Hebrew at the Crossroads of Cultures: From Outgoing Antiquity to the Middle Ages

ORBIS I SUPPLEMENTA MONOGRAPHIES PUBLIEES PAR LE CENTRE INTERNATIONAL DE DlALECTOLOGIE GENERALE (LOUVAIN) MONOGRAPHS PUBLISHED BY THE INTERNATIONAL CENTER OF GENERAL DIALECTOLOGY (LOUVAIN)

Hebrew at the Crossroads of Cultures From Outgoing Antiquity to the Middle Ages

by H A I I M B. R O S E N

PEETERS LEUVEN - PARIS

1995

© Uitgeverij Peeters, Leuven I S B N 9 0 - 6 8 3 1 - 6 8 5 - 0 (Peeters Leuven) I S B N 2 - 8 7 7 2 3 - 2 7 2 - 7 (Peeters France) D. 1995/0602/34

F O R E W O R D

T h e contacts b e t w e e n H e b r e w and l a n g u a g e s with which its speakers (or, at certain periods, rather its users) established cultural relations are not at all a new subject of study. I for m y part have attempted to m a k e contributions to that field on a few o c c a s i o n s , mainly in m y m o n o g r a p h L'hebreu et ses rapports avec le monde classique (Paris, G e u t h n e r , 1979) and in m y study of " D i e Sprachsituation im r o m i s c h e n P a l a s t i n a " , included in the p r o c e e d i n g s of a c o l l o q u i u m held at B o n n in 1974, Die Sprachen im Romischen Reich der Kaiserzeit (= Beihefte der Bonner Jahrbiicher, vol. 4 0 , 1980), p p . 2 1 5 - 2 3 9 . As the titles of these publications indicate, they concentrate on the aspects of the contacts with G r e e k and Latin at the t w o m o s t abundantly treated periods of ' i n f l u e n c e s ' u n d e r g o n e by H e b r e w , or, as the case may be, those exerted by H e b r e w on other l a n g u a g e s : the pre-Classical period, in w h i c h the civilisatory lexicon of G r e e k was e n r i c h e d by a language almost identi­ cal with, or very closely related to, pre-Biblical H e b r e w , and the period of the creation of the language types c o m m o n l y called Biblical and N e w T e s t a m e n t G r e e k , the texts of w h i c h c a n n o t be adequately interpreted without taking into account their H e b r e w and A r a m a i c b a c k g r o u n d . A n o t h e r period on which scholarly attention is n o w focussing m o r e and m o r e , and which w e h a v e not lost sight of either, is that of the H e b r e w R e n a i s s a n c e , e m e r g i n g on the basis of the non-Semitic m o t h e r - t o n g u e s of the creators of the National H o m e in Palestine and the State of Israel. But it can be seen from the a c c o u n t w e h a v e j u s t given that there is a ' d a r k ' period in the history, if not of the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e as such, so at least in the history of its c o n t a c t s with other l a n g u a g e s a n d c u l t u r e s , w h e t h e r as a ' r e c i p i e n t ' of ' i n f l u e n c e s ' or as an active factor. T h i s is the p e r i o d i n t e r v e n i n g b e t w e e n the last centuries of A n t i q u i t y and the M i d d l e A g e s . It is to this period, e x t e n d i n g from the last centuries in w h i c h H e b r e w w a s still used and u n d e r s t o o d at its original site to its diffusion in the c o u n t r i e s of the d i a s p o r a , that the p r e s e n t study is d e v o t e d ; it tries to b r i n g to light a n u m b e r of n e w v i e w p o i n t s w h i c h a p p e a r essential to us for the p u r p o s e of s k e t c h i n g a faithful history of the external as w e l l as internal history of H e b r e w . H e b r e w and A r a m a i c forms are r e p r e s e n t e d in Latin characters, as w e h a v e found e x p e d i e n t for quite a n u m b e r of years, by w a y of translitera-

2

H.B. ROSEN

tion for the C l a s s i c a l l a n g u a g e , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r on the b a s i s of a g r a p h e m e - b y - g r a p h e m e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( w h i c h d o e s not prejudge any a s s e s s m e n t of phonetic v a l u e s ) for T i b e r i a n - v o c a l i z e d Biblical H e b r e w , while Israeli H e b r e w forms are transcribed p h o n e m i c a l l y according to current standard p r o n u n c i a t i o n . T h e reader will c o n s i d e r it c o n v e n i e n t to find these forms listed in the index in H e b r e w characters. M y heartfelt gratitude g o e s to m y friend Pierre S w i g g e r s , the editor of the OrbislSupplemental', w h o spared n o effort to ensure an u n b l e m ­ ished and attractive a p p e a r a n c e of the present little b o o k w h i c h contin­ ues, in a way, m y earlier study o n the 'linguistic situation in R o m a n P a l e s t i n e ' , and w h i c h is partly b a s e d on lectures I delivered at the C o l ­ lege de F r a n c e a n d other F r e n c h a n d Italian a c a d e m i c institutions s u b s e ­ q u e n t to the a p p e a r a n c e of that article. O n e of the principal objectives in bringing the results of m y e n d e a v o u r s to the attention of an interested public is the e n c o u r a g e m e n t of future study w h i c h will be liable to accord to the historic study of H e b r e w the scholarly standard it merits in view of its p a r a m o u n t cultural i m p o r t a n c e . Haiim B. ROSEN

TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword I.

1

Palestine as a linguistic area

5

A. T h e linguistic nature of J e w i s h Palestine

5

T h e particular p o s i t i o n o f J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e — T h e J e w i s h diaspora

—

T h e status o f G r e e k

B . L a n g u a g e s of use a n d u s a g e of languages Contemporary

attitudes

towards

the

7

plurilingualism

of

the

Roman

Orient — J e w s and N o n - J e w s ; D o v e t a i l i n g o f areas o f the s e t t l e m e n t o f o n e e t h n i c g r o u p into that o f a n o t h e r

C. F o r m a l and sociological p h e n o m e n a of language, c o n t a c t . .

13

Phraseology — "Text and V e r s i o n "

II.

T h e l a n g u a g e of the J e w i s h diaspora of R o m e

23

A . T h e social position of the J e w s and the sociolinguistic sta­ tus of their l a n g u a g e usage B . H e b r a i s m s in the l a n g u a g e of the J e w s of R o m e

23 26

T h e s e m a n t i c field o f s t u d y and tradition — Metuere

"fear"

C. P r o b a b l e instances of the penetration of G r e e k e l e m e n t s of J e w i s h u s a g e into V u l g a r Latin T h e G r e c i z a t i o n o f the b a s i c V u l g a r Latin l e x i c o n — Apotheca marium

- Parabola,

*parabolare

and the v o c a b u l a r y o f

—

28

*Cala-

"speaking"

D . Internal Latin s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t of probable J e w i s h origin

.

T h e probability o f s e m a n t i c H e b r a i s m s — Pacare

35 Memoria

"tombstone"

—

*"pay"

III. T h e J e w i s h contribution to the formation of the vocabulary of the institutions of M e d i e v a l E u r o p e A. Background B. "Peace" C. " H o l i n e s s , s a n c t i t y "

41 41 42 47

IV. T h e nature of M e d i e v a l H e b r e w : A great l a n g u a g e of tradition in regional differentiation A . T h e c o n c e p t of a Traditionssprache: Medieval Hebrew

55 M e d i e v a l Latin and

T h e p l u r a l i s m o f M e d i e v a l H e b r e w forms o f l a n g u a g e — T h e paral­ l e l i s m o f M e d i e v a l Latin and M e d i e v a l H e b r e w

55

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H.B. ROSEN

B. T h e e v i d e n c e for the regional differentiation of H e b r e w C. H e b r e w in the R o m a n c e region

.

T h e m a r k i n g o f the a c c u s a t i v e c a s e — F i e l d s o f l e x i c a l interference

—

61 64

" S t a n d " for " b e " in Italian s o u r c e s

D . T h e G e r m a n m o d e l : V e r b a l periphrasis

72

E. O u t l o o k

75

M a p : Palestine at the turn of the eras I n d i c e s : G e n e r a l — T o p o g r a p h i c a l — F o r m s cited — q u o t e d — Scholars q u o t e d

77 Sources 79

I. P A L E S T I N E A S A L I N G U I S T I C A R E A

A. T H E LINGUISTIC N A T U R E O F J E W I S H PALESTINE

T h e p a r t i c u l a r p o s i t i o n of J e w i s h

Palestine

It is not only justified, but outright imperative to treat Palestine (in a b r o a d e r sense) as a separate entity rather than in the larger f r a m e w o r k of a sketch of the linguistic situation of the R o m a n Imperial era; the reason for taking this position is first and foremost the fact that the interrela­ tions b e t w e e n the l a n g u a g e s current in the cultural area of J e w i s h char­ acter reveal entirely different features than those w h i c h can b e o b s e r v e d outside that horizon. T h i s is true e v e n in a region with reference to w h i c h one can speak of the existence of an A r a m a i c lingua franca, as is the case of J e w i s h (later Christianized) Palestine, since o n e constantly h a s to bear in m i n d that n o w h e r e o u t s i d e the Judeo-Hellenistic part of the area of usage of A r a m a i c , w h i c h at that time w a s generally called " S y r i a c " , had b e e n in existence a literary or, let us say, cultural, lan­ g u a g e , or even t w o such l a n g u a g e s , as this w a s the case for the J e w i s h cultural area. ( l )

H a r d l y a n y w h e r e else in the Orient o n e e n c o u n t e r s a population which u s e d G r e e k not only as a l a n g u a g e of the educated, but also as the cur­ rent m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n of all social strata. In our present treat­ m e n t of the c o m p l e x of questions w e shall be guided primarily by the historical angle c o n c e r n i n g R o m a n culture and the Latin l a n g u a g e ; w e will, c o n s e q u e n t l y , underline already at this point that the situation, as w e h a v e described it, naturally h a d its effects also on the position of Latin in the interplay of forces e x e r t e d by the various idioms. At an ear­ lier occasion this situation w a s v i e w e d within a m o r e general s c o p e , that is, that of the overall linguistic situation of the R o m a n E m p i r e , c o n ­ c l u d i n g and s u m m a r i z i n g as f o l l o w s : (2)

(1) (2)

C p . b e l o w , p. 7. Die Sprachen im Romischen Reich der Kaiserzeit. Kolloquium 1974 ( e d i t e d b y G. N e u m a n n a n d J. U n t e r m a n n ) ( = Beihefte der Bonner Jahrbiicher 4 0 ) ; s e e there m y contribution " D i e S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n i m r o m i s c h e n P a l a s t i n a " , p p . 2 1 5 - 2 3 9 [ = East and West. Selected Writings in Linguistics I. p p . 4 8 9 - 5 1 3 ] , e s p e c i a l l y p. 2 3 8 [= 5 1 1 ] .

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H.B. ROSEN

"Das Bild einer bilingualen Sprachgemeinschaft zeichnet sich deutlich ab. Wenn wir die... in Betracht gezogenen Sprachen etikettieren wollen, so mogen wir im Hinblick auf die erfolgte Desakularisierung des Hebraischen dem Aramaischen in seiner jiidischen Form den Titel einer Familiarsprache zuweisen, dem geniigend differenzierten nichtlokalen Aramaisch denjenigen einer Lingua franca ...; das Griechische moge man am besten als Landessprache bezeichnen. Beide mogen Umgangssprachen gewesen sein. Das Lateinische stand und blieb auBerhalb der Kulturwelt des jiidischen Palastina." (3)

The Jewish

diaspora

If, w e view the facts relevant for us h e r e from a n o t h e r a n g l e , it w a s particularly that l a n g u a g e c o m m u n i t y , H e l l e n i z e d m o r e t h o r o u g h l y than any other c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h in its d i a s p o r a u n d e r w e n t a fate, u n i q u e at that time, if not at all t i m e s , of its political and cultural history. In the b e g i n n i n g of that e p o c h the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y not only r e m a i n e d within the b o u n d a r i e s of the E m p i r e , but a c o n s i d e r a b l e part of it w a s trans­ p l a n t e d outright into the centre of the E m p i r e a n d took part, in t w o sep­ arate w a y s , in the formation of late R o m a n language-life, a n d that not only while it a s s u m e d the s h a p e of J u d a i s m a n d b o r e its original m a r k s , b u t also following the successful, a l t h o u g h historically fatal, activity of proselytization in the s h a p e of b l o s s o m i n g Christianity. O n the o n e hand, that participation materialized in their original habitat, a n d on the other h a n d , in the d i a s p o r a : the l a n g u a g e habits a n d linguistic stratifications of the J e w s , which they had b r o u g h t with t h e m from their h o m e l a n d , infil­ trated into the metropolitan g r o u p s of the p o p u l a t i o n , w h i c h w e r e the first to e m b r a c e the M e s s i a n i c creed, a n d enjoyed a c o n s i d e r a b l e and large diffusion together with those g r o u p s and their religious beliefs. (4)

(3)

H o w e v e r , the strong status o f Latin in the a c a d e m i c a n d literary e r u d i t i o n o f Chris­ tian P a l e s t i n e had forerunners a m o n g s t J e w s (J. G e i g e r , " H o w m u c h Latin in G r e e k P a l e s t i n e ? " , in: Aspects of Latin, Proc. 7th Int. Colloquium on Latin Linguistics, Jerusalem 1993, f o r t h c o m i n g ) .

(4)

A c c o r d i n g to W . B e r s c h i n , in Reallexikon der Byzantinistik, A . I., p. 2 3 1 , "it w a s not before the 4th century that Latin liturgical l a n g u a g e g a i n e d g r o u n d in R o m e against G r e e k " . W i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k o f o u r present treatment o f the q u e s t i o n , w e c a n n o t j u d g e t o w h a t e x t e n t and at w h i c h p e r i o d an early Christian liturgy c a n b e c o n c e i v e d w h i c h is differentiated from a J e w i s h o n e . H e n r y a n d R e n e e K a h a n e , in their contri­ bution to the Reallexikon der Byzantinistik, to w h i c h w e shall b e c o m p e l l e d t o refer critically in the chapter f o l l o w i n g the present o n e , i n d i c a t e at p. 3 5 0 that " G r e e k w a s the liturgical l a n g u a g e o f the J e w s o f R o m e a s w e l l a s o f C h r i s t e n d o m . . . u p to the e n d o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y " ; I f e e l in n o w a y i n c l i n e d , in the p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , t o share the v i e w about the restriction o f t h e u s e o f G r e e k b y J e w s t o liturgy a n d l i k e w i s e

PALESTINE AS A LINGUISTIC AREA

7

H o w e v e r , in the first place, w e shall deal in m o r e detail with the p h e ­ n o m e n o n just m e n t i o n e d , that is the relatively neat linguistic separation of the regions i m m e d i a t e l y adjacent to Palestine from the Jewish area, w h i c h w a s definable, in its e s s e n c e , as a cultural, and at a certain period, also as a political one.

B. LANGUAGES OF USE A N D USAGE OF LANGUAGES C o n t e m p o r a r y a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t h e p l u r i l i n g u a l i s m of Roman Orient

the

(5)

Reference w a s often e n o u g h m a d e b y o u r s e l v e s and by others to the T a l m u d i c saying occurring in several p a s s a g e s , a c c o r d i n g - t o - w h i c h - t h e four l a n g u a g e s current " i n m a n k i n d " (viz., " t h e language of the for­ e i g n e r s " = G r e e k , " T h e l a n g u a g e of the R o m a n s " , crupicrri, i.e. the lan­ g u a g e of Syria = the A r a m a i c L i n g u a franca, and finally " t h e language of the H e b r e w s " = J e w i s h A r a m a i c ) w e r e divided neither territorially n o r ethnically, but according to the d o m a i n of application of linguistic e x p r e s s i o n . T h i s statement is universally valid (for " m a n k i n d " ) only to the extent that differentiations of that nature (written or literary lan­ g u a g e , called in the p a s s a g e q u o t e d " l a n g u a g e of p o e t r y " — G r e e k ; lan­ g u a g e of service or administration, i.e. military language, " l a n g u a g e of b a t t l e " — L a t i n ; colloquial l a n g u a g e — J e w i s h A r a m a i c ) are applicable also to other sectors of the cultural area with which w e are here c o n ­ c e r n e d , w h i l e , h o w e v e r , in those areas which are not characterized b y J e w i s h civilization the m o d e of distributing the individual l a n g u a g e s a c c o r d i n g to d o m a i n s of application a n d attributing them thereto is dif­ ferent from that prevailing in J e w i s h Palestine. W h a t w e h a v e just said is

(5)

s t r o n g l y d o u b t that G r e e k w a s the l a n g u a g e o f all Oriental cults in R o m e ( H . and R. K a h a n e , ibid.). W e shall h a v e t o deal w i t h that q u e s t i o n in chapter II a l o n g w i t h o u r g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n o f the K a h a n e s * a s s e s s m e n t o f the J e w i s h linguistic situation. T h e features that d i s t i n g u i s h e d the l i n g u i s t i c situation p r e v a i l i n g i n s i d e the c o m m u n i t i e s o f the R o m a n J e w s a n d their c o r e l i g i o n i s t s — or rather r e l i g i o u s supporters — f r o m the o n e o u t s i d e the m e n t i o n e d c i r c l e o f the p o p u l a t i o n , w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e as t h o s e w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d the situation in J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e from that o f other areas o f the Orient, w h e t h e r m a r g i n a l o r adjacent. W e shall attempt in the f o l l o w i n g not o n l y to k e e p apart t h e s e t w o p o i n t s o f v i e w c o n c e r n i n g the limitation o f the J e w i s h u s e o f l a n g u a g e s , but a l s o to s y n t h e s i z e t h e m t o y i e l d a h a r m o n i o u s l y painted picture. O.c. ( n o t e 2 ) , p. 2 1 5 [ = East and West I, p. 4 8 9 ] a n d L'hebreu et ses rapports avec le monde classique, p. 47f.

8

H.B. ROSEN

in n o w a y trivial, because c o n c e r n i n g countries or regions adjacent to Palestine w e h a v e to consider the use of s o m e other idiom consistent with the ethnic character of tribes o r p e o p l e s living there rather than the use of J e w i s h A r a m a i c ; in c o m p a r i s o n to what is o b s e r v a b l e in P a l e ­ stine, the difference consists primarily in the w a y of u s i n g G r e e k a n d is c o n s p i c u o u s m o r e than a n y w h e r e in regions in w h i c h J e w i s h and n o n J e w i s h g r o u p s of population are i n t e r w o v e n in the s a m e area of settle­ m e n t ( w h i c h in that case, of c o u r s e , constitutes a frontier r e g i o n ) .

J e w s a n d N o n - J e w s ; D o v e t a i l i n g of a r e a s of the of o n e e t h n i c g r o u p i n t o t h a t of

settlement

another

A s is the case in all periods of t h e history of the M i d d l e East, the sit­ uation r e g a r d i n g the cultural a n d linguistic'relation b e t w e e n the i n d i g e ­ n o u s J e w i s h and the n o n - J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n s is o n e of an intimate p r o x ­ imity, or contiguity, mostly peaceful a n d only occasionally bellicose, of a thoroughly urbanized and c o m p l e t e l y literate J e w i s h society and of ethnic units w h i c h originally r o v e d a r o u n d in the areas situated at the East without really creating a pluralist o r g a n i z e d entity of A r a b s , w h o s u c c e e d e d — in spite of the s o m e w h a t i n c o m p l e t e transition to a society of sedentary nature — in forming, in the r e g i o n s situated t o w a r d s the W e s t , a political unity of state-like character. T h e s e tribes p r o c e e d e d only relatively late, and particularly in z o n e s m o r e r e m o t e from the R o m a n e m p i r e , to p r o d u c e written r e c o r d s in their o w n locally overdifferentiated i d i o m s ; this w a s d o n e in s o m e form of an A r a m a i c - d e r i v e d lapidary script, w h i c h s h o w e d m o r e of the characteristic traits of a Syriac or M e s o p o t a m i a n variant then t h o s e w h i c h w e r e current in Palestine. (6)

(7)

In the regions situated m o r e closely to Hellenistic civilization and principally within the b o u n d a r i e s of the k i n g d o m w h i c h they had formed in T r a n s j o r d a n , Sinai and S o u t h e a s t e r n Palestine, they used a k o i n e w h i c h w a s tainted by the local A r a b i c dialect. T h i s l a n g u a g e form, w h i c h w e are a c c u s t o m e d to call " N a b a t a e a n " a c c o r d i n g to the historic designation of their desert k i n g d o m , w h o s e capital Petra w a s at the s a m e time the administrative seat of the R o m a n P r o v i n c i a A r a b i a , thus c a m e into b e i n g in a b o u t the s a m e w a y as J e w i s h A r a m a i c h a d a c q u i r e d the

(6) (7)

R. S c h m i t t , " D i e O s t g r e n z e v o n A r m e n i e n iiber M e s o p o t a m i e n , S y r i e n b i s A r a b i e n " , in: Die Sprachen im Romischen Reich der Kaiserzeit ( s e e n o t e 2 ) , p. 2 0 9 . T h . N o l d e k e in ZDMG 17 ( 1 8 6 3 ) p. 7 0 6 ( q u o t e d b y R. S c h m i t t , o . c , n o t e 6 , p. 2 0 8 ) .

PALESTINE AS A LINGUISTIC AREA

9

8

characteristics of M i d d l e Hebrew< >. N a b a t a e a n was different from all forms of l a n g u a g e current a m o n g s t the pre-Islamic A r a b s by the fact that it could be written in t w o types of script, n a m e l y in a lapidary script d e s ­ tined for use in m o n u m e n t s as well as in a d o c u m e n t a r y script or b o o k h a n d w h i c h w e k n o w primarily from the extensive and detailed s e c o n d century C.E. j u r i d i c a l papyri found in N a h a l H e v e r ^ . C o n s i d e r i n g N a b a t a e a n and d o c u m e n t s written in it o n e arrives at s o m e sort of p r o p o r t i o n a l relation a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the relation of G r e e k to A r a m a i c in the Jewish society of the last centuries B . C . E . and the first centuries C.E. c o r r e s p o n d s to the relation of A r a m a i c (i.e. N a b a t a e a n ) to A r a b i c in the c o m m u n i t y of the sedentary a n d state-form­ ing A r a b s , w h o c a m e into contact of an at least g e o g r a p h i c nature with Palestinian J e w r y . T h i s w e intend to illustrate by s o m e rather o b v i o u s facts, but w e shall h a v e first to d e m o n s t r a t e on the basis of the inventory of epigraphic d o c u m e n t s that we w e r e justified in saying that in the cul­ ture of the A r a b s already sedentary at the W e s t of the L i m e s R o m a n u s , N a b a t a e a n o c c u p i e d a position c o m p a r a b l e to that of G r e e k in J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . T h i s e m e r g e s from the fact that in o n e of the t w o z o n e s of habitation in w h i c h the N a b a t a e a n a n d the J e w i s h e l e m e n t s are interwo­ ven, n a m e l y the o n e situated m o r e to the N o r t h , w h i c h e x t e n d s from the slopes of the H e r m o n o v e r the G o l a n H e i g h t s towards the S o u t h , the socalled ' D e c a p o l i s ' , N a b a t a e a n e p i g r a p h y is for all p u r p o s e s void of e x p r e s s i o n in G r e e k , w h i l e in the ten partly J e w i s h settlements organized a n d constructed as Hellenistic KoXeiq, G r e e k is practically the only lan­ g u a g e used. T h i s h a s nothing to d o with the difference b e t w e e n urban a n d rural p o p u l a t i o n , but only with the ethnic affiliation of the inhabi­ tants c o n c e r n e d , a n d c o r r e s p o n d s mutatis mutandis exactly to w h a t can be o b s e r v e d in the o t h e r area of c o m m o n Jewish and N a b a t a e a n o c c u p a ­ tion, n a m e l y the o n e situated to the S o u t h , the region in the vicinity of the D e a d S e a u p to Petra, the area w h i c h is the situs of all the m e n t i o n e d d o c u m e n t s of N a h a l H e v e r . In this situation, e v e n the R o m a n provincial administration, which a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n perfectly willing to adapt itself to the G r e e k lan­ g u a g e of culture of the population as it did in the entire Orient, is p o w ­ e r l e s s : d e c i s i o n s of the authorities and courts of law in Petra are h a n d e d (8)

(9)

B y this term w e refer t o p o s t - B i b l i c a l l a n g u a g e u s e d w h e n H e b r e w w a s still l i v i n g . O n the j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f this t e r m i n o l o g y a n d the periodization " B i b l i c a l H e b r e w — M i d d l e H e b r e w — C o n t e m p o r a r y (Israeli) H e b r e w " , s e e chapter III. S e e R. S c h m i t t , o.c. ( n o t e 6 ) , p. 2 0 6 ; c p . m y " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " ( n o t e 2 ) p. 2 1 8 [= East and West I. p. 4 9 2 ] .

10

H.B. ROSEN

d o w n in Greek, but the N a b a t a e a n parties ask for a translation of the w o r d i n g of these texts into their o w n l a n g u a g e . Petitions addressed to the administrative officers are formulated by the interested parties in N a b a t a e a n (but not thus written, b e c a u s e the " o r d i n a r y " p e o p l e had n o k n o w l e d g e not only of G r e e k , but also of r e a d i n g and writing), and their d o c u m e n t s w e r e s u b m i t t e d to the authorities or the court of law by a scribe familiar with the G r e e k l a n g u a g e ( w h o m a y , as the case m a y b e , be also a J e w ) and m a r k e d as £ p u r | v e t a . N o t h i n g of that k i n d should be i m a g i n e d c o n c e r n i n g the situation w h i c h prevailed inside the Jewish c o m m u n i t y , e v e n in the r e g i o n m e n t i o n e d and e v e n a m o n g s t the resi­ dents of rural areas. T h e r e e v e r y t h i n g is c o n d u c t e d in G r e e k . T h i s e m e r g e d with perfect clarity, w h e n the N a h a l H e v e r " C a v e of L e t t e r s " yielded testimonies relating not only to the cohabitation, but also to the political c o e x i s t e n c e of J e w s a n d A r a b s ( " N a b a t a e a n s " ) : the latter w e r e soldiers in the battle of B a r - K o c h b a ' s rebel a r m y and p e r h a p s they e v e n h a d been earlier, w h e n they w e r e only insufficiently differentiated from the " E d o m i t e s " , m e m b e r s of the political m a c h i n e of the Palestin­ ian k i n g d o m at the time of the H e r o d i a n r e g i m e . T h e linguistic c o m m u n ­ ion b e t w e e n the J e w s and their brethren in a r m s , a c o m m u n i o n in lan­ g u a g e , but not in f a i t h , c o u l d not o c c u r in the s a m e w a y as the i n t e r c o u r s e a m o n g s t the J e w s t h e m s e l v e s . C o r r e s p o n d e n c e with N a b a t a e a n s w a s c o n d u c t e d in A r a m a i c (in a J e w i s h A r a m a i c cursive, but not in the " N a b a t a e a n " d o c u m e n t a r y b o o k h a n d , h o w e v e r with a certain dialectal s h a d i n g in the area of p h o n e t i c s w h i c h w a s s o m e w h a t closer to A r a b i c ) ; h o w e v e r , a m o n g s t t h e m s e l v e s , J e w s c o r r e s p o n d e d in G r e e k . N o other fact b e a r s w i t n e s s to the role of G r e e k a m o n g s t the J e w s on one h a n d and, on the other h a n d , to the nature of A r a m a i c not as a Jewish idiom, but as an interethnic l a n g u a g e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n m o r e clearly than the following o n e : a J e w i s h c o r r e s p o n d e n t will a p o l o g i z e to the recipient of his letter, a N a b a t a e a n , o n " t e c h n i c a l g r o u n d s " , if in the s p e ( 1 0 )

( , , )

0 2 )

( l 3 )

(10) (11)

P a p . N o . 1 2 , 2 7 a n d o t h e r s o f the a r c h i v e o f d o c u m e n t s f o u n d in N a h a l H e v e r ( s e e a b o v e , p. 9 ; c p " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " ( n o t e 2 ) , p. 2 2 2 [= East and West I, p. 4 9 6 ] .

W h i l e it appears e s t a b l i s h e d b y d o c u m e n t a r y e v i d e n c e that the true n a m e o f the rebel prince w a s B a r - K o s b a , a n d B a r - K o c h b a ( " S o n o f the S t a r " ) w a s n o m o r e than a g l o r i f y i n g d e f o r m a t i o n thereof, w e s e e n o r e a s o n to d e v i a t e , for the p u r p o s e o f our present i n v e s t i g a t i o n , from the n o m e n c l a t u r e familiar t o m o s t students o f ancient P a l e s t i n i a n history. ( 1 2 ) In the o f f i c i a l u s a g e o f the c h a n c e l l e r y o f Prince B a r - K o c h b a , the title o f " B r o t h e r " w a s appropriate o n l y t o the J e w i s h m e m b e r s o f the p o l i t i c a l and military c o m ­ munity. ( 1 3 ) S e e p . 8.

11

PALESTINE AS A LINGUISTIC AREA

cific case, h e writes a m i s s i v e (or c o m m a n d s that such be written) n o t as usually in A r a m a i c (SPpaicrct), but in G r e e k : £ypa(pr| 'EAArjviaxi 5 i a T [ 6 J i r | ] 5 [ £ v ] a ? ) u.f] et)pe0f]vai £Ppaicrci y [ p d ] \ | / a a 0 a i "This w a s w r i t t e n in G r e e k , b e c a u s e n o b o d y w a s f o u n d w h o w o u l d write Aramaic ". C o n s e q u e n t l y , it appears that it w a s easier to find a scribe or secretary with adequate k n o w l e d g e of G r e e k than to fmd o n e w h o k n e w A r a m a i c , considering that a m o n g J e w s — at least as c o n c e r n s the m a l e s e g m e n t of the population — illiteracy hardly existed. (I4)

( 1 5 )

T h e s t a t u s of G r e e k T h i s variety of G r e e k w e w e r e referring to in the foregoing paragraph w a s the written, m a y b e e v e n literary, secular vehicle of expressi0n~for~ J e w s , as H e b r e w w h i c h h a d b e c o m e C l a s s i c a l " w a s the o n e used in the religious d o m a i n . In this sense o n e should perhaps conceive the char­ acter of the G r e e k text of the N e w T e s t a m e n t , since that d o c u m e n t , being a non-canonical o n e , w a s closer to c o m m o n civilization a n d g e n ­ eral culture than to the religious sphere. T h e J e w s were fairly c o n s c i o u s of the threads w h i c h c o n n e c t e d t h e m as the carriers of a literary culture rooted in Hellenism with G r e e k spiritual and literary values. Classical G r e e k poetry, s y m b o l i z e d b y " H o m e r i c C h a n t s " is o p p o s e d in m a n y respects to the written sources of Jewish tradition a n d the J e w i s h c a n o n : the first-named, profane writings, are abomination, it is not permitted nor desirable to study t h e m , a n d such is the case in general for all fruits of G r e e k thought* . A strict distinction o f principle is m a d e in this respect b e t w e e n the k n o w l e d g e o r acquisition of the G r e e k language 44

(l6)

( l 7 )

18)

(14)

H e r e rendered in n o r m a l i z e d o r t h o g r a p h y ; for the original s p e l l i n g a n d the j u s t i f i c a ­ tion for the s u p p l e t i o n s , s e e L'hebreu et ses rapports avec le monde classique 49 and " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " ( n o t e 2 ) , p. 2 2 4 [ = East and West I. p. 4 9 8 ] . ( 1 5 ) " A r a m a i c " translates Sppa'Ccrci " ( i n the l a n g u a g e o f t h e ) H e b r e w ( s ) " ; s e e a b o v e , p. 7. ( 1 6 ) T h e J e w s d i s t i n g u i s h e d the " H o l y T o n g u e " o f the B i b l e from the " L a n g u a g e o f People" (Aramaized post-Biblical Hebrew). ( 1 7 ) It is n o t u n l i k e l y that a T a l m u d i c e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h relates in a rather a r g u m e n t a t i v e w a y to secular w r i t i n g s (temwt hmwr " a s s e s b o n e s " ) represents a c a c o p h e m i s t i c a s s o n a n c e t o # a n a 9 ' O u r | p o u " H o m e r ' s c h a n t s " , the term $au<x f o r E p i c poetry b e i n g u s e d b y J o s e p h u s F l a v i u s (contra A p i o n e m , I. 12). (East and West I, p p . 4 4 5 4 4 8 , first p u b l i s h e d in H e b r e w : Lsonenu 17, 1 9 5 1 , 174ff.). ( 1 8 ) S. L i e b e r m a n n , Greek in Jewish Palestine, 1 5 - 1 9 , w i t h rabbinical s o u r c e s ; for fur­ ther T a l m u d i c r e f e r e n c e s s e e " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " p. 26f. [ = East and West I. p . 5 1 Of.]. c

12

H.B. ROSEN

and t h e study of the writings of G r e e k doctrine o r p o e t r y ; n o t only is there n o objection at all raised against the first-mentioned, but its study is also admitted, n a y cultivated, in the best families, i n c l u d i n g those of i m p o r t a n t rabbis a n d s c h o l a r s . H o w e v e r , this is d o n e m a k i n g the e x c u s e that the k n o w l e d g e of " t h e L a n g u a g e of the F o r e i g n e r s " is i n d i s p e n s ­ able in the national interest for the p u r p o s e of c o m m u n i c a t i n g with t h e R o m a n imperial court. It is l a n g u a g e proficiency, w h i c h m a i n l y c h a r a c ­ terizes J o s e p h u s FlavTus's G r e e k e r u d i t i o n : h i s 7 i a i 8 e i a is a b o v e all YpaujiaTiicf] £ji7ieipia "familiarity ( o r e x p e r i e n c e ) with w r i t i n g s " . M a s t e r y of the G r e e k l a n g u a g e is s o d e e p l y r o o t e d in the J e w i s h p e o p l e , that o n e c a n play o n all available c h o r d s a n d registers; I o n i c i z i n g - e p i cizing attitudes are found in all parts o f the c o u n t r y aside v u l g a r graf­ fiti in uncultivated l a n g u a g e , a n d o n e also finds traces o f juridical " l e g a l e s e " in learned tradition a l o n g with the_&ynagogaLusage of G r e e k : the latter reveals a formulaic-classicizing type of e x p r e s s i o n i n m o n u ­ m e n t texts, while in prayers p r o n o u n c e d in G r e e k , their linguistic s h a p e is of a m o r e p o p u l a r nature. ( l 9 )

( 2 0 )

( 2 l )

(22)

S c h o l a r s h i p (to t h e extent that this notion a s c o n c e i v e d in m o d e r n times m a y b e ascribed to Hellenistic J u d a i s m ) is b a s e d o n G r e e k . T h i s is particularly c o n s p i c u o u s a n d rather striking in e t y m o l o g y , t h e study of w h i c h is c o n d u c t e d exclusively in G r e e k (that is, by m e a n s o f t h e search

( 1 9 ) S. a b o v e , p . 7. ( 2 0 ) F o r this interpretation o f the o f t e n d i s c u s s e d p a s s a g e i n J o s e p h u s F l a v i u s ' Antiquitates ( X X 2 6 3 ) s e e L'hebreu et ses rapports, p . 2 5 f . , w h e r e a l s o a part o f the extra­ ordinarily c o p i o u s literature c o n c e r n i n g this p a s s a g e is q u o t e d . ( 2 1 ) L'hebreu et ses rapports, p . 4 f f . I w o u l d n o t u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y a s s u m e that the l o w quality o f the l a n g u a g e o f s u c h graffiti n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e s " N o m a d s o f A r a b ori­ g i n " ( R . S c h m i t t , o. c, n o t e 6 , p . 2 0 0 ) a s their authors. T h e graffiti written in v u l ­ g a r l a n g u a g e a n d f o u n d o n P a l e s t i n i a n s o i l certainly o r i g i n a t e from a s e d e n t a r y p o p ­ u l a t i o n , but c o n c e r n i n g t h o s e w h i c h w e r e d i s c o v e r e d in t h e area a d j a c e n t t o t h e c o a s t a l plain, a J e w i s h a u t h o r s h i p c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d o n l y indirectly. ( 2 2 ) T h e w e l l k n o w n prayer f o r m u l a transmitted in the T a l m u d in H e b r e w characters, KupiE noXi) ppe^ov " O L o r d , l e t it rain a l o t " , i s t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a n o t h e r testi­ m o n y o f p p E x e w i n the s e n s e o f " r a i n i n g " ( i n t h e f o r m u l a q u o t e d p r o b a b l y m o r e exactly causative-transitive "let rain") and is to b e c o m b i n e d with the Neotestam e n t a r i a n o c c u r r e n c e o f ppexeiv " t o r a i n " q u o t e d b y L . Z g u s t a , " D i e R o l l e d e s G r i e c h i s c h e n i m r o m i s c h e n K a i s e r r e i c h " , i n Die Sprachen ... ( o . c , s e e n o t e 2 ) , p. 1 2 6 . In the light o f the G r e e k purist l e x i c o g r a p h e r P h r y n i c h o s ' d e r o g a t o r y remark a b o u t the u s e o f this v e r b in the s e n s e o f " r a i n i n g " (Ppexetv ini T O U ueiv e v T I V I KCDuxp5i£ dpxaig KavxzXibq & 7 t o 5 o K i | i a c r c e o v x o u v o j i a ) , it d e m o n s t r a t e s that the " J u d e o - G r e e k " o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t h a d s o m e p o p u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; c p . a l s o S . L i e b e r m a n n , " G r e e k in J e w i s h P a l e s t i n e " , p . 5f., w i t h parallel B y z a n t i n e a n d M o d e r n G r e e k prayer f o r m u l a s .

