NAVIGATING IN EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTS
Navigating in Educational Contexts Identities and Cultures in Dialogue
Edited by Anneli Lauriala University of Lapland, Finland Raimo Rajala University of Lapland, Finland Heli Ruokamo University of Lapland, Finland and Outi Ylitapio-Mäntylä University of Lapland, Finland
SENSE PUBLISHERS ROTTERDAM / BOSTON / TAIPEI
A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-94-6091-520-8 (paperback) ISBN 978-94-6091-521-5 (hardback) ISBN 978-94-6091-522-2 (e-book)
Published by: Sense Publishers, P.O. Box 21858, 3001 AW Rotterdam, The Netherlands www.sensepublishers.com
Printed on acid-free paper
All rights reserved © 2011 Sense Publishers No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
CONTENTS
Foreword Acknowledgements Preface
7 9 11
IDENTITY, CONTEXT, MARGINALITY Teaching and marginality: Lessons from teachers’ life stories Freema Elbaz-Luwisch
17
Innate temperament explains too much from a student’s school achievement? 31 Liisa Keltikangas-Järvinen and Sari Mullola The role of crisis in the development of student teachers’ professional identity Paulien C. Meijer
41
Learning and teaching on spaceship sarth: The search for sustainable values in education Michael Kompf
55
Identity thresholds: Researching the socio-political impact of learning in immersive virtual worlds Maggi Savin-Baden
63
TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Early formations of teacher identity: Prospective teacher candidates notions of teacher roles Lisa A. Gross and Susan D. Gilbert
79
Exploring the nature of teachers’ professional learning 93 John Loughran, Amanda Berry, Allie Clemans, Stephen Keast, Bianca Miranda, Graham Parr, Philip Riley and Elizabeth Tudball )LYHVWHSVIRUZDUGí developing pedagogical expertise during teacher education Helena Koskinen
103
Taking metacognition a step further: Teachers sharing pedagogical purposes Ian Mitchell and Judie Mitchell
117
5
CONTENTS
“Good pal, wise dad and nagging wife” – and other views of teaching practice mentors Riitta Jyrhämä and Erja Syrjäläinen
137
CONTEXT AND TEACHING Transfer credits in higher education: The path to globalization Christine Arnold and Michael Kompf
153
The right to education: A new foundation for schools and communities Jude Butcher, Anne Benjamin, Chris Sidoti, Anthony Steel and Dawn Casey
165
Cosmologies and lifestyles: A cultural ecological framework and its implications for education systems Phil Bayliss and Patrick Dillon What personal factors motivate the caring teacher? Wendy Moran The effect of teachers’ personal beliefs and emotional intelligence on quality and effectiveness of teaching Lefkios Neophytou, Mary Koutselini and Leonidas Kyriakides
179
191
207
ICT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING Longitudinal study of the relationship between students’ perceptions of their problem solving and ICT skills and their ICT experience as part of their teacher education program 227 Shukri Sanber and Marea Nicholson Professional links – professional support: Promoting the development of TXDOLW\SHGDJRJ\DQGWHDFKHUV¶VHOIHI¿FDF\LQWKHXVHRI,&7ZLWKLQ a supportive professional learning community Carolyn Broadbent, Maureen Boyle and Jo Brady Designing a pedagogical model for virtual reality and simulation-based learning environments of healthcare Tuulikki Keskitalo and Heli Ruokamo
243
259
Online tutoring for media education interns in practical training Leo Pekkala, Päivi Hakkarainen and Harri Heikkilä
271
Contributors Reviewers
281 282
6
FOREWORD
7KLVERRNSHUIHFWO\¿WV,6$77¶VWUDGLWLRQRISURYLGLQJDZLGHUDQJHRIDSSURDFKHV to gaining a meaningful understanding of the processes of teaching and learning. These are aimed at uncovering, through doing research, of what Deweyi called the VLJQL¿FDQFH of what we see, hear, and touch. During our 2009 conference, so EHDXWLIXOO\RUJDQL]HGLQ)LQODQG¶VIDUQRUWKWKHWKHPH³1DYLJDWLQJLQ(GXFDWLRQDO Contexts” was brought to life in the presentations and during the debates. An organization with members from all parts of the globe, is very well positioned to provide a platform for ongoing dialogue about research in education. This book FRQWDLQV VRPH LPSRUWDQW FRQWULEXWLRQV WR WKDW GLDORJXH ³7HDFKHUV PDWWHU´ii, and books about these teachers matter to everyone aiming to educate teachers and to improve teaching in all levels of education. 7KLVERRNIXUWKHUVKDSHV,6$77¶VPLVVLRQWRSURPRWHSUHVHQWGLVFXVVDQGGLVseminate research on teachers and teaching and contribute to theory formation in WKLV ¿HOG ,W SRLQWV DW OLQHV RI UHVHDUFK WKDW DUH EHLQJ GHYHORSHG DW WKLV PRPHQW VXFKDVWHDFKHULGHQWLW\,&7LQHGXFDWLRQDQGQHZZD\VRIDGGUHVVLQJDQGDVVHVVLQJWHDFKHUV¶OHDUQLQJDQGGHYHORSPHQW,WDOVRXQGHUOLQHVWKHFUHDWLYLW\RI,6$77¶V members in approaching research in more dialogical ways, where teachers and students are treated not just as research subjects, but as participants, informants, and even as co-researchers. The collection of papers in this book is a source of inspiration for all researchers who take a more holistic view of research in education, in which a dialogue LV VRXJKW EHWZHHQ UHVHDUFKHUV WHDFKHUV DQG VWXGHQWV ,W DGGUHVVHV NH\ LVVXHV LQ education, captured in four sections that cover the conference contributions. This ERRNIROORZVDWUDGLWLRQRIKLJKO\FLWHGERRNVDQG,DPFRQ¿GHQWLWZLOOHTXDOO\ LQÀXHQFHIXUWKHUUHVHDUFK Paulien C. Meijer ,6$77FKDLU
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Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education.1HZ
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7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book would not have been possible without the participation, support and work of many contributors. Above all, we would like to thank all who came, from GLIIHUHQWFRXQWULHVWRSUHVHQWSDSHUVDWWKH,6$77FRQIHUHQFH7KHFRQIHUHQFH themes were brought to life through your animated presentations and inspiring discussions. 2XUVLQFHUHWKDQNVJRWRWKH,6$77H[HFXWLYHWR0LFKDHO.RPSI3DP'HQLFROR and Daniela Hotolean for their support and advice throughout the whole process. 7KH &RQIHUHQFH 6HUYLFHV RI WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI /DSODQG ZHUH RI LQYDOXDEOH DLG 6HFUHWDU\0DUMD/HHQD3RUVDQJHUDORQJZLWKKHUDVVLVWDQWVJXDUDQWHHGWKDWHYHU\thing went punctually and smoothly. The conference organization is to be thanked for working for two years with commitment and sincere enthusiasm. Many international and national reviewers JHQHURXVO\µEOLQGUHYLHZHG¶WKHVXEPLWWHGSDSHUV WKHLUSURIHVVLRQDOH[SHUWLVHDQG IHHGEDFNDLGHGWKHHGLWRUVLQWKHLU¿QDOVHOHFWLRQSURFHVVDQGDVVLVWHGLQWKHUHYLsion of the articles. Many graduate students from the Faculty of Education, as well as from the 8QLYHUVLW\RI$SSOLHG6FLHQFHVZRUNHGGXULQJWKHFRQIHUHQFHLQGLIIHUHQWFDSDFLWLHV JLYLQJ WKHLU KHOS WR FRQIHUHQFH SDUWLFLSDQWV7KH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI /DSODQG DQG the Faculty of Education provided their services and facilities, for which we are grateful. We owe thanks, also, to the town of Rovaniemi for organizing the wonderIXO ZHOFRPH HYHQLQJ LQ WKH WRZQ KDOO DQG WR WKH )LQQLVK$FDGHP\ WKH 2..$ foundation, the Finnish Work Environment Fund, and the Microlinna Company for WKHLU¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUWRIWKHFRQIHUHQFH 7KDQNVJRDOVRWR0DVWHURI$UWV3DXOD.DVVLQHQZKRKDVEHHQUHVSRQVLEOHIRU WKHOD\RXWDQGLOOXVWUDWLRQRIWKHERRNDQGWR0LFKHO/RNKRUVWRI6HQVH3XEOLVKHUV He has guided us in the preparation and production of the book. $QQHOL/DXULDOD5DLPR5DMDOD+HOL5XRNDPRDQG2XWL
9
PREFACE
The articles presented here are based on the invited keynote speeches and the DFFHSWHG SDSHU SUHVHQWDWLRQV RI WKH ,6$77 FRQIHUHQFH KHOG LQ 5RYDQLHPL Finland. 7KHORFDWLRQRIWKHFRQIHUHQFHQHDUWKH$UFWLF&LUFOHLQ/DSODQGDWWUDFWHGSDUticipants from 33 different countries and from all continents. There were over 250 GHOHJDWHV,QDGGLWLRQSRVWJUDGXDWHVWXGHQWVDWWHQGHGDWZRGD\SUHFRQIHUHQFH EDVHGRQDXWKHQWLFDWPRVSKHUHDQGDJHQXLQHGLVFXVVLRQRQZKDWGH¿QHVJRRGDQG worthwhile research. This event turned out to be a most inspiring and instructive experience for all. With the main theme of conference Navigating in Educational Contexts: Identities and Cultures in Dialogue, we wanted to point out how learning and growth are dependent on and embedded in contexts. The changing contexts of eduFDWLRQORFDOO\QDWLRQDOO\DQGJOREDOO\FKDOOHQJHHGXFDWRUVDWDOOOHYHOVWRUHÀHFW XSGDWHDQGWUDQVIRUPWKHLUYLHZVDQGSUDFWLFHV7KHUHDUHXUJHQWTXHVWLRQV :KDW are the core values and principles underpinning good pedagogy? How do teachers cope with the complexities of their work and manage to sustain their pedagogical LGHDOV":KDWGRHVHTXLW\FDULQJDQGLQFOXVLYHQHVVPHDQLQGLIIHUHQWFRQWH[WVDQG situations? ,Q D ZRUOG RI JOREDOL]DWLRQ PRELOLW\ DQG PXOWLFXOWXUDOLVP LVVXHV RI LGHQWLWLHV DQGFXOWXUHVKDYHEHFRPHPRUHDQGPRUHPHDQLQJIXO KHQFHHQKDQFLQJDQGVXVtaining a sense of cultural and personal identity becomes of paramount importance in educational contexts. There were important paper presentations that dealt with the kinds of contexts, relationships and practices that enable students, teachers and UHVHDUFKHUVWRGHYHORSWKHLUSHUVRQDODQGFROOHFWLYHLGHQWLWLHV2QHXUJHQWTXHVWLRQ emerging from the presentations concerned how professional identities are shaped by dialogue and tensions between personal, professional and contextual knowledge. Besides different topic areas, the main theme of the conference was addressed from different methodological stances, since different research approaches, types or strategies were represented in the keynotes and in paper presentations and symposia. The following sub-themes indicate the special foci under the conference main theme. At the beginning of the book, the keynote speeches held at the conference will be presented. They address the issues of identity and challenges of education, and as well individual learner, learning communities as varying contexts of learning, from classrooms to virtual worlds. 352)(66,21$/'(9(/230(17$1'/($51,1*
/LIHORQJ OHDUQLQJ DQG FRQWLQXRXV SURIHVVLRQDO GHYHORSPHQW SRVH FKDOOHQJHV IRU WHDFKHU HGXFDWLRQ DQG VFKRRO OHDGHUVKLS ,W LV LPSRUWDQW WR DVN KRZ ZH PD\ 11
PREFACE
enhance professional development in different career phases and transitions and in changing contexts. We need to deepen our understanding on what characterizes teacher learning, what constitutes the critical elements for teachers to develop and WUDQVIRUPWKHLUWKLQNLQJDQGSUDFWLFHVDQGZKDWIRVWHUVWHDFKHUV¶ZHOOEHLQJVHQVH of competence, motivation and commitment to learn. The following articles present some effective approaches for enhancing teacher growth and learning. Lisa Gross and Susan GilbertIURPWKH86$GHVFULEHLQWKHLUDUWLFOHKRZSUH VHUYLFH WHDFKHUV¶ SULRU IRUPDWLYH VFKRROLQJ H[SHULHQFHV DIIHFW DQG JLYH VKDSH WR WKHLUSHUFHSWLRQVRIWHDFKLQJDQGWKHLUVHOILPDJHVDVWHDFKHUV*URVVDQG*LOEHUW¶V UHVHDUFKVKRZVWKHLPSRUWDQFHDQGQHHGIRUUHÀHFWLYHSUDFWLFHZKHUHWLPHLVDOORWWHGWRH[DPLQHHDUO\H[SHULHQFHVDQGWREHFRPHFRQVFLRXVRIRQH¶VPRWLYDWLRQV Riitta Jyrhämä and Eija Syrjäläinen from Finland base their article on teaching practice supervision, which they examine in the framework of a didactic/pedagogic WULDQJOH GHYHORSHG E\ .DQVDQHQ 7KH PRGHO HQWDLOV GLIIHUHQW OHYHOV RI WKLQNLQJ linked to different types of didactic and pedagogical relations. Their research aims at outlining various views of supervisory roles and their development during the supervision course. The article illuminates the many roles of a supervisor in teacher education involving both empathy and rigor. Helena Koskinen from Finland presents research on and the development of a ¿YHVWHSDSSURDFKWRHQKDQFHWHDFKHUV¶UHÀHFWLYHVNLOOV7KHSDUWLFLSDQWVDUHDGXOWV ZKRDIWHUJUDGXDWLRQLQGLIIHUHQWVFLHQWL¿F¿HOGVDUHGRLQJWKHLUSHGDJRJLFDOVWXGies, based on cumulative and blended learning. The studies involve both on-camSXVFRXUVHVDQGRIIFDPSXVHOHDUQLQJDQGLQGLYLGXDOZRUN7KHIRFXVRIUHÀHFWLRQ VKLIWHG LQ WKH ¿YHVWHS SDWK IURP GHVFULELQJ RQH¶V SULRU H[SHULHQFHV WHDFKLQJ SURFHVVDQGSHUVRQDONQRZKRZWRFULWLFDOUHÀHFWLRQRIOHDUQLQJSURFHVVHVDQGDVsessing the training in whole. The model can be seen as a useful tool in strengthenLQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVWXGHQWV¶WHDFKHULGHQWLW\DQGH[SHUWLVH7KHDXWKRUSRLQWV WRWKHLPSRUWDQFHRISD\LQJDWWHQWLRQWRDGXOWVWXGHQWV¶GLIIHUHQWOHDUQLQJVWUDWHJLHV DQGWKHQHHGIRUÀH[LELOLW\LQWKHVWXGLHV John Loughran, Amanda Berry, Allie Clemans, Stephen Keast, Bianca Miranda, Graham Parr, Philip Riley and Elisabeth Tudball from Australia explore the nature RI WHDFKHUV¶ SURIHVVLRQDO OHDUQLQJ 7KHLU DUWLFOH SRLQWV WR WKH GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WUDGLWLRQDO SURIHVVLRQDO GHYHORSPHQW DQG SURIHVVLRQDO OHDUQLQJ SURJUDPV ,QVWHDG of doing things to teachers (PD), professional learning refers to working with teachers to help them to develop skills, knowledge and abilities that are responsive WRWKHLURZQQHHGVLVVXHVDQGFRQFHUQVDQGWRWKHVSHFL¿FFRQGLWLRQVZKHUHWKH\ work. Case writing is used as a method for sharing and learning about experiences. Creating a collaborative, trusting environment is shown to be a corner stone for OHDUQLQJ ,W LV SUHVHQWHG DV RQH ZD\ RI UHFRJQL]LQJ DQG UHVSRQGLQJ WR WHDFKHUV¶ needs, in order to create conditions conducive to genuine professional learning. Ian Mitchell’s and Julia Mitchell’sSDSHUIRFXVHVRQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWHDFKHUV¶ PHWDFRJQLWLRQ VNLOOV WKURXJK DQ DFWLRQ UHVHDUFK SURMHFW7KHLU ¿QGLQJV VKRZ WKDW four types of knowledge are needed to inform purposeful teaching and to promote TXDOLW\ OHDUQLQJ DQG PHWDFRJQLWLRQ 7KH VWXG\ KLJKOLJKWV WKH YDOXH RI ORQJWHUP teacher research projects, owned by teachers, when aiming at meaningful changes 12
PREFACE
in teacher learning and in learning to learn. Further the study points to the sigQL¿FDQFHRIWHDFKHUVVKDULQJH[SHULHQFHVZLWKSHHUVDVZHOODVFROODERUDWLRQZLWK academics in analysing their actions and articulating their experiential knowledge. &217(;7$1'7($&+,1*
The section, Context and Teaching, comprises articles which analyse changing contexts of teaching and learning. Teaching and learning take place to a great extent in the world of globalization. What is understood as a right to education is complicated by many things in a new global world and education needs to regard OHDUQLQJWKURXJKHQJDJHPHQWZLWKWKHHQYLURQPHQWDVDYLDEOHIRUPRIOHDUQLQJ,Q teaching practice, there is both an ethical and a behavioural aspect in the teacherstudent relationships of a caring teacher. Emotional intelligence is an important SDUWRIWHDFKHUV¶LQWHUDFWLYHEHKDYLRXU Christine Arnold and Michael Compf analyse policies and procedures of Canadian universities in credit transfers. Their conclusion is that systems of higher HGXFDWLRQ FDQQRW ZRUN LQ LVRODWLRQ IURP RQH DQRWKHU ,Q WKH IXWXUH VKDULQJ ORFDO and global resources and knowledge is important. Jude Butcher, Anne Benjamin, Chris Sidoti, Antony Steel and Dawn Casey present new foundations of for schools DQG FRPPXQLWLHV IURP WKH SHUVSHFWLYH RI WKH ULJKW WR HGXFDWLRQ 7KH 8QLYHUVDO Declaration of Human Rights has not been effectively realized in different national and geographical contexts. They explore the challenges the right to education poses on governments and school systems. Actions need to be undertaken at the local level of teachers and administrators. Those working in education need to be educated with regard to the extended right to education. Patrick Dillon and Phil Bayliss present an ecological framework for education. 6RFLRFXOWXUDO WKHRU\ H[SODLQV KRZ FXOWXUDO SDWWHUQV DUH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK VHWWOHG largely urban lifestyles. Western educational situations, structures, contexts and VFKHPDWD DUH VXEVWDQWLDOO\ SUHGH¿QHG DQG WKLQJV DUH µFRQWH[WGHSHQGHQW¶ 7KH\ VHHWKH0RQJROLDQVLWXDWLRQDVDFKDOOHQJHWRVRPHSUHPLVHVRIZHVWHUQWKHRU\,Q 0RQJROLDERWKPHDQLQJDQGFRQWH[WHPHUJHIURPSHRSOH¶VLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWKWKHLU environments. The presented ecological framework attempts simultaneously to embrace both interpretations. Wendy MoranFRQVLGHUVFDULQJWHDFKHUV7KHSUR¿OHRIDFDULQJWHDFKHUKDVHWKLFDODQGEHKDYLRXUDODVSHFWV'H¿QLQJDWHDFKHUDVFDULQJLVDQHDV\WDVNEXWWKH SHUVRQDOIDFWRUVWKDWDUHUHODWHGWRDFDULQJWHDFKHUQHHGH[SORULQJ,QWKLVDUWLFOH personal and teaching-related mindsets are described based on a survey and interview data. Lefkios Neophytou, Mary Koutselini and Leonidas Kyriakides make an DWWHPSW WR DQDO\VH WKH UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ WHDFKHUV¶ SHUVRQDO EHOLHIV WHDFKHUV¶ HPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHTXDOLW\RIWHDFKLQJDQGHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWHDFKLQJ4XDOLW\RI teaching was found to mediate the effects of both emotional intelligence as a mixed WUDLWDQGWHDFKHUV¶EHOLHIVRQHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWHDFKLQJDWWKHWHDFKHUOHYHODQGDWWKH OHYHORIVWXGHQWV¶SHUIRUPDQFHLQPDWK,QFRQFOXVLRQEHWWHUWHDFKLQJLVDVVRFLDWHG with improved understanding of Personal Theory. 13
PREFACE
,&72)7($&+,1*$1'/($51,1*
$V D SDUW RI D 1%( PHHWLQJ DQ ICT of Teaching and Learning subtheme was HVWDEOLVKHG8QGHUWKLVWKHPHIRXUUHYLHZHGDUWLFOHVZHUHDFFHSWHGIRUSXEOLFDWLRQ 7KH ¿UVW RQH RI WKHP GHDOV ZLWK WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ VWXGHQWV¶ SHUFHSWLRQV RIWKHLUSUREOHPVROYLQJDQG,&7VNLOOVDQGWKHLU,&7H[SHULHQFHDVSDUWRIWKHLU WHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDP,QWKHDUWLFOHShukri Sanber and Marea Nicholson also SUHVHQWV WKH ,&7 LQWHJUDWLRQ PRGHO7KH UHVXOWV RI WKH VWXG\ FOHDUO\ LQGLFDWH WKDW VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV FDQ JUDGXDWH SRVVHVVLQJ ZRUNLQJ SUR¿FLHQF\ LQ ,&7 WKDW ZRXOG enable them to use the technology in the classroom. At the same time they are able to further their skills and to adapt with changing environments. ,QWKHVHFRQGDUWLFOHCarolyn Broadbent, Maureen Boyle and Jo Brady discuss SURIHVVLRQDOOLQNVDQGSURIHVVLRQDOVXSSRUW +RZGRHVLWSURPRWHWKHGHYHORSPHQW RITXDOLW\SHGDJRJ\DQGWHDFKHUV¶VHOIHI¿FDF\LQWKHXVHRI,&7ZLWKLQDVXSSRUWive professional learning community. Results of the study suggest that collaborative partnerships between universities, schools and the wider educational community DUHWREHHQFRXUDJHGDVWKH\KDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOWRUHYLWDOLVHWHDFKHUV¶SURIHVVLRQDO learning. They also create avenues for the construction of new knowledge and development of skills, and, through purposeful and mutually reciprocal engagement, FDQOHDGWRPRUHHTXLWDEOHDQGVXVWDLQDEOHRXWFRPHVIRUDOO Tuulikki Keskitalo and Heli Ruokamo present a designed model for virtual reality and a simulation-based learning environment for healthcare in the third article. The developed pedagogical model is based on the characteristics of meaningful learning. The preliminary results of the study show that the characteristics that were strongly supported were experiential, experimental, socio-constructive, collaboraWLYHDFWLYHUHVSRQVLEOHUHÀHFWLYHFRPSHWHQFHEDVHGFRQWH[WXDODQGVHOIGLUHFWHG But in the future we must consider how the emotional, critical, goal-oriented and individual characteristics could be fully realized, since they are crucial points in promoting meaningful learning. /DVWRIWKH,&7LQ7HDFKLQJLQ/HDUQLQJVXEWKHPH¶VDUWLFOHVLeo Pekkala, Päivi Hakkarainen and Harri Heikkilä study online tutoring for media education and how it interns in practical training. The results of the research show some positive effects of online tutoring in relation to supporting meaningful learning. The students have been able to collaborate and communicate within each other during the training. They have been able to communicate with their academic tutor, which KDVQRWEHHQSRVVLEOHEHIRUHRQOLQH,QWKLVVWXG\WKHHOHPHQWVRIPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJSURFHVVHVKDYHEHHQUHFRJQLVHG$VSHFL¿FRQOLQHHQYLURQPHQWDQGDVHOHFWLRQ of social media communication tools have encouraged students to communicate LQIRUPDOO\DQGUHÀHFWVSRQWDQHRXVO\ $QQHOL/DXULDOD5DLPR5DMDOD+HOL5XRNDPRDQG2XWL
14
IDENTITY, CONTEXT, MARGINALITY
CHAPTER 1
TEACHING AND MARGINALITY: LESSONS FROM TEACHERS’ LIFE STORIES Freema Elbaz-Luwisch
,QPDQ\WUDGLWLRQVWHDFKHUVDUHKRQRUHGDVKROGLQJDSODFHRIFHQWUDOLPSRUWDQFHWR the development of society. However, there are signs that teaching as a profession LVLQFUHDVLQJO\EHLQJPDUJLQDOL]HGLQVRFLHW\ UHVHDUFKVWXGLHVDVZHOODVVWDWHPHQWV LQ WKH SXEOLF IRUXP WHOO XV WKDW WHDFKLQJ KDV EHFRPH D PRUH DQG PRUH GLI¿FXOW MRERYHUWKH\HDUV7KHIUHTXHQWXVHRIWHUPVVXFKDV³GHVNLOOLQJ´ $SSOH DQG ³LQWHQVL¿FDWLRQ´ :RRGV %DOOHW HW DO +DUJUHDYHV UHÀHFW WKLV 5HVHDUFK RQ WHDFKLQJ RIWHQ ORRNV DW WKH QHJDWLYH VLGH RI WKH OHGJHU rather than the positive, focusing heavily on topics such as teacher stress and EXUQRXW 9DQGHQEHUJKH +XEHUPDQ :LOKHOP HW DO 7HDFKHUV complain about being under constant pressure to respond to reform initiatives, in particular to outcome-oriented and standards-based programs that demand many FKDQJHVLQWHDFKHUV¶ZRUNZLWKRXWDOZD\VGHOLYHULQJWKHKRSHGIRUJDLQVLQVWXGHQW DFKLHYHPHQW LQPDQ\FRXQWULHVWHDFKHUVDUHSRRUO\UHZDUGHGIRUWKHLUHIIRUWVSDLG low salaries and offered few opportunities for advancement. Overall, rapid changes LQWKHZRUNRIWHDFKLQJKDYHOHIWPDQ\WHDFKHUV³JULHYLQJIRUD ORVW VHOI´ 1LDV 1993), struggling to make sense of the latest reform and wondering whether it is ZRUWKWKHLUHIIRUWWRLQYHVWLQPDQGDWHGQHZSURJUDPV *LWOLQ 0DUJRQLV ,W LV ZRUWK DVNLQJ ZK\ WHDFKLQJ LV EHLQJ VR PDUJLQDOL]HG 2QH UHDVRQ PD\ EH WKDW WKH ZRUN RI WHDFKLQJ LV FORVHO\ WLHG WR LWV VRFLDO DQG FXOWXUDO FRQWH[W WHDFKHUVZRUNLQZKDW&ODQGLQLQDQG&RQQHOO\ WHUPD³SURIHVVLRQDONQRZOHGJH ODQGVFDSH´WKDWLVLQPDQ\UHVSHFWVXQLTXHWRWKHWLPHDQGSODFHZKHUHLWLVHPEHGded. Contemporary global and globalizing culture, on the other hand, values skills that can be decontextualized and transported from place to place in a competitive global market fed by the ever-growing emphasis on economic values. Teaching, it is well known, does not create marketable products, and in an economic frame of UHIHUHQFHFKLOGUHQDUHYDOXHGPDLQO\DVSRWHQWLDOFRQVXPHUV \HWWHDFKHUVLQVLVWRQ UHODWLQJWRFKLOGUHQDVLQGLYLGXDOVRIXQLTXHZRUWK (VWRODHWDO 8QGHUSRVWmodernism, too, knowledge and intellectual goods are seen as relative and open to doubt, thus undermining the status of those who convey them. As a result, schools and teachers come to be seen as anachronistic, almost unchanging entities within a context of rapid social and cultural change. Furthermore, the social emphasis on ZKDW*LGGHQV WHUPHGWKH³UHÀH[LYHSURMHFWRIWKHVHOI´ZRXOGVHHPLOOVXLWHGWRWHDFKHUVZKRDUHSULPDULO\FRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHZHOIDUHRIRWKHUV,QDGGLWLRQ A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 17–29. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 1
the steadily increasing feminization of teaching contributes to the devaluing of WHDFKLQJDVµZRPHQ¶VZRUN¶ LQWHUHVWLQJO\WKRXJK*ULI¿WKV DUJXHVWKDW³WKH feminization of teaching, insofar as it exists, is to be welcomed because it provides a space for resisting hegemonic masculinity (p. 387).” $OPRVWE\GH¿QLWLRQWKHPDUJLQDOZRXOGVHHPWREHRIOHVVHUYDOXHDQGLQWHUHVWWKDQZKDWLVLQWKHPDLQVWUHDPRIVRFLHW\EXWWKLVLVQRWQHFHVVDULO\WKHFDVH WKHORJLFRITXDOLWDWLYHLQTXLU\RIWHQVXJJHVWVWKDWWKHPDUJLQVDQGIRUJRWWHQFRUners of society may have the potential to illuminate what is central. Huber and Whelan (1999) suggest that a marginal story may be seen as a place of possibilLW\)ROORZLQJWKLVORJLFWKHPDLQTXHVWLRQWREHFRQVLGHUHGKHUHLVZKDWFDQEH OHDUQHG IURP WHDFKHUV¶ OLIH VWRULHV DERXW KRZ WKH\ H[SHULHQFH DQG OLYH RXW WKHLU DSSDUHQWPDUJLQDOLW\"+RZGRHVPDUJLQDOLW\DSSHDULQWHDFKHUV¶VWRULHV LIDWDOO " +RZDUHWHDFKHUV¶OLYHVµHPSORWWHG¶ 3RONLQJKRUQH "$QGZKDWDUHWKHOHVsons for the teaching profession, for teacher education and for research? ,ZLOOVWDUWE\VNHWFKLQJRXWWKHEDFNJURXQGWRWKLVLQTXLU\ ,EHJLQZLWKVRPH FRPPHQWVDERXWWKHVWDWXVRIWKHWHDFKLQJSURIHVVLRQLQ,VUDHOWRGD\DQGWKHQWDNH XSWKHTXHVWLRQRIVRFLDODQGJHQGHULQÀXHQFHVRQWKHSURIHVVLRQ)ROORZLQJWKDW , ZLOO RXWOLQH WKH PHWKRGRORJ\ RI WKH LQTXLU\ DQG WKHQ SUHVHQW DQG LQWHUSUHW WKH VWRULHVRIWZRWHDFKHUV)LQDOO\,ZLOOGLVFXVVWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVRIWKHVHVWRULHVIRU WKHTXHVWLRQVLQGLFDWHGDERYH 7+(7($&+,1*352)(66,21,1,65$(/
,Q ,VUDHO WKH WHDFKLQJ SURIHVVLRQ ZDV HVWDEOLVKHG HDUO\ RQ ZHOO EHIRUH WKH establishment of the state, and teaching was regarded as one of the highest forms RIFRQWULEXWLRQWRVRFLHW\7KH,VUDHOL7HDFKHUV¶8QLRQZDVHVWDEOLVKHGLQ DQG housed in a large building (now a museum) that stood out, and is still an impressive VWUXFWXUH WRGD\ LQ WKH WRZQ RI =LFKURQ
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6RYLHW8QLRQEULQJZLWKWKHPWKHKLJKVWDWXVDFFRUGHGWRWHDFKHUVLQWKHLUFRXQWULHV RIRULJLQ WKHODWWHUXVXDOO\EHFRPHWHDFKHUVRIPDWKHPDWLFV(QJOLVKDQGWKHVFLences, subjects which also confer higher status. 7($&+(56¶1$55$7,9(6 &$5((5*(1'(532:(5
1DUUDWLYHDVERWKSKHQRPHQRQDQGPHWKRG &ODQGLQLQDQG&RQQHOO\ RIIHUV D ULFK WKHRUHWLFDO EDFNGURS DJDLQVW ZKLFK WR YLHZ WHDFKHUV¶ OLYHV DQG FDUHHUV 7HDFKHUV¶ QDUUDWLYHV KLJKOLJKW WLPH DQG SODFH ± FXOWXUDO KLVWRULFDO JHRJUDSKLFDO DQG H[SHULHQWLDO &RQOH DQG WKHLU LPSDFW RQ WKH WHDFKHU¶V OLIH DQG ZRUN 7KHRULVWVDWWHQGWRWKHLPSDFWRI YRLFH %DNKWLQ *RRGVRQ WKH HIIHFWV RISRZHU 'DYLHVDQG*DQQRQ 3KHODQ DQGFRQIRUPLW\DQGUHVLVWDQFH WRVRFLDOFXOWXUDOQRUPV %URZQ *LOOLJDQ DOORIZKLFKFDQEHFUXFLDOWR WKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWHDFKHUV¶FDUHHUV The development of career from a gender perspective gives rise to some important insights. For example, Heilbrun (1988) suggested that women tend to focus on IDPLO\¿UVWDQGRQO\LQYHVWLQWKHLUFDUHHUVODWHULQOLIH VKHIRXQGXQFHUWDLQW\DQG DQDEVHQFHRIDPELWLRQLQZRPHQ¶VQDUUDWLYHV%DWHVRQ VLPLODUO\IRXQGWKDW ZRPHQ¶VQDUUDWLYHVZHUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\LQWHUUXSWLRQGLVFRQWLQXLW\DQGHYLGHQFH that women tended to respond and adapt to external circumstance in the shaping of WKHLUFDUHHUV,QDPRUHUHFHQWVWXG\RI\RXQJZRPHQ¶VFDUHHUQDUUDWLYHV3OXQNHWW IRXQGWKDWVHUHQGLSLW\DQGDJHQF\DUHZRYHQWRJHWKHU FKDQFHDQGFLUFXPVWDQFHVWLOOSOD\DUROHLQWKHVKDSLQJRIZRPHQ¶VZRUNLQJOLYHVEXW\RXQJZRPHQ story themselves as playing an active role in the development of their own careers. These developments are further illuminated by the feminist theory of practice HODERUDWHGE\*ULI¿WKV ZKRDUJXHVWKDWSUDFWLFHVLQJHQHUDODUHERWKHPbodied and embedded in social relations. They are not discrete forms of activity WKDW FDQ EH VKDUSO\ GLIIHUHQWLDWHG EXW UDWKHU DUH ÀXLG µOHDN\¶ DQG KDYH SHUPHDEOHERXQGDULHV7KXVOLNHRWKHUIRUPVRISUDFWLFH³WKHSUDFWLFHRIWHDFKLQJOHDNV into the practices of mothering, fathering, managing, facilitating, counselling, and SKLORVRSKL]LQJ ± DQG YLFH YHUVD S ´ ,W ZLOO EH LQWHUHVWLQJ WR QRWH KRZ WKLV ³OHDNLQHVV´LVH[SUHVVHGLQWKHWHDFKHUV¶DXWRELRJUDSKLFDOZULWLQJ 0(7+2'2/2*<
7KH SUHVHQW VWXG\ LV D QDUUDWLYH LQTXLU\ IRFXVVHG RQ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI WKH ZULWWHQ DXWRELRJUDSKLFDO QDUUDWLYHV RI WZR WHDFKHUV VWXGHQWV LQ DQ DGYDQFHG TXDOLWDWLYH PHWKRGRORJ\FRXUVH³1DUUDWLYHLQTXLU\LQDPXOWLFXOWXUDOFRQWH[W´$VSDUWRIWKH work of this course, students produced a piece of autobiographical writing, seven WRWHQSDJHVLQOHQJWK WKH\ZHUHLQYLWHGWRZULWHGHVFULSWLYHO\DERXWWKHLUOLYHVDQG ZHUHQRWJLYHQVSHFL¿FJXLGHOLQHVEH\RQGWKHHQFRXUDJHPHQWWRZULWHFRQFUHWHO\ DQG IRFXV RQ VSHFL¿F HSLVRGHV DQG HYHQWV 7KH VWXGHQWV DOVR LQWHUYLHZHG RQH DQRWKHUDQGLQWHUSUHWHGRQHDQRWKHU¶VOLIHVWRULHV$SUHYLRXVVWXG\LQWKLVVHWWLQJ 19
CHAPTER 1
examined 6 autobiographies (including the two to be discussed here), looking at WKH DXWKRUV¶ VHQVH RI SODFH WKHPHV RI GLVSODFHPHQW RULJLQV DQG YRFDWLRQ ZHUH LGHQWL¿HGLQWKRVHVWRULHV (OED]/XZLVFK ,QUHFHQW\HDUVSHUVRQDOZULWLQJKDVHDUQHGDFHQWUDOSODFHLQWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQ and in professional development activities for teachers, serving as an important tool LQIRVWHULQJWHDFKHUV¶SURIHVVLRQDOJURZWKLQERWKSUHVHUYLFHDQGLQVHUYLFHVHWWLQJV &RQOH &RQQHOO\ &ODQGLQLQ 0DF/HRG &RZLHVRQ 7KURXJK DXWRELRJUDSKLFDO ZULWLQJ WHDFKHUV FDQ UHÀHFW RQ WKH VRXUFHV WKDW KDYH LQÀXHQFHG their current practice, assess their own learning, and imagine the future (Raymond et DO +HLNNLQHQ 6XFKZULWLQJWKXVVHUYHVDVDZLQGRZRQWRWKHWHDFKHU¶V OLIHDQGZRUNDQGDXWRELRJUDSKLFDOWH[WVZKHUHDYDLODEOHDUHLPSRUWDQW¿HOGWH[WV LQWKHVWXG\RIWHDFKLQJ/LNHDQ\RWKHU¿HOGWH[W LQWHUYLHZSURWRFROV¿HOGQRWHVRI conversations etc.), autobiographical texts are written with some audience in mind, HYHQZKHQWKHDXWKRUGRHVQRWLQWHQGIRUWKDWDXGLHQFHWRDFWXDOO\UHDGWKHWH[W,Q the present case, the autobiographical writing was produced as a course assignment, and students knew that not only the course professor but also fellow students would EHUHDGLQJWKHLUWH[WV6WXGHQWVZHUHLQYLWHGWRSURYLGHDQH[WUDFRS\RIWKHLUZULWing for my research purposes, and about half of the students did so. ,Q LQWHUSUHWLQJ WKH OLIH VWRULHV , GUDZ RQ GLYHUVH PRGHV RI QDUUDWLYH DQDO\VLV &ODQGLQLQDQG&RQQHOO\ %URZQ *LOOLJDQ SD\LQJDWWHQWLRQWRWLPH and place (Conle, 1999), to the relationships of the teller to others in her setting and to herself, to voice and to the effects of power, and conformity and resistance WR VRFLDOFXOWXUDO QRUPV %URZQ *LOOLJDQ ,Q DGGLWLRQ WKH ZD\ WKH VWRries are told or written (plot, characters, language and metaphor) are attended to. My intention in all this is to listen carefully to personal voices, and at the same to pay attention to the ways that culture, history and politics shape the narratives *RRGVRQ ,ORRNIRUDFULWLFDOGLVWDQFHIURPZKLFKWRUHDGWKDWPLJKWHQable a broader and deeper understanding of the narratives. ,QORRNLQJIRUWKHZD\WKHPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQPLJKWEHH[SUHVVHGLQWHDFKHUV¶QDUUDWLYHV,SDLGVSHFLDODWWHQWLRQWRWKHSODFHRIWHDFKLQJDQGZRUNLQWKHOLIHVWRU\ DV D ZKROH WR WKH FRQQHFWLRQV EHWZHHQ VHOI DQG µRWKHUV¶ LQ WKH QDUUDWLYHV WR WKH role of other teachers as characters in the story (whether cast as helpers or enemies), to perceptions of shared tasks and shared ideals in descriptions of teaching DVZRUNRUDVYRFDWLRQ$OVR,ORRNHGIRUDQ\VSHFL¿FFRQWHQWWKDWPLJKWEHUHODWHG to marginalization. Participants The two teachers whose life stories will be examined here are Ariana and Marie (pseudonyms). Ariana is 40 years old, married with two children, and works as a WHDFKHURIKLJKVFKRROSK\VLFV6KHLV-HZLVKDQGZDVERUQLQWKHIRUPHU6RYLHW 8QLRQ KHU IDPLO\ LPPLJUDWHG WR ,VUDHO ZKHQ VKH ZDV \HDUV ROG VRPHZKDW earlier than the most recent large wave of immigration from countries of the former 6RYLHW8QLRQWKDWEHJDQLQ 0DULHLVLQKHUODWH¶VPDUULHGZLWKRQHFKLOG 20
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VKHWHDFKHV(QJOLVKDVD6HFRQG/DQJXDJHLQDSULYDWHVFKRROLQWKH$UDEVHFWRU RIWKH,VUDHOLVFKRROV\VWHP0DULHEHORQJVWRWKH&KULVWLDQFRPPXQLW\ZDVERUQ and lives in Haifa. These two teachers were chosen for the intrinsic interest of their VWRULHV QHLWKHURIWKHPEHORQJVWRZKDWLVXVXDOO\WKRXJKWRIDVWKHµPDLQVWUHDP¶ RI,VUDHOLVRFLHW\ LH-HZLVKQDWLYHERUQ,VUDHOLV \HWERWKDUHYHU\PXFKDSDUWRI the place where they live and their stories have something to say about marginality in teaching. $5,$1$¶66725<
6SHDNLQJRIKHUHDUO\OLIH$ULDQDGHVFULEHVDKDSS\FKLOGKRRGLQRQHRIWKHVPDOOHU UHSXEOLFVRIWKHIRUPHU6RYLHW8QLRQ KHUIDPLO\OLYHGWRJHWKHUZLWKKHUPDWHUQDO JUDQGSDUHQWVLQDVPDOOQHLJKERUKRRGZLWKPDQ\IULHQGVQHDUE\ VKHZDVDJRRG VWXGHQW DQG HQMR\HG VFKRRO 8SRQ LPPLJUDWLRQ VKH H[SHULHQFHG D YHU\ GLI¿FXOW DGMXVWPHQWWROLIHLQ,VUDHO VHH/LHEOLFK DVDVWXGHQWZKROLNHGVFLHQFHJRW KLJKPDUNVDQGSOD\HGWKHSLDQRVKHZDVFRQVLGHUHG³QRWFRRO´$ULDQDVWUXJJOHG socially throughout elementary and high school, and then, along with her age PDWHV FDPH WKH WLPH IRU PLOLWDU\ VHUYLFH IRU$ULDQD WKLV SHULRG RI OLYLQJ RQ D military base away from home signalled the beginning of her independence. After completing her stint in the army, she went on to university, managing to combine ZRUNDQGVWXGLHVOLNHPDQ\\RXQJ,VUDHOLV$ULDQD¶V¿UVWMREDIWHUJUDGXDWLRQZDV as a guide at a science museum, work she described as inspiring and fun, but it GLG QRW VHHP OLNH D SDWK WR D IXWXUH FDUHHU 6KH ZHQW RQ WR ZRUN RQ D XQLYHUVLW\ research project, a job she described as involving challenge and creativity, but this GLGQRWSURPLVHDIXWXUHHLWKHUVR$ULDQD¿QDOO\DFFHSWHGDWHDFKLQJSRVLWLRQ Ariana’s teaching career 2QHWKLQJ,NQHZWKURXJKRXWP\FKLOGKRRGZDVWKDW,ZRXOGQRWEHDWHDFKHU DQGKHUH,DPDWHDFKHU 1RWRQO\ZDV$ULDQDVXUSULVHGWR¿QGKHUVHOIDWHDFKHUVKHZDVVKRFNHGE\WKHORZ OHYHORIVWXGLHVLQKLJKVFKRROVFLHQFH VKHIRXQGLWGLI¿FXOWWRGHDOZLWKVWXGHQWV¶ lack of understanding, and what she saw as self-indulgence and unwillingness to OHDUQ,WVHHPHGWRKHUWKDWVWXGHQWV³EODPHWKHLUGLI¿FXOWLHVRQPHDVWKHLUWHDFKHU´ 1RQHWKHOHVVVKHIHOWWKDW³WKHWKUHH\HDUVDIWHUXQLYHUVLW\ZHUHWKHKDSSLHVWWLPHRI P\OLIH´%XWWKHVRFLDOSUHVVXUHWR¿QGDSDUWQHUDQGJHWPDUULHGZHLJKHGKHDYLO\ RQ$ULDQD6KHKDGDOPRVWUHVLJQHGKHUVHOIWRUHPDLQLQJVLQJOHZKHQ$ULDQDPHW KHUIXWXUHKXVEDQG ZLWKLQWKH\HDUVKHKDGDJUHHGWRPRYHZLWKKLPWRDGLVWDQW FLW\ ZKHUH KH ZDV VHQW E\ KLV HPSOR\HU 6KH VSHQW ¿YH XQKDSS\ \HDUV IDU IURP family and friends, teaching in a school she did not like, and meanwhile two children were born to the couple. $W WKH WLPH RI WKH VWXG\$ULDQD KDG UHFHQWO\ UHWXUQHG µKRPH¶ WR WKH QRUWK WR 21
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WKHVFKRRODQGFROOHDJXHVVKHOHIWEHKLQG6KHFRPPHQWHGWKDW³DWWKHHQGRIP\ IRXUWKGHFDGH,¿QGP\VHOIDWDFHQWUDOFURVVURDGLQPDQ\UHVSHFWV7KHWHDFKHUV¶ VWULNH ODVW \HDU RSHQHG P\ H\HV WR WKH LQVLJQL¿FDQW VWDWXV RI WKH WHDFKHU LQ RXU society, and to the government that is deaf to the wishes and needs of the public.” +RZHYHU EHJLQQLQJ JUDGXDWH VWXGLHV VHHPHG WR KDYH RSHQHG D ³SHULRG RI PDQ\ FKDQJHVDQGQHZEHJLQQLQJV´IRU$ULDQD6KHFRQFOXGHGKHUDXWRELRJUDSK\LQDQ RSWLPLVWLF WRQH VD\LQJ WKDW ³WRGD\ , ORRN XSRQ DOO WKH HYHQWV ZLWK UHODWLYH HTXDQLPLW\ ,DPHQMR\LQJJUDGXDWHVWXGLHVDQGKRSHIRUJRRGWKLQJVLQWKHIXWXUH´ Flashback: how this story begins… , ZDV ERUQ LQ D VPDOO WRZQ LQ D IDURII FRXQWU\ WKDW QR ORQJHU H[LVWV 7KH SODFHLVVWLOOWKHUHRIFRXUVHEXWWKHµERVVHV¶ZHUHUHSODFHGWKHQDPHZDV changed, the house was destroyed and in its place apartments were built. EvHU\WKLQJFKDQJHG7KHQLQ DWWKHHQGRIWKHOHJHQGDU\¶VLQRQHRI WKHVWDWHVRIWKHIRUPHU6RYLHW8QLRQLQWKHVPDOOWRZQRI2LQWKHORFDO KRVSLWDOP\PRWKHUJDYHELUWKWRPHíDFRPSOLFDWHGELUWK )URP WKLV RSHQLQJ SDVVDJH ZH FDQ VHH KRZ$ULDQD¶V VWRU\ LV WROG ZLWK D P\WKLF EHJLQQLQJ LQ ³D IDURII FRXQWU\ WKDW QR ORQJHU H[LVWV´ /RVV LV D FHQWUDO PRWLI LQ WKH VWRU\ WKH FRXQWU\ QR ORQJHU H[LVWV WKH KRXVH ZDV GHVWUR\HG DQG HYHU\WKLQJ DERXWWKHSODFHKDVEHHQFKDQJHG$ULDQDWHOOVXVWKDWHYHQKHUQDPHLVDP\VWHU\ ³,W¶V QRW FOHDU KRZ RU ZKHUH LQ WKRVH \HDUV RI WKH ,URQ &XUWDLQ WKH\ IRXQG P\ QDPH±³$ULDQD´DQDPHWKDWLVIDPLOLDUDQGHYHQFRPPRQLQRWKHUSDUWVRIWKH ZRUOGSODFHVWKDWDWWKDWWLPHZHUHFORVHGWRP\SDUHQWV±,WDO\$UJHQWLQDSHUKDSV 6SDLQ´$ULDQDUHODWHVWRKHUELUWKSODFHDQGHDUO\OLIHLQDQRVWDOJLFWRQHORYLQJO\ UHFRXQWLQJWKHGHWDLOVRIKHUHDUO\OLIHLQ³WKHOHJHQGDU\¶V´+HUVWRU\WHOOVRI GLVFRQQHFWLRQ IURP WKH ZRUOG DW D WLPH ZKHQ WKH ,URQ &XUWDLQ EORFNHG WUDYHO WR RWKHU SODFHV DQG RI WHQDFLW\ KHU ELUWK ZDV GLI¿FXOW VKH ZDV KXQJU\ DQG FDPH GRZQ ZLWK SQHXPRQLD EXW ³6RYLHW PHGLFLQH ZDV YLFWRULRXV´ DQG VKH UHFRYHUHG and thrived. ,WLVQRWHZRUWK\WKDWWKHSDVWWDNHVXSWZRWKLUGVRI$ULDQD¶VDXWRELRJUDSKLFWH[W detailing her childhood, adolescence, and military service, as well as her years at XQLYHUVLW\ 7KH GHVFULSWLRQ RI KHU WHDFKLQJ FDUHHU LV PLQLPDO FRQ¿QLQJ LWVHOI WR the bureaucratic details of where she worked and rather terse judgments about the school and her classes. All this is interwoven with information about the birth of KHU FKLOGUHQ RQJRLQJ IDPLO\ GLI¿FXOWLHV DFFOLPDWL]DWLRQ WR GLIIHUHQW VHWWLQJV LQ ZKLFKVKHOLYHGDQG¿QDOO\WKHUHWXUQWRKHUKRPHWRZQDQGLQLWLDOWHDFKLQJSRVLWLRQ7KHEDVLFSORWRIWKLVVWRU\VHHPVWREHRQHRIDMRXUQH\RUTXHVWEHJLQQLQJ in a far-off place and time, with the heroine going through a series of struggles DQGGLI¿FXOWLHVDQGFRQFOXGLQJDWWKHµFURVVURDGV¶ZKHUH$ULDQDQRZ¿QGVKHUVHOI waiting with optimism and hope for the future, and the expectation of a period of changes and new beginnings.
22
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Marginality in Ariana’s story ,Q WKLV VWRU\ WHDFKLQJ LV SRUWUD\HG E\$ULDQD DV VRPHWKLQJ WKDW µKDSSHQV WR KHU¶ DORQJ WKH ZD\ 'XULQJ KHU VWXGLHV DQG MXVW DIWHUZDUGV VKH KDV µH[FLWLQJ¶ DQG µFUHDWLYH¶ ZRUN ZKLFK VKH OHDYHV WR EHFRPH D WHDFKHU HYHQ WKRXJK ³2QH WKLQJ , DOZD\V µNQHZ¶ ZDV WKDW , ZRXOG QRW EH D WHDFKHU DQG KHUH , DP D WHDFKHU´ 1RWDEO\$ULDQDHQFRXUDJHVKHUKXVEDQGWRDGYDQFHLQKLVFDUHHU LQSDUWKRSLQJ for a transfer back to the north) years before beginning graduate study herself. Although Ariana is a committed teacher who has undertaken graduate study to develop her professional knowledge base, there is in her story little description RIKHUDFWXDOZRUNSHGDJRJ\RUWHDFKLQJDSSURDFK,WVHHPVWKDWWKHXQVXFFHVVIXO WHDFKHUV¶ VWULNH OHIW KHU GLVLOOXVLRQHG DQG HYHQ GLVFRQQHFWHG IURP KHU FDUHHU VKH VHHV WKH VWDWXV RI WHDFKHUV LQ VRFLHW\ DV ³LQVLJQL¿FDQW´ D FOHDU H[SUHVVLRQ RI KHU PDUJLQDOLW\DVDWHDFKHU\HWLQKHURZQOLIHVKHLVDWD³FHQWUDOFURVVURDGV´ZKHUH LWVHHPVWKDWWKHODQGVFDSHRSHQVRXWLQIURQWRIKHULQVHYHUDOGLUHFWLRQV,WVHHPV IURPWKLVDFFRXQWWKDW$ULDQDKDVFRPHWRVHHKHUVHOIDVXQLTXHWKHKHURLQHRIKHU RZQOLIHVWRU\DVMRXUQH\ IDPLO\FROOHDJXHVDQGIULHQGVSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQ $ULDQD¶VVWRU\EXWLWVHHPVWKDWVKHLVRQKHURZQXQLTXHSDWK 0$5,(¶66725<
,ZDVERUQLQ+DLIDLQ-XO\ ,OLYHGIRU\HDUVWLOO,JRWPDUULHGLQ DVPDOOVLPSOHKRXVHLQWKH:DGL1LVQDVDUHD,ORYHGP\KRPH«DQGWKH QHLJKERUKRRGDSRRUDUHDIXOORIZDUPWKDQGORYH«DQGWKHURRP,VKDUHG with my older sister and two younger brothers. My parents worked hard and GLGQ¶WHDUQPXFKEXWZHNLGVGLGQ¶WUHDOL]HWKDW7KH\DOZD\VERXJKWXVZKDW ZHZDQWHGDQGRIWHQZKDWZHGLGQ¶WZDQWDQGZHGLGQ¶WFRPSODLQ Telling about her education, in a prestigious private school run by nuns, Marie UHPHPEHUV WKDW VKH ZDV ³RQH RI WKH WRS SXSLOV LQ WKH FODVV« WKHUH ZHUH DOZD\V FRPSHWLWRUV´ )URP WKH ¿IWK JUDGH 0DULH DWWHQGHG D VSHFLDO FODVV IRU JLIWHG FKLOGUHQRQFHDZHHNDQH[SHULHQFHWKDWOHIWDVWURQJLPSUHVVLRQRQKHU ³,¶OOQHYHU IRUJHW WKH WULS WR WKH :HLW]PDQ ,QVWLWXWH LQ 5HKRYRW DQG WR &KDLP :HLW]PDQ¶V KRPH WKH ELJ KRXVH DQG WKH EODFN FDU WKDW ,¶G VHHQ RQO\ LQ ROG PRYLHV« WKH QLWURJHQ UHIULJHUDWRU WKH FRORXU ZKHHO WKDW ZH PDGH« , UHPHPEHU WKDW , GLGQ¶W XQGHUVWDQGDQ\WKLQJZHZHUHWROG,MXVWORRNHGDQGWRRNLQLPSUHVVLRQVZLWKRXW XQGHUVWDQGLQJ³0DULHH[SODLQVWKDWLQWKHWKJUDGHKHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI+HEUHZ ZDV OLPLWHG EHFDXVH ³ LQ VFKRRO WKH WHDFKHUV GLGQ¶W VSHDN +HEUHZ WR XV LQ WKH Hebrew class, nor did they speak English in the English class.”
