of the commodity categories 1 and 9 and empty trips together:

51

- overall traffic volume empty trips - overall traffic performance commodity category

1

- overall traffic performance commodity category 9

2 8 %, 19 %, 30 %.

The strongly disproportionate overall traffic performance by commodity category 9 (related to the transported volume in tons) could be explained by the very low loading-rate; 4.9 tons in this case and a overall weight mean of 9.4 tons. If we regard the relation between the different goods transported by truck and the emissions, it can be seen that empty trips, commodity category 1 and commodity category 9 give (about) the same shares in the emissions as the mentioned shares in the overall traffic performance. When looking at (delivery) vans, there are neither data about empty trips, nor about volumes and kinds of transported goods. However it can be expected, that the freight transport by vans will be the same as commodity category 9. Although the emissions by truck are computed for the whole country in the first instance, it is appropriate to distinguish emissions within build-up areas and rural areas, as given in table 6. An important matter of fact is that (delivery) vans produce the biggest part of their emissions within b u i l d - u p areas. For trucks this is only half of the emissions. Table 6 : Emissions by commercial vehicles distinguished to

kinds of areas Emissions in % HC NO,

co

Aer

SO,

48

67

___________________--------------------------------------In rural areas i.e. on highways In build-up areas

22

40

77

78 60 23 52 33 ___________________---------------------------------------

Source : CBS (revised) City centers are within the build-up areas the areas where a lot of freight transport has a destination on the one side, and where the threats by freight traffic are the worst because of the high concentrations of activities. Table 7 gives the share of the emissions within city centres drawn from the overall emissions within build-up areas. Table

7:

Local emissions of commercial vehicles

____________________-------------------------------------Emissions in % HC NO,

Aer

SO,

36 64

35 65

25 75

co

.......................................................... In city centres In other urban areas Source: CBS (revised)

39 61

26 74

52

OTHER THREATS TO THE ENVIRONMENT BY FREIGHT TRAFFIC

Besides emissions attention is given to the other threats to the environment by freight traffic. In doing so a distinction is made between physical inconvenience, noise, bad smell and unsafety. To make it possible to compute the results of this kinds of threats, it is needed to start at the side of the receivers, not at the side of the source like in the case of the emissions. Traffic-consumers, in particular pedestrians and neighbours can be seen as receivers. The density of the road network, compared to the railway and inland waterway network, causes that the other threats to the environment are to be related to the road traffic. Finally not only traffic by road vehicles, but also parked vehicles, contribute to some kinds of threats. Physical inconvience means the fact that freight vehicles block the passage or hinder the view of other road users and/or neighbours. The problem is of particulair interest in the case of the threat by loading and unloading vehicles to pedestrians in shopping streets. Table 8 gives the ratios of this threats, caused by vans and trucks in different kinds of shopping streets. Table 8: Physical inconvience by vans and trucks in different kinds of shopping streets

.............................................................

Neighbourhood shoppingstreet District shopping street City centre shopping street cat. 3 City centre shopping street cat. 2 City centre shopping street cat. 1

Ratios Delivery vans

Trucks

1 1 -

1 1 -

4

9 7 19 > 16 3 -

-

3

7

-

5

10 20

> 16

__________________--------------------------------------------

The results show in a clear way that problems do not only exist in the main shopping streets, but also in shopping streets of lower interest. It can also be seen that the problems are more serious if it is a shopping street in a more urbanized area. The shares given in table 8 for vans and trucks can be seen independent to each other, however the vans cause an overall threat equal to the threat of trucks. The noise caused by the freight road vehicles is above all important for neighbours. In contradiction to pedestrians it is for neighbours not possible to run away from the noise. About 900,000 inhabitants are threatened by noise of freight vehicles. This is a quarter of the 3.7 million inhabitants, that are threatened by noise of road traffic (by passenger and freight traffic together).

53 A further impression of the noise caused by freight vehicles can be obtained by a subdivision into different noise-categories. It is also possible make a distribution between vans and trucks on the one side, and between streets with a stronger residential function and streets with a stronger traffic function on the other side. The results of these divisions are given in tables 9 and 10. Table 9: Number of inhabitants threatened by noise of vans and trucks

_______________----------------------------------------------Threatened inhabitants in % Noise category db ( A ) 50-55

56-60

61-65

66-70

total

9 2

31 12

20 10

9 7

69 31

_______________----------------------------------------------Vans Trucks

..............................................................

Source: Min. VROM Table 10: Number of inhabitants threatened by noise of different kinds of streets

.............................................................. Threatened inhabitants in % Noise category db ( A ) 50-55

56-60

61-65

66-70

total

12

14

15

42

31

15

1

58

_________--_-------------------------------------------------_ Streets with a stronger 1 traffic function Streets with a stronger 11 residential function Source: Min. VROM Table 9 shows us that the inhabitants are threatened twice as much by noise of vans than by noise of trucks, whereas in the lowest noise category this ratio is four. Table 10 let us see that one and a half the number of inhabitants, which are threatened by noise of freight traffic, are living in streets with a residential function than in streets with a strong traffic function. Bad smell i s characterized by the smell concentrations of distinct materials for pedestrians and neighbours. Not only high traffic volumes are playing a role, but also characteristics of the build-up area and weather conditions. From the emissions of road vehicles bad smell is caused by the aldehieds out of hydrocarbons and aerosols. In case of the last soot is most important. Tables 11 and 12 show see where the emissions of hydrocarbons and aerosols of different kinds of vehicles will be found.

54

Table 11: Hydrocarbons emissions by commercial vehicles in different kinds of areas

________________________________________---------Emission in % Rural areas

Build-up areas inner cities other areas

________________---------------------------------------------Vans Trucks, foreign trucks incl. Special vehicles

6

12

la

33

7

15

1

3

5

________________--_-------------------------------------_----

Source: CBS (revised) Table 12: Aerosol emission by commercial vehicles in different areas

________________--_------------------------------------------Emission in % Rural areas

Build-up areas city centres other areas

________________---------------------------------------------Vans Trucks, foreign trucks incl. Special vehicles

3

a

lo

44

8 2

19 4

2

________________-----------------------------------------_--Source: CBS (revised)

From the overall emission of hydrocarbons more than one third is caused by (delivery) vans. Within build-up areas and particulary within inner cities this share is half to more than half. From the overall emission of aerosols one fifth is caused by (delivery) vans. Within build-up areas this share is one third and within inner cities about half. The unsafety caused by commercial vehicles is a problem for the (other) road users. Hereby is supposed that unsafety can be expressed in the real number of accidents. Looking at the risk of all kinds of vehicles for the other road users as well as for passenger, then the following is obvious: - Trucks and vans cause (except busses) most deaths among other road users per vehicle kilometre, at least five times more than passenger cars; - For truck and van drivers (except busdrivers) this risk is the smallest, only about half of that of passengers of passenger cars. Looking at accidents with hospital injuries the number of accidents in relation with vans is about the same as the number of accidents in relation with trucks. On the other hand trucks cause as twice mortal accidents as vans. Table 13 gives a more detailed information about the ratio between accidents with injuries and mortal accidents per kind of vehicle.

From accident figures (from 1981, 1982 and 1983) appears that in the case of mortal accidents and accidents with hospital injuries 56 % of the victims are pedestrians and cyclists. In contrast to emissions the other threats to the environment are directly founded problems. The negative effects of these threats to the environment are significant within build-up areas, the more if there are mostly pedestrians and neighbours. Further it is clear that bigger vehicles cause disproportionately more serious threats than smaller vehicles.

Briefly and summerized to the point the analysis led to the following results. 1 With regard to the different transport modes:

By far most of the air pollution, in relation with the freight transport, is caused by the road transport. 2 With regard to the difference between inland and internatio-

nal transport: Within the road transport by far most of the air pollution is caused by the inland transport. 3

With regard to the transported goods (or otherwise): From the emissions by trucks three fourths are in connection with the transport of food products, other goods (for a considerable portion consumer goods) and empty trips.

4 With regard to different areas:

The share of the generated emissions in urban areas varies from one fourth to three fourths of the total emissions. About one third of these emissions is generated in inner towns. 5 With regard to the difference between delivery vans and

trucks : The share of the delivery vans in the threats to the environment is considerable:

56

- From emissions of petrol-engines this can be more than half of the total freight transport emissions' - A disproportionate share of these emissions is generated

in urban areas and a comparative bigger proportion in inner towns; - The physical inconvenience caused by delivery vans is not less than that by trucks; - The same applies to the bad smell; - Twice as much inhabitants are threated by noise of vans as by noise of trucks. By trucks twice as much mortal accidents are caused as by vans. Compared with the threat to the environment by passenger traffic the threat to the environment of freight traffic is not to be neglected, but requires on the contrary special attention.

To set bounds to the threat to the environment by freight transport, it is necessary to make a distinction between the overall traffic performance and the traffic volumes, in particular in sensitive areas. To reduce emissions by freight transport the overall traffic performance has to be reduced. This is possible in different ways. The most obvious possibilities are: - To stimulate the development and use of less polluting road vehicles; - Improvement of the ratio full load and empty kms; - To use bigger road vehicles outside urban areas.

Which of these solutions will be preferred in certain cases is not only to decide by the realisable reduction of emissions per tonkm, but also by the area where the freight traffic pass through. This because also the threats such as noise and unsafety are important. Naturally the use of less polluting (road) vehicles is a good sake. However, this can not be the final solution. For this, their are several reasons. First the possibilities to get cleaner engines are limited. Particularly this counts for diesel engines. Besides that, freight traffic is increasing as a result of the increase of goods production and as a result of a shift from rail to road transport. At last there is a growing tendency to cut down the acceptable limits of the different overall emissions.

An improvement of the ratio full load and empty kms can give a contribution to reduce emissions, but also results of this possiblity will be limited. Indeed a quarter of the inland overall traffic performance by trucks is related to trips of

57

empty vehicles. However, it is not realistic to expect that it will be possible to reduce trips of empty vehicles completely. The use of bigger (road) vehicles is also mentioned as possibility to reduce emissions. Table 14 shows us see there is a remarkable difference between the emissions trucks on the one side and the emissions of trucks and lers and truck-tractors and semi-trailers on the other

a that of traiside.

Table 14: Emissions per tonkm by trucks, 1985

_________________--_----------------------------------------Emissions in gr per tonkm co HC NO, Aer

co2

SO2

............................................................. Trucks Trucks and trailers Truck-tractors and semi-trailers

451 109

2.24 0.54

1.57 0.38

5.65 1.37

0.90 0.22

0.43 0.10

127

0.34

0.34

2.30

0.19

0.11

Source: C B S (revised) The figures in table 14 concern the inland freight transport by truck. Figures concerning commodity categories 1 and 9 (not given here) show the same picture: three times to four times less emissions per tonkm in the case of trucks and trailers and truck-tractors and semi-trailers. Naturally these figures are influenced by the fact that on longer distances outside build-up areas trucks and trailers and truck-tractors and semi-trailers are used more than single trucks. Yet it can be asserted that the use of road vehicles as big as possible really can reduce emissions. Far more better for a decrease of the emissions than the use of bigger road vehicles is the use of railway or inland waterway transport. In table 15 the emissions per tonkm of the different modes are given. Table 15: Emissions per tonkm of different modes, 1985

.............................................................. Emissions in gr per tonkm co HC NO, Aer

co,

SO,

.............................................................. Road transport Inland waterway Railway

211 33

102

0.90 0.11 0.02

0.68 0.05 0.01

2.97 0.26 1.01

0.39 0.02 0.01

0.20 0.04 0.07

Source: C B S (revised) The figures of road to be considered as 14. The figures of based on inland and The above mentioned to increase the use within internationa

transport concern all kinds of trucks; are a weighted average of the figures in table nland waterway and railway transport are international transport together. shows strongly to search for possibilities of inland waterway and railway transport and inland transport.

58

For a long time railways had a strong position in the transport of bulk cargo by the so-called trainload transport, but the transport of this kind of freight is diminishing (in the western world). Only the combined rail-road transport of containers, swapbodies and trailers on international long distance trips is increasing. This increase is concerned with the transport on a few number of important international links. However, the real problem is the much higher emissions of the inland road transport. A s an alternative for the more disperced inland transport pattern only the wagonload railway transport system exist. For this type of railway transport many shunting operations are needed. By that, railway transport by the wagonload system is expensive, slow and causes much damage. Competing with the road transport is therefore very difficult. Yet a better railway system conception for inland freight transport is needed from a point of view of protection of the environment. For the development of such a system a new approach is necessary; that is to say a system without the need of shunting operations.Further characteristics of the system have to be regularly scheduled freight trains of a fixed composition, which serve a sufficient number of transhipment terminals. It will be clear that such a railway transport system only can exist by using containers, swapbodies and trailers. As a matter of fact shunting of railway wagons is replaced by the transhipment of containers, a.s.0. between trucks and wagons and eventually between two wagons. In the case of the aimed enlargement of the share of the railways in the inland freight transport the road transport industry has not to be seen as a competitor of the railway company, but as a customer. This has to be seen in relation with the development of the integration of the activities of transporters and shippers. Freight transport is getting more and more custom-made, where quality is more important than price. Therefore the road transporter has to conform to the logistical processes of the shipper. This can not be a job for the large scale railways. The railways has to offer transport services to the road transporters. So it is possible for the road transporter in any particular case to make a choise between using road transport for the whole journey or to use combined road-rail transport. Further research is needed to develop a nationwide network for freight transport by rail and the determination of new tran shipment terminals. Naturally use of railway transport is only possible on relatively long distances also within inland transport. An earlier study proved that combined road-rail transport will be possible from distances of 150 km, if shunting operations are abondoned. In table 16 shows that the volume of freight transport on

59

distances over 150 km is relatively small, but more than half of the tonkms. Table 16: Distance distribution of freight traffic

........................................................ Share in % Tons

Tonkms

81 19

55

____________________-----------------------------------0

- 150 km

> 150 km

45

........................................................ Source: CBS (revised) Maybe rail services are needed on different relations where rail links do not exist. In such cases it is thinkable to introduce truck services as an interim solution. The use of as big road vehicles on these links wil be preferred. Perhaps it is possible to make arrangements for the use of trucks with too trailers. Besides rail transport the inland waterway transport is favourable from a point of view of the environment. But the inland waterway transport is yet in a stronger way related to the transport of bulk cargo. The best possibilities of the inland waterway transport concern the transport of containers. Nevertheless research has to be done to a possibility of using inland waterways in a network for combined transport. Inland waterway transport is slow, but unlike the railway system inland waterways has no capacity problems. However, a problem can be the fact that there are a lot of inland waterway transporters whereas there is only one railway transport company. In the foregoing attention is given to the need of the enlargement of scale in the interlocal transport in order to set bounds to the emissions. In this case it is important to reduce the vehicle kms by the use of as big vehicles as possible. However for the reduction of the other threats to the environment it is necessary to reduce traffic volumes in build-up areas and particulary in inner towns. The present day optimalization within each firm has as a result that many trucks has to deliver goods on a lot of adresses. In this way a disproportionate number of vehicle trips are generated for the provision of shopping centres. It must possible by an optimalization on a higher scale to get to such physical distribution processes, that perhaps the overall traffic performance will not change but indeed traffic volumes will decrease in sensitive (vulnerable) areas. The contemplated reduction of the number of trucks in above all inner towns can be realized by using the principle that a fully loaded vehicle will not deliver this load in many (inner) towns, but that a vehicle will be loaded by more shippers and will unload the total load only in one inner town.

60

An other possiblity is the building of consolidation terminals at the fringe of a town. S o it will be possible to provide a town from one distinct terminal. In this case the accent lies on the logistic chain integral good flows control. This transport chain can be combined with the mentioned inland railway transport system. The transhipment terminals corporated in this system can be combined with depots. Within this scope also the development of typical city-bound mini containers is thinkable. Limiting the number of trucks particulary in inner towns can not be the final solution to reduce the (other) threats to the environment in a sufficient way. A l s o attention has to be given to the extensive use of vans. Although it is better possible to reduce emissions of the petrol engines of vans than the emissions of the diesel engines of trucks, this will not be a sufficient solution of all the problems caused by vans. Therefore it will be appropriate to research the use of electric traction for vans. Two options are to distinguish for the electric traction of cars. In the first case we can think about cars only for short distances, thus driving only relatively few kms a day, so that batteries can be charged at night. In the second case easy interchangable packets of batteries are used. For this service stations will be needed all along roads. Herewith the problem of the limited range of action of electric cars will be solved. As yet the first mentioned type of electric cars has the best opportunity to be used on a larger scale, because special service facilities for battery loading are not necessary. study to the use of electric vans for the provision of inner town shopping centres will be prefered. It is thinkable that pedestrian areas only may be entered by electric vans, together with realizing freight transfer facilities at the fringe of a pedestrian area. Such a transfer facility can be combined with a warehouse, that has to be exploited by the shopholders.

A

Also research has to be done to solve the problems of the inner city freight transport by physical infrastructure. A matter of fact is the limited space within inner towns, a space that is used for many purposes. It is only possible to realize added space by building a second level, that is to say by constructing tunnels (mostly elevated roads are not acceptable from a point of view of towenscape). It may be wondered why in most cases tunnels are being built f o r passenger transport. A better solution should be to bring the freight transport in city centres underground. Perhaps it will be possible to build underground freight tunnels for smaller piece goods similar to the pneumatic post system. In this case tunnels are needed with a smaller diameter than for passerger transport tunnels. Naturally building of such an underground system will not be simple. As an example the access points to the system can br mentioned. Nevertheless a pilot study will be appropriate.

61 FREIGHT TRANSPORT POLICY

........................

The different mentioned ways out of the problems require an increasing interference of the the government with regard to the freight transport. At present the role of the government is twofold. On the one hand the government is building infrastructure such as roads, ports, etc., whether special for the freight transport or not. On the other hand the government imposes restrictions to the freight transport, set bounds to the dimensions of trucks, close streets to trucks at distinct times, etc. Mostly this kind of measures are issued by local authorities. An extra problem is the lack of coordination between the different local authorities by preparing these measures. The seriousness of the from this study appearing problems ask for a more structural approach on a strategic level. In the future the government has to fulfil a more initiating and stimulating role to get to a more environment friendly freight transport. Naturally the government has to create conditions to make things possible, but also a task of the government has to be to bring the different actors in the transportation scene together not only to get to freight transport chains from a point of view of economics but also from a point of view of environment. Also the best division among the different authorities of the work to be done and the responsibilities have to be studied. At present only the central government and the local authorities mind the freight transport. However, it is necessary to study what could be the task of the provinces and the to develop transport regions on the field of freight transport. Physical planning is a task exclusively of the public authorities. The broad use of road transport has resulted in a sprawl all over the country of industrial zones without any connection with railways or inland waterways. Particularly many local authorities has developed industrial zones which are not always situated at the best places. A better prognosis of the traffic volumes as a result of the planning of industrial zones and the kind of industry there is needed. The contribution to the threat to the environment has to be a criterion for the decision to realize an industrial zone or not. This has not to be the picture for a decision to a complete industrial zone, but also to make decisions about separate undertakings. Just as it has not to be tolerated to realize an industrial zone that can only be reached by passing through a residential quarter, it has not to be tolerated to build a big supermarket which attract a lot of freight vehicles in the middle of a historic inner city.

62 References

Boustead I & GF Hancock (1979) Handbook of industrial energy analysis. The Open University Milton Keynes. IBSN 0-85312064-1

Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1986) Luchtverontreiniging emissies door wegverkeer 1978-1984 Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1986) Statistiek van het binnenlands goederenvervoer 1985 deel 1 binnenvaart en spoorwegen Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1986) Statistiek van het binnenlands goederenvervoer 1985 deel 2 wegvervoer Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1987) Statistiek van de aan-, af- en doorvoer, goederenvervoer van en naar Nederland Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (1986) Statistiek van de internationale binnenvaart 1985 Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek (1986) Statistiek van de wegen 1 januari 1985 Centraal Bureau van de Statistiek (1986) Statistisch zakboek Colwill DM (1973) Atmospheric pollution from vehicle emissions: measurements in Reading 1971. TRRL-report LR 541 ESC-rapport Vermijden of bestrijden Groot de H (1983) Schepen van de binnenvaart.ISBN 90-6013918-6

Henham A (1983) The motorcar: energy and potentials for conservation. Resources and conservation no 10-1983 Langeweg F (1988) Zorgen voor morgen, Nationale milieuverkenning 1985-2010. Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieuhygiene Lehmann H (1977) Bahnsysteme und ihr wirtschaftlicher Betrieb. Darmstadt Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection Handbook of emissionfactors, non-industrial sources, part 1 Ministerie van VROM Ondergrensrapport, nota ontheffingenbeleid Nederlands Vervoerwetenschappelijk Instituut (1982) Energieverbruik en energiebesparing in verkeer en vervoer, deelrapport 1 NOB-Wegtransport (1988) Wegvervoer in cijfers Prudhoe J & T Zammit (1977) Journeys made by an articulated goods vehicle and delays to other traffic. Transport and Road Research Laboratory TRRL supplementary report 307 Sliggers CJ Het CAR-Model, de meerjarenberekening van jaar tot jaar. Ministerie van VROM Directoraat-Generaal Milieubeheer Directie Lucht afdeling Luchtkwaliteit Zuylen van HJ (1987) Collegedictaat Geluid. Nationale Akademie voor Planologie, Verkeer en Vervoer Tilburg

63

NEW POLICY DEVELOPMENTS CONCERNING TRAFFIC, FREIGHT TRANSPORT, AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE NETHERLANDS Martin Kroon* Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment, P. 0. Box 450, 2260 MB Leidschendam, The Netherlands Ruthger Smil" Ministry of Transport and Public Works, P.O. Box 20901 2500 EX Den Haag, The Netherlands

INTRODUCTION

Never before has the government of a Western European country fallen over an environmental issue, let alone a question related to the reduction of car use. Yet on May 2, 1989, the seven year-old Lubbers Government, a coalition of centre ChristianDemocrats and right-wing Liberals, split over the question of curtailing tax benefits for (car) commuters in the Netherlands. A Dfl. 650 million commuter tax reform was proposed as a funding basis for several environmental and public transport programmes. It was just one of a great many projects contained in the new National Environmental Policy Plan 1990-1994 ("NMP")but it caused a political crisis for a largely successful coalition. And so, for the very first time, environmental policy was a high ranking issue during the 1989 Parliamentary elections. In June 1990, the new coalition government (Christian-Democrats and Labour Party) issued an updated and tightened up version of the NMP in the "NMP-plus", in order to accelerate the implementation of the new environmental policy. Parallel to the NMP-plus, an updated version of the Second Transport Structure Plan (SVVII) provided the guiding principles and measures for an integrated traffic and environmental policy. It is worthwhile examining what environmental problems and traffic policy concerns are at stake in the Netherlands, and which measures are being developed under the responsibility of environmental and traffic policies. This contribution describes current developments in the Netherlands' policy for the reduction of pollution due to motorized road traffic (including freight transport). Particular attention is paid to the reduction targets contained in the NMP, the three-track approach to traffic pollution - including management of traffic demand - and the integrated traffic and environmental policy measures presented in the SVVII. The final part of this contribution focuses attention on road freight and transport policy. ROAD TRAFFIC AND ENVIRONMENT

Transport and communication activities represent more than 7 per cent of gross national product in the Netherlands, surpassing even the agriculture sector in economic output. The main negative effects of road transport activities include accidents, congestion, air pollution and noise, wastes, soil

64 pollution from spilled fuels, energy consumption, and consumption of land use, other resources for infrastructure and vehicle use. The non-internalized social costs of road transport probably amount to several per cent of the gross national product. Emissions from the transport sector represent a large share of total man-made emissions. Also, the contribution of the transport sector to total emissions of air pollutants and noise is higher than in the past, compared to the contribution of other sectors. Road traffic is the largest single source of air pollution and noise nuisance. More than six million motor vehicles travel a total of about 100 billion kilometres a year (1988), producing 723,000 tonnes of carbon monoxide (CO), 198,000 tonnes of hydrocarbons (HC), and 299,000 tonnes of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) Its CO, output (about 25 million tonnes) represents 15 per cent of the Netherlands' contribution to CO, emissions. Furthermore road traffic is by far the largest source of environmental pollution in urban areas, not only f o r the compounds mentioned above but also for particulates, asbestos, SO,, and noise nuisance. Table 1 shows the volume of air pollutants produced predominantly by road traffic in the Netherlands.

.

TABLE 1: Road traffic emissions (NL), in tonnes per year and percentage road

1970

freight transport

1988 1,700

Lead

20

all vehicles 1988

share in total

340

80%

1.470,000

98,000

723,000

65%

*x

147,000

134,000

299,000

59%

HC

280,000

49,000

198,000

45%

n.a.

480

35%

23, 000

36,000

23%

25,000,000

15%

a3

Askstos

n.a.

Particles CO,

13,000

13,300,000

7,480,000

The effects of vehicle emissions can be divided between those relating to human health and those affecting the environment as a whole. Those affecting human health are: a. b.

c. d.

nuisance: noise, odour, haze and decrease in visibility due to mild smogs; irritation: of respiratory systems, eyes, skin, etc. by nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, oxidants, particulates: toxic systematic action: carbon monoxide, lead compounds, certain hydrocarbons; mutagenic/carcinogenic action: particulates, asbestos and certain hydrocarbons (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene).

High concentrations of these air pollutants are found chiefly in urban areas, near busy motorways and inside motor vehicles. High ozone concentrations due to transboundary pollution and domestic

65

traffic emissions occurred several times in the Netherlands during the hot spring and summer of 1989. Apart from the widespread ecological damage and general land use effect, the long term/long range environmental effects of road traffic are well illustrated by its share in acidification and photochemical air pollution (ozone formation). In the Dutch situation, road traffic contributes substantially to both forms through its share of over 55 per cent in NOx and 45 per cent in HC emissions (Table 1). NMP AND NMP-PLUS

Since the early 1980's "acid rain" and the long-term consequences of global warming, such as rising sea levels, brought the environmental issue to the forefront of public interest and concern. At the same time, the Government's environmental policy shifted towards a more effect-oriented approach, resulting in stricter emission reduction goals and a solid scientific foundation for stricter products/process emission standards. Since 1987 Our Common Future from the World Commission on Environment and Development ("Brundtland Committee") and the report "Concern for Tomorrow" by the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection have set the terms for a more fundamental discussion of the environment issue from a global and long-term perspective. A l s o the Government itself started political discussions on the problems of traffic planning and environment and on far reaching emission reductions (70-90 per cent) for acidifying substances. The time was ripe for the environment to become a cornerstone of public policy. The fall of the centre-right coalition and the 1989 Parliamentary elections symbolise this development. On May 25, 1989, the National Environmental Policy Plan 19901994 was issued as a first step towards the implementation of "sustainable development" between now and 2010 and the strategy for a new environmental policy in the 1990's. Execution of this plan will add more than 6 billion Dutch guilders a year to the costs of environmental investments and expenditures. It became apparent in the course of the formation of the new coalition government (Christian Democrats/Labour Party) that environmental policy would have to be tightened up on a number of points if the targets in the plan were to be achieved as quickly as possible. The aim of the plan, which is to ensure that environmental problems are not passed on to subsequent generations, can only be achieved if we change our current patterns of production and consumption. The government policy statement of November 27, 1989, listed the points on which environmental policy required tightening up: * reducing carbon dioxide emissions: * stepping up policy on acidification: * stepping up policy for the conservation and development of nature: * management of entire waste chains, also viewed in relation to product policy: * cleaning up soil and underwater soil: * energy conservation policy. The tightening up on these points does mean an acceleration of the introduction of NMP measures so that the long-term objectives needed for sustainable development are likely to be achieved

66 earlier. The consistency of policy is guaranteed because the points of departure of the National Environmental Policy Plan still hold true. In June 1990, the National Environmental Policy Plan Plus (NMPplus) was launched by the ( 4 ) Ministers of Environment, Transport, Agriculture and Economic Affairs. New emission reduction targets and abatement policy New and stricter reduction goals and abatement measures concerning acidification and all "contributing" sources have been laid down in the NMP and NMP-plus. Total acid deposition (averaging 5,000 acid equivalents per hectare per annum) is to be reduced in the long run to 400 to 700 equivalents in order to prevent any ecological damage from occurring. This implies emission reductions (for SO,, NH,, NO, and HC) of a magnitude of 7 0 to 90 per cent, which are goals that cannot be met by the year 2000. So, the NMP laid down a set of maximum achievable emission reduction targets for the year 2000, aiming at 5 0 to 80 per cent reductions compared to 1980 emissions (Table 2 ) . Together with parallel reductions by transboundary sources (especially from Germany) this may result in an average yearly deposition of 2400 equivalents before the year 2000. Sadly enough, this will only slow down the continued mortality of the Dutch forests and the continuation of other forms of damage. Eighty per cent of Dutch forests will still be at risk! The NMP-plus deals not only with acidification but also with all other kinds of pollution. The following emission ceilings and targets have been set for the traffic and transport sector: TABLE 2

Rnissim reduction targets 1986

2000

2010

163,000

40,000(-75%)

40,000 (-75%)

lorries,buses

122,000

72,000(-35%)

25,000 (-75%)

HC passerger cars

136,000

35,000(-75%)

35,000 (-75%)

HC lorries, buses

46,000

Nox passengerNox

CO,

mad traffic

23,000,000

Noise passenger caTs3 Noise lorries/buse& Noise nuisance s e r i d

30,000(-35%)

12,000 (-75%)

23,000, 000(0)

20,700,000( 10%)

80

74

70

81-88

75-80

70

260,000

130,000(-50%)

Noise nuisance to any desree5

2,000,000

1 , 8 o O , ~-10%) ( 1,000,000(-50%)

target values for the maximum noise production of vehicles in dB(A).

61

number of dwellings exposed to an unacceptably high noise level, reduced by 50 per cent in 2000 through measures at source and in the transmission zone. dwellings subject to noise loading of more than 55 dB(A). The intensified policy contained in the NMP-plus is aimed especially at reducing CO, emissions. This policy must produce a stabilisation in CO, emissions in 1994/1995 at the level of 1989/1990 (182 million tonnes per year). The NMP assumed stabilisation in the year 2000. The NMP-plus anticipates an absolute reduction of 3 to 5 per cent in 2 0 0 0 . For road traffic this will imply a net cut-off of the expected autonomous growth (of 8 per cent) of CO, emissions within 5 years. So, the CO, target for the transport sector is: a. to stabilise emissions at current levels in 1994-1995: b. to stabilise at 1986 levels in 2000: c. to reduce emissions by 10 per cent relative to the 1986 level by 2010. CO, emissions from road traffic will be reduced by the same three-track approach already being developed in connection with acidification reduction policy (see Figure 1). Additional abatement measures for all acidifying sectors must make it possible to achieve the current acidification objective (2400 acid equivalents per hectare per annum) some years earlier than the year 2000, as scheduled until now. For transport and traffic this implies the need for even stricter measures during the 1990's than was foreseen in the NMP and the draft SVVII (1989). Other goals and objectives The use of carcinogenic or other harmful substances in vehicles must be reduced by the year 2000 to a level where the risks are negligible, and the quantity of reusable materials must be raised to 85 per cent. In terms of land use, further "scatteration" in rural areas will be prevented. If new infrastructure is absolutely necessary, compensatory measures will be taken where possible so that, on balance, fragmentation does not increase. The problem of soil and air pollution at petrol stations will result shortly in legislation on new and existing facilities regarding sanitation, vapour-return etc. Specifically, the objectives of the NMP-plus for traffic and transport have been formulated as follows: - vehicles be as clean, quiet, economical and safe as possible and made of parts and materials which are optimally suitable for reuse: - the choice of mode for passenger transport must result in the lowest possible energy consumption and the least possible pollution. This means a preference for public transport,car pooling and cycling for the coming decades. Great attention must also be paid to reducing energy consumption and environmental pollution in freight transport: - the locations where people live, work, shop and spend their leisure time will be coordinated in such a way that the need to travel is minimal. The policy conducted will be regularly checked to see whether it is effective. Calibration points are given for 1994 to see whether the reduction in the environmental impact in the period prior to 2000 is proceeding according to plan. If the calibration

68 point for 1994 is not achieved this will result in the timely preparation of supplementary policy. MAIN ABATEMENT POLICY LINES

Environmental pollution from road traffic is produced in a three-step process, involving (1) the vehicle emission factor, (2) the “automobility” volume factor, and ( 3 ) the traffic/drivers factor. The Dutch environmental policy towards road traffic is set up along parallel lines (see Figure 1 ) . FIGVRE 1

FACMR

FACMR

TECHNICAL VEHICLE STANDARDS (THE FIRST TRACK)

The first track approach is followed throughout the world as a natural and effective means of reducing vehicle pollution “at source“ through regulations limiting air pollution and noise per (new) vehicle. Through regulations limiting air pollution step by step over a certain period of time, car and lorry manufacturers have been persuaded to start research and produce vehicles that emit up to 90 per cent less air pollution than similar vehicles in the past. It should be realized that the European Community as a supranational body with 1 2 Member States has an almost exclusive legislative power regarding technical standards f o r products to be marketed within the Community. In doing so the EC establishes a harmonized regulatory framework in order to protect the free flow of products within the EC market. As a Member State, the Netherlands participates in negotiations regarding pollution standards and tries to reach agreements on the highest possible levels of abatement and control. The European Council of Ministers of the Environment has already agreed upon stricter emission standards for passenger cars in such a way that by the end of 1992 most new cars entering the EC market will comply with standards equivalent to current US standards. Stricter standards for air pollution and noise from lorries, vans and buses are being negotiated within the various EC bodies involved. Considerable progress still has to be made on a wide variety of issues to be covered by EC standards, before all these regulations can be said to be equivalent to state-of-the-art technology. Reducing the total air pollution from road traffic requires constant screening of those factors that influence the real exhaust gas composition of all categories (including light and heavy duty lorries) under “real life“ driving conditions.

69 Measures in the Netherlands As from April 1, 1986, several measures entered into force in the Netherlands in order to promote the introduction of "clean" cars. Regular leaded gasoline was replaced by unleaded, and fiscal benefits were provided for the purchase of "clean" cars that comply with the new EC standards. A s a result, today almost all newly sold (petrol) cars are catalyst-equipped. By mid-1990 already two out of three catalyst cars were equipped up to US '83 standards. The use of economic incentives has proven to be an effective way to "clean up" the passenger car fleet long before it could have been done with compulsory measures alone. In addition to the introduction of cleaner passenger cars, the rapid introduction of cleaner lorries is also desirable. A gentlemen's agreement, signed with the manufacturers and importers on 29 September 1987, represented the first step in this direction, establishing a 10-15 per cent NOx -reduction per vehicle for 80 per cent of all newly sold lorries as from 1988. With regard to noise reduction a financial incentive approach has been applied successfully through subsidies for investments in lorries that meet future (stricter) noise standards. The following actions will be taken during the period covered by the National Environmental Policy Plan (Plus) (1990-1994). Cleaner lorries and buses Within the EC the Dutch Government is a strong supporter of tightening up exhaust gas standards by at least 50 per cent. The Government will also endeavour to reach agreement in the EC on a rapid introduction of cleaner lorries and buses by anticipating the entry into force of stricter new EC standards. The environmental investment subsidy programme has been raised for this purpose by an amount running to Dfl. 90 million per year, which is being funded through an increase in diesel excises. The programme, which started in August 1990, will be terminated once stricter European norms become effective. Subsidies of up to Dfl. 6000 are being provided for (heavy duty) lorries and bus coaches that meet future ( 9 gr.) NOx standards and of up to Dfl. 6500 for those vehicles that meet future 80 dB(A) noise standards. It is expected that this policy, given the expected autonomous growth in freight traffic from 11 billion kilometres to 16.5 billion kilometres in 2010, will lead to about 30 per cent lower emissions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in 2000. Of equally great importance is the development of even cleaner lorries and buses. In 2010 a 75 percent reduction in the emissions of NOx and CxH must be achieved, as well as considerable reductions of Cb2 and particulates. In 1989 the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment and the Ministry of Transport and Public Works together with the manufacturing industry embarked on wide scale international research into promising new technologies. Public transport and freight distribution in cities will serve as a spearhead in demonstrating and applying clean technologies. A wide range of possibilities is available, examples being alternatives fuels such as natural gas, electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, storage of braking energy, use of particle filters etc. Many of the options can be applied simultaneously. In view of the specific circumstances the optimal solution will differ from case

70 to case. An attempt will be made in the next five years to ensure that public transport in cities is provided with clean vehicles. An annual amount running to Dfl. 30 million in 1994 has been set aside to support this development. Periodic vehicle inspections will be extended to diesel cars and lorries to prevent unnecessarily high emissions of smoke and soot. An enforcement system will be developed and implemented similar to developments in Germany. Reducing CO, emissions from the vehicle park Vehicle technology, the composition of the vehicle park, driving behaviour and distances travelled are the factors which determine fuel consumption and thus CO, emissions from the vehicle park as a whole. The possibilities of influencing the amount of CO, emitted by individual vehicles and by the vehicle park as a whole through improved driving behaviour are being researched. The purchase of lighter and energy-efficient vehicles will also be promoted. The Netherlands will seek the introduction by the EC of regulations concerning more energy-efficient vehicles. Although individual classes of vehicle are in any case becoming more economical on average, this trend is being countered by the fact that vehicles in general are becoming heavier owing to the preference for cars with a larger cylinder capacity, greater power and more de-luxe extras. Since this will adversely affect CO, emission trends, the possibility of varying the levy on cars to help obviate this tendency (e.g. by basing a levy on cylinder capacity or fuel consumption) pending EC regulation, is being examined: the aim would be to ensure that such a scheme was aligned with initiatives in other countries. The alternatives will be looked at to determine which provides a suitable basis for this: the motor vehicle tax or the special tax on new passenger cars. Improved engine technology, the use of lighter materials and reduced rolling resistance can combine to produce vehicles which are more economical to run and which consequently emit less CO,. It may be assumed that the trend towards more energy-efficient vehicles observed in recent years is set to continue provided that the move towards heavier and more powerful vehicles can be halted. This points to a CO, reduction of maximally 3 5 per cent for passenger vehicles and 2 5 per cent for goods vehicles (average per vehicle compared to 1986) by the year 2010. REDUCING CAR USE (AUTOMOBILITY, THE SECOND TRACK) Future levels of air pollution emitted by traffic will be determined by the average vehicle emission factor (emission per vehicle per km) and total distance travelled by all vehicles (Figure 1). The second track-approach is relatively new and will be further developed and implemented in the coming years. It follows that the expected growth in automobile use of 3 to 5 per cent a year if policy remained unchanged would inevitably consume a large part of the emission reductions resulting from the "clean" car and lorry programmes, thus frustrating environmental objectives for emission reductions on both an international and an urban scale. Furthermore the "clean" car programme cannot solve the problems of noise nuisance, land-use and CO, emissions that are expected to increase with traffic growth.

71

a period (from now to about 2000) before the total car and lorry population has been replaced by maximum feasible “clean“ vehicles. This demonstrates how imperative it is to take adequate measures soon. One must also realize that the issue at stake is an adjustment in a socio-economic trend, which is no easy task and should not be delayed any longer. Thus it is that the Second Transport Structure Plan (SVVII) which was issued by the new Government together with the NMP-plus, seeks a balance between accessibility on the one hand and environment on the other hand. It has been concluded that the only way of doing sufficient justice to both aspects is to control the use of cars. Consequently, a set of new measures and improvements in current approaches are being developed to tackle the “automobility” problem. They must result in a reduction of the growth in automobility from 70 per cent to 35 per cent from 2010. The second track brings about a fundamentally different approach from the “classical“ approach in both traffic and environmental policy. However, even for reducing traffic jams a substantial reduction of car use is thought to be justified and effective. Thus both environmental and traffic policy goals may be reached simultaneously with the same instrument, reduction of car use. A l s o it will take too long

Limits to the reduction of car use Undoubtedly, any substantial reductions in traffic volume can only be realized when both Parliament and society as a whole are willing to change the balance of interest between environment and unlimited mobility. To what extent may car use - or at least the growth of total kilometrage - be limited without disturbing the economy or society as a whole? Several studies show that a considerable part of car use in the Netherlands is not “essential”. Indeed, an estimated 60 per cent of all car rides may be judged as having a reasonable substitute in public transport, car pooling, telecommunications or the bicycle. Nearly half of all car movements are performed within reasonable cycling distance (five km) or even walking distance (two km). With regard to air pollution both long distance daily travelling (NOx) and frequent, short, cold start-and-stop trips by car (shopping, commuting, social and educational visits) with relatively high CO and HC emissions should be substituted with priority. The Netherlands is provided with the most effective and ecological answer to the needs for short distance mobility: 15 million bicycles. Moreover public transport is relatively well developed. On the other hand, a great many factors structurally favour car use. It may be expected that government measures that raise the cost of car use in order to influence present drivers’ behaviour will meet with strong opposition from various sectors of society. Given current social and political circumstances there are evidently no simple measures which can have direct and major impacts on the volume of traffic. This is because the guiding principles in the current decision-making process assume: no limitation of car ownership: guarantees for freedom of mobility for social, business and distribution purposes: and the superiority of a market-oriented approach over regulation. Given the importance of the automobile in modern society, substantial limitation of its use requires fundamental measures, capable of structuraaly influencing people’s attitudes and behaviour.

12 VARIOUS MEASURES FOR REDUCING CAR USE Only a wide-ranging package of complementary measures can have any significant effect. Certainly, within the last three years the issue of "automobility" has developed from taboo into a political battleground and widely recognized problem. "Sustainable development" in traffic and transport means that a shift will have to occur in modes of transport towards modes which are less energy-consuming and less polluting. To be effective a balanced package will have to include the following elements: * a strong increase in variable (driving) costs, possibly in combination with a reduction in fixed costs through "variabilisation", tolls, taxation etc: * reduced parking facilities for commuter traffic through action on pricing, volume, regulation: * increased attractiveness of public transport through improvements in capacity and infrastructure, service and comfort, speed and price: * optimal use of physical planning via concentration, and public transport orientation of land uses: * neutralizing existing tax allowances and other financial incentives for commuters and for the use of business cars: * promotion of cycling, and education and information on mobility behaviour.

Increasing variable car costs

-

Excises on petrol will be increased and a C0,-levy introduced in 1990/1991. The Netherlands will also tie in with EC measures to raise and harmonise duties on mineral oils and fuels. - Physical/electronic tolls will be introduced on a number of access roads and infrastructural works (tunnels) in the west of the country in 1995 (road pricing and peak hour charges will not be introduced because of strong Parliamentary opposition). - To control public transport sector operating deficits, public transport fares will be allowed to reflect cost trends, but may not exceed increases in variable car costs. - The possibility of imposing excise duties on LPG will be investigated. A levy of this kind would reduce the incentive to drive a lot which stems from current low variable costs f o r LPG users. - The municipalities will be urged to raise parking charges and reduce the number of free parking places. Parking norms are proposed for this purpose in the SVVII. - The standard tax deduction for commuter traffic has been partially cut for those commuters who travel long distances. The allocation of the revenues generated by this measure will be in favour of those who use or will use public transport, of car poolers and of other environmentally friendly traffic measures. - Consideration will be given to whether current tax regulations relating to traffic have an undesirable effect on car use. Increasing attractiveness of public transport

73 Improving and extending service by public transport will include the following: - investments in public transport infrastructure (to be raised from Dfl. 12.4 billion to more than Dfl. 20 billion until 2010) - investments in bicycle facilities near bus and railway stations: - fare and ticket integration : - contribution to public transport operating cost deficit; - encouraging cooperation between transport regions: - automobile kilometre reduction and business transport management plans; - research and public information. Tightening up physical planning policy Physical planning policy will concentrate on discouraging labour-intensive businesses and amenities attracting numerous visitors in locations which are less readily accessible by public transport. Physical planning and environmental policy instruments will be deployed to prevent buildings being constructed in unsuitable locations. The municipal authorities are being asked to view existing building plans in this light and possibly reconsider them. Every effort will be made to prevent or reduce further fragmentation of the countryside by the construction of infrastructure and other human activity. Effects of measures The mobility measures are part of a package: it is not possible to judge their effectiveness individually. The effectiveness of the whole set of measures is expressed in a curbing of the growth in the use of cars in relation to the forecast for unchanged policy and the proposed policy in the SVVII. The following index figures for private vehicles use have been laid down as a goal for the coming years:

-( 1986=100)

-

*

"unchanged plicy" forecast in 1986

1989

1994*

2000

2010

117

125

130

135

124

140

172

It has been assumed that measures can be taken in 1990.

Total investment in roads may diminish as a result of the lower growth in car traffic. These savings will first occur in the second half of the SVV planning period since there are currently backlogs which have to be caught up to reach the level of completion intended. The new Government is to reduce road construction budgets more substantially in favour of public transport infrastructure investments (Dfl. 13.3 billion will be available for new highway construction until 2010).

14 (URBAN) TRAFFIC MEASURES (THIRD TRACK)

Due to problems of noise nuisance, air pollution, visual pollution, the problem of traffic safety and lack of space, the quality of the urban environment has seriously deteriorated. This is particularly the case in the big cities, where motorized traffic is the main cause of pollution. Most of the air pollutants present at street level originate from motor vehicles. Table 3: Percentage of pollutants originating from motor with respect to the total amount present

Percentage in a busy street

co

0 3

90%

60%

SO,

30%

traffic

Pb 98%

Air pollution from carbon monoxide, benzene, lead and nitrogen dioxide originates mainly from passenger cars. In over 1000 urban streets in the Netherlands with intensities of over 10,000 vehicles per day, the concentration of these pollutants exceeds the ambient air quality standards for CO, Pb and NO,, set in 1987. Excessive levels of air pollution and noise nuisance cannot be eliminated entirely by tougher emission standards alone. In addition to the above mentioned general measures designed to reduce the use of cars, the following measures must help to alleviate the problem at a local scale: * stricter enforcement of parking restrictions and speed limits: * traffic management influencing driver's choice of routes: * special routing for freight through-traffic: * traffic-dosaging on approach roads to city centres: * restructuring urban freight distribution: * introduction of low speed zones: * circulation schemes to calm traffic and to spread it more evenly over the road network: * publicity designed to influence local people's driving habits; This kind of approach combines environmental protection with road safety. The implementation of the policy outlined above will, in the first instance, be the responsibility of the municipalities. Compliance with speed limits is of great concern. In the Netherlands the general highway speed limit for lorries and buses (80 km) is being exceeded by an average of 9 km. Our enforcement programme and publicity campaign are being executed with the help of the transport corporation branches. From practical experience it can be deduced that a consistent reduction in speeding and improved driving behaviour can reduce total fuel costs and engine and tire wear by over 20 per cent. With a view to both road safety and environmental protection the trucking branch must reduce speeding within a very short period. Compulsory introduction of speed retarders in lorries and buses will follow if speeding remains as frequent as today.

FREIGHT TRANSPORT

The Netherlands' favourable location at the mouth of the Rhine and the Meuse Rivers with ice-free harbors on the North Sea makes it excellently suited for the through-transport of goods into the vast European hinterland. More than 70 per cent of the goods imported enter the country by way of ocean shipping and 29 per cent of the goods leaving the country depart by ship. With a total value added of Dfl. 34 billion, the transport sector's economic importance for the Netherlands is beyond dispute. It should be noted that this amount is generated by the total sector consisting of transport, storage and communication companies. The sector contributes Dfl. 5 billion to the nation's balance of payments through the labour of the 340,000 individuals employed in this sector. They account for 7 percent of the Netherlands' total work force. The 1989 volume of haulage of the three inland transport modes, in million tonnes conveyed, can be indicated as follows: domestic road transport rail inland shipping

384 5 90

transboundary 112 12 167

The costs and quality of the transport sector are being put under a great deal of pressure by the increasing problem of accessibility. This is also harming the sector's competitive position. These growing problems are being caused to a significant extent by increasing private car use (this increase was 12 per cent during the period 1986 - 1989). The Netherlands' major ports - the airport Schiphol and the sea port Rotterdam - must have the best road, water, rail and telematic connections conceivable. It is clear that ensuring good accessiblity can be at odds with the pursuit of a sustainable society. It is for this reason that creative solutions must be sought for traffic and transport, solutions which make these economic activities possible within the context of a sustainable society. The Dutch Government is choosing an integrated strategy for freight transport in order to mitigate this problem. The Government is striving to improve accessibility for the transport sector through large investments in freight transport by rail and in waterways and through necessary improvements to the trunk road network. It is also being improved through utilization of the opportunities offered by telematics. Freight transport by road In 1989 the Netherlands' fleet of freight vehicles consisted of 100,000 delivery vans, 80,000 lorries, and 27,000 trailer tractors. These vehicles conveyed nearly 500 million tonnes of cargo and travelled around 30 million tonne-kilometres in the process. Total domestic freight kilometrage amounted to about 12 billion kilometres.

16

Projections of economic growth and of growth in transport indicate that road transport will increase to 725 million tonnes in the year 2010. This projection already takes into account the fact that part of this growth will be absorbed by rail transport and inland shipping. The volume of haulage measured in tonne-kilometres is expected to increase by 70 per cent despite this shift. Road transport will remain the most important mode of transport. This makes it all the more necessary that the most effective measures be taken for abatement at the source, the vehicle itself. Maintenance or enlargement of market share will not be automatic. In addition to the sector's own efforts, the government will have to provide support, particularly in the fiscal sphere, to a favourable business climate in order to maintain the international competitive position. A policy of stimulation and development aimed at innovation is also being pursued in order to strengthen this position wherever possible. The Dutch Government will set qualitative standards for transporters' entry into the market and for competitive conduct. In 1993 there will be one Europe with a free transport market: the competitive position in that market of the Dutch Mainports - Rotterdam and Schiphol airport - and of Dutch freight transport will have to be such that at least the current market share is preserved. At the same time effective environmental measures will have to be taken. Empty return trips will have to be avoided as much as possible due to environmental considerations. This requires deregulatory measures. The Netherlands is an outspoken advocate of allowing cabotage, freedom to collect and deliver loads in other countries. It is estimated that the average capacity utilization in international road transport would rise 10 to 25 per cent were cabotage allowed. The Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg) have already agreed to allow cabotage as of January 1, 1991, or as quickly as possible thereafter. In addition, the Netherlands will continue to argue f o r a liberalization of dimensions and weights. The Government's position is that a maximum length of 18.35 metres for a lorry combination plus a short-coupling system is the minimum. This makes it unnecessary to use additional vehicles to transport the same amount of cargo. Collaboration among both professional conveyance companies and with the transport departments of other companies can also lead to an efficiency gain. In time it should be possible to save 15 per cent in vehicle kilometres for a given volume of transport through measures aimed at improving efficiency. Infrastucture An infrastructure policy for freight transport by road is being pursued on three fronts, namely: - quality of the international connections. In the first instance this involves the joining of the hinterland connections in the European road system. In addition, a European network of "principal routes" will be striven after: - quality of the Dutch trunk road network. Separate lanes for among other things lorries will be built or designated in congested areas. The quality of the road infrastructure can be translated into a maximum chance of congestion of 2 per cent on the principal routes and 5 per cent on the remaining trunk road network; - inner city accessibility. A selective infrastructural policy for urban areas should also be pursued. Solutions which keep cities

11 accessible and do not put an extra burden on the ambient environment can be found through transport regions - coordinated traffic planning and management in an agglomeration - and through active municipal policies. Freight transport by rail In 1989 the Dutch Railways had 9236 pieces of rolling stock with a total cargo capacity of 236 kilotonnes. They conveyed 17 million tonnes in 1989, 1 per cent of total domestic freight transport and 4 per cent of transboundary freight transport. The infrastructure and the performance of the Dutch Railways (NS) are equally critical for the maintenance and enlargement of rail's share of the freight transport market. The Dutch Railways are responsible for market performance and a client-oriented approach. The government must attend to a number of measures in the sphere of essential conditions. For example, the problem of the competitive disadvantage resulting from the allocation of infrastructure costs must be solved before 1994. NS freight transport must be selfsufficient for a commercial operation. NS has taken action in the meantime through the presentation of a strategic reorientation. The number of loading and unloading sites is being reduced to 30 on a couple of major lines. After 1993, the Kijfhoek shunting yard near Rotterdam will be N S ' s only functioning shunting yard. A new combined shunting/transshipment yard will be completed on the Betuwe line around 2000. The Betuwe line is the planned rail connection for freight between Rotterdam and Germany, via Tie1 and to the south of Arnhem. N S ' s internal organization is becoming more client-oriented. An important point here is the financing and allocation of costs for the construction and maintenance of the infrastructure. In the Netherlands the railroad company bears these costs itself, while the road and inland waterway modes of transport do not. One of the possibilities for creating a more equitable position relative to competing modes of transport would be to transfer financial responsibility to the State while at the same time introducing a user's fee to be paid by the NS. This is being elaborated more fully in the Netherlands as well as in the context of the EC. International cooperation among the nationally organized railroad companies is extra desirable in order to realize high quality, internationally integrated train management on the main international rail transport routes. The Dutch railway infrastructure is directed primarily toward passenger transportation. Freight transport makes use of the remaining capacity. Given all the stimulation measures, passenger transportation will make increasingly greater use of the capacity of the railway network. It is for this reason that capacity problems are expected for freight transport by rail, especially on the connections with the hinterland. This capacity can be claimed through coordination of these transport streams relative to freight transport on the domestic main routes. The point of departure here is that the remaining (domestic) freight transport must be absorbed by the current network, especially through night operations. Solving these capacity problems, increasing the axle load to 22.5 tonnes and making the modifications necessary f o r higher speeds require Dfl. 1.4 billion and are of special importance f o r preserving Rotterdam's competitive position.

78

Research demonstrates that infrastructural capacity specifically for rail freight transport is unavoidable. Increasing the volume of freight from 17 million tonnes in 1989 to a scheduled 50 million tonnes per year in 2010 will require an investment of Dfl. 2.5 billion. The lion's share of this amount is needed for improvements between Rotterdam and the German hinterland, via the Betuwe line. At the moment it is being assumed that 50 per cent of the financing for this line will be provided privately. Freight transport by water In 1989 the active inland fleet consisted of more than 6200 vessels with a total cargo capacity of 5800 kilotonnes. Many customers appear to be unacquainted with the possibilities offered by inland shipping. The sector itself has undertaken self-promotion activities in order to improve this situation. New markets are being developed and technological modernization is taking place. These developments should make it possible to increase the amount of cargo from 257 million tonnes in 1989 to around 370 million tonnes in 2010. About 35 million tonnes of this increase comes from the influence on the modal split to the disadvantage of road transport. The remainder comes from autonomous growth in this sector. Inland shipping's dependence on international developments compels international consultations. The negative consequences of protectionism must be guarded against. The international scrapping scheme is currently being implemented. Possibilities for making the mercantile-exchange system commercial are being investigated in close collaboration with the organized industry. A waterway is defined as a trunk waterway if at least 5 million tonnes of cargo are transported over it annually. Trunk waterways with equal amounts of transboundary freight shipments to and from the seaports are designated as principal routes. They connect the seaport areas of Rotterdam, Amsterdam and the western Scheldt with their fore and hinterlands. These routes must be able to carry push-tow trains of at least four barges. Due to a large backlog, hefty investments are needed for modernization, improvement and up-scaling. The maintenance backlog must also be eliminated as quickly as possible. Possibilities for opening up Eastern Europe via waterways are being investigated. Other improvements have to make it possible to transport "just in time" freight shipments over water. With regard to the infrastucture, the national government considers itself responsible for maintaining the trunk waterway network which connects the most important parts of the country with each other and with other countries and which also provides access to the hinterland from our most important seaports. The highest priority is being given to the principal routes. These routes are attuned to the best possible competitive position for inland shipping. The other trunk waterways come next, followed by the national waterways which are not part of the trunk waterway network. This last category involves primarily eliminating maintenance backlogs; the national government will undertake no initiatives towards upscaling. Dfl. 4 billion is needed for investments between now and 2010. Maintenance of the waterways requires an annual budget of approximately Dfl. 340 million.

19

Inland shipping will have to make its own contribution in the area of environment and energy. Noise nuisance and air pollution, as well as water and soil pollution will have to be reduced further in an international context. Additional research is being carried out into the exact extent, composition and location of air polluting emissions from the inland shipping sector. Combined rail-water-road transport A significant share of the growth in rail transport and inland shipping will consist of combined transport. This transport consists of containers and swap bodies. Combined transport's current share is about 7.5 million tonnes. This is about 3 per cent of the total transboundary transport of freight. It is estimated to amount to about 65 million tonnes in the coming 10 to 15 years based on current expectations regarding growth in road transport. The routes most likely to grow include RotterdamGermany-Italy and Rotterdam-France-Spain. This will require a further expansion of the combined transport system (road/rail, water/rail and road/water). Industry bears the responsibility for this, but the government will contribute with stimulatory measures. An example of this would be participation by large road transport and shipping companies in the planning of route management (rail/road transport). In addition, a study has been started into the prospects of various forms of combined transport, including new concepts for "roll on-roll off" ships on the Rhine. Recent experience, particularly with container transport, has proven that inland shipping fits well in the notion of more integrated transport. For the railways this involves primarily the introduction of regular service and shuttle trains. These will go from Rotterdam to Italy, among other destinations. In order to accomplish this, rail service centers are being planned and funds have been allotted for them. Container transport by train is expected to triple during the coming 15 years to 10 to 12 million tonnes per year. The national government is contributing to the cost of introducing a new container handling system into the railroad.

Telernatics in freight transport Telematics bring the supply of and demand for freight transport together through computer communication. Telematics also play a role in transport planning and implementation. This makes it possible to separate the physical stream of goods from the accompanying stream of information, the Electronic Document Interchange (EDI). For instance this is currently being studied for application to waste transports. The Netherlands can also serve as a logistical information interchange for freight streams which take place outside the country. This advanced form of commerical service is a promising market for the Netherlands as a transport and distribution country. Telematics can also improve the quality of inspections, make it possible to provide service more quickly and to intervene more adequately in the case of disasters. Demonstration projects will be undertaken first. Well-concerted guidance for the introduction of this new technology is of the utmost importance. The tachograph in lorries is obsolete and will be replaced by a dashboard computer. Field memories for roadside checks are being introduced.

80

CONCLUSION

With the publication of the Second Transport Structure Plan the Dutch Government has provided an integral vision of the development of transportation in the medium term. The strategy described will reduce the load on the ambient environment and ensure access for the economically necessary freight transport sector. It is clear that measures must be taken comprehensively. Freight transport's greatest chance for success in a sustainable society lies with collaboration within the transport industry itself and within the European context. Mobility is an essential requirement of our society, and so is the environment. To combine the conflicting demands of traffic and environment in the best possible way is a demanding task to which administrations at local, provincial and national level have to commit themselves. The execution of this task is not going to be easy. For the time being, four major uncertainties remain: 1) Will there be enough political support for the unpopular measures that effectively raise the costs of car use and reduce automobility? 2) Will such measures really induce the mass motorist behaviour response necessary? 3 ) Can we stay away in the long run from regulatory approaches to influencing people's choice of transport mode and of activitylocations? 4 ) Can we slow the growth rate of truck-kilometrage through influencing the freight transport modal split, without compromising (the Dutch position in international) transport and distribution?

81

A CALIFORNIA AND UNITED STATES PERSPECTIVE ON THE IMPACT OF AIR QUALITY POLICIES ON GOODS MOVEMENT BY HEAVY DUTY TRUCKS

James D. Boyd California Air Resources Board, P.O. Box 2815, Sacramento, C A 95812, U.S.A. Introduction:

22, 1990 . . . t h e t w e n t i e t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f E a r t h D a y April signaled the beginning o f a new e r a t h a t w i l l be By characterized by heightened global environmental concerns. w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r , i n e v e r y s t a t e a n d n a t i o n , we c a n a c h i e v e new standards o f environmental success bringing healthy a i r t o a l l o u r people, and more i m p o r t a n t , t o o u r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s .

...

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The study o f environmental p o l i c y and a i r q u a l i t y i s an i n c r e d i b l y dynamic f i e l d . A i r q u a l i t y i s impacted b y economic activity, p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , l a n d use p l a n n i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , e n e r g y demand, personal lifestyle, a n d many o t h e r social, economic, and t e c h n i c a l f a c t o r s . The movement o f goods b y a i r , l a n d , a n d sea i s a n e s s e n t i a l component of our society. Whether t h e movements are by of a i r c r a f t , r a i l , s h i p , o r heavy d u t y t r u c k , the efficiency movement is a critical factor i n d e t e r m i n i n g mode c h o i c e . However, f i n a n c i a l a n a l y s e s a r e n o t enough t o e v a l u a t e t h e t o t a l costs that t r a n s p o r t modes i n c u r u p o n s o c i e t y . External costs (such as air pollution, congestion delay, and regulatory overhead) n e e d t o b e e x a m i n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e economy a n d social welfare. p r o v i d e an o v e r v i e w o f t h e a i r p o l l u t i o n This paper w i l l problem i n California, examine the links between the transportation o f goods and a i r q u a l i t y , r e v i e w o u r p r o g r e s s i n control of motor vehicle emissions, and d i s c u s s some o f the e f f o r t s t h a t w i l l be undertaken i n t h e f u t u r e . The C a l i f o r n i a A i r O u a l i t y D i l e m m a : Air pollution is part of everyday l i f e f o r m i l l i o n s o f Californians. Sixteen m i l l i o n residents o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a a r e exposed r e g u l a r l y t o l e v e l s o f a i r p o l l u t i o n t h a t can cause nausea, headaches, eye i r r i t a t i o n , and d i z z i n e s s e v e n i n h e a l t h y adults. S e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t of t h e population exposure i n the United States t o u n h e a l t h y l e v e l s o f ozone occurs i n Southern C a l i f o r n i a and more t h a n 90% o f t h e p e o p l e i n C a l i f o r n i a l i v e i n areas w i t h unhealthy a i r . C a l i f o r n i a , w i t h 2 8 m i l l i o n p e o p l e a n d o v e r 150,000 s q u a r e miles o f land, has d e v e l o p e d an i n t e n s i v e , t e c h n o l o g y - f o r c i n g We h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s f u l a i r p o l l u t i o n strategy over t h e years. i n m e e t i n g t h e standards f o r n i t r o g e n d i o x i d e and l e a d and have s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced carbon monoxide l e v e l s i n a l l urban areas.

82 Nevertheless, we s t i l l h a v e some o f the worst problems-t h e C i t y o f Los Angeles, regrettably, has the h i g h e s t ozone levels i n the United States. JransDortation.

A i r Oualitv.

and a S u c c e s s f u l

Economv:

Some p e o p l e h a v e t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n t h a t e f f o r t s t o p r o t e c t l i m i t growth and development. the environment w i l l severly However, in California, this has n o t been t h e case. C a l i f o r n i a n s r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e movement o f i n f o r m a t i o n , goods, and s e r v i c e s i s c r i t i c a l t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e and e x p a n s i o n o f o u r i s economy. The e v i d e n c e i s clear that a h e a l t h y economy compatible w i t h our e f f o r t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e most e f f e c t i v e a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l program possible. The w o r s t air pollution area o f C a l i f o r n i a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Los Angeles, i s a prime example o f strict environmental controls i n a robust economy. C a l i f o r n i a ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Gross N a t i o n a l Product (GNP) of the United States i s approximately 13%, r a n k i n g C a l i f o r n i a ' s economy p r e s e n t l y as t h e s i x t h l a r g e s t i n t h e world. Our economic growth r a t e i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher than this the growth r a t e f o r the r e s t o f t h e United States. All growth has been p o s s i b l e i n a s t a t e w h i c h may h a v e among t h e most s t r i n g e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n s i n t h e w o r l d . We d e f i n i t e l y w a n t t o p r o t e c t C a l i f o r n i a ' s r o b u s t g r o w t h . It is f a i r l y clear O u r own a i r q u a l i t y g o a l s d e p e n d u p o n i t . t h a t we c a n n o t s u s t a i n a n i m p r o v e d e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h o u t a h e a l t h y economy t o f i n a n c e t h e e f f o r t . The c o n v e r s e i s a l s o t r u e . We need e f f e c t i v e a i r p o l l u t i o n control t o support the continued economic growth t h a t i s p r e d i c t e d f o r C a l i f o r n i a .

.

.

M o t o r V e h i c l e a n d Goods M o v e m e n t E m i s s i o n s : A p p r o x i m a t e l y 44% o f h y d r o c a r b o n ( H C ) e m i s s i o n s , 7 1 % o f t h e oxides of n i t r o g e n ( N O x ) e m i s s i o n s , and 68% o f c a r b o n m o n o x i d e (CO) emissions i n C a l i f o r n i a are from motor vehicles. Plus, a significant amount o f t h e e m i s s i o n s f r o m s t a t i o n a r y s o u r c e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r o c e s s i n g and d i s t r i b u t i n g motor v e h i c l e f u e l s . California i s the third l a r g e s t consumer o f g a s o l i n e i n t h e w o r l d , b e h i n d t h e U.S. and U.S.S.R. W i t h more t h a n 20 m i l l i o n c a r s and t r u c k s o n t h e r o a d i n C a l i f o r n i a t o d a y , i t i s no wonder t h a t motor v e h i c l e s c o n t i n u e t o be t h e s i n g l e largest emission source o f p o l l u t i o n i n our state. Emissions from a i r c r a f t , ships, and locomotives are not local governments. I n currently r e g u l a t e d b y t h e ARB o r general, t h e emissions from these sources are r e l a t i v e l y small compared t o a u t o m o b i l e s and heavy d u t y t r u c k s . [The o n l y exception t o t h i s general r u l e are s u l f u r d i o x i d e emissions from ships, w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 45% o f t h e m o b i l e s o u r c e The r e l a t i v e u s a g e o f h e a v y d u t y t r u c k s for emissions o f SOX.] s h i p p i n g v a l u a b l e and p e r i s h a b l e goods i s h i g h , due t o l o w f u e l p r i c e s and t h e premium t h a t o u r p o p u l a t i o n p l a c e s upon t h e r a p i d movement and q u i c k d e l i v e r y o f goods. I n t h e f u t u r e , as goods movement b y modes o t h e r t h a n truck i n c r e a s e and as e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n s b e c o m e e v e n m o r e s c a r c e , we w i l l b e e x a m i n i n g t h e s e modes f o r p o t e n t i a l e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n s .