13

PALESTINE AS A LINGUISTIC AREA 23

of G r e e k e t y m a ) e v e n w h e r e w h a t w a s sought is an explanation* * of Biblical H e b r e w e x p r e s s i o n s or n a m e s . T h e resort to G r e e k for the pur­ pose of elucidating native w o r d s is n o m o r e than barely admissible with the R o m a n s and e v e n that n o t in the view of every philologist; for J e w i s h scholars this w a s the only existing m e t h o d ; at any rate, it is the only o n e of w h i c h w e h a v e k n o w l e d g e . O n e might, h o w e v e r , refrain from g o i n g into the q u e s t i o n to w h a t extent they w e r e c o n s c i o u s of the n a u g h t n e s s of s u c h a m u s i n g p a s t i m e s or of the possibilities of c o n s c i e n ­ tious misrepresentation inherent in t h e m . This entire attitude and p r o c e ­ d u r e apparently took its inception with the " S e v e n t y S a g e s " , w h o fur­ nished a G r e e k version of the Biblical text and discharged t h e m s e l v e s of the m o s t difficult part, i.e. rendering hapax legomena a n d other difficult w o r d s , by m e a n s of the application of G r e e k vocables of equal or s i m i ­ lar s o u n d ; by that p r o c e d u r e they left quite s o m e unsolvable riddles to H e b r e w s e m a n t i c s and lexicography of centuries to c o m e . ( 2 4 )

(25)

C. F O R M A L A N D GUAGE CONTACT

SOCIOLOGICAL

PHENOMENA

OF

LAN­

Phraseology It w a s through looking into the linguistic life of E u r o p e and the rest of the so-called " O c c i d e n t " of o u r d a y s m o r e than by anything else that w e learned h o w great an i m p o r t a n c e has to be ascribed to p h r a s e o l o g y a s an indication of social a n d linguistic acculturation. T h i s is by n o m e a n s less true for the p e r i o d with w h i c h w e are c o n c e r n e d h e r e ; w e are e v e n inclined to think that the phraseological aspect of use and u s a g e of lan­ g u a g e is not less indicative for the cultural situation of J e w i s h Palestine than the merely lexical and syntactic facet of expression. T h e latter aspect s e e m s to be sufficiently investigated* *, and we can c o n t e n t our26

(23) (24)

For s o m e e x a m p l e s s e e L'hebreu et ses rapports, p. 27f. C p . , e. g., C l o a t i u s V e r u s , as q u o t e d by G e l l i u s X V I . 12 w i t h G e l l i u s ' o w n n e g a t i v e j u d g m e n t in this r e s p e c t ; s e e a l s o L'hebreu et ses rapports, p. 26f.

( 2 5 ) C p . E. T o v in Biblica 6 0 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 2 2 - 2 2 7 ; J. T h a c k e r a y , Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek, C a m b r i d g e 1 9 0 9 , I. 7f.; further literature q u o t e d in L'hebreu et ses rapports, p. 28ff. ( 2 6 ) C p . S. K r a u s s , Griechische und lateinische Lehnwdrter im Talmud, Midrasch und Tar gum; S. L i e b e r m a n n , o.c. ( n o t e 1 7 ) ; id., Hellenism in Jewish Palestine. Studies in the Life and Manners of Jewish Palestine in the II-IV Century B.C.E.; cp. " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " , p. 2 1 9 , 2 3 0 f f . [= East and West I. 4 9 0 , 5 0 1 f f . ] , and " P a l e s t i n i a n KOivfi in rabbinic illustration", Journal of Semitic Studies 8 ( 1 9 6 3 ) 56ff. [ = East and West I, p p . 4 5 9 f f . j .

14

H.B. ROSEN

selves here with a brief outline of s o m e results of m o r e recent research c o n c e r n i n g the p h r a s e o l o g i c a l s h a p e of Jewish-Palestinian c o m m u n i c a ­ tion by l a n g u a g e in the p e r i o d c o n c e r n e d . It is precisely in the d o m a i n of p h r a s e o l o g y — a n d p e r h a p s it is not in any other d o m a i n — that the R o m a n e l e m e n t p l a y e d a certain role in the sociolinguistic situation as a c o m p o n e n t of a political prestige, although in this c o n t e x t too o n e s h o u l d recall that Latin h a d not acquired, so to speak, a right of e x i s t e n c e as a vehicle of e x p r e s s i o n . T h e sphere of its ' i n f l u e n c e ' is m a i n l y that of administration and jurisdiction. T h e m o s t important discovery in this area — w h i c h c a m e as a surprise, but in ret­ rospective r e p r e s e n t e d exactly w h a t o n e should h a v e e x p e c t e d — is the identification of the text of a G r e e k p a p y r u s found in the Southern Jewish-Nabataean regio n as a literal version, w h i c h h o w e v e r displays signs of a certain not too e x t e n s i v e m e a s u r e of violation of G r e e k , of an officially prescribed L a t i n " f o r m u l a r y " w h o s e w o r d i n g is transmitted in G a i u s (Dig. IV.47.51) for a petition for declarative d e t e r m i n a t i o n by a court of a m o n e t a r y c l a i m arising out of a contract. C o m p a r i s o n with Latin p h r a s e o l o g y w a s c o n d u c i v e also to c o m p r e h e n d i n g another d o c u ­ m e n t of private l a w w h i c h , h o w e v e r , in this c a s e w a s formulated in a s o m e w h a t bizarre A r a m a i c : its c o n t e n t c o u l d be identified, b y m e a n s of e q u a t i n g c o m p a r a b l e e x p r e s s i o n s of the kind d e s c r i b e d to R o m a n p h r a s e s , as a so-called testimonium solemnitatis, an indirect testi­ m o n y , h o w e v e r c o n f i r m e d by oath. G r e c i s i z e d d o c u m e n t s of public law h a v e b e e n k n o w n for l o n g , thus s o m e historically important edicts ( S i a x a y j i a x a ) from the T e m p l e area of J e r u s a l e m w h i c h seek to ensure the impregnability of the h o l y sites, in addition to o t h e r m e a n s , by a p r o ­ hibition directed at dXkoyzvzlc, ( " p e o p l e from a n o t h e r s t e m , or r a c e " ) of setting their feet u p o n these p l a c e s . T h e effectiveness of these inter­ dictions w a s e n h a n c e d b y their p r o m u l g a t i o n in the n a m e of R o m a n (27)

(28)

i

(29)

( 3 0 )

(31)

( 2 7 ) H. J. P o l o t s k y , " $ a l o $ t?udot m e - ? a r x i o n a Sel-BabaGa b a t - S i m ? o n " ("Three d o c u ­ m e n t s from the a r c h i v e o f BabaGa, d a u g h t e r o f S i m o n ' [ H e b . ] ) , Eretz Israel 8 ( 1 9 6 7 ) 4 6 - 5 1 ; c p . " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " , p. 2 2 1 [ = East and West I, p. 4 9 5 ] . ( 2 8 ) C p . w h a t w e h a v e said a b o v e , p. 8, a b o u t the l i n g u i s t i c situation in that area. ( 2 9 ) E . g . £K Kdkf\<; Tticrcecoq = ex fide bona, s i m i l a r l y t o the e x p r e s s i o n KaXf\ Tiiaxei = bona fide, o t h e r w i s e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d in the p e r i o d c o n c e r n e d . ( 3 0 ) O s t r a k o n n o . 7 2 o f the Murraba'at d o c u m e n t s (Discoveries in the Judaean Desert II: Les grottes de Murraba'at, e d i t e d b y P. B e n o i t , J.T. M i l i k and R. d e V a u x ) ; for a d e t a i l e d interpretation s e e " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " , p. 2 2 0 [ = East and West I, p. 4 9 4 ] . ( 3 1 ) E . g . "I d o n ' t k n o w w h o " ( A r a m . I? Tytny ydf) in the s e n s e o f " s o m e b o d y " (nescioquis), indirect s p e e c h w i t h n o p e r s o n shift w i t h p r o n o u n s a n d s i m i l a r features. [Cor­ rigendum to " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " , p. 2 2 0 ( = East and West I, p. 4 9 4 ) : for m i s p r i n t e d Tytyny read ?ytny.]

15

PALESTINE AS A LINGUISTIC AREA

imperial sovereignty, a n d their t e x t reveals the well k n o w n L a t i n i s m s o f G r e e k officialese, such as d p e c n c e i uxn (= placet r e s o l v e " ) , KEipaXriq

K a x a K p i x o q ( = capitis

capital p u n i s h m e n t " )

mihi "it pleases m e , I

damnatus

"condemned

a n d similar formulas, along with

A r a m a i s m s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the u s a g e of N e o t e s t a m e n t a r i a n G r e e k " (e.g., x o v a l a > v a

( 3 2 )

to

phraseological "Judeo-

) . A s to H e b r e w , it a b s o r b e d part of the

inventory of L a t i n formulas and p h r a s e o l o g y in its epistolary style, to w h i c h Latin p r o v i d e d the basis for t h e official l a n g u a g e of the chan­ cellery of the rebel prince B a r - K o c h b a , w h o for a given period, attrib­ i33)

uted to h i m s e l f the role of an ap%oav, that is praefectus

y

and u n d e r

w h o s e reign ( 1 3 4 - 1 3 8 C.E.) H e b r e w enjoyed a certain, albeit revival

(34)

short,

. T h u s o n e finds in the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e issuing from his c h a n ­

cellery epistolary formulas of the sort " N (dat.) N (nom.) w o r d s of well b e i n g " = Numerio sdlom), 05)

Mlom)

Gaius

salutem

dicit

in the p r e a m b l e (/-N N

and as a c o n c l u d i n g formula " B e in welfare! F a r e w e l l ! " = ualel

dibrey(hwe?

(cp. e p p c o a o of the s a m e m e a n i n g in the P t o l e m a i c

epistolary style), an e x p r e s s i o n followed by the signature of the scribe of the c h a n c e l l e r y : " N has written ( i t ) " = Aulus

scripsit

(N

ktdboh).

T h e term " p h r a s e o l o g i c a l i n f l u e n c e " w o u l d also yield a m u c h better and ( m o r e c o n v i n c i n g ) definition of a certain c o m p o n e n t of N e w Testa­ m e n t u s a g e than simply " S e m i t i s m " ; w h a t w e m e a n in this context is

( 3 2 ) T h e A r a m a i c c a s e - p r e f i x /- ( o r i g i n a l l y o n l y o f a d a t i v e - d i r e c t i v e v a l u e ) , w h i c h reflects the prefix o f the H e b r e w w o r d l-folam w a s probably taken b y the author o f the G r e e k text a s e m p l o y e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y to the entirety o f its u s e in A r a m a i c a s an a c c u s a t i v e m o r p h e m e ; thus t h e e x p r e s s i o n w a s rendered by x o v a l c o v a . T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t h a s elc, x o v a l c o v a v e l s i m . w h i c h is m u c h m o r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the m e a n i n g o f the term. (33)

In H e b r e w B a r - K o c h b a is c a l l e d a nasi?, w h i c h w a s o n the o n e h a n d the title o f the p r e s i d e n t o f the s y n h e d r i o n , w h i c h represented J e w i s h s o v e r e i g n t y , a n d o n the other hand is r e n d e r e d in the B i b l i c a l texts o f the S e p t u a g i n t v e r s i o n as S p x c o v ; this, in its turn, is the R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e term w h i c h w a s u s e d in the official l a n g u a g e o f the Eastern part o f the e m p i r e for a praefectus ( a c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s , Bellum Iudaicum V I I . 3 1 and Antiquitates X V . 4 0 9 in the c i v i l as w e l l a s in the military s e n s e ) . S e e a l s o L 'hebreu et ses rapports, p. 5 3 with n o t e 2 .

(34)

W e m a i n t a i n this characterization o f " B a r - K o c h b a H e b r e w " , w h i c h w e h a v e p r o ­ p o s e d in " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " , p. 2 2 5 f . [ = East and West I, p p . 499f.J a n d L'hebreu et ses rapports, p. 5 2 . W e s h o u l d a g a i n e m p h a s i z e the similarity o f the s o c i o l i n g u i s t i c p r o c e s s m e n t i o n e d here w i t h the authoritatively, albeit artificially, e n f o r c e d re-use o f U m b r i a n at the t i m e o f the Italic r e v o l t , at least a s c o n c e r n s the u s e o f an o b s o ­ lete national a l p h a b e t , as o n the c o i n s struck under B a r - K o c h b a ' s r e i g n .

( 3 5 ) It m a y a p p e a r c u r i o u s that the u s e o f the w o r d Sdldm in g r e e t i n g f o r m u l a s is not attested prior t o that p e r i o d . C o n c e r n i n g t h e p h r a s e o l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n this w o r d a n d t h e g e n r e o f R o m a n e p i t a p h s o f the late R e p u b l i c a n era, s e e L'hebreu et ses rapports, p . 20f., a n d c p . b e l o w , c h . HI.

16

H.B. ROSEN

that e l e m e n t of N e w T e s t a m e n t G r e e k w h i c h can be clearly identified as hailing from H e b r e w origin. I h a d o c c a s i o n in earlier s t u d i e s to e m p h a s i z e that the recognition of the true nature a n d real origin of the u n - G r e e k m o d e s of e x p r e s s i o n in the N e w T e s t a m e n t is s o m e w h a t i m p e d e d .by sticking to the n o t i o n of " S e m i t i s m " or " S e m i t i c " influ­ e n c e , n o t i o n s w h i c h should b e r e p l a c e d by a h y p o t h e s i s involving H e b r e w or, respectively, A r a m a i c as l a n g u a g e s reflecting historic reali­ ties in the f r a m e w o r k of the c o n t a c t of l a n g u a g e s w h i c h w e seek to sketch in these p a g e s . It m u s t also b e b o r n e in m i n d that the g r o u n d w o r k for a t a k e - o v e r of specifically H e b r e w terms a n d p h r a s e s w a s laid by a c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the Biblical text via the m e d i u m of Post-Biblical H e b r e w , w h i c h significantly d e v i a t e d from earlier layers of that lan­ g u a g e * ^ m a i n l y in lexical r e s p e c t s . T h e origin of the N e o t e s t a m e n t a r i a n p h r a s e o l o g i c a l effects is in the Biblical texts as a- s o u r c e o f - r e m i n i s c e n c e s a n d of m e a n s of e x p r e s s i o n in " e l e v a t e d l a n g u a g e " — it should b e recalled that Biblical H e b r e w w a s c o n c e i v e d as the " H o l y T o n g u e " in contrast with the (Post-Biblical) " L a n g u a g e of the P e o p l e " — and e v e n taking these N e o t e s t a m e n t e r i a n e x p r e s s i o n s as S e p t u a g i n t i s m s inside a v u l g a r form of G r e e k w o u l d n o t be too m u c h of a m i s t a k e ; all this is contrary to the A r a m a i s m s of N e w T e s t a m e n t G r e e k as such, w h i c h are m o s t l y of a purely syntactic or m o r p h o s y n t a c t i c nature and s i m p l y reveal the current v e r n a c u l a r without any literary or religious (36)

3

( 3 8 )

connotations.

"Text and

Version"

T h e characteristic c o n s e q u e n c e of the linguistic situation w h i c h p r e ­ vailed in J e w i s h Palestine w a s the necessity of r e n d e r i n g the portions of the Scriptures w h i c h w e r e r e a d in the public holy services c o m p r e h e n s i ­ ble to the gathered flock by m e a n s of a repetition, in a different lan­ g u a g e , of the w o r d i n g of the original. A perfectly a n a l o g o u s c u s t o m per­ s e v e r e d until the period of p o s t - J e w i s h Palestine — mutatis mutandis, of c o u r s e — a fact w h i c h e m e r g e s from a r e m a r k a b l e a n d frequently q u o t e d report, the formulation of w h i c h e v e n a p p e a r s to use a t e r m i n o l o g y

( 3 6 ) L'hebreu et ses rapports, p p . 6 I f f . , 67f. ( 3 7 ) A m o r e m i n u t e a n a l y s i s o f the S e p t u a g i n t features b r o u g h t forth b y this p h e n o m e ­ n o n w i l l b e f o u n d in " T h e l e x i c a l S e m i t i s m s o f S e p t u a g i n t G r e e k as a reflex o f the history o f t h e H e b r e w v o c a b u l a r y " , f o r t h c o m i n g in the L a d i s l a v Z g u s t a Festschrift. (38)

S e e a b o v e , p. 1 1 .

PALESTINE AS A LINGUISTIC AREA

17

r e m i n d i n g one of the relevant d e s c r i p t i o n s in J e w i s h s o u r c e s . T h e c u s ­ t o m reported is — to refer to the original J e w i s h o n e first — the regular recitation of the biblical portions r e a d in public " t w i c e in the form of a " r e a d i n g " (miqraT) a n d o n c e in the form of an " a n n o u n c e m e n t " ( " p r o c l a m a t i o n " , targum)" \ It is o b v i o u s that this phrase e x p r e s s e s a confrontation of a text, the w o r d i n g of w h i c h is fixed and c o n s e q u e n t l y read in public, with a n o t h e r formulation initially not fixed a n d r e p e a t e d with an ever-increasing a m o u n t of e x p l a n a t o r y e l e m e n t s . A n e t y m o l o g i ­ cal e x a m i n a t i o n of the t w o Post-Biblical H e b r e w n o u n s w h i c h are h e r e used s h o w s with all necessary clarity a contrast b e t w e e n the written and the oral basis of the recitation: w e h a v e , o n the one h a n d , the root of " r e a d i n g " (q-r-7) and on the other h a n d , a root w h i c h springs from the A k k a d i a n one of " s p e e c h - m a k i n g " (r~g-m), wherefrom a factitive b a s e is derived w h i c h penetrated into A r a m a i c and from there into late H e b r e w . It m u s t not b e a s s u m e d that the " o r a l interpretation" w a s given in the s a m e l a n g u a g e as the reading of the canonical text (in particular, since the Biblical s h a p e of the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e h a d not b e e n in use for quite a n u m b e r of g e n e r a t i o n s and c o n s e q u e n t l y required a "clarifying e x p l a n a t i o n " ) ; thus the m e a n i n g of the t e r m targum w a s shifted in a w a y a n a l o g o u s to the d e v e l o p m e n t of that of L a t e Latin interpres and simi­ larly in the semantic shift of the original A k k a d i a n term in its fate in the Anatolic l a n g u a g e s w h i c h b o r r o w e d i t : the term targum not only tends to m e a n " t r a n s l a t i o n " , but s u b s e q u e n t l y a s s u m e d in J e w i s h tra­ dition the function of d e s i g n a t i n g the A r a m a i c language, w h i c h h a d b e c o m e the principal a n d literarized l a n g u a g e of Bible v e r s i o n s in the J e w i s h transmission of the H o l y S c r i p t u r e s . If o n e a s s u m e s — as all {39

(40)

( 4 , )

(42)

(43)

(39) (40)

B a b y l . T a l m u d , Treatise Brakot, f. 8a. H e r e w e h a v e a g a i n to recall that the v e r t e n t s o f the B i b l i c a l text into G r e e k had b e e n familiar w i t h p o s t - B i b l i c a l H e b r e w a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d B i b l i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s w h i c h had b e c o m e o b s o l e t e at their t i m e as s p e c i f i c i d i o s y n c r a s i e s o f B i b l i c a l m o d e s o f e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h l e d , as a c o n s e q u e n c e , to their t o o literal ren­ dering, in G r e e k , w o r d i n g s w h i c h n o w a p p e a r in o u r e y e s as " S e m i t i s m s " . C p . the study q u o t e d in n o t e 3 7 .

(41)

L i k e w i s e in Hittite targumaitzi g a t e s , interprets".

first e x p r e s s e s the s e n s e o f " a n n o u n c e s , p r o m u l ­

( 4 2 ) T h e G r e e k v e r b 6 p u T j v £ u e i v t o o p r e s e r v e d still in the N e w T e s t a m e n t the s e n s e o f " a n n o u n c i n g , p r o c l a i m i n g " ( L u c . 2 4 . 2 7 ) a n d in general u n d e r w e n t the s a m e s e m a n ­ tic d e v e l o p m e n t a s S e m i t i c t-rg-m-, thus b e c o m i n g a term w h i c h d e n o t e s "translat­ i n g " . T h e m a i n l y N e o t e s t a m e n t a r i a n a n d , in g e n e r a l , J u d e o - G r e e k c o m p o u n d H e O e p u T i v e u e i v f i x e d its m e a n i n g in the d o m a i n o f " t r a n s l a t i o n " o n l y later, b y virtue o f the v a l u e o f the p r e v e r b u e x a - ( " t r a n s - " ) . ( 4 3 ) T h e B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d (Treatise Sab at f. 1 1 5 a ) s p e a k s o f v e r s i o n s o f the B i b l e f o r m u l a t e d "in targum o r any other l a n g u a g e " (Greek, P e r s i a n , E g y p t i a n e t c . are

18

H.B. ROSEN

traditional c o m m e n t a t o r s d o — that the " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n " m e n t i o n e d in the passage q u o t e d w a s an initially rather a p p r o x i m a t e A r a m a i c repeti­ tion of the text, a riddle r e m a i n s , in w h a t l a n g u a g e the s e c o n d " r e a d i n g of the t e x t " or b o t h r e a d i n g s w e r e carried out. T h e s e c o n d reading should be a s s u m e d to h a v e b e e n o n e of a c a n o n i c a l text, but o n e cannot easily consider, in k e e p i n g w i t h s o m e later J e w i s h tradition, the H e b r e w origi­ nal to h a v e simply b e e n r e a d t w i c e . R a t h e r than taking the t e r m " T a r ­ g u m " as referring to the (already fixed!) text of the Septuagint version and to conjecture that the t w o " r e a d i n g s " w e r e (1) that of the H e b r e w original and (2) that of an A r a m a i c formulation — w h i c h w o u l d c o n s t i ­ tute an ahistoric inference, s i n c e such an A r a m a i c formulation w a s b e i n g read only at a m u c h later p e r i o d — it m i g h t be r e a s o n a b l e to attribute the status of miqrd? also to o n e of the G r e e k versions that w e r e already cur­ rent and respected,

w o u l d be the m o r e justified as the T a l m u d

describes, in the p a s s a g e q u o t e d , in all likelihood an extra-PalestinianB a b y l o n i a n , or at least a not exclusively Palestinian, c u s t o m w h i c h w a s b o u n d to take a c c o u n t of the A r a m a i c lingua franca of the Eastern d i a s ­ pora, within w h i c h the G r e e k l a n g u a g e , m o r e and m o r e displaced to the W e s t , w a s neither in g e n e r a l u s e nor to any r e a s o n a b l e extent current. A l s o , the last w o r d s of J e s u s ( M a t t h . 2 7 . 4 6 , M c . 15.34) w h i c h q u o t e part of a verse of the P s a l m s ( P s . 2 2 [ L X X : 2 1 ] . 2) a n d are rendered also in G r e e k with the r e m a r k (thus in the text of M a r k ) 6 £ a n v UT|V£u6|ievov ( " w h i c h is in t r a n s l a t i o n "

(44)

jieGep-

) d o not p r o v e the existence

of an A r a m a i c " t e x t " n o r justify us in c o n s i d e r i n g the Septuagint text a "targum":

the G r e e k w o r d i n g in M a r k w h i c h expressly speaks of a

" t r a n s l a t i o n " , d o e s not c o r r e s p o n d to the o n e of the S e p t u a g i n t ( M a r k : elq t i , L X X : t v a x i ) , w h i c h indicates, to m y m i n d , that the evangelist simply translates the A r a m a i c e x p r e s s i o n into G r e e k according to his o w n understanding. O t h e r w i s e M a t t h e w ' s text is m u c h m o r e similar to the o n e in the S e p t u a g i n t ; also the S e m i t i c w o r d i n g in M a t t h e w ( ' H X i , Xs[ia

in the best tradition) constitutes a m o r e correct Palestinian A r a ­ (45)

m a i c than the H e b r a i z i n g o n e in M a r k ('EXcot, A.aji&) . It is n o t e w o r -

c o n c e r n e d ) . L.c, r e f e r e n c e is m a d e to the l a n g u a g e o f a v e r s i o n o f the B o o k o f J o b w h i c h hails p r o b a b l y f r o m the first c e n t u r y C . E . and is c a l l e d "targum". The N e o S y r i a c or N e o - A r a m a i c v e r n a c u l a r u s e d b y s o m e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s o f N o r t h e r n Iraq ( Z a c h o a n d a d j a c e n t a r e a s ) is still n o w a d a y s c a l l e d by the s p e a k e r s o f that lan­ guage "Targum". (44) S e e note 4 2 . ( 4 5 ) G. D a l m a n , Grammatik des judisch-palastinischen (repr. D a r m s t a d t 1 9 8 0 ) , p . 1 5 6 .

Aramdischen,

Leipzig

1905

19

PALESTINE AS A LINGUISTIC AREA

thy that in the first-named the q u o t a t i o n of the G r e e k equivalent is not a c c o m p a n i e d by a m e n t i o n of the t e r m " t r a n s l a t i o n " , but it is only said w h a t the S e m i t i c w o r d s " m e a n " ( T O G V £ G T I V ) . W i t h a certain a m o u n t of caution o n e c o u l d d r a w the c o n c l u s i o n that e v e n at J e s u s ' times the A r a ­ m a i c interpretation w a s not textually fixed, but w a s orally p r e s e n t e d — p e r h a p s only in the area of G a l i l e e , w h i c h w a s m o r e A r a m a i z e d than the S o u t h e r n parts of the c o u n t r y — s u b s e q u e n t to the recitation of the text ( w h i c h m a y h a v e already c o m b i n e d a G r e e k w o r d i n g with the H e b r e w original), [n o r d e r to r e n d e r the Biblical portions recited m o r e readily understood. L i e b e r m a n n

( 4 6 )

a s s u m e s that in J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s

in

w h i c h the h o l y service w a s already fully Hellenized, as far as l a n g u a g e is c o n c e r n e d , the Biblical " T e x t u s R e c e p t u s " w a s recited in H e b r e w as well as in G r e e k . A c c o r d i n g to the indications of the T a l m u d i c p a s s a g e quoted a b o v e

( 4 7 )

, the d e g r e e of c a n o n i c i t y of Biblical texts, d e p e n d i n g

upon the l a n g u a g e in w h i c h they w e r e formulated, is different for those texts " o u t of w h i c h a r e a d i n g is carried o u t " , from those " o u t of w h i c h the reading is not carried o u t " . T h e fact that the G r e e k text of the Bible reading had a d o m i n a n t role in J e w i s h synagogal c u s t o m s during the first centuries C.E. c a u s e d c o n c e r n to the extent of arousing animosity on the part of the G r e e k s p e a k i n g gentile population. T h i s temporarily led to an interdiction of the u s e of G r e e k in the J e w i s h service, as is m o s t clearly s h o w n by o n e of the edicts of the E m p e r o r J u s t i n i a n : e

... SudOonev, (bq ol u i v U O V T J C , Sxovrat TT|<; Eppat5oc,
e

( 4 8 )

(46)

S. L i e b e r m a n n , Greek

(47)

Note 43.

in Jewish

Palestine,

p. 5 9 .

(48)

N o v e l l a e Iustiniani 1 4 6 , Ttspi E ( 3 p a i c o v , p r o o e m i u m . C p . the e x t e n s i v e treatment

r

b y A . L i n d e r , The Jews

in Roman

Imperial

a l s o the a b o v e E n g l i s h v e r s i o n i s taken.

Legislation,

p p . 4 0 8 - 4 1 1 , from w h i c h

20

H.B. ROSEN

T h e c u s t o m described m u s t h a v e t a k e n root, at least in J e r u s a l e m , also in n o n - J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s , with the difference, of course, that s u b s e ­ q u e n t to the canonization of the N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d the exclusive r e c e p ­ tion of the G r e e k text of the O l d T e s t a m e n t , the d o u b l e " r e a d i n g " of the text portions w a s r e d u c e d to o n e . O t h e r w i s e e v e r y t h i n g r e m a i n e d as it w a s including the recitation of a " T a r g u m " , as is s h o w n b y the wellk n o w n and very frequently q u o t e d p a s s a g e from the Peregrinatio Aetheriae ( c h a p . 4 7 ) : (49)

Quoniam in ea prouincia pars populi et grece et siriste nouit, pars etiam alia per s e grece, aliqua etiam pars tantum siriste, itaque quoniam episcopus, licet siriste nouerit, tamen semper grece loquitur et numquam siriste: itaque ergo stat semper presbyter, qui episcopo grece dicente siriste interpretatur, ut omnes audiant, quae exponuntur. lectiones etiam, quecumque in ecclesia leguntur, quia necesse est grece legi, semper stat, qui siriste interpretatur propter populum, ut semper discant. sane quicumque hie Latini sunt, id est qui nec siriste nec grece nouerunt, ne contristentur, et ipsis exponitur eis, quia sunt alii fratres et sorores grec

atini , qui latine exponunt eis. (50)

(5,)

(52)

(53>

C o n s e q u e n t l y , " t r a n s l a t i n g " or " r e n d e r i n g " (interpretari, a b o v e ) is here too essentially a free " e x p l a n a t i o n " (exporter e) in a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e . W h a t r e m a i n s to be clarified is the s e n s e of the t e r m Graecolatini which is formed similarly to the N e o t e s t a m e n t a r i a n l o p o c p o i v i K i a a a ( M c . 7 . 2 6 ) : as our text s h o w s , n e i t h e r the initial /- of -latini nor the -o- at the b o u n d a r y of the t w o c o m p o n e n t s is transmitted, but at least the n u m b e r of the characters to b e s u p p l i e d is a s s u r e d by the d i m e n s i o n s of the lacuna; a l t h o u g h the suppletion of the " c o m p o s i n g " v o w e l -o- c o r r e ­ s p o n d s to the possibilities y i e l d e d b y Late L a t i n (cp. e x p r e s s i o n s of the t y p e Mulo-medicina), an interpretation of a c o m p o u n d of this type in a sense according to w h i c h the t w o m e m b e r s maintain a c o p u l a t i v e rather than a d e t e r m i n a t i v e relation is n e v e r t h e l e s s i m p o s s i b l e . F o r m a ( 5 4 )

( 4 9 ) Z o p i c n i = c o m m o n A r a m a i c ; o n the m e a n i n g o f this term s e e a b o v e , p. 7 ; c p . " S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " , p. 2 1 5 ( = East and West I. p . 4 8 9 ) w i t h n o t e 1. C o n c e r n i n g the e x p r e s s i o n in ea prouincia it s h o u l d n o t b e l o s t s i g h t o f that certain i n f o r m a t i o n transmitted by J e r o m e i n d i c a t e s that at the t i m e o f A e t h e r i a the S o u t h e r n N e g e v a n d N o r t h e r n Sinai still (or, m a y b e , a l r e a d y ) s p o k e p r e p o n d e r a n t l y A r a m a i c . A l s o a c c o r d i n g to D a l m a n , o. c. ( n o t e 4 5 ) , p. 2 , the t e r m c n j p i c m s h o u l d not b e under­ s t o o d as referring to a particular P a l e s t i n i a n d i a l e c t . (50) (51) (52) (53) (54)

O n per se s e e b e l o w . " R e a d i n g s " , " p a s s a g e s " , miqra?, c p . a b o v e , p. 17. F o r the m e a n i n g o f this t e r m , s e e p . 2 1 . See below. M . L e u m a n n , Lateinische Laut- und Formenlehre, M i i n c h e n 1 9 7 7 , p. 3 9 0 .

21

PALESTINE AS A LINGUISTIC AREA

tions of the type " A n g l o - A m e r i c a n " c o r r e s p o n d to m o d e m E u r o p e a n u s a g e rather than to a p r o p e r Latin or G r e e k o n e ; so o n e cannot s u b ­ scribe to the generally accepted interpretation of this term as " b e i n g G r e e k as well as L a t i n " . W e should rather a s s u m e that the s e c o n d m e m ­ b e r is determinated by the first o n e , so that the " G r e c i z i s e d L a t i n s " ( s o m e t h i n g like "Griechenlateiner" or " G r e e k L a t i n s " or like Deutschamerikaner or German Americans) h a v e to be distinguished from those w h o k n o w n o other l a n g u a g e apart from their o w n ("id est q u i nec siriste n e c g r e c e n o u e r u n t " ) . T h i s analysis of the c o m p o u n d adjective, although of an essentially g r a m m a t i c a l nature, is v e r y significant for our p u r p o s e s , b e c a u s e this passage deals with the v a r i o u s types of bilingualism ( " S y r ­ i a n s " , w h o k n o w G r e e k ; " L a t i n s " w h o k n o w G r e e k ) a n d unilingualism. T h e latter is implied in the expression per se w h i c h occurs in the a b o v e q u o t e d passage and w h o s e true m e a n i n g is " o n l y " (that is, " t h o s e w h o speak only G r e e k " , parallel to tantum siriste " o n l y A r a m a i c " ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w e are entitled, in m y v i e w , to c o n c l u d e at least ex silentio, that it w a s only inside the "populus" that there existed m o n o l i n g u a l s p e a k e r s of A r a m a i c and, on the other h a n d , that there w e r e n o G r e e k s p e a k e r s or fully H e l l e n i z e d o n e s w h o h a d acquired a k n o w l e d g e of Latin, and that only the contrary w a s the case, so that it will be safe to conjecture that the G r e e k - S y r i a c b i l i n g u a l i s m did not involve any eth­ nical G r e e k s . All these facts are by n o m e a n s insignificant sociolinguist( 5 5 )

ically or even with reference to cultural history; they serve as e v i d e n c e w h i c h permits us to visualize for p o s t - J e w i s h Palestine a situation not m u c h different from that which p r e v a i l e d during the period of the autonomous Jewish commonwealth.