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Injustice and discrimination ,QWKJUDGH0DULHVWXGLHG)UHQFKDQGWRRNSDUWLQDQHVVD\FRQWHVW6KHZDVRQH RIWKH¿QDOLVWV\HWWKHSUL]HDWULSWR)UDQFHZDVDZDUGHGWRDOHVVWDOHQWHGSXSLO ZKRVH IDWKHU KDSSHQHG WR EH D ZHDOWK\ SDWURQ RI WKH VFKRRO ³, DQG TXLWH D IHZ RWKHUSXSLOVDOZD\VVXIIHUHGIURPGLVFULPLQDWLRQWKDWIDYRUHGWKHULFKSXSLOV%XW, always pitied the rich kids because only the teachers liked them.” At the graduation ceremony, Marie was singled out by the principal who FODLPHG KHU RXW¿W ZDV QRW PRGHVW HQRXJK 6KH ZDV IRUFHG WR FKDQJH LQWR ERUrowed clothing, felt humiliated, and was inconsolable until she wrote a letter to the principal explaining how she felt. However, a few years later when Marie returned as a teacher to the school, there was a chance encounter in which the principal apologized for hurting her feelings. 7KXV0DULH¶VDXWRELRJUDSK\LQFOXGHVWZRVWRULHVRILQMXVWLFH RQHLQZKLFKWKH wrong was made right, the other not. Adult life: Becoming a teacher, seeking a partner $IWHU¿QLVKLQJKLJKVFKRRO0DULHZRUNHGLQKHUIDWKHU¶VVWRUHWRHDUQPRQH\WKHQ applied and was accepted to study English and Education at the university. During her studies she worked part time at several jobs, took part in a volunteer program which gave her a partial scholarship, and completed her degree. All this time Marie ZDV PHHWLQJ PDQ\ SHRSOH DQG ORRNV IRU D SDUWQHU EXW ³HDFK WLPH LW GLGQ¶W ZRUN RXW ´VKHH[SHULHQFHGPDQ\RIWKHFRPSOH[LWLHVRIFRXUWVKLSDQGPDUULDJHLQWKH 3DOHVWLQLDQ,VUDHOLFRPPXQLW\DVGLVFXVVHGLQDFULWLFDOOLJKWE\(UGUHLFK While still completing her teaching diploma, Marie already found work and EHJDQWHDFKLQJDWWKHVFKRROZKHUHVKHGLGKHUSUDFWLFXP ³DOWKRXJKGXULQJWKH SUDFWLFXP,IHOWWKDWQRRQHHYHQQRWLFHGPH´ 6KHFDPHWRWKHVFKRROZLWKKLJK H[SHFWDWLRQVVXUHVKHZRXOG³FRPHLQWRDQLGHDOV\VWHP±HGXFDWLRQYDOXHVGHYRWLRQWRWKHZRUNVXSSRUWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSV«,ZDLWHGIRUWKHPRPHQWZKHQ,ZRXOG EHDEOHWRFDUU\RXWHYHU\WKLQJ,KDGEHHQWDXJKW´ Discovering little had changed since she was at school, Marie decided to do ZKDW VKH EHOLHYHG LQ ³, ZHQW EDFN WR WKH DUWLFOHV DQG QRWHERRNV IURP WKH XQLYHUVLW\ DSSOLHG PDQ\ QHZ LGHDV ORRNHG IRU WRSLFV RQ WKH ,QWHUQHW« , UHODWHG WR HDFKSXSLODVDQLQGLYLGXDOHVSHFLDOO\WKHZHDNHUDQGTXLHWHURQHVLQWURGXFHGQHZ methods of teaching English (according to the new curriculum which had not yet EHHQDSSOLHGLQWKHVFKRRO ,SUHSDUHGPDWHULDOVDWKRPHSULQWHGFXWDQGSDVWHG« ,MXVWZDQWHGWRGRJRRGIRUWKHSXSLOV´ $WWKHHQGRIKHU¿UVW\HDURIWHDFKLQJ0DULHZDVWROGWKDWWKHWHDFKHUVKHKDG UHSODFHGZRXOGEHUHWXUQLQJ0DULHTXLFNO\SUHSDUHGD&9DSSOLHGWRRWKHUVFKRROV DVZHOODVWRJUDGXDWHVWXGLHVDWWKHXQLYHUVLW\6KHZDVDFFHSWHGWRWKH0$SURgram, got a job at the school where she had been a student, and was then asked to FRQWLQXHWHDFKLQJLQKHU¿UVWMRE³$QG,í,ZHQWIRUDOORIWKHP´$QGWKHQ0DULH met her future husband. 24
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Marie and her husband were engaged, married a year later, and their son was ERUQLQ±MXVWZHHNVEHIRUHWKHQG/HEDQRQ:DU0DULHGHVFULEHVWKLVH[SHrience in a list of words, suggesting that the logic needed to form a coherent senWHQFHZDVVLPSO\QRWDYDLODEOHDWWKDWWLPH ³)HDUWHUURUQHUYHVWHDUVXSGDWHV near, far, shelter, and the baby.” Only a month after the war ended, the school year EHJDQ 0DULHUHWXUQHGWRKHUFODVVURRPIHHOLQJXQSUHSDUHGEHFDXVHVKHKDGVSHQW KHU VSDUH WLPH FRPSOHWLQJ XQLYHUVLW\ DVVLJQPHQWV 6KH ³ZRUNHG ZKLOH WKH EDE\ VOHSW«,KDUGO\VOHSWEHFDXVHWKHEDE\ZRNHXSGXULQJWKHQLJKWDQG,XQGHUVWRRG ZK\ SHRSOH VD\ LW¶V QRW HDV\«EXW LW¶V IXQ LW¶V EHDXWLIXO LW¶V ORYH ZDUPWK DQG WKDW¶VLW´ Back to the beginning $V TXRWHG DERYH 0DULH¶V VWRU\ EHJDQ VLPSO\ ZLWK KHU ELUWK LQ +DLID DQG KHU attachment to the city, the neighborhood, the house where she grew up, her room DQGWKHSHRSOHZKRPDWWHUHG:KHUHDVLQ$ULDQD¶VVWRU\WKHRSHQLQJSDVVDJHKROGV LPSRUWDQWFOXHVWRXQGHUVWDQGLQJKRZVKHWHOOVDERXWKHUOLIHLQ0DULH¶VFDVHLWLVD VRUWRI³FRGD´WKDWSURYHVVLJQL¿FDQW1HDUWKHHQGRIWKHVHPHVWHULQDGLVFXVVLRQ RI³ZKDWLVQRWVDLG´LQLQWHUYLHZV0DULHYROXQWHHUHGPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQ +HUIDWKHU ZDV ERUQ LQ ,NULW D YLOODJH LQ WKH *DOLOHH WKDW ZDV HYDFXDWHG GXULQJ WKH ZDU RI ZKHQKHZDV DQGODWHUGHVWUR\HGE\WKH,VUDHOLDUP\+HUIDPLO\UHPDLQHG FRQQHFWHGWRWKHIRUPHUUHVLGHQWVRI,NULWSDUWLFLSDWHGLQGHPRQVWUDWLRQVDQGOHJDO EDWWOHV KHOG SLFQLFV RQ WKH VLWH RI WKH YLOODJH 6R 0DULH DGGHG ³DFWXDOO\ , DP IURP,NULW´ 0DULH¶VVWRU\LVHODERUDWHGDURXQGDVHULHVRIWKHPHV UHODWLRQVKLSVDUHFHQWUDO WRWKHVWRU\DVLV0DULH¶VFRQQHFWLRQWRKHUFRPPXQLW\ KDUGZRUNHIIRUWDQGGHWHUPLQDWLRQSD\RII HGXFDWLRQPDWWHUVDQGWHDFKLQJLVLQWHUHVWLQJDQGZRUWKZKLOH ZRUN,QMXVWLFHH[LVWV 0DULHKDVH[SHULHQFHGLWLQVPDOOZD\VDQGKDVVRPHWLPHV found strategies to resist. Marginalization in Marie’s story Marie has developed a number of ways to story her experience that seem to help overcome marginalization. For one thing, it seems that all her stories have two (or PRUH VLGHVDQGVKHDYRLGVIDOOLQJLQWRSRODUL]HGSRVLWLRQVRQWKHGLI¿FXOWLVVXHV that mark her life. Her family story is an example of this. Marie belongs to the VPDOO&KULVWLDQ$UDEFRPPXQLW\LQ,VUDHODFRPPXQLW\WKDWPLJKWEHSHUFHLYHGDV GRXEO\PDUJLQDOL]HG EXWVKHWDONVDERXWKDYLQJPDQ\IULHQGVDQGDERXWPHHWLQJ PDQ\ SRVVLEOH SDUWQHUV XQWLO VKH ¿QGV ³WKH RQH´ +HU IDPLO\ ORVW WKHLU ODQG DQG village, but preserved a strong sense of belonging to a community, which Marie VKDUHV7KHVWRU\RI,NULWLVQRWLQFOXGHGLQKHUZULWWHQDXWRELRJUDSK\EXWLVWROG VSRQWDQHRXVO\ LQ WKH PXOWLFXOWXUDO VHWWLQJ RI WKH FRXUVH ,Q ZULWLQJ DERXW KHU H[SHULHQFHVDVDQHZPRWKHUGXULQJWKH6HFRQG/HEDQRQ:DU0DULHVSHDNVDERXW 25
CHAPTER 1
³IHDUWHUURUQHUYHV«´EXWDOPRVWLQWKHVDPHEUHDWKVD\V³LW¶VIXQLW¶VEHDXWLIXO LW¶VORYH´DVWDWHPHQWZKLFKUHÀHFWVKHURSWLPLVWLFDQGUHVRXUFHIXODWWLWXGH 0DULH¶VPHPRULHVRIWKHSDVWDOVRKDYHWZRVLGHV$VDVFKRROJLUOYLVLWLQJWKH :HLW]PDQ,QVWLWXWHVKHGLGQRWXQGHUVWDQGWKHH[SODQDWLRQVLQ+HEUHZDQGFRXOG HDVLO\KDYHIHOWPDUJLQDOL]HGE\WKLV,VUDHOL=LRQLVWODQGPDUNEXWDVDFXULRXVDQG open child she was fascinated and still retains detailed memories. At school she saw and experienced discrimination based on economic status, but early on Marie already felt sorry for the rich kids and was able to see the many sides of their privilege. 0DULH¶VVWRU\LVWROGfrom a teacher’s perspective ORRNLQJEDFNDWKRZVKHZDV taught languages, she relates this to the way that second languages are now taught and to her own initiatives in the classroom. Thinking back on the discrimination she experienced at school, she focuses on ways to do things differently in her work, to help weaker pupils to learn. As suggested by Drake et al. (2001), subject matter is central to her elaboration of her teaching identity, and is related clearly to her personal purpose of providing more opportunities for the less advantaged students in her classes. $5,$1$$1'0$5,( 7:2:$<62)&23,1*:,7+0$5*,1$/,=$7,21
%RWK $ULDQD¶V DQG 0DULH¶V VWRULHV IRFXV RQ FKLOGKRRG DQG LQFOXGH GLI¿FXOW H[SHULHQFHV IURP ZKLFK WKH ZULWHUV KDYH OHDUQHG ZH FDQ VHH KRZ WDNLQJ VWRFN of the past helps them make sense of the present. There are some commonalities LQWKHWZRVWRULHVZKLFKUHÀHFWDVSHFWVRIWKHVKDUHGVLWXDWLRQLQZKLFKWKH\OLYH DQG ZRUN %RWK ZRPHQ ³QHYHU LPDJLQHG WKH\ ZRXOG EHFRPH WHDFKHUV´ \HW ERWK are committed and serious about their work (though only Marie writes about it in detail). Both teachers mention good colleagues (as well as others they do not get along with), but for the most part they seem to work alone and without a strong professional community in their schools. Family and friends are central to both VWRULHV DQGERWKDFFRXQWVDUHHODERUDWHGDJDLQVWWKHLPSOLFLWRUH[SOLFLWEDFNJURXQG of longing for another place, yet living clearly grounded in the here and now. Both women story their lives as busy and intense, Ariana with more interruptions and obstacles than Marie. Both are sharply critical of the school system, but do not GZHOO RQ ZKDW LV ZURQJ HDFK WULHV WR LPSURYH WKLQJV LQ KHU RZQ ZRUN VHWWLQJ *UDGXDWHVWXGLHVDQGSURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJDUHLPSRUWDQWWRERWK 0DULHQRW\HW has completed her MA, while Ariana at 40 is still working on her thesis. ,WZRXOGVHHPWKDW0DULH¶VVWRU\DOORZVKHUWRRYHUFRPHPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQDQGWR PDNHDSODFHIRUKHUVHOIWKDWLVFHQWUDO¿UVWLQKHUIDPLO\DQGLQKHUFRPPXQLW\ and even to a degree within her school as a teacher who goes the extra distance IRUKHUVWXGHQWVDQGZKRLVUHVSHFWHGE\KHUSULQFLSDO$ULDQD¶VVWRU\RQWKHRWKHU KDQG VHHPV WR EH RQH WKDW DFFHSWV PDUJLQDOL]DWLRQ DV D ³SODFH RI SRVVLELOLW\´ +XEHU :KHODQ OHDUQLQJWRFRSHZLWKWKHGLI¿FXOWLHVWKDWEHLQJRQWKH outside has brought her over the years, she has become a strong individual who is now able to chart her own path. 26
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As Andrews (2007) suggests, the writer is inevitably at the centre of her DXWRELRJUDSK\ 7KXV LI ZH GLGQ¶W DOUHDG\ NQRZ DERXW WKH PDUJLQDOL]DWLRQ RI the teaching profession, these stories might not be the best place to learn about it. However, the stories do highlight strategies used by teachers to deal with the PDUJLQDOLW\ RI WHDFKLQJ ZH VHH WKHP IRVWHULQJ DQG PDLQWDLQLQJ JRRG SHUVRQDO relationships with colleagues and pupils, acting locally to overcome discrimination by attending to weak pupils, investing judiciously in new programs and methods, seeking out higher education and working towards their own professional development. There is in these particular stories no evidence of teachers organizing with colleagues to change work conditions, to research their practice or to seek out ways of having an impact on the wider school system, strategies which seem to GHSHQGRQWKHH[LVWHQFHRIVWURQJSURIHVVLRQDOFRPPXQLWLHVLQWKHVFKRROV 9HVFLR HWDO 2OVRQ &UDLJ *HQGHULQWHUDFWVZLWKPDQ\RWKHUIDFWRUVWKDWFUHDWHWKHPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQRIWHDFKLQJ LQ$ULDQD¶VVWRU\ZHQRWHWKHSRVWSRQHPHQWRIKHUVWXGLHVLQIDYRURIKHUKXVEDQG¶VDGYDQFHPHQW,QERWKVWRULHVZHVHHSHUVRQDODQGIDPLO\FRQFHUQVFRPSHWLQJ ZLWKWKHWHDFKHU¶VFDUHHU DOWKRXJK0DULHPDQDJHVWRMXJJOHERWKYHU\DGURLWO\ :H VHHWHDFKLQJDVDµOHDN\¶SUDFWLFHRYHUODSSLQJZLWKPRWKHULQJDQGFDULQJ *ULI¿WKV LQZD\VWKDWFRQWULEXWHWRWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIERWKWHDFKHUV¶ZRUN Putting teaching at the center ,IZHFDQOHDUQIURPWKHVHWZRTXLWHSDUWLFXODUVWRULHVWKHUHDUHDQXPEHURIOHVVRQV for teacher educators. Teacher education programs can be more proactive in raising DZDUHQHVVE\HQFRXUDJLQJWKHUHDGLQJZULWLQJDQGLQWHUSUHWLQJRIWHDFKHUV¶VWRULHV as part of the teacher education curriculum. Fostering skills of collaborative work, and making more space for the study of social/political and organizational aspects of teaching, would also contribute greatly to educating teachers who are more aware of their own place in the system and their potential role as agents of change. Marginalization and teacher research 1RWXQOLNHWHDFKHUVUHVHDUFKHUVRQWHDFKLQJ±HVSHFLDOO\WKRVHZKRDLPWRVWXG\ teaching close up and from the perspective of teachers and students themselves, are increasingly being marginalized by policy-makers and funding agencies. 4XDOLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK DQG QDUUDWLYH PHWKRGV LQ SDUWLFXODU VHHP UHPRWH IURP the growing demand in many countries for random-based trial research, for JHQHUDOL]DEOHVWXGLHVDQGIRUHYLGHQFHEDVHGSUDFWLFH/LNH$ULDQDZHFDQDFFHSW PDUJLQDOL]DWLRQDQGFRQWLQXHGRLQJRXUZRUN/LNH0DULHZHFDQORRNIRUZD\V to respond by identifying and highlighting the ways that our research speaks to practical concerns, by allowing for a clear understanding of teaching as practice, 27
CHAPTER 1
E\KLJKOLJKWLQJWKHµGDUNFRUQHUV¶RIVFKRROLQJDQGE\YLHZLQJWHDFKLQJDVDFDUHHU WKDWGHYHORSVDQGFKDQJHVRYHUWLPH *ULI¿WKV 3UREDEO\ZHZRXOGEHZLVH WROHDUQIURPERWKWHDFKHUV¶VWUDWHJLHVPDNLQJWKLVVWRU\RIPDUJLQDOL]DWLRQD³SODFH RI SRVVLELOLW\¶ E\ FRQWLQXLQJ WR VHHN IRU HYHU PRUH DGHTXDWH XQGHUVWDQGLQJV RI teaching from the inside, while at the same time continuing to initiate dialogue on the central issues of teaching that concern teachers, researchers, and policymakers, as members of society. 5()(5(1&(6 $QGUHZV0 ([SORULQJFURVVFXOWXUDOERXQGDULHV,Q'-&ODQGLQLQ (G Handbook of narrative LQTXLU\ 0DSSLQJDPHWKRGRORJ\ SS í 7KRXVDQG2DNV&$ 6DJH $SSOH 0 7KH GHVNLOOLQJ RI WHDFKLQJ ,Q )6 %ROLQ -0 )DON (GV Teacher renewal: Professional issues, personal choices SS í 1HZ
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CHAPTER 2
INNATE TEMPERAMENT EXPLAINS TOO MUCH FROM A STUDENT’S SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT? Liisa Keltikangas-Järvinen and Sari Mullola
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$FRQWULEXWLRQRIWHPSHUDPHQWLQVFKRROLQJVWDUWHGZLWKTXLWHDVLPSOHDQGLQQRFHQW TXHVWLRQRIVRPH\RXQJUHVHDUFKHUV7KH\DVNHGWHDFKHUVZKDWDUHWKHFKLOGUHQOLNH who are actually having trouble in school, and what are the children like that are getting well (e.g., for review see Martin, 1989). The teachers did not respond with FRJQLWLYHWHUPVEXWGHVFULEHGWKHVWXGHQWV¶WHPSHUDPHQWV7KH\GLGQ¶WDWWULEXWHDQ academic success or lack of it to motivation, intelligence or cognitive skills but to DVWXGHQW¶VWHPSHUDPHQW Temperament refers to a biologically rooted and innate behavioral style or behavioural tendencies that are present in early life, and are relatively stable across YDULRXVVLWXDWLRQVDQGRYHUWKHFRXUVHRIWLPH VHHHJ%DWHV $QJOHLWQHU 2VWHQGRUI *ROGVPLWK/HPHQ\$NVDQ %XVV &DVSL &DVSL (OGHU %HP ,WFRQWULEXWHVWRWKHXQLTXHQHVVRILQGLYLGXDOVDQGIRUPVD core that provides a foundation for later developmental personality (for reviews, see 3RVQHU 5RWKEDUW 5RWKEDUW 5RWKEDUW %DWHV 6SHVL¿FDOO\ WHPSHUDPHQWDQVZHUVWRWKHTXHVWLRQ“how”EXWQRWWRWKHTXHVWLRQVRI“what”, “why”, or “how well” 7RPDV &KHVV 7KRPDV &KHVV ,W WHOOV KRZ TXLFNO\ D SHUVRQ WDNHV D SHQ LH LQGLYLGXDO¶V XQLTXH DGMXVWPHQW WR KLVKHU HQYLURQPHQW EXWLWGRHVQ¶WWHOOZK\DSHUVRQWDNHVDSHQRUZKDWKHRUVKHLVJRing to write (i.e., the ability and/or motivation for the reaction). Thus, temperament is a style of a reaction, or a tendency to react in a certain individual way. 7KHUH DUH VHYHUDO WHPSHUDPHQW WKHRULHV DQG GH¿QLWLRQV WKDW YDU\ VRPHZKDW LQ VSHFL¿FVDQGHPSKDVHV HJIRUUHYLHZVHH6WUHODX +RZHYHUDOOWKHRULHV share a high consensus that a content of temperament can be covered with the IROORZLQJ¿YHGLPHQVLRQV DJHQHUDOHPRWLRQDOWRQHWKDWLVDWHQGHQF\WREH always cheerful, or a constant disposition to a bad temper, (2) a level of sociability and a tendency to have a positive mood, traits are usually related to an easy approaching of novel things and new people, (3) a level of adaptability and experiHQFHVHHNLQJ SHUVRQ¶VWHQGHQF\WRH[SUHVVIHDUVDQGDQJHUDQGKLVRUKHUOLNHOLKRRGWRJHWZRUULHGDQG DWHPSRYLJRUDQGWLPHIUDPHRIRQH¶VDFWLRQV HJ IRUUHYLHZVVHH.HRJK 6WUHODX .ULVWDO Especially important in the current context is the fact that temperament is a A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 31–40. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 2
WHQGHQF\RUVW\OHWKDWLVUDWKHULQGHSHQGHQWRILQWHOOLJHQFHRUFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV RQO\ ORZWRPRGHUDWHFRUUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQ,4DQGWHPSHUDPHQWKDYHEHHQIRXQG IRU UHYLHZVVHH6WUHODX *XHULQ*RWWIULHG2OLYHU 7KRPDV DQG,4KDV been shown to moderate a relation between temperament and school achievement 2OLYHU*XHULQ *RWWIULHG 1HZPDQ1RHO&KHQ 0DWVRSRXORV 7KHUH LV WKH VDPH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI WHPSHUDPHQW WUDLWV DW DOO OHYHOV RI LQWHOOLJHQFH LHWKHUHDUHLQWHOOLJHQWDQGXQLQWHOOLJHQWDFWLYHVHQVLWLYHDQGÀH[LEOHSHRSOH,I ZH DJUHH ZLWK WKH HYLGHQWO\ GRFXPHQWHG ¿QGLQJV WKDW WHPSHUDPHQW LV UHODWHG WR VWXGHQW¶VPRWRUDFWLYLW\DQGHQHUJ\OHYHOVDELOLW\WRIRFXVSHUVLVWHQFHUHDFWLRQV to novelty, and to sensitivity, it is also reasonable to agree with the statement that temperament contributes to how a student learns, adapts and experiences a school environment. 6FKRROGHPDQGVPD\EHGLIIHUHQWLDWHGLQWRWZRFDWHJRULHV $FDGHPLFSHUIRUPDQFHDQGDFKLHYHPHQWDQG 6RFLDOO\DSSURSULDWHDQGLQWHUSHUVRQDOEHKDYLRU %RWKFDWHJRULHVDUHKLJKO\FRQWULEXWHGE\WHPSHUDPHQWV IRUUHYLHZVVHH.HRJK 6WUHODX .ULVWDO (GXFDWLRQDO SV\FKRORJLVWV KDYH GHYHORSHG D FRQFHSW RI ³WHDFKDELOLW\´ ZKLFK UHÀHFWV WKH WHDFKHUV¶ YLHZ RI WKH DWWULEXWHV RI D model student, and is affected by three primary factors consisting of temperamental GLPHQVLRQV IRU UHYLHZV VHH .HRJK .HRJK .HRJK .HRJK 3XOOLV &DGZHOO 7KH¿UVWRIWKHVHLVODEHOOHG³WDVNRULHQWDWLRQ´WKDWLVUHODWHGWRDWWHQWLRQDQGWRDZD\KRZDVWXGHQWDSSURDFKHVDOHDUQLQJWDVN .HRJKHW DO 0DUWLQ &DVSL ,WFRQVLVWRIWKUHHWHPSHUDPHQWVGLPHQVLRQV WKDW DUH$FWLYLW\ HJ IUHTXHQF\ DQG LQWHQVLW\ RI PRWRU DFWLYLW\ 'LVWUDFWLELOLW\ HJ WKH HDVH ZLWK ZKLFK D VWXGHQW¶V DWWHQWLRQ HVSHFLDOO\ RQJRLQJ WDVNUHODWHG school behaviour, can be interrupted by low-level environmental stimuli), and Persistence (e.g. attention span, and the tendency to continue seeking a solution WRGLI¿FXOWOHDUQLQJSUREOHPV 0DUWLQ :LQGOH /HUQHU ,WLVZHOO documented in the literature that a constellation of high distractibility, high activity, DQGORZSHUVLVWHQFHLVOLNHO\OHDGWRDQXQGHUDFKLHYHPHQW IRUUHYLHZVVHH.HRJK .HRJK .HRJK 8QGHUDFKLHYLQJ GRHVQ¶W PHDQ D GURS RXW EXW WRRORZVFKRROJUDGHVFRPSDULQJZLWKDVWXGHQW¶VDFWXDOFDSDFLW\7HPSHUDPHQW related underachievement is the most probable among students who perform neither well nor worse, and a discrepancy between grades and capacities remains therefore often unrecognized. 7KH VHFRQG FDWHJRU\ RI WHDFKDELOLW\ LV ³3HUVRQDOVRFLDO ÀH[LELOLW\´ ZKLFK comprises an easy approaching of new and novel things, positive mood, and high DGDSWDELOLW\ LQ QHZ DQG XQH[SHFWHG FLUFXPVWDQFHV .HRJK .HRJK /LNHZLVHDQXQGHUDFKLHYLQJFDXVHGE\KLJKDFWLYLW\DQGGLVWUDFWLELOLW\DQGORZSHUsistence has been documented, so is documented a positive effect of personal social ÀH[LELOLW\6WXGHQWV¶ZLWKSRVLWLYHPRRGDQGKLJKDGDSWDELOLW\KDYHEHHQVKRZQWR receive higher school grades than might be expected on the basis of standardized DFKLHYHPHQWWHVWV .HRJK 7KHODVWFDWHJRU\RI³WHDFKDELOLW\´LV5HDFWLYLW\WKDWFRQVLVWVRI1HJDWLYHPRRG ,QWHQVLW\RIUHVSRQVHVDQG+LJKUHDFWLYLW\ .HRJK .HRJK 7KLVNLQG of student is mostly in a bad temper, his or her threshold of reactions is very low, 32
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and his or her reactions are very intensive. A person with high reactivity is always very present, and everyone knows when he or she is disappointed or unsatis¿HG7KLVWHPSHUDPHQWKLJKO\GHWHUPLQHVKRZPXFKWKHWHDFKHUOLNHVWKHVWXGHQW .HRJK DQGLQÀXHQFHVWKHTXDOLW\DQGTXDQWLW\RIWHDFKHUVWXGHQWLQWHUDFWLRQ DQGUHODWLRQVKLS 5XGDVLOO 5LPP.DXIPDQ 6LOYHU0HDVHOOH$UPVWURQJ (VVH[ ,WKDVEHHQDOVRGRFXPHQWHGWKDWORZUHDFWLYLW\VWXGHQWVDUHSHUFHLYHG PDWXUH DQG KLJK LQ FRJQLWLYH DELOLWLHV E\ WKH WHDFKHUV DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ high-reactivity students are seen as immature, and low in cognitive skills and caSDFLW\ HJVHH.HRJK .HRJK 0DUWLQ2OHMQLN *DGGLV Because the role of temperament is really important in school context, its conWULEXWLRQ WR WKH VFKRRO JUDGHV DV ZHOO DV WR WKH WHDFKHUV¶ SHUFHSWLRQV QHHGV WR EH VWXGLHG 7KH PRUH WKH WHDFKHUV¶ SHUVRQDO H[SHFWDWLRQV RSLQLRQV DQG YDOXHV FDQ LQÀXHQFH WKH VWXGHQW¶V JUDGHV WKH PRUH LPSRUWDQW LV DQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH EDVLV of those expectations and values. This is of general importance, but especially true with Finnish school settings where the school grades are not based on national VWDQGDUGL]HGWHVWVEXWDUHEDVHGRQWHDFKHU¿[HGH[DPLQDWLRQVDQGPRGHOH[DPLQDtions offered by the authors of the school books. Although the Finnish educational system may be internationally known, we will still describe it here again. The system consists of nine years of compulsory schooling at comprehensive schools that is followed by three years schooling at high schools or vocational institutions. Comprehensive school consists of primary school that takes six years, and is followed by the three year lower secondary VFKRRO2XUV\VWHPLVYHU\HIIHFWLYH RIHDFKDJHFRKRUWFRPSOHWHVWKHFRPSUHKHQVLYH VFKRRO DQG FRPSOHWHV WKH VHFRQGDU\ HGXFDWLRQ$SSUR[LPDWHO\ RIWKHVHVWXGHQWVDUHXQGHULQGLYLGXDOVXSHUYLVLRQLQVSHFLDOFODVVHVDQG OHVV WKDQ OHDYHV ZLWKRXW HGXFDWLRQ7KH )LQQLVK FRPSUHKHQVLYH VFKRRO JLYHV WKH PRVW DSSURSULDWH IUDPH RI UHIHUHQFH WR WKH ³UHDOOLIH H[SHULPHQW´ EHFDXVH the whole age cohort can be contacted owing to the fact that there are no private schools or parallel school systems, or at least they all follow the same curriculum supervised by the Ministry of Education. Furthermore, all teachers are similarly educated and they have all the university education. 0(7+2'6
Participants $VDSDUWRIDODUJHDQGQDWLRQDOVWXG\ $ODWXSD.DUSSLQHQ.HOWLNDQJDV-lUYLQHQ 6DYLRMD ZHH[DPLQHGWHDFKHUV¶SHUFHSWLRQVRIVWXGHQWV¶WHPSHUDPHQWDQG educational competence, and the contributions of those ratings to teacher-rated school grades at the second stage of the comprehensive school. We also asked whether temperament plays different roles in different school subjects, and whether DJHQGHURIDVWXGHQWRUDJHQGHURIDWHDFKHUSOD\VDVLJQL¿FDQWUROH We took a geographically representative sample of 4255 students at the last stage RIWKHFRPSUHKHQVLYHVFKRRO7KLVLVDSSUR[LPDWHO\RIWKHUHVSHFWLYHFRKRUW 33
CHAPTER 2
$VVKRZQLQ)LJXUH)LQODQGZDVJHRJUDSKLFDOO\GLYLGHGLQWR¿YHFRXQWLHV)URP HDFK FRXQW\ RI WKH )LQQLVKVSHDNLQJ VFKRROV ZHUH UDQGRPO\VHOHFWHG D WRtal of 64 schools. 11 schools rejected, and the sample was completed according to the original random list. The original sample comprised 5992 students, and the complete data was available for 4255 students. From the teachers, the home room WHDFKHUDQGWKHWHDFKHUVRI0DWKDQG0RWKHU/DQJXDJHZHUHDOVRDVNHGWRSDUWLFLpate. This was a total of 274 teachers.
(2005–2006) Ɣ&LWLHV ż&RXQWU\VLGHV
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)LJXUH7KHVDPSOLQJRIWKHVWXG\
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Measures The teacher-rated temperament of the participants was measured by four scales from WKH 7HPSHUDPHQW$VVHVVPHQW %DWWHU\ IRU &KLOGUHQ ± 5HYLVHG 7$%&5 0DUWLQ %ULGJHU DQG WZR VFDOHV IURP WKH 5HYLVHG 'LPHQVLRQV RI7HPSHUDPHQW 6XUYH\ '2765 :LQGOH /HUQHU FRPSULVLQJ LWHPV DOWRJHWKHU UDWHG RQD¿YHSRLQWVFDOHUDQJLQJIURPRQH(strongly disagree)WR¿YH(strongly agree). The temperament dimensions addressed in the TABC-R are Activity, Persistence, ,QKLELWLRQ DQG 1HJDWLYH (PRWLRQDOLW\ 7KH WHPSHUDPHQW GLPHQVLRQV DGGUHVVHG E\WKH'2765DUH0RRGDQG'LVWUDFWLELOLW\7KHRULJLQDOIDFWRUVWUXFWXUHRIWKH 7$%&5 0DUWLQ %ULGJHU DQG '2765 :LQGOH /HUQHU ZDV UHSOLFDWHG LQ WKLV VDPSOH 7KH &URQEDFK¶V DOSKD UHOLDELOLWLHV IRU WKH VFDOHV ZHUH .81-.96. The teacher-rated EC of the participants was assessed by three scales covering 0RWLYDWLRQ0DWXULW\DQG&RJQLWLYH$ELOLW\$OOWKHLWHPVZHUHUDWHGRQD¿YHSRLQW scale ranging from one (strongly disagree)WR¿YH(strongly agree).7KH&URQEDFK¶V alpha reliabilities for the scales varied from .86 to .90. Because the intercorrelations between these three scales were also rather high ranging from .62 to .67, we created one factor called Educational Competence (EC), which comprises them all. 7KH&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDUHOLDELOLW\IRUWKH(&VFDOHZDV 7KHIDFWRUDQDO\VLVZLWK 0D[LPXP/LNHOLKRRGH[WUDFWLRQDQGREOLPLQURWDWLRQDOVRVXSSRUWHGWKHRQHIDFWRU solution. These procedures were followed in order to reduce possible multicolOLQHDULW\EHWZHHQWKHVWXG\YDULDEOHV $LNHQ :HVW 7KHUHVSHFWLYHJUDGHVZHUHWDNHQIURPWKHVWXGHQWV¶ODWHVWVFKRROUHSRUWIRU0/ DQG 0DWK UDQJH LV IDLO SRRU JRRG DQG H[FHOOHQW WKH\ received at the end of each academic term and school year. Statistical analysis 7RLQYHVWLJDWHWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVZHFRQGXFWHGDVHULHVRIOLQHDUKLHUDUFKLFDO UHJUHVVLRQ DQDO\VHV $LNHQ :HVW 6REHO %DURQ .HQQ\ DQG KLHUDUFKLFDO OLQHDU PRGHOOLQJ +/0 6LQJHU 6LQJHU :LOOHWW %U\N 5DXGHQEXVK %R\OH :LOOPV DVVXPLQJ D PRGHO EXLOGLQJ VWUDWHJ\VXJJHVWHGE\6LQJHU DQG6LQJHUDQG:LOOHWW :HXVHG6366 VRIWZDUH9HUVLRQ 5(68/76
First we asked whether temperament correlates with school grades, and the answer LV\HV$VDUHVXOWRIDVHULHVRIOLQHDUUHJUHVVLRQDQDO\VHV $LNHQ :HVW 6REHO %DURQ .HQQ\ ZHIRXQGWKDWDOOWHPSHUDPHQWWUDLWVWREHXVHG KHUHLH$FWLYLW\3HUVLVWHQFH'LVWUDFWLELOLW\,QKLELWLRQDQG1HJDWLYH(PRWLRQDOLW\ ZHUHKLJKO\FRUUHODWHGDQGVLJQL¿FDQWO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKERWK0/DQG0DWKJUDGHV 35
CHAPTER 2
H[SODLQLQJWRJHWKHUDQG RIWKHYDULDQFHUHVSHFWLYHO\ 6HFRQGO\ ZH DVNHG ZKHWKHU WHPSHUDPHQW SOD\V GLIIHUHQW UROHV LQ GLIIHUHQW VFKRROVXEMHFWV,QRXU)LQQLVKVDPSOHQRVXEMHFWUHODWHGGLIIHUHQFHVH[LVWHGEXW the variance to be explained was similar. Thirdly we asked whether the association between teacher-perceived temperament and school grades would be mediated or moderated by teacher-perceived EC. When the teacher perceived educational competence was added into the regression PRGHO LW UHVXOWHG LQ LQFUHDVH D WRWDO RI ZKHQ SUHGLFWLQJ 0/ DQG LQFUHDVH D WRWDO RI ZKHQ SUHGLFWLQJ 0DWK ,W ZDV VKRZQ WKDW WHDFKHUUDWHG educational competence mediated an association between temperament and Math JUDGHDQGEHWZHHQWHPSHUDPHQWDQG0/JUDGH )XUWKHUPRUHWKHUHJUHVVLRQDQDO\VLVUHYHDOHGDVLJQL¿FDQWLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQ WHDFKHUSHUFHLYHGHGXFDWLRQDOFRPSHWHQFHDQGWHPSHUDPHQWIRU0DWKJUDGH ¿JXUH $FWLYLW\DQG'LVWUDFWLELOLW\ZHUHQHJDWLYHO\DQGVLJQL¿FDQWO\UHODWHGWRWKH0DWK grade among students with high EC, but not among students with low EC. High negative emotionality predicted low Math grade among students with low EC. ,QVWHDGFRQVLGHULQJSHUVLVWHQFHORZOHYHORISHUVLVWHQFHSUHGLFWHGORZ0DWKJUDGH among both high and low EC students. )LQDOO\ RXU KLHUDUFKLFDO PXOWLOHYHO PRGHOOLQJ +/0 6LQJHU 6LQJHU :LOOHWW %U\N 5DXGHQEXVK UHVXOWVVXJJHVWDVLJQL¿FDQWDQGV\VWHPDWLFDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQWHDFKHU¶VJHQGHUDQGVWXGHQW¶VJHQGHURQWKHUHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH WHDFKHU SHUFHLYHG VWXGHQW¶V WHPSHUDPHQW (& LQFOXGLQJ WKH GLPHQsions of cognitive ability, motivation, and maturity), and teachability. Male teachers rated girls higher in activity and negative emotionality and lower in persistence and educational competence when compared with female teachers. High Educational Competence
/RZ'LVWUDFWLELOLW\
High Math grade
/RZ(GXFDWLRQDO Competence
High Negative Emotionality
/RZ0DWKJUDGH
High or Low Educa tional Competence
/RZ3HUVLVWHQFH
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High Educational Competence
/RZ$FWLYLW\
High Math grade
Figure 2. The results of the linear regression analysis estimating the interaction between Activity, Distractibility, Negative Emotionality, and Persistence (respectively from top to bottom) and the Math grade as a function of high and low Educational Competence (EC).
36
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:H IRXQG WKDW WHDFKHUSHUFHLYHG VWXGHQW¶V WHPSHUDPHQW ZDV VLJQL¿FDQWO\ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK ERWK 0/ DQG 0DWK JUDGHV H[SODLQLQJ HYHQ DSSUR[LPDWHO\ WKLUG of the variance of both subjects. Furthermore, high teacher-perceived EC (i.e., FRJQLWLYH DELOLW\ PRWLYDWLRQ DQG PDWXULW\ SUHGLFWHG ERWK KLJK 0/ DQG 0DWK JUDGHV WKH WHDFKHUV ZHUH OLNHO\ WR FRQVLGHU ZHOOSHUIRUPLQJ VWXGHQWV KLJK LQ educational competence or vice versa, to give high grades to mature and motivated VWXGHQWV2XUUHVXOWVDUHLQOLQHZLWKWKHUHVXOWVRISUHYLRXVVWXGLHV 0DUWLQ .HRJK .HRJK HW DO DQG VXSSRUW WKH UROH RI ³WDVN RULHQWDWLRQ´ LQ WHDFKHUV¶SHUFHSWLRQV IRUUHYLHZVVHH.HRJK 0DUWLQ 6WUHODX ,WKDVEHHQSUHYLRXVO\VXJJHVWHGWKDWDWDVNRULHQWDWLRQ LHSHUVLVWHQFHDFWLYLW\ DQGGLVWUDFWLELOLW\ FRUUHODWHVHVSHFLDOO\VWURQJZLWK0DWKEXWQRWZLWK0/ 0DUWLQ +ROEURRN ZKLOHFRQÀLFWLQJ¿QGLQJVH[LVWWRR *XHULQ*RWWIULHG2OLYHU 7KRPDV IRUDUHYLHZVHH6WUHODX ,QRXU)LQQLVKVDPSOHQRVXEMHFWUHODWHGGLIIHUHQFHVH[LVWHGEXWWHPSHUDPHQWWUDLWVWRJHWKHUH[SODLQHGRI 0/JUDGHVDQG RI0DWKJUDGHVYDULDQFHZKHQWKH¿QGLQJVZHUHDGMXVWHGIRU within the correlations of temperament traits. Furthermore, it was shown that teacher-rated EC mediated an association beWZHHQ WHPSHUDPHQW DQG ERWK 0/ DQG 0DWK JUDGHV LH WHDFKHUV ZHUH OLNHO\ WR LQWHUSUHW WHPSHUDPHQW WUDLWV DV UHÀHFWLQJ PDWXULW\ DQG PRWLYDWLRQ 2XU ¿QGLQJV also showed that if a teacher rated a student high in educational competence (i.e., mature, motivated and high in cognitive capacity) and low in temperamental activity, he/she was likely to give him/her high grades in Math. Because this was a cross-sectional study, an inverse explanation is also possible. A contribution of task orientation to school grades has been shown in the preYLRXV OLWHUDWXUH IRU UHYLHZV VHH 0DUWLQ .HRJK HW DO .HRJK .ULVWDO 2XU)LQQLVKVDPSOHKDGKRZHYHURQHVSHFLDOW\WKDWKDVQRWEHHQ VKRZQ SUHYLRXVO\ 1HJDWLYH HPRWLRQDOLW\ LH OLNHOLKRRG WR H[SUHVV WKH IHHOLQJV especially negative ones, strongly and intensively) was seen as a handicap to the VWXGHQWLQ)LQODQG,ILWZDVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHORZWHDFKHUUDWHGHGXFDWLRQDOFRPpetence, it would be likely to lead to a low Math grade. This is not surprising LQWKH)LQQLVKFXOWXUHZKHUH³FRQWURO\RXUVHOI´LVDYHU\FRPPRQDQGLPSRUWDQW JXLGHOLQH+RZHYHULWLVMXVWL¿HGWRDVNZKDWWHPSHUDPHQWDOQHJDWLYHHPRWLRQDOLW\KDVWRGRZLWKPDWKHPDWLFV"$WOHDVWWKDWVLJQL¿FDQWFRQWULEXWLRQRIQHJDWLYH emotionality as shown in our study has not been found in other cultures. Considering gender differences teachers perceived boys higher in Activity, 'LVWUDFWLELOLW\ ,QKLELWLRQ DQG 1HJDWLYH (PRWLRQDOLW\ DQG JLUOV KLJKHU LQ Persistence, Mood, and Educational Competence. All differences were statistiFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWDQGPRVWO\YHU\ODUJH7KLVZDVSDUWLFXODUO\WUXHZLWK(GXFDWLRQDO &RPSHWHQFH3HUVLVWHQFHDQG'LVWUDFWLELOLW\7KHVH ¿QGLQJV UDWKHU F OHDUO\ V KRZ K RZ differently the teachers see the boys and the girls, and those perceptions are not HYLGHQFHEDVHGEXWDUHOLNHO\WRUHÀHFWWKHWHDFKHUV¶RZQYDOXHVDQGH[SHFWDWLRQV ,QWHUHVWLQJO\PDOHWHDFKHUVVHHPHGWREHVWULFWHURUPRUHFULWLFDORQWKHLUSHUFHSWLRQVRIJLUOV¶WUDLWVWKDQIHPDOHWHDFKHUV7KH\UDWHGJLUOVKLJKHULQ$FWLYLW\DQG 37
CHAPTER 2
Negative Emotionality and lower in Persistence and Educational Competence when FRPSDUHGZLWKIHPDOHWHDFKHUV2XU¿QGLQJVDOVRLQGLFDWHWKDWPDOHWHDFKHUVZHUH likely to underestimate girls. &21&/86,216
7R FRQFOXGH RXU ¿QGLQJV VXJJHVW WKDW WHDFKHUV QHHG PRUH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW WKH LQÀXHQFHRIWHPSHUDPHQWLQRUGHUWRGLIIHUHQWLDWHFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVDQGEHKDYLRXUDO VW\OHV DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ WR HQVXUH HTXLWDEOH WUHDWPHQW IRU DOO VWXGHQWV$W OHDVW teachers should recognize their own temperament-based attitudes and expectations. This is important for two main reasons. First, temperament differs from intelligence, cognitive ability, maturity and motivation. Teachers who do not understand how WHPSHUDPHQW DIIHFWV D FKLOG¶V EHKDYLRU PD\ PLVLQWHUSUHW FHUWDLQ EHKDYLRUV DV GLVREHGLHQFHZKLFKFRXOGUHVXOWLQFODVVURRPGLI¿FXOWLHVDQGQHJDWLYHLQWHUDFWLRQV IRU ERWK WHDFKHU DQG VWXGHQW 6HFRQGO\ WKH VFKRRO UHSRUW VWXGHQWV UHFHLYH DW WKH HQGRIWKHLUQLQWK\HDUKDVDVLJQL¿FDQWDQGIDUUHDFKLQJUROHLQWKHLUIXWXUHDQGLQ their academic lives. Thus, the determination of their school grades should be as unambiguous as possible. Higher sensitivity among educators to the temperament of students, including the very bright and the underachievers, would increase the TXDOLW\RIVFKRROH[SHULHQFHVIRUERWKVWXGHQWVDQGWHDFKHUV 5()(5(1&(6 $LNHQ / 6 :HVW 6 * Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions, 6DJH 3XEOLFDWLRQV 1HZEXU\3DUN&$ $ODWXSD6 (G .DUSSLQHQ..HOWLNDQJDV-lUYLQHQ/ 6DYLRMD+ Koulu, syrjäytyminen ja sosiaalinen pääoma – Löytyykö huono-osaisuuden syy koulusta vai oppilaasta? [School, drop out, and social capital]. +HOVLQNL 6LWUDQUDSRUWWHMD(GLWD3ULPD2\ $QJOHLWQHU $ 2VWHQGRUI ) 7HPSHUDPHQW DQG WKH ELJ ¿YH IDFWRUV RI SHUVRQDOLW\ ,Q &) +DOYHUVRQ*$.RKQVWDPP 530DUWLQ (GV The development structure of temperament from infancy to adulthood (pp. 69–90). 0DKZDK1- /DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV %DURQ50 .HQQ\'$ 7KHPRGHUDWRUPHGLDWRUYDULDEOHGLVWLQFWLRQLQVRFLDOSV\FKRORJLFDO UHVHDUFK &RQFHSWXDO VWUDWHJLF DQG VWDWLVWLFDO FRQVLGHUDWLRQV Journal of Personality and Social 3V\FKRORJ\, 1173–1182. %DWHV-( &RQFHSWVDQGPHDVXUHVLQWHPSHUDPHQW,Q*$.RKQVWDPP-(%DWHV 0. Rothbart (Eds.), Temperament in childhood SS± &KLFKHVWHU(QJODQG :LOH\ %R\OH+% :LOOPV-' 0XOWLOHYHOPRGHOOLQJRIKLHUDUFKLFDOGDWDLQGHYHORSPHQWDOVWXGLHV Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 42(1), 141–162. %U\N$6 5DXGHQEXVK6: Hierarchical linear models.1HZEXU\3DUN 6DJH3XEOLFDWLRQV &DVSL $ 3HUVRQDOLW\ GHYHORSPHQW DFURVV WKH OLIH FRXUVH ,Q : 'DPRQ (GLQ&KLHI DQG 1 (LVHQEHUJ 9RO (G +DQGERRN RI FKLOG SV\FKRORJ\ 9RO 6RFLDO HPRWLRQDO DQG SHUVRQDOLW\ development (5thHGSS± 1HZ
38
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CHAPTER 2 6REHO0( $V\PSWRWLFFRQ¿GHQFHLQWHUYDOVIRULQGLUHFWHIIHFWVLQVWUXFWXUDOHTXDWLRQPRGHOV ,Q 6 /HLQKDUGW (G 6RFLRORJLFDO 0HWKRGRORJ\ SS ± :DVKLQJWRQ '& $PHULFDQ 6RFLRORJLFDO$VVRFLDWLRQ 6WUHODX- Temperament: A psychobiological perspective. 1HZ
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CHAPTER 3
THE ROLE OF CRISIS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY Paulien C. Meijer
One of my biology student teachers two years ago, Roeland, age 25, was teaching three groups of pupils at a secondary school. He had signed up for teacher HGXFDWLRQ EHFDXVH KH FRXOG QRW ¿QG KLV µGUHDP¶ MRE ± EHLQJ D XQLYHUVLW\ WHDFKHU – and following the teacher education programme seemed to be ‘not a big waste RI WLPH¶ EHFDXVH LQ KLV SODQV KH DOVR KDG WR WHDFK EXW WR XQLYHUVLW\ VWXGHQWV7R JLYHVRPHFRQWH[WXDOLQIRUPDWLRQ WKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPPHZKHUH,ZDV working is built as a dual programme, so that student teachers start teaching right IURPWKHVWDUWSDUDOOHOWRIROORZLQJFRXUVHVDQGVHPLQDUVDWWKHLQVWLWXWH,WLVDOVR DSRVWPDVWHUVSURJUDPPHVR5RHODQGDOUHDG\KDGDPDVWHU¶VGHJUHHLQELRORJ\ 5RHODQG FDPH WR P\ RI¿FH GXULQJ WKH DXWXPQ IDOO KROLGD\V ± DIWHU WZR PRQWKV of teaching. He was in serious crisis, at school and in his personal life as well. (YHU\WKLQJ IHOO DSDUW KH VDLG KH IHOW SDUDO\VHG E\ D KXJH IHHOLQJ RI XQFHUWDLQW\ LQ DOO DVSHFWV RI KLV OLYH +H ORRNHG H[KDXVWHG DQG LQ GHVSDLU , MXVW OHW KLP WDON and talk and he reported, for example, how his pupils had not done the homework IRUKLVOHVVRQDQGDOWKRXJKKHNQHZWKDWSXSLOVµZHUHOLNHWKDW¶KHVXGGHQO\IHOW betrayed and angry. He had put so much time and energy into his lesson and the OHVVRQ IDLOHG EHFDXVH WKH SXSLOV KDGQ¶W HYHQ GRQH WKHLU VPDOO ELW RI SUHSDUDWLRQ ,WKDGKDSSHQHGEHIRUHEXWQRZKHZDVRYHUZKHOPHGE\KLVDQJHUDQGVHQVHRI powerlessness and he did not know how to cope with these feelings. He kept on VD\LQJµZKDWDP,GRLQJLWIRU"ZKDW¶VWKHXVH"¶:HWDONHGIRUVRPHWLPHLQZKLFK ,WROGKLPKRZRWKHUVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVJRWKURXJKVXFKFULVHVDVZHOODQGKDGVRPH VXJJHVWLRQVIRUZKDWKHPLJKWGRWR¿QGWKHDQVZHUVWRKLVTXHVWLRQV$FWXDOO\, GLGQ¶WKDYHPXFKWLPHIRUKLPDWWKDWPRPHQWEXWKHOHIWIHHOLQJUHOLHYHGKHVDLG Three days later, there he was again. He had taken two days off, had gone biking DQGKHVDLG µ,¶PVRGHOLJKWHG,¶PEDFN,WIHHOVVRGLIIHUHQWQRZ¶+HVDLGWKDW GXULQJKLVELNLQJWULSKHVXGGHQO\NQHZ ,¶PGRLQJLWIRUP\SXSLOV«+HKDGVDLG that to himself before, but now he felt it, he said. He had found his answers, he felt committed. Just a few weeks later he could not imagine he would ever have wanted to do DQ\WKLQJHOVHEXWWHDFKLQJWRH[DFWO\WKLVW\SHRIVWXGHQWV VHFRQGDU\VFKRROSXSLOV µ,W VRXQGV VWUDQJH¶ KH VDLG µEXW LW IHHOV OLNH ,¶P DW KRPH DW VFKRRO¶ +H ZRUNHG hard and became one of our top student teachers. A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 41–54. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 3
,ZRXOGOLNHWRUHODWHZKDWKDSSHQHGWR5RHODQGWRVRPHTXLWHFRPPRQSUDFWLFHV LQWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQWRGH¿QLWLRQVDERXWWKHGHYHORSPHQWRISURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\ LQ WHDFKLQJ DQG WR WKHRULHV DERXW OHDUQLQJ VSHFL¿FDOO\ LQ DGXOWV 7KHQ , ZLOO combine these two and focus on the concept of transformative learning and the role RIFULVLVLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVWXGHQWWHDFKHUV¶SURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\,ZLOOVWDWH WKDW\RXQHHGDFULVLVLQRUGHUWRJURZDQG,ZLOOJRLQWRWKHTXHVWLRQVµKRZGR \RXGRWKLV"¶DQGµKRZFDQRWKHUVVXSSRUWWKLV"¶7KHODWWHUSHUWDLQVVSHFL¿FDOO\WR WKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQLQVWLWXWHVRLQFRQFOXVLRQ,ZLOOGUDZVRPHLPSOLFDWLRQVRI including such a focus in teacher education practices. 620(&2002135$&7,&(6,17($&+(5('8&$7,21
After more than ten years of working as a teacher educator and researcher and DIHZ\HDUVDVDVHFRQGDU\VFKRROWHDFKHU,KDGWURXEOHVHHLQJWKHOLQNEHWZHHQ theories about learning to teach and my own experiences with student teachers, ERWK DV D WHDFKHU HGXFDWRU DQG D UHVHDUFKHU LQ WKH ¿HOG RI WHDFKHU OHDUQLQJ 0\ department started working with developmental models to grade the amount LQ ZKLFK VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV PDVWHUHG WKH YDULRXV HOHPHQWV RI WHDFKLQJ *UDGXDOO\ EXLOGLQJ \RXU WHDFKLQJ VNLOOV ZDV WKH LGHD 6WHDG\ JURZWK$QG DOWKRXJK WKHVH PRGHOVZHUHQRWXVHGLQDWLJKWZD\EXWUDWKHUÀH[LEO\WKH\GLGQRWVHHPWRFDSWXUH the most profound learning moments that my student teachers, such as Roeland, went through. /LNHPDQ\LQVWLWXWHVIRUWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQP\GHSDUWPHQWFRQVLGHUHGWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIDSURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\DVFHQWUDODQGGH¿QHGLWDV %HLMDDUG0HLMHU 9HUORRS DQRQJRLQJSURFHVVRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQDQGUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIH[SHULHQFHV LPSO\LQJERWKSHUVRQDQGFRQWH[W FRQVLVWLQJRIVXELGHQWLWLHVWKDWPRUHRUOHVVKDUPRQL]HZLWKHDFKRWKHU asking for an active role of the student teacher. $QGOLNHPDQ\LQVWLWXWHVIRUWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQP\GHSDUWPHQW¶VIRUHPRVWDLPLQ its pedagogy was the reaching of standards for which the link with the concept of SURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\LVQRWTXLWHREYLRXV /HW PH VWDWH WKDW , KDYH QRWKLQJ DJDLQVW UDLVLQJ VWDQGDUGV DQG WU\LQJ WR UHDFK WKHP2QWKHFRQWUDU\,KDYHIRXQGVXFKVWDQGDUGVYHU\XVHIXOLQVXSHUYLVLQJVWXdent teachers and for purposes of feedback and self-assessment for student teachHUV6WXGHQWWHDFKHUVNQRZZKDWLVH[SHFWHGRIWKHPDQGLIWKHVWDQGDUGVDUHKLJK it provides them with a challenge which they mostly welcome. But we all know the GDQJHUVRIWHDFKLQJWRWKHWHVWDQGLIWKHVWDQGDUGVUHÀHFWDOHDUQLQJSURFHVVWKDW is only a part of what is happening or should happen, our pedagogy is impeded by VXFKVWDQGDUGVDQGDVDFRQVHTXHQFHVWXGHQWWHDFKHUV¶OHDUQLQJPLJKWEHDVZHOO :K\LVWKHYLHZRIOHDUQLQJWRWHDFKDVVWHDG\JURZWKQRWVXI¿FLHQW"$V,VDLG RQHZD\RUWKHRWKHU,GLGQRWXQGHUVWDQGKRZWKLVYLHZUHODWHVWRWKHVWXGHQWDQG EHJLQQLQJ WHDFKHUV WKDW , ZDV VXSHUYLVLQJ 7KHLU VWUXJJOHV DQG IUXVWUDWLRQV ZHQW KDQGLQKDQGZLWKRXWEXUVWVRIH[FLWHPHQWDQGMR\
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not the general steady growth that researchers and teacher educators talked about. ,WVHHPHGDURFN\SDWKRIKLJKVDQGORZVDQGWREHKRQHVW,ZDVPRVWFRQFHUQHG about the few student teachers who did notUHSRUWVXFKKLJKVDQGORZV,ZLOOFRPH back to them later in this chapter. But most student teachers do report crises and VRPHWLPHVWKHVHORRNOLNHWKHQRWRULRXVSUDFWLFHVKRFNV WKH\DUHYHU\HPRWLRQDO DQGLQÀXHQFHWKHVWXGHQWWHDFKHU¶VZKROHOLIHDWVXFKPRPHQWV5RHODQG¶VH[SHULHQFHLVDQH[DPSOHRIWKLV%HIRUHJRLQJGHHSHULQWRWKHUROHRIVXFKFULVHV,ZLOO ¿UVWIRFXVPRUHFORVHO\RQWKHFRQFHSWRIWHDFKHUV¶SURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\ 620(7+(25(7,&$/127,216$%2877($&+(5352)(66,21$/,'(17,7< $1''(9(/230(17
Teacher identity is an issue of growing interest. The 2008 Handbook of research on teacher education (&RFKUDQ6PLWK )HLPDQ1HPVHU 0F,QW\UH 'HPHUV IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH GHYRWHV D FKDSWHU WR WKH LVVXH DQG D TXLFN VHDUFK LQ WKH 6RFLDO 6FLHQFHV&LWDWLRQ,QGH[RQµWHDFKHULGHQWLW\¶UHVXOWVLQDQLQFUHDVLQJQXPEHURIKLWV during the last two decades (see Figure 1).