83 There are approximately 750,000 heavy d u t y v e h i c l e s i n service i n California. These v e h i c l e s t r a v e l a p p r o x i m a t e l y 43 m i l l i o n m i l e s p e r day (57 m i l e s l d a y l v e h i c l e on average) and use 2.8 b i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f f u e l each y e a r . These v e h i c l e s account for 37% o f t h e NOx and 64% o f t h e P M l O e m i s s i o n s f r o m o n - r o a d vehicles. About 35% o f t h e heavy d u t y t r u c k s i n t h e state are diesel powered and t h e y account f o r about 50% o f t h e heavy d u t y truck travel. H i s t o r v of

.

I

California s R w l a t o r v Policy:

I n the United States, transportati policies have developed on s e p a r a t e pa transportation agencies (increasing mobil goods) have o f t e n been i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e agencies (reducing a i r p o l l u t i o n ) .

n and a i r q u a l i t y hs. The g o a l s of ty for p e o p l e and goals o f a i r q u a l i t y

A i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l e f f o r t s i n t h e U S. and i n C a l i f o r n i a have f o c u s e d on b o t h i n d u s t r i a l and motor v e h i c l e sources o f pollution. The p r i m a r y f o c u s o f m o t o r v e h c l e e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s has h i s t o r i c a l l y been t o c o n t r o l exhaust emissions. Past p o l i c i e s have tended t o overlook the implications o f p o p u l a t i o n growth and t h e increase i n vehicle activity that w o u l d f o l l o w i n t h e wake o f e c o n o m i c p r o s p e r i t y . However, e x p l o s i v e growth i n C a l i f o r n i a o v e r the past 15 years has overwhelmed t h e p r e c e d e n t - s e t t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t r o l s t h a t were adopted. D u r i n g t h i s t i m e , o u r economy g r e w b y 4 . 5 m i l l i o n j o b s , i n c l u d i n g 11% o f t h e n a t i o n ' s m a n u f a c t u r i n g employment. L o o k i n g ahead, economic growth i n California is p r o j e c t e d t o b e a n o t h e r 4 . 5 m i l l i o n j o b s b y t h e y e a r 2 0 1 0 ... one-quarter o f t h e economic growth p r o j e c t e d f o r t h e whole country. W i t h t h i s economic growth, comes an increase i n vehicular emissions. Vehicle travel i n C a l i f o r n i a has been g r o w i n g a t a f a s t e r rate than population. The r a t e o f i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f t r i p s made a n d m i l e s d r i v e n , i f i t c o n t i n u e s , w i l l o v e r w h e l m t h e r e d u c t i o n s a c h i e v e d , and t o t a l v e h i c u l a r e m i s s i o n s w i l l b e g i n t o i n c r e a s e a g a i n i n t h e l a t e 1990s. A l t h o u g h C a l i f o r n i a has an e x c e l l e n t highway system, over 430,000 hours a r e wasted d a i l y by m b t o r i s t s i n t h e Los Angeles area alone w a i t i n g on overcrowded freeways. Congestion delay, and reduced o p e r a t i n g speeds, significantly increases the emissions o f a i r p o l l u t a n t s per vehicle m i l e traveled. As m o r e p e o p l e move t o C a l i f o r n i a , t h e amount o f t i m e s p e n t w a i t i n g i n t r a f f i c i s expected t o increase. F r o m a human s t a n d p o i n t , the increase i n t r a f f i c volumes has an even b r o a d e r s o c i a l impact than j u s t t h e a i r q u a l i t y concerns. We a r e n o w g i v i n g g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s t o reductions in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n usage t o achieve a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l . At the same t i m e , the transportation sector has r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t cannot b u i l d s u f f i c i e n t f a c i l i t i e s t o meet c u r r e n t and f u t u r e projected travel demand... we c a n n o t b u i l d o u r w a y o u t o f t h e problem. Thus, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and a i r quality policies are beginning t o converge and f o c u s upon r e d u c i n g b o t h c o n g e s t i o n and subsequent a i r p o l l u t i o n e m i s s i o n s .

84 Therefore, we h a v e r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e 1 9 9 1 a i r q u a l i t y plans prepared b y our regional air quality agencies include transportation c o n t r o l measures designed t o decrease o v e r a l l v e h i c l e a c t i v i t y and t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f v e h i c l e use. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d t r a f f i c c o n g e s t i o n r e l i e f i s now a k e y p a r t o f our motor v e h i c l e c o n t r o l program. Jhe A i r Resources Board and Motor V e h i c l e P r o a r m : I n 1988. o u r C a l i f o r n i a L e g i s l a t u r e e n a c t e d t h e C a l i f o r n i a Clean A i r Act. This Act requires a l l areas o f t h e s t a t e t o a t t a i n b o t h s t a t e and n a t i o n a l a m b i e n t a i r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s at the earliest p r a c t i c a b l e date, and r e q u i r e s each l o c a l a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l agency t o p r e p a r e a d e m o n s t r a t i o n p l a n . The A c t w i l l m e a n n e w r u l e s i n some a r e a s , a n d i n c r e a s e d e m p h a s i s o n compliance w i t h e x i s t i n g regulations in a l l areas. The A c t d i r e c t s t h e ARB t o r e q u i r e t h e "maximum d e g r e e o f e m i s s i o n r e d u c t i o n p o s s i b l e f r o m v e h i c u l a r and o t h e r m o b i l e sources" to attain both federal and more s t r i n g e n t state a i r quality standards. The C a l i f o r n i a A i r R e s o u r c e s B o a r d i s c o n t i n u i n g t o d e v e l o p and i m p l e m e n t new a n d i n - u s e h e a v y d u t y m o t o r v e h i c l e s t a n d a r d s , as well as f u e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n standards. These e x i s t i n g p o l i c i e s have, and always w i l l , affect the transportation of goods b y t r u c k . Diesel exhaust from trucks and buses contributes to a multitude o f a i r q u a l i t y problems. D i e s e l NOx emissions, which p l a y a p r i m a r y r o l e i n ozone f o r m a t i o n , are a major concern. P a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r (PM) e m i s s i o n s a r e a l s o a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m as t h e p u b l i c f i n d s t h e smoke e m i t t e d by d i e s e l vehicles to be highly objectionable and o f f e n s i v e , and a m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e v i s i b i l i t y d e g r a d a t i o n i n urban areas can be t r a c e d t o p r i m a r y d i e s e l PM e m i s s i o n s as w e l l a s t h e s e c o n d a r y s u l f a t e a n d n i t r a t e p a r t i c l e s formed f r o m d i e s e l SOX and NOx e m i s s i o n s . I n California, our adopted and proposed e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s f o r heavy d u t y motor v e h i c l e s i n c l u d e seven measures: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1.

new v e h i c l e c e r t i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , in-use v e h i c l e i n s p e c t i o n and maintenance r e q u i r e m e n t s , roadside d i e s e l i n s p e c t i o n programs, fuel specification limits, fuel transfer evaporation controls, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l measures, and e n e r g y l f u e l e f f i c i e n c y measures.

. .

New V e h i c l e C e r t i f i c a t i o n P r o a r a m :

The f i r s t c a t e g o r y , new v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s i s t h e core o f our motor v e h i c l e program. Overall, the California e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s f o r new medium a n d h e a v y d u t y t r u c k s a r e m o r e s t r i n g e n t than t h e requirements o f other states, a n d we are continuing t o t i g h t e n these standards. However, medium and heavy d u t y t r u c k s r e g i s t e r e d f o r i n t e r s t a t e t r a v e l , or travel between s t a t e s , are not always subject t o t h e C a l i f o r n i a motor vehicle emission standards. H o p e f u l l y , w h e n t h e new C l e a n A i r

85 Act is approved b y Congress, more s t r i n g e n t e m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s w i l l be a p p l i e d n a t i o n w i d e and a d d i t i o n a l emission reductions can be a c h i e v e d . 2.

I ns D e c t i o n and M a i n t e n a n c e :

The s e c o n d c a t e g o r y i s our i n s p e c t i o n and maintenance program. C a l i f o r n i a adopted a d e c e n t r a l i z e d b i e n n i a l i n s p e c t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e ( I & M ) p r o g r a m d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e m o t o r v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n s b y up t o 25%. Under t h e "Smog Check" program, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 16 m i l l i o n v e h i c l e s are inspected biennially ( a l m o s t 90% o f t h e l i g h t and medium d u t y o n - r o a d vehicles in California). A l t h o u g h heavy d u t y d i e s e l v e h i c l e s a r e c u r r e n t l y exempted from t h e I & M program, heavy d u t y g a s o l ine t r u c k s r e g i s t e r e d solely i n California are required t o participate i n the biennial inspections, regardless o f vehicle size or weight. J a n u a r y 1, 1990 m a r k s t h e f i r s t y e a r t h a t h e a v y d u t y g a s o l i n e v e h i c l e s h a v e been included i n t h e I & M program and s i g n i f i c a n t e m i s s i o n reductions are expected. A smog c h e c k typically includes: a visual inspection, f u n c t i o n a l e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l i n s p e c t i o n , and t a i l p i p e emissions t e s t s . The t a i l p i p e e m i s s i o n s m u s t m e e t the age-based v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n s c r i t e r i a f o r hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions a t i d l e . For diesel-powered vehicles, C a l i f o r n i a w i l l consider t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e Smog C h e c k p r o g r a m when t h e i r inclusion is t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s l b l e .

3.

Heavv Dutv D i e s e l Roadside InsDectiong:

Our t h i r d p r o g r a m i s t h e new h e a v y d u t y t r u c k r o a d s i d e i n s p e c t i o n program. I n 1988, t h e C a l i f o r n i a L e g i s l a t u r e passed a b i l l t h a t was d e s i g n e d t o e n h a n c e C a l i f o r n i a ' s Smog C h e c k Program and t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e a d o p t i o n o f a heavy d u t y v e h i c l e smoke a n d t a m p e r i n g i n s p e c t i o n p r o g r a m f o r g a s o l i n e a n d d i e s e l fueled i n t e r s t a t e and intrastate vehicles operating in California. Under t h i s program, i n s p e c t e d v e h i c l e s can be c i t e d and r e q u i r e d t o i m m e d i a t e l y c o r r e c t deficiencies specified in the citation. and m a l m a i n t e n a n c e o f specific engine Tampering w i t h components and malmaintenance o f t h e e n g i n e i t s e l f are the p r i m a r y causes o f e x c e s s i v e d i e s e l emissions. We e x p e c t t h i s p r o g r a m t o r e d u c e e m i s s i o n s o f N O x b y 11 t o n s p e r d a y ( 2 % o f t h e heavy d u t y d i e s e l t r u c k NOx e m i s s i o n s ) , reduce emissions of hydrocarbons by 9 tons per day (9%), and reduce emissions o f p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r b y 3 1 tons per day (36%). A 3 5 % smoke o p a c i t y limit i s used f o r t h e t e s t s . I n a d e m o n s t r a t i o n i n s p e c t i o n p r o j e c t , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 240 (42%) o f t h e A preliminary review tested vehicles f a i l e d t h e t e s t procedure. o f t h i s d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e p r i m a r y causes of excessive smoke e m i s s i o n s : improper a i r / f u e l ratio control settings, fuel i n j e c t i o n system o r f u e l injection timing problems, and inadequate intake air. These problems were generally corrected with repairs costing less than $500 p e r vehicle.

86 T h e ARB a n d t h e C a l i f o r n i a H i g h w a y P a t r o l p l a n t o commence inspecting heavy d u t y motor v e h i c l e s under t h i s program d u r i n g safety 1990. I n s p e c t i o n s w i l l be conducted i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h and w e i g h t enforcement activities of t h e Department o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a Highway P a t r o l and a t p r i v a t e f a c i l i t i e s where f l e e t vehicles are serviced or maintained. 4.

. .

Fuel SDecification:

The f u e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n program i s t h e f o u r t h prong o f our control effort. Motor v e h i c l e f u e l s c o n t a i n many s u b s t a n c e s which become air pollutants upon e i t h e r e v a p o r a t i o n or combustion. C a l i f o r n i a r e g u l a t i o n s s p e c i f y l i m i t s on t h e s u l f u r content of b o t h unleaded g a s o l i n e and d i e s e l f u e l i n t e n d e d f o r use i n m o t o r v e h i c l e s . The l i m i t f o r m o t o r v e h i c l e d i e s e l fuel i s 5 0 0 ppm s u l f u r ( 0 . 0 5 % b y w e i g h t ) i n t h e S o u t h C o a s t A i r B a s i n and V e n t u r a C o u n t y . New l i m i t s t h a t w i l l t a k e e f f e c t i n 1993 w i l l establish this standard statewide. I n C a l i f o r n i a , no person s h a l l s e l l , o f f e r f o r sale, o r supply. as a fuel for motor vehicles, any unleaded g a s o l i n e o r d i e s e l f u e l s t h a t do n o t meet t h e s u l f u r c o n t e n t l i m i t s p r e s c r i b e d by law. Decreases i n s u l f u r d i o x i d e and s u l f a t e l e v e l s correspond t o decreases i n l e v e l s o f p a r t i c u l a t e matter. Both the state and n a t i o n a l standards for p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r o f d i a m e t e r 10 m i c r o n s o r s m a l l e r (PM10) a r e e x c e e d e d i n m o s t a i r basins. I n addition, increases i n s u l f a t e s impact v i s i b i l i t y . I n 1988, t h e Board approved a 10% l i m i t on t h e aromatic h y d r o c a r b o n c o n t e n t o f d i e s e l f u e l ( o r 20% f o r s m a l l r e f i n e r s ) , e f f e c t i v e i n 1 9 9 3 , down f r o m t h e t h e n c u r r e n t l e v e l o f o v e r 3 0 % .

W e e x p e c t t h e new r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e s u l f u r a n d a r o m a t i c content for motor vehicle diesel fuel to reduce exhaust e m i s s i o n s o f s u l f u r d i o x i d e b y 80 t o n s p e r d a y ( a 9 0 % r e d u c t i o n from on-road d i e s e l t r u c k s and a u t o m o b i l e s ) , p a r t i c u l a t e m a t t e r b y 1 4 t o n s p e r d a y ( a 26% r e d u c t i o n ) , and o x i d e s o f n i t r o g e n b y 53 t o n s p e r d a y ( a 10% r e d u c t i o n ) . 5.

Fuel Transfer EvaDoration Control$:

Our f i f t h c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y i s t h e g a s o l i n e v a p o r recovery program. California's Phase I and I 1 vapor r e c o v e r y program r e d u c e s HC e v a p o r a t i v e e m i s s i o n s b y 430 tons per day (a 10% reduction i n s t a t e w i d e HC e m i s s i o n s ) . This program employs vapor balancing o r vacuum n o z z l e s a t f u e l pumps and b u l k transfer stations to r e c y c l e gasoline vapors. The p r o g r a m i s w e l l known t o C a l i f o r n i a m o t o r i s t s who u s e s e l f - s e r v e gasoline stations. The v a p o r recovery program not o n l y reduces a i r fuel per p o l l u t i o n b u t r e c o v e r s 50 m i l l i o n g a l l o n s o f v a l u a b l e year.

6.

T r a n s D o r t a t i o n C o n t r o l Measure&:

S t r a t e g y number six i s transportation control. Improved f u e l s and m o t o r v e h i c l e e m i s s i o n c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t a r e not the s o l e s o l u t i o n t o t h e C a l i f o r n i a smog p r o b l e m . As I m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , v e h i c l e t r a v e l i s g r o w i n g t w i c e a s f a s t as C a l i f o r n i a ' s population.

87 T r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l measures need t o be a k e y component o f t h e 1991 l o c a l d i s t r i c t a i r q u a l i t y p l a n s . Local governments w i l l need t o adopt t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l measures i n o r d e r to meet a i r q u a l i t y s t a n d a r d s . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l measures can i n c l u d e r e g u l a t o r y measures and systemwide measures. R e g u l a t o r y measures s e t requirements t h a t f o c u s on r e d u c i n g as: t r a f f i c a t the source. They can i n c l u d e such measures employer t r i p r e d u c t i o n programs, p a r k i n g p r i c i n g . and i n d i r e c t source control. R e d u c i n g e m i s s i o n s f r o m i n d i r e c t s o u r c e s i s an i n c r e a s i n g f o c u s f o r t h e ARB. I n d i r e c t sources are sources which attract vehicle t r i p s and t h e r e b y p o l l u t e " i n d i r e c t l y . " An i n d i r e c t source a t t r a c t s m o b i l e sources due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e a c t i v i t y conducted a t t h e location. For example, a workplace might a t t r a c t t h e commute t r i p s o f t h e e m p l o y e e s , d e l i v e r y t r i p s from receiving supplies, shopping t r i p s by customers, and t r i p s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s h i p p i n g o f p r o d u c t s w i t h i n t h e f a c i l i t y and from the facility. Typical examples of indirect sources include: i n d u s t r i a l parks, shopping malls, residential areas, grocery stores, a n d e v e n f a c i l i t i e s t h a t a r e a s s m a l l as l o c a l convenience stores. Systemwide measures a r e a c t i o n s t a k e n t o d e s i g n and o p e r a t e t h e s y s t e m i n such a manner as t o g i v e p r e f e r e n c e t o l e s s polluting transportation. High occupancy v e h i c l e lanes t h a t g i v e t r a n s i t r i d e r s and c a r p o o l e r s s i g n i f i c a n t t i m e s a v i n g s are an e x a m p l e o f a systemwide measure. Other measures i n c l u d e s t r e n g t h e n e d t r a n s i t systems and l a n d use p l a n n i n g t o m i n i m i z e vehicle activity. C u r r e n t l y , t h e ARB i s e v a l u a t i n g a n u m b e r o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s t h a t may a f f e c t h e a v y d u t y t r u c k s : o

Truck i d l i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s - e s t a b l i s h i n g a f i v e maximum i d l e t i m e f o r t r u c k s t h a t a r e n o t m o v i n g ;

o

O n s i t e f r e i g h t c o n s o l i d a t i o n c e n t e r s - r e q u i r i n g a l l new multi-business f a c i l i t i e s t o provide a single freight consolidation center for efficient deliveries and shipments;

o

Rapid accident response p r o v i d i n g emergency response helicopters an t o w t r u c k s to quickly clear truck accidents f r o m f r e e w a y segments, thereby minimizing congestion delay;

o

AM-PM p e a k - p e r i o d o p e r a t i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s limiting the urban f r e e w a y and l o c a l r o a d access o f heavy d u t y t r u c k s d u r i n g peak congestion hours t o minimize congestion delay;

o

Mandated n i g h t t i m e r e c e i v i n g requiring large facilities t o provide labor f o r receipt o f deliveries a f t e r normal working hours;

minute

-

-

88 Peak p e r i o d p r i c i n g - i m p l e m e n t i n g e c o n o m i c i n c e n t i v e s t o s h i f t t r u c k and/or automobile t r a f f i c out of peak congestion hours; Truck-only facilities - providing the capital for c o n s t r u c t i o n o f new f a c i l i t i e s d e s i g n e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r t h e movement o f goods b y h e a v y d u t y t r u c k s ; Improved parking enforcement improving the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p a r k i n g c i t a t i o n and t o w i n g programs t o minimize t r a f f i c congestion;

-

e n f o r c i n g maximum Improved enforcement o f speed l i m i t s speed l i m i t s t o p r e v e n t t h e r a d i c a l i n c r e a s e i n e m i s s i o n r a t e s t h a t a r e noted t o occur above 55 m i l e s p e r hour;

- preparing Public awareness and s a f e t y campaigns educational programs designed to improve driver awareness and s a f e t y , e s p e c i a l l y f o c u s i n g on a u t o / t r u c k r o a d s h a r i n g , i n an e f f o r t t o r e d u c e a c c i d e n t s ; Technological i n n o v a t i o n s - encouraging t h e development of alternatives t o the current methods of goods movements.

7.

. .

Fnerav E f f i c i e n c v : Finally,

our

l a s t s t r a t e g y i s improved energy e f f i c i e n c y . and we b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e e f f o r t s w i l l h e l p u s m e e t t h e a i r q u a l i t y goals o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a Clean A i r Act. Although air pollution control has been c r i t i c i z e d as c o n f l i c t i n g w i t h energy For example: e f f i c i e n c y , t h i s it not necessarily t r u e today. i n t h e e a r l y 1970s, p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l f o r m o t o r v e h i c l e s w a s "bolt-on" equipment. I t d i d i n t e r f e r e w i t h performance and gas mileage. However, t o d a y a i r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l i s an i n t e g r a l emi s s i o n s p a r t o f the engine. And i n p a r t , because o f s t r i c t e r standards, t h e a u t o m o b i l e ' e n g i n e has been d e s i g n e d t o be more e f f i c i e n t and on-board computers p r o v i d e e a r l y de e c t i o n o f engine malfunction.

We s u p p o r t and encourage improvements i n e n e r g y e f f i c i e n c y ,

Conclusions: Some a r e f e a r f u l that stricter air quality rules w i l l the s t i f l e economic g r o w t h and c o s t j o b s . Our e x p e r i e n c e o v e r last t w o d e c a d e s shows t h a t h a s n ' t h a p p e n e d a n d t h a t i t d o e s n ' t have t o be t h e case i n t h e f u t u r e . There a r e many s a f e g u a r d s built into the California Clean A i r Act and-the planning p r o c e s s , g e n e r a l l y , t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e need f o r a s t r o n g economy and b e t t e r a i r q u a l i t y a r e b a l a n c e d . A l l o f t h e emission c o n t r o l s t h a t reduce large amounts of pollution at low cost are already i n place. Each o f t h e m e a s u r e s we a d o p t i n t h e f u t u r e w i l l c o n t r o l s m a l l e r a m o u n t s of pollution and a t a higher unit cost t h a n a n y t h i n g we h a v e a l r e a d y done. previously As g r o w t h and strict

s t a t e d , i n C a l i f o r n i a we f e e l t h a t e c o n o m i c environmental controls are not only

89 complementary, but i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o pursue one w i t h o u t t h e other. We a r e e n t e r i n g a n e r a i n C a l l f o r n i a w h e r e t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o c l e a n a i r w i l l come f r o m t h e l i f e s t y l e c h a n g e s i n d i v i d u a l s and s o c i e t y w i l l h a v e t o make. Our e f f o r t s toward c l e a n a i r w i l l i n t u r n h e l p t o f u e l our economic growth.

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93

PROSPECTS FOR THE REDUCTION OF NOXIOUS EMISSIONS FROM DIESEL VEHICLES AND THE ROLE OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND POWER SOURCES C.C.J. French Ricardo Consulting Engineers Ltd., Bridge Works, Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex BN43 5FG, United Kingdom

While there has been for many years concern about the emission of nitrogen oxides from diesel engines used in underground mines, it is only relatively recently that the attention which was paid from the early nineteen sixties, initially in California, into exhaust emissions from gasoline engined cars has widened to encompass diesel powered trucks and buses. Exhaust smoke has o f course been the subject of legislation for a longer period and this certainly could be called a noxious emission in the quantities which were at one time encountered! In order to prevent the production of excessive smoke, diesel engines operate under lean conditions and therefore produce low levels of carbon monoxide in their exhaust. In fact a well designed and maintained diesel engine emits lower levels of carbon monoxide and of hydrocarbons than does an uncontrolled gasoline engine. The natural levels of oxides of nitrogen are similar for the two but, due to the heterogeneous nature of diesel combustion, diesels produce particulate material in the exhaust, even when there is no visible trace. Later papers in the Programme will describe in more detail the steps which can be taken to meet very low levels o f diesel exhaust gas legislation but it has to be said that intensive work carried out by the whole engine and component industry over the past few years has produced engines with very much lower levels of pollution than until recently seemed possible. HEAVY DUTY DIESEL ENGINES

In general this work has indicated the need for lower levels of air swirl in direct injection diesel engines; much higher injection pressures, up to and perhaps exceeding 1200 bar; larger diameter and shallower combustton chamber bowls; higher compression ratios to enable injection timing retard to be carried out without the introduction of misfire with consequent high hydrocarbon levels; and the desirability for using rate shaping of the fuel injection with a very sophisticated map of such timing with both load and speed. Variable geometry turbocharging to reduce emissions under peak torque conditions may be essential to achieve very low limits and in fact, turbocharging and intercooling is probably essential for all low emission heavy duty engines. The most difficult pollutants to control in a diesel engine are oxides of nitrogen and exhaust particulates. NOx is largely nitric oxide, NO, but with some N O 2 , which can give a brown coloration to the exhaust. The particulates are more difficult to define but the average of typical analyses for heavy duty truck engines driven over the U.S. heavy duty test cycle is given in Figure 1.

94 Average Total Particulate (03 7 g l h p h )

Carbon L1 0 "I.

\

UnburLd Oil

250°/o

/

Other 13 0 V O

Sulphate and Water 1L oo/.

Fig. 1 Typical Engines ]

FTP Particulate Composition [Average of 16 Heavy Duty, TCA DI

The sulphates come from the sulphur in the fuel and can only be reduced by essentially desulphurising the fuel. I n fact if a catalysed particulate trap is fitted into the exhaust, much more of the sulphur is oxidised to SO3 and appears as increased sulphuric acid in the test, giving yet higher sulphates and hence higher total particulates. The burnt oil is emitted under lighter load conditions when oil, which enters the combustion chamber, is not burnt and can only be reduced by reducing the total engine oil consumption. The "Other" material will contain lubricating oil additives. At present the U.S. 1991/4 standards are the most stringent worldwide. Currently standards similar to U.S. 1991 are being proposed and discussed in Europe for the mid-90's with the distinct possibility that more stringent standards could follow. Figure 2 shows the U . S . emission legislation limits, in s o far a they concern NOx and particulates together with the band of experimental data produced for the best 1988 natural aspirated and turbocharged engines. The positive effect of turbocharging is clearly indicated.

NOx

(glhph)

Fig. 2 - Particulate/NOx Trade-offs for 1988 Certification Heavy Duty Diesel Engines over the FTP Cycle

95 The tighter "Engineering Targets" which are shown on the figure are set by the need to maintain low emission levels over a very long period despite some tendency for emissions to rise with usage. By means of the steps indicated earlier we can now bring engine emission levels down to the 1991 engine targets. Ways of meeting the 1994 truck and the 1991 bus levels have s o far eluded us however, although by applying all the steps and by the use of a special low aromatic, high cetane very low sulphur fuel we can achieve particulate levels approaching or possibly at the legislative level, but with no allowance for service depreciation or for production variability. It seems likely that by adding an external trap/oxidiser to the exhaust we should finally be able to achieve 1994 levels albeit with substantial additional complexity added to the powerplant and at present unknown effect on vehicle durability and first and maintenance costs. It is certain that a very low sulphur fuel will be required - perhaps as low as 0.02%. MEDIUM DUTY If severe emission limits are imposed on all diesel engine vehicles, which appears likely, this will pose a major additional problem for medium duty vehicles where naturally aspirated DI engines are commonly used in many parts of the World including Europe. A switch to turbocharging with aftercooling would involve considerable development and additional cost and there is also likely to be the need for higher pressure and more expensive fuel injection equipment. These costs will bear relatively more heavily on a medium duty vehicle than on a large heavy duty onefor which turbocharging is already widely if not universally employed. LIGHT DUTY DIESEL ENGINES The majority of the diesel engines used in light duty applications employ indirect injection. Compared with the DI engines, the ID1 systems offer superior exhaust emissions and noise whereas the DI has better fuel economy. As fuel prices rise this factor will become more important and it may of course be emphasised by the growing concern over the Greenhouse effect which will emphasise the need to use the engine with the highest thermal efficiency provided it does not emit other gases of a harmful or a potentially harmful nature. It is of course difficult to forecast the level at which exhaust emissions legislation will ultimately be stabilised but it clearly is possible to set levels which would effectively debar the use of the diesel engine. The ability of mid class cars to meet current and possible future EEC It can be seen that limits for exhaust emissions is given in Figure 3 . prototype Direct Injection engines have now been produced that give encouragingly low levels of emission such that they may find it possible to meet future legislation. There is some pressure however, for example within the "Stockholm Group" of countries to employ the U.S. Federal transient test procedure, with tighter limits than are currently being considered within the EEC. Until recently there was little evidence that these limits could be met by a Direct Injection engine. Improvements to the injection equipment, including electronic control have resulted in significant reductions in particulates but meeting HC and NOx limits is still problematic.

96 1 5 Particulates ( g / t e s t )

Diesel

ECE 15Cyde --

% 7

A

T

W

D

i

x

Gasoline I

I

0, *25 -25 Chanoe in Typicol 'Euromix Volumetric Fuel Consumption 2 0 HC. NOx i g / t e s t ) Pre 5th Amendment ECE 15Cycle

-540 -

&?D&

yGit 3wc Stoichiomet ric

I 1 -25 0 "/. Change in Typical 'Euromix' Volumetric

1

-50

I

*25 Fuel Consumption

3 W C - Three-Way Catolyst P - Prototype DI 1989

Fig. 3 - Fuel Economy/Exhaust Emissions for Mid-Class Vehicle Ricardo's research with unit injectors has shown that the combination of high injection pressure and Exhaust Gas Recirculation enables the DI to approach 1987 U.S. Federal limits, although the cost of such a solution will be relatively high. A l s o the necessary levels of Exhaust Gas Recirculation would result in increased piston ring and liner wear and deposits in the intake system. Overall, the recent development of improved injection equipment with suitably matched combustion systems gives the DI the potential of meeting U.S. limits but there is no certainty of success and the extra cost is likely to be significant.

ALTERNATIVE FUELS While it is technically feasible to burn alcohol or gaseous fuels such as natural gas and LPG i n a diesel engine either by adding an ignition promoter or by dual fuel operation, these solutions are not attractive. If an ignition promoter is employed it has to be used in relatively large amounts and this i s expensive. Dual fuel operation adds expense and complexity to the engine due to the need to have a second injection system. Vehicle range is of course a problem with fuels with a low volumetric calorific value. A l l these fuels are better burnt with spark ignition without the production of particulates and a three way catalyst can be employed to achieve very low levels of gaseous emissions. The fuel consumption will be higher than with a compression ignition engine hence giving higher COq emissions however.

ALTERNATIVE ENGINES While the fuel cells may become a possibility in the long term, giving good fuel economy and potentially very low exhaust emission levels, these devices are today very bulky, heavy and expensive and we are unlikely to see their use in transport applications for many years.

97 Both Stirling engines and gas turbines employ continuous combustion. Vaporising combustors should give low particulate levels and NOx may be reduced by recirculation of exhaust gas into the combustion chamber and/or by rapid cooling of the combustion gases, although care must be taken not to partially quench the flame or high hydrocarbon levels would result. At present levels of development however, both types of engines require breakthroughs before they could be considered for use. The Stirling engine tends to be heavy, somewhat bulky and expensive and the fuel consumptions achieved on pre-prototype engine are below that which would be required for truck or bus use. Problems also remain in retaining the charge of gas, be it hydrogen or helium, within the engine for an acceptable time. Despite its pre-eminent usage in commercial aircraft, the gas turbine has far been unable to compete in land transport applications. Due to the smaller sizes involved, the use of cooled turbine blades appears to be impossible and it is therefore necessary to provide a material for the "hot parts" of the engine which can accept the high temperatures necessary to achieve adequate efficiency. Metal alloys appear to have reached their limit and attention is now concentrated on the development of engineering ceramic materials. so

This is This development has currently reached 1200°C or s o . substantially lower than 1300°C which would be necessary to compete on fuel economy with the gasoline car engine. Even higher temperatures would be required to compete with a diesel truck or bus power plant. A breakthrough of this order is unlikely before the end of the century and even then, substantial effort may well be necessary to bring the production costs down to an acceptable level. SECONDARY POWER PLANTS While storage batteries may be employed to give a pollution free vehicle, they are currently unable to store enough energy to produce an acceptable power plant for any but a short range, low performance vehicle. Current batteries are very bulky, very heavy and very expensive and have a limited life. There are no indications that this situation will change radically in the near future. Furthermore, electricity for charging the cells must be generated somewhere and this is likely to be an equivalent source of pollution, particularly when transmission and other losses must be allowed for. Hydrogen for use as an engine fuel is being considered since only water and oxides of nitrogen would be emitted. The hydrogen must of course be generated and hence a hydrogen engine is really only a secondary power plant and the same reservations as above will apply. If however solar cells o f adequate efficiency and cost could be produced then hydrogen might be produced by the electrolysis of water and a truly low emissions power plant could result.

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M. Kroon. R . c

Sinir

und J . vun Hum IEdirim). breighr Trunsporr and rhe Envrronnienr

1991 E l w w r Science Publehers B. V . , Anorerdunr. Printed

in

rhe Nerherlunds

99

CURRENT AND FUTURE EMISSION STANDARDS FOR EXHAUST GASES AND NOISE, AND TEST PROCEDURES FOR GOODS VEHICLES

C. Cucchi and M. Bidault CCMC, Square de Meezis 5, Box 7, B-1040 Brussels, Belgium

SUMMARY

The emergence of the European Internal Market will result in an increase of the road transport of goods. Truck manufacturers and governments are keenly aware of the environmental issue posed by this increase and are reviewing the actions that should be undertaken to contain the impact of commercial vehicles on the environment in terms of exhaust emissions and noise levels. Exhaust emissions and noise from commercial vehicle diesel engines are presently regulated by Dir. 88/77/EEC and Dir. 84/424/EEC. A recent Commission proposal introduces a two-step plan for a further reduction in the exhaust emission limit values to be implemented in 1992 and 1996 respectively. It will apply to commercial vehicle diesel engines and is based on a test procedure which closely reflects the present conditions on European roads. At the same time, the truck industry, the Commission and Government experts are actively pursuing the definition of possible noise levels that could still be achieved in series production vehicles. However, a further reduction in noise standards raises the problem of redefinig the measuring method before numerical recommendations can be proposed. The introduction of these requirements will have an important impact on vehicle design and will represent a major challenge for the auto industry. It also raises the question of the quality of the diesel fuels that will be available on the market in the years to come. Diesel fuel characteristics have an effect on both noise and exhaust emission levels. They should therefore be covered by an appropriate set of specifications. 1.

INTRODUCTION

The increase in road traffic during the recent years has brought the problems related to the exhaust emissions and noise of the commercial vehicles to the attention of the public. As a consequence, the legislators are under pressure to take action in these areas.

100

Exhaust emissions of commercial vehicle diesel engines were originally covered by two ECE regulations dealing with the main aspects of the phenomena, i.e.: Regulation R-24 limiting the emission of "smoke" under full power running conditions - Regulation R-49 limiting the emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon oxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) . -

Technological developments in the following years made meeting more stringent requirements feasible and the truck industry started to certify new engines according to the R-49 limit values minus 20% on a voluntary basis. The Council of Environment, on a Commission proposal, transposed both ECE regulations in the Community law with some delay, consolidating the state of the art in engine technology as f a r as exhaust emissions are concerned. Table 1 summarizes the present situation. Table 1

Present Emission Requirements for Commercial Vehicle Diesel Engines

5CE Regulations Smoke Emission Date of Publication Limit Values

bates of Implementation Exhaust Emissions Date of Publication Limit Values: HC g/kWh CO g/kWh NOx g/kWh Dates of Implementation

R-24 23/08/71

R-49 5/04/82 3.5 14 18 -

I

EEC Directive 72/306/EEC 2/08/72

2/01/74 88/77/EEC 3/12/87 2.4 11.2 14.4 07/88 - 10/90

Directive 88/77/EEC recognizes the aeed for a further step that should be undertaken at a later date and should introduce a limit value for particulate matter emissions together with more stringent limit values for the gaseous emissions. At the same time, the requirements on engine smoke, as layed out by Dir. 72/306/EEC, are very stringent (more exacting than the corresponding requirements enforced in the US) and will still correspond to the state of the art for some years to come. With reference to the issue o f noise generated by commercial vehicles, permissible maximum levels were first introduced by Dir. 70/157/EEC.

101

New limit values were then established by Dir. 84/424/EEC on the basis of a comprehensive report that the truck industry issued detailing the state of the art of the available technology. A large number of existing and prototype vehicles were tested to generate the data base. These new standards (see table 2) will come fully into effect by October 90. Table 2

Present noise level requirements Dir. 84/424/EEC dated 3/09/84

Vehicle Category:

Noise Levels dB (A)

Busses ( > 3.5 tons): - with an engine power < 150 kW - with and engine power 2 150 kW

80

83

Trucks ( > 3.5 tons): - with an engine power < 75 kW - with an engine power between 75 - 150 kW - with an engine power > 150 kW

81 83 84

Dates of implementation: Busses Trucks

1

1/10/88 1/10/89

- 1/10/8 - 1/10/9

2. TEST PROCEDURE

In setting limit values for emission levels, the legislator has to define a test cycle/procedure for their measurement. The testing of the vehicle must be carried out under conditions that can be easily repeated and correlate with the average patterns of use in real life. 2 1

Test Cycle for Measuring Exhaust Emissions

At present, three test cycles for emi s s ons are widely recognized. They are:

measuring

exhaust

- the European 13 Mode test cycle described by ECE

(see fig.l)

- the US transient cycle developed by EPA (see fig. 2) - the Japanese test cycle (see fig. 3)

The European 13 Mode test cycle corresponds to the combination of 3 idle modes and 10 steady state modes at 2 engine speeds (intermediate and rated speed) and five torque settings. Various studies confirm that this cycle fits well with the actual driving conditions on the European roads.

102

Fig. 1

Points of measurement and weighing factors of ECE R.49 13-mode cycle

I

Weighting Factor

*

3 measurements of

' 2 ' weighting factor Idle-

'008

25%

i> 0 02

( ' 0 08

10%

0002

Intermediate-

Fig. 2

Rated Speed

US transient cycle

New York Los Angeles Los Angeles New York NonFreeway NonFreeway Freeway NonFreeway

b

0

,

'

200

'

I

400

600

800

Record (Seconds)

1000

1200

103

Fig. 3

Japanese Test Cycle

IW 95

80

60 Load

rate

1%) 40

20

5

0 Revolution speed ratio (‘/o)

(Note I ) The figure on the upper right of each circle re resents the coeffcicnt percentage (Note 2J The encircled numerals denote the driving orifer

Figure 4, 5a and 5b show the driving patterns of a city bus in Turin and of a truck on several Italian roads. Fig. 4

Urban bus circuit in Turin; Engine rated speed: 2300 rpm, peak torque speed: 1400 rpm

104

Fig. 5a Torino/Courmayeur/Torino: typical example of mixed road circuit f o r a gross vehicle weight equal to 38 tons; engine rated speed: 2300 rpm, peak torque speed: 1400 rpm

Fig. 5b Versilia Highway: typical example of highway driving conditions f o r a gross vehicle weight equalto 38 tons: engine rated speed: 2300 rpm, peak torque speed: 1400 rpm

105

The most frequent operating conditions of a commercial vehicle diesel engine are idle (city traffic) and peak torque where minimum brake specific fuel consumption is achieved. Power train of commercial vehicles are engineered t o obtain minimum fuel consumption in the region close to max. torque and drivers tend to operate the vehicle in this region for evident economical considerations. The 13 Mode test cycle was retained by Directive 88/77/EEC and has been adopted also by other European countries such as Switzerland, Sweden and Austria. On the contrary, the US transient cycle was developed mainly around the driving patterns encountered in the cities of L o s Angeles and New York. The engine operates almost exclusively close to idle and in a region characterized by 80 to 100% of the rated speed and 30 to 90% maximum load (see fig. 6). Transient modes occur at a low rate of change (see fig. 7). Deceleration modes require an engine dynamometer with monitoring capability. Fig. 6

60

Time frequency of US transient cycle: performance diagram without monitoring and idle phases

106

Fig. 7

Time frequency of torque and speed changes of US transient cycle without monitoring and idle phase

The main feature of this cycle is the measuring of emission levels during transient conditions which are considered important from the point of view of the formation of pollutants. However, it has been often criticized on the basis of the following considerations:

- it

is questionable whether the test conditions truly reflect the most common driving patterns in the rest of the United States

- it

requires the use of very sophisticated equipment in terms of the engine dynamometer and computer controlled system (an engine cell for US certifications is 6 times more expensive than the one required by the European or Japanese legislation)

-

the response of the injection system to changes of the engine running conditions is almost instantaneous. Thus diesel engine transient operations, that do not occur in an extremely short time, can be well approximated by sequential steady state running modes

- under motoring conditions (decelerations) the governor of

the injection pump cuts pollutants are emitted.

off

the

fuel

delivery

and

no

There is no apparent reason for the European legislator to follow the approach adopted by EPA and introduce the US transient cycle, in its present definition, in Europe. The Japanese government apparently shared this opinion when it defined a test cycle based on a sequence of steady state modes.

107 2.2

Test procedure to measure t h e engine smoke level

The smoke level of a diesel engine is determined using an measuring the opacimeter, i.e. an instrument capable of absorption coefficient of the exhaust gas stream when it is crossed by a light beam. These measurements are carried out under steady state full load conditions or under f ee acceleration. Tests under free acceleration can be used to verify the conformity of a vehicle with the legislat ve requirements. 2.3 Test procedure to measure the vehicle noise level

The present pass-by test with full acceleration is based on the IS0 R.362 recommendation. With reference to fig. 8 , the procedure can be summarized as follows : i) the vehicle approaches the line A A ' at a steady state speed and in a fixed gear ii) the vehicle speed is either 50 km/h o r corresponds to 3 1 4 of the engine rated speed, whichever value is lower iii) when crossing line A A ' , the vehicle is accelerated at W.O.T. and the throttle is maintained in the full-open position until line BB' is crossed.

Fig. 8

Test for measuring vehicles noise level

C

108

Care is suggested in selecting an area with low background noise level; no defined specifications are listed for the pavement surface and/or tyre type (smooth surfaces and quite tyres are recommended). The major noise sources at the time the test was developed were the engine, the transmission, the a i r intake/exhaust systems and the radiator/fan systems. 3.

EVOLUTION OF THE LEGISLATIVE REQUIREMENTS

Road transport is today the most efficient way to move goods throughout Europe. Consequently, with the completion of the internal market in ' 9 2 , the road traffic is expected to increase considerably. Actions are deemed necessary by public opinion in order to assure that this evolution will not take place to the detriment of the environment. The Commission has already layed out the plan for a further tightening of the exhaust emission standards while new, more stringent requirements for vehicle noise levels are being discussed by the national experts within the ERGA-Noise group. 3.1 Future Exhaust Emission Standards

The Commission has recently disclosed its proposal f o r the future emission standards. Table 3 outlines this proposal and compares the limit values with those that will be implemented in the near future in other European countries. For reference, we also include the limit values that have been proposed to the Commission by the industry. Table 3

Commercial Vehicle Diesel Engines Emission Standards (in g/kWh)

Cornmission Proposal Step I

Step 1 1

Switzerland

Sweden

I

1

CCMC Proposal Step I

Step I 1

I

(Particulates

4.5

4.0

1.1

1.1

8.0

1.0

6 85 kW

>

0.63 85 kW

4.9

4.9

1.23

1.2

1.25

9.0

9.0

9.0

0.1

0.4

0.3/0.15*

0.36

Dates of Implementation Test Fuel

NT: 1.7.92

\NV: 1.1.93 current

7.0

0.1

NT: 1.10.96 ANV: 1.10.97

model year 1994

NT: end'92 NT: late'96 W V : in steps A N V : in steps

! low Sulphur. low Arom.

low Sulphur

low Sulphur low Arom.

* P.M. limit values and test fuel specifications to be defined by the Counci 1 , o n a Comni ssion proposal. before the end of '94. NT: New types ANV: All new vehicles

109

The CCMC regrets that the Commission has decided not to accept its proposal. The truck industry has already proven their concern about the environment in the recent past. The limit values brought forward are very progressive and would have ensured the uniformity of the emission requirements in Europe. On the other hand, the Commission proposal overlooks the following fundamental issues: i) implementation dates: truck manufacturers produce a large number of engine types to meet their customers' demand. The process to obtain the type approval for a l l of them has been estimated in approximately 2 . 5 years and involves considerable efforts from both national authorities and truck manufacturers. Even within the hypothesis that the Commission proposal can be finalized in a Directive by mid '91, the time interval provided for the implementation o f the new requirements to the full production will not be sufficient (mid '91 to January ' 9 3 ) . ii) lead time for engineering and production planning: the emission limit values being proposed for ' 9 2 require an important evolution of the present HDD engine population. The definition of the technical solutions and the planning of their introduction in full production require a sufficient lead time (3-5 years). The '92 dates of implementation of the new requirements for new types is feasible only as a consequence of development efforts undertaken by the industry on a voluntary basis. iii) exhaust emission levels: while awaiting guidelines from the Commission, the development of low emitting engines was started with the goal of meeting the limit values proposed by CCMC. Any deviation from these figures will add to the engineering efforts currently underway and raise the need for longer lead times.

iv) diesel fuel quality: the issue posed by the diesel fuels quality cannot and should not be overlooked, especially in view of the long term goals proposed by the Commission/ CCMC . A decision in '94 will be too late to be effective. It is also premature to discuss particulate limit values below g/kWh at this time. They will require the use of an exhaust

0.25

gas after treatment system. presently being evaluated: a)

b)

Two

types

of

such

systems

are

particulate filters - field tests on city busses are underway in several European locations. The feasibility of these systems in urban driving conditions has been demonstrated. However, further optimization of the system lay out is still needed in view of their widespread use on urban vehicles. catalytic converters: important reduction of the soluble particulate fractions and gaseous unburnt components such as CO and HC can be achieved. It is however questionable whether they are sufficient to reach such low P.M. emission levels.

110

The widespread use of the above systems is also hindered by the sulphur content of today's diesel fuels (0.3% in most of the EEC Member States; 0 . 2 % in Germany). The installation of particulate filters will also require the reviewing of the test procedures for diesel engine type approval with specific reference to the engine power and smoke (Dir. 72/306/EEC) measurements. 3.2 Future Noise Standards

The further tightening of the permissible levels for vehicle noise is being debated by the ERGA-Noise group of the Commission. No final recommendations have been reached yet at the writing of this report. One important issue raised during the discussion has been the need to improve the test procedure for measuring the vehicle noise. A s vehicle noise levels were reduced in the past years, the test surface and the interaction between pavement and tyres have acquired increased importance in determining the test results. There is the need for a more precise definition of the test conditions before reviewing the feasibility of meeting noise standards more stringent than the present levels. Other issues that should be carefully evaluated are the following:

- truck manufacturers, especially those manufacturing heavy -

-

-

vehicles, market a large number of different models which exceed 15000 covering the EEC sales of around 3 0 0 . 0 0 0 units per year model life, and more particularly major components life cycles, are extremely long technical solutions to reduce the noise levels often involve major vehicle redesign and can be introduced only at the time of a model change as discussed in the above chapter, significant changes in exhaust emission requirements are planned in ' 9 2 and in ' 9 6 . Their impact on the vehicle noise levels should be fully evaluated in oder to confirm the feasibility of more stringent noise standards diesel fuel quality plays a role not only concerning engine emissions but also engine noise levels.

The ERGA-Noise group has identified urban noise as a key element in the discussion. A possible compromise solution between the political need to see progress in this area and the industrial reality could be to require certain categories of vehicles to be produced o r available in "low noise" version by certain dates. 4.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The European truck manufacturers are concerned about the environment and are willing to develop and market environmental friendly vehicles in terms of exhaust emissions and noise levels. The legislator must guide the industry efforts towards this goal by defining requirements and their corresponding dates of implementation. This task should be carried out taking into proper account certain unavoidable constraints posed by the

111

availability of technical solutions, the need of sufficient lead time f o r their development and the planning of their introduction in full production, and the related social costs (vehicle prices and fuel consumption levels). Achieving harmonization of the legisltative requirements throughout Europe is another important goal. Therefore, CCMC would like to put forward the following recommendations:

- the CCMC proposal concerning future emission standards for commercial vehicle diesel engines should be adopted without any amendment with specific reference to the limit values and dates of implementation. This proposal is based on the following considerations: o the development work that the industry has already carried out on a voluntary basis o the lead time necessary f o r the system definition and required by the procedure for obtaining the type approval certificate o the need t o reach an harmonization of the emission requirements within Europe - with regard to the setting of future noise standards, the quantification of any limit value must be based on a

realistic assessment of what is achievable both in terms of technical feasibility and timing -

the industry cannot envisage a generally applied 8 0 dB (A) limit on heavy trucks until at least the end of the century

- limit

values of 2-3 dB (A) lower than the present requirements for urban busses and urban delivery vehicles by '96 may be an acceptable compromise

- the

oil industry should be asked to join the truck manufacturer efforts in making available environmental friendly products that meet the public expectation.

REFERENCES 1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

G.M. Cornetti, K. Klein, G.J. Frankle and H.S. Stein, in: SAE (Ed.), US Transient Cycle Versus ECE R.49 13-Mode Cycle, SAE Technical Paper Series N o 880715, February 29-March 4, 1988. 0 . Shinozaki, C. Shinoyama and K. Saito, in: SAE (Ed.), Advances in diesel particulate control. SAE SP. 816, March 1989. J.R. Puttick, G.W. Dwyer, VROM Diesel Fuels Programme Summary Report, Ricardo, 28 July 1989. CCMC, Reduction in Pollutant Emissions from Diesel Engines for U s e in Commercial Vehicles - Directive 88/77/EEC Proposal f o r a second step + addendum, 8 November 1989. A. Balzotti, G.M. Cornetti, F. Pidello, M. Signer and V. Scorsone, in: SAE (Ed.), Italian city buses with particulate traps. SAE Technical Paper Series No 900114, February 26-March 2, 1990.

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M. liroori. R . S n i i t urrd J . 1’011 Ifurrr /&rlitorJI. Freight Trunsport and rhr Environment 1991 E/x,iwr Scimce Piih/i.~lrers8. V . , Ain~terdurrr.Printed i n the Nerherlmds

113

THE HEAVY-DUTY DIESEL ENGINE: PROSPECTS FOR REDUCED EMISSIONS AND IMPROVED FUEL EFFICIENCY Tommy Bertilsson Saab Scania A .B., Scania Division, S-1.5187 Sodertalje, Sweden Summary The interest in emissions from heavy diesel engines has awaken recently. This has led to intensified engine research and development. The short-term solution has been to adjust parameters on existing engines, equipping them with charge-coolers and, in some cases, with particulate traps. Some of these measures have resulted in a slightly reduced fuel efficiency. The long-term solution will be new engine generations, primarily developed to produce low emissions, both gaseous and particulate. New injection systems with facilities for timing control and rate shaping will enable very low levels of particulate and nitrogen oxide emissions to be obtained. In combination with much improved hydrocarbon fuel, these engines will require no particulate traps. However, to eliminate all nuisance, catalytic converters will probably be used to eliminate hydrocarbon residue in the exhaust gases. The diesel engine is currently the most fuel-efficient power unit, and it is constantly improving. The introduction of turbo-compounding will help further reduce fuel consumption, and thus the emissions of carbon dioxide from the diesel engine.

Background As a truck producer must produce what his clients demand, most of the development work has earlier been focused on performance and economy. During the last ten years there has also been a slowly growing demand for low emissions. This demand has risen very quickly during the last five years and today the development work for low emissions has the same priority as for performance and economy. To reduce emission of any of the four compounds, carbon monoxid, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides or particulates is rather simple. The problem is to reduce them simultaneously.

Nitrogen oxides The means to reduce nitrogen oxides often tend to increase particulates and fuel consumption. Ten years ago it was the common opinion that reducing the emissions of nitrogen oxides from heavy duty diesel engines would mean increasing the fuel consumption dramatically. Now we know that that is not the case. If course, just changing the settings of the 1980 engine to reduce harmful emissions resul-

114

CHARGE COOLING -LOWER NOx

//

HIGHER POWER AND TORQUE

- BETTER FUEL ECONOMY

ted in high fuel consumption. But the introduction of charge air cooling made it possible to decrease both emission of nitrogen oxides and fuel consumption. However just changing settings and introducing charge air cooling makes it possible to reach about 8.5 g/kWh nitrogen oxides with 5-10 % fuel consumtion penalty. By redesigning basic engine parameters such as inlet swirl, compression ratio, injection pressure and injection duration it is possible to achieve the limit proposed by the EEC commission for 1992 of 8 g/kWh nitrogen oxides with a fuel consumption penalty of only 2-3percent. The limit of 7 g/kWh NOx proposed for 1996/1997 requires additional development work. At Scania we have proven the possibility to achieve nitrogen oxides emissions below 7 g/kWh on a city bus engine. To further reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides fuel injection systems with full timing flexibility will be needed. Pilot injection may also extend the limits for nitrogen oxides further down. Rate shaping, that is low rate during ingnition lag and then high rate and pressure once combustion has started, is a further development which can reduce nitrogen oxides. Additional functions like water injection and ex-

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NOx AND FUEL CONSU MPTlON

115

haust gas recireulation also offers prospects for lower emissions of nitrogen oxides but also give problems with control and wear. Achieving low NOx- emissions without considering other emissions is rather easy. However hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particles must not be forgotten.

Carbon monoxide The direct injection diesel engine has the advantage of inherent low carbon monoxide emissions. Even without regulations on carbon monoxide emission some current diesel engines have been developed to emission levels below those proposed for 1992 and 1996/1997. The adoption of turbocharging, charge air cooling and high pressure injection systems has gradually decreased carbon monoxide emission to a level where it has to be considered insignificant.

Hydrocarbons Gaseous hydrocarbons are emitted from diesel engines in very small quantities. However they have an unpleasant odour wich indentifies diesel exhaust. There is also concern that hydrocarbons may be carcinogenic. The main hydrocarbon source is the injector sac. The fuel volume trapped in the sac ofter injection evaporates and enters the combustion chamber after combustion. Thus it a not is combusted, but scavanged through the exhaust pipe. The sac volume has been reduced in steps over the years and further reduction can be forseen. In the future many engines will probably have valve covered orifices with no sac at all. This will mean a major reduction of hydrocarbon emission.

NOZZLE PRINCIPLE Vco Nozzle FUEL FROM INJECTION PUMP

Sac Nozzle FUEL FROM INJECTION PUMP

There are also additional causes for hydrocarbon emission. They have in common that combustion of the fuel is either not initiated correctly or interrupted to soon. To ensure good ignition of the fuel, high compression ratios will be used in future engines.

116

Particulate Particulate emissions, solid and liquid, can be reduced in different ways. The solid part, the soot, must be reduced through better fuel-air mixing. This is achieved with very high injection pressure, optimized injector hole contiguration and an optimized air swirl in the combustion chamber. Better turbo chargers will give a more favourable air-fuel ratio so that rich air-fuel mixture is avoided in all driving conditions. I

PARTICULATE E LEME NTS lubrication oil SO4 HPO

fuplf

I

The introduction of electronic injection control makes it possible to correct injection for different ambient conditions and further decrease soot formation. The fuel hydrocarbon part of the particles will be reduced by using valve covered orifice injectors. The lube oil contribution can be reduced very much by using valve stem seals and improved piston rings. Also better lube oils will help reducing the lube oil share of the particulate. The sulphate particulate can be eliminated by using sulphur-free fuel. This may sound expensive, but I am convinced that within a few years we will see a reduction of today’s sulphur content of approximately 0.2percent down to 0.05 percent. In Sweden there is already available limited quantities of diesel fuel with sulphur content below 0.005 percent.

All these measures on engine hardware and fuel will make it possible to reduce particulate emissions below the 0.4 g/kWh limit proposed for 1992.

After-treatment What are the prospects of after-treatment of the exhaust? As oxygen content of diesel exhaust is rather high an oxidation catalyst easily oxidizes carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. We are testing catalysts and have reached emission levels well below 0.1 g/kWh both for carbon monoxid and hydrocarbons.

117

As hydrocarbons are also a part of the particulate, such emissions are also reduced by the catalyst. The flow-through catalyst, however does not reduce soot emission to any significant extent. Therefore catalysts should be used with modern “smokeless’’ engines. Can the catalyst reduce emissions of nitrogen oxides? Not yet! But I am an optimist. I believe that catalyst companies will develop some kind of catalyst for nitrogen oxides. Such a catalyst would enable control of nitrogen oxides t o a very low level and still optimize the engine for low fuel consumption and low particulate emission. What about particulate traps? Particulate traps or filters may be a good help to reduce emissions of soot from today’s diesel engines. But tomorrow‘s diesel engine will have so low soot emission that further reducing soot will not be worth the effort. To use the money for a trap to make a better engine will be more cost effective than equipping the present engine whit a trap.

Fuel efficiency Will it be possible to maintain or even improve diesel engine efficiency with low emission engines? Well there are prospects of at least maintaining the efficiency of todays diesel engine. Reducing losses, wherever they appear, helps in improving efficiency. Mechanical losses - friction - can be reduced by reducing the number of piston rings and reducing their tension. Introducing roller tappets also reduces friction. Better lube oils and better matching of materials makes it possible to use lower viscosity lube oils and this is important for friction reduction. Optimizing inlet systems and exhaust systems to keep flow losses down will also contribute to improved fuel efficiency. ~

SCANIA

TURBOCOMPOUND

EXHAUSTGASES 6 W C AIR XHAUSTGASES 5 W C

CHARGE COOLER

AIR 150’C

118

However, the major single contribution for improved efficiency will probably come from new turbo-machinery. The turbocompound engine, which has an additional turbine, after the turbocharger, transmitting its power to the crankshaft, can improve fuel efficiency substantially. Turbocompounding may improve fuel efficiency by 4-5 percent. New insulating materials may be used in pistons and exhaust ducts to increase the exhaust energy which will further contribute t o the efficiency of the turbocompound engines.

The Future Seeing all the possibilities of diesel development makes me confident that the future belongs to the diesel, a diesel engine with very low emissions and superior economy. If we would get help from the catalyst companies t o reduce nitrogen oxides in a catalytic converter, I believe that we have a clean engine within reach with 50 percent thermal efficiency.

1 I9

PROSPECTS FOR THE REDUCTION OF NOISE FROM HEAVY DUTY DIESEL VEHICLES Federico Filippi Iveco Fiat SPA, via Puglia 35, I-I056 Torino, Italy

1. Fmblem statement

Road-traffic mise has at o the fore in recent years as an e n v l r m t a l issue of g r m g mprtance. In t h s respect, according to a recent G E m study (hg.l),heavy duty trucks take t h e t h r d place as an "annoymg" source of noise Mnnd a r c r a f t and nutorcycles and ahead of construction iradimery and cars. PERCENTAGE OF PEOPLE ANNOYED BY NOISE OTHFRS

h g . 1 - "~nnoymg" sou~ces of noxe [Infratest, 19871.

Although mst of the people who m i d e r traffic noise t o bf a nmsarice are the mhabitants of bult-up areas,those who live close to busy hlghways often find t h s noise no less hsturbmg. Tlus has been damstrated very

clearly by the Austrian opposition to rught traffic an their highways. Heavy duty truck noise is therefore a major enr;irmital prablem and will be increasingly so in the future. &fore discussing ways arid methcds to reduce this noise we must h e r make a very clear statement. Noise being a very elusive subject we must f i r s t define what we are aiming at : - are we trying to lower the " measured" noise level of trucks as defined by current EEC regdatians ? or - are we trying to reduce the nuisance caused t o people by truck traffic ? As we will see below, the two objectives are not the same. 'ha-e are clear indications today that wthcds us& to reach the flrst objxtiv? have no ylfluence on truck noise nuisance.lihat is mre serious , there are hmts that m i s t i n g on reduclng "maasured" noise my even hamper t e d m c a l developrents mrected towards reducing "real" noxe as perceived by people. In any case today's truck noise evaluation standa,rds,wfuch are b e d on a totally obsslet e technique, are leading t o a waste of efforts by all truck manufacturers and to an increase in transportation costs with 170 real

120 advantages for the f m a l "custaner" : the public.

Sources of nom y (Flg.2):

m a travellmg truck are

- the w e ,

- engmedriven

accessories ( a x ampressor, steerlng gear p a p , etc.), - the engme a r mtake. - the ervJlne exhaust, - the engLne cmlmg axflow and the r d a t o r cmll.mJ fan, - the e n m e brake valve, - the exhaust of the peumatic brake system valves,

- the - the -

-

gearh. tranmssion shaft (s), the front and rear axles, a e r d y n m c noise fran the cab and f r m , aerdynanc noise fm the superstructure, noise mma f r m superstructure m t a l l a tions (refrigeration mnpressors, etc.) , the triuler or s m t r a l e r , tyre-road mterface noise.

Scme of these were not mportant when very l i t t l e attzitian was a t t a c h 4 to truck noise and the r a n soace of nusance was the engme enaust. As swn as better exhaust mufflers &an t o ie r~~:allid and the e n m e noise was reduccd by the mtch-over frcn naturallya s p r a t = tG turbocharged enames (a chanue whch was dxtated by fuel consumption requirements) the "iillllor" noise sources k c c m e unprtant. Tday none of thex can be nmlected and tyre-road mterface noise is clearly cor u g t o the front. b s t of the m p r o v m t s have occurred m the last 10 years (the acoustic pressure level e mtted by t d a y ' s trucks is 1/10 of that a t ted by a truck of the early '80s). W s has t o be kept m mnd when assesslng their m t r i bution t o truck noise nusance: today there are m y m r e o l d "noisy" trucks on the road than "old" cars. Notmthijtandmg these mprovenwts, the stardard methais for evaluatmg truck rmse h i cally have no: changed for 15 years.We are m the sane position as we were,evaluatmu a Boeing 717 vlth methds devlsed t o "certiff' the Wright m a h e .

2.- w a y ' s measurePent methods

and their li-

mitaticns The current metha3 for masurmg truck noise d m g h p e a n type approval tests is defmed by EEC mrective 84/424 in the t e r n of 1x1 362.

Fig.3

- Schematic of

IS0 362 "ps-by" noise

test. The test has to be performed by the truck manufacturer. 'fberefore anly light vans or buses are tested m their final form. All other trucks are tested as chassis-cab (vlthout any superstmcture) or as isolated tractors. The test requres that the unladen vehcle be driven up to the start l m e (Mg.3) vlth the sped and engine rumba at 3/1 its &al vehlcle speed ( 50 )an/h and then k a c m l t rated at m u m engme power over the 20 m long test track.?he maum noise k z e l dmiig acceleration is waswid by two mcrsi;i;i,~s lccated a t 7 . 5 m f r a the track cfnterlue. The test is rewated vlth different U s x s engagid and the truck noise level is the hlghhest .xasured durlng this series of tes5;s. Normally t h s o c m s with the gear ratio r f x h allows the enwns to reach i t s m w a rs;.Jated sped m the second half of the t t s t track. l h u m u m values for " ai-rbient" noise and m d velocity are specified.To take into account all other influences (anbien: tenprature,rmd surface type,road surface t a n p x a t u e , tyre tyw, tyre we=, tyre pressure, prdiction toleran:zs,fuel specificatia?,etc.) E &/U4 grants a +1 d B 2 tolerarce.That is: wise masurid with the saw mthd on a p r d w i a n truck can deviate by + l d B ( A ) f r m the lvfel measured durmg type approval tests Kithoilt the truck bemg rejected.In order to evalute t h i s "tolerance" it has to be kept III u n d that changes in the ambient temperature alone can b r q a 2 dFI(A)charqe between the noise levels mqsured at 0 'C and 33 ^C. A slightly different acceleration test is specified for "silent" v&cles by the German Adage X X I to para.49 of the S t W ~ c is h also used in other D.lropear countries.'Ihe main diffuence consists in t e s t q d y mth tha gear ratios that a l l o w raxmm engule s p e j to h reachsd within the 20 m length. W,i:ional tests are specified :

121 -for the truck staticaGuy mth engue r e w at max. speed (8 nucrophones at 7 m around the truck), -for m e brake nolse. -for pneumatic system ahaust noise.

I n any case the acceleration test is the strictest me so that the chassis-cab has to be designed acoustically m order to uunuuze the "pass-by" noise: a d t i o n that is very seldan encountered m real l i f e today smce it corresponds t o an unladen truck or isolated tractor acceleratmg at uamnuro. engue speed andengue pwer. No truck driver mll normally drive like that for the sake of fuel mnsunption, nor would road cangzstix allow hm to do so excipt m totally & a b l t d areas. Even i f the test is performed at a relatively low speed are its rssults to be taken as a Sound l e v e l

measure of the "noismess" of the chassis-cab or tractor or as a measure of the noismess of the t y r e t r a c k surface mnbmtion ? In &ern trucks, where engvle noise has already reduced to a very low value, tyre noise can be dormnant even durlng low sped acceleration as shown m Rg.4. l l u s figure presents the results o b t u e d durmg a standard IS0 362 test on two identical hlgh-pwer IYECO 190.AgT tractors f i t t e d mth two bfferent udzs of tyres. The tests were performed on the sam3 day, on ths s m track, wrth the sane UIs t m n t a t i o n and the sax drivers.Admttedly the tvo "extrew" makes of tyres madable on the market were used, but even so the results are so mldly bfferent as t o cast me doubt a b u t what one is really measuring durlng the test. Of course the r b pattern of the tyre ("traction" or "non-traction") has the mt

[dBIAll

Fig.4-Test results Kith different tyres. [IVRTlI

Rib pattern

Traction Pattern

Fig.5 -Influence on -road interface wise of drivinJ mode ard tyre inflatim pressure. [(Xmtinental] m e size 315/80 R 22.5 - IS0 362 (7.5 m). me load = 9250 N/whxl : speed = 37 M.