( 5 5 ) T h i s h a s b e e n s h o w n by Einar L o f s t e d t , Philologischer Kommentar tio Aetheriae, U p p s a l a 1 9 1 1 (repr. D a r m s t a d t 1 9 8 2 ) , p p . 335ff.

zur

Peregrina-

II. T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E J E W I S H D I A S P O R A O F R O M E

A. T H E SOCIAL POSITION O F J E W S A N D T H E SOCIOLINGUISTIC STATUS OF THEIR L A N G U A G E USAGE T h e position of the J e w s in R o m e with regard to the l a n g u a g e situa­ tion has been sketched b y H. S o l i n succinctly, but nonetheless to the point: ( 5 6 )

"Die Zahl der romischen Juden zu schatzen, ist ungemein schwierig. Man konnte sie ... fiir die julisch-claudische Zeit mit 30,000-40,000 oder auch etwas mehr veranschlagen; diese Schatzung ist aber sehr relativ. ... Das Material ist jedoch groB genug, um ziemlich verbindlich zu zeigen, daB die erste Sprache der romischen Juden Griechisch, die zweite Lateinisch war, wahrend das Aramaische vdllig zuriickgedrangt war." (57)

I. K a j a n t o likewise d e m o n s t r a t e s o n solid statistical g r o u n d s that the use of G r e e k w a s d o m i n a n t in the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y of R o m e to the extent of almost e x c l u d i n g a n y other l a n g u a g e , and even a m o n g s t the J e w i s h ethnic e l e m e n t in the m i d s t of those w h o expressed t h e m s e l v e s in writing in G r e e k in R o m e in g e n e r a l . T h u s the statement m a d e by Z g u s t a , that " G r e e k w a s m o r e o r l e s s the colloquial l a n g u a g e of all slaves imported from the E a s t " m a y be regarded as not being based on a wholly a d e q u a t e f o u n d a t i o n ; at a n y rate, a tendency t o w a r d s unilinguality (that is, of G r e e k ) w a s in e x i s t e n c e only within the J e w i s h ethnic stratum of R o m e . If K a j a n t o uses a s an a r g u m e n t the often q u o t e d passage by Juvenalis (I.3.60ff.) w e h a v e to point out right at this point that J u v e n a l i s m a k e s an allusion only to the Syrians (that is, either including J e w s or e x c l u d i n g e v e r y b o d y else) rather than to Orientals in general as those w h o transmitted G r e e k culture and language to R o m e : (58)

( 5 9 )

( 6 0 )

(56)

H. S o l i n , "Juden und S y r e r i m r o m i s c h e n R e i c h " , i n : Die Sprachen Reich der Kaiserzeit ( s e e n o t e 2 ) , p p . 3 0 1 - 3 3 0 , q u o t e d from p. 3 1 6 .

im

romischen

( 5 7 ) I. K a j a n t o , " M i n d e r h e i t e n u n d ihre S p r a c h e n in der Hauptstadt R o m " , i n : Sprachen (see note 2), pp. 8 4 - 9 3 . (58) L. Zgusta, " D i e Rolle des Griechischen im romischen Kaiserreich", in: Sprachen ( s e e n o t e 2 ) , p p . 1 2 1 - 1 4 6 , q u o t e d f r o m p. 1 4 0 . (59) M y emphasis, H.R. (60) O . c . p . 8 7 .

Die Die

24

H.B. ROSEN

... Non possum ferre, Quirites, Graecam urbem; quamuis quota portio faecis Achaei? iam pridem Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes et linguam et mores et cum tibicine chordas obliquas nec non gentilia tympana secum uexit et ad circum iussas prostare puellas. "I can't stand, Quirites, that Greek Rome; oh, what proportion of Achaean scum?! Since ages the Syrian river Orontes poured in me Tiber bringing new language, new manners, and along with fluteplayers, obliquely-lined cords of harps and timbrels unfamiliar with us, too, and also girls required to expose themselves for hire at the c i r c u s . " T h e anti-Semitic tenor of his r e m a r k s

( 6 2 )

(6,)

, not altogether rarely e n c o u n ­

tered in classical literature, m a y h a v e induced the p o e t to m e n t i o n the iussae prostare

puellae,

c p . II.6.543ff.:

Arcanam Iudaea tremens mendicat in aurem, interpres legum Solymarum et magna sacerdos arboris ac summi fida internuntia caeli. implet et ilia manum, sed parcius; aere minuto qualiacumque uoles Iudaei somnia uendunt. (63)

(64)

O t h e r w i s e the m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t with " o b l i q u e " or rather " c r o s s e d " c o r d s ( m e n t i o n e d in the first-quoted p a s s a g e ) , w h i c h is well k n o w n in J e w i s h - A r a m a i c tradition, as well as the " o u t l a n d i s h " c y m ­ bals, perfectly fit J e w i s h c u s t o m . T h e r e c a n b e no d o u b t at all that J u v e n a l i s h a d set h i s e y e particularly o n the J e w i s h e l e m e n t in the p o p u l a t i o n of R o m e a l t h o u g h taking refuge in the p a s s a g e a b o v e q u o t e d c o n c e r n i n g the l a n g u a g e to a bit generalized invective of the ' S y r i a n s ' . T h i s is perfectly o b v i o u s from the following often q u o t e d r e m a r k b y the p o e t attacking those w h o o b s e r v e d J e w i s h law and c u s t o m s m a i n t a i n e d by the J e w s of R o m e (Juvenalis V. 14.96106): ( 6 1 ) A d a p t e d from the translation b y J. M a z z a r o ( A n n A r b o r , 1 9 6 5 ) . ( 6 2 ) T h i s remark has b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y H . C . S c h n u r in h i s brilliantly translated e d i ­ tion o f J u v e n a l i s ( J u v e n a l i s , Satiren, Stuttgart 1 9 6 9 ) , p. 1 7 3 as " u n m a B i g , w i e J u v e ­ n a l i s n u n e i n m a l ist, aber nicht o h n e g r i m m i g e n H u m o r " . (63)

" A p a l s i e d J e w e s s , l e a v i n g her b a s k e t a n d her truss o f h a y , c o m e s b e g g i n g to her s e c r e t ear; s h e is an interpreter o f the l a w s o f J e r u s a l e m , a h i g h p r i e s t e s s o f the tree, a trusty g o - b e t w e e n o f h i g h e s t h e a v e n . S h e , t o o , fills h e r p a l m , but m o r e s p a r i n g l y , for a J e w w i l l tell y o u the d r e a m s o f a n y k i n d y o u p l e a s e for t h e m i n u t e s t o f c o i n s . " (transl. G . G . R a m s a y , q u o t e d from M . S t e r n , Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism II, p p . lOOff.)

( 6 4 ) S e e m y study L'hebreu

et ses rapports

avec

le monde

classique,

p. 2 9 .

THE LANGUAGE OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA OF ROME

25

Quidam sortiti m e t u e n t e m s a b b a t a patrem nil praeter nubes et caeli numen adorant, nec distare putant humana carne suillam, qua pater abstinuit, mox et p r a e p u t i a ponunt; Romanas autem soliti contemnere leges I u d a i c u m e d i s c u n t et s e r u a n t ac m e t u u n t ius, tradidit arcano quodcumque u o l u m i n e Moyses: non monstrare uias eadem nisi sacra colenti, quaesitum ad fontem solos deducere u e r p o s . sed pater in causa, cui s e p t i m a q u a e q u e fuit lux i g n a u a et p a r t e m u i t a e n o n a t t i g i t u l l a m . "Some who had a father who reveres die Sabbath worship nothing but the clouds, and the divinity of the heavens, and see no difference between eating swine's flesh, from which their father abstained, and that of man; and in time they take to circumcision. Having been wont to flout the laws of Rome, they learn and practice and revere the Jewish law, and all that Moses handed down in his secret tome, forbidding to point out the way to any not worshipping the same rites, and conducting none but die circumcised to the desired fountain. For all which the father was to blame, who gave up every seventh day to idleness, keeping it apart from all the concerns of life." (65)

It will b e safe to c o n c l u d e from all that, that o n e of the foremost, if not the principal factor in the d e v e l o p i n g and increasing animosity against the J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n of R o m e w a s their use of l a n g u a g e , that is their linguistic H e l l e n i s m ; this m i g h t h a v e been e n h a n c e d by a senti­ m e n t that outside the J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n G r e e k w a s the l a n g u a g e reserved m o r e or less for the prestigious classes a n d the a p p e a r a n c e that could thereby be created as though the J e w s unduly usurped a status s y m b o l to w h i c h they w e r e not entitled at all, in the eyes of the R o m a n s , in their rather r e d u c e d social position. ( 6 6 )

T h u s the J e w s w e r e an H e l l e n o p h o n e ethnic e l e m e n t ; their G r e e k u n i l i n g u a l i s m w a s c o m p l e t e d at the period of the J u l i o - C l a u d i a n dynasty, the J e w s being the only g r o u p originating from the H e l l e n i z e d Orient w h i c h w a s not enslaved. T h e i r intermingling with the R o m a n s w a s free and elastic a n d liable to call forth linguistic and also cultural interferences of a not negligible potentiality. ( 6 5 ) T r a n s l . G . G . R a m s a y , q u o t e d f r o m M . S t e r n , o. c. ( n o t e 6 3 ) , II, p. 1 0 0 s . ( 6 6 ) " S c i s , quanta sit m a n u s , quanta c o n c o r d i a , q u a n t u m ualeat in c o n t i o n i b u s . " C i c e r o , pro F l a c c o 6 6 . ( " Y o u k n o w w h a t a b i g c r o w d it is, h o w t h e y stick t o g e t h e r , h o w influential t h e y are in . . . a s s e m b l i e s " ; transl. E . L . Lord, q u o t e d f r o m Stern, o.c. ( s e e n o t e 6 3 ) I, p p . 1 9 6 f f . ) .

26

H.B. ROSEN

B . H E B R A I S M S IN T H E L A N G U A G E O F T H E J E W S O F R O M E The semantic

field

of s t u d y a n d

tradition

W h i l e the b a c k g r o u n d of the G r e e k l a n g u a g e w h i c h w a s in use a m o n g s t the R o m a n J e w s w a s a rather popular, if not " v u l g a r " , form of speech, there are s o m e not very n u m e r o u s lexico-semantic e l e m e n t s w h i c h , h a v i n g p e n e t r a t e d from H e b r e w , are recognizable in s o m e sort of ' J u d e o - L a t i n ' ; they distinguish t h e m s e l v e s as cultural loans (Kulturworter) in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the role that H e b r e w played in the last cen­ turies B . C . E . still in the Palestinian h o m e l a n d and b e l o n g e d to the sphere of religious u s a g e . A l t h o u g h the use of these e x p r e s s i o n s p r e s u p p o s e s a certain d e g r e e of fajniliarity with scriptural texts it w o u l d still be not entirely out of place to r a n g e the o n e o r the other of these expressions in the area of a general culture rather than of s o m e culturally specific " e r u ­ d i t i o n " , as H . and R. K a h a n e h a d p r o p o s e d to d o . ( 6 7 )

(67)

In the paragraph o n " S p r a c h e " s.v. A b e n d l a n d und B y z a n z , in: Reallexikon der Byzantinistik, R e i h e A , B a n d I, S p . 3 4 5 - 6 3 9 . — O n e m u s t in n o w a y o v e r l o o k the o n e e s s e n t i a l and important d e f i c i e n c y o f the l e x i c a l c o m p i l a t i o n s by H. and R. K a h a n e , w h i c h is t h e u n d e r v a l u a t i o n , n a y , o c c a s i o n a l n e g l e c t , o f the literary and p o p u l a r J e w i s h l a n g u a g e u s a g e as a factor for, a n d a l s o a s o u r c e of, l e x i c a l and s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t s . O n e w o u l d e v e n b e led to think that the fact o f s e t t i n g a s i d e this factor is s o m e h o w intentional a n d m a y b e e x p l i c a b l e o n g r o u n d s o f a certain a n g l e o f v i e w o n the part o f the authors. It is s i g n i f i c a n t in this c o n t e x t that S a m u e l K r a u s s ' Worterbuch der griechischen und lateinischen Lehnwdrter im Talmud, Midrasch und Targum, w h i c h — a l t h o u g h n o l o n g e r up-to-date — is still i n d i s ­ p e n s a b l e to this v e r y d a y as a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the material, d o e s not e v e n appear in the authors* b i b l i o g r a p h y ( p . 4 9 5 ) . T h e y c o u l d h a v e g a t h e r e d from there, e.g., that A r a b i c qartas w h i c h t h e y d e r i v e ( p . 4 5 3 ) directly f r o m G r e e k is already a m p l y attested in J e w i s h R a b b i n i c a l s o u r c e s (qrt(y)s = x ^ p c n q ) a n d m u s t h a v e c o m e into A r a b i c through A r a m a i c , a s o n e c o u l d h a v e g a t h e r e d already from the s p e l l i n g (q, t) w h i c h is characteristic o f the transcription o f G r e e k w o r d s into A r a m a i c characters in the R a b b i n i c a l texts. T h u s q u i t e a n u m b e r o f distortions o f historical presentations are c a u s e d w h i c h w e shall h a v e to m e n t i o n b e l o w ( p p . 3 0 f f . ) , w h e n w e shall be deal­ ing w i t h individual c a s e s . Let u s here j u s t allude to the fact that H. and R. K a h a n e d e r i v e the w o r d sandek w h i c h i s Y i d d i s h o r " J u d i s c h - D e u t s c h " , as t h e y preferred to call it ( p . 3 6 2 c o m b i n e d w i t h " S c h w e i z e r d e u t s c h " ) , sindik, directly from ' L a t i n ' syndicus. T h i s w o r d , h o w e v e r , w h i c h c o u l d o n l y w i t h u n s u r m o u n t a b l e difficulties be d e r i v e d from Y i d d i s h , m u s t n o t be directly derived' from late Latin syndicus, but rather from T a l m u d i c sndyqws ' G o d f a t h e r ' , a l s o written s(y)dyqnws a n d thus incor­ rectly identified b y s o m e s c h o l a r s a s OUVTEKVOC; w h i c h has a different s i g n i f i c a t i o n ; the T a l m u d i c n o u n written sndq h a s b e e n c o n t i n u e d in J e w i s h tradition in the f o r m o f [ s a n d a k ] t o this v e r y d a y in a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s e m a n t i c r a n g e i n c l u d i n g a certain modern'shading (e.g., 'Godfather', in gangster societies). Similarly, o n p. 3 7 5 they s p e a k o f a i ) 9 ( o v i a ( s i c ) ' m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t ' as a " c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the a n c i e n t d e s ­ i g n a t i o n o f a n i n s t r u m e n t cajuxpcavia" w h i l e n o real e v i d e n c e c a n b e b r o u g h t for

THE LANGUAGE OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA OF ROME

27

T h e r e is a verb *meletare ' p o n d e r , think over, reflect on s o m e t h i n g ' and also ' e x p o u n d ' , w h i c h h a s to be posited for V u l g a r Latin on the basis of meletatio w h i c h directly continues G r e e k [ieXzxav suppos­ edly as a c o n s e q u e n c e of a m e r g e r with meditari. W e w o u l d , h o w e v e r , not subscribe, with respect to that period, to an a s s u m p t i o n that an alter­ nation / ~ d w a s operative in Latin as in odor ~ olere, w h i c h has sur­ vived after its penetration into V u l g a r Latin only in the J e w i s h usage of R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s (Judeo-Italian meltare, Judeo-Spanish meltar, J u d e o - F r e n c h miauder ^). B u t the considerable c o n g r u e n c e of the semantic range of the G r e e k v e r b with that of the H e b r a e o - A r a m a i c ver­ bal root d-r-s ' t o e n q u i r e , to r e s e a r c h , to study, to e x p o u n d ' m u s t h a v e played a decisive role in the s e m a n t i c history of that word. (6S)

1

Metuere

"fear"

T h e v e r b metuere, a l t h o u g h of a p u r e Latin nature, m u s t be a s s u m e d to h a v e found n e w a n d specific application in the J e w i s h traditional usage based on a H e b r e w idiomatic foundation. T h e e x p r e s s i o n metuere sabbata which o c c u r s in the anti-Semitic invective of Juvenalis (V. 14.96, q u o t e d a b o v e , p . 2 5 ) b e s i d e s metuere ius, in all likelihood reflects an internal J e w i s h idiomatic u s a g e , hailing from s o m e sort of j a r g o n , a usage w h i c h h o w e v e r h a s n o t b e c o m e o n e of c o m m o n Latin; this m a y be a " c a i q u e " in that the v e r b metuere contained in g e n u i n e Latin e x p r e s s i o n s s u c h as leges metuere ( e . g . , O v . T r . V . 7 . 4 7 , c p . consules modesti legumque metuentes; C i c . post red. in sen. 4 , legum metus; C i c . inv. II. 160) is s e m a n t i c a l l y e x p a n d e d into its application in metuere ius (ius = vojioq = t'o'rd) in c o r r e s p o n d e n c e with the H e b r e w verb s-m-r ' t o g u a r d , to w a t c h , to observe*, here applied as a termino­ logical expression within religion, to the specifically H e b r e w t e r m i n o ­ logical collocation a p p a r e n t in metuere sabbata since the H e b r e w verb s-m-r is the o n e w h i c h is traditionally a n d constantly c o n n e c t e d with the

s u c h a d e s i g n a t i o n ; they s h o u l d h a v e rather m e n t i o n e d the B i b l i c a l - A r a m a i c attesta­ tion o f this w o r d ( w i t h o r w i t h o u t the n a s a l i n v o l v e d in the prefix) in this m e a n i n g ( c p . m y s t u d y L 'hebreu et ses rapports avec le monde classique, p. 2 9 ) together w i t h N e w T e s t a m e n t G r e e k , w h i c h b o t h represent the o l d e s t J e w i s h u s e o f this w o r d , f o l ­ l o w e d b y Latin symphonia in s o u r c e s f r o m the Imperial p e r i o d , w h i l e in G r e e k itself up t o that t i m e there w e r e not e v e n the faintest traces o f s u c h a l l e g e d l y " a n t i q u e " u s e o f the w o r d . ( 6 8 ) F u l g e n t i u s , s. A . S o u t e r , Glossary p. 3 6 0 . ( 6 9 ) H . and R. K a h a n e , ibid.

of Later

Latin,

s.v.; c p . H . a n d R. K a h a n e

o.c,

28

H.B. ROSEN

d e s i g n a t i o n of the s a b b a t h in the sense here r e q u i r e d . O n e s h o u l d also c o m p a r e the c o m b i n a t i o n of the t w o t e r m s seruare sabbata)

a n d metuere

in seruant

ac metuunt

(as in

ob-seruare

ius " t h e y fear the law a n d

j u s t i c e " (Juvenalis V. 1 4 . 1 0 1 , s. a b o v e ) and bear in m i n d that the notion of fear a n d a p p r e h e n s i o n is c o n s p i c u o u s l y transferred to the religious s p h e r e of veneration in H e b r e w (root y-r-7) n o less than in L a t i n

(70)

.

C. P R O B A B L E I N S T A N C E S O F T H E P E N E T R A T I O N O F G R E E K 'ELEMENTS OF JEWISH USAGE INTO VULGAR LATIN T h e G r e c i z a t i o n of the b a s i c V u l g a r L a t i n

lexicon

A s w e h a v e said before, the J e w i s h inhabitants of R o m e w e r e the only c o m p o n e n t of the " l o w e r " classes w h i c h h a d G r e e k as its mothertonguev-— a n d it m u s t b e taken into a c c o u n t that the i m p o r t a n c e of precisely that c o m p o n e n t for the d e v e l o p m e n t of urban and e x t r a - u r b a n Latin m i g h t h a v e b e e n increased b y the fact that J e w s on the o n e h a n d w e r e an urban e l e m e n t , a n d o n the o t h e r h a n d w e r e n o s l a v e s ; precisely d u e to that position they c o u l d h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d as G r e e k - s p e a k i n g e l e m e n t s to the diffusion of parts of the G r e e k v o c a b u l a r y in the Latin p o p u l a r l a n g u a g e ( ' V u l g a r L a t i n ' ) , a historical p h e n o m e n o n w h i c h is not o n l y hard to e x p l a i n , or p e r h a p s i n e x p l i c a b l e at ail, b u t also c o n t i n u e s well into t h e period a n d area of R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s . ( 7 1 )

(72)

In o r d e r to sketch an a p p r o x i m a t e picture for the less initiated reader of w h a t the i m p a c t of G r e e k v o c a b u l a r y w a s o n V u l g a r L a t i n a n d o n the s e m a n t i c a n d civilizatory status of the v o c a b u l a r y c o n c e r n e d , w e shall (70)

F o r a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f w h a t is i m p l i e d by the w o r d metuentes a n d o f the J e w i s h n e s s o r o t h e r w i s e o f p e r s o n s s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d , a s w e l l a s in particular c o n c e r n i n g the relation o f this term w i t h ( J e w i s h ? ) t e r m i n o l o g i c a l ( p o p o u j i e v o t a n d CTEPOu e v o i , s e e n o w M . S t e r n , o. c. ( n o t e 6 3 ) , II, p. 103f., w i t h earlier literature q u o t e d there in detail. ( 7 1 ) H J . L e o n , The Jews in Ancient Rome, p. 2 3 7 , referring t o P h i l o , Legatio 23.155; c o n c e r n i n g the e t h n i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f s l a v e s in R o m e s e e I. K a j a n t o , o.c. ( n o t e 5 7 ) , p. 85. ( 7 2 ) There have been a number o f positions taken concerning the question of Greek loan­ w o r d s in V u l g a r Latin in g e n e r a l : L . R . P a l m e r , The Latin Language, London 1954, p p . 1 8 4 - 1 8 6 ; J. K a i m i o , The Romans and the Greek Language (= S o c . Scient. Fenn. C o m m e n t a t i o n e s h u m a n a r u m litterarum 6 4 ) , H e l s i n k i 1 9 7 9 , p p . 2 9 9 - 3 0 2 ; E . Coseriu, " D a s Problem des griechischen Einflusses auf das Vulgarlatein", in: Sprache und Sprachgeschichte. Festschrift fur H. Meier, Miinchen 1971, pp. 1351 4 7 ; a l s o c p . B . L o f s t e d t in " R u c k s c h a u u n d A u s b l i c k a u f d i e v u l g a r l a t e i n i s c h e F o r s c h u n g " i n : Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt 2 9 / 2 , p p . 4 5 3 - 4 7 9 , esp. pp. 4 7 1 - 4 7 4 .

29

THE LANGUAGE OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA OF ROME

bring up again a part of the list, well k n o w n to every student of the h i s ­ tory of Latin, w h i c h s h o w s the perfectly basic character of these G r e e k w o r d s , for which, as m u c h as w e can j u d g e , no cultural necessity w h a t ­ ever existed, while in s o m e , but only very few, cases s o m e m o r p h o l o g i ­ cal need m a y h a v e b e e n felt. Lapis " s t o n e " and cms " l e g " (rare inflex­ ional types) are r e p l a c e d by 7t8tpa petra > pierre and KauJifj camba gamba > jambe, r e s p e c t i v e l y ; singuli, for Classical omnis (sg.) " e a c h and every ( o n e ) " is r e p l a c e d by KCtO' e v a , KaGeva kath'unum > chac(un), caduno e t c . ; circa " a r o u n d " is replaced by (£<;) y u p o v > in girum > girare, virer, environs e t c . ; uersari " t u r n ( a r o u n d ) " ( d e p o n e n t verb w h i c h could h a v e called forth a morphological r e p l a c e m e n t ) is replaced by Ka|i\|/eiv > campsare > cambiare, changer e t c . ( 7 3 )

It is consequently clear that in that c o n t e x t and c o n c e r n i n g the a n g l e of the J e w i s h contribution w e d o not h a v e in mind of c o u r s e cultural loans or a v o c a b u l a r y b e l o n g i n g to technical language or the l a n g u a g e of the e r u d i t e . (74)

(73)

It appears to m e to b e o f little c o n s e q u e n c e w h e t h e r the o n e or other o f t h o s e V u l ­ gar Latin o r R o m a n c e w o r d s o f G r e e k o r i g i n is already attested in o n e o f the preC l a s s i c a l authors, s i n c e there c a n n o t c o n c e i v a b l y b e a historical link b e t w e e n that literary stratum ( i . e . the early Latin literature) and the purely popular s p e e c h f o r m s o f the later Imperial p e r i o d ; a s c o n c e r n s q u i t e a f e w early authors, s u c h as E n n i u s w h o u s e d G r e e k w o r d s , p r o b a b l y e v e n u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e o f G r e e k m o d e l s , w e d o not h a v e t o d o e v e n w i t h c o l l o q u i a l L a t i n . C o n s e q u e n t l y lists l i k e the o n e g i v e n by V . V a a n a n e n , Introduction au latin vulgaire, p. 8 6 ("emprunts g r e c s 1. a n c i e n s , 2 . p o s t c l a s s i q u e et tardifs") are o f r e l a t i v e l y little importance for the e l u c i d a t i o n o f the history o f Latin. It c o u l d b e o f m o r e i m p o r t a n c e if o n e c o u l d ascertain w h e t h e r a g i v e n w o r d w a s n o l o n g e r felt a s b e i n g G r e e k , w h i c h w a s the c a s e for i n s t a n c e for girare ( c p . E. L o f s t e d t , Philologischer Kommentar, p. 6 7 ) , a w o r d w h i c h h o w e v e r renders in its o n l y o c c u r r e n c e in the V u l g a t e its Greek m o d e l y u p o G v .

( 7 4 ) C p . L. Z g u s t a , o.c. ( n o t e 5 8 ) , p . 1 4 0 . A n u m b e r o f o p i n i o n s h a v e b e e n v o i c e d c o n ­ c e r n i n g the nature o f the G r e e k o f the R o m a n J e w s as a popular f o r m o f l a n g u a g e , s e e H.J. L e o n , o.c. ( n o t e 7 1 ) , p p . 7 5 - 9 2 , a n d " T h e l a n g u a g e o f the G r e e k inscrip­ t i o n s from the J e w i s h c a t a c o m b s o f R o m e " Transactions of the American Philolog­ ical Association 5 8 ( 1 9 2 7 ) 2 1 0 - 2 3 3 . H. a n d R. K a h a n e , o.c. ( n o t e 6 7 ) , p. 3 5 0 m a i n ­ tain that " n o t o n l y t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s o f R o m e contributed t o w a r d s the e x p a n s i o n o f the Latin l e x i c o n b y G r e e k e l e m e n t s " , but that a l s o the aristocratic c i r c l e s o f R o m e " c u l t i v a t e d the G r e e k l a n g u a g e a s a w h o l e " , in the s e n s e o f " f o u n d i n g in a certain w a y a Latin H u m a n i s m " . T h i s later c i r c u m s t a n c e , probably at a n y rate e x a g g e r a t e d , has had n o t a n g i b l e i n f l u e n c e o n the historical d e v e l o p m e n t o f the Latin l a n g u a g e . W e therefore s u b s c r i b e t o the v i e w p o i n t o f I. Kajanto (p. 9 2 ) w h o c o n s i d e r s it " p l a u s i b l e that a l a r g e n u m b e r , m a y b e e v e n the majority, o f the G r e e k - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f R o m e w e r e p o o r p e o p l e " . T h e c o m p r o m i s e r e p r e s e n t e d b y J. K a i m i o ' s p r o p o s i t i o n , o.c. ( n o t e 7 2 ) , p . 3 2 3 , that " w e can hardly g o w r o n g if w e c o n s i d e r that for the R o m a n n o b i l i t y , G r e e k w a s a b o v e all a cultural l a n g u a g e , w h i l e for the m i d d l e a n d l o w e s t free born c l a s s e s , G r e e k w a s a l o w p r e s t i g e l a n g u a g e " , d o e s not take u s a n y further in an a t t e m p t at understanding the situation.

H.B. ROSEN

30

W e shall n o w e x a m i n e a n u m b e r of v o c a b u l a r y i t e m s w h i c h lend a not negligible a m o u n t of probability to the v i e w p o i n t w e h a v e p r o p o s e d in the a b o v e .

Apotheca It is c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d that the R o m a n c e w o r d - f a m i l y of bottega,

bodega

boutique,

g o e s b a c k to &no9f|Kr|. H o w e v e r , this irrefutable e x p l a ­

nation necessitates a c o m p l e m e n t a t i o n e x p l a i n i n g t w o p r o c e s s e s : 1. in the area of p h o n e t i c s , the loss of the initial v o w e l ; a n d 2 . in the area of 4

s e m a n t i c s , the shift of the m e a n i n g from ' p l a c e of s t o r a g e ' to a place of s a l e ' . B o t h p h e n o m e n a c a n d e m o n s t r a b l y be d o c u m e n t e d at the s a m e t i m e and w i t h o u t any^ difficulty w h a t s o e v e r from the J e w i s h literary t r a n s m i s s i o n of these G r e e k l o a n w o r d s . It is best to c o n s i d e r first the s e c o n d p r o c e s s , that is, the s e m a n t i c shift, and o n e will i m m e d i a t e l y call to m i n d that the e x t r a - J u d a i c G r e e k and L a t i n a n t e c e d e n t s of

this

R o m a n c e w o r d d o not i n c o r p o r a t e the s e m a n t i c c o m p o n e n t of ' c o m ­ m e r c e ' ™ ; in the G r e e k a n d R o m a n u s a g e of this w o r d it is exclusively a n d u n e q u i v o c a l l y s t o r a g e p l a c e s that are referred to, a n d it is not for any period p r e c e d i n g A u g u s t i n u s a n d the Justinian C o d e that a sense of " " s h o p p i n g p l a c e , trading place* can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d for apotheca, that on the b a s i s of a d e r i v e d n o u n apothecarius

clearly

and

signifying

' s h o p k e e p e r ' . It is therefore e x p e d i e n t to point to a n u m b e r of p a s s a g e s in T a l m u d i c literature w h i c h i n v o l v e the l o a n w o r d &7io9f|KT|

(Ppwtyqy

a n d o r t h o g r a p h i c v a r i a n t s , o n w h i c h see b e l o w ) in a signification w h i c h r e v e a l s the c o m m e r c i a l c o m p o n e n t of that w o r d : the clearest instance is that of a T a l m u d i c d i s c u s s i o n in w h i c h various p l a c e s of sale of certain foods or b e v e r a g e s are m e n t i o n e d , in w h i c h these c o m m o d i t i e s m i x with w i n e or b e served with i t

( 7 6 )

: they s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d , indicates the T a l ­

m u d i c text, only from s u c h p l a c e s in w h i c h they c o u l d b e available prior to their m i x t u r e with a d d e d w i n e , for instance from the boat, from the storage or ' f r o m the d 7 r o 9 f j K T | \ but not from a p l a c e w h e r e they are already m i x e d or c o n t a m i n a t e d by w i n e s u s p e c t e d of t h e impurity of the

( 7 5 ) H. and R. K a h a n e o.c. ( n o t e 6 7 ) , p. 3 7 8 , m a k e the s t a t e m e n t that " d i e ' S p e i c h e r ' u n d ' K r a m l a d e n ' b e i d e i m G r i e c h i s c h e n v o r g e b i l d e t [ w a r e n ] " , but are unable t o s u b ­ stantiate that s t a t e m e n t e x c e p t for g i v i n g general r e f e r e n c e t o "fourth century p a p y r i " ( w i t h o u t a n y m o r e d e t a i l s ) ; t h e y d o n o t m e n t i o n at all the J e w i s h u s e o f this w o r d ( c p . a b o v e , note 1 2 ) . ( 7 6 ) B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d , tdbo'dd zdrd, fol. 3 9 ff. — A l s o Latin apotheca is u s e d as a d e s i g n a t i o n o f a r e p o s i t o r y e s p e c i a l l y for w i n e .

31

THE LANGUAGE OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA OF ROME

h e a t h e n s , s u c h as f r o m

a b a s k e t s e r v i n g as a p l a c e of d i s t r i b u t i o n

( K a t a X u a t c ; ) for the p u r p o s e of 'degustation' r e s t a u r a n t or a f o o d s t o r e . T h e

and p l a c e d in front of a

lexical family

to w h i c h

&7to0f)KT|

b e l o n g s w a s to all a p p e a r a n c e very m u c h alive a n d p r o d u c t i v e in the J e w i s h k o i n e , b u t the n o u n w i t h w h i c h w e are c o n c e r n e d h e r e w a s s e v ­ e r e d from its b a s i c v e r b dTtoxiGevai p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e that v e r b as well h a d g i v e n u p the s e n s e of ' s t o r i n g ' or ' p r e s e r v i n g ' w h i c h c o u l d h a v e s e r v e d as the o n l y p l a u s i b l e s e m a n t i c c o n n e c t i o n w i t h d7r.o6f|KT|, and h a d o n l y m a i n t a i n e d t h e s e n s e of ' d e p o s i t i n g ' , ' p u t t i n g a s i d e ' . A l s o t h e d e s i g n a t i o n of the ' c u t off'

half a p i e c e of u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d ' p u t

a s i d e ' a n d ' p r e s e r v e d ' for the c o n c l u s i o n of the ritual P a s c h a m e a l u n d e r the n a m e of d r c o K e i j i e v o v (Fpyqwmn, {11)

[ a f i k o m a n ] , b u t to b e r e a d ?pwqymn )

traditionally p r o n o u n c e d

certainly c o n t i n u e s a m o r p h o ­

logical a n d s e m a n t i c situation h a i l i n g from the classical or at least early Hellenistic period

of the l a n g u a g e s i n c e the s e m a n t i c

connection

b e t w e e n x i G e v a i a n d a s u p p i e t i v e KSUTGCU w a s s e v e r e d n o t later t h a n at that p e r i o d . A n o n - T a l m u d i c , N e o t e s t a m e n t a r i a n p a s s a g e s h o w s this m a n i f e s t l y : L u c . 1 2 . 2 4 : . . . xoix; Kopaicac,

olq OUK e a x i v x a u A S i o v

o u 5 e &7toGf|icr| ' . . . t h e r a v e n w h i c h h a v e n e i t h e r food c a c h e ™ n o r stor­ ing p l a c e ' . T h u s o n e c a n s h o w with r e s p e c t to the s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p ­ m e n t o f &rco6f|icr| that it w a s p r e c i s e l y o n J e w i s h soil that the d e s c r i b e d shift of the s e m a n t i c c e n t r e

( 7 9 )

h a d t a k e n p l a c e , w h i c h facilitated

—

nay, e v e n m a d e p o s s i b l e — the loss of the ' p u t t i n g a s i d e ' c o m p o n e n t of the n o u n d7to6f|Kr|. (77) T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the u n d o u b t e d l y G r e e k w o r d w a s g i v e n to m e orally by the late H.J. P o l o t s k y . (78) In m y study " P a l e s t i n i a n K o i v f | in R a b b i n i c illustration", Journal of Semitic Stud­ ies 8 ( 1 9 6 3 ) p p . 5 6 - 7 2 [ = East and West I, p p . 4 5 9 - 4 7 5 ] , e s p . p. 6 3 ( = 4 6 6 ) , I h a v e s h o w n that G r e e k x a u e t o v shifted m o r e a n d m o r e to a central s e m a n t i c v a l u e o f " c o n c e a l e d p l a c e o r e n v i r o n m e n t " ( c p . sTaeA.9e s l q TO x a u e T 6 v a o u Kai K t a i a a q xfjv G u p a v a o u T i p o a e u ^ a i xa> Ttaxpi a o u x<5 £ v xa> KPUTCXG) Matth. 6 . 6 ' G o into y o u r c l o s e t , a n d c l o s i n g the d o o r , pray t o the Father w h o is in the c o n c e a l e d < p l a c e > ' ) under the strong pressure o f h o m o p h o n i c S e m i t i c tdmi'n " c o n c e a l e d " , b a s e d o n the root t-m-n, extant a m o n g s t o t h e r f o r m s in matmon " t r e a s u r e " and tdmi'n " c o n c e a l e d , h i d d e n " ; the latter is fully h o m o p h o n i c w i t h x a u ( i ) e t o v in its Oriental H e l l e n i s t i c p r o n u n c i a t i o n . (79) S u c h shifts o f the s e m a n t i c c e n t r e are h i g h l y characteristic for s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p ­ m e n t s in N e w T e s t a m e n t G r e e k , a s I c o u l d s h o w , for instance, in m y study q u o t e d in the p r e c e d i n g n o t e at p p . 6 0 - 6 3 [ = East and West I, p p . 4 6 4 - 4 6 7 ] o n the b a s i s o f quite a n u m b e r o f e x p r e s s i o n s , d e v e l o p m e n t s that c a n n o t b e a d e q u a t e l y u n d e r s t o o d and interpreted b y m e a n s o f l e x i c o g r a p h i c a l m e t h o d s w h i c h are f o u n d e d o n " p a n " H e l l e n i c registration o f l e x i c a l u s a g e s . — O n the q u e s t i o n o f principle o f shifts o f a s e m a n t i c c e n t r e or cardinal s e m a n t i c v a l u e , s e e n o w m y study q u o t e d in note 37.