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As can be seen in Figure 1, teacher identity as a concept in academic literature came up in the early nineteen-nineties, in the early years of the 21st century interest LQFUHDVHG DQG VLQFH LQWHUHVW LQ WKH FRQFHSW H[SDQGHG UDSLGO\ ,Q WKH HDUO\ years of the 21st century, most academic literature on teacher identity focuses on 43
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describing the various aspects of the concept, for example by Andy Hargreaves, *HHUW.HOFKHUPDQV&KULVWRSKHU'D\DQG0DULD)ORUHVDQG.ODDVYDQ9HHQ HJ )ORUHV 'D\ 9DQ9HHQ6OHHJHUV 9DQGH9HQ 2YHUWKHODVWWZRRU three years, interest has focused more on the formation and development of teacher LGHQWLW\ ZLWK SXEOLFDWLRQV VXFK DV 6FKHSHQV $HOWHUPDQ DQG 9OHULFN -HSKFRWHDQG6DOLVEXU\ DQG7UHQWDQG*DR ,Q WKH Handbook of research on teacher education 5RGJHUV DQG 6FRWW VXPPDUL]HFRQWHPSRUDU\FRQFHSWLRQVRILGHQWLW\WRVKDUHIRXUEDVLVDVVXPSWLRQV 1. that identity is dependent upon and formed within multiple contexts 2. that identity is formed in relationship with others and involves emotions 3. that identity is shifting, unstable and multiple DQG 4. that identity involves the construction and reconstruction of meaning through storiesRYHUWLPH S LWDOLFVDGGHG 5RGJHUV DQG 6FRWW DUJXHG WKDW LPSOLFLW LQ WKHVH DVVXPSWLRQV LV WKDW WHDFKHUV VKRXOGµPDNHDSV\FKRORJLFDOVKLIWLQKRZWKH\WKLQNDERXWWKHPVHOYHVDVWHDFKHUV¶ S EXW WKH\ DOVR IRXQG WKDW WKLV SV\FKRORJLFDO VKLIW LV D µEODFN ER[¶ DERXW ZKLFKZHNQRZOLWWOH,WLVRIFRXUVHDGLI¿FXOWSV\FKRORJLFDOVKLIWEHFDXVHVXFK DVKLIWDSSHDUVWRUHVXOWLQDSURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\WKDWLVXQVWDEOHDQGPXOWLSOH,Q WKHLU UHYLHZ RQ UHVHDUFK RQ WHDFKHUV¶ SURIHVVLRQDO LGHQWLW\ %HLMDDUG HW DO QRWHGWKDW [Teacher identity] can be best characterized as an ongoing process, a process of interpreting oneself as a certain kind of person and being recognized as VXFKLQDJLYHQFRQWH[W,QWKLVFRQWH[WWKHQLGHQWLW\FDQDOVREHVHHQDVDQ DQVZHUWRWKHUHFXUUHQWTXHVWLRQ µZKRDP,at this moment"¶ S And Parker Palmer (1998) stated that ‘identity is a moving intersection of the inner DQGRXWHUIRUFHVWKDWPDNHPHZKR,DP¶ S 5RGJHUVDQG6FRWW IRXQG that most studies about teacher identity and identity formation were theoretical in nature and that empirical studies were rather scarce. One of the reasons for this might be the absence of links between literature about teacher identity and WKHW\SHRIOHDUQLQJWKDWLVUHTXLUHGIRULGHQWLW\VKLIWVWRRFFXU%HORZ,ZLOOYHU\ EULHÀ\UHFRXQWVRPHJHQHUDOOHDUQLQJWKHRULHVDQGLOOXVWUDWHZK\WHDFKHUHGXFDWRUV GRQRWDXWRPDWLFDOO\DFFRXQWIRUWKHW\SHRIOHDUQLQJWKDWLVUHTXLUHGIRULGHQWLW\ development. 620(7+(25(7,&$/127,216$%287 $'8/7 /($51,1*
Piaget (e.g. 1952) described three types of learning, cumulative learning, assimilative learning and accommodative learning. Cumulative learning WKLVLVOHDUQLQJVRPHWKLQJWKDWLVFRPSOHWHO\QHZDQGFDQQRW EHOLQNHGWRDQ\WKLQJHOVH\RXDOUHDG\NQRZRUDUHDEOHWRGR,QDGXOWVWKLVGRHV QRWRFFXUYHU\IUHTXHQWO\DQGZKHQLWGRHVLWDW¿UVWIHHOVDZNZDUGOLNHOHDUQLQJ WRVZLPVNLRUF\FOHZKHQ\RX¶YHGRQHQRWKLQJOLNHWKDWHYHUEHIRUH 44
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2. Assimilative learning RU OHDUQLQJ E\ DGGLWLRQ WKLV KDSSHQV YHU\ RIWHQ ,Q learning to teach it is building your repertoire of pedagogies, building practical knowledge about your students, building a knowledge base including several theories about pupil learning, your subject, et cetera. Accommodative learning WKLVW\SHRIOHDUQLQJLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKIRUH[DPSOH overcoming misconceptions or conceptual change. This is learning that feels like µH\HRSHQHUV¶
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DVVXPSWLRQVVHOIUHÀHFWLRQRQDVVXPSWLRQVDQGGLDORJLFDOUHDVRQLQJZKHQWKH beliefs and understandings they generate become problematic. ,Q SDUWLFXODU WKH ODVW GLPHQVLRQ LV RI LQWHUHVW KHUH WKH IDFW WKDW DGXOWV µOHDUQ WR WUDQVIRUP WKHLU IUDPHV RI UHIHUHQFH WKURXJK FULWLFDO UHÀHFWLRQ RQ DVVXPSWLRQV VHOIUHÀHFWLRQRQDVVXPSWLRQVDQGGLDORJLFDOUHDVRQLQJZKHQWKHEHOLHIVDQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJVWKH\JHQHUDWHEHFRPHSUREOHPDWLF¶ 0H]LURZ $OWKRXJKEDVHGRQ research on adult learning, this is not so different from the process of becoming an DGXOWDQGIURPWKHLGHQWLW\VKLIWWKDWSHRSOHJRWKURXJKGXULQJDGROHVFHQFH,QIDFW many theorists say you need several identity shifts during life (e.g. Adams, Hayes +RSVRQ DQGWKDWVXFKVKLIWVEDVLFDOO\UHVXOWIURPFULVHV 75$16)250$7,9(/($51,1*$1'7+(52/(2)&5,6,6
/RRNLQJ DW WKH SURFHVV RI WUDQVIRUPDWLYH OHDUQLQJ RQH VHHV WKDW FULVLV SOD\V DQ eminent role in this. This process seems to affect everyone, in most cultures, after major life events. Adams et al. studied for many years how people deal with life changes, and in 1976 they described several features of what they called the µWUDQVLWLRQ F\FOH¶ VHH )LJXUH 7UDQVLWLRQ LV WKH ZD\ SHRSOH UHVSRQG WR FKDQJH RYHU WLPH .UDOLN 9LVHQWLQ YDQ /RRQ 3HRSOH XQGHUJR WUDQVLWLRQ ZKHQ they need to adapt to new situations or circumstances in order to incorporate the FKDQJHHYHQWLQWRWKHLUOLYHV6WDUWLQJDQHZSURIHVVLRQRUMRELVRQHVXFKFKDQJH event.
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Figure 2 shows how a crisis is related to change or a life event. This picture shows the way people in general respond to changes. A career change or new job can 46
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generally be seen as a positive event, so for the purpose of this chapter we have to ORRNDWWKHXSSHUOLQHVWDUWLQJRQWKHOHIWRI)LJXUHDQGVXEVHTXHQWO\VKRZLQJDQ excitement phase, a honeymoon phase, followed by a phase of inner contradictions LQ ZKLFK SHRSOH IHHO XQFHUWDLQ ORVH FRQ¿GHQFH DQG FDQ EHFRPH FRQIXVHG DQG depressed. Then, a few months after the change, people can feel an inner crisis. From that point on, there are basically four potential pathways, of which the upper SDWKZD\OHDGVWRQHZFRQ¿GHQFHDQGWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ%XWWKHµGDQJHUV¶DUHFOHDU SDUWLDO UHFRYHU\ H[WHQGHG FULVLV RU HYHQ TXLWWLQJ %DVHG RQ WKHLU UHYLHZ$GDPV et al. (1976) concluded that such transition cycles occur 10–20 times in most SHRSOH¶V OLYHV ,I XQGHUVWRRG DQG VXSSRUWHG WKHVH HYHQWV FDQ EH WXUQLQJ SRLQWV DQGRSSRUWXQLWLHV,IQRWWKH\FDQOHDGWRVHULRXVHUURUVRIMXGJHPHQWGHSUHVVLRQ breakdown, broken relationships or careers. 7KHVH LGHDV DERXW WUDQVLWLRQ DUH TXLWH VLPLODU WR ZKDW ZH NQRZ DERXW WHDFKHUV¶ ¿UVW \HDU RI WHDFKLQJ (OOHQ 0RLU RI WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI &DOLIRUQLD 6DQWD &UX] 1HZ7HDFKHU3URMHFWKDVVWXGLHGVWXGHQWWHDFKHUV¶DWWLWXGHVWRZDUGVWHDFKLQJZKHQ WKH\ JR WKURXJK WKHLU ¿UVW \HDU RI WHDFKLQJ DQG LGHQWL¿HG SKDVHV WKURXJK ZKLFK most new teachers progress. Figure 3 shows how student teachers in general move through the phases from anticipation, to survival, to disillusionment, to rejuvenaWLRQUHÀHFWLRQDQGWKHQEDFNWRDQWLFLSDWLRQ
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This is comparable to the upper pathway of the line shown in Figure 2. But we DOVR NQRZ WKDW PDQ\ VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV TXLW GXULQJ WKHLU ¿UVW \HDU RI WHDFKLQJ LQ RWKHU ZRUGV WDNH WKH RWKHU SRVVLEOH SDWKZD\V 6R WKH TXHVWLRQ LV ZKDW VXSSRUW GRVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVQHHGLQRUGHUWRWDNHWKHXSSHUSDWKZD\"%HIRUH,JRLQWRWKLV TXHVWLRQZH¿UVWQHHGWREHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGZKDWDFULVLVRUGLVLOOXVLRQPHQWORRNV OLNH:KDWKDSSHQVLQDQGDIWHUDFULVLV",ZDQWWRLOOXVWUDWHWKLVE\SD\LQJFORVHU 47
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DWWHQWLRQWRWKH5RHODQG¶VFULVLV5RHODQGIHOWGLVUHVSHFWHGE\VWXGHQWVVSHQGLQJD whole evening preparing a lesson, but the students not even paying attention. He even felt a bit betrayed by his students, who did not recognize how hard he had worked and that he did so for them$W VXFK PRPHQWV KH KDG WKRXJKWV VXFK DV µZKDWDP,GRLQJLWIRU"¶7KLVLVDYHU\FRPPRQTXHVWLRQIRUVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVLQ VXFKDSKDVH7RJHWKHUZLWKVRPHFROOHDJXHV,H[DPLQHGKRZVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVGHDOW ZLWKVXFKVLWXDWLRQV VHH0HLMHU0HLULQN GH*UDDILQSUHVV DQGPDQ\UHSRUWHG TXHVWLRQV OLNH WKLV RQH VSHFL¿FDOO\ ZKHQ WKHLU FULVLV ZDV UHODWHG WR LQWHUDFWLRQ ZLWK SXSLOV ,Q DGGLWLRQ IHHOLQJV RI TXLWH H[WUHPH XQFHUWDLQW\ DQG SDQLF ZHUH mentioned in connection with such crises. Occasionally, aspects of the school as an organization contributed to their crises, such as uncertain job perspectives, or panic caused by a heavy workload. The crises that student teachers reported suggest a µSUDFWLFHVKRFN¶ 9HHQPDQ ,QGHVFULELQJWRXVZKDWWKH\KDGH[SHULHQFHG VWXGHQWWHDFKHUVXVHGWHUPVVXFKDVµIHHOLQJFRPSOHWHO\LQFDSDEOHRIWHDFKLQJ¶DQG µ&+$26LQOHVVRQV¶µVKRFNHGE\VWXGHQWV¶µ,GH¿QLWHO\ZDQWHGWRTXLWWHDFKLQJ, IHOWFRPSOHWHO\XVHOHVVDVDWHDFKHU¶ Moir and her colleagues found that basically after six to eight weeks of non-stop work and stress, new teachers enter the disillusionment phase. The intensity and length of the phase varies among new teachers. The extensive time commitment, the realization that things are probably not going as smoothly as they want and low PRUDOHFRQWULEXWHWRWKLVSHULRGRIGLVHQFKDQWPHQW1HZWHDFKHUVEHJLQTXHVWLRQing both their commitment and their competence. They express self-doubt, have ORZHUVHOIHVWHHPDQGPDQ\QHZWHDFKHUVJHWVLFNGXULQJWKLVSKDVH,QDGGLWLRQ WKHDFFXPXODWHGVWUHVVRIWKH¿UVW\HDUWHDFKHUVFRXSOHGZLWKPRQWKVRIH[FHVVLYH time allotted to teaching, often bring complaints from family and friends. This is DYHU\GLI¿FXOWDQGFKDOOHQJLQJSKDVHIRUQHZHQWUDQWVLQWRWKHSURIHVVLRQ,QIDFW getting through this phase may be the toughest challenge that new teachers face. 7KH&KLQHVHLGHRJUDPIRUµFULVLV¶ VHH)LJXUH LVFDOOHGµ:HLFKL¶DQGFRQWDLQV H[SOLFLWO\WKHURRWVµGDQJHU¶DQGµRSSRUWXQLW\¶
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FRQ¿GHQFH WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ DQG DQ HYHQ D KLJKHU VHQVH RI ZHOOEHLQJ WKDQ DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ RI WKH F\FOH 6R ZKDW KDSSHQV LQ WKH FDVH RI VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV" +RZ do they cope with their crises, how do teacher educators help them and is there anything else they might do to support student teachers in their transformation process or, in other words, in the development of their teacher identity? Roeland was in crisis. Just before graduation, he participated in the study in which we asked most of our student teachers to look back on how they had experienced their teacher education year, how they perceived their learning during the OHDUQLQJDQGZKDWFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHOHDUQLQJ 0HLMHUHWDOLQSUHVV ,QDQVZHULQJ TXHVWLRQVDERXWZKDWFRQWULEXWHGWRKLVOHDUQLQJKHDQVZHUHG 7KHWDONLQZKLFKP\VXSHUYLVRUWROGPH,¶PQRWWKHRQO\RQH6KHGHVFULEHG what she knew from literature and told me that almost all beginning teachers she had supervised had gone through such a period of huge distress. This was VXFKDUHOLHI$W¿UVW,WKRXJKWWKHUHZDVVRPHWKLQJZURQJZLWKPHDQGWKDW WHDFKLQJZDVQRWWKHULJKWFKRLFHIRUPHEXWWKHQ,UHDOL]HGWKLVZDVSDUWRI DOHDUQLQJSURFHVVRIVRPHNLQG«DIWHUUHDOL]LQJWKLVZHZRUNHGRQVRPH OHVVRQSODQVWRJHWKHUDQG,IHOWP\PRWLYDWLRQFRPLQJEDFN $QGODWHU 7KDW WDON >ZLWK P\ VXSHUYLVRU@ WXUQHG RXW WR EH FUXFLDO ,Q DQWLFLSDWLRQ RI WKDWWDON,ZDVVRQHUYRXV±ZKDWZRXOGVKHEHWKLQNLQJ"±EXW,KDGQHYHU H[SHFWHG KRZ PXFK LW ZRXOG KHOS PH « , XVHG WR WKLQN WKDW , FRXOG TXLWH ZHOOPDQDJHRQP\RZQ«EXWVLQFHWKHQ,DVNIRUKHOSRUDGYLFHVRPXFK PRUHHDVLO\,QRZVHHKRZRWKHUSHRSOHFDQKHOSLQLPSURYLQJDVDWHDFKHU $QG,QRZNQRZZKDW,¶PGRLQJLWIRUP\WHDFKLQJ We found that conversations with supervisors and school coaches often were H[SHULHQFHG DV SRVLWLYH µWXUQLQJ SRLQWV¶ LQ VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV¶ GHYHORSPHQW 7KH\ had a sudden insight, or they regained their motivation for teaching. Also student UHDFWLRQV PDWWHUHG VSHFL¿FDOO\ PRPHQWV LQ ZKLFK WHDFKHUV WDONHG WR LQGLYLGXDO students after a lesson and students who showed themselves to be genuinely LQWHUHVWHG6XFKH[SHULHQFHVPDGHVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVUHDOL]HµZKDW,¶PGRLQJLWIRU IRUWKHP¶ What is found here, is that student teachers basically develop a commitment FI1LDV DIWHUVXFKDFULVLV7KLVLVDOVRUHODWHGWRWKHµSDVVLRQIRUWHDFKLQJ¶ 'D\ WKDWH[SHULHQFHGWHDFKHUVQHHGWRGHYHORS)RUVWXGHQWWHDFKHUV WKLVKDVVHYHUDOHIIHFWV WKH\VWDUWWRIHHOOLNHWHDFKHUVDQGHYHQVWDUWWRµORRN¶OLNH teachers. On their holidays, they meet people who immediately presume that they DUH WHDFKHUV 7KH\ KDYH QRW RQO\ GHDOW ZLWK WKH TXHVWLRQ RI µKRZ GR , OHDUQ WR WHDFK"¶EXWDOVRLQSDUWLFXODUZLWKWKHTXHVWLRQVµZKDWGRHVLWPHDQ IRUPH WR WHDFK"¶DQGµZKRDP,DVDWHDFKHU"¶ FI.HOFKWHUPDQV +DPLOWRQ µ%HLQJ D WHDFKHU¶ EHFRPHV SDUW RI WKHLU LGHQWLW\ DV D SHUVRQ 7KHRULVWV VD\ WKDW D FULVLV might be needed in order to make such a transition. 49
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But what if student teachers do not experience such a crisis? As mentioned earOLHU,DPPRVWO\ZRUULHGZKHQVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVGRQRWUHSRUWDQ\FULVLVRUGLOHPPD These student teachers learn a teaching repertoire, they manage their basic tasks as WHDFKHUVEXWWKH\RIWHQKDYHSUREOHPVGHDOLQJZLWKWDVNVWKDWDVNIRUUHÀHFWLRQDQG IXUWKHUJURZWK,OOHULV GHVFULEHVKRZSHRSOHµGHIHQG¶WKHLUSHUVRQDOLGHQWLW\ to hefty changes instigated by, for example, educational situations aimed at personal and professional development. He labels such defence as a mental barrier to identity development and, related to that, to becoming involved in a process of transformative learning. This mostly takes place when people experience they need to ‘demolLVK¶WKHLUH[LVWLQJLGHQWLW\DQGEXLOGXSDQHZRQH,GHQWLW\GHIHQFHLVERWKQDWXUDO DQGQHFHVVDU\DV,OOHULVVWDWHVDQGHPSDWKLFFRXQVHOOLQJWREHDEOHWRIDFHWKHQHZ reality and its demands is needed here, in order to facilitate the transformative OHDUQLQJWDNLQJSODFHDQGWRHQGXUHWKHµFULVLV¶QHHGHGWRGHYHORSWKHQHZLGHQWLW\ ,QWHUHVWLQJO\GHYHORSPHQWDOSV\FKRORJLVW(ULN(ULNVRQODEHOOHGDQLGHQWLW\FULVLV a developmentalFULVLVDQGVWDWHGWKDWJRLQJWKURXJKDQLGHQWLW\FULVLVLVDSUHUHTXLsite for growth and identity resolution (Erikson, 1963). Based on his major works on identity development in adolescents, the processes Erikson described also seem to apply for the process of identity development that student teachers go through VHH$QWKLV /D9RLHIRUDUHYLHZRIVWXGLHVRQFKDQJHVLQDGXOWLGHQWLW\ (ULNVRQVHHVWKHIROORZLQJGDQJHUVZKHQRQHGRHVQRWJRWKURXJKVXFKDFULVLV Foreclosure WLPHO\ FORVXUH RI JHQXLQH H[SHULPHQWLQJ FDXVLQJ DOO NLQGV RI possibilities not to be explored. Conformation to expectations of other. The µWUXH¶LGHQWLW\FULVLVZLOOFRPHEXWDWDODWHUDQGPXFKPRUHGLI¿FXOWRFFDVLRQ Identity Confusion FDXVLQJDQH[WHQGHGH[SHULPHQWDWLRQSKDVHLQZKLFKQRUHDO choices are made and no lessons are learned. One is preoccupied with oneself and no genuine relationships with other people are developed. Synthetic Identity FRQYXOVLYH FRQIRUPDWLRQ WR D V\VWHP ZLWKRXW ¿QGLQJ RXW whether the chosen identity is in accordance with own deeper beliefs. There is an intolerance for other opinions, mostly to protect oneself against doubts about the choices made (Erikson, 1963). 6XPPDUL]LQJWKHdangers of a crisis for student teachers are foreclosure or partial recovery, identity confusion or extended crisis, development of a synthetic identity DQGTXLWWLQJ7KHopportunity is identity resolution and transformation. But to get there, the crisis has to be, or become, a developmental crisis. ,03/,&$7,216)257($&+(5('8&$7,21
,Q WKLV SDUDJUDSK , ZLOO GLVFXVV VRPH LPSOLFDWLRQV WKDW WKHVH WKHRULHV KDYH IRU teacher education and research on learning to teach. First, what do you have to do as a teacher educator? Basically, you have to make sure that your student teachers, WU\LQJWRNHHSWKHLUKHDGVXSJRWKURXJKDJHQXLQHFULVLV,WLV\RXUWDVNWRPDNH it a developmental crisis and to avoid the dangers as mentioned in the former paragraph. There are two tasks. First, and the most important one, is the support of 50
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WUDQVIRUPDWLYH OHDUQLQJ RI VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV LQ FULVLV ,Q WKHLU FKDSWHU LQ WKH Handbook of research on teacher education5RGJHUVDQG6FRWW IRXQGVRPH contemporary progressive teacher education programmes which advocate the support of transformative learning. Based on the experiences of these programmes WKH\UHFRPPHQG &UHDWLQJWLPHDQGVSDFHIRUUHÀHFWLRQ &UHDWLQJFRPPXQLWLHVRIWUXVW 0DNLQJVHQVHRIH[SHULHQFHWKURXJKVWRULHV Asking student teachers to confront and speak back to the external forces that shape and limit who and what a teacher is, such as colleagues, pupils and parents 5RGJHUV 6FRWW The second task of teacher educators is to make sure that all student teachers go through crisis, so sometimes a teacher educator even needs to provoke transformaWLYHOHDUQLQJ7KLVLPSOLHVWKDWWHDFKHUHGXFDWRUV VHH0H]LURZ should inspire mental resistance if necessary, because this is the way that personal competencies are developed that are so key to teaching, such as LQGHSHQGHQFHUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGFUHDWLYLW\ should useFRQÀLFWUDLVLQJRUGLOHPPDUDLVLQJ should use several methods to foster FULWLFDO VHOIUHÀHFWLRQ of assumptions needed for transformative learning, such as the use of critical incidents, life histories, collaborative learning, etc., preferably in combination. According to Mezirow, the aim of these interventions should be the support and HQFRXUDJHPHQWRIµEUHDNWKURXJK¶OHDUQLQJEHIRUHPRUHJRDOGLUHFWHGDQGFRQVWUXFtive education can take place (cf. Mezirow, 2009). 7KLVLVOHDUQLQJEH\RQGWKHFRPIRUW]RQH,WLVFRQIURQWLQJSDLQIXODQGGLVFRPIRUWLQJ FI&KR\ :KHQ,WDONWRSHHUWHDFKHUHGXFDWRUVWKH\RIWHQLQGLFDWH WKDW µVDIHW\¶ LV D NH\ HOHPHQW LQ WKHLU ZRUN ZLWK VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV :KHQ , EXLOG FROODERUDWLYHUHÀHFWLRQJURXSVRIVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVRQHRIWKHNH\LVVXHVLVDJDLQ safety. But learning beyond the comfort zone is in essence not safe and can be TXLWHWKUHDWHQLQJ+RZGRHVWKLVUHODWH"2QHRIWKHZD\VWRORRNDWWKLVLVVXHLVWR DVNWKHTXHVWLRQwhen the actual transformative learning takes place. The transition cycle (see Figure 2) showed that learning takes place after the crisis. The case of Roeland showed that his crisis was at another moment than his learning. The actual WUDQVIRUPDWLYHOHDUQLQJZDVRQKLVELNHLQWKHZRRGV6R\RXQHHGWKHNLQGRIPRPHQWV5RGJHUVDQG6FRWW PHDQWZKHQUHIHUULQJWRµFUHDWLQJWLPHDQGVSDFH IRUUHÀHFWLRQ¶ This is one of the conditions that enable successful transitions which also inFOXGH VHH$GDPV HW DO ,OOHULV &KR\ D D VXSSRUWLYH ZRUN HQYLURQPHQW WKLV PHDQV D FXOWXUH RI KLJK UHVSHFW DQG ORZ FRQWURO JRRG WHDP PRUDOH FOHDU UROHV OLIH±ZRUN ERXQGDULHV UHVSHFWHG DQG E WUDQVLWLRQ VXSSRUW EULH¿QJSUDFWLFDOVXSSRUWOLIH±FDUHHUSODQQLQJWROHUDQFHWLPHRIIEHIRUHLOOQHVV FRQ¿GHQWLDOFRXQVHOOLQJIUHHGRPUHFRJQLWLRQIRUQHZLGHDV,WLVQRWIDUIHWFKHGWR VHHWKHµVDIHHQYLURQPHQW¶LQWKHVHWZRFRQGLWLRQV2QHQHHGVDQHQYLURQPHQWLQ which learning in all its facets (i.e. cumulative learning, assimilative learning, acFRPPRGDWLYHOHDUQLQJDQGWUDQVIRUPDWLYHOHDUQLQJFI,OOHULV FDQWDNHSODFH 51
CHAPTER 3
LVVXSSRUWHGDQGIHHOVVDIH7KLVDOVRLQFOXGHVWHDFKHUHGXFDWRUV¶DFFHSWDQFHRIWKH defence mechanisms that some student teachers have to protect themselves from YDVW LGHQWLW\ FKDQJHV (PSDWKHWLF FRXQVHOOLQJ SURFHVVHV DUH QHHGHG VHH ,OOHULV 2008). 6RPHIDFWRUVLQKLELWLQJWUDQVIRUPDWLYHOHDUQLQJKRZHYHULQFOXGH VHH$GDPVHW DO &KR\ D DKRVWLOHZRUNHQYLURQPHQW DFXOWXUHRIORZUHVSHFWDQG high control, work overload, unrealistic demands and abuse of life–work boundary, VXFKDVH[FHVVLYHWLPHGHPDQGVDIIHFWLQJUHODWLRQVKLSVOHLVXUHDQG¿WQHVVDQG E SRRUWUDQVLWLRQPDQDJHPHQW QRUHDOLVWLFVXSSRUWQRSUHSDUDWLRQIRUFKDQJHXQUHalistic time scales and no opportunity for fresh insights. 6FKRROVDQGWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQLQVWLWXWHVGRQRWDXWRPDWLFDOO\SURYLGHHQYLURQPHQWVWKDWVXSSRUWWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLYHOHDUQLQJWKDWLVUHTXLUHGIRUWKHGHYHORSPHQW RI D SURIHVVLRQDO WHDFKHU LGHQWLW\ 6SHFL¿FDOO\ LQ WKH FDVH RI VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV schools and teacher education institutes need to work closely together in order to create an environment for student teachers in which they feel safe and supported in such a way that they can develop an identity that goes with themselves as well as with the teacher profession. 620(),1$/&200(176
There needs to be more examination of the role of crisis in the formation and GHYHORSPHQWRIDWHDFKHULGHQWLW\DQGPXFKQHHGVWREHGLVFXVVHG,ZLOOGLVFXVV three issues here. The ¿UVWSHUWDLQVWRWKHHIIHFWVRIDFULVLVIRUWKHVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVLQWKHORQJUXQ ZKHWKHUVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVZKRH[SHULHQFHDGHYHORSPHQWDOFULVLVTXLWWHDFKLQJOHVV RIWHQWKDQVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVZKRGLGQRWH[SHULHQFHVXFKDFULVLV/RQJLWXGLQDOGDWD ZLOOVKHGOLJKWRQWKLVLVVXH(IIHFWVDOVRUHIHUWRWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUGHYHORSmental crises eventually lead to better teachers. We will need empirical research WRH[DPLQHWKLVTXHVWLRQZKLFKDOVRLQFOXGHVORQJLWXGLQDOLQGLFDWRUVRIWHDFKHUHIIHFWLYHQHVV VXFK DV VWXGHQW OHDUQLQJ %RWK RI WKHVH TXHVWLRQV DUH FRPSOLFDWHG WR answer. There are personal factors at stake (pertaining to the student teacher) as well as organizational factors (pertaining to the teacher education institute and the VFKRRORUJDQL]DWLRQ 6SHFL¿FDOO\WKHODWWHUZLOOSUREDEO\SURYHGLI¿FXOWWRDVVHVV VHH9DQ9HHQHWDO A secondLVVXHLVWKHTXHVWLRQKRZWKHLGHDVLQWKLVFKDSWHUUHODWHWRWKHOHDUQLQJ of experienced teachers. Most probably there are links, as experienced teachers are UHJXODUO\FRQIURQWHGZLWKFKDQJHVLQHGXFDWLRQ*HLMVHODQG0HLMHUV LGHQWL¿HG µLGHQWLW\ OHDUQLQJ¶ HYHQ DV WKH FRUH RI HGXFDWLRQ LQQRYDWLRQV VSHFL¿FDOO\ LI WKHVH LQQRYDWLRQV KDYH SURIRXQG LPSOLFDWLRQV IRU WKH WHDFKHUV¶ UROH$OVR 3DOPHU (1998) reports on many teachers who need to rediscover their commitment to or their passion for teaching (cf., Day, 2005), which might indicate that experienced WHDFKHUVJRWKURXJKFULVHVDVZHOO,WZRXOGEHYHU\LQWHUHVWLQJKRZWKHVHWHDFKHUV might be supported in schools to turn such crises into developmental crises. A thirdDQG¿QDOLVVXHFRQFHUQVWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVIRUWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQDQGIRU 52
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mentors coaching student teachers during student teaching in schools. Many teacher educators are familiar with the support of student teachers during a crisis. But KRZµGDQJHURXV¶LVWKHprovocation of crisis? We need very good teacher educators who can do that and who know that, in essence, they are not therapists, but teacher educators. This is a thin line and teacher educators will need support to perform this task well. This might even demand, for some teacher educators, for an identity change for them as well. 5()(5(1&(6 $GDPV-+D\HV- +RSVRQ% Transition – Understanding and managing personal change. /RQGRQ 0DUWLQ5REHUWVRQ &RPSDQ\ $QWKLV.6 2QWKHFDODPLW\WKHRU\RIJURZWK 7KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVWUHVVIXOOLIHHYHQWVDQG changes in identity over time. ,GHQWLW\ $Q,QWHUQDWLRQDO-RXUQDORI7KHRU\DQG5HVHDUFK 229–240. $QWKLV. /D9RLH-& 5HDGLQHVVWRFKDQJH $ORQJLWXGLQDOVWXG\RIFKDQJHVLQDGXOWLGHQWLW\ Journal of Research in Personality, 40(2), 209–219. %HLMDDUG ' 0HLMHU 3 & 9HUORRS 1 5HFRQVLGHULQJ UHVHDUFK RQ WHDFKHUV¶ SURIHVVLRQDO identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20, 107–128. &KR\6 7UDQVIRUPDWLRQDOOHDUQLQJLQWKHZRUNSODFH-RXUQDORI7UDQVIRUPDWLYH(GXFDWLRQ(1), 65–84 Day, C. (2005). A passion for teaching/RQGRQ 5RXWOHGJH Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and society.1HZ
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CHAPTER 3 5RGJHUV&5 6FRWW.+ 7KHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHSHUVRQDOVHOIDQGSURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\LQ OHDUQLQJWRWHDFK,Q0&RFKUDQ6PLWK6)HLPDQ1HPVHU'-0F,QW\UH .('HPHUV (GV Handbook of research on teacher education SS± 1HZ
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LEARNING AND TEACHING ON SPACESHIP EARTH: THE SEARCH FOR SUSTAINABLE VALUES IN EDUCATION Michael Kompf
This paper offers some perspectives about the shifting place and status of values in education as globalisation affects the activities, participants and stakeholders in learning and teaching. The substance and inculcation of values is both explicit and implicit and framed through factors such as religion, nationalism, capitalism and technology. A constructivist lens helps understand how values are perceived and acted on in the personal and social contexts of learning and teaching. The ideas RI.RU]\EVNL .HOO\ 0F/XKDQ 6FKXW] DPRQJRWKHUV illustrate the usefulness and durability of constructivist understandings in the contemporary context of values in education. Spaceship Earth The idea of Spaceship Earth has been used in a variety of contexts by Buckminster Fuller, Disney and a host of others. A spaceship is a closed and hopefully reliable, predictable system in which all parts and persons interact in ways that sustain survival. Successful anticipation and preparation are not only valued but essential. The mission of the spaceship USS Enterprise stated by Captain Kirk in the opening credits of the TV series 6WDU7UHN, was “to boldly go where no man has gone before” The duration and budget of the show dictated how issues and outcomes unfolded. (Un)fortunately, life is not as neat and tidy, nor is it scripted in episodes and presented in instalments. Daily, each of us goes where we have never gone before, prepared only with the wits and understandings that helped us reach the “now” moment. Preparedness seems to have an inverse relationship with technological and social progress and has become unhinged from past experience and the quality of anticipations history once provided. The inside of a spaceship imaginary and otherwise shows how structures and functions provide for inhabitants of a closed system in ways that sustain life in stable, secure and predictable ways. Spaceship Earth in its largest sense is a closed system as well. Environmental components including inner structural aspects as well as surface conditions determine the quality of life with whatever stability, A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 55–62. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
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security and predictability that can be sustained. The inhabitants of the metaphorical spaceship and the non-metaphorical planet earth are far less predictable in terms of the activities in which they become involved in their closed system. Geographic maps provide depictions that assist exploration. Were Spaceship Earth mapped by cultural understandings rather than geographic characteristics it would look very different. A conceptual and ideological map would create a contrasting picture of interests, levels of development and values with the theory and practice of learning and teaching as a scholarly mythos in which academics seek to boldly go where no one has gone before. Constructivism and Values 2QHRI.HOO\¶V PDLQSULQFLSOHVLVWKDWZKDWLQGLYLGXDOVSHUFHLYHWREHUHDOLV real for them. Persons have no alternative except to act according to their realities ZKHWKHU WKRVH SHUFHSWLRQV PDWFK WKH UHDOLWLHV RI RWKHUV RU QRW .HOO\¶V PHWKRGV RILQTXLU\ HJUROHFRQVWUXFWUHSHUWRU\WHVWDQGWKHVHOIFKDUDFWHULVDWLRQVNHWFK established ways that allowed individuals to represent and better understand WKH UHDOLWLHV WKDW JLYH ULVH WR WKHLU RZQ WKRXJKWV DQG DFWLRQV 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH cognitive components and structures of constructs and construct systems allows psychologists access to individual processes and an opportunity to co-construct alternatives with greater likelihoods of leading to more accurate, successful and XVHIXO DQWLFLSDWLRQV DQG SUHGLFWLRQV DERXW WKH HYHQWV RI HYHU\GD\ OLIH ,I YDOXHV VXVWDLQDEOH DQG RWKHUZLVH ZHUH WUHDWHG DV FRUH FRQVWUXFWV .HOO\¶V FRQFHSW of construct formation would assist in understanding the basic way in which WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI YDOXHV PLJKW RFFXU ,Q ¿YH VWHSV RU VWDJHV YDOXHV XQGHUJR FRQVWUXFWLRQE\ 1. Formation through context, e.g., gender, race, socio-economic status, nationality, JHRJUDSKLFORFDWLRQ GLV DELOLW\ 1RUPDWLRQ VHHNLQJ IRU DQG ¿QGLQJ ¿W ZLWK FRPPXQLW\ HJ UHOLJLRXV RU VSLULWXDODI¿OLDWLRQTXDOLW\RIIDPLO\DQGFRPPXQLW\HQJDJHPHQW 3. Rationalisation through literacy, comprehension, use, validation, inclusion, e.g., HPSOR\PHQWHGXFDWLRQVRFLDORURUJDQLVDWLRQDOVWDQGLQJ 4. Refutation through invalidation, e.g., contrary constructions that compromise SUHGLFWLYHXVHIXOQHVVDQG 5. Re-formation through revision, e.g., assessment of alternative constructions with greatest opportunity for more successful anticipations (similar dynamics as Formation because the cycle is initiated again).
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Formation and Re-formation (Start and Restart here)
Refutation
Constructs about Values
Normation
Rationalisation )LJXUH&RQVWUXLQJ9DOXHV
Core and Peripheral Constructs &RUH FRQVWUXFWV DUH D FRPSOH[ PHODQJH RI LQÀXHQFHV WKDW FUHDWH SHUVRQDOLW\ Examples of these forces include, but are not limited to, gender, race, socioHFRQRPLFVWDWXVQDWLRQDOLW\JHRJUDSKLFORFDWLRQUHOLJLRXVRUVSLULWXDODI¿OLDWLRQ TXDOLW\ RI IDPLO\ DQG FRPPXQLW\ HQJDJHPHQW GLV DELOLW\ LQWHOOLJHQFH DQG HGXFDWLRQ 6XFK YDOXHV DUH SULRULWLVHG LQ UHODWLRQ WR LQÀXHQFHV RI FXOWXUH DQG DUH UHÀHFWHG LQ SHUVRQDO DQG VRFLDO SDUDGLJPV 6XFK SHUVSHFWLYH LI SDUW RI D VRFLDO and educational agenda, can be internalised as core constructions of values. 6XFK FRQVWUXFWV PD\ RU PD\ QRW EH SHUPHDEOH7KH H[WHQW RI FRQVWUXFW RU YDOXH permeability determines the potential for revision and the effects any revisions will KDYHRQRWKHUFRQVWUXFWLRQV6XUIDFHFRQVWUXFWVRUH[SUHVVHGYDOXHVDUHVLJQSRVWVWR deeper matters that underlie a values paradigm. Peripheral constructs drawn forth IURP FRUH FRQVWUXFWV UHSUHVHQW WKRVH LGHDVLQXVH WKDW ÀH[ DQG IRUP LQ UHVSRQVH to situations of everyday life. For example, the human capacity for technology is indicated by the evolution of tool use. From carvings and cave painting, through weaving looms and printing presses and now computers, cognitive and dexterity UHTXLUHPHQWVRIPDVWHULQJWHFKQRORJ\KDYHEHHQHLWKHUGULYHQE\FRPPXQLFDWLRQ or survival needs or by manufactured socio-commercial need. Thus texting, wordprocessing and so on are peripheral applications or constructions of the core constructs related to technology as derived from the more basic construct of tool use. The capacity for technology is a further mythic signpost of storying as its use PDUNVWKHKXPDQTXHVWWRQRWRQO\³EROGO\JRZKHUHQRRQHKDVJRQHEHIRUH´EXW to leave a trail marked with the socio-cognitive breadcrumbs that link the values, culture and accomplishments we call progress.
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Personal Constructs and Social Constructs Evolution of labels, language and attitude between, among and within members of diverse societies moves from tolerance, through acceptance to embracing of other FXOWXUHV,QVSLWHRIVRFLDOOHJDODQGUHOLJLRXVSULQFLSOHVWKDWHQVKULQHKXPDQULJKWV the actuality of regard in these matters is deeply rooted in core and peripheral personal and social constructions. Constructs pertaining to cultural diversity may be made more or less permeable through proximity, interaction and perceived threat to the ranges of convenience and circumstances within the grasp of those constructions. Personal values formation may be resistant to an inclusive social agenda through intolerant elements in society. The meeting of personal and social constructs of values is culturally emEHGGHG DQG LV D GLPHQVLRQ ZLWK PDQ\ DVSHFWV$ GH¿QLWLRQ RI KRZ FXOWXUH PXVW be understood broadly is provided by the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Culture and development &XOWXUHPD\EHGH¿QHGDVWKHWRWDOFRPSOH[RIVSLULWXDOPDWHULDOLQWHOOHFWXDO and emotional features that characterise a society or social group. Culture is mental structures, the general patterns of understanding prevalent in a given VRFLDOJURXS FRQFHSWLRQVRIWKHZRUOGUHOLJLRQJHQGHUUROHSDWWHUQVDQGWKH PDQDJHPHQW RI QDWXUDO UHVRXUFHV %XW FXOWXUH DOVR FRPSULVHV PRUH VSHFL¿F forms of expression through works of artistic or cultural value. Operationally, WKLVWZRIROGGH¿QLWLRQPHDQVWKDWZRUNZLWKWKHFXOWXUDOGLPHQVLRQLQYROYHV (i) culture as the sum of social practices in the form of, for example, religion, language, education and social and family practices, and (ii) culture as artistic H[SUHVVLRQLQWKHIRUPRIIRUH[DPSOHOLWHUDWXUHGDQFHPXVLFDQG¿OPV S 5) Cultural values extend into other constellations of constructs having to do more ZLWKPDWWHUVWKDWGLIIHUHQWLDWHDQGGLYLGHUDWKHUWKDQXQLI\OHDYLQJTXHVWLRQVDERXW whether we curse the river that divides us or celebrate the water that connects us. Common issues that supersede elements of race and religion such as environment, shared disaster, injustice and the like, while often tragic, move attention down into VRPHWKLQJDNLQWR0DVORZ¶VEDVLFOHYHOV$VORZHUOHYHOQHHGVWDNHSUHFHGHQFHIRU example when disaster strikes, the immediacy of survival dominates all else and is still subject to internal and external characterisations from a values-based cultural depiction of needs. Maps and Terrains of Values ,Q $OIUHG.RU]\EVNLDVVHUWHGWKDW³7KHPDSLVQRWWKHWHUULWRU\´DVDZD\RI expressing that an abstraction derived from an event, or the reaction to the event, is not the experience itself. A representation of something, for example a map of Finland is not Finland. The map is a metaphorical construction of the concept 58
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RI )LQODQG WKDW IDLOV WR FRQYH\ DOO DVSHFWV RI WKH ODQGVFDSH 8QOHVV GLIIHUHQFHV between something and its representation are appreciated, understanding and the sets of cognitive abilities used for critical thought are compromised. Thus, the UHÀHFWLRQRIDQHYHQWLVQRWWKHHYHQWDQGDQ\FRQVLGHUDWLRQRIsustainable values must be carried on from the perspective of manifestation, or how group of values DUHH[HPSOL¿HGEHFDXVHSUHVFULSWLRQDORQHFUHDWHVRQO\WHQXRXVSRVVLELOLWLHV7KH set of values posted in a school foyer, while subject and substance of prolonged discussion and debate for language and intent, are maps for unknowable terrains. When, for example, the value of honesty is advocated, no continuum is provided that distinguishes between returning a lost wallet with contents intact and UHVSRQGLQJ WR D IULHQG¶V TXHU\ DERXW DSSHDUDQFH ZLWK IRUWKULJKW DQG XQDEDVKHG FULWLTXH +RQHVW\ WUHDWHG DV D FRQVWUXFWLRQ ZRXOG LQYROYH ELSRODULW\ HJ KRQHVW – dishonest. The honest – dishonest construct while useful for judgement and decision-taking is social and therefore subject to contextualised implementation. Constructions of honesty as a value are derived from social constructions which may in turn be derived from sources such as religion or legal statutes that create circumstances in which personal commitment to a particular value measures worth and character. &XOWXUHGH¿QHVDQGHQIRUFHVYDOXHVDQGGHWHUPLQHVVHWVRIEHKDYLRXUWKDWPD\ also feed stereotypes and prejudice. The basic orientation of a value set whether from an economic, religious, or cultural perspective predisposes those invested in that value set to act in certain ways consistent with those values and attached beOLHIVDQGDFFHSWHGSUDFWLFHV9DOXHVDUHDOVRSDUDGLJPDWLFDQGUHO\RQDQGUHÀHFW rituals and routines, stories, myths, symbols, organisational and power structures as well as systems of control. Many social values draw on religion for guiding SULQFLSOHV )RU H[DPSOH WKH VHYHQ GHDGO\ VLQV /XVW *OXWWRQ\ *UHHG 6ORWK Wrath, Envy and Pride) and their counterparts of seven heavenly virtues (Chastity, 7HPSHUDQFH&KDULW\'LOLJHQFH3DWLHQFH.LQGQHVVDQG+XPLOLW\ IURPWKH-XGHR Christian perspective have been benchmarks for values and associated behaviours for centuries. 9DOXHV WKRXJKW WR EH PRUH DSSURSULDWH DQG QHFHVVDU\ DV VFKRROV DQG VFKRROing become more integrated and multicultural have a broader scope, are formulaic DQG FRPPXQLFDWHG WKURXJK VSHFL¿F VWDWHPHQWV DQG SROLFLHV OLQNHG WR FKDUDFWHU education. Many of these values seem most ambitious and vague especially when viewed in an operational way such as the list produced by a small school district in 2QWDULRWKURXJKFRQVXOWDWLRQZLWKLWVPXOWLFXOWXUDOFRPPXQLW\ &RXUDJH(PSDWK\ )DLUQHVV +RQHVW\ ,QLWLDWLYH ,QWHJULW\ 2SWLPLVP 3HUVHYHUDQFH 5HVSHFW DQG Responsibility. Measurement of the effectiveness of posting and promoting these values has not been successful. Enacting them may be a greater issue than conveyed by verbal precision as values-in-action are often most notable in their breach or absence.
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Relevance and Truth in Values $OIUHG 6FKXW] EURXJKW D SKHQRPHQRORJLFDO IRFXV WR SROLWLFDO LVVXHV LQFOXGLQJFLWL]HQVKLSDQGUDFLDOHTXDOLW\+HDGGUHVVHGWKHVRFLRORJ\RINQRZOHGJH LQWKHFRQWH[WRILWVVRFLDOGLVWULEXWLRQE\FRQVWUXFWLQJWKUHHLGHDOW\SHV WKHH[SHUW the man on the street, and the well-informed citizen responsible for determining WKHFRPSHWHQF\RIH[SHUWV6FKXW]GHVFULEHG]RQHVRILQWHUHVWVFDOOHGUHOHYDQFHV embracing those which are reachable to those which are absolutely irrelevant. 5HOHYDQFH FRQ¿JXUDWLRQV FRQVWDQWO\ FKDQJH DQG PD\ KDYH LQWHUQDO GLIIHUHQFHV within a theme. Further, some relevances are chosen and some are imposed. 9HULWLVPRUWKHWUXWKIXOQHVVRIFODLPVDVFRQQHFWHGWRWKHKRQHVW±GLVKRQHVWYDOXH FRQVWUXFWGHSHQGVRQZKDWKRZZKHQZK\DQGZKRTXHVWLRQVDVPLJKWEHSRVHG LQWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIFULWLFDOWKLQNLQJSULQFLSOHV9HULWLVWLFLQWHUURJDWLRQVFDQOHDGWR ODUJHUTXHVWLRQVZKRVHVFRSHH[KDXVWRUJREH\RQGWKHSRVVLELOLWLHVRIPHDQLQJIXO LQTXLU\HVSHFLDOO\LQWRWKHWRSLFRIYDOXHV 6XVWDLQDEOHYDOXHVPHDQVDVHWRISULQFLSOHVWKDWZHVXVWDLQDQGWKDWDOVRVXVWDLQ us. The term seems to imply measure of constancy and certainty that is largely XQDYDLODEOHWRGD\JLYHQVKLIWVDQGWUHPRUVLQ¿QDQFLDOSROLWLFDODQGVRFLDOVSKHUHV WKDWLQÀXHQFHKRZZHHQJDJHZLWKGDLO\OLIHDQGORQJWHUPSODQQLQJ6XVWDLQDEOH values represent stability, security and predictability and are representations of personal, social and spiritual comfort food. The search for stability, security and predictability is what we do in order to achieve balance and harmony en route to discoveries of practical or higher purpose. The very acts of searching for practical or higher purpose operate to threaten the stability, security and predictability from ZKLFKZHKDYHDFWHGLQWKH¿UVWSODFH3HUVRQDODQGVRFLDOFDSDFLW\IRUSURJUHVVDQG WKHFKDQJHLWEULQJVZDVZHOOH[SODLQHGE\7KRPDV.XKQ LQKLVWUHDWPHQWRI SDUDGLJPVDQGWKHDFWLRQVDQGFRQVHTXHQFHVRIVKLIW,PSHWXVIRUFKDQJHLQEHOLHIV and practices most often comes from outside of a discipline or social grouping or from circumstances that draw attention to values gaps as noted by violations. ,QWKHDFDGHP\WKLVLVPRVWHYLGHQWLQWUDQVGLVFLSOLQDU\VWXGLHV,QVRFLHW\LWLV in great evidence in the growing multiculturalism that either blesses or threatens SUHYLRXVO\KRPRJHQHRXVVHWWLQJV,QQHDUO\DOOPDWWHUVLQIRUPDWLRQDQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQVWHFKQRORJ\ ,&7 KDVEURXJKWDERXWXQSUHFHGHQWHGDQGXQIRUHVHHQFKDQJH DQGVKLIW0DUVKDO0F/XKDQVWDWHGWKDW³7KHQHZHOHFWURQLFLQWHUGHSHQGHQFHUHFreates the world in the image of a global village” (1962, p. 31). The homogeneity once promised by village life has the same dark side embedded in all movements with the potential for paradigmatic paralysis. The paralysis that can occur as villages become globalised may also be caused by the inability to choose that accompanies over-choice which occurs when the array of alternatives is too vast for those in a local village paradigm.