122 90

gunrr

EG = Abnahme nach 8 4 1 4 2 4 EWG ga = gerauscharm nach 5 49f3 SIVZO dBfAl

FahrbahnIReilenkombination

-

8o

80.5

8ol u

m

u

m

h

75

m

w

u

r

n

m

m

- - . P

9

c

1

C

h

Vorbeilahrt

fig.6

-

m

m

m

79.5

-

v

c

I

80

80

m

v

n c

h

-m )

-

o

c

Vorbellahrl 60 kmlh

s

-

m 9 c

>stante ,beltahrt !igung 2% 60 kmlh

ns~anle Vorbeilahrl Steigung 2 % 60 kmlh SlraRe naR

- Tests on

the Brenner Aut&,7.9.1989 rJercedes-Benz]. 1st set : IS0 362 pass-by test 2nd set : same tyres, canstant spsed = 60 3rd set : bfferent tyres, 2% climb, cmstant speed = 60 kmh 4th set : as no. 3 but on wet road.

lnfluence but mflation pressure IS also lmportant (Fig.5). The same figure also shows that tyres produce bfferent noise levels wha rollmg, whv, drivlng at constant speed and *en acceleratmg. Incidentally i t can be noted that no truck nll ever respect an 80 &(A) noise lmt if even one of its tyres durmg the pass-by test produces a noise lev21 of 80 & ( A ) wkLch is a c ~ m occul~ence ~ n mth today's traction tyres, Another lnfluence whch has to be ccmbmed n t h tyre mfluence is that of the track surf ace. There are udxations that a a f e r e n c e of up to 5 & ( A ) can enst ktween a concrete and a " d r u e d asphalt'' surface.The surfaces of tracks u s d for noise masurewat x e m s t l y asphalt but e e n lxtweJ1 these a 2-3 db(Z bfference is not unusual. To further canplicate thmgs, the temperature of the track surface also has a very strono mfluence. Tests pfrformed by the Geman Emdesanstalt fuer Strassenwesen have shown that an rncrease of 10 C m the road surface tanperatwe brlngs a reduction of 1 & ( A ) m the noise levils masured durn9 pass-by tests. The a h e results refer to car tyres . An even largsr depaknce has to k W t e d wlth truck tyres ar~dt k s effect &mes mth the u i l u e n c e 01 arblent tmpxature. S b i w : up, n k a s u r m t s perfonxd on ricdcrr~ trucks accordmg to IS0 362 K E unriliable, unrepeatable and do not q v e any mdication of thz real "noismess" of the truck even under the me operatrng conbtion for which they were d e n s 4 : f u l l power acceleration of an

.

unladen truck III urban d t l o n s . It is M wonder then that "silent" trucks designed t o pass such a test m.11 III practice p m t o be as noisy as "rrormal" trucks. Thls pomt has been very clearly dmmstrated by Mercedes - Benz durlng the sumner of 1989 h e n "silent" and "nonnal" trucks were ampred durlng actual operation on the very m t m e r sial Brenner Autobahn (Rg.6). 'Ihe " n o d " truck (1748 D;) was "rated" at 84 &(A) acmrdmg to the current EEC W424; the "silent" trucks (1748 ga and 1733 ga)r;ere "80 &(A)" trucks a m d u g to the Austrian requrewnt. khvl fitted mth the sanr tyres the "normal" truck was ln fact gueter than the "low nose" trucks when travelug at 60 M h . yhen the "low noise" trucks were fitted n t h b f f e r e n t tyres (less w e d l adapted t c the rcad surface) they becare actually much than the "normal" truck. Cn a wet road the tyre noise k a m e so d m a n t that all three trucks regxtered a noise level of about 89 & ( A ) .

3.- Methods t o reduce noise measured accordmg to IS0 362. Before b s a s s m g the xthods wkLd, cai~ k usd to r d u E pass-by noise l e t us corsider a practical case, takrng a --code 4x2 tractor d 5 i g n . d t o met EC 8 4 / 4 2 r e q u m t s . 1.e. 84 db(L1. R s w k r m g the uncertamties due to

the masurement method, the target design value s h a l l be a m m m of 83 dB(A1. T&na into account only the mxt unportant noisa s w c e s ( h g . 7 ) and the state of the art tcday

123

Fig.7

- Noise level of

main sources, a t t a u t i a n and resulting noise level for a truck designed accordiryl to EEC 84/424.

we can bssumE the folloKLnp situation.

nes have a vlscostatic or h y d r a S a l l y driven fan so that the fan itself is rotatlng at a very low speed durmg acceleraticm cm a flat road. Norse fran the muffler is not a big problem: a good m f f l e r m l l glve a noise level of LiiF 95 @(A) a t 0.5 m, mrresponclx~to 75 &(A1 at the mcrophone lagam : measured values). As far as t r m s s i o n noise is concerned a level at 1.5 m of I d 4 3 d B ( A ) i s sufficient t o mure a level a t 7.5 m of 70 dBW. In a 4x2 vehxle mth a smglereduction rear axle such a transnssion nose l w e l does not requre encapsulatian either mth spur gear or mth helical gear gearbaues. I n a 6n4 vehxle the situation IS a bit wre critical but still manageable. In 4x4, 6x6, 8x8 veiucles the trarmiussron noise is much more rmportant but these veiucles f a l l under the "off-road" categop for h c h a slightly hlgher total mise level is allow€d. h n a l l y we can forget the noise of the front tyres s m (hg.5) i t is about 65 &(A) at

b g m e (and accessories) mise at 1.5 rn Le = 101 &(A) wh~chcorrespands t o 88 &(A) at 7.5 rn (measured value; theoretical attenuation muld be - 14 dB (A) 1. As thls value is clearly ta, b g h we have two alternatives: - use an w e h a m g a noise level at IMX. rpn of 95 db(A) ; or : - encapsulate the engme in order to brmg the noise level a t 7.5 m to 82 @(A). The secMld alternative IS currently the me mt used SUE designng a new heavy duty truck w e franscratch can take anythmg fran 5 to 7 years. An attenuation h=-6dB(A) at 7.5 m can k o b t m d today by fully encapsulatlng the ~ M U C (top. sidzs. b t t a n , r i u ) . This pses serious problems for engine and accessories m l m g . mess problem can k solved but at a c e r t m cost : for instance i t i s much m r e c h f f i d t to wtall e l e c t m c s on the i n a n e UI Europe than ln the USA. b far as the front engme noise frun the mlmg f a n is mncernai, a l l m i e m heavy duty ens-

Rib pattern

Traction pattern

Fig.8 -Influence of tread pattern cn tyre/road noise at different

.

distance [ccntinentall '&re size 315/80 R 22.5 - Inflation pressure 7.5 bar Tf1-2 load = 9250 N/vheel - S p d = 37 kdh

-

124

Le-95

Ld683

Lm-90

f

LtL90

. /

fig.9

- NoSoise level of

main mas, attenuatian and result* noise level for a truck designed Krcofdiap t o an 80

&(A)

requirement.

7.5 m, while we can allow up t o 70 &(A) a t 7.5 m for the rear tyres, correspding t o a tyre-road interface noise level at 0.5 m of Lt= 90 &(A) or less. This is clearly incurpatlble with the current generation of traction tyres or even of straight rib tyres (Fig.8) Y that the type approval tests will have t o kx run Kith "low noise" tyres.Talay "low noise" tyres with f a i r l y go3d traction performan= are available m the market.bwever i t must k borne in uund that, in the w e of trucks, the choice of tyres is made by the custaner smce tyres represeii: a cansidecable part of the operating cats. It cannot be guaranteed, therefore, that a truck tested for noise with a specific kmd of tyres will be run on the road with the saw tyres. Clearly the situation muld becane untenable hen the nurkr of driven tyres increases and the tyres thenselves have to be of the "traction" type ( l i k e on "off-road" v e h d e s 4x4, 6x6, 6x4 etc.) but fortunately so far remved fran reality the measuretent mfthcd is that evin these vehicles can bi ' ~ ~ l q a t e d " . In fact in the unladen vd-icle conbtion the traction load , Mch is not very h f f e r m t fran a 4x2 version, is spread hstrlbutd 0-m a largsr n w k r of tyres. So much for the current EM: 84/424 requlat ion<. Uhat a b t the "low noise" Austrian r q u r e m t s or the forthcarmg E X regulations ? They stipulate that the 84 &(A) total pass-bjj noise levsl h brought dmn to 80 d B ( A ) which, for politicians, is a 5% reduction vfulr for engineers i t represtnts a 70% reduction in the sound pressue level. Repatlng the same exercise as before (Fig.91 Kith a target pass-by noise level of 79 &(A) we sse that the engine noise at 1.5 m has t o be brought dsm to Ir= 95 &(A) so that, with a -6 &(A) attenuation due to f u l l encapsulation, the noise level at 7.5 m should not

exceed 78 dB(A).This, of o M 1 1 s e . m a totaltruck. ly different enghe fran the 84 &(A) The muffler also has to be improved since its noise contribution a t 7.5 m has to be reduced by 5 &(A).

An

alternative

could

be

to

reduce

transmissim and tyre/road interface noise but thls looks very difficult since :

- encapsulation

of the ccmplete transmission

is practically impossible, the transmission shafts and the rear bejng rmvrng parts with respect to the truck frame; - already the 84 &(A) noise level implies the use of today's "low noise" tyres. As a consequence : those truck d e l s vfuch already use a "law noise" eng.me can be brought down t o the SO &(A) level n t h sane mdification t o the exhaust s j t m . Other models have t o undergc a ccGlplete engine change iduch might be or right be not psssible. A "low nois;" m e at today's s t a t i of the art rLeaas a low-revmg lG direct m j x t i o n &esel 2ngine This correspcolds to a large swept voluine , heavy and expensive ergme while the rrarket request is exactly ths o p p site. RLis explams why all the trdck manufacturers f nnisls are m a p s i t i o n to supply s c ~ l truck i n respect of the Austrian or Dutch "lw ~ S E requirements but cannot afford to m b f y their tmcks, in a s h x t time span .

.

As we have s w , in order to mxt the mxe stringent raise requirmts f o m d a t d ui terms of IS0 362 testing, the truck m u f a r turer has t o concentrate on noise raiuction fran the a g h o durlng f u l l p e r acceliration. Up to r m t h i s has & accmplishal by nntc h w e r frcm naturally aspirated to turbodiarged engines, a mve that ha5 also beneficial in t e r n of fuel consumption and m e size and weight.Turbxharping has also made i t

"

125 m s l b l e to reducemumunengme speed, and therefore e n m e noise, wtLlle lncreaslng the in today turbospecific m a x ~ ~ ; ~per.However, chargmg lmts have already been reached, mth respect t o the maxlll~il allamble mnr bustion pressure (mechamcal engme h u t s ) and the maxmum a u supply pressure (aerodynarmc and &arucal l m t a t i c m of the exhaust turbxhargsrs) 7he adoption of turhxharged-mterco3led engmes,vhlch is beneficial ln terms of fuel cmsumption and ermssions,has wrsened the situation a s f a r as by-pass mise is mmed so that xme manufacturers are resortlng to intercooler by-pass durlng acceleratim. Other means of reducing m n r noise must therefore be mvestigated. The mst obnous one : reduction of cunbustion noise fran th? k e c t mjection b e s e l ergme dces not show muoh prarmsa. hg. 10 shok5 the rasults of tests performid 3.11 an h u h pwsr IXZ0 engme. By rduclng the m;$&iS:io;; n J i S i by 20 &(A) throuah th= use of a "r=for.;Jatd', h g h cctane na?ber, be-

.

Sound l e v e l

s d f u d , the engne nolse. as msasured a t a &stance of 1 m, was practically unaffected. Mechamcal noise is ln fact th2 darur,atma factor ln modern &esel engmes and one that can be controlled only through engme dssign. Stiff m e block structures (hg.111, new piston designs rnth low clearances,use of dmpmg materials on oil pans and head c o w s , redesigned t u g and accessories drive gear trams,extensive use of torsional dampers,careful design of external ergme walls,caii all contrlbute t o ths reduction of "DrYnari" enm e nose. ?his means harevu that the engrne has t o be ccmpletely redesigned, mdi 1s p s s l b l e but it all take tlme before new "noseless" eng.mes are a m l a h l e . In the wantlme the manufacturer has to re-

[dBIA 11

105 I00

95 90 85

eo

500

loo0

I500

2000

CAST IRON

dLllNUM

STEEL. DAhlPEF CJZL

*****-* 60 50 Contrust i o n n o i s e

E n g i n e speed Fig.10

- Influence of

(rprnl

ccmbusticm noise on the t o t a l noise f m an hlgh pwr truck enOine. [IMI)]

Fig.11 -Influence of eIgi.ne stnlcture cn engine noise

lirino Pbtorsl.

126 sort t o "secondary" ways to reduce e w n e raise, tdat 1s: by encapsulating the engme. Ihfferent degrees of encapsulation are psible (Rg.12), a l l of them have an mfluence cm the truck weight and cost. ?'?us mfluence was calculated years ago by cac (Fig.13). The valu2s currently avalable on t r u c k designed for t h a Austrian "low noue" 1mt confm that forecast. amanufacturers have also suggested a f u l l

I 0%

4

PRICE INCREASE FROM 841424 EEC TO "LOW N O I e ' '

W

Y

[L w

Y

-

5

5!:

C

a

0

i

5

6

7

pig.12- Influence of different encapsulation stages on agine noise f m n a medium

-light truck.[IMx)] 0-ItA enqn2,no encapsulation 90 1-TC e n g m e , c m l ~ uair duct 85 2-Top and side noise screens 83.5 3 - N 1 encapsulation abve fraw 82.5 4-hcapsulation klow frame up to front axle 81 5-Full b t t a n encapsulation 79.5 6G2arbox encapsulation 78 7-1biSe da.zpiiq m l i n g ar exhaw: 77 duct 6-lbiss dar?ir,g cooling a x m l e t duct 77

&(A) &(A)

dB(N &(A)

&(A) dB(A) dB(A)

dB(a &(A)

encapsulation munted on the e n g ~ i e itself (fig.14). However this solution poses severe raintenance problem and, again, can only be implenwted on new engines ,so that the encapsulation screens are usually f i x d to the frame and to the cab. me point t o be mentioned a b u t engine encapsulation is : how long Kill i t stay on the truck during "real life"? Since encapsulation makes service and maintenance m r e difficult, since i t lowers the A l E (air to boil) lkdt of the engine, since i t weighs , it may be convenient for ths truck operator to r m J e i t during day-by-dxf operationand instdl i t again for the official periobcal controls. As wa ha-;;. alrszijj mtiond , cooling System noise is not important durmg IS0 362 tests i f the engine has !xen f i t t d with a vlscostatic fan, which is also mproves fuel cunsum?tion. Injection pu~Dnoise nay k relevant, but its influence can bi "mtigated" by mtalllng the injection pucp on th? o p m i t e side of the engine to the exhaust. pronded this dces not

Pig.13-Cast increase for an 80 &[A) heavy truck as estimated byccMc in 1980 and actual llst price increase by European manufacturers for Austrian "low noise" vehicles i n 1990.

means a major m p n e redsign. Reduction of noise fran exhaust mufflers 1s not a major problm today, mthm the lmts of Fig.9, pro;:d& the corra'deist and cost penalties are accepted (Rg.15).

4.-kthods t o reduce mise nuisance fran trucks.

As we have already stated, the methods used to reduce truck noise a s measured during the pass-by test are not necessarily those wtilch should be used in order to reduce noise nmsance fran trucks. It is M m D n experience that m s t noise nuisance m s fmn traffic travellrnp at constant medium or h g h s p e d on highmix. If we repfat the exercise of Figs.7 and 9 for a t r a c t o r - s d t r a i l e r cabination t r a d i n g at 80 )an/h on a level road ws reach tctally diffsrent conclusions frar the prscedinu paragraph. Thi engins will k rumnu at 3/4 r-mr sped and partial load. E;ren i f we assurx that cunbution noise h a s no mfluence on the total agine noise, the engine noise lev21 at 1 m vlll be of the order of 96 &(A1 Vhlch g;.as: at 7.5 in ,78 &(A) even without any enciwulation. Yith encapsulation the engue noise contribution at 7.5 rn goes down to 72 dB(h) whch ream that t h e m i is no longer cont n b u t m j to ths overall noise level. Even ~ S S U Tthat ~ muffler and transz-ission

-

127

Fig.41

'

an

between a frame m t e d "dry" W a t i c n aod

a m t e d "wet" m c a p d a t i c n [steyr] .

Fig.15ibise level at 7.5 m of exhaust mufflers f a r a truck. [ r n l Model 1 : mass 9.5 kg , volume 2 : mass 15 kg , volume 3 : mass 18.5kg , volume 4 : mass 18.5kg , volm

different redirmrlight 22 1 ,cost=l 37 1 ,cost=1.6 48 1 ,cost=1.8 48 1 ,cost=1.9

wis2 level remain unchanged kith respect t o the pass-by test (in fact they will Le lower), the total noise level at 7.5 m cuuirq f m noise sources that are under the truck manufacturer's control m l l amxlnt to less than 79 &(A).

But then tyredrcad noise comes into the picture. The front tyres of the tractor can no lcnger be ignored as a source of noise sources smce their noise level (fig.16) at 1 m can be as h g h as 74 d B ( A ) . Ihe same is true for the

tridm axle of the semitrailer : using the data of Fig.16 its noise 1ec.d at 1 m can h assumed to he 102 dB(A).Assming the tractor to be a 4x2 nodel , the noise level of the tyres on the driving axle at 1 rn Kill be 99 &(A) (Fig.16). Altogether the noise level at 7.5 m Kill be 83.5-84 & ( A ) , (fig.171, almost entirely &g t o tvre/road interface noise and this nll he the noise level perceivd by the public. ?he aimve calculations are of course approximate especially since they do not differentiate k t w m "unladen" and fully laden tyre noise ard do not take m t c accomt the seiiitrailer aerdynaaic noise ( d i ~t c the lack of v i m f n t a l data). However they denunstrate wkat is m A d yperceisd : ergme and muffler noise are no longer Mp3rtait in d2ter;nining "traffic" noise : only tyre/rcad intyface noise is releirant. Another very important pint t o be considered is "noise quality".limit values and measuring standards for truck noise have so far been focusd exclusively an engine noise and the part of the whaust noise which is disturbing outdmrs in built-up areas. But due t o our knowledge of traffic nuisance t d a i i t is important that, when tackling noise problem, we should take into account the nuisance effect oe various sound frequencies to @ people who may be affected. In this m e c t i o n low frequency noise that has the ability t o penetrate walls becanes much mre imprtant that the overall &(A) noise level. It is c~rmrmexperience that people are fully

128 Sound level [dB(A)] Close dislance (1.0~1) Traction pallern

-

Close (Iislaiicc Rib [)allern

. . . a....

.---

I S 0 362 (7,5111) Tiaclion palleiii

__

I S 0 362 Rib pallern

--

.*...

Speed [l<m/h] -Influence of speedand treadpattern an tyre mu-e (erlgine switched off, a n s t a n t speed) [ccatinentall. Tyre size : 315/80 R 22.5 Tyre load = 9250 N/wheel Inflation pressure = 7.5 bar.

Fig.16

. . AL: AL: A L = AL: AL: -18 -13 -20 -13 -18

ALz-18

T 83,S'dBIAI

Fig.17

- Noise

level of main xufces, attenuatiaa and result* noise level for a tractorsemitrailer ambinatian traveling at 80 km/h.

prepared for the high level of noEe that will occur when they sight an accelerating truck. lhey will therefore tolerate an expected tern prary noise peak withcut mch nuisance. Noise which encroaches OPI the individual without a vislble reason is much m r e irritating and disturbing even i f its level is much lower than that of a "visible"~ i s w e e . Indoor noise h c h awakemasleepingperm is a particularly serious nuisance especially i f i t is of a mtlnuous nature. As a consequence today's efforts by a l l the truck manufacturers t m d noise reduction are misdirected i f we judge them frcm the p i n t of view of the actual nuisance t o people: - engine noiss at rpn and maximum parer is not as iivprtant : on the contrary

lw frequency m p e n t s at m t e m d a t e sped are t o h reduced : - low frequency muffler noisc 1s m p r t a n t : mans t o reduce i t at constant SD& we :c k sought, l i k e active noise r2duction (Wtuch is now n s g l x t d S ~ C Ei t has ric ef fect on acwleration noise) ; - lov frequency ax intake noise m$: be Imp3rtant: agam no attention is t d a y g ~ v m to t h s problem; But, a l x r ~ ca l l , the utmst effort should b;. &rected towards reducmg tyre/road lnterface noise m a l l the frequency spectrum. Lnto Today what little research effort g-s tyre noise reduction i s manly concern4 nth low speed, low load, accsleration con&i:isns. Nobody hows i f tha results of such resa-ch

I29 will also bi applicable to amstant high speed and high load operations, especially as low frequency noise i s coicuneed. Rssearch on tyres has to go together m t h research on "low noise" road surfacing. It is well )mown that, besides the use of curtain walls,the nature of the road surface conside rably affects the traffic noise & s t u r h c e Wig.18).

lilttle attention is paid today to t h ~ s p i n t since noMy has apparently evaluated the cost/return ratio between the improverent of road surfaces ( h c h affects & ruMing vehicles) and the reduction of source noise level (hi& affects new v&dcles only). Ty-re/road i n t e r f a e noise is also affected by the truck swp;imon systec,. kgau; no resiarch has been pxformzd on this subject since truck suspension does not have any influence during IS0 362 tests. h t t l e research is done on noise frm truck superstructures, sexitrailers or trailers. chi the contrary WE f u n d "lw noise" diassis-cabs for m c i p a l trucks wh~chare fitted with extrwly noisy garbage ca;pctcjr system. People will still b2 ar;akcid in the early mnlir1g a1d t h q nll b2 happy laurnin,- that their mmcipality his paid for th6 increased uxt 0: the "lm noise" t r u c k . That, as we have seen, is &,at is h a p p s i tci piople lib3ng alongside the Brenner Autobahn. M e w t o further reduce noise nuisanze by trucks are, and hill be, available. Hwever noldy will use them s u w they are expensive, both XI t e r n of basic research and in production, and they will not lnfluence the "noise level" of the truck as defued under the current measurenent m t M .

L i qht

Car

5.- ccnclusicu.

I n the history of mtor vehicles there i s no greater ewrrple of efforts wasted and misdirected by o h l e t e regulations and burfaucrat i c inertia than the case of the reduction of truck noise nuisance. In b o p 2 many millions of Ecu are spent in research and in product cost increases just t o obtain a "political" noise reduction which will not be perceived by the W p l e for whm. truck noise is a real nuisance. Today to increase our knowledge of heavy vehicle noise research efforts should be &rected Minly toward the tyrelrcad interface problen. However this is prevvltd by EZC insistence that the IS0 362 method is the only one usis, t o regulate trudi noise.It m i l d not k difficult t o devise other, m r e realistic, ~ t h & t o inasure truck noise. Fcr instance a wtlrod sjxilar to the one used for e x h a t i n g truck engjn? kssiors could k us;d.The use of s x h a methcd,which wasages "weighting" factors for bfferent op;ra:inj con&tions,wmld redirect research toward m r e realistic objectives and, what is mre mprtant, v w l d establish a much closer collaboration between truck, tyre and road designers. We that this paper, admittedly provocative, will be of scm3 help m m v i n c h g mncemed people t o rethink the global approach t o the truck noise problem.

Truck

TractorSemi t r a i l e r

truck

Fig.18

- lleasured

wise levels a t 80 kn/h surf aces. IIYD21

~n

different road

I30 References J.Rscher ,P.Muehe,G. Stangl-In Serie realbierbare Loesungen zur Gerauschmhiemw an einem tastkaftwagen fuer den Verteilerverkehr- ATZ, 82 (1980) 12. B.Mutoh,T.Niikura,A.Yaramto,M.Ar&awa,K.Kihchi- me developnent of lm noise erqine on Ilmo new ‘’?I” Series - SAE Paper 900347. Bundesanstalt fuer Strassenwesen -2ur Athaengigkeit des bifenabrollgerausches vcn der Tenperatur der Fahrbahn Messungen am Innentrannelpruef stand.1990. L.Avellan - Hear-y-vehlcle noise and its abatement - S&a, 1989. Y.Ltzl - Exnfluss der Fahrbahmkrflaeche von Qrausdrmessstrekn auf das Fahr- and ReifenFahrhhn-Gxausch - A’E 92 (1990) 7/8. S.Canale.F.Vcstua - Ruiiore da traffico e prcgettaziona stradale - Autostrade 2/19&6. M.Malgarmi,S.Cervasio - Le nuove p r o s p t t i v e offerte dalle pa;rimentazioni fonoassorknti Autostrade, 2/1989. R.Lebret - B r u t et voirie urbahe - Revue generale des routes et des aercdrares, 6/1987. V.A. K r a m r - Sensitivity analysis of European and US motor vehicle passby noise test procedures - SAE Paper 891147. S. Jaekel - kuff aellige Itutzfahrzag-Wiaerqer Esnzelproblerrri ihra Gerauschentwicklung - A’R 85 (1983) 7/8, 10. nTC0 - Ihtifahrzeug und Umelt - 1989. C Q K - Fstization of the ecomxic and techucal consaquences of a further reduction in p f m s s l b l e mtor vehicle noise levels N/20/&0, 19EO. F.X.Moser - Developrent of a heavy duty die sel m e k i t h a f u l l inteyral noise encapsulation -KTVI-RAI Serinar,l990.

-

M. Rroon. K . .Sniir und J . vun Horn ftdirors), Freighr Trunsyorr und Ihe Environmenr c ' I991 Elsewer Suence Publtsherv B. V . . Anisrerdunr. Primed in the Nerherlunds

131

FUEL EFFECTS ON ROAD TRANSPORT ENGINES - EMISSIONS AND COLD STARTING J.R. Puttick and G.W. Dwyer Ricardo Consulting Engineers Ltd., Bridge Works, Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex BN43 5FG, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT

This paper describes a test programme to assess the cold start characteristics, gaseous and particulate emissions, to the European 13-mode test procedure, from a range of seven heavy duty diesel engines when operated with eight different fuel formulations. The results showed that engine design features were the predominant influence on both cold start and emissions characteristics. Fuel formulation was found to exert secondary influences, the most significant of which was the effect on particulate emissions of fuel sulphur content and fuel volatility. 1.

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the major diesel engine markets concern is being expressed over the levels of environmental pollution caused by road traffic sources and measures to control gaseous and particulate emissions are in force in many countries. Any change in the road transport fuel composition could potentially affect gaseous and particulate emissions of diesel engined vehicles. To assess the extent of these effects, the Dutch Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer (VROM) commissioned Ricardo to study the published information and attempt to identify the effects on performance and emissions o f changes in individual fuel properties. However, overall trends could n o t be reported with adequate confidence due to the overriding influence of engine design parameters and the close interrelation of many fuel properties (Ref 1). A practical study was therefore commissioned by VROM to investigate the effects of various diesel engine fuel compositions on a range of heavy duty diesel engines. To strengthen the practical focus of the work and to ensure that input from the relevant interests was available, VROM established a steering committee, which included representatives of CCMC and CONCAWE, to monitor and control the project. 2.

FUEL MATRIX

The fuel matrix for use in the test programme was defined in conjunction with Concawe and was intended to be representative of the likely range of fuel compositions that may be available throughout Europe during the next decade. In order to fully define the fuel properties expected in future years, projections of the anticipated range of cetane number, boiling range and density were made. This was combined with knowledge of the potential crude oil sources and processing routes, including cetane improvers, into an eight fuel matrix as shown in Figure 1. A reduction in fuel sulphur level has been promoted as one means o f assisting engine manufacturers in meeting low exhaust particulate limits and low sulphur fuels are currently being used in the USA. The effect of fuel sulphur level was addressed in the matrix through the use of two fuels with 0 . 2 9 and 0.07% wt, representing typical current and proposed sulphur levels respectively. The low sulphur fuel was a standard production fuel produced by

132 a commercial UK refinery which was then doped with Benzothiophene to increase the sulphur level to the current norm for European fuels. A baseline fuel was incorporated into the matrix and was formulated to be equivalent to the current reference fuel RF-03 specified for emission certification tests. 3.

ENGINE MATRIX

The majority o f engine production for the current European heavy duty diesel engine parc falls broadly into two size ranges of c. 1 and 2 litres swept volume per cylinder. The size range and level of engine technology employed is dictated by a combination of the power requirement o f the vehicle, the application and the market requirement. At the higher power outputs the use of turbocharging with the addition of aftercooling for the highest ratings is common due to packaging, efficiency and emissions advantages. However, at the lower power requirements where vehicle and engine cost assume greater importance the use of naturally aspirated engines is typical and expected t o continue for the foreseeable future. All heavy duty engines use direct injection combustion systems but two alternative design concepts are employed: swirling or quiescent. The majority of production engines in Europe utilise the former, but there are also significant numbers of quiescent engines in use and a much higher proportion i n the USA, therefore this type was included in the engine matrix. In the development of heavy duty diesel engines to meet low levels o f emissions legislation, manufacturers are adopting high pressure fuel injection equipment with some degree of timing control to achieve optimum flexibility and emissions over the operating range. An engine of this type was included in the matrix to enable the emissions potential of this type to be assessed, together with its fuel quality tolerance. The selected engine matrix consisted of seven engines, all supplied through the cooperation of CCMC and other engine manufacturers and selected on the basis of production numbers. This is shown in Figure 2 together with the abbreviations used for each. The results of the work were submitted to each participating engine manufacturer who confirmed that they were representative.

I Engine Code Numbers

lo%/ 85% Points

Dist _250/350'C _ _ _ _ _ _ , _I _ _DO 8696 +-

I I

BO 8578

I

A 0 8560

I

I

I

11-

FIG 1 F'UELS MATRIX 4.

I I I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I I

Combustion-

Swirling

Swirling

Swirling

I

I

I

Naturally Aspirated

Turbocharged

FIG 2

Quiescent Quiescent + Electronic Con!rol

1

L

Aspiration

I

Tur bocharged Aftercooled 2

ENGINE MATRIX

TEST PROCEDURE

The test fuels were evaluated in each engine over the ECE Directive 88/77 13-mode steady state test cycle, measuring gaseous emissions and particulates. The 13-mode test procedure currently relates to gaseous emissions only,

133 although draft regulations for the measurement of particulates have been formulated. At the time of carrying out the study, the single filter paper methodology for particulate measurement over the 13-mode cycle was not fully developed so a separate filter paper was used for each mode. The overall cycle result was computed by weighting and summing the individual mode results in the same manner as for gaseous emissions. This method has been used successfully at Ricardo and other laboratories for many years and has the additional advantage that fuel effects and particulate composition at each individual mode may be analysed if required. The selected engines were tested on each of the fuels in the matrix in turn, beginning with the baseline fuel. At the end of the tests on each engine, a repeat test was performed on the baseline fuel to assess the long-term repeatability and variability of the emissions results. To assess the response of each engine to injection timing retard and any fuel effects o n retardability, tests were carried out at three injection timings where possible. Two engines used in the study incorporated unit injectors operated directly from the engine camshaft and for these engines injection timing responses could not be obtained. For each engine, all tests were carried out at constant mass fuelling at the maximum power condition, the reference level being that obtained with the baseline fuel. This procedure was adopted to eliminate the known effects of changes in mass fuel delivery brought about by changes in fuel density and viscosity, thus ensuring that the minimum air/fuel ratio selected by the engine manufacturer remained constant. 5.

COLD STARTING

Cold start tests were carried out on three engines selected from the study, the lTCA, 2TCA and ZTCA(QE) types. All were turbocharged and aftercooled as these engines generally employ lower compression ratios than other methods of aspiration and the use of air-to-air aftercooling is likely to prolong the effects of cold ambient temperature on engine operation. A temperature of -10°C was selected for the cold start testing as this was considered to be low enough to illustrate any effects of fuel properties without requiring the use of specialist cold start aid systems. Where appropriate, the cold start aids fitted to the engines as standard were used to the manufacturer’s recommendations for the test temperature. After a period of soak at the test temperature, the engine was started and run up to governor run-out speed. Thereafter the engine speed was returned to a fast idle during warm-up. The clearance of white smoke and hydrocarbon emissions were monitored as the coolant temperature increased. 6.

COLD START RESULTS

Under cold start conditions, where combustion may be marginal, the ignition quality of a fuel is of prime importance. The effect of cetane number on cold starting properties is shown in Figure 3. Engine design parameters can also significantly affect the cold start performance of an engine and the results obtained provide a good demonstration of this. The 2TCA(QE) engine, having an electronic control system, which allows the injection timing to be optimised under all conditions, started readily on all the test fuels and reached governor run-out in the shortest time. This engine showed minimal sensitivity to fuel changes, demonstrating that timing optimisation under cold starting is a major influence. The lTCA and 2TCA engines showed more sensitivity to cetane number changes but again the engine design had a major influence. The lTCA engine was fitted with a large manifold heater matrix which is pre-heated before commencement of cranking and continues to be energised after cranking finishes. The PTCA engine has less pre-heating, using two glow-plug type elements, and no post-cranking assistance. Accordingly, the lTCA engine gave short times to first combustion, but rather longer times to self sustained running and

134 governor run out than the 2TCA(QE) I n general, the 2TCA engine engine. with less pre-heating required longer cranking times and took longer to achieve a given speed and demonstrated more sensitivity to cetane number changes. Both lTCA and PTCA engines took longer to start as the cetane number was reduced, a trend that was not unexpected. However, longer start times were recorded for some o f the higher cetane fuels and subsequent examination of the fuel properties showed that the fuels concerned (cetane 50 52 5L 56 L2 LL L6 LB Cetane Number numbers 4 8 . 1 , 52.6 and 5 4 . 9 ) were in the higher boiling point range, also suggesting that volatility influences the cold start behaviour. FIG 3 EFFECT OF CETANE NUMBER ON Whilst the engine was warming-up the COLD START PERFORMANCE decay in white smoke and hydrocarbon emissions was monitored, the time to reach selected levels beine. recorded These results are shown against cetane number in Figures 4 and 5 . Under warm-up conditions, the effects o f fuel properties and engine design influences were more pronounced. As had been observed previously, the sTCA(QE) engine, having the benefit of a flexible control system, required the shortest time to reach a given smoke or hydrocarbon level, particularly at low cetane numbers. The two other engines required longer times to reach a given level and also showed a marked sensitivity to cetane number, lower cetane fuels requiring longer times for emissions to fall to a given level. It is noteworthy that the lTCA engine, which had demonstrated short starting times, due to the large amount o f pre-heating, required longer for smoke or hydrocarbon emissions to decrease than the 2TCA engine, which had less pre-heat assistance and therefore took longer to start, providing further evidence of the influence of engine design choices on engine operation under cold conditions. The influence of fuel volatility was again demonstrated, these fuels (cetane numbers 4 8 . 1 , 52.6 and 5 4 . 9 ) requiring longer times to reach given emission levels.

-

L2

Cetane Number

FIG 4 EFFECT OF CETANE NUMBER ON COLD START SMOKE COLD START

LL

L6

LB 50 52 Cetane Number

5L

56

FIG 5 EFFECT OF CETANE NUMBER ON HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS

135 13-MODE EMISSION RESULTS

7.

The test results are presented in the form of trade-off curves against 13-mode NOx as this parameter is one of the primary criteria constraining the development of diesel engines to meet legislated limits. The fuel effects were not consistent between engines and therefore it was considered more useful to present results as overall bands rather than individual results. The bands of fuel responses are shown as shaded areas on each curve, with the baseline fuel result for each engine highlighted.

NOx

7.1

-

The effect of fuel on NOx emissions is shown in Figure 6 for the different injection timings tested. There was a large spread in NOx levels between engines, due to engine design influences and the method of aspiration (ie NA, TC, TCA). The fuel effects on different engines varied with the type of engine and the injection timing although the effects were smaller for those engines having lower NOx levels. 7.2 Hydrocarbons The trade-off between NOx and hydrocarbon emissions is shown in Figure 7. All engines for which a timing response could be obtained exhibited the expected trend for hydrocarbon emissions to increase as the NOx level was reduced, as the combustion system was operated away from the optimum design condition. The level of hydrocarbon emissions depended upon engine design, the TCA engines tending to give lower emission levels than the other types tested. The effect of fuel on hydrocarbon emissions was generally similar at the lower hydrocarbon levels but those engines giving higher levels appeared more sensitive to fuel changes. The sensitivity was found to be o f similar magnitude across the range of timings for each engine.

-

m

6. Retard

u

Standard Timr

' -&

11C ITCA

I

m

3' Retard

2TC -

&Xn

~

-

+

21cp-n

0

ZTCAIPI 2TCAlOEl

6

0

8 10 12 16 13Mode Nor IglkWhl

16

FIG 6 13-MODE NOX OVER THE ENGINE, E'UEL AND TIMING MATRIX

FIG 7 13-MODE NOX-HC OVER THE ENGINE. FUEL AND TIMING MATRIX

7.3 Carbon Monoxide The trade-off between NOx and carbon monoxide is shown in Figure 8. The diesel engine operates at air/fuel ratios well above stoichiometric and therefore produces very low levels of carbon monoxide. Hence, the level of carbon monoxide produced over the 13-mode cycle is, in turn, a function of the engine air/fuel ratio at full load conditions, this being a function of the specific engine rating. Therefore, engines that operate at relatively low air/fuel ratios would be expected to produce the highest levels of carbon monoxide and this was observed for the naturally aspirated engine (1NA). This engine also exhibited the greatest sensitivity to fuel changes of all those tested although the 2TCA(QE) engine showed changes of a similar order of magnitude due to the changes in cycle power caused by the correction to equal m a s s fuelling.

136 Fuel Consumption The trade-off between NOx and 13-mode cycle fuel consumption is shown in Figure 9 . All engines showed increased fuel consumption as the injection timing was retarded away from the optimum in order to achieve low NOx levels. The adoption of turbocharging and aftercooling improves the trade-off due to the engine being less sensitive to timing changes but even the engine with the best cycle fuel consumption trade-off would incur a penalty of approximately 5% from its current level in order to meet future NOx limits of 7 g/kWh. Fuel composition changes produced variations in cycle fuel consumption o f typically 5 g/kWh for most engines after correction for density variation. The 2TCA(QE) engine gave variations larger than this but these were attributable to the large cycle power corrections needed with this engine over the others. 7.4

2

13 Mode NOx lg k W h l

FIG 8 13-MODE NOX-CO OVER THE ENGINE, FUEL AND TIMING MATRIX

FIG 9 13-MODE NOx-BSFC OVER THE ENGINE, FUEL AND TIMING MATRIX

7.5 Particulates The trade-off between NOx and particulates is shown in Figure 10. A s the injection timing was retarded, all engines showed increased particulate emissions, due partly to higher smoke levels under these conditions and a l s o to the increased hydrocarbon levels. The different types o f engine also gave different orders of response with timing. Those engines that employed higher injection pressures had a smaller penalty in particulate emissions as the timing was retarded than those with lower injection pressures. Thus the 1NA and 1TC engines have steeper trade-offs with timing than the other engines tested due to the poorer fuel atomisation with the relatively lower pressure injection systems. The two swirling aftercooled engines (1TCA and 2TCA) both produced similar levels of particulate emissions, indicating that engine size need not be a limiting factor in producing low emission levels. A similar effect was observed with hydrocarbons. One of the lowest particulate emission levels was produced by the 2TC engine, an unexpected result as turbocharged and aftercooled engines generally give the best emission trade-offs. The response of the test engines to fuel changes was more marked than for hydrocarbons. Again, the engines with the lower emission levels generally showed less variation in particulate emissions than those engines with higher emission levels, although the lTCA engine gave larger changes in emissions than other engines of similar emission levels.

137

1-7 Denotes Engine Number

3-

2-

7.

5'

-

-O.l2

t

.

13Mode NOx fg/kWhl

FIG 10 13-MODE NOX-PARTICULATEOVER ENGINE, FUEL AND TIMING MATRIX

FIG 11 MODEL PREDICTED CHANGE IN THE 13-MODE PARTICULATES FROM THE BASELINE FUEL FOR EACH ENGINE

8. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF RESULTS From the measured engine data presented above, it was clear that although engine type, and to a lesser extent injection timing, were the dominant factors in determining overall emission levels, fuel type also influenced the results from each engine. However, with the exception of the low sulphur fuel, which in general gave the lowest particulate results, none of the test fuels appeared to exhibit a sufficiently consistent response across the engine range to identify either particularly 'good' or 'bad' fuels in respect of the measured parameters. This lack of a clear response was not particularly surprising in view of the deliberate 'commercial' nature of the fuels matrix. To investigate whether any underlying fuel effects were present which may have been masked by the dominance of the other factors, it was necessary to use a more advanced analytical technique. An established statistical modelling method (Ref 2) was therefore employed which enabled the contribution of each individual parameter (eg fuel, engine, timing etc) of an overall result to be identified relative to a selected reference condition. This method thus provided a convenient means of isolating the effect of fuel type relative to the baseline fuel. The use of the model technique had the additional advantage of providing some smoothing of the measured results, thus limiting the significance of any results which were towards the limit of the typical test accuracy range. In general, it was found that the model results closely reflected the measured values. The statistical model analysis was carried out for the 13-mode cycle results of particulates, NOx and hydrocarbons and the peak torque and rated speed exhaust smoke values, these parameters being the major area of interest in the work under review. An example of the results obtained is shown in Figure 11 which demonstrates the model predicted change in 13-mode particulates for each fuel in each engine relative to the predicted results for the baseline fuel in each engine for the standard timing condition. The data in Figure 11 is presented in histogram form in ascending order of increase in particulate, based on the worst case result from any of the engines f o r each fuel. Thus, an initial means of ranking f u e l effects becomes apparent although it could correctly be argued ttst this method is very engine specific and accounts only for the worst case result and ignores fuel effects in the remainder of the engine matrix. To account for these effects, alternative methods of ranking were investigated both to improve confidence and to provide These included a means of indicating the magnitude of the fuel effects.

138 averaging and weighting methods, all of which gave similar trends s o averaging was used for the further analysis to enable a more quantitative indication of fuel effects to be presented. The same analyses were carried out for the NOx, HC and smoke results and again a high degree of similarity between methods was demonstrated. The influence of fuel composition on exhaust smoke was found to be minimal and hence is not reported in detail. Table 1 summarises the overall results in terms of the change in 13-mode emissions from the baseline fuel due to fuel effects alone for the standard injection timing condition. To put the magnitude of the changes due to fuel type into perspective, the table also shows the average emission levels over the engine matrix with the baseline fuel and the corresponding maximum and minimum percentage change of these average levels.

Better

I

<-

A

D -.278

F E Particulates - . 0 5 2 - . 0 0 7

-.006

A B -.014 -.003

,012

HC

level all Max % engines change baseline +/ fuel

Average Change in Emission g/kWh

-.584 -.453

NOx

> Worse Average

Fuel Ranking

B

G E

E -.158

H -.003

F .046

H F -.139 . 1 4 B .04

G ,054

G ,233

12.14

- 5 - +2

A D ,052 ,062

0.397

-13 - +15

H D .057 .058

0.61

- 2 - +9

TABLE 1 MODEL PREDICTED AVERAGE CHANGE IN EMISSIONS DUE TO FVEL EFFECTS COMPARED WITH THE MODEL PREDICTED AVERAGE EMISSIONS WITH THE BASELINE FUEL The use of a percentage term to describe the changes in gaseous and particulate emissions (with the exception o f the effects of fuel sulphur level, as discussed later) is considered correct as any changes due to fuel type are most likely to occur on a proportional basis. Thus any changes due to fuel type will be more significant in absolute terms for those engines exhibiting the highest emission levels, particularly where these engines may be close to any proposed legislative limits. Inspection of the test data here confirms this observation. Taking the case of particulates, for example, engine ITCA(QE) which showed the lowest overall levels, typically 0 . 2 g/kWh, gave a total spread of results for the fuels tested of 0 . 0 3 4 g/kWh or 2 9 % . In contrast, the highest levels, typically 0 . 6 5 g/kWh occurred on engine 1NA which resulted in a fivefold increase in the spread of fuel effects to 0 . 1 6 g/kWh but a similar percentage change, ?12%. To test the significance of the effects shown in Table 1 it is useful to compare these with the repeatability level for the various parameters. From the extensive emission tests carried out at Ricardo the following repeatability levels are typical: NOx 20.1 g/kWh HC 20.02 g/kWh Particulates 5 0 . 0 2 g/kWh. For the average levels shown in Table 1 these values correspond to NOx ?l%, HC f38, particulates 5 5 8 . It is clear from these values that the following effects were significant (in decreasing order) when compared to the baseline fuel 1. Reductions and increases in particulate 2 . Increases in hydrocarbons 3. Reductions in NOx (small significance)

139 8.1 Relationship with Fuel Properties It was not a prime objective of this programme to relate any changes in emissions to specific fuel properties. Indeed, the programme was initiated largely because of the problems encountered in other programmes which did have this objective and the difficulty found in characterising fuel properties. However, because the fuel matrix was composed of a range of expected commercial products, a range of fuel properties was present (Figure 1). Initially, the statistical model data shown in Table x was compared with the major fuel properties to identify any trends or relationships and this analysis is reported here. Subsequently, a more rigorous regression analysis The first approach identified some was carried out by the sponsor (ref 3). separation of the effects in relation to step changes in the property groups for the fuels (eg sulphur content, volatility etc) as discussed below, whilst the second approach attempted to establish mathematical relationships across a range of properties. This in general led to the same conclusions but with some variation in emphasis. 8.2 Sulphur' Content Reduction in the fuel sulphur content from 0.29% w/w (fuel H) to 0.07% w/w (fuel E) gave a consistent reduction in particulates for all engines as shown in Figure 12. The regression coefficients demonstrate the near linearities of the response at the three timings assessed whilst the coefficient of determination (R2) in each case is excellent. Thus, for the standard timing condition, a reduction of fuel sulphur content of 0.22% w/w reduced particulates by 0.036 g/kWh indicating that the conversion rate to sulphate was similar for all engines (typical value 1.5%) and demonstrating the increasing significance of sulphur content as overall particulate levels are reduced by other means. The effect of sulphur content on particulate levels at the most retarded timings was consistently close to zero, due to the increase in particulate with the low sulphur fuel being greater than that with the standard sulphur fuel when compared to the standard timing condition. No explanation for this effect can be offered and is probably of little significance as a timing retard of 6" is unlikely to be the sole means of engine emission control. The low sulphur fuel was also found to distort some other fuel property group relationships in respect of hydrocarbon emission as noted below. 8.3 Volatility (T,,"C) and Viscosity There was a strong interrelation between volatility (T,,") and viscosity, with the fuel matrix falling into two distinct groups; fuels A , B and D (T,,, 357-359"C, viscosity 4.26-4.51) FIG 1 2 MODEL PREDICTED 13-MODE and the remainder (T,, 331-343'C, PARTICULATES. EFFECT OF SULPHUR viscosity 3.14-3.34). The two terms are CONTENT FUEL E (0.07%)V FUEL H thus substantially interchangeable and (0.29%) for convenience volatility is used throughout. Figure 13 shows that there was a clear separation of particulates in respect of the two volatility groups with the lower volatility fuels ( A , B and D) resulting in increases in particulates of similar magnitude to the reductions obtained with the low sulphur fuel and hence must be regarded as significant. Conversely, these fuels produced some reduction in NOx which is consistent with a degradation in combustion conditions and thus, to a small

140 degree, are self compensating on a NOx/particulate trade off basis. However, as timing is the dominant factor in NOx production for a given engine, this observation is of little practical significance. There was no relation between hydrocarbon emissions and volatility, with fuel D producing the largest increase in hydrocarbons whilst fuels A and B produced the largest reductions.

02

02 x

o

x

o

9-02

g-02 -0L

-0L

-06

008

yI

OOL

f

OOL

0

;

0

-

-0 OL g -008

006 0 OL U

.

=002 0 -0 02

330

335

3LO 345 350 355 90% Boiling Point('C)

008

-06

360

FIG 13 MODEL PREDICTED CHANGE IN 13-MODE EMISSIONS V 90% BOILING POINT

+-

-

;

-0042 0 06 0 OL

-0 08

yo02

0

-002

19 20 21 22 23 ZL 25 26 27 28 29 30 % Aromatics (Proprietory Method)

FIG 14 MODEL PREDICTED CHANGE IN 13-MODE EMISSIONS V AROMATIC CONTENT

Aromatics The range of aromatic content of the fuel matrix was relatively small at 20-30% by aproprietary test method or 25-33% by the draft IP PM-AY method. The ranking of aromatic content was similar by either method with the proprietary method being reported here. The role of aromatics in emission generation is very topical at present with somewhat conflicting information being presented by various researchers. The data from this programme is presented in Figure 1 4 . It can be clearly seen that for this fuel matrix no relationship existed between either NOx or particulates and aromatic content (neglecting the effect of the low sulphur fuel in the case of particulates). Some separation of the data is evident in the case of hydrocarbons, with the higher aromatic levels producing the highest increases, with the exception of the low sulphur fuel. 8 . 5 Cetane Number Some separation of the hydrocarbon effects and to a much lesser extent the NOx effects was evident for two cetane number groups ( 4 4 - 4 8 and 52-55), as shown in Figure 15. The effects were in line with general diesel combustion theory, where reducing the cetane number leads to an increase in the delay period and the pre-mixed burning fraction, resulting in increased NOx and hydrocarbon emissions. There was no relationship between cetane number and particulate emissions. The use of cetane improving additives did not distort the data. Again the low sulphur fuel was an anomaly in respect of hydrocarbon effects. 8 . 6 Density Figure 16 shows the data for the effects of density on hydrocarbon emissions which again fell into two groups with the lower densities producing substantially no change whilst the higher densities showed increases. There was no correlation between NOx or particulate and density. It should be remembered that, for this programme, the usual effects of density (eg increased smoke) were eliminated by operation of the engines at constant mass fuelling. This was considered valid as these effects should not be regarded as true fuel effects but as an artifact of the diesel engine fuel delivery mechanism (ie volume based). 8.4

141

- 0 06

o OL

y 0 02

Cetane Number

FIG 15 MODEL PREDICTED CHANGE IN 13-MODE EMISSIONS V CETANE NUMBER 9.

FIG 16 MODEL PREDICTED CHANGE IN 13-MODE EMISSIONS V DENSITY

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The test programme has demonstrated the dominance of engine type and technology level in controlling the level of exhaust emissions, fuel consumption and cold starting characteristics. Before reviewing fuel effects in detail it is instructive to compare the emission levels of the various engine types with current and proposed European legislative levels (Figures 7 & 8). Considering the six engines primarily intended for the European market, whilst all easily achieved the 1990 hydrocarbon limit, the 1NA engine exceeds the 1990 NOx limit and the 2TC engine was marginal. Minor changes in timing would allow these engines to achieve compliance although the accompanying increases in smoke on the 1NA engine may introduce another legislative problem. Whilst further injection retard would allow achievement of the 1992 NOx level (and in some cases the 1996 level), the accompanying deterioration i n fuel consumption would be unacceptable and achievement of the 1992 particulate limits would be marginal. Additional development will therefore be required to achieve the 1992 limits for all engines. At this level, the secondary effects of fuel type established in this programme will begin to assume greater importance and may influence the required engine improvements. These observations are accentuated when considering the 1996 levels with the 1NA engine presenting the greatest challenge. The measures necessary to reduce particulates will in general bring about hydrocarbon reductions making this aspect less problematic for both 1992 and 1996 levels. The 2TCA(QE) engine, primarily designed for the US market, was shown to meet the proposed 1992 emission levels and it is known that the type of technology employed in this engine is capable of achieving compliance with the proposed 1996 level. (Ref 4 ) For the two engines assessed in this programme which used quiescent combustion, this system was not shown to provide any advantage unless allied to other combustion developments (eg high pressure injection, timing control etc). Reviewing the effects of the test fuel matrix, it should again be stressed that being essentially 'commercial' in nature no particular attempt was made to decouple the various interrelated properties in constructing the matrix. Nevertheless, two effects were observed which were considered significant, these being the reduction in particulates with reduction in fuel sulphur

142 content and the increase in particulates (and to a lesser extent influences on cold running) for those fuels having lower volatility (or higher viscosity). These effects tended to become more apparent by separation of the effects into two blocks of fuel property. It is therefore somewhat dangerous to attempt to ascribe mathematical relationships to the observed data which implies interpolation between these blocks. The influence of sulphur content and volatility is also supported by other similar programmes (ref 5). A similar but less significant relation between blocks of fuel properties and hydrocarbons was also observed with the higher density and aromatic fuels and lower cetane fuels all indicating higher hydrocarbon emissions. Cetane number correlated well with cold start characteristics. No relationship was found between aromatic content and particulates which is supported by the work in Ref 5 but at variance with that reported in Refs 6 and 7. However, the range of aromatic levels assessed in this programme was small compared with the similar programmes referenced and of particular relevance did not include very low aromatic fuels as currently being considered for use in the USA. In view of the conflicting evidence available the result obtained here is therefore not unexpected. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to thank the Dutch Ministry o f VROM and the Directors of Ricardo for permission to publish this paper and their colleagues at Ricardo who carried out the test programme. REFERENCES

1. D y e r G W and Ellard N A , Heavy Duty Diesel Emissions Study, Phase 1, Literature Study. Ricardo report to VROM No DP 87/1520. 2. GENSTAT 5. Numerical Algorithms Group Ltd 3. Van Beckhoven L C , MVEG sub group Diesel Fuel Quality and Emissions. Final Report VE/SEC/49 2 March 1990. 4 . Needham J R et a1 Injection Timing and Rate Control - A Solution f o r Low Emissions, SAE 900854. 5. BTC. Summary report o n : A Study of the Effects of Diesel Fuel Aromatics Content on Particulate Emissions from Modern Diesel Engines. BTC/FI/89 October 1989. 6. Wall J C and Hoekman S K, Fuel Composition Effects on Heavy Duty Diesel Particulate Emissions, SAE 841364 7 . Ullman T L, Investigation of the Effects of Fuel Composition on Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine Emissions, SAE 892072.

143

NOISE POLLUTION FROM RAILWAY TRAFFIC AND POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT AT SOURCE A. Zach Construction Management Swiss Federal Railways, Mittelstrasse 43, CH-3030 Bern, Switzerland

SUMMARY

Extensive legislation in respect of noise protection require railway managements (e.g. in Switzerland) to contain and drastically reduce the noise along new and existing track systems. Intensified research at an international (UIC/ORE) and a national level is to assist in realizing meaningful measures at source and in the areas surrounding railway facilities. In Switzerland it is hoped that the putting into operation of an increased quantity of new or reconditioned rolling stock will reduce the threatening cost of passive structural measures of over a billion Swiss Francs. Some additional structural measures, however, are unavoidable. Here, too, new possibilities are sought in the construction of the rails, with sound protection shields and in more intensive maintenance. 1

NOISE PROTECTION LEGISLATION IN SWITZERLAND

The rapid progress in traffic technology has brought us not only a strongly increased mobility, but also negative side effects on our environment, As we can learn from a study by the Swiss Traffic Directorate, these effects vary widely depending on the type of transport operator. Per passenger/kilometer railways produce roughly six times less noise than road traffic. In addition energy consumption, air pollution and space required are approximately ten times less. Moreover, traffic safety is clearly greater. In comparison with road- and air traffic, rail traffic on the whole causes less major environmental problems. All the same this should not mean that noise, being one of the outstanding aggravating factors of rail traffic, should be neglected. On 1st April 1 9 8 7 the new noise protection regulation (LSV) introduced into the environment act became effective. This regulation provides for the assessment of noise situations and the resulting consequences for the protection of the population in Switzerland. (Lit. 1 and 2)

All regulations are largely based on a uniform schedule of limiting values for all types of noise (cf. Figure 11, which

144

defines three different levels of limiting values for four sensitivities to noise, divided in accordance with specific periods of the day. Depending on the regulations, which will be clarified in the following, emergency values, limits of immission or planning values become normative. The level of each single pollution limit depends on the operational use and on the antipollution tax of the area to be assessed (levels of sensitivity).

Category of sensitivity Extract from the noise protection ordinance Environment Protection Act (USG)

(LSV) of

the Swiss

ES I:

Z o n e w i t h i n c r e a s e d need of n o i s e p r o t e c t i o n e . g . recreational areas

ES 11:

Zone without industries causing annoyance e.g. residential areas

ES 111: Zone with industries causing moderate annoyance e . g . busy centres

ES IV: Z o n e w i t h i n d u s t r i e s c a u s i n g m a j o r a n n o y a n c e e . g . industrial areas

Limiting values of nuisance Category of sensitivity

I

Planned value

I

I

Limiting value of immission

1

Alert phase value

Lr in dBA (Lr=Leq + K ) Day

Night

55

45

60

50

I11

60

50

65

55

IV

65

55

70

60

Day

Night

I I I

1 75

70

FIGURE 1 . Schedule of limiting values for all types of noise. In order to account for the various disturbing effects of each type of noise, the measured or calculated values of immission (i.e. the mean level taken or the energy-equivalent continuous sound level Leq respectively) are corrected with an added quantity K. For the noise of rail traffic, for example, this correction, depending on the traffic density, amounts to - 5 to - 15 dBA., for the noise of shunting, depending on the impulses or the volume to + O to + 8 dBA (cf. Figure 2 ) . In other words, the pure traffic noise of trains is judged to be milder in comparison with, for instance, road noise by 5 to 1 5 dBA; the more awkward shunting noise levels on the other hand are increased, that is, they are assessed in accordance with more severe standards.

So far for the instruments. 2

REQUIREMENTS FOR NOISE PROTECTION FOR THE TRACKS

What about the consequences?

145

On the one hand precautionary requirements should ensure that in the future no new noise conflicts of whatever nature are created. Therefore legislation contains requirements for building areas and building permits in areas which are already suffering from noise. But new railway facilities, which are to be constructed and creating noise should also be low-noise ones: -New railwav facilities must be constructed or equipped in such a way that at least the (stringent) planning values are adhered to.

Criteria for Railway Noise Extract from the Environment protection Ordinance (LSV) of the Swiss Environment Protection Act (USG).

Lr = 1 0 log ( I O ’ . ’ ~ ~ ’ Lrl = Leq,f

t

K1

Leq:

Partial and average levels of train passages (f) or of shunting noises ( r ) only during the time spans, by day ( 6 - 2 2 hrs), by night (22-6.00 hrs) respectively

K1:

Correction value running noise in dBA KE = 1 0 log ( 1) to which applies -

1 5 5 K1

s -5

250

N K2:

1

1

I

=

Number of train passages by night or by day resp

Correction value shunting noise in dBA

Audibility

I

weak

l o 1 2

clear

rare

I

occasional

loud

(0

d

K2 r 8 )

I

frequent

I

1

4

1

1

FIGURE 2 . Criteria for Railway noise. Apart from the precautionary requirements Swiss legislation on noise protection also imposes stringent requirements on noisy installations already in existence. -Even unadapted existinq installations must be ’cleaned up’ within 1 5 years, in as far as immission values are exceeded. These values must be adhered to through emission protection throughout the installation. Often the required sound level reductions can only be achieved at unacceptable additional costs to the operators and by using absurd wall heights. However, in the case of rail tracks, which after all represent a public interest, the rules can incidentally be eased. But then measures must be taken in respect of the buildings affected, instead.

146 3

ACTUAL NOISE SITUATION AT SBB

Let us consider the noise problems at SBB per line segment: Depending on the operating discipline (train density, lengths of trains and speed) and the carriages put on the following crucial point arise: - O n the lines where the emissions are more critical during daytime, i.e. between 6.00 and 2 2 . 0 0 hours, than at night, in general the regional passenger traffic is taken as standard for the immission protection. This is simply done, because here mainly old rolling stock is put on. On these stretches the immission limiting values are usually taken from a lateral distance of 1 5 to 30 m. In other words: only residential buildings that are nearer to the railway than 15 to 30 m must in principle be protected. - O n the ancillary stretches, that are more critical at nighttime, the goods traffic during the night - especially on the goods transit services - is taken as the limit of noise annoyance. Due to the fact that the limiting values at night are more stringent by 10 dBA, conflicts with the environment are seriously aggravated. Along single sections residential buildings must be protected against noise up to a distance of 300 to 500 m from the track. People who know Switzerland know that the goods traffic arteria through Switzerland, in particular the Gotthard and the Simplon routes, run through densily populated areas. Therefore it is an understandable wish on the part of the population that this traffic is transferred as much as possible from the road to the railway, which is more friendly to the environment. For that reason Switzerland is prepared to make great efforts to intensify T.O.F.C. traffic (trailers on flat cars). And so it is the more important, also for Switzerland, to which extent the noise of railborne goods traffic can be reduced throughout Europe in the near future . On the basis of the present traffic (volume of traffic, vehicle and operation) the total cost of the construction of noise protection barriers along the existing tracks can be estimated at approximately 1 to 2 billion Swiss Francs. Quite a considerable investment, which the SBB has to make during the next twelve years. 4

NOISE PROTECTION AT SOURCE

Already more than 10 years ago people became aware of the decisive influence the braking system of a coach can have on the reradiation of noise. The cast brake blocks that have been in use so far and operate directly on the running tread, have the unpleasant effect that during the braking action the wheel treads become roughened and furrowed due to movement of the material. This causes continuous increases in rolling noise often exceeding 10 dBA, i.e. a subjectively noticeable doubling of the noise. Realizing this the SBB has since changed course: - F o r instance , new passenger carriages of the SBB are

147

exclusively fitted with disc brakes. These carriages whose brakes do no longer operate on the running thread travel with roughly 1 0 to 1 5 dBA less noise. -

For the existing rolling stock with brake blocks, that will still be in service f o r another 2 0 to 30 years, new solutions are being researched intensively. On the overhauled carriages of the earlier generation new types of brake blocks are tested in order to reduce the wheel furrowing. Clear results have already been achieved with brake shoe inserts made of synthetic material, sintered metal and recently semi-metal. These measures could reduce the running noise by as much as 4 to 6 dBA.

-

Moreover, the old, noisy light-steel carriages will successively be taken out of service between now and the year 2000.

With the increased introduction of new or reconditioned rolling stock the SBB hopes to reduce the cost of structural works by several tens of millions. Forced, active noise protection, as far as SBB can manage it on its own, has top priority and should share the benefits of the additional investments equally between residents near railways and travellers (upgrading of comfort). In spite of intensive international efforts unfortunately no adequate possibilities have developed in respect of goods carriages. In view of the much greater braking force we are still facing a number of problems. In addition the international interchange of carriages entails the necessity for all national railway systems in Europe to cooperate in order to achieve noticeable results. It should be mentioned that only one third of the goods carriages operating on the SBB tracks belong to the SBB itself! Yet the increasing acceleration of the goods traffic connections are accompanied by increased requirements for operational stability and, in addition, indirectly for quiet running. Seen from this angle alone new goods carriages will gradually become quieter. Likewise succesful additional measures, as in the case of passenger carriages, must, however, first be discovered. Based on this viewpoint the SBB is very much interested in research work, which is carried out together with the larger European railway companies. A committee of experts o f the Research and Experimental Office of the International Railway Union ORE, which has its head office in Utrecht, is now conducting an intensive study into the question, whether and how the running noise of railways can still further be significantly reduced. (Lit. 3 ) The noise reradiation mechanism are analyzed with the use of the most sophisticated techniques f o r measuring the intensity of sound. Until today it has, for instance, already been established that also in the case of goods carriages noise originates mainly from the running gear and not from the coachwork. A type of graph of the sound emission of a travelling wheel on the rail clearly shows that the emissions in the middle frequency range 500 to 1 0 0 0 Hz stem from the contact zone between wheel and rail. Closer observation makes it clear that the rail immediately underneath the wheel radiates a considerable share of the emissions. Therefore it is obvious that at present changes to the rails are studied (Geometry, metal cladding, damping etc.).

148

It has also become clear that the higher frequencies are evenly reradiated from the wheeldiscs. Meaningful noise reduction in the wheel-rail system can only be expected when simultaneously measures in respect of the wheel discs are taken. To this end several systems in the standard-gauge railways are already being tested with varying degrees of success. (Lit.4) The aim is to suppress the vibrations of the wheel by means of absorbers and to shield off the emitting surfaces. When the results of the ORE research are positive, it will become evident whether international cooperation will be able to drastically reduce the sound emissions by rail traffic in time. 5

PASSIVE SOUND PROTECTION ALONG THE RAILWAY LINES

The remaining conflicts in Switzerland must in any case be removed by the construction of sound-proof barriers along the tracks before the end of the year 2002. Sound propagation is limited by means of the well-known earth walls, screens and even by means of partial or complete masking (in the case of new installations). These measures, already familiar sights along motorways, are based on the physical fact that sound, when forced by an obstacle to divert, loses much of its intensity. And the greater the diversion the more the sound is reduced. The geometric laying out of the obstacles in relation to the source of the sound (in the case of railways the wheel-rail zone) also plays an important part in attaining optimal effect. The smaller the distance from the screeniwall or the higher the top of the screenlwall respectively, the greater the effectiveness. In the case of rail tracks, because of their low situation, solutions in the clear space near the track, and therefore in the immediate vicinity of the rails, can now be prepared instead of sound protection screens that are too high and consequently mar the beauty of the landscape. At present such systems are widely tested in Switzerland. 6

REORGANISATION OF SOUND-PROTECTION ALONG THE SBB NETWORK

To carry out all these tasks to reorganise noise abatement the SBB has to proceed with proper coordination and step by step:

- First of all it should be a matter of prime importance for the assessment to prepare an exact emission model. The already known approaches to solutions in the formula L=A+Blog (v) for the emissions were refined per category of train on the basis of a widely implemented measuring campaign. fLit.61

- These emission formulas, that depend on the rolling stock, are the basis of a detailed network-wide emission-data-bank containing the annual averages of emission values (theoretical value at a distance of 1 m from the axis of the track), which are annually and automatically updated on the basis of the new schedules. In particular this data bank serves to make an initial rough distinction between the possible areas of conflict, i.e. areas where the limiting values are exceeded, by means of a simple distance model.