32

H.B. ROSEN

C o n c e r n i n g the other, p h o n e t i c facet o f the d e v e l o p m e n t o f d7to9f|Kn. a loss o f a word-initial v o w e l ( i n particular a) p r e c e d i n g a s i m p l e c o n s o ­ n a n t c a n n o t b e o b s e r v e d i n the dialects of the k o i n e

( 8 0 )

. H o w e v e r , apart

from the m o s t telling i n s t a n c e , the N e o t e s t a m e n t a r i a n n a m e o f A d ^ a p o q = FeUdzdr,

it c a n b e s h o w n i n s o m e cases i n J e w i s h - P a l e s t i n i a n k o i n e ,

s u c h a s ?mqtwr(y)n

* d u i K x 6 p i o v amictorium,

a m o n g s t w h i c h w e are

principally interested h e r e i n t h o s e i n w h i c h the v o w e l lost i s f o l l o w e d :

by P

ppwlsmwn

i s the t r a n s m i s s i o n o f a relatively frequent collateral

form, o f ?pwplsmwn

y

sulate*

and

?ypty(y)?

y

?pwblsmwn

imaxiKOc;

?ptyqws,

(8l)

d7ioj3dA.cra|iov ; also u r c a x e i a ' c o n ­

'consular'

are

found

rendered

not

only

by

but also b y f o r m s with n o vocalic initial, s u c h a s

m

ptyyl p(y)(qy T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is^ i n p a r t i c u l a r c o n s p i c u o u s i n instances w h e r e i n p a s s a g e s written i n H e b r e w t h e definite article ha- (written h-) p r e c e d e s the n o u n i n question. T h e rule i n s u c h c a s e s are spellings o f the t y p e hptyqws

(that i s article ha- + *7taxiKO<; for i m a x i K o q ) , a n d i n the c a s e ,

w h i c h c o n c e r n s u s directly h e r e hptyq

(= article + *7r,o9f|KT| for drco-

0f|KT|), w h e r e b y i n a n u m b e r of attestations syntactical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e x c l u d e a priori the interpretation of these spellings a s u n d e t e r m i n a t e d a n d thereby d o not p e r m i t c o n s i d e r i n g the c h a r a c t e r h- to b e a variant of the w o r d initial o r a p r e s e r v e d Classical G r e e k b r e a t h i n g ( w h i c h w o u l d n o t b e a p p r o p r i a t e at all for the w o r d d7to9f|KT|). W e are c o n s e q u e n t l y entitled to posit d7to9f|KT| in the m e a n i n g of ' s a l e s - s t o r e ' as attested in the J e w i s h - G r e e k v e r n a c u l a r .

*

Calamarium T h e " s e m a n t i c shift" o f K a X a u x t p i o v from ' p e n c a s e ' t o ' i n k w e l l ' for

w h i c h H . and R. K a h a n e

(80)

( 8 3 )

b r i n g e v i d e n c e f o r G r e e k from H i e r o n y m u s ,

T h i s feature is o b s e r v a b l e in e x t r a - J e w i s h k o i n e o n l y p r e c e d i n g a c o n s o n a n t g r o u p i n v o l v i n g a sibilant, c p . m y s t u d y q u o t e d in the p r e c e d i n g n o t e , p. 7 0 [ = East and West I. p . 4 7 3 ) ; K. D i e t e r i c h , Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache, p p . 3 0 ff.

(81)

C p . opobalsamum

(82)

T h e material c o m p i l e d b y H . a n d R. K a h a n e g i v e s e v i d e n c e for a p h a e r e s i s o f that sort in a d d i t i o n t o apotheca o n l y in w o r d s b e l o n g i n g t o a m u c h later p e r i o d , s u c h a s £7riaK07to<; > O E . biscop, (a)podisa < djt68e^i<; " q u i t t a n c e " or M o d . Gr. Jtoicduiorov < 6 7 i o K a u i c r i o v (o.c. [ n o t e 6 7 ] , p p . 3 7 8 , 4 3 3 , 5 3 5 ) .

non ababalsamum,

A p p . Probi 151.

(83)

H . a n d R. K a h a n e o.c, p p . 3 8 3 , 4 2 8 c h a r a c t e r i z e the u s e o f K a X a u . & p i o v a s d e s i g ­ n a t i o n o f t h e ink w e l l e x p l i c i t l y a s " o c c i d e n t a l " , but c p . t h e r e m a r k s o f p r i n c i p l e above, note 67.

33

THE LANGUAGE OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA OF ROME

but ascribe it to Latin n o t earlier t h a n t h e 8th century, is d e m o n s t r a b l e from relatively very early R a b b i n i c a l s o u r c e s ; interestingly e n o u g h , t h e earlier s o u r c e s k n o w this w o r d only a s a d e s i g n a t i o n for the ink well. It is of c o u r s e only in t h e latter m e a n i n g that this w o r d c o u l d d e v e l o p to denote, in m o d e r n G r e e k a n d o t h e r M e d i t e r r a n e a n l a n g u a g e s t h e cuttle­ fish (kalamari), b y e q u a t i n g it to s o m e k i n d of c o n t a i n e r of c o l o u r e d fluid.

Parabola,

*parabolare

and the vocabulary

of

"speaking"

T h e R o m a n c e w o r d family of parler, parlare, parole e t c . w a s — as far as I c o u l d ascertain — the first G r e e k lexical entity identified as s t e m m i n g from a J e w i s h s o u r c e in all o f t h e R o m a n c e v o c a b u l a r y . T h i s — w a s - s h o w n already b y J. W a c k e r n a g e l in 1 9 1 3

( 8 4 )

.

A s is well k n o w n , t h e R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e area is d i v i d e d into at least two regions c o n c e r n i n g the e x p r e s s i o n for " s p e a k i n g " . T h e j u x t a p o s i ­ tion of S p a n i s h hablar with early L a t i n fabulari " t a l k " a n d t h e family of parlare

common

to o t h e r R o m a n c e

languages

demonstrates —

if

d e m o n s t r a t i o n is still necessary — h o w the Ibero-Latin i d i o m s a r e derived from a m u c h earlier stage of L a t i n p o p u l a r l a n g u a g e than t h e rest of the R o m a n c e i d i o m s

( 8 5 )

s t e m m i n g from late popular, c o m m o n l y called

' V u l g a r ' Latin, that layer b e i n g m u c h less e x p o s e d to G r e e k influence than Post-Classical Latin. W e d o n o t h a v e t o deal in this c o n t e x t with t h e r e p l a c e m e n t of the m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y u n c o m f o r t a b l e d e p o n e n t

6)

loquP

(which b e l o n g s to t h e written l a n g u a g e ) b y m e a n s of the i m p o s i t i o n of a more suitable m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y r e g u l a r v o c a b l e in the c o m m o n l a n g u a g e ; we shall rather g o into t h e q u e s t i o n h o w a n d o n w h a t g r o u n d s the G r e e k loans parabola a n d *parabolare w e r e c o n s i d e r e d as ' s u i t a b l e ' , since n e i ­ ther classical Latin parabola

n o r c o m m o n G r e e k 7tapa|k>AT| cross t h e

semantic b o u n d a r i e s of ' p a r a b l e ' , a r h e t o r i c simile. W a c k e r n a g e l

( 8 4 ) IF 3 1 ( 1 9 1 2 - 1 3 ) 2 6 2 f f . ( = Kleine Schriften, c p . a l s o E . L o f s t e d t , Late Latin, p p . 8 1 - 8 4 .

( 8 7 )

has

II. p p . 1 2 3 9 f f . ) , e s p . p . 2 6 7 ( = 1 2 4 4 ) ;

( 8 5 ) S p a n i s h palabra in t h e n o n - B i b l i c a l s e n s e o f " w o r d " w a s incorporared in the l a n ­ g u a g e at a d a t e m u c h later than hablar; J- C o r o m i n a s , Diccionario critico etimologico de la lengua castellana, s.v. palabra, a d m i t s for " p r e - c l a s s i c a l " u s a g e t h e " e t y m o l o g i c a l " m e a n i n g o n l y , w h i l e h e r e l u c t a n t l y s u g g e s t s that in a f e w p a s s a g e s o f the Cid a " t r a n s l a t i o n " b y " w o r d " m a y a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d . ( 8 6 ) A . Ernout, " E l i m i n a t i o n d e s f o r m e s a n o m a l e s d a n s la c o n j u g a i s o n " , i n : Aspects du vocabulaire latin, p p . 1 5 1 - 1 7 2 ( = Probleme der lateinischen Grammatik, K. Strunk ed., pp. 2 1 2 - 2 4 0 ) ; the point in question here is dealt with o n p. 1 6 4 ( = 2 3 0 ) . ( 8 7 ) L.c. ( n o t e 8 4 ) .

34

H.B. ROSEN

traced the Christian Latin d e v e l o p m e n t of parabola to ' s e n t e n t i o u s say­ ing, rhetorical p h r a s e ' (= prouerbium) b a c k to the u s e of rcapaPoA/n as a translational equivalent of the S e p t u a g i n t for H e b r e w masdl 1 . com­ parison, 2. (sententious) saying, 3. locution, act of s p e e c h ' (also the P r o v e r b i a S a l o m o n i s bore this n a m e in H e b r e w ) a n d declared this as a " p a r t i c u l a r i t y of J u d a e o - G r e e k translation p r a c t i c e s " a d d i n g a n o t insignificant a p h o r i s m , n a m e l y 4

"daB es im Leben der Sprache gar nicht immer so naturlich zugeht, und willkurliche Kreuzungen darin sehr weitreichende Wirkungen ausuben konnen. Im geschichtlichen Leben ist alles voll Bastardtum." B u t in this m a x i m , w e m u s t admit, the e x i s t e n c e of an intermediate stage h a d b e e n overlooked, n a m e l y t h e o n e of t h e use of the G r e e k lan­ g u a g e of the J e w i s h inhabitants of ftome; that u s a g e alone c o u l d h a v e constituted the link b e t w e e n the S e p t u a g i n t u s a g e ( w e h a v e seen a b o v e that in quite a few J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s t h e Biblical text w a s current a m o n g s t t h e flock in its already c a n o n i c G r e e k version at least as m u c h as the H e b r e w original) a n d the R o m a n p o p u l a r l a n g u a g e a n d it is this c i r c u m s t a n c e alone w h i c h c a n explain that t h e family of G r e e k rcapaPoATj took the place of R o m a n fabulari fabulare: this c a n b e plau­ sibly d e m o n s t r a t e d b y the non-original s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t from fabula fabulari to a vocable for 'tale of a f a b l e ' , semantically tallying y

y

with rcapaPoA.f| ' p a r a b l e ' (precisely fully a n a l o g o u s to H e b r e w matel), a d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h could not h a v e taken p l a c e o n any soil other than the J e w i s h o n e . It c a n therefore b e easily u n d e r s t o o d that L a t i n B i b l e versions render rcapapoX/n, not only by prouerbium ( D t . 28.37), b u t also reflect t h e m b y w a y of " c a i q u e " as parabola ( I K g d 5.12 = I I I K g d 4.32); there is o n e r e m a r k a b l e p a s s a g e ( N u m . 23.7), w h e r e the Latin r e n d e r i n g c o u l d h a v e b e e n readily u n d e r s t o o d o n the basis of t h e v u l g a r Latin u s a g e a n d w h e r e the n o u n parabola is involved in a collocation w h i c h w a s in g e n u i n e Latin l a n g u a g e usage appropriate for t h e n o u n uerbum: [Balaam] adsumpta parabola sua dixitS . %%)

( 8 8 ) T w o o f t h e Itaia v e r s i o n s ( c p . H. R o n s c h , Itala und Vulgata, p . 2 4 8 ) r e n d e r Phil. 2 . 3 0 t h e w o r d 7capapoXeocrduevoc, w h i c h i s n o t e a s i l y interpretable a n d i s f o l l o w e d b y xf\ \|/uxfl ( V u l g a t e : tradens animam suam), b y parabolatus, possibly o n the basis o f a variant o r b e c a u s e o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r d rcapajk>A.£i>ad|A£vo<;; but this N e o t e s t a m e n t a r i a n e x p r e s s i o n d o e s n o t s t e m f r o m t h e s a m e t y p e o f J e w i s h literary source a s the other items o f vocabulary pertaining to the Greek o f the Palestinian J e w s , a n d h a s n o bearing o n o u r p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s .

THE LANGUAGE OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA OF ROME

35

It is in that s a m e s e m a n t i c field that w e observe another interesting d e v e l o p m e n t of m e a n i n g , w h i c h h o w e v e r is even m o r e than the preced­ ing o n e situated within the r a n g e of religious habits. O n e m i g h t h a v e asked w h y the m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y irregular Latin verb loqui w a s not replaced, in late Latin, by the s i m p l e regular verb orare derived from os m o u t h \ T h e straightforward c o m m o n a n s w e r to that question, n a m e l y that orare h a d u n d e r g o n e a d e v e l o p m e n t of desecularization t o w a r d s Christian Latin, c o m i n g to m e a n specifically " s a y a p r a y e r " rather than " s p e a k , b e s e e c h " , d o e s not reflect the w h o l e truth. In the f r a m e w o r k of o u r present deliberations the q u e s t i o n rests, what the catalytic factor w a s w h i c h triggered the d e v e l o p m e n t of orare " s p e a k " (with, e.g., oratio, orator in the field of s i m p l e rhetoric) t o w a r d the field of religious c u s ­ t o m . In our opinion, the possibility m u s t not be excluded that that factor w a s a specifically J e w i s h use of the A r a m a i c root d-b-b w h i c h w a s c o n ­ verted t o w a r d s m e d i e v a l E u r o p e a n J e w i s h usage to a verb of prayer, davvenen, with a G e r m a n i z e d m o r p h o l o g y . Certain G e r m a n J e w i s h c o m ­ munities h a v e for p r a y i n g the v e r b oren directly taken o v e r from Latin orare. Let us recall that in s o m e Christian sources dicere signifies ' s a y ­ i n g ' o n e ' s prayers and that benedicere > benfn b e c a m e the standard J e w i s h w o r d for saying a blessing. 4

D. I N T E R N A L L A T I N S E M A N T I C ABLE JEWISH ORIGIN

T h e p r o b a b i l i t y of s e m a n t i c

DEVELOPMENT OF

PROB­

Hebraisms

T o posit an influence of the J e w i s h colloquial language in R o m e is occasionally not only plausible, but a l s o imperative, e v e n w h e n o n e traces s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t s of i n d i g e n o u s Latin words taking place at a relatively late period. In such c a s e s , in s o m e of which a l e x i c o - s e m a n tic p a s s a g e through Hellenistic G r e e k is a not immaterial factor, the a s s u m p t i o n of a J e w i s h b a c k g r o u n d of s u c h semantic processes p r o v i d e s us in a n u m b e r of cases with the best explanation for that p h e n o m e n o n . In the following, w e shall try to d e m o n s t r a t e the considerable plausibil­ ity of such a h y p o t h e s i s in t w o of the m o r e important cases of that nature, n a m e l y the history of memoria ' t o m b s t o n e ' (a m e a n i n g originat­ ing in J e w i s h G r e e k ) a n d a v e r b pacare in the sense of ' p a y i n g ' r e c o n structible from c o m m o n R o m a n c e ; an internal Latin semantic d e v e l o p ­ m e n t of pacare t o w a r d s this signification m u s t be excluded, in m y v i e w ,

36

H.B. ROSEN

but s u c h m e a n i n g c a n be very plausibly e x p l a i n e d as a c a i q u e originat­ ing in the idiomatics of J e w i s h colloquial l a n g u a g e .

MEMORIA

"tombstone"

W e have had occasion

(89)

to s h o w that P a l e s t i n i a n sepulchral m o n u ­

m e n t s c o m m e m o r a t i n g d e a d p e r s o n s of G r e e k o r S e m i t i c n a m e s

( 9 0 )

are

inscribed w i t h u £ u . 6 p i o v ( | i r } | i 6 p i o v ) , w h i l e t o m b s of the d e a d with Latin

names

are

inscribed

as

0f|KT|.

The

expression

jiepopiov

(jrnu,6piov) h a s therefore to b e t a k e n as a J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c d e s i g n a t i o n of a sepulchral m o n u m e n t . T h i s later u s a g e is b a s e d w i t h o u t any d o u b t o n the c u r r e n t f o r m u l a s h o w n o n J e w i s h t o m b s t o n e s of the p e r i o d in q u e s t i o n , w h i c h involves n o u n s d e r i v e d from H e b r e w z-k-r d-k-r)

s u c h as H e b r e w mzkru

p r o n o u n c e d mazteret,

typically " B i b l i c a l - E c c l e s i a s t i c "

(9l)

(Aramaic

'memorial'. The

Latin loan w o r d g o e s b a c k to a

G r e e k m o d e l ; h o w e v e r , this G r e e k m o d e l e x e r t s its influence o n V u l g a r Latin

in its characteristically

Debrunner memoria,

( 9 2 )

and

exclusively

J e w i s h 'signification.

has p r o p o s e d to posit u.vf|UT| as a direct m o d e l of feminine

but this is rather not a c c e p t a b l e , s i n c e livfijarj, too, in the

m e a n i n g of ' s e p u l c h r a l m e m o r i a l ' o c c u r s only in o n e inscription found in R o m e , w h i c h has vuv el veKuc,, iceiaai ta
on a t o m b stone w h i c h a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n e r e c t e d b y a J e w i s h family, to j u d g e by the c o n c l u d i n g formula e u y o x e i , o r m o r e particularly by the n a m e of Procla, a n a m e w h i c h is not rarely attested in the J e w i s h cata­ c o m b s , and her h u s b a n d P a u l u s , w h i c h h o w e v e r is a n a m e not yet found

(89) (90)

(91)

(92) (93)

S e e " D i e S p r a c h s i t u a t i o n " ( s e e n o t e 2 ) p p . 2 1 5 - 2 4 0 [ = East and West I, p p . 4 8 9 5 1 4 ] , e s p . p. 2 2 0 [ = 4 9 4 ] . T h i s d o e s not n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e the e t h n i c a l a p p u r t e n a n c e o f the d e a d , c p . m y study q u o t e d in the f o r e g o i n g n o t e and a l s o J . N . S e v e n s t e r , Do You Know Greek? How Much Greek Could the First Jewish Christians Have Known?, p. 106. A . D e b r u n n e r , " G r i e c h i s c h e B e d e u t u n g s l e h n w d r t e r i m L a t e i n i s c h e n " , i n : Fest­ schrift F.C. Andreas, p p . 1 6 - 3 2 , e s p . p. 2 2 ; the u s e o f memoria in the P e r e g r i n a t i o A e t h e r i a e is a l s o i n s t r u c t i v e : o u t o f t w e l v e o c c u r r e n c e s the w o r d e x p r e s s e s ten t i m e s the c o n c e p t o f " m o n u m e n t , t o m b " , but there are a l s o o c c a s i o n a l attestations in that m e a n i n g in other a n d o l d e r s o u r c e s ( e . g . , Plin. N H 3 . 3 4 ) . O.c, f o r e g o i n g n o t e . A / P / z 4 8 ( 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 18f.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA OF ROME

37

(94)

in J e w i s h sepulchral p i a c e s . O n the other h a n d , w e d o not k n o w w h a t family relations prevailed b e t w e e n the d o n a t o r s of the stone and the d e a d p e r s o n buried, A m m o n i u s , w h i c h in all likelihood w a s not a J e w i s h n a m e . I w o u l d refrain from a n n o u n c i n g a j u d g m e n t as to w h e t h e r memorium in the neuter g e n d e r w a s already a full-fledged v o c a b l e of the Latin colloquial l a n g u a g e or j u s t had a G r e c i z i n g suffix a p p e n d e d to it; in the latter case, o n e s h o u l d a s s u m e that it w a s retransformed into its Latin s h a p e of feminine g e n d e r , while for the former a s s u m p t i o n o n e w o u l d find in it a relatively early e x a m p l e of the well k n o w n femininization of Latin neuter n o u n s . ( 9 5 )

PACARE

*"pay"

—We-shall-enumerate s o m e r e a s o n s w h i c h lead u s to reject the c o m ­ m o n l y p r o v i d e d e x p l a n a t i o n of the m e a n i n g of ' p a y ' as originating from that of " s a t i s f y i n g " ("befriedigen") : a r e a s o n footing on s e m a n t i c s is that in Classical Latin " s a t i s f y i n g " is n o m o r e attested as a m e a n i n g of pacare than " p a y i n g " . T h e s e c o n d reason w o u l d b e that if in Classical Latin pacare had at all s o m e signification not too distant from "satisfy­ i n g " , the object of such a transitive verb w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n o u n d e s i g ­ nating a p e r s o n , while that of " p a y i n g " is e i t h e r an a m o u n t or the value of a real thing. C o n c e r n i n g the first point, the m o s t frequent sense of the d e n o m i n a t i v e pacare, d e r i v e d from pax " p e a c e " , is that of " m a k i n g an a r r a n g e m e n t " (in particular for an a d m i n i s t e r e d territory) and thus m u s t b e traced back to the m e a n i n g of pax as " s e t t l e m e n t , a r r a n g e m e n t " (cp. pangere " t o s e t t l e " , pacere " t o c o m e to an a r r a n g e m e n t " ) w h i c h is not {96)

(94)

H.J. L e o n , o.c. (note 7 1 ) , p. 1 2 7 . Still, the text o f the e p i t a p h c o n t i n u e s w i t h a b l e s s ­ ing entrusting the w e l f a r e o f the d e a d p e r s o n a n d their b e l o v e d t o G e o i "the g o d s " , in a phrase w h i c h c o u l d , h o w e v e r , h a v e b e e n taken from a b o o k o f f o r m u l a s .

(95)

A different v i e w o f the o r i g i n o f the g e n d e r c h a n g e ( p o s s i b l e m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e a n a l y s i s o f the plural - a - e n d i n g and an ' u n s i c h e r e s S p r a c h g e f u h r in respect t o the u s e o f g e n d e r s ) is taken b y B e n g t L o f s t e d t in " R u c k s c h a u und A u s b l i c k a u f d i e v u l g a r l a t e i n i s c h e F o r s c h u n g " i n : Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt 2 9 / 2 , pp. 4 5 3 - 4 7 9 (at p. 4 7 0 f . ) a n d in his article in Archivum Latinitatis Medii Aevi 2 9 ( 1 9 5 9 ) 2 I f f . ; h e u n d e r l i n e s that t h e form memorium, w h i c h o c c u r s in s o m e Latin i n s c r i p t i o n s , m a y be regarded as o n e m o r e c a s e o f the p r o b a b l y c o m m o n g e n d e r c h a n g e f r o m the f e m i n i n e t o the neuter in L a t e Latin ( c p . a l s o Einar L o f s t e d t , Philologischer Kommentar zur Peregrinatio Aetheriae, p. 1 3 6 ) .

(96)

" S a t i s f y " = G e r m a n befriedigen: in G e r m a n c o m m e r c i a l j a r g o n this befriedigen has financial i m p l i c a t i o n s , e . g . , einen Gldubiger befriedigen "appease a creditor" = " p a y a creditor w h a t is d u e t o h i m " ; u s i n g that s e m a n t i c e m p l o y as an e t y m o l o g i z ­ i n g m e a n s relating the v e r b befriedigen t o Friede g i v e s us in fact the i m p r e s s i o n o f an i l l - s u i t e d p u n .

38

H.B. ROSEN

only the original m e a n i n g of that n o u n in R e p u b l i c a n Latin, b u t p e r h a p s e v e n the only valid o n e ; the sense of " p e a c e " is a s e c o n d a r y and later d e v e l o p m e n t , to w h i c h w e shall h a v e to return later. A perfectly c o m p a r a b l e m o r p h o l o g i c a l - d e r i v a t i o n a l - s e m a n t i c relation a p p e a r s to prevail in H e b r e w : sdlo'm " c o m p l e t e n e s s , integrity, welfare, (later) p e a c e " (see b e l o w ) relates to silem "restituit ad integrum, replaced, indemnified, p a i d " . T h i s parallel c o m e s i m m e d i a t e l y to m i n d but c a n be c o m p r e h e n d e d only if the regularly derived d e n o m i n a t i v e silem is c o n s i d e r e d to g o b a c k to a sense of the base w o r d other than " p e a c e " . O n c e this is under­ stood, the easiest w a y to explain the Latin d e v e l o p m e n t , without imply­ ing any internal contradiction, is to regard it as a loan translation from H e b r e w in a d o m a i n of life in wjiich J e w i s h influence is by n o m e a n s improbable if o n e takes into a c c o u n t cultural history, n a m e l y the o n e of civil a n d c o m m e r c i a l l a w : if the c o n c e p t of Sdlo'm as " p e a c e " , a m e a n i n g w h i c h h a d already b e c o m e fully d e v e l o p e d in the b e g i n n i n g of the p e r i o d of Christianity, is taken as the point of d e p a r t u r e of the s e m a n t i c m o t i v a t i o n for the derivation on q u e s t i o n , o n e could take, as the easiest and best m e a n s for the p u r p o s e of Latinizing this c o n c e p t , the v e r b pacare derived from pax, w h i c h in turn itself had only recently b e c o m e a designation of " p e a c e " , and thus unite the H e b r e w relation of the d e n o m i n a t i v e and the base n o u n with that materialized in Latin. T h e r e is a m p l e e v i d e n c e for the fact that the w o r d and the notion of Sdlo'm w e r e quite familiar in J e w i s h and Christian circles of R o m e ; thus the w i d e - s p r e a d c u s t o m to inscribe — w h e t h e r in H e b r e w characters or in transliteration — the w o r d Sdlo'm on t o m b s t o n e s , w h e r e b y e v e n here the parallel d e v e l o p m e n t of pax — like that of elpfjvrj and sdlo'm w h i c h w e shall presently discuss — can b e traced b a c k to mutual influences by the cultural areas c o n c e r n e d within the s a m e c o n c e p t u a l d o m a i n w h i c h w e h a d already occasion to m e n t i o n a b o v e dealing with memoria in w h i c h quite a n u m b e r of s e m a n t i c points of contact b e t w e e n the lan­ g u a g e s in q u e s t i o n are o b s e r v a b l e , n a m e l y the d o m a i n of sepulchral (97)

inscriptions

(97)

(98)

. It is the w o r d i n g of the l a s t - m e n t i o n e d e p i g r a p h i c a l texts,

C p . , e . g . , R. Y a r o n , " R e i c h s r e c h t , V o l k s r e c h t u n d T a l m u d " , Revue Internationale des Droits de I'Antiquite 11 ( 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 2 8 1 - 2 9 8 . ( 9 8 ) " I c h m o c h t e e i n e n V e r m i t t l e r v o n B e d e u t u n g s g r a z i s m e n in d e n Grabinschriften s e h e n . " A . D e b m n n e r , q.c. ( n o t e 9 1 ) , p. 2 2 . D e b r u n n e r appears t o c o n s i d e r that b a c k t r a c i n g o f the s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t s s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o the G r e e k l a n g u a g e a s a s o u r c e area. H o w e v e r , "requiescat in pace" s h o w s e v e r y s i g n o f J e w i s h - R o m a n o r i g i n a n d " i m i t a t e s " ( L e o n , o.c. ( n o t e 7 1 ) , p. 1 3 1 ) the frequent c o n c l u d i n g f o r m u l a

THE LANGUAGE OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA OF ROME

39

in particular that of bilingual o n e s , w h i c h represents the final stage of the mutual m e r g e r of the s e m a n t i c identity of those three w o r d s which hail from three different l a n g u a g e s and originally b e l o n g to three different conceptual fields. In H e b r e w the w o r d sdlo'm is m a t c h e d by the p r e d i c ­ ative qualitative form Sdlem " c o m p l e t e , perfect, i n t e g e r " (also in ter­ m i n o l o g i c a l use with respect to sacrificial offerings), w h i c h a s s u m e d in the juridical j a r g o n of Post-Biblical T a l m u d i c literature the m e a n i n g of "intact, u n d a m a g e d , integer"; thus, in the phrase " t o acquit w a g e s " the adjective sdlem implies a sense the o p p o s i t e of w h i c h is e x p r e s s e d by the root n-z-q " t o d a m a g e " . It is easily understandable that the d e n o m i n a t i v e verb, w h i c h originally e x p r e s s e d the notion of " t o m a k e c o m p l e t e " with regard to m o n e t a r y a n d realty v a l u e s , acquired the m e a n i n g of " c o m ­ p e n s a t i o n " , as in " t o restitute (or: m a k e g o o d , Salem, verb) the full (sdlem) d a m a g e " or " t h e d a m a g i n g party is obliged to m a k e c o m p e n ­ sation" , w h i c h — m o n e t a r y e c o n o m y having been fully d e v e l o p e d out of an e c o n o m y b a s e d o n real v a l u e s — can only refer to p a y m e n t , since one o b s e r v e s that w h a t is referred to by that verb in the T a l m u d i c text is m o r e and m o r e p a y m e n t as a r e m u n e r a t i o n and not exclusively as an indemnification or restitution. In the p r e - T a l m u d i c period the use of the d e n o m i n a t i v e v e r b Salem e x p r e s s e d for a certain time the c o n c e p t of "pacifying, m a k i n g a peaceful a r r a n g e m e n t , m a k i n g p e a c e " w h i c h w a s a d e q u a t e for m a i n t a i n i n g the formal relation to the n o u n Sdlo'm in w h a t ­ e v e r m e a n i n g the latter e x p r e s s e d at any given m o m e n t . ( 9 9 )

1100)

o f sepulchral inscriptions &v eiprjvrj fi KoiuTiaiq auxoG, which in turn is a faithful rendering o f ynwh bslwm £1 mskbw ( L e o n , ibid., ( 9 9 ) B a b y i . T a l m u d , Baba Qdmd, ch. 1. ( 1 0 0 ) L.c, § 1 .

p. 1 2 2 f.).

III. T H E

J E W I S H

O F T H E

C O N T R I B U T I O N T O

V O C A B U L A R Y

O F T H E

M E D I E V A L

T H E

F O R M A T I O N

INSTITUTIONS

O F

E U R O P E

A. B A C K G R O U N D E v e r since the a p p e a r a n c e of E m i l e B e n v e n i s t e ' s inspiring a n d m o n ­ u m e n t a l t w o v o l u m e s o n I n d o - E u r o p e a n social i n s t i t u t i o n s , it w a s e v i d e n t that there is h a r d l y a n y t h i n g c o m p a r a b l e to the study of the h i s ­ tory of w o r d s a n d the internal s y s t e m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n of the v o c a b u l a r y by w a y of_an_etymological as well as t h e m a t i c lexicological r e s e a r c h w h i c h c o u l d be used to s h e d light o n the m o s t important c o n c e p t s of the h u m a n societies to w h i c h a c c e s s t h r o u g h direct observation is n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e : their public a n d civil l a w , their g o v e r n m e n t , their trade a n d c o m m e r c e , the o r g a n i z a t i o n of their k i n s h i p relations, their r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t i o n s , in short, their " i n s t i t u t i o n s " . In b o r r o w i n g that term from the great m a s t e r of linguistics, I m e a n to e m p h a s i z e the p r o m i s i n g nature of s u c h e n q u i r i e s , in particular in c a s e s in w h i c h the intimate social a n d linguistic c o n t e n t s , or r a t h e r s y m b i o s e s , are c o n d u c i v e to the 0 0 0

d i s c o v e r y of transfers, rather too frequently called i n f l u e n c e s ' , of c o n ­ c e p t i o n s , of c u s t o m s or, very g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , of social relations in the d o m a i n of ideas as well as in the material area, from o n e n a t i o n to another. In the p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r an e x a m i n a t i o n w a s c o n d u c t e d of t h e l a n ­ g u a g e u s a g e of t h e J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n in R o m e at the b e g i n n i n g of t h e i m p e r i a l e r a a n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e o n s p o k e n L a t i n . In the p r e s e n t c h a p ­ ter w e shall h a v e to c o n s i d e r t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n m a d e by t h e J e w s of R o m e a n d their l i n g u i s t i c h e r i t a g e in the w a k e of A n t i q u i t y a n d t o w a r d s t h e M i d d l e A g e s . T h e s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t of t h e s e t w o h i s t o r ­ ical p h e n o m e n a is j u s t i f i e d a n d n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e of the d i f f e r e n c e of the c o n c e p t u a l a r e a s w i t h i n w h i c h this i n f l u e n c e w a s o p e r a t i v e in t h e t w o p e r i o d s m e n t i o n e d . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d in w h i c h the J e w i s h p o p u ­ lation, i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h w h a t p r o b a b l y w a s the l o w e r c l a s s e s of n a t i v e R o m a n s , left its i m p r i n t h e r e a n d t h e r e o n the L a t i n l e x i c o n ,

( 1 0 1 ) Le vocabulaire

des institutions

indo-europeennes,

Paris 1 9 6 9 .