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Testing and Internalising Values When values, or any learning for that matter, are used in everyday life and become part of a the construct repertoire of a group or individual, authentic use means ERWK SURFHVVLQJ WKURXJK WKH F\FOH SURSRVHG LQ )LJXUH DQG D SURFHVV RI ¿W management through the dominant social constructions in place in that location and time. As learning is best achieved through the principles of critical thought and FRQVLGHUDWLRQVXFKDSURFHVVPD\DOVREHDSSOLHGWRPHDQLQJIXOYDOXHVDFTXLVLWLRQ and use. Critical thought dispels unwarranted assumptions about the focus or topic unGHUFRQVLGHUDWLRQDQGUHTXLUHVXQIHWWHUHGDFFHVVWRLQIRUPDWLRQDQGH[SODQDWLRQRI SURFHVVHV (GXFDWLRQ PXVW KDYH DW LWV FRUH WKH TXDOLWLHV RI H[FHOOHQFH UHOHYDQFH and worth. While these are strong words and carry intrinsic weight, each may be viewed differently depending on who is providing criteria and determination. An H[FHOOHQWHGXFDWLRQPD\EHGH¿QHGLQEXVLQHVVDQGLQGXVWU\DVSURGXFLQJDQLQGLYLGXDOZHOOWUDLQHGLQWHFKQLFDOPDWWHUVDQGDSSOLFDWLRQVEDVHGRQVNLOOVDFTXLVLWLRQ DQGVSHFL¿FFRPSHWHQFLHV7KHYDOXHRIWKLVW\SHRIH[FHOOHQFHPD\EHFRQWHVWHG by those who would espouse the view of John Dewey (1938), that an excellent education sets free the mind, and is an end unto itself rather than a means to an HQG6LPLODUO\WKHUHOHYDQFHRIZKDWLVOHDUQHGDQGKRZLWLVOHDUQHGLIGHWHUPLQHG ZLWKRXWFDUHIXODQGFRQVWDQWDWWHQWLRQPXVWEHTXHVWLRQHGDQGSURFHVVHGWKURXJK an articulate and deliberate set of critical thinking principles. ,GHQWLI\LQJJUDVSLQJDQGPDNLQJVHQVHRIH[SHULHQFHPHDQVDFWLYDWLQJWKHSHUFHSWXDO DQG FRQFHSWXDO ¿HOGV LQ ZD\V WKDW LQFUHDVH YLDELOLW\ LQ WHUPV RI D QHHGV hierarchy such as that proposed by Maslow in which survival needs (e.g., food, FORWKLQJDQGVKHOWHU DUHDQGPXVWEH¿UVWDGGUHVVHG2QFHWKHEDVLFOHYHOVRIQHHG DUHVDWLV¿HGWKHQSXUVXLQJQHHGVIRUDI¿OLDWLRQDQGDFWXDOLVDWLRQEHFRPHSRVVLEOH The sets of needs are loosely coupled to developmental issues such as were proposed by Erikson and others in which crises or opportunities must be faced and resolved in a favourable ratio in ways that allows an individual to move forward psychologically in concert with the developmental tasks faced in the course of PDWXUDWLRQDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIFULWLFDOOLWHUDF\DVDSSOLHGWRWKHDFTXLVLWLRQDQG implementation of values. Where and How We Look Culture is interwoven with values and linked to language and geography. Culture and values are also subject to stereotyping that reinforces differentiation rather than FRPPRQDOLWLHV ZKLFK OHDGV WR ³XV´ DQG ³WKHP´ WKLQNLQJ UDLVLQJ TXHVWLRQV DERXW what inclusion means, what it addresses and what it looks like. Perhaps most important are the ways in which we comprehend and study culture and values. A story is told of a man on a stroll through the countryside passing a fence on which many targets were painted. All of them had bullet holes exactly in the center. He approached a farmer and asked about the marksman. The farmer replied that he 61
CHAPTER 4
KDGUHFHQWO\SXUFKDVHGDULÀHDQGNQHZQRWKLQJDERXWVKRRWLQJ+HKDGWHVW¿UHG WKHULÀHDQXPEHURIWLPHVDWWKHIHQFHDQGKDGWKHQSDLQWHGWDUJHWVDURXQGWKHEXOlet holes. When conceptual frames and labels are divorced from events themselves, associated research consists of little more than such an activity. Platitudes with latitude that appear in mission statements and displayed in school entry ways are usually the output of well-intentioned stakeholders wishing to promote and enforce codes of ethic and conduct representing little more than targets painted around bullet holes. 7KHLQÀXHQFHVWKDWVKDSHDQGJXLGHWKHZRUOG¶VGLYHUVHVRFLHWLHVIDFHWHQVLRQV WKDWDUHORFDODQGJOREDO,&7KDVFUHDWHGDVRFLDOHSLVWHPRORJ\GULYHQE\LPPHdiate sharing of perspectives, opinions and images. The formation and testing of knowledge and values occurs in real-world, real-time contexts largely unmediated by the academy or the various venues of education. The ivory towers that once characterised the university have become towers of Babel in which commercialism and the development of revenue streams have replaced the crucible of learning. /HDUQLQJ LV QRZ QR PRUH FRQ¿QHG WR LQVWLWXWLRQV WKDQ JRGV DUH FRQ¿QHG WR WKHLU temples. 7KHUHGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHDFDGHP\LVREYLRXVWKURXJKWKHPDOOHDEOHDQGVKLIWLQJ terms and frames of reference and values. To those in established educational sysWHPVZLWKLQVWLWXWLRQVRIORQJVWDQGLQJGLI¿FXOWSURIHVVLRQDODQGSHUVRQDOWUDQVIRUmations have been experienced as core values of the academy have been breached. Arguments that as times change so must all things change is specious because it ignores the value in conserving fundamental aspects of human need for support and challenge in the pursuit of knowledge that is authentic, valuable, meaningful DQGJOREDOO\LQFOXVLYH:HZRXOGGRZHOOWRUHPHPEHUWKHZRUGVRI1HLO3RVWPDQ HDFK WLPH ZH DSSURDFK OHDUQLQJ VLWXDWLRQV ³&KLOGUHQ DUH WKH OLYLQJ PHVsages we send to a time we will not see”. 5()(5(1&(6 .HOO\*$ The psychology of personal constructs 9ROV &KLFDJR 1RUWRQ .RU]\EVNL $ ³$ 1RQ$ULVWRWHOLDQ 6\VWHP DQG LWV 1HFHVVLW\ IRU 5LJRXU LQ 0DWKHPDWLFV DQG3K\VLFV´3DSHUSUHVHQWHGWRWKH$PHULFDQ0DWKHPDWLFDO6RFLHW\7KH1HZ2UOHDQV/RXLVLDQD PHHWLQJRIWKH$PHULFDQ$VVRFLDWLRQIRUWKH$GYDQFHPHQWRI6FLHQFH'HFHPEHU 5HSULQWHG LQ$.RU]\EVNLScience and Sanity SS± /DNHYLOOH&RQQ ,QVWLWXWHRI*HQHUDO6HPDQWLFV 0F/XKDQ0 The Gutenberg Galaxy/RQGRQ 5RXWOHGJH .HJDQ3DXO Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Denmark (2002). Culture and development Strategy and guidelines, ,QIRUPDWLRQ2I¿FH. www.um.dk 3RVWPDQ1 7KHGLVDSSHDUDQFHRIFKLOGKRRG UHGH¿QLQJWKHYDOXHRIVFKRRO1HZ
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IDENTITY THRESHOLDS: RESEARCHING THE SOCIO-POLITICAL IMPACT OF LEARNING IN IMMERSIVE VIRTUAL WORLDS Maggi Savin-Baden
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0XFK RI WKH UHFHQW UHVHDUFK LQWR OHDUQLQJ LQ LPPHUVLYH YLUWXDO ZRUOGV ,9:V centres around games and gaming and is largely underpinned by cognitive learning theories that focus on linearity, problem-solving and the importance of attaining WKH µULJKW DQVZHU¶ RU JDPH SODQ ,Q WKLV SDSHU , ZLOO VXJJHVW WKDW OHDUQLQJ DQG researching in immersive worlds seems to result in a sense of multiple identities and disembodiment, or even different forms of embodiment. Further, the sense of DQRQ\PLW\ DQG WKH DVVXPSWLRQ WKDW WKLV ZDV ZKDW ZDV XQGHUVWRRG WKURXJK RQH¶V ZRUGV UDWKHU WKDQ RQH¶V ERGLO\ SUHVHQFH LV EHFRPLQJ LQFUHDVLQJO\ XQPDVNHG WKURXJKLPPHUVLYHYLUWXDOZRUOGVVXFKDV6HFRQG/LIH 8QGHU WDNLQJ UHVHDUFK LQ VXFK LQEHWZHHQ VSDFHV KDV D FHUWDLQ HGJH DERXW LW 7KLVLVSHUKDSVSURPRWHGE\WKHFRQVWDQWMX[WDSRVLWLRQRIUHDOOLIH 5/ DQG6HFRQG /LIH 6/ DQGWKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKRQHIHHOVPRUHµUHDO¶LQ6/WKDQLQRQOLQHGLVFXVVLRQIRUXPV)XUWKHULQUHVHDUFKDQGLQ6HFRQG/LIHLWZRXOGVHHPWKDWODQJXDJH and speech are not representations that mirror experience, but instead create it, thus the meanings ascribed and inscribed in and through avatars are always on the PRYH,WPLJKWEHWKDWOLPLQDOLW\FRXOGEHVHHQDVDWURSHIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJDYDWDU identity/pedagogy, or possibly that provisionality and representation might be seen DVVXEFDWHJRULHVRIOLPLQDOLW\LWVHOI
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of liminality exist and /or can be delineated, and thus bring with it some kind of constitution of a threshold identity. %$&.*5281'
5HFHQWUHVHDUFKWRGDWHKDVEHHQXQGHUWDNHQLQWRVWXGHQWV¶H[SHULHQFHVRIYLUWXDO learning environments, discussion forums and perspectives about what and how online learning has been implemented. For example, there have been a series of VWXGLHV IXQGHG E\ WKH -,6& LQ WKH 8. WKDW KDYH H[SORUHG VWXGHQWV¶ SHUVSHFWLYHV RI HOHDUQLQJ QDPHO\ 6KDUSH HW DO &UHDQRU HW DO DQG &RQROH HW al., (2006). These studies, although using relatively small data sets, would seem to LQGLFDWH VWXGHQWV¶ H[SHULHQFHV RI HOHDUQLQJ DUH PRUH FRPSOH[ DQG ZLGHUDQJLQJ than many university tutors realise. Further, virtual world learning seems to offer new perspectives relating to the study of the socio-political impact of learning in higher education. This is because spaces such as second life are universal, not bounded by time or geography, and in particular adopt different learning values IURPRWKHUOHDUQLQJVSDFHV 6DYLQ%DGHQ 2OVHQ et al., 0DODE\ Furthermore, research by Ferreday, et al., (2006) would seem to suggest that identity and identity construction in virtual worlds occurs through dialogic learning rather than gaming. 0(7+2'2/2*<$1'0(7+2'6
1DUUDWLYHLQTXLU\ZDVXVHGVLQFHVWRULHVDUHFROOHFWHGDVDPHDQVRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJ H[SHULHQFH DV OLYHG DQG WROG WKURXJK ERWK UHVHDUFK DQG OLWHUDWXUH &ODQGLQLQ &RQQHOO\ +RZHYHUQDUUDWLYHLQTXLU\LVVHHQLQDYDULHW\RIZD\VDQGWHQGV to transcend a number of different approaches and traditions such as biography, autobiography, life story and more recently life course research. Data Collection An initial review was undertaken of existing data available, via databases and (6'6 4XDOLGDWD 'DWD ZHUH FROOHFWHG WKURXJK VHPL VWUXFWXUHG LQWHUYLHZV IDFH to face, by telephone and in- world with 10 staff and 10 students, and analysed interpretively to examine the subtext of data. Ethics (WKLFDODSSURYDOZDVVRXJKWIURPWKHUHOHYDQW8QLYHUVLW\HWKLFVFRPPLWWHHV'DWD FROOHFWHG ZHUH FRQ¿GHQWLDO 6DIHJXDUGV WR FRQ¿GHQWLDOLW\ LQFOXGHG WKH FRGLQJ RI data and the code was kept separate from the raw data. All names used throughout 64
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ZHUH ¿FWLWLRXV WR SUHVHUYH WKH LGHQWLW\ RI SDUWLFLSDQWV +RZHYHU LW VKRXOG EH acknowledged that the individuals concerned might recognize some excerpts within the text used to illuminate the interpretation of data. Trustworthiness, Honesties and Informed Consent ,Q WKH FRQWH[W RI D VWXG\ VXFK DV WKLV D VKLIW ZDV QHHGHG DZD\ IURP YDOLGLW\ RU WUXVWZRUWKLQHVV DQG WKH DVVXPSWLRQ WKDW LW LV SRVVLEOH WR ¿QG VKDUHG WUXWKV DQG FOHDU WKHPHV DQG FDWHJRULHV ,QVWHDG µKRQHVWLHV¶ ZDV DGRSWHG ± D FDWHJRU\ WKDW allowed for the acknowledgement that trust and truths are fragile and encourages engagement with the messiness and complexity of data interpretation in ways that UHÀHFW WKH OLYHV RI SDUWLFLSDQWV +RQHVW\ DOORZHG IRU UHFRJQLWLRQ RI QRW RQO\ WKH F\FOLFDO QDWXUH RI µWUXWKV¶ EXW DOVR WKDW LQIRUPHG FRQVHQW LV QRW XQSUREOHPDWLF Participants signed informed consent forms and transcriptions were returned to them for validation. ),1',1*6
7KUHHWKHPHVHPHUJHGDFURVVVWDIIDQGVWXGHQWGDWD SHGDJRJ\DQGSOD\ GLDORJLF translation and runaway pluralism. Pedagogy and Play The strong link between pedagogy and play that appeared to emerge in immersive world spaces seemed to enable an exploration of the ways in which past, current and future identities are present and embodied and multiply interacting with each RWKHULQWKHVHVSDFHV,VVXHVZHUHUDLVHGE\VWDIIDERXWOHDUQLQJSOD\DQGIXQDQG how we also play in and through our identities in virtual spaces. Although staff spoke of a strong cross over between real world and virtual world identities, there ZDVDOVRDVHQVHRISOD\EHLQJDVHULRXVFRPSRQHQWRIOHDUQLQJ)RUH[DPSOH,DLQ DUJXHG ,I\RX¶UHUROHSOD\LQJLQ6HFRQG/LIH\RXUUHDOOLIHLGHQWLW\FDQORRNRQDW WKDWUROHSOD\
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collision less problematic. The ability to hold two identities in play simultaneously VHHPHGWRRIIHUDGLIIHUHQWVHQVHRIUROHSOD\LQ6/WKDQZDVSRVVLEOHLQUHDOOLIH +RZHYHU.HQZDVOHVVFRQFHUQHGZLWKDVHQVHRIWKHVHULRXVQHVVRISOD\DQGPRUH IRFXVVHGRQWKHYDOXHLPPHUVLYHVSDFHVRIIHUHGLQWKHXVHRIIXQIRUOHDUQLQJ 7KH LGHD WKDW 6HFRQG /LIH LV D JDPH IRU PH LV D SRVLWLYH , WKLQN WKHUH DUH ORWVRIHGXFDWLRQDOLVWVZKRUHDOO\GRQ¶WOLNHWKHLGHDRILWEHLQJFDOOHGDJDPH because that in some way they think diminishes the educational potential of LW %XW WKH WHDFKLQJ , GR LV DOO EDVHG DURXQG JDPHV WKDW¶V DOO , GR WKDW¶V ZKDW , WHDFK WKDW¶V KRZ , WHDFK \RX OHDUQ E\ SOD\LQJ
66
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Dialogic Translation ,Q6/GLDORJXHLVWDNLQJSODFHLQQHZVSKHUHVDQGGLYHUVHDUHQD DWWKHERXQGDULHV of knowledge, at the borders of knowledge status and values and in new boundary VSDFHV
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WKH\¶UHPRYLQJ*LOO\6DOPRQ¶V¿YHVWHSVWRJRRGHOHDUQLQJRUZKDWHYHUVKH FDOOVLWXPLQWR6HFRQG/LIHDQG,¶PQRWVXUHWKDW¶VZKDWLW¶VDERXWVR,¶P NLQGRITXLWHXQKDSS\ZLWKVRPHRIWKDWXP,GRWKLQNLW¶VTXLWHH[SHULPHQWDO DQG , GR WKLQN WKDW SHRSOH DUH EHLQJ SUHSDUHG WR WDNH ULVNV DQG , WKLQN LW¶V starting to interrupt knowledge and what learning means a bit more in higher HGXFDWLRQDQG,¶PJODGDERXWWKDWEHFDXVH,GRQ¶WWKLQNWKHUH¶VHQRXJKRIWKDW JRLQJRQ:H¶UHWRRREHGLHQW± :KHUHDVIRU.HQDVWXGHQWDW6WDQDJHi8QLYHUVLW\6/RSHQHGXSSRVVLELOLWLHVIRU FUHDWLYLW\DQGIUHHGRPIRUVWXGHQWV .HQ ,I\RXOHW\RXUUHVWUDLQWVJRDQGVHHWKHIXQQ\VLGHRILWWKHQLWEHFRPHV LPDJLQDWLYHIXQDQGYHU\FUHDWLYH,RQFHDQVZHUHGDTXHVWLRQQDLUH'DYHKDG DQGLWDVNHGKRZ\RXZRXOGIHHOLI\RXUDYDWDUGLHG,VDLGLWZRXOGEHOLNH ORVLQJDVRUWRIDUWLVWLFFUHDWLRQOLNHDJRRGSDLQWLQJ6R,WKLQNLWFDQKHOS you to be creative. The format allows you to try out new problem solving VNLOOV,DOVRWKLQNLWFRXOGEHJRRGIRUWKRVHZKRDUHVK\RISXEOLFGHEDWHDQG discussion. They can just watch and join in a disguised way. )RU.HQWKHODFNRIUHVWUDLQWDOORZHGIRUH[SHULPHQWDWLRQLQQHZOHDUQLQJVSDFHV and the opportunity to explore and play with learner identity. Further, the notion of avatar as art indicated a sense of it being both a creative expression and an H[WHQVLRQ RI RQH¶V VHOI 7KXV GLDORJLF WUDQVODWLRQ DOVR LQYROYHG H[WHQGLQJ DQG translating your self and your way of learning in/to a new space. However, there were other emerging dialogic practices, such as changes in language use and new emerging linguistic practices. Both staff and students tended to speak of their avatar DVERWKµ,¶DQGµKHU¶VRWKDWSURQRXQXVHEHFDPHDOPRVWLQWHUFKDQJHDEOH)XUWKHU new phrases and language became apparent. This included the practice of adapting ODQJXDJHIRU,9:VVXFKDVmachinima, originally used to describe the use of realtime three-dimensional graphics rendering engines to generate computer animation, EXW ZKLFK KDV EHHQ DGDSWHG WR GHVFULEH WKH SURFHVV RI FUHDWLQJ ¿OPV LQ 6HFRQG /LIH VR WKDW FRPSXWHUJHQHUDWHG LPDJHU\ LV UHQGHUHG XVLQJ UHDOWLPH LQWHUDFWLYH 3-D engines instead of professional 3D animation software. There has also been the creations of new words and phrases, such as Rez – means to create or make an object appear, whereas µ5H]]LQJDQREMHFW¶FDQEHGRQHE\GUDJJLQJLWIURPDQ LQYHQWRU\RUE\FUHDWLQJDQHZRQHYLDWKHHGLWZLQGRZ7KHWHUP³UH]]LQJ´FDQ DOVREHXVHGIRUZDLWLQJIRUDWH[WXUHRUREMHFWWRORDGVXFKDV³(YHU\WKLQJLVVWLOO rezzing.” /LQJXLVWLFDQGGLDORJLFVKLIWVZHUHFRXSOHGZLWKDVHQVHRISOXUDOLVPDQGFKDRWLFQHVVDQGDVHQVHRIWKLQJVEHLQJRXWRIFRQWURO6XFKFKURQLFOLPLQDOLW\OHGWR staff and students speaking as if they were in a runaway world.
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Runaway Pluralism 7KH NLQGV RI SOXUDOLVP VHHQ LQ 6/ UHODWHG QRW MXVW WR WKH LGHD RI SRZHU ÀRZLQJ from multiple sources, but that power was often intersecting, divided and confused by shifting and changing identities, roles and understandings of learning. This LV ODUJHO\ EHFDXVH LQ 6/ SRZHU DQG UHVRXUFHV FKDQJHG DQG PRYHG DQG ZHUH QRW VXEMHFW WR WKH SROLWLFDO ZKLPV DQG FRQVWUDLQWV RI 6/ LQ WKH VDPH NLQGV RI ZD\V Further, the lack of entrapment of identities in essentialist ways has also resulted LQ DQ LQWHUUXSWLRQ RI 5/ LGHQWLWLHV WKXV WR VRPH H[WHQW SURPSWLQJ D PRYH DZD\ from the tendency to cleave towards particularity resulting in vulnerability to discrimination as both concept and practice. However, at the same time there were unusual issues of actual power in terms RI WKH LPSDFW RI ,9:V RQ DVFULELQJ LQ ZRUOG EHKDYLRXUV EXW WKLV DIIHFWHG ERWK staff and students. The way in which digital spaces are created for staff, by commercial organisations that are politicised and contained by universities, and used by students enables, but perhaps more often occludes, ways of seeing where information is located. Furthermore, there has been relatively little consideration of agency LQ'ZRUOGVDQGDXWKRUDYDWDUDVWKHSULPDU\LQIRUPLQJUHODWLRQRSSRVLWLRQ
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are usually unwanted feelings that we invariably choose not to own. We therefore believe, that someone else is thinking/feeling them instead, such as anger or judgePHQW VHH HJ -XQJ $YDWDUV LQ 6HFRQG /LIH VHHP LQ JHQHUDO WR FDSWXUH wanted elements, or the chosen components of our identities that we wish to present to/in the world. Thus in immersive worlds it would seem that the identities presented are more likely to be the functional or ideal sides rather than the projected µXQZDQWHG¶VLGHV7KHUHDOLVDWLRQWKDWRQHLVSOD\LQJZLWKRQH¶VLGHQWLWLHVSURPSWV ERWKTXHVWLRQVDQGUHDOLVDWLRQVWKDWRXULGHQWLWLHVDUHWURXEOHVRPHDQGXQFHUWDLQ ',6&866,21
$YDWDUDXWKRU VHHPV WR EH WKH IRFXV RI DJHQF\ H[SORUDWLRQ LQ ,9:V LQ WKDW LW seems to inform ways relationship/oppositions are seen and this seems to be creating a sense of chronic liminality, such that identities might be seen as being spatial. Through reconstituting identities as spatial it may be possible to map the ways in which students engage in diverse spatial zones and this might mean that as academics we are able to develop means of reconstituting our practice, VR WKDW LW UHÀHFWV WKH FRPSOH[ VSDWLDOLWLHV LQ ZKLFK ZH DOO ZRUN DQG OHDUQ 6HQ (2006) has suggested that solitarist theory, whereby identities are seen as being formed by the membership of a given (and often single) social group, has shaped much multicultural thinking. Even the idea of multiple identities can be seen as divisive and problematic, as if identities can be divided and delineated as chunks RI XQFKDQJLQJ HVVHQFH
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,WFRXOGEHDUJXHGDQGLQFUHDVLQJO\LVWKDWF\EHUVSDFHKDVUHVXOWHGLQDVHQVH of multiple identities and disembodiment, or even different forms of embodiment. Further, the sense of anonymity and the assumption that this was what was underVWRRGWKURXJKRQH¶VZRUGVUDWKHUWKDQRQH¶VERGLO\SUHVHQFHLVEHFRPLQJLQFUHDVingly unmasked through immersive virtual worlds. The bodily markers that are used to present ourselves in life, clothes, ethnicity, gender and speech may be reSUHVHQWHG GLIIHUHQWO\ LQ6HFRQG/LIHEXWWKH\DOVRLQGLFDWHFKRLFHVDERXWKRZZH wish to be seen or the ways in which we might like to feel differently. Furthermore, DXWKRUVVXFKDV6H\PRXU KDYHVXJJHVWHGWKDWDOWKRXJKWKHSK\VLFDOERG\LV invisible, meanings, mannerisms, behaviours and unstated assumptions are clearly visible in online communication. The realization of the existence of spatial identities results in movement into VWXFNQHVVGLVTXLHWXGHDQGSHUSOH[LW\
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Curricula need to become a series of open-ended spaces rather than a series of SHUPLVVLRQV WR SURFHHG WKDW IRFXV RQ FRPSOLDQFH DQG UXOHEDVHG PRGHOV 6XFK RSHQHQGHGFXUULFXODZLOOEHSURYLVLRQDOXQVWDEOHDQGXQFHUWDLQDQGZLOOUHÀHFW WKH WUDQVORFDWLRQDO VWDWH RI WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI WKH )XWXUH$FDGHPH LV OLWWHUHG QRW only with uncertainty and ambiguity but also liminal states and spatial identities. Pedagogy and play, dialogic translation and runaway pluralism are introducing new spatial zones and practices. At the same time the relationship between digital and print cultures appear to collide in in-between world spaces, thus disjunction and ways of being slip across the gashes of time. There is an escalating collision of worlds in higher education whereby the monsters of the digital are invading printlocked cultures of the past and ushering in as yet undiscovered identity. 5()(5(1&(6 Bakhtin, M. M. (1984). Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics. 0DQFKHVWHU 0DQFKHVWHU8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV Bauman, Z. (2000). Liquid Modernity.&DPEULGJH 3ROLW\3UHVV &ODQGLQLQ'- &RQQHOO\)0 3HUVRQDOH[SHULHQFHPHWKRGV,Q1.'HQ]LQ <6/LQFROQ (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research.7KRXVDQG2DNV&$ 6DJH &RQROH*GH/DDW0'LOORQ7 'DUE\7 -,6&/;36WXGHQWH[SHULHQFHVRIWHFKQRORJLHV ± ¿QDO UHSRUW -,6& UHSRUW 1RYHPEHU $YLDEOH DW KWWS ZZZMLVFDFXNSXEOLFDWLRQV SXEOLFDWLRQV O[S¿QDOUHSRUWDVS[ Febraury, 2009) &UHDQRU/7ULQGHU.*RZDQ' +RZHOOV& /(;7KHOHDUQHUH[SHULHQFHRIHOHDUQLQJ ¿QDO UHSRUW $YDLODEOH DW KWWS ZZZMLVFDFXNXSORDGHGBGRFXPHQWV/(;)LQDO5HSRUWB August06.pdf (14 March 2007) (ULNVHQ7+ 7\UDQQ\RIWKH0RPHQW)DVWDQG6ORZ7LPHLQWKH,QIRUPDWLRQ$JH/RQGRQ Pluto Press. )HUUHGD\'-+RGJVRQ9( -RQHV& 'LDORJXHODQJXDJHDQGLGHQWLW\ FULWLFDOLVVXHVIRU networked management learning, Studies in Continuing Education, 28(3) 223–239. *HH-3 :KDWYLGHRJDPHVKDYHWRWHDFKXVDERXWOHDUQLQJDQGOLWHUDF\"+DPSVKLUH 3DOJUDYH Macmillan. Heidegger, M. (1985). Being and time2[IRUG %DVLO%ODFNZHOO -XQJ. 7KH6\PEROLF/LIH 0LVFHOODQHRXV:ULWLQJV7KH&ROOHFWHG:RUNVRI&*-XQJ9ROXPH 3ULQFHWRQ 3ULQFHWRQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV .DQH3 7KHSOD\HWKLF DPDQLIHVWRIRUDGLIIHUHQWZD\RIOLYLQJ/RQGRQ 3DQ .LQFKLQ,0&DERW/% +D\'% 9LVXDOLVLQJH[SHUWLVH UHYHDOLQJWKHQDWXUHRIDWKUHVKROG concept in the development of an authentic pedagogy for clinical education. Presented at Threshold &RQFHSWV6\PSRVLXP4XHHQ¶V8QLYHUVLW\.LQJVWRQ2QWDULR±-XQH /DQG50H\HU-+) -6PLWK Threshold concepts within the disciplines5RWWHUGDP 6HQVH 0DODE\ 7 3DUOD\LQJ 9DOXH &DSLWDO LQ DQG %H\RQG 9LUWXDO :RUOGV Games and Culture 1(2), 141–162 0H\HU-+)/DQG5 'DYLHV3 7KUHVKROGFRQFHSWVDQGWURXEOHVRPHNQRZOHGJH ,VVXHV RI YDULDWLRQ DQG YDULDELOLW\ ,Q 5 /DQG -+) 0H\HU - 6PLWK Threshold concepts within the disciplines.5RWWHUGDPDQG7DLSHL 6HQVH3XEOLVKHUV ± 2OVHQ6)-HQVHQ66%RODQGHU.'HHSZHOO)-RQHV& 0DQQ6 Narratives From the '$JRUDZRUOG3URFHHGLQJVRIWKH1HWZRUNHG/HDUQLQJ&RQIHUHQFH8QLYHUVLW\RI/DQFDVWHU
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TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
CHAPTER 6
EARLY FORMATIONS OF TEACHER IDENTITY: PROSPECTIVE TEACHER CANDIDATES NOTIONS OF TEACHER ROLES Lisa A. Gross and Susan D. Gilbert
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As teacher educators, we are responsible for the preparation and growth of prospective teacher candidates and contribute greatly to their effectiveness DQG VXFFHVV DV IXWXUH SUDFWLWLRQHUV ,Q WKH SDVW WZR GHFDGHV WKHUH KDV EHHQ DQ increasing interest in the development of teacher and professional identities, with studies conducted across levels of experience. The development of a teaching LGHQWLW\ GH¿QHG KHUH DV DQ LQGLYLGXDO¶V XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI VHOI LQ D SURIHVVLRQDO FRQWH[W KDV EHHQ H[DPLQHG ZLWK SUHVHUYLFH DQG VWXGHQW WHDFKHUV 7UDYHUV Weinstein, 1990) while teacher and professional identity has been explored in various ways through the narratives and experiences of novice and veteran SUDFWLWLRQHUV &ODQGLQLQ .DJDQ While such studies have contributed to our understanding of this developmental process, we propose the need for a closer examination of the roles that shape these multiple identities. Previous research on the beliefs or practices of preservice candidates indicate WKDWWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPVKDYHOLWWOHLPSDFWRQFKDQJLQJSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUV¶ previously held notions or beliefs. There is also evidence of a perceived disconnect held by preservice candidates between the theoretical and the practical aspects RIWHDFKLQJ RIZKDWLQWKHLUSUHYLRXVH[SHULHQFHVDV.VWXGHQWVLVYDOXHGDV compared to what is considered irrelevant or impractical. This implies that before GHFLGLQJRQDFDUHHUSUHVHUYLFHFDQGLGDWHV¶SULRUH[SHULHQFHVDQGLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWK teaching professionals have already shaped their perceptions of teaching and as well as their notions of self as teachers. :H EHOLHYH WKDW WR GHYHORS UHÀHFWLYH SUDFWLWLRQHUV VWXGHQWV PXVW ¿UVW H[SORUH DQGGHYHORSDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI³VHOI´1RFRXUVHPDNHVWKLVPRUHH[SOLFLWWKDQ the introductory teaching course offered at our respective institutions. Those enrolled are potential teaching candidates (PTCs), individuals who express an interest in the teaching as a career but have yet to be formally admitted into the teacher education program. When PTCs are asked about their interest in the profession, WKH\SULPDULO\VKDUHH[DPSOHVRIWHDFKHUV¶SDVW±UDQJLQJIURPWKRVHZKRZHUHLQÀXHQWLDODQGFDULQJWRWKRVHLQHIIHFWLYHDQGDEUDVLYH7KHFDQGLGDWHVFDUU\IRUZDUG A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 79–92. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 6
QRWLRQVRIZKDWPDNHVD³JRRGWHDFKHU´ .DJDQ DQGLQWXUQSHUFHLYHVRPH aspect of self to have that potential. ,Q WKHVH LQWURGXFWRU\ WHDFKHU HGXFDWLRQ FRXUVHV SDVW VFKRROLQJ H[SHULHQFHV of PTCs provide a context for exploring their preliminary teaching beliefs, understanding of professional roles, attitudes toward various social groups, and for examining how their own interests and actions have been shaped by social interactions during these formative developmental years. To develop a teacher identity, we believe it begins with an exploration of self. As teacher educators, we can no longer disregard the autobiography, the rich funds of knowledge, or the landscape(s) of lived experiences that these potential educators possess (Moll, et al. ,Q GHYHORSLQJ D SURIHVVLRQDO LGHQWLW\ WKH individual must have an understanding of how his own knowledge, beliefs and atWLWXGHVKDYHEHHQVKDSHGE\YDULRXVVRFLDOFXOWXUDODQGKLVWRULFDOLQÀXHQFHVDORQJ WKHZD\7KLVSDSHUUHSRUWVWKHSUHOLPLQDU\¿QGLQJVIURPDODUJHUVWXG\FRQGXFWHG RQUROHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQDQGWKHHDUO\IRUPDWLRQVRIWHDFKHULGHQWLW\7KURXJKWKHFDQGLGDWHV¶ PHPRUDEOH VFKRROLQJ H[SHULHQFHV WKH LGHQWL¿HG UROHV DFWLRQV DQG DWWULEXWHVRIIRUPHUWHDFKHUVSURYLGHGDPHDQLQJIXOFRQWH[WIRUWKH37&¶VH[DPLQDWLRQ of self as a future teacher. 7+(25(7,&$/)5$0(:25.
The purpose of this research is to examine how formative schooling experiences KDYH FRQWULEXWHG WR WKH 37&¶V LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ RI WKH WHDFKHU¶V UROH DQG WR H[SORUH how these past interactions and experiences have shaped their perceptions of self as future educators. The PTC participants in this study are individuals who have not been formally admitted to a teacher education program and are taking introductory teaching courses. The traditional PTC is immersed in her social role as a college student and is continuously negotiating and reconstructing her personal identities as shaped by various encounters and situations, whereas, the nontraditional PTCs tend to be more goal-oriented, independent and stable in their relationships with a focus of the practical elements of their education (Benschoff, 1991). Our research actions and data interpretation has been framed within the tradition of symbolic interactionism which proposes that human beings act toward things on WKHEDVLVRIWKHPHDQLQJVWKH\KDYHFRQVWUXFWHGRYHUWLPHDQGWKDWWKH³VHOI´LVD UHÀHFWLRQRIWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶VDFFXPXODWHGYDOXHVUROHVDQGLGHQWLWLHV 0HDG We contend that sociocultural, historical, and situational conditions have shaped these formative notions of teaching and have contributed to their preliminary conceptualizations of self as teacher. Through this interpretative approach, we explore WKHPHDQLQJVWKDWRXU37&VKDYHFRQVWUXFWHGRI³WHDFKHU´DVZHOODVWKHLULGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIUROHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH³DFWRIWHDFKLQJ´,GHQWLW\WKHRU\SURYLGHVDOHQV IRUH[SORULQJWKHVHOILQUHJDUGWRSHUFHSWLRQVRIRWKHUVIRFXVLQJRQRXUVWXGHQWV¶ understanding of self through an examination of their personal identities. While social scientists have multiple frameworks to guide their studies of idenWLI\IRUPDWLRQZH¿QGUROHLGHQWLW\DFTXLVLWLRQWKHRU\ %XUNH most 80
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appropriate to our research intentions. The participants are in the process of deterPLQLQJD³¿W´EHWZHHQWKHLUH[LVWLQJVRFLDOLGHQWLWLHVDVFROOHJHVWXGHQWVDQGWKHLU SRWHQWLDOPHPEHUVKLSWRWKHWHDFKLQJSURIHVVLRQ,QWKHFRQWH[WRIWKLVLQWURGXFWRU\ course, role associated behaviors are introduced, practiced and utilized. Through this process, the PTC explores the correspondence between the meaning of the role DQGVHOI %XUNH 5HLW]HV There is, in education, a tradition for the autobiography or the storied self-text as DQHIIHFWLYHDQGSRZHUIXOPHDQVWRVWXG\WHDFKHUNQRZOHGJHDQGWHDFKHUV¶IRUPDWLRQVRIVHOILQSUDFWLFH 3LQDU &ODQGLQLQ &RQQHOO\ ,QRXUUHVHDUFK ZHKDYHH[SORUHGKRZWKHUHFROOHFWHGSDVW.UHODWLRQVKLSVDQGH[SHULHQFHVRI PTCs have helped shape their current self-in-practice identities. Further, we intend to explore the PTCs interpretations of such behaviors and how they inform or contribute to future (teaching) actions. Connelly and Clandinin (1994) used the narratives of practitioners to illustrate how their professional identities are shaped through daily interactions in various VHWWLQJV:HKRSHWRHODERUDWHRQWKLVGHYHORSPHQWRIDWHDFKHU¶VLGHQWLW\E\GHOYing into the past through the self-reportage autobiographies of our present-day teaching candidates and explore those attributes perceived as contributing to their future decisions and actions. 2QH ZD\ RI ORRNLQJ DW WKHVH HDUO\ IRUPDWLRQV LV WKURXJK WKH OHQV RI /HR 9\JRWVN\¶VWKHRU\RQHDUO\ODQJXDJHDFTXLVLWLRQZKHUHKHVWDWHV (YHU\ IXQFWLRQ LQ WKH FKLOG¶V FXOWXUDO GHYHORSPHQW DSSHDUV WZLFH ¿UVW RQ WKHVRFLDOOHYHODQGODWHURQWKHLQGLYLGXDOOHYHO ¿UVWEHWZHHQSHRSOH interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies HTXDOO\ WR YROXQWDU\ DWWHQWLRQ WR ORJLFDO PHPRU\ DQG WR WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between LQGLYLGXDOV 9\JRWVN\ S ,QWKLVFRQWH[W37&VUHSRUWKDYLQJH[SHULHQFHV SULPDULO\SRVLWLYH ZLWKLQWKH context of school that had, at their core, an interpersonal/relational component eiWKHU ZLWK WKHLU WHDFKHUV RU WKHLU SHHUV 7KHVH H[SHULHQFHV ¿UVW VKRZLQJ XS RQ D social plane were then reported by PTCs as being a part of what constructed their QRWLRQV RI WHDFKLQJ H[FHOOHQFH ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV DV SHU9\JRWVN\¶V WKHRU\ RI KRZ WKH\H[SHULHQFHGWKHLUIRUPXODWLRQV¿UVWRQDVRFLDORUinterpsychological plane, and then, later on an individual or intrapsychological plane. This process of cognitive development known as internalization does not take place in isolation. They DUH UHODWLRQDO LQ QDWXUH DQG DUH QHVWHG LQ H[SHULHQWLDO DSSUHQWLFHVKLSV 9\JRWVN\ viewed these cognitive developments as a result of a dialectical process where the FKLOG OHDUQV WKURXJK VKDUHG FROODERUDWLYH H[SHULHQFHV ZLWK PRUH FDSDEOH RWKHUV parents, mentors, and in this study, teachers. Finally, a study on the development of a teacher identity necessitates a brief FRQWH[WRIWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV)URPVWDWHWRVWDWHGHSDUWPHQWV RI HGXFDWLRQ UHJXODWH WKH WHDFKLQJ OLFHQVXUH SURJUDPV ,Q WKH FDVH RI WKH FDQGLdates in this study, the majority of PTCs have grown up in southeastern Appalachia 81
CHAPTER 6
SRUWLRQRIWKH86LQDUHJLRQFRPPRQO\UHIHUUHGWRDVWKH³%LEOH%HOW´&RXQWLHV in this region are characterized by its predominantly Christian population and are GLVWLQFWLYHLQ$SSDODFKLDQKHULWDJH6WURQJVRFLRFXOWXUDOUHOLJLRXVDQGKLVWRULFDO LQÀXHQFHVDUHGHHSO\HPEHGGHGLQWKHFRPPXQLWLHVLQZKLFKWKHVH37&VKDYHEHHQ raised. A high percentage of those who graduate from teacher education programs in this region will seek positions in their states of licensure, and in many cases, will UHWXUQDVQRYLFHWHDFKHUVWRWKHLUKRPHFRPPXQLWLHVRUWKRVHTXLWHVLPLODUWRWKHLU upbringing. 7KLV SDSHU UHSRUWV ¿QGLQJV IURP D SUHOLPLQDU\ DQDO\VLV RI VXUYH\ GDWD FROOHFWHG VSHFL¿F WR WKH IRUPDWLYH VFKRROLQJ H[SHULHQFHV UHFDOOHG E\ WKH 37&V DQG WKHLULGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIWKHWHDFKHU¶VUROHLQWKHVHH[SHULHQFHV6LPLODUWR:HLQVWHLQ¶V VWXG\ RI VWXGHQWV¶ HDUO\ FRQFHSWLRQV RI JRRG WHDFKHUV ZH IXUWKHU H[SORUH the part played by teachers in these recollections, their attributes and actions, and KRZWKHVHSDVWLQWHUDFWLRQVKDYHVKDSHGWKH37&¶VQRWLRQVRIJRRGWHDFKHUV Research questions +RZGRHVWKHSRWHQWLDOWHDFKHUFDQGLGDWH¶V 37& IRUPDWLYHVFKRROLQJH[SHULences shape their perceptions of the teaching profession? ,QH[DPLQLQJSDVWVFKRROLQJH[SHULHQFHVKRZGRHVWKH37&GHVFULEHWKHUROHRI the teacher? What attributes does the PTC identify of self that will contribute to their effectiveness as a future educator? METHOD
Participants This case study was conducted on three groups of potential teaching candidates and included multiple information sources to represent what Cresswell (1998) GHVFULEHVDVDERXQGHGV\VWHP7ZRJURXSVRIVWXGHQWVDWWHQG$SSDODFKLDQ6WDWH 8QLYHUVLW\ DQG UHSUHVHQW LQGLYLGXDOV LQ ERWK WKH QRQWUDGLWLRQDO DQG WUDGLWLRQDO teacher education programs. Extension group includes 25 potential teaching candidates enrolled in the introductory teaching course at an extension facility, thirty miles from the main campus. All students are elementary education majors, DJHUDQJLQJIURP\HDUVRIDJH7ZHQW\RQHDUHIHPDOHDQGIRXUDUHPDOH RI WKH Extension population is currently working in local school systems in some capacity – having assumed roles as teaching assistants, food service workers, VFKRRO YROXQWHHUV DQG DV LQYROYHG SDUHQWV$SSUR[LPDWHO\ RI WKHExtension participants are working in a profession/vocation other than teaching. Public group is comprised of 17 students, 13 females and 4 males, averaging 20 years of age. This group represents the more typical student population enrolled LQWKHXQLYHUVLW\¶VLQWURGXFWRU\WHDFKLQJFRXUVH0RVWPublic group members live RQ FDPSXVDQGYDU\ LQ GHJUHH SURJUDP LQWHUHVWV,QGLFDWHGFHUWL¿FDWLRQDUHDVLQclude elementary education (5), secondary education (10), physical education 82
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(1), vocational tech (1) and undecided (1). Private group is a traditional group of VWXGHQWVHQUROOHGLQWKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPDW/HHV0F5DH&ROOHJH7KHUH DUHVWXGHQWV IHPDOHDQGPDOH WKHLQGLFDWHGDUHDVRIOLFHQVXUHLQFOXGHG elementary, 1 Theater Arts, and 3 Physical Education. 'XULQJWKH¿UVWFODVVPHHWLQJZHLQIRUPWKHFDQGLGDWHVRIRXUUHVHDUFKLQWHUHVWV describe the research protocol and make our intentions explicit. These initial acWLRQVGHPRQVWUDWHWRWKHVHSURVSHFWLYHFDQGLGDWHVWKDWHGXFDWLRQLVLQIDFW³DWEDVH D PRUDO HQWHUSULVH DQG XOWLPDWHO\ DERXW WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI SHUVRQV´ 6ROWLV 1990, p. 248). With consent from the PTC, course assignments (names replaced with numeric aliases) and multiple sources of information from class discussions, assignments and in-class activities are collected. Instrumentation This paper is a part of a larger study conducted on the prospective teaching FDQGLGDWH¶VXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIVHOIUROHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQ LQDSUDFWLFXPVHWWLQJ DQG WKHLU RQJRLQJ LGHQWLW\ GHYHORSPHQW DV WHDFKHU SUDFWLWLRQHUV 6WXGHQW VXUYH\V WXWRULQJ¿HOGQRWHVDQGWHDFKLQJSKLORVRSKLHVZHUHFRPPRQDUWLIDFWVVKDUHGDFURVV groups and collected for analyses. The primary instrument used to explore teacher UROH DQG DWWULEXWHV LGHQWL¿HG E\ WKH 37&V ZDV DQ LQIRUPDO SDUWLFLSDQWFRQVWUXFW VXUYH\ /H&RPSWH 3UHLVVOH GLVWULEXWHGGXULQJWKH)DOO The survey is a class assignment distributed to all PTCs prior to or during the ¿UVWFODVVPHHWLQJ7KHUHFROOHFWLRQRIPHPRUDEOHVFKRROLQJH[SHULHQFHVFRPELQHG with student biographical information, assists in the preparation of class lectures, discussions and activities related to the teaching profession. The survey consists of HOHYHQ RSHQHQGHG LWHPV DQG WZR /LNHUW VFDOH LWHPV WKH LWHPV ZHUH FRQVWUXFWHG around syllabus topics and asked candidates to share memorable schooling experiences, identify teacher roles in these experiences, and to rate favorite and superior WHDFKHUV7KH¿QDOLWHPLQFOXGHVDQH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKH37&¶VVHOIDWWULEXWHVSHUFHLYHGDVVLJQL¿FDQWLQEHFRPLQJDQHIIHFWLYHWHDFKLQJSURIHVVLRQ The following items from the survey were analyzed for the purposes reported in WKLVSDSHU ,WHP ,Q WKH FRQWH[W RI D . FODVVURRP UHFROOHFW \RXU PRVW PHPRUDEOH experiences. ,WHP ,Q H[DPLQLQJ WKH H[SHULHQFH SUHYLRXVO\ GHVFULEHG ZKDW UROH GLG WKH teacher play in making it happen? ,WHP ,QGLFDWH\RXUUHVSRQVHWRWKHIROORZLQJVWDWHPHQW 0\IDYRULWHWHDFKHUV were also superior teachers. D6WURQJO\DJUHH b. Agree c. Agree somewhat d. Disagree H6WURQJO\GLVDJUHH ,WHP :RXOG\RXVD\\RXUIDYRULWHWHDFKHUVZHUHVXSHULRUWHDFKHUV"([SODLQ 83
CHAPTER 6
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characteristics do you possess that best represent the type of teacher you hope to become? Data Analysis 8VLQJ&UHVVZHOO¶V DSSURDFKWRTXDOLWDWLYHDQDO\VLVWKHUHVHDUFKHUVJURXSHG VXUYH\ LWHPV WRJHWKHU IRFXVLQJ ¿UVW RQ WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ VFKRROLQJ UHFROOHFWLRQV DQGWKHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQVRIWHDFKHU¶VUROHVZLWKLQWKRVHFRQWH[WV6LPLODUWR%XUJHU¶V (1991) system used in his study of two classroom teachers, the contexts and DFWLRQVQRWHGLQWKH37&V¶UHVSRQVHVKHOSHGLQGHWHUPLQLQJWKHUHODWLYHLPSRUWDQFH RI WHDFKHU¶V UROHV DQG LGHQWL¿HG DWWULEXWHV LQ YDU\LQJ WHDFKLQJ VLWXDWLRQV %RWK researchers read through the data sets to gain a general sense of the experiences VKDUHG DQG WKH WHDFKHU¶V UROHV LQ WKDW VLWXDWLRQ 1RWLQJ WKDW VLPLODU SDWWHUQV LQ responses were evident across all three groups, the survey data was then divided LQWR WZR VHWV extension and public/private. Each researcher independently conducted a keyword analysis on her data set and developed a corresponding FRGHERRNWKDWLGHQWL¿HGDQGH[SODLQHGWKHFRGHVZLWKLQWKHGDWDVHWV 8SRQFRPSOHWLRQRIWKHVHWZRVXUYH\LWHPVWKHUHVHDUFKHUVFRQYHQHGDQGFRPpared coding categories that had emerged. Discrepancies in interpretation of meanLQJZHUHGHWHFWHGGLVFXVVHGDQGUHGH¿QHG7KHPHPRUDEOHVFKRROLQJH[SHULHQFHV VKDUHGDFURVVJURXSVZHUHFDWHJRUL]HGUHVXOWLQJLQWKUHHRYHUDUFKLQJWKHPHV conQHFWLQJ . OHDUQHUV FODVVURRP FOLPDWH DQG LQVWUXFWLRQDO DUWLVWU\ Metaphors, that captured the essence of self, emerged from these discussions. The coding of the remaining open-ended survey responses was conducted over the next four PRQWKV7KHUHVHDUFKHUVPHWIUHTXHQWO\WRGLVFXVVDQGFRPSDUHGDWD¿QGLQJVRIWKH WKUHHJURXSV,QVRPHFDVHVTXDOLWDWLYHGDWDZDVTXDQWL¿HGWRLOOXVWUDWHIUHTXHQF\ RIUHVSRQVH WKLVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQHQDEOHGWKHUHVHDUFKHUV³WRFRPSDUHTXDQWLWDWLYH RXWFRPHVZLWKWKHTXDOLWDWLYHGDWD´ &UHVVZHOO S ,Q DGGLWLRQ, Extension, Public, and Private group responses were examined in isolation, allowing the researchers to compare data patterns within groups. 4XDQWL¿DEOH LWHPV VSHFL¿F WR WHDFKHU HIIHFWLYHQHVV UDWLQJV RU PHDVXUHV RI VXSHrior teachers resulted in enumerative listings by participant that could be compared DQG QRWHG IRU IUHTXHQF\ /H&RPSWH 3UHLVVOH $OO GDWD DQDO\VLV SKDVHV LQFOXGHG FURVVFKHFN FRGLQJ DQG WKH RQJRLQJ FRPSDULVRQ DQG FODUL¿FDWLRQ RI LQWHUSUHWDWLYH RXWFRPHV E\ WKH UHVHDUFKHUV 4XDOLWDWLYH YDOLGLW\ ZDV PDLQWDLQHG WKURXJKRXWWKHFRGLQJDQGFDWHJRUL]DWLRQSURFHVV LQWHUFRGHUDJUHHPHQWUHVXOWLQJ IURPIUHTXHQWPHHWLQJVDQGGLVFXVVLRQVWKURXJKRXWWKHDQDO\VLVSURFHVVFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHUHOLDELOLW\LQWKHSURFHGXUHVDQGWKHDXWKHQWLFLW\RI¿QGLQJVUHSRUWHGLQ the following section.
84
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As evident in Table 1, teacher relationships and extracurricular activities were WKH PRVW IUHTXHQWO\ FLWHG PHPRUDEOH VFKRROLQJ H[SHULHQFHV 6SHFL¿F WR WHDFKHU UHODWLRQV WKUHH VXEFDWHJRULHV ZHUH FRQVWUXFWHG WR FDSWXUH KRZ 37&V¶ GHVFULEHG WKHVH LQWHUDFWLRQV ZLWK IRUPHU WHDFKHUV WHDFKHU DIIHFWLYH DWWULEXWHV NLQG FDULQJ compassionate, strict, wise), instructional behaviors (engaging, entertaining, fun, HQHUJHWLF DQGVHOILGHQWL¿FDWLRQ FKDOOHQJHGPHPRWLYDWHGPHVXSSRUWHGPH 7DEOH 0HPRUDEOH6FKRROLQJ([SHULHQFHVRI3RWHQWLDO7HDFKLQJ&DQGLGDWHV 4XHVWLRQ PRVWPHPRrable schooling experience)
Percentage of PTC responses
Content/Curriculum
11
Extracurricular
34
Relationship w/Teacher
38
Relationship w/Peers
9
6FKRROHQYLURQPHQW
4
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3
Thirty-four percent of the PTCs described their participation in extracurricular programs or events. Within this category, four subcategories were developed for representation of patterns indicated by respondents (athletic/club events, programs, SHUIRUPDQFHV DQG VFKRRO ULWXDOV 1LQH RI WKH WKLUW\IRXU UHVSRQVHV VSHFL¿F WR extracurricular memories were related to personal performances (play, recital). Across the remaining three subcategories, participation in school traditions (prom, homecoming), as an athlete or club member, or memories of being a teacher FDGHW RU WXWRU DYHUDJHG ¿YH UHVSRQVHV 7KH YLJQHWWHV SURYLGHG E\ Extension JURXS PHPEHUV ZHUH PRUH OLNHO\ WR GHVFULEH UHODWLRQV ZLWK WHDFKHUV Public and Private participants were more likely to report their involvement in extracurricular activities. 'XULQJ WKH LQLWLDO FRGLQJ RI WKH 4XHVWLRQ GDWD WKH UHVHDUFKHUV GLVFRYHUHG WKDW WKH 37&V UHVSRQVHV GHVFULEHG WKH WHDFKHUV¶ DFWLRQV during the experience as RSSRVHG WR LGHQWLI\LQJ D SDUWLFXODU UROH *LYHQ WKLV WKH UHVHDUFKHUV VKLIWHG IURP NH\ZRUG LQGLFDWRUV UROH LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ WR GHVFULSWLYH SKUDVHV FDSWXULQJ WKH SDUW the teacher played in the memorable experience. This resulted in seven categories indicated in Table 2.
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Table 2. Role of the Teacher. 4XHVWLRQ ZKDWUROH did teacher play in making most memorable happen?)
Percentage of PTC Responses
,QWHUHVWLQJ)XQDSSURDFK
29
+HOSIXO6XSSRUWLYH
28
/RYHRI-RE
10
Respectful
12
,GHQWL¿HGUROH
14
6DIHHQYLURQPHQW
5
Challenged me
2
)RUWKRVH37&VZKRUHVSRQGHGWRWKLVTXHVWLRQVLPLODUSDWWHUQVLQUHVSRQVHVZHUH QRWHG RU UHLWHUDWHG 7KH PDMRULW\ RI UHVSRQVHV IHOO LQWR WZR FDWHJRULHV WHDFKHU¶V LQVWUXFWLRQDO DFWLRQV RU WKH WHDFKHU¶V VXSSRUW GXULQJ WKH SDUWLFXODU LQFLGHQW GHVFULEHG 2QO\ WZHOYH UHVSRQVHV LGHQWL¿HG D UROH ZLWK WKH PDMRULW\ LQGLFDWLQJ facilitator/guide. ExtensionJURXSPHPEHUVPRUHIUHTXHQWO\GHVFULEHGWKHWHDFKHU¶V UHVSHFWIRUVWXGHQWVRUWKHLUZLOOLQJQHVVWRVXSSRUWDQGKHOS$SSUR[LPDWHO\ of the Public and Private group members described how the instructional actions of the teacher differed and that these differences in approach had a positive effect RQWKHLUOHDUQLQJ7KHFDWHJRU\RIVXSSRUWLYHKHOSIXOZDVHTXDOO\GLVWULEXWHGDFURVV DOOJURXSV RIWKHUHVSRQGHQWVGHVFULEHGDVXSSRUWLYHDQGRUKHOSIXOWHDFKHU 7DEOH5DWLQJRIIDYRULWHWHDFKHUVDVVXSHULRUWHDFKHU 4XHVWLRQ /LNHUW IDvorite teacher also superior teacher).
Percentage of PTC Responses
6WURQJO\$JUHH
51
Agree
26
Agree somewhat
0
Disagree
0
6WURQJO\GLVDJUHH
2
1RUHVSRQVHV
21
,Q WKH ODVW SRUWLRQ RI WKH VXUYH\ TXHVWLRQV ZHUH FRQVWUXFWHG WR JDWKHU LQVLJKWV RQ WKH 37&V¶ SHUFHSWLRQV RI ³IDYRULWH´ WHDFKHUV GXULQJ WKHLU IRUPDO VFKRROLQJ .LQGHUJDUWHQ WKURXJK JUDGH . H[SHULHQFHV ,Q 7DEOH /LNHUW VFDOH responses across all three groups overwhelmingly indicated that the candidates IDYRULWH WHDFKHUV ZHUH SHUFHLYHG DV VXSHULRU WHDFKHUV 7KLUW\¿YH FDQGLGDWHV 86
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UHVSRQGHG WR WKH IROORZXS TXHVWLRQ H[SODLQLQJ WKH UDWLQJ SUHYLRXVO\ LQGLFDWHG Of these responses (Table 4), nearly half of the PTCs indicated that their favorite teachers were superior because they demonstrated a love of the job or a passion for WHDFKLQJ ,QVWUXFWLRQDO YDULDWLRQ WKH WHDFKHU¶V DELOLW\ WR PDNH OHDUQLQJ ³H[FLWLQJ IXQ DQG HQJDJLQJ´ ZDV WKH QH[W KLJKHVW UHVSRQVH DW 2I SDUWLFXODU LQWHUHVW Extension JURXS PHPEHUV ZHUH PRUH OLNHO\ WR LQGLFDWH ³ORYH RI MRE´ LQ WKHLU responses and to describe the actions of these passionate teachers whereas Public and PrivateJURXSPHPEHUV¶UHVSRQVHVZHUHGLVWULEXWHGHYHQO\DFURVVFDWHJRULHV Table 4. What made my favorite teacher a “superior teacher?” 4XHVWLRQ([SODLQ IDYRULWH teacher also superior teacher).
Percentage of PTC Responses
/RYHG7KHLU-RE
49
/HDGHU
3
Fun/Exciting/Creative
17
&KDOOHQJHG6WXGHQWV
9
+HOSIXO&DULQJ6XSSRUWLYH
11
Mastery of Content
11
,QWKH¿QDOVXUYH\LWHPWKH37&VZHUHDVNHGWRLGHQWLI\SHUVRQDODWWULEXWHVWKDW represent the type of teacher they intend to become. Public and Private group data were compiled and analyzed as one set, representing traditional students across areas of licensure from both institutions. Extension group responses were coded separately for comparative purposes. Table 5 illustrates the three primary themes WKDW HPHUJHG JLYHQ WKH DWWULEXWHV DQG IUHTXHQF\ LQ UHVSRQVHV ([DPSOHV RI WKH FDQGLGDWH¶VUHVSRQVHVIRUHDFKWKHPHDQGVXEFDWHJRU\RUWKHPHDUHSURYLGHG ,Q UHVSRQGLQJ WR 4XHVWLRQ WKH 37&V RIWHQ LQGLFDWHG WZR RU WKUHH VHOIDWWULEXWHVSHUFHLYHGDVVLJQL¿FDQWLQEHFRPLQJDWHDFKHU$FURVVJURXSVFDQGLGDWHV PRVWIUHTXHQWO\LGHQWL¿HGDWWULEXWHVWKDWZHUHUHODWLRQDO UHVSRQVHV ZLWKVXEFDWHJRULHVUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIWKHSHUVRQDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVGHHPHGQHFHVVDU\LQRQH¶V GDLO\VRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWKVWXGHQWV7KHVHFRQGWKHPH³&UHDWLQJFODVVURRPFOLmate” represents those candidates (26) who perceived a self-attribute that naturally contributed to a necessary feel or atmosphere in the learning environment. The ¿QDOWKHPH³,QVWUXFWLRQDODUWLVWU\´GLIIHUHGIURPWKHRWKHUWKHPHVLQWKDWWKH37&V UHSRUWHGKRZWKHVHSHUVRQDODWWULEXWHVKDGEHHQLGHQWL¿HGE\RWKHUVRUUHLQIRUFHG through past teaching situations (vacation bible school, tutoring, etc.) .
87
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7DEOH37&¶V,GHQWL¿HG6HOI$WWULEXWHV 4XHVWLRQ 7KHPHVDQGVXEcategories of self-attributes
'H¿QHGDV (with PTC representative sample)
&RQQHFWLQJZLWK.6WXGHQWV
Being with; acting toward: The avuncular (relational)
Caring
³,MXVWWKLQN,DPYHU\FDULQJ ,WUXO\ZDQWWRFKDQJH NLGV¶OLYHVIRUWKHEHWWHU´
8QGHUVWDQGLQJ Patient
³,NQRZ,FDQWROHUDWHDORW´
/RYLQJ
³/RYLQJDQGZLOOLQJWRKHOSLQDQ\ZD\SRVVLEOH´
6XSSRUWLYH,QVSLULQJ
³,ZLOOKHOSPDNHWKHGUHDPVRIRWKHUVFRPHWUXH´
Creating classroom climate
Teacher as center: The maestro (individual)
Energetic/Enthusiastic
³,>ZLOO@JHQHUDWHDQHQWKXVLDVWLFDWPRVSKHUHLQP\ classroom via interactions with my students.”
Humorous
³,OLNHWRKDYHIXQDQGMRNHDURXQGVR,WKLQNP\ students will enjoy the class.”
/RYHRI-RE/RYHRI&KLOGUHQ ³,EHOLHYH,KDYHWRWUXO\ORYHP\MREDQGQRWMXVWGRLW EHFDXVH,KDYHWR´ Passionate
³,DPH[WUHPHO\SDVVLRQDWHDERXWP\WRSLFDQGKRZWR generate an enthusiasm atmosphere in my classroom.”
Fair
³,ZLOO¿JKWIRUP\VWXGHQWVDQGDJDLQVWWKHLUORZ self-esteems.”
Instructional Artistry Teaching of Content
,QQRYDWLYH'HOLYHU\
A way of doing (actions/goals): The bricoler (individual) ³,¶YHEHHQWROGWKDW,KDYHDZD\RIUHODWLQJGLI¿FXOW LQIRUPDWLRQLQDFOHDUDQGORJLFDOIDVKLRQ´,ZDQWWR give my students a cure for test anxiety.” ³,KDYHPDQ\LGHDVWRLQYROYHGLIIHUHQWWHDFKLQJVWUDWHgies for different types of learners.” ³,ZLOOPDNHVFKRROIXQ´
6L[W\VHYHQSHUFHQWRIWKHPublic and Private participants (20 of the 30) indicated their capacity for nurturance of students, an attribute categorized within the DIIHFWLYH ³EHLQJ ZLWK´ UHODWLRQDO WKHPH 1H[W LQ IUHTXHQF\ ZHUH PRUH WHDFKHU FHQWHUHGDWWULEXWHVRUZKDWVHOIEULQJVWRWKHFODVVURRP2YHUKDOI RIPublic and PrivateJURXSPHPEHUVLGHQWL¿HGVHOIDWWULEXWHVDQGHQYLVLRQHGWKHPVHOYHVDV teachers in their future classrooms.