149

-These source values are also employed by the consultant firms who have been commissioned by us and who as a next step will advise us of the object-related data within the possible areas of conflict. To this end they will work with a special computer software programme put at their disposal by the SBB and so their work will be verifiable, rational and in accordance with uniform criteria LLit.51. With a digitizer the terrain data are taken from the schedules and so the absorption of the propagated sound and the immission values in the surrounding built-up area are exactly calculated. The data bank should be updated and completed as and when necessary. - A s is required by law we shall periodically work o u t an actual

noise annoyance cadastre from two additional data banks, in order to deliver the proof of the progress in the reorganisation of sound protection to the supervising authority and to the interested members of the public. - Beside further theoretical preparations the possible noise

control structures are further developed at present. In particular we are trying to find solutions in the clear space area, which may be erected instead of high walls. Geometric and material tests have been undertaken in a large pilot plant in the Base1 area since one year ago. Clear outlines of requirements for network-wide noise control screens will result therefrom and these will also satisfy a tourism oriented Switzerland. REFERENCES TO LITERATURE 1

2 3 4

5 6

Federal law on environment protection, Of 7.10.83, EDMZ Bern. ( German ) Confederation noise protection ordinance of 15.12.86 EDMZ, Bern. (German) Noise problems in Railway Systems, various reports of the committee of experts ORE C163, ORE, Utrecht, 1982-1990. (German) Measures to curb travelling noise of wheels of railway vehicles, DT 180 (C163), J. Reybardy and A . Zach, ORE, Utrecht, March 1989. (German) SEMIBEL, Swiss Emission and Immission Calculation Programme for Railway noise, Construction Management SBB, Bern, 1990. (German) Research into parameters controlling emissions, Calculation Model Railway Noise, Construction Management SBB, Bern, 1.3.90. (German)

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

M. h'r~iun.H Sir111and J . IWII Hum /Ediiurs/, Freighl Trunspurr und rhe Environmenr 8% IYYI Elwwer Sr.ienr.e PuhIisIiers 8. V . , Aiiisrerduirt. Prirrred in rhe Nerherlands

151

NEW PROGRESS IN DESIGNING INLAND CARGO VESSELS. A WINNER FOR FUEL-EFFICIENCY Hans H. Heuser Versuchsanstaltfur Binnenschiffau e. V., Klocknerstrasse 77, 0-4100 Duisburg, Germany

SUMMARY

Ongoing developments, supported by experiments in the field, in the hydrodynamic segment of inland cargo vessels over the past ten years, have led to a fundamentally better economical use of the propulsive energy. The herewith possible limitation of installed power has a side effect into the reduction of exhaust gas quantities. In the evaluation of transport relations to be implemented, the environment protective impact will get a significant higher order in the near future than at present. This could be expressed in an environment correlated figure, which would indicate the exhaust gas quantity per ton kilometre. Progress in the design of inland cargo vessels has fully taken this development into account, same as with a further increase in economic efficiency 1.

INTRODUCTION

Although the share of Traffic- and Transport means in the total consumption of primary energy on earth is relatively small, its effect on the environment is considerable. It should be absolutely imperative to reduce the harmful content in exhaust gas from fossil fuels as much as possible, and of course the amount of exhaust gas itself. Inland navigation uses inland transport routes and competes with land transport means. In this context it is physically capable and thereto predestined to transport huge amounts of cargo with relative small energy consumption. Both for reasons of environment protection as well as for economic reasons it will be significant to reduce the energy consumption further till the lowest possible minimum. 2. INLAND NAVIGATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN MEANS OF TRANSPORT

Favoured by the numerous and partially very well expanded waterways, Inland Navigation within the EEC possesses a noteworthy share in the total transport volume. For cargo transport by means TRUCK AND LORRY, RAILROAD AND INLAND NAVIGATION, the modal split is represented in the following tables :

152

TABLE 1 Inner BRD transport

[11

,

[31

transported amount t/yr

mode

LORRY & TRUCK RAILROAD INLAND NAVIGATION

[%I

[%I

42 32 26

48 28 24

TABLE 2 Border passing transport within the EEC transported amount t/yr

mode

LORRY & TRUCK RAILROAD INLAND NAVIGATION

transport performance tkm/yr

121

transport performance tkm/yr

[%I

[%I

43 13 39

?

? ?

~~

note: figures valid for 1987188 According to the BRD Traffic Route Plan ( 1985), the Inland Navigation in the BRD will maintain, if not increase, their transport performance (in tkm/yr), till the year 2000 131. The Steering Committee PROGNOS/BVU, Base1 predicts for the year 2015, compared to 1985, a Cargo Transport increase (in tlyr) by inland vessel of 21% (ref.[41). We distinguish within the cargo fleet of the Inland Shipping means of transport, the following transport systems: -

single motor cargo vessel barge pushing motor cargo vessel pushboat/ pushbarge combinations

Figure 1 shows dimensions and payload capacities of modern vessels and vessel combinations as presently being deployed on the river Rhine and partially its on tributaries. The trends of the last decennia indicates an increase of transport capacity and/or transport volume for the single motor cargo vessels, respectively the motorvessel combinations. A single hold per vessel became normal. In the context of present day and future research and development the preponderant objectives are: -

-

hydrodynamic and propulsive optimization cargo transfer friendly design traffic safe operation environment friendly deployment

153 A

B C

SINGLE MOTOR CARGO VESSEL PUSHING MOTOR CARGO VESSEL PUSHED BARGE COMBINATION PUSHBOAT PUSHED BARGE COMBINATION

-

-

I I 11.0

llK40

fig. 1 .

3600

I

Modern vessel and vessel combinations Plyins the river Rhine

3. REDUCTION OF THE SPECIFIC PROPULSIVE POWER, KEY TO ECONOMIC- AND ENVIRONMENT AWARE VESSEL OPERATION

The economic use of energy in Inland Navigation is -since the 'energy crisis' of the seventies- characterized by in-depth efforts to maximize the TRANSPORT EFFICIENCY.

TRANSPORT EFFICIENCY (QtNERAL)

L 2 payload quantity It1 lkmlhl VG = v e l o a i t y over ground P, = i n s t a l l e d ongine power I k W l SPECIFIC VALUES FOR COMPARISON OF INLAND VESSELS

p ~ / v[ k W l m ' l

fig. 2.

=

-

-

displacement r e l a t e d prcpuleive power

Transport efficiency formulae

154

The general formula (top) can be suitably transformed into a relation between ships velocity ( V ) and the payload related propulsive power (Pe/L) as shown at the bottom of figure 2. With vessels, in particular when sailing in shallow waters, an increase of velocity tends in general to a reduction of the transport efficiency (GTL) , because of the increase of the required propulsive energy to the third, or much higher, power of the velocity. This phenomenon of a decline in the payload related propulsive power (Pe/L) at certain speed and shoaling water, must get the full attention of R & D in the hydrodynamic segment of Inland Navigation. As such this recommendation is confirmed by a recent publication titled "Energy-saving Potential of the Inland Navigation Sector in the Netherlands" [ref.5, January 1 9 9 0 1 . Starting from an already optimized ratio payload to displacement which is subject to separate efforts for improvement in the area of hull construction and strength, and taking as a constant value the mechanical engine/propeller efficiency then the appropriate alternative for research comes forward being: the displacement related, specific propeller power or in formula: Po/V [ kW/m31

The hydrodynamic researcher has consequently the obligation to find means to move a maximum of displacement with a minimum of power, at a preselected speed. (ref. [ 6 1 , [ 7 1 ) . In a comparison the boundary conditions must be corresponding be , for obvious reasons. They are in this case:

- the mean

WATERDEPTH

(h)

and - the vessels DRAUGHT

(T)

To these underlying conditions the following factors of influence apply: - the vessels total resistance - type, size and arrangement of propulsion and steering

means

- interaction between hull and steering- and propulsion means. Increasingly the interactions around the vessel itself, but also between vessel and waterway are being considered and appreciated as decisive for an energy saving-, and therewith an economically favourable vessel design. The design criteria and recommendations which are valid for deep water navigation, can change drastically when shallow water navigation comes into focus. A widely used parameter of hullform is the block coefficient Ce, which for inland vessels with their often more than 60% parallel midship length, for that matter cannot be applied reasonably any more. The shape of the vessels extremities alone is already of unproportional greater influence than the rectangular midship section. For such vessels separate elaboration of fore- and aftship sections is obtained through individual block coefficients. The hull shaping itself -the three dimensional composition of fore and aftship section- for inland vessels, which are sailing on continuously changing waterdepths, is up to nowadays mainly determined by the experience and feeling of the Designer.

155 CURVE OF WET SECTIONAL AREA'S WITH BUBDIVIBION OF INDIVIDUAL SECTION BLOCK COEFFICIENT8 *OR MOTOR CAR00 VEBBCLB

fig. 3 .

Subdivision of total block coefficient CB

Apparently the CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) process has a lead on the CAD (Computer Aided Design) process, and probably will continue to do so for some time to come. As an intermediate step until useful CAD methods become available, the introduction of EAD (Experimentally Aided Design) has proven its reliability. This is where one encounters the principal area of interest for the Shipbuilding Research Centres, notably more so because of the possibility to subdivide the research on the various factors of influence. Starting from a basic design as supplied by the Client, the optimization as pursued can be obtained in various stepsof model development, or at least be approximated. The above mentioned interactions should be identified and in an ideal case, be reconciled to mutual profit. Of particular advantage is that the method of minimizing the specific power requirements, when executed in this way, is of almost equal significance as minimizing the fuel consumption and therewith the amount of exhaust gases. Serving equally both the aspects of Economy and Environment will thus become accounted for. 4.

PRACTICAL RESULTS

example 1 The improvement of the bowform of a pushbarqe The original bowform of the standard barge type EUROPE I was characterized by its, under 30 degrees rising, pontoon bow with cut edges as an extension from the bilges. This model was not satisfying on shallow water, since the bowform induced an excessive flow around the foremost bottom section. Such a flow increases the frictional resistance, creates a bowtrim and increases the dynamic sinking. The latter causes amongst others an increase of the so-called residuary resistance In several small- and two bigger steps the Duisburg Shipbuilding Research centre succeeded between 1 9 8 0 and 1 9 8 3 to create the so-called wedge frame bowform. [ 8 1 , [ 9 1

156

PONTOON BOW E IT a TYPE

WEDGE P O M BOW

E I1 b

fig. 4 .

TYPE

Improvement of the push barse bowform

A particular problem was the fact that the improvement not always would come to effect when applied in pushed convoys of two or more tiers. Figure 5 and 5a show the advantages of the final bowform model E IIb, compared to the so far applied bowform E IIa of a 76.50 m long and 1 1 . 4 0 m wide barge. At the comparative velocity of 1 2 km/hr the resistance reductions following figure 5. are:

convoy

1

12.0 %

convoy

2

6.0 %

convoy

3

2.0 %

The RESISTANCE- and POWER REDUCTION are velocity dependent. They are substantial in the case of the single tier, twinsection formation, since the bowform modification, without restriction by barges abreast would be fully effective fore and aft. Important is however that improvements with up to three tier 6-barge convoys still can be found. The really relevant savings in propeller power become only visible in the interaction of the bargeconvoy with the pushboat (refer to figure 5a) as follows: convoy

1

14.3%

convoy

2

8.6%

convoy

3

????

157

[$I

i -

h = 5,O m

TL = 3,O m

LO

.mcrmu(Un

K I I b

0

6

fig. 5.

1

8

9

10

11

v

12

13

15

11

16

17

18

lkmlhl

Specific resistance of barse only-formations with E 11 a and E I1 b barqes

h = 5.0 m T,= 3 0 m

0

, 6

fig. 5a.

1

i

9

Ib

{I

v

l 3 Ikmlhl

12

14

15

16

11

I8

Specific resistance of Pushboat-barse formations with E I1 a and E I1 b barqes

158

It is clear, as repeatedly confirmed, that the energy savings are larger than the resistance reduction. This is mainly based on the fact that the effective ratio convoy length

to

convoy beam

increases with the pushboat added, and thus becomes more favourable. This must be even more notable with larger beam convoys. In addition to this comes, in the case of multiple-tier convoys, the reduction of the energy consuming wake turbulence as effectuated by the pushboat body. Moreover should -at least with single and still with double tier convoys- improved inflow conditions for the propeller, tend to an increase in propeller efficiency. With increased draught of the barge and shallower waters, and consequently with reduced underkeel clearance, a clear gain in power saving with the new bow shape is effectuated. Depending on the boundary conditions, power savings for oneand double tier convoys between 8 % and 22% could be reached. Of interest to the barge Operator is the fact that the pay load capacity of the E IIb barge, when fully loaded, is about 4 5 tons higher is than the original shape of the barge type E IIa. example 2 iuqqernaut-barqe For propulsion energy saving in pushbarge operations of the future, concentration of cargo in large single barges would come into account. This topic has been subject to proposals by the VBD for more than 10 years. A research report on the subject is at moment in its final phase (ref [lo]). The results indicate that the barge Operators should occupy themselves with the question whether the procurement of juggernaut barges would fit in the future substitution plans for their existing barge fleet. The convoys made up with these barges would be exclusively bound for Rhine river traffic between Rotterdam and Karlsruhe. Figure 6 shows the shape of this juggernaut barge in the version 100m length by 1 4 m width. L

fig. 6.

B

x

loo

*

14

4.0

m

Hish capacity varqe (super barse) linesplan (future standard barse E 111)

159

In respect of the partially reduced transport quantities in the bulk trade and primary the growing container transport, are the load capacities as offered with the above barge dimensions certainly of interest. The new juggernaut barge would be able to transport at least 2 2 4 TEU in four stacks. In figure 7 and 8 some essential research results of the juggernaut barge tests are displayed and compared to the E IIb barge formations.

4

PO

m,

TL = 3,O rn h = 5,O m

0,20

TL = 3.0 m h = 5.0m

920

k]

[%]

0.15

0.15.

0.10

OJO.

0,05

I

7

8

9

10

v

11 12 [kmlhl

13

14

7

a

i

io

v

ii

I

12 Ikmlh]

-

13

14

figure 71 Specific power consumption of HC barue versus figure 8 standard E IIb barse formations When deploying 2 juggernaut barges in tandem configuration 1 tier formation) in stead of four standard barges in twin tandem configuration ( = 2 tier formation), the energy saving per m3 of displacement when compared at a realistic speed of 13 km/hr, amounts to abt. 2 7 %. The 4 juggernaut barge formation compared to a 6 E IIb barge formation ( in the most favourable 3 long, 2 wide configuration) arrives still at 6% energy saving. The final elaboration of these extensive series of tests additionally with modified dimensions of the juggernaut bargewill confirm the significant economic advantages of the twintandem configuration under all boundary conditions. The convoy made up with 2 juggernaut barges, because of its absolutely lower power consumption, would permit a continued deployment of older pushboats with relative lower propulsive power. (=

160

Even with 4 m draught at 5m waterdepth would 2 x 800 kW be sufficient for a speedy and traffic-safe handling of barges. example 3 Inland Carqo Vessel of the future With this broad characterization an extensive Research & Development program is at moment being executed in the FRG. Financed by the Federal Ministry for Research and Technology, the Federal Association of West German Inland Navigation and the participating Shipyards a triple objective is being pursued, being:

-

Optimization of the hydrodynamic quality of new building vessels.

-

The elaboration of data for the weight optimized construction of such vessels.

-

The development of resistance reducing and propulsion improving means for the existing inland cargo vessels.

All three objectives are focused on improvement of the economic efficiency and the safety of traffic. Herewith, the efficient use of propulsive energy stands in front as an objective for development. After important pre-research [ll] the first partial objective, the optimization of the hydrodynamic quality of new building vessels, already leaded to marked results [ 1 2 1 Starting with basic designs from the participating shipyards and the VBD, further development of HULL SHAPING was executed. Also the influence of detail variants such as propeller direction of rotation nozzle construction rudder installations on power consumption were investigated. Figure 9 shows as an example the possible energy saving with an optimum stern- and bow form, compared to an in praxis satisfactorily performing, large self propelled motor cargo vessel, which was designed following present day principles. Total reduction of the specific resistance could be obtained -depending on waterdepth and vessels draught- between 1.5% and 3 4 % . The average effective saving quotient lies between It was also an objective of the R & D plan to determine the effect of an increase resp. reduction of the vessels' parallel midship section length, on the specific power requirements. Figure 10 confirms that the energy saving per m3 of displacement as a result of length increase is noteworthy. It amounts for example to 7% for ships lengths between 110 and 125 m. With the application however it should be observed that the vessels deadweight with unchanged width and depth, for constructive reasons percentage wise exceeds the increase in displacement resulting from the hull extension. The saving related to the payload amount, then ends up lower. It can be stated that an increase of the permitted ships length up to 125 m for economic reasons, would be reasonably effective.

161 1.0

0.175

0.5

0

fig. 9.

Enersv savins with an inland carso vessel of the future on basis of specific poiwer

0.90..

80

fig. 10.

90

100

1

ria

,.,

130

Enersv savins Per m 3 of displacement with inland cargo vessel of the future on basis on the waterline lenght

162

REFERENCES 1

2 3 4

5 6

I

8 9

10 11

12

Der Bundesminister fur Verkehr, Binnenschiffahrt und BundeswasserstraRen 1988. Kommission der Europaischen Gemeinschaften, Generaldirektion Verkehr Briissel , Marktentwicklung, Veroffentlichung Nr. 28, Juni 1988. Bundesverband des Deutschen Guterfernverkehrs (BDF) e.V., Verkehrswirtschaftliche Zahlen 1988. Bundesverband des Deutschen Guterfernverkehrs (BDF) e.V., Verkehrswirtschaftliche Zahlen 1989. NEA, Nederlands centrum voor onderzoek, advisering en onderwijs op het gebied van verkeer en vervoer, Rijswijk, Energiebesparingspotentie in de binnenvaart, January 1990. Heuser, H.H. Energieeinsparung bleibt vorrangiges Forschungsthema fir die Binnenschiffahrt, Internationales Verkehrswesen, Heft 411983. Heuser, H.H., Spezifischer Energieeinsatz im Guterfernverkehr wo steht die Binnenschiffart?, Zeitschrift fur Binnenschiffart und WasserstraRen Nr. 411 987. Heuser, H.H., Push-tows for inland waterways - how to reduce their energy requirement, 7th Intern. Tug Convention, London 1982. Heuser, H.H., Auswirkung der Leichterformgebung auf Widerstand und Leistungbedarf von Schubverbanden, Zeitschrift fur Binnenschiffahrt und WasserstraRen, Nr. 1 1 11985. Zollner, J. Systematische Untersuchung von Schubleichtern mit groRen Abmessungen, VBD-Bericht Nr. 1269, June 1990. von der Stein, N., Neue Bewertungskriterien fir die Formgebung von getunnelten Mehrschrauben-Hinterschiffen, Jahrbuch STG 1988. Heuser, H.H., Optimierung von Formgebung, Vortrieb und Steuern fcr Binnen-GroRmotorschiffe, VBD-Bericht Nr. 1260, February 1990, Eigendruck VBD.

M. h'rooii, H. Siii;r und J. vun Huin (Edirors)s Freighr Transporr and rhe Environinenr c IYYI Elsewer Science Publi.shers B V , , Ainsrerduni. Prinred in rhe Nelherland.7

163

EMISSIONS FROM INLAND AND COASTAL SHIPPING AND POTENTIAL FOR IMPROVEMENT L. Kolle", 0. Melhusa, K. Bremnes" and G. Fiskaab "Marintek - Sintef Group, P.O. Box 4125, N-7002 Trondheim, Norway 'Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, Norway

1.

BACKGROUND

In comparison with other transport forms, the energy consumption In sea transportation in terms of kWhlton km is favourably low, as shown in figure 1. (gllon km) 15

Fig. 1:

1

Fuel consumption for various transport forms. (Source : Svensk Sjofartstidning).

Due to the near relationship between the amount of burnt fuel and air pollution, sea transportation represent an environmental-friendly form of transportation, With todays concern about air pollution, this should result in giving sea transportation a competitive edge, as well as emphasising the importance of further reduction of harmful emissions from ships. The NOx emission from shipping presented in this paper might seem high, but one should bear in mind the dominating role shipping plays in domestic and international transportation. in this paper we will concentrate on describing methodology and results from a Norwegian study, performed on contract for the Norwegian State Pollution Control Authority in order to determine the current levels of exhaust gas emissions from international shipping.

2.

METHODOLOGY

Probably the only method capable of charting exact figures for exhaust gas emissions and inventories would be to install equipment for continuous emission registration on ail ships combined with a detailed registration of each specific ship's movement on a world-

164 wide basis. According t o Lloyd's Statistical Tables the total world fleet contains 75.680 ships of 100 gross tons or more, and the amount of work will be prohibitivg In the Norwegian study the exhaust gas emissions from ships In international trade and the global distribution have been computed on the basis of the ships' bunker consumption combined with the transport pattern of the sea-borne cargo. The stipulated bunker consumption figures have been compared with the statistical figures for bunker deliveries, and adequate corrections have been made. The basic input data for the computations are as follows :

1.

International sea-borne transport pattern. The distribution of bunker consumed on international ship routes has been constructed in accordance with the international sea-borne trade statistics.

2.

Ships' bunker consumption. The consumption of bunker for each category of ships and ship size has been stipulated on the basis of world fleet statistics and ship data given in ship register books. Ships' total bunker consumption has been corrected in accordance with international energy statistics.

3.

Exhaust gas emission. Bunker consumption has been converted to emission of NOx and SO2 in accordance with the latest established emission factors.

For each main type of goods (general cargo, liquid bulk, dry bulk etc.) moved between given coastal regions, the consumed bunker has been calculated In accordance with the volum carried, voyage length and the type and size of ships employed for the relevant trade. The bunker consumed has been converted into emission of NO, and S02, and these figures have been marked on ocean charts in accordance with the main international ship routes.

3.

THE PATTERN OF INTERNATIONAL SEA-BORNE TRANSPORT

The pattern of the international seaborne trade has been drawn up on the basis of data given in "International Sea-borne Trade Statistics Yearbook 1884-1985" issued by United Nations Organization. In this statistic, goods traded internationally are classified into 37 categories under 5 main groups (dry bulk, liquid bulk, type of general cargo etc.) according t o the general characteristic of their ocean carriage. The coastlines of the world are divided into 30 regions compatible with geographical and national constraints. Quantities are shown in metric tons and the transport distances (average length of haul) in nautical miles.

3.1 Exportllmport regions Unfortunately, only a condensed version consisting of 15 regions was available for electronic data processing at the start of this study. These regions are: 1 2 3 4 5

East Coast North America West Coast North America Central America East Coast South America West Coast South America

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

British Isles Northern Europe Atlantic Coast West Europe Mediterranean Area West Africa South- and East Africa Red Sea and Persian Gulf South and Southeast Asia Far East Asia Oceania

The traffic between these 15 regions give a total number of 105 ship routes, internal traffic in the regions not included. The Cross ocean routes are far less in numbers because many routes are combined.

4.

SHIPS' BUNKER CONSUMPTION

The specific bunker consumption expressed as "units per ton per nautical mile" varies greatly with the category of ships and the size of ships. This information is not readily available, and it has been necessary to carry out a fleet survey t o establish the average ship size as well as the average bunker consumption, for each category of ships of the world fleet. Ship data and specifications from 50 - 80 ships of each category have been used to stipulate the consumption factors. The essential Input data for this survey have been collected from Lioyds' Statistical Tables. Lloyds' Register of Ships and other specialized Ship Register Books. In addition t o ship sizes and bunker consumption the fleet survey also contain engine data and power consumption factors. Calculation factors for bunker and power consumption have been corrected for ballast voyages, bunker supply, load factors, engine loads etc. The result of the fleet survey is given In table 1. (next page).

4.1 Bunker consumptlon Statistics The only available statistics which give bunker consumption on world wide basis is the "Energy Statistics Yearbook", issued by United Natlons. This statistic only includes bunker deliveries to "international marine transport". National consumption for marine activities are not specified, but included in other inland consumption of bunker oils. International Energy Agency (IEA) issues energy statistics for the OECD area, but none of these statistics specifies national consumption of bunker oils for marine purposes. The figures for international marine bunkers from IEA correspond fairly well with the UN energy statistics.

4.2 International consumption For the years 1982 - 1986 world international consumption of bunker type oils and total consumption are given in table 2. According t o the figures in table 2. the consumption of bunker fuel oil for international transport is approximately 6.5% of the world total consumption of bunker type olis (residual fuel, gas- and diesel oils) and approximately 3% of total consumption of liquid energy products. Table 2. shows a decrease in total bunker deliveries t o international transport from 98.7 mill.tons in 1982 t o 83.7 mill.tons in 1984, increasing t o 87.5 mill. ton in 1986.

,I TIPf

07

'

SIZE

SPECTIC :OMS.

X T

SHIP

LORREC.

! SPEED

",J"

KNOT5

iu,no

19,650

I

28,221

51.k82

9.793

261 202

IS.2 U.6

132.0 b7.4

I

8,100

12,556

b.410

203

13.5

276.410 161.242

26.280

17.b62

2 76 1Q1

16.0

TJ.539 21.745

36.716

U.207

1.9113

3.L13

72.232 20.2R

57,161 23.211 1.&32

75.3.34

131,313

0.2607 0.3b71

o.ow 0.0130

1.R 1.67

0.0154 0.0217

3.0025 3.0026

63X 6%

9,MLO 0.mo

10.6

O.SLL4

0.0250

1.61

u.0403

0.2450

4aBx

3.3074

174.2 10.1

0.2301

0,0063

1.96

3.0029

0.2LOZ

0.0opo

1.36

0.0:23 0.0176

55x

15.L

a.oois

I

5zx

3.0019

205

15.3

31.9

0.37i.L

0.0!68

1.35

0.0311

3.0030

I !

60%

I

3.t8050

1.777

210

12.1

9.0

O.Sp61

3.0L30

1.69

0.3727

0.0WO

I '

63X

!

0.0143

25.5m 9.247 1.-

280

19. 2 16.1 12.0

171.8 42.5 8.4

0.3142

0.0231 0.033P

0.0066

562

0.om

1 .BZ

O.WU 3.0611 3.1L54

55%

0.4561 1.078Q

1.92 1.92

0.8065

195 200

0.P159

6cI.

3.0119 0.0119 0.0265

22.0 17.3

156.0 56.7

C.Bq55 3.9141

0.0355

.

.(19 1.70

3.0600

0.3095

208

O.W?

O.DW3

73x 6JX

0.3136 0.0155

2%

15.5

22.0

1.064)

0.0~02

1.85

0.w29

0.0102

58X

'

I

0.0Otb

I

1,269

igCralCd 27.105 11,963

9 31.%5 14,142

2L. 273 10,935

5 . m

4.LW

268

o.osas

0.0176

167

1985

i 986

69,331 16.042 85.373

70,711 16.812 87.523

605,017 621,840 697.292 707.113 1,303,309 1,328,953 2,807,539 2,955,266 gums in I ,ooOrnatric tons)

Table 2.

-

SoWO.: UN Enarpy Slnlistics Vaarbooh 1Qf

International consumption of bunker oils.

The consumption of light bunker oils (gasldiesel oils) for marine purposes in relation to heavy bunker oils, has been constantly growing during the period covered by the above named statistics. Light oil consumption Increased from 16% of the total consumption of marine bunker in 1982 to 19% in 1986. 4.3 National bunker consumption As mentioned above the consumption of bunker oils for coastal and other national marine purposes are not specified in international statistics.

In some countries the national consumption of marine bunker may be considerable. The Norwegian deliveries of bunker oil for marine consumption (1986) are given in table 3. This table shows that deliveries to fishing- and coastal vessels represent 69% of total consumption, while 31% are deliveries to ships in international trade. Of the total consumption of bunker type oils in Norway 80% is landbased consumption, while fisheries and coastal transport each represent 10%. Due t o a very long coastline and extensive activities in the fishing sector, Norway is in a special situation compared with most other countries, but national consumption of marine bunker oil may be considerable also in some other countries. Only national statistics or other national Information will contain the necessary data for stipulation of the total emissions of exhaust gasses from all ships.

Coastal transport Fisheries Total

Heavy fuel oil 156 5 161

International bunker deliveries Total

210 371

(Figures in 1 .OOO metric tons) Table 3 .

-

Gas 8t diesel oil 262 428 690 170 860

Total 418 433 851 380 1231

Source: Norsk Petroleumsinstitutt

Norwegian bunker deliveries 1986.

168

5.

EMISSION FACTORS

MARINTEK has performed studies regarding emission factors and especially NO, emission, for marine diesel engines for several years. Various medium speed and high speed engines have undergone laboratory tests. During the latest months additional comprehensive emission measurements on bord Norwegian coastal vessels have been performed.

5.1 Measurements on laboratory englnes. In the machinery laboratories at the Marine Technical Center (MTS) in Trondheim. NO, emissions from four marine, medium speed diesel engines have been established. These engines have been operated both according t o the propeller law and at constant speed. The reason for establishing NO, emission at different operating modes, is that In the coastal trade fleet some ships use propellers with fixed pitch and some propellers with variable pitch. NO, Emissions from the engines operating according to the propeller law are shown in table 4.

4 stroke

Table 4. NO,

NO, emission factors from marine diesel engines (medium 4 speed) operated according to the propeller law ,

emissions from engines operating at constant speed are shown in table 5.

100% load

4 stroke 2 stroke Table 5 .

NO, emission factors from marine diesel engines(medium speed) operated at constant speed.

The differences in NO, emissions on different engine loads, are due t o differences in engine speed and process conditions. 5.2 Measurements on operating vessels. During the winter 198911990 NO, emissions from main engines on operating vessels in Norwegian coastal trade were established. Both 2 stroke and 4 stroke diesel engines and both fixed and variable pitch propeller were covered by this investigation. The age of the engines varies from more than 30 t o less than 5 years while the size ranged from some hundred and up to several thousand kilowatts. The results are shown In table 6.

169

4 stroke 2 stroke Total

62.6

12.2

NO, emission factors from operating vessels in Norwegian coastal trade.

Table 6 .

The results shows that the NO, emissions established from laboratory engines and engines installed in ships differ quite much. Some of the reason for this is that all the laboratory engines are new or upgraded engines with high efficiency, while many of the engines on the vessels are old engines with lower efficiency. Further more, some of the vessels with propeller with variable pitch did not operate at constant speed.

6.

EMISSION FROM SEA TRANSPORT

CALCULATED NO,

Table 7 . shows the world total emisslon from international transport. This calculation is based on the bunker consumption for 1986 and the following conversion factors. 70g/kg fuel oil NOx 8glkg fuel oil NOx

Motor Ships: Steam Ships:

Consumed bunker Mill. tons

Emission

Motor Ships

53,916 Hvf 16,812 Mdo*

3,774 1,177

Steamships

16,795 Hvf

Total

87,523

Ship type

Table 7

-

World total NO,

NO,

134

5,085

emission from international sea-borne transport.

Figure 2. shows the emission from international shipping relative t o the total global emissions. Emission 106 tonnes

_I

Reported m r l d total emission 1980

50

Additional contribution f r a n international shipping

SO1

Figure 2.

NOx

Total global emissions of NO, international shipping.

ans SO2 and relative figures for

170 Fig. 3 ;

-

Emission of NO, and SO,

-_-

111

North European Waters

I hllSSlON OF 110, A N D SO, ON M A I N SlllP ROUTES IN NORTH EUROPE F R O M SHIPS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE IFIGUnES 111 I.IElI1IC 1 0 l l S PER N ILIILE P E l l I F A R )

,./”

/ ...

..

/’

j

I “‘1,

I

fl-4

1

171 From the calculated results may be summarized : International shipping contributes about 7% of the total NO, scale.

6.1 Emissions of NO,

emission on a global

and SO2 In North European waters

A special survey has been carried out for the North Sea, Baltic and English Channel. To be able to chart the bunker consumption and exhaust gas emission on the main ship routes within this area it has been necessary to use national export/import statistics, manual calculations and estimates based on experience in addition to the basic figures computed on the basis of the UN sea-borne transport statistics. Due to some uncertain factors, the figures must only be regarded as approximate. A more extensive use of national exportlimport statistics, port statistics etc. will be necessary to produce more correct figures. From the results may be summarized :

4% of the total emissions of NO, and SO2 from International shipping are emitted in the North Sea and the English Channel. This amount is comparable wlth the discharges In countries like Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands and Norway. Area emissions varies considerably, and may represent significant local and reglonal emission problems. The result of this survey is given on EMEP map in figure 3 (next page). The emissions are especially high in the narrow waters of the English Channel by Dover. The discharges are also high in the southern part of the North Sea, especially along the coastline of Belgium, the Netherlands and West Germany. Figure 4. shows area emissions (tonnes per square kilometer per year) for the North Sea and some European countries. As can be seen, the area emissions in most European countries are much higher than in the North Sea and the English Channel. Local variations in the density of traffic on the sea will, however, result in area emissions that represent local or regional emission problems of significance. EJtisbl

(toonesp . l ~ n I2

Figure 4.

Emission in tonnes per square kilometer of NO, ans SO2 in the North Sea, the English Channel and some European countries. Figures from 1985.

172

7.

UNCERTAINTIES

The employed method for calculation of emissions Is dependent of several parameters. Uncertainties In the transport pattern, fleet composition, bunker consumption and emission factors will all influence the calculated total emissions as well as their geographic distribution. The sea transport pattern Is based on figures from the UN statistics. This statistics does not cover data from coastal transport, inland water ways, fisheries and other national marine activities. Therefore, only emissions from ships in International trade are included in thls study. Only national Statistics will contain the necessary data for estimation of those sources. The study has not Included details regarding ship routes, and hence the calculated emissions are distributed on the most important international ship routes. The emission factors are based on the latest information from major engine builders as well as Norwegian measurements on operating vessels and laboratory engines.

8.

POSSIBLE MEANS OF NO,

REDUCTION

Several methods may be applied to reduce NO,

-

emissions from ships, such as :

alternative fuels/techniques engine modifications exhaust gas cleaning better utilication of existing transport capacity energy optimized vessels

Of these, only the first three will be further dealt with here.

8.1 Alternative Fuels. Alternative bunker fuil qualities imply only minor alterations In NO, emission, and normal fuel oil additives have marginal effects. Emulsion of higher rates of alcohols, for instance methanol show more promising results, but might not be realistic in marine application. Another technique, which has been used on landbased applications, is by water emulsion or water injection In the cylinder units. By these methods, NO, emissions may be reduced as much as 30%. with minor increase in fuel oil consumption. By using natural gas fuel, NO, reduction of 20-30% may be achieved. For smaller engines (5000 kW) "Otto-lean burn" engines may be applied, resulting in NO, reduction of ab. 80%.

8.2 Engine Modification. Considerable reductions of NO, emissions can be achieved by optimizing the engines for low emissions. With contemporary technology it is possible to reduce the NO, emission from modern engines by approximately 50%. A reduction of 25% may be achieved without a significant increase in fuel oil consumption. Efforts for higher NO, reductions will, with todays technology, Increase the fuel consumption in the range up t o 10%. This fuel consumption penalty will reduce the effect of the emission reduction and at the same time increase the CO2 emission. There is a potential in new techniques in the future for reduction or elemination of the fuel consumption penalty, and possibly also for a reduction below the 50% figure.

I73

8.3 Exhaust Gas Cleaning. Existing technology for landbased applications is able to reduce both S02, particles and NO,. Common for these process plants is that they are voluminous and therefore not easily applicable on existing ships. Only NOx-reducing SCR plants have so far been installed in newbuilt ships. The most promising process for exhaust gas treatment is the deNOx-ing Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) technology. This process is adopted from the power generating industry, and the first ships with this NOx-reducting equipment are built in 1989. The SCR plant is claimed able to reduce the NO, emission 80 - 90% with the use of ammonia (NH3) to give pure N2 and H20. In addition HC emission can be reduced by as much as 60%. Investment cost depends on engine size. For a pilot plant installed on a power station with a 20 MW diesel generator the price is reported to be 80.000 US$/MW, and two ships with 4MW main engines are under construction with SCR plants for 130.000 US8IMW. Operational costs are estimated t o be 2-3. US$/kWh. Also regarding this technique further improvement should be anticipated. 9.

FINAL REMARKS

For a period, technical improvements in ships and ship engines have compensated for the increase in sea transport volume. and the energy consumption and polluting emissions have been contant for some years. This technological achievement has been powered by high fuel prices and the economic competition in the transport sector, resulting in very efficient ships and engines. These improvements will slow down, however. These days there are signs indicating that international trade will increase even faster than before, and the energy consumption can not be kept constant by increased efficiency. Polluting emissions will increase unless the emission problem is addressed directly. Economic competition is, however, not a natural force t o propel technological developments in this field. Within reasonable economic frames it is possible t o reduce the NO, emission by 50 t o 80 percent. In order to achieve this it will be necessary t o have international regulations, stipulating permissible emission levels from the various sources of pollution. The regulations should make reasonable allowances for technology and costs, so that their implementation will not result in unfortunate social consequences, such as penalizing either sea or road transport. The regulations should be enforced after a time interval, allowing for the development of necessary know how and technology.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

175

EMISSIONS FROM AIRCRAFT: STANDARDS AND POTENTIAL FOR IMPROVEMENT

D.M. Snape and M.T. Metcalfe Combustion Department, Rolls-Royce plc, P.O. Box 31, Derby, DE2 8BJ United Kingdom ABSTRACT

The paper will consider firstly the types of exhaust emissions produced by aircraft gas turbine engines and then attempt to put these into context in both global and local airport terms with particular emphasis on freight transport. The basic operation of the gas turbine combustor and the need to maintain a high standard of airworthiness will be discussed and the various techniques which have been used to bring about emissions reductions described. This leads into consideration of the likely trends in emissions from aircraft sources as air traffic growth occurs and discussion of the need for future technological developments to bring about emissions reductions. Finally the various levels and types of technology which are associated with differing emission reductions will be considered. AIRFREIGHT TRANSPORTATION

Aircraft engine emissions have mostly been considered in the context of passenger transportation. Before we can consider today's situation and the potential for improvement, it is necessary to understand the structure of airfreight and its relationship to other modes of transport. A comparison of United Kingdom domestic freight transport (figure 1) shows that airfreight is insignificant on a ,--Air

Pipeline 5%-

/

0.01%

Road59%

I

Fig 1. 1988 UK domestic freight transport, by tonne-km.

Fig 2 . IATA air transport breakdown, by tonne-km.

176

tonne-kilometre basis. On a wider scale, comparison shows that total world airfreight (ICAO members, excluding the USSR and GDR) is equivalent to 25% of U.K. or 1% of U.S. domestic freight transport (1). An analysis of the air transport market (figure 2 ) shows that freight accounts for 30% of all tonne-kilometres performed by IATA airlines (2). Approximately two-thirds of all freight is transported in the holds of passenger aircraft. This has resulted from the introduction of wide bodied passenger aircraft which have much larger cargo capacities compared with their older narrow bodied counter parts ( 3 ) . This is important in the context of aircraft engine exhaust emissions since it implies that a large proportion of freight is carried in modern aircraft, rather than old converted passenger aircraft. The re-engining of older freighters, with modern fuel efficient engines, will also result in overall reductions in emissions from this sector of the fleet. Airfreight has been predicted to grow annually until the turn of the century by 6-8% globally and 3 - 4 % within Europe ( 3 - 5 ) . It is expected that the distribution of airfreight between passenger aircraft holds and pure freighters will remain broadly similar. Because the majority of freight is carried on passenger aircraft, there will be a great similarity in the emissions situation between passenger and freight transportation. AIRCRAFT EMISSIONS IN CONTEXT

The problem of aircraft noise and the technology improvements which have brought about a dramatic reduction in noise levels are obvious to anyone living under an aircraft flight path. The improvements which have been made in exhaust emissions are less obvious, but have been continuing in parallel. On initial reading a list of the exhaust emissions from an aircraft gas turbine, figure 3 , looks formidable. It is important to see such a list in context. There have been a number of studies on the contribution made by aircraft to both airport and global emissions (6-8). These studies have generally concluded that the contribution from aircraft gas turbines is negligible in both cases compared with other sources such as motor vehicles. A comparison of aircraft and heavy goods vehicle (HGV) emissions on a grammes per tonne-kilometre basis is shown in Fuel Venting

- Raw Fuel

Engine drains, etc (now prohibited)

Water vapour Carbon Dioxide (C02) Carbon Monoxide (CO) Hydrocarbons (HC) - Olefins, paraffins, aromatics Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) - NO, NO2

Smoke - Carbon particles Oxides of sulphur (SOX)- S02, SO3

Fig 3 .

Exhaust emissions from aircraft gas turbine engines.

177

co

Emissions Output

HC

NOx

Particulates (smoke)

10

Range of Data

g/tonne - km

HGV: Weight load factor as for aircraft

Fig 4.

Comparison of aircraft and HGV emissions.

figure 4. The HGV emissions data (9) covers a range of vehicle weights and this leads to a wide variation in emissions. The aircraft emissions of carbon monoxide ( C O ) , hydrocarbons ( H C ) and oxides of nitrogen “0x1 fall broadly within those for HGV vehicles. The particulate emissions of aircraft engines are much lower, and invisible throughout the flight cycle. THE GAS TURBINE COMBUSTOR A gas turbine combustor, figure 5, accepts air from the high pressure compressor at a temperature of typically 850K and a pressure of 3 . 5 MPa, at high power conditions. Fuel, aviation kerosene, is burnt at approximately 2500K, with typical heat release rates of 100 MW in a volume of 85 litres. The combustion designer must take into account a large number of requirements which are placed on the combustor, some of which are shown in figure 5. Paramount always amongst the requirements, are those which impact on airworthiness. 0 Integrity - Reliability 0 Exit temperature dislributionTurbine integrity 0 Flame stability 0 Relight at altitude 0 Emissions J.11

FIB211 Conibustoi

0 Pressure lossFuel consumption 0 High combuslion efficiency 0 Cold slarling

0 Weight. cost, length

Fig 5.

The gas turbine combustor and its requirements.

178 Cruise

Emission output

Idle

I

I

Maximum

Engine Power

I I

Air Fuel Ratio ___ 40

100-

Fig 6. Gas turbine combustor emissions characteristics. Typical emissions characteristics for a gas turbine combustor are shown in figure 6. It can be seen that the production rates of different species are dependent on engine power setting. At low power settings around idle, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide can be produced in substantial quantities and the lack of complete oxidation of these represented an inefficiency which in the designs of the early 1960's amounted in some cases to 15%. As power increases and the combustor fuel air ratio becomes richer the nitrogen in the air is exposed for longer at high temperatures combining with oxygen to form oxides of nitrogen. Smoke also increases at higher powers due to the increased pressure levels and richer fuel air ratios. The shape of the emissions characteristics leads to a number of conflicts in designing low emissions combustors. As an example, if the combustor is designed to operate at a rich air fuel ratio at idle, to ensure complete oxidation of CO, this would lead to substantial NOx and smoke production at high power. Despite the design difficulties substantial progress has been made in our understanding of the combustion process and this has led to large reductions in combustor emissions whilst maintaining or improving on other aspects of combustor performance (Fig 7). This has been achieved in the case of the Rolls-Royce Spey and Tay engines by the use of novel technology (10). 40 1

121 Smoke SAE

20

0

i

0

20

60 Thrust %

40

80

100

V

.

0

20

40 60 Thrust %

Fig 7. Achievements in reduced engine emissions.

80

100

179

THE CURRENT EMISSIONS SITUATION

The impetus for the improvements over the past decades, was initially driven by the requirement for improved combustion efficiency and, therefore, reduced fuel burn. This was soon followed by the introduction of emissions regulations which started with the passing of the US Clean Air Act and the formation of the US Environmental Protection Agency. The objective of the legislation was to achieve invisible exhaust plumes and to limit emissions in the vicinity of airports, for which a representative landing - take-off cycle was developed, as a basis for legislation and comparison (Fig 8 ) . Currently the US legislation covers HC and smoke emissions and this standard has also been adopted by the UK. ICAO have recommended the adoption of these HC and smoke standards along with ones covering CO and NOx. So far, only a few countries have adopted the full ICAO standards, but engine manufacturers ensure all modern civil engines comply with the ICAO recommendations. More recently with the introduction of local air quality standards within the EEC, and other countries, the actual airport environment has become a more prominent issue. The potential benefits from improvements in combustor technology have been assessed by Rolls-Royce (11). A complete inventory has been compiled, of all newly-manufactured western civil transport aircraft in three time periods. Data from the ICAO engine emissions data bank have been used to show how the mass of emission per passenger LTO cycle has changed with time as new technology has been developed (Fig 9). Since the majority of airfreight is carried by passenger aircraft, these trends will be equally applicable to freight transport. It can be seen that dramatic reductions have been achieved in HC and CO production whilst reductions in NOX are smaller. In the same time periods, however, the continuing drive for improved fuel consumption has led to an increase in engine pressure ratio which, had NOx control technology remained constant, would have led to a substantial increase in NOx emissions. The environmental benefits of improved emissions control technology will only be realised as engines incorporating new combustors are introduced into service. The actual position at the end of 1988 is one where the longevity of both airframes and engines has led to little fleet penetration. Take-off & climb

S

K

Approach to land -

-4 Taxiing

Take-off

0.7 minutes

Climb

2.2 minutes

Approach

4.0 minutes

Taxi/ldle

26 minutes

Fig 8. Landing-Take-off cycle for calculation of total emissions below 3000ft.

180 Grams of emissions per passenger (LTO cycle)

-Average emissions at end of 1988

Average emissions by year of manufacture

Hydrocarbons 1- - - 1

/

Carbon Monoxide

I

NOx

Predicted NOx increase due to increased pressure ratio, and no iinproveiiient111technology

Y t4 L r l l I , I

Fig 9. Current and potential improvements in aircraft emissions. Thus it should be the case that as older airframe - engine combinations are replaced for noise reasons there will also be a beneficial side effect on emissions. The pace of introduction of technology can, of course, be forced by government and Sweden is an example where government policy has made it economically attractive to airlines to introduce low emissions technology, in some cases by retro-fitting improved combustors to an existing fleet. The current position is, that technological improvements have resulted in dramatic reductions in the smoke, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions of new engines. It is therefore difficult to justify economically the need for further work on these, however, further progress is desirable on oxides of nitrogen and possibly carbon dioxide and these will be considered in more detail. [Oxides of sulphur, whilst of major concern as an atmospheric pollutant from other sources, are not considered a problem in aircraft gas turbines since the closely controlled fuels specification permits a maximum of 0.3% sulphur]. OXIDES OF NITROGEN

The need to consider NOx comes about because of the continuing trend towards higher engine pressure ratios, for improved energy efficiency. A l s o , although small contributors on a global basis, aircraft concentrate their NOx at airports. These, combined with other high background sources (eg. motor vehicles) and under exceptionally adverse conditions, have been predicted to approach local air quality standards. A number of studies are in progress which should lead to a fuller understanding of the situation around airports. In addition, aircraft in flight are producing NOx directly at high altitude and, in the currently very limited case of supersonic transport, into the stratosphere where the effects are not understood (12).

181

Radial staging

Pilot zone

/ ain zone

Tandem staging

Fig 10.

Staged combustor designs for reduced NOx.

Attempts to substantially reduce NOx production have tended to centre around the use of staged combustion systems which operated in either single or double burning mode depending on engine power (Fig 10). Rolls-Royce and other engine manufacturers have undertaken research on these complex combustor designs. The Rolls-Royce Radial Staged combustor (13), shown on the left hand side of figure 10, was tested in 1979, and required 72 fuel injectors and associated swirl modules, compared with 18 in the conventional design. These very complex combustors suffer from a number of inherent disadvantages, which must not be allowed to undermine airworthiness (14). Requirements include, lighting across rapidly and with complete reliability between the pilot and main zone for engine acceleration; in particular this is critically important were aircraft have to rrgoaround" after an aborted landing. The complex fuel manifold and valve systems are potentially subject to blockage during destaging. Also the stability and water ingestion capability of the combustor when flying through rain storms is an unknown quantity. The radial staged design is also subject to exit temperature profile variations across the power range, which can adversely effect turbine component integrity. Another potential means to reduce NOx, (Fig 111, is the use of variable geometry which, in theory, produces an infinite number of combustor variations to match engine conditions. There are many challenges to be faced before such a system could be considered for aircraft use. High control system reliability and the ability to fail safe, for example, would be essential as the consequences of failure could otherwise be to create a severe safety hazard. In industrial applications, which have fewer power excursions, it is currently possible to consider designs which include variable geometry. Figure 12 shows a Rolls-Royce proposal for a very low emissions combustor in the industrial RB211. It is clear that bulk and weight, quite apart from complexity and thus potential airworthiness concerns, would preclude the use of such a design in an aircraft application.

I82 Variable geometry with mod!dation Challenges 0 0 0 0 0

0

Airlluel premixer wilh air niodulalion

Premix quality Premix integrity Airflow modulation Control/Handling Cost/weight/durability Failure mode analysis Cooling technology

\

Advanced wall cooling lo save air needed (or NOx conlrol

Fig 11. Variable geometry premixed combustor for low NOx emissions. Main fuel gallery

Multiple spray bars (main) ' .

20 tubular lransply combustors

Fig 12.

Industrial RB211 low NOx combustor.

CARBON DIOXIDE

It is becoming established that the burning of fossil fuels to form carbon dioxide is the major cause of the greenhouse effect. Various estimates exist which tend to show the contributions of aircraft to CO, production compared with other mobile and stationary sources to be of the order of 2%, ( 1 5 ) also the total contribution to CO production from mobile and stationary sources is about gn par with agricultural and natural sources. There are a number of possible ways of reducing the contribution of aircraft to the greenhouse effect. The first is to burn less fuel by continuing the industry's quest for more efficient engines (Fig 13) and airframes (lower weight and less drag). As we have seen, this trend results in higher pressure ratio engines, and therefore potentially, increased NOx emissions. A l s o , reduced fuel burn can be achieved by improved aircraft load factors and, ultimately the imposition of controls to reduce air

183

A

Turboprops Turbojets 0 - Low bypass turbolans High bypass turbofans

A 767

60

A Vanguard

2oi 0 1

Fig 13.

0 737-300 A320

I

I

I

I

1960

1970

1980

1990

Aircraft fuel burn trend.

transport. Secondly, CO, emissions can be reduced by the utilisation of fuels with a lower carbon content. It would be technically feasible to do this from a combustion point of view, although hydrogen burning, for example, can produce more NOx due to the higher flame temperature. Another alternative is the use of biofuels where the CO, is continually recycled from the atmosphere. Currently, available biofuels do not have the required properties for use in the harsh environment of the aircraft engine and its operational requirements. Therefore, further work will be required to improve their properties before they can be considered. The major problem with alternative fuels, however, comes in storage and handling both on the ground, where a large infra-structure has built up around provision of aviation kerosene, and in the air, where energy density considerations may affect aircraft range and where novel fuel handling and storage systems maybe needed, leading to new airframe designs. CONCLUSIONS

Development in combustion technology has already brought about substantial reductions in exhaust emissions. It is clear, however, that engine manufacturers must continue to develop technology to bring about further reduction. But it is equally clear that this cannot be at the expense of safety considerations. In particular, great caution must be exercised in the introduction of complex, staged or variable geometry combustors. An EEC initiative in which Rolls-Royce will participate and which is funded under BRITE/EURAM, has commenced with the objective of discovering how far emissions levels can be safely reduced by 2000 AD, without compromise to airworthiness. It may be that continued growth in airfreight and hence total emissions, will outstrip our ability to develop and put into service engines which incorporate low emissions technology. It must be clearly understood that whilst research and development will continue there will be no technological "magic wand".

184

We would like to thank the Directors of Rolls-Royce for permission to publish this paper, and add that the opinions expressed are ours and not necessarily those of Rolls-Royce plc. REFKRENCES

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12.

13. 14. 15.

Anon: Transport Statistics Great Britain 1978-1988; HMSO, London, 1989. Anon: World Air Transport Statistics 1988; IATA, 1989. Anon: Market Perspectives for Civil Jet Aircraft; Airbus Industries, 1990. Anon: Current Marker Outlook; Boeing, 1990. Anon: Outlook for Commercial Aircraft 1988-2002; McDonald Douglas. Naugle D.F. and Fox D.L.: Aircraft and Air Pollution; Environmental Science and Technology vol 15 No.4 pp391-395, April 1981. Koulagin Y.N.: Jet engine emissions at Sheremetjevo airport studied; ICAO Bulletin December 1985 pp22-25. Anon: Boeing air quality monitoring test at Los Angeles airport; 1981. Eggleston H . S . et al: CORINAIR Working Group on Emissions Factors for Calculating 1985 Emissions from Road Traffic, Volume 1: Methodology and Emissions Factors; 1989. Bhangu J.K. and Snape D.M.: The design and development of a low emissions Transply combustor for the Civil Spey Engine; AGARD conference proceedings No.353 1983. Anon: A Pre & Post Legislation Review of Civil Aircraft Gas Turbine Emissions; ICAO/CAEP 4th meeting of working group 3 (emissions), October 1989. Girard A. and Cariolle D.: New high-speed air transport system and stratospheric pollution; European Forum on Supersonic/Hypersonic transportation systems, Strasbourg, November 1989. Jones B.: The Application of Multiple Swirl Modules in the Design and Development of Gas Turbine Combustor; AIAA/SAE/ASME 15th Joint Propulsion Conference, June 1979. Anon: Severe Emissions Legislation - Effect on Airworthiness; ICAP/CAEP 4th meeting of working group 3 (emissions),October 1989. Eggleston H . S . , Warren Springs lab UK - Personal communication 1989.

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187

COST-BENEFIT-ANALYSES FOR GOODS TRANSPORT ON ROADS

Werner Rothengatter Institut fur Wirtschaftspolitik und Wirschaftsforschung der Universitat Karlsruhe (TH), Kollegium am SchloJ, Bau IV, D 7500 Karlsruhe, Germany

Development of goods transport on roads Goods transport in Europe is growing fastly at a speed which has not been anticipated by the forecasts. In particular the border crossing traffic shows a most dynamic motion due to the European integration and the development towards a free common market without any trade barriers. Apparantly the prospects of Cecchini's report to the European Commission (Cecchini, 1988) are going to become self-fulfilling prophecies in the sense that the economic agents believe that they come true and behave such that they confirm the speculative expectations in a self-enforcing bootstrap circle. Under the present regime of transportation policy the growth of the economy is closely linked to the growth of goods transport. The growth rate of goods transport is greater than the growth rate of the weight of the GNP but smaller than its value. A trend projection shows that the border crossing goods transport in West Europe will grow by more than 50 % in the time from 1988 to 2010. An analysis of the trend development of the modal split yields the clear result that the modal shares of inland waterways and rail will drop while the share of road transport will rise dramatically (see Figure 1).

188

2000/A: trend forecast

2000/B. public assistance for the railways

Figure 1:

Development of modal shares in European border crossing goods transport Source: Prognos, 1988

189

This seems to be surprising if one considers that the economic integration of Europe leads to increasing transport distances which could improve the market potential for railways. A closer look to the spatial pattern of economic activities and of the profile of the logistic requirements of the shippers however provides the insight that most of the expected changes of the European transport market favor the transport on roads. The development of land use still continues to disperse the economic activities over space rather than bundling them along comdors, which would bring advantages to rail transport. The logistic requirements of the shippers lead to smaller transport units and growing importance of qualitative services such as just in time, flexibility, accessibility or packet supply of complementary products. The European railway companies have not succeeded in adjusting their operations to the market demand. Besides the slow speed of technological change for improving their services there are still the persisting problems of technical and organisational coordination between the companies. Such the result of a Prognos-study (Prognos, 1989; see Figure 1) is, that also the "high level" services of the railways such as container and piggy-back transports only can extend their market share considerably if the goverments give sufficient political support.

A most important argument for the road transport to be the winner in the European transport market race is the expected outcome of the liberalisation of this market. Removing the market barriers of national regulations and introducing free choice of location of the transport industry as well as cabotage will lead to a drastic reduction of transport tariffs. Firms are free to choose the location associated with the lowest cost of taxation and regulatory control and to operate in every market they want if the plans of the European Commission will be implemented. But the plans for harmonizing the economic side conditions like taxation, subsidization, social requirements and regulatory control will most probably fail to be introduced on a sufficiently high level, because of the constellation of interests and the voting mechanism in the EC (decisions enforcing liberalisation can be taken with the majority of EC-countries, decisions on harmonisation require the agreement of all EC-countries). A s a result of this political mechanism the road transport is favored despite its environmental problems. It should be remembered that market liberalisation is the crucial issue documented in the Treaty of Rome (1956) while social and environmental needs are not documented and thus treated as arguments of minor importance. The European Law

190 Court has underlined this interpretation in summer 1990 by the interim injunction as to the W. German road user charges for heavy truck loads. The W. German government had to draw back the law for implementing these user charges, which would have left the tax burdens for the W. German truckers almost unchanged while they would have forced foreign truckers to contribute to the infrastructure costs according to the territoriality principle. As a consequence the tax burdens of W. German truckers have been cut by half. They save about 1.1 Bill. DM per year now which implies an additional comparative advantage in the roadrail competition. In a forecast for the W. German Ministry of Transport the effects of liberalisation on the market shares have been quantified for a situation without opening the borders to the East. It turns out that the expected loss of transport volume for the Deutsche Bundesbahn will be about 6 % under the regime of EC-liberalisation (Figure 2). After opening the borders to the East and starting a process for integrating the GDR into the market system of the FRG many experts first believed that this would provide an chance for the railways to extend their market. The reason for this expectation was that the market share of the Deutsche Reichsbahn on the goods transport market in the GDR was about 75 % compared with 35 % of the Deutsche Bundesbahn (long distance transport volume 1985 related to the FRG). A detailled analysis however proved that the long term market potential of the railways in the GDR is not much different from that in the FRG. Consequently the future market share of the railways in both German states will drop to about 30 % (Table 1). Behind this figure stands the assumption that the technological and organisational adjustment of the railway companies according to the market requirements will be successful.

191 lranrportlel$tuqen der lran$portmlttelwCcn i u l den Wetiabschnitten i m e r h a l b der Bu-desreprbllk Deutschlend In Jehr 1981 und i n den Prognosc- Szenaricn 2010 (in Hrd tkm)

Ird tkn

250

200

150

100

50

1985

Figure 2:

2010 Basis

Development of the transport market in the FRG with/without EC-liberalisation Source: PrognosDVU, 1989

2010 A lternativ

I92

rransportrelationship

1985 (BVWP)

2010 (BVWP)

2010 (Szenario DDR)

lomestic Transport FRG FRG without Berlin (West) FRG - Berlin (West)

45 18

37 14

36 12

Xg./Dest. Transport FRG 'Western Europe GDR . other RGW-countries

16 64 61

17 66

17 28 41

rransit FRG . West - West . Western Europe - GDR -Western Europe- other RGW countries

20 50 34

28 50 50

29 19

Total transport volume FRG

35

30

29

'

69

44

Domestic Transport GDR

29

Additional Orig./Dest. Transport - GDR - Western Europe - GRD - other RGW-counmes

33 22

Total Additional Transport Volume GDR

27

Total Transport Volume FRG - GDR

Table 1:

Modal share of the railways in West and East Germany, Scenario for 2010 Source: Kessel and Rothengatter, 1990

29

193

Transportrelationship

1985

2010 (BVWP)

2010 (Szenario DDR)

224 10

295 13

320 6

121 1 4

186 1 6

20 1 119 58

12 1 2

17 1 3

16 16 13

375

521

749

(BVWP) Domestic Transport FRG - FRG without Berlin (West) - FRG - Berlin (West) Orig./Dest. Transport FRG

- Western Europe - GDR - other RGW-countries

Transit FRG -West - West - Western Europe - GDR - Western Europe- other RGW countries Total transport volume FRG Domestic Transport GDR

62

Additional Orig./Dest. Transport - GDR - Western Europe

- GRD - other RGW-countries Total Additional Transport Volume GDR

Total Transport Volume FRG - GDR Table 2:

Transport volume of road transport in East and West Germany (Mill. t/year) Source: Kessel and Rothengatter, 1990

9 29

100 849

I94

Goods transport on roads and pollution For the FRG forecasts of emittent pollutions of road goods transport have been (prepared by the Umweltbundesamt (1990) and a research group (DIW, ILS, ISL, IFEU, TUVRheinland) on behalf of the Enquete Commission "Protection of the Atmosphere" of the W. German parliament. The most important figures are exhibited in Table 3. Referring to the study for the EnquCte Commission only we can draw the following conclusions from Table 3: The ton kilometers traveled for the goods transport on roads are expected to grow by 42 % from 1987 to 2010. The effects of opening the borders and integration of the GDR are not considered in this figure. If we add these by a rough estimate we result in an increase of about 60 %. The exhaust emission of carbon dioxide grows by 29 %. This is remarkable insofar as the government of the FRG has decided to reduce the C02-emissions by 25 % until the year 2005. Obviously the trend development of road transport is counterproductive with respect to this objective.

The exhaust emissions of nitrogen oxide fall slowly by 4 % This again is counterproductive to the political goal to reduce the NOx emissions by 30 % until the year 1998 (convention of Sofia). The goods transport on roads is expected to become the dominant pollutant of NOx in the FRG. Despite the expected technical progress the percentual change of reduction of pollutant emissions is relatively small compared with the railway system which may realize further considerable reductions of specific emissions although it operates already on a low level of emissions.

195

Goods Transport

I

Rail 1987

ton kilometers primary energy

,2005

Inland Waterways

Road

1987

2005

1987

2005

60 33

145

206

419

533

30,052 43

38,900 53

total emissions

(Wa) carbon dioxide methan

2,372

rvoc

3

163

139

nitrogen oxide :arbon oxide

28

516 350

495

3

LO

23 1

jpecific emissions :g/tkilometer) :arbon dioxide nethan

rvoc iitrogen oxide :arbon monoxide Irimary energy

Table 3:

10.00 1.05 1.13 1.50 1.17 50.00

207.00

189.00

3.30 1.10

D.30 3.70

3.60

2.40

2.40

1.10

2,889.00

2,587.00

Development of ton miles and air pollution of goods transport in the FRG (Trend-Scenario) Source: DIW, ILS, ISL, IFEU, TUV-Rheinland, 1990

196 Following these results there isn't any doubt about the road goods transport being a main emittent of air pollution. Furthermore it is also clear that the goods transport on roads is responsible for a good part of noise emissions. Although the share of trucks is low their contribution to noise emissions and the following detrimental impacts on people's health is high. From these figures one can easily follow that policy strategies toward an improvement of environmental quality has to include the trucking industry, although the number of trucks less than 4.5 % of the total number of vehicles in W. Germany.

Possibilities for evaluating the environmental impacts of goods transport on roads

In environmental policy often the "polluter pay principle" is postulated. This principle simply says that a polluter should pay for the damage he has caused. Translated into economic terms this means that the external economics should be internalized by charging the polluter the difference between marginal social and marginal private costs of his activities ("Pigonus principle"). Although this principle is straightforward and clear it is neither theoretically true for the general case nor practically implementable. Coase (1952) has shown that Pigonus principle holds only for particular properties of the technology of the polluter and the preference mappings of the people concerned. In other cases it may be welfare optimal to avoid the damage and invest in another technology. From the practical side of view the polluter pays principle cannot be applied in the transport sector, because it is impossible to find out how much trucker has contributed to an environmental damage. The environmental media not only carry the emitted pollutants over long distances but also provide the means for their storage and accumulation as well as for their conversion either by natural processes or by synergetic effects of different pollutants. A direct functional relationship between emission and damage is the exception rather than the rule. Much more typical are the features characterising the action of the pollutants:

197

-

The location, time and intensity of the pollutant emission do not match those of the environmental impact. The marginal conmbutions of certain emission sources to local damages owe not identifiable.

A combination of emission sources which contribute differently to total emission according to their group, is matched by a combination of recipients that are affected differently by immissions according to their group. In this kind of common pollutants and

joint impacts the polluter pays principle must fail despite its convincing appeal on the grounds of equity and fairness.

As environmental quality is a heterogenous rather than a homogenous good it cannot be treated by one economic concept of measurement and evaluation. There are at least three approaches to be applied which reflect resources, utility and social risks. a)

Resource approach

The resource approach establishs a functional relationship between emissions, immissions and damages. In the case of traffic noise the reduced rents for houses, appartments or hotels indicate the damage of the landlords and can be used as a benchmark for evaluation. There are also some examples for evaluating the costs of exhaust emissions by their detrimental effects on health, measured by the production losses and costs of medical care caused by infections diseases of respiratory organs (Marburger, 1987). As in general the links between emissions and immissions and the list of potential damages of the future are incomplete this approach can only provide an estimate for the lowest bound of the value of damages. b)

Utility approach

Whereas the resource approach tries to evaluate substantially the loss on the basis of a generally accepted indicator (modified national product), the utility approach is founded on the individual value estimates of those concerned. The theory is based on the hypothesis of individual behaviour used in general equilibrium theory.

198

Individuals'notions of utility are presumed to be expressed i n their demand behaviour, so that this behaviour also provides the basis for measuring changes of utility. As demand functions normally contain the price as an independent variable, utility quanta defined in money units are obtained. The decisive element is that individuals respond to changes in their economic situation by a willingness to pay or to sell. This form of evaluation is also "direct", i.e. closely related to economic gains and losses. But contrary to the resource approach the evaluation base is "subjective", i. e. based on individual preferences. In the environmental field the adaption of the utility approach is promissing if there is a high private awareness of the problem. This applies both to local environmental impacts (by smog or water contamination) and to environmental damage with a high publicity status such as the devastation of forests. The issue here is who should pay for what, i.e. the property rights in the environment have to be assigned to one party - the polluters or the polluted. If the property rights of the environment are held by the polluter, the polluted party is under an obligation to offer the former payment to refrain from disturbing the environment. In these circumstances the willingness to pay approach has to be applied. If on the other hand the property rights are held by the polluted party, then it is the originator of the pollution who must purchase readiness to accept disturbance of the environment, and in this case the willingness to sell approach applies. The results of these two principles may diverge widely from each other, especially when the information about effects of the pollution is incomplete. The amount of money which must be paid to an individual to obtain his agreement to a deterioration of the environment may then be much greater than the maximum sum he would be prepared to pay to avert an equal deterioration of his environmental conditions.