42

H.B. ROS£N

o n e n o t e s that t h e v o c a b u l a r y t r a n s f e r s w e r e v e r y m u c h l i m i t e d to t h e fields of t r a d e , c o m m e r c e a n d to r e l a t i o n s e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s : w e recall the h i s t o r y of t h e t e r m of " p a y i n g " . However in a m u c h later p e r i o d s u c h t e r m s a r e f o u n d in t h e m o r a l , e t h i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s s p h e r e s of life. T o a t t r i b u t e this p h e n o m e n o n to t h e g r o w t h of C h r i s t i a n i s m , as is c o m m o n p r a c t i c e , d o e s n o t fully d o j u s t i c e to the o v e r a l l b a c k g r o u n d of that e v o l u t i o n . W e s h a l l s e e in t h e f o l l o w ­ ing that t h o s e w h o c r e a t e d s o m e of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l n o t i o n s of C h r i s ­ tianity m u s t h a v e b e e n a w a r e of t h e H e b r e w s e e d w h i c h w a s at their origin. ( l 0 2 )

In the first of o u r c a s e - s t u d i e s w e shall d e a l w i t h a n o t i o n s t e m m i n g from t h e l e g a l area, w h i c h w a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c for t h e e a r l i e r J e w i s h R o m a n v o c a b u l a r y transfers, a c q u i r i n g a m o r a l v a l u e w h i c h c l i n g s to it a s a " C h r i s t i a n " c o n c e p t e v e n u p to this very d a y . T h i s is the c a s e of the n o t i o n of " p e a c e " u p o n w h i c h w e t o u c h e d for the p u r p o s e of s t u d y i n g t h e h i s t o r y of " p a y i n g " o n the b a s i s of t h e a n a l o g y of t h e r e l a t i o n s pacare i pax a n d sal'em: Sdlo'm in H e b r e w . T h e c o n c e p t of " p e a c e " , w h i c h t o w a r d s t h e e n d of the i m p e r i a l e p o c h a n d t h e e x p a n ­ sion of C h r i s t i a n i s m c a m e to b e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e L a t i n w o r d pax, is a s y n t h e s i s of t h r e e c o n c e p t s of different o r i g i n , d i f f e r e n t as to their c u l ­ tural c r a d l e a s well a s to t h e a r e a of h u m a n a n d social institutions inside w h i c h it is o p e r a t i v e . W e shall g o h e r e into t h e history of that c o n c e p t in d e t a i l , b e c a u s e — s t r a n g e l y e n o u g h — B e n v e n i s t e did not d e v o t e a s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t to it n o r t o o t h e r t e r m s of v o c a b u l a r y related to it.

B. " P E A C E " In the birth of t h e lexical c o n c e p t of " p e a c e " o n e notices a m i x t u r e of the n o t i o n s o f tranquillity, a G r e e k c o n c e p t (Elpf|VTj), w h i c h is in con­ trast to the idea of tumult or great c o m m o t i o n (7t6X.sjicx;) , including the t u m u l t of a battle, but w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s d o e s not h a v e its place essentially in the s e m a n t i c area of war. T h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d to the syncretistic creation of the n o t i o n of " p e a c e " is very typical of a p e o p l e of a n o n - u r b a n civilization, such as the Israelites prior (103)

(102) (103)

A b o v e , pp. 37-39. S e e P. Chantraine, Dictionnaire 7ieXeu.i£co, p . 8 7 5 .

etymologique

de

la

langue

grecque,

s.

v.

THE JEWISH CONTRIBUTION TO THE VOCABULARY OF INSTITUTIONS

43

to the c o n q u e s t of C a n a a n , n a m e l y the notion of "faring w e l l " , of integrity or c o m p l e t e n e s s ( w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to the adjective sdlem " c o m p l e t e " integer " i n t a c t " ) , of not b e i n g e n d a n g e r e d ; w e refer, of c o u r s e , to the abstract n o u n sdlo'm. T h e third contributory c o n c e p t is a juridical o n e ; its e m e r g e n c e is easily understandable in a society w h i c h bases its very existence o n the internal relations existing in a legal sys­ t e m , a n d w h o s e standing in the w o r l d is founded on the regulated rela­ tions b e t w e e n itself and their foreign n e i g h b o u r s , the ius gentium. In that civilization pax is an u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t w e e n t w o free p e r s o n s , an a g r e e ­ ment reached: Pax commersque est uobis mecum. "You have w e l l - o r d e r e d r e l a t i o n s and social connections with m e . " (PL St. 519) Obsecro ut per pacem liceat te adloqui, ut ne uapulem. "May I please be permitted to speak to you in a w a y a g r e e d so that I should not be trashed by you." (PL Am. 388) Apollo, quaeso te ut des pacem propitius. "Apollo, please, I beseech you that, favourably disposed, you should grant (ritual) accord." (PI. Mer. 678) T h e s e literary attestations are late pre-CIassical Latin, and o n e m i g h t a d d a phrase taken from a sepulchral inscription in h o n o u r of A p p i u s 2

C l a u d i u s (311 B.C.E., C I L I . 192): Tuscorum exercitum fiidit. pacem fieri cum Tyrrho rege prohibuit. "He liquidated the Etruscan army; he prohibited that at any time an a r r a n g e ­ m e n t be made with King Tyrrhos"; w h i l e such an " a r r a n g e m e n t " w o u l d , w e r e it in fact m a d e , include a c e s ­ sation of hostilities, w h a t is intended by this prohibition is, of c o u r s e , a political treaty. O n this basis the term pax c o u l d finally, at a relatively late period of the d e v e l o p m e n t of Latin, o c c u p y a position in the category to w h i c h also the expression bellum b e l o n g e d and be in contrast to the latter t e r m : neque bellum gerere neque pacem have p e a c e " (Sal. Cat. 31.2).

habere "neither to lead w a r nor to

At the height of the Classical p e r i o d o n e finds a very fitting definition of the notion of pax in C i c e r o ' s Philippics 2 . 4 4 . 1 1 3 : Nomen pacis dulce est et ipsa res salutaris; sed inter pacem et seruitutem plurimum interest: pax est tranquilla libertas, seruitus postremum malorum omnium. "The very word pax is pleasant and in itself a salutary thing; but mere is a very great difference between pax and servitude: pax is undisturbed liberty, servitude is the ultimate of all evils".

44

H.B. ROSEN

It m u s t b e that s a m e notion of pax w h i c h u n d e r l i e s the o n e of the " N e w O r d e r " instituted by O c t a v i a n u s a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t e r m e d "pax Augusta" or "Pax Romana '^ \ m

Let us n o w g o b a c k to sdlo'm. w a r n o r to tranquillity:

Its Biblical u s e

( 1 0 5 )

h a s n o relation to

WayisPal lahem Isdlom wayd?mer: "hdsdlom ?dbi'kem?" ... wayoTmru': sdlom. — At ille ... resalutatis (TUCOC, s x e x e ; ) interrogauit eos dicens: " s a l u u s n e est (si uyiaivei;) pater uester s e n e x ? " ... qui responderunt: " s o s p e s est." — " . . . and asked them of their w e l f a r e , and said: Ts your father w e l l ? ' ... and they said: '(He) is w e l l . ' " Gen. 43.27f. (106)

T h e r e is n o c o n c e p t u a l relation, not e v e n o n e of contrast, with w a r

( 1 0 7 )

up to the point that it^is possible to inquire a b o u t the " s t a t e of the w a r " the e x a c t w a y o n e a s k s about " t h e state of s o m e b o d y ' s h e a l t h " or the " g e n e r a l state of a f f a i r s " : Way'itfal Ddwid lislo m Yo?db wlislo m hdtam wlislo m ham'ilhdma. — Quaesiuit Dauid quam r e c t e a g e ret Ioab (£paVcr|crev ... elc, elpfivrjv 'Ia>a(3) et populus et q u o m o d o a d m i n i s t r a r e t u r bellum (elc, slpf|VT|v I O O 7T.OA.EHOU). — "David asked of him h o w Joab d i d and h o w the peo­ ple felt and h o w the war w a s g o i n g . " USam. 11.7. (104)

4

E i n v o l l e r , d u r c h leges

wieder Rbmers (C.

&hnlich

durch

als das

ihn

u n d iura,

tragende

K o c h in Realencyclopddie

suchungen Augustin

zur

romischen

und der antike

durch

entsprechenden

fides, Inhalt

Fundament,

iustitia

u n d aequitas

umschriebener

als die

ihn

und

immer

Kulturbegriff

bewahrende

X X X V I , S p . 2 4 3 2 , q u o t i n g H . L . Strack, Reichsprdgung

Friedensgedanke

I, p p . 5 4 ,

des

securitas.'

137). Cp. also H.

UnterFuchs,

2

(Berlin/Zurich 1 9 6 5 ) , pp. 1 9 2 - 1 9 7 .

( 1 0 5 ) In the q u o t a t i o n s here f o l l o w i n g w e a p p e n d the V u l g a t e a n d S e p t u a g i n t v e r s i o n s o f the p a s s a g e s , w h e r e a p p l i c a b l e . ( 1 0 6 ) It is o f interest to n o t e that the v e r s e s q u o t e d i n v o l v e a u s e o f idiom,

w h i c h is

m a i n t a i n e d to this v e r y day in the ordinary e v e r y d a y l a n g u a g e in Israel, v i z . Sa?al USlom-...

"asked h o w ... is".

( 1 0 7 ) E. D i n k i e r , w h o in his v e r y w e l l - c o n c e i v e d a n d i n s t r u c t i v e m o n o g r a p h Eirene Der

urchristliche

der

Wissenschaften,

Friedensgedanke Phil.-hist.

(- Sitzungsberichte Kl.

1973/1)

defends

der Heidelberger

( p . 8 ) his t h e s i s that

s l p r | V T | - G e d a n k e d e s U r c h r i s t e n t u m s ist w e s e n t l i c h g e p r a g t durch d i e d e s h e b r a i s c h e n idiom-Begriffs'

—

Akademie 'der

Aufnahme

( w h i l e w e take into a c c o u n t the h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y o f

the i n v e r s e s e m a n t i c i n t e r f e r e n c e ! ) , arrives, partly o n the b a s i s o f the s a m e b i b l i c a l material w h i c h is e x h i b i t e d a b o v e , at the c o n c l u s i o n ( p . 13ff.) that b i b l i c a l

Sdlo-m

w a s an e s s e n t i a l l y t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t , a n d that, a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , ' e s s c h w e r z u b e s t i m m e n ist, w a s g r i e c h i s c h e O h r e n . . . i m 1. Jh. n. Chr. an K o n n o t a t i o n e n u n d B e d e u t u n g s n u a n c e n g e h o r t h a b e n , w e n n d a s W o r t eirene

im biblischen

Kontext

e r k l a n g ' . It w i l l b e n o t e d that w e are rather c o n c e r n e d w i t h the q u e s t i o n , h o w the J e w i s h m i n d c o n c e i v e d the a m a l g a m had taken place. The difference

telo-m

— e l p f | v r | , after the s e m a n t i c m e r g e r

b e t w e e n his point o f v i e w and ours m a y

a c c o u n t e d for b y the fact that h e t o o k l e s s a c c o u n t o f p o s t - b i b l i c a l H e b r e w m a t e r i a l s a n d d i d n o t f o l l o w u p the u s e o f §dlo-m t i o n t o pax

in R o m a n s o u r c e s .

be

non-literary

— elpfjvT|, in their rela­

THE JEWISH CONTRIBUTION TO THE VOCABULARY OF INSTITUTIONS

45

T h e habits of the ancient vertents are rather instructive; they felt uneasy searching for an e q u i v a l e n t for that notion in their o w n lan­ g u a g e s , and they c o n s e q u e n t l y contented t h e m s e l v e s with a p p r o x i m a ­ tions s u c h as, in the p a s s a g e j u s t q u o t e d , G r e e k e l p f | v r | , e v e n construing perfectly absurd turns s u c h as e l p f | v r | T O O T I O A . 8 | I O U , w h e r e a s the Latin translators did not c h o o s e pax unless bellum also appeared or w a s at least i m p l i e d : Wnikrtd qefat milhdmd wdib'er sdlcrm lag-oyim. — Dissipabitur arcus belli et loquetur p a c e m (elpf|vr|) gentibus. — "And the battle bow shall be cut off and he shall speak c o n c i l i a t o r y w o r d s onto the nations." Zac. 9. 10 WdPeSlah mattdki'm ... ?el~Si'ho-n... d-ibre- sdlcrm lelmo-r: ... Misi nuntios ad Sehon uerbis p a c i f i c i s (Xoyoic, etprjviicoTc,) dicens: . . . . — "And I sent messengers to Sichon with c o n c i l i a t o r y words." Deut. 2.26. N o r m a l l y the Latin v e r s i o n s preferred a n o t h e r n o u n w h i c h is, in fact, m o r e suitable, n a m e l y salus " w e l f a r e , w e l l - b e i n g h e a l t h " and its deriva­ tives, as can be seen from G e n . 4 3 . 27 q u o t e d a b o v e . In order to understand further d e v e l o p m e n t s , it will be e x p e d i e n t to call to m i n d two rather w e l l - k n o w n facts: First, that the e d u c a t e d J e w s of the p e r i o d of the S e c o n d T e m p l e w e r e well a w a r e of the lexical e q u i v a l e n c e s b e t w e e n H e b r e w and G r e e k and w e r e familiar — as, I b e i i e y e , w e could substantiate in chapter I — with the T o r a h also in a G r e e k s h a p e ; in their l a n g u a g e , and initially only in their l a n g u a g e , the G r e e k t e r m elpfjvr} a b s o r b s — d u e to that a w a r e n e s s of such e q u i v a l e n c e s — a certain part of the semantic value of Sdlo'm and b e c o m e s its lexical parallel. T h i s is perfectly evident, for e x a m p l e , from the texts of Palestinian as well as R o m a n J e w i s h t o m b s t o n e s w h i c h s h o w the t w o e x p r e s s i o n s , frequently in G r e e k characters, Slwm— e l p f | v r | , alongside e a c h other. S e c o n d l y , the notion of " w e l l - b e i n g " a n d " s e r e n i t y " , inherent in the semantic value of sdlo-m as well as its use in formulas, in w h i c h Slo'm (pregenitival stem form) is p r e c e d e d by a n expression of " e n q u i r y " or the like — the m o d e r n s u c c e s s o r of w h i c h is the idiomatic formula of the type ma ( " w h a t i s ? " ) slo'm- " h o w i s . . . " — impute to sdlo'm the quality of an e l e m e n t of a d d r e s s i n g f o r m u l a s (cp. d'ibre" sdlo'm " c o n c i l ­ iatory w o r d s " , q u o t e d a b o v e ) , w h i c h strengthens its relation with Latin salus, apart from its b e i n g reinforced b y the o b v i o u s a s s o n a n c e : it is salus and its root w h i c h h a v e b e c o m e s i m p l y the terms w h i c h d e n o t e an ( 1 0 8 )

( 1 0 8 ) C p . n o t e 106.

46

H.B. ROSEN

utterance constituting a polite a d d r e s s , v i z . salutare salue"),

il09)

or in epistolary style, salutem

dicere,

4

( I 1 0 )

(which means "say

since salus

the action n o u n of salutare

or of s a l u e . T

i m p a r t e d to H e b r e w sdlo'm,

as a n e q u i v a l e n t of salus,

constitutes

. T h i s c o u l d h a v e easily a s e n s e of greet­

ing in the p r e a m b l e of letters; in h i s strive for an imitation of R o m a n imperatorial h a b i t s , B a r - K o c h b a o p e n s h i s m i s s i v e s with the f o r m u l a Le-N

N d'ibre'

basis, sdlo'm

sdlo'm

" N ( n o m . ) N (dat.) salutem

d i c i t " . O n this s a m e

is m a i n t a i n e d as a c o m p o n e n t of e p i t a p h f o r m u l a s , since it

w a s the R o m a n c u s t o m t o w a r d s the e n d of the R e p u b l i c a n e r a to f o r m u ­ late e p i t a p h s as t h o u g h they w e r e m e s s a g e s a d d r e s s e d to the defunct, w h i l e earlier the e x a c t o p p o s i t e , i.e. a d e a d a d d r e s s i n g the visitors to his g r a v e , hacl b e e n the g e n e r a l c u s t o m . Latin pax

consequently

0 1 0

e n c o u n t e r s the l e x i c o - s e m a n t i c

already a c h i e v e d , of £lpf|vrj a n d sdlo'm

amalgam,

in m o r e than o n e a r e a : in c o n ­

texts, in w h i c h a contrast with w a r is either explicit or implicit, in c o n ­ texts of p o l i t e n e s s or g e n t l e n e s s of a d d r e s s ( c o m p a r e the translation of d'ibre' Sdlo'm

b y uerba pacifica,

Deut. 2. 2 6

( U 2 )

) , a n d finally as an out­

g r o w t h of t h e c o n c e p t s of serenity inherited from G r e e k s l p f | V T | in the c o n t e x t of religious cult, w h i c h is r e p r e s e n t e d by the sepulchral inscrip­ tions. It will b e n o l o n g e r s u r p r i s i n g to find that t h r o u g h the s e n t i m e n t o r e v e n the c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r s had of the origin of these s e m a n t i c d o m a i n s in an e t h i c a l - r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y , the Latin w o r d u n d e r w e n t a d i s p l a c e m e n t from the legal, quasi contractual registers to those of ethics a n d f a i t h .

( U 3 )

O n e m i g h t also interpret that transition,

a c c o r d i n g to traditional H e b r e w c o n c e p t s , as o n e

from

the relations

b e t w e e n o n e h u m a n b e i n g and a n o t h e r , to that of the relations b e t w e e n a h u m a n b e i n g a n d G o d , or on a m o r e s e c u l a r basis, as a transition from the personal to the p u b l i c s p h e r e o r from the secular to the religious s p h e r e . T h i s is n o t i c e a b l e to s o m e d e g r e e a l r e a d y in Late L a t i n s o u r c e s in w h i c h J e w i s h ideology t r a n s m i t t e d in the s h a p e of C h r i s t i a n i s m m a y b e s e n s e d : e x p r e s s i o n s such as excepit

ilium

magna

et aeterna

pax

" g r e a t a n d eternal p e a c e e m b r a c e d h i m " (Sen. Dial. 6.19.6), or

( 1 0 9 ) H a n n a h R o s d n , Studies ( 1 1 0 ) Ibid., p. 1 7 3 .

in the Syntax

of the Verbal

Noun

in Early

Latin,

pax

p. 2 0 .

( 1 1 1 ) L'hebreu et ses rapports avec le monde classique, p . 20f. ( 1 1 2 ) A b o v e , p. 4 5 . ( 1 1 3 ) A d e t a i l e d a n d v e r y l u c i d s u r v e y o f the c o n c e p t u a l history o f pax a n d its e l a t i o n to elprivn, m a y b e f o u n d in H. F u c h s , o.c. ( n o t e 1 0 4 ) , p p . 1 8 2 - 2 1 9 , w h e r e , h o w e v e r , the a u t h o r ' s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n the n e o t e s t a m e n t a r i a n n o t i o n o f Elpfjvrj l e d h i m to l e a v e sdlo-m and its J e w i s h c o n n o t a t i o n s e n t i r e l y out o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

THE JEWISH CONTRIBUTION TO THE VOCABULARY OF INSTITUTIONS

47

sepulcri " t h e p e a c e of the t o m b " (Stat. T h e b . 3.97) are hardly c o m p r e ­ hensible o t h e r w i s e . T h e c o n g l o m e r a t e notion of " P e a c e " s o m e t i m e s e v e n called " C h r i s t i a n " , thus b e c a m e one of the m o s t important founda­ tions of h u m a n ethics in the M i d d l e A g e s and our times.

C. " H O L I N E S S , S A N C T I T Y " " H o l i n e s s " o r " s a n c t i t y " is a central notion in the spiritual life of every c o m m u n i t y , a n d n o study of a lexical s y s t e m c a n be c o m p l e t e w i t h o u t its analysis. N o less than fifty pages of B e n v e n i s t e ' s Vocabulaire des institutions indo-europeennes are d e v o t e d to " l e s a c r e " . B u t it is this v e r y c h a p t e r in w h i c h the great linguist c o u l d not carry out a c o m p a r i s o n of the terms u s e d for that notion in a variety of ancient I n d o E u r o p e a n i d i o m s , but w a s o b l i g e d , as a matter of fact, to content himself w i t h d e v o t i n g s e p a r a t e p a r a g r a p h s for e v e r y o n e of t h e l a n g u a g e s studied. ill4)

A s a m a t t e r of fact, there is n o concept of the " s a c r e d " , the l e x e m e for w h i c h c a n b e c o m p a r e d b e t w e e n o n e language and the other. T h e lin­ guist is primarily confronted with the necessity of carrying out a c o n ­ ceptual study, in o r d e r t o ascertain what in every culture is in fact the s u p r e m e a n d s u b l i m e notion in the religious life of the c o m m u n i t y . It s e e m s that it is, rather than a notion, the very existence of such, w h i c h is c o m m o n to all the cultures with w h i c h w e h a v e to deal. For o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s , w e h a v e to consider t w o historically sepa­ rate areas of linguistic d a t a : the o n e which leads from earliest I n d o E u r o p e a n to the R o m a n Imperial period, and as far as o u r present e n q u i r y is c o n c e r n e d , c u l m i n a t e s in the p r o b l e m of the substitution of Latin sacer by later sanctus; a n d the other one, the ramification of the rather variegated equivalents of sanctus in m e d i e v a l Christianity, by w h i c h the c o n c e p t u n d e r l y i n g the term sanctus contributed to r e s h a p i n g central religious notions w h i c h the n o n - R o m a n c e E u r o p e a n tribes p o s ­ sessed p r i o r to their Christianization. It is easily u n d e r s t o o d that the J e w ­ ish c o n t r i b u t i o n b e c a m e operative at the precise point of transition b e t w e e n the t w o historical s e g m e n t s mentioned. In linguistic literature t r e a t m e n t s of these t w o s e g m e n t s are found in separate w o r k s . W h i l e for the first one, B e n v e n i s t e ' s analysis already quoted, w i t h his e x t e n s i v e a c c o u n t of the r e p l a c e m e n t of sacer b y sane( 1 1 4 ) V o l . H, p p . 1 7 9 - 2 2 2 .

48

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tus \ is still the authoritative o n e , w e find m o s t interesting a n d a l m o s t e x h a u s t i v e data in the afterlife of the Christian " s a n c t u s " - n o t i o n a m o n g s t E u r o p e a n , m a i n l y G e r m a n i c n a t i o n s , in P . S c a r d i g l i ' s Lingua e storia dei Goti . B o t h a c c o u n t for the n o t i o n of the c o n c e p t of a b e i n g or an object w h i c h , by virtue of s o m e characteristic, t r a n s c e n d s features of the e s s e n c e of the h u m a n and is, as a result of this inherent quality, the object of veneration a n d a source of inspiration to all. W h a t distin­ g u i s h e s that c o n c e p t from o n e society to the other, is the e s s e n c e of this quality. It m a y b e force o r s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r as in the origin of the G r e e k t e r m t e p o < ; , in particular as a " n o t i o n of e x u b e r a n t a n d fecund force w h i c h is c a p a b l e of c a u s i n g l i f e " , as in the I n d o - E u r o p e a n family of w o r d s represented^ a m o n g s t others by the Slavic s t e m of *svet- (e.g., R u s s . CB5rn>) and b y the s a m e tokerj, the p o w e r itself of b r i n g i n g forth life, well-being a n d salvation as in the w e l l - k n o w n G e r m a n i c fam­ ily of w o r d s involving G e r m a n heil~ig, r e p r e s e n t e d in quite a n u m b e r of adjectives w h i c h o c c u r in the m o s t ancient G e r m a n i c d o c u m e n t s prior to Christianization. {U6)

( U 7 )

(Il8)

T h e r e is a related notion w h i c h primarily indicates the a d h e r e n c e of an object to a h i g h e r p o w e r or a higher c o d e of m o r a l s , r e p r e s e n t e d not only b y G o t h i c wihs " h o l y " , from w h i c h w o r d s like G e r m a n weihen " d e d i c a t e , consacrer" are derived, but also by Latin sacer " d e d i c a t e d to . . . by religion, adherent to . . . " . A " s a c r i f i c e " is c o n s e q u e n t l y a d e d i ­ cation of an object o r a living being to a superior p o w e r , a n d a sacerdos is " l ' a g e n t du sacrificium, celui qui est investi d e s p o u v o i r s qui i'autorise a s a c r i f i e r ' " . In its turn, sacer is a not an unlikely c o g n a t e of G r e e k aVyioc; (*sagios or *sacios) \ w h i c h to this very d a y e x p r e s s e s the 4

( l l 9 )

{l20

( 1 1 5 ) Ibid., p p . 1 8 7 - 1 9 1 . ( 1 1 6 ) In the f o l l o w i n g , w e q u o t e from the G e r m a n v e r s i o n b y R. V o l l m a n n , Die Goten. Sprache und Kultur ( M u n c h e n 1 9 7 3 ) , p p . 2 1 6 - 2 2 5 . c o n c e r n i n g the " g o t i s c h e V e r m i t t l u n g " o f w o r d s w i t h C h r i s t i a n - e c c l e s i a s t i c c o n t e n t , s e e a l s o H . a n d R. K a h a n e , "Literatur und S p r a c h e : S p r a c h e " s.v. A b e n d l a n d u n d B y z a n z , i n : Reallexikon der Byzantinistik, v o l . I, p. 65ff. ( 1 1 7 ) C p . E . B e n v e n i s t e , o.c. mologique de la langue ( 1 1 8 ) E . B e n v e n i s t e , o.c,

( n o t e 1 0 1 ) , II., p. 1 9 4 f.; P. C h a n t r a i n e , Dictionnaire grecque, p. 4 5 8 .

ety-

II., p. 1 8 4 .

( 1 1 9 ) E . B e n v e n i s t e , o.c, p. 1 8 8 . ( 1 2 0 ) T h i s e t y m o l o g i c a l relation appears t o b e j u s t i f i a b l e , p a c e A . W a l d e — J . B . Hofm a n n , Lateinisches etymologisches Worterbuch, s.v., f r o m the p o i n t o f v i e w o f c o m p a r a t i v e p h i l o l o g y , c p . m y article " L a r y n g a l e s , a l l o m o r p h e s et la v a l i d i t 6 d e q u e l q u e s ' l o i s p h o n e t i q u e s ' " , i n : Athlon. Satura grammatica in honorem F. R. Adrados, I, p p . 4 3 1 - 4 4 2 .

THE JEWISH CONTRIBUTION TO THE VOCABULARY OF INSTITUTIONS

notion of sanctity in o r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i s m . C h a n t r a i n e

(121)

49

assesses the

s e m a n t i c and connotational value of the t e r m a y i o q as a lexeme w h i c h "exprime l'interdit religieux, que Ton respecte; a la difference de a/yvoc, [cryiocj ne s'empioie anciennement qu'en parlant de lieux, de choses. ... Ce terme a ete adopte par les Juifs et les Chretiens pour exprimer l'idee de saintete. ... Ayvoq figure au sens de " s a c r e " dans le texte homerique qui ignore fryioc,. ... [ 'AyvocJ qualifie des divinites ... aussi bien que Tether, des fleuves, etc. ... Le mot a pris aussi le sens de "chaste" et de "non souilte" de sang." e

T h i s term sacer m a y later b e taken, c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , as denoting the s u p r e m e p o w e r to w h i c h the object or the living being is consecrated. A notion quite wide-spread in several c u l t u r e s in the range of " s a n c ­ t i t y " is that of the "fixed, p e r m a n e n t , e v e r l a s t i n g " . It m a y be an attribute of the s u p r e m e p o w e r i n the sense of b e i n g i m m o r t a l , or of another object or being in the sense of " d e t e r m i n a t i o n of appurtenance to, or destination for s o m e t h i n g s u p e r i o r " , a " c o n s e c r a t i o n " . A s to the formal application of such t e r m s , w e m i g h t m e n t i o n attributes to divinity such as a i e v iovzsq " t h e o n e s being at any t i m e " , o r Biblical ?ehye laser ?ehye " I shall be what I a m " ( E x . 3.14). B o t h c o n c e p t u a l relations, the o n e referring to a s u p r e m e being and the o n e referring to an object or b e i n g " f o r e v e r determinated and d e s ­ tined for a higher object or o b j e c t i v e " a p p e a r to b e a m a l g a m a t e d in the H e b r e w root of q-d-$. T h i s , in quite a n u m b e r of respects, not a l w a y s sacral sense of this H e b r e w root can be o b s e r v e d in quite a n u m b e r of biblical attestations w h i c h , t h e earlier they a r e , h a v e less reference to veneration or religion. T h e root q-d-$ is involved in the verse Waybdrek Peldhi'm ?et-yo-m ha$'bi-£v wayqad-es* ?6to- — [Deus] benedixit diei septimo et s a n c t i f i c a u i t ilium. "And God blessed (i.e., distinguished from all others) the seventh day and m a d e it a p e r m a n e n t institution." Gen. 2.3, w h e r e the V u l g a t e r e n d e r i n g of the w o r d b y sanctificauit has g r o w n out of the ecclesiastic e q u i v a l e n c e b e t w e e n the r o o t q~d-s and the notion of sanctus, but still is inappropriate. Zdko-r ?et-yo-m has-ab'dt Iqad'so-. — Memento ut diem sabbati s a n c t i f i c e s . — "Remember the seventh day to m a k e it p e r p e t u a l ! "Ex. 20. 8

( 1 2 1 ) O. c , p. 2 5 .

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exactly as Wqidast'em let snat-hahdmis'i'm. — S a n c t i f i c a b i s q u e annum quinquagesimum. — "And you shall observe the fiftieth year * w i t h r e g u l a r ­ i t y . " Lev. 25.10. 022

In a very different c o n t e x t : Wqdrhi sdlom walaser lol-yit'en tal-pi'hem wqid'Su tdldyw milhdmd. — Praedicant pacem quippiam s a n c t i f i c a n t super eum proelium. — "And they proclaimed conciliation *, and at whoever does not establish it according to their saying, they r e g u l a r l y made war." Mic. 3. 5. 023

T h e s a m e root is e m p l o y e d w h e n e v e r a person is d e s i g n a t e d to a s p e c ­ ified task o r function: let-lelfdzdr ... qid-Sw USmdUr let-?dro-n YHWH. — Eleazarum s a n c t i f i c a u e r u n t ut custodiret arcam Domini. — "They d e s i g n a t e d ( a s s i g n e d ) El'azar to guard the ark of the Lord." ISam. 7.1. Wze had'dbdr Idler t-alase lahem leqad-ei lotdm Ikahen li\ — Hoc facies ut mini in sacerdotio consecrentur *. — "This you shall do to them to d e s t i n e them to be my priests." Ex. 19.1. 024

L i k e w i s e , a qddes is a p e r s o n assigned to functions in t e m p l e s , w h e r e b y foreign cults or a b o m i n a t i o n s are m e a n t , and in particular in its feminine form, qdesd, " a w o m a n a s s i g n e d to service in the t e m p l e s " c o m m o n l y interpreted as " s a c r a l p r o s t i t u t e " (ordinarily in the cult of Ishtar). If a w a r loot is called qddes, it is b e c a u s e it m u s t not be t o u c h e d or taken since it is " d e s i g n a t e d " or " c o n s e c r a t e d " to the priest or the authority. Post-Biblical H e b r e w very clearly c o n t i n u e s that denotation of the root m a i n l y in the d e n o m i n a t i v e v e r b , as in the e x p r e s s i o n for " m a r r y i n g a w o m a n , m a k i n g a w o m a n o n e ' s w i f e " qad'es lis'd, w h i c h of c o u r s e essentially c o n v e y s the m e a n i n g of " p e r m a n e n t l y designating a w o m a n to a m a n " (excluding their relation to any other p e r s o n ) , and certainly not " s a n c t i f y i n g " her. If post-Biblical H e b r e w still p r e s e r v e s the pre-term i n o l o g i c a l applications of the d e n o m i n a t i v e v e r b and s p e a k s , e.g., a b o u t " d e t e r m i n i n g " ( p r o c l a i m i n g , qid'u's) a c a l e n d a r m o n t h or a n e w

( 1 2 2 ) T h a t is the j u b i l e e y e a r c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h v e r y strict agricultural restrictions a p p l y l a i d d o w n in the l e g a l c o d e . ( 1 2 3 ) I.e. sdlo'm, s e e a b o v e , p . 4 5 . ( 1 2 4 ) It i s n o t p l a u s i b l e that the c h o i c e o f consecrentur w o u l d b e a s e r v i l e c a i q u e o f the H e b r e w denominative verb.

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51

m o o n in the s a m e w a y as Old T e s t a m e n t texts, it m u s t be a s s u m e d that the very characteristic use of the d e n o m i n a t i v e m e n t i o n e d , a factitive used with reference to the bride w h o is d e t e r m i n e d as appurtenant to the b r i d e g r o o m , m a y constitute a t a k e o v e r from A r a m a i c , in w h i c h the cor­ r e s p o n d i n g intransitive or reflexive verb (hit-qad'es) is used of the w o m a n w h o " d e t e r m i n e s o r d e v o t e s " herself to the b r i d e g r o o m : for h i m exclusively she is " p e r m i t t e d " , as the terminology of J u d a i c family l a w e x p r e s s e s itself. E v e n in c o n t e x t s in w h i c h w e are a l r e a d y a c c u s t o m e d to think of a notion of sanctity it is a p p a r e n t that what is really u n d e r l y i n g is the i d e a of " f i x e d n e s s " , " p e r m a n e n c e " or " p e r p e t u i t y " ; thus a miqdras " s a n c t u ­ a r y " or be't-miqd'ds, " t h e sanctuary par excellence, the T e m p l e of J e r u s a l e m " , w h i c h c a m e into use after the m o b i l e sanctuary w h i c h served the children of Israel d u r i n g their w a n d e r i n g in the desert, the " t e n t of g a t h e r i n g " , w a s a b a n d o n e d in favour of a fixed b a s e following the o c c u p a t i o n of Palestine by the Israelites and their s u b s e q u e n t u r b a n ­ ization. W i t h reference to the divinity the semantic v a l u e of the adjective qddo'i can w i t h o u t any r e s e r v e be reconciled with the notion of p e r p e t u ­ ity a n d eternity. T h e f a m o u s " G l o r i a " formula Qddo-l qddo-l qddo-S, YHWY Sbd?dt mid? kdl-hd?dres kbo-do\— Sanc­ tus, sanctus, sanctus Dominus exercituum, plena est omnis terra gloria eius. (Is. 6.3) reflects G o d ' s limitless a n d u n b o u n d existence in t i m e (in the first half of the formula) a n d in s p a c e (in t h e second half). It w a s only n a t u r a l that the frequent use of intransitive qddo'S as an attribute of divinity imparted to the adjective, h o w e v e r late, its c o n n o t a t i o n of v e n e r a b i l i t y and h o l i n e s s . T h e entire s e m a n t i c history of qddo's and its c o g n a t e s m a t c h e s in a striking w a y that of Latin sanctus. It is a well k n o w n fact that sanctus acquired a m e a n i n g of " s a n c t i t y " only in Christian Latin, w h e r e b y it replaced the earlier sacer to the point of relegating that adjective to t h e d o m a i n of p a g a n i s m , t h u s distinguishing b e t w e e n sacer of a " f a l s e " G o d in a polytheistic p a n t h e o n a n d sanctus as an attribute of the o n e a n d only s u p r e m e p o w e r in m o n o t h e i s m . H o w e v e r , the o b v i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p of sanctus with the v e r b sancire a s its perfect participle is c o n d u c i v e to its being u n d e r s t o o d as s o m e t h i n g "fixed, d e t e r m i n e d , i m m u t a b l e , p e r ­ m a n e n t , e t e r n a l " . W h e n w e deal w i t h one of the earliest attestations of sanctus, viz. Tiberine, tuo cum flumine sane to ( E n n . A n n . 5 4 V a h l e n )

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w e are led to c o n c e i v e of it as e x p r e s s i n g s t e a d i n e s s ( " t h o u , Tiber, with thy steady f l o w " ) . ( 1 2 5 )

Interestingly e n o u g h , the t e r m i n o l o g i c a l u s e of the adjective in aerarium sanctius " p a r t of the treasury c o n t a i n i n g a special w a r - r e s e r v e " strongly r e m i n d s o n e of the use of qddes for the u n t o u c h a b l e " w a r loot"< >. l26

E v e n the u s e , h o w e v e r infrequent, of sanctus in the description of per­ sonal h u m a n m o r a l qualities, as in homo sanctissimus modestissimusque omnium (Cicero) or sanctissima femina in a first c e n t u r y B . C . E . sepul­ chral e u l o g y (the so-called " L a u d a t i o T u r i a e " ) m a y b e traced b a c k to a basic c o n c e p t of " s t e a d f a s t n e s s " of c h a r a c t e r . T h e p e r m a n e n c e o r i m m u t a b i l i t y i n h e r e n t in the sense of sanctus c a n be the result of destiny or of a wilful a c t p r p r o n o u n c e m e n t ; this is m a d e plausible o n the strength of the stem of sancire o n the o n e h a n d and also by c o n s i d e r i n g again s o m e of the p r e - m e t a p h o r i c a l , i.e. still secular, uses of the H e b r e w factitive d e n o m i n a t i v e qad'es*. T h i s perfect c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of qddo's with sanctus leads us to ask w h e t h e r any c o n c e p t i o n w h i c h p e r p e t u a t e d J e w i s h as well as Latin tradi­ tion a n d at the s a m e t i m e a s e n t i m e n t that the t w o w o r d s w e r e ' e q u a l ' c o u l d h a v e not only s p r u n g from the s i m i l a r origin of their s e m a n t i c pur­ port, but also c o m e into b e i n g in the light of a p a r a l l e l i s m of both w o r d s relative to the d e s i g n a t i o n of divinity in b o t h l a n g u a g e s c o n c e r n e d . T h i s w o u l d h a v e b e e n a p r o c e s s s u p p o r t e d a n d e n h a n c e d by those ' a u t h o r s ' of the Latin versions of the Biblical text w h o w e r e familiar with H e b r e w ( w h i c h w a s the case with the ' a u t h o r s ' of s o m e of the Veteres Latinae as well a s with J e r o m e ) . ( 1 2 7 )

T h e implantation of Latin sanctus in its n o w religious m e a n i n g with its d e n o t a t i o n s a n d c o n n o t a t i o n s h a d a twofold result. It trans-

( 1 2 5 ) F o r m y a n a l y s i s o f this t y p e o f Early Latin c a m - c o n s t r u c t i o n s s e e Lingua 2 1 ( 1 9 6 8 ) 7 6 [ = East and West I, p. 2 4 8 ] e v e n after O . S k u t s c h ' s recent r e s e r v a t i o n s in h i s E n n i u s e d i t i o n ad loc. ( 1 2 6 ) A b o v e , p. 5 0 . ( 1 2 7 ) In a K o n i g s b e r g dissertation o f 1 9 1 0 , " D e v o c i s * s a n c t u s ' u s u p a g a n o " , G u . L i n k o f f e r s e v i d e n c e that a r e l i g i o u s s h a d i n g o f sanctus c o u l d h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t already in pre-Christian a u t h o r s ; w h i l e a d m i t t i n g that its " s i g n i f i c a t i o n " w a s "definitus, destinatus" (p. 9 ) h e arrives v i a a s e n s e o f "inviolabilis" (p. 2 3 ) , "venerabilis" ( e . g . , sanctus senatus, p . 5 9 ) at the final c o n c l u s i o n ( p . 9 0 ) that " t h e C h r i s t i a n s u s e d t h e v o c a b l e sanctus a f r e s h [denuo, m y e m p h a s i s , H . R . ] v e r y f r e q u e n t l y in a w a y t o e x p r e s s h o n e s t y a n d m o r a l integrity, e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e d e a d " . T h e a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n Christian l e x i c a l u s a g e w i t h o u t a n y r e c o u r s e w h a t s o e v e r t o the p o s s i b l e H e b r e w b a c k g r o u n d d i m i n i s h e s , o f c o u r s e , t h e v a l u e o f this o t h e r w i s e c o m m e n d ­ a b l e a n d a s s i d u o u s l y carried o u t c o l l e c t i o n o f a t t e s t a t i o n s .