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2XU¿UVWUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQH[SORUHG37&¶VSDVWVFKRROLQJH[SHULHQFHVDQGIRXQG WKDWWKH\IHOOLQWRWKUHHJHQHUDOFDWHJRULHV 7KHZD\WHDFKHUVUHODWHGWRWKH37&V WKH ZD\ WKH 37&¶V WHDFKHUV WDXJKW DQG WKH 37&¶V SHUFHSWLRQV RI WKHLU WHDFKHU¶V job satisfaction. The data also revealed that favorite teachers were perceived as VXSHULRU WHDFKHUV ZKHQ DVNHG WR H[SODLQ ZK\ WKH\ IHOW IDYRULWH WHDFKHUV ZHUH VXSHULRURYHUZKHOPLQJVWXGHQWVUHVSRQGHGWKDWWKH\³ORYHGWKHLUMRE´7KHLove of job responses revealed a shift from the subjective (self) as personal recollections demonstrated an awareness that even at a young age, many of the candidates LGHQWL¿HGWKRVHWHDFKHUVZKRORYHGWKHLUMREV We found this to be especially prevalent in the Extension group. We believe this demonstrates the developmental differences of these primarily adult-learner PTCs, ZKLFK UHLQIRUFHV 0DVORZ¶V QRWLRQ RI VHOIDFWXDOL]DWLRQ ZKHUH LQ WKLV FDVH WKHLU reported experiences with school, although inextricably bound with relationships, JREH\RQGVLWXDWLQJWKHPVHOYHVDVµFHQWHU¶1H[WZDVWKHHPSKDVLVRQWKHWHDFKHUV¶ ability to create innovative instructional activities . PTCs ¶ memories and reportage indicates that their self-identities remain bound in the personal and social realms. When asked to identify the role of the teacher in their memorable experiences, RQO\WZHOYH37&VLQGLFDWHGDVSHFL¿FUROH VXSSRUWHUQXUWXUHUPHQWRU ZKLOHWKH majority tended to describe attributes XQLTXH WR WKDW WHDFKHU LQWHUHVWLQJ IXQ DSSURDFKKHOSIXOVXSSRUWLYH 7KHVH¿QGLQJVDUHQRWVXUSULVLQJDVWKH\UHFRQ¿UPDQG reinforce historical and social expectations of the teaching profession in regard to establishing relations with students and in the facilitation of curriculum. We asked PTCs to describe the actions and attributes of superior teacher and WKHQGHFLGHLIWKHLU³IDYRULWH´WHDFKHUVZHUHVXSHULRU6XUSULVLQJO\WKH37&V¶LQWHUpretations rarely centered on their experiences (self) or needs as learners, but rather WKDWRIZKDWWKHWHDFKHU¶VDWWLWXGHVDQGDFWLRQVFRQYH\HG7KH37&VUHSRUWHGWKDW their favorite teachers were superior as evident in their teaching actions – these SUDFWLWLRQHUVORYHGWKHLUMRE $QXPEHURIFDQGLGDWHVQRWHGWKHWHDFKHU¶VFUHDWLYH RU LQQRYDWLYH DSSURDFK LQ LQVWUXFWLRQDO SODQQLQJ DQG GHOLYHU\ ,Q UHÀHFWLQJ on past schooling experiences, the PTCs had explored self through a memorable H[SHULHQFHDVNHGWRLGHQWLI\WKHWHDFKHU¶VUROHDQGWKHQWRFRPSDUHSDVWWHDFKHUV to their ideal notions of superior teachers. We feel that throughout this process, the candidates moved from a more subjective view of these relationships (self as center of experience) to a more observant objective posture when asked to identify and in a sense, evaluate their favorite teachers according to the attributes and actions constructed to describe that of a superior teacher. )LQDOO\ ZH EULHÀ\ GLVFXVV RXU SUHOLPLQDU\ ¿QGLQJV RQ WKH HDUO\ IRUPDWLRQ RI WHDFKHULGHQWLWLHV7KHUHFXUULQJWKHPHDFURVVGDWDVRXUFHVLGHQWL¿HGVKDUHGDWWULbutes of the teaching professional as supportive and facilitative the need to establish relations with students. The metaphor we chose to describe this in terms of teacher role is that of the benevolent uncle, or The Avuncular, someone who is all-understanding, gently prodding their students to consensus, guiding them eiWKHUWRWKH³WUXWK´RUWRDQDJUHHDEOHFRPSURPLVH7KHVHFRQGWKHPHWKDWHPHUJHG 89
CHAPTER 6
placed the role of the teacher as center, the facilitator or guide. For this, we chose the metaphor of the orchestral conductor or The Maestro. The daily actions of the teacher promulgate a rhythm of high energy and creativity when on stage in his classroom. 2XU ¿QDO WKHPH FHQWHUHG RQ WKH LQWHUQDO ODQGVFDSH RI WKH 37&¶V LQVWUXFWLRQDO artistry and actions. What is distinctive about this category is that in addition to 37&V¶ VHOILGHQWL¿FDWLRQ WKH\ UHSRUWHG WKDW WKHVH DWWULEXWHV KDYH EHHQ UHLQIRUFHG by the perceptions of others. The metaphor we chose for this was The Bricoler.,Q this context, The Bricoler is one who enters a situation and creates, organically, ZLWKWKHPDWHULDOVDWKDQG,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHPDWHULDOVHPHUJHLQWRDIRUPUDWKHU than forcing them into preconceived or existing structures. While the content to be taught remains the mortar or the unifying agent, the structure emerges organically respecting the composite parts, the diversity, and the differentiations in the classroom. This we believe is the difference between an artist and a merely trained practitioner, for the artist (the favorite teacher in this case) allowed whom they were to guide, to lead their instruction. ,03/,&$7,216,17($&+(5('8&$7,21
7KH LPSOLFDWLRQV IRU WKHVH HDUO\ ¿QGLQJV DUH PXOWLOD\HUHG DQG KDYH GHHS resonances we believe in the areas of early professional identity formations, teacher UHWHQWLRQHDUO\WHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQDQGUHFLSURFDOUHÀHFWLYHSUDFWLFH7KHVWUDQGVZH ZRXOGOLNHWRDGGUHVVIRUWKLVSDSHUKDYHWRGRZLWKHDUO\SUHSDUDWLRQUHÀHFWLRQ DQGUHWHQWLRQ7KHVWURQJ DQGVXUSULVLQJ µORYHRIMRE¶GDWDVXJJHVWVWKDWVWXGHQWV perceived that their teachers loved their job and this had positive far-reaching effects in their later adult decision to become a teacher. Currently there is a national WHDFKHUVKRUWDJHSDUWLFXODUO\LQWKHDUHDVRI%LOLQJXDO(6/6SHFLDO(GXFDWLRQDQG 0DWKDQG6FLHQFHWHDFKHUV *HUDOG +XVVDU 'LVWXUELQJDUHWKHUHSRUWVRQ QHZWHDFKHUDWWULWLRQLQWKH86LQGLFDWLQJWKDWPDQ\OHDYHZLWKLQWKH¿UVW¿YH\HDUV RI SUDFWLFH 7KH VWDWLVWLFV YDU\ RI FRXUVH IURP VWDWH WR VWDWH UDQJLQJ IURP WREXWWKHUHSRUWHGQXPEHURQHUHDVRQVIRUOHDYLQJWKHSURIHVVLRQLV³ODFNRI support in the workplace.” There are few other degreed/licensed professions where these attrition numbers would be tolerated or acceptable. This is where we believe UHFLSURFDO VKDUHG UHÀHFWLYH SUDFWLFH FDQ SOD\ D ODUJH UROH LQ WKH HDUO\ YHWWLQJ of PTCs. There is a gap in the curricula in many teacher education programs, ZKHUH OLWWOH RU QR WLPH LV VSHQW LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI UHÀHFWLYH SUDFWLFH ZKHUH time is allotted for PTCs to systematically and critically examine their inner lives and formative early schooling experiences to better understand why they want to be teachers. We believe that with this practice, PTCs can examine their early experiences so, in part, they are conscious of and responsible for what drives their PRWLYDWLRQV WR EH WHDFKHUV LQ WKH ¿UVW SODFH 3DUNHU 3DOPHU LQ KLV VHPLQDO ZRUN The Courage to Teach DGGUHVVHVWKLVZKHQKHZULWHV $V,WHDFK,SURMHFWWKHFRQGLWLRQRIP\VRXORQWRP\VWXGHQWVP\VXEMHFW 90
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DQGRXUZD\RIEHLQJWRJHWKHU9LHZHGIURPWKLVDQJOHWHDFKLQJKROGVDPLUURU WR WKH VRXO .QRZLQJ P\VHOI LV DV FUXFLDO WR JRRG WHDFKLQJ DV NQRZLQJ P\ VWXGHQWV DQG P\ VXEMHFW ,Q IDFW NQRZLQJ P\ VWXGHQWV DQG P\ VXEMHFW depends heavily on self-knowledge (Palmer, 1998). We, as teacher educators, need to do a better job developing curricula throughout WKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPVWKDWVXSSRUWDQGHPSRZHUWHDFKHUV FXUULFXODWKDW offer pre-service teachers best-practice strategies that promote introspection that is WKHQµDLUHGDQGVKDUHG¶ DSUDFWLFHWKDWXQL¿HVDQGFRPEDWVVROLSVLVPDQGVHHNVWR develop and promote true collegiality in the workplace. 5()(5(1&(6 %HQVKRII-0 1RQWUDGLWLRQDOFROOHJHVWXGHQWV $GHYHORSPHQWDOORRNDWWKHQHHGVRIZRPHQDQG men returning to school. Journal of Young Adulthood and Middle Age, , 47–61. %XUJHU' 7KHXVHRIFDVHPHWKRGLQHGXFDWLQJSURIHVVLRQDOV8QSXEOLVKHGGRFWRUDOGLVVHUWDWLRQ 8QLYHUVLW\RI&RORUDGR%RXOGHU %XUNH 3 7KH VHOI PHDVXUHPHQW UHTXLUHPHQWV IURP DQ LQWHUDFWLRQLVW SHUVSHFWLYH Social Psychology Quarterly, , 18–29. %XUNH3 $WWLWXGHVEHKDYLRUDQGWKHVHOI,Q-+RZDUGDQG3&DOOHUR (GV The self-society interface: Cognition, emotion and action.1HZ
91
CHAPTER 6 7UDYHUV.$ Pre-service teacher identity made visible: A self-study approach. Paper presented DWWKH$QQXDO0HHWLQJRIWKH$PHULFDQ(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK$VVRFLDWLRQ1HZ2UOHDQV/$ 9\JRWVN\/6 Mind in society&DPEULGJH0$ +DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV :HLQVWHLQ& 3URVSHFWLYHHOHPHQWDU\WHDFKHUV¶EHOLHIVDERXWWHDFKLQJ ,PSOLFDWLRQVIRUWHDFKHU education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 6, 279–290. :HLQVWHLQ& 7HDFKHUHGXFDWLRQVWXGHQWV¶SHUFHSWLRQVRIWHDFKLQJJournal of Teacher Education, 40(2), 53–60.
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CHAPTER 7
EXPLORING THE NATURE OF TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL LEARNING John Loughran, Amanda Berry, Allie Clemans, Stephen Keast, Bianca Miranda, Graham Parr, Philip Riley and Elizabeth Tudball
,1752'8&7,21
,Q UHFHQW WLPHV WKH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ WUDGLWLRQDO 3URIHVVLRQDO 'HYHORSPHQW 3' DQG3URIHVVLRQDO/HDUQLQJ 3/ LVEHFRPLQJLQFUHDVLQJO\DSSDUHQW7KHVKLIW DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHLQWHQWDQGWKHODQJXDJHEHWZHHQ3'DQG3/LVHYLGHQWLQWKH UHSRUW E\:HL HW DO 7KH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ 3' DQG 3/ LV DOVR FDSWXUHG E\0RFNOHU ZKRFKDUDFWHUL]HG3'DVVRPHWKLQJGHOLYHUHGLQDµVSUD\RQ¶ PDQQHULQZKLFKWHDFKHUVDWWHQGDµ3'GD\¶WKHQUHWXUQWRWKHLUVFKRROVZLWKWKH expectation that they will implement the workshop ideas in their own practice. What is clear is that the professional learning of teachers has become increasingly UHFRJQLVHG DV LPSRUWDQW LQ HQKDQFLQJ QRW RQO\ WKH TXDOLW\ RI WHDFKLQJ LQ VFKRROV but also for developing the teaching profession more generally (Berry, Clemans, .RVWRJUL] 3/DSSURDFKHVWHQGWRHPSKDVL]HSUDFWLFHVWKDWDUH VXVWDLQHG RYHUWLPH UHVSRQVLYHWRWKHVSHFL¿FVRIVFKRRODQGFODVVURRPFRQWH[WV XQGHUSLQQHG E\UHVHDUFKDQGSUDFWLFHEDVHGHYLGHQFH DQGVXSSRUWHGE\SURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJ FRPPXQLWLHVDQGFROODERUDWLRQ +D\HV0LOOV&KULVWLH /LQJDUG +REDQ ,Q VKRUW 3' FRXOG EH YLHZHG DV GRLQJ WKLQJV WR WHDFKHUV VR WKDW WKH\ DSSO\WKHPLQWKHLUSUDFWLFHZKLOH3/LVDERXWZRUNLQJZLWKWHDFKHUVWRKHOSWKHP develop their skills, knowledge and abilities in ways that are responsive to their (pedagogical) needs, issues and concerns. ,Q 9LFWRULD $XVWUDOLD WKH 'HSDUWPHQW RI (GXFDWLRQ DQG (DUO\ &KLOGKRRG Education (DEECD) sought to develop a suite of programs designed to support WHDFKHUV¶SURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJ '((&' DQGFRQWUDFWHGWKH3HGDJRJ\DQG 3URIHVVLRQDO/HDUQLQJ5HVHDUFK*URXSDW0RQDVK8QLYHUVLW\WRGHYHORSDQGOHDGD SURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJSURMHFWIRUSULPDU\DQGVHFRQGDU\WHDFKHUVWLWOHGWKH/HDGLQJ 3URIHVVLRQDO/HDUQLQJ /3/ SURJUDP The program was designed to support teachers who were responsible for leading professional learning in their respective schools, by assisting them in exploring issues, concerns and dilemmas in their own practice and to document that profesVLRQDONQRZOHGJHWKURXJKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIFDVHV7KH/3/SURJUDPFRPSULVHG 4 day structured program (1 x 2 days, 2 x 1 day) spread over a teaching year ZLWKDVWURQJHPSKDVLVRQWHDFKHUUHVHDUFK A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 93–102. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 7
*URXSLQJWHDFKHUSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWR3HHU6XSSRUW5HVHDUFK1HWZRUNVWKDWIXUWKHU
supported their ongoing professional learning between program meetings (7-10 SDUWLFLSDQWVSHUJURXS 3HHU6XSSRUW5HVHDUFK1HWZRUNOHDGHUV DFDGHPLFVWDII±DXWKRUVRIWKLVSDSHU íLQYROYHGLQFRQGXFWLQJWKHSURJUDP 6FKRROEDVHG UHVHDUFK SURMHFWV FRQFHSWXDOL]HG GHYHORSHG GLUHFWHG DQG FRPSOHWHGE\SDUWLFLSDQWWHDFKHUV Case writing, review and the development of learning communities. 7KH/3/SURJUDPDLPHGWR VWUHQJWKHQSDUWLFLSDQWV¶NQRZOHGJHRIDSSURDFKHVWROHDUQLQJWKURXJKWKHRULHVRI SURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJFRPPXQLWLHV GHYHORS SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH '((&'¶V 3ULQFLSOHV RI +LJKO\ (IIHFWLYH3URIHVVLRQDO/HDUQLQJ '((&' EXLOGSDUWLFLSDQWV¶FDSDELOLW\WRGHVLJQLPSOHPHQWDQGHYDOXDWHHIIHFWLYHVFKRRO EDVHGSURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJWKDWVXSSRUWVLPSURYHGWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ DQG LQFUHDVH SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ DELOLW\ WR VXFFHVVIXOO\ LPSOHPHQW FKDQJH LQLWLDWLYHV WKDW contribute to continued growth and development of their school. $ NH\ WDVN IRU SDUWLFLSDQWV ZDV WR GHVLJQ D 3/ 3URMHFW DSSURSULDWH IRU WKHLU VFKRROFRQWH[WDOLJQHGZLWKVFKRROSULRULWLHVDQGPRVWLPSRUWDQWO\WREHµGRDEOH¶ ZLWKLQDWKUHHPRQWKWLPHIUDPH6RPHSURMHFWVIRFXVHGRQHVWDEOLVKLQJQHZSURcesses for professional learning such as mentoring for new staff, the development of induction programs and peer observation practices, through to curriculum innovations and departmental policy implementation related to the Performance and Development Cultures in schools. 7RKHOSIRFXVSDUWLFLSDQWVRQWKHLUOHDUQLQJDERXWOHDGLQJ 3/ WKH ¿QDO SURJUDP task was a one-day case writing activity. Participants were asked to carefully consider an important learning incident during the implementation of their project that FDXVHGWKHPWRUHÀHFWRQDQGDUWLFXODWHWKHLUOHDGHUVKLSFDSDELOLWLHV8VLQJDFDVH writing methodology, participants constructed their cases, shared and discussed WKHLUGUDIWVDQGWKHQWKURXJKFROODERUDWLRQZLWKWKHLU3HHU1HWZRUN/HDGHUVIXUWKHUHGLWHGUH¿QHGDQGFROODWHGWKHLUFDVHVLQSUHSDUDWLRQIRUSXEOLFDWLRQDVDERRN 7KH XVH RI FDVH ZULWLQJ /XQGHEHUJ 6KXOPDQ ZDV LQLWLDWHG LQ DQ DWWHPSW WR FDSWXUH SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKHLU SURIHVVLRQDO OHDUQLQJ through their experiences of the program. Cases have been viewed as important for providing a real-world classroom context in which to foster discoveries about teaching and learning at both a theoretical and practical level. Cases highlight the FRPSOH[LW\RIWHDFKLQJLQZD\VWKDWDUHUHDGLO\LGHQWL¿HGZLWKE\WHDFKHUV%HFDXVH cases offer insights into the specialist knowledge and skills of teachers, they form a strong base from which ongoing professional learning might be developed. Hence, they were used in the program because they were considered as an important way RIGHYHORSLQJSDUWLFLSDQWV¶NQRZOHGJHRISUDFWLFHDVOHDGHUVRISURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJ&DVHVWKHQEHFDPHDFDWDO\VWIRUIRVWHULQJSDUWLFLSDQWV¶UHÀHFWLRQRQSUDFWLFH DQGDVDZD\RIDUWLFXODWLQJWKHLUNH\OHDUQLQJH[SHULHQFHV QRWOHDVWEHFDXVHWKH DFW RI ZULWLQJ FDVHV IDFLOLWDWHV DQG HQDEOHV WHDFKHUV¶ SURIHVVLRQDO OHDUQLQJ DV LV clearly evident in the data below). 94
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An important reason for implementing case writing was based on the perceived value of participants documenting and sharing their professional knowledge of practice. Therefore, participants were encouraged to think carefully about what WKH\ ZHUH ZULWLQJ DERXW LQ WHUPV RI UHVSRQGLQJ WR WKH TXHVWLRQ ³:KDW KDV EHHQ learnt and why does it matter in understanding a given situation?” &DVHVZHUHFRQVWUXFWHGDURXQGUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHIROORZLQJSURPSWV What is this a case of? What are the facts of the case? What contextual details are important to help in analysing/understanding the case? What issues/dilemmas/tensions do you see in the case? What solutions exist/how might you manage the dilemmas/how do you feel about the situation? What is in the case that would help others identify with it? What approach to portrayal would help to strengthen the case and make it engaging for others? 5(6($5&+$3352$&+
The research approach developed included two parallel aspects of data collection DQG DQDO\VLV7KH ¿UVW LQYROYHG FROOHFWLQJ SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ FDVHV DQG RUJDQLVLQJ DQG analysing them using a thematic approach in terms of the intent/topic of the case. 2I WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV VXEPLWWHG WKHLU ¿QDO FDVH 7KH SURFHVV LQYROYHG WZR of the researchers reading the full set of cases and independently coding the case content to develop thematic groupings under which all cases could be allocated. The second involved interviews with a volunteer sample of participants (n = 12) one year after the completion of the program. For this data set, a researcher who KDG QRW EHHQ LQYROYHG LQ WKH /3/ SURJUDP FRQWDFWHG DOO SDUWLFLSDQWV DQG VRXJKW volunteers to be interviewed about their experience of the program. The researcher then organised a time and place convenient to the volunteer to be interviewed using a semi-structured interview protocol (below). The interviews were audio taped and transcribed and these data sets were then subjected to independent content analyVLV ,QWHUYLHZHHV ZHUH DVVLJQHG SVHXGRQ\PV DQG WKH UHVXOWV RI FRGLQJ ZHUH WKHQ XVHGDVDEDVLVIRUWKHVXEVHTXHQWDQDO\VLVDQGUHSRUWLQJ7KURXJKWKHVHWZRGDWD sets, the nature of professional learning, the value of the experience, the impact of SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ OHDUQLQJ RQ WKHLU SUDFWLFH DQG WKHLU YLHZV RI WKHLU RZQ SURIHVVLRQDO growth were able to be more fully explored. Semi-structured interview protocol: :KDWGLG\RXDFWXDOO\KRSHWRJHWRXWRIWKH/3/SURJUDP" 2. Can you give any examples of how the program helped you in your professional learning? 3. How has your learning from the program actually been sustained? Any examples? 4. What did you think about the process/experience of developing and writing 95
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cases? Have you used them? 5. What did you learn from your case writing experience, what value did you see in actually writing a case? 6. What do you want or need in terms of professional learning now? 7. Where do you expect to get professional learning from? 8. What do you think about the idea of teacher professional knowledge? Does it have any meaning to you? 9. What were your aims for your project, what did you get out of it? ,VWKHUHDQ\WKLQJHOVHZHKDYHQ¶WGLVFXVVHGWKDW\RXZRXOGOLNHWRUDLVH" 5(68/76
Case writing The cases were analysed and thematically grouped as one way of exploring the QDWXUHRIWKHLVVXHVWKDWSURPSWHGSDUWLFLSDQWVWRUHÀHFWRQWKHLUZRUNDVOHDGHUVRI professional learning in their schools. Table 1 offers an overview of that analysis. 7DEOH 7KHPDWLFDQDO\VLVRIFDVHV Cases theme
Number of cases
/HDGLQJSURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJ
14
6WDELOLW\DQGFKDQJH
12
/HDUQLQJWRZRUNZLWKWHDFKHUV
9
Recognizing multiple needs and perspectives
8
6XSSRUWLYHOHDGHUVKLS
7
/HDUQLQJWKURXJKSHUIRUPDQFHDQGGHYHORSPHQW
6
Peer observation
5
TOTAL
Being an experienced classroom teacher does not necessarily mean that the shift to OHDGLQJWKHSURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJRIRWKHUVLVVLPSOH,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRQRWHWKDWDVDOO participants were experienced classroom teachers that leading professional learning (n = 14), learning to work with teachers (n = 9) and recognizing multiple needs DQGSHUVSHFWLYHV Q ZHUHWKUHHRIWKHWRSWKHPHVWKDWDWWUDFWHGWKHVHDXWKRUV¶ DWWHQWLRQ LHFRPSULVLQJDSSUR[LPDWHO\RIWKHFDVHVZULWWHQ 'HVSLWHWKHVH SDUWLFLSDQWV¶NQRZOHGJHDQGDELOLW\DVWHDFKHUVLWVHHPVWKDWWKHVKLIWIURPWHDFKLQJ students to teaching adults captured the attention of many of the participants. 7KLV VKLIW UHIRFXVVHG PDQ\ SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ DWWHQWLRQ RQ WKHLU WHDFKLQJ VNLOOV DV they came to see a need to develop their knowledge and practice (or perhaps begin WR VHH LWV VLJQL¿FDQFH LQ VXSSRUWLQJ WKH OHDUQLQJ RI WKHLU FROOHDJXHV ,Q WKH VKLIW IURP D WHDFKHU¶V SUHGRPLQDQW IRFXV RQ FODVVURRP WHDFKLQJ WR WKDW RI VXSSRUWLQJ 96
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WKHOHDUQLQJRIFROOHDJXHVWKHVHWHDFKHUVEHJDQWRUHIUDPH 6FK|Q WHDFKLQJ and learning situations in ways that encouraged their own learning about practice in new ways. However, that does not mean that such a shift is automatic or simple. The experience of change in their teaching context (students to adults) led to their search for a knowledge base from which to draw on in order to foster their colOHDJXHV¶OHDUQLQJ7KLVLQWXUQOHGWRDQLPSRUWDQWUHTXHVWLRQLQJRIWKHLUWDNHQIRU granted assumptions about how they approached their teaching. Analysis of the cases comprising the theme of stability and change illustrates that their focus on leading professional learning carries over to not only what it meant to participants at a personal (leadership) level, but also in giving them insight into the amount of change experienced by teachers generally. The cases GHPRQVWUDWHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶FRQFHUQVDERXWWKHZD\VLQZKLFKWHDFKHUVDUHFRQVWDQWO\ IDFHG E\ FKDQJHV LQ WKHLU UROHV DQG WKH H[SHFWDWLRQV SODFHG XSRQ WKHP ,Q VRPH LQVWDQFHVWKH\TXHVWLRQHGZKHWKHUFKDQJHZDVPHDQLQJIXORUDSSURSULDWHWRWKHLU major role of teaching students, as opposed to being driven more by the demands RIDFFRXQWDELOLW\DQGLQFUHDVHGPDQDJHULDOLVP,QHVVHQFHWKLVWKHPHKLJKOLJKWHG WKHGLI¿FXOWLHVWKHVHFDVHDXWKRUVH[SHULHQFHGLQWU\LQJWRSODQIRUHIIHFWLYHFKDQJH ZLWKFROOHDJXHVZKRZHUHµFKDQJHZHDU\¶ *HQHUDOO\ ZKDW WKHVH FDVHV GHPRQVWUDWHG ZDV WKDW WKHVH SDUWLFLSDQWV EHJDQ WR look into their practice in ways that highlighted professional learning as being grounded in something personally relevant and particular to their given situation, rather than something imposed or mandated by others. The notion of autonomy and control then emerges as an important aspect of professional learning and as a catalyst for change. Interview data 2QH\HDUDIWHUWKHFRPSOHWLRQRIWKH/3/SURJUDPSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHLQYLWHGWREH LQWHUYLHZHGDERXWWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVRIWKHLUSURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJDVDFRQVHTXHQFH RIWKHSURJUDP7KRVHZKRYROXQWHHUHGWREHLQYROYHG Q ZHUHLQWHUYLHZHG DQGDQDO\VLVRIWKHVHLQWHUYLHZVKLJKOLJKWHGWKHIROORZLQJWKHPHV 3DUWLFLSDQWV¶JRDOVIRU/3/ Perceived value of the program Perspectives on cases Each of these is elaborated on individually in the following sections. Participants’ goals for LPL: Participants who spoke about their goals for being involved offered views that focussed on their personal concerns about gaining leadership skills. The overwhelming response (8/12) was associated with the need WR GHYHORS FRQ¿GHQFH LQ WKHLU VNLOOV7HDFKHUV VDZ D QHHG IRU VXFK GHYHORSPHQW because of the demands of their role as a leader of professional learning. Perhaps WKHQRWLRQRIFRQ¿GHQFHFRXOGEHLQWHUSUHWHGDVDQHHGIRUUHDVVXUDQFHWRVXFFHVVIXOO\OHDGWKHSURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJRIWKHLUFROOHDJXHV >/3/ KHOSHG EHFDXVH@ LW MXVW JDYH PH PRUH FRQ¿GHQFH «:KHQ ZRUNLQJ 97
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ZLWK \RXU SHHUV LW JLYHV \RX WKH FRQ¿GHQFH \RX DFWXDOO\ GR KDYH D ORW RI skills and a lot of experience to share and it validates what you already know. 1DWDOLH For two of the participants, the development of knowledge and skills was important in terms of their ability to use such development as an entrée to promotion and to continue to enhance their work in a positive manner. , ZDQWHG WR GHYHORS P\ VNLOOV LQ OHDGHUVKLS DQG PRYH WRZDUGV /HDGLQJ Teacher type work and towards getting a career in that pathway. (Emma) Only one interviewee (Betty) was involved for the express purpose of developing how to skills for the delivery of Professional Development to others, because she µZDQWHGPRUHRQGHOLYHULQJ3'>SURIHVVLRQDOGHYHORSPHQW@WRRWKHUSURIHVVLRQDOV¶ The majority of interviewees were new to their leadership role and saw the program as a way of assisting and supporting them in their development. Perceived value of the program: Most perceived the value of the program as that of learning through sharing with like-minded people in similar roles and that the knowledge they gained tended to reinforce that which they already knew. For some (5/12), the opportunity to speak to their peers was viewed as a rich experience and ZDVKLJKRQWKHLUOLVWRIWKHLUSHUFHLYHGYDOXH WKDWZDVSDUWLFXODUO\VRIRUWKRVHLQ WKHLU¿UVW\HDURIDOHDGHUVKLSUROH'LVFXVVLRQZLWKFROOHDJXHVZDVVHHQDVKHOSIXO in creating ideas and approaches for further development. :HOO,WKLQNLWMXVWJDYHPHDZKROHQHZSHUVSHFWLYHRQZKDWSURIHVVLRQDO OHDUQLQJLQDVFKRROUHDOO\LV,JXHVV,WKRXJKWRILWEHIRUHDVJRLQJRIIWROLNH a professional development event somewhere else and listening to a speaker and it just gave me a much broader picture of what professional learning can EH LQ \RXU VFKRRO ,W DOVR JDYH PH WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR WDON WR ORWV RI RWKHU people who have been doing that for a while in their school. (Anita) 7KH/3/SURJUDPKHOSHGSDUWLFLSDQWVWRWKLQNGLIIHUHQWO\DERXWKRZWRVXSSRUWWKH SURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJRIRWKHUV7KLVLVGHPRQVWUDWHGE\.D\ZKRVDZYDOXHLQWKH SURJUDPLQWHUPVRIQRWRQO\WKHQDWXUHRISURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJLWVHOI EXWZKDWLW is and how it is different from professional development. Half of the interviewees KDGYLHZVVLPLODUWR.D\ « LW PDGH PH SODQ D ORW PRUH FDUHIXOO\ ZKDW , ZDV JRLQJ WR SUHVHQW DQG KRZ,ZDVGRLQJLWDQGLWPDGHPHWKLQNRIDORQJHUWHUPSURMHFW,KDGDORW more forward planning going into the actual presentation and planning out VWHSE\VWHSVHTXHQWLDOO\ZKDWLWZDVWKDW,ZDVJRLQJWRGRLQWHUPVRIWKDW SURIHVVLRQDODFWLRQ .D\ $ QDWXUDO FRQVHTXHQFH RI WKLQNLQJ DERXW SURIHVVLRQDO OHDUQLQJ LQ WKH ZD\ WKHVH interviewees described it is highlighted by the way they thought about the need to 98
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share their learning with others both formally and informally. ,¶YHUHSRUWHGWRWKH6FKRRO&RXQFLODQGP\3ULQFLSDODERXWWKHSURIHVVLRQDO learning program and shared it with colleagues who have entered leadership programs this year or intend to do it for next year. (Tom) Perspectives on cases: )RUPDQ\RIWKHLQWHUYLHZHHV WKHYDOXHLQWKH¿QDO product, the cases book, came from identifying with similar dilemmas and learning QHZDQGYDULHGVWUDWHJLHVIRUGHDOLQJZLWKWKHP ³,UHDGVRPHRIWKHRWKHUFDVHV DQG IRXQG LW LQWHUHVWLQJ WKDW ZH DOO KDG WKH VDPH SUREOHPV , JDYH RQH FRS\ >RI WKHERRN@WRP\3ULQFLSDORQKLVUHTXHVWDQGKHKDVVDLGLWKDVEHHQIDQWDVWLFWR UHDG,HQMR\HGVHHLQJP\SLHFHRIZULWLQJLQDERRN´([WHQGLQJWKLVYLHZ.D\ HQWKXVLDVWLFDOO\VWDWHGWKDWWKHFDVHVERRNZDV ³UHDOO\XVHIXOIRUPHDVD3ULQFLSDO to read it because a lot of it centred on issues to do with leadership support in terms of professional development.” The cases book was a resource that interviewees valued as it validated the development of their own professional knowledge and offered a range of other experiences that helped to extend their understanding of professional learning beyond their own individual situation. %HWW\ >0\ FDVH DQG WKH ERRN LWVHOI@ LW ZDV SXW EHDXWLIXOO\ UHDOO\ VR , ZDV TXLWHKDSS\ Anita hints at an aspect of the cases book that was common for all participants. They shared the book with others as a resource and could see possibilities for its use, but even for those who had not used the book themselves, that personal lack of XVHGLGQRWDSSHDUWRGLPLQLVKWKHLUSHUFHLYHGYDOXHRIFDVHZULWLQJ «RQHRIRXUFXUUHQWOHDGLQJWHDFKHUVZKRKDVJRQHLQWRWKH/HDGLQJ3URIHVVLRQDO /HDUQLQJ SRVLWLRQ ZKHQ VKH ZDV DSSO\LQJ IRU KHU SRVLWLRQ , WROG KHUDERXWLWDQGJDYHLWWRKHU,¶YHFHUWDLQO\VKDUHGWKHFDVHVZLWKRXUQHZ OHDGHURISURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJ«,WKRXJKWWKDWLW>FDVHZULWLQJ@ZDVJRRG >WKRXJK@«,IHOWLPSRUWDQWDQGSDUWRIDOHDGHUVKLSSURJUDPDQGWKHQDWWKH HQGZKHQWKHWLPHDQGHQHUJ\ZDVSXWLQWRKHOSLQJXVZULWHXSWKHFDVH«LW JDYHXVSUREDEO\DIUDPHZRUNWRVWUXFWXUHRXUUHÀHFWLRQ,HQMR\HGWKHFDVH writing. (Tom) /LNH7RP DOO RI WKH LQWHUYLHZHHV ZHUH FRQVLVWHQWO\ RI WKH YLHZ WKDW FDVH ZULWLQJ ZDVDPHDQLQJIXOUHÀHFWLYHSURFHVVWKDWKHOSHGWKHPWRFODULI\DUDQJHRILVVXHV LQWKHLUSUDFWLFH)RU6DOO\FDVHZULWLQJDQGWKHXVHRIWKHFDVHVRIIHUHGKHUQHZ perspectives on professional learning that had a major impact on her understanding RISUDFWLFH ,WKLQNLW¶VDUHDOO\VWURQJWRRO«,IVRPHRQHDVNVPHDTXHVWLRQ,ZRXOGVD\ ³/RRNJLYHPHDPLQXWH´DQG,¶GKDYHDORRNEDFNDQGVHHLIVRPHRQHKDG 99
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been in a similar sort of situation where they were leading a meeting and they KDG RIWKHLUJURXSWKDWZHUHWXQHGRXWDQGZKDWVWUDWHJLHVGLGWKH\XVH to captivate their audience or what turned the meeting around that was the big PRPHQW«6R,¶YHDFWXDOO\XVHGWKHPWKDWZD\ZKLFKKDVEHHQIDEXORXV« ,PXVWDGPLWZKHQZHDOOGLGLW>ZURWHRXURZQFDVHV@LWZDVUHDOO\GDXQWLQJ DQGHYHU\RQHIRXQGLWDOLWWOHELWKDUG«2XULQLWLDOUHDFWLRQZDV\RXUW\SLFDO ³RKWKLVFRXOGEHWRRKDUGDQGZKDWDP,JRLQJWRGR"´%XWRQFHZHDOOJRW writing, it was really valuable because it really did get you, not to just look at a situation at the surface level, but to actually go right behind it and ask what WKHRWKHUSHRSOHZHUHIHHOLQJ
DQG@KDYHWKHRSSRUWXQLW\ WRKDYHWKDWWLPHWRVLWEDFNDQGDFWXDOO\UHÀHFWRQVRPHRIWKHWKLQJVWKDW KDYHKDSSHQHGDORQJWKHMRXUQH\ 6DOO\ The interviewees largely described their professional learning as occurring through communicating and sharing their experiences with their peers (8/12) and taking ULVNVLQWKHLUSUDFWLFH ,QVRGRLQJFDVHZULWLQJZDVLPSRUWDQW,QWHUPVRI FRPPXQLFDWLRQ FDVH ZULWLQJ IDFLOLWDWHG LQGLYLGXDOV¶ DUWLFXODWLRQ DQG SRUWUD\DO RI their experiences and as a product was an obvious form of dissemination of those LGHDV WR D ZLGHU DXGLHQFH ,Q WHUPV RI WDNLQJ ULVNV LQ WKHLU SUDFWLFH WKH JRDO RI developing a case to demonstrate their learning encouraged interviewees to push 100
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the boundaries of their practice and to use those experiences as the focus for their case writing which led to better understanding and valuing of their professional learning. ,W>FDVHZULWLQJ@PDGHPHUHDOO\WKLQNLQGHSWKRIDFWXDOO\ :KDWDUHWKHLVVXHV":KDWDUHWKHYHU\¿QHGHWDLOV":KHQ\RXWKLQNDERXWLWDQGVWDUWZULWLQJ DERXWLW\RXJR³2KZHOOSHUKDSVWKDWZDVDQLVVXHWKDW,KDGQ¶WHYHQORRNHG DW«+DGQ¶WDGGUHVVHGDQGWKHQ>\RXDUH@DEOHWRZULWHLWGRZQEHFDXVHZULWLQJLWPDGHLWFOHDUHU«,IRXQGLWUHDOO\HQOLJKWHQLQJ,QIDFW,KDYHLW>WKH FDVHV ERRN@ XS WKHUH DQG HYHU\ QRZ DQG WKHQ ZKHQ ,¶YH JRW ¿YH PLQXWHV , UHDGLW,WKLQNLW¶VLPSRUWDQWEHFDXVHHDFKWHDFKHUKDVGLIIHUHQWSHUVSHFWLYHV RQWKHZD\WKH\ZRUNDQGRQWKHZD\WKH\GHDOZLWKLVVXHVDQG,WKLQNRIWHQ \RXFDQSLFNXSRQLGHDVWKDWWKH\¶YHGRQHDQGWKH\¶YHGHDOWZLWKDQGWKLQN ³RKZHOO,¶OOWU\WKDW´6RLW¶VEHHQDYHU\JRRGOHDUQLQJFXUYHIRUPH (PPD
&21&/86,21
7KHVKLIWLQODQJXDJHIURP3URIHVVLRQDO'HYHORSPHQW 3' WR3URIHVVLRQDO/HDUQLQJ 3/ H[SODLQHGLQWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKLVFKDSWHULVDQLPSRUWDQWWRXFKVWRQHIRUWKH UHVHDUFKUHSRUWHGKHUH,WKDVEHHQZHOOUHFRJQL]HGWKDWGHVSLWHWKHEHVWLQWHQWLRQV professional development does not always lead to professional learning. Fullan JRHVVRIDUDVWRVWDWHWKDWH[WHUQDODSSURDFKHVJHQHUDOO\DUHQRW³SRZHUIXO HQRXJKVSHFL¿FHQRXJKRUVXVWDLQHGHQRXJK´ S WROHDGWRPHDQLQJIXOFKDQJH EHFDXVHWKH\WHQGWREHUHPRYHGIURPWHDFKHUV¶UHDOZRUNQHHGVDQGUHDOFRQFHUQV The use of case writing is an approach to supporting professional learning based RQFUHDWLQJDFROODERUDWLYHWUXVWLQJHQYLURQPHQWWKURXJKZKLFKUHÀHFWLYHLQTXLU\ LQWRRQH¶VRZQSUDFWLFHLQYLWHVHQJDJHPHQWZLWKDQGUHVSRQVHVWRWKHSUREOHPV DQGGLOHPPDVRISUDFWLFH /LHEHUPDQ :RRG 7KHUHIRUHWKHDSSURDFKWR case writing outlined in this chapter can be seen as one way of recognizing and UHVSRQGLQJWRWHDFKHUV¶QHHGVLQRUGHUWRFUHDWHFRQGLWLRQVFRQGXFLYHWRJHQXLQH professional learning. :HLHWDO LQWKHLUUHFHQWDQGH[WHQVLYHUHYLHZRI3URIHVVLRQDO/HDUQLQJ LQWKH86GUHZDWWHQWLRQWRWKHIDFWWKDW There is increasing consensus that the most effective forms of professional GHYHORSPHQWDUHWKRVHWKDWDUHGLUHFWO\UHODWHGWRWHDFKHUV¶LQVWUXFWLRQDOSUDFtice, intensive and sustained, integrated with school-reform efforts, and that actively engage teachers in collaborative professional communities. Teachers in many high-achieving nations [e.g., Finland] have these kinds of opportunities on a regular basis, as considerable time is built into their work week for collegial planning and learning, lesson study, and peer observations. (p. 39) 7KH GDWD LQ WKLV FKDSWHU GHPRQVWUDWHV KRZ LPSRUWDQW LW LV WR DGGUHVV WHDFKHUV¶ personal professional needs and expectations by embedding their learning in their 101
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professional and personal contexts, issues and dilemmas. As the results of this VWXG\ LOOXVWUDWH WKLV DSSURDFK SXUSRVHIXOO\ H[WHQGHG DQG GHYHORSHG SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ professional learning by making time and space available for them to grapple with and articulate their professional learning in ways that validated them as ‘knowledge SURGXFHUV¶ , ORYHG WKH FDVH ZULWLQJ ,W ZDV D YHU\ FUHDWLYH H[HUFLVH DQG WKH UHVXOW ZDV IDQWDVWLF WKH ERRN LV JUHDW ,¶P VR SURXG RI ZKDW , ZURWH +RZ RIWHQ GR \RX PDNH \RXUVHOI VLW GRZQ DQG ZULWH VRPHWKLQJ OLNH WKDW"
5()(5(1&(6 %HUU\$&OHPDQV$ .RVWRJUL]$ (GV Dimensions of professional learning: Identities, professionalism and practice'RUGUHFKW 6HQVH3XEOLVKHUV '((&' 3URIHVVLRQDO OHDUQLQJ LQ HIIHFWLYH VFKRROV 7KH VHYHQ SULQFLSOHV RI KLJKO\ HIIHFWLYH professional learning Retrieved 11 March, 2009, from KWWS ZZZHGXZHEYLFJRYDXHGXOLEUDU\ SXEOLFWHDFKOHDUQWHDFKHU3URI/HDUQLQJ,Q(IIHFWLYH6FKRROVSGI '((&' /HDUQLQJ WR /HDG (IIHFWLYH 6FKRROV 5HWULHYHG 'HFHPEHU IURP KWWS ZZZ HGXFDWLRQYLFJRYDXSURÀHDUQLQJVFKRROOHDGHUVKLSGHIDXOWKWP Fullan, M. (2007). Change the terms for teacher learning. Journal of Staff Development,, 28(3), 35–36. +D\HV'0LOOV0&KULVWLH3 /LQJDUG% Teachers and schooling making a difference. 6\GQH\ $OOHQDQG8QZLQ +REDQ*) Teacher learning for educational change: A systems thinking approach%XFNLQJKDP 2SHQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV /LHEHUUPDQ$ :RRG' )URPQHWZRUNOHDUQLQJWRFODVVURRPWHDFKLQJJournal of Educational &KDQJ, 315–337. /RXJKUDQ-- 1RUWK¿HOG-5 Opening the classroom door: Teacher, researcher, learner. /RQGRQ )DOPHU3UHVV /XQGHEHUJ0 'LVFRYHULQJWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJWKURXJKFDVHV,Q0$/XQGHEHUJ%%/HYLQ ++DUULQJWRQ (GV Who learns what from cases and how: The research base for teaching and learning with cases0DKZDK1- /DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV,QF 0RFNOHU 1 7UDQVIRUPLQJ WHDFKHUV 1HZ SURIHVVLRQDO OHDUQLQJ DQG WUDQVIRUPDWLYH WHDFKHU professionalism. -RXUQDORI,QVHUYLFH(GXFDWLRQ(4), 733–746. 6FK|Q '$ 7KH UHÀHFWLYH SUDFWLWLRQHU +RZ SURIHVVLRQDOV WKLQN LQ DFWLRQ 1HZ
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),9(67(36)25:$5'í DEVELOPING PEDAGOGICAL EXPERTISE DURING TEACHER EDUCATION Helena Koskinen
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'HYHORSLQJ WKH WHDFKHUV¶ SHGDJRJLFDO VWXGLHVi DW 7KH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI /DSODQG LQ )LQODQG KDV EHHQ EDVHG RQ WKH VWXGHQWV¶ HYDOXDWLRQ DQG IHHGEDFN RQ WKH VWXG\ SURJUDP RYHU WKH FRXUVH RI VHYHUDO \HDUV 1 $FFRUGLQJ WR VWXGHQWV¶ LQWHUYLHZV LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDULW\ LV D UHPDUNDEOH FKDOOHQJH WR WKH construction of teacher identity, and it has a strong effect regarding expectations for the studies under discussion. The theoretical background of a new mode, as DSDUWRIWKHVWXGLHVNQRZQDVWKH³)LYHVWHSVIRUZDUGSDWKZD\´WRVXSSRUWWKH UHÀHFWLRQ SURFHVV GXULQJ SHGDJRJLFDO VWXGLHV LV GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV DUWLFOH DV ZHOO WKHPDLQ¿QGLQJVRIWKHVWXG\H[SORUHVWXGHQWV¶DQGWHDFKHUV¶H[SHULHQFHVFORVHO\ DIWHUWKH\KDYHXVHGWKHPRGHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPH,QFRQVHTXHQFHLWKDVEHHQIRXQG that there are needs to strengthen the development process of teacher identity, to ¿QGZD\VWRLQFUHDVHVWXGHQWV¶DZDUHQHVVRIWKHLUSULRUOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHVLQWKH context of teaching, learning and studying and to increase interaction and better LQWHJUDWLRQ RI VLQJOH PRGXOHV RI WKH VWXGLHV 6WXGHQWV VWXG\ WR EHFRPH WHDFKHUV DIWHU JUDGXDWLRQ RU DV D PLQRU VXEMHFW LQ D 0DVWHU¶V GHJUHH RQGLIIHUHQW ¿HOGV RI VFLHQFHV1RQGHJUHHSHGDJRJLFDOVWXGLHVDUHFRQWLQXLQJVWXGLHVIRUWKRVHZKRDUH interested in becoming teachers for different schools or who want to work as an H[SHUWLQGLIIHUHQWVHFWRUVZKHUHSHGDJRJLFDONQRZKRZLVGHPDQGHGRUEHQH¿FLDO $WWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI/DSODQGWKHIRFXVLQWKHVHVWXGLHVLVRQYRFDWLRQDOHGXFDWLRQ DQG DGXOW HGXFDWLRQ 7R LQFUHDVH WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH VWXGLHV VWXGHQWV DUH VHHQ DV critical partners in the development of the studies and the metaphor of steps taken along the learning pathway invites designers and educators to join the students in shared learning. When starting the studies, many of the students already have experiences in WHDFKLQJ+RZHYHUWKHUHDUHVRPHZKRKDYHQ¶WWKRXJKWWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJDFWXDORU VLJQL¿FDQWGXULQJSUHYLRXVVWXGLHVRUZKRKDGQRSHGDJRJLFDOWUDLQLQJFRPELQHG with their major subject at universities. Afterwards, they worked as part-time or VXSSO\WHDFKHUVDQGIRXQGWKHZRUNLQWHUHVWLQJDQGFKDOOHQJLQJ,QRWKHUZRUGV they managed to work as a teacher based on the experiences of personal schooling A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 103–116. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 8
DQGVWXG\LQJ,QWKHVHFDVHVTXLWHREYLRXVO\SHGDJRJLFDOWKLQNLQJUHPDLQVRQWKH DFWLRQ OHYHO VXFK D WHDFKHU PDNHV XS KLVKHU PLQG DQG VROYHV SUREOHPV LQ HDFK VLWXDWLRQ VSHFL¿FDOO\ *RRGVRQ .DQVDQHQ 6RPH RWKHUV GLG QRW have any teaching experiences before studies but they all had some working life experiences. %HWZHHQ WLPHV WKHUH ZDV WKH )LYH
2YHU WKH \HDUV WKHUH KDYH EHHQ PDQ\ WKHRUHWLFDO DSSURDFKHV SUHVHQWHG WR GH¿QH teacher identity or teacher expertise. The development of teacher identity is seen as not being linear but an on-going, dynamic process, following individual routes and ODVWLQJOLIHORQJDQGDVVXFKLWUHTXLUHVWKHDVSLULQJWHDFKHUWRHQJDJHDQGWRWDNH UHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUKLVKHURZQGHYHORSPHQW %HLMDDUG9HUORRS 9HUPXQW ,W LV D VORZ SURFHVV D SURFHVV RI SURJUHVVLYH SUREOHP VROYLQJ UHWKLQNLQJ DQG UHGH¿QLQJDQGEHLQJDZDUGHGZLWKWKHHOHPHQWVRIDSURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\ %RJOHU 6RPHFK +XEHUPDQ 3RVWDUHII $FFRUGLQJO\ WKH TXHVWLRQ DULVHV ,V LW JURZWK DQGRU GHYHORSPHQW" *URZWK LV VHHQ DV DQ LQFUHDVH LQ WKH TXDQWLW\RINQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVDQGGHYHORSPHQWDVDQLQFUHDVHLQFDSDELOLW\WR FKDQJHRQH¶VYLHZ %HDLUVWR ,WLVZRUWKZKLOHWRDVNZKDWUROHGRHVWHDFKHU training play in this progress? A teacher needs theoretical and practical knowledge and the capacity to adapt his/her expertise to different situations both individually and collectively, and the capability to justify his/her actions. Expertise as personal experience is based on WKHHYDOXDWLRQRIFXUUHQWNQRZKRZDQGVNLOOVDQGUHDGLQHVVWRDFWDQGWR¿QGVROXWLRQV SHGDJRJLFDO LQ WKLV FDVH DFFRUGLQJ WR FXUUHQW JRDOV ,VRSDKNDOD ± %RXUHW 5DPVGHQ ,Q VRPH PRGHOV WKH IRFXV LV RQ OHDUQLQJ LQ SUDFWLFH DQG RQ HPSKDVLVLQJ H[SHULHQWLDO OHDUQLQJ .ROE¶V ZHOONQRZQ OHDUQLQJ PRGHO HPSKDVLVHV WKH UROH RI UHÀHFWLYH WKLQNLQJ DQG WKH FRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ RI SHUVRQDO experiences. This has been a leading way of rethinking for development of the ¿YH VWHSV PRGH XQGHU GLVFXVVLRQ 7KHUH DUH WZR LPSRUWDQW DQG LQWHUZRYHQ IDFWRUVLQWHDFKHUGHYHORSPHQW WKHSURIHVVLRQDOVHOIDQGVXEMHFWLYHHGXFDWLRQDOWKHRU\ 104
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.HOFKWHUPDQV %DOOHW 'HYHORSPHQWRIERWKVWDUWVLQWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJEXW the confrontation comes true in practice. During the training students get teaching experiences under supervised practice. The best experiences are built up in the real teaching situations with full responsibility. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) model the progression to expertise as a process from QRYLFHWRH[SHUWWKURXJKFKDQJLQJRQ¿YHOHYHOV7KHUHDUHFKDQJHVLQPRYHPHQW from relying on abstract principles to using concrete experiences as paradigms and change in the view of perception of situations and as a change from observer to involved performer. %RJOHU WDONV DERXW HPSRZHUHG WHDFKHUV WHDFKHUV ZKR DUH SDUWLFXODUO\ ZLOOLQJWRVROYHSUREOHPVDQGHDJHUWRLPSURYHWKHVWXGHQWV¶PRWLYDWLRQDQGOHDUQLQJVWUDWHJLHV,QDGXOWHGXFDWLRQWKLVLVDWWKHFHQWHUHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQVWXGHQWVZDQW to study a new profession or they do not know what to study and how to cope with life. For the empowered teacher, teacherhood, i.e., teacher identity is personal experience of and awareness regarding his/her own profession describing as well the way he/she feels about teaching. Also it is a phenomenal link to others with similar education and training. When developing the pedagogical studies, teacherhood has been seen as an entity including subject knowledge, pedagogical know-how, skills in collaboration and interaction and skills demanded in the working life such as beLQJIDPLOLDUZLWKDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDQGVWXGHQWZHOIDUHDQGWHDFKHU¶VULJKWVDQGGXWLHV Pedagogical know-how should be developed as an integrated part of each VWXGHQW¶V SHUVRQDO LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ H[SHUWLVH 7KH WUDLQLQJ LV QRW ORQJ WKUHH VHPHVWHUVDQGWKHSURFHVVKDVWREHNHSWLQWHQVLYHDQGÀXHQW3ULQFLSOHVRIFXPXODWLYH DQG EOHQGHG OHDUQLQJ *UDKDP 0DFGRQDOG 6WXEEV 0DUWLQ (QGODU 6LQJK :HQJHU DUHWDNHQLQWRSUDFWLFHLQWKHWHDFKHUV¶ pedagogical studies. Teacherhood is under development continuously in education contexts and in society and personally through both formal and informal learning DFWLYLWLHV1RQIRUPDOOHDUQLQJDQGOHDUQLQJLQLQWHUDFWLRQDUHLQSURFHVVDOOGXULQJ DQ LQGLYLGXDO¶V WHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFHV HQULFKLQJ WKH SURIHVVLRQDO FDSDELOLW\ &KDSSHOO -RKQVWRQ ,VRSDKNDOD%RXUHW 7KH VWXGLHV GHVFULEHG KHUH ZHUH designed to be an integrated unity of on-campus contact periods, off-campus eOHDUQLQJDQGLQGLYLGXDOZRUN2QHSDUWRIWKHVWXGLHVLVOHDUQLQJE\GRLQJLQ¿HOG schools in mentored teaching practice. Practice is based on the students´ prior OHDUQLQJDQGNQRZKRZDQGVXSSRUWHGE\FROOHFWLYHUHÀHFWLRQDQGVHOIUHÀHFWLRQ )LJXUHEHORZVXPPDULVHVWKHEOHQGRIWKHVWXGLHV
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)LJXUH%OHQGHGOHDUQLQJFXPXODWLQJLQFROODERUDWLRQDQGLQGLYLGXDOO\
,Q UHÀHFWLRQ OHDUQHUV EHFRPH FRQVFLRXV RI DVVXPSWLRQV EHOLHIV DQG SHUFHSWLRQV DQG FRQVFLRXVO\ FRPSDUH WKHP WR KLVKHU RZQ H[SHFWDWLRQV 5HÀHFWLYH WKLQNLQJ assumes the main role in transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1991), and is ZKDWPDNHVLWSRVVLEOHWROHDUQWRFKDQJHRQH¶VYLHZ %URRN¿HOG 3RVWDUHII 7KH GHYHORSPHQW RI DZDUHQHVV RI UHÀHFWLYH SUDFWLFH DQG SHGDJRJLFDO WKLQNLQJ DUH FRQQHFWHG WR GH¿QLWLRQV RI UHÀHFWLYH SUDFWLFH DQG OHDUQLQJ LQ FROODERUDWLRQDQGLQFULWLFDOSDUWQHUVKLS %XUQHWDO .DQVDQHQ 3DUVRQV 6WHSKHQVRQ 5HÀHFWLYHSUDFWLFHLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJEDVHGRQPHWDFRJQLWLRQV being awarded and able to monitor the development RQH¶V of learning and WR SXW LWV DSSOLFDWLRQ LQWR SUDFWLFH *XVN\ 3DUVRQV 6WHSKHQVRQ Professional development starts in education and continues on into the working life %HLMDDUG HW DO (QJHVWU|P 3RVWDUHII 6KDUHG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ i.e., peer dialogue makes professional development explicit, both in education DQGLQZRUNLQJSUDFWLFHV &KDSSHOO -RKQVWRQ -lUYLQHQ 3RLNHOD .\QlVODKWLHWDO ,WLVGLI¿FXOWWRGHWHUPLQHZKHQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWHDFKHULGHQWLW\KDVVWDUWHG in each case. As members of the learning society, we all have such a variation of H[SHULHQFHVRIOHDUQLQJVLWXDWLRQVDQGRIEHLQJLQÀXHQFHGE\QXPHURXVWHDFKHUV Already during school times, those who feel willing to take over a teaching role VWDUWWRGHYHORSDWHDFKHULGHQWLW\LQWKHLUPLQGVSHUKDSVVXEFRQVFLRXVO\,QVXFK cases, pedagogical thinking remains on the action level and reaches neither the ¿UVWQRUVHFRQGWKLQNLQJOHYHO %LJJV .DQVDQHQHWDO $GXOWOHDUQHUV are seen as self-oriented and able to set their individual goals to act and to learn. According to personal experiences in teaching, the student may think he/she knows HQRXJKDERXWSHGDJRJ\VRWKHIRUPDOFHUWL¿FDWLRQLVWKHPDLQSXUSRVHRIWUDLQLQJ 106
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,QIDFWHYHU\\HDUDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHVWXGLHVXQGHUGLVFXVVLRQRQHRUWZRRI WKHVWXGHQWVSRLQWWKLVRXW,IWHDFKHULGHQWLW\LVVHHQDVWKHFRQWLQXLQJGHYHORSPHQW of expertise, these students can be a great challenge for educators. Being aware of the consideration of prior learning and experiences, we designers and educators in these studies talk and write about development to become a teacher (those who do not have teaching experiences) and about development as a teacher (those who already have teaching experiences accumulated over many \HDUV WRJLYHDVLJQDORIUHVSHFWLQJDOOVWXGHQWVHTXDOO\DQGWRSRLQWRXWWKDWWHDFKer identity is an ongoing process. Also an adult learner joining the studies may already have an identity of some other profession such as nursing or engineering according to his/her former education and work experiences. A change from being DQXUVHWRDWHDFKHURIQXUVLQJDQGKHDOWKFDUHLQYROYHVTXHVWLRQVRIWKHUHFRQVWUXFtion of professional identity. 5(6($5&+48(67,216$1''$7$
,QWKLVDUWLFOHWKHIRFXVLVRQWKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV 'LGWKHZHEEDVHG PRGH ¿YHVWHSVIRUZDUGSDWKZD\ KHOS VWXGHQWV WR XQGHUVWDQG DQG VWUHQJWKHQ UHÀHFWLRQ RQ SURIHVVLRQDO GHYHORSPHQW DQG WHDFKHU LGHQWLW\ DQG WR LQWHJUDWH pedagogical know-how with prior studies? And further, what are the main challenges for further development of studies? The data was collected during the academic year 2008-2009. There were 40 VWXGHQWVLQWUDLQLQJGXULQJWKHWLPH6WXGHQWVZHUHIURPGLIIHUHQWIDFXOWLHVLQWKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI /DSODQG HGXFDWLRQ ODZ DUW DQG GHVLJQ WRXULVP DQG EXVLQHVV DQG VRFLDOVFLHQFHV6RPHRIWKHVWXGHQWVKDGDOUHDG\¿QLVKHGDPDVWHU¶VGHJUHHDWGLIIHUHQWXQLYHUVLWLHV6WXGHQWVDVZHOODVIRXUWHDFKHUHGXFDWRUVZKRZHUHLQYROYHG DWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWUDLQLQJWRUXQRULHQWDWLRQFODVVHVUHÀHFWHGWKHLUH[SHULHQFHV $OOVWXGHQWVVWDUWHGWKHSURJUDPDQG Q VWXGHQWV¿QLVKHGWKHZKROHSDWKway and worked out portfolios for this study. Data was collected from students E\ TXHVWLRQQDLUHV RQH DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ DQG DQRWKHU DW WKH HQG RI WUDLQLQJ DV D SDUWRIVWHSVDQG7RIRUPDQGGHOLYHUTXHVWLRQQDLUHVWKH:HEURSROVXUYH\ VRIWZDUH RQOLQH VROXWLRQ ZDV XVHG %RWK TXHVWLRQQDLUHV FRQVLVWHG RI D VHFWLRQ RI VHPLVWUXFWXUHG TXHVWLRQV DQG D VHFWLRQ RI RSHQ TXHVWLRQV$V D SDUW RI WKH ¿UVW TXHVWLRQQDLUHVWXGHQWVDVVHVVHGWKHLUH[SHFWDWLRQVDERXWWKHVWXGLHVDQGWKHLULQGLYLGXDOVWUHQJWKV DOVRZKDWZHUHWKHLUSHUVRQDOFKDOOHQJHVLQGHYHORSLQJWHDFKHU LGHQWLW\DQGLQGLYLGXDOH[SHUWLVH7KHVHFRQGTXHVWLRQQDLUHZDVWRDVVHVVVWXG\LQJ DQGOHDUQLQJH[SHULHQFHVDVZHOODVWKHUROHRIWKHPRGHLQUHÀHFWLYHSUDFWLFH$W WKHHQGRIWKHVWXGLHVVWXGHQWVDVVHVVHGDQGUHÀHFWHGLQSRUWIROLRVRQWKHLUFXUUHQW expertise and the challenges for the future learning and development. $WWKHHQGRIWKHRULHQWDWLRQSHULRGWKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWRUV¶GRFXPHQWDWLRQUHJDUGLQJWKHLUH[SHULHQFHVRIRULHQWDWLRQWRWDNHLQXVHWKHPRGHZDVFROOHFWHG,QRUGHU to get a better and fuller understanding of the action, a multimethod approach was UHTXLUHG'DWDFROOHFWLRQXVLQJERWKTXDQWLWDWLYHDQGTXDOLWDWLYHPHWKRGVSURGXFes more information on the topics. When a holistic view of educational outcomes 107