199

c)

The risk approach

The relationship between transport activities and environmental impacts is stochastic in character as every trip is not linked to a certainty of loss but "merely" increases the risk that a loss may occur. Another approach to the related additional costs is to screen risk categories and possibilities of risk management at the individual and collective levels. The risk approach is primarily concerned with the future. The resulting action does not rest on a retrospective view of past losses but addresses future losses. This approach assigns specific probabilities to future losses and manages such losses with a strategy mix which comprises of diversification, insurance and prevention. Diversification The diversification strategy is of specially close concern to the theory of business finance as investors are inclined to opt not for a stock paper carrying the maximum expected field but for a portfolio embracing a range of risk categories so that their risks are spread. Society may adopt a similar strategy for transport by not exclusively backing one type of vehicle such as the car now and in the foreseeable future, but instead catering for the parallel development of alternative, e. g. public transport modes in order to reduce environmental risks and provide other options in the event of acute threats to the environment. This is exemplified 1) 2)

by the smog alarms prohibiting the use of private cars and diverting traffic to public transport and by the demand for the increased rail transport of hazardous goods following a number of spectacular accidents with tanker vehicles in W. Germany.

The reason why many countries provide ample and high standard loss-making transport facilities may well be i n part an attempt to spread risks in this way, so that the losses of short-haul public passenger services may be seen as the price of risk prevention (they are indeed often referred to as "survival precautions").

200

Insurance Insurance contracts could be suitable means of placing future risks into economic categories. For analytical purposes it is for the expedient to disregard the existence of insurance companies and to look at insurance contracts as a mutual obligation. As soon as the risks borne by individuals are correlated, they can no longer be allocated

with actuarial faimess on the principle of the probabilities of loss. The issue then becomes one of social risks (cf. Hirshleifer and Riley, 1979), which is analogous to the external economies in a world of uncertainty. Since environmental risks bear a heavy social imprint, the willingness of the private sector to insure these risks is therefore too weak to provide full cover from the premium payments. In these circumstances the state may react by imposing mandatory insurance, and we do indeed find such examples in the case of compulsory third-party insurance e.g.,for road accidents. It is conceivable in principle to extend the insurance premiums to the uncovered social costs of environmental damages. Prevention The utility of the individual is normally regarded as dependent on his consumption or, in the case of an indirect utility function, as income-dependent. It is, however, quite possible that utility also depends in the nature of objects which cannot simply be described by reference to income equivalents. This would, for instance, be true of an irreplaceable heirloom, the individual's own life or that of his friends or relatives (Hirshleifer and Riley, 1979, p. 1387). The question whether or not the individual wishes to be insured against such risks depends on the extend to which income and the heirloom variable are substitutes, i. e. are mutually exchangeable in terms of utility compensation. With heirlooms such as old paintings it is impossible to make a general prediction. Some will regard their loss as being capable of compensation, others will not. In the case of human health or life however, it is natural to regard these "human capital goods" to be complementary to material consumption goods.

20 1

In a case like this it is reasonable to transfer income from the "state with loss" to the "state without loss", i.e. to practise a kind of reverse insurance by doing everything to prevent the occurance of the loss. As preferences are distorted (merit quality) and social risks occur, it is up to the state to make the optimum provision for loss. If it can be assumed that the cost of prevention are lower than the damages caused by pollution then there is an economic obligation to adopt the prevention approach. In this case a technology is available which is socially more cost-effective than the technology presently used. Therefore a future transition to new technology which is associated with lower environmental disamenities is an economic imperative. .The magnitude of prevention costs depends on:

-

the level of prevention defined by specified limit values, and the preventive technology used.

The setting of rules for limit value measurements is crucial to the formulation of possible preventive technologies. For instance, it is important for noise emission limits to defme the point at which these are to be measured e.g., the boundary of the land plot or an inside wall of the house or the flat of the affected individual.

4

Basic cost figures for road pricing and cost-benefit analyses

4.1

Cost-benefit analysis of the "BVWP"

In the FRG there are two standard procedures for performing cost-benefit analyses in the transport sector: the guidelines for economic appraisal of road investments and the evaluation scheme of the Ministry of Transport for transport investments which concern the responsibility of the Federal Government. The basic features of both appraisal schemes are identical, in particular both approaches apply strict monetary evaluation techniques. In the following we will stress on the second approach which is known as the "BVWP" (Bundes-yerkehrs-Wege-Elanung)evaluation technique.

202 The BVWP-evaluation introduces seven different sources of benefits: reduced operation costs reduced travel or operation time reduced accidents reduced level of air pollution reduced regional dispension of economic development unimproved potential for international trade. The benefits stemming from a reduced noise level are evaluated by means of an abatement approach if a targeted level of 45 dB(A) for the night is exceeded and if the difference of the noise levels between the "with" and the "without" cases exceeded 2 dB(A). It is assumed that the desired reduction of the noise level is attained by sound proof windows which are installed in the affected buildings. Impacts of air pollution are considered if the concentration of the "main indicator component" carbon monoxide exceeds the respective target value of 5 mg/m3 at the facade of the affected building. The other components of traffic emissions are adjusted to the main component any means of toxicological weighting factors. The economic evaluation is performed by measuring the emission reduction necessary to match the immission target level and calculating the associated operation cost swings for the "with" compared to the "without" case. While the monetary analysis is carried out in a standardized way for all projects an additional ecological risk analysis is added in particular cases. This applies if there is suspected a major influence on the ecological system and if the length of the projected link exceeds 15 km. In the ecological risk analysis investments are investigated with respect to changes of - soil quality

- fresh water quality - biotopes - recreation potential.

203 The ecological risk analysis is performed using multiple criteria analysis. The results are summarized by an impact matrix without any further aggregation to construct a comprehensive risk index. There is also no formal procedure given for aggregating the results of CBA and risk analysis. This means that the decision maker has to evaluate and aggregate the partial results by himself. In the practical application for road projects of the Federal Transport Investment Plan the contribution of environmental improvements came out 16 % of the total benefits for twolane streets and 4 % for four-lane streets. The reason is that most of the planned two-lane streets are bypasses of agglomerations which help to reduce congestion in these areas(Breuer, 1988). 20 out of 100 road investment projects which have been checked with respect to their ecological risks have been identified as high risk projects. These projects have been rescheduled for the next planning period, reduced in size (e.g. from 4 to 2 lanes) or given up at all. Out of 1000 minor projects 75 altogether have been given up because of potential ecological problems.

This list of performance of the .environmental evaluation criteria applied is not very encouraging. Looking at the cost-benefit part the question arises why high environmental benefits can steen from road investments before the background of road transport being the dominant polluter of most components of exhaust emissions. The reason is that benefits are evaluated by means of partial rather than systems analysis. Therefore every transportation activity which is shifted from a bad road to a good one is associated with a positive utility. So if the new road attracts new traffic its cost-benefit index rises. A potential diversion of traffic from road to rail or to inland waterways is not evaluated.

4.2

Recent recommendations for monetary evaluation of environmental impacts of road transport

In a recent study for the Deutsche Bundesbahn the Planco Consulting Company has summarized the approaches for evaluating the external diseconomics of transport in monetary terms. The outcome is that the transport sector in West Germany is responsible for external costs of 48 Bill. DM 1985. The road transport contributed 89 % to these costs while the rail caused 8 % and the inland waterways 0.2 %.

204

The figures for the external costs of are given in Table 4: Goods trans-

port on Road Rail Inl. Waterways

Air Poll.

Land, Water

Noise

Accidents

Separation effects

Total

1.92

0.57

4.08

2.56

0.08

9.15

1.57

0.08

1.76

0.01

0.1 1

0.11 0.10

External Costs of Transport Modes in the FRG (sill. DM) PLANCO, 1990

Table 4: Source:

The estimation of air pollution was based on damage costs which didn't include the risks with respect to human health, fauna and flora. The impacts on land and fresh water quality were derived from abatement costs while disamenities of noise were evaluated on the base of avoidance costs. The costs of accidents have been calculated directly taking the production losses of idle human ressources and the separation effects have been quantified by the economic value of time needed for communication between separated areas. This result doesn't contribute very much too for the environmental issue. Abstracting from the different theoretical bases of the cost categories (damage costs, abatement costs, avoidance costs) this approach suffers from the main weakness that it leaves the risks to human life and to that of animals and plants behind. Such the appraisal only concerns some disamenities and inconvenience but excludes the global risks to mankind such as the greenhouse effect. These results therefore only can be interpreted as lowest lower bounds for the detriments of the environment caused by the goods transportation on roads.

4.3.

Road Pricing

a) Basic Ideas Road pricing seems to be the most flexible and efficient way to internalize externalities. In the theoretical neoclassical model tolls can be imposed in such a way that the perceived marginal pricate costs equal the marginal social costs of road use. So the transport sector

205

could be moved towards a socially optimal equilibrium position only by using the market forces. The only intervention needed would be to introduce the price adjustments. The neoclassical model however doesn’t represent the world we live in. So marginal costing on the base of short term marginal costs which include the costs of congestion as a major element leads to wrong signals for private and public investment decision. Long term marginal costs include elements of the infrastructure costs and may turn out decreasing in the transport sector. In this case charging the marginal costs to the users provides not enough an income to cover the total costs of the infrastructure.

In this case Ramsey-pricing often is suggested to solve the financial together with the allocation problem. This implies a deviation of prices from the marginal costs according to the reciprocal value of the price elasticity of demand. But also this pricing principle can be shown to fail in a dynamic world when decision are made under uncertainty. Ramsey pricing encourages the high priced inelastic market segments to leave the club of users and try to stand alone. In the dynamic context a road pricing scheme should (1) yield enough income to cover the total costs,

(2) effect incentives to stay within the club of users,

(3) effect incentives to reduce the consumption of environmental ressources. Such not only the size of charges is important but also their structure. For the road transport the fix part of the tariff has to be minimized whereas the variable part should be high to enforce the perception of the charge. Regarding the present system of taxation in many countries this implies to substitute the vehicle taxes by fuel taxes and tolls. The tolls should be linked to the mileage traveled without granting deductions for high usage. b) Actual Figures for Cost Based User Charges The group of the 12 railway companies of the EC has published the following figures for the external diseconomies of road and rail goods transport:

206

DM/t km road

rail

0.017

0.0009

noise (base:1984)

0.0013

0.0015

accidents (base:1983)

0.018

0.00004

sum

0.0363

0.0024

Cost category air pollution

(base: 1982)

Table 5: External Cost Calculation of the Group of 12 EC-Railway Companies (1986)

Using the external cost calculation of Table 4 and the associated data for the ton mileage the results look different: Average external cost per t km: Goods transport Air on Poll. Road

0.0136

Rail

0.00 18

Land/ Water

Noise dents

Accition

Separa-

Total

0.004

0.029

0.0177

0.0006

0.065

0.026

0.0013

-

Table 6: External Cost Calculations of PLANCO (1990)

0.029

207

In both calculations the rail transport comes out favorable with respect to air pollution, land consumption and accidents. Surprising enough the difference between the average external costs of road and rail are equal (0.034 resp. 0.036DM/tkm).But there are however large differences in the evaluation of air pollution and noise. The noise impacts are even the dominating cost item of the Planco calculation. This result is due to the prevention approach which has been used for evaluating the noise impacts. Setting the limit value of noise sufficiently low one results in high cost figures for noise prevention. Obviously the question arises whether the prevention approach associated with biting target values would also have increased the cost figures of air pollution. It seems to be unreasonable to weigh the local disamenities of traffic noise two times as high as the global risks of air pollution. c) Price Elasticities The estimation of price elasticities of demand is important for the evaluation of pricing policies. In a recent study for the Verkehrsforum Bahn Baum (1990) has estimated the elasticities of freight transport demand with respect to the relation between r d , road and inland waterway tariffs. Some of the results are exhibited in Table 7. Notation: E: Elasticity X: Transport volume on roads t/year PT: tariff of road transport DM/t PR: tariff of rail transport DM/t Pw: tariff of inland waterway transport DM/t

208

+eight

Time Series

:ategory

w ,pw pr

Questioning E(XR,PI.)

E(XW,PT)

( 1,72)

0,7 1

1,52

1,62

5 coal

0,61

0.31

0,16

45 Crude Oil

1,14

0,67

0,13

(1,821

1,17

0,26

1,62

1,97

0,05

10 Chemical Products

2,Ol

0,46

0,14

11 Investment Products

(1,051

0,85

0,05

1,71

1,28

I Agriculture

%oducts

i Foods 'ndustry

3il Products 57 Ores, Scrap Metal

3 Iron, Steel 2 Building

Material

12 Consumption Products

in brackets: reverse relationship (e.g.: 1: Table 7: Elasticities of Freight Demand with Respect to Tariffs

209 Computing the elasticities on the base of the time series statistics of the Federal Agency of Long Distance Freight Transport which are listed in the first two volumns one gets the results:

* There are high elasticities of the rail transport volume with respect to the roadrail price relationship for - agricultural products (1.72)

- chemical products (2,Ol) - ores and scrap metals (13 2 ) - consumption goods (1,71) - building material (1,62) - iron and steel (132) -food (1,52).

* Relatively small are the elasticities with respect to - crude oil and oilproducts (1,14) - investment goods (1,05) - coal (0,61). Most of the price elasticities of inland waterway of inland waterway transport are rather high. Exemptions are crude oil (0,75) and chemical products (0,68). Investment and consumption products are shipped in minor quantities over the inland waterways and can be neclected. A second estimation has been performed on the base of a questioning. This questioning has been motivated by the fact that the shipper’s records to the Federal Agency are not very reliable because of the specific regulation of the goods transport market in W. Germany.

210 The results show high cross elasticities, in absolute terms, for road and rail transport for

- foods industry (1.62) - iron and steel (1.17) - building material (1.97) - consumption goods (1.28), while the branches

- agriculture (0.71)

- coal (0.31) - oil products (0.67) - chemical products (0.46) - investment products (0.85). are associated with low cross elasticities. The outcomes for the cross elasticities between road and inland waterways are listed in columns 2 and 4.

There is an asymmetry of price reactions in sofar as the rail system cannot attract as much traffic by lowering the price as it looses if the road system lowers the price by the same percentage. On the other hand the results don’t imply that increasing the price of road transport will effect an asymmetric rise of rail transport. As the quality of service plays an important role it is highly probable that a perceivable upwards shift of road transport prices will change the spatial pattern of shipments rather than shift the difference of road transport volume to other transport modes. This effect can hardly be quantified by statistical tools because it has not been observed in the passed years. Therefore one can conclude: if the EC-liberalization policy is continued the railways will loose considerable transport volumes supposed that they leave prices unchanged. If they react with price decreases tremendous financial losses of the railway companies will incur. If the road transport is moderately priced for the environmental impacts the modal share of

21 1 railways will grow slightly. If a high price is imposed for environmental impacts of road transport the shift to rail and ship is increased, but changing spatial trade patterns will decrease the shift from road to rail and ship.This means that the transport market doesn’t play a zero sum game.

5

Conclusion

Goods transport on roads is a major pollutant of exhaust emissions. Presently road transport is encouraged to grow by high growth rates because the price of environmental property rights is very low. If the price is adjusted for to induce an incentive compatible market mechanism there will not occur a compensating shift from road to rail and ship. Transport volumes and miles traveled will be affected. So adjusting the price of road transport for the environmental impact will result in a decrease of total transport activities. It is wrong to interprete this effect as a decrease of the welfare position because the environmental quality is an element of social welfare. But it might be necessary to reduce the growth of material consumption for to provide a better environment.

212

Literature

Breuer, F.J.: Die Beriicksichtigung des Umweltschutzaspektes in der Bundesverkehrswegeplanung. In: Schriftenreihe der DVWG, Reihe B, Heft B108.220-230.

BVWP,1986: Gesamtwirtschaftliche Bewertung von Verkehrsinvestitionen. Bewertungs verfahren fur den Bundesverkehrswegeplan 1985. Schriftenreihe des Bundesministers fiir Verkehr. Heft 69. Bonn. Coase, R.H., 1960: The Problem of Social Costs. In: The Journal of Law & Economics. Vol.III. 1-44. DIW, IVV, Metron, PrognosBVU, 1989: Gesamtverkehrsplan Nordrhein-Westfalen. Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen zur kunftigen Verkehrsentwicklung. Berlin. Gruppe der Zwolf Eisenbahnen der EG, 1987: Belastung der Landverkehrstrager fur die Benutzung der Infrastruktur. Die gesamtgesellschaftlichen Grenzkosten als Berechnungsgrundlage. Hirshleifer, J. und J.G. Riley, 1979: The Analytics of Uncertainty and Information - An Expository Survey. In: Journal of Economic Literature. Vol.XVI1, S.1375-1421. Kessel+Partner und W. Rothengatter: Szenario zur Verkehrsentwicklung mit der DDR und Osteuropa. Untersuchung im Auftrag des Bundesministers fur Verkehr. FreiburgKarlsruhe, 1990. Lindahl, E.,1919: Die Gerechtigkeit der Besteuerung, Lund.

213 Marburger, E.-A., 1986: Zur okonomischen Bewertung gesundheitlicher Schaden durch Luftverschmutzung. In: Umweltbundesamt (Hrsg.), Kosten der Umweltverschmutzung. S. 51-62. Berlin. Niederlhdisches Ministerium fiir Verkehr und offentliche Arbeiten. 1989: Zweiter Strukturbericht zur Verkehrsentwicklung in den Niederlanden. Den Haag. Prognos, 1988: Gerneinschaftsuntersuchung Guterverkehrsmarkt Europa.Base1. Prognos und BVUJ989. Guterverkehrsprognose 2000/2010 fur den Bundesverkehrswegeplan 1990. Freiburflasel. PLANCO, 1990: Externe Kosten unterschiedlicher landgebundener Verkehrstrager. Gutachten im Auftrag der Deutschen Bundesbahn. Essen. RAS-W, 1986: Richtlinien fur die Anlage von StraRen. Teil: Wirtschaftlichkeitsuntersuchungen. Hrsg.: Forschungsgesellschaft fur StraRen- und Verkehrswesen. Koln. Schulz, W., 1985: Der monettire Wert besserer Luft. Frankfurt. Schulz, W., 1988: Die sozialen Kosten des Autoverkehrs. Mimeo. Umweltbundesamt, 1989: MaRnahrnen zur Minderung der NOx-Emissionen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1985-1998. Berlin. Wicke, L., 1986: Die okologischen Milliarden. Munchen.

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M. Kroon,

R . Sinir and J. van Hun1 (Edirors), Freight Trunsporr and rhe Environmenr 's 1 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.. Anisrerdain. Prinred in the Nerherlands

215

POSSIBILITIES FOR A SHIFT IN MODAL SPLIT IN FAVOUR OF RAIL- AND INLAND SHIPPING TRAFFIC A. Eisenkopf University of Giessen, Licher Strasse 62, 0-6300Giessen, Germany

SUMMARY

The discussion on the possibilities of influencing the modal split are in traffic science and traffic politics concentrated on shifts from carriage of goods by road towards railways and inland shipping. Such shifts can be stimulated by administrative and investment measures, or they can be left to the efforts of railways and inland shipping companies themselves to influence the market. The latter is of particular economic interest. Starting points of strategies employed by entrepreneurs shape themselves to the changing requirements of the shippers and the related new logistic efficiency standards. The railways endeavour to develop their strong points to match these requirements by stepping up the organization of direct traffic routes, by introducing high-speed traffic, by improving the efficiency of their customer-information systems and by intensifying their activities in combined traffic. Nonetheless considerable shortfalls will have to be overcome when it comes to the necessary cooperation in international traffic. In inland shipping with its traditional dependence on bulk transports, the carriage of dangerous substances and combined traffic offer a relative potential for an increase in its market share. 1.

A SHIFT IN MODAL SPLIT - WHY?

Recently the discussion on the possibilities of influencing the modal split in goods traffic in favour of railways and inland shipping has considerably gained in explosiveness, not only at national levels, but also in the political views on traffic in the EC. This is caused by the generally strong growth of carriage of goods by road during the past few years and by the predicted growth rates of motor lorries in connection with the EC-integration and the economic terms of trade with the East block countries which are unfolding at present ( 1 ) . The build-up of carriage of goods by road in the coming years, as it is taking shape today, is, according to many observers, something neither the environment nor the road infrastructure itself can cope with. The increasing aggravation of the bottle-necks caused by the overloading of road networks as well as by the drastic increase in the emissions of noise and harmful substances by motor lorries (coupled with the threatening consequence of irreversible damage to the ecological system) is an urgent reason for the traffic policy makers and traffic scientists to think

216

seriously about alternatives in order to master the growth processes of goods traffic, which are inevitably approaching us. Railways and inland shipping play a major part in these considerations, as the handling of goods traffic by rail and water is seen as relatively harmless to the environment and sufficient reserves in capacity are assumed. At the same time it is hoped that, with correspondingly higher utilisation of capacity, internal structural problems with these types of transport will be solved. The latter seems doubtful, at least for railway systems, which today, for example in Germany, operate to the limits of their capacity on their main transport routes and could only cope with a significant growth, if they make investments in the expansion of their capacity. 2.

BASIC POSSIBILITIES FOR SHIFTING THE MODAL SPLIT

With respect to the alternatives for influencing the modal split in goods traffic one can in principle differentiate between traffic-political and business-political measures. Businesspolitical approaches mark out strategies for transport enterprises to adjust to the requirements of the customers (the shippers) and their anticipated changes with the help of market-oriented supply and so bring about changes in the modal split by their own efforts. On the other hand, traffic-political measures are introduced by the government. Here activities concerning policies on regulation and investments are important. Strategies in respect of regulation policy comprise on the one hand transport embargos or deliberate government control of the demand for transport by way of framework legislation (regulations) or measures of a financial nature (taxation, subsidies). Such interference in the market should, however, be rejected as economically unsubstantial, if in future the principle of a free choice of means of transport is to be realized. On the other hand it is a matter of eliminating distortions in intermodal competition, which may be at the expense of inland shipping and railways. At this junction I want to refer to the discussion on the low degree of cover of the infrastructural costs of motor lorry traffic ( 2 ) as well as to the difficulty in separating network and operation in railway systems. The administrative separation of network and operation, coupled with the payment of levies on usage, should facilitate comparability of charges for the cost of infrastructure to rail and road respectively ( 3 ) . Whereas charges for the cost of roads does not pose any problems for inland shipping ( 4 1 , here, too, administrative discrimination exist (e.g. in the transport by the partners in combined traffic), which must be eliminated, when it is politically desirable to grant inland shipping a greater share in traffic . Measures based on investment policy are after all meant f o r the absolutely necessary support of the strategies of the carriers, businesses. The market-oriented conversion of the advantages of the railway and inland shipping systems first of all requires the promotion of an investment policy for the infrastructure. In this respect combined traffic (installation of handling plants for combined traffic, rolling stock for combined traffic), financing of new and extended facilities for railways and of the extension

217 of inland ports with distribution centres for goods can be mentioned. Following these fundamental remarks with regard to transport policy measures, business policy strategies to shift the modal split should first of all be discussed, since here the essential possibilities of shifting traffic, that are economically meaningful, can be demonstrated. The requirements for investment policies will be dealt with as and when appropriate. 3.

POINTS OF DEPARTURE FOR BUSINESS POLICY STRATEGIES AIMED AT SHIFTING THE MODAL SPLIT.

Strategies for business policies to increase the share in the rise in the volume of goods and in the traffic services rendered are based on solid analyses of the target markets and their demand. Proceeding on that premise strong and weak points in the company itself and in that of the competitor must be worked out. A market strategy promising results, only has to bring unexplored potential, or its own potential still to be developed, into line with the demand of the markets. Requirements by the markets imply expectations on the part of the shipper regarding the performance of the transport sector. Today the spectrum of these expectations is in a stage of transformation. The increasing integration of the various transport functions in logistics planning in which all parts of business are involved, stepped up regional division of labour, reduction in the level of value added and the trend to manufacture with the smallest possible stocks drastically change the performance criteria for transport companies. While the relative importance of more attractive transport prices and the net time of transportation remains stagnant, the emphasis is shifted to other requirements. The miniaturization of the size of shipments, which is tied to logistical concepts, and the growing share of perishable and at the same time valuable goods make strict punctuality and reliability, prompt availability, informational support for the flow of goods as well as a corresponding flexibility in the transport capacities (growth of the sector part-shipments) essential. What is required is adaptability of the transport company to individual logistics concepts of trade and industry as well as professional knowledge in providing additional logistic services. The individualisation of transport services which has to be observed, eventually culminates in the complete integration of transport companies in the logistic concept of one shipper (5). In addition there are the effects of the realization of the internal European market in 1993 and the intensification of the economic relations between East and West, which will start after the borders are opened. Especially transborder transports harbour significant growth potential against this background, but they need the ability to deal with traffic in an all-European network. Carriage of goods by road has, because of the characteristics of its system and its flexibility, apparently been quite successful in adapting to these developments. The railways in particular were unable to keep their share in the modal split against it. In future there will be a further erosion of market shares, if

218

matching the spectrum of services with the market requirements is not successful. However, such a market orientation poses grave problems to the railways in particular and requires serious changes in their thinking processes. Therefore the content, the opportunities and the risks of market oriented strategies aimed at shifting the modal split in the railways and inland shipping must be subjected to a critical examination in the following chapter. 4.

THE STRATEGIES OF THE RAILWAYS

For the successful strategic reorientation of the railways the link between market requirements and the strength of the railway system needs to be made. The strong points of the railway system are ( 6 ) : - the relatively fast and safe transportation of large quantities of goods over long distances - sound informational support of the type of transport (status reports, information flow anticipating transport) -great reliability and sufficient disposal time of transport services.

Problems arise, however, from: - fast transportation of small shipments - the servicing of an extensive network. A strategy of concentration on the strong points of railways presents the following starting points: ( 1 ) National and international direct traffic between growing trading centres enable direct services to operate with competitive travelling times compared with those of motor lorries, by consolidating shipments and reducing time-consuming changes and shuntingwork ( 7 ) . ( 2 ) This is also connected with the realization of high-speed goods traffic at 1 4 0 - 1 6 0 km/h within the framework of setting up a European fast network. With distances by rail of over 500 km travelling time advantages against motor lorries can clearly be expected. Moreover the guarantee of punctual and reliable handling of this traffic is important, as carriage of goods by road becomes increasingly problematic due to the ever growing overloading symptoms in the infrastructure. ( 3 ) Also necessary is the expansion of promising information support for the goods transport processes. Within the framework of HERMES, documentation and information systems to support the actual transport should be developed and implemented on an European level. ( 4 ) The further development of combined traffic is crucial for the sales success of the railways. Cooperation between rail and road carriers, or cooperation with forwarders who will play a part respectively, will have the best chances of success in the future. The railways will be the freight carrier for the long distance, whereas motor lorries will deal with collection and distribution in the regions of origin and destination. In their efforts the railways should concentrate on business relations which are showing strong growth and where, in cooperation with road carriers, they can offer forwarders much better services than they could with single carriage and rail connection

219

traffic. The concept of international connections becomes increasingly important to combined traffic ( 8 ) . In the area of national railway companies a great deal of planning is in process for entrepreneurial implementation of these strategic guidelines. As far as the Deutsche Bundesbahn (the German Railway System) is concerned I refer to the deliberations in respect of further development of Inter-Cargo, promoting fast goods traffic ( 9 ) , of the KLV-system concept (10) or of the project Cargo 2000 for small shipments traffic ( 1 1 ) . What will be decisive is the railways’ success, or otherwise, to increase their share in the sharp rise in border crossing traffic through cooperation on a European level. Here very promising opportunities present themselves in the market, but also considerable areas of conflict. As to the challenges the starts made so far for cooperation [KLV, Eurail-Cargo ( 1 2 1 1 may be gratifying, but there is certainly no cause for euphoria yet. In addition to the intensification of international cooperation the conversion of railway companies to market-oriented businesses on a national level should make further progress. This strategy of reorientation will inevitably make corresponding changes in the organisational structure necessary. In any case, the railways will only succeed in shifting the modal split, if the serviceablity of the infrastructure they use stays abreast of their efforts. Against this background the expansion of a Europe-wide fast railway network is something the goods traffic cannot do without either. Particularly when we think of combined traffic the construction of new terminals and the extension of old ones should be considered. The strategy to eliminate, in cooperation with the road hauliers, the disadvantages of the system and to take advantage of its stronger aspects will not hold, unless the railways learn to master the nerve centres of the system which the junctions are. This implies the improvement of the techniques for the transfer of goods and the organisation of road construction to and from the terminals, corresponding location concepts and, of course, the availability of adequate capacity. Important potential for a shift of transports from road to rail are to be found in: - seaport traffic, in particular to/from Rotterdam; - North-South transit traffic (e.g. across the Alps); - East-West traffic. A precondition for the realization of this potential is, within the framework of the strategic reorientation, the basic willingness to cooperate, as more than anything combined traffic will be able to draw more shipments towards the railways. 5.

STRATEGIES FOR INLAND SHIPPING

The strong points in inland shipping can be found in cost-effective and safe transportation of large quantities of goods over great distances. Inland shipping shows its efficiency for example when it handles the immense need of transportation between one point of loading and one point of unloading (push and tow sy-

220

stem). Thanks to its very low fuel consumption the ships on the inland waterways can be classed as very acceptable from an environmental point of view. The range of inland shipping is by its nature limited to natural and artificial waterways. It also has problems with small shipments and shipments demanding short transit times. Moreover its particular market structure (independent barge owners) has a tendency to have a negative influence on its powers of innovation and efficiency. Nevertheless inland shipping has always been able to maintain virtually constant market shares, in yield and in ton/kilometers, in goods traffic because of the specific advantages of its system. It has always been particularly strong in the carriage of raw materials, such as coal, ore, building materials, and chemicals such as petroleum derivatives and basic chemical materials. It will certainly be able to maintain its position in the market in future, if it succeeds in increasing its competitive edge by taking measures to improve its efficiency in turn-around schedules (travelling times) and in the harbours (handling). it is, the yields of the markets concerned will continue to fall as a consequence of the long-term development of the economic structure. The prospects of realizing a rise in its market share in the total goods traffic are therefore far less promising for inland shipping than for the railways. Strategic starting points are on the one hand combined traffic, on the other hand the growing market of dangerous goods.

As

Today inland shipping already carries a large share of the dangerous substances offered by the shippers. Of special significance are the dangerous substances in class 3 (petroleum products and chemical products). The corresponding know-how can be further utilized by inland shipping, if it speeds up the individual adaptation to the chemical-technical properties of the products offered for carriage and ensures that appropriate precautionary measures are taken (13). On the quaysides the installation of appropriate storage for dangerous substances will be necessary to complete the circle. Specialized stores for dangerous goods can serve as a complement for the planning of interior harbours as junctions for the distribution of shipments. By employing such a strategy (in cooperation with the forwarding trade) inland shipping will fundamentally improve its prospects. The up-dating of the functions of interior harbours to distribution centres for goods will in particular have a positive effect on combined traffic involving inland shipping (container traffic and Ro-Ro traffic). Since at present only about 35% of the container traffic to the Benelux harbours travels by water and the containerisation of general cargo steadily grows, there are still opportunities to mobilize growth reserves; however, the size of this traffic, compared with the total tonnage carried, is only modest (15). Since for the transport to and from the harbours mainly motor lorries are employed, it is not only necessary to provide adequate transshipment facilities, but also to put their official, administrative status on a par with that of the rail terminals. This concerns especially the Federal Republic of Germany where the radius for to-and-from carriage without a license is restricted to a distance of 50 km. Here we refer to

22 1

the remaining administrative measures to promote combined traffic by rail and road. NOTES AND REFERENCES 1

2

3

4

5

cf. for the goods traffic prognoses for EC '93, Prognos AG, Community Research into the goods traffic market in Europe, summary, Basle 1988, and for East-West Traffic Kessel 1 Partners/ Rothengatter, W., Scenario for the development of traffic with the GDR and with Eastern Europe, Research commissioned by the German Federal Minister for Transport, Freiburg/Karlsruhe, May 1990. cf. for the covering of road costs of the carriage of goods by road Holocher, K.H., construction calculations for roads. Research into basic cost calculation principles and a different- iated calculation of cover for costs of the road network in Germany, Darmstadt, 1988. cf. for the problems of the separation of network and operational accounts Aberle, G./Weber, U., Charges for the utilization of tracks by the railways. Theoretical principles and the forming of traffic policy, Darmstadt 1987, and the latest proposals by the European Commission, proposal for a directive for the rate of development of railway enterprises in the comunity, KOM (89)564 issued 25.1.90. The degree of cover of road costs by inland shipping amounted to 12% for the chargeable inland waterways in 1984, cf. Enderlein, H./Rielke, H., Cost calculation of the roads/ways used by railways, road hauliers, inland shipping and airlines in the Federal Republic of Germany, Berlin, 1987. cf. for the development of logistic systems and their related requirements Drechsler, W., Market effects of logistic systems. The effects of logistics and information systems comprising all enterprises on the logistics market, Gottingen, 1988.

6 7

8 9

10 11

cf. for the performance potential concerning goods traffic and weak points Aberle, G., Future perspectives of the German Federal Railways, Heidelberg, 1988. cf. for the concept of direct train services Heinisch, R., Direct Train Connections in Goods Traffic, a strategic opportu- nity for railways in growing diversified traffic between trading areas, International Traffic, vol. 41 (1989), part 1, pp. 9-18. cf. Kloidt, N., The effects of the concept KLV'88 on international connections, the Federal Railway, vol. 65 (1989), part 11, pp. 977-979. cf. for fast goods traffic Beisler, L., New dimensions in goods traffic with goods trains travelling at 160 km/h and utilisation of new tracks, the Federal Railway, vol. 66 (1990), part 3, pages 259-262 and Heinisch, R., The significance of very fast traffic for the competitiveness of the railways, in DVWG, Consolidation of Railways, vol. 126 of the Publication series, Bergisch Gladbach 1990, pages 193-212. A summarized survey of the KLV-system concept offers: Research consortium for Combined Traffic, a concept of a strategy for combined traffic, Neu-Isenburg 1990. cf. for CARGO 2000 Junemann, R/Wehking, K.H., Cargo 2000 - A new concept for fast-moving general cargo by rail, in Gohlke/Reimers: Volume of the Railways, Darmstadt, 1989.

222 12 13

14 15

cf. for Eurail Cargo Ketter, J., Eurail Cargo, a new offer from the railways in the international goods traffic, the Federal Railway, vol. 6 6 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , part 5 , pp. 4 7 6 - 4 7 9 . cf. Lehr, W., Inland Shipping and Supply Logistics, in DVWG: the position of the transport industry in accordance with modern ways of logistic thinking, vol. 121 of the publication series, Bergisch-Gladbach 1 9 8 9 , pp. 9 5 - 1 1 3 . cf. Hecke, R., Combined Traffic: Structural changes in inland harbours on the rise, German Traffic News, vol. 43, nr. 1 8 of 1 1 . 2 . 8 9 , p. 3 . cf. Research Consortium for Combined Traffic, as above, p. 24.

M. Kroon, R. Smrl und J. vun Hum fEditors), Freight Trunsport und the Environment G /99/Ekevier Science Publishers B. V . , Amsterdutn. Printed in the Netherlunds

223

DETERMINING THE PROSPECT FOR A SHIFT IN MODAL SPLIT IN FREIGHT TRANSPORT Y.H.F. Cheunga and P.M. Blokb “Ministry of Transport and Public Works, P.O. Box 20901, 2500 EX The Hague, The Netherlands bNetherlands Economic Institute, P. 0. Box 41 75, 3006 AD Rotterdam, The Netherlands

SUMMARY A research project was commissioned by the Dutch Government to identify the factors which determine modal choice in freight transport and to assess the potentials for a shift from road to rail and water transport. The research findings can be used to assist the formulation of strategies to influence modal split.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the Netherlands, the expected growth in road traffic generated by passenger travel and goods transport by road go hand in hand with the problem of worsening congestion and deteriorating environment. These related developments cause grave concerns. The Dutch Government has, in diverse policy documents such as the Second Transport Structure Plan (SVV-II) and the National Environmental Policy Plan (NMP), set out its policy aims to alleviate congestion and to mitigate the damages to the environment caused by road traffic. The difficulty is to achieve these aims without slowing down the predicted growth in the national economy.

For the protection of the environment, the problem rests not so much with the number of freight vehicles on the road, but rather the number of vehicle kilometres that road freight generates. It is estimated that the share of road haulage in inland transport in 1988 amounted to 80% of total ton kilometres transported. Moreover, the expectation is that goods traffic on the road on the basis of unchanged policy will grow stronger than passenger road traffic. The most recent estimate in volume terms is a growth by 80% to the year 2010. If the consequences of these underlying trends have to be overcome without restraining economic growth, there are 3 action areas: - development and application of clean diesel engine; - improving the efficiency of road transport; - shift from road transport to rail and inland waterway.

224 The subject matter of this paper concentrates on the third action area. Section 2 describes the background and the objectives of the research study. Section 3 outlines the method and approach being used. Section 4 presents the results and gives a brief account of the main findings. Section 5 presents the general conclusion which raises several points for policy considerations.

2. BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The underlying philosophy of the Second Transport Structure Plan is: accessibility, managed mobility and environmental amenity. The aim is to develop an integrated transport system with a right balance. Research study has indicated that motor vehicles are responsible for 18% of acid rains in the Netherlands while some 50% of photochemical smog is due to vehicle emissions. As such, road transport is a major contributary factor to environmental deteriorations. At the same time, it is widely recognized that parts of the traffic are economically valuable and are wealth generating. Thus, they provide the necessary earnings to support the efforts to improve the environment. The policy goal is, therefore, to design a correct mix of measures in a comprehensive strategy such that emissions by motor vehicles of the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and unburned hydrocarbons will be significantly lower in 201 0 than in 1986. Arising from this background, the Netherlands Ministry of Transport and Public Works (V&W) together with the Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and the Environment (VROM) have commissioned a research project to study the choice of modes in freight transport with a particular aim to explore the possibilities to stimulate the transfer of goods transport by road to rail and waterway. There are 3 important study objectives:

: To examine the decision-making process in order to identify the factors that influence the modal choice. II : To determine the bottlenecks, constraints and impediments which can hinder a transfer from road to rail and water transport. Ill : To identify the potential areas which offer opportunities for transfers. I

It is designed to be an orientation study to gather information on the existing state of affairs and to learn from empirical studies how transport organisers and shippers reach their decisions on modal choice in circumstances where alternative means of transport are options. In doing so, the researchers working together with the policy makers are seeking - to define the action areas - to explore the opportunities that exist (and) - to assist the formulation of strategies.

225

3. METHOD OF STUDY The study was carried out over a period of 10 months by two consultants, namely: Netherlands Economic Institute (NEI) and the Netherlands Centre for Transportation Research, Training and Consultancy Services (NEA). The research was organised in 3 phases. Phase I Phase I I

Phase Ill

: literature study and analysis of available data; the focus was facts finding and forming of working hypotheses. : a meeting with experts from the shippers and transport organisers to consolidate the knowledge accumulated, to test the hypotheses formed in phase I and to select market segments and companies for the field research. : field work in two parts: in-depth interviews with transport and logistic managers and the use of the Stated Preference technique (computer game to simulate alternative choice situations) to assess the willingness of shippers to switch from road to rail or water transport.

The focus of the analysis was to find ways and means to stimulate competition between the different transport modes in a free market. Because the Government policy in the Netherlands is to maintain free choice of transport modes by shippers, it is decided at the early stage of the study to concentrate on the price/quality relationship and to examine how policy measures can be formulated to change the balance of advantages (or to remove barriers). The result of analysing existing statistical sources and data collected from a survey of shippers carried out nationwide in 1988 suggested that it would be useful to distinguish the freight flows between 2 major groups. Conventional transport: This is the traditional form of transport, mainly point-to-point, transporting the products in limited number of OID relations, often in large volume with fairly stable regularity; distribution transport is also included in this group. Standardized (combined and intermodal) transport: This is freight transport with standard loading units such as containers or swap bodies. More than one transport mode will be used. Combined transport is primarily based on land terminals and intermodal transport on seaports.

226 4. RESULTS AND FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 4.1. Factors Affecting the Choice of Modes

A comprehensive literature survey identified a wide range of factors that can play a role in the modal choice. In the present study, a special effort is devoted to examine those factors that can be measured such that the extent of the influence on modal choice can be quantified and ranked. A list of the criteria and their ranking orders for road transport, railway and inland waterway are given in table 1 ; they are the results from the 1988 shippers survey. The shippers were being asked to rate the criteria with a points-rating system which has a value range between 1-6.

Table 4.1. Average Value and Ranking Order of Criteria for choosing Road Transport, Railway and Inland Waterway

Criteria

Punctuality Price Availablity Reliability Speed Demand by other party

Road transport

4.68 4.83 3.65 4.81 4.48 2.97

3 1 5 2 4 6

Railway

3.43 4.08 3.60 4.72 3.37 3.98

5 2 4 1 6 3

Inland waterway

3.66 6.18 3.60 4.48 2.81 2.91

3

1 4 2 6 5

4.2. The Decision-making Process

From the experts meeting and the in-deph interviews, it was found that, in practice, the decision-makers only take a handful of factors in account. They often operate in a "captive" market or this is (at least) the perception of their own position in the short run. Generally speaking, speed and price were listed by the transport manager as the two foremost factors which influence their choice of transport modes. The actual decision on which transport mode to use is strongly influenced by the individual circumstances confronting the decision-maker. He is likely to (re)consider his position after a bad experience, when introducing a new form of packaging, anticipating new developments in government policy or seeing commercial opportunity. He tries to weigh up the costs and benefits in general terms even though he is often confronted with the difficulty to weigh up costs with other considerations which cannot be expressed in monetary units.

227 In the simulation game, it was found that according to some managers there would be no real alternative to the existing practice of using road transport. However, in the course of playing the simulation game, they discovered that if the balance of advantages were changed and certain required conditions were met by the competitor, they would actually consider a shift in mode. This suggests that decision-makers often have preconceived ideas of the cost/quality of the alternatives available and the negative images play a part in affecting their search for alternatives. Secondly, when they genuinely look for alternatives on the basis of economic costs, they are willing to accept relatively lower quality in the alternative mode of transport if substantial cost advantage (30-50%) is offered as monetary cornpensation.

4.3. Background Trends and Recent Developments

In the last decade, there was a gradual but steady shift in favour of road transport. Several factors are responsible for this development. Firstly, the demand for flexibility in the production process and the application of the just-in-time concept give rise to changes in the structure of production, storage and distribution. There is a demand for fast and punctual physical distribution of urgently-required materials in small quantity, a trend which favours road transport. Secondly, railway and inland waterway tend to be in a historically stronger position in areas such as low value goods transport carried in bulk (e.9. building materials such as sand and gravel) and in fixed flows with a known volume on well-established O/D relations (e.g. chlorine between Rotterdam and Delfzijl or oil between Schoonebeek and Rotterdam). The concept of zero or minimal stock means frequent individual shipments in smaller quantity. Rail and water transport have not responded adequately to these new developments. The products they offer remain, by and large, unchanged. This is in big contrast to what has been achieved in road transport which has made many innovative efforts to cut costs and to offer more attractive terms. In many cases, road hauliers join in with their clients to find innovative solution to their problem of organizing physical distribution. Thirdly, there are structural handicaps for the railways and waterways. In the Netherlands, where there is an important passenger rail-network, priority has to be given to passenger transport and goods transport by rail comes as a filled-in activity. Investment in infrastructure for rail freight transport has been neglected with closing of loading und unloading facilities, winding up of terminals or discontinuing rail connections to transport organisers. Withering infrastructure and neglect in new investments deter many potential customers. The inlands waterways have not awakened to the new challenge either and the over capacity situation does not stimulate the operators to invest in system improvement.

228

In the last years, there was a gradual awakening; but, the lost trades in practice are particularly difficult to recapture whilst new customers are difficult to attract. To move goods by rail and waterways requires certain investments in facilities which are costly and take long term operation to recover the initial cost outlays.

4.4. Thoughts for the future

From the experts meeting and the in-depth interviews it is found that many shippers are conscious of the following: - the adverse effects of road traffic on the evironrnent is an important public issue; many shippers are wary of negative publicity e.g. in chemical industry; - worsening congestion would affect their operating efficiency e.g. unplanned variability in transport time is a threat to punctuality; - new policy measures e.g. toll, extra excise duties on diesel would increase the transport costs by road. The willingness to think about alternative ways of transport exists and the readiness to find an appropriate solution together with the authorities is growing. It is also recognised that many of the problems cannot be resolved at a national level and efforts should be made in an endeavour to find common solutions at an international level.

4.5. The Problems and Impediments to Modal Switch

4.5.1. Underlying strength of road transport The strong points are their competitive prices, their flexibility and the marketinstinct of many operators (to think along with the transport organisers or shippers to find the best solution for the clients). Furthermore, many producers have cited the value of knowing the operators as an important factor; many have grown up together with the firms over the years. The driver of the lorry is often responsible for the delivery and the handling. The personal relationship e.g. the knowledge that the same person(s) are always in charge give confidence regarding the quality of service that can be expected. 4.5.2. Lack of infrastructure

Part of the rail freight network and specific sections of the inland waterways do not have the necessary capacity to handle the growth in traffic should the shippers decide to switch over from road. lnfrastructural investment is needed to cope with the increased volume. At the operating company level, adequate rolling stock has to be made available to convince the shippers that they are capable of meeting the demand in a switch over situation. An important finding of the study is that

229 improvement in infrastructure is a necessary but on its own not a sufficient condition to bring about the hoped for shift in mode choice. 4.5.3. Lagging behind in technical innovation A direct consequence of relative neglect in the past years is the failure to pursue technical improvement and to invest in new facilities. From the shippers survey, it is shown that they put high value on the risk of damage. To minimize the risk, they have to spend extra on additional packaging. To reduce this risk, the railways and inland water transport operators could invest in modern handling equipments at the terminals for transshipment which are not only faster but also less prone to damage the transported goods. Another area for improvement is in the administrative process. The wider implementation of information technology such as ED1 would speed up the process of handling and clearance as well as for the monitoring of freight move ments. 4.5.4. More positive and commercially orientated approach

Rail freight operation tends to take a lay-back approach. The railway has rarely taken the initiative to attract new customers. Only occasional contacts are made with large clients to strengthen existing contacts. Potential customers, often small companies with growth potential, feel neglected. Inland waterway operators have a similar image problem. For internal transport, the inland waterway carriers wait at the Shipping Exchange for customers to come to them. For international transport, they occasionally approach potential customers for business. The in-depth interviews and the simulation game indicate that, when shippers try to obtain information, enormous efforts are required to assemble the correct information. In a few cases, this put off the would be customers. It is, therefore, advisable that both the rail and water transport operators should adopt a positive marketing strategy to inform potential clients and (in suitable cases) to work out transport plans and bring them to the notice of the customers as a signal that viable alternatives exist. 4.5.5. Clear line of responsibility within the organisation The existing organisation of rail freight is functional, along the line of a transport operating company. The division of responsibility means that each department has its own function and responsibility. It is difficult for the shippers to have direct access to the right person to reach binding agreements. In case of complaints, one has to go through many departments. Streamlining and reorganising rail freight as a transport organiser (rather than as a transport operator) with an account manager directly responsible for particular groups of shippers would appeal to many customers. Because many goods flows are international in nature involving more than one railway operator, it would be attractive to the shipper if the same account manager would take the task to negotiate the price and finalize the service agreements for international goods transport on particular rail lines.

230 For the inland waterway, there are many different operators. To obtain full information about the price and the services they can provide for international transport is time consuming and labour intensive for the would-be clients. The existence of a coordinator who would act as a direct contact point to provide the information is recommended. The coordinator will be responsible for specific product-market combinations; this would simplify the negotiation process and make the use of inland waterways more attractive. 4.5.6. Consequences for shippers Apart from comparing the quality of service in the reappraisal process, the shippers that wish to switch mode themselves are confronted with the need to have fundamental changes in their operating logistics before they can substitute rail and water for road. They need to invest in loading and unloading facilities and would require connections to the rail and waterway network both at the sending and receiving ends. Very often the storage facilities have to be adopted to suit the new logistics patterns. To allow for variability in supply conditions, the shippers may have to adjust the stock in reserve. In short, the shippers have to overcome many hurdles in order to place their transport order by rail and inland waterway instead of by road. If the railway and water transport operators are willing and able to think together with the shipper to devise appropriate transport plans within a total logistic framework, the prospects for switching mode will increase.

5. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVE FOR THE FUTURE

The primary aim of the research study is to identify the areas which could offer opportunities for transfer from road to rail or to inland waterway. Although the findings are only indicative in nature, owing to the limited extent of the field work and the complexity of the freight market, an estimate has been made regarding the potentials for transfer for two broad categories: conventional transport and combined/intermodal transport. For conventional transport, the possibilities for transfer under a free market situation is almost negligible. The study indicates that if possibilities exist it already has happened in practice. The decisive reason why rail or water transport were being used is because the tranport costs are lower. For combined/intermodal transport, there are more possibilities and these fall mainly on long distance transport. But they can be converted into reality only if substantial improvements in organisation, marketing and infrastructure are being realized. However, given the expected growth of the road freight market, the contributions to resolve the environmental and capacity problems in the Netherlands would be very limited even if rail and water transport are successful in attracting standardized

23 1 transport from the road sector. Preliminary estimates suggest that in inland transport the shift will be about 1% and in international transport about 5% from the total road freight transport. The above mentioned pull actions to attract freight to the relatively weaker modes will probably be insufficient in future years to cope with the likely environmental and capacity problems caused by the road sector. From the society point of view it can be argued that, demand management and push actions might be required to bring about the modal shift that is called for to ensure a more efficient use of scarce resources in general and the introduction of combined transport and the introduction of new combi-lines and combi-methods in particular. Three main lines of action can be distinguished: - restrictions on the use of infrastructure; - pricing and shadow pricing of external costs; - restrictions on the use of road transport. It is important to point out that they are no policy measures under active consideration at present. These are areas of "anticipating" research which have been offered as food for thought. They are options in developing alternative strategies should the community wish to pursue a push-and-pull strategy as advocated in the McKinsey report "Afrekenen met files".

5.1. Restrictions on Use of Infrastructure

Typical examples of this measure are the Transalpine restrictions on road transport which have successfully forced the road tranport companies to look for alternative solutions e.g. combi-transport. Due to the impact of heavy road transport on the environment and capacity difficulties in the infrastructure, night and/or weekend bans on certain parts of the road network e.g. urban areas should not be excluded from policy consideration in the future.

5.2. Pricing and Shadow-pricing The Stated Preference exercise indicates that the prices of the (relatively) weaker modes have to be reduced very substantially before it will induce significant shifts. In order to be effective, changes in the pricing structure have to be effected at both ends. It can be argued that, from the society point of view, higher prices in road transport may be considered as possible options in policy planning. There are two strains of argument.

232 A. Present day contribution of road freight transport to the infrastructure cost is too low. This applies not only with regard to construction costs but also a substantial part of the fast growing maintenance costs to sustain the national infrastructure. A high proportion can be attributed to the traffic associated with heavy freight (axle load) vehicles. The effect of a fair allocation of infrastructure costs would mean a change in the charges on road use to reflect the financial costs to the society in a proper way. Those changes might be different for domestic and international transport due to differences in the cost composition. B. Road transport should pay more for generating negative external effects e.g. noise, emissions. Quality environment can be achieved by investing in better environmental technology and from raising relative prices of products which impose heavy environmental burdens. Road transport is such an intermediate product; therefore, the relative price in this sector should be increased considerably compared with today's prices per unit of freight kilometer.

5.3. Restrictions on Mode-use

The most far reaching intervention would be restrictions on the use of road transport. Present day examples are the restrictions on the transport of particular kinds of dangerous goods. However, from the economic point of view, several objections can be made against this type of intervention. Firstly, it is a real and very substantial intervention in the free market. Shippers and transport operators would have to deal with additional rules, regulations and adminstrative procedures. Secondly, it is likely to promote some form of malpractices and encourage less legal type of transport activities which in themselves can cause more severe difficulties for the environment. In conclusion, in order to cope with environmental and capacity problems caused by road transport, a comprehensive and integrated strategy for different transport modes based on a combination of push- and pull actions is an important policy option for strategic planning which should not be excluded from consideration. But before its effectiveness can be gauged, it is advisable to undertake extensive studies to establish their effects on economic growth and their cost effectiveness in enhancing the quality of the environment. Existing research findings indicate that stand-alone actions such as promoting combined transport, development of clean diesel engine and the implementation of road transport informatics will most likely to be limited in their impacts to bring about the ultimate goal of sustainable economic growth in a quality environment.

233 REFERENCES 1. The Second Transport Structure Plan. Ministry of Transport and Public Works, the Netherlands 1989. 2. National Environmental Policy Plan Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment, the Netherlands 1989. 3. The Cost of Combined Transport. Report of the 64th Round Table on Transport Economics. European Conference of Ministers of Transport, Pans, 1984 4. Changes in Transport Users. Motivations for Modal Choice: Freight Transport. Report of the 69th Round Table on Transport Economics, European Conference of Ministers of Transport, Pans, 1985. 5. De Schriftelijke Verladersenquete in Nederland, Report by NEA, Rijswijk, the Netherlands, October 1988. 6. Vervoerwijzekeuzein het Goederenvervoer. Report by NEIandNEA, December, 1990. 7. Y.H.F. Cheung (1990) Influencing Modal Split in Freight Transport. Proceedings of the 18th PTRC Summer Annual Meeting held at the University of Sussex, England in September, 1990. Seminar A Current Issues in European Transport 8. P.M. Blok (1990) Combined Transport as Environmentally Friendly System: the Solution or a Contribution. Paper presented to the Conference Ecology 90 held in Gotenborg, Sweden in November, 1990. 9. J. Bozuwa and P.M. Blok (1990) Weginfrastructuurkosten en Goederenwegverkeer. Paper presented to the CVS conference in The Hague, The Netherlands in November 1990. 10 Ministerial Session on Transport and the Environment, Background Reports, OECDECMT, Paris, November 1989.

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M. Kroon, R . Smit and 1. van Ham (Editors). Freight Transporr and the Environmeni 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.. Amsterdam. Printed in rhe Netherlands

235

INNOVATION IN LOGISTICS: THE IMPACT ON TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT

James Cooper Transport Studies Group, Polytechnic of Central London, London NWI SLS, United Kingdom

1.

INTRODUCTION

Freight transport activity, in common with all other forms of transport, creates an impact on the environment. Increasingly, solutions are being sought to reduce this impact, not least in road freight, where the lorry is frequently seen as an "environmental villain". Many studies have already catalogued the environmental complaints against lorries: pollution from exhausts, noise from engines and tyres, vibration and visual intrusion. There are also safety concerns, as lorries involved in accidents often cause fatalities, on account of their size and momentum. Taking a broader perspective, many environmental groups question the energy demands of road freight transport, which contribute to the depletion of world reserves of fossil fuels. With increasing frequency, we now hear calls to restrict the use of lorries, supposedly to bring about environmental improvement. As a result, many cities now impose night and weekend restrictions on lorry operation. But some "solutions to the lorry problem" are unlikely to be successful until we understand companies want to use lorries in the way that they do. In particular, we must recognise that lorry operation is a consequence of logistics planning and until we understand the objectives of logistics planning, attempts to control the growth of lorry traffic in the interests of the environment are unlikely to succeed. Logistics is often known as "supply chain management" and this phrase is the key to understanding the role of lorries in the movement of goods. Increasingly, companies are concerned with looking at their flow of goods and materials in an integral way, rather than in separate stages. Logistics therefore represents a holistic approach, where component supply, production of finished products and the distribution of finished products to retail outlets must be considered as a continuous stream of activity. Crucially, this leads to the recognition that one element of the activity impacts on some or all of the others. Successful logistics planning means making sure that advantage is taken of exploiting trade-offs between these different elements; for example, storage and transport.

The evidence of successful logistics planning can be seen all around us. Two industries which have had an especially deep involvement with logistics are car manufacturing and consumer electronics. This has resulted in a number of important consequences for transport. Ford's engine plant in South Wales, for example, sends engines to car assembly locations all over Europe; engines are no longer made locally alongside each car production plant. Similarly, in electronics, many computers are now made to order, rather than being available off-the-shelf. Shortening product life-cycles, improved manufacturing techniques and innnovations such as the just-in-time delivery of components, have all meant that electronics has become a demand-led rather than a supply-led industry. It is beyond the scope of this paper to consider all possible logistics innovations - and their impact on transport and the environment. However, by examining just three of the more important ones, namely centralisation of inventory, 24-hour lorry operations, and just-in time delivery, we will be able to understand a little more about companies' motivations in relation to logistics and the consequences f o r transport. From this basis it is then possible to see what policy initiatives might succeed in reducing the environmental impact of road freight transport, in particular. 2.

CENTRALISATION OF INVENTORY

One of the classic relationships in logistics is the tradeoff between warehousing arid transport: as the number of warehouses is increased, the cost of operating them also increases, but transport operating cost f a l l s , for a constant throughput of goods through the warehouse. This rule is usually presented as a diagram, to illustrate the implications for combined warehouse and transport operating costs and the choice of an optimum number of warehouses in a distribution system (See Figure 1) Over the years, there has been a modification of the rule, which now takes into account the cost of holding inventory in warehouses Variations in this cost have been formulated into the "square root law" ( l ) , which states that safety and cycle inventory requirements are related to the square root of the number of warehouses in a distribution system. Thus moving from a system of ten depots to a completely centralised system using one depot would, in theory, reduce the inventory requirement by 68% (2).

231

FIGURE 1. Trade-off in Transport and Warehouse Operating Costs

0 erating

Ebsts

Number of Warehouses

Although there are some important objections to an unbounded application of the square root rule (see, for example, Das ( 3 ) ) , practice has shown that the square root law performs reasonably well ( 4 ) . For this reason many companies, and especially those carrying high-value inventory, have been keen to convert to a system of distribution based on a central warehouse, rather than maintain a network of, say, 10 regional warehouses. The powerful attraction of inventory cost reduction resulting from warehouse centralisation can be seen using an example from the UK. The model used also indicates the consequences for transport operating costs. Figure 2 shows an existing system of decentralised Production warehousing which can be described as Scenario 1. within Scenario 1 is based upon two production plants, one at Telford and the other at Cambridge. In total, there are 161 customer locations throughout the UK which are served by seven warehouses. The combined throughput for the warehouses is 50,000 tonnes annually. Figure 3 illustrates the spatial details of Scenario 2 , with the same two production centres, but now with all inventory held at one warehouse located at Atherstone, which is very close to the geographical centre of the UK. Under Scenario 2, all the main features of the distribution requirement are held constant (ie, customer locations, total warehouse throughput). For both Scenarios it is also assumed that the inventory value is €2,000 per tonne and that there are 10 inventory turns each year. The consequences for transport of centralising inventory International's TRANSPLAN have been calculated using P-E distribution software package. These are summarised in Table 1, which also includes a calculation of inventory reduction based on the square root law, but with the theoretical savings being reduced by about a third to take into account the application of the law in practice.

239

FIGURE 2 . Scenario 1: Decentralised Warehousing

Production Plant Ware house

240

FIGURE 3. Scenario 2: Centralised Warehousing

Production Plant

Warehouse

24 1 TABLE 1

Comparison of Selected Distribution Costs Under Scenario 1 (Decentralised Warehousinc) and Scenario 2 (Centralised Warehousing) Annual cost (f000)

Scenario 1 (Seven Reqional Warehouses) Inventory holding costs

1,000

Primary transport operating costs (ie factory to warehouses)

185

Secondary transport operating costs (ie warehouses to customer locations)

453 1,638

Change From Scenario 1

%

Inventory holding costs

600

-

40%

Primary transport operating costs (ie factory to warehouse)

173

-

6%

Secondary transport operating costs (ie warehouse to customer locations)

570

+ 26%

TOTAL

1,343

-

18%

From Table 1 it is clear why achieving savings in inventory cost has been an important focus of logistics policy for many companies. An inventory saving of 40% from centralisation is evident, even using a more conservative estimate than that suggested by the square root law. Overall, for inventory and transport costs combined, Scenario 2 achieves an 18% cost reduction over Scenario 1 , a level of saving which would easily merit implementation of a centralised warehouse system for the company concerned. Yet within this overall reduction in costs, it is evident that there is a substantial rise in secondary transport costs as a result of opting for Scenario 2. This is what causes concern for environmentalists since a 26% increase in the costs of operating secondary transport means a similar increase in lorry activity. Amongst other things, there will be about 26% more visual intrusion, pollution arid fuel consumption, together with increased demand for roadspace. Yet on the "environmental balance sheet", the reduction of inventory offers no compensating environmental gain. This is the crux of the problem; a commercial decision, sensibly taken, results in significant social costs. The need is for policy initiatives which can allow companies to continue to enjoy benefits of logistics initiatives while, at the same time, ensuring little or no erivironmental deterioration. Two possibilities are: i)

Improvina lorry desianc This approach offers some marginal improvement to the environment, For example, improvements in engine design can reduce fuel requirement.^, noise and pollution. Better suspension design can lead to less vibration. But there will be no discernable difference in visual intrusion or demand for roadspace. Scenario 2 in the above illustration will therefore still mean a net environmental loss compared with Scenario 1 if improving lorry design is the only policy initiative chosen by government.

ii)

Combined Transport:. Centralisation of inventory leads to a concentration of flows along primary transport routes: lorries from production centres will only be going to one warehouse destination rather than several. This can prove favourable to rail transport, rather than road, so some switching of primary transport mode in the move from Scenario 1 to Scenario 2 may be a possibility. In turn this can bring a beneficial change to the environmental balance sheet. Environmetal deterioration caused by more secondary transport can be counterbalanced by primary transport being undertaken by a more "environmentally friendly" mode. However, companies which are alert to the benefits of logistics planning many find some difficulty in making this transfer of

243 primary transport from road to rail. They will, amongst other things, need to be reassured about the capabilities of rail as an alternative to road. Moreover, rail capacity needs to be available to absorb new freight traffic, a condition which is increasingly difficult to meet in some countries.

If there appears to be no immediate way of making the centralisation of inventory more acceptable in terms of transport and the environment, then one other policy approach must be to consider the scope for encouraging the decentralisation of inventory. In effect, t-he process of centralisation may have come about simply because companies regard transport as too cheap; they are happy to spend more upon it because the extra cost is so readily recouped in savings on inventory. But if transport is suddenly made more expensive, then cite trend towards centralisation could be reversed. Yet the scope for making road freight transport more expensive may not be great, given the wider political implications for governments. Table 1 shows that combined primary and secondary transport costs under Scenario 2 would have to be raised by €400,000 to balance the savings in inventory cost. This means raising transport operating costs by over 50%. Government could seek to achieve this increase by raising taxation on fuel. But since fuel costs are often only about 20% of total operating costs in transport, this would mean the introduction of a swingeing fuel tax. In the example used, a rise in fuel duty of about 250% would he needed to raise transport operating costs to a level that would cancel out savings in inventory cost resulting from warehouse centralisation. There must be serious doubts about the preparedness of governments to introduce policies aimed at raising fuel duty by so much. Hostile reaction could be expected, not just from the busiriess community, but from others such as private motorists, whose fuel costs may also need to rise as part of a general policy of making transport more expensive. 3.

24-HOUR LORRY OPERATION

The decision to operate lorries round the clock is often linked to warehouse centralisation. A s supply lines between customer locations and centralised depots become longer there is the danger that levels of customer service will deteriorate. The ~.ultiple-shifting of vehicles is one way of ensuring that, for example, inventory is replenished more promptly and out-of-stock situations avoided.

244 But some companies have introduced round-the-clock working of lorry fleets for the benefits that this practice can bring in its own right.. Oft.en the initiat.ive has come from manufacturing, where many companies run factories both by day and by night. By spreading their fixed costs, not.ably the capital costs of machinery, these companies reduce their unit production costs and this helps keep them competitive Sorne freight companies also see a potential benefit in the more intensive use of their expensive capital equipment, especially vehicles. Why not use these on two or even three shifts in each 24-hour period, rather than only during the daytime? At present, the benefits of round-the-clock operation are not sufficiently great to induce many companies to switch from day-only operations. This is partly due to labour costs being a high proportion of total operating costs. Paying drivers extra moriey for working unsocial hoiirs means that many of the gains from spreading fixed costs (eg a vehicle licensing and insurance) and reduced investment. (eg smaller vehicle fleet 1 are undermined by higher labour costs. In one study of round-the-clock operat:ion, it was calculated that the overall saving, compared with day-only working, is in the order of 4-6%; the exact figure for any one company will crucially depend upon the duration of vehicle replacement cycles ( 5 ) . For many companies, savings of this order may not be corisidered sufficiently high to justify a switch to round-the-clock working of lorry fleets.

However, from an environmental point of view there are some benefits from round-the-clock scheduling of vehicles, although these mast be carer;:lly assessed against some disbenef its. One One company cf the main benefits is reduced f u e l consumpticn. carried out a test programme of fuel consumption, the results of which were reported in Cooper and Tweddle (6) and are shown here as Table 2. TABLE 2 Results of Company Fuel Consumption Tests (Figures are miles/gallon) Aerodynamic Aids

Daytime Qpsration Night-time Operation

With

Without

6.70 6.97

6.27 6.66

245

Table 2, above, shows that there are significant improvements in fuel consumption which are made possible by fitting aerodynamic aids to vehicles and running them at night: fuel savings of more than 11% are possible compared with day-time operations using a fleet running without aerodynamic aids. The savings attributable to night operation alone varies between 4% and 6%. Furthermore, it is important to realise that the future potential for saving fuel by operating at night is likely to increase as day-time congestion on road affects fuel consumption figures. It IS not inconceivable that, by the end of the century, it will be possible to save around 10% on fuel consumption by running at night. Not all freight companies, of course, will readily be able to introduce night-time operation for their vehicle fleets. The best opportunities will be for operators supplying retailers using distribution centres that are open all hours, or manufacturers in continuous process industries. In addition, some new constraints on operating vehicles at night might be imposed by government, in response to environpentally-driven complaints. Foremost amongst these is likely to be noise. Despite legislation making them quieter over the years, lorries are still noiser than cars. Diesel engines, air brakes, refrigeration units, crude suspension units and rattling bodywork all give rise to noise which will disturb people trying to sleep at night. Governments are likely to be very syrpathetic to arguments that lorries working at night should be made much quieter. By contrast, environmental complaints which are levelled at vehicles operaring in the day-time carry much less weight for lorries working at night. Visual intrusion is much less of a So problem and street-level pollution affects far fewer people. taking an environmental balance-sheet approach, operating vehicles at night has its attractions not least in reducing demand for day-time road capacity. Government, both at the central and local levels, should consider the possible benefits of night operations by lorries, as well 4s %he problems, when designing legislation. Some city councils have introduced night baris on all lorry operations, but this can be a retrograde step if night operation is carried out by operators in an "environmentally-friendly" way, since it rules out society enjoying some iaportant potential benefits such as reduced daytime corigestion on roads. Legislation to make sure that operators use very quiet heavy lorries (VQHVs) at night might be a better solution.