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53

f o r m e d the conceptual e s s e n c e of the m e d i e v a l terms such as the Ger­ m a n i c and Slavic ones m e n t i o n e d a b o v e * , to c o m p r i s e and c o n t i n u e w h a t w a s n o w included in Christian sanctus, and on the other h a n d to " E u r o p e a n i z e " — m a y b e to a certain d e g r e e " C h r i s t i a n i z e " — a use and application of the adjective qado's in M e d i e v a l and M i d d l e H e b r e w w h i c h g r e w and flourished in the E u r o p e a n host-countries until it finally led to that of an adjective signifying, in C o n t e m p o r a r y H e b r e w , s i m p l y " h o l y " or, as a n o u n , " a s a i n t " . I28)

( I 2 9 )

T h u s the w o r d study of sanctus depicts the birth of a notion out of the partial c o n g r u e n c e of the internal relations a n d t h e s e m a n t i c r a n g e s of either w o r d in a w a y w h i c h strongly r e m i n d s us, as to the p h e n o m e n o n of cultural and ideologic s y n c r e t i s m , of the history of the " p e a c e " notion. T h e transfer and migration of the t e r m s w e h a v e dealt with in the pre­ sent c h a p t e r to the area of the O c c i d e n t m a d e syncretisms of the nature d e s c r i b e d possible and contributed to the incipient shaping of a c h a r a c ­ teristically Occidental Christian v o c a b u l a r y with its idiomatics, initially particular and p e r h a p s s o m e w h a t bizarre, but later s h o w i n g the path of spiritual and conceptual d e v e l o p m e n t s for m a n y centuries to c o m e .

( 1 2 8 ) S e e a b o v e , p. 4 8 . ( 1 2 9 ) S e e m y Contemporary Hebrew, p p . 84f., o n e x t r a - J e w i s h , that is Christian, tradi­ tion in the transfer o f s e m a n t i c v a l u e s o f i n h e r i t e d H e b r e w w o r d s in Israeli H e b r e w , s u c h as mallax " a n g e l " , pakad " m a d e a v i s i t a t i o n " , u p t o the fairly recent u s e o f ?axot " s i s t e r " in the s e n s e o f a h o s p i t a l n u r s e , w i t h its m a s c u l i n e counterpart lax " b r o t h e r " as a s e m a n t i c a l l y retrograde d e r i v a t i o n in the s e n s e o f " m a l e n u r s e " , r e f l e c t i n g C a t h o l i c institutions a n d traditions.

IV. T H E LANGUAGE

N A T U R E

O F

M E D I E V A L

O F TRADITION

H E B R E W :

IN REGIONAL

A

G R E A T

DIFFERENTIATION

A. T H E C O N C E P T O F A ' T R A D I T I O N S S P R A C H E ' : LATIN A N D MEDIEVAL HEBREW T h e p l u r a l i s m of M e d i e v a l H e b r e w f o r m s of

MEDIEVAL

language

03 0 )

In the following p a g e s w e d o not propose to present facts or k n o w l e d g e a c q u i r e d as a result of long-standing studies — it b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d that these studies h a v e b e e n m a d e long a g o — , but rather to put a certain n u m b e r of o b s e r v a t i o n s in the foreground and to sketch the m o s t salient facts of a little-studied subject matter. T h u s o u r o b s e r v a ­ tions lead us to c o n s i d e r that w e are confronted with a n e w d o m a i n of inquiry, a field w h i c h will u n d o u b t e d l y prove p r o m i s i n g for the objec­ tives of m o r e than o n e specialized area of scholarship: that of H e b r e w Philology, that of the study of the M e d i e v a l E u r o p e a n languages a n d finally, that of M e d i e v a l studies in the areas of literature a n d of culture in general. It is from this a n g l e that w e think w e should present o u r first and rather preliminary s k e t c h e s in this area, hoping that an initial pursuit of these studies m a y p r o v i d e e n c o u r a g e m e n t , and that a n o t h e r generation of scholars m a y be formed w h o w o u l d be capable of d e v o t i n g their efforts thereto. It is not only within the field of general M e d i e v a l stud­ ies, but also, a n d especially, w i t h i n that of H e b r e w studies, that the q u e s ­ tions which w e will a d d r e s s a n d d i s c u s s here belong to an area w h i c h has not inconsiderably b e e n n e g l e c t e d by the philological discipline. T h e reason appears to be a certain characteristic view taken by historians of the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e . O n e s h o u l d say right from the b e g i n n i n g that the study of H e b r e w w a s not c o n s c i o u s of the historical point of v i e w until the first e m e r g e n c e and b e g i n n i n g s of research into C o n t e m p o r a r y H e b r e w . If w e d i s r e g a r d descriptions of the external history of H e b r e w

( 1 3 0 ) A first a n d p r e l i m i n a r y v e r s i o n o f this s t u d y w a s read at the C o l l e g e d e F r a n c e o n April 17th 1 9 8 5 , at the i n v i t a t i o n o f m y friend and c o l l e a g u e A n d r e C a q u o t , P r o f e s s e u r au C o l l e g e d e F r a n c e , M e m b r e d e l'lnstitut; a m o r e e x t e n d e d F r e n c h v e r ­ s i o n w a s distributed a y e a r later b y the C h a i m R o s e n b e r g S c h o o l o f J e w i s h S t u d i e s of Tel-Aviv University.

56

H.B. ROS&N 0 3 1 )

it w a s — as far as the internal h i s t o r y is c o n c e r n e d — the m o s t ancient form of H e b r e w as well as its form current in o u r d a y s w h i c h constituted the axis and the reference point, w i t h reference to w h i c h ail h i s t o r i c a l v i e w p o i n t s w e r e put into o p e r a t i o n . L e t u s , h o w e v e r , state that from that p o i n t of v i e w s o m e of the H e b r e w s c h o l a r s w e r e not u n s u c c e s s f u l in s u c h u n d e r t a k i n g s , a n d the History of the Hebrew Lan­ guage, p o s t h u m o u s w o r k of the late Y e c h e z k e l K u t s c h e r , b e a r s wit­ n e s s t h e r e t o . B u t the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h o w n b y s c h o l a r s o n t h o s e c h a r a c ­ teristics of a n c i e n t a n d M e d i e v a l l a n g u a g e that w e r e c o n d u c i v e to the rebirth of H e b r e w , their d e s i r e — if I m a y say so — to d i s c o v e r the s o u r c e s a n d a n t e c e d e n t s of the l a n g u a g e w h i c h w e s p e a k t o d a y y i e l d e d a r a t h e r u n d e s i r a b l e result, b e c a u s e it is n o t o n l y the l i n g u i s t i c features h a v i n g s u r v i v e d until this day that c o n s t i t u t e t h e e l e m e n t s o r t h e " m o l ­ e c u l e s " of the linguistic d i a c h r o n y of H e b r e w . A c e r t a i n n u m b e r of features, w h i l e n o t b e i n g w i t h o u t s o m e i m p o r t a n c e , are n e v e r t h e l e s s n o t p r e s e r v e d in o u r d a y s ; their m e t i c u l o u s s t u d y is, it w o u l d s e e m , i n d i s p e n s a b l e for a true a n d g e n u i n e k n o w l e d g e of that f o r m of H e b r e w w h i c h is situated b e t w e e n the t w o m e n t i o n e d e x t r e m i t i e s , e v e n if it is our final objective to i m p r o v e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p r o c e s s e s that led to the r e v i v a l of the l a n g u a g e a n d f o r e s h a d o w its m o d e r n features. ( l 3 2 )

M e d i e v a l H e b r e w is not o n e l a n g u a g e . W e w o u l d not g o so far as the students of M e d i e v a l Latin g o and say that there w a s n o M e d i e v a l H e b r e w but " s e v e r a l M e d i e v a l H e b r e w s , b u t since w e h a v e already , , ( I 3 3 )

( 1 3 1 ) T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n external and internal h i s t o r y o f a l a n g u a g e , p r o p o s e d by F. B r u n o t , is in m y v i e w the m o s t important o f the q u e s t i o n s a n a l y s e d in a rather recent s t u d y referring to w h a t is d e f i n e d a s " t h e c r i s i s o f the h i s t o r y o f l a n g u a g e s " , a study w h i c h w i l l not fail to b e extraordinarily b e n e f i c i a l t o w h o e v e r t a k e s an interest in the s t u d y o f the true history o f the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e ( a n d — this g o e s w i t h o u t s a y i n g — a l s o o f other l a n g u a g e s ) ; w h a t w e h a v e in m i n d is the " S t o r i a d e l l a l i n g u a : p a s s a t o e p r o s p e t t i v e di u n a c a t e g o r i a c o n t r o v e r s a " , w h i c h is the introductory chapter ( p p . 9 - 7 7 ) o f a b o o k b y A . V a r v a r o , La parola net tiempo. Lingua, societd e storia ( B o l o g n a 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e m o s t instructive p o i n t s r a i s e d in this e x t e n s i v e w o r k o f s c h o l a r s h i p are the f o l l o w i n g : e x t e r n a l a n d internal f a c t o r s ; lan­ g u a g e and literature; the history o f a l a n g u a g e v e r s u s historical g r a m m a r a n d v e r ­ s u s d i a c h r o n i c l i n g u i s t i c s ; the g e o g r a p h i c a n d c h r o n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f the history of a language; socio-cultural implications and linguistic implications; coexistence o f s y s t e m s ; standardization. ( 1 3 2 ) E . Y . K u t s c h e r , A History of the Hebrew Language, Jerusalem 1982. ( 1 3 3 ) T h e term current in m e d i e v a l Latin p h i l o l o g y i s " t h e M e d i e v a l L a t i n s " ; that e x p r e s s i o n h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s " s i g n i f i c a n t " b y Einar L 5 f s t e d t in h i s p o s t h u ­ m o u s Late Latin ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p. 5 8 , f o l l o w i n g F r a n z B l a t t (JEranos 4 3 , 1 9 4 5 , 6 7 , a n d c p . " L ' e v o l u U o n d u latin m e d i e v a l " , Archivum Latinitatis Medii Aevi 2 8 , 1 9 5 8 , 2 0 1 -

57

THE NATURE OF MEDIEVAL HEBREW

alluded in the title of the present c h a p t e r to a certain pluralism of the s h a p e s of that l a n g u a g e w e shall n o w h a v e to g o into the q u e s t i o n of w h y s o m e of these forms of l a n g u a g e o r shapes of l a n g u a g e h a v e been scientifically treated in a m o r e serious a n d profound w a y than the others. A p a r t from the l a n g u a g e of liturgical a n d rabbinical texts, w h i c h by rea­ son of their c o n s e r v a t i v e nature d o n o t c o m e within the f r a m e w o r k of o u r present c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , it w a s only to the H e b r e w of secular prose written in r e g i o n s in w h i c h A r a b i c w a s the d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e o f civi­ lization that a r e a s o n a b l e a m o u n t of attention h a s b e e n p a i d b y scholars. T h a t literature w h i c h is characterized m a i n l y by its p h i l o s o p h i c a n d sci­ entific nature in the areas of m e d i c i n e a n d a s t r o n o m y , of g r a m m a r , philology a n d m a t h e m a t i c s , w a s m u c h m o r e widely k n o w n in the midst of the secular J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s a n d c o u l d therefore constitute a part of the legacy which- s e r v e d a s - t h e basis of the r e n e w a l of H e b r e w in later t i m e s . T h e principal contribution of that Literature w a s to the l e x i c o n : the great majority of the technical t e r m s , w h i c h that g e n r e of literature h a d to innovate or to create as a caique c o p y i n g the usage of learned A r a b authors, are c o m m o n l y u s e d e v e n in o u r d a y s ; therefore it w a s that p o w e r of continuity with w h i c h that A r a b i c i z i n g shape of the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e w a s i m b u e d w h i c h , w e feel, e n c o u r a g e d the historical study. T h e o t h e r type of M e d i e v a l H e b r e w w h i c h e n j o y e d s o m e attention in linguistic research is that of A s h k e n a z i H e b r e w , the lan­ g u a g e of p r e p o n d e r a n t l y narrative writings of G e r m a n J e w s of the M i d ­ dle A g e s . In this respect, too, the perpetuity of the legacy fulfilled the role of a catalytic factor, since it w a s precisely and principally within these s a m e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s that the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e enjoyed the b e g i n n i n g of its revival in the 19th c e n t u r y by perpetuating n u m e r o u s features w h i c h h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d in the M i d d l e A g e s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , a ( i 3 4 )

( 1 3 5 )

2 1 9 , e s p e c i a l l y p. 2 1 4 ) . T h e central and e s s e n t i a l c o n c e p t v e s t e d in this term has been adopted by quite a f e w scholars o f medieval philology (cp. A . Onnerfors ( e d . ) , Mittellateinische Philologie, Darmstadt 1975). ( 1 3 4 ) W e shall q u o t e in particular the s t u d i e s b y B . Klar "Le-darxe harxavat ha-laSon ha-?ivrit bi-yme na-beynayim" [ " C o n c e r n i n g the w a y s o f e x p a n d i n g the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e in the M i d d l e A g e s " ] in his Mexkarim ve-?iyunim (1954), especially p p . 3 2 - 4 1 , a n d M . G o s h e n - G o t t s t e i n , Taxbira u-milona M ha-laSon ha-7i\rit bi-txwn haSpaata $el~ha-?aravit ["The s y n t a x a n d l e x i c o n o f the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e in the s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e o f A r a b i c " ] , a 1 9 5 1 J e r u s a l e m doctoral dissertation. ( 1 3 5 ) A s h k e n a z ( m e n t i o n e d in the e n u m e r a t i o n o f n o n - S e m i t i c p e o p l e s in G e n e s i s 1 0 . 3 ) w a s the c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d term for the G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g w o r l d in m e d i e v a l and later J e w i s h literature, a n d ' A s h k e n a z i ' is n o w a c c e p t e d as the d e s i g n a t i o n o f J e w ­ i s h c o m m u n i t i e s o f Central a n d E a s t e r n - E u r o p e a n origin. S o m e b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l i n d i c a t i o n s are g i v e n in v o l . X X V I o f the Encyclopaedia Hebraica [Heb.], col. 667.

58

H.B. ROS£N

study of A s h k e n a z i H e b r e w is t a n t a m o u n t to a study of the cradle of Israeli H e b r e w in its incipient status. B u t on the other h a n d it m u s t be b o r n e in m i n d that that very s h a p e of A s h k e n a z i H e b r e w is precisely the s o u r c e from w h i c h flew, from the very b e g i n n i n g of its formation, the n o n - E u r o p e a n e l e m e n t s of Y i d d i s h , the l a n g u a g e to w h i c h scholars h a v e b e e n u p to this very day d e v o t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e efforts of research t h a n to any other J e w i s h v e r n a c u l a r . T h e o t h e r forms of M e d i e v a l H e b r e w n e v e r attracted a c o m p a r a b l e a m o u n t of scientific interest, a n d that in spite of their large n u m b e r and r e g a r d l e s s of their secular literary a n d scholarly v a l u e s . W e shall c o n s e ­ q u e n t l y c o n s i d e r it our objective in the following p a g e s to sketch an a p p r o x i m a t e i m a g e of s o m e of these other s h a p e s of M e d i e v a l H e b r e w , in o r d e r to underline the i m p o r t a n c e a n d the p r o m i s i n g nature of a research-enterprise in that direction. W e h a v e already in several instances alluded to the fact that a study of that sort c a n only b e successful if the diversity of the l a n g u a g e types is taken into a c c o u n t , w h i c h w a s c a u s e d by regional diffusion a n d n a r r o w c o n t a c t w i t h the l a n g u a g e s of e v e r y single o n e of the countries in w h i c h H e b r e w w a s u s e d by s p e a k e r s , n o n e of w h o m w e r e unilingual. W e h a v e therefore n o t only to a c c o u n t for an A r a b i c i z e d M e d i e v a l H e b r e w , but also for a G e r m a n i z e d , F r a n c i z e d , Italianized H e b r e w l a n g u a g e , to m e n ­ tion only the m o r e important b r a n c h e s of J e w i s h literature.

The

parallelism

of M e d i e v a l

Latin

and

Medieval

Hebrew

T h i s a g a i n calls for a c o m p a r i s o n with Latin, a n d the parallelism b e t w e e n M e d i e v a l H e b r e w a n d M e d i e v a l Latin in that respect is the g r o u n d w o r k of the line of t h o u g h t of what follows. H o w e v e r , the m e n ­ t i o n e d parallelism b e t w e e n t w o of the three m o s t i m p o r t a n t l a n g u a g e s that constitute the foundation of the intellectual a n d spiritual culture of the E u r o p e a n M i d d l e A g e s , n a m e l y Latin, A r a b i c a n d H e b r e w , goes b e y o n d w h a t o n e w o u l d i m a g i n e in the first p l a c e . E v e n as far as scien­ tific r e s e a r c h is c o n c e r n e d , a c o m p l a i n t h a s b e e n h e a r d in o u r generation, t o o , to the effect that " t h a t vast field of r e s e a r c h . . . h a s only j u s t b e g u n to b e m a p p e d " ; o n e m u s t a d m i t that certainly n o t m u c h w a s d o n e , to p u t it m i l d l y , to foster an a d v a n c e since. ( 1 3 6 )

( 1 3 6 ) O n L a t i n , c p . E . L o f s t e d t , o.c. ( n o t e 1 3 3 ) , p. 5 8 .

59

THE NATURE O F MEDIEVAL HEBREW

It m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d that the s a m e factors a p p e a r to create an i m p e d ­ iment to the study of Mittellatein and that of Mittelhebrdisch : M e d i e v a l Latin and in particular those of its formal features w h i c h call to m i n d the d e v e l o p m e n t of regional vernaculars, are studied m a i n l y from the point of view of the progressive e m e r g e n c e and formation of R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s and dialects w h o s e testimony represents, in fact, the m o s t solid basis for our k n o w l e d g e of so-called " L a t e L a t i n " , as it is e m p h a s i z e d time and a g a i n by o n e of the foremost scholars in that field. T h e parallelism of H e b r e w and Latin o n w h i c h w e try to shed light taking a point of v i e w w h i c h w a s not c o m m o n p l a c e until n o w h a s been p o i n t e d out already long a g o . T h e s e t w o l a n g u a g e s w e r e s h o w n to be l a n g u a g e s of a sacred tradition, w h i c h those w h o w e r e c o n c e r n e d m a d e an effort to transfer to s e c u l a r u s e ; these w e r e languages of a writ­ ten tradition w h i c h those w h o w e r e dedicated to their m a i n t e n a n c e desired to create afresh in order t o render t h e m suitable for oral u s a g e ; these w e r e the l a n g u a g e s with reference to w h i c h an e n d e a v o u r at m o d ­ ernization w a s m a d e in o r d e r to assure t h e m a relatively w i d e diffusion in living use — an aspect w h i c h aroused the interest of Ceiticists such as J o s e p h V e n d r y e s for w h o m — in view of the situation in which Irish found itself — the m e n t i o n e d aspects w e r e of s u p r e m e i m p o r t a n c e / {l31)

(l38)

1 3 9 )

T h e e x p r e s s i o n " l a n g u a g e of t r a d i t i o n " , by w h i c h w e c h o s e to c h a r ­ acterize M e d i e v a l H e b r e w in the title of this chapter, has b e e n c o n s i d ­ ered n o less suitable to c h a r a c t e r i z e M e d i e v a l Latin than the e x p r e s s i o n " q u i se r a p p r o c h e le p l u s de la r^alite* l i n g u i s t i q u e " . To quote authorities, (I40)

( 1 3 7 ) W e s u g g e s t t o u s e that n o m e n c l a t u r e , w h i c h is a n a l o g o u s to the o n e c u s t o m a r y for l a n g u a g e s o f v e r y l o n g history and tradition, a l s o for M e d i e v a l H e b r e w , i n c l u d i n g a part o f the p e r i o d w h i c h is c o n c l u d e d by the Haskala (the E p o c h o f " E n l i g h t e n ­ m e n t " ) , in order to e m p h a s i z e the fact that both M e d i e v a l H e b r e w a n d M e d i e v a l Latin b e l o n g t o the s a m e p e r i o d a n d a l s o the fact that their cultural a s p e c t s are clearly paralleled. T h e term " M i t t e l h e b r a i s c h " is u s e d by certain authors w r i t i n g in G e r m a n for w h o m all o f P o s t - B i b l i c a l H e b r e w ( e v e n i n c l u d i n g the rabbinical lan­ g u a g e o f M i s h n a i c a n d s i m i l a r t e x t s ) is " n e u h e b r a i s c h " , in order to d e n o t e a c e r ­ tain t y p e o f transition w h i c h they p o s i t b e t w e e n B i b l i c a l a n d R a b b i n i c a l H e b r e w . ( 1 3 8 ) E . L o f s t e d t , o.c. ( n o t e 1 3 3 ) , c h a p s . I and II, passim. ( 1 3 9 ) In " L a mort et la resurrection d e s l a n g u e s " , Hesperia 6 - 7 ( 1 9 5 1 ) 7 9 - 1 0 1 , an arti­ c l e w h i c h is e s s e n t i a l l y a n d primarily d e v o t e d t o the p r o b l e m s o f l i v i n g C e l t i c lan­ g u a g e s , V e n d r y e s p r e s e n t s H e b r e w a s a l a n g u a g e the revival o f w h i c h is f o u n d e d o n liturgical u s e ; I h a v e m e n t i o n e d a personal m e e t i n g w i t h V e n d r y e s , in w h i c h the s a m e q u e s t i o n w a s raised, in m y Contemporary Hebrew, p. 3 3 . ( 1 4 0 ) Christine M o h r m a n n , " L e d u a l i s m e d e la latinite m e d t e v a l e " , Revue des Etudes Latines 2 9 ( 1 9 5 2 ) 3 3 0 - 3 4 8 (the p a s s a g e q u o t e d is o n p. 3 3 3 ) , a n d c p . E . L o f s t e d t , o.c. ( n o t e 1 3 3 ) , p. 6 1 .

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"konnte man ... diesen Typus der Sprache, der sich ... ebenso von den toten wie den lebendigen Sprachen charakteristisch unterscheidet, um [des] Vorgangs der Tradition als der wiederverlebendigenden Weitergabe und Ubemahme willen als T r a d i t i o n s s p r a c h e bezeichnen. ... [Das Mittellateinische] ist ebensowenig als eine tote wie als eine lebende Sprache zu bezeichnen, sondem stellt eine besondere Lebensform der Sprache dar", (l4,)

a v i e w , the e s s e n c e of w h i c h is that that l a n g u a g e "certainly is die 'Traditionssprache' par excellence, yet it was living inso­ far as it moulded itself to the various demands Which medieval culture made upon i t . " (,42)

T h e particular nature of the m e d i e v a l l a n g u a g e as a once recognized,

Traditionssprache

"lassen sich unschwer parallele Erscheinungen (i.e. between Medieval Latin and other languages) aufweisen, etwa die Stellung des Hebraischen, ... oder die Stellung des Sanskrit in den brahmanischen Gelehrtenschulen." (,43)

T h e civilization referred to w a s o n e w h i c h m a t e r i a l i z e d itself in the v e r n a c u l a r l a n g u a g e s ; the traditionalism e x p r e s s e d itself in it t h r o u g h the desire of e d u c a t e d circles to materialize that civilization b y w a y of a legacy of the m o s t respected a n d h o n o u r e d m e a n s of e x p r e s s i o n , those that w e r e i m b u e d with e m o t i o n a l v a l u e . B y so d e s i r i n g they found t h e m ­ selves o f c o u r s e a l w a y s confronted with difficulties, w h i c h — w h e t h e r w h a t w a s at stake w a s Latin or H e b r e w — h a d its s o u r c e partly in the insufficiency of their classical erudition a n d w h i c h c a u s e d h a r s h a n d serious foreign e l e m e n t s to penetrate the thin a n d w e a k classicizing c o a t ; t h e s e features of regional s h a d e , w h i c h the e d u c a t e d p e o p l e s o o n h a d an o c c a s i o n of r e c o g n i z i n g as " b a r b a r i s m s " , b r o u g h t a b o u t — as far as Latin w a s c o n c e r n e d — the e m e r g e n c e of a m o v e m e n t of p u r i s m w i t h o u t w h i c h the classicizing R e n a i s s a n c e a n d the t e n d e n c i e s of h u m a n i s m c o u l d not h a v e taken place. T h e L a t i n l a n g u a g e h a d the g o o d fortune, t o w a r d s t h e e n d of the real­ ization of the strive t o w a r d s the Elegantiae Linguae Latinae , to enjoy {XU)

( 1 4 1 ) R. M e i s t e r , " M i t t e l l a t e i n als T r a d i t i o n s s p r a c h e " , in: Liber Floridus, Mittellateinische Studien Paul Lehmann gewidmet, p. 1-9, at p . 3 . ( E m p h a s i s b y M e i s t e r ) . ( 1 4 2 ) E . L o f s t e d t , I.e. ( n o t e 1 3 3 ) . ( 1 4 3 ) M e i s t e r , o.c. ( n o t e 1 4 1 ) , p. 3f. ' ( 1 4 4 ) T h i s is the title o f a v o l u m i n o u s w o r k b y t h e Italian h u m a n i s t L o r e n z o V a l l a ( 1 4 0 7 1 4 5 7 ) , in w h i c h the author, p u r s u i n g s o m e a n a l y t i c a l a n d historical s t u d i e s into the

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the fruits of a g r a m m a t i c a l doctrine w h i c h directed its u s a g e for a c e n ­ tury-long period, a d o c t r i n e w h i c h perpetuated in the schools the k n o w l ­ e d g e of what o n e s h o u l d a n d w h a t o n e should not say. T h e study of H e b r e w g r a m m a r w h i c h w a s of c o u r s e n o less, and m a y b e e v e n m o r e , d e v e l o p e d than that of Latin, w a s n e v e r c o n d u c i v e to a n o r m a t i v e d o c ­ trine; it w a s closely l i n k e d to the sacred and religious texts and c o n c e n ­ trated a b o v e all on their interpretation. H o w e v e r , it is, of c o u r s e , not only that lack of n o r m a t i v e g r a m m a r w h i c h did not permit the users of H e b r e w to create for t h e m s e l v e s a r e n a i s s a n c e through putting an e n d to the e x a g g e r a t e d diversification of their secular language, but also and a b o v e all, w e think, the lack of any necessity w h a t s o e v e r to create a m e a n s of i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n o r i n t e r c o m p r e h e n s i o n c o m p a r a b l e to that w h i c h prevailed for Latin, a l a n g u a g e of truly international s c o p e . O n the other hand, c o m m u m c a t i o n _ i n _ H e b r e w b e t w e e n the various sites or regions of its use p e r t a i n e d e x c l u s i v e l y to religious, exegetic a n d j u r i d i ­ cal-rabbinic d i s c o u r s e , objectives for w h i c h a s o m e h o w frozen unifor­ mity of language h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d at any rate. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , the unification and reclassification of the use of H e b r e w h a d to await the e p o c h of the Zionist m o v e m e n t , w h i l e it finally m a d e use of the lan­ g u a g e features current in t h o s e d o m a i n s in which the n e w J e w i s h nation­ alism could flourish.

B. T H E E V I D E N C E F O R T H E R E G I O N A L D I F F E R E N T I A T I O N O F HEBREW A s for the plurality of l a n g u a g e types which characterizes the situa­ tion and state of H e b r e w as well as of Latin in the M i d d l e A g e s , w e h a v e before us, as far as H e b r e w is c o n c e r n e d , a m o d e l language, that of the Holy Writings, c o u p l e d with the linguistic uses of the rabbinical-juridi­ cal and exegetical literature, a m o d e l l a n g u a g e which w a s quite well k n o w n to the majority of e d u c a t e d p e r s o n s and which finally g a i n e d the u p p e r h a n d and t r i u m p h e d o v e r the corrupt regional linguistic forms, while, on the other h a n d , the regional l a n g u a g e shapes of L a t i n found t h e m s e l v e s facing m o r e prestigious t y p e s : on the o n e h a n d the real and true m o d e l l a n g u a g e , literary Classical Latin, which w a s u n k n o w n to

modes of expression of Classical Latin, prepares the way for the abolishment of corrupt language usages which were in vogue at his time and for their replacement by a form of Latin which imitated the classical models on solid ground.

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w i d e strata of ordinary a n d e v e n e d u c a t e d p e o p l e e x c e p t d u r i n g certain short periods of learned r e n a i s s a n c e , a n d on the other h a n d with E c c l e s i ­ astical Latin w h i c h w a s a l r e a d y different from a classical l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e of foreign influences. L a t i n also w a s a l a n g u a g e w h i c h w a s not free of internal d e p r a v a t i o n s w h i c h , h o w e v e r , w e r e not necessarily regionalisms. W i t h respect to its nature as well as with respect to the contents of t h o u g h t e x p r e s s e d in it, rabbinical a n d liturgical H e b r e w are c o n s e q u e n t l y a n a l o g o u s to Ecclesiastical Latin. T h e s e facts d e t e r m i n e d the selection of the s o u r c e s o n w h i c h w e base ourselves in o r d e r to gain a preliminary and initial k n o w l e d g e of the facts and features of r e g i o n ­ ally differentiated M e d i e v a l H e b r e w : w e e x c l u d e , in general, liturgy a n d poetry w h i c h are full of d e l i b e r a t e a n d studiously intended r e m i n i s ­ c e n c e s of t h e sacred t e x t s ; w e l i k e w i s e e x c l u d e , for o u r present pur­ p o s e s ^ a n y j e x t w h i c h has a b e a r i n g o n religion or on rabbinical j u r i s p r u ­ d e n c e . It m a y b e a s t o n i s h i n g to realize that M e d i e v a l H e b r e w literature is rather rich i n w o r k s w h i c h m e e t o u r n e e d s a n d intents in this respect. T h e following are the texts, selected from a large inventory of p o s s i ­ ble sources, from w h i c h the information w h i c h follows c o n c e r n i n g the l a n g u a g e features is d r a w n : 1. T h e preface to the F a b l e s , the MiSley Sutdl " F o x P a r a b l e s " by B e r a c h y a N a t r u n a i H a n a q q d a n , w h i c h is a c o l l e c t i o n inspired by M a r i e d e F r a n c e ' s Fables Esopiennes. A l t h o u g h the a u t h o r in his p r e f a c e p r e ­ t e n d s to h a v e translated the fables into H e b r e w , e v e n a superficial c o m p a r i s o n of the H e b r e w a n d F r e n c h texts suffices to c o n v i n c e o n e that this is m e r e l y an a p p r o x i m a t e v e r s i o n , w h i c h w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d to the n o t i o n of " t r a n s l a t i o n " in A n t i q u i t y a n d the M i d d l e A g e s . N e v e r ­ t h e l e s s , I h a v e c o n s i d e r e d it as a m o r e reliable p r o c e d u r e to b a s e m y s e l f o n t h e text of the p r e f a c e a l o n e , for w h i c h n o F r e n c h m o d e l w a s in e x i s t e n c e . 2. Further w e h a v e looked, i n a s m u c h as the F r e n c h region w a s c o n ­ cerned, into t w o w o r k s by A v r a h a m b a r - H i y a , an a u t h o r of the b e g i n n i n g of the 12th century w h o d i v i d e d his life b e t w e e n S o u t h e r n F r a n c e and S p a i n : h e w r o t e a Treatise on Geometry and Geodesy, if w e h a v e thereby correctly hit o n the e s s e n c e of the title Hibbur ha-mMsihd weha-tTisboret, as well as a Geography (Sural hd-?dres " D r a w i n g of the E a r t h " ) both w o r k s b e i n g w i t h o u t k n o w n originals (although the Geog­ raphy m i g h t h a v e h a d a related A r a b o - L a t i n m o d e l ) , a n d m o s t likely original learned w o r k s , w h i c h w o u l d a p p e a r the m o r e p l a u s i b l e as the author in his preface took delight in l a u n c h i n g furious invectives against the i g n o r a n c e of q u a s i - l e a r n e d F r e n c h m e n .