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is sought, methodological triangulation is suitable. The resulting correspondence of different study results of the same phenomena enables the researcher to be more FRQ¿GHQWDERXWWKH¿QGLQJV &RKHQ 0DQLRQ All the evaluation texts were analyzed applying content analysis, categorizing expectations and strengths according to prior learning and to understanding on teacher identity. The dominating facts are explored in this article. ),9(7$6.672)$&($1'72:25.7+528*+
'H¿QHG SHGDJRJLFDO DLPV IRU WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH PRGH í ¿YH VWHSV IRUZDUG SDWKZD\íZHUHWRVWUHQJWKHQDQGVXSSRUWWKHIROORZLQJDUHDV 5HÀHFWLRQRIWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVVWKURXJKRXWWKHVWXGLHV 5HÀHFWLRQ RI NQRZKRZ DQG H[SHULHQFHV DQG UHÀHFWLRQ RI LQWHJUDWLRQ DQG conceptualization. Construction and assessment of interdisciplinary expertise and teacher identity as a part of it. 'H¿QLQJRIWKHVWXGHQW¶VVXEMHFWLYHHGXFDWLRQDOWKHRU\ ,QWHUDFWLRQDQGPHQWRULQJEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWSDUWQHUVGXULQJWKHVWXGLHV 5HÀHFWLRQ RQ OHDUQLQJ ZDV VXSSRUWHG E\ DVVLJQPHQWV DQG DVVHVVPHQWV GRQH both individually and collectively. E-learning space was used to maximize colleJLDO UHÀHFWLRQ 6WXGHQWV FDPH IURP D ZLGH JHRJUDSKLFDO DUHD DQG PDQ\ RI WKHP ZHUHSDUWWLPHVWXGHQWV6XSSRUWHGRQOLQHVKDULQJDQGJDWKHULQJ V\QFKURQRXVRU asynchronous) made collaborative work possible and maintained activity on a high OHYHOUHGXFLQJWKHQHHGIRUIUHTXHQWIDFHWRIDFHFRQWDFW7RIXO¿OODOOWKLVDGLary was taken in use in an e-learning environment to prepare and collect material IRU WKH SRUWIROLR DVVHVVPHQW DV D ¿QDO RI VWXGLHV ,Q WKLV FRQWH[W WKH SRUWIROLR LV seen as an assessment document showing what you know, how do you understand WKH SUREOHPV DQG ZKDW NLQG RI DELOLWLHV \RX KDYH 1LLNNR YDQ GHU 6FKDDI 6WRNNLQJ 9HUORRS 7KHOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHVDUHDGGUHVVHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKH IUDPHRI7KH(XURSHDQ4XDOL¿FDWLRQV)UDPHZRUN (4) 7KHVHVWDQGDUGVFRQVLVW of knowledge as facts, principles, theories and practices related to teaching, learnLQJ VWXG\LQJ DQG VFKRROLQJ VNLOOV DV DQ DELOLW\ WR DSSO\ NQRZOHGJH LQ WHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFHVDQGXVHNQRZKRZWRFRPSOHWHWDVNVDQGVROYHSUREOHPV DQGVNLOOVDOVR DVVRFLDODQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQDODELOLWLHV DQGFRPSHWHQFHDVDSURYHQDELOLW\WRSXW DOOWKHVHLQWRSUDFWLFHDWZRUNDQGLQSHUVRQDOGHYHORSPHQW $QGHUVRQHWDO 7KH(XURSHDQ4XDOL¿FDWLRQV)UDPHZRUNIRUOLIHORQJOHDUQLQJ 7KHSRUWIROLR is to provide an individual narrative concerning the learning process and expertise. $FFRUGLQJ WR IRUPHU VWXGHQWV¶ IHHGEDFN WKH\ RIWHQ VDZ DVVLJQPHQWV ZKLFK have been planned to guide and assess their learning, as separate tasks and so the assignments have not always been effective and cumulatively supportive in learnLQJDQGUHÀHFWLRQ7KH\DOVRVDZWKDWWKHUHZDVQRWDOZD\VHQRXJKPHQWRULQJQRU ZDVLWPHWHTXDOO\+RZHYHUWKHHGXFDWRUVKDYHEHHQGHHSO\DZDUHDERXWGLIIHUHQW learning strategies when mentoring the students. The chosen learning strategy has DQDIIHFWRQDWWLWXGHVDQGWKLQNLQJDERXWOHDUQLQJLQTXDOLW\DQGTXDQWLW\7RJDWKHU 108
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and to process knowledge, a learning strategy will guide a person to operate and WRFKRRVHWKHNLQGRISURFHVVHVKHVKHIHHOVWREHSOHDVDQWDQGVDIH8QVXFFHVVIXO UHÀHFWLRQ PD\ EH FDXVHG E\ VXUIDFHRULHQWHG OHDUQLQJ ,Q VXFK FDVHV WKH VWXGHQW concentrates on external facts and the activity of discussing problems of learning UHPDLQVLQFRPSOHWH7KHDSSURDFKLVQRWGHHSHQRXJKDQGDZDUHQHVVLVVKDOORZ,Q contrast, deep-oriented learning helps to understand better the matters and to see UHODWLRQVDPRQJZLGHUFRQQHFWLRQVLQH[SHUWLVHDQGPD\FRQ¿UPRQH¶VSHGDJRJLFDO WKLQNLQJ 0DUWRQ 6lOM| 6DGOHU (YDQV 7KH¿YHVWHSVIRUZDUG pathway was planned to answer these challenges. All students have faced the same tasks following his/her personal progress and SHUVRQDOVWXG\SODQ7KHSURFHVVZHQWRQVWDUWLQJZLWKDQDO\WLFDOUHÀHFWLRQJRLQJ WKURXJKDVVHVVLQJUHÀHFWLRQDQG¿QLVKLQJZLWKFULWLFDOUHÀHFWLRQDQGJHQHUDWLQJD view of the future. The process included assessing personal strengths and accepting new challenges in order to be able to continue development of teacher identity DIWHUWUDLQLQJDQGWRWDNHFDUHRIRQH¶VZHOOEHLQJ *XVN\ /HYDQGHU Partners in this process were peer students, mentor teachers and students/pupils who had met during teaching practice as well as all educators involved in studies. All experiences, including any attendant emotions and all received feedback were WREHGLVFXVVHGWKRURXJKO\ $UJ\ULV 6FK|Q -lQWWL /HYDQGHU Carnell, 2000). During the studies, each student was supposed to do construction work on his/her personal educational theory considering especially the elements of pedagogical thinking and decision making. 7KH ¿UVW VWHS RQ WKH ¿YHVWHSVIRUZDUGSDWKZD\ ZDV WR DVVHVV SULRU OHDUQLQJ DQGH[SHULHQFHV $3(/ FXUUHQWSHUVRQDOVWUHQJWKVDQGZHDNQHVVHVDQGWR FRQFHQWUDWHWR¿QGRXWWKHWKHPHRISHUVRQDORULHQWDWLRQE\ZKLFKDVWXGHQWFRXOG WDUJHWKLVKHUSHUVRQDODLPVLQVWXGLHV/HDUQLQJDWZRUNZDVDOVRDIRFXVRIWKLV DQDO\VLV%DVHGRQWKLVVWXGHQWVGH¿QHGWKHLUSHUVRQDODLPVDQGH[SHFWDWLRQVRQ WKHVWXGLHV$OOWKLVZDVWRVXSSRUWDQDO\WLFDOUHÀHFWLRQ 7RVXSSRUWWKHDVVHVVLQJUHÀHFWLRQWKHUHZHUHWZRWDVNV VWHSVDQG WRZRUN RXW7KHVHFRQGVWHSZDVWRUHÀHFWWKHWHDFKLQJSURFHVVFROOHFWLYHO\EDVHGRQH[SHULHQFHVLQWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHLHFROODERUDWLYHOHDUQLQJLQSHHUWRSHHUUHÀHFWLRQ During the learning at work period students joined in asynchronous on-line discusVLRQV ZLWK SHHU VWXGHQWV RQ WKH WHDFKHU¶V SHGDJRJLFDO NQRZKRZ LQ JHQHUDO7KH WKLUGVWHSUHTXLUHGWKHVWXGHQWWRHYDOXDWHKLVKHUSHUVRQDOSHGDJRJLFDONQRZKRZ (DFKVWXGHQWIDFHGWKHWDVNZKHQ¿QLVKLQJWKHSUDFWLFHLQWKH¿HOGVFKRRO7KHUH were different elements concerning pedagogy and teacher identity to evaluate and everybody could add his/her own element in comparison to personal know-how, feelings and experiences, all integrated with the theories. The aim was to approach and strengthen theoretical understanding and pedagogical thinking. 7KHIRXUWKDQG¿IWKVWHSVZHUHWRHQJDJHLQFULWLFDOUHÀHFWLRQ WRHYDOXDWH VWHS OHDUQLQJSURFHVVHVDQGWRPDNHOHDUQLQJYLVLEOH WRDVVHVVWKHWUDLQLQJLQZKROH and to complete the portfolio (step 5). At the same time, the learning space was used as a demonstration of e-learning. Throughout the studies, students were involved in assessing the learning space and to see it from the pedagogical point of view and to discuss it as becoming teachers 109
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or to compare it to previous e-learning and teaching experiences. This challenged the designers and the educators of the studies to make how they operated visible. 67(367$.(1±7+(5(68/76
+RZWRELQGWRJHWKHUWHDFKHULGHQWLW\íH[SHFWDWLRQVRQVWXGLHV $V WKH ¿UVW VWHS HDFK VWXGHQW DVVHVVHG DQG GH¿QHG LQGLYLGXDO FKDOOHQJHV IRU development of teacher identity as a part of individual expertise based on prior learning and personal strengths and weaknesses. On this, the students listed their DLPV DQG H[SHFWDWLRQV UHJDUGLQJ WKH VWXGLHV$V RQH RI WKH VWXGHQWV SXW LW ³KRZ WR ELQG WRJHWKHU P\ WHDFKHU LGHQWLW\´ ± WKDW FDPH RXW DV D GRPLQDWLQJ TXHVWLRQ expressed in different words. %DVHGRQWKHVH¿QGLQJVLWZDVSRVVLEOHWRIRUPWZRFDWHJRULHVRXWRIDLPVDQG H[SHFWDWLRQV XQGHUVWDQGLQJWHDFKHULGHQWLW\DQGGLGDFWLFVLQSUDFWLFH,QERWKFDWHJRULHVWKHGRPLQDWLQJTXHVWLRQUHJDUGHGZKHWKHUWKHUHZDVDODFNRIWKHRUHWLFDO knowledge and of adopting of knowledge to practice. Trust and belief in personal ability came out as a most dominating issue among the weaknesses and the need to strengthen these as an aim. Concerning the growth and development of teacher identity, the following were PHQWLRQHG DQHHGIRUEHWWHUNQRZLQJLQWKHRULHVDQGEHWWHUPHWDFRJQLWLYHXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGWKHTXHVWLRQRIWKHWHDFKHU¶VDXWKRULW\$OVRWKHTXHVWLRQVRIUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGDXWRQRP\LQWHDFKHUV¶ZRUNZHUHPHQWLRQHG6WXGHQWVSRLQWHGRXWPDQ\ didactical facts to learn and to improve, such as teaching methods, skills to meet different learners and understanding learning styles and strategies and evaluation RIOHDUQLQJ7KHGRPLQDWLQJVWUHQJWKVZHUHFRQQHFWHGWRWKH¿HOGVRIVFLHQFHVRI subject specialism and know-how in social and communication skills. Between stuGHQWVWKHUHZHUHQRWVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHVLQH[SHFWDWLRQVGHSHQGLQJRQIRUPHU teaching experiences. Binding and bridging :KHQ¿QLVKLQJWKHVWXGLHVHDFKVWXGHQWHYDOXDWHGWKH¿YHVWHSVIRUZDUGSDWKZD\ DV D SDUW RI WKH VWXGLHV (DFK ZDV DVNHG LI WKH ¿YH WDVNV VXSSRUWHG UHÀHFWLRQ RQ teacher identity and if their expectations had become realised and how did they see pedagogical know-how as having been strengthened as a part of their personal expertise. 2QHKDOIRIWKHVWXGHQWV DVVHVVHGWKDWWKHLUH[SHFWDWLRQVDQGDLPVIRU VWXGLHV KDG EHHQ IXO¿OOHG ZHOO DQG WKH UHVW VDZ WKH UHVXOWV DV H[FHOOHQW +DOIRIWKHVWXGHQWV DVVHVVHGWKDWWKHVWXGLHVKDGVWUHQJWKHQHGWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHLUWHDFKHULGHQWLW\DQGH[SHUWLVHVLJQL¿FDQWO\DQGDOPRVWWKHUHVW VDLGWKDWWKH\ZHUHDEOHWRVHHHIIHFWVEXWWKHSURFHVVLVVWLOOVWURQJO\RQJRLQJ 6RPH SRLQWHG RXW WKDW WKHLU IRUPHU H[SHUWLVH KDG EHHQ FRQ¿UPHG JUHDWO\ 110
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1RQHRIWKHVWXGHQWVVDZWUDLQLQJMXVWDVRQHZD\WRJHWWKHFHUWL¿FDWH $OOVWXGHQWVVDLGWKDWWKH¿YHVWHSWDVNVKHOSHGDQGVXSSRUWHGUHÀHFWLRQHLWKHU VLJQL¿FDQWO\ RU JUHDWO\ 1RQH RI WKHP KDG DQ RSLQLRQ WKDW WKH tasks were just like an assignment among the others. The diary for the portfolio ZDV IRXQG WR EH XVHIXO E\ KDOI RI WKH VWXGHQWV $ WKLUG RI WKH VWXGHQWV thought that the diary could have been replaced by some other tasks. One student IRXQGWKHSURFHVVXVHOHVV2QHKDOI WKRXJKWWKDWWKH\KDGEHHQPHQWRUHG ZKHQQHHGHGDQGDOPRVWWKHRWKHUKDOI KDGUHFHLYHGHQRXJKIHHGEDFNDQG PHQWRULQJ DQG ZHUH VDWLV¿HG ZLWK LW 2QH VWXGHQW VDLG WKDW VKH FRXOG KDYH XVHG more individual support during the studies. When analyzing the self-evaluation texts in portfolios, it was possible to group GHYHORSPHQW LQ WZR ¿UVWO\ E\ EHWWHU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKHRULHV DQG SUDFWLFHV LQ general and integrating theories in teaching practices and secondly, by better perVRQDOWUXVWDQGEHOLHILQRQH¶VDELOLW\WREHDWHDFKHU$VLQGLYLGXDOOHDUQLQJRXWcomes concerning better understanding of theories and practices came out, that the XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RQ WKH SHGDJRJLFDO DSSURDFKHV WR WKH VXEMHFW ¿HOG RI VFLHQFH ZDV more open after studies, and the assessment and recognition of prior learning and expertise was advanced. 0\SHGDJRJLFDONQRZKRZKDVDGYDQFHGHQRUPRXVO\GXULQJWKHVHWHDFKHU¶V SHGDJRJLFDOVWXGLHV$ZKROHQHZVHFWLRQLVDGGHGWRP\VXEMHFWH[SHUWLVH« 6LWXDWLRQVSHFL¿F DELOLW\ WR DFW DQG FRQ¿GHQFH KDYH GHYHORSHG DORQJVLGH VXEVWDQFH NQRZKRZ « , HVWLPDWH WKDW SHUFHLYLQJ P\VHOI DV DQ H[SHUW KDV FRPHWUXHYHU\ZHOO7KLVLVLQÀXHQFHGQRWRQO\E\WKHUHÀHFWLYHQDWXUHRIWKH pedagogical studies but also by my professional identity which has strengthened through my current working experiences. The awareness of the tacit knowledge grew as a part of the individual know-how. 7UXVWDQGEHOLHIDQGDOVRHWKLFVLQWHJUDWHGLQWHDFKHU¶VZRUNZHUHOHDUQHGWKURXJK WKHH[SHULHQFHVFDXVHGE\LQFUHDVLQJFULWLFLVPLQUHÀHFWLRQ3HGDJRJLFDOWKLQNLQJ and creativity were advanced. )URPWKHVWXGLHV,KDYHJDLQHGDORWRILQIRUPDWLRQRQKRZWRGHYHORSP\ pedagogical thinking and my own actions. These studies gave for my work DQLPSRUWDQWSHGDJRJLFNQRZOHGJHEDVHZKLFK,FRPPLWP\VHOIWRGHYHORSLQJDQGLPSURYLQJDVPXFKDV,FDQ$FTXLULQJDQLQTXLU\RULHQWHGDSSURDFK WRZDUGVZRUNDQLQTXLVLWLYHDQGRSHQDWWLWXGHWRZDUGVOHDUQLQJDQGGHYHORSLQJPHWDFRJQLWLYHVNLOOVJDYHPHUHDVRQIRUVHOIUHÀHFWLRQDVDOHDUQHUGXULQJ WKHVWXGLHVDVZHOODVZKHQDFWLQJDVDWHDFKHU,WLVDOVRKHOSIXOWRQRWLFHWKDW VHOIFULWLFLVPWRZDUGVWKHPHWKRGV,SUHYLRXVO\XVHGKDVLQFUHDVHG Also the ability to empower learners, i.e., students/pupils and him/herself, was found stronger. Awareness of the ethics of the teaching profession and trust in SHUVRQDO NQRZKRZ DQG WKH FDSDFLW\ WR FKDQJH RQH¶V YLHZV ZHUH EDVHG RQ WKH GHYHORSPHQWRIUHÀHFWLYHWKLQNLQJ 111
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,QWHDFKLQJVLWXDWLRQV,NQRZKRZWRLQWHUSUHWP\DFWLRQVDQG,VHHWKHLQÀXHQFHVRQOHDUQHUV,NQRZKRZWRFKDQJHP\WHDFKLQJPHWKRGVZKHQQHHGHG DVZHOODVLQWHUSUHWPLQHDQGWKHVWXGHQWV¶EHKDYLRU1RZ,DPDZDUHRIWKH FRQFHSWRIWHDFKHUKRRGDQG,NQRZKRZWRFRQVLGHUP\DFWLRQVRQDPHWD level. $OPRVWZLWKRXWQRWLFLQJ,KDYHDOVRGHYHORSHGP\WHDFKHULGHQWLW\±DVWURQJ YLVLRQRIZKDWNLQGRIDWHDFKHU,ZLVKWREHDQGDVWURQJQRWLRQRIZKDW, consider as good teaching. Many issues were mentioned both as learning outcomes and as challenges for further development. These issues varied between individuals. The following GRPLQDWLQJ FKDOOHQJHV ZHUH PHQWLRQHG KRZ WR FRSH DQG XSGDWH QHZ WHDFKLQJ PHWKRGVDQGWKHLQFUHDVLQJTXDQWLW\RINQRZOHGJH7RUHWKLQNDQGUHQHZSHUVRQDO educational theory was seen as being challenging. Also the better understanding of learning and teaching in multicultural contexts was seen as an actual challenge RIWHDFKHU¶VZRUN7HDFKLQJOHDUQHUVZLWKVSHFLDOQHHGVZDVPHQWLRQHGWRR7KHUH ZDVFRQVLGHUDWLRQDQGUHWKLQNLQJDERXWKRZWR¿QGWKHEHVWSHGDJRJLFDOVROXWLRQV according to current goals when teaching subject-knowledge concerning individual subject specialism. 7KH¿YHVWHSV¶UHÀHFWLRQDQGGRFXPHQWDWLRQZDVIRXQGWREHELQGLQJDQGEULGJing. Having an understanding of the integration of theories and practices on the ¿HOGRILQGLYLGXDOVSHFLDOLVPUHODWHGWRWKHWKHRULHVDQGSUDFWLFHVRIHGXFDWLRQZDV found to be binding. The portfolio did bridge the development of the teacher identity into the future and lifelong learning. Educators as partners of interactive learning $FFRUGLQJWRWHDFKHUV¶REVHUYDWLRQRIWKHH[SHULHQFHVGXULQJWKH¿UVWRQFDPSXV period, matters came out which did help students in their learning and studying and facts were found which were problematic. A dominating fact according to WHDFKHUHGXFDWRUV¶H[SHULHQFHVZDVWKHTXHVWLRQRIWKHGLIIHUHQWOHDUQLQJVWUDWHJLHV RIWKHVWXGHQWV7KLVLVDQLPSRUWDQWTXHVWLRQWRWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWZKHQSODQQLQJ IRUZDUGWKHPRGHDQGWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHPHQWRULQJ6WXGHQWV¶DOWHUQDWLYH HQJDJHPHQW WR RQOLQH OHDUQLQJ DQG GLIIHUHQW OHYHOV LQ ,&7VNLOOV GLG EHQH¿W RU challenge learning. The shared common language, i.e., knowing and understanding the concepts of education and pedagogy did vary and were found to be a problem LQ RULHQWDWLRQ 8QGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH FXPXODWLYH SURFHVV RI OHDUQLQJ VWHS E\ VWHS ZDV D TXHVWLRQ RI EHLQJ DEOH WR DFFHSW D QHZ ZD\ WR VWXG\ EHLQJ DEOH WR JLYH up the routines and to minimise achievement orientated approach to learning. 6RPHVWXGHQWVIRXQGLWGLI¿FXOWWRDFFHSWWKDWDOODVVLJQPHQWVDQGPDWHULDOVZHUH not available to be seen at once or free to browse. They had to wait until getting to a certain point in the studies to be allowed to open the next object. When the design logic and the visualisation of learning space were realised, a gate opened 112
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to understand the cumulative nature of the studies, which acted to motivate the learners. ,IWKHVWXGHQWWKRXJKWWKDWWKHEHVWZD\WRJDLQJUDGHVZDVWRVWDUWWKHVWXGLHV by listening to a good lecture instead of assessing prior learning, experiences and OHDUQLQJVWUDWHJLHVKHVKHIRXQGFRQIXVLQJWRVWDUWVWXGLHVE\UHÀHFWLRQ7KURXJK discussions with the students, educators came to understand that to evaluate and WRYDOXHRQH¶VNQRZKRZDQGWR¿QGSUHYLRXVVWXGLHVDVDSDUWRILQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ expertise was not easy. However, in the end, this approach was found awarding and motivating. 7KH UHVXOWV KDYH DOUHDG\ EHHQ XVHG IRU IXUWKHU GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH VWXGLHV í VSHFL¿FDOO\ IRU FXUULFXOXP GHYHORSPHQW DQG LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ 2QH RI WKH PDLQ FKDOOHQJHVWKDWUHPDLQVLVKRZWRLQFUHDVHWKHÀH[LELOLW\RIWKHVWXGLHV7KHUHDUH SHUVRQDOVWXG\SODQVZLWKSHUVRQDODLPVDQGGLIIHUHQWWUDGLWLRQVRIGLIIHUHQW¿HOGV of sciences to take into account. The learning pathway has to be built up out of elements which make it possible for each student to process them from their own point of view according to personal goals and special interests. For designers and teacher educators, this action provided an experience in how learning takes place in active interaction between students and educators. Both faFLOLWDWHHDFKRWKHUV¶OHDUQLQJ%HVWSUDFWLFHVLQJLYLQJDQGUHFHLYLQJIHHGEDFNDQG PHQWRULQJDUHXQGHUGHYHORSPHQWLQWKHQHDUIXWXUHDFFRUGLQJWRWKH¿QGLQJVRIWKH study. ',6&866,21
7R DGYDQFH WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH WHDFKHUV¶ SHGDJRJLFDO VWXGLHV DQG WR LPSURYH WKH methods of teacher educators in short trainings like those under discussion, the GHYHORSPHQWZRUNRIWKH¿YHVWHSVIRUZDUGSDWKZD\KDVEHHQVHHQDVUHOHYDQW7KH ¿QGLQJVRIWKHVWXG\VWUHQJWKHQWKHLGHDWKDWDÀH[LEOHH[SOLFLWPHWKRGLVXVHIXOWR JLYHVXSSRUWWRWKHVHOIHYDOXDWLRQDQGUHÀHFWLRQRIWHDFKHULGHQWLW\$ZHEEDVHG learning environment was found being practical in the cases under consideration. 3URJUHVVLYH UHÀHFWLRQ VWHSE\VWHS ZLGHQV DQG GHHSHQV XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI LQGLYLGXDO GHYHORSPHQW 7R UHÀHFW D WHDFKHU VWXGHQW QHHGV WR KDYH HQRXJK WLPH to rethink and to be able to receive support. The students found peer-to-peer PHQWRULQJKHOSIXO7HDFKHUV¶H[SHULHQFHVFRUUHVSRQGZLWKWKHVWXGHQWV¶H[SHULHQFHV RIXVLQJWKH¿YHVWHSVIRUZDUGSDWKZD\7KHPHWDSKRULQWHJUDWHGLQWRWKH¿YHVWHSV forward pathway was a good start to help students to realise the whole instead of VLQJOHHOHPHQWVDQGPDGHYLVLEOHKRZWHDFKHULGHQWLW\LVFRQVWUXFWHG ZKDWDUHWKH needed elements and how to wrap up everything together to attain the best possible learning outcomes. When it comes to designing curriculum for the sort of teacher trainings disFXVVHGKHUHDVSHFLDOFKDOOHQJHLVLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDULW\6WXGHQWVVHHLQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ H[SHUWLVHDVDEOHQGRINQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVRIWKH¿HOGVRIVXEMHFWVFLHQFHVDQG HGXFDWLRQ 7KHUH DUH RQH RU PRUH WUDGLWLRQV DQG FRQFHSWV RI WKH GLIIHUHQW ¿HOGV of sciences to integrate with understanding into the science of education. For the 113
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IXUWKHU GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH FXUULFXOXP IRU WHDFKHUV¶ SHGDJRJLFDO WUDLQLQJ DV FRQWLQXLQJVWXGLHVWKHIRFXVQHHGVWREHRQÀH[LELOLW\$VVLJQPHQWVRIUHÀHFWLRQDQG the rest of practical work have to be designed and instructed so that it becomes more and more possible to apply them with various individual and situation speFL¿FQHHGV7KHIXO¿OOLQJRIOHDUQHUV¶VXEMHFWLYHJRDOVDQGH[SHFWDWLRQVZLOOVHUYH WRHQKDQFHPRWLYDWLRQDQGIHHGUHÀHFWLRQ6KDULQJNQRZKRZLQLQWHUDFWLRQJLYHV DSRVVLELOLW\WRH[SODLQDQGMXVWLI\RQH¶VRZQSRLQWRIYLHZH[SOLFLWO\DQGWROHDUQ IURP FULWLFDO UHÀHFWLRQ 7KH ¿QGLQJV LQGLFDWH WKDW D UHÀHFWLQJ SUDFWLFH EDVHG RQ mentored teaching practice turned out to be a most effective process in the conVWUXFWLRQ DQG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WHDFKHU LGHQWLW\ 6WXGHQWV ZLGHQHG WKHLU WKLQNLQJ explicitly on topics like creativity, empowerment and ethics integrated in teacher identity which were new compared to their expectations before training. The study strengthened the notion that the construction of teacher identity is a personal, ongoing process and teacher education gives a good start for the process and hopefully good tools to continue the progress after training at work. All this EHFDPHDSSDUHQWZKHQWKHVWXGHQWVGH¿QHGWKHFKDOOHQJHVIRUWKHLUIXUWKHUGHYHORSPHQW$IWHUWUDLQLQJWKHH[SUHVVLRQVZHUHPRUHGH¿QHGDQGFRQFHSWXDOLVHG,WLV a sign of development to change from being an observer to an involved actor. $VWRVWXGHQWV¶H[SHFWDWLRQVIRUWUDLQLQJWKHUHZHUHQRVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHV between those who had teaching experiences before studies compared with those without any teaching experiences. This proves that it is not possible to construct a WHDFKHU¶VLGHQWLW\VLPSO\RQH[SHULHQFHV([SHULHQFHVQHHGWREHUHÀHFWHGRQDQG VXSSRUWHGE\WKHRULHV5HÀHFWLRQLVWKHZD\WREHFRPHFRQVFLRXVRIWKHSURJUHVV 7KH¿QGLQJVSURYHWKDWUHÀHFWLYHWKLQNLQJDQGFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQRISHUVRQDOH[SHULHQFHVSOD\DPDLQUROHLQVWXGHQWV¶VHOIHYDOXDWLRQV 7KH VWXG\ ¿QGLQJV LQFUHDVH DQG GHHSHQ WKH SURJUDP GHVLJQHUV¶ XQGHUVWDQGing of the challenges for designing short-term teacher training for adult students who already have a developed professional identity based on prior education and ZRUNLQJH[SHULHQFHV*LYHQWKHTXDOLWDWLYHDSSURDFKWRWKHSUREOHPLQWKHVWXG\ LW ZDV VLJQL¿FDQW WKDW WKH UHVHDUFKHU ZDV DEOH WR JHW FORVH WR WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV LQ RUGHUWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHUHDOLWLHVRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶HYHU\GD\OLIH,QWKLVVWXG\WKH researcher was one of the designers and educators as well. There are local and even wider challenges to discuss as regards the teacher TXDOL¿FDWLRQLQWKHFDVHZKHQWKHWHDFKHULVWHDFKLQJRQGLIIHUHQWOHYHOVRIVFKRROV from comprehensive school to vocational school and to higher education and even LQDGXOWHGXFDWLRQFODVVHV,QSHULSKHULHVOLNH)LQQLVK/DSODQGEHFDXVHRIGHPRgraphic reasons, teachers may need to teach learners on different levels during the VDPHWLPHSHULRGZKLFKUHTXLUHVDJUHDWGHDORIVHOIUHÀHFWLRQFRQWLQXLQJWUDLQLQJ and creativity as well as the capability to change views and to adapt the know-how to various situations and to discover new strategic approaches.
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5()(5(1&(6 $QGHUVRQ / : .UDWKZRKO ' 5$LUDVLDQ 3 : &UXLNVKDQN .$ 0D\HU 3 5 3LQWULFK - Wittrock, M. C. (Eds.), (2001). A Taxonomy for learning, teaching & assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives86$ $GGLVRQ:HVOH\/RQJPDQ,QF $3(/:RUNLQJ*URXS Recognition of prior learning6FRWODQG 8QLYHUVLW\RI3DLVOH $UJ\ULV& 6FK|Q' Organizational learning/RQGRQ $GGLVRQ:HVOH\ %HDLUVWR-$% 3URIHVVLRQDOJURZWKDQGGHYHORSPHQW :KDWLVLWDQGKRZGRZHNQRZLILW¶V ZRUNLQJ",Q35XRKRWLH 3*ULPPHWW (GV Professional growth and development: Directions, delivery and dilemmas SS ± 7DPSHUH &DUHHU'HYHORSPHQW)LQODQG %HLMDDUG ' 9HUORRS 1 9HUPXQW - ' 7HDFKHUV¶ SHUFHSWLRQV RI SURIHVVLRQDO LGHQWLW\ Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(7), 749–764. Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32, 347–504. %RJOHU 5 6RPHFK $ ,QÀXHQFH RI WHDFKHU HPSRZHUPHQW RQ WHDFKHUV¶ RUJDQL]DWLRQDO commitment, professional commitment and organizational citizenship behaviour in schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(3), 277–289. %URRN¿HOG6' %HFRPLQJDFULWLFDOO\UHÀHFWLYHWHDFKHU6DQ)UDQFLVFR -RVVH\%DVV %XUQ.+DJJHU+0XWWRQ7 (YHUWRQ7 7KHFRPSOH[GHYHORSPHQWRIVWXGHQWWHDFKHUV¶ thinking. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 9(4), 309–331. &DUUHOO&/RGJH&:DJQHU3:DWNLQV& :KDOOH\& /HDUQLQJDERXWOHDUQLQJ 5HVRXUFHV IRUVXSSRUWLQJHIIHFWLYHOHDUQLQJ/RQGRQ 5RXWOHGJH &KDSSHOO & -RKQVWRQ 5 Changing work: Changing roles for vocational education and training teachers and trainers.6RXWK$XVWUDOLD 1DWLRQDO&HQWUHIRU9RFDWLRQDO(GXFDWLRQ5HVHDUFK &RKHQ / 0DQLRQ / 0RUULVRQ . Research methods in education (5th HG /RQGRQ Routledge Falmer. 'UH\IXV+/ 'UH\IXV6( Mind over machine. The power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer.2[IRUG %DFLO%ODFNZHOO (QJHVWU|P< ([SDQVLYH OHDUQLQJ DW ZRUN 7RZDUG DQ DFWLYLW\ WKHRU\ RI UHFRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ Journal of Education and Work, 14(1), 133–156. European Commission, (2003). 9DOLGDWLRQRIQRQIRUPDODQGLQIRUPDOOHDUQLQJí&RQWULEXWLRQRIWKH Commission Expert Group. Brussels. *RRGVRQ,) Professional knowledge and professional lives: Studies in education and change. 0DLGHQKHDG 2SHQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV *UDKDP&5 %OHQGHGOHDUQLQJV\VWHPV 'H¿QLWLRQFXUUHQWWUHQGVDQGIXWXUHGLUHFWLRQV,Q& -%RQN &5*UDKDP (GV +DQGERRNRIEOHQGHGOHDUQLQJ SS± 6DQ)UDQFLVFR 3IHLIIHU *UHHQSDSHURQ7HDFKHU(GXFDWLRQLQ(XURSH ,Q)%XFKEHUJHU%3&DPSRV'.DOORV - 6WHSKHQVRQ (GV Thematic network on teacher education in Europe8PHn8QLYHUVLWHW6ZHGHQ *XVNH\75 Evaluating professional development7KRXVDQG2DNV&$ &RUZLQ3UHVV +XEHUPDQ 0 3URIHVVLRQDO FDUHHUV DQG SURIHVVLRQDO GHYHORSPHQW ,Q 7 5 *XVNH\ 0 Huberman. Professional development in education. New paradigms and practices (pp. 193–224). 1HZ
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The W5W2 project (2007–2009) supports the implementation of the Bologna process in the Finnish 8QLYHUVLWLHV7KH::SURMHFWFRQFHQWUDWHVRQFXPXODWLYHOHDUQLQJ.QRZOHGJHVKRXOGDFFXPXODWH in the long-term memory during the studies. That is how the competencies are created. Methods for assessing learning will also be developed, and the implementation of the Bologna process from the perspective of curriculum design and student-centred study counselling will be evaluated. Pilot projects according to the themes are also an essential part of the W5W2 project.
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TAKING METACOGNITION A STEP FURTHER: TEACHERS SHARING PEDAGOGICAL PURPOSES Ian Mitchell and Judie Mitchell
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,Q WKH 3URMHFW IRU (QKDQFLQJ (IIHFWLYH /HDUQLQJ 3((/ WHDFKHUV KDYH EHHQ working at promoting metacognition for 25 years in a collaborative action research SURMHFW$JURXSRI3((/WHDFKHUVKDVUHFHQWO\WDNHQPHWDFRJQLWLRQDVWHSIXUWKHU by developing new ways of making explicit sense of teaching and learning. They have systematically built, with their students, a shared language for learning DQG UHJXODUO\ VKDUH WKHLU SHGDJRJLFDO SXUSRVHV ZLWK WKHLU VWXGHQWV ,Q WKLV SDSHU we outline four kinds of knowledge that we believe are necessary for enhanced metacognition. Whilst practice and enterprise is outstripping the pace of research, there is evidence that the key themes which form the necessary conditions for buildLQJ OHDUQLQJ SRZHU LQ FODVVURRPV LQFOXGH WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQWHDFKHUVDQGOHDUQHUVWKHTXDOLW\RIGLDORJXHLQZKLFKOLVWHQLQJWR WKHµRWKHU¶LVFHQWUDOWRTXHVWLRQLQJDQGGHEDWHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIDORFDOO\ owned language for naming these processes, student choice and voice, and UHVHTXHQFLQJWKHFRQWHQWRIWKHFXUULFXOXPZKLFKLQYROYHVµSUREOHPDWL]LQJ¶ DQG µFRQWH[WXDOL]LQJ¶ WKH FRQWHQW VR DV WR FUHDWH FKDOOHQJH DQG PHDQLQJIXOQHVV¶ 'HDNLQDQG&ULFNHWDO Much has been written about metacognition and the importance of students knowing about their own learning, and becoming life-long, independent learners. 0RVW VFKRROV LQ 9LFWRULD $XVWUDOLD KDYH FKDUWHU GRFXPHQWV ZKLFK OLVW DPRQJVW their priorities, the importance of higher order thinking, metacognition and the VRFDOOHG µWKLQNLQJ FXUULFXOXP¶ +RZHYHU VWXG\ DIWHU VWXG\ UHFRUGV WKDW WHDFKHUV ¿QGLWKDUGWRFKDQJHWKHLUSUDFWLFHLQZD\VZKLFKUHÀHFWQHZUHVHDUFK &RUQIRUG &XEDQ 'HDNLQ &ULFN :LOVRQ 3HGGHU 4XLFNH :LQWHU :DH\WHQV Most of the literature in the area of metacognition deals with the ideas on a theoretical level, and there is little that documents how these ideals are being played out in real classrooms. Wilson (2000) notes that most of the research that is available has been conducted under optimal learning conditions. ‘Problems of embedding A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 117–136. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
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the approach (teaching thinking skills) into everyday classroom practice, based upon what the average teacher can achieve rather than the expert practitioner workLQJLQJRRGFRQGLWLRQVZLWKZHOOPRWLYDWHGSXSLOVUHPDLQVWREHGHPRQVWUDWHG¶ Many teachers and schools have taken various learning theories and tried to imSOHPHQWWKHPLQFODVVURRPV7KHRULHVVXFKDV*DUGQHU¶V0XOWLSOH,QWHOOLJHQFHVDQG &RVWD¶V+DELWVRI0LQGDUHSRSXODULQ$XVWUDOLD+RZHIIHFWLYHWKHVHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQVDUHLV\HWWREHUHSRUWHGWKRXJK&XEDQ S UHSRUWVWKDW*DUGQHU¶V WKHRU\RI0XOWLSOH,QWHOOLJHQFHVGRHVQRWDFWXDOO\¿OWHUGRZQHIIHFWLYHO\LQWRHYHU\GD\FODVVURRPSUDFWLFHDWOHDVWLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV$VXUYH\E\3HGGHU p. 198) notes that in 2004 levels of practice (in promoting learning autonomy) still appeared to lag behind levels of values. What teachers espouse as good practice LVQRWZKDWWKH\QHFHVVDULO\LPSOHPHQWLQWKHLUFODVVURRPV:DH\WHQV/HDQVDQG 9DQGHQEXUJK S LQDVWXG\RIWHDFKHUVLQ¿YH)OHPLVKVHFRQGDU\ VFKRROVIRXQGWKDWµOHDUQLQJWROHDUQ´UHPDLQVDYHU\YDJXHFRQFHSWIRUWHDFKHUV¶ They go on to note that this ‘lack of clarity could be the reason why the introducWLRQRI³OHDUQLQJWROHDUQ´KDGRQO\PLQLPDOLPSDFWRQWKHWHDFKLQJEHKDYLRXU¶ We argue that there is a lack of the kinds of knowledge necessary for teachers to be able to implement a thinking or learning agenda in their classrooms. This lack LVPRUHWKDQMXVWDODFNRIWLSVDQGWULFNV LWLVPXFKPRUHFRPSOH[7HDFKHUVQHHG deeper understandings of classroom dynamics, classroom discourse, and relationships, as well as understandings of student and teacher change. This study reports on the practice of ten teachers who have taken the research seriously and explores what happens when teachers shift their primary focus from teaching to learning, and the implications this has for both teachers and students in their classes. 7KH WHDFKHUV KDYH EHHQ SDUW RI WKH 3URMHFW IRU (QKDQFLQJ (IIHFWLYH /HDUQLQJ 3((/ ZKLFKEHJDQDVDFROODERUDWLYHUHVHDUFKSURMHFWLQ ZLWKWHDFKHUV DQGWZRDFDGHPLFV7KHSXUSRVHRI3((/ZDVWRIRFXVRQOHDUQLQJZLWKWKHDLP of helping students become more metacognitive. At that time, the teachers in the original study understood that they needed to talk with students about learning. They also came to realise, over time, that both teachers and students would need to change their conceptions of what learning was, their teaching and learning behaviours and their attitudes to learning. For the students, these changes in conceptions, behaviours and attitudes collectively meant they were able to become more metacognitive. The present study builds on this body of knowledge and practice, and takes the notion of metacognition a step further. Teachers in this study are modelling metacognition for their students by explicitly sharing with them their pedagogical purposes. The teachers teach in both general and specialist disciplines. This study is based LQRQHVWDWH 9LFWRULD V\VWHPLQ$XVWUDOLD
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The teachers in this study use self-study, action research methods, to tackle some of the issues involved in implementing a learning agenda. They form a team, along ZLWK WZR DFDGHPLFV WKH DXWKRUV ZKLFK PHHWV UHJXODUO\ WR VKDUH DQG UHÀHFW RQ their practice. This model of collaborative professional development and teacher UHVHDUFK KDV EHHQ D IHDWXUH RI WKH 3((/ SURMHFW VLQFH LWV LQFHSWLRQ )RU PRUH LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW 3((/ DQG LWV SXEOLFDWLRQV VHH WKH ZHEVLWH ZZZZSHHOZHE RUJ ,Q WKH ¿UVW WZR \HDUV RI 3((/ WHDFKHUV LQ WKH RQH VFKRRO ZRUNHG FORVHO\ with academics. After the second year, when the project continued beyond its original intended time span, the input of the academics was no longer possible to WKHVDPHLQWHQVLYHH[WHQW3((/VSUHDGWRRWKHUVFKRROVDQGDQHWZRUNRIWHDFKHU groups was developed which included some academic input, and this has been the pattern for 26 years. Two federal government grants facilitated another intensive collaborative project involving intensive academic-teacher collaboration from 1995 to 2000, and during this time we learned more about how close collaboration could EHXVHIXOLQGHYHORSLQJQHZNQRZOHGJHDERXWWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ /RXJKUDQ Mitchell and Mitchell, 2002). This current research group was formed with the explicit purpose of re-establishing those teacher academic links. 7KHWHDFKHUVLQWKLVVWXG\KDYHDOOKDGDKLJKH[SRVXUHWR3((/LGHDVDQGKDYH successfully embedded these ideas about student learning and metacognition into their practice. They have a high level of agreement on what constitutes a learning DJHQGDDVZHOODVVRSKLVWLFDWHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRIZKDWµOHDUQLQJWROHDUQ¶PHDQV '$7$6285&(6
Most of these teachers have been documenting their practice for several years. 7KHUH DUH WKUHH VRXUFHV RI GDWD 7KH ¿UVW FRPHV IURP IRFXV JURXS PHHWLQJV RI teachers involved, beginning with two of the elementary teachers, (Jill and Jo) LQ WKH ODWH V WKHQ PRYLQJ WR D ODUJHU HOHPHQWDU\ QHWZRUN 3((/ 3ULPDU\ *URXS DQG IURP WKHUH WR D FRPELQHG HOHPHQWDU\ VHFRQGDU\ JURXS WKH 6KDULQJ Pedagogical Purposes group) involving all the teachers listed above. Detailed UHFRUGVRIWKHVHPHHWLQJVSOXVLQGLYLGXDOWHDFKHUUHÀHFWLRQVSURYLGHVRPHRIWKH data. The second source is video recordings taken in the classrooms of Jo Osler, $PDQGD6DI¿Q7DQ\D:KLWHVLGH%UHH0RRG\DQG6DUDK)ROH\7KHVHUHFRUGLQJV have been subjected to analysis by both the teachers themselves and other members of the profession (in in-service sessions). The third source of data is the broader collection of teacher writing, and teacher and student interviews that has been FROOHFWHGRYHUWKHSDVWWZRGHFDGHVLQWKHEURDGHU3((/QHWZRUN :HXVHWKLVGDWD¿UVWO\WRGRFXPHQWWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIRXUXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRI the kinds of knowledge we believe is important to furthering the notion of metaFRJQLWLRQ DQG OHDUQLQJ KRZ WR OHDUQ DQG VHFRQGO\ WR GLVFXVV VRPH LQVLJKWV DQG outcomes so far from the project.
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,Q /RUWLHQRWHGWKDWVWXGHQWV «DUH QRW SULY\ WR WKH WHDFKHU¶V SULYDWH LQWHQWLRQV DQG SHUVRQDO UHÀHFWLRQV RQ FODVVURRP HYHQWV 6WXGHQWV UDUHO\ SDUWLFLSDWH LQ VHOHFWLQJ JRDOV PDNLQJ preparations or post-mortem analysis. Thus they are not pressed to place the WHDFKHU¶VDFWLRQVLQDSHGDJRJLFDOO\RULHQWHGIUDPHZRUN¶ S /RUWLH¶V FRPPHQW SUHFHGHG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH QRWLRQ RI PHWDFRJQLWLRQ DQG becomes even more apt in an educational world where metacognition and learning KRZWROHDUQDUHFRPPRQSODFHJRDOV8QGHUVWDQGLQJZKDWWHDFKHUVDUHGRLQJDQG why, and participating actively in their own learning are clearly important aspects of metacognition. This group developed the phrase sharing pedagogical purposes to describe how they are researching and developing these important aspects of metacognition. 7KHRULJLQDOLGHDIRUWKLVJURXSFDPHDERXWLQZKHQWZR3((/HOHPHQtary teachers (Jo and Amanda) were interviewed after being videotaped teaching. 7KH\ZHUHDVNHGKRZDQGZK\WKH\KDGVHOHFWHGDQGVHTXHQFHGWKH WHDFKLQJ SURcedures they had. They talked in terms of the type of thinking that each procedure stimulated, the value of this for their key content ideas, the level of independence that their students were currently capable of and the next step that they wanted WKHP WR WDNH LQ WKLV MRXUQH\ WR KLJKHU TXDOLW\ OHDUQLQJ 7KHLU VWXGHQWV ZHUH DOVR interviewed and they talked about the different purposes of the teaching procedures that their teacher had used and how each one helped their learning and led to the next procedure. They talked about their own learning behaviours and the decisions WKH\PDGHERWKJHQHUDOO\DQGRQWKDWSDUWLFXODUGD\7KH\UHÀHFWHGRQZKDWWKH\ had done and how well they had met the intent of the tasks and what they might do differently in the future. These comments indicate that both teachers and students had a sophisticated sense of what teaching and learning involves and that everything they do, or are UHTXLUHGWRGRPDGHVHQVHWRWKHPLQDUDQJHRIZD\V7KLVLVQRWDOZD\VWKHFDVH in schools and classrooms where students, in particular, often complete tasks with little or no understanding of why they are doing them. 7KLVLGHDRIµVHQVHPDNLQJ¶ZDVDNH\VWHSLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIRXUFXUUHQWXQderstandings. We realised that the teachers we were observing and talking with had a very clear sense of such aspects of practice as the kinds of learning problems/poor learning tendencies that a particular task, concept or skill may throw up and a soSKLVWLFDWHGVHQVHRIWKHNLQGVRIWKLQNLQJDQGLQWHUDFWLRQ *RRG/HDUQLQJ%HKDYLRXUV í%DLUG VHHDSSHQGL[ WKDWWKH\ZDQWGXULQJDOHVVRQ7KH\XQGHUVWRRGLVVXHV of student change, as well as the nature of the journeys of student change, believed WKDWTXDOLW\OHDUQLQJFDQEHWDXJKWDQGOHDUQWDQGKHQFHWKDWWKLVLVZRUWKSHUVLVWLQJ with. They had a clear sense of the big ideas and key skills they were teaching as well as ways that students may construct rich meanings for these. They saw themselves as collaborative problem solvers and generators of new wisdom. 120
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7KHLUVWXGHQWVKDGDJHQHUDOVHQVHWKDWSURFHGXUHVVXFKDV9HQQGLDJUDPVKDYH purposes in terms of types of thinking and learning behaviours, as well as the speFL¿F SXUSRVHV RI HDFK RQH DQG D VHQVH RI WKH YDOXH RI WKHVH VRUWV RI WKLQNLQJ OHDUQLQJEHKDYLRXUV$VDFRQVHTXHQFHWKH\KDGDVHQVHRISXUSRVHIXOLQWHOOHFWXDO engagement versus mere busy work. They understood why a teacher may use beKDYLRXUVVXFKDVZDLWWLPHRUGHOD\HGMXGJHPHQW DQGWKH\KDGDVHQVHRIZKHWKHU or not they have an understanding of new ideas and hence of when and what they need help on. )URPWKHRXWVHW3((/WHDFKHUVKDGEHHQUDLVLQJDZDUHQHVVRIDVSHFWVRITXDOLW\ learning with their students and, in so doing, promoting metacognition. The video data highlights how Jo and Amanda were taking this sharing a step further. This LQVLJKWVWLPXODWHGWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDJURXSWRH[SORUHDQGH[WHQGWKLVLGHD,W involved several secondary teachers who felt they could transfer this idea to their classrooms, leading to the notion of a more explicit sharing of what we called the WHDFKHU¶VµSHGDJRJLFDOSXUSRVHV¶ When teachers engage in sharing their pedagogical purposes they do two major WKLQJV WKH\ LPSOHPHQW D µOHDUQLQJ¶ DJHQGD DORQJVLGH WKH FRQWHQW RU FXUULFXOXP DJHQGDDQGLQRUGHUWRGRWKH¿UVWWKH\GHYHORSDVKDUHGODQJXDJHIRUOHDUQLQJ with their students. A learning agenda A learning agenda incorporates understandings about learning, pedagogical content knowledge, and understandings about learning to learn and understandings of VWXGHQWFKDQJH8QGHUVWDQGLQJVDERXWOHDUQLQJLQYROYHNQRZLQJZKDWFRQVWLWXWHV TXDOLW\OHDUQLQJ:HGHVFULEHTXDOLW\OHDUQLQJDVEHLQJOHDUQLQJWKDWLVSXUSRVHIXO LQWHOOHFWXDOO\ DFWLYH LQGHSHQGHQW DQG PHWDFRJQLWLYH ,WV SUHFLVH QDWXUH LV PXOWL faceted and differs according to the content or skill to be learned, and the tasks LQYROYHG /HDUQHUV QHHG WR NQRZ DPRQJ RWKHU WKLQJV KRZ WR SURFHVV QHZ LQIRUPDWLRQ PDNH OLQNV ZLWK SULRU NQRZOHGJH DQG WKH RXWVLGH ZRUOG PRQLWRU WKHLUXQGHUVWDQGLQJVDQGSURJUHVVRQDWDVN H[WHQGDQGFKDOOHQJHERWKWKHLURZQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJVDQGWKRVHRIRWKHUV DQGUHÀHFWRQZKDWDQGKRZWKH\KDYHOHDUQHG They need to have persistence and learn from mistakes, be able to make productive and informed decisions about both what they are learning and how they are learning it, and be willing to take risks. Teachers with a learning agenda also have high level of pedagogical content NQRZOHGJH 3&. 6KXOPDQ 3&. LQYROYHV NQRZLQJ VWXGHQWV¶ RULJLQDO LGHDVDQGEHOLHIVDQGWKHSRWHQWLDOGLI¿FXOWLHVWKH\RIWHQUHYHDOLQXQGHUVWDQGLQJ FRQFHSWVDQGLGHDV NQRZLQJDOWHUQDWLYHZD\VRIUHSUHVHQWLQJWKRVHLGHDV DQGKDYing knowledge of a variety of teaching procedures and the ability to purposefully VHOHFWZKLFKRQHVZLOOEHHIIHFWLYHLQRYHUFRPLQJGLI¿FXOWLHVDQGFKDQJLQJEHOLHIV and ideas. 8QGHUVWDQGLQJRIOHDUQLQJabout learning is one of the important contributions RI3((/WRWKHLVVXHRISURPRWLQJPHWDFRJQLWLRQDQGWHDFKLQJWKLQNLQJVNLOOV7KLV 121
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understanding includes knowing how and when to stimulate initial and recurring discussions about learning, the kind of language that needs to be developed, the NLQGV RI XQGHUVWDQGLQJV VWXGHQWV FDQ DFTXLUH DERXW OHDUQLQJ DQG KRZ WKHVH FDQ develop over a school year. Teachers use these understandings, as well as a range RIWHDFKLQJSURFHGXUHVGHYHORSHGDGRSWHGRUDGDSWHGE\3((/WHDFKHUVWRSODQ WKHLUWHDFKLQJVHTXHQFHVDQGWKHLUOHDUQLQJLQWHUYHQWLRQV Teachers also need to understand the process and importance of student change. :KHQ ZH EHJDQ 3((/ ZH VHW RXW WR FKDQJH VWXGHQWV OHDUQLQJ EHKDYLRXUV E\ which we meant how they were thinking as well as their actual classroom behaviours. We soon found that this was only one of several dimensions of change where ZH QHHGHG FRQFXUUHQW VWUDWHJLHV %DLUG 1RUWK¿HOG %XLOGLQJ WKH DSSURpriate trusts is another dimension of change that took us a few years to clarify, KRZHYHUWKHUHDUHWZRRWKHUGLPHQVLRQVWKDWZHLGHQWL¿HGLQRXU¿UVW\HDUWKDWDUH HTXDOO\LPSRUWDQWLIVWXGHQWVDUHWRHQJDJHLQWKHVRUWVRIEHKDYLRXUVWKDWZHKDYH EHHQ GHVFULELQJ 2QH LV FKDQJLQJ VWXGHQWV¶ FRQFHSWLRQV RI ZKDWJRRG OHDUQLQJ LV DQGZKDWWKHLUUROHDQGWKHLUWHDFKHUV¶UROHVFRXOGEH7KHRWKHULVFKDQJLQJWKHLU attitudes as to what sorts of roles and teaching and learning behaviours they prefer. A learning agenda does not discount or devalue content or skills. The teachers have a content agenda which runs parallel with their learning agenda. One of the teachers, Damien, describes wanting his students to be able to ‘talk about English DQGOHDUQLQJLQWKHVDPHEUHDWK¶:HZRXOGDUJXHDJDLQVWDQDSSURDFKEHFRPLQJ SRSXODU LQ$XVWUDOLD LQ ZKLFK WKH µWKLQNLQJ¶ RU µOHDUQLQJ¶ LV WDXJKW DV D GLVFUHWH subject, or content-less unit of work. Research indicates that this approach is not SDUWLFXODUO\HIIHFWLYH +DWWLHHWDO DQGWKDWVWXGHQWVGRQ¶WWUDQVIHUWKHXQGHUstandings and skills into their discipline based subjects. The following interview with Amanda (who had been teaching about the planHWV LOOXVWUDWHVKRZVKHFRPELQHVERWKFRQWHQWDQGµOHDUQLQJ¶ ,DQ 2.1RZ$PDQGDWKHNLGVGLGDQXPEHURIWKLQJVWKLVPRUQLQJ$QG GLIIHUHQW VRUWV RI WKLQJV , ZDV MXVW ZRQGHULQJ ZKDW IRU \RX ZDV WKH PRVW important thing that they did? $PDQGD ,ZDVZDQWLQJWRVHHKRZLQGHSHQGHQWO\DQGFRQ¿GHQWWKHFKLOGUHQ were using the procedures that we have talked about all year, but also how they were going about it independently in terms of their researching skills. ,DQ
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and what procedures the children are going to need in order to support them when they go about their learning tasks. 7KH VWXGHQWV DOVR GHYHORS D OHDUQLQJ DJHQGD -R¶V 3UHS*UDGH DJHG ± VWXGHQWVFRPSOHWHGDVHTXHQFHRIDFWLYLWLHVDERXWDVWRU\WKH\KDGUHDGLQFOXGLQJ DQ LQIRUPDWLRQ JULG D9HQQ GLDJUDP DQG ¿QDOO\ D FKDUDFWHU SUR¿OH$ YLGHR FOLS shows students working independently and without having to ask Jo for help or LQVWUXFWLRQVIRU PLQXWHV-RWKHQGHEULHIHGRQWKHVHTXHQFHXVLQJ'H%RQR¶V Thinking Hats. -R 2.,ZDVWDONLQJWR-HVVEHIRUHDERXWRXUKDWVWKDWPDNHXVWKLQNLQD GLIIHUHQWZD\DERXWZKDWZH¶YHEHHQGRLQJDQG-HVV\RXVDLG\RX¶GOLNHWR KDYHDORRNDW*UHHQ+DWWRGD\LVWKDWULJKW"2.OHW¶VWDNHLWRQ+RZPLJKW ,GRWKLVGLIIHUHQWO\DQG,VDLGWR-HVV\RX¶YHMXVWGRQHLW:RXOG\RXFKDQJH DQ\WKLQJWKDW\RX¶YHMXVWGRQHDQGZKDWZRXOG\RXUHSO\-HVV" -HVV ,¶GWKLQNRIQHZLGHDVIRUWKHFKDUDFWHUSUR¿OHLQVWHDGRIGRLQJDOOWKH WKLQJVRQWKH9HQQGLDJUDP -HVV DJHG KDG FRPSOHWHG KHU FKDUDFWHU SUR¿OH EXW KDG TXLWH LQGHSHQGHQWO\ UHÀHFWHGRQZKDWVKHKDGZULWWHQDQGUHDOLVHGWKDWLWFRQWDLQHGQRLGHDVWKDWVKH KDGQRWDOUHDG\UHSRUWHGLQKHU9HQQGLDJUDP As part of the learning agenda, teachers share their purposes with their students. 2QH ZD\ RI GRLQJ WKLV LV HQFRXUDJLQJ VWXGHQWV WR DVN µ:K\ DUH ZH GRLQJ WKLV"¶ The teachers use a range of teaching procedures which are strategically selected to SURPRWHYDULRXVDVSHFWVRITXDOLW\OHDUQLQJDQGWKH\GLVFXVVZLWKWKHVWXGHQWVZK\ WKH\ DUH GRLQJ ZKDW WKH\ DUH GRLQJ )RU H[DPSOH ZKHQ WKH WHDFKHU XVHV D9HQQ diagram they discuss the fact that it is a graphic organiser used to compare and contrast. A concept map is used to make links and connections, and an interpretive discussion is used to bring out student ideas and views (see Mitchell, 2009). 6HYHUDO RI WKH WHDFKHUV KDYH PRYHG WKHLU VWXGHQWV WR WKH SRLQW ZKHUH WKH VWXdents themselves select procedures, in a purposeful way and are able to articulate WKLV SXUSRVH ,Q WKH IROORZLQJ DUWLFOH SRVWHG RQ RXU ZLNL 7DQ\D UHSRUWV RQ KRZ KHU*UDGHVWXGHQWV DJHG HQJDJHLQDGLVFXVVLRQDERXWKRZWRSODQDOHWWHU WKDQNLQJWKHSULQFLSDOIRUJLYLQJWKHFODVVDµIXQ¶GD\DVDUHZDUGIRUJRRGEHKDYiour (in this case, good learning behaviours). :KHQZHWDONHGDERXWWKH7KLQN3DLU6KDUH,DVNHGWKHVWXGHQWVKRZWKLV would work. :LOO ³
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:HFDPHWRWKH.:/FKDUW,WVHHPHGWKLVRQHKDGEHHQFKRVHQE\DFKLOG who was really only interested in putting up a suggestion rather than thinking DERXWKRZLWPLJKWEHKHOSIXO1RQHWKHOHVVVKHZDVPDNLQJDFRQWULEXWLRQWR WKHGLVFXVVLRQDQGVKDULQJKHULGHDV:KHQ,DVNHGKHUKRZVKHWKRXJKWWKLV SURFHGXUHFRXOGKHOSVKHZDVXQVXUHDQGFRXOGQ¶WH[SODLQLW $QRWKHUFKLOG7DH\DKVDLG ³:HFDQ¶WUHDOO\XVHLWEHFDXVHZHGLGQ¶WUHDOO\GRDQ\OHDUQLQJRQWKHGD\« SDXVHKHUH±,ZDQWHGWRMXPSLQDQGVD\³+H\:HOHDUQVRPHWKLQJHYHU\ GD\´ EXW , UHIUDLQHG DOORZHG WKH ZDLW WLPH IRU KHU WR WKLQN DQG WKHQ VKH ZHQWRQ «ZHOOZHPLJKWKDYHOHDUQWWKLQJVEXWWKDW¶VQRWZKDWWKHGD\ZDV all about.” 6RSKLH ³.:/LVPRUHIRUZKHQZHDUHOHDUQLQJWRSLFV´ 7RP ³,WZRQ¶WUHDOO\ZRUNEXWWKH30,ZRXOG
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when we forgot what we did, well kinda forgot, we could look on our procedure.” 1DWKDQ ³,WKHOSHGZULWLQJVWXIIGRZQEHIRUH\RXZHUHZULWLQJWKHOHWWHU´ %UD\GHQ ³%HFDXVHLI\RXMXVWVDLGZULWHDOHWWHU\RXZRQ¶WEHDEOHWRWKLQN what you did and the procedure could help you remember what you did on the other day.”