246 4.

JUST IN TIME DELIVERIES

Just-in-time (JIT) delivery is widely regarded as one of the most successful innovations in logistics in recent times. A great number of manufacturers, and even retailers, have changed their delivery practices to JIT and there are specialist freight companies which offer JIT as a service to clients. Indeed, the success of JIT has been s o overwhelming that many people outside the 1ogist.ics sector, including the media and the general public, are aware of it. Many applaud JIT as a major advance in supply chain management. But what of the environmental implications of JIT? 1s JIT to b e welconed o r s h o u l d it treated with rather more circumspection than has hitherto bean the case? First, it is extremely important. to be clear about JIT and what it aims to achieve. Originelly developed in the 1970s in J~p;inas the Kanhan system, JIT was designed as a inventory-free production method, for use by manufactur?rs such as those in the electronics and motor industries ( 7 ) . The key application for J I T was in feeding production lines, especially for finished products such a s cars. Whereas t.he traditional approach to manufacturer was to have a supply of components stored next to t h t . production line, JIT brought a radical new approach. Companies such as Toyota organised small, frequent deliveries of components direct 7 . 9 the production line from suppliers, thus eliminating both the need fcr storage space and the cost of holding the components in s t o r e at the factory. In effect, what the pioneers of JIT had done was to bring two important. changes to the mariufacturirig process. One was ccnceptual, the other technical. The conceptual innovation was esst.riti ally the logistics apprc)nch of sF?eing t.he movement and storage of materials in an integrated way. This enabled, say, car ~nanufacturers to corisidur component supply to be part of the assembly line flow whereas the conventional wisdom required components to be stored prior to use on t h e assembly line. The technical innovation relates to yet another logistics trade-cff . In Section 2 which discussed centralisation of inventory, Figure 1 shows the trade-off relationship between transport and warehouse operating costs, which helps management tc decide the optilr.um number of warehouses to use in a dist.ribution system. A similar trade-off applies in the ordering process for, say, components used in manufacturing. Here, there arc two costs, namely the c o s t of acquirinq inventory and and the cost of holdinq inventory. As Figure 4 illustrates, with an increasing size of order, the cost of holding inventory goes up while the cost of acquiring inventory goes down. This means that there is some quantity, called the economic order quantity (EOQ), which gives the least total cost. Companies should, according to Figure 4 the theory, always try to order i r i EOQ quantities.

247

FIGURE 4. The Order Quantity Decision

Costs over a given eriod of lime

Combined inventory acauisition and

I

I

’ I

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)

Number of items in each order

248 essentially illustrates the shape of the cost curves according to time-honoured practices of ordering supplies. In effect, it suggests that ordering frequently, i r i small quantities, tends to be costly because of the need to repeat the expensive clerical function of order acquisition. The importarit point recognised by Japanese companies was this need not be the case if elect.ronically triggered and transmitted orders becomes the inexpensive basis for Component acquisition. That realisation, in effect, changed the order quantity cost curves, making Figure 5 the new model for establishing the size of order. Small order quant.ities, frequently delivered, therefore became the normal piittern of component purchasing for a large nuaber of companies in manufacturing, first in Japan and now in Europe and the United States. T h e iaylications of JIT dc?livery for transport are dramatic. Instead of a large vehicle delivering weekly, say, the requirement is for much smaller vehicles to deliver daily or, in sore cases, many times each day. For many Japanese factories, this h a s not been a p r o h l w , si:i:!e component suppliers are often located near the factory gate of a large manufacturer: the giant Toyod8 works are a case in point. Rut in Europe, where planning c o n t r c l s are often tight and corrponent suppliers long-established st. distant. locations, JIT meg.ns B I I extensive use of the public r e a d network. This inevitahly mta::s environmental deterioration with .;t:Treral, smaller vehicles baing used to carry the same amount of goods as a single large vehicle used before the introdi.ict.ion of J I T .

An important t?rivimrl!;it*rit n l consequence: of JIT will be in energy demands and pollution. Assuming vehicles are run fully loaded, F i g u i - e 6 shows that using a 10-tonrie capacity vehicle rather than one of 25-tonnes capacity causes a substantial incrt?ar:- in fuel consumed, up from 0.24 to 1.2 mileslgallon for every tonne moved, a fivefold increase. Yet it is possible that even smaller vehicles will be preferred in s o m e JIT deliveries. Along with more air pollution and greater energy use, there will also be the likelihood of greater noise disturbance and visual intrusion, as more small ve!iicles are used in place of large o m s . Only vibration might he reduced, but this is the one instance where JIT delivez-ies could lead to -3 favourable outcoma. Otherwise, taking the "environnwrital balance sheet" approach, it is evident that JIT leads tc transport practices which are ov F? r w h e 1m irig 1y hn s t i1e t o the c r i v i 1-3riment

.

249

FIGURE 5.

The Order Quantity Decision with JIT Delivery and IT Communication for Order Processing Costs over a given eriod of Pime

:--.-----;:Combined inventory ac uisition and hoyding costs

nve ntory holding costs

Inventory acquisition costs

4 JIT

Order Quantity

(Joe)

Number of items in each order

250

FIGURE 6. Fuel Consumption for Vehicles of Different Carrying Capacities

1.4 30

1.2

2a 26

1.0

24 22

0.8

20

ia

0.6

I6

14

0.4

12 10

0.2

a 2

I

I

I

I

I

5

10

I6

20

25

0

Source: Commercial Motor Tables of Operating Costs

Vehicle carrying capacity (tonnes)

In many ways, the outcome of a n environmental analysis for JIT is similar to that found for the centralisation of inventory, discussed in Section 2 , above. Similar public policy options therefore suggest themselves. First, JIT works because transport cost. considerations are outweiyhed by other logistics considrrations. Therefore, from an environmental point of view, transport must be regarded as "t.oo cheap", but there are great problems in maki:ig it more expensive. Second, improver!::.-nts to the design of small vehicles (eg much improved fuel economy) could make JIT more acceptable environmentally. Yet this d o e s not overcome other key problems such as increased demand for roadspace. Third, where component sripply takes place over long-distances, some consideration should be given to using rail to a milch extent than exists at present. Some companies, (3s mot.or mariufact:irerc,l already use railways for moving components, but the services could be much faster, and cuch m o r e streamlined than t h e y are already, to give them wider appeal. c x a l l y , it must be recoyaised that some manufacturers are requesting JIT deliveries frorr suppliers in the mistaken belief that i t saves t h e n :nrmey. This point remains largely outside the domain of public policy, but it is nevertheless important to create a wider awareness of what may be a considerable problem. I.

The problem arises because JIT is widely perceived a s being cf logistics excell~rice. No manufacturer wants to display an ig~oranceof it and many hasten to introduce JIT deliveries within their mariufacturing schedul-.,. Yet JIT may simply be inappropriats for a nrixber of rcmpanies, especially those which are not sufficiently in touch with the gricing practices used by their suppliers. Some of these suppliers will readily agree to supply on a JIT hasis, but will invoice the client company on a hight.1- tariff to recoup the additional costs of delivery. This action ~ 3 . ~ 1readily h e wipe g i l t gains sought elsewhere by the manufacturer wken introducing JIT. a mark

Suck an outcome i s rather an uncomfortable one to contemplate: the supplier is happy because he i s keeping his client happy; the client is happy because his manufacturing is now set up according to th2 latest fashion for JIT delivery; but envi.ror:?wr:t 2 1 groups are en+it?:.?d to f e e 1 aggrieved because there is no tangible gain to the economy resulting from the switch to JIT; and the environment suffers because more, smaller vehicles a r e ton the roads carrying the same amount of freight as the fewer, larger vehicles tt:ey disalqrtd.

5.

FINAL REMARKS

*

It is clear that a number of recent logistics innovations, notably the centralisation of inventory and Just-in-time delivery, i:ove been extremely successful in a commercial context. However, it is also the case that these innovations result in transport activities which are more damaging to the environment than the superseded methods of goods dist.ribution.

*

From a public policy point of view, there are a number of actions t h a t can limit the extent of environmental deterioration cnused by logistics innovation. Higher standards of lorry design and encouraging the use of combined transport for primary transport movements are two possible options.

*

Yet any major reductioc in environmental impact does not see3 possible wit!-iout puttinq the logistics innovations the:::selves into rel’erse; there would need to be public policy measures introduced, for example, to ecentralise inventory holding arid to encourage the delivery of consignments in l?rge quantities, infrequently delivered.

*

The fundamntal problem is that many logistics decisions by companies have been made on the basis of transport being regarded R S a relatively cheap co~~:r:!odity;environmentalists ut:?.Ad probably say toc chaap. O n l y raised ;.xices for fuel are likely to reduce t h t a enaironm?ntal impact of freight in any substantial way. Government could take action, under a policy programme tlesigried t r , make transport more expensive, by raising fuel duty. But it must be recognised that the required increase in duty is certain to S u huge, if current trends in logistics are to be reversed. The question is whether governrent hxs the political w i l l to achieve higher standards of envii-cnniental protection in the field of logistics by taking radical measures which could readily undermine electoral support.

253 6.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1)

D H Maister.

" C e n t r a l f s a t i o n of I n v e n t o r i e s and t h e S q u a r e Root Law" I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of P h y s i c a l D i s t r i b u t i o n . Vol 6 , P I 0 3 , 1 9 7 6 . A

C

McKinnon.

Ehvsical

Dist.cib!gtisn.

Systems

Routledge,

LoEdon 1929.

c

Das. " A Re-apprqisai of the Square I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of P h y s i c a l - - D i s t r i b u m . 1978.

J E Sussams.

___ on Ph-cal

Root Law" Vol 8 No 6,

"'dtiffer Stocks arid t h e S q u a r e Root Law" Focus D i s t r i b u t i o n and L o g i s t i c s Management. Vol 5 No

5 , 1915

(5)

J C Cooper and G TweclAle.

" D i s t r i b u t i o n Round t h e C l o c k " i n Loqistics and D i s t r i b u t i o n P l a n n i n a : Strateaies €or Manaqement ( r e v i s e d e c l i t i 3 x i . e d i t e d by J C C o o p e r , Kogan P a g e , LI:ndon 1 9 9 0 .

J C Cooper and T w e d d l t ~ , o p c i t

Forbes "Just-ln-Tirne D i s t r i b u t i o : : " i n Loaistics and Distribution Plmning: S+r_a_t_e_gi:g E3r Manaaement (revised e d i t i o n ! , e d i t e d b y J C C o o p e r , Kogan P a g e , London 1 9 9 0 .

M

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M. Kroon. R . Smir und J. (c,

won Hum (Edilorsj, Freight Trunsporr und the Environmenr 1991 Elsevier Science Puhlirhers B. V.,Amsrerdum. Printed in the Nerherlunds

255

IS EUROPEAN MARINE TRANSPORT A WAY TO ESCAPE FROM INLAND CONGESTION?

Jean Duquesne 39, rue St. Fargeau, F-75020 Paris, France

SUMMARY : W i t h i n t h e framework of a r a p i d l y g r o w i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade, the E.E.C. exchanges b e t w e e n S t a t e Members are rapidly e x p a n d i n g w i t h d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s on t r a f f i c . A g r o w t h of o n e t h i r d b e f o r e t h e e n d of t h e c e n t u r y i s deemed t o be a m o d e r a t e e v o l u a t i o n . The e x i s t i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e i s n o t a b l e t o f a c e i t a n d h a r d b o t t l e n e c k s a l m o s t p e r m a n e n t on m a i n e u r o p e a n i t i n e r a r i e s a r e l i k e l y t o become b i g g e r . S w i t c h i n g o f t r a f f i c f r o m r o a d t o r a i l i s o n l y a p a r t of s o l u t i o n . Therefore E.E.C. has t o consider european transport s y s t e m as a w h o l e a n d t o p a y m o r e a t t e n t i o n t o p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f European marine t r a n s p o r t , t h e so c a l l e d "Cabotage". P o r t s of a l l s i z e s a r e v e r y numerous and have a v a i l a b l e c a p a c i t i e s . A f l e e t e x i s t s which c o u l d be e a s i l y d e v e l o p e d . The Commission p r o p o s a l d e a l i n g w i t h t h e b u i l d i n g up of an E u r o p e a n c a b o t a g e open t o a l l s t a t e s members i s n o t a v e r y p r e c i s e o n e b u t p r o v i d e s a f l e x i b l e framework t o t h a t end. C o n d i t i o n s of a r e a l l y p o s s i b l e d e v e l o p m e n t are : - improvement of communications l i n k s between second r a n k p o r t s and t h e i r h i n t e r l a n d with a view t o a v o i d i n g h i g h e r c o n g e s t i o n around big p o r t s ; choice of adapted techniques such as roro, c o n t a i n e r s , s w a p b o d i e s . F e e d e r system experiment c o u l d be u s e d ; - f a c i l i t a t i o n of t r a n s i t through t h e p o r t s . For h i s t o r i c a l reasons and because a t r a v e l between p o r t s i s c r o s s i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l w a t e r s , Customs and o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s a r e o f t e n more suspicious about maritime shipment. A comparizon between p r o c e d u r e s now u s e d f o r i n l a n d b o r d e r c r o s s i n g a n d t h o s e a p p l i e d t o s h i p m e n t s u s i n g t h e s e a way g i v e s t h i s e v i d e n c e ; - a s i m i l a r f a c i l i t a t i o n is r e q u i r e d from t h e b u s i n e s s s i d e : t o o m a n y a g e n t s of a l l k i n d s a r e i n t e r f e r i n g i n p o r t p r o c e s s , thus contributing t o higher c o s t and longer delays; - a n e f f o r t s h o u l d made w i t h a v i e w t o i n t e g r a t e c a b o t a g e i n l o g i s t i c p r o c e s s , w i t h i t s s p e c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t . Some r e g u l a r s e r v i c e s s h o u l d be o r g a n i z e d on w e l l c h o o s e n i t i n e r a r i e s .

If t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e f u l f i l l e d , Europe c o u l d do a b e t t e r u s e of e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s a n d of i t s g e o g r a p h i c a l a d v a n t a g e s : a s m a l l c o n t i n e n t , a p e n i n s u l a w i t h t h o u s a n d k i l o m e t e r s of c o a s t s a n d h u n d r e d of p o r t s .

256 I t i s now common p l a c e t o c o m p l a i n a b o u t p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e t r a n s p o r t c o n g e s t i o n i n Europe. A t t h e same t i m e , one of t h e first basic knowledge in geography i s t h a t Europe is a small c o n t i n e n t , a k i n d o f Asia p e n i n s u l a w i t h t h o u s a n d s k i l o m e t e r s o f c o a s t , a n u m b e r o f s e a s d e e p l y p e n e t r a t i n g t h e l a n d a n d s o many p o r t s t h a t c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n them i s by f a r t o o s t r o n g . Is congestion r e a l l y a g e n e r a l i z e d European headache t o become w o r s e and worse ? I s t r a f f i c t o p e r m a n e n t l y grow? I f s o , i s the s o l u t i o n t o be found by s w i t c h i n g t r a f f i c from o n e i n l a n d t r a n s p o r t m o d e t o a n o t h e r o n e , a s now s o s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e d f r o m road t o r a i l . O r d o we h a v e t o m a k e u s e o f a l l a v a i l a b l e m e a n s of t r a n s p o r t , including marine t r a n s p o r t between european p o r t s ? B e f o r e t r y i n g t o a n s w e r , we w o u l d l i k e t o s e t u p a w o r d i n g t h e f r e n c h word c a b o t a g e i s now u s e d e v e n i n matter : i n E.E.C. e n g l i s h a s meaning road domestic t r a f f i c , w i t h i n a S t a t e boundaries or w i t h i n a g r o u p o f S t a t e s . I n f r e n c h " c a b o t a g e " i s p u r e l y a m a r i t i m e w o r d . We s h a l l use it with the understanding that "national cabotage" deals with purely n a t i o n a l maritime t r a f f i c s , while "european cabotage" covers t h e m a r i t i m e t r a n s p o r t b e t w e e n t w o or m o r e m e m b e r s o f t h e C o m m u n i t y .

.1.. -. T. R. A. .F.F.I .C. . EVOLUTION ..........

:

1.1.- Transport of goods and persons is t h e r e s u l t of a c t i v i t y . It evidences i t s l e v e l and i t s changes. A s a r u l e these changes a r e bigger in international trade that f o r the national one. In other words economic g r o w t h i s r e f l e c t e d by a t r a f f i c i n c r e a s e , h i g h e r i n international than i n national relations. Having s a i d t h a t , we a r e now - how l o n g i t w i l l l a s t i s an o t h e r s t o r y ! - i n a p e r i o d of c o n t i n u o u s growth which f o r t h e C o m m u n i t y i s a r o u n d a n a v e r a g e o f 3 % a y e a r . I t m e a n s a g r o w t h of more t h a n a t h i r d w i t h i n 10 y e a r s . W o r l d t r a d e g r e w o f 8 % i n 1988 a n d 8 9 . T h e s a m e r e s u l t i s e x p e c t e d f r o m 9 0 , a s p u b l i s h e d by G . A . T . T . A t E.E.C. l e v e l t h e growth o f t h e whole i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e i s r e a c h i n g 11% a n d h i g g e r r e s u l t s a r e f o r r e s e e n f o r e x c h a n g e s b e t w e e n t h e 1 2 , t h a n k s t o t h e p r o g r e s s made t o w a r d s t h e " b i g m a r k e t " a n d t h e i r a n t i c i p a t i o n s by p r o d u c e r s a n d t r a d e r s . 1.2. - Therefore, i f there is t r a f f i c congestion t o day, t h i s c o n g e s t i o n i s more t h a n l i k e l y t o be s t r o n g e r t o morrow a n d t h e d a y s after ! Does i t e x i s t a p p r o p r i a t e a n s w e r s ? I t i s w e l l known t h a t b i g t r a n s p o r t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e p r o j e c t s n e e d b e t w e e n 10 t o 20 y e a r s before becoming a reality. They r e q u e s t an enormous amount of f i n a n c i n g . A s an exemple, S w i t z e r l a n d is t r y i n g t o g i v e an answer t o t r a f f i c , w i t h a view t o a v o i d i n g t o become an i s o l a t e d f o r t r e s s i n t h e m i d d l e of E . E . C . , by i m p r o v i n g r a i l w a y s l i n k s t h r o u g h t h e A l p s . The amount i n v o l v e d i s t o t a l l i n g some 30 b i l l i o n s S . F . , s a y r o u g h l y E C U 2 0 b i l l i o n s ! T h e c o s t o f new t u n n e l s , new m o t o r w a y s i n h i g h l y densified areas,etc w i l l be enormous. Due r e f e r e n c e i s t o b e made h e r e t o t h e b a s i c s t u d y p u b l i s h e d by t h e E u r o p e a n C o n f e r e n c e o f T r a n s p o r t M i n i s t e r s i n 1 9 8 5 ,

...

257 according to which existing bottlenecks o f inland transport in Europe will become greater, specially but not only f o r rail and road transport.

1 . 3 . - It is important here to note that the solution does not lie in a simple choice between rail and road. Traffic congestion in Europe is uneven. It is directed by geography (valley,pass,etc. . . ) population distribution, industrial density,etc . . . So traffic has a "natural" trend to concentrate along some a x e s , on some itineraries. Road and railway networks have some unemployed capacities but the greatest part o f them is o f no use f o r solving the problem just described. The reasons why are numerous : too long distances out o f the w a y , higher costs, low technical levels of roads and tracks, lack o f requested services,etc Some additional itineraries could obviously be improved but f o r most of them cost will be too high. Therefore, transfering transport from road to r a i l , or using combined transport is certainly good and even compulsory solutions but will only solve a part o f the problem.Improving inland waterway transport will also be necessary but will have to face strong limitations as well. The conclusion at this stage is that traffic congestion is a f a c t , will remain a growing fact and that the gathering o f all inland transport possibilities will not be sufficient to face i t . The transport commissioner K.Van Miert recently stated that he will be very happy if able to transfer one half o f the road traffic growth to the railway, which is very far from a global solution.

...

2.- DOES IT EXIST A N OTHER ANSWER ? __________________--_______________ It does exist two other transport m o d e , by air and by sea. It is not within the scope o f this paper to deal with air transport, excepting to say that i t could certainly be improved, starting with interfaces with land transports. Turning back to european geography, the lenght o f its c o a s t s , the number o f its ports, i t seems normal and necessary to examine i f a possible alternative, or at least a complementary solution, lies there.

3.1.- Marine

transport between european countries is an historic reality which declined with the development o f railways but is still of importance. Following figures ( i n Mios T o n s ) are taken from a study by Ron.L.TOLLENAER for the Maritime Research Center (NL) :

- Traffic between State Members : 220 Transhipment after deep sea transport : 30 - National cabotage o f the state members : 300

-

European cabotage (evaluation) :

-

South - U.K. - North

itself

(220

Mios

t.)

: : :

is distributed

130 60 20

Products repartition is roughly the following :

as

follows

258 - General Cargo - Chemicals and gas - Grains

-

: : : :

30

25 25 120 : 20

O i l and o i l / p r o d u c t s

- Other bulks

M . T o l l e n a e r e s t i m a t i o n s a r e o f 2 7 5 Mios T . i n 1 9 9 5 a n d 300 M.T. i n 2 0 0 0 , w i c h i n d i c a t e s a n a v e r a g e g r o w t h o f 3 , 5 t o 4% a y e a r , b e l o w i n t r a c o m m u n i t y t r a d e f o r s e e n g r o w t h ( 8 t o 11% f o r t h e n e x t years t o come). I n t h i s s t u d y he r e g r e a t s t h a t t h e a b o l i t i o n o f i n l a n d E.E.C. f r o n t i e r s w i l l a b o l i s h d a t a s o u r c e s t h u s making such s t u d i e s impossible i n the next future. 3.2.Cabotage fleets : the i n f o r m a t i o n s : ( i n Mios T o n s ) :

- F.R.

of Germany Netherlands - Italy - Danemark - France - Cyprus

study

provides

the

following

: 1,6 : 0,650 : 1,l

-

: 0,450

: 0,150 : 1,8 (growth through t r a n s f e r t from G r e e c e ) : 0,400 ( d e c r e a s i n g ) : 1 (4 i n 1 9 8 0 )

- U.K.

-

same

Greece

These figures evidence big differences between State member. T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e l i k e l y t o c r e a t e d i f f i c u l t i e s a t t h e time a f r e e market would be open.

3.3. National r u l e s : National r u l e s a r e o f t e n d i f f e r e n t . While i n U . K . , c a b o t a g e is f r e e , most o f o t h e r E . E . C . members c o n s i d e r i t a s a purely national activity. In several countries the backing t r a d i t i o n n a l l y g i v e n t o r a i l w a y s h a s n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s on m a r i n e cabotage.

4.- L E G A L E . E . C . FRAMEWORK ___________________________

:

4 . 1 . - I t is o f c o u r s e o f b i g i n t e r e s t t o c o n s i d e r t h e framework of Community r u l e s w i t h i n w h i c h t h i s a c t i v i t y c o u l d be p e r f o r m e d . I n i t s communication t o t h e C o u n c i l "A f u t u r e f o r marine a c t i v i t i e s " t h e C o m m i s s i o n l a i d d o w n t h r e e p r o p o s a l s , o n e of t h e m b e i n g d e v o t e d t o t h e " s u p p l y o f m a r i n e t r a n s p o r t b e t w e e n S t a t e members" i n s h o r t our cabotage. This proposal contains provisions aiming at forbidding any r e s t r i c t i o n f o r c a b o t a g e w i t h s h i p s r e g i s t e r e d with Euros and of l e s s t h a n 600 t o n s b e t w e e n E . E . C . ports. Each members s t a t e i s entitled t o a c c e p t o n l y s h i p s w i t h a crew composed of E.E.C. n a t i o n a l s i f d o i n g s o a s r e g a r d s i t s own s h i p s . T h i s f r a m e w o r k s e e m s t o be convenient but apparently E.E.C. d i d no s e e t h e l i n k with EUROS r u l e s , a l o n g w h i c h a b o a t a f l e s s t h a n 5 0 0 t o n s c a n n o t b e r e g i s t e r e d . T h u s t h e s e b o a t s c o u l d n o t b e a d m i t t e d t o c a b o t a g e . We c a n n o t s e e t h e r e a s o n why. I n a d d i t i o n i t h a s t o b e n o t e d t h a n more t h a n o n e t h o u s a n d o f c a r g o s a n d t a n k e r s f r o m 1 0 0 t o 5 0 0 t o n s a r e now b e i n g u t i l i s e d by S t a t e s members O t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s c o u l d arise from t h e p o s s i b i l i t y g i v e n t o a S t a t e member t o s u b o r d i n a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in its national traffic t o various duties, being qualifyed of "Public service

259 o b l i g a t i o n " , a n o t i o n which i s q u i t e c l e a r i n roman l a w b u t n o t i n common l a w . I t s e e m s t h a t t h i s p r o v i s i o n w a s i n t r o d u c e d w i t h a v i e w t o p r o t e c t i n g t h e t r a f f i c b e t w e e n a S t a t e member a n d i t s n a t i o n a l islands.

4.2.To sum u p , w i t h some i m p r o v e m e n t s , t h e p r o p o s a l s e e m s t o provide a convenient framework for a possible development of European cabotage. Nevertheless it is necessary t o point out that it does not e x i s t and i t is not foreseen at t h i s s t a g e to i n s t i t u t e any communautary market f o r m a r i t i m e t r a n s p o r t . I n o t h e r words, t h e Commission p r o p o s a l l i m i t s i t s e l f t o open t h e f i e l d o f e a c h n a t i o n a l cabotage t o o t h e r members s t a t e s . I t d o e s n o t c r e a t e a s i n g l e communautary market f o r european marine t r a n s p o r t which would be reserved t o member-states.

here. In other 5 . 1 . - G o o d s t o b e c a r r i e d on a r e h e r e a n d w i l l b e words t h e demand d o e s e x i s t . P r e s e n t and f u t u r e d i f f i c u l t i e s of i n l a n d t r a n s p o r t a r e o b v i o u s . An e u r o p e a n f l e e t i s a v a i l a b l e a n d c o u l d be e a s i l y d e v e l o p p e d . P o r t s a r e n u m e r o u s . We s h a l l n o t o n l y c o n s i d e r t h e b i g g e s t p o r t s , which are a t t h e w o r l d t r a f f i c l e v e l , b u t a l s o t h e w h o l e a r r a y o f medium a n d small s i z e d p o r t s w h i c h a r e a v a i l a b l e i n E u r o p e . The g r e a t e s t p a r t of them a r e a b l e t o f a c e a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e o f is valid for their activity without important investment.This conventional s e a t r a n s p o r t as w e l l as f o r r o r o a n d c o n t a i n e r s ( i n c l u d i n g swap b o d i e s ) t r a f f i c . T h e s e two r e m a r k s a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t . E u r o p e a n p o r t s a r e everywhere. Inland E.E.C. t e r r i t o r i e s b e i n g f a r e r t h a n 200 kms f r o m a p o r t a r e a m i n o r i t y . Modern t e c h n i q u e s of s e a t r a n s p o r t a n d p o r t h a n d l i n g may b e u s e d e v e n i n r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l p o r t s a n d roro ( f i r s t f o r t r a i l e r s and swap b o d i e s ) is p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l s u i t e d f o r a s e a l a n d combined t r a n s p o r t i n Europe. I n s p i t e of that the present and foreseen growth o f european cabotage i s below t h e growth a v e r a g e o f european t r a f f i c . Commission are F u t u r e c o n d i t i o n o f c a b o t a g e , a s proposed by E.E.C. n o t very dynamic. A t l e a s t t h e y a l l o w f o r t h e b a s i c f l e x i b i l i t y which i s r e q u i r e d . What o t h e r s c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d be f u l f i l l e d ?

6.1.-Port

links. Inland transport links of infrastructures with ports s h o u l d be i m p r o v e d b u t n o t for i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s g o i n g t o o r c o m i n g from t h e b i g g e s t p o r t s . T h e r e i s a l r e a d y a l a r g e o v e r - c o n c e n t r a t i o n l i n k s w i t h t h e g r e a t n u m b e r of s o - c a l l e d o f them. We s p e a k o f r e g i o n a l p o r t s . V e r y o f t e n , i t i s f a s t e r , from a g i v e n p o i n t o f t h e i r normal h i n t e r l a n d t o send a shipment t o a f a r e r big p o r t , because of l a c k of a p p r o p r i a t e l i n k s . Regional p o r t s have a r e g i o n a l role t o p l a y p r o v i d e d t h e y a r e g i v e n t h e means t o do s o . T h i s q u e s t i o n h a s t o be l o o k e d a t n o t o n l y f r o m a t r a n s p o r t wiew p o i n t b u t a l s o w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f land-use p o l i c y i n Europe. Over c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p e o p l e , a c t i v i t y and transport is excessively c o s t l y . I t means t h a n t h e n e t w o r k o f means o f communication which a r e of E . E . C . i n t e r e s t as e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e Commission s h o u l d b e of t a k i n g i n t o account i n l a n d l i n k s of r e g i o n a l r e v i s e d with a view

260 ports with their hinterlands and between them as well.

6.2. Facilitation of procedures. We consider here all procedures dealing with transport o f goods by cabotage between E.E.C. ports either official or commercial.

6.2.1.- From the viewpoint of customs, all european sea-ports a r e , and will remain, doors open to international trade. Sea transport even intraeuropean is performed through international w a t e r s , where Customs have no possibility to apply their rules and to keep things under control. I t results into a permanent trend to consider all shipments entering a port as offering possibilities o f frauds. A port is de facto located at the external border o f the Community. It is possible to find solutions for using simple procedures, as simple as those which will enter into force for inland E.E.C. traffic and first for ships going straight from one E.E.C. port to an other E.E.C. port without calling at any other "third" port. 6.2.2. - Commercial procedures need also far more than a bit o f brushing ! We all know the amazing number o f various agents interfering in maritime process, either in ports or elsewhere under a constellation o f appellations, definitions and actions! They have in c o m m o n , as a r e s u l t , additional delays and additional costs. They are also accustomed to process all shipments along the same way being intra or extra E.E.C. A prerequisite for the development o f european cabotage lies in an approximate harmonisation of maritime and inland trade and transit procedures. In other words f o r intra-european shipments it should become as easy to transit through a port than for a swap body to be transfered from a trailer to a railway track. A s a matter of fact i t i s likely that these progress would be more easely performed for unit loads than f o r conventional cargoes.

These some thoughs are only tracks for further reflexions. Some additional areas should be explored. As an exemple, links between inland waterways transport and cabotage should be studied. The opening o f the Rhine-Main-Danube link in 1992 provides such an opportunity a s does the growing use o f river-sea ships on the french Rhone. The possibilities o f developping an european network combining a l l transport modes f o r carrying unit loads deserve also a specific study. Along a more systematic w a y , logistic and its important concept of "just in time'' should take into account the possibility of building up for given itineraries, a combined transport including sea leg(s), with the requested organisation (scheduled time, providing o f requested services along the itinerary,direct blocktrains from one port to an other o n e , etc . . . ) I n transport, as elsewhere it does not exist final solution. We are all interested in maintaining progress both in economic growth o f Europe and in european integration. A l l available means must be gathered and used to that end. In addition a re-integration of sea transport into the global network o f european ways o f communication will give the Community its real dimension, which includes the maritime area .

26 1

SPEED LIMITS, EFFECTS AND BENEFITS IN TERMS OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND REDUCTION OF EMISSIONS W.A.M. den Tonkelaar TNO Division of Technology for Society, P.O. Box 217, 2600 A E Delft, The Netherlands

SUMMARY The driving speed of a car influences the fuel consumption and emission of airpolluting substances. On 1 May 1988, a system of differentiated speed limits for passenger cars and light duty vehicles on motorways was introduced in the Netherlands, among other things for the purpose of reducing environmental pollution. On particular sections of the Dutch motorways a limit of 100 km/h is in force, on the rest one of 120 km/h. (Lorries 80 km/h on all motorways). Prior to and after introduction of the new system of speed limits the fuel consumption and the NOx, CO, C02 and hydrocarbon emissions from passenger cars and lorries on motorways have been calculated based on the actual driving speeds on both types of road sections. The emission behaviour at different vehicle speeds has been derived from field tests on roller-type test stands in combination with measurements on German motorways under actual driving conditions. After an initial sharp decrease in driving speed after 1 May 1988, resulting in lower fuel consumption and emissions, the speeds have slowly increased again, with the result that benefits have largely disappeared already. 1. INTRODUCTION

On 1 May 1988, a new system of differentiated speed limits for passenger cars and light duty vehicles on Dutch motorways was introduced. The speed limits in force before that date were 100 km/h for passenger cars and light duty vehicles, and 80 km/h for lorries, but a large part of the drivers did not keep within the speed limits. The startingpoint of the new policy was that the driving speeds could be influenced and controlled. Its motivation was three-fold: to increase the sense of standards; to reduce the damaging effects of motor traffic on the environment; to improve or at least stabilize road safety. The following measures were taken in order to reach that objective: the introduction of a system of differentiated speed limits; a full-scale information campaign for motorists, before as well as after the introduction of the new speed limits; a sharpened enforcement policy, by acting in a repressive way (justice) as well as by using preventive means (administrative support). The differentiation of the speed limits implies that on particular road sections, i.e. on about 17% of the total amount of motorways on which about 30% of the vehicle kilometres is spent, the limit of 100 km/h for passenger cars and light duty vehicles is maintained. On the other sections of the motorways there is a limit of 120 km/h, while the limit for lorries remains an unchanged 80 km/h for all sections.

262

The policy aimed at a return to the speed situation as it was at the time of the coalition agreement of the Second cabinet Lubbers in 1985. The mean driving speed of assen er cars then was 106 km/h with a 85-percentile value lower than 120 km/h (1). hen t e new system was introduced the Dutch Lower House was promised that the situation would be evaluated one year after its introduction. At the same time, as a support of the policy implementation, the national s eed development on motorways was to be resented .monthly after 1 May 1988, andl moreover, the background of the speed gehaviour of road users on motorways would be investigated in order to arrive at targeted enforcement and informationcampaigns.

h a

The evaluation contained an investi ation into the air pollution component. By means of model calculations the effect of t8e implementation of a differentiated set of speed limits on the fuel consumption and the following exhaust gas components: oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (C02) and hydrocarbons (HC) of passenger cars and lorries on Dutch motorways was measured. For that purpose a companson was made between the period May 1988 - May 1989 and a comparable eriod before the implementation (May 1987 - May 1988). The period May 1989 R4ay 1990 was also considered because the speed picture seems to be subject to continual changes. Beside the influence of the average driving speed chan es on the air pollution, the effects of increasing traffic during these periods, of more fuel-e icient and cleaner engines as well as of the possible changes in the speed distribution of cars were quantified.

a

REFERENCES

1 Ministeries van Verkeer en Waterstaat, Justitie en Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer, Nota inzake het te voeren beleid met betrekking tot de rijsnelheden op de Nederlandse wegen (in Dutch), Nota Rijsnelheden, Tweede Kamer der Staten Generaal, nr. 20366, 's-Gravenhage, 1987. 2.

METHODS AND INTRODUCTION DATA

2.1 m e e d s on ~UOJMQS Data concerning the speed on Dutch motorways is obtained by using the network of counting points with which also the intensities are measured. The equipment (ES-06) in this network measures continual driving speeds by means of induction with loops in the road and processes them to averages per hour and standard deviations per vehicle category and per traffic lane. The vehicle categories are determined by means of the detected (mass)length: passenger cars, lorries and trailers (1). In the early part of 1988 62 ES-06 measurement locations were installed of which 41 with an in rinciple undisturbed traffic passage (32 on roads with a limit of 120 km/h and 9 on 100 m/h roads) were selected to determine the national speed developments. At these points normally no build-up of traffic occurs. Situations with incidental disturbances were avoided as much as possible as to allow a good comparison between the monthly calculated speeds. To the same effect a period of one week was selected out of each month in which there were no particular holida s nor extreme weather conditions. Per period all hours of that week were included to dculate the monthly speed average and its 85-percentile. In the presentation a distinction will be made based on speed limits and vehicle categories: road sections with a limit of 100 km/h, passenger cars and ligM duty vehicles; road sections with a limit of 120 km/h, ssenger cars and light duty vehicles: road sections with a limit of 100 kmlh, Eries; road sections with a limit of 120 km/h, lorries.

R

263

x

Fig. 1 represents the mean monthly values of the drivin speeds of passenger cars and lorries on both road sections (2) measured since April 198 .

120

116

~

Ilo:\

i

l1 o 0 0 6 ; 'I/

9KLUA

'

" " "

"

"

"

" " '

I

-

Fig. 1. Mean monthly values of the driving speed on road sections with a limit of 100 km/h )-( and 120 km/h (----) from april 1988 up to and including april 1990. (a) Passenger cars and light duty vehicles. (b) Lorries. In May 1988, as a result of the change in speed limits, a striking decrease of the mean driving speed occurred, both on the 100 km/h and the 120 km/h sections. In the months that followed a steadily increasin driving speed was observed both for passenger cars and lorries, which does not seem to ave come to a stop. Figure 2 shows the weighed mean and the 85-percentile (V-85) of the driving speeds of passenger cars on both sections of the motorways. The policy's aim, i.e. an average speed of 106 km/h, was only reached in May 1988, and after that it moved further and further away from the goal. This also counts for the aim of a V-85 speed of 120 km/h.

a

Fig. 2. Mean monthly values ( 4 and V-85 (---.) of the speeds of passenger cars on all sections of the motorways. The speed distribution hardly changed after the implementation of the new speed limits. The V-85 value (15% fastest vehicles) appears to change in exactly the same manner as the mean driving speed does.

264

Table 1 represents the yearly average driving speeds of passenger cars (incl. light duty vehicles) and lorries before and after the implementation of the new speed limits. TABLE 1 Overall picture of the mean driving speeds of passenger cars and lorries on 100 en 120 km/h road sections (2). Passenger cars a Period

l00km

Lorries

120km

mean

100 km

120 km

mean

Driving speed in km per hour 1-5-87I 1-5-88

b

b

112.6

C

C

90.3

99.0

109.0

106.0

86.0

86.0

86.0

1-5-88/ 1-5-89

101.6

110.3

107.7

86.6

88.2

87.7

1-5-89I 1-5-90

104.0

112.4

109.9

87.5

89.0

88.6

Policy's aim

a including light duty vehicles. b No exact figures known. In april1988: 109.1 (100 km sections) and 113.0 (120 km sections), mean 111.8 km/h. C Idem. In april 1988: 90.0 (100 km), 90.7 (120 km), mean 90.5 km/h. After the implementation of the new set of speed limitations there was a decrease of the average driving speed on all road sections. However, the policy's aim will not be reached. The following year showed a steadily increase again. 2.2

and

. .

Increased driving speeds on motorways cause an increase in both fuel consumption and the emissions of air-polluting substances. This increase is not the same for all components. The emission data of passenger cars at high speeds is best known, mainly because of field tests on roller-type test stands (3).The emission of NOx, CO and HC is less for diesel engines than for petrol en ines. The relative dependence of the speed, however, appears to be exactly the same. rom the results of these measurements (3) the relation between the emissions and the fuel consumption and the speed was deducted for passen er cars with the for the Netherlands valid share of diesel engines of 15%. LPG (share in t e Dutch traffic of about 20%) was not considered in this study, yet it may be assumed that the relation emission and fuel consumption with the speed will not essentially deviate from other fuels. The model calculations in fact use this relative dependence, but with regard to the absolute emission factors, the fuel consumption of petrol, diesel and LPG, and the actual compilation of vehicles on the Dutch motorways. The connection between emissions and fuel consumption on the one hand and the driving speed on the other as is deduced from (3), is drawn in Figure 3. The remark should be made here, that not the emissions at constant speeds were considered, but the emissions for an actual driving cycle with said s eed as the average speed, as corrected after measurements on motorways in Western ermany (4). The increase of the average driving s eed in the speed area of 100 to 115 kmlh seems to be about equal for NOx, CO and the uel consumption. The HC emission is roughly constant at these speeds.

F

a

P

2

265 ____ ---__

- -~

30

-

24

4

k

,

I

4t

I

1°: 12

A -

-

2mr----

-

~

p

7

-~ -

I

150

r20

I ;

90'

080

I 040

o o o ~ p L 75

05

, 95

I

8

I

1

L

>

L

J

105 115 125 135 145 155 165 175 mnn

V*ICIO

w

1"

w h o r

76

86

%

1 0 6 116 126 136 146 166 166 176 nmw&wad!Jl-

Fig. 3. Speed dependence of the emissions of NOx (a), CO (b), HC (c), and the fuel consumption (d) of passenger cars on motorways with a diesel contribution of 15% (1985). The C 0 2 , lead and SO2 emissions can be calculated directly from the fuel consumption. In this study the following conversion factors were used for C02 (grammes C02 per gram fuel) (5): petrol : 3.12 diesel fuel : 3.12 LPG : 3.04 Relatively few emission measurements are known of lorries driving at speeds exceeding 80 km/h. It is certain that the emissions increase with higher speeds (6 - 7). The calculations here depart from the same relative speed de endence as is valid for passenger cars. Based on the data of a study by Rijkeboer,)!( which shows a relative increase of fuel consumption with an increasing driving speed similar to the one of passenger cars, the fuel consumption at higher speeds was estimated. Both the emission factors and the fuel consumption of vehicles are constant1 liable to changes. Increasingly cleaner engines are being produced because o legal measurements, mainly on the EC directives. The built-in catalysts in new passenger cars have resulted in a decrease of the regulated emissions. The fuel consumption and the C02 emission have slightly decreased as well due to the ever more fuel-efficient engines. This implies that the 1985 data which was mentioned before, cannot be applied without alterations on the period May 1987 - May 1988.

Y

266

(4,

The data on this particular period primaril departed from the fuel consumption from as is shown in Table 2. (8), and the CBS-based emission factors from TABLE 2 Emission factors and fuel consumption of passenger cars and lorries on motorways in the period May 1987 till May 1988. Component

Passenger cars

Lorries

c 3.5 ton

> 3.5 ton

NOx in g/km (1987)

3.3

19.4

CO in g/km (1987)

4.9

2.2

HC in g k m (1987)

1.o

2.6

Petrol in g/km

56.5 a

Diesel in g/km

58.4 a

LPG in gkrn

55.4 a

195.0

a passen er cars; for light duty vehicles the following values apply: gasoline 96.2, diesel 98.5, L8G 89.0 g/km. A comparison between the data on passenger cars and Figure 2, while taking into consideration a decrease of the emission factors and the fuel consumption since 1985, shows that the emission factor for CO as given by the CBS rather deviates. The reason for this is that the CBS data is based on emissions at constant speeds. For CO, (3) considers this a serious underestimation of the emission factor. Therefore, the calculations have been made with an emission factor for CO of 10 g/km, a figure closer to reality. After the im lementation of the new motorway speeds the emission factors and the have developed as follows, as the CBS data (5) shows (Table 4): fuel consumption

(b)

TABLE 4 Changes of the emission factors and fuel consumption in terms of percentage (%) compared to the period May 1987 - May 1988. Passenger cars

Lorries

NOx

CO

HC

FC

NOx

CO

HC

FC

1/588-1/5’89

-5

-5

-5

-1

0

0

0

-1

115’89-1/s90

-10

-10

-10

-2

0

0

0

-2

Period

267

2.3 Kilometres -Ds The amount of vehicle kilometres spent on motorways increases yearly. Two effects are responsible here, an increase of the traffic intensity and the extension of the road system. Table 5 shows the spent vehicle kilometres on Dutch motorways in 1987, as provided by the CBS (5),and the increase in 1988 and 1989 (preliminary figures). TABLE 5 Amount of vehicle kilometres (in millions) spent on motorways in 1987 and the increase in 1988 and 1989 compared to 1987. 1987

1988

1989

Vehicles < 3.5 ton

25044

+6%

+12%

Vehicles > 3.5 ton

2527

+11%

+22%

total

27571

+6.5%

+13%

Table 5 shows that the lorry traffic on motorways increases faster than the traffic of passenger cars. REFERENCES

1 K.T. Joustra, Speed measurements and data handling, Internal Report (in Dutch), Dienst Verkeerskunde, Ri'kswaterstaat, Rotterdam, 1990. 2 Dienst Verkeerskunde, dpeed measurements on motorways, periodical reports (in Dutch), Rijkswaterstaat, Rotterdam, 1988-1990. 3 Umwelt Bundes Amt, Das Abgas-Emissionsverhaltenvon Personenkraftwagenin der Bundesrepublik Deutschland im Bezugsjahr 1985, Berichte 7/87 Erich Schmidt Vertag, Berlin, 1987. 4 TUV Rheinland, Abgas-GroOversuch, AbschluObericht, Forschungs rojekt im Auftrage des Bundesministers fur Verkehr, Verlag TUV Rheinland GmbH, KSk, 1986. 5 CBS, Air pollution: emissions by traffic in 1987, 1988 and 1989, Internal memorandum in Dutch), Voorburg, 1988-1990. 6 . Latham and A.J. Hickman, Exhaust emissions from heavy diesel engined vehicles, Sci. Tot. Env., 93 (1990) 139-145. 7 P. Leisen, Determination of the trend of highway emissions by means of emission balance measurements, Sci. Tot. Env., 93 (1990) 339-348. 8 R.C. Rijkeboer, Evaluation fuel consumption on motorways, The effects of modified speeds (in Dutch), IW-TNO Report nr. 733 930 009, Delft, 1990.

L

3.

RESULTS

The results of this study are represented in two ways for a sound judgement on the effects of the implementation of the new motorway s eed limits. On the one hand there is the result of the changed driving speeds, and on t e other the totality of influences of driving speeds, emission factors, and spent vehicle kilometres.

E

Table 6 presents data on the emissions and fuel consumption of passenger cars (including light duty vehicles) and lorries of the period prior to the introduction of the new speed limits, as well as of the changes due to the fluctuations in speed.

268

TABLE 6 Effects of changes in vehicle speeds on the emissions and fuel consumption, expressed as tons per year compared with the period prior to introduction of the new system of speed limits.

1-5-87I 1-5-88

Period Policy's aim

1-5-88I 1-5-89

1-5-89I 1-5-90

. .

NOx-emlsslons Passenger cars Lorries total

83,800 49,100 132,900

-6.000 -2,300 -8,300

-4,500 -1,400 -5,900

-2,500 -900 -3,600

Passenger cars Lorries total

250,000 10,000 260,000

-1 8,000 -500 -1 8,500

-1 3,000 -300 -1 3,300

-7,000 -200 -7,200

Passenger cars Lorries total

21,700 6,600 28,300 -320,000 -90,000 -410,000

-245,000 -53,000 -298,000

-1 36,000 -34,000 -1 70,000

-79,000 -1 7,000

-44,000 -1 1,000 -55,000

COp-emissions Passenger cars Lorries total

E&&g.%F Lorries total

4,530,000 1,870,000 6,400,000 1,460,000a 600,000 2,060,000

b b b

-96,000

a petrol 91 4,000,diesel fuel 244,000,LPG 304,000tons per year. b not included in the policy's aim. Due to the introduction of the new system of speed limits on motorways on May 1,

1988 the emissions and fuel consumption appear to have decreased, except in the case of HC for which the emission hardly depends on speed (Table 6).The aim of the policy, in which a sharper decrease was anticipated, did not come true. In the second year after the implementation the emissions and fuel consumption on motorways increased again due to an increase of the mean driving speeds. When beside chan es in driving speed also the changes in emission factors and amount of spent vehicle ilometres are taken into consideration a comparison of the situation prior to and after the introduction of this new speed system shows another picture. Table 7 presents an overview of the effects on emissions and fuel consumption one year and two years after the implementation of the new speed limits.

1

269

TABLE 7 Emissions and fuel consumption of passenger cars (incl. light duty vehicles) and lorries on Dutch motorways prior to and after introduction of a new system of speed limits on 1 May, 1988,in tons per year. Period

115'87-'88

1 15'08-'89

115'89-'90

. .

NOx-enUSSIQaS Passenger cars Lorries total

83,800 49,100 133,000

80,000 53,000 133,000

83,000 59,000 142,000

Passenger cars Lorries total

250,000 10,000 260,000

239,000 11,000 250,000

248,000 12,000 260,000

Passenger cars Lorries total

21,700 6,600 28,300

21,900 7,300 29,200

22,100 8,000 30,100

COpemissions Passenger cars Lorries total

4,530,000 1,870,000 6,400,000

4,510,000 2,020,000 6,530,000

4,800,000 2,200,000 7,000,000

Passenger cars Lorries total

1,460,000 600,000 2,060,000

1,450,000 650,000 2,100,000

1,550,000 700,000 2,250,000

Table 7 shows that there is an increase, mainly because of lorry traffic (a sharp increase in vehicle kilometres at steady emission factors). The CO figures show a decrease for the first year after implementation. All calculations are based on mean speeds. For two articular road sections calculations have been made with the actual speed distribution. nly for CO, the emission turns out to be higher (about 8%). The speed distributions before and after 1 May 1988 show no differences. Therefore, the method to calculate the means does not influence the size of the calculated effects (Table 6).

8

Because the aim of the polic has not been reached as far as the speeds are concerned, either the number of roa sections with a maximum speed of 100 kmlh might be enlarged, or the limit on these sections might be lowered to.90 kmlh. The decision should yet be taken. The enforcement of the speed limits is the major problem here.

cy

270 4.

CONCLUSIONS

The introduction of a new system of speed limits and the related changed speed pattern caused a decrease in emissions and fuel consumption on Dutch motorways. In the second year after implementationthese effects partly perished, because the mean driving speed slowly increased again. The amount of spent vehicle kilometres on motorwa s has increased sharply in the last few years, especially for lorries, and consequently, t l e fuel consumption and emissions have increased in total, the CO emissions excepted. The introduction or tightening up of speed limits is a means to reduce emissions and fuel consumption. The introduction, however, requires an active enforcement policy and it should be presented extensively to the public. A permanent improvement will require need measurements to restrict motoring.

M. Kroon. R. Snr,r und J . vun Hum (Edirors), Freighl Trunsporr and the Environmenl 1991 Elsevrer Science Publishers 6. V . . Anrsrerdure. Printed in the Nerherlunds

27 1

ROAD TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT. A VIEW BY THE DUTCH ROAD HAULAGE ASSOCIATION (NOB WEGTRANSPORT) M.G.W. Hallmans and J.M. HandelC NOB Wegtransport (Dutch Road Haulage Association), P. 0. Box 5302, 2280 HH Rijswijk, The Netherlands

SUMMARY The transport of goods over the road makes a considerable contribution to the overall air pollution. The completion of the European internal market will result in an increase of the cargo trade. The environmental policy should be shaped on a international level for the sake of effectiveness. More transport by rail and inland shipping: cleaner lorries: a more efficient transport, allowing larger dimensions and weights and a more efficient transport by allowing cabotage and applying telematics are directions in wich the solution to the enormous problems must be sought. In addition transport companies also have their own responsibility. INTRODUCTION The pollution with which society is confronted is enormous. The gradual heating of the atmosphere and acidity are subjects wich in the meanshile have become prominent on the political agenda. In order to prevent future generations being saddled up with the consequences of the economic activities of the present generation, it is important that economic developments are tested on the conditions of "sustainable development". If we take "sustainable development" as a starting-point, road transport will also have to make its contribution. If we leave aside issues such as (company)waste products, soil contamination, noise pollution and limit ourselves tot the emissions of polluting substances, then road transport makes an important contribution to acidity (in particular NO,), the greenhous effect (CO,) and the smog problems (NO,, aerosols). acidifying emissions (NH,, NO,, SO,), sources in the Netherlands: agriculture road traffic power plants refineries other industry miscellaneous

50%

21% 9 % 6 % 11% 3 %

of which (only NO,): cars freight traffic delivery vans busses

57% 36% 4 % 3 %

212

is known, these problems -certainly with respect to the emissions of CO,, NO,- have an important international dimension: approx. 808 of the acidifying emissions in the Netherlands are exported and approx. 60% of acidifying substances falling down in the Netherlands come from abroad. There have never been boundaries for air pollution in Europe: realised emission restrictions on an international level are simply nullified as a result of depositions from other countries.

As

Another international aspect of the problems is the European unity. The disappearance of physical, technical and fiscal obstacles between the members states undoubtedly has positive effects on the economies of the members states, as a result of wich the demand for transport will increase considerably. In addition it is possible tot carry out the transport in a simpler way due tot the disappearance of physical restrictions. A study carried out on the authority of the European Commission [l] expects an increase of international freight traffic as a result of the completion of the internal market. SOLUTIONS

The much discussed "Dutch Enviromental Policy Plan" (NMP) [2] and the following NMP+ [3] contains the strategy for the enviromental policy for the long-term period and aim at achieving a sustainable development. The NMP indicates what measures are required for all societal and economic sectors in order to quarantee a durable economy. In addition to the NMP, the "Structure Schem for Traffic and Transport" ( S W ) [4] is very relevant to the transport sector. The SVV also makes the idea of "durable development" a central issue of its policy. Both policy documents indicate what policy the Dutch government should use in order to tackle the enviromental problems, which have also been caused by the cargo trade. The main aim of the policy has been laid down in so-called emission ceilings. Within a number of periods, considerable emission reductions will have to be realised in order to stay under the ceilings. The most important means to achieve the goals can be generally divided into technical measures, a shift in modes of transport and measures increasing efficiency. Emission ceilings: NMP: 1986 NO, road haulage Carbon hydrogens road haulage

co;

2000

2010 NMP+:2000

2010

122

72

25

72

25

46

30

12

30

12

24,000 24,000 2,160

23,000 23,000 kilotons per year

the emission maximum for both personal and cargo traffic

273 Measures to improve transport techniques contribute in an important degree to the emission reductions. Proposals to considerably hiahliaht the emission standard are an important step in the right iirection. European emission standards f o r lorries: standard:

R-49

88/77/EEC3

EEC proposal’ first phase

NO,

co

18 14

14.4 11.2

8.0 4.5

7.0 4.0

CarbonHydrogens soot

3.5

2.4

1.1 0.38

1.1 0.3 / 0.15

-

-

second phase

gram per kWh It is estimated [5] that a NOx reduction through technical measures by 35% in 2010 in comparison with 1980 is the maximum attainable. The technical measures must therefore be added by measures aimed at restricting the use of energy. A restriction in the use of energy is not only necessary to reduce polluting emissions, but also the greenhouse gas CO,. The restriction in driving and rolling resistance and the application of lighter materials are the technical options with respect to the saving of fuel. Last, but not least, it is also possible to have a reduction in the emission of SO, and soot by using a better quality of diesel fuel. shift from part of the road cargo traffic to rail transport and inland shipping is also an important means to realise the intended emission reductions.

A

The expectations of a change in the modal split are high. It is without a doubt that the transport by rail and inland shipping is cleaner and sounder with respect to energy than road transport. The expected growth of road transport is so large that it is also for reasons of a smooth circulation that part of the growth will have to be taken over by other modes of transport. F o r the time being it seems that it is only for long international distances that the train can be an alternative f o r cargo trade. The use of containers and swap bodies offer a favourable perspective. In addition the international organisation and the necessary infrastructure for combined transport require much attention. The road transport companies and the government stick tot the principle of a “shippers free choice”, which means that the choice of a mode of transport by a loader is based on the relation price/quality and that a forced restriction of the road transport is not carried out.

The first phase would be enforced on 1 January 1993 and the second phase on 1 Oktober 1997. enforced starting from 1 Oktober 1990

214

Part of the expected doubling of the road transport in 2010 in comparison to 1986 could be taken over by train and inland shipping. It has been calculated [ 6 ] that the growth of the road transport on Dutch territory could be at most "restricted" to approx. 68% instead of 100%. Besides an improvement in the transport techniques and a larger transport contribution by rail and inland shipping, measures that improve the efficiency can also realise a considerable reduction of the emissions. Allowing cabotage, extending the allowed dimensions and weights and increasing the loading degree of lorries by applying telematics very strongly contribute to the restriction of rides without cargo and a more efficient effort by lorries and therefore to the necessary decrease of the emissions. According to estimates [ 7 ] , the loading degree of the international road transport can increase by 10% to 25%, if national transport is allowed by foreign transport companies (cabotage). Cabotage will be allowed in the Benelux (Belgium, The Netherlands and Luxemburg) in 1991. Finally, considerable reductions can also be realised by extending the allowed dimensions and weights. According to a study [8] on the consequences of changing the allowed dimensions of lorrytrailer combinations, a certain combination uses 9.2% less fuel than a vehicle with 10.85% less loading capacity for the same transport performance. Other data [9] also show that articulated lorries and lorries with trailers emit three to four times less per ton per kilometer than normal lorries. The conditions to have the formulated policy succeed depends to a large degree on international arrangements. Emission standards, dimensions and weights, standardisation of containers and swap bodies are subjects to the determined on an European level. Telematics is already a subject of study through EUREKA. Allowing cabotage is an item which marvellously fits in with the spirit of European unity. The completion of the internal market is not only - as a result of the consequences of the expected economic growth - a threat to the environment, but the unity also offers chances to tackle the environmental problems in an effective and efficient way. The EC should make the most of its opportunities to formulate a progressive european environmental policy. At present there is a chance that progressive member states are stopped by member states with less priority as regards the environment. The completion of the internal market is not only a success if the economic expectations are realised, but if in addition the result of the European environmental policy is more than just the sum of the environmental policies of the separate members states. The success of the policy depends on the international efforts to realise a common approach of the problems. An important advantage of a international approach of the environmental problems is an equilibrium of the effect - also for the road transport - in the competition relations.

275 The road transport must and can make a contribution to the solution of the problems. The road transport also has its own responsibility with respect tot these problems. This responsibility demands from this branch of trade that it will actively pay attention to the maintenance of its fleet of lorries, the maintenance of the maximum speed and the driving behaviour of the drivers. Furthermore, transport companies must keep their minds open to developments like telematics and alternative modes of transport. REFERENCES

Environment and the Internal Market. Task Force. Brussels, 1990. Parliament, meeting year 1988-1989, 21 137, nos. 1-2. Parliament, meeting year 1989-1990, 21 137, nos. 20-21. Parliament, meeting year 1989-1990, nos. 20 922 Milieu & Concurrentiekracht, Nederland Distributieland, Den Haag, 1990 idem idem Kleinere laadlengte, grote gevolgen (Smaller loading length, greater consequences). NEA. Rijswijk, 1989. Goederenvervoer moet schoner kunnen (Cargo Trade can be cleaner), Schoenmaker, T. J.H. : Bouwman, P.A., Tijdschrift voor Vervoerswetenschap 1990, no. 1, NEA, Rijswijk.

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M. Krooii, H. . S w r und J. vun Hum (Edirors). Freighr Trunsporr und the Environinenr c 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V . , Aiiisrerdain. Printed in rhe Nerherlands

279

FREIGHT TRANSPORT AND THE QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN TOWNS Ralf Kurer Urnweltbundesamt, Bismarckplatz I , 0-1000 Berlin 33, Germany

SUMMARY

Motor lorry traffic may have only a share of roughly 10 per cent in all road vehicle transport in towns, but the pollution it causes, both in air pollution and in noise, is much more than that percentage. An extensive set of instruments is available which should be able to help us bring about freight transport which is not harmful to the environment in towns. Among these are, for example: Avoiding unnecessary transports, the use of low-emitting vehicles and operating methods, concentration of freight traffic on major thoroughfares and loading and unloading methods that are not harmful to the environment. If, however, traffic continues to increase as it does now, then government measures to control traffic as well as protect the environment over and above the measures outlined above will be inevitable in order to safeguard the essential economic traffic and to ensure environment protection. 1.

INTRODUCTION

A properly functioning freight transport system is one of the most important conditions for the efficiency of trade and industry. Due to the unchecked increase in motor traffic, however, a situation has been created in our streets, which threatens not only the proper functioning of freight transport, but also the entire economic traffic. From traffic, and here in particular road traffic, emanates environmental pollution to the extent that the population refuses to live near the polluted road sectors if in any way possible, mainly because they fear that this may impair their health. Therefore measures to ensure the continued operation of essential transport services and at the same time measures to reduce the environmental deterioration caused by motor vehicles are urgently needed. To this end integrated concepts 'Environment and Traffic' must be prepared in a cooperative effort by all interested parties at all planning levels. The concept for action which has been developed in the 'Second Structural Notice for the Development of Traffic in the Netherlands' may be mentioned as an example for such programmed and coordinated concepts ( 1 ) . In Germany the initial steps have been taken to start such a concerted programme 'Environment and Traffic' ( 2 ) . Unless it is stated differently, the following statements apply to Germany. 2.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CAUSED BY FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TOWNS

280

Traffic is one of the main causes of environmental pollution. Without countermeasures this pollution can hardly be expected to diminish, as traffic is steadily on the increase. The total distance covered in 1988 amounted to 427 billion kilometers, representing an annual rise of some 5 per cent since 1985. The share of motor lorries (including semitrailer trucks) in this total is roughly 8.5 per cent. The share of the total distance travelled within towns so far amounted to over 30 per cent ( 3 ) . If we assume that the relative proportion of lorries and passenger cars is the same inside and outside towns, then we arrive at a result of goods traffic movements within towns of approximately 1 1 billion kilometers per annum. As it is, lorry traffic takes a share in urban traffic of less than 10 per cent. However, the share in the pollution caused by this traffic in the form of air contamination is considerably higher, especially in the case of nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides and of soot (9d). Moreover with regard to traffic noise, which upsets the population in particular, it is the lorries, apart from motorcycles, people really complain about. The following expositions relate especially to air pollution and noise. On the one hand these are, according to an opinion poll of experts ( 4 ) , the admittedly most gravitating pollution, on the other hand the availability of data regarding other pollutions in towns that are typical of freight transport (water and soil pollution etc.) are at present far from complete. 2.1

Air Pollution

The air pollution caused by traffic leads to dangers to the environment and risks to public health. In addition to carcinogenic substances (in particular soot particles) nitrogen oxides and HC-emissions deserve special attention, as they, being the initial substances producing oxidants such as ozone, are considered the chief causes of damage to health and nature. Great importance from an environmental point of view should also be attached to carbon dioxide, which affects the climate. Table I shows the share of traffic-related emissions in the total emissions, based on figures for the year 1987 and a prognosis of the Federal Environment Office for the year 1989. It is obvious that the share of traffic in the total emissions is considerable. In the Federal Republic of Germany traffic accounted for shares of the total emissions of 62 per cent of NO,, 53 per cent of HC, 75 per cent of CO, 30 per cent of soot particles and 20 per cent of C02 in 1987. Approximately 25 per cent of the total energy consumption is used up by traffic. These values should first of all be attributed to road traffic, which is responsible for 82 per cent of passenger traffic and 58 per cent of goods transport in an upward trend. At present motor lorries account for almost 2 0 per cent of the nitrogen oxides and soot particles and in future this will be an even much higher relative share. So far the nitrogen emissions of utility vehicles have not been reduced to a degree corresponding to the efforts made in respect of passenger cars. Therefore motor lorries will be the worst source of NO, emissions in traffic by the turn of the century. Measurements on the main roads in towns in Germany showed as an average over one year 98 per cent-values ranging from 0.15 to

28 1 0.22 m g / m 3 of NO,. These values are, compared with the appropriate limiting value of the EC-directives applicable to public health (0,2 m g / m 3 ) , in the critical range. This shows very clearly the urgent need for action to reduce the pollution burden caused by traffic in town areas. It is unlikely that the situation is any different in other European countries.

TABLE 1 Air pollution and its share for traffic and motor lorries in the Federal Republic of Germany (Source: Federal Environmental Office 1990).

Emissions

1987

1988

NO,

Total in 1000 tons

2900

1970

share in per cent: traffic utility vehicles

62 18

70 31

Total in 1000 tons

2470

1380

share in per cent: traffic utility vehicles

53 4

49 9

Total in 1000 tons

8770

5110

Share in per cent: traffic utility vehicles

75 1

HC

co

CO,

soot

2.2

Total in 1 ,000,000 tons

60 3

719

720

Share in per cent: traffic utility vehicles

20 4

23

Total in 1000 tons

220

179

Share in per cent: traffic utility vehicles

30 17

35 22

5

Noise

In discussions about the effects of pollution on individual citizens it is said that noise is the worst offender. In opinion polls held in 1989 the population left no doubt that traffic noise is the dominant source of nuisance: close to 70 per cent of the West German population feel that traffic noise in the streets is a nuisance, 24 per cent even call it a grave nuisance (6). In the effects of noise nuisance the motor lorries take the major share. They are classified as the second noisiest source, second only to motor cycles. Figure 1 shows the average noise levels of various types of motor vehicles passing (7). It is clear that motor lorries in actual operation produce noise emissions to

282

------- > sound-pressure level in dB(A)

FIGURE 1 . Passing-by noise levels of different types of vehicles (7) (LAR= arithmetic average of noise levels; L,, = noise levels only exceeded by 5 per cent of vehicles)

283 values exceeding those of passenger cars and small delivery vans by as much as 10 dB(A), which means that it will take ten small delivery vans passing simultaneously to produce the same noise as the passage of only one motor lorry. If the relevant calculation procedure ( 8 ) is applied to ascertain the average noise level e.g. in inner-city traffic, then the noise from motor lorries is already preponderant if the number of motor lorries exceeds 4 per cent of the total number of vehicles. For main streets in residential areas a share of 10 per cent to 20 per cent is estimated for motor lorries ( a ) , in mixed-use areas a share of motor lorry traffic of as much as 2 0 per cent may occur, depending on the type of street examined, whereas in residential areas an average of motor lorry shares of well below 5 per cent should be reckoned with (9c). From these figures it becomes clear that the greatest potential for reduction of noise lies in a changeover to smaller types of motor lorries and in the reduction of the share of motor lorries especially in main thoroughfares with mainly residential buildings. 3.