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3. F o r the Italian region w e h a v e above all used the preface of a Tale of the Table of King Artus, an a n o n y m o u s w o r k p r o b a b l y of the 13th century extant in the H e b r e w m a n u s c r i p t no. 8 of the Vatican U r b i n a s library a n d dated 1127, a n d further 4 . of the s a m e genre a n d p e r i o d s o m e p a s s a g e s of o n e of the v e r s i o n s of a ' N o v e l of A l e x a n d e r ' , a text of the 12th century p r o b a b l y indirectly b a s e d o n a Latin version of the Historia de proeliis, a redaction of w h i c h h a d b e e n m a d e by a certain P r e s b y t e r L e o N e a p o l i t a n u s ; as well as 5. p r o b a b l y from the s a m e period, passages of a n o v e l entitled Maidse Yrusalmiy, " T h e G e s t e s of a J e r u s a l e m i t e " w h i c h w e pos*sess in t w o ver­ sions, o n e closer to s o m e H e b r e w m o d e l language a n d the other — this is the o n e from w h i c h w e d r a w o u r materials — betraying to a h i g h e r d e g r e e its Italian origin; a n d l i k e w i s e 6. a fairly recently d i s c o v e r e d t e x t by M a n u e l l o R o m a n o , the r e n o w n e d poet and a u t h o r of s o n n e t s which are at the very cradle of Ital­ ian lyric poetry a n d w h i c h nevertheless are reminiscent of the linguistic a n d r h y t h m i c a l usages strongly r e m i n d i n g us of the sacred s o u r c e s of earlier H e b r e w poetry; h o w e v e r , the text used here is of an entirely dif­ ferent nature and b e l o n g s to a different literary g e n r e : it is a fragment of a learned treatise in prose which pertains to the influence of c l i m a t o l o g y and a t m o s p h e r i c p h e n o m e n a m a i n l y on h u m a n health a n d is u s e d t o a large extent for the p u r p o s e of interpretation of biblical n a r r a t i o n ; this text purports to b e b a s e d o n o n e n a m e d ' G a l e n u s ' , by w h i c h , h o w e v e r , the G a l e n u s c o m m e n t a r y c o n t a i n i n g parts of the p s e u d o - H i p p o c r a t i c treatise Of Airs, Waters and Places is meant, a c o m m e n t a r y m a i n l y k n o w n t h r o u g h its H e b r e w v e r s i o n / of 1299; M a n u e l l o ' s citations m a y , h o w e v e r , h a v e b e e n independent of it; the possibility m u s t not b e e x c l u d e d that the l a n g u a g e used b y M a n u e l l o in that text, a far cry from the u s a g e s that w e r e c o m m o n in his poetry, h a d b e e n b a s e d on s o m e type of learned Latin to the s a m e extent as on the Italian l a n g u a g e cur­ rent at his t i m e . (145)

1 4 6 )

7. Finally, for the region of the G e r m a n l a n g u a g e w e exploited again p o p u l a r narrative prose u s i n g the Sefer Hdsidim ( " B o o k of the P i o u s " ) , a selection of stories written and edited by o n e R a b b i Y h u d a h e - H a s i d ,

( 1 4 5 ) T h i s text w a s p u b l i s h e d w i t h an E n g l i s h v e r s i o n by D . G o l d s t e i n , " L o n g e v i t y , the r a i n b o w a n d I m m a n u e l o f R o m e * ' , in the Hebrew Union College Annual 4 2 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p. 2 4 3 - 2 5 0 . ( 1 4 6 ) A . W a s s e r s t e i n , Galen's Commentary of the Hippocratic P l a c e s ' ( = Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences fasc. 3 , 1982).

Treatise 'Airs, Waters, and Humanities, vol. VI,

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w h o s e A s h k e n a z o - H e b r e w l a n g u a g e s e r v e d as the principal basis for the study carried out o n that l a n g u a g e form, as w e h a v e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , by C h a i m R a b i n . ( 1 4 7 )

O n e can easily see h o w a representative c h o i c e of literary w o r k s is liable to reflect with a large d e g r e e of fidelity the nature of the n o n ecclesiastic literary genres that w e r e c u r r e n t in E u r o p e d u r i n g the p e r i o d concerned. In M e d i e v a l E u r o p e o n e can see that a ' s a c r e d ' Latin, that is E c c l e s i ­ astical Latin w h i c h carries inside itself, as a h e r i t a g e of ages of religious tradition of its textual sources, certain traces of H e ore w a n d A r a m a i c , faces a n o t h e r type of l a n g u a g e w h i c h is still sufficiently Latin in o r d e r to justify its n a m e ; likewise, as c o n c e r n s the J e w i s h l a n g u a g e s , their s e c u ­ lar type from w h i c h w e h a v e selected the e x a m p l e s w e shall exhibit in the following, is considerably less A r a m a i z e d than the l a n g u a g e of r a b ­ binical writings. A s c o n c e r n s Latin, it is of c o u r s e only the l a n g u a g e of secular a n d q u a s i - p o p u l a r e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h u n d e r w e n t a p r o c e s s of regionalization, and as for H e b r e w , it a p p e a r s to be e v i d e n t that the w o r k s of a religious and juridical c h a r a c t e r s h o w e d a c o n s e r v a t i s m of inter-regional c o h e r e n c e w h i c h is m u c h m o r e c o n s i d e r a b l e than that of the writings that reflect the o c c u p a t i o n s of the c o m m o n p e o p l e o r of t h o s e learned authors w h o assimilated t h e m s e l v e s to the culture of the s u r r o u n d i n g world. N e v e r t h e l e s s it is n o t e v e r y t h i n g that w a s r e g i o n a l i z e d in H e b r e w . W h i l e , o n t h e o n e h a n d , w e h a v e f e a t u r e s that o b v i o u s l y a r e l i m i t e d to c i r c u m s c r i b e d r e g i o n s c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s that u n d e r w e n t a p r o c e s s of i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n d u r i n g t h e E u r o p e a n M i d d l e A g e s , t h e r e e x i s t , o n the o t h e r h a n d , c e r t a i n p h e n o m e n a w h i c h c o v e r a m u c h l a r g e r a r e a t h a n that of t h e future R o m a n c e o r G e r m a n i c languages.

C. H E B R E W I N T H E R O M A N C E R E G I O N T h e m a r k i n g of t h e a c c u s a t i v e

case

C l e a r - c u t regionalization, definable for certain p e r i o d s , a p p l i e s in particular to the practically total a b s e n c e of the accusative

particle

( 1 4 7 ) " V e r b a l t e n s e s a n d m o o d s in the l a n g u a g e o f S e f e r H a s s i d i m " [ H e b r e w ] , i n : Pro­ ceedings of the 4th World Congress of Jewish Studies ( 1 9 6 5 ) , v o l . 2 , p p . 1 1 3 - 1 1 6 .

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(m)

letin a c o n s i d e r a b l e part of M e d i e v a l H e b r e w . T h e gradual d i s a p ­ p e a r a n c e of that particle from the texts coincides with the d i s a p p e a r a n c e of the residues of case inflection in R o m a n c e languages, a p r o c e s s that had been c o m p l e t e d in Italy earlier than in F r a n c e and w h i c h has not yet c o m e to an e n d in the G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g area. T h i s m i g h t b e aston­ ishing, b e c a u s e the d e v e l o p m e n t of L a t i n in Italy is k n o w n to h a v e been considerably m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e than that of Gallo-Latin, b u t o n e m u s t not o v e r l o o k that the linguistic history of F r a n c e p r o c e e d e d in contact with G e r m a n i c l a n g u a g e f o r m s , w h i c h w a s n o t the case for Italy, in its central and southern areas at least. A c o r r e s p o n d i n g process, that is the loss of the accusatival object m a r k e r , h a s n o t e v e n taken place in classi­ cal literary A r a b i c . C o n s e q u e n t l y , w e find in the H e b r e w sources that the accusative m o r p h e m e let- is relatively fairly well preserved in the texts inspired by F r e n c h * , while-those-which-are based o n the Italian usage introduce, like m o s t l a n g u a g e s of E u r o p e a n tradition, a syntactic order regulated in such a w a y as to distinguish the g r a m m a t i c a l subject from the object of a s e n t e n c e ; e.g.: wa-ttsapper Id kol laser bahalom raided " a n d she told h i m e v e r y t h i n g that she h a d seen in her d r e a m " ( A l e x a n ­ der N o v e l ) , w-hd-Hppus ydSib* kol lawirdm mluppdi " a n d the m i l d e w ( l 4 9 )

l50)

( 1 4 8 ) C a s e relations are e x p r e s s e d in H e b r e w o f a n y period by m o r p h e m e s p r e p o s e d to the n o u n s . W h i l e for all o t h e r c a s e r e l a t i o n s n o distinction has to b e m a d e b e t w e e n d e t e r m i n a t e d a n d n o n d e t e r m i n a t e d n o u n s , let- is a d m i t t e d — a n d i s n o w a d a y s c o m p u l s o r y — in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h n o u n s w h e t h e r determinated m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y or, a s is the c a s e w i t h p r o p e r n o u n s , s e m a n t i c a l l y . ( 1 4 9 ) F. B r u n o t — C h . B r u n e a u , Precis de grammaire historique de la langue francaise, Paris 1 9 3 3 , p. 2 7 I f . ( 1 5 0 ) For i n s t a n c e , in the Treatise of Geometry and Geodesy ( s e e a b o v e , p. 6 2 ) w e Find the f o l l o w i n g : leynd moaned* ?et -nd-ldrdsdt ' H e d o e s not measure the c o u n ­ tries' w i t h the a c c u s a t i v e m a r k e d b y let- ( P r e f a c e ) , mhallqlr let-ha-qqarqdfdt , s i m i l a r l y ' T h e y d i v i d e the l a n d s ' ( i b i d . ) ; s i n c e the s a m e author h a s in h i s preface to the G e o g r a p h y ( s e e a b o v e , p. 6 2 ) e x p r e s s i o n s s u c h a s lani mhalleq hahibbur ha-zze la-fdsdrd Slarim 'I s u b d i v i d e this s t u d y (the d e t e r m i n a t e d a c c u s a t i v e u n m a r k e d for c a s e ) into ten c h a p t e r s " a n d lhaSlim hibbur ha-hizzdydn 'to c o m p l e t e the study o f the v i s i o n ' (the d e t e r m i n a t e d a c c u s a t i v e l i k e w i s e u n m a r k e d ) , the j u x ­ t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e t w o t y p e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a l l o w s to s u r m i s e that there c o u l d h a v e b e e n a p r e f e r e n c e for u s i n g let- in t h e plural c o m p a r e d to a m o r e r e d u c e d u s e in the singular, w h i c h w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d w i t h s o m e d e g r e e o f a n a l o g y t o the i n f l e c ­ t i o n s o f F r e n c h at t h e p e r i o d in q u e s t i o n , at w h i c h the o v e r t m o r p h o l o g i c a l mark o f the a c c u s a t i v e w a s -s in the plural, w h i l e in the singular ( w h e r e it w a s t h e n o m i n a ­ t i v e w h i c h b o r e the m o r p h o l o g i c a l m a r k e r -s) the a c c u s a t i v e w a s m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y u n m a r k e d ; the H e b r e w o f this author w o u l d c o n s e q u e n t l y h a v e s h o w n a remark­ able c o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o t h e c a t e g o r i a l distribution o f m o r p h o l o g i c a l markers in F r e n c h . B u t it g o e s w i t h o u t s a y i n g that all t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s are rather p r o v i s i o n a l a n d m u s t r e m a i n s u b j e c t t o a m o r e p r o f o u n d a n d e x h a u s t i v e scrutiny o f the textual data. k

h

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r e n d e r e d all the air stale' ( M a n u e l l o R o m a n o ) . In both instances the H e b r e w accusative m a r k e r is l a c k i n g in spite of the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the direct object. A similar p h e n o m e n o n , the p r e s e n c e of a formal characteristic of s o m e of the regions of the R o m a n i a , h o w e v e r at v a r y i n g d e g r e e s of p e n ­ etration, can be o b s e r v e d c o n c e r n i n g the H e b r e w reflexes of the R o m a n c e genitival particle de. It is well k n o w n that in the H e b r e w m o r ­ p h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m the genitive d i d n o t p l a y , and in fact d o e s not e v e n today, the s a m e role of n o m i n a l c a s e as the other c a s e s , since H e b r e w h a s at its disposal the so-called " c o n s t r u c t s t a t e " , that is, without m e d i ­ ation of a preposition or on the b a s i s of inflectional m e a n s of e x p r e s ­ s i o n s ; in fact, in the Semitic l a n g u a g e s it is the d e t e r m i n a t u m w h i c h is m a r k e d as the nucleus of a n o m i n a l s y n t a g m a by its accentuation rather than-the d e t e r m i n a n s - b e i n g m a r k e d b y a sort of c a s e m a r k e r , as is c o m ­ m o n in the E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s . T h e situation d e s c r i b e d w a s liable to c a u s e incongruities b e t w e e n the u s e of the H e b r e w preposition min'from a n d that of R o m a n c e de w h i c h served in an adverbial as well as in a g o v e r n e d case function, h o w e v e r not in the s a m e m a n n e r in all of the R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s . H e b r e w min- e x p a n d s o v e r the entire area of R o m a n c e de> first at the e x p e n s e of the H e b r e w construct state: w h e r e a Latin genitive w a s the antecedent of de in partitive c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( " p a r t o f * ) , e.g., ha-heleq ha-SSeniy mi-ho&mat* ha-kkolfabhim 'the second part of astronomy* in a Francisizing t e x t . O n e finds min~ also with, ( 1 5 1 )

f

1

( I 5 2 )

( 1 5 1 ) T h e r e are s o m e traces o f an incipient u s e o f min in B i b l i c a l H e b r e w in a s e n s e w h i c h r e m i n d s o n e o f the R o m a n c e "partitive a r t i c l e " ; this u s e w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y e x p a n d e d in Israeli H e b r e w w h e r e e v e n the s y n t a c t i c b e h a v i o u r o f n o u n s p r e f i x e d b y t h e p r e p o s i t i o n min c a n b e identical t o that o f F r e n c h plural f o r m s e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e "article partitif". C p . Journal of the American Oriental Society 81 ( 1 6 1 ) 2 1 - 2 6 [ = East and West II, p p . 1 0 2 - 1 0 7 ] . ( 1 5 2 ) T h e preservation o f the H e b r e w c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h the c o n s t r u c t state in s y n t a g m s in w h i c h this is m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y p o s s i b l e (that is, s y n t a g m s w i t h a o n e - m e m b e r n u c l e u s like hok^ma? ha-kkdl&ahhim ' w i s d o m o f the s t a r s * — in contrast to s y n ­ t a g m s i n v o l v i n g bipartite f o r m s , heleq Seniy mi(n) — is still in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the b e h a v i o u r o f F r e n c h m o r p h o s y n t a x at the t i m e . O n the o n e h a n d , F r e n c h l o n g pre­ s e r v e d w h a t c a n b e t e r m e d ' T 6 t a t construit frangais" ( c p . F. d e S a u s s u r e , Cours de linguistique generate, p. 3 1 1 ) o f the t y p e au nom deuldieu " i n the n a m e o f G o d " , les quatre fils Aymon, li fill le rei, a n d e v e n in an i n v e r s e o r d e r s u c h a s pro deo amur, pro cristian poblo et nostro commun saluament\. this i s p e r f e c t l y o b v i o u s in the S t r a s b o u r g O a t h s , the l a n g u a g e o f w h i c h h a s still de s o l e l y in the f u n c t i o n o f a l o c a l o r t e m p o r a l p r e p o s i t i o n , e . g . , de suo part. B u t g e n i t i v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f the t y p e Jesu XPI Passiun o c c u r still in 1 0 t h - c e n t u r y t e x t s , at a t i m e w h e n the p r e p o s i ­ t i o n de, w h i l e p r e s e r v i n g a l o c a l s e n s e , h a d a l r e a d y a d a p t e d i t s e l f to a n a d n o m i n a l s y n t a c t i c u s e , as in lebisq de Peitieus 'the B i s h o p o f Poitiers*. 1

67

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out a g o v e r n i n g n o u n in a m a n n e r similar to the F r e n c h article partitif: min hd-?eldhiyyim yis/cab* Hmmdkf , literally ' d e s etres divins c o u c h e r a (sg.) avec t o i ' in the A l e x a n d e r N o v e l . Strikingly, in texts inspired byItalian or F r e n c h , min- serves a s an introductory particle for a d n o m i n a l qualification in a typically R o m a n c e m a n n e r : it is the Fdndsim mi-kkol ha-llsdndtf ' p e o p l e o f all l a n g u a g e s ' , to w h o m B e r a c h y a a d d r e s s e s his version of the F a b l e s ; l i k e w i s e M a n u e l l o R o m a n o s p e a k s of ' a n arch o f i n c a n d e s c e n c e of the s u n ' qeset* mi-llahat ha-ssemes, w h i c h is f o r m e d in the s k y ; w e also h a v e sebhat min zdhdb ' c o l o u r f r o m (or rather, o f ) g o l d ' and a large n u m b e r of analogous e x p r e s s i o n s in H e b r e w F r e n c h g l o s s a r i e s . A m a r r i a g e contract ' o f o n e h u n d r e d selaF is described in the s a m e syntactic fashion in the " G e s t e s of a Jers u s a l e m i t e " . W e also n o t e a u s e of min- w h i c h r e m i n d s us of certain idiomatic u s a g e s in the p r e s e n t - d a y H e b r e w c o l l o q u i a l : ma yihye mimmeni u-min ha-mmelekf P ilipus? " w h a t will b e c o m e o f m e a n d o f K i n g P h i l i p ? " ( A l e x a n d e r N o v e l ) . O n e also finds min- as a link b e t w e e n a passive e x p r e s s i o n a n d its a g e n t c o m p l e m e n t . A m o n g other types of use o n e can cite hdmor tdtun mi-llehem ' a d o n k e y c h a r g e d with b r e a d ' ( ' c h a r g e d e p a i n ' ) in the m e n t i o n e d glossaries. Let u s also recall that noble Italian families u s e d H e b r e w min- to indicate nobility: thus the Di M e d i c i are r e p r e s e n t e d as min hd-rdp 7im " o f the P h y s i c i a n s " , the D i Rossi as min hd-?adummim " o f the R e d O n e s " a n d a n a l o g o u s l y also De M o n t p e l l i e r = min hd-Hdr " o f the M o u n t a i n " , D e P o m i s = min ha-tTappuhim " o f the A p p l e s " . 1

1

1

h

0 5 3 )

1

h

h

In o r d e r to g o in m o r e detail into the formal features w h i c h t e n d to e m p h a s i z e the regional differentiation of E u r o p e a n M e d i e v a l H e b r e w , o n e s h o u l d bear in m i n d that in all likelihood the regionalization of Latin w a s a result of the inequality of the speed of the c h a n g e s u n d e r g o n e b y Latin in the v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s . Italy w a s not only the m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e country in this respect, but also the country in w h i c h the contrast b e t w e e n the v a r i o u s levels of Latin w a s the m o s t m a r k e d o n e , which w a s d u e , on the o n e h a n d , to the traditionalism of ecclesiastical e x p r e s ­ sion, a b o v e all of the papal chancellery, and on the other h a n d , p a r a d o x ­ ically e n o u g h , to the fact that L a t i n w a s the direct a n d only p r e d e c e s s o r of the v e r n a c u l a r s p e e c h f o r m s of Italy. T h e c o m p a r i s o n with H e b r e w is ( 1 5 4 )

( 1 5 3 ) S t u d i e d by M e n a c h e m B a n i t in A Study of the Biblical Glossaries in the Middle Ages (= Proceedings of the Israel National Academy Humanities, v o l . II, f a s c . 1 0 ) , e s p e c i a l l y p. 13. ( 1 5 4 ) E . L o f s t e d t , o.c. ( n o t e 1 3 3 ) , p . 7.

of French of Sciences

Jewry and

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H.B. ROS£N

easily m a d e : R a b b i n i c a l e x p r e s s i o n is traditionalist a n d uniform e v e r y ­ w h e r e , w h i l e that of other literary g e n r e s is closer and m o r e assimilated to regional usages, but as it s e e m s , to t h o s e u s a g e s w h i c h w e r e c u s t o m ­ ary in literary writing; thus it w a s still c l o s e r to a certain t y p e of L a t e Latin than to the p o p u l a r l a n g u a g e that g r e w o u t of the latter. T h e fea­ tures w h i c h w e shall treat in the following, w h i l e n o t b e i n g universally attested, are such that h a v e characteristics still r o o t e d in V u l g a r Latin. First w e h a v e to m e n t i o n the disintegration of the s y s t e m of n o m i n a l g e n d e r , a p r o c e s s called forth e v e r y w h e r e b y t h e loss of the n e u t e r g e n ­ der, w h i c h took place already in late I m p e r i a l L a t i n . T h e r e w a s a differ­ e n c e b e t w e e n the Latin of G a u l a n d o t h e r t y p e s of L a t i n which was e x p r e s s e d in the faqt that the first-mentioned a d m i t t e d the transition of n o u n s to the feminine g e n d e r such as la chaleur, Verreur. O t h e r w i s e the old n e u t e r s b e c a m e m a s c u l i n e . It m u s t , h o w e v e r , b e a d m i t t e d that in glossaries o n e c a n find a not negligible quantity of w r o n g n o m i n a l g e n ­ d e r in H e b r e w , all c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the g r a m m a t i c a l g e n d e r of the e q u i v a l e n t F r e n c h n o u n s , e.g. semer ' w o o l ' — feminine like laine\ £ap ar ' d u s t p o w d e r ' — likewise of f e m i n i n e g e n d e r in c o n f o r m i t y with the g e n d e r of poudre. In contrast thereto, the g e n d e r d e v i a t i o n s r e v e a l e d b y Italianizing H e b r e w in a c c o r d a n c e with Italian n o u n s are n o r m a l l y in favour of the m a s c u l i n e , t h e r a n g e of these m i s t a k e s b e i n g that of c o n c e p t s of the i n a n i m a t e a n d the abstract, w h i c h w e r e e x p r e s s e d to a great extent b y o l d neuters. T h u s a u s e o f the feminine n o u n qeSet! 'rainbow* in the m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r a c c o r d i n g to the Latin o r Italian e q u i v a l e n t , or of tatutf ' e r r o r ' , w h i c h attracts a m a s c u l i n e p r o n o u n p r o b ­ ably a c c o r d i n g to a S p a n i s h m o d e l , a n d l i k e w i s e the d e s i g n a t i o n of the fractional n u m e r a l ' o n e fifth' hamlsitf — also m a s c u l i n e . T h a t all this is a result of uncertainty of u s a g e is r e v e a l e d b y frequent v a r i a t i o n s ; thus the a u t h o r of the Story of K i n g A r t u s e m p l o y s in o n e a n d the s a m e g r o u p of w o r d s the n o u n holiy ' i l l n e s s ' o n c e as a feminine a n d i m m e d i a t e l y following as a m a s c u l i n e , a n d also M a n u e l l o R o m a n o uses in a single p h r a s e ru°h ' w i n d ' o n c e in t h e m a s c u l i n e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to Italian o r to Latin a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y in the f e m i n i n e ; b u t it is not unlikely that the l a s t - m e n t i o n e d c a s e reflects a g e n d e r variation inherited from Biblical and, respectively, Post-Biblical texts. ( , 5 5 )

h

(l56)

1

1

1

( 1 5 5 ) C p . D . N o r b e r g , Manuel ( 1 5 6 ) M . B a n i t , /.c. ( n o t e 1 5 3 ) .

pratique

de latin medieval,

p . 7.

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THE NATURE OF MEDIEVAL HEBREW

F i e l d s of l e x i c a l

interference

T h e features of interlingual interference w h i c h are the easiest to d i s ­ c o v e r are the lexical o n e s , a l t h o u g h there are s o m e that cannot b e read­ ily located b e c a u s e they m a y b e e x p l a i n e d as transfers from m o r e than o n e l a n g u a g e such as, e.g., tab( )ld, a w o r d inherited from rabbinical H e b r e w in the sense of ' w r i t i n g t a b l e t ' a n d used in E u r o p e a n M e d i e v a l H e b r e w in a m e a n i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the o n e it has in R o m a n c e lan­ g u a g e s , ' t a b l e ' , as, e.g., in the d e s i g n a t i o n of the R o u n d T a b l e of K i n g A r t u s . A certain type of l e x i c o - s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t s apparently cuts t h r o u g h all the b o u n d a r i e s : the concretization of ancient forms of verbal abstracts in -ion- w h i c h is already o b s e r v a b l e in V u l g a r Latin w h e r e mansio (originally a verbal n o u n d e r i v e d from manere ' s t a y ' ) has the m e a n i n g of ' l o d g i n g ' . H e b r e w a c q u i r e d s o m e of these w o r d s , part of w h i c h found their w a y into Y i d d i s h : L a t i n presio ' s e i z u r e ' has b e c o m e prison j u s t like G e r m a n Cefdngnis, w h i c h significantly involves the -nissuffix of originally abstract value a n d c o r r e s p o n d s to tp Ud w h i c h h a s the s a m e sense of ' p r i s o n ' in Y i d d i s h a n d A s h k e n a z i H e b r e w ; an exact parallel is captio ' t h e c a t c h ' , w h i c h h a s b e c o m e cage, and in the s a m e s e m a n t i c field tliyd ' t h e h a n g i n g ' , w h i c h has b e c o m e the designation of ' t h e g a l l o w s ' . T h e s a m e w a y as Latin testimonium 'testimony' has been personalized in temoin (and c o m p a r e t h e semantic d e v e l o p m e n t of the h

h

il57)

h

originally abstract witness ), o n e finds H e b r a e o - Y i d d i s h ied u^, w h i c h in its A s h k e n a z i p r o n u n c i a t i o n [edesj c a m e to designate a witness, while originally signifying ' t e s t i m o n y ' . T h e fact that the e x a m p l e s w h i c h o c c u r r e d to us are all situated in one single s e m a n t i c field is p e r h a p s not fortuitous. But these lexical interfer­ e n c e s are not very significant, b e c a u s e they exert their influence on iso­ lated e l e m e n t s of the l a n g u a g e a n d are t h u s practically d e p r i v e d of struc­ tural value. But w h a t \i i m p o r t a n t is c i r c u m s c r i b i n g the limits of the s e m a n t i c fields within w h i c h those v o c a b u l a r y interferences are opera­ tive, b e c a u s e their identification constitutes a fact of cultural history. It is c o m m o n l y k n o w n , for instance, that with regard to the interferences by A r a b i c w e h a v e primarily the field of philosophy a n d the sciences, that is, a terminological use of n o u n s a n d verbs inherited from the clas­ sical language, such as sem ' n a m e ' , potal ' a c t i v i t y ' , sores 'foundation, root (of a t r e e ) ' , tnutd ' m o v e m e n t ' , w h i c h h a v e all b e c o m e g r a m m a t i c a l

( 1 5 7 ) N o t e that, interestingly e n o u g h , E n g l , witness t o o has p r e s e r v e d its abstract v a l u e in turns s u c h as bear witness to o r of something.

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H.B. ROSEN ( 1 5 8 )

t e r m s in the sense of ' n o u n ' , ' v e r b ' , ' r o o t ' , 'vowel*, respectively, a n d also malamar in the Aristotelian s e n s e of Xoyoq; all these terms a n d t e r m i n o l o g i z a t i o n s w e r e inspired b y A r a b i c / l 5 9 )

A s c o n c e r n s the influx of v o c a b u l a r y r e c o g n i z a b l e as originating from F r e n c h , o n e e n c o u n t e r s mainly n o n - t e r m i n o l o g i c a l entities, w o r d s of c o m m o n u s e , e.g., the very w i d e s p r e a d u s e of the w o r d ?adam a p e r ­ s o n ' in the sense of the G e r m a n man o r F r e n c h on, w h o s e Latin source homo a p p e a r e d to h a v e still b e e n felt in t h e 12th c e n t u r y , the t i m e of the T r e a t i s e of G e o m e t r y and G e o d e s y . O n e c o u l d likewise e x p l a i n on the basis of O l d F r e n c h the m e a n i n g of Fdrdso^ in that very s a m e treatise, ' t e r r i t o r i e s , that is ' l a n d s ' , rather than ' c o u n t r i e s ' , w h i c h w a s its sense in Biblical H e b r e w u s a g e . In the s a m e text, o n e finds rob*, originally ' m u l t i t u d e , majority', in the s e n s e of beaucoup, inspired, as it w o u l d s e e m , b y m e ^ d e n t i r y of the syntactic construction of that H e b r e w n o u n a n d that of the predecessor of beaucoup \ 4

4

( 1 6 0 )

il6l

"Stand"

for " b e " in I t a l i a n

sources

C o n c e r n i n g Italian, o u r a t t e n t i o n is i m m e d i a t e l y d r a w n to the for­ t u n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t v e r b in a l a n g u a g e , n a m e l y the v e r b " t o b e " ; b u t it is h e r e that a w o r d of c a u t i o n is c a l l e d for: the o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h follow are in n o w a y e x h a u s t i v e , a n d w h a t w e p r o p o s e are m e r e t e n t a t i v e s in o r d e r to p e r m i t a n d to e n c o u r a g e the i n i t i a t i o n of a n e w field of r e s e a r c h . In texts i n s p i r e d b y Italian it c a n b e o b s e r v e d , that a firmly r o o t e d u s e of the v e r b t-m-d " t o s t a n d " , "stare h a s p e n e t r a t e d into the m o r p h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m of essere, be 19

({62)

( 1 5 8 ) O n the history o f this g r a m m a t i c a l term w h i c h m i g r a t e d in different l i n g u i s t i c s h a p e s from India v i a A r a b i c and H e b r e w t o W e s t e r n m o r p h o l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y , s e e m y e s s a y " A p r o p o s d e q u e l q u e s rapports entre la g r a m m a i r e i n d i e n n e et la g r a m m a i r e a r a b e " , in: C . V i e l l e — P. S w i g g e r s — G. J u c q u o i s ( £ d s ) , Comparatisme, mythologies, langages. En hommage a Claude Levi-Strauss, Louvain-laN e u v e 1994, pp. 331-346. ( 1 5 9 ) F o r the " t h o u s a n d s o f w o r d s w h i c h h a v e in s u c h a w a y b e e n a d a p t e d t o s c i e n t i f i c u s e in H e b r e w " , s e e B . Klar, o.c. ( n o t e 1 3 4 ) , p. 3 2 s s . ( 1 6 0 ) T h e e x p r e s s i o n md id at hd-?drdsdt , i.e. ' m e a s u r i n g o f l a n d s ' , for ' g e o m e t r y ' is, o f c o u r s e , not s p e c i f i c a l l y a t a k e o v e r from F r e n c h . h

h

h

h

( 1 6 1 ) Q u a n t i t a t i v e d e s i g n a t i o n s in C l a s s i c a l H e b r e w are s u b s t a n t i v a l a n d take the d e s i g ­ n a t i o n o f the quantified entity as s o m e sort o f " g e n i t i v a l " c o m p l e m e n t , e.g. rob hd-?dndslm "the majority o f the p e o p l e " ' m o s t p e o p l e ' , kol hd-foldm " t h e totality o f the w o r l d " , "the entire w o r l d " . O n the s y n t a c t i c properties o f a d n o m i n a l c o n ­ structions in H e b r e w s e e a b o v e , p. 6 6 w i t h n o t e 1 5 2 .

h

( 1 6 2 ) E . L o f s t e d t , o.c. ( n o t e 1 3 3 ) , p p . 5 3 s s . , 6 5 s s .

71

THE NATURE OF MEDIEVAL HEBREW

it as a verbum existentiae b e it as a c o p u l a . T h u s w e e n c o u n t e r this v e r b a l root in the A l e x a n d e r N o v e l in a p h r a s e s u c h as " N e k t a n e b o s t o o d (i.e. w a s ) u n k n o w n in M a c e d o n i a " N?tynypw yatamod biltiy tnukdr; o n e a l s o r e a d s t h e s a m e v e r b in the g r e e t i n g Hmd iy l-sdlom w h i c h w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d in m o r e i d i o m a t i c H e b r e w to heyiy sdlom " b e at p e a c e " ; w e h a v e the r o o t £-m-d with local p r e d i c a t e s in t h e " G e s t e s of a J e r u s a l e m i t e " , e.g., " t h e son w a s (£dmad ) in his h o u s e a n d f o l l o w e d t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of h i s f a t h e r " . D u e a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d a l s o b e p a i d to t h e fact that in all of t h e cited g r a m m a t i c a l c a t e g o r i e s I t a l ­ ian p r o p e r h a s f o r m s d e r i v e d from stare r a t h e r t h a n from essere, t h u s stai, stava, a n d l i k e w i s e in t h e p a r t i c i p l e as in " t h e s u n b e i n g (hd£dmed ) in t h e E a s t " . A l s o the v e r b a l n o u n , w h e r e a l r e a d y L a t i n k n e w only t h e f o r m status " t h e fact of b e i n g " , is a t t e s t e d in M a n u e l l o in a p h r a s e w h i c h c r e a t e s a r a t h e r c u r i o u s w a y of e x p r e s s i o n in H e b r e w : Hd'£arriid d " t h e s t a n d i n g " , ( b u t w h a t is m e a n t is " b e i n g , i n h a b i t i n g , h a b i t a t i o n " ) " i n a h i g h b u i l d i n g is b e s t " . All this c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f e x a c t i t u d e to the u s e s of stare in M e d i e v a l Latin/ ) y

( l 6 3 )

h

h

h

( l 6 4 )

h

( l 6 5 )

1 6 6

( 1 6 3 ) W e thus transcribe N?tynypw o n t h e b a s i s o f the form N e K t a v e p c o w h i c h is pre­ s e r v e d in the G r e e k m o d e l ; the r e p l a c e m e n t o f the c o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r KX b y s i m p l i ­ fication a n d p r o b a b l y g e m i n a t i o n " o f its s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t r e v e a l s the i n f l u e n c e o f Italian p h o n e t i c s , w h i l e the u s e o f p for w h a t probably w a s a v o i c e d l a b i o d e n t a l fricative (the v a l u e o f i n t e r v o c a l i c b) is apparently b a s e d o n a p h o n e t i c s y s t e m w h i c h d i d not i n c l u d e that p h o n e m e , s u c h a s , for i n s t a n c e , the A r a b i c s y s t e m w h i c h w o u l d l e a d u s t o think that s p i r a n t i z e d beth in H e b r e w h a d at that period bilabial o r o c c l u s i v e ( a s p i r a t e d ? ) v a l u e , w h i l e waw represented a n o n - f r i c a t i v e p h o n e m e . 4 4

( 1 6 4 ) Or a l s o statura, c p . H a n n a h R o s ^ n , Studies in the Syntax of the Verbal Noun in Early Latin, p p . 2 7 , 34f. T h e w e l l - k n o w n s u p p l e t i v e relation b e t w e e n stare a n d esse, w h i c h is o f I n d o - E u r o p e a n o r i g i n , as is e v i d e n t , e.g., from Sanskrit stitas, g r e w o u t o f a s e m a n t i c d i s t i n c t i o n prevalent in early Latin a n d p r e s e r v e d in S p a n ­ ish, w h i c h in its Ibero-Latin s h a p e (i.e. the distinction b e t w e e n S p a n i s h ser a n d estar) w a s d e r i v e d from a m u c h earlier layer o f Latin than the other R o m a n c e l a n ­ g u a g e s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o verbs c o r r e s p o n d s to that o f an inherent a n d a c c e d e n t p r e d i c a t i o n ( c p . m y study " S u r q u e l q u e s t y p e s d e predication e n i n d o - e u r o p e e n a n c i e n " i n : Etrennes de septantaine offertes d Michel Lejeune, pp. 2 1 7 - 2 2 2 [ = East and West 0 , p p . 7 7 - 8 2 ] . T h e root o f stare is the o n e e m p l o y e d for the latter c o n t e n t . T h u s w e read, for e x a m p l e , in H o r a c e (L9A)Vides ut alta stet niue candidum Soracte ' Y o u [ c a n ] s e e h o w the m o u n t a i n S o r a c t e is [ n o w ] w h i t e b y its d e e p s n o w ' , w h e r e it is o b v i o u s that the w h i t e n e s s o f the m o u n t a i n is an a c c i ­ dental feature brought a b o u t by s n o w f a l l (a f e w l i n e s later: " D i s s o l u e frigus l i g n a s u p e r f o c o . . . p o n e n s " ) rather than an inherent quality o b s e r v a b l e throughout t h e entire y e a r . ( 1 6 5 ) E . B e n - Y e h u d a ' s Thesaurus totius Hebraitatis has £-m-d (pp. 4 5 4 6 , 4 5 4 9 ) in t h e s e n s e o f ' s t a y , r e m a i n ' , but n e i t h e r in that o f a c o p u l a n o r a s a v e r b o f ' e x i s t e n c e ' . ( 1 6 6 ) S e e C . D . D u C a n g e ' s Lexicon mediae et infimae Latinitatis, s.v. stare.