A language for learning Crick and Wilson (2005, p.359) note that ‘One of the features of the education system is the paucity of a language for learning as a process and participative H[SHULHQFH¶ 7KH WHDFKHUV LQ WKLV VWXG\ EXLOG RYHU WLPH D VKDUHG ODQJXDJH IRU learning, and an understanding of what sorts of conversations are possible with students. They use a language of learning which gradually becomes a shared ODQJXDJH ZLWK VWXGHQWV DEOH WR LGHQWLI\ DQG DUWLFXODWH DVSHFWV RI OHDUQLQJ 6DUDK QRWHVWKDWWDONLQJDERXWOHDUQLQJLVUHJDUGHGDVµHYHU\GD\WDON¶LQKHUFODVVHV7DQ\D EHJDQZLWKDFODVVRI*UDGHV±DQGVKHKDGIRXUVWXGHQWVZKRVKHWDXJKW the year before in Prep. When she asked the students at the start of the year to GHVFULEH D JRRG OHDUQHU KHU QHZ VWXGHQWV PDGH FRPPHQWV OLNH µ*RRG OHDUQHUV GRQ¶WEHEDG¶2QHRIKHUµROG¶VWXGHQWVVWDWHGWKDWµ*RRGOHDUQHUVGRQ¶WVWD\VWXFN¶ ,Q RQH \HDU VKH PRYHG \HDU ROGV IURP WKH QRWLRQ WKDW OHDUQLQJ LV DERXW EHLQJ µJRRG¶IRUWKHWHDFKHUWRWKHLGHDWKDWOHDUQLQJLVVRPHWKLQJWKH\WKHPVHOYHVFDQ control and understand. ,Q 3((/ WHDFKHUV GHYHORSHG D OLVW RI *RRG /HDUQLQJ %HKDYLRXUV VHH Appendix) which has proved extremely useful for teachers in both developing FODVVURRPSURFHGXUHVDQGVWUDWHJLHVDQGLQSURYLGLQJDODQJXDJHIRUOHDUQLQJ,Q WKH IROORZLQJ H[WUDFW IURP DQ LQWHUYLHZ ZLWK RQH RI$PDQGD¶V VWXGHQWV /RFKLH *UDGH XVHVWKHODQJXDJHRIWKHJRRGOHDUQLQJEHKDYLRXUV ,QWHUYLHZHU -LOO ,¶PORRNLQJDWDOOWKHVHJRRGOHDUQLQJEHKDYLRXUVWKHUHFDQ you describe how knowing about those has helped your learning in any way. 6ROHW¶VVWDUWZLWK\RX/RFKLH /RFKLH :HOOWKH\KHOSXVE\LIZHGRQ¶WUHDOO\NQRZZKDWWRGRWKH\KHOS XVXQGHUVWDQGWKHDFWLYLW\EHFDXVH0LVV6DI¿QXVXDOO\WDONVDORWDERXWZK\ XQGHUVWDQGLQJDFWLYLWLHVLVLPSRUWDQWDQGGRQ¶WVWD\VWXFN:HKDYHDORWRI VWXIIDURXQGWKHURRPWRKHOSXVZLWKRXUWKLQJVDVVRPHSHRSOHDUHQ¶WYHU\ good at timetables and they look up timetables and a lot of people make links to our other charts that we have around the room. The language for learning includes 7KLVLVZK\ZHDUHGRLQJWKLVPurposes and reasons for tasks and the big ideas 125
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DQG NH\ VNLOOV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKHP DUH H[SOLFLWO\ GLVFXVVHG 6R RIWHQ WDVNV DUH SUHVHQWHGDVMXVWWKDWíWDVNV 2. Student Choice. Primary teachers constantly make decisions for students about WKHµEHVW¶ RURQO\ ZD\WRGRWDVNV,WLVSRVVLEOHDQGSUHIHUDEOHWRJLYHVWXGHQWV far more control over their work with real decisions to make. 'LVFXVVLRQRIFRQVHTXHQFHVRIFKRLFH7KHEHQH¿WVRIJLYLQJVWXGHQWVFKRLFHDUH HQKDQFHGE\QRQMXGJHPHQWDOGHEULHIVRQWKHFRQVHTXHQFHVRIFKRLFHV 4. Using labels for teaching procedures. All the teachers built up a shared meaning with their students for a list of teaching procedures that they select and XVHUHJXODUO\VXFKDV9HQQ'LDJUDPV0LQG0DSV.:/DQG30,V7KHVWXGHQWV become familiar not only with the procedures, but their purposes in terms of learning. 7KLQNLQJDERXWWKLQNLQJOHDUQLQJDERXWOHDUQLQJThe teachers use words and SKUDVHV VXFK DV µUHÀHFWLQJ¶ µOLQNLQJ¶ µZDLW WLPH¶ DQG µGRZQ WLPH¶ WR WDON DERXW thinking and learning and to give students a vocabulary to do this. 6. Encouragement to take risks. Many decisions involve safe options and risky RSWLRQV 7HDFKHUV JLYH JUHDWHU UHVSHFW IRU VWXGHQWV¶ LQWHOOHFWXDO FDSDELOLWLHV DQG encourage and trust them to step outside conventional boundaries. +LJKOLJKWLQJ JRRG OHDUQLQJ EHKDYLRXUV The list of good learning behaviours LVDWOHDVWWKH¿IWKGUDIWRIDOLVWWKDWZDV¿UVWGHYHORSHGLQWKHVHFRQG\HDURIWKH SURMHFW WR OLVW WKH VRUWV RI EHKDYLRXUV WKDW ZH IHOW UHÀHFWHG TXDOLW\ OHDUQLQJ 2QH value of this list is that it makes teachers far more sensitive to these behaviours. This meant that when one occurred, they are much more likely to stop the class and EULHÀ\FRPPHQWRQZKDWLWZDVDVZHOODVKRZDQGZK\LWZDVµXVHIXO¶WRWKHFODVV An example of some of these aspects of a language for learning is found in D GHEULH¿QJ RI D VHTXHQFH RI DFWLYLWLHV ZKLFK $PDQGD¶V *UDGH VWXGHQWV KDG completed. $PDQGD +RZKDVWKHGDWDFKDUWKHOSHGXVVRIDULQRXUOHDUQLQJ" 3DW 7RJDWKHUWKHLQIRUPDWLRQIRUWKH30, 6WXGHQW 7RJHWWKHIDFWVWRJHWKHU $PDQGD 2.
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,QGHWDLOLQJZKDWZHPHDQE\VHQVHPDNLQJDOHDUQLQJDJHQGDDQGDODQJXDJHIRU learning, we have, of course, reported some outcomes and insights relevant to these LVVXHV,QWKLVVHFWLRQZHIRFXVRQZKDWKDVHPHUJHGRYHUWKHPRQWKSHULRGWKDW µ6KDULQJSHGDJRJLFDOSXUSRVHV¶JURXSKDVEHHQPHHWLQJ Doing things with students, not to them One of the biggest changes in teacher practice was the move from doing things to students to a much more collaborative and sharing intellectual relationship between students and teacher. ,Q DOO RI WKH FODVVHV VWXGLHG VWXGHQWV DUH HQFRXUDJHG WR PDNH WKHLU RZQ GHFLsions. Jill and Jo implemented student decision making in their classrooms in the mid 1990s. They believed that teachers made too many decisions for their (elementary) students and that the students (as young as 5) were not only capable of making decisions but would learn important skills of independence by doing so. Tanya EHJLQVWKH\HDUZLWKDQµHQYLURZDON¶LQZKLFKWKH*UDGHVWXGHQWVH[SORUHWKH URRPDQGWKHFODVVMRLQWO\GHFLGHZKHUHWKLQJVVXFKDVHTXLSPHQWDQGERRNVZLOO EHSXW7KH\WKHQPRYHRQWRGLVFXVVLQJZKLFKGHFLVLRQVWKH\FDQPDNH6WXGHQWV FDQFKRRVHZKHUHWRVLWZKHQWKH\HDWOXQFKIRUH[DPSOH6KHVHWVXSDGHFLVLRQ post which is an actual post to which she sticks cards which describe the decisions students are allowed to make for themselves. These include deciding who to sit with and what resources they need for a task. -R¶VGLVFXVVLRQZLWK-HVVLQWKHWUDQVFULSWDERYHLOOXVWUDWHVKRZVKHWDONVWRKHU VWXGHQWV DV LI WKH\ ZHUH FRHTXDOV LQ WKH OHDUQLQJ SURFHVV ,Q DQ LQWHUYLHZ ZLWK VRPHRI-R¶V 3UHS*UDGH VWXGHQWV-LOODVNVDERXWKRZWKH\RSHUDWHLQ-R¶VFODVVroom, in terms of making their own decisions. -LOO (PPD ,¶P JRLQJ WR DVN \RX WKLV RQH ,¶YH QRWLFHG LQ WKLV FODVVURRP \RX¶YHJRWDGHFLVLRQSRVWDQG\RXSHRSOHLQKHUHPDNHORWVRIGLIIHUHQWGHFLVLRQVDERXW\RXUZRUNDQG,ZDQW\RXWRWDONDERXWVRPHRIWKHGHFLVLRQV\RX make. (PPD :KHQVRPHRQHLVWDONLQJWR\RX±\RXMXVWPRYHVRPHZKHUHHOVH
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Noticing good learning (and getting excited) The teachers celebrate good learning behaviours when they occur and debrief with WKHFODVVRQZK\WKDWEHKDYLRXUFRQVWLWXWHGJRRGOHDUQLQJ6DPGHVFULEHVKRZVKH UHVSRQGVWRKLJKTXDOLW\VWXGHQWWKLQNLQJDQGTXHVWLRQLQJ ,ORYHFHOHEUDWLQJ RIWHQDWP\RZQH[SHQVH ZKHQP\VWXGHQWVDVNDµJRRG¶ TXHVWLRQ7KH\ P\VWXGHQWV DUHRIWHQODXJKLQJDWPHEHFDXVH,JHWVRH[FLWHGVRPHWLPHV,MXPSXSDQGGRZQVTXHDOZLWKGHOLJKWGRDOLWWOHGDQFHHWF :HDVWHDFKHUVKDYHWROLVWHQUHDOO\OLVWHQWRWKHLUTXHVWLRQV:KHQWKH\GR DVNDWKRXJKWIXOTXHVWLRQZKHUHWKH\DUHGHPRQVWUDWLQJWKDWWKH\DUHWKLQNing and engaging in the class or making a link, this needs to be celebrated. 7KHUHLVDORWRIEDFNJURXQGQRLVHLQWHHQDJHUV¶OLYHVVRZHQHHGWRHQVXUH we stand out amongst the noise when they do this. $IWHU P\ GDQFH P\ VTXHDO RU ZKDWHYHU , GR ZH WDON DERXW WKH TXHVWLRQ , throw it back to the class. ³:K\GR,ORYH-DUU\GVTXHVWLRQ"´WKHQ ³:KDWGLG-DUU\GVKRZPHE\DVNLQJWKDWTXHVWLRQ"´RU ³:KDWZDV-DUU\GOLQNLQJEDFNWRE\DVNLQJWKDWTXHVWLRQ"´
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³:K\GLG,GRWKLV"´,DVN³7KLVZLOOEHDQextra long wait time (emphasis) EHFDXVH,ZDQW\RXWRUHDGWKURXJK\RXUREVHUYDWLRQV´,ZDLW7KHNLGVUHDG DQGWKLQN$VLOHQFHRIWKRXJKWIXOQHVV¿OOVWKHURRP,OHWDERXWVHFRQGV pass. ,JRRYHUWRWKH,:% ,QWHUDFWLYHZKLWHERDUG DQGSXOOXSWKHWKLQNLQJURXWLQH and the stems. I see? I hear? I wonder? I think? ,JHVWXUHWRWKHPDQGWXUQ RQHLQWRDTXHVWLRQWREXLOGDSLFWXUHRIWKHLUWKLQNLQJ ³:KDWGLG\RXVHH"´,DVN ³,VHH\RXWKLQNLQJDERXWZKDWZRUGV\RXFRXOGXVH´VD\V.HOO\³,VHH\RX editing as you write.” says Andrew. ³:HOOGRQHJX\V´,VPLOH³,¶PUHDOO\SOHDVHGWRVHHVRPHRI\RXXVLQJthe stems (emphasis) to help you make careful observations.” ³$Q\RWKHUREVHUYDWLRQV"´,DVN ³,VDZ\RXFKDQJLQJ\RXUPLQG´QRWHV/LDP,QRG³,KHDU\RXDVNLQJVRPH VHOITXHVWLRQV´VD\V0DWW,QRGDQGVPLOH,OLNHKRZ0DWW¶VKHDUGZKDW, ZDVGRLQJDVDVNLQJµVHOITXHVWLRQV¶+H¶VPDGHDOLQN%XW,GRQ¶WVD\DQ\thing about that at this stage. ³:KDWGLG\RXKHDU"´,DVNZRUNLQJP\ZD\WKURXJKWKHURXWLQH ³,KHDU\RXXVLQJZDLWWLPH´VD\V.ULVW\³,WKLQN\RX¶UHVKRZLQJXVWKDW\RX VKRXOGQ¶WEHKDSS\ZLWKWKH¿UVWWKLQJ\RXZULWH´VD\V1DNDWH ³2.:KDWDUH\RXJX\VWKLQNLQJ":KDWDUH\RXWKLQNLQJ(PPD"´ (PPDVD\V³,WKLQN\RXZDQWWRWKLQNPRUHEHIRUH\RXZULWH´ ³,WKLQN\RX¶UHVKRZLQJWKDW\RXQHHGWRWDONWR\RXUVHOIZKHQ\RX¶UHZULWLQJ´VD\V'HRQ6RPHRIWKHNLGVODXJK,WKLQNWKH\MXVWSLFWXUHGDFODVVRI NLGVWDONLQJWRWKHPVHOYHVDVWKH\ZURWH³,WKLQN\RX¶UHVKRZLQJXVKRZWR DVNVHOITXHVWLRQV´REVHUYHV$QGUHZ , VSRW 0LOOLH ORRNLQJ ZRUULHG OLNH VKH XVXDOO\ GRHV %XW VKH¶V FRQ¿GHQW HQRXJKWRVKDUHVRPHWKLQJ,WKLQNORWVRIWKHNLGVDUHZRQGHULQJ ³:KDWDUH\RXZRQGHULQJ0LOOLH"´,DVNFRPSOHWLQJWKHURXWLQH ³,ZRQGHULIZHDOZD\VKDYHWRGRWKDW"´
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Stages in the journey The shift in emphasis from a teaching agenda to a learning agenda is not a simple one. We identify three overlapping stages in the journey towards implementing D IRUPDO OHDUQLQJ DJHQGD ,QLWLDOO\ WHDFKHUV LQYROYHG LQ 3((/ SODQ WKHLU OHVVRQV in terms of what and how they will teach a piece of content, selecting from a repertoire of procedures and assessment practices – in other words a teaching DJHQGD7HDFKHUVKDYHVRPHXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRIZKDWTXDOLW\OHDUQLQJLVDQGKDYH some concerns about passive or otherwise disengaged learning in their classrooms. They feel the need to make some changes to their teaching. ,Q WKH QH[W VWDJH WHDFKHUV GR WKLQN PRUH DERXW OHDUQLQJ 7KH\ KDYH PDGH FKDQJHVWRWKHLUWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHVDQGDUHUHDG\WRUHÀHFWRQKRZWKHVHLPSDFWHG RQWKHLUVWXGHQWV¶OHDUQLQJ7KH\DUHOLNHO\WREHPRUHVSHFL¿FDERXWWKHOHDUQLQJ behaviours they want to see more of in their classrooms. They tend to plan by unit or topic but do not have a formal long term learning agenda. 7KH¿QDOVWDJHLVZKHUHWKHWHDFKHUGHYHORSVDIRUPDOORQJLWXGLQDOVWUDWHJ\IRU learning which permeates their practice. They share their learning purposes with the students, and they talk regularly with students about what learning is, and how it happens. They know what students are capable of early in the year, and how this FDQ EH GHYHORSHG DQG KRZ WKH\ QHHG WR ZRUN WR YDU\LQJ GHJUHHV RQ VWXGHQWV¶ DWWLWXGHVWRDQGFRQFHSWLRQVRITXDOLW\OHDUQLQJ7KH\NQRZWKDWE\GRLQJWKLVDQG building a shared language for learning, how much change can be achieved by the end of the year. &KDQJLQJ FODVVURRP SUDFWLFH LQ VXFK D IXQGDPHQWDO ZD\ UHTXLUHV SHUVLVWHQFH DQG SDWLHQFH 0DQ\ WHDFKHUV IHHO VHOIFRQVFLRXV DW ¿UVW DERXW RSHQO\ GLVFXVVLQJ OHDUQLQJ ZLWK VWXGHQWV ,W VHHPV WR WDNH WLPH DZD\ IURP µFRYHULQJ WKH FRQWHQW¶ Teachers need to believe, or come to believe in the medium term value of expending this initial energy and time. They also need to believe that it will be helpful to WKHLUSUDFWLFHDQGWKDWLWZLOOQRWEHDQDGGRQRUH[WUDZRUN6RPHWHDFKHUVQHHG
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to watch what happens when other teachers do this before they are ready to embark on the journey themselves. ',6&866,21
We have discussed four types of knowledge – knowledge needed to inform more SXUSRVHIXO WHDFKLQJ WR SURPRWH TXDOLW\ OHDUQLQJ DQG PHWDFRJQLWLRQ DQG WR PRYH EH\RQGPHWDFRJQLWLRQWRSURPRWHOHDUQLQJDERXWOHDUQLQJ7KHVHDUH knowledge about learning. pedagogical content knowledge. knowledge of learning about learning. knowledge about student change. 3HGDJRJLFDOFRQWHQWNQRZOHGJHLVDFRQVWUXFWFUHDWHGE\6KXOPDQ DQG we do not add to it in this paper. Our knowledge about learning was informed iniWLDOO\E\%DLUG¶V3RRU/HDUQLQJ7HQGHQFLHV %DLUGDQG:KLWH LGHDVIURPWKH FRQVWUXFWLYLVWSDUDGLJPDQGIXUWKHUGHYHORSHGE\WKHWHDFKHUVLQYROYHGLQ3((/ 2XUNQRZOHGJHDERXWVWXGHQWFKDQJHGHYHORSHGJUDGXDOO\RYHUWKH¿UVWWHQ\HDUV RI 3((/ DV ZH REVHUYHG WKH VWXGHQWV LQ RXU FODVVHV 2XU NQRZOHGJH RI OHDUQLQJ about learning has been the last to develop, and the constructs of sense-making and sharing pedagogical purposes are key aspects of it. We would argue that for teachers to move their practice into truly promoting metacognition they need to have all four sorts of knowledge. The teachers in this study all have highly developed knowledge in all of these four areas. While it is true that this group is highly skilled, the consistency of the ¿QGLQJV DQG WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK LGHDV KDYH EHHQ DEOH WR FURVV VXEMHFW DQG \HDU level boundaries in this group, indicates to us that the knowledge is transferable. The teachers in this project are in (six) ordinary schools working in different subject areas, with different age groups. These teachers have been able to build a common pool of practice and understandings of practice in spite of the differences between their settings. Clearly, not all teachers will develop such sophisticated knowledge, but for WKRVHZKRGRLWLVLPPHQVHO\SURIHVVLRQDOO\UHZDUGLQJ,WWDNHVWLPHDQGVXSSRUW – we would argue for teams of teachers working together. Peer support helps teachers when the going gets tough (as it generally does, before it gets easier). But the rewards are great and all of the teachers involved in this study report on improved student teacher relationships, and vastly improved classroom climate. They also have an enhanced sense of themselves as researchers, innovators and developers of new knowledge. The study highlights the value of long term teacher research projects in providing visions of the possible, much more sophisticated knowledge about journeys hitherto unimaginable, and an important cumulative effect as teachers build on their shared experiences. The role of academics is important as teachers continue to push the boundaries of what is possible. Being so close to their practice means teachers are often not initially able to articulate some of the tacit knowledge they 134
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KDYHDFTXLUHGRUFUHDWHG,QWKHPHHWLQJVWKHJURXSMRLQWO\DQDO\VHVHDFKWHDFKHU¶V DFWLRQVZLWKSURPSWLQJIURPWKHDFDGHPLFVDQGRWKHUWHDFKHUVZKRZHUHQ¶WWKHUH – and the analysis always comes after the practice has happened. Then the group ¿QGVQHZZD\VRIIUDPLQJZKDWKDVKDSSHQHG ,W LV D 1HZWRQLDQ MRXUQH\ µ,I , KDYH VHHQ D OLWWOH IXUWKHU LW LV E\ VWDQGLQJ RQ WKHVKRXOGHUVRI*LDQWV¶7KHFXUUHQWJURXSRIWHDFKHUVLVEXLOGLQJRQWZRGHFDGHV RIZRUNE\3((/WHDFKHUV2QHRIWKHVHFUHWVRIWKHVXFFHVVRI3((/LVWKDWWKH teachers own it, so it keeps re-inventing itself, as teachers devise new challenges and develop new knowledge to meet these challenges. 5()(5(1&(6 %DLUG - 5 5 7 :KLWH 3URPRWLQJ VHOIFRQWURO RI OHDUQLQJ Instructional Science, 11, 227–247. %DLUG- 1RUWK¿HOG- (GV Learning from the PEEL experience (2nd ed.) 0HOERXUQH 3((/ Publishing &RUQIRUG, /HDUQLQJWROHDUQVWUDWHJLHVDVDEDVLVIRUHIIHFWLYHOLIHORQJOHDUQLQJInternational -RXUQDORI/LIHORQJ(GXFDWLRQ(4), 357–368. &XEDQ/ $VVHVVLQJWKH\HDULPSDFWRIPXOWLSOHLQWHOOLJHQFHVRQVFKRROLQJTeachers College 5HFRUG(1), 140–146. 'HDNLQ&ULFN5%URDGIRRW3 &OD[WRQ* Developing ELLI: The Effective Lifelong Learning 3UR¿OHLQ3UDFWLFH%ULVWRO /LIHORQJ/HDUQLQJ)RXQGDWLRQ 'HDNLQ&ULFN5 :LOVRQ. %HLQJDOHDUQHU $YLUWXHIRUWKHVWFHQWXU\British Journal of (GXFDWLRQDO6WXGLHV(3), 359–374. +DWWLH-%LJJV- 3XUGLH1 (IIHFWVRIOHDUQLQJVNLOOVLQWHUYHQWLRQVRQVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ $ meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66(2). /RUWLH' Schoolteacher: A sociological study&KLFDJR,/8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR3UHVV /RXJKUDQ-0LWFKHOO, 0LWFKHOO-(GV Learning from teacher research.1HZ
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CHAPTER 10
“GOOD PAL, WISE DAD AND NAGGING WIFE” – AND OTHER VIEWS OF TEACHING PRACTICE MENTORS Riitta Jyrhämä and Erja Syrjäläinen
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$W WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI +HOVLQNL WHDFKHU HGXFDWLRQ WKH QHWZRUN RIWHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFH schools has become an important part of teacher education for both educational and societal reasons. The network guarantees a diversity of teaching practice experiences and therefore extensively prepares students to work as professionals. The fact that some municipal schools offer teaching practice is a prime example of how universities, in addition to serving as research and teaching facilities, also LQÀXHQFHVRFLHW\ The length of practical studies, or practicums, and their scheduling in relation WRWKHUHVWRIWKHVWXGLHVYDU\VLJQL¿FDQWO\ZLWKLQWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPPHVLQ GLIIHUHQWFRXQWULHV,QWKH)LQQLVKV\VWHPVWXGHQWWHDFKHUVKDYHWUDGLWLRQDOO\KDG several teaching practice periods of various lengths at different stages of their studLHV,Q)LQQLVKWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPPHVWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHSHULRGVDUHFRQVLGHUHGDGYDQFHGVWXGLHVLQERWKWKH%DFKHORU¶VDQG0DVWHU¶VGHJUHHSURJUDPPHV FI -DNNX6LKYRQHQ 1LHPL -\UKlPl 1LHPL $WWKH8QLYHUVLW\ of Helsinki, teaching practice is organized so that student teachers gain experience in both university teacher training schools and municipal teaching practice schools. 7ZRXQLYHUVLW\WUDLQLQJVFKRROVUHFHLYHDVWHDG\LQÀX[RIVWXGHQWWHDFKHUV VHYHUDO hundred per year), and cooperation between universities and these schools has become the norm. Teaching practice schools in the local area receive student teachers IRUWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHSHULRGVRQFHRUWZLFHD\HDU1RWDOOWHDFKHUVLQWKHVHVFKRROV become mentors, so only a few teachers, approximately 3–5 per school, receive student teachers and are involved in the teaching practice. Teaching practice has taken place in local schools before, but since 2004 the intention has been to organize it in a way that promotes interaction which has pedagogical value for both sides. The network of teaching practice schools can be considered a model of school-university partnership. When this collaboration was being systematized, schools were invited to apply to become networking schools. At the same time, teachers were asked to apply for a course on supervision. Between 2004 and 2007, 680 teachers from 207 schools or educational institutions submitted applications to join the network of teaching practice schools. When the A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 137–149. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 10
latest supervision course ended at the beginning of 2009, the total of teachers who had attended supervision courses during these years was about 500. ,QV\VWHPDWL]LQJWKHFROODERUDWLRQVFKRROPHQWRUVKDYHEHFRPHYHU\LPSRUWDQW SDUWQHUVLQWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQ LWLVWKHVHSDUWWLPHXQLYHUVLW\WHDFKHUVZKRLPSOHment the curriculum of teacher education. They receive a salary for this task and DUHDOVRH[SHFWHGWRWDNHSDUWLQQHWZRUNPHHWLQJVDQGFRQIHUHQFHV,QWKLVSDUW WLPHXQLYHUVLW\WHDFKHU¶VUROHWKHVFKRROWHDFKHUVGRWKHVDPHMREDVWKHXQLYHUVLW\¶VRZQVXSHUYLVLQJOHFWXUHUV7KDWLVZK\LQWKLVVWXG\ZHFDOOWKHLUPHQWRULQJ work supervision, although they are called mentors to distinguish them from to VXSHUYLVLQJ XQLYHUVLW\ OHFWXUHUV ZKLFK DUH FDOOHG VXSHUYLVRUV ,Q WKH WLWOH RI WKLV DUWLFOH WKH SKUDVH LQ TXRWDWLRQ PDUNV UHIHUV WR RQH RI WKH SDUWLFLSDWLQJ WHDFKHU¶V views on supervision, in which he is trying to illustrate the different mentoring approaches or roles that are needed in supervision. The supervision courses have been considered the most important form of coRSHUDWLRQ JXDUDQWHHLQJ WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH WHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFH$W WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI Helsinki, the supervision course has been a unit of 8 credit points, taking one year WRFRPSOHWH7KLVVWXG\DLPVWRLQYHVWLJDWHWKHWHDFKHUV¶YLHZVRQVXSHUYLVLRQWKDW were produced during the course. The participants in the supervision course were asked to explicate their views on supervision at the beginning and at the end of the FRXUVH7KHUHVHDUFKLVWKHRUHWLFDOO\EDVHGRQWKHPRGHORIWHDFKHUV¶SHGDJRJLFDO WKLQNLQJ .DQVDQHQHWDO DQGWKHLGHDRIWKHGLGDFWLFWULDQJOH .DQVDQHQ Meri, 1999), from which a theoretical view of teaching practice supervision leads WRD ¿HOGW\SRORJ\RIPHQWRUV¶UROHV7KHGDWDZHUHDQDO\VHGLQWKHIUDPHZRUN RI WKLV W\SRORJ\ 7KH EDFNJURXQG SULQFLSOH LV WKDW WKH FRXUVH SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ YLHZV RQ VXSHUYLVLRQ UHÀHFW WKHLU WKLQNLQJ RQ PHQWRULQJ LQ WHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFH DQG WKHLU methods of supervising the student. 683(59,6,21±352027,1*/($51,1*,17($&+,1*35$&7,&(
The practical studies in teacher education play a key role in how future teachers will view their profession and the everyday work as teachers. According to Zeichner WKH TXDOLW\ RI WHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFH GH¿QHV WKH TXDOLW\ RI WHDFKHU HGXFDWLRQ This view supports the fact that practical studies are essential to the process and should, therefore, be given the attention they deserve. 6WXGHQWWHDFKHUVDQGPHQWRUWHDFKHUVHQFRXQWHUHDFKRWKHULQWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFH ZKHUHDFDGHPLFNQRZLQJDQGSURIHVVLRQDONQRZLQJPHHW )LJXUH 7KHPHQWRU± VXSHUYLVRU¶VWDVNLVWZRIROG DVDUHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIWKHVFKRROWKHPHQWRUWHDFKHU DFWVDVDQH[SHUWLQVFKRROSHGDJRJ\ EXWDWWKHVDPHWLPHKHVKHPXVWEHDZDUH RIWKHREMHFWVDQGWDVNVRIWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFH,QWKLVUHVSHFWWKHPHQWRUVHUYHVLQD XQLYHUVLW\SHGDJRJLFDOUROH FI-\UKlPl $W WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI +HOVLQNL WKH HGXFDWLRQ RI PHQWRUV KDV D ORQJ WUDGLWLRQ -\UKlPl .URQOXQG EXWQRZDGD\VWKHVXSHUYLVLRQ FRXUVH KDV EHFRPH D larger unit. One of the main objectives of the supervision course was to develop RQH¶VRZQYLHZVRQVXSHUYLVLRQ7KHFRXUVHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDVNHGWRH[SOLFDWH 138
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WKHLU YLHZV RQ VXSHUYLVLRQ DW WKH EHJLQQLQJ DQG DW WKH HQG RI WKH FRXUVH ,Q WKLV study we investigate the views produced by 100 course participants in 2005.
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To give a picture of what kind of views on supervision were produced, here is one of them, written at the beginning of the course – and referring to the heading RIWKLVDUWLFOH $VDPHQWRU,¶PWU\LQJWREHDJRRGSDODZLVHGDGDQGDQDJJLQJZLIHDW the same time. Remembering my own teaching practice periods, one period ZDV YHU\ GHPDQGLQJ EHFDXVH RI WKH PHQWRU « , KDG WR PDNH OHVVRQ SODQV literally the whole night to the early morning hours. The feedback was rough DQG SUHFLVH «$QG DV WKH RWKHU SHULRG ZDV WRR UHOD[HG , ZDV VSXUUHG WR LPSURYLVHWRDFWRQWKHVWXGHQWV¶WHUPVZLWKRXWSUHFLVHSODQV/DWHU,QRWLFHG WKDW,OHDUQHGDORWIURPERWKPHQWRUV,¶OOWU\WRSLFNWKHEHVWSDUWVIURPWKHP ERWKKRSHIXOO\±DQGDOOWKHRWKHULQÀXHQFHV,JHWQRZIURPWKHVXSHUYLVLRQ course.
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,QWKLVVWXG\WKHYLHZVRQVXSHUYLVLRQDUHDSSURDFKHGIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKH PRGHORISHGDJRJLFDOOHYHOWKLQNLQJ,QWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHZKDWLVPRVWHVVHQWLDOLVWKH WUDLQHH¶VDFWLRQVLQWKHWHDFKLQJ±VWXG\LQJ±OHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQW7RFRQFHSWXDOL]H WHDFKLQJ D WKHRUHWLFDO PRGHO IRU VXSHUYLVLRQ LV QHHGHG $W WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI Helsinki the basic principle of teacher education has been to educate pedagogically thinking teachers who are able to become aware of and to evaluate the grounds and 139
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HWKLFDO SUHPLVHV RI WKHLU WHDFKLQJ7KH FRQFHSW RI WHDFKHUV¶ SHGDJRJLFDO WKLQNLQJ has a multiform meaning depending on what theoretical approach supports it. For H[DPSOH WKH WHUPV UHÀHFWLRQ PHWDFRJQLWLRQ VHOIHYDOXDWLRQ DQG VHOIGLUHFWLRQ DOO UHIHU WR WKH VDPH SKHQRPHQRQ IURP GLIIHUHQW SRLQWV RI YLHZ ,Q VKRUW LW LV D WHDFKHU¶VGHFLVLRQPDNLQJDQGMXGJHPHQWWKDWUHÀHFWVKLVKHUSHGDJRJLFDOWKLQNLQJ .DQVDQHQ S GHVFULEHV WHDFKHUV¶ SHGDJRJLFDO WKLQNLQJ DV D GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJSURFHVVVXSSRUWHGE\WHDFKHUV¶EHOLHIV\VWHPVLQZKLFKWKHMXVWL¿FDWLRQVDUH often unconscious. Pedagogical thinking manifests itself, on the one hand through a WHDFKHU¶VDFWLRQVDQGRQWKHRWKHUKDQGWKURXJKKRZWKHWHDFKHUH[SOLFDWHVKLVKHU WHDFKLQJDQGKRZKHVKHMXVWL¿HVKLVKHUGHFLVLRQV .DQVDQHQ KDVFRQVWUXFWHGDPRGHORIWHDFKHUV¶SHGDJRJLFDOOHYHOWKLQNLQJEDVHGRQ.|QLJ¶V SS± LGHDV7KLVPRGHOGHVFULEHVWKHIXQFWLRQDO phases of the instruction process, the theorization of teaching and also the metatheRUHWLFDOTXHVWLRQVRIHGXFDWLRQ .DQVDQHQ7LUUL0HUL.URNIRUV+XVX -\UKlPl 2000).
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On the action level the planning (pre-interaction), execution (interaction) and HYDOXDWLRQ SRVWLQWHUDFWLRQ RIWHDFKLQJDUHFRQWHPSODWHG0RVWWHDFKHUV¶GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ KDSSHQV EHIRUH RU DIWHU WKH DFWXDO LQWHUDFWLRQ 6RFDOOHG REMHFW WKHRULHV VHWWOHRQWKH¿UVWOHYHORIWKLQNLQJ7KLVSKDVHGHVFULEHVDWHDFKHU¶VWKLQNLQJZKHUH VKHKHUHÀHFWVRQWKHSUDFWLFHRIHGXFDWLRQDOWKHRULHV7KLVUHTXLUHVUHÀHFWLRQRQ the concepts of the subject and on pedagogical theories. The teacher may apply his/ her practical theory internalized by his/her own experience, and thereafter critically evaluate it. On the second, metatheoretical level of thinking, the examination is focused on 140
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object theories and the concepts in use. On these occasions the teacher critically evaluates the ethical premises of his/her decisions. When a teacher ponders whether his/her teaching decisions have been appropriate or just, there is always an ethical view underlying them that is connected to learning, interaction or to crucial moral TXHVWLRQVOLQNHGWRWKHVFKRROFRPPXQLW\ +DQGDO /DXYnV SS± The educational and pedagogical theories in teacher education aim at guiding WKHVWXGHQWWHDFKHUV¶WKLQNLQJIURPWKHDFWLRQOHYHOWRDWOHDVWWKHOHYHORIREMHFW WKHRULHV7HDFKHUV¶DFWLRQVEDVHGRQLQGHSHQGHQWGHFLVLRQVFDOOIRUWKHRUL]LQJDQG HWKLFDOUHDVRQLQJRQWKHOHYHORIPHWDWKHRU\ FI.DQVDQHQ The basic elements of the teaching–studying–learning process are placed in the GLGDFWLFWULDQJOHLQWHUFRQQHFWLQJWHDFKHUVWXGHQWDQGWKHFRQWHQW,QWHDFKHUV¶DFtions and thinking, the focus is, on the one hand, on the relationship to content and, on the other hand, on the relationship to the student. For the interaction between teacher and student, we can speak of the pedagogical relation through which the teacher guides his/her students.
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7KH SHGDJRJLFDO UHODWLRQ FDQ EH GH¿QHG LQ WKUHH DVSHFWV EDVHG RQ YDQ 0DQHQ¶V SS± VHHDOVR1RKO WKLQNLQJ First, the pedagogical relation is a very personal relation animated by a speFLDOTXDOLW\WKDWVSRQWDQHRXVO\HPHUJHVEHWZHHQDGXOWDQGFKLOGDQGWKDWFDQ be neither managed nor trained, nor reduced to any other human interaction. Second, the pedagogical relation is an intentional relation wherein the intent RIWKHWHDFKHULVDOZD\VGHWHUPLQHGLQDGRXEOHGLUHFWLRQ E\FDULQJIRUDFKLOG as he or she is, and by caring for a child for what he or she may become. Third, the educator must constantly be able to interpret and understand the present situation and experiences of the child and anticipate the moments when the child in fuller self-responsibility can increasingly participate in the culture.
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Table 1 characterizes the pedagogical relation on each level of pedagogical thinking. 7DEOH'HVFULSWLRQRIWKHSHGDJRJLFDOUHODWLRQ /(9(/62) 7+,1.,1*
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- Contemplation of the value and moral issues arising from interaction &ODUL¿FDWLRQRIWKHLGHDOVRIWKHSHGDJRJLFDOUHODWLRQ - Consideration of the effects of society – for instance, the meaning of market forces – from the point of view of interaction and collaboration in schools &ULWLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHWHDFKHU¶VRZQSUDFWLFDOWKHRU\RILQWHUDFtion and student relations
OBJECT 7+(25<
$WHDFKHU¶VHGXFDWLRQDODQGSV\FKRORJLFDONQRZOHGJHDERXWVWXGHQW UHODWHGDQGDJHJURXSUHODWHGTXHVWLRQVDERXWLQWHUDFWLRQ - Educational comprehension about pedagogical models and methods that allow approaching students and their personalities in a respectful manner &RQFHSWXDOLVDWLRQRIWKHHYHQWVRILQWHUDFWLRQDVLQGLYLGXDOUHÀHFWLRQ &RQVWUXFWLRQRIDWHDFKHU¶VSUDFWLFDOWKHRU\DERXWPHDQLQJIXOSHGDgogical relations with students
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7KHDELOLW\WREHSUHVHQWZLWKVWXGHQWVGXULQJWHDFKLQJ WKHDELOLW\WR listen, to take all factors into account and to respect the students - The fundamental features of the mutual interaction between teacher and students 6\VWHPDWLFDQGIRFXVHGFDULQJDVSUDFWLFDODFWVDQGJHVWXUHV
This pedagogical relation described above (Table 1) emphasizes the objects of VWXGHQWV¶ SHUVRQDO GHYHORSPHQW +RZHYHU WKHUH LV QR HGXFDWLRQ LQ D YDFXXP and without substance. When viewing the didactic triangle by focusing on the VWXGHQW¶VUHODWLRQVKLSWRWKHWDUJHWHGFRQWHQWWKHWHDFKHU¶VRULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVWKLV UHODWLRQVKLS FDQ EH FDOOHG D GLGDFWLF UHODWLRQ .DQVDQHQ S :KHQ WKH WHDFKHULVLQVWUXFWLQJVWXGHQWV¶WDUJHWRULHQWHGVWXG\LQJWKHWHDFKHU¶VDFWLRQVIRUP a relation to this relationship between student and content. That is, the didactic relation is a relation towards another relation (cf. Harjunen, 2002, p. 110). :KHQWKHFRQWHQWVRIDVXEMHFWGULIWWKURXJKDSHGDJRJLFDOVLHYHLQWKHWHDFKHU¶V WKLQNLQJ WKLV SURFHVVLQJ RI WKH GLGDFWLF UHODWLRQ VKRZV WKH WHDFKHU¶V VXEMHFW GLGDFWLFDO VNLOOV FI
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Table 2. Description of the didactic relation. /(9(/62) 7+,1.,1*
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- Wisdom about the meaning and task of the subject in society DQGLQVWXGHQWV¶OLYHV - The ability to critically contemplate the traditions connected to the subject didactic and therefore evaluate the teaching of the subject - Awareness of the history, traditions and values of the teaching of the subject
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- Possession of the basic knowledge and skills and a knowledge of the practical implementations and their possibilities in teaching the subject .QRZOHGJHRIWKHGLIIHUHQWLQVWUXFWLRQDOWHFKQLTXHVPHWKRGV and modes of teaching that enable the effective teaching of a subject 8QGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHVWXGHQWV¶OHYHORINQRZLQJDQGFUXFLDO problems in learning the subject - Comprehension of the differences in separate student and learning groups and the way they affect the teaching of the subject ,QDFWXDOWHDFKLQJVLWXDWLRQVSULRULWL]DWLRQDQGVHOHFWLRQRIWKH contents of the subject directed by the curriculum - The ability to prepare learning materials
,Q WKLV VWXG\ ZH FRQFHQWUDWH RQ WHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFH VXSHUYLVLRQ ,I ZH WKLQN RI WKH FRPSRVLWLRQ RI WHDFKHU VWXGHQW DQG PHQWRU WRJHWKHU ZLWK WKH GH¿QLWLRQ RI WKH GLGDFWLFWULDQJOHGHVFULEHGDERYHWKHHVVHQWLDOFRQWHQWLQWKHPHQWRU¶VDQGVWXGHQW WHDFKHU¶V LQWHUDFWLRQ LV WKH GLGDFWLF WULDQJOH$OVR WKH VDPH NLQG RI SHGDJRJLFDO relation is formed between the teacher student and his/her mentor as in every LQVWUXFWLRQDOSURFHVVEHWZHHQDWHDFKHUDQGVWXGHQW,Q)LJXUHZHLOOXVWUDWHWKLV new triangle, called a mentoring triangle.
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Figure 4. The mentoring triangle.
When the pedagogical relation and the didactic relation were examined through the model of pedagogical-level thinking, the relations in mentoring triangle can be then manifested in the levels of pedagogical thinking. ,Q )LJXUH ZH KDYH WULHG WR LOOXVWUDWHIURPWKHKRUL]RQWDOGLPHQVLRQKRZWKH pedagogical relation in supervision grows from the action level to the levels of object theories and metatheory. On the action level the pedagogical relation manifests itself mostly in the mentor as a model of action and thinking. That is, the pedaJRJLFDOUHODWLRQRIWKHPHQWRUDQGPHQWHHLVUHSUHVHQWHGWKURXJKWKHPHQWRU¶VZD\V of acting and behaving. The conscious and unconscious procedures of interaction EDVHGRQWKHPHQWRU¶VSHUVRQDOLW\DQGH[SHULHQFHDUHQRZPRGHOVIRUWKHPHQWHH $WWKHOHYHORIREMHFWWKHRULHVVXSHUYLVLRQ¶VSHGDJRJLFDOUHODWLRQWDNHVWKHIRUP RIVXSSRUWHPSDWK\DQGKHOS7KHPHQWRUWULHVWRHDVHWKHPHQWHH¶VSURFHVVDQG support his/her growth. The mentor is striving to act in terms of the mentee and at the same time is aware of his/her position as an expert. When the pedagogical relation develops to the metatheoretic level, the relationship is reciprocal and dialogiFDO7KHLQWHUDFWLRQSURGXFHVFUHDWLYHUHÀHFWLRQDQGIUHVKWKLQNLQJDQGJHQHUDWHV QHZLQVLJKWDQGWKHDELOLW\WRH[DPLQHGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRITXHVWLRQVDQGVLWXDWLRQV from new angles. The tone of the relationship is strongly ethical. 144
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,Q WKH VDPH )LJXUH WKH YHUWLFDO GLUHFWLRQ UHSUHVHQWV WKH GLPHQVLRQ RI WKH PHQWRULQJUHODWLRQ2QWKHDFWLRQOHYHOWKHSUDFWLFDOTXHVWLRQVDUHGHDOWZLWK7KH PHQWRUIRFXVHVRQGHYHORSLQJWKHPHQWHH¶VDFWVDQGSUDFWLFDOVNLOOV2QWKHOHYHORI REMHFWWKHRULHVWKHFRQWHQWRIVXSHUYLVLRQPRYHVWRWKHWHDFKHUVWXGHQW¶VSUDFWLFDO theory. The mentor provides the student with grounds for his/her action. At the VDPHWLPHWKHPHQWRUVWULYHVWRSURYHWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHRUL]LQJZKLOHUHÀHFWLQJRQ RQH¶VRZQDFWLRQ$WWKHPHWDWKHRUHWLFDOOHYHOVXSHUYLVLRQGHYHORSVWKHPHQWHH¶V PHWDFRJQLWLRQHVSHFLDOO\LQWHUPVRIFULWLFDOWKLQNLQJDQGDOVREULQJVHWKLFDOTXHVtions of instruction and education to the conversation.
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,QWKLVVWXG\WKHresearch questionsZHUHDVIROORZV :KDWNLQGRIPHQWRUV¶UROHVFDQEHLQWHUSUHWHGIURPWKHYLHZVRQVXSHUYLVLRQ produced in the supervision course? 2. How do views on supervision develop during the supervision course? 7KHGDWDDQDO\VHGFRPSULVHGRIWHDFKHUV¶YLHZVRQVXSHUYLVLRQDWWKHEHJLQning and the end of the supervision course. Altogether, 200 supervision views, two from each course participant, were analysed. These data were the target of a conWHQWFODVVL¿FDWLRQZKHUHHDFKYLHZRQVXSHUYLVLRQZDVVFUHHQHGDJDLQVWWKH ¿HOG W\SRORJ\ RI PHQWRUV¶ UROHV )URP HDFK YLHZ ZHUH H[SORUHG GLIIHUHQW FRQFHSWXDO XQLWVWKDWZRXOG¿WWKHUROHVGHVFULEHGLQWKHW\SRORJ\7KXVRQHYLHZRQVXSHUYLsion could have several conceptual units, each of which could be categorized in 145
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GLIIHUHQW UROHV LQ WKH W\SRORJ\ ,Q WKH GDWD WKHUH ZHUH YLHZV RQ VXSHUYLVLRQ WKDW RQO\¿WRQHFDWHJRU\±HVSHFLDOO\LQWKH¿UVWYLHZVRQVXSHUYLVLRQSURGXFHGLQWKH beginning. Also, there were views on supervision that contained conceptual units WKDWFRXOG¿WLQWRVL[GLIIHUHQWFDWHJRULHVRIWKHW\SRORJ\7KHQXPEHURIFRQFHStual units explored from the supervision views was 451, of which 168 were from the views on supervision produced at the beginning of the course and 283 from those produced at the end of the course. 5(68/76
7DEOH EHORZ VKRZV WKH FDWHJRUL]DWLRQ RI VXSHUYLVLRQ YLHZV LQWR PHQWRUV¶ UROHV that vary in the dimensions of the pedagogical relation and the mentoring relation. 1XPEHUV ± GHVFULEH WKH SHGDJRJLFDO UHODWLRQ GLPHQVLRQ IURP WKH DFWLRQ OHYHO WRWKHPHWDWKHRUHWLFOHYHO,QDVLPLODUPDQQHUOHWWHUV$±&GHVFULEHWKHGLPHQVLRQ of the mentoring relation. The explanation of the letter–number combinations is as IROORZV & 9RLFHGWKLQNHU
C2 = Argumentative partner
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B3 = Fellow debater
A1 = Advisor
A2 = Facilitator
A3 = Fellow wayfarer
7DEOH7KHSODFHPHQWRIWKHFRQFHSWXDOXQLWVRIYLHZVRQVXSHUYLVLRQLQWRQLQHGLIIHUHQW roles at the beginning (start) and at the end of the supervision course (f) . Start
2 End
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End
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Total End
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End
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2
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0
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2
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6LPLODUUHVXOWVDUHLOOXVWUDWHGJUDSKLFDOO\LQ )LJXUH 7KH FRQFHSWXDO XQLWV ZLWKLQ the views on supervision on becoming mentors mostly proliferate during the VXSHUYLVLRQFRXUVHDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\HQULFKWKHYLHZV)LJXUHLOOXVWUDWHVWKDWLQ EHFRPLQJ D PHQWRU WHDFKHUV¶ YLHZV RQ VXSHUYLVLRQ VKLIW PRVWO\ IURP WKH DFWLRQ level (A) to the level of object theories (B) in the dimension of the mentoring relation. Conceptual units describing the level of metatheory were rarely found.
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Figure 6. The categorization of views on supervision at the beginning and at the end of the supervision course
The thoughts on mentoring produced during the supervision course were mostly practical and were directed towards concrete matters. The results show that for the pedagogic relation, views on supervision vary from the action level to the thinking levels of object theory and metatheory. When considering the mentoring relation contents of supervision, the views varied mostly on the levels of action DQG REMHFW WKHRU\ 7KH LQÀXHQFH RI WKH VXSHUYLVLRQ FRXUVH GLYHUVL¿HG WKH YLHZV on supervision, but did not increase metatheoretical-level thinking in a decisive ZD\LQWKHGLPHQVLRQRIWKHPHQWRULQJUHODWLRQ,QVWHDGPRUHPHWDWKHRUHWLFDOOHYHO improvement was seen in the pedagogical relation during the course. The biggest change happened in the category of A3, in which the views stressed a dialogical grasp of practical issues. ,Q WKH IXWXUH LW ZRXOG EH ZRUWKZKLOH WR LQYHVWLJDWH PRUH FORVHO\ HYHU\ VLQJOH SDUWLFLSDQW¶VYLHZVRQVXSHUYLVLRQDQGWKHFKDQJHVWKDWRFFXUHGLQWKHPGXULQJWKH VXSHUYLVLRQFRXUVH,QWKLVVWXG\WKH¿UVWFRXUVHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶YLHZVZHUHFKRVHQIRUWKHGDWD,QODWHUVWXGLHVWKHUHVWRIWKHYLHZVZLOOEHDGGHGDQGDQDO\VHG including the views produced in the middle of the course. &21&/86,216
The research shows that when considering views on supervision, the development RI WKLQNLQJ RQ PHWDWKHRUHWLF OHYHOV FDWHJRULHV %±& SUREDEO\ UHTXLUHV \HDUV of supervision experience. Already at the beginning of the course some of the course participants noted that illustrating a view of supervision before gaining any PHQWRULQJH[SHULHQFHLVYHU\GLI¿FXOW ,Q WKLV SUHOLPLQDU\ VWXG\ DERXW YLHZV RQ VXSHUYLVLRQ ZH ZDQWHG WR WHVW WKH IXQFWLRQDOLW\RIWKHWKHRU\EDVHG ¿HOGW\SRORJ\RQWKHPHQWRUV¶UROHV7KHPRGHO RI SHGDJRJLFDOOHYHO WKLQNLQJ .DQVDQHQ .DQVDQHQ HWDO KDV already been used and tested in several studies, and it has proved to be useful. 147
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7KHLQWHJUDWLRQRIUHVHDUFKDQGWHDFKLQJ±DFKDOOHQJHIRUWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHVXSHUYLVRUV,Q90HLVDOR (toim.), Aineenopettajankoulutuksen vaihtoehdot ja tutkimus 2002. [Options and research in subject teacher education 2002] Ainedidaktiikan symposiumi [A symposium of subject didactics] 1.2.2002 (s. 141–150). Department of Teacher Education. Research reports 241.