REDUCTION OF POLLUTION CAUSED BY FREIGHT TRANSPORT IN TOWNS

One needs little foresight to recognize that a further growth in traffic at the present rate will lead to serious problems in maintaining a minimum quality level for the livability in town centres and in guaranteeing the execution of the tasks of economic traffic. In the meantime it is hardly disputed that additional streets will inevitably result in still more traffic and consequently in even greater traffic and environmental problems. Meanwhile this has been recognized not only by town planners and environmentalists, but also by responsible traffic planners, and so the, until recently, frequently heard demand that the traffic problems mentioned should be solved by building more roads, is heard less often today. In addition, the city areas are far too valuable to leave them solely to the mercies of road builders and car owners (parked vehicles). For a long time it was assumed that the environmental problems caused by traffic could be solved by technical measures. Meanwhile it becomes clear that an adequate reduction in trafficrelated environmental pollution cannot be achieved in this manner, if traffic will increase at a rate it has so far. In the following some possibilities to reduce environmental pollution caused by freight transport in towns are presented. Many of the suggestions have already been published by other authors (9). This publication, however, intends to work out the common interests of trade and industry, traffic and environmental protection and, in addition, certain specific conflicts as well. 3.1

Case studies and location specific analysis

The general problem situation has been sufficiently set out in the above expositions. Each reduction in air pollution within towns contributes to a global reduction in air pollution. To achieve this first of all technical measures and especially reductions in numbers of vehicles are a very simple and always effective concept. The solutions for certain cases and locations

284

which are suitable for the latter can, however, only be determined on the basis of detailed analysis geared to each investigated case and to action plans based thereon. In particular in respect of the avoidance of noise pollution small scale considerations are inevitable. Because the sound decays quickly near its source and the spreading can be influenced by obstacles, the avoidance of noise pollution is primarily a matter of local problems for which local solutions must be found. 3.2

Plannins and leqal possibilities

One of the fundamental possibilities of reducing traffic, which could only be realized in the l o n g t e r m , would be the implementation of traffic-preventing town planning. This, however, requires first of all traffic planning and town planning becoming better geared to each other and besides the adoption of active rather than reactive town planning. The decentralized authority in the various competent bodies that until now set the rules nearly everywhere is not at all conducive to the purpose of land-use planning aimed at reducing traffic. Another disadvantage is the deconcentration of the utilisation of various buildings, which has been practised for a long time. Sophisticated measures to protect the environment provide for a situation where people live much closer to their places of work. This would accomplish a significant reduction in traffic volume. The German Road Traffic Act with its Road Traffic Ordinance (StVO) and the Federal Immission Protection Act (BImSchG) offer a variety of decisive possibilities for measures in respect of existing as well as new roads. Such measures, however, should preferably only be taken within the scope of regional and large scale planning, as otherwise the risk of problems only being shifted from one place to the other cannot be ruled out. In the recently amended BImSchG ( 1 0 ) complementary and new regulations for regional measures aimed at fighting air and noise pollution have now been included. In the area of noise abatement new regulations for noise reduction plans have been included (par. 47a). Here analyses of the situation and plans for reduction will be carried out, when harmful effects of noise on the environment can be expected and coordinated action against noise sources of various types is required. This situation will mostly occur in the main streets in the town centres, where often also a variety of responsable authorities can be found, so that the instrument of noise reduction plans can or must be applied. Details of the measures that may be taken are mostly in accordance with par. 4 5 StVO; consequently restrictions and blockades can be imposed for reasons of noise protection and noise protection zones can be declared banning all motor vehicles except so-called low-noise vehicles. The conference of Environment Ministers of the German States strongly advised the municipalities in March this year to use this instrument of incentives for low-noise motor lorries ( 1 1 ) . Both the proposed introduction of noise reduction plans as well as the implementation of areas where incentives schemes apply,

285

require the municipal situation reports and location analysis, mentioned in the previous chapter, and the resulting plans for measures aimed at prevention and reconstruction. In the area of the fight against air pollution the same applies. On top of that par. 4 0 of the BImSchG provides more rigorous regulations which make it possible to take areawide measures restricting traffic in order to avoid excessive air pollution, if certain limiting values for immissions are exceeded and/or as a precaution. Measures restricting traffic represent a serious intervention in the field of transport. But they are especially inevitable, when certain limiting values set to protect public health are exceeded. Then the authorities no longer have any latitude for discretionary decisions. On the other hand such high pollution levels can already be countered at an early stage with suitable precautionary measures. These include the use of advanced technology (in the vehicles), but also appropriate measures in town planning and traffic planning. Therefore it is inevitable that in future analyses of pollution and environment-oriented objectives become part and parcel of town and traffic planning. Moreover it should also be in the interest of trade and industry that the danger implied in traffic restrictions is avoided by the earliest possible utilisation of all technical means we have at our disposal to reduce pollution. The representatives of trade and industry should give this more thought at the continuously very difficult negotiations on the determination of internationally coordinated emission limits of motor lorries. Besides, one should also see to it that the permitted emission margins are not increasingly exhausted by traffic while on the other hand locally licensing problems erise from the location of industries. This would lead to considerable structural disadvantages for the regions concerned. 3.3

Reduction bv means of technical measures

Technical measures for the reduction in emissions usually require sizeable effort - in as far as they can be realized at all from a technical-economic point of view. Manufacturers are therefore right in demanding timely and internationally coordinated objectives. It must, however, be quite clear - as has already been elucidated above - to all participants involved in the determination of such objectives (authorities as well as the opposing lobby of manufacturers) that any lack of courage to realize the technical possibilities will only necessitate far more deplorable measures in the non-technical area (traffic restrictions). 3.3.1

Reduction of air pollution

The major share of emissions of air pollution in traffic, with the exception of soot, comes from passenger cars. Here considerable reductions can be expected from a consistent pursuance of a sophisticated catalyst technique (electronically controlled catalytic converter). This statement refers especially to the existing NO,-, CO- and HC-pollution and their reduction. Measures in respect of motor lorries should first get to grips with the pollution with NO, and sootparticles which is mainly caused by motor lorries. For that reason the relevant EC limits

286 should finally be introduced (soot) and tightened (NO,) respectively, making it compulsory for manufacturers take steps in order to comply with these limits. For instance, limiting NO, emissions to 7 g/kWh and so halving the present NO,-limit compared with today is justifiable, in considerations regarding the limitation of the overall consumption. On a national level efforts should be stimulated to implement those techniques for reduced emissions by motor lorries, which have already been tested, for instance the at least partly successful techniques tested at the large scale fleet test conducted by the Federal Environmental Minister for the purpose of introducing soot-filters in motor lorries, but apart therefrom those for low-noise vehicles as well, at the earliest possible date. The development of lorry engines with low emissions of NO, and soot is to be given top priority in the public interest. The official promotion of appropriate engineering output must therefore be continued unconditionally. 3.3.2

Reduction of noise levels

During the past ten years the development of technical measures to reduce noise levels of motor lorries already met with considerable success (12). Partly these achievements could be converted into tightened EC limiting values for noise by the end of the eighties. Consequently the motor lorries approved in the nineties should be quieter to a degree that ten of these together produce as much noise as one single motor lorry did in the early eighties [reduction by 1 0 dB(A)I. Nevertheless the limits of the technical and economical capabilities have not yet been reached. In the course of 1 9 9 0 there will be over a hundred types of lorries made by seven European manufacturers, which will meet the clearly more demanding definition - in comparison with the EC limits - for low-noise motor lorries stated in the German Road Traffic Licensing Ordinance (Annex XXI StVZO). A comprehensive and regularly updated list of the now available low-noise lorry-types (at present, April 1 9 9 0 , more than 1 0 0 types from 2.8 tons to 32 tons and from 51 kW to 282 kW) can be obtained from the German Federal Environmental Agency in Berlin. At the new negotiations on a further tightening of EC limiting values for noise the German delegation will propose the definition of traffic noise values f o r low-noise vehicles as given in the German StVZO as the new EC limiting values for motor lorries. Meanwhile the chances for success on the market for the low-noise motor lorries which are already available, but a little more expensive, should be improved by providing incentives. This is already practised today in as much as they are exempted from road restrictions or receive financial benefits (for instance in Bad Reichenhall, Baden-Wurttemberg, Berlin). In other countries, too, the purchase of low-noise vehicles is encouraged by incentives, but the criteria laid down still vary. In this area standardisation on a European level is highly desirable. Recently the effectiveness of such incentives has been noticeable in Austria, where there is a ban on night traffic for commercial vehicles

287 with the exception of low-noise vehicles. This ordinance has led to a sharp increase in the supply and the sales of low-noise vehicles. When, however, lorries are deployed in town centres, the nuisance is not only caused by the operation of the vehicle it- self, but also by the noise produced by work units mounted on the vehicles. AS an example the substantial disturbance caused by municipal vehicles especially in residential areas may be mentioned. As has been demonstrated in developments ordered by the German Federal Environment Office (13), this noise can also be reduced by the introduction of sophisticated technical measures. At the recommendation of the UBA the German 'Environment Label Jury, has meanwhile laid down criteria for permissable noise levels. Commercial vehicles meeting these criteria will be distinguished with this Environmental Label ( 1 4 ) . The technical possibilities of reducing pollution by vehicles also include exercising influence on the driving behaviour. It has been shown that driving with low revolutions and a constant speed results in both a reduction in fuel consumption and in noise levels (15). In addition, a constant driving style results in reductions in air pollution as well. Such attitudes among the drivers can be achieved by the training of drivers; this is already done by the Federal German Freight Transport Association (BDF) in order to save on fuel. But also with technical devices, such as automatic gears, revolution and speed limiters and (within town limits) with suitable traffic controls (adaptation of traffic lights to the flow of commercial vehicles) the style of operating vehicles can be changed in such a way that emissions are reduced.

So far little attention has been paid to the nuisance produced during loading and unloading work and ways to combat this. Training of workers can help to eliminate unnecessary nuisance resulting from incorrect behaviour. Examples are that engines should not be kept running during loading and unloading and the avoidance of unnecessary noise during these activities, especially at times when this would obviously annoy the neighbourhood. Besides there is a series of technical solutions, for instance special loading ramps with loading doors that are virtually flush with the body of the vehicle, and low-noise rolling platforms for containers which will help to avoid disturbances during (unlloading activities. 3.4

Reduction by means of traffic control

Due to the continuous increase in traffic it is unlikely that the necessary reduction in pollution caused by traffic can be achieved with technical measures alone. As there are more vehicles on the roads, non-technical measures to control traffic are becoming increasingly important to the protection of the environment, but also to ensure an efficient traffic management. 3.4.1

Controlling traffic volume

Apart from leaving and arriving long-haul traffic freight transport within towns is performed on the streets for close to 100 per cent. Shifts to other carriers less harmful to the environment, are now under discussion, but only for planning in the very long term. For the purpose of reducing pollution it must also be examined whether general traffic reductions, or at least

288

local changes in traffic volumes, can be realized. It would be most important for the global reduction of air pollution if the necessity of transport services were queried, as this would possibly bring a general reduction in traffic volumes about. On the one hand this is a matter of reducing the number of trips by improving the weight load factor of the vehicles. With improved logistics (e.g. distribution centres for goods, intertransporters cooperation, introduction o f mobile telecommunication equipment), and by cancelling legal transport restrictions the proportion of empty runs, until now calculated to amount to 30 per cent to 50 per cent ( 1 6 ) , should be reduced. This should not lead to contradictions with the endeavours of trade and industry, as they can now purchase the transport services they need at better prices because of the improved loading techniques. In addition unnecessary and economically not justifiable transport services should be avoided, too, by a concentration of production processes in one location which can be achieved with town planning and internal planning by companies. The proportion of the cost of procurement, sales and storage of the total cost of a product is approximately 2 5 per cent to 30 per cent. ( 1 7 ) . The ever increasing tendency to decentralize manufacturing and to make 'just-in-time' deliveries finds its cause in the fact that motor lorry traffic bears only part of the cost it is responsible for and that for that reason and by cheaper decentralized manufacturing possibilities savings in costs are made. Manufacturers will probably persevere in their decentralized manufacturing for as long as it yields advantageous prices and their deliveries reach their destinations promptly and reliably. Especially the latter is only possible - the streets today being hardly capable of accomodating more traffic - if the forwarders anticipate long waiting times in the city streets as a precaution contribute considerably to pollution and and, in so doing, traffic problems. If trade and industry do not soon begin to be aware of these self-inflicted problems, there will in the long run hardly be any other possibility but to increase taxes for traffic or for the government to resort to measures (e.g. issuing licenses for transport services or rationing fuel for manufacturers). How serious manufacturers take the argument of punctual deliveries becomes clear when we see that many companies with easy access to the railway system have converted to rail carriage for their tjust-in-timel business again, in spite of the price advantage offered by motor lorries. Until now the railways still have the upper hand over road traffic in respect of punctuality. For the reduction of noise pollution in built-up areas, but also for the reduction of locally excessive air pollution local regulations controlling traffic volumes are very important. Noise decays quickly near the source. But it can also be easily controlled by means of screens or embankments. Therefore it is possible to free large town areas from noise to a large extent with the use of a directionality concept concentrating traffic on main roads, and to concentrate measures to reduce noisiness by building screens etc. along main thoroughfares (regional traffic noise abatement). In this respect it should be known that right now 80 per cent of transport services is performed on only 20 per cent of the road network in town centres. In paragraph 2 . 2 it was already mentioned to what extent motor lorries can be found in

289

the various types of streets and in the various types of areas. Concepts for the local control of motor lorry traffic should ensure that motor lorry traffic, which is particularly noisy, is channeled through priority routes. These priority routes should preferably be constructed through areas where the noise sensitivity is low - even if the roads would need to be longer. In those cases where such sectors are not available, temporarily differentiated solutions (e.g. night ban on lorry traffic), speed limits and incentives regulations (e.g. exemption from traffic restrictions) could be applied to the operators of vehicles that are less harmful to the environment. Short cuts through residential streets should be prohibited regardless. 3.4.2

Influencing traffic management

The above mentioned measures to control local traffic are in part and at the same time measures to control traffic management. By increasing driving resistance leading to reduced travelling speeds of individual vehicles or by the installation of gating traffic lights it will for instance be possible to reduce the pollution by vehicles on certain routes. In residential areas traffic jams should be avoided regardless, because of the local pollution they cause. This can be achieved by appropriate construction of road junctions, phased traffic lights and priority routes. For (locall freight transport planning of trips and of vehicle utilisation will result in a traffic management less harmful to the environment. Here freight transport transfer centres will be able to play an important role. So it can be ensured that long distance vehicles, that are basically not meant for the road infrastructure in towns, are transferred to distribution vehicles suited to inner-city transport. Moreover the operation of lowemitting vehicles with exemption certificates can be coordinated for trips through noise-sensitive areas or through areas where precautions against severe air pollution are necessary. The installation and maintenance of such transfer centres should be sponsored by the authorities because of their important public function. 3.5

Elucidation and Information

In order to implement many of the above-mentioned measures it is necessary to raise the acceptance by the parties concerned by enhancing their awareness of the overall traffic problems. What is still lacking is the realization of the interdependence between the three main factors in traffic: the assurance of the transport function, the guarantee of individual freedom of movement and the conservation and maintenance of proper environmental quality standards. It is particularly important to clarify that none of these factors should be allowed to prevail. In any case it should be left to a political weighing up of goods to determine to what extent the individual choice of transport should be limited in order to simultaneously guarantee the necessary traffic and to prevent avoidable environmental nuisance. Time and again it is evident that the people concerned are full of good will, when it is a matter of a sensible need for behavioural changes. This, however, is conditional upon furnishing the general public with proper information and

290

transparency of decisions. In an important work written for the Verband der offentlichen Verkehrsbetriebe (Association of Public Transport Companies) ( 1 8) it was demonstrated that the population points out the decisive role to the traffic problem, before any other municipal problem. On the other hand the investigation shows as well that the political decisionmakers totally underestimate the willingness on the part of the population to changes in behaviour. One of the most important steps in enhancing public awareness is to make road users realize better how their personal activities in traffic affect the environment. This information should already be imparted in the general education of young people, but at the latest during driving lessons (also see paragraph 3.3.2) and it should be part of the driving test. But it is equally important to show possible alternative ways of conserving the environment. Information on the existing types of low-noise and low-exhaustgas cars that are produced in series by the manufacturers should clearly be improved. This applies in particular to advice to customers by salesmen. 4.

EMISSION REDUCTION (AIR POLLUTION AND NOISE)

Without concrete case studies it would hardly be possible to quantify the emission reduction of the various measures outlined above. All the same an attempt should be made to describe these measures as to their qualititive significance and the space of time until they will take effect. Nevertheless, it is only fair to express a warning that the effects of the various measures cannot be added up unconditionally on account of their mutual dependence. Since none of these measures is very clearly superior to any of the others, a decisive improvement of the environment can only be achieved by simultaneously applying as many of the measures described as possible. TABLE 2 Evaluation and designation of measures. Reduction Effec- Action Costs effect tiveness by 1.

Town- and Traffic Planning (see par. 3.2)

1 . 1 Concentration of planning

competence in public authority 1 . 2 Coordinated town- and

traffic planning 1 . 3 Land-use planning to

reduce traffic - continued

-

++

m/l

B

-

++

m/ 1

B

-

++

1

B

29 1 TABLE 2.

2, continued

Planning and traffic regulation measures (see par. 3.2)

2.1 Plans to reduce air

pollution and noise 2.2 Traffic restrictions 2.4 Tightening of limiting

+++

m/l

B

---

++

k

B

-

+I+++

values of emissions

mfl

3.

Technical reduction measures (see par. 3.3)

3.1

Development of lowemission commercial vehicles

3.2 Promotion of low-emission

vehicles 3 . 3 Influencing operating

method with technical aids 4.

++

mfl

B

P

-I--

_-

+I++ mfl

PfB

-

+I++ kfm

PfB

--

Control of traffic volumes (see par. 3.4.1)

4.1 Improved loading of vehicles

++

m,1

P,B

+

m,1

B

-

1

B

-

4.2 Local concentration

of manufacturing 4.3 Road-pricing 4.4 Mileage or fuel quotas

++

for companies 5.

Influencing traffic management (see par. 3.4.2)

5.1

Speed limits

k/l

B

-I---

k

B

- f ---

k/l

PfB

--

mfl

B

--

+

k

P

--

++

1

P,B

-

+

k

P

-

+ f ++

+

5.2 Sustaining traffic flow 5.3 Non-polluting vehicles

++ f +++

for distribution 6.

Elucidation and information (see par. 3.5)

6.1 Information on pollution

air and noise nuisance charts

++

6.2 Information campaigns 6.3 Information and education 6.4 Training of drivers Reduction effect: Measures come into effect: Action by: costs:

+t+

k B

___

high short term public high

+ t medium

+ low medium term 1 longterm P private body (e.g.companies) -- medium - low

m

292 REFERENCES

1 2 3 4

5

6

7

8 9

10 11

12 13

14 15

16 17

Ministry for Transport and Public Works, in: Second structural report on traffic development in the Netherlands, Den Haag, 1989. (German) Working group ‘Environment and Traffic, of the Federal German Conference of Environment Ministers, Celle, 1990. (German) Federal Minister of Transport, in: Traffic in Figures 1989, Bonn, 1989, pp. 139/141. (German) K. Gluck, G. Krasser, in: Weighting of Environmental Criteria, Publication series Research into Road Building and Traffic Engineering of the Federal Minister of Transport, part 229, Bonn, 1980. (German) Directive of the Council ( 8 5 / 2 0 3 / E W G ) on Air Quality Standards for Nitrogen Dioxide of 7th March 1985, Official Journal of the European Community of 27th March 1985. (German) Updating the Environmental Policy 1989, Institute for Practice Oriented Social Research (IPOS), Mannheim, 1989. (German) H. Steven, in: Traffic noise - Causes, Influencing parameter, Possibilities of reduction, Private publication Research Institute for Noise and Vibration (FIGE), Herzogenrath near Aachen, 1990. (German) Directives for Noise Protection in Roads - Edition 1990, RLS 90, Federal Minister for Transport, Bonn, 1990. (German) Association of Town-, County- and Landscape-Planners (Hrsg.), in: Goods Traffic compatible with City-life, Report on meeting SRL-publication series No. 26; Bochum, 1989; especially noteworthy: a Ahrens, G.-A.: Nuisance caused by Goods Traffic; b Beckmann, K.J.: Remarks and Theses on the Interrelationship between Goods Traffic and Urban Development, Town Construction, Civil and Underground Engineering; c Bracher, T: Goods Traffic in Towns - Development, Structural Change, Ideas on Objectives, Approaches to Solutions; d Kiedrowski, D. von: Problems and Approaches to Solutions with regard to the example of the town of Kassel. The new edition of the Federal Immission Protection Act (BImSchG), taking into account the 3rd amendment, 14.9.90, BGB1. I, p. 880. (German) Resolution of the Federal Environment Ministers Conference, Celle, 1990. (German) R. Stenschke, in: Noise Emissions from Motor Vehicles and Possibilities of Noise Reduction - Activities of the German Federal Environmental Agency, INTERNOISE, 1990. V. Irmer and K. Stinshoff, in: Low-noise Goods Vehicles with Mounted Equipment, Journal Larmbekampfung 35, 1988, p. 151. ( German ) Criteria for Low-noise and Low-soot Municipal Vehicles of the Jury for the Environmental Label, RAL U Z 59, state 1990. (German) Research on the Effect of Fuel-saving Engine Design and Driving Style on Noise Emission by Motor Lorries, Research Report 105 05 124, FIGE, commissioned by the UBA, Berlin, 1 983. (German) ADAC Motorwelt, Motoring World 4(1990), p. 8. (German) M e r c e d e s - B e n z : M o t o r l o r r i e s l e s s h a r m f u l t o the Environment, for Europe, page 9, Stuttgart, 1989. (German)

293 18

Valuations regarding Mobility - Basic Factors f o r a Public Awareness Concept, Association of Public Transport Companies (VOV)/ Social data, Cologne, 1989. (German)

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

M. Krooii. R . S I I I Iund ~ J. voti Huiir (Edirors), treighr Transporr and the Environntent ' c 1991 Elsevier Science Piihlislrers B. V . . Aiiisrerdoiii. Prinred in rhe Nerherbnds

295

MINIMIZING TRAFFIC NUISANCE (IN CITIES) BY OPTIMIZATION OF LOGISTICS AND MEANS OF TRANSPORT T. Postma Ahold N. V., Eurodesk Logistics and Distribution, P.O. Box 33, 1500 EA Zaandam, The Netherlands

Any distribution company in our economic system will seek to optimize its logistics and means of transport. However, the solution to the optimization problem may be influenced by external parties. Naturally one can think of the company's image in the eyes of the public, its customers. Many times however, the government will act against traffic nuisance, either on behalf of the citizens or for other e.g. political reasons. Both stimuli will cause adjustments in the company's distribution system through internalization of a priori external effects. Ahold being a large distribution company in The Netherlands, it will be shown what ways it follows towards performing its role in society. As a matter of course this will begin with the requirements of the retail outlets, being the places where it ultimately meets its customers. A picture will be drawn of the current infrastructure and the methods and means by which it fulfills those requirements. Without ignoring the possible influence of individuals in society, we will then concentrate on government action against traffic nuisance. A number of measures will be mentioned and their possible effects analyzed. Special attention will be drawn to the fact that there appears to be no concerted action of local governments, which is rather confusing to a nationally operating company. Under the influence of these measures one may choose from a limited number of reactions and thus come towards an adapted distribution policy. The possibilities will be shown with their respective effects. Also other considerations and restrictions will be taken into account. More specifically attention will be paid to actual plans to combine the physical distribution of currently separately handled product groups. 1. Introduction

It is only logical that a distribution company in our economic system will seek to optimize its logistics and means of transport. My company Ahold, a large food distributor in the Netherlands with an annual turnover of some f 8 billion in this country and equally substantial interests in the USA, is no exception. Basically our task is to distribute our goods as Close to the consumer as she appreciates. (I use the word "she" because most of our customers appear to be women). Currently we distribute chiefly via retailoutlets with either a neighbourhood or regional function. This function highly determines the size and composition of the range of products. But also for a number of years we have been experimenting with a distribution system that delivers the desired products to the customer's home. Operating within the economic system that we know, we naturally have profitability as a starting point or, if you prefer, as a precondition. This means that we must keep a watchful eye on both revenues and costs. Marketconditions are close to what economists call perfect competition, so that prices have largely lost their relation to costs and are mainly determined by value as perceived by the individual consumer.

296 The implication is that it is practically impossible to pass on any extra costs to the consumer, unless she appreciates the added value or all our competitors do the same. An extra complication in this respect is that we do not apply price differentiation by geographic location. If we did it would mean that all customers would have to pay for those that are living in less accessible areas. This leads us to the question whether a company like ours can be expected to design a policy towards minimizing traffic nuisance. Unless it hampers us in performing our job, we can s e e no reason to do so. Naturally we are aware of the fact that our distribution system generates traffic and therefore causes nuisance like noise, pollution and congestion. But if it does not specifically affect our image in the eyes of the public and does not, for that reason, lead to a loss in revenue, we may not be tempted to adjustments that generate extra costs. And this is where the government, principally being the representative of the public at large, comes into the picture. Of course the people in government may have other, for instance political. reasons to intervene with the process of distribution but here we shall refrain from other motives than those that are in the interest of the citizens. So the government, be it local, regional or national, will act upon obvious external effects of us fulfilling our role in society. Whatever means it may apply, the end will always be to internalize these external effects into the company’s profit and loss account. In some instances levies and taxes are appropriate but also on many occasions measures are taken that indirectly cause our costs to rise. We shall now have a short look at what sort of a company Ahold really is, what distribution system it applies in the Netherlands and which variables can be manipulated to optimize logistics and the means of transport. We will than concentrate on a selected number of government actions against traffic nuisance and their possible effects. Subsequently I will look at the possible reactions upon these measures and more specifically at actual plans to adapt the distribution system to new circumstances. Last but not least I will try to answer the question of what the government could do for us. 2. Ahold: a large food distributor in the Netherlands

By far the largest part of our Dutch operation is the Albert Heijn supermarket chain with an annual turnover of some f 7 billion through more than 550 retail outlets. Grootverbruik Ahold is specialized in supplying institutional customers like hospitals and company restaurants and has a growing turnover of now f 700 million a year. Our specialty stores Etos (health and beauty aids) and Gall & Gall (wine and spirits) generate annual sales of respectively f 210 million and f 350 million through some 150 and 270 outlets. In addition to the retailtrade we operate a food production and packaging company (Marvelo), a processed-meat company (Meester) and a bakery (Albro) as well as a few other, more or less experimental, ventures. Focusing on the Albert Heijn supermarkets we see that they are spread all over the country, albeit with a relative concentration in the Western part. A little more than 450 are wholly owned by us and some 106 are operated under franchise contract. Sales areas vary between under 100 square meters to over 4 , 0 0 0 square meters, but two-thirds of them you will find to have a surface of between 500 and 1,500 square meters. From a sales point of view many of the stores really should be larger than they are, but simply do not have enough room to expand. Replenishment of the Albert Heijn stores takes place from 3 regional warehouses for fast moving groceries and perishable products (together some 2,300 lines), 4 meat processing plants, 5 agricultural produce centers and 1 nationally operating warehouse with some 6.000 medium and slow moving articles. Deliveries are made within 24-36 hours after ordering and with frequencies of 3-6 times a

297 week from each distribution center. Altogether more than 220 billion cases, crates and boxes are handled each year or on average some 4.3 million a week, the equivalent of approximately 3,000 average truck-loads. In addition to that we have direct deliveries from suppliers and contract-distribution by third parties. The relative volume shares in 1988 of each channel by product category can be shown as follows:

Product category

own distribution

Fresh meatlchicken Produce/flowers

Contract distribution

Direct deliveries

60%

40%

100%

-

Groceries

90%

5%

Beerslsoft drinks

85%

15%

Perishables

95%

5%

Fresh bread Milk

100%

-

100%

Deep frozen

The first question to be asked in (reldesigning a physical distribution system ought to be: what is it the stores require to be able to perform their task i.e. serving the customer as close to her house as she values. Customer demand (and suppliers’ push) has caused the range of products and the volume of sales to grow steadily over the years. To make this possible the stores required more and more sales area and where space was short anyway, this trend made backrooms diminish. Thus in-house stocks grew smaller and smaller, while at the same time more and more fresh products entered the range. Since the customer expects a full and neat store that invites her to shop around pleasantly the frequency of deliveries had to rise. We have seen that we have a number of separated distribution channels. From each channel arrangements are made with the stores as to ways of ordering, leadtimes, frequencies of delivery, drop volumes and moments of supply (usually time windows). These are all more or less independent variables of the distribution system and can be manipulated. Frequency is of course very much related to drop volume, but there is yet another way of affecting the quantity to be delivered at a certain moment in time. We can either combine or separate groups within the product range or, in fact, determine the number of distribution channels that lead towards the retail outlets.

Last but not least we have a choice in the means of transport. It is hardly a question of whether or not to use lorries, of which traffic laws and physical circumstances limit the range of types and sizes. Economies of scale have led us to the larger types of trailers, carrying either 18 or 26 pallets and swop-bodies with a capacity of 16 plus 14 pallets. The pallets we now use measure 1,000 * 1,200 mm; an alternative could be the Euro-pallet measuring 800 * 1,200 nun, which we do not apply now for reasons of scale, but we may have to do so in future since most European countries do. Another possibility is to use rollcages and we do so for product-groups that are less voluminous.

298 So much for our current distribution systems. Now let us have a look at where and how we meet (local) government in using them.

3. Government measures and their effects: a selection Ideally from our business point of view we would expect the government to create an infrastructure that facilitates our physical distribution. However, the government has other interests to watch over as well. Traffic jams are a pain in the neck for every transport operation that requires the use of the road. Pollution of the environment neccessitates government to bring the growth of car usage to a halt, partly by maintaining the bottle-necks, thus discouraging (potential) car drivers. In so doing not only commuters and pensioners are hampered in their freedom of choice and mobility, but also the professional hauliers. It appears to be rather difficult to apply different measures to different groups of road-users. So far only public transport has. in some instances and places, been awarded the advantage of having their own lanes. Nevertheless the share of roadtransport in the total national freight movement (measured in tonkilometers), has grown from 66% in 1975 to 71% in 1987. while the average lorry capacity has increased from 8.3 tonnes in 1980 to 8.7 tonnes in 1985. Most lorries that enter our cities do so for delivery purposes. Unloading time is relatively big in comparison to driving time, especially when full car loads must be discharged. And yet, getting there becomes more and more difficult, because of traffic circulation schemes, parked cars, many times double and/or in prohibited places and obstacles intended to be just that. When finally arrived, the unloading zone is occupied with private cars, possibly owned by customers, or the road must be blocked by the lorry because there is no zone at all. Only recently we came into conflict with a local police force that would no longer allow our lorries to replenish one of our franchising stores. The road leading towards it was said to be unsuitable for that much weight i.e. 10 tonnes of vehicle and up to 20 tonnes of load. This of course may be true enough, but we had been doing so for many years and therefore we claimed to have a right to continue this. To spare citizens the nuisance of noises caused by engines, electromotors, the clattering of bottles and other disturbing sounds, periods of time have been set, during which no (un)loading is to take place. Usually this is allowed from 07.00 to 19.00 hours only, a period of time being the busiest and largely overlapping opening hours of the store. In addition to this limitations have been set on soundlevels, differentiated by the hours of the day. A few months ago we found ourselves confronted with quite a difficult problem in the delivery of goods to one of our newly built stores. Some people living and/or working in the direct vicinity of this store used every legal possibility to protect their interests. This resulted in a high court of law deciding upon a strict limitation of sound levels and a time-window for loading and unloading from 0700 hours to 1300 hours only. What made this a problem is the fact that we had to comply in order to be allowed to open the store, while a thorough investigation learned us that actual soundlevels were higher than allowed and that the customary replenishment procedures would not fit the restricted time-window. It took us quite some time and effort to solve the problem, but after all we did. Earlier I mentioned a general lack of space in our stores. As a result of that returnables are often put down on the sidewalk because there is nowhere else to place them. This however makes them a special target to the environmental police. We have a system that enables for empty bottles to be returned in order not to charge the environment with more waste. Having little space to store them, we are urged to make extra trips to take them away, thereby causing some extra pollution.

299 The biggest problem appears to be that local Government action seems to lack co-ordination, so that we are confronted with a mess of regulations and prohibitions. This makes it rather difficult to devise a comprehensive and effective policy to meet them. Nevertheless we shall now consider the possibilities to do so anyway. 4. Changing distribution policies: responses and challennes

The distribution channels leading towards the stores make their delivery agreements independently from one another. One distinctive way to lessen nuisance would be to improve co-ordination between them. More and more we are discovering that the retail outlets and their surroundings are the place from which all thinking and planning should start. In terms of logistics this would mean taking the specific requirements regarding the flow of goods into account when building or remodeling a store. This is only logical: after all a retail outlet is nothing else but a warehouse, dressed up by marketeers. But of course store designers must balance between many, sometimes contradictory or even conflicting, requirements at the same time taking account of all the limitations. Once the store is in operation in fact it should be the manager himself that devises the delivery plan together with his suppliers. And again there will be conflicting interests often paired with a lack of know-how on the side of the manager, who is expected to be practically omnipotent. Evidently, life for him would be easier if he only had to talk to one organization, instead of having to deal with several suppliers. Within Albert Heijn we are gradually taking over physical distribution from external parties for this purpose, although we must admit that we have other reasons to do so as well. Also we are planning to integrate distribution channels, at least from a transport point of view. The general idea is to create regional warehouses that contain all fast moving articles. as well as perishables, agricultural produce, fresh meat and frozen food. Of course we must take into account that product characteristics differ, for instance because temperature conditions need to be maintained. Giving each product category its own sector of the warehouse and (variable) compartment in the trailer will mean that this requirement can be taken care of. To illustrate the effect of this we expect the following statement to hold true: a combination of agricultural produce, meat, long life chilled, superfast groceries and frozen food distributed from a composite warehouse to a 150 stores in the Northwest of Holland will require a total of 1,200 deliveries per week, whereas in the current situation 3 , 4 5 0 deliveries are necessary. Thus the number of trucks arriving at the backdoor of a store would be sharply diminished. However, one must realize that deliveries will be more voluminous and therefore unloading times longer. The quantity of kilometers driven will hardly be affected, although less trips will have to be made between stores, thereby minimizing traffic nuisance in cities. We expect to have the first composite warehouse in operation by 1992, but already in some places and instances we are required to operate as if we had one now. Our store on Texel, one of the islands in the north of Holland, is being replenished by lorries that combine groceries, long-life chilled goods and produce. Since the goods originate from different locations some regrouping is necessary. The decision to do so was based upon cost saving considerations. Earlier I spoke about the problem we found ourselves confronted with in opening a new store. Here too regrouping of goods coming from the different warehouses appeared to be the greater part of the solution, even if we had to make some flows to come from other warehouses than they did before.

300 One might be tempted to think that using smaller vehicles would also reduce traffic nuisance. For the smaller stores this may be true, or more generally speaking, we could strive to having one delivery per trip only, thus reducing interstore traffic to zero. This, however, has two distinct disadvantages for us: 1) having a variety of vehicles in different sizes reduces our flexibility and 2) smaller trucks are relatively more expensive. For instance a capacity of 12 pallets costs almost as much as a 24 pallet load. That is why we cannot simply comply to a local authority demanding us to use smaller vehicles because of the condition of the road. On a smaller scale of course there are other things that can be done. To lessen noise when loading and unloading more rubber can be applied in the trailers. Manufacturers of mobile equipment can be urged to make less noisy engines and electromotors. When building or remodeling stores we can take more account of changing attitudes towards nuisance and employees can be made more conscious of the environment they work in. And that of course is what we do whenever the occasion asks for it. 5.

Minimizing traffic nuisance: what the uovernment can do.

As I said, my company fulfills a role in the Dutch society in distributing food and related products and we expect government to help us doing s o . We appreciate the fact that other interests of the people must be watched over as well and we accept the governments pursuit of internalizing the external effects of our activities. Important for us however is that policies are devised and applied consistently throughout the country. Widening the allowed timeslots would certainly help us a lot, as suggested earlier. After all, during evenings and nights there will be no congestion, neither in the streets nor in the store. But again this is a trade-off with noise and risks of criminal action. Also it would be very helpful if our trucks could use the traffic lanes of public transport. More generally speaking, some help from the government with regard to time windows and free traffic lanes would be very welcome in doing what must be done anyway.

hf.KI’O<JII.R . Siriit ond J . vun Huiri (EdirorsJ. Freighi Transport und the Environmenr

301

1991 Elsewer Science Piiblirhers B. I/.. Airisierdaiii. Printed in the Netherlands

STRATEGIES TO RID THE ENVIRONMENT OF POLLUTION BY INNER-CITY FREIGHT TRANSPORT - CASE STUDIES IN COLOGNE AND GELSENKIRCHEN Manfred Garben I VU - Data Processing, Traffic Consultancy and Applied Operational Research Company Ltd, Bundesallee 129, 0-1000 Berlin 41, Germany

SUMMARY

The most important measures in strategies for relieving the environment of pollution caused by goods traffic in towns are those aimed at a dispatch of goods traffic compatible with town life. This can be achieved through a guiding concept for motor lorries. Specific problem situations arising from goods traffic in towns, and recommended measures contained in a guiding concept for motor lorries are given in two representative cases. 1.

INTRODUCTION

The larger part of goods traffic in towns is carried by motor lorries. Apart from its significance to business life and therefore to the proper functioning of towns, this motor lorry goods traffic is also a major factor in pollution e.g. because it produces emissions of noise and noxious matter, takes up a lot of space and is accident-prone. Whereas up till now research used to concentrate mainly on the effectiveness of city goods traffic, today the environment impact has added greatly to potential conflicts. Superproportional nuisance for traffic, infrastructure and environment is caused especially by big and heavy motor lorries. Therefore problems and ideas for solutions of conflicts involving big and heavy motor lorries will be prominent in the following exposition: This is based on case studies in Cologne (Poll) and Gelsenkirchen which were made in connection with the project ,Strategie,s for goods traffic for the purpose of improving the environment, The following exposition highlights a few high-priority problem areas :

.

- heavy traffic resp. - example Gelsenkirchen, and

( 1 ) dangerous goods

( 2 ) a town area with a highly mixed ustilisation and a sharp rise

in motor lorry traffic - example Cologne-Poll.

The specific problem in Gelsenkirchen is the sharp rise in mineral-oil transports operated by tankers calling at a total of

302

four loading stations in the town area and plying between these stations and the nearest motorway junction. The specific problem in the Cologne-Poll town area lies in the circumstance that not only the Deutzer Hafen (port), but also the companies established in the industrial areas generate considerable lorry traffic, which travels through residential areas and the centre of the suburb Poll. Figure 1 shows selected areas for possible measures and starting points for municipalities to develop strategies for the reduction of pollution in towns by goods traffic on the basis of the main fields of research currently carried out in Gelsenkirchen (GE) and Cologne-Poll (K). M E A S U R E

I

1

Main field of research GE K

..

Space utilisation Land-ure planning in industrial areas Connection points - Longhaul and local traffic - Rail- and waterways Transfer stations for goods (storage and transshipment facilitieslparking lots/ Branch depots Function-related reconstruction of roads

m

.

Design of road areas Definition of delivery zones with specialized utilisation Cross-sections - division and realisation (Traffic moderation)

.

Low-noise road-surface coating

1

Traffic management Separation of passenger cars and lorries Concentration on main roads and bypasses Priority roads for dangerous goods/ heavy traffic Guiding systems f o r direction-finding Municipal regulations policy Regulatingicontrolling stationary traffic Regulating traffic flow - right of way rules - turn filters - dosage of feed-in traffic - speed - traffic direction signs

1

Closina roads to traffic - temporary - local - depending on type o f vehicle (length, weight. nolse emission) Road tax

FIGURE 1 Main research points for municipal approaches to strategies for reduction of pollution by freight transport in towns. In the following test results and resulting recommendations for measures to be taken in both examples are presented:

303 EXAMPLE GELSElJKIRCHEN

2.

Description of problem

2.1

In the Federal Republic of Germany the town of Gelsenkirchen has the largest refinery capacity. Whereas the feedstock products are delivered almost exclusively by pipelines, water and rail, the distribution of the refined products mainly takes place by road.

Number of trips:

BAB

-

access roads

BU = GE Buer Sc = GE Schalke is

53

"'3

;;3

LOO

GI = Gladbeck He = GE Hessler

L?O

FIGURE 2 Routes to and from the four loading yards ( N = ScholvenNord, S = Scholven-Sud, H = Horst, A = Aral) with the extrapolated sector loads of mineral oil- or heavy transports over 2 4 hours on a typical workday. The special nature of the pollution by road transport is based on the fact that the vehicles employed are chiefly heavy motor lorries and trailer trains and that essentially dangerous goods are transported (basically inflammable liquid substances). The available data on nature, place, time and quantity of the environment load in the town area were insufficient. Therefore close to 600 drivers, who operate their vehicles to the four big

304 loading yards of the oil- and plastics industry, were polled during 2 4 hours on a normal workday regarding: - the quantity, time and nature of their loads - the origin and destination -routes selected in the town area and - their own specific problems. The opinion poll covered 6 7 0 of the total of 1 , 0 7 6 transports that were handled at the loading yards. 80% to 90% of all transports consisted of dangerous goods of class 3 , i.e. inflammable, liquid substances and roughly 7 5 % of all vehicles had a maximum total weight of 4 0 tons. Figure 2 above shows the position of the loading yards and the routes of the vehicles in the town area with the extrapolated sector loads of mineral oil and heavy transports during 2 4 hours on a workday. The roads to and from the four loading yards are concentrated in certain sectors and lead partly through residential areas and short-cuts in the inner-city. special problem for the residents is the sometimes considerable traffic density in the city streets generated by motor lorries travelling to and from the loading yards between 2 2 . 0 0 and 6 . 0 0 hours. They are partly in the order of 30% of the daily density. A

2.2

Recommendations for measures

T h e r e s e a r c h in G e l s e n k i r c h e n l e a d s to t h e f o l l o w i n g recommendations, which may be conveyed to other town areas: o T h e definition and the positive identification of a local network of roads for heavy and dangerous transports, connected with a corresponding regional network. Strict requirements in respect of practicability and environmental feasibility should be enforced for such priority roads. Residential areas should always b e y i d e d .

o Traffic-technical procedures on the priority network. These should in principle be aimed at stabilizing traffic flows at a relatively low speed (in relation to lorry-compatibility). This can, for instance, be achieved, when traffic lights are phased enabling lorry drivers to carry on at a steady speed without racing or stopping all the time. Moreover all streets, where at present speeds of over 50 km/h are permitted, should be checked to find out if speed limits can be reduced. guiding concept for a priority network, efforts to arrive at information to operators and publicity in general. This is necessary for the realization of the network and for the acceptance by lorry drivers, forwarders and the general public.

o A

o Restrictive measures for streets outside the priority network, where nevertheless heavy and dangerous-goods transport as discussed here, takes place. Measures that are feasible are: Closing of certain sectors, closing certain sectors at night (possibly with an exception fok low-noise vehicles); speed limits cut back to 30 km/h for motor lorries and a general overtaking prohibition; rebuilding of roads.

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306

Figure 4 shows the comparatively high proportion of motor lorries in the Siegburgerstrasse.

FIGURE 4 Proportions of motor-lorry traffic of the total lorry traffic at specific times; Lkw = motor lorries and trailer trains in passenger-car units [Source: C o l o g n e m u n i c i p a l i t y , Townplanning department: Traffic statistics 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 4 1 . In the past years individual measures were already taken in Cologne-Poll in order to reduce nuisance from motor-lorry traffic. For instance, road signs were installed prohibiting entry into the Siegburgerstrasse in the direction toward the inner-city by motor lorries exceeding a total weight of 1.5 tons. However, this failed to accomplish a significant reduction in motor-lorry traffic. S i n c e so far n o inquiry i n t o the originating/terminating lorry-traffic - exempted from the entry prohibition - was carried out, it was not possible up till now to supply information on the question whether the reason lies in lacking acceptance by lorry drivers of possible by-passes or in the high density of originating/terminating lorry traffic. The question in how far a by-pass, indicated in the zoning plan (figure 51, will relieve the Siegburgerstrasse, especially from lorry traffic, can likewise only be answered on the basis of inquiries into originating, terminating and transit traffic. precondition for the processing of effective proposals for solutions to improve the environment is that the flows of freight and lorry traffic are known. Such data should be differentiated per branch to allow deduction of intelligible information. For this purpose the following data are required: (1) basic details of operator (situation, branch, number of staff), ( 2 ) Structure of lorry fleet, ( 3 ) Nature and relationships of goods, ( 4 ) Frequency of lorry trips (origin, destination, routes, times)

A

307 ( 5 ) Average loads on specified sectors,

(6) Freight carried by rail, ( 7 ) The number of residents and, where applicable, also the

values characteristic of the environmental sensitivity. D a t a u n d e r ( 5 ) to ( 7 ) a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e C o l o g n e municipality. Data under (1) to ( 4 ) were not available in the required differentiation for the area of our research. They were determined by means of an opinion poll among certain companies and can be complemented for the purpose of detailed examination by taking averages and by tcordont counts. 3.2

Recommended measures

As is shown in the research carried out in Cologne-Poll, the crucial point in developing strategies for measures to relieve the environment from nuisance caused by freight transport at the level of a town district is a traffic management of motor lorries which is compatible with the town in all its aspects. This can be achieved with a guiding concept. The development of a guiding concept for motor lorries at town district level can be divided in three main steps: The first step is the definition of an overriding priority network for motor lorries. The second step is the development at town district level of a comprehensive concept for small scale lorry traffic aimed at channeling the lorry flows along the desired routes. The third step is directed at measures to control traffic in such a way that lorry traffic on these routes is compatible with town life, for instance with a view to lowering and stabilising speeds. The initial steps toward a priority network for motor lorries have been taken in Cologne and in Hamburg.’ For the priority network for lorries in the examined area Cologne-Poll the Ostliche Zubringerstrasse with the access roads Deutzer Ring, Rolshover Strasse, Am Grauen Stein and Im Hasental as well as the A 4 with the access road Cologne-Poll are recommended. The motor-lorry guiding concept should be directed at these access roads in order to relieve the traffic in the Siegburgerstrasse. The routes to be taken by motor lorries are determined on the basis of the average lorry-flows and road sectors sensitive to traffic. The criteria for sensitive roads are zoning, the number of residents and town planning standards. As is shown by the valuation of the poll among operators there is a lot of traffic between the industrial area Deutzer Hafen and the BAB-access road Cologne-Poll on the one hand and between the industrial area Vingster Strasse and the BAB-access road ColognePoll on the other. This causes a heavy load, especially by lorry traffic to and from the harbour area, on the sensitive sectors of the Siegburger Strasse and the Hauptstrasse in Poll. The frequency of lorry movements between Vingsterstrasse and the BAB-access road Cologne-Poll causes corresponding nuisance to the residents of the street ‘Auf dem Sandberg, (cf. ( 1 3 ) in figure 5). In the southern part of the Siegburger Strasse the nuisance

factors accumulate due to the heavy traffic from the harbour and the Vingster Strasse to the BAB-access road Cologne-Poll (cf. ( 1 4 ) - ( 1 6 ) in figure 5). Therefore the object of a guiding concept for motor lorries in Cologne-Poll should be to direct the flow of lorry traffic in such a way that: -from the harbour area more traffic will use the access road Deutzer Ring, and - from the Vingster Strasse more traffic will use the access road Rolshover Strasse. This would reduce the load on the sensitive sectors in comparison with the present situation. In figure 5 examples of possible separate measures within the framework of a guiding concept for lorries for the research area Cologne-Poll are indicated. The guiding concept for lorries is composed of measures which will guide lorry traffic onto the desired lorry-routes and of measures restricting lorry movements where these are unwanted. These should be integrated in planning at a higher level. 3.2.1

Guiding lorry traffic onto desired lorry routes

The following areas provide opportunities for measures which would make the guiding of lorries onto desired routes more attractive: -guiding and information systems - extension of roads - stabilisation of the flow of lorry traffic Examples of recommended measures have been indicated and localized separately in figure 5: Guiding and information systems: For companies in the town area maps showing the recommended lorry routes should be prepared. In addition signposting of lorry routes from the priority road network to the industrial areas or to important factory sites should take place. (cf. ( l ) , ( 1 9 ) , (20)). Extension of roads: Drivers mentioned the short accelerating lane at the junction Deutzer Ring as a problem. In order to improve the connection for lorries from the harbour area to the Deutzer Ring an extension of the acceleration lane at the junction Deutzer Ring should be considered (cf. ( 2 ) 1 . For the lorry guiding concept the construction of a by-pass provided in the zoning plan would seem to be rather counterproductive, as it does not strengthen the connections to the North for originatingfterminating lorry-traffic in the area, but the lorry connections to the South, to the Cologne-Poll access road. Since the transit lorry traffic is far less significant than the originatingfterminating traffic, there is no need for the planned by-pass, even from the point of view of the total lorry traffic.

Homogeneous traffic flow: To achieve this measures aimed at speed restrictions and at phasing of traffic lights for the benefit of lorries in the Siegburger Strasse south of the business area

309 should be investigated (cf. (15)).

FIGURE 5 Localisation of measures for a guiding concept for lorries at town district level. 3.2.2

Guiding lorry flows by means of restrictions

Restrictive measures as part of a guiding concept for lorries comprise the following areas where measures can be taken: -Narrowing of roads, -Closure of roads, -Mandatory directions and - Temporary restrictions. Narrowing of roads: In order to discourage the use of the connection between the harbour area and the BAB access road Cologne-Poll a narrowing of the Siegburger Strasse, especially in the shopping sectors, is recommended. The same goes for the street 'Auf dem Sandberg' in respect of the aggravating connection from the BAB-junction Cologne-Poll to the industrial area Vingster Strasse (cf. (lo), ( 1 3 ) ) . Closures: The route Alfred-Schutte-Allee / Poller Hauptstrasse/ Im Wasserfeld should be completely closed for lorry traffic to

310 the harbour area, in order to guarantee the protection of the narrow Hauptstrasse in the old village centre. It would be sufficient to close a small section of the Alfred-Schutte-Allee south of the Schutte factory; this would leave the adjacent estates accessible to traffic, and passenger car traffic would still be able to reach the Alfred-Schutte factory. (cf. (9)). Mandatory directions: Mandatory directions are a very effective method to guide traffic, as there is no need to supplement them with exception regulations that are difficult to test, and they can easily be supported by constructional measures. In Poll they are feasible as they will guide the (lorry) traffic coming from the harbour area and turning into the Siegburger Strasse toward the north (see ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) ) to the Deutzer Ring (see (1)); it will also guide the lorry traffic from the industrial area Vingster Strasse turning into the Rolshover Strasse to the north to the access road Rolshover Strasse (see (17)). Temporary driving restrictions for lorries: These are meant in particular to ensure quiet during the resting times of residents and should be imposed by narrowing the sensitive road sectors. In Cologne-Poll night-driving bans in the Siegburger Strasse (in the actual business area) (see (10)) and in the street 'Auf dem Sandberg' should be investigated (see (13)). 3.2.3

Integration of the guiding concept f o r lorries in overriding planning

Both the definition of a road system for the entire town with priority roads for lorries and the guiding of lorry traffic in a town district requires the integration into the overall traffic and town planning. Only with this integration will separate measures in the guiding concept (e.g. the narrowing of a thorough fare) and positive retroaction (e.g. by issuing licences to lownoise lorries as an incentive) be at all realizable. The integration includes in particular l a n d - u s e p l a n n i n g , reconstruction of roads and protection against immissions. 4.

SUMMARY

Even today municipalities have a variety of tools for control at their disposal, which enable them to control the lorry traffic in towns. As is evident from the research in Gelsenkirchen and Cologne, measures to arrive at a guiding concept for lorry traffic compatible with urban life should be oriented towards the following guide lines: -Definition of a concept for a road system for lorries, whereby a concentration on transport of dangerous and heavy freight should result in a positively defined road system. -Keeping transit traffic well away from sensitive town areas (e.g. residential areas) and channelling lorry traffic on the town roads by means of constructional measures and/or effective traffic routing systems. -General protection of zones and periods with low emissions against lorries over a certain weight (e.g. 3.5 tons at night); this should also encourage the purchase of low-noise and lowemission lorries or smaller delivery vans.

31 1

- Taking into account lorry movements in the land-use planning of companies generating lorry traffic and in the planning of traffic infrastructure in order to safeguard essential freight transport.

- Promotion of driving attitudes that are environmentally acceptable (phased traffic lights to accomodate lorries, low maximum speeds). As freight traffic is closely interconnected with the operativeness of towns and their business activities, general approaches to solutions for the elimination of problems are not adequate. Local and detailed research is much more desirable, so that the specific structure of problems can be defined and fitting approaches to solutions based on the typical situation in an area or location can be pursued. REFERENCES

1

2

cf. Bracher, Garben, Krafft-Neuhauser, Schneewolf, in: 'Strategies to relieve the environment in connection with freight transport in towns,, commissioned by the Ministry for Town Planning, Housing and Traffic (MSWV) of NordrheinWestfalen, IVU final report, Berlin, 1989. (German) cf. Bublitz, in: 'Risks in Distribution of Goods - Proposals for Solutions in Hamburg', in: Research company f o r roads and traffic (Hg.) Report on meeting 'Freight transport in town and district', Cologne, 1988. (German) also cf.: Holsken, in: 'Aids to Function Definition in Road Networks - Design Study Cologne', in: Research company for roads and traffic (Hg.) Report on meeting 'Freight transport in Town and District', Cologne, 1988. (German) cf. also: Gitter, in: 'Problems and Proposals f o r Solutions in the Example of the Town Cologne', in: Report on meeting 'Compatible Freight Transport in Towns', SRL list of publications, part 26, Bochum, 1989. (German)

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M. Kroon. K. .Si!i!r und J. wn Hum (Ediror~),Freighl Trunsporr und [he Envirunmenr 1991 E/.wvier Science Publ~shersB. V . , Ani~rerdunt.Prinred in rhe Nerherlands

313

MEASURES TO GUIDE TRAFFIC OF DANGEROUS GOODS TRANSPORTS IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY Hans-Giinter Triebel Ministry for Town Planning, Housing and Transport in Nordrhein- Westfalen, Breite Strasse 31, 0-4000 Diisseldor- Germany

SUMMARY

In this paper measures to guide traffic of dangerous goods transports in the Federal Republic of Germany will be discussed. In this respect the following measures are relevant: - restriction of the free choice of means of transportation for freight which is highly dangerous; - problems with combined transport with dangerous freight; -definition of travel lanes for the transport of highly dangerous freight; -closure of certain roads to motor lorries with compulsary designation carrying dangerous goods; - accident preventing encapsulation of dangerous goods instead of measures to control traffic. 1.

INTRODUCTION

From the point of view of warding off danger the transportation of dangerous goods on all carriers is subject to special regulations. These legal standards, equally valid for national and international transports, define which goods are permitted to be conveyed, which encapsulation must be used, how these must be labelled, which documents must accompany the shipments, if and how drivers must be trained and much more. Therefore, it may be assumed that this ensures compliance with these regulations in respect of the dangers involved in the transportation of dangerous goods. However, doubts, whether adequate legal standards to ward off danger are included in the specific laws and regulations, which are translated from international treaties, with regard to the conveyance of dangerous goods, arise when we consider that in the Federal Republic of Germany additional, specific regulations for dangerous goods and the general highway code are used for the transportation of dangerous goods. 2.

CHOICE OF

MEANS

OF TRANSPORTATION

The free choice of means of transport for some so-called highly dangerous goods has been restricted in the Federal Republic by the regulation governing the inter-state and border-crossing road transportation of dangerous goods (GGVS) - superseding international regulations - in such a way that these dangerous goods, which in principle are allowed on the roads, may only be transported by road in part or in whole subject to certain

314 conditions. The corresponding rules of this German regulation provide a preference for direct rail and inland shipping traffic and for combined traffic ,rail/road, and 'inland shippinglroad,. The paragraphs 7 , 7 a GGVS allowing the transportation of dangerous goods by road only, when certificates from German Rail and from the Directorate for Inland Shipping are submitted stating that a rail-connection, container transport or pickaback transport are not possible. This concerns goods on the so-called list I , which comprises among other things a series of explosives, articles containing explosives, gases, and poisonous and corroding substances. Furthermore this negative certificate is for container transport required only, if the distance in the Federal Republic exceeds 200 km and the container can be transported over the larger part of that distance by rail or barge. The same applies to pickaback transports in respect of distances exceeding 4 0 0 km. These regulations apply to bordercrossing traffic as well. Whenever the forwarder opts f o r combined transportation of containers by rail/road or roadlinland shipping, or if he uses pickaback transport, then this must be recorded on the bill of lading for the conveyance to or from the nearest railway station or port. 3.

COMBINED TRANSPORT

The fact that highly dangerous goods are referred to combined transport of containers or of pickaback transport over distances exceeding 200 km or 400 km respectively has as a consequence that transports of dangerous goods to and from railway or inland shipping terminals can also be expected in the streets of towns, where they would not appear if they were carried exclusively by road. The reason is that first of all many transfer railway stations are located in the town centres. The maker of the regulation was well aware of this situation, that is of the increase in dangerous goods transportation in the town centres. If he has after all decided to choose for the compulsary use of combined transport, then he did so, because in weighing up the dangers he preferred the shorter distances by road together with the transfer, especially transfer to the railways. Due to the sharply increased road traffic dangerous loads carried by lorries are constantly in the vicinity of people, also on roads outside the built-up areas. Since the risks of accidents on the road increases with the lengths of the distances covered, it seemed justified to further reduce the risks of road accidents involving dangerous goods by minimizing the utilization of roads to part of the total transport distance. 4.

DEFINITION OF TRAVEL LANES

For the transportation of goods mentioned in list I and a few other dangerous substances, included in the so-called list 11, only those roads may be used which have been officially defined, or whose use has not been banned. Here the following principles, laid down by law, apply: - The dangerous goods included in the lists I and I1 are to be forwarded by motorway.

- The transporter is exempted from using the motorway, if such use is inpermissable. According to the GGVS this is in particular

315

the case, if the travel distance is at least twice as long as it would be if other suitable roads were used. - The route on roads other than motorways is confirmed in writing

by the competent traffic authority for one single trip or for a limited or unlimited number of trips within a specified period not exceeding three years. This may also be done by a so-called general order, which may be made public. The designation of routes other than motorways must be applied for by transporters, forwarders, shippers or consignees with the competant authority. The transporter may only carry the goods after a route designation has been granted. He has to see to it that the document regarding the route designation is handed to the driver before transportation commences. The driver has to carry this document with him throughout the trip. The risks which are involved in the road transport of dangerous goods and which consist of the possibility of dangerous matter being accidentally released, endangering people’s life and health and the environment, are limited in the Federal Republic by regulations contained in the Traffic Ordinance (StVO) as well. For instance, paragraph 3 section 3a of the StVO determines that drivers of motor lorries with compulsary designation must behave in such a manner that any danger to others is impossible, if due to fog, snow or rain visibility is less than 50 m. The same applies to slippery road conditions on account of snow or glazed frost. 5.

CLOSURE OF ROADS

Furthermore the routes of dangerous goods transports are also designated by means of road closures indicated by two traffic signs. These traffic signs are the sign no. 2 6 1 , a round white sign with a red border, showing the back view of an orangecoloured motor lorry, and sign no. 2 6 9 , also a round white sign with a red border, but showing the back view of tanker with an orange tank over a wavy, blue double line. The first sign indicates a ban for lorries with compulsary designation carrying dangerous goods, also for such motor lorries, including trailers, which must be distinguished by orange-coloured warning signs, the second sign indicates the ban for vehicles carrying a load which may be dangerous to water. Since the tragic accident involving a tanker in Herborn in July 1987 these signs have been put up in the Federal Republic at an increased rate. Criteria for the erection of these signs are contained in the administrative provision of the Traffic Ordinance and in the directives of the Federal Minister for Transport ordering measures for the control of traffic involving road transport of dangerous goods. Besides, the signs are to be put up if there is reason to fear that owing to an accident or incident, or to leakage of a tank, the dangerous goods may pose a serious danger to life, health, the environment or buildings. This will be the case on a fairly long, i.e. at least 500 m long, gradient - with steeper gradients even shorter sections - with an average gradient of more than 4 % , which is situated in the immediate vicinity of a built-up area or runs through a settlement or through a business area or an industrial area. When the passage through a town or village involves the negotiation of narrow and/or winding streets where it is not

316

possible to pass oncoming traffic, especially lorries, without actually reducing speed or coming to a standstill at narrow spots the sign 261 must also be put up. Where a public road crosses the catchment area of a ground water or spring preservation area (a so-called ground-water preservation zone I) the erection of the sign 269 must be ordered. In Nordrhein-Westfalen, the most densely populated area in the Federal Republic, over 125 gradients have been closed to dangerous goods transports by traffic signs. Thereby the authorities cannot restrict themselves to the closing of certain road sections. Simultaneously relief routes must be defined in order to avoid dangerous situations at other locations. Moreover it is essential to announce the closing and the diversion in time by means of special traffic signs. Should there not be any suitable diversion routes, then other traffic control measures, to ensure safety at the location where a dangerous situation exists, must be taken. To this end road signs with a warning about especially dangerous road sections (gradients, narrow passages, water preservation areas) can be considered, but more appropriately, a reduction of the speed limits should be considered first of all. In road tunnels there are, according to the directive of the Federal Transport Minister, as a rule no additional dangers in connection with the transport of dangerous goods. Here the fire presention, however, insists on certain traffic restrictions, in particular a ban on transports of explosives or inflammable substances through tunnels. In the risk analysis it is examined whether the potential danger of underground transportation of dangerous goods is justifiable and which structural and traffic regulatory measures must be taken. is the case with all rules based on legal regulations, their purpose is only served if they are observed. The traffic control measures are first of all directed at the driver. It actually depends on his attitude whether the goal the standards aim at, is reached. Moreover traffic control measures are not effective, if, due to technical defects in the vehicle or mistakes in the operation of the equipment or instruments the lorry with its dangerous load finds itself on a road which the driver should not use and did not even intend to take in the first place. As

6.

ENCAPSULATION OF DANGEROUS GOODS

The legal and official measures presented so far are necessary, because the encapsulation of dangerous freight, be it packaging or containers or tanks are not in every respect absolutely accident-proof, even in conjunction with additional measures for maintenance and stowage or - in the case of tanks - with anticollision barriers on the sides and at the back. All in all, the encapsulation is not accident-proof as is demonstrated by a large number of accidents. It may be that the traffic control measures to reduce the danger inherent in the transport of dangerous goods are suitable and desirable, and also acceptable and therefore appropriate to the people concerned. All the same one may wonder why no adequate measures are taken specifically with regard to the encapsulation of dangerous goods in order to render their transport safer.

317

The question whether it is possible to increase the resistibility and so the safety of the encapsulation permitted today can be answered affirmatively for the simple reason that test requirements for encapsulation, as shown in the various regulations can be tightened. Even the most stringent test requirements can be tightened further. What also may be considered is to leave the test requirements as they stand and supplement them with additional safety precautions, such as containerisation of packed dangerous goods or the banning of any reductions in the thickness of tank walls, which at present can be allowed under certain conditions. Once the test requirements are tightened or additional safety precautions are taken, naturally the prices for the manufacture of encapsulation materials or the additional cost of safety precautions will go up, the transport rates will rise because of the higher tare and dangerous goods can no longer be supplied under the present price conditions. But should not this price increase be accepted as a cheap price to pay for the protection of the environment? It may be argued that the total cost of compensating damages in connection with the transport of dangerous goods is less than the cost involved in manufacturing and utilising accident-proof encapsulation coupled with additional safety precautions. Whoever introduces this argument to block greater safety in the transportation of dangerous goods, should, indeed, be prepared to face the counter-argument that he accepts the unjustifiable, partial risk of people dying and having their health impaired due to accidents involving the transportation of dangerous substances. Damage to the environment resulting from traffic accidents involving dangerous goods, may be expressed in terms of money, on the basis of liability under civil law, but as a rule restoration of the natural environment is very much restricted within narrow bounds, because the restoration of the situation, as it existed before the damage was done, is just not possible. Often irreparable damage, handed down from generation to generation, stays with us. Safe encapsulation for dangerous goods can initially only be prescribed as an ideal in the form of legal regulations. It would seem easier to enforce this regulatory target, since the regulations are not directed, as is normally the case in respect of traffic control rules, against only one person, namely the driver. When, however, several persons are made responsible, such as the manufacturer of the encapsulation, the packer or filler, the owner of the goods at the transfer point, the transporter and the driver, then the risk of an offence being committed will be smaller. What remains is the necessity of an international agreement on the formulation of a set of technical regulations regarding the transport of dangerous goods, which will ensure that in future the transportation of dangerous goods does not present any greater danger than the transportation of harmless goods.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

M. Proon. R . Sriirr arid J . van Ham /Edrtors), Freighi Transporr and rhe Environrnenr , ' 1991 Elsnwr Science Pirblrshers 8. V . , Arrisrerdarn. Printed in rhe Nerherlands

319

INLAND TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS AN OVERVIEW

P.T. Mabbitt Exis Limited, 71-77 Leadenhall Street, London EC3A 2PQ, United Kingdom

SUMMARY

This paper summaries the regulatory position concerning the transport of dangerous goods with particular reference to inland transport within Europe and recent initiatives on the part of the European Economic Commission. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

Almost every advanced manufacturing process utilises dangerous chemicals as raw materials or intermediates, and increasingly the end products are themselves potentially dangerous to health pesticides, household cleaners, motor car chemicals, paints, aerosol sprays. Some 15% of all freight containers contain items that are classified as hazardous and this percentage is growing as industry utilises more sophisticated materials and the regulations themselves are extended to cover more commodities. We are concerned with the hazards posed during transport, and these are categorised under the United Nations system shown in Diagram 1. This system is applied in the regulations covering each transport mode, with variation in classifications and implementation that take account of the different threat posed in each mode. For example, some laundry chemicals may warrant little restriction for road transport, but pose a great threat when carried in the hold of a passenger aircraft, so the practical aspects of the respective regulations reflect this in rules such as packaging specifications. When discussing hazardous materials, the distribution operation is broken into two categories:

- BULK Primarily feedstock chemicals and fuels for industry and agriculture. For inland transport this includes barge traffic and road tanker/tank container/intermediate bulk container traffic, in which individual loads can extend to 30,000 litres (approx) for road and for rail tank wagons.