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T h e feature w e h a v e j u s t described is f o u n d exclusively in texts of the Italian region, and despite the i n c o m p l e t e n a t u r e of our material, w e c a n hardly d o u b t that this p h e n o m e n o n is r o o t e d in the c o r r e s p o n d i n g stage of d e v e l o p m e n t of the Italian l a n g u a g e . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s is c o r r o b o r a t e d by the fact that F r e n c h uses only for the i m p e r a t i v e a form d e r i v e d from esse rather than o n e d e r i v e d from stare, that is sois, while for the future tense, for w h i c h M a n u e l l o n o r m a l l y has a periphrastic form, w e find in his text precisely the m o n o l e c t i c yihye, a c o r r e s p o n d i n g form of the H e b r e w root h-y- " t o b e " (e.g., yihye nimsa? "si trovera[\ yihye nir?e " w i l l be s e e n " , " w i l l be v i s i b l e " ) w h i c h precisely reflects the fact that in Italian the future of the v e r b " t o b e " is b a s e d o n esseS A possible e x p l a n a t i o n of the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d use of f-m-d is the p r e s e n c e of a prosthetic v o w e l p r e c e d i n g the c o n s o n a n j clusters involving s in F r e n c h as, e.g., estez, estoit, estat, w h i c h later g a v e ete, etait, etat, in contrast to its a b s e n c e in Italian stava. T h i s prosthetic v o w e l e could create the i m p r e s s i o n that forms such as est and estait, etait b e l o n g to o n e aryl the s a m e root, a sentiment w h i c h could by n o m e a n s prevail in Italian. l61)

T h e study of the partial r e p l a c e m e n t of the v e r b " t o b e " by f o r m s founded on the e x p r e s s i o n " b e erect, s t a n d " h a s led us to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of periphrastic constructions m a d e up of a participle and s o m e t e n s e of the v e r b " t o b e " functioning as an auxiliary, a formal structure the study of w h i c h will o c c u p y us in the c o n c l u d i n g part of this discussion.

D. T H E G E R M A N M O D E L : V E R B A L P E R I P H R A S I S It has already b e e n m e n t i o n e d that a form of the periphrastic t y p e ' t o be with p a r t i c i p l e ' is used by an Italian a u t h o r in the f r a m e w o r k of the future tense, n a m e l y the a b o v e - q u o t e d yihye nimsa? " w i l l be f o u n d " , yihye nirle " w i l l b e s e e n " . T h i s very fact creates a clear contrast b e t w e e n Italianized H e b r e w and another r e g i o n a l form of the l a n g u a g e , A s h k e n a z i H e b r e w , the H e b r e w of G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g J e w s , in w h i c h that formal structure functions only with the past form of the auxiliary. T h i s is of quite extraordinary i m p o r t a n c e in a n u m b e r of respects. It s h o u l d be

( 1 6 7 ) It is the F r e n c h future f o r m serai rather than the Italian sard for w h i c h L a t i n sedere m i g h t b e s u g g e s t e d as an o r i g i n ( c p . E . L o f s t e d t , Philologischer Kommentar zur Peregrinatio Aetheriae, p. 1 4 6 , n o t e 1) in c o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o a large p o r t i o n o f the f o r m s o f the v e r b s ' t o be* in I b e r o - R o m a n c e . O l d F r e n c h , o n the o t h e r h a n d , still h a s f o r m s that g o b a c k directly t o Latin ero.

THE NATURE OF MEDIEVAL HEBREW

73

e m p h a s i z e d in the first place that t h e forms of that type constitute a legacy of R a b b i n i c a l M i s h n a i c H e b r e w , w h i c h , h o w e v e r , revealed a c o n s i d e r a b l e disequilibrium in its u s e in favour of the past tense. W h a t ­ e v e r the origin or b a c k g r o u n d of this d e v e l o p m e n t , neither A s h k e n a z i n o r Italian H e b r e w use that form in a sense w h i c h w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d to the o n e e x p r e s s e d b y it in M i s h n a i c H e b r e w , and m o r e o v e r , the A s h k e ­ nazi a n d the Italian functions of that c o m p o u n d past — w h i c h is the best term to be used in the present c o n t e x t — h a v e nothing in c o m m o n . A s c o n c e r n s A s h k e n a z i H e b r e w , facts h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t to light b y C h a i m R a b i n o n the basis of the l a n g u a g e u s a g e of the collection of stories of the 13th century ' B o o k of the P i o u s . T h e purport of this verbal tense in A s h k e n a z i H e b r e w c a u s e s us to c o n s i d e r another, the third, feature of interest c o n n e c t e d with the forms c o n c e r n e d : the very signification w h i c h p r e v a i l e d in A s h k e n a z i - M e d i e v a l H e b r e w is c o n t i n u e d by, and stays alive in, C o n t e m p o r a r y H e b r e w , while that of Italian H e b r e w has been a b a n d o n e d . , ( 1 6 8 )

H o w e v e r , the survival of the M e d i e v a l A s h k e n a z i u s a g e creates a par­ ticular situation within the s y s t e m o f the verbal categories in Israeli H e b r e w , w h i c h h a s inherited and perpetuates the l a n g u a g e u s a g e of tra­ ditional s o u r c e s to the. s a m e d e g r e e a s that of post-classical traditions. T h e c o m p o u n d preterit has thus come" d o w n into present-day l a n g u a g e along t w o paths a n d in t w o s h a p e s : that w h i c h led through classical lan­ g u a g e and that w h i c h e m a n a t e d from m e d i e v a l A s h k e n a z i u s a g e , a cir­ c u m s t a n c e w h i c h b r o u g h t about the creation of a rather c o m p l e x a n d del­ icate m e c h a n i s m , w h o s e p u r p o s e it is to avoid a collision b e t w e e n the two functions. (169)

A n a t t e m p t at a historical e x p l a n a t i o n brings us to Post-Biblical H e b r e w in w h i c h — u n d e r the influence of A r a m a i c and as a result of factors o n w h i c h w e c a n n o t e n l a r g e h e r e — the periphrastic form had a c q u i r e d an iterative-consuetudinal v a l u e such as " h a d the habit of c o m ­ i n g " , " c a m e r e g u l a r l y " (haya bd7) in contrast to the n o n - c o m p o u n d nar­ rative form bd? " c a m e " . It is essential to bear in m i n d that s u c h a dis­ tinction w a s u n k n o w n a n d still is to a large d e g r e e , in Latin a n d in those E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s w h i c h played a role at the period with w h i c h w e are c o n c e r n e d . T h e c o n c l u s i o n that the use of H e b r e w at that t i m e could d r a w from their e x i s t e n c e w a s that they w e r e situated, so to speak, out­ side the " n o r m a l " s y s t e m of c o n c e p t s of t i m e , aspects a n d verbal m o d e s .

( 1 6 8 ) S e e note 147. ( 1 6 9 ) S e e m y Contemporary

Hebrew,

pp. 179-188.

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H.B. ROSEN

T h i s h y p o t h e s i s h a s the a d v a n t a g e of p r o v i d i n g an e x p l a n a t i o n for the fact that the periphrastic forms w e r e suitable to furnish m e a n s of e x p r e s ­ sion for g r a m m a t i c a l categories that existed in the v e r n a c u l a r l a n g u a g e s a n d for w h i c h inherited H e b r e w c o u l d not p r o v i d e s u c h tools. H o w e v e r — a n d this is d u e to the a n i s o m o r p h i s m of linguistic structures — these c a t e g o r i e s w e r e in n o w a y the s a m e e v e r y w h e r e . F o r the reflexes of M i d ­ d l e - H i g h - G e r m a n w e h a v e to take into a c c o u n t m o d a l v a l u e s ; this l a n g u a g e k n e w verbal tenses without auxiliaries, i.e. a p r e s e n t a n d a past, for w h i c h Post-Biblical H e b r e w c o u l d easily furnish e q u i v a l e n t s in the form of participles and perfect tenses, respectively, w h i l e the third s i m ­ ple verbal tense of H e b r e w , the so-called imperfect, r e m a i n e d u n e x ploited in tl^is f r a m e w o r k . T h e t w o G e r m a n tenses w e r e d i v i d e d into an indicative a n d a conditional subjunctive m o o d . In t h o s e e n v i r o n m e n t s , in w h i c h t h e - G e r m a n language required the present subjunctive komme, the a u t h o r of the " B o o k of the P i o u s " used the H e b r e w imperfect n o w called " f u t u r e " ydb^d?, w h i c h c o n t i n u e d in a certain fashion the Classi­ cal j u s s i v e . H o w e v e r for the conditional subjunctive of the past w h i c h e x p r e s s e s in G e r m a n a m o d a l sense of an " i r r e a l i s " , the m o r p h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m of H e b r e w could not p r o v i d e a satisfactory e q u i v a l e n t , a n d it w a s for this p u r p o s e that authors writing H e b r e w m a d e u s e of the c o m p o u n d past hdyd 5d? ascribing to it a m o d a l v a l u e of an i r r e a l i s \ "ueniret" or "uenisset", w h i c h r e m a i n e d stable up to the H e b r e w l a n g u a g e of the 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , creating within that l a n g u a g e the c o m p l i c a t i o n s m e n t i o n e d . ( l 7 0 )

4

y

T h e entire situation w a s not entirely the s a m e in R o m a n c e H e b r e w w h e r e , p r o b a b l y as an o u t c o m e of A r a b i c interference that w a s m u c h m o r e powerful than the o n e which w a s operative in the G e r m a n - s p e a k ­ ing c o m m u n i t i e s , the expression of the " p r e s e n t " w a s different a n d the active participles functioned differendy. First of all, it m u s t b e n o t e d that in R o m a n c e H e b r e w the participles w e r e inserted into the p h r a s e in a m a n n e r w h i c h w a s quite different from w h a t traditional l a n g u a g e used to d o : the participles behaved like Latin conjunct participles or R o m a n c e g e r u n d s ; so w e encounter, e.g., in the A l e x a n d e r N o v e l a p h r a s e " i n E g y p t there are wise m e n solving {pdt rim present participle of a v e r b m e a n i n g " t o s o l v e " , used here w i t h o u t prefixation of the d e t e r m i n a n t ha- w h i c h w o u l d h a v e been required a c c o r d i n g to Classical and still p r e s e n t - d a y g r a m m a r ) the d r e a m s , u n d e r s t a n d i n g {mtfiinim, participle of a v e r b m e a n i n g " u n d e r s t a n d " , again with n o d e t e r m i n a n t prefix) the h

%

( 1 7 0 ) F o r the f o l l o w i n g s e e in detail C h a i m R a b i n ' s s t u d y q u o t e d a b o v e ( n o t e 1 4 7 ) .

THE NATURE OF MEDIEVAL HEBREW

75

voices of the b i r d s " , or in the G e o g r a p h y : " I h a v e found precious lines e m a n a t i n g (yosTim, present participle of " c o m e out, e m a n a t e " ) from the pen of the h o n o u r a b l e . . . " . C o n s e q u e n t l y this participle, w h i c h thus serves as a form of s u b o r d i n a t i o n , is less suitable to fulfil the function of a principal verbal tense, such as a present: for that e n d o n e used r a t h e r frequently a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y to Arabic habits the verbal form e q u i p p e d with a p e r s o n a l prefix w h i c h expresses, strictly s p e a k i n g , a non-past rather than specifically t h e future. W e m u s t take into c o n s i d e r ­ ation that the particular m o r p h o l o g i c a l nature of the R o m a n c e future, arisen out of a form of periphrastic structure of the type uenire habeo could h a v e b e e n a catalytic factor for the use of a H e b r e w periphrastic tense precisely in that function, a n d , in fact, this is w h a t occurs m o s t fre­ quently, e.g., in the Treatise of G e o g r a p h y : " H o w will you be able {tihye yak} 61, periphrasis c o n s i s t i n g of the verb " t o b e " and the partici­ ple of " c a n " ) to r e c o g n i z e the position of the s t a r s ? " , or in the C l i m a ­ tology T r e a t i s e by M a n u e l l o R o m a n o : " T h e g l o w of the sun will p a s s a b o v e a thin cloud and will n o t settle firmly {Id? yihye nehqaq bo, a periphrasis involving the n o n - p a s t tense of the verb " t o b e " and the cur­ sive passive present participle of " i m p l a n t f i r m l y " ) in i t " , and also in a conditional c o n s t r u c t i o n : " I f the arch is visible (or rather " w i l l b e visi­ b l e " = yihye nir?e, a c o r r e s p o n d i n g construction with the passive p r e ­ sent participle of the v e r b " t o s e e " ) in the W e s t " ; and finally in the y

1

Treatise of G e o m e t r y a n d G e o d e s y : " A n unskilled g e o m e t e r d o e s not m e a s u r e the lands with the n e c e s s a r y exactitude so as to give (fad Jfeyhe? not*en, literally: " u n t i l h e will be g i v i n g " ) to e a c h party w h a t b e l o n g s to h i m " ; and s o w e a l s o h a v e in a m a n n e r reminiscent of the c o n s e c u t i v e relative subjunctive in F r e n c h : " a treatise which e x p l a i n s (se-yihye mp ares, " w h i c h will b e e x p l a i n i n g " ) these m a t t e r s " . h

H o w e v e r , it m u s t be pointed out that — contrary to what w e h a v e seen in o u r e x a m i n a t i o n of the u s a g e of the G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g H e b r e w authors — n o trace r e m a i n s t o d a y of that s o m e h o w curious and peculiar use of the c o m p o u n d tenses.

E. O U T L O O K T h e observation w h i c h w e h a v e j u s t m a d e brings us back to the h i s ­ tory of H e b r e w in a m o r e e n c o m p a s s i n g view. T h e several regional tra­ ditions p l a y e d different roles in the transition to the revival of H e b r e w ; the A s h k e n a z i tradition h a d t h e m o s t considerable weight in p o p u l a r

76

H.B. ROSEN

transmission, while the A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g r e g i o n s c o u l d play their part only t h r o u g h learned literature, a n d finally, that of the R o m a n c e - s p e a k ­ ing countries r e m a i n e d practically w i t h o u t influence. T h i s picture again r e m i n d s us of the history of Latin, w h e t h e r as s u c h o r in its v e r n a c u l a r guise, w h e r e b y the various r e g i o n a l s h a d e s h a d different fates. T h e facts of M e d i e v a l H e b r e w — with respect to w h i c h o n e s h o u l d call again and again for t h o r o u g h study a n d r e s e a r c h — s e r v e as a r e m i n d e r for us that the nature of Israeli H e b r e w , w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e s very h e t e r o g e n e o u s e l e m e n t s on the various levels of e x p r e s s i o n , is oojLsomething m o n s t r u o n s o r corrupt, neither in v i e w of the history of the l a n g u a g e n o r in v i e w of that of the great l a n g u a g e s w h o s e w o r l d of t h o u g h t a n d a t m o s p h e r e s u r r o u n d us these c-ays. H o w e v e r that a t m o s p h e r e , that j n t e l l e c t u a l clim a t e and that shape of civilization are m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n a interesting p n e n o m e n a , to wnicn the k n o w l e d g e a n d study of M e d i e v a l H e b r e w will be liable to m a k e an essential contribution. T h i s contribution will h a v e to c o m e forth as a fruit of interpretations by Latin, A r a b and H e b r e w philologies w h i c h are the basis of c o m i n g efforts to sketch an i m a g e of a great Medieval^culture w h i c h p r e c e d e s the e m e r g e n c e of H u m a n i s m a n d of the R e n a i s s a n c e s of the E u r o p e a n s .

PALESTINE AT THE TURN OF THE ERAS

P a l e s t i n e at the turn o f the eras Modern

names

are printed

in

italics

77

INDICES

GENERAL

— , knowledge of

11

— , N e w Testament accusative, marking of addressing formulas anti-Semitism aphaeresis Arabic

64-70

45

Hebraisms Hebrew

16

Ashkenaz

— , Biblical

57 57f., 72f., 7 5

Bar-Kochba, Bar-Kosba

10, 1 5 , 4 6

bilingualism

—

Christianity, n o t i o n s o f Christian Latin

19

42

copula

66

— , Post-Biblical

16f.,51,68

— . Pre-Talmudic

39

6 2 , 68f.

— , regional differentiation o f 6 1 - 6 4

H e b r e w s. Israeli

Hebrew

71

direct object, d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f 5iat&YuaTa

55-76 9

— , rabbinical

13

66

14

— , religious use

11

— , revival o f

75

— , Romance

74

—

secular prose

Early Latin 5 2 , 7 1

— , status o f

57

11

SPpctkrci 11

— , use of

E c c l e s i a s t i c Latin 3 6 , 6 2

— , diffusion o f

Edomites

Hebrew-French glossaries

10

e p i t a p h s 45f., 5 2

1,59,61

£p|ir|veia

10

"Holy Tongue"

12

humanism

F r e n c h , interference o f

66

68

[ g e n d e r ] c h a n g e in R o m a n c e

37

g e n i t i v a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s. construct state, in Old French Graecolatini Greek

11

33

irreal m o o d

74

Israeli H e b r e w

53,67,72

Italian Hebrew

72

— , influence o f 7 1

6f., 9 - 1 1 , 14

— , Hellenistic

67

47-53

60, 76

Ibero-Latin

— 20

I

holiness, notion of

etymology gender

59

59, 62

—.Medieval

73

construct state, in O l d French contact phenomena

language of Haskala

—.Middle

6

c o m p o u n d preterit

64-72

53,67,72

— , liturgical

51

67

56-58

in the R o m a n c e r e g i o n

—.Israeli

6, 2 1

Contemporary

— , history o f —

10

c a n o n i c i t y o f B i b l i c a l texts

11

— , contemporary colloquial

15

— , his c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

colloquial

57f., 72f., 7 5

16f., 6 8

— , Classical

Ashkenazi Hebrew Hebrew

35-39

16

— , Ashkenazi 66f.

59

26-28

— , semantic

23

article partitif

29

Haskala Hebrew 74

5 - 7 , 1 1 , 16f., 51

Aramaisms

11, 2 3 , 2 6

— , u s e o f 6, 12

8-9,65

Aramaic

1, 16, 3 1

12

— , u s e by E n n i u s

32

— , status o f

poetry

— , status o f

24f.

— , interference o f

—

—

35

Italian(izing) H e b r e w

68, 72

80

H.B. ROSEN

Jewish Aramaic — diaspora

If.,

10

phraseology

— t o m b s t o n e s in R o m e Jews

periphrastic f o r m s

6f. 45

plurilingualism

5-7 23-39

Josephus Flavius Judeo-Greek,

prayer f o r m u l a

12 12,

15

Renaissance

27

Romance

" L a n g u a g e o f the P e o p l e "

—

case inflection

33

46 55-61,71 13, 2 3

— , urban

28

— , use of

6 15

syntactic order

65

Syriac Aramaic

69f.

8

Lbpoipoiviiaaaa

20

Targum (version)

16-21

6 55-76

Mesopotamian Aramaic

— , Septuagint — , Vulgate

8

72-75 13

44

29, 44

v o c a b u l a r y transfers

59

V u l g a r Latin

60 21

42

28-35

— , Grecization of

monolingualism

28f., 3 5

— , penetration o f Jewish usage

8 - 1 0 , 12

N e o - Aramaic

60

versions, Greek

55-61,71

Mittelhebraisch

54-61

verbal p e r i p h r a s i s

59, 62

Medieval Hebrew M e d i e v a l Latin

70

23

Valla, Lorenzo

liturgical H e b r e w

70

I7f.

unilingualism

5-7

liturgical l a n g u a g e

—

vocabulary

28

18 18

neuter g e n d e r , Romance)

loss

of

(Late

Latin

and

TOPOGRAPHICAL

68

n o b i l i t y prefix

( s e e m a p o n p. 7 7 )

67

O c c i d e n t a l Christian v o c a b u l a r y 72

53

Canaan

43

Dead Sea

9 9

— , influence o f

65

Decapolis

— morphology

65

Galilee

"peace"

36-38

7, 2 0

Traditionssprache

l i n g u a franca

Old French

16

t o m b s t o n e s s. e p i t a p h s

16-21

Neo-Syriac

34

47-53

terminology, grammatical

l e x i c a l interference

Nabataean

Septuaginr

— (language)

L a t i n i s m s in o f f i c i a l e s e

Mittellatein

16f., 3 1

aupicrri

Medieval

lectio

Semitisms

"stand" = " b e " (Romance)

36, 62, 64

15

— , status o f

74

sepulchral m o n u m e n t s

52,71

— , Iberian

Hebrew

Seprtiagintisms

— , Ecclesiastic

— , Late

65

51

— , formulas

75

29

sanctity, notion o f

5-7,21,35-39

— , Early

—

lOf.

46

— , Christian

67

76

revival o f H e b r e w

26

" L a n g u a g e o f the F o r e i g n e r s " 7, 12 Late Latin

72

60

regionalization

26

Judeo-Romance Kulturwbrter

purism

33

12

prosthetic v o w e l

Neotestamentarian

Judeo-Latin

—

7f.

P o s t - C l a s s i c a l Latin

— in R o m e

Latin

72

13-16

42-47

Golan

19 9

28-35

81

INDICES

Hermon 9

70

Nahal Hever 9

? . . . mVff n a

Negev 20

n

Northern S i n a i 2 0 Petra 9 P r o v i n c i a Arabia 9

Q

36

-jn

66f.

!>??

Vizra

34

snpn

51

xipa

16-21

irm FORMS

oup^^o ,01p-TI0

CITED

HEBREW A N D ARAMAIC

45

15 26

piao

26

"T-Q-yV

70-72

rn"ay

71

•*TX

70

nny

69

rw

53

icy

68

N( h3D 'N

32

Tian rrrasy

11

"ijy^x

32

VyiD

69

,

,

jCO-iinpaK

32-

X"UD

32

32

70(^)9

32

'p-moa

30

pnoViQD

32

cnp-osx

32

"ias

68 5 If.

paoVDisx .pao^msK

jaip^DK .pip'SK

31

chip

nisix

70

v- T-pV

49

-nx

65

«np

50,52

snpn-rri

m

51

ntfK snp

50

"• 3~W

35

rrcftp ,Bnp

50

ofttf n : n

15,45

' snj?

50,52

-l^-iV

36

snip

50

—i—rV

27

*ri-p>/

17

-n

32

o(")tnp

26

aiby Kin

15

ntfp_

68

n-'-rrv

72

31

70

rrn w i t h participle

73f.

rrn

68

p^oon

32

... wbw\> Vara

44

Dip^DH

32

mVtf

15, 3 8 f , 4 2 - 4 7

L

7

snpnn

51

-oiVtf

45

-ra-'W

36

oW

38f., 4 2

68

nby

39,43

nTzran

68

n ^ s o , n*?3D

68

pn-oV

31

shtf'

69

myo

68

rnin

27

72

nV?n

69

72, 75

nyun

69

rrcrDn

69

•inn

20

n?T? — w i t h participle N~rW O(-0D-D S . "V ( c a s e prefix) nbwb • 7 N — n ]wb

28 o("0o-ip 15 15 16

057 -l-n-W

69 27

82

H.B. ROSEN GREEK

CRU(u)<pa)via

26

xau(i)£IOV dyioq

48

'Ayvoq

XIOEVCU

49 32

d7co|3aA.CTauov 32

dicoOfjKTi

30-32

d7COTi8evai

32

LATIN

15

dpxtov 15 Ppexew 12 yupouv 2 9 ^Ppaiari 11

elqti

32

imoicauiaiov

31

d p s a x e i \io\

- a (nt. plur.)

37

ababalsamum

32

aerarium s a n c t i u s *amictorium

38,41-47

Elprjvucoc;

32

UNAXTKOC;

32

dn:68£c;i<;

elpr)VT|

31

UTTATFIIA

*DJIIKIOPIOV

31

52

32

a p o t h e c a , -carius

45

bellum

18

30-32

43

benedicere

35

siq x d v aiajva 15

*calamarium

'EXcat

c a m p s a r e ( V u l g . Lat.)

18

^7rioxo7CO<;

32

£purjvEU£iv

17

circa

consecrare cms ero

mi

esse

18

50

29

dicere

29

etiyuxei 3 6

35

72 71

lepo<;

48

fabula

tvaxi

18

fabulari, -are

(suffix)

KaGeva

homo

29

KaXanapiov Kaujtfi

32f.

icsiaOai

29

18

\e\xa

18

ius

}ivf||ITI

4

u n u m ( V u l g . Lat.)

loqui 17f.

29

29

*meletare (Vulg. 36

36

memoria, -ium metuere

27

—

7roKdnicrov ( M o d . Gr.) 29

ius

27

35-37

2 5 , 27f. 27

Mulomedicina 32

69

Lat.)

27

— sabbata

20

-o- ("composing" vowel) omnis

42

33-35

m a n s i o ( V u l g . Lat.)

27

TT6X.£UO<;

Ka9

lectio 16-21

7rapapo>.£i)adn£voq 3 4 7iapapoXr| 33f. 7T£Tpa

69

25, 27

lapis

ufiuoptov (urjuoptov) v6\ioq

15

32

H£9epur|V£i)£iv ufiAxxdv

29

43

- i o n - (in V u l g . Lat.)

KscpaXfjc; KaxdKptxoc; Xa^id

29

70

integer

31

Ad^apoc,

33f.

in g i r u m ( V u l g . Lat.)

29

Kd|i\|/eiv

34

girare ( V u l g . Lat.)

11

69

29

EpcbxTjaEv elq eipf|VTJV 4 4

-taxi

29

c a p t i o (in M e d i e v a l Lat.)

eppcoao 15 (£<;) y u p o v

32f.

29

opobalsamum

32

20

INDICES orare

34f.

83

boutique

oratio, -ator

35

30

caduno (Sp.)

29

pacare

35, 37-39, 42

cage

p a c e re

38

camba (Prov.)

29

c a m b i a r e (It.)

29

pangere

38

parabola

33-35

*parabolare pax

chac(un)

33-35

changer

20f.

praefectus

29

15

prouerbium

69

34

46

salus

44f. 15, 4 6

jambe on

5If.

sanctificare

49f.

29

44

ser(Sp.)

26

71

t£moin

21

33 65

72 71

stava (It.) virer

t e s t i m o n i u m (in M e d i e v a l Lat.) uale

72

"stare" (Romance)

71

syndicus

sar6(It.)

star(Sp.)

71

tantum

33

29

serai

70f.

status

71

-s ( a c c . p i . ) . O l d French Lat.)

21

stare

70

pierre

25

statura

33

parler, parlare (It.), parole

s i n g u l i (in V u l g . sospes

29

palabra(Sp.)

72

siriste

72

29

P (It.)

47-53

seruare

67

70f.

hablar(Sp.)

44

sedere

68

gamba(It.)

salutem dicere

sanctus

erreur, V

estez, estoit

46

sancire

29

etre 70f.

salutare saluus

environs essere(It.)

48

salue

66

di (It., nobility prefix)

47-53

sacerdos

48

de (Romance)

(in M e d i e v a l Lat.)

sacer

68

29

consacrer

petra ( V u l g . Lat.)

presio

29

chaleur, la

37-39,42-47

per s e

69

70

72

69

29

69

15

uerba pacifica uerbum uersari

45f.

OTHER LANGUAGES

34 29

e

bene n (Yiddish)

35

befriedigen (German) biscop (OEngl.) ROMANCE

davvenen (Yiddish) edes (Yiddish)

(French u n m a r k e d )

beaucoup

70

bodega (Sp.) bottega(It.)

71

Friede ( G e r m a n ) heilig (German) man (German)

30 30

-nis ( G e r m a n ) qartas ( A r a b i c )

35

69 37

Gefangnis (German) b i n t e r v o c a l i c (It.)

37

32

48 70 69 26

69

84

H.B. ROSEN

r-g-m ( A k k a d i a n )

Berachya

71

svet- (Slavic)

48

CBJiTb ( R u s s . )

48

t-rg-m ( S e m i t i c )

62, 65, 75

Natrunai

Parables"

Ha-nNaqqdan,

17

Hibbur

17

weihen (German)

"Fox

62,67

"Gestes of a Jerusalemite"

targumaitzi (Hittite)

wihs (Gothic)

— , "Geography"

17

h

s t i t a s (Sanskrit)

ha-mMSiha

6 3 , 71

we-ha-tTiS-boret

s.

Avraham bar-Hiya

48

Mafc&se

48

YruSalmiy

s.

Gestes

of

a

Jerusalemite

witness (English)

69

Manuello Romano, Galenus' commentary o f the P s . - H i p p o c r . Of Airs, Places

SOURCES

QUOTED

MiSley

Waters

and

63, 67, 7 1 , 75 Sufcal s. B e r a c h y a

Natrunai

Ha-

nNaqqdan HEBREW

S e f e r H&sldlm s. Y h u d a h e - H a s i d Surat h a - ? a r e s

Biblical

s.

Avraham bar-Hiya

Y h A l a h e - H a s i d , " B o o k o f the P i o u s " 6 3 , Gen. 43.27f. — 2.3

74

44

49

Ex. 3.14

Other

49

— 20.8

49

— 29.1

50

Murraba'at O s t r a c o n 7 2

Lev. 25.10

50

Num. 23.7

34

Dt. 2 8 . 3 7 — 2.26

GREEK

34 45

I S a m . 7.1

Septuagint

50

U S a m . 11.7

44

IKgd 5.12 ( L X X : IIIKgd 4.32) Is. 6 . 3

14

34

M i c . 3.5 Zac. 9.10

IIIKgd 4 . 3 2 3 4 Ps. 2 1 . 2

51

18

50 N e w Testament

45

Ps. 2 2 [ L X X : 21J.2

18 Matth. 2 7 . 4 6 — 6.6

Rabbinical

Mc. 15.34 Babylonian Talmud

— 7.26

—

Luc. 12.24

Brakot

8a

17

18

31 18

20 31

— , Sabatf. 1 1 5 a 17 —

BabaQama30b

Other

39

— , t & b o d a zara ( A r a m a i c ) 39f.

30 Josephus Flavius

Medieval

— , Antiquitates X X 2 6 3

12

— , B e l l u m Iudaicum VII.31 Alexanderroman

63,65,67,71,74

A m i s , T a l e o f the T a b l e o f

63

Avraham bar-Hiya — , "Treatise o n G e o m e t r y and G e o d e s y " 62, 65, 75

— , contra A p i o n e m 1.12 Justinianus

Nov.

prooemium

146

(irepi

19

P h r y n i c h o s s.v. p p e x e w

15

11

12

e

Eppaicov),

INDICES LATIN A p p e n d i x Probi 151

85

C o r o m i n a s J.

32

Cicero

33

C o s e r i u E.

28

D a l m a n G.

18, 2 0

Debrunner A.

— , d e i n v e n t i o n e 11.160

27

—

43

Philippicae 2.44.113

D i e t r i c h K. D i n k i e r E.

— , p o s t reditum in senatu 4 — , pro flacco 6 6 2

CIL I . 192

27

Ernout A .

43

Ennius, Ann. 5 4

13

51 14

FuchsH.

44,46

G e i g e r J.

6

K a h a n e H. a n d R.

63

71

Juvenalis

KaimioJ.

28f.

Kajantol.

2 3 , 28f.

KlarB.

I.3.60ff.

23

— , II.6.543ff.

63

Goshen-Gottstein M.

G e l l i u s s. C l o a t i u s V e r u s Historia d e p r o e l i i s

24

44-

KraussS.

13,26

— , V. 14.96-106

2 5 , 27f.

K u t s c h e r E . Y.

L a u d a t i o Turiae

52

Leon H.J.

Leo Neapolitans

s. Historia d e

Plautus, A m . 3 8 8 — , Mer. 6 7 8 — . St. 5 1 9

27

43

Leumann M. LinderA.

43

20

37

20

1 1 , 13, 19

19

LinkGu.

Peregr. A e t h e r i a e ( E g e r i a e )

56

28f., 3 7 , 3 9

L i e b e r m a n n S.

43

—,47.3-4

proeliis

52

Lofstedt B.

28, 3 T

Lofstedt E.

2 1 , 29, 33, 37, 56, 58-60, 67,

70

Plinius, N H 3.34

46

S a l l u s t i u s , Cat. 3 1 . 2 Statius, T h e b . 3 . 9 7

M e i s t e r R. 43

Seneca, Dial. 6.19.6

60

M o h r m a n n Chr.

47 46

NoldekeTh.

8

Norberg D.

68

P a l m e r L. R.

35

R o s e n Hannah

66

Saussure, SCHOLARS

14

R a b i n C h . 6 4 , 73f. R o n s c h H.

Strasbourg O a t h s

QUOTED

71

F. d e 48

S c h m i t t R.

8, 12

B e n v e n i s t e E . 4 1 , 47f.

SkutschO.

B e n - Y e h u d a E.

SolinH.

BerschinW. BlattF.

71

23

StemM.

56

B r u n o t F. — B r u n e a u C h . ChantraineP.

52

Souter A. 27

6

56

B r u n o t F.

24

S e v e n s t e r J. N .

67f.

42,48

65

66

S c a r d i g l i P. S c h n u r H . C. Banit M.

59

28

P o l o t s k y H. J. OTHER

57 6f., 26f., 29f., 3 2 , 4 8

57,70

KocrrC.

O v i d i u s , Tristia V . 7 . 4 7

71

33

Goldstein D.

Gaius Dig. IV.47.51

H o r a t i u s , c. 1.9.1

44

Du Cange C D .

25

C l o a t i u s V e r u s ap. G e l l . X V I . 12

36, 38

32

24,28

S t r a c k H . L.

44

T h a c k e r a y J.

13

TovE.

13

36

86 Vaananen V.

H.B. ROS£N W a l d e A . — H o f m a n n J. B .

29

Wasserstein A.

Varvaro A . 56 VendryesJ. V o l l m a n n R.

Y a r o n R.

59

ZgustaL.

48

W a c k e m a g e l J.

33

63

38 12,23,29

48