- PACKAGED Traditionally extending from the smallest packagings (ie medical samples, cosmetics) up to the bulk quantities, this traffic includes all forms of containment and is moved by all modes. Because such a wide range of substances are

3 20

involved and the fact that packages are handled in transit by many persons unfamiliar with the exact regulatory requirements and properties of the substances concerned there is the increased need for information in this area. Diagram 2 shows in simplified form the elements of the transport chain for hazardous materials. Many processes involve primary shippers (ie chemical companies) supplying feedstocks to industry, where manufacturers become the secondary shippers of the product to market (an integrated chemical company can perform both roles). The dangerous goods competence of those involved in this chain generally declines rapidly downstream (left to right in the diagram whilst the information needs increase in volume and complexity. For example, a manufacturer of cellulose solvents is necessarily competent in dangerous goods transport, but a motor spares distributor re-packing and distributing the product with car paints is usually unfamiliar with the transport constraints. REGULATIONS AND CODES OF PRACTICE

Several layers of regulations impact EEC internal, import and export traffic flows, including the regulations of main trading partners. Diagram 3 shows the bodies involved in promulgating the international codes of practice that, when adopted by signatory countries, are given the force of national law. The Commission of the European Communities has recently entered this regulatory arena and its emerging role is being followed with interest, not to say concern in some quarters. Thus we have -

INTERNATIONAL CODES

- NATIONAL LAW - LOCAL REGULATIONS (ie port/city/tunnel) An objective for the single market is harmonised international and national regulations. This is achieved for rail and air through the RID and ICAO regulations, but road transport presents special difficulties. Table 4 lists the current status of adoption of the international ADR regulations as national regulations. ROLE OF THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Some three years ago, following the 1984 Mont Louis incident in which this French To-ro vessel sank after a collision off Ostend carrying amongst other items, containers of uranium hexafluoride, the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on the Commission to submit proposals for the regulation of "dangerous and radioactive substances and wastes". The resulting report cited the complex arrangements of laws, conventions, regulations, agreements, codes and recommendations governing such movements, and concluded that the need existed for no less than six Directives or other instruments with the stated objectives of achieving greater harmony, more uniform adoption

321

and enactment and much stricter enforcement of existing dangerous goods legislation. Fearing yet another layer of possibly counter-productive legislation, industry held its breath. Unlike the UN-based committees responsible for developing and maintaining the present international codes which are only recommendations until adopted into law, the European Commission is able to impose requirements on the internal legislation of its member states and establish standards and which must be adopted in national regulations. A redeeming feature was the Commission's decision not to duplicate existing regulations.

The accommodation of previous EC-imposed Directives on national dangerous goods legislation has been uncomfortable to say the least. The adoption by the Commission of a quite different system for the classification of products for supply and use resulted in a duplication of labels and classifications under National laws. This new initiative went some way to re-dressing the balance by conceding that the earlier legislation might require modification in order to achieve the goal of a fully unified classification and labelling system for all hazardous substances and wastes transported and marketed within the Community. However, about one year later the Parliament's Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Consumer Protection, in welcoming the initiative, added the far-reaching proposal that where the transport of dangerous substances is unavoidable "...it should be kept entirely separate from passenger transport. Mixed transport, e.g. on ferries or in aircraft, should be prohibited." Once again, industry held its breath in the face of admirable but impractical propositions. The committee opined that "A free transport market can be created in the European Economic Community by 1992 only if, at the same time, binding decisions on harmonisation are taken to guarantee the safety of humans and the environment when dangerous substances and wastes are transported.'! At the same time it proposed that there should be an additional progressive list of hazard categories for dangerous substances and waste with increasingly stronger controls for the more hazardous materials. In other words, another layer of regulation. The Commission finally focused on four specific areas for proposals to the European Council of Transport Ministers relevant to road traffic : 1.

Directive requiring member states to accept road vehicles conforming to ADR for international transport of dangerous goods or wastes.

2.

Directive on the training of drivers of road vehicles carrying dangerous goods or wastes.

3.

Directive on the training of road transport managers concerned with the transport of dangerous goods or wastes.

322 4.

directive for the enforcement of the regulations on the carriage of dangerous substances and wastes by road.

A

(further recommendations concern the sea mode) Industry is responding to these and other Commission initiatives, for example on waste transport, in a constructive but it must be said, sometimes critical stance, especially where it is perceived that established and proven regulatory regimes are to be overlayed rather than strengthened. Bald statements from the Commission, such as "transport by rail is safer than road transport" find little favour without sound substantiation. There may well be an argument in favour of switching dangerous traffic from road to rail, but I have yet to see any conclusive evidence that one of the modes is safer than the other. Arguments in favour of rail may include the fact that there is less likelihood of a product spill occurring on rail due to the highly regulated control in traffic flows by the railway signalling systems and that in the event of an incident the width of the railway tracks offer a barrier distance between spillages and the public. Conversely railways tend to run through City centres, whereas much road traffic moves on motorways which are usually routed around towns rather than through centres of population. A rail incident may involve very much larger quantities of dangerous goods than one on the road, as rail wagons may have a greater capacity than road vehicles, and wagons containing the same dangerous substances are often deliberately marshalled together. Even if there were clear evidence that one mode of transport were safer than the other it would still be necessary to ensure that each mode is adequately safe. Certainly improvements in design of vehicles has been made over the years, these being reflected in the UIC (International Union of Railways), RID and ADR regulations. Since packages may well be conveyed by more than one means of transport it is essential that there is conformity in the regulations concerning packages for the various modes of transport and this has been achieved by the introduction of the UN performance test criteria into the separate regulations. It is necessary to recognise that the current international dangerous goods regulations have a very much wider applicability then the EEC countries themselves, so in the interest of safety and of world trade it is necessary that the international regulations reflect the necessary safeguards. There may well be a place for EEC countries to agree amongst themselves on what needs to be in the international regulations and then put forward proposals. This way would be much more effective than the EEC imposing its own conditions which may be out of line with the thinking of the rest of the world. Committees responsible for framing international regulations can spend many hours deliberating on what improvements need to be made and then drafting the revised regulations, but all this is of little avail if the regulations are not observed in practice. This lack of observance may be deliberate or unintentional and may be due to a number of factors. For instance economic ones, such as carriers levying a surcharge on dangerous freight, or

323

others being due to lack of understanding or indeed knowledge of the regulations. In the past there has been a conflict between the regulations governing the individual modes of transport, but gradually this has been overcome mainly through harmonisation the United Nations recommendations. Whilst this process of harmonisation must still go on it is perhaps time that attention was paid to making the various regulations more logical and easily understandable thus making them easier to observe. For air transport IATA has the requirement that each Freight Forwarder's office should employ someone who has passed a recognised dangerous goods course, but this requirement does not apply to other modes of transport and consequently dangerous goods are often consigned by persons with scant knowledge of the regulations. Commission initiatives in this area are to be welcomed. In any event, our chart of regulators and regulations look set to become more complicated. There is one final point to be made here, and it is this. Hazardous materials are an integral and indivisible part of general freight. Invariably any accident involving hazardous materials is followed by demands from politicians and the media to ban this traffic or to introduce draconian controls, the impracticality of which is obvious after the most cursory study. Some transport companies, for example integrated 'door-to-door' operators, claim not to carry dangerous goods, only to find large quantities of them in their traffic because staff are not trained to exclude them, and in any case would have difficulty in doing so and maintain reasonable service. The current regulatory regime, for all its shortcomings, has ensured remarkably safe distribution of millions of tons of hazardous materials over the past decades, and its effective enforcement and sensible development will continue this good record. In contrast to that approach, there is currently proposed US legislation that all 500,000 daily US domestic shipments of hazardous materials be tracked on a national database at an estimated annual cost to industry of $12 billion. The key to more effective control is consistent and uniform application and enforcement of existing rules.

- STATISTICS Because 'danger' is not a customs category, there are no national or EC statistics produced on hazardous materials traffic, and a great weakness in debate on this subject is this lack of basic information. My own company is involved in a study for the UK Department of Transport, to estimate packaged dangerous goods flows in and out of UK seaports, the first time that this has been done. SIXUC-

CHANGE IN THE TRANSPORT INDUSTRY

The transport industry (at the "packaged goods" level) is undergoing radical change. Some elements have been evolving at a

324

strong but steady pace (intermodalism), others are new and proceeding rapidly (ie integration). All these affect dangerous goods transport. The most relevant developments are:

-

Intermodalism Dangerous Goods packed in a freight container, rail or road vehicle may travel in a single journey by road, rail, sea or soon through sub-sea tunnel, creating significant modal and national regulatory problems.

-

Integration The fastest growing sector is the 'door-todoor' or integrated carrier services. Founded on documents and small parcels traffic, these highly efficient operations are now developing into general freight ( 2 4 hours delivery throughout Europe) with wholly-owned aircraft and vehicle fleets. This sector presents critical (and currently largely ignored) problems for dangerous goods management.

-

'Just in time' supply This concept, being adopted across industry, has profound implications for dangerous goods. For example, instead of a ship tankload of solvent being moved to storage tanks at an electronics plant, tankcontainer loads may be received daily and held at the plant for direct discharge.

-

Quality Management The concept of total quality management is rapidly gaining ground in dangerous goods distribution, spurred by the chemical producers as part of their evolving safety audit and environmental protection programmes.

DANGEROUS GOODS AND THE ENVIR-

There are two types of threat to the environment posed by the inland transport of hazardous materials: Environmental impact of normal operations Over and above the normal environmental impact of vehicle emissions, there are such routine operations as cargo tank washings, residue disposal etc that are unique to hazardous materials transport. These are a matter for the national or local authorities concerned, and there are no centralised data available. Environmental impact of incidents involving dangerous goods The major large-scale dangerous goods incidents of the past have mostly involved sea-borne traffic although the Hebron and L o s Alfaques disasters were exceptions that prompted public outcry and legislative change. The environmental factor remains largely a threat, for example of groundwater contamination from chemical or fuel spills. Directed against this all the regulatory and operational effort may be seen in the context of risk management, with cost benefit as part of the equation. If the definition of transport is extended to include storage, then the risk (and the record) changes dramatically, as illustrated by the Sandoz fire and subsequent pollution of the Rhine.

325

Again to our knowledge there is no centralised information on the overall environmental impact of hazardous materials distribution, although studies are being carried out. INFORMATION

-

THE VITAL LINK

No activity could be more information-dependent than hazardous materials transport. Complex technical data, often involving chemical names and classifications, is handled by normal clerical staff down an extended chain stretching from original manufacturer to final consumer. With paper-based procedures there are plenty of opportunities for breaks in the chain and little support for hard-pressed staff.

Apart from normal operational data, there is vital emergency response information, for which there may be no second asking or checking. Automation presents a unique opportunity for hazardous materials transport, particularly by helping to eliminate the errors and omissions endemic in manual procedures. Programs can be written that will take a user through all the relevant requirements before and during the carriage of dangerous goods and, since these programmes are written in a logical way and bring together all the pertinent points no matter where they occur in the regulations themselves, consignees and carriers can have much more confidence in their ability to observe the regulations and thereby enhance safety. The first stage of the transport industry's move into computerisation has proceeded slowly, with little co-ordination. One manifestation of this is the large number of software vendors, each with a small market share. Unlike its American counterpart, the European market has been inhibited and fragmented by language and trading barriers. The second wave of automation looks set to proceed at a much faster pace. With the speedy agreement on Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) standards and harmonisation of EEC trade procedures, the adoption of information technology will be irresistible at all levels. This presents a unique opportunity for better dangerous goods information management on a European scale, but there are formidable practical barriers. With the implementation of the single market and interconnection of community national and international data networks, and with the goodwill and co-operation of those involved, better tools for environmental protection and accident prevention will help continue a good record.

REFERENCES Hazardous Cargo Bulletin, London OECD Road Transport Research Group

SI Ill'hlENl/CON1'A1NhlENT

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CLASS3 CLASS 4

Flammable Liquids Fl;immable Solids Substanics

CLASS 6

Toxic/Infcctious Substanccs

CLASS 7

Radioactive Sulxtanccs

CLASS 8

Corrosivc

CLASS 9

hlisc. Dangerous Substunccs

3

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, : I

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(ii)

~

b

BULK Road tankers Rail tank wagons Tank containers and intermediate bulk containers

Road, sea Rail Road, rail, sea

PACKAGE11 Ail typcs (drums, single and coniposite containers)

Road, rail, sea, air

~

~~~~~~~

(iii) SI'ECIAL SIIll'hlENlS High hazardnarge quantity nuclear or wask shipmcnts

Road, rail, sea, air

(iv) SIIII'LOAI) UULK - Clicmicals - Oils

Sea

-G~SCS

- Solids (coal, ore ctc)

DIAGRAM 1 DANGEROUS GOODS CLASSES AND CONTAINMENT

-Transport

Phase

MANUFACTURER

CHEMICAL P L A N T TERMINAL

( i e AGRICULTURAL)

-

1

SECONDARY SIIIPPER

WAREHOUSING AND DISTRIBUTION

ua

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,"IIEI4ICAL TAIlKER

TANK COllTAINER ROAD TAIIKER 0 I)I11JI~I/III'I'EII~~lEDIATE BULK COIJ'TAIIIER - D I S T R I H I I T I O N BY IIOAD, R A I L , S E A 0 0

O P A C K A G E D GOODS -DISTRIBUTION BY ROAD, R A I L , A I R , SEA

DAllGEROUS GOODS E X P E R T I S E DECREASES[>

DAIICEROUS GOODS IIIFORI~IATION HEED I N C R E A S E S I N VOLUME AND V A R I E T Y D

DIAGRAM 2 DANGEROUS GOODS TRANSPORT CHAIN

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DIAGRAM 3 MAJOR ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATIONS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

329

TABLE 4 National Regulationsfor Road Transport in Relevant Member States (Source: OECD Road Transport Research Group and EXIS)

Belgium Since 15 March 1976 Belgium has had national regulations on the transport of dangerous goods. For 95% of the goods these regulations are the same as the ADR rules. For the other 5% the national rules are stricter than ADR ie. for goods of Class 3 (flammable liquids), Class 1 (explosives) and Class 5.1 (goods which contribute to combustion). The national rules are less strict than ADR for gas-oil. Denmark Denmark has been a party to the ADR agreement since 1 August 1981.The aim is t o issue a body of national rules very sim/.ar to the ADR agreement. Technical specifications similar to the ADR have been adopted for Class 2 (compressed gases), Class 6.1 (poisonous sub:,tances) and Class 8 (corrosive substances). The regulations for Classes 3 (flammable liquids), 5.1 oxidizing substances) and 5.2 (organic peroxides) have been in line with ADR since 1986.For Classes 4 (flammable solids) and 6.2 (repugnant substances and substances liable to cause infection) there are no regulations for national transport in Denmark. The regulations for Class 1 (explosives) are very old and different from the ADR regulations. Labels according to EEC directive 67/658/EECare permitted for national transport of dangcrous goods in Denmark. Federal Republic of Germany The regulations for the carriage of dangerous goods by road in Germany are stated in the “Gefahrgutverordnung Strasse (GGVS)”. These regulations are very similar to the ADR. The differences mainly concern authorisation for other dangerous goods to be carried and additional types of packaging. The FRG is proposing domestic regulations diverting dangerous goods traffic from road to rail (including ’piggyback‘carriage) for certain types of journey. France The French legislation concerning the transport of dangerous goods was stated in the rcgulation of 15 April 1945 (RIMD), but this was reviewed in May 1985 with a transitional period until 1 May 1990.These rules were developed in France earlier than in other nations, therefore the international agreements were not the basis for the original legislation, although the review brings the French legislation partly into line with ADR. The main differences from ADR arc: - Some classes are diffcrent from those of ADR, but the review brought Classes 3,6.1and 8 into line as far as packaging and testing is concerned. Those classes which arc different from ADR are further divided into categories and groups with their own restrictions. - The labels are slightly different and they must be applied to all vchicles carrying dangerous goods, including packaged goods. - The form of the transport document is more strictly defined. To meet a decision of 30 July 1975 vehicles transporting dangerous goods with a PMA above 10 tonnes must have a speed limit set at 80 km/h. There are route limitations and restrictions concerning days on which it is prohibited to drive trucks with dangerous goods. The French rcgulations are under review for ADR harmonisation. Greece Greece is not a party to the international ADR agreement. The reason givcn is that the ADR agreement is still under study prior to being submitted to the Parliament. Thcre is no national legislation on the transport of dangerous goods in Greece and there is no spccial training for drivers of vehicles transporting dangerous goods.

Ireland Ireland has not yet signcd the ACR agreement. The rcason given is that the inland transport of dangerous goods is not of very grcat importance and the entire ADR agrcement must bc translated into Irish in order to be approved by thc Irish Parliamcnt. However, Ireland’s domestic legislation (Dangerous Substances - Conveyance of Scheduled Substances by Road (Trade or Business) Rcgulations 1980 and Amendments 1986)is very similar to the ADR agreement and rcfcrs to ADR

330 in all the main points. Substances of A D R Classes 2,3,4.1,4.2,5.1,5.2,6.1and 8 arc declared dangerous. Substances of A D R Class 1 are governed by the Department of Justice. Substances of Class 6.2 are omitted. Class 7 comes under the Nuclear Energy Board. Differences to A D R regulations are: - Some general rules concerning the routing of dangerous goods. - Packaging and labelling in accordance with the Community Directive 67/548/EEC or other international or national regulations is deemed to comply with the Irish regulations. Italy

In Italy a set of rules was stated in August 1980 based o n the ADR classification and following 90% of the ADR regulations. However, some derogations a r e possible and regulations for national transport are less tough than for international. The Netherlands National transport of dangerous goods by road has to comply with the regulations of the VLG (Vervoer Over Land van Gevaarlijke Stoffcn) which is in fact the same as A D R plus: - Rules for routing of dangerous goods. - Extensive professional training requirements. - Special conditions for explosive goods (Class 1). - More extensive information requirements. Portugal

Portugal, as a new member European Community state, applies thc A D R regulations for international and national transport. Spain Spain, as a new member state of the European Community, follows the A D R regulations for the international transport of dangerous goods. For domestic transport the Spanish regulations arc practically copies of the international ones with minor amendments. With rcgard to road transport the T P C (Reglamento Nacional d e Transportes d e Mcrcanias Pcligrosas por Carretera) is applicd. United Kingdom In recent years United Kingdom legislation concerning the transport of dangerous goods has hccn comprehensively revised enabling much earlier legislation to be revoked. Four sets of rcgulations now control: a) Carriage in road tankers and tank containers. b) Classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous suhstanccs. c) The operational aspects of the carriage of packagcd dangerous goods by road. d)The loading, unloading and storage of dangerous goods in portsharbour areas. All these regulations were made under the 1974 Health and Safety at Work Act and are consistent, as far as possible, with the Recommendations of the United Nations Committee of Experts o n the Transport of Dangerous Goods. T h e United Kingdom uses the Hazchcm Hazard Code for the placarding of tank vehicles and tank containers. Vehicles carrying packagcd dangcrous goods above a ccrtain specified quantity arc required to display blank orangc (ADR)plates. Drivers of both tankcrs and vehicles carrying packaged goods must receive instruction and training. Recently the U K has initiated moves towards harmonisation o f domestic regulations with ADR.

A D R = European Agrcement conccrning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by R m d

M . Kroon. I?. Sin!! and J. vun Huiir (Edtrors), Freighi Trunsporr and ihe Environriieni IY91 Elsewer Science Publishers B. V . , Ainsicrdani. Prinred in rhe Nerherlunds (

33 1

LOGISTICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN URBAN DISTRIBUTION AND THEIR IMPACT ON ENERGY USE AND THE ENVIRONMENT R. ter Brugge Department of Logistics, INRO- TNO (Institute of Spatial Organization), P.O. Box 45, 2600 A A De,ft, The Netherlands

SUMMARY

Prior to dealing with urban freight distribution, an overview will be presented of the overall freight market and the existing trends in logistics from the point of view of environmental impacts. An illustration will be given of the growing use of automobiles, to prove that this is the main problem to focus on. Subsequently the possibilities and limits of technological developments are given. In a recent study we have indicated that the use of technical improvements, that are known at the very moment, can curb energy consumption with 17 % . In other words, given the expected growth rates technical solutions are not sufficient. Based on other research it is shown that the organization of transport, i.e. the logistical organization can be instrumental in getting a much higher efficiency in transport. Based on these principles the paper evaluates the strategies for freight transport in urban areas. Also the improvement of freight transport in urban areas will ask for a better logistical organization, implementation of information technology and new transport technologies and for measures in the field of physical planning within cities. These measures will be asked for in that order and in their combination. 1.

FREIGHT TRANSPORT I N PERSPECTIVE

1.1 Introduction

It should be noted that transport is not a goal on its own. It is a result of activities that are necessary or desirable in a society. So for transport there are a great number of alternative solutions, substitutions and direct and indirect effects. For that reason to define policies, to define potentially interesting fields

The author is grateful for the help given by his colleagues B.J.P. Janssen, A.A.W.G. Mulders, C. J. Ruijgrok and P.T. Tanja.

332 of research and also to give a technological assessment of the RLDoutcomes a system approach is needed in transport. The lack of a system approach in transport may be one of the reasons that we seem to have lost control of transport and the related negative effects. An overview of RLD in transport shows that in this field research is very diverse, fragmentated and a significant proportion of it is not in the public domain (1). The need for a system approach is one of the basic philosophical assumptions in this paper. An other one is that in transport solutions are only realistic if they are market oriented i.e. not striving against economic forces in the market. car in city car out city subway/tram bus in city coach out city train truck load mck unload van in city van out city train

0

20

40

60 80 100 I20 140 mega joules per vehicle hlometer

160

180

2W

Diagram 1 Energy consumption per vehicle kilometer in 1986 and the technical minimum amount used for inland transport in the Netherlands (MJ/W. Peld J O U h

I

1986

bcst plant

223, I

technical minimuin

Diagram 2 Total energy consumption for passenger and freight transport by car and other transport modes in 1986, for the 'best plant situation' and the 'technical minimum' in PJ.

333 A good illustration of environmental losses caused by transport can be given by a study INRO-TNO recently completed on technical opportunities to reduce energy consumption in transport. The study was commissioned by the Dutch Central Bureau for Economic Planning(2). It should be noted that by doing so, we assume the energy consumption in transport is closely related to the loss of environmental quality. So, where pollution is related to the energy consumption and given the fact that energy consumption has its price, economic forces in transport will work in line with environmental goals. This statement is only true to a certain extent. Firstly not all energy consumption is related to environmental damage of transport, for instance we can mention the effects on the landscape of transport infrastructure. Secondly in some cases energy is needed to decrease pollution; as in the case for catalytic converters. Thirdly, as will be shown in the paper, there is a trade off between production and transport costs. Nevertheless an analysis of energy consumption gives a fairly good picture of several components of the transport market related to environmental quality.

1.2 Energy consumption per vehicle The number of passengers or the amount of freight transported is not the prime cause of energy consumption in transport. The focus should be on vehicular movement. The efficiency of the (logistical) organization will relate the volume of traffic to the amount of freight and passengers transported. Diagram 1 shows the energy consumption per vehicle in megajoules per kilometer. At first sight the low figures for the automobile might be confusing. In this diagram a variety of capacities are compared. Given these figures a train should at least transport 30 persons to be equal in energy consumption to a car carrying one person. The train is here defined as a locomotive with an average number of train cars behind it. Consequently, if there are 4 persons in a private car, the train should carry 120 passengers to compensate in energy consumption. Moreover, in the diagram, the comparison is made for 'a generalized kilometer' . Actually we should wonder if the train brings passengers from places where they are, to places where they want to be, i.e. here we deal with the fundamental problem in transport of spatial distribution and consolidation. 1.3 Existinu mobility patterns Diagram 1 also gives an indication of the potential energy savings by technical measures. We have calculated the energy consumption based on the mobility patterns and several modys used in 1986. Based on this existing mobility pattern the 'best plant' and the 'technical minimum' situation were defined. For the 'best plant' situation it was assumed that all vehicles used possess those technical features that are normal when purchased in 1990. For the 'technical minimum' we moreover assumed that all vehicles have the technical features that are available and can be used, even if they are hardly economic at this moment. By doing so the basic assumption is, that most technical possibilities available in 1990 are being used. At the same time it is postulated that all other conditions are

334

unchanged, i.e. people make use of comparable types of vehicles and arrange their transport as they did in 1986. On this basis the overall energy consumption is described in diagram 2 for inland transport in the Netherlands for these three situations. This diagram illustrates that 10 to 17 % of energy consumption in transport could have been saved in 1990 by merely technological measures. A number of things can be learned from the analysis thus far: * About 92 % of the total energy consumption in transport concerns private cars, trucks and vans. The share of trains, trams and inland water transport is very limited. * Freight transport does ask about 30% of the overall energy consumption in transport. It may be expected that this share will increase. * Analysis on energy consumption in transport contains in many cases a lot of ambiguity, because the overall figures are the result of spatial and behavioral patterns, the necessity of transport, the organization of transport. This include the number of unloaded kilometers driven and the modal choice. All those aspects are related, because transport is an integrated activity within the society. * Technical solutions surely will have a significant effect on energy savings. At maximum it will give a contribution of 17 % in the savings, especially important is the efficiency of passenger transport by car. So our analysis leads to the conclusion that it is not only technological development that may help to solve environmental problems. Since 1973 a lot of research has been done on more energy efficient vehicles. Many features have already been implemented. The limits of energy conversion for traction by employing the currently applied techniques will be reached soon. Illustrative can also be the comparison given between loaded and unloaded vehicles in diagram 1, showing that these vehicles carry their load rather efficient. Moreover it is important to realize that the use of all these newer techniques will ask for an overall replacement of the transport equipment and thus will ask for a destruction of capital. By doing so we destroy the internal energy of these existing vehicles. In a number of cases it can be more efficient, in terms of overall energy consumption, to keep the older machinery for a restricted number of jobs i.e. kilometers driven, then to replace them for more efficient ones. This also proves that 17% savings is the technological minimum. An important part, almost half of all transport, is on a regional scale, where people live and work together in a "well known" area. Here the negative effects of transport are severely felt. This statement does however not mean that long distance transport is of no importance, nor without problems. But on long distances the share of transport in the total price of a good will be higher and so economic efficiency already will be a greater incentive to save energy and thus the environment. So it might be expected that the energy efficiency of long distance transport is higher.

335 Pela Joules 300 269,6 250

-17%

L,,,, 7

200 out

150

100

fr. in

50 0 1986

best plant

technical minimum

Diagram 3 Energy consumption in transport inside and outside cities in 1986 (PJ)

Peta Joules

400 350 300

288,4 269,6

262 3

250 200 150 100

50

fr

0 1986

201 5 low

201 5 medium

2015 restricted

Diagram 4 Forecast of the energy consumption in transport in 2015, given the "best plant" situation for a low and medium economic scenario. For the latter also the scenario of a very restrictive policy towards energy consumption is given (in PJ)

336 Diagrams 3 shows that indeed nearly half of the energy consumption in transport takes places in cities and large conurbations. These figures are for inland transport in the Netherlands, including international transport in the country, but excluding the energy consumption in air traffic and marine transport. 1.4 Scenarios for future mobility Within 25 years, in the year 2015 we may expect that most of the techniques known at this moment will be implemented. To estimate the overall effects a forecast is needed of economic growth and mobility patterns. These forecasts are very uncertain. The best thing to do is to formulate possible scenarios. Diagram 4 does give such scenarios with a low economic growth (GNP growth rate till 2000 of 1,5 % and from then 2 %) and a medium one (GNP growth rate till 2000 of 2,75 % and in succession 2 , 8 8 % ) . Along with the economic and population forecasts some of the reasonably expected trends in mobility have been prognosticated. For the 'medium scenario' a number of additional political measures are presumed given a very restive energy policy. Such an analysis shows that only in the low scenario the energy consumption is equal, or even some lower, then the 1986 situation. This scenario does not seem to be very likely, because a low economic growth will not be a stimulate for technical development, neither for the implementation of newer techniques, so the overall priority to preserve environmental quality probably will be less. If we believe that the pollution of today's traffic already is too high, the conclusion seems to be inevitable that all other possibilities to curb mobility will be needed. By doing so we should bare in mind that this might be in contrast with economic progress and also with a greater individual freedom of all mankind, trying to become global citizens. This statement may seem to be dramatic, but does demand serious consideration given the recent developments in the Third World and behind the former "Iron Curtain". So the fundamental question will be: "Is a less mobile society also less enjoyable, or can mobility be more efficiently organized?" This last questions concerns logistical organization. 2. IS LOGISTICS IN FAVOR OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ?

2.1 Loqistical trends of consianors In 1989 INRO-TNO completed a research project on logistics, energy and the environment (3). Based on experts interviews and a literature review the study explores changes in energy consumption in transport caused by the expected dynamics in companies that produce and transport goods.

337 For a better understanding of this dynamic process a subdivision was made on the effects of: - origins and destinations - volumes of transport flows - modal split - optimizing transport in terms of sizes of the shipments, loads, frequencies and so on. In the course of the research it turned out that there are important differences between the logistical developments taking place at the consignors and consignees (companies in production and trade) and at the shippers and carriers (logistical service organizations). Trends of the consignors are all very negative when we judge them in environmental terms and look at the amount and the type transport needed. Growing internationalization, a better customer service, greater variety in products, shorter life cycles, flexible production, just in time (JIT) production and delivery, etcetera all are leading to more transport over longer distances and with higher frequencies. The greater value of the freight, automation and economies of scale within companies will have the result that more money can be spent on transport as such. A greater energy consumption in transport can be substituted with a greater efficiency in production, but such a trade off is not necessarily one in terms of energy only. At the other hand a vicious circle can be noted. Economies of scale, also in transport itself, will lead to lower prices and thus an increased movements of freight. Some 'positive' trends for consignors are the greater (spatial) concentration on nodal points, i.e. main ports and the stronger market orientation of a lot of activities. Developments that might lower energy consumption are moreover: * in the short and medium term: - subcontracting transport and distribution - decreasing the number of suppliers given more stable relationships - rationalization of distribution networks by eliminating intermediate links * in the long term: - separation of the early production stages and assemblage, in which the production is concentrated in a restricted number of centers and assemblage is market oriented - spatial integration of producing companies given their JITrelationship. Differences in long and short term mainly concerns the possibilities for the relocation of activities. Nevertheless it can not be denied that all this inevitably will lead to an enormous growth of freight transport. The described trends should be considered in many respects as autonomous. A point in case may be the Cecchini report (4) in which the advantages are given of the enlarged European inner market after 1992, which can only be reached when interrelations, and thus transport, will grow.

2.2 Potentials of loqistical services organizations In contrast to the consignors, trends in the transport services are potentially much more positive from an environmental point of

338 view. The only negative trends can be the growing importance of express transport and an increased usage of specialized vehicles. At the other hand the developments in transport have important potentials for operating more efficient. In general it concerns all those situations where information technology can be supportive in getting a better control, architecture or organization of transport. - Very high potentials do exist for decision support and expert systems on load planning or route planning or allocation to vehicles - Strong reduction of energy can be reached by hub 6 spoke networks and main ports, intermodal transport and other possibilities that lead to increasing consolidation by the use of standard load units (containers, swap bodies) . Also tracing and tracking, on board computing, mobile communication, fleet management and transport technology like high cube containers should be mentioned. - Energy reductions seem possible in case of public warehousing and co-makership. Essentially it should not be a surprise that the potentials are the greatest for the transport services. Consequently these measures are in contradiction to their business, i.e. to transport goods from A to B. Only competition will force them to drive less. Moreover a lot of the solutions given, do ask for co-operation to reach a sufficient scale and have possibilities to optimize. The transport market is very fragmentated, complex, with many niches. Given the variety of goods, modes, origins and destinations we can see many 'monopolists' in a free market system. Here we come to the basic problem in logistics. At the one hand severe competition is needed to force transport firms to be efficient and at the other hand there has to be co-operation to reach a sufficient scale for delivering services within enlarging networks. No wonder a balance is needed between public and private facilities. Key issues are here: * logistical organization to optimize control * information technology and telematics * transport technology. 3. URBAN FREIGHT DISTRIBUTION

3.1 Loqistical Organization to optimize control It has been shown that trends in logistics are not primarily technology driven. The ability to control integrated logistical chains stems from the greater knowledge we have to control complex organizations. Customers do not ask for high speed in transport, nor for continuous information on their goods, nor for containers and quick load systems. They simply ask for reliability; delivery of goods at the right time, without damage and at a fair price. They need to have the feeling that their things are in good hands during transport. The example of the express companies proves that this will ask for an organizational concept. They offer a transport concept that can be used as a model for many logistical services. This concept is based on quality and so their operation is almost inelastic to an increasing price of transport, for instance by raising energy prices. A good logistical organization has potentially

339 incentives for a more energy efficient transport, but it will be hardly sensitive to higher energy prices, so this dimension should be brought into the process in some other way. The organizational challenge will be to make systems in which capacities can be shared in an optimal way, without diminishing in the same time competitive forces of private enterprises. Even sharing the capacities of passenger and freight transport can be of interest, given the fact that there is often a great correspondence and complement in places and in times that people and goods should be moved from one place to the other (5) 3.2 Information technology and telematics

Information technology is an aid or resource to accomplish the organizational requirements. Here we are confronted with a remarkable situation. At the one hand almost all the techniques for the decennia to come are available, but we have only a very vague idea about applications and consequences (6). Telematics is especially important in trade and transport having many intercompany connections, that can be facilitated by EDI-systems (Electronic Data Interchange). At the moment ED1 is introduced in the bigger companies, setting standards for their subsidiaries. But in the years to come the normally, smaller transport firms and the governmental services (customs, traffic management, infrastructure management) will also be involved. The extensive programs within the scope of DRIVE, EURET, RACE, TEDIS and EUREKA might be an illustration. Information technology gives the possibility to monitor freight and vehicle flows and so control them. Main questions here will be: who is responsible and how can we protect privacy? 3.3 Transport technoloqy Transport technology is also changing very rapidly. For consolidation and distribution of inter city and intra city freight transport, interfaces between several modes and flows is the main issue. Terminals making use of quick load systems, robotica and automatic guided vehicles (AGV) for the arrangement, for sorting and for storaging freight of different sizes, shapes and nature can be built. As far as the nature of freight is concerned an institution as Collomodule in the Netherlands, making standardized packing material is essential. At this moment the technological developments in industries and public research institutes are enormous. Apart from the terminal facilities, vehicle technology is changing. For reasons of interfacing, this also concerns load units like containers and swap bodies. A main option for R&D seems to be to develop an urban car. The design requirements can easily be specified and are in many respects the same for freight and for passenger transport. We are looking for quiet, non polluting vehicles, that normally will not drive long distances every day and make frequent stops. So the solution can be a modular electrical car, built of standard components that can be replaced and recycled. Braking energy can be used for instance with fly wheels and/or by recharging batteries. But also here the main item is not the technical design, butthe logistical organization in big conurbations

340

in which these urban cars will be used. In looking at those technological developments we should be aware of the fact that basically, transport belongs to nobody. It is an intermediate activity. If governments have the opinion that urban transport for reasons of economy and environment is an important item, then they should take their responsibility. Transport always crosses borders, thus co-operative technological research, coordinated and stimulated by the European Community and elsewhere, will be asked for. 3.4. Physical planninq

Finally the physical structure of towns has to be changed in accordance with modern transportation techniques and logistics. Spatial structures are the result of activity patterns in the past and can be shaped in accordance with future forecast of spatial organization. Changes will be only possible in the long term. These concern the locations of activities, transport infrastructure (free lanes), telematics, parking facilities and so on. Especially important are the terminals and distribution centers in the urban area. 3.5 Final remarks

In this paper is has been stated that: - Industrial trends inevitably lead to a growth of freight transport

with characteristics that are in conflict with environmental quality. - There is abundant technology to save energy and protect the environment, but the impact will for itself not be sufficient, so we are forced to define the transport problem on a higher level, i . e. the generation of mobility and the organization of transport. - On this higher level we will be confronted with fundamental conflicts between the interests of economy and ecology. - There are good opportunities to match this conflict in a period of rapid technological change, if the organizational principles of logistics are used to solve these problems and to optimize transport operation. - In doing so a balance will be needed between at the one hand abundant suppliers to stimulate competition and the other hand the scale of their operations, to get an optimal usage of capacities. - The hardest case is urban distribution, where the flow of freight transported by trucks can not be shifted to another mode. Here almost half of the energy in transport is consumed and the operations are far from optimal. - Under the recognition that transport is a combined public and private action the answers should be contrived by giving the development into modern logistics incentives to internalize aspects of energy and the environment. Finally it should be noted that the concept of distribution centers at the edge of large conurbations is not new at all. There have been many plans and experiments. Until now the results have been poor, because of complexity of the market and because of costs involved for an extra transhipment. Interfaces (the technical

34 1 facilities to load, sort and reload) and interfacing (the organization of this process) are crucial. The enormous increase in logistical knowledge in the last decennium in combination with the newly developed technologies in transport and in informatics, make it worthwhile to re-evaluate the efficiency of such urban freight distribution systems for the near future. A first question however, that need to be answered is, who will develop and be responsible for the logistical organization of the urban freight transport system. If the outcome of an evaluation like that, turns out to be insufficient, problems of environmental quality will force us t o make them sufficient. A city community can do so by delivering the infrastructure, either the information and communication systems needed, or by building the terminals or the free lanes and parking facilities in the cities. REFERENCES 1 Rens, J. van, Research and development in the transportsector, publication of the European Society of Transport Institutes (ESTI), Brussels, 1985. 2 Mulders, A.A.W.G., P.T. Tanja, R.C. Rijkeboer and R. ter Brugge, Energiebesparingspotentielen in het verkeer en vervoer tot 2015, INRO-TNO, Delft, 1990. 3 Tanja, P.T., H.F.W.J. de Leijer and R. ter Brugge, Logistiek, energie en milieu: een verkenning van de opties in logistiek en transport ter vermindering van het energiegebruik en luchtverontreiniqing, INRO-TNO, Delft, 1989. 4 Cecchini, P. (e.a.), The european Challenge 1992: The Benefits of the Single Market, Gower, Aldershot, 1989. 5 Bierman, M., Toekomst op het spoor. in: Plan, 20(1989)5, 9-61. 6 Ruijgrok, C.J., Telematics in goods logistics process, in: 3. Soekha (ed) "Telematics-Transportation and Spatial Development" The Hague, 1989.

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M. Kroon, R . Smit and 1. van Ham (Editors), Freight Transporl and the Envimnment 6 1991 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., Amsterdam. Printed in the NeIherlands

343

THE PERSPECTIVE OF URBAN TRAFFIC AND ITS POLLUTION CONTROL IN CHINA

Zi-Zhu Jia Chengdu Institute of Environmental Protection, 610021 Chengdu, People's Republic of China

SUMMARY

The urban traffic and its pollution control have become one of the focal points in urban development and environment in China. This paper introduces the general situation of this problem for some Chinese metropolises, and put forward a comprehensive strategy for our developing cities in this field. URBAN TRAFFIC

Since the rapid development of urbanization and industrialization during the past fifteen years, the discordant increase between the motor vehicles, bicycles and urban road systems, as well as other relevant problems, have made most of our cities more crowded with motor vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. In Beijing City, for instance, by the end of 1988, the motor vehicles and bicycles had increased to 430,000 and 7,300,000 respectively, the urban district population counted up to 5,000,000, with the exception of the temporary resident population 1,300,000. However, in spite of the fact that the passenger and goods flow volumes increase more than 100 and 50 times by contrast with the year of 1949, the existing length of urban roads increases only 12 times, the density of urban road is 0 . 7 kilometer per square k'ilometer, and the one third of the load is undertaken by lorries. At the peak hour, 7 : 3 0 to 8:30 am, all buses were overloaded almost double what they did in many districts of these urban areas. At that moment, the bicycles shuttled everywhere. In Tianjin City, the volume of bicycle traffic was up to 37,000 per hour in some sections of main communication artery. It is obvious that the mixed traffic is always apt to result in traffic congestion. For example, the average speed of the buses from some 2 3 kilometer per hour decreased to 13 kilometer per hour during the past forty years in Chengdu City. This situation will keep itself up in the future if the urban population and scale cannot put under control. The tendency concerning the increase of urban population scale, motor vehicles and bicycles, passenger flow volume, as well as the situation of Chinese cities and towns (Figure 1-3, Table 1) are as follows:

344 TABLE 1.

The s i t u a t i o n o f C h i n e s e c i t i e s a n d towns

Population

>1,000,000 <1,000,000-500,000 <500,000-200,000 1 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 Town Number

Year

1980 (23)

1988

Vehicle Bicycle-

-

-

45

70

108

2,874

58

110

266

11,481

Million

Willion

7

1950 60 70 80 90 2000 Year

F i g u r e 1. The i n c r e a s e t e n d e n c y o f motor v e h i c l e s a n d b i c y c l e s i n some b i g c i t i e s Recently, urban road t r a n s p o r t h a s become a s o c i a l a n d economic i s s u e . F o r t h i s a problem, Guangmin D a i l y , C h i n e s e famous newspaper h a s p u b l i s h e d a series o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on t h i s s p e c i a l subj e c t g a t h e r e d from many e x p e r t s a n d l a w makers o f t h e f o u r b i g gest cities, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai a n d Guanuhou by t h e y e a r of 1 9 8 8 . A l o t o f c o n s t r u c t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s have b e e n p u t f o r w a r d . It would be a perfect p l a n i f t h e t r a f f i c n u i s a n c e had been t a k e n i n t o f u l l c o n s i d e r a tion.

F i g u r e 2 . T h e development t e n d e n c y o f some u r b a n d i s t r i c t p o p u l a t i o n scale

XlO'O

I

I/

1950 60 70 80 90 2000 Year

Figure 3. The increase t e n d e n c y of p a s s e n g e r f l o w volume i n u r b a n t r a n s p o r t

345

TRAFFIC NUISANCE I t h a s been p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e communications have r e s u l t e d i n one o f t h e m a j o r s o u r c e s o f a i r p o l l u t i o n a n d n o i s e i n . o u r u r b a n areas ( a u t h o r , 1 9 8 6 ) . A l o t o f r e s u l t s from i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l monitori n g have c l e a r l y p r o v i d e d t h e g r a v i t y o f t h i s problem. F o r example, t h e l e a d c o n t e n t o f b l o o d i n a t r a f f i c p o l i c e m a n i s much h i g h e r t h a n t h a t of o t h e r people, and i t s i n c r e a s e goes along w i t h h i s l e n g t h of service. Meanwhile, t h e similar c o n d i t i o n o c c u r s i n d u s t a n d s u r f a c e s o i l a d j a c e n t t o a highway, e s p e c i a l l y on t h e winddown side o f t h e heavy t r a f f i c r o a d s b e c a u s e most o f p e t r o - e n g i n e s motor v e h i c l e s are o p e r a t e d on l e a d e d f u e l .

The e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n shows t h a t i n c i d e n c e o f l u n g c a n c e r i s p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d t o t h e e x t e n t o f a i r p o l l u t i o n . The r o a d t r a n s p o r t , however, i s one o f t h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s . I n f a c t , t h e r e are many c a r c i n o g e n i c o r t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s which come from motor vehicle emissions. There i s enough e v i d e n c e t o p r o v e t h a t t h e d u s t makes up t o 5 2 . 4 0 % i n t h e TSP a n d i t ' s up t o 81.2 mg p e r c u b i c meter d u r i n g t h e

summer and autumn i n some downtown d i s t r i c t s . Most f r e q u e n t l y , you c a n g e t s i g h t of t h e s o o t emitted from motor v e h i c l e s a r o u n d t h e u r b a h r o a d s o r c r o s s r o a d s . No wonder, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c a r b o n monoxide e x c e e d s Grade-3 o f N a t i o n a l Ambient A i r Q u a l i t y S t a n d a r d s f o r heavy t r a f f i c roads even up t o 4 4 mg p e r c u b i c meter, e s p e c i a l l y i n t u n n e l o r v a l l e y streets. For i n s t a n c e , i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s up t o 8 t o 12 t i m e s o f s a n i t a r y s t a n d a r d s , even worse i n t h e Tunnel o f Huangpu R i v e r i n S h a n g h a i C i t y . A s f o r t h e t r a f f i c n o i s e , t h e r e i s no e x c e p t i o n e i t h e r . W e c a n r e a l l y see t h a t t h e u r b a n t r a f f i c h a s t u r n e d i n t o one of t h e v i t a l environmental problems.

MINIMIZING TRAPFIC NUISANCE IN CITIES Urban t r a f f i c n u i s a n c e i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y s e r i o u s . W e had b e t t e r l a y down r e a s o n a b l e t r a f f i c p o l i c y t o promote t h e development o f u r b a n communications a n d t r a n s p o r t , a n d make f u l l u s e of e x i s t i n g u r b a n r o a d s y s t e m s w i t h a view t o s o l v i n g t r a f f i c problems a n d i m p r o v i n g u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y a t t h e same t i m e . A series o f v i g o r o u s a n d e f f e c t i v e measures have been p l o t t e d a n d t a k e n by t h e c e n t r a l government a n d l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s c o n c e r n e d . They a r e a s follows : Urban t r a f f i c f o r e c a s t i n g and p l a n n i n g ; P e r f e c t i n g u r b a n t r a f f i c r e g u l a t i o n s a n d c o n t r o l , t i g h t e n i n g up v e h i c l e management, s e t t i n g up one-way streets and s p e c i a l b i c y c l e ways, a n d s t a g g e r i n g o f f i c e h o u r s f o r e a s i n g o f c o n g e s t i o n o f cars and b i c y c l e s ; . Adopting p r e f e r e n t i a l m e a s u r e s s o a s t o d e v e l o p u r b a n p u b l i c t r a f f i c , s u c h a s l i g h t r a i l w a y s , underground r a i l w a y s f o r b i g c i t i e s i n c l u d i n g B e i j i n g , Shanghai, T i a n j i n , Guanzhou, Haerbin, Changchun, N a n j i n g , Hongzhou, Chongcing Shenyang, Shenzhen, t r o l l e y b u s e s a n d b u s e s f o r middle- a n d s m a l l - s i z e d c i t i e s , i n which, Zigong C i t y has b e e n making u s e of n a t u r a l g a s i n s t e a d O f l e a d e d f u e l f o r b u s c sin-e tfig efid of 195g.s. LtrDan r e l i e t rosas, r i n ; r o a a s a n e connec i o h o f radiated

. .

.

346 expressways w i t h n e a r cities, f o r example, B e i j i n g , T i a n j i n , Guanzhou, Chengdu, e t c . , a n d some i l l u s t r a t i o n s of u r b a n r o a d s y s t e m s are shown i n f i g u r e s 4-6; Drawing u p e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d s f o r c o n v e y a n c e s a n d s e t t i n g u p corresponding monitoring systems.

Main road -- Mixed traffi-

Tube Railway

F i g u r e 4 . S c h e m a t i c of u r b a n r o a d system i n Beijing

F i g u r e 5 . S c h e m a t i c o f u r b a n road system i n Shanghai

Since air p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l and t r a f f i c n o i s e abatement f o r u r b a n road t r a n s p o r t i n v o l v e many aspects a n d d e p a r t m e n t s , i t i s u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d of u s t o t a k e t h e m i n t o f u l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n from e v e r y a n g l e a n d a c h a i n of m a t t e r s . I t may be c o n s i d e r e d as a systems engineering. As has a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t , it would b e based o n t h e p r i n c i p l e s of m i n i m i z i n g of s o u r c e s a n d i t s e f f e c t s . The f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t r a f f i c strategies ( f i g u r e 7) i s probably u s e f u l for our developing c i t y . Figure 6. Schematic of urban road s y s t e m i n Chengdu

Legislation

Management

Self-discipline

Technology

Long-term programme

MINIMIZATION OF SOURCES Urban scale 6 population control Authoritative organization Standards: vehicles fuel 6 its additive

Administrator -Vehicle standards 6 monitoring Polluter pays principle Fuel quality Energy conservation Public transit priority Impose restrictions on (private) cars

Design Management science Manufacture Processing Urban development h environment Maintain Inspection (for vehicle) Non-polluting 6 low-noise vehicle Low-polluting energy 6 its efficiency New traffic policy 6 regulation Raising funds

MINIMIZATION OF EMISSIONS -Emission Driver Traffic 6 environmental standards 6 planning monitoring -Traffic noise standards 6 monitoring Making full use of urban road system Proper running speed

Fuel composition Saving energy

Reducing no-load Urban road system 6 distribution Potential risk assessment Cost-benefit analysis Low-polluting 6 low-cost freight transport

MINIMIZATION OF EFFECTS City planning, Ambient air urban roads quality buildings standards 6 parking areas monitoring Traffic Open 6 green space capacity

Cyclist h pedestrian

Building shapes Building Inner beauty in surface urban environment material Information exchange 6 cooperation

Figure I. Schematic of traffic strategies in developing cities URBAN SCALE AND ITS POPULATION

Our urban traffic and its nuisance abatement are similar to other global environmental issues. In the final analysis, the most important task is the negative population growth, especially in our developing cities with population more than one million. If the metropolises are unconstrained and plunge into wanton development, the consequences would be too ghastly to contemplate. The urban population scale control must be put into practice through legislation. No matter how strict the population policy may be, its enforcement is absolutely correct from a long-term strategic point of view. The ceaseless perplexity about urban traffic and its nuisance are no exception.

STANDARDS AND POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE I t i s a matter of common o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t w e h a v e a l r e a d y set u p some e m i s s i o n s s t a n d a r d s f o r motor v e h i c l e s . T h i s i s o n l y a b e g i n n i n g . I t i s l e f t t o a t t a i n p e r f e c t i o n . F o r i n s t a n c e , it would h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h n o t o n l y means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , b u t a l s o u r b a n r o a d s y s t e m s , open space a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s .

The p o l l u t e r p a y s p r i n c i p l e i s p e r f e c t l y r i g h t . However, w e perhaps n e g l e c t one o f t h e important f a c t o r s , i . e . a f a c t o r y and i t s p r o d u c t s (such as motor v e h i c l e s o r l e a d e d f u e l ) which do n o t contaminate t h e environment b e f o r e g e t t i n g o u t o f t h e f a c t o r y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it i s p r o b a b l y u n f a i r t o s a y t h a t t h e u s e r of t h i s p r o d u c t w i l l become t h e p o l l u t e r . I t i s d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o p r o m o t e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y c o n c e r n e d i n t h e f a c t o r y , e s p e c i a l l y t h e management s c i e n c e . By f a r , w e would c o n t i n u o u s l y p e r f e c t our t e c h n i c a l p o l i c y under t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e s of l e g i s l a t i o n .

CITY PLANNING AND ITS INNER BEAUTY D u r i n g t h e l a s t decades, t h e r e have b e e n many c h a n g e s i n e x t e r n a l a p p e a r a n c e o f most c i t i e s b e c a u s e of u r b a n c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u t w e o f t e n f a i l t o t a k e t h e i n n e r b e a u t y i n t o f u l l a c c o u n t . The e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a l i t y h a s b e e n impaired b y t h e u n r e a s o n a b l e d e s i g n i n g and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f urban r o a d s and b u i l d i n g s which are l o c a t e d n e a r these r o a d s . I n t h e m i d s t o f t h i s , t h e t r a f f i c n o i s e a n d a i r p o l l u t i o n have g e t from bad t o worse i n t h e s e a r e a s . I t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r u s t o research f u r t h e r i n t o t h e p r o b l e m i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . Though t h e l e v e l o f i n v e s t m e n t i n u r b a n r o a d s y s t e m i s t o o l o w , b o t h r i n g roads a n d r a d i a n t roads h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t t o c o m p l e t i o n i n many c i t i e s . Of c o u r s e , w e have g o t t o overcome a l o t of d i f f i c u l ties.

CONCLUSION Urban t r a f f i c a n d i t s n u i s a n c e c o n t r o l a t e o n e o f t h e l o n g t e r m economic, s o c i a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s . W e a r e r e q u i r e d t o go i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n and exchange of i n f o r m a t i o n s . D u r i n g t h e past d e c a d e , many l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s h a v e b e g u n t o p a y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e r i o u s n e s s a n d m a g n i t u d e of t h i s problem, some r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m s are n o t o n l y made by l a w m a k e r s a n d researchers, b u t are a l s o d e l i b e r a t e l y d e a l t w i t h b y d e p a r t m e n t s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , e n e r g y , p l a n n i n g , e n v i r o n m e n t , f o r e s t r y a n d a u t o i n d u s t r y . I c a n be s u r e that a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e organization concerning t h e urban t r a f f i c i s t o be s e t u p . If e v e r y s t r a t e g i c a l s t e p o f o u r s i s based on s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , much improvement i s c e r t a i n l y be made i n o u r u r b a n t r a f f i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t o u r people w o u l d be l e s s exposed t o p o l l u t i o n .

Some diagrams were drawn by d a u g h t e r T . J i a .

349

AUTHORS INDEX Bertilsson, T., 113 Bidault, M. , 99 Blok, P.M., 223 Boyd, J.D., 81 Bremnes, K. 163 Brugge, R. ter, 331 Cheung, Y.H.F., 223 Cooper, J., 235 Cucchi, C. , 99 Duquesne, J . , 255 Dwyer, G.W., 131 Eisenkopf, A., 215 Filippi, F., 119 Fiskaa, G., 163 French, C.J.J., 93 Garben, M., 301 Graf, H.G., 15 Hallmans, M.G.W. , 271 Handel&, J.M. , 271

Heuser, H.H., 151 Jia, 2.-Zh., 343 Kolle, L., 163 Kroon, M. 63 Kurer, R., 279 Mabbitt, P.T., 319 Maier-Rigaud, G. , 31 Melhus, 0., 163 Metcalfe, M.T., 175 Noort, R.B.C.J. van, 3 Postma, T., 295 Puttick, J.R., 131 Rothengatter, W., 187 Schoemaker, Th.J.H., 41 Smit, R., 63 Snape, D.M., 175 Tonkelaar, W.A.M. den, 261 Triebel, H.G., 313 Zach, A., 143

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35 1 INDEX acidification, 3, 4, 9-11 air traffic emissions of, 11, 1 2 noise from, 11-13 nitrogen dioxide from, 1 2 air pollution from traffic in FRG, 281 share of lorries, 281 abatement of, 286, 287 and driving behaviour, 288 reduction of, 291 , 292 aircraft , emissions from, 176-180 standards for, 1 7 9 test cycle for, 1 7 9 reduction of NO,-emission in, 180-1 82

airfreight, fraction of freight transport , 1 75 , 1 7 6 growth of, 175, 1 8 4 Bei jing urban road system, 345 Brundtland report, 66 bunker consumption, 1 6 4 - 1 6 6 cabotage, 1 9 1 , 255, 256, 258, 271 , 274 European , 2 59

CAD in shipbuilding, 1 5 5 California and transport, 81-89 and control of emissions, 8189

capitalism, and ecology, 32 carbon monoxide concentration in Chinese towns, 345 carbon dioxide, emissions from goods transport in Europe, 29 cargo vessels, 1 5 1 design of future, 1 5 1 - 1 54 improvement of existing inland, 1 6 0 saving of energy, 1 6 1 centralisation of inventory, 236, 252

242,

243,

251,

certification for new vehicles, 84, 8 5 cetane number of fuel, 134-136, 141,

142

Chengdu urban road system, 3 4 6

CO2, 8, 9 Cop-emissions, from aircraft, 182, 1 8 3 coastal transport, 1 6 4 cold start conditions, 131, 1 3 3 and cetane number, 1 3 4 combined transport , 7 9 , 21 7 , 221, 313,

225, 314

242,

252,

commodity categories, 41, 45, 49,

50

control of emissions in California, 8 1 - 8 9 cost benefit analysis of transport, 187, 188, 203 costs and distribution, 295, 296,

299,

300

costs of transport, 243, 251, 252

dangerous goods, 31 3-317 and guiding concept, 307-310 and risk management, 324 and transport, 301, 303, 304, 310

and traffic management, 302, 306-309,

311

and information systems, 3 0 8 closure of roads for, 313, 315,

316

encapsulation of, 313, 316, 3 17

municipal regulation, 302, 31 0

transport of, 31 9-325 deliveries, 296-299 of stocks, 297 design of vessels and waterdepth, 1 5 4 diesel engine, marine, 1 6 8 and catalyst, 1 1 7 diesel engine (heavy duty), 1 1 3 117,

132-140

fuel efficiency of, 1 1 7 , 1 3 6 emissions from, of carbon monoxide, 1 1 5 of hydrocarbons, 1 1 5 of nitrogen oxides, 1 1 3 of particulate matter, 94, 116

effect of injection timing on, 137, 1 4 1 matrix of properties, 1 3 1 -1 42 variable geometry, 9 3

352 Directive 88/77/EC, see test cycle Directive 84/424/EC, see noise test distribution centre for, 297 channels for, 297, 299 urban, 331, 338 distribution process, 296 door-to-door operators, 323, 324 driving speeds, 262-4, 268, 269 drop volumes, 297 EC Directive 88/77, see test cycle EC Directive 841424, see noise test ECE regulations for good vehicles, 100 economic growth, basic trends in, 17-19 economics and environment, 14 EDI, see Electronic electric vehicles, 9 7 Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), 325, 338 emission of CO,, from aircraft, 182, 183 rights for, 324 emission standards, 273, 274 emission reduction targets in the Netherlands, 6 6 emission ceilings, 272 emission factors, and speed dependence, 266, 267 emissions from goods transport in Europe, 28, 29 of NO, and hydrocarbons, 28 of CO, and particulate, 29 empty trips, 50, 51, 55 encapsulation of motor, 126, 127 energy efficiency, and aircraft, 183 and NO,-emissions, 180 environmental pollution scales of, 5 environmental policy in the Netherlands, 65-67 European integration, and economic growth, 20, 21 evaporation control for fuel transfer, 86 freight transport and information technology, 331, 337, 338

freight transport (continued) and physical planning, 331, 339 and towns, 279-291 and transport technology, 331 , 337, 338 fuel cell, and transport, 96 fuel efficiency, 235, 244, 245, 248, 250 and aircraft, 179, 180 fuel, 131 effects of volatility, 134, 139 effects of sulphur content, 139 effects of aromatic content, 140 effect of density, 140 effect of price, 322 matrix of properties, 131, 141 sulphur content of, 110 fuels, alternatives for diesel engine, 9 6 hydrogen, 9 7 low-sulphur, 9 5 specifications and standards, 81-89 gas turbine combustor, for road transport, 9 7 for aircraft, 176-184 and fuel efficiency, 179 variable geometry, 181 -1 83 goods transports in Europe, in Mio t/annum from 1980 2010, 22, 23 in Mio tkm from 1980 -2010, 22, 23 greenhouse effect, 4, 8, 9 , 12 harmonization, 191 hydrocarbons, emissions from goods transport in Europe, 28 hydrogen, 9 7 IATA, 175, 323 ICAO, 176, 179

infrastructure and investment policy, 216 and modal split, 228 injection, directlindirect, 95 inland shipping, 220, 221 and market structure, 221 of dangerous goods, 221 and transshipment facilities, 221

353

inland navigation in the BRD, 1 5 2 in the EEC, 1 5 2 inland navigation (continued) present fleet, 1 5 3 transport efficiency of, 1 5 3 161

inspection, roadside, 8 5 , 8 6

271

intermodal competition distortion in, 2 1 6 internal market, 272, 2 7 4 internalizing of external effects, 295, 296,

300

just in time supply, 3 2 4 just in time (JIT), 2 3 6 , 2 4 6 , 248, 336

249,

night traffic, ban on, 2 8 6 nitrogen oxides, emissions from goods transport in Europe, 2 8 NMP and NMP-PLUS, 6 5 NOB (Dutch Road Haulage Ass.),

251,

252,

noise levels, of trucks and buses, standards for, 1 0 1 of trucks and buses future standards for, 1 1 1 standards for, 1 0 1 noise test, 1 2 0 noise and rail traffic, 1 4 3 - 1 4 9 legislation in Switzerland, 143,

144

passive protection, 1 4 8 protection at source, 1 4 6 , 147

protection at tracks, 1 4 4 , liberalisation of transport, 1 9 1 - 1 9 3 , 2 1 2 loading degree, 2 7 4 logistics, 2 1 7 and reliability, 3 3 1 , 3 3 6 - 3 3 9 of distribution, 2 9 5 - 3 0 0 lorries dimensions of , 2 7 1 , 2 7 4 weight of, 2 7 1 , 2 7 4 lorry design improvement of, 2 4 2 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 2 low-noise lorries,list of, 2 8 6 low-NO,-combustor, f o r aircraft, 1 8 0 - 1 8 2 Mandeville, Bernard de, 3 1 marine transport in Europe, 2 5 7 , 2 5 8 measures political business, 2 1 6 political traffic, 2 1 6 mobility scenarios, 334, 3 3 5 modal points, 3 3 6 modal split, 1 8 9 , 1 9 3 and technical innovation, 2 2 9 criteria for choice of, 2 2 6 decision for, 2 2 4 shift in, 2 2 3 - 2 3 2 modal shift, 2 7 1 , 2 7 3 , 2 7 4 mode of transport, emissions for, 4 1 - 6 2 energy consumption for, 4 1 - 6 2 overall performance for the Netherlands, 4 7 specific emission, 4 8 unsafety, 5 4 , 5 5

noise, 5-7,

145 234, 300

246,

248,

298-

and driving behaviour, 2 8 7 from traffic, 2 8 1 - 2 8 3 , 2 8 4 , 286,

287

in towns, 2 8 1 - 2 8 3 measurement methods for, 1 2 0 128

reduction of emissions of, 119, 2 9 0 ,

291

sources of, 1 2 0 NO,-emi s s ion, from sea transport, 1 6 9 international regulation for, 1 7 3 reduction of, 1 7 2 from aircraft, 1 7 6 , 1 7 7 reduction of , 1 8 0 - 1 8 2 at North Sea, 1 7 0 , 1 7 1 OCEA, see: Organisation OPEC ecological, 3 7 Organisation, of C02-Emission Avoidance, 3 7 ozone formation, 4, 11, 1 2 ozone layer depletion of, 3, 9 particulates, emissions from goods transport in Europe, 2 9 policies on freight transport in the Netherlands, 6 3 - 8 0 polluter-pays-principle, 1 9 8 , 199,

in China, 3 4 6

354

ports, 259 power source, alternative, 96, 9 7 pushbarge improvement of bowform, 155, 156

effect of convoy formation, 156-1 59

SO2-emission, from sea transport, 169 in North Sea, 170, 171 solar cells, and transport, 9 7 speed of driving, and fuel consumption, 261 -270 and C02-emissions, 265, 268, 269

rail transport constraints for, 224, 228, 229

rail traffic and noise, 143-1 49 legislation in Switzerland, 143, 144

passive protection, 148 protection at source, 146, 147

protection at tracks, 144, 145

rail , and 'just-in-time', 288 rail capacity, 243 railway system strong points, 217 high speed, 217 retail outlet, 295-297 of warehouses, 296, 299 road transport strength of, 228 road traffic emissions in the Netherlands from, 64 effects of, 64 pollution share in total, 7 road-pricing, 188, 192, 203, 206, 207 rollcages , 297

scenarios for Europe, 15-29 characteristics of, 20, 21 for emissions from goods transport, 28, 29 for goods transport by road, 22

for goods transport by rail, 23

Schumpeter, Joseph, 32 sea transport, and energy consumption, 163 and emissions, 163, 169-1 71 pattern of, 164 Shanghai urban road system, 345 shift in modal split, 215-222 shippers, 191, 227 shunting operations, 58 Smith, Adam, and sustainability, 33, 39

speed limits, 261 , 270 and enforcement, 261, 262, 269, 270

standards diesel engine, for smoke emission, 100 for exhaust emissions, 100 future, 108, 109 and implementation dates, 110

standards, for noise levels, buses , 101 in Austria for trucks, 124 trucks, 101 US 199114 for diesel engine, 94

and direct injection, 95, 96

Stirling engine, 9 7 sustainability and Adam Smith, 33, 39 and Joseph Schumpeter, 32 sustainable development, 3, 4, 6, 13, 271, 272

of goods traffic, 31 telematics, 271, 274, 336, 339 in freight transport, 79 terminals, 338 test procedure, for noise level measurement of vehicles, 101, 107 test cycle EC 88/77, and fuel consumption, 136 for exhaust emission of heavy duty vehicles, 132 and cold start, 133, 141 results for carbon monoxide, 135 results for hydrocarbons, 135

results for NO,, 135 results for particulates, 136

test cycles, 101-107, 131-142, 179 EC 88/77, 100, 132 US transient cycle, 102 Japanese test cycle, 103 criticizing of, 106

355 towns and freight transport, 279291

traffic and environment policy in the Netherlands, 69-80 traffic circulation schemes, 298 trailers dimensions of, 271, 274 transfer centers, 289 transport and infrastructure in the Netherlands, 76 system approach of, 331 transport costs, and prosperity, 33 turbocharging, 9 4 turbocompound engine, 117 urban traffic measures for, 74 in Chinese towns, 343 length of roads, 343 growth scenarios in Chinese towns, 344 road system in Chinese towns, 345

strategies for minization, 347

vehicle kilometers on motorways, 267-270

vessels, design of, 151 emission factors for NO, and SO,, 168-171

emissions from operating, 168 transport efficiency of, 153155

influence of velocity on, 154

water transport constraints for, 224, 229 waterdepth and design criteria, 154

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