148
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CONTEXT AND TEACHING
CHAPTER 11
TRANSFER CREDITS IN HIGHER EDUCATION: THE PATH TO GLOBALIZATIONi Christine Arnold and Michael Kompf
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Higher education has created global citizens who wish to move seamlessly through OHDUQLQJLQZD\VWKDWWUDQVFHQGFXOWXUDODQGSROLWLFDOERXQGDULHV,Q1RUWK$PHULFD many issues in policy development and institutional administration prevent students from full participation. Transfer procedures as stated in course calendars vary widely. As the higher education market is increasingly driven by student preference it is only a matter of time and economic expedience before Canada and many other countries develop universal credit models between colleges and universities. &DQDGD¶VFXUUHQWDGKRFWUDQVIHUV\VWHPQHHGVPRUHWRSURYLGHDQHTXLWDEOHV\VWHP of transfer for students. This loosely coupled system no longer serves those for who it is intended (Weick, 1988). A paradigm shift is occurring in the processes by which institutions handle transfers. Will higher education be coerced by outside legislation and impending business practices or will those within the system inform the shift through collaborative venture? *OREDOPRGHOVRIVWXGHQWPRELOLW\SURYLGHLQVLJKWIRUZKDWVHHPVWREHDORFDO SUREOHP7KH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ¶VGHYHORSPHQWRIWKH%RORJQDDFFRUGLQ KLJKOLJKWVWKHQHHGIRUVXFKYHQXHVDV$XVWUDOLD1RUWK$PHULFDDQG$VLDQFRXQWULHVWR adopt a model for transfer as a means of staying current in a global economy where crossing borders is increasingly common. The challenge for Canada and others without a universal transfer system is to bring practices in line with international standards, while preserving a higher education sector that meets domestic and inWHUQDWLRQDOTXDOLW\H[SHFWDWLRQV7KHUHVXOWZLOOEHHDVLHUDQGPRUHFRPSUHKHQVLEOH student movement between venues of study. ,1752'8&7,21
For years we have heard of cases in which university students were unable to transfer their credits to other Canadian institutions of higher education. Preliminary research was conducted by contacting 25 universities in Canada, the 8QLWHG 6WDWHV LQWHUQDWLRQDOO\ ZLWK LQTXLULHV DERXW WUDQVIHU SROLFLHV 5HVSRQVHV were wildly divergent, and lacking in consistency and coherence with respect to A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 153–163. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 11
VWXGHQWPRELOLW\ $UQROG 6LQFHWKHLQLWLDOVWXG\ZHH[DPLQHGSROLFLHVDQG SURFHGXUHVWKDWYDULRXVXQLYHUVLWLHVKDYHLQSODFH,QTXLULHVZHUHPDGHUHJDUGLQJ what administrative units were responsible for determining the viability of credits for transfer, who was served by these policies, what changes are foreseeable in WKH QHDU IXWXUH DQG PRVW LPSRUWDQW LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI JOREDOL]DWLRQ WKH TXHVWLRQ of the viability of adapting transfer credit systems along the lines of the European 8QLRQ¶V%RORJQD3URMHFW $UQROG .RPSI :KLOHSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKVSDQQHGLQWHUQDWLRQDOERXQGDULHVZHIRXQGVLJQL¿FDQW problems between and within our own borders. The success experienced by instituWLRQVLQWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQLQDWWUDFWLQJVWXGHQWVLVSXVKLQJ&DQDGLDQLQVWLWXWLRQV WRDOLJQWKHLUVWDQGDUGVRUULVNJOREDODFDGHPLFLQFRPSDWLELOLW\,QWHUQDWLRQDOWUDGH in higher education cannot be seriously considered for implementation until nationDOXQL¿FDWLRQRIVWDQGDUGVDQGWUDQVIHUSROLFLHVWDNHVSODFH&XUUHQWO\QRXQLYHUVDO system for transfer is in place in Canada. Of ten provinces and three territories in Canada, few use a transfer system. &DQDGD¶V ZHVWHUQ SURYLQFHV KDYH WKH PRVW FRPSUHKHQVLYH WUDQVIHU V\VWHPV LQ the country established in the 1960s. Today, these western provinces possess comprehensive transfer systems where students can move from college to university programs with knowledge of credit value before application. Their online transfer guides are masterful showcasing programs, funding, costs, and course credit articulations between the largest universities and colleges in each province. +RZHYHUZKLOH&DQDGD¶VZHVWHUQSURYLQFHVKDYHVFDOHGWKHPRXQWDLQRISURvincial transfer and are now looking nationally for support, our home province of 2QWDULR WKHODUJHVWSURYLQFHLQ&DQDGD ODJVEHKLQG%DUHO\DEOHWR¿QGWKHHTXLSment needed to engage in such activities, the province has no universal course-toFRXUVHDUWLFXODWLRQSROLF\:LWKLQWKHH[LVWLQJ2QWDULR7UDQVIHU6\VWHPXQOHVVRQH is in a joint program, such as nursing or policing foundations (i.e., enrolled in both university and college simultaneously), no course-by-course transfer policy exists DQGRQO\EORFNWUDQVIHUVDUHXVHG1XPHURXVWUDQVIHUVRFFXUDPRQJVWXGHQWVPRYing to and from institutions but are not recorded or guaranteed. The current study investigates student mobility between and among universities and colleges via a western Canadian council for transfer as a means of identifying components and procedures of an effective model and eventual pathway to universal transfer for the province of Ontario. This western Canadian model will not SURYLGH DQ H[DFW HTXDWLRQ IRU WUDQVIHU ZLWKLQ 2QWDULR KRZHYHU LW ZLOO SURYLGH D framework for adaptation. Objectives include (a) an anticipation of further agreePHQWV EHWZHHQ DQG DPRQJ 2QWDULR 8QLYHUVLW\ LQVWLWXWLRQV E D IDPLOLDULW\ ZLWK the accountability of institutions on a more individual basis as a means of deterPLQLQJKRZWKH\¿WWRJHWKHUDVDZKROH F GHWHUPLQLQJWKHSRWHQWLDOIRUFKDQJH in policies and procedures dictated by economics shifting how institutions inform themselves and each other, and (d) how institutions in higher education communicate these mandates to learners. While this study focuses on examples based in the Canadian experience it is important to note the implications these circumstances have for global advancement. /RFDOFRXUVHVRIDFWLRQDUHRIWHQWKHPRVWLQIRUPDWLYHSODFHVWRREVHUYHLGHQWLI\ 154
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and ignite areas for global potential. The best practices revealed in this research have international intentions and can be drawn upon across regional landscapes for SRVLWLYHDQGQHJDWLYHDWWULEXWHV:KHUH&DQDGDKDVORRNHGWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ IRUDVXFFHVVIXOPRGHORIVWXGHQWPRELOLW\&DQDGD¶VGHYHORSPHQWVFDQEHVWXGLHG by those not currently involved in the system for its reactions, mistakes, and soluWLRQVWRWKHWUHQGRIJOREDOL]DWLRQHQJXO¿QJKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ 5(6($5&+'(6,*1$1'3$57,&,3$176
Participants of this study consisted of the staff of a western Canadian council for transfer with varying roles and duties in the organization. A breakdown of WKH FRXQFLO¶V VWDII LQFOXGHV ([HFXWLYH 'LUHFWRU $VVRFLDWH 'LUHFWRU 7UDQVIHU 7HFKQRORJ\ 0DQDJHU 6SHFLDO 3URMHFWV &RRUGLQDWRU 5HVHDUFK &RRUGLQDWRU Executive Assistant and Communications, and Articulation Coordinator. Participants were interviewed and participated in roundtable sessions, allowing each person to EULQJQHZTXHVWLRQVLQWRWKHIRUXPLQDÀH[LEOHSURFHVV $LUDVLDQHWDO ,QWHUYLHZV DQG URXQGWDEOH VHVVLRQV UDQJHG IURP WR PLQXWHV LQ GXUDWLRQ DQGZHUHJXLGHGE\DVHPLVWUXFWXUHGSURWRFROIRFXVLQJRQWKUHHDUHDVRILQTXLU\ LQWR WKH WUDQVIHU V\VWHPJXLGH ZLWKLQ WKH SURYLQFH D 2UJDQL]DWLRQUROHV E 'HVFULELQJ WKH WUDQVIHU PRGHO DQG F $SSOLFDELOLW\ WR 2QWDULR ,QWHUYLHZV ZHUH audio recorded and transcribed verbatim and analyzed using coding for key word WHUPVSKUDVHV *DUGQHU $Q RXWVLGH FRPSDQ\ 07 67$7 ZDV KLUHG WR transcribe the interviews so that accuracy was maintained and any potential biases were not included. The essence of the transcript has been captured and the most SUHFLVHVWDWHPHQWVLQUHVSRQVHWRWKHTXHVWLRQVSXOOHGRXW'DWDDQDO\VLVZDVLQGXFWLYH LGHQWLI\LQJ FRPPRQ WKHPHV DQG FRQFHSWV DFURVV H[SHULHQFHV ,QWHUSUHWDWLRQ considered consistency and variation across roles and the organization as a whole. %$&.*5281' 7+(%2/2*1$)5$0(:25.¶6)$55($&+,1*())(&76
7KHUHFDQEHOLWWOHGRXEWWKDWWKHSURFHVVRIJOREDOL]DWLRQH[HUWVVLJQL¿FDQWLQÀXHQFH RQ WKH ZRUOG RI KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ 'XGHUVWDGW :HEHU 7KH QXPEHU RI foreign students studying for professional degrees or doctorates in the university V\VWHP RI PDMRU LQGXVWULDOL]HG QDWLRQV HJ WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV DQG (8 LV ODUJH more than two thirds of students stay on. Centres of excellence in higher education and labour are exported to developing countries that, in turn, are increasingly adapting curricula that conform to international patterns and standards (Hartmann, *LYHQVXFKRXWFRPHVJUDGXDWHVDUHHPSOR\DEOHDOPRVWDQ\ZKHUHDVVKRZQ by the movement of academics and professionals. There are more professionals (e.g., lawyers, architects, accountants, managers, and those in computer software) ZKR FDQ HPLJUDWH SHUPDQHQWO\ RU OLYH WHPSRUDULO\ DEURDG LQFOXGLQJ IUHTXHQW WUDYHOIRUSURIHVVLRQDOUHDVRQV,WVHHPVWKDWSHRSOHDUHDOPRVWDVPRELOHDVFDSLWDO 'XGHUVWDGW :HEHU 155
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Policy formation in higher education is a national and international concern that will standardize the conditions under which universities operate in order to achieve SROLWLFDO JRDOV 'LOO 6SRUQ .RJDQ %DXHU %OHLNOLH +HQNHO *RYHUQPHQWVWHHULQJRIKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQLQVWLWXWLRQVKDVWHQGHGWRPRYHIURPGLrect regulation of individual institutions towards a stronger emphasis on regulating the economic framework conditions under which they operate resulting in development of national higher education systems (Bleklie, 2007). While the integration of higher education systems is primarily driven at the national level, supranational DFWRUV OLNH WKH (8 2(&' 81(6&2:72 FRPELQHG ZLWK LQWHUQDWLRQDO WUHQGV KDYHEHFRPHVWURQJLQÀXHQFHVRQSROLF\GHFLVLRQV %OHLNOLH The process has a global reach including standardized degree systems, and the formation of systems for institutional evaluation and accreditation as core elements ZLWKWKHSXUSRVHRIWXUQLQJXQLYHUVLWLHVLQWRG\QDPLFHQWUHSUHQHXULDOKLJKTXDOLW\ enterprises (Bleiklie, 2007). The integration of higher education confronts policyPDNHUVZLWKLPSRUWDQWTXHVWLRQV +RZVKRXOGWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQLQVWLWXWLRQV be organized? What are the proper procedures by which integration should take place? Along what dimensions should integration take place? Does extending acFHVVWRKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQQHFHVVDULO\UHTXLUHDFWLRQVORFDOO\RULVHQFRXUDJHPHQWRI JHRJUDSKLFDOPRELOLW\UHTXLUHG" %OHLNOLH %UHQQDQ 1DLGRR /RFDODQGJOREDODFWLRQVDUHRFFXUULQJDVWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQEHFRPHVDQRUPDWLYHSRZHU1HZDOOLDQFHVDUHIRUPHGOLQNLQJLQWHOOHFWXDOVFORVHO\DVVRFLDWHGWR VHUYLFHVHFWRUVVXFKDVFRPSXWLQJ¿QDQFLDOOHJDODQGKHDOWKFDUH7UXVWDQGQRUPV shared by provider and client with the expansion of higher education are evident ZLWK WKH ODERXU PDUNHW JDLQLQJ LQ DWWUDFWLYHQHVV VLQFH LWV XQL¿FDWLRQ DV D VLQJOH PDUNHWSURMHFW +DUWPDQQ 7KHODERXUPDUNHWRIWKH(8KDVGHYHORSHGLQ FULWLFDO PDVV UHSUHVHQWLQJ D FKDOOHQJH WR WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV IRU SRZHU DQG JOREDO trade (2008). The scale of the process and the countries involved is leading non-European FRXQWULHV WR DOLJQ WKHLU V\VWHP WR WKH %RORJQD 3URFHVV ,QVWLWXWLRQDO QHWZRUNing has become a standard for meeting market anxieties and pressure for student HQUROPHQWV 7KH KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ PDUNHW ³LV EHLQJ GULYHQ E\ WKH SUHIHUHQFHV RI VWXGHQWV´ 'XGHUVWDGW :HEHUS ZLWK$XVWUDOLD1RUWK$PHULFDDQG Asian countries conforming as a means of remaining current in a global economy. Other countries, in which no universal transfer system exists, have been improving WKHLUV\VWHPVDQGORRNLQJWRWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ¶V%RORJQD$FFRUGIRUJXLGDQFH 7R VRPH H[WHQW WKH SURFHVV LV DOUHDG\ KDSSHQLQJ /DWLQ $PHULFDQ FRXQWULHV for example, have expressed interest in emulating the Bologna Process along with interest in the process expressed by Asian countries (Australian Department of (GXFDWLRQ6FLHQFHDQG7UDLQLQJS )DFLOLWDWLQJGLIIXVLRQRIWKHVHQRUPV DUH(8IXQGHGSURMHFWVVXFKDV(UDPXV0XQGXV7HPSXVDQG$VLD/LQN$VZHOO (8PHPEHUVWDWHVEDFNHGE\WKH(XURSHDQ&RPPLVVLRQKDYHEHJXQWRHVWDEOLVK &RPPRQ$UHDV RI +LJKHU (GXFDWLRQ ZLWK RWKHU UHJLRQV QRWDEO\ /DWLQ$PHULFD and the Caribbean (Hartmann, 2008). The federal Education Minister of Australia, -XOLH%LVKRSZDUQHGWKDW$XVWUDOLDQXQLYHUVLWLHV³FRXOGORVHWHQVRIWKRXVDQGVRI fee paying foreign students to Europe unless they adapt to the Bologna Process” 156
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0DVOHQS ,I$XVWUDOLDGRHVQRWPDWFKWKHVHGHYHORSPHQWVDVLJQL¿FDQW QXPEHURIWKH(XURSHDQVHQUROOHGDW$XVWUDOLDQLQVWLWXWLRQVFRXOG¿QGRWKHU destinations more attractive. Compatibility with Bologna would align key features of the Australian university system with those of 45 European countries assisting student movement and other forms of engagement (Maslen, 2006). 0HDQZKLOH5XVVLDQLQVWLWXWLRQVRIKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQKDYHDOUHDG\MRLQHGWKH(8 EDQGZDJRQ DIWHU ³DQDO\VLV RI DGDSWDWLRQ E\ OHDGLQJ 86 DQG (XURSHDQ XQLYHUVLties to the changes of social and economic conditions of external environment” 'XGHUVWDGW :HEHUS $IULFDQDQG$VLDQFRXQWULHVWRRDUHFRQVLGHUing alignment and change for their systems of higher education and are already takLQJVWHSVWRFRQYHUVLRQ1RUWK$PHULFDKRZHYHULVQRWPRYLQJTXLWH\HW,QVWHDG &DQDGD LV NHHSLQJ DQ H\H RQ WKH SURJUHVV DQG SRZHU RI WKH (8 DFNQRZOHGJLQJ ZKDW FRQVHTXHQFHV LQWHUQDWLRQDO GHYHORSPHQWV FRXOG KDYH RQ WKH VXFFHVV DQG structure of higher education in the nation. Canadian Perspectives on the Bologna Process $W WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI $OEHUWD GXULQJ 0DUFK DFDGHPLFV DQG RUJDQL]DWLRQDO representatives met to discuss Canadian Perspectives on the Bologna Process. As the Bologna Process shakes up higher education in Europe, observers here are WU\LQJWRJDXJHZKDWLWPHDQVIRU&DQDGD¶VKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQV\VWHP &KDUERQQHDX 2009). The process will complicate student mobility between Canada and (XURSH DQG PD\ DOVR DIIHFW &DQDGLDQ XQLYHUVLWLHV¶ HIIRUWV WR UHFUXLW LQWHUQDWLRQDO VWXGHQWV&DQDGD¶VUHVSRQVHKDVEHHQWKDWRID³FORVHZDWFKLQJH\H´DFFRUGLQJWR Robert White, senior policy analyst for international relations at the Association RI 8QLYHUVLWLHV DQG &ROOHJHV RI &DQDGD $8&& ZKLOH WUDFNLQJ %RORJQD developments and witnessing how other non-European countries are responding (Charbonneau, 2009). There are three main areas where Bologna is likely to affect &DQDGD %RORJQD KDV VHW WKUHH \HDUV IRU D EDFKHORUV GHJUHH WZR \HDUV IRU D masters, and three for a PhD and as such Canada will have to decide whether to DFFHSW WKHVH GHJUHHV DV VXI¿FLHQW TXDOL¿FDWLRQV IRU WKHLU JUDGXDWH SURJUDPV 0HHWLQJLQWHUQDWLRQDOVWXGHQWUHTXLUHPHQWVDVPRUHRSWIRU(XURSHDQRSWLRQVFRXOG EHFRPH SUREOHPDWLF ([FKDQJH SURJUDPV ZLWK (XURSHDQ 8QLYHUVLWLHV FRXOG FKDOOHQJHPRELOLW\VWUXFWXUHVEHWZHHQ(XURSHDQG1RUWK$PHULFD &KDUERQQHDX 2009). The reviews are mixed but two options do seem to present themselves. Clifford $GHOPDQRIWKH,QVWLWXWHIRU+LJKHU(GXFDWLRQ3ROLF\LQWKH86KDVVWXGLHGWKH effects of Bologna on non-European countries and feels that institutions should jump on the Bologna bandwagon or risk being left behind (Charbonneau, 2009). +RZHYHU 7KH &DQDGLDQ &RXQFLO RQ /HDUQLQJ DQG -XGLWK 0D[ZHOO IRUPHU KHDG of the Economic Council of Canada, state that the best bet for universities and colleges in Canada is to invent their own version of the Bologna process through a Pan-Canadian system. This second option is more desired and thus the concept of a Pan-Canadian SystemKDVUHFHQWO\¿OOHGWKHDJHQGDVRILQVWLWXWLRQVDQGDJHQFLHV 157
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of higher education across the nation. However, unlike Europe, Canadian higher education policy is provincial not federal. Therefore, each province must develop a model itself before reaching out to other provinces to establish a national system. Student Mobility in the Province of Ontario Ontario has a transfer guide for block transfer agreements between individual institutions. But, no course-by-course (universal) guide exists comparable to that used in western Canada. Only those disciplines (e.g., Policing Foundations DQG 1XUVLQJ ZLWK SUHVHW WUDQVIHU URXWHV EHQH¿W &UHGLWE\FUHGLW WUDQVIHU LV QRW RUJDQL]HGRUSRVWHG LQVWHDGLQGLYLGXDOLQVWLWXWLRQVIRUPUXOHVIRUWUDQVIHUDVWKH\ wish with no measuring stick for institutions and no enforcement of standards. Thus, the development of a transfer guide similar to those established in &DQDGD¶VZHVWHUQSURYLQFHVZRXOGDOORZNQRZOHGJHRIWUDQVIHUDEOHFUHGLWVEHIRUH DQGDIWHUHQUROPHQW,QVWLWXWLRQVZRXOGEHQH¿WIURPDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHUROH each institution plays in distributing and maintaining students in higher educaWLRQ/LNHWKHVHQGHUDQGUHFHLYHUFODVVL¿FDWLRQVWKHZHVWHUQ&DQDGLDQFRXQFLOIRU WUDQVIHUXVHVWRWUDFNERWKWKHSXUSRVHDQGTXDOLW\RIDQLQVWLWXWLRQFROOHJHVDQG XQLYHUVLWLHVLQ2QWDULRZLOOQHHGWRNQRZWKHOHYHORITXDOLW\DQGSXUSRVHRIHDFK LQVWLWXWLRQIURPZKLFKVWXGHQWVWUDQVIHU,QVWLWXWLRQVPXVWEHSURYLGHGZLWKLQIRUPDWLRQUHJDUGLQJ D WKHSURJUDPVRIIHUHGE\HDFKXQLYHUVLW\DQGFROOHJHLQWKH province (b) academic level at which studies are being achieved at each place of study, and (c) standards and policies in place at all institutions. With these outFRPHVDQGLQWHQWLRQVLQVWLWXWLRQVVKRXOGEHPRUHUHDGLO\DEOHWRJDXJHTXDOLW\DQG HQIRUFHHQWUDQFHUHTXLUHPHQWVWRHQFRXUDJHVWXGHQWDFFHVV The Study of a Model for Successful Transfer in Canada The western Canadian council for transfer investigated in this study has one of the most comprehensive provincial transfer systems in Canada. The province has had a fairly integrated system of higher education since the mid-1990s with an estimated transfer rate of over 40 percent for arts and sciences (ACAATO, 2005, p. 17). Across the three largest universities and averaging across the decade of the 1990s, WKLVSURYLQFH¶VXQLYHUVLWLHVKDYHDGPLWWHGFROOHJHVWXGHQWVIRUHYHU\¿YHVHFRQGDU\ school students (BCCAT, 2004). This works out to approximately 22,000 students transferring from a college, university-college, or institute (BCCAT, 2005). This FRRUGLQDWLRQ KDV RFFXUUHG EHFDXVH RI D VHW RI FLUFXPVWDQFHV DQG DFWLRQV XQLTXH WRWKHSURYLQFH6\QFKURQL]DWLRQLQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQKDVEHHQGULYHQRYHUWKHODVW three decades by institutions and the provincial government. This Council is a successful organization largely because it has no government regulatory or legislative authority and cannot change or implement institutional SROLFHV,WLVIXQGHGDQQXDOO\E\WKH0LQLVWU\DQGPHPEHUVIURPWKHHGXFDWLRQV\Vtem are appointed by the Minister (BCCAT, 2009). The Council works to serve the 158
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overall best interests of the higher education system and does not formally repreVHQWDQ\VSHFL¿FLQVWLWXWLRQRUFRQVWLWXHQF\ZLWKZKLFKWKH\DUHDI¿OLDWHG %&&$7 1RDXWKRULW\RYHUDQ\LQVWLWXWLRQLQWKHSURYLQFHLVKHOGE\WKH&RXQFLODQG instead only suggestions and recommendations for new policies and procedures attaining to transfer and admissions are made. As a result institutions do not feel WKUHDWHQHGE\WKLVRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGNQRZWKDWWKH&RXQFLOLVZRUNLQJIRUWKHHTXDO betterment of each college and university. The mandate of the council is to facilitate admission, articulation, and transfer DUUDQJHPHQWVDPRQJSRVWVHFRQGDU\LQVWLWXWLRQV6SHFL¿FDOO\WKHFRXQFLO (a) encourages institutions to develop policies and practices regarding the transferability of post-secondary credit courses so that credit granted at one institution FDQEHDSSOLHGWRZDUGFUHGHQWLDOVDWRWKHULQVWLWXWLRQV DQG (b) examines issues pertaining to capacity, demand, and student mobility, and recommends policies and practices related to the admission process for direct entry and transfer students (BCCAT, 2009, p. 1). 7KHFRXQFLO¶VSXUSRVHLVWRFRRUGLQDWHWKHWUDQVIHUDQGDUWLFXODWLRQHIIRUWVRILQstitutions in the province. The Council has not been given any legislative authority E\JRYHUQPHQWWRFDUU\RXWLWVPDQGDWHEXWUDWKHUZDVFUHDWHGDVDQDUP¶VOHQJWK agency whose role was to facilitate collaborative efforts among autonomous institutions in a differentiated postsecondary system (BCCAT, 2004). This organization is apolitical since it is outside of the legislative framework and functions simply as a committee of the minister. The minister provides the budget for the year and the Council plans the projects and research that will be conducted. With no legislative power, the Council does not pose a threat to institutions and can work as an uninvolved and unbiased mediator of transfer co-ordinations. Thus, transfer and articulation in the province has always been the responsibility of individual institutions, and the Council has coordinated and managed the processes involved. 5(68/76$1'',6&866,21 %(6735$&7,&(*8,'(
:H IRXQG ¿YH SUHYDOHQW WKHPHV JDSV LQ WKH FXUUHQW 2QWDULR WUDQVIHU V\VWHP :KLOH VRPH UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV ZRXOG PHDQ D FKDQJH LQ SROLF\ RWKHUV UHTXLUH the participation of institutions and voluntary action by departments across campuses within the province. The result of this study was a Best Practice Guide for Transfer which can be used within the province of Ontario, across Canada, and internationally categorizing areas for improvement and consideration. Found EHORZDUHWKHUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVDQGSUDFWLFHVPRVWLQÀXHQWLDOWRDZHOOUXQWUDQVIHU system, one where all stakeholders are aware of their position and role.
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$UWLFXODWLRQ&RPPLWWHHV&RPPXQLFDWLRQ 7KHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDUWLFXODWLRQFRPPLWWHHVIRUSDUWLFXODUGLVFLSOLQHVLVWKH¿UVW UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ 2QH SDUW RI WKH &RXQFLO¶V WUDQVIHU DQG DUWLFXODWLRQ SURFHVV LV the meeting of articulation committees organized by the committee members themselves. The committees (made up of a committee chair, system liaison person, and committee members from various institutions by discipline) meet once each year to discuss new programs, courses, and ongoing changes, as well as possible transfer initiatives that could be facilitated by discipline. The purpose RI WKH FRPPLWWHHV LV WR H[SDQG RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU VWXGHQWV¶ YLD WKH PRYHPHQW RI transfer credits form one institution to another in the higher education system. This intention is met by providing a medium for exchange of information and increasing cooperation among institutions by discipline, advocating for program and course HTXLYDOHQFLHV ZKHUH DSSURSULDWH DQG DLGLQJ LQ WKH SURFHVV RI LQWHULQVWLWXWLRQDO transfer credit (BCCAT, 2007). This essential element is the mechanism to build communication and trust between the participants because one of the hardest things to overcome, of course, is DWWLWXGH(YHQZKHUHWKHUHLVVRPHEHQH¿WIRUWKHXQLYHUVLWLHVWRFRRSHUDWHZLWKWKH colleges, there may be no clear ways of faculty-to-faculty relationship building. 2. Course by Course Transfer / Core Arts and Science Curriculum The core of the western Canadian transfer model is bilateral course-to-course transfer and by that what is meant is that each transfer agreement is negotiated individually by each sending institution with each receiving institution for each course. The essence is a negotiation between autonomous institutions on a courseby-course basis. Once the transfer credit is negotiated, articulation is maintained over time. As courses change at both sending and receiving institutions, agreements are renegotiated. $ FRUH FRXUVHWRFRXUVH$UWV DQG 6FLHQFH FXUULFXOXP LV D VWHS LQ 2QWDULR WKDW ZRXOGUHTXLUHQHJRWLDWLRQDQGGLVFXVVLRQ,IFROOHJHVZHUHWRWDNHWKHLUVSHFL¿FDQG SURJUDP RULHQWHG ¿UVW DQG VHFRQG \HDU FODVVHV DQG PDNH WKHP PRUH JHQHUDOL]HG WRXQLYHUVLW\VWDQGDUGVWKHQDFRUHVHWRIFODVVHVFRXOGEHTXLFNO\FRQFHLYHGRI 7KRVHFRXUVHVFXUUHQWO\WDXJKWDWWKH¿UVWDQGVHFRQG\HDUFROOHJHOHYHOLQ(QJOLVK 0DWK 3V\FKRORJ\ DQG +LVWRU\ LI UHFRQ¿JXUHG WR SURYLGH D EDVLV IRU XQLYHUVLW\ curriculum in third and fourth year, could open up student pathways and possibilities. Whether students continued further college study or moved to university, a foundation for both would exist that held common meaning in core subjects DFURVVWKHERDUG7KLVZRXOGUHTXLUHFROODERUDWLRQRQWKHSDUWVRIERWKFROOHJHVDQG universities to discuss important course objectives, learning outcomes and bridge and create goals that would suit both college and university needs. Other issues WKDW ZRXOG QHHG UHYDPSLQJ PLJKW LQFOXGH LQVWUXFWRUV¶ TXDOL¿FDWLRQV WR GHOLYHU FRXUVHV FRQWHQW DQG VWDQGDUGV WR EH GH¿QHG E\ ERWK XQLYHUVLWLHV DQG FROOHJHV )XUWKHUDSXEOLVKHGFUHGLWE\FUHGLWPRGHORIWUDQVIHUZRXOGUHTXLUHDPHGLXPIRU 160
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distribution (print or electronic) available to students and updated annually. 5HVHDUFK8QLYHUVLW\WR5HVHDUFK8QLYHUVLW\7UDQVIHU Research university-to-research university articulation does not exist in the western SURYLQFHVWXGLHGIRUWKLVUHVHDUFK,QVWHDGHDFKLQVWLWXWLRQKDVEHHQGHHPHGHLWKHU a sender or a receiver DQG WKH WHUPV DUH EHFRPLQJ TXLWH RXWGDWHG ,QVWLWXWLRQV DUH LQ VRPH FDVHV XQZLOOLQJ WR HPERG\ ERWK FODVVL¿FDWLRQV ZKLFK SUHYHQW PDQ\ WUDQVIHU HTXLYDOHQFLHV IURP EHLQJ RI¿FLDOO\ SRVWHG RQ WKH SURYLQFHV 7UDQVIHU *XLGH6WLOOHTXLYDOHQFLHVGRH[LVWEHWZHHQXQLYHUVLWLHVXQRI¿FLDOO\DQGVWXGHQWV routinely transfer between research institutions. ,Q2QWDULRXQLYHUVLW\WRXQLYHUVLW\WUDQVIHUZRXOGEHDQHFHVVDU\IHDWXUHRIDQ\ FRXUVHWRFRXUVH JXLGH GHYHORSHG IRU WKH SURYLQFH :LWK VLJQL¿FDQWO\ PRUH XQLYHUVLWLHV LQ 2QWDULR FRPSDUHG WR &DQDGD¶V ZHVWHUQ SURYLQFHV TXLWH D QXPEHU RI transfers occur horizontally every year. 4. Guidelines/Mandate/Council ,GHQWLI\LQJZKDWQHHGVWREHDFKLHYHGZKRZLOOSDUWLFLSDWHDQGWKHVWHSVWKDWDUH JRLQJ WR EH WDNHQ WR DFKLHYH VXFFHVV DUH HVVHQWLDO ,QVWLWXWLRQV QHHG WR VLJQ RII on their role and what they will abide to do in the creation of a coherent transfer V\VWHP ,I WKLV LV IRUPLQJ D FRUH$UWV DQG 6FLHQFH FXUULFXOXP EHWZHHQ FROOHJHV and universities where students can transfer between university, college, and college-to-university programs within Ontario, then all institutions currently offering such programs must communicate. Each institution must send a faculty representative and chair to meet and discuss learning outcomes, objectives, and ZKDW LV H[SHFWHG ,Q WKH GLVFLSOLQH RI +LVWRU\ IRU H[DPSOH DOO LQVWLWXWLRQV ZLWK history programs would meet with a list of courses taught in year one and two and discuss similarities in courses offered across institutions and identify core classes that would allow a sound transition from college to university, among colleges, and among universities themselves. After consultation and over time a core curriculum DQGVHWRIFRXUVHVFRXOGEHFRGL¿HGDQGSODFHGLQWRD+LVWRU\7UDQVIHU0DWUL[DQG SXEOLVKHGRQWKH2QWDULR7UDQVIHU*XLGH+HUHDOOVWXGHQWVFRXOGKDYHDFFHVVWR the matrix of agreed upon articulations and courses. Caveats and needed actions to facilitate such a process would include agreements updated yearly and members of the discipline (articulation committee) meetLQJ WR GLVFXVV FKDQJHV DQG FRQFHUQV ,QVWLWXWLRQV PRUH LPSRUWDQWO\ ZRXOG QHHG to sign off on and agree to the rules by which these transfers would occur and not stray from them. More importantly, however, such an initiative takes time, resources, and organization and this would need a Council. Articulation Committees are a foundational start, although keeping these committees running and publishLQJLQVWLWXWLRQV¶DUWLFXODWLRQVDQGSRVWLQJWKHPZRXOGUHTXLUHWKHZRUNRIDJURXS of professionals. This Council would work to alleviate tension and function as a 161
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mediator, produce resources, conduct research to show effectiveness and areas for improvement, and house and organize all articulations. ,PSURYHG5HVHDUFK(YLGHQFHRI7UDQVIHU The Council implements policies based on research and therefore evidence and action are continually linked. The research generated by the Council informs new modes of transfer, innovative projects, and provides information on transfer success to universities and colleges in the province. 7KXVLQ&DQDGD¶VZHVWHUQSURYLQFHV it is not hard to convince universities that historically transfer students have been successful, because the data speaks for itself. ,Q2QWDULRDUHVHDUFKDJHQGDWRXQGHUVWDQGPRUHLQGHSWKPRGHVQHHGVDQG advantages/disadvantages of transfer is necessary. Further, research that measures transfer students success compared to direct entry counterparts, tracks movement E\LQVWLWXWLRQDQGFROOHFWVGDWDDQGVWDWLVWLFVRQQHZPRGHOVRIWUDQVIHULVUHTXLUHG &21&/86,21
6\VWHPV RI KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ FDQQRW ZRUN LQ LVRODWLRQ IURP RQH DQRWKHU WKH\ UHTXLUHWKHVWXGHQWVDQGVWUXFWXUHWKRVHDURXQGWKHPRIIHUWRVXUYLYH$KLVWRU\RI transfer has proven that all one needs for a foundation to success can be found in a VWHDG\ORRNRYHUWKHIHQFHLQWRDQHLJKERXU¶V\DUG6KDULQJORFDOJOREDOUHVRXUFHV and knowledge is of chief importance. Without an understanding of international benchmarks, successes, and failures in the administration of higher education nations risk incompatibility and often lose the appeal of students. However, as globalization in higher education becomes more commonplace with students moving beyond borders there are further considerations not yet fully examined. The international space in which higher education has moved must be FRQVLGHUHGEH\RQGWKHOHYHORIORJLVWLFV,QGLVFXVVLRQVRIJOREDOL]DWLRQDQGLWVHIIHFWRQKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQ$OWEDFK UDLVHVDIHZFUXFLDOFRQFHUQV WUDGHLQ higher education is more complicated to codify than consumer goods, 2) the norms, YDOXHVODQJXDJHVFLHQWL¿FLQQRYDWLRQVDQGNQRZOHGJHRIFRXQWULHVLQWKHFHQWUH crowd out the ideas and practices of those on the margins, 3) institutional autonomy is compromised, 4) developing countries need academic institutions that can contribute to national development, and 5) standardized curricula does not consider the implication of teaching world history in Britain (the British Empire), vs. the 8QLWHG 6WDWHV WKH$PHULFDQ 5HYROXWLRQ YV$XVWUDOLD WKH )RXQGLQJ &RORQLHV These concerns represent the path that higher education is creating in stepping its way through the changing economic market to deliver educational services and goods. Each recent development in higher education holds its own place among the complications and compensations of globalization.
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THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION: A NEW FOUNDATION FOR SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITIES Jude Butcher, Anne Benjamin, Chris Sidoti, Anthony Steel and Dawn Casey
1HYHUIRUJHWZKHUH\RXFDPHIURP but remember you never have to go back there. These words of home-spun wisdom from an Aboriginal Australian woman capture the profound change that education has the potential to bring about in the lives RILQGLYLGXDOVDQGFRPPXQLWLHV3HRSOHDVSLUHWRDEHWWHUTXDOLW\RIOLIHWRPRYH beyond where they are today and leave behind situations which dehumanize them. Disadvantage, in a myriad of forms, often highly correlates with lack of educaWLRQ DQG UHVXOWV LQ VXFK RXWFRPHV DV SRRU KHDOWK DQG ORZHU OLIH H[SHFWDQF\ LOOLWHUDF\ DQG GHFUHDVHG HPSOR\DELOLW\ SRYHUW\ RU HFRQRPLF GHSHQGHQFH ODFN RI protection under the law and lack of access to the justice system. Education offers the possibility for individuals and communities to challenge, move beyond and even transform these situations of human limitation. 7KHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQPXVWEHUHDOL]HGDWYDULRXVOHYHOV LQWHUQDWLRQDOQDWLRQDO DQG ORFDO ,W UHOLHV RQ ERWK ODUJHVFDOH PHDVXUHV IURP JRYHUQPHQWV DQG VFKRRO systems, as well as small measures in local towns and villages, sustained by comPXQLWLHV1*2VFKXUFKHVDQGHYHQLQGLYLGXDOV Wherever education occurs, its success will be dependent on a change in attitude DQG DSSURDFK ³IURP RQH RI SLHFHPHDO KDQGRXWV IRU WKH SRRU WR RQH RI WHDFKLQJ them how to alleviate their own poverty and be responsible for their prosperity” /HIHYUH ,QRWKHUZRUGVHGXFDWLRQPXVWHPSRZHUSHRSOHDVDJHQWVLQWKHLU own transformation and that of their communities, helping them move beyond toGD\¶VOLPLWDWLRQVWRZDUGVKRSHDQGDFWLRQIRUDEHWWHUIXWXUH This paper begins with an examination of the right to education as it exists in international law, highlighting the centrality of this right to the achievement of KXPDQ GLJQLW\ 6XFK GLJQLW\ VWDQGV DW WKH KHDUW RI WKH 8QLYHUVDO 'HFODUDWLRQ RI +XPDQ5LJKWVDQGRWKHULQWHUQDWLRQDOKXPDQULJKWVLQVWUXPHQWV,WWKHQPRYHVWR a consideration of how effectively the right has been realized in different national and geographic contexts, and for different groups within those contexts. This will EH GRQH XVLQJ GDWD IURP 81(6&2 DQG YDULRXV QDWLRQDO JRYHUQPHQW DJHQFLHV Enriched by insights drawn from the experiences of indigenous Australians, the third section explores challenges the right to education poses for governments and A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 165–178. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
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school systems, and the importance of advocacy and effective leverage in meeting WKRVHFKDOOHQJHV,WUHDVVHUWVWKDWWKHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQLVDULJKWRILQGLYLGXDOKXman persons. International human rights law 7KH GH¿QLWLRQ RI WKH ULJKW WR HGXFDWLRQ LQ LQWHUQDWLRQDO KXPDQ ULJKWV ODZ LV RQH RI WKH PRVW VSHFL¿F DQG PRVW GHWDLOHG GH¿QLWLRQV RI DQ\ KXPDQ ULJKW 6HH WKH 8QLYHUVDO'HFODUDWLRQRI+XPDQ5LJKWV$UWLFOHWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQWRQ (FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWV$UWLFOHVDQGWKH&RQYHQWLRQRQWKH Rights of the Child Articles 28 and 29 and the Convention on the Rights of Persons ZLWK 'LVDELOLWLHV $UWLFOH DPRQJ RWKHUV ,W KDV WKUHH SULQFLSDO FRPSRQHQWV dealing with the aims of education, the substance of the right to education and WKH SURFHVV RI HGXFDWLRQ ,W DOVR SURYLGHV IRU TXLWH VSHFL¿F 6WDWH REOLJDWLRQV LQ relation to the full enjoyment of the right by all. The right to education is a right of HYHU\RQHQRWRQO\RIFKLOGUHQWKRXJKLWKDVVSHFLDOVLJQL¿FDQFHIRUFKLOGUHQ The aims of education 7KH ULJKW WR HGXFDWLRQ LV RQH RI WKH IHZ ULJKWV GH¿QHG QRW RQO\ LQ WHUPV RI substantive content but also in terms of aims. 7KH8QLYHUVDO'HFODUDWLRQRI+XPDQ5LJKWVLQ VWDWHVIRXUDLPVRIHGXFDtion, being IXOOGHYHORSPHQWRIKXPDQSHUVRQDOLW\ VWUHQJWKHQLQJUHVSHFWIRUKXPDQULJKWV promoting understanding, tolerance and friendship among nation, racial and UHOLJLRXVJURXSV DQG IXUWKHULQJWKHDFWLYLWLHVRI8QLWHG1DWLRQVIRUSHDFH 8QLYHUVDO'HFODUDWLRQRI Human Rights Article 26.2). 7KH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RYHQDQW RQ (FRQRPLF 6RFLDO DQG &XOWXUDO 5LJKWs in 1966 DGGHGWZRPRUHDLPV SURPRWLQJWKHVHQVHRIWKHGLJQLW\RIWKHKXPDQSHUVRQ DQG enabling all persons to participate effectively in a free society. ,WDOVRH[WHQGHGWKHSURPRWLRQRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJWROHUDQFHDQGIULHQGVKLSWRHWKQLFJURXSVLQDGGLWLRQWRQDWLRQUDFLDODQGUHOLJLRXVJURXSV ,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQW RQ(FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWV$UWLFOH The most comprehensive statement of the aims of education is contained in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. 6WDWHV3DUWLHVDJUHHWKDWWKHHGXFDWLRQRIWKHFKLOGVKDOOEHGLUHFWHGWR D WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH FKLOG¶V SHUVRQDOLW\ WDOHQWV DQG PHQWDO DQG SK\VLFDODELOLWLHVWRWKHLUIXOOHVWSRWHQWLDO (b) the development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, 166
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DQGIRUWKHSULQFLSOHVHQVKULQHGLQWKH&KDUWHURIWKH8QLWHG1DWLRQV WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIUHVSHFWIRUWKHFKLOG¶VSDUHQWVKLVRUKHURZQFXOtural identity, language and values, for the national values of the country in which the child is living, the country from which he or she may RULJLQDWHDQGIRUFLYLOL]DWLRQVGLIIHUHQWIURPKLVRUKHURZQ the preparation of the child for responsible life in a free society, in the VSLULWRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJSHDFHWROHUDQFHHTXDOLW\RIVH[HVDQGIULHQGship among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and perVRQVRILQGLJHQRXVRULJLQ DQG the development of respect for the natural environment (Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 29.1).
This statement of aims presents a very full view of the scope of education and the important role that education plays in the lives of individuals and communities. ,W KDV GLPHQVLRQV WKDW UHÀHFW WKH FRQFHUQ IRU IXOO KXPDQ GHYHORSPHQW DQG WKH DFKLHYHPHQWRIHDFKLQGLYLGXDO¶VIXOODELOLWLHVDQGSRWHQWLDOLWLHV(DFKSHUVRQKDVD right to this kind of education. That means that each person has a right to education that develops respect for human rights. 8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKHVFRSHRIWKHHGXFDWLRQWRZKLFKHYHU\RQHKDVDULJKWUDLVHV LPPHGLDWH TXHVWLRQV DERXW WKH QDWXUH DQG FRQWHQW RI WKH HGXFDWLRQ SURYLGHG LQ VFKRROVDQGRWKHUHGXFDWLRQDOLQVWLWXWLRQV,ILWLVQRWGLUHFWHGWRZDUGVWKHDFKLHYHPHQWRIWKHVHDLPVWKHQWKHSHUVRQ¶VULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQLVEHLQJYLRODWHG The substance of the right to education 7KH GH¿QLWLRQ RI WKH ULJKW WR HGXFDWLRQ FRQWDLQV SURYLVLRQV WKDW UHODWH WR HDFK level of education and then more broadly to what is called fundamental education. 7KH QDWXUH RI WKH HQWLWOHPHQW GLIIHUV TXLWH VLJQL¿FDQWO\ DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH OHYHO RI education but the right to fundamental education ensures a basic level of education for everyone. ,Q UHODWLRQ WR SULPDU\ RU HOHPHQWDU\ HGXFDWLRQ WKH ULJKW WR HGXFDWLRQ KDV WKH strictest provisions. This right is to free, universal, compulsory primary education ZLWKRXWGLVFULPLQDWLRQ 7KH8QLYHUVDO'HFODUDWLRQRI+XPDQ5LJKWV$UWLFOH WKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQWRQ(FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWV$UWLFOH D and the Convention on the Rights of the Child Articles 28.1(a)). A child has the right to primary education and must be compelled to exercise that right. 7KHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQUHTXLUHVWKDWVHFRQGDU\HGXFDWLRQEHSURYLGHGLQLWVGLIIHUHQWIRUPVLQFOXGLQJJHQHUDOWHFKQLFDODQGYRFDWLRQDOHGXFDWLRQ6HFRQGDU\HGucation should be made available and accessible to all by every appropriate means. Free secondary education should be progressively introduced and in cases of need ¿QDQFLDODVVLVWDQFHVKRXOGEHSURYLGHG6HFRQGDU\HGXFDWLRQLVVHHQDVDXQLYHUVDO ULJKW$FFHVV WR LW GRHV QRW GHSHQG RQ FDSDFLW\ 7KH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RYHQDQW RQ (FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWV$UWLFOHV E DQGWKH&RQYHQWLRQRQWKH Rights of the Child Articles 28.1(b)). 167
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Although technical and vocational education is mentioned in the context of secondary education, the right to education also sees it as distinct, as an element of the ULJKWDSDUWIURPVHFRQGDU\HGXFDWLRQ 7KH8QLYHUVDO'HFODUDWLRQRI+XPDQ5LJKWV $UWLFOH DQG WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RYHQDQW RQ (FRQRPLF 6RFLDO DQG &XOWXUDO Rights Article 6.2). :LWK KLJKHU HGXFDWLRQ WKH OLPLWDWLRQ RI FDSDFLW\ LV UHFRJQLVHG IRU WKH ¿UVW and only time. Higher education is the only level of education where a legitimate distinction can be made on the basis of capacity. Higher education is to be made HTXDOO\DFFHVVLEOHWRDOOZLWKRXWGLVFULPLQDWLRQRQWKHEDVLVRIFDSDFLW\E\HYHU\ DSSURSULDWHPHDQV 7KH8QLYHUVDO'HFODUDWLRQRI+XPDQ5LJKWV$UWLFOHWKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RYHQDQW RQ (FRQRPLF 6RFLDO DQG &XOWXUDO 5LJKWV$UWLFOH F and the Convention on the Rights of the Child Articles 28.1(c)). +DYLQJSURYLGHGLQWXUQIRUHDFKOHYHORIHGXFDWLRQWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHULJKW WR HGXFDWLRQ GHDOV ZLWK ZKDW LW FDOOV IXQGDPHQWDO HGXFDWLRQ 7KH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO &RYHQDQWRQ(FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWV$UWLFOH G $FFHVVWRIXQdamental education is a right for those who have not received or completed the ZKROH SHULRG RI SULPDU\ HGXFDWLRQ ,W LV HVSHFLDOO\ UHOHYDQW WR DGXOWV UDWKHU WKDQ FKLOGUHQZKLFKLVZK\LWLVGHDOWZLWKLQWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQWRQ(FRQRPLF 6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWVEXWQRWLQWKH&RQYHQWLRQRQ the Rights of the Child. However, children who miss out on primary education are also entitled to fundamental education. 7KH KXPDQ ULJKWV WUHDWLHV GR QRW GH¿QH IXQGDPHQWDO HGXFDWLRQ 3HUKDSV WKH EHVWLQGLFDWLRQRIZKDWLWLQFOXGHVFDQEHIRXQGLQWKHGH¿QLWLRQRI³EDVLFOHDUQLQJ QHHGV´LQWKH:RUOG'HFODUDWLRQRQ(GXFDWLRQIRU$OODV³HVVHQWLDOOHDUQLQJWRROV (such as literacy, oral expression, numeracy and problem solving) and the basic OHDUQLQJFRQWHQW VXFKDVNQRZOHGJHVNLOOVYDOXHVDQGDWWLWXGHV UHTXLUHGE\KXman beings to be able to survive, to develop their full capacities, to live and work LQGLJQLW\WRSDUWLFLSDWHIXOO\LQGHYHORSPHQWWRLPSURYHWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHLUOLYHV to make informed decisions and to continue learning” (The World Declaration on Education for All Article 1).
The process of education The right to education affects the process of education directly and indirectly. Because education should be directed towards developing respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, it should be provided in a manner in which that is possible. The best way to promote respect for human rights is to observe human rights. Educational institutions – schools, colleges, universities and other institutions – should be structured and operated as human-rights-respecting communities, modelling a society with a culture of human rights that operates on WKH EDVLV RI UHVSHFWLQJ DOO KXPDQ ULJKWV RI HYHU\RQH ,W LV D VRFLHW\ LQ ZKLFK WKH treatment accorded each person is fully consistent with human rights standards and obligations. Human rights law has a number of fundamental principles that underpin the way 168
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societies and communities should operate. These form the basis of the process elePHQWRIWKHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQ7KH\LQFOXGH WKH ULJKW WR EH IUHH IURP GLVFULPLQDWLRQ 7KH 81(6&2 &RQYHQWLRQ $JDLQVW 'LVFULPLQDWLRQ LQ (GXFDWLRQ $UWLFOH WKH 8QLYHUVDO 'HFODUDWLRQ RI +XPDQ 5LJKWV$UWLFOHWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQWRQ(FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO Rights Article 2.2, the Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 2.1, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Article 5, the Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Article 2 and the Convention on the (OLPLQDWLRQRI$OO)RUPVRI'LVFULPLQDWLRQ$JDLQVW:RPHQ$UWLFOH WKHULJKWWRSDUWLFLSDWH 6HHHVSHFLDOO\WKH&RQYHQWLRQRQWKH5LJKWVRIWKH&KLOG $UWLFOH the principle of the best interests of the child (The Convention on the Rights of WKH&KLOG$UWLFOH the principle of parental guidance for children in the exercise of WKHLU ULJKWV 7KH &RQYHQWLRQ RQ WKH 5LJKWV RI WKH &KLOG $UWLFOH and the right to proper treatment, free from exploitation, abuse and neglect (The Convention on the Rights of the Child Articles 31, 34 and 37(a) but also the ,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQWRQ&LYLODQG3ROLWLFDO5LJKWV$UWLFOHDQGWKH&RQYHQWLRQ on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Articles 15 and 16). ,QWHUQDWLRQDOKXPDQULJKWVODZLPSRVHVDQDEVROXWHSURKLELWLRQRQGLVFULPLQDtion in the enjoyment of human rights (The Convention on the Rights of the Child $UWLFOH 'LVFULPLQDWLRQLVGH¿QHGLQLQFOXVLYHWHUPV$OWKRXJKFHUWDLQSURVFULEHG grounds are listed, they are not exclusive but indicators of the kinds of bases on which distinctions shall be unacceptable and prohibited. 7KHFKLOG¶VULJKWWRSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVFKRRODIIDLUVLVIRXQGHGRQWKHEURDGVWDWHment of that right in the Convention on the Rights of the Child. 6WDWHV3DUWLHVVKDOODVVXUHWRWKHFKLOGZKRLVFDSDEOHRIIRUPLQJKLVRUKHU own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child (The Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 12.1). 7KLVSURYLVLRQLVRQHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWLQWKH&RQYHQWLRQIUDPLQJWKHFKLOG¶V right to participate in relation to all other rights, including the right to education. ,WUHTXLUHVVFKRROVWRHVWDEOLVKHIIHFWLYHPHDQVIRUFKLOGUHQ¶VSDUWLFLSDWLRQVXFKDV school community organisations and school councils, peer education, peer support and counselling, and student participation in school disciplinary procedures. The next two points in the process of education are based directly on the reTXLUHPHQWV RI WKH &RQYHQWLRQ RQ WKH 5LJKWV RI WKH &KLOG 7KH SULQFLSOH RI ³WKH EHVWLQWHUHVWVRIWKHFKLOG´UHTXLUHVWKDWLQDOOGHFLVLRQVDIIHFWLQJFKLOGUHQWKHEHVW interests of the child shall be a paramount consideration (The Convention on the 5LJKWVRIWKH&KLOG$UWLFOH 8QGHUWKHSULQFLSOHRISDUHQWDOJXLGDQFHDFKLOG has a right, in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child, to 169
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appropriate direction and guidance in the exercise of human rights (The Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 5). 7KH¿QDOSRLQWLQWKHSURFHVVRIHGXFDWLRQLVWKHULJKWWRSURSHUWUHDWPHQW3URSHU WUHDWPHQWLQWKLVUHVSHFWKDVVHYHUDOGLPHQVLRQV,WLQFOXGHVWKHULJKWWRSHUVRQDO security and integrity, including protection from physical or mental violence – both violence by teachers, and violence and threatened violence by students. The right to proper treatment extends to proper treatment in school disciplinary procedures. Here most educational institutions are particularly vulnerable to criticism. The simple fact is that most educational institutions operate disciplinary SURFHGXUHVLQDQLQIRUPDOPDQQHUWKDWYLRODWHVWKHFKLOG¶VULJKWVLQVHULRXVZD\V 6FKRRO GLVFLSOLQDU\ LQ ERWK SXEOLF DQG SULYDWH VFKRROV PXVW EH FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK human dignity and with human rights (The Convention on the Rights of the Child $UWLFOH 7KHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQUHTXLUHVJRRGVFKRROGLVFLSOLQHEHFDXVHFKLOdren have the right to a safe environment, including at school. However, procedures to apply that discipline must be consistent, clear, fair, reasonable, proportionate and not arbitrary. State obligations 6WDWHVEHDUWKHSULQFLSDOREOLJDWLRQVWRUHVSHFWSURWHFWDQGIXO¿ODOOKXPDQULJKWV 7KH\ KDYH VSHFL¿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respect for the right of parents to choose non-government schools, provided those schools meet minimum educational standards and human rights principles, and make education and vocation information and guidance available and DFFHVVLEOHWRDOO 7KH,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQWRQ(FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO Rights Article 13.3 and 13.4 and the Convention on the Rights of the Child $UWLFOH measures to encourage school attendance and reduce drop out rates (The &RQYHQWLRQRQWKH5LJKWVRIWKH&KLOG$UWLFOH H DQG school discipline that is consistent with human dignity and human rights (The Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 28.2). ,QUHODWLRQWRWKHREOLJDWLRQWRHQVXUHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIDQHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHP DWDOOOHYHOVDQGPRUHJHQHUDOO\LQUHODWLRQWR6WDWHREOLJDWLRQVIRUWKHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQWKH&RPPLWWHHRQ(FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWVKDVLGHQWL¿HG¿YH DWWULEXWHVRIWKHV\VWHPWKDWPXVWEHHQVXUHG 170
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This paper turns now to consider some of the challenges that obstruct the realization RIWKHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQWDNLQJDJOREDOSHUVSHFWLYH:KDWLVWKHUHDOLW\RIWKH³ULJKW to education” as experienced by young people in over 100 countries in 2009? ,Q LQ 'DNDU LQ 6HQHJDO WKH 8QLWHG 1DWLRQV ERG\ 81(6&2 FRQYHQHG D World Education Forum under the theme of Education for All (EFA). Endorsed by JRYHUQPHQWVDQGSDUWQHUDJHQFLHVWKHIRFXVRIWKH)RUXPZDVH[SOLFLW WRGUDmatically expand educational opportunities by 2015 through six key goals that would UHDFKWKHSRRUHVWDQGPRVWYXOQHUDEOH7KHVL[JRDOVHQGRUVHGE\WKH)RUXPZHUH 1. early childhood care and education 2. universal primary education 3. learning needs of young people and adults 4. adult literacy JHQGHUSDULW\DQGHTXDOLW\ TXDOLW\RIHGXFDWLRQ 81(6&2 KDV GHPRQVWUDWHG LWV VHULRXVQHVV LQ KRQRXULQJ WKHVH JRDOV E\ UHJXODUO\PRQLWRULQJWKHLUDFKLHYHPHQW8QOHVVRWKHUZLVHLQGLFDWHGWKLVVHFWLRQRIWKH paper draws largely on UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report 2008 81(6&2 2007), WKH VL[WK UHSRUW RQ WKHLU SURJUHVV DQG ZLOO EULHÀ\ VXPPDUL]H SURJUHVV LQ HDFKJRDODUHD6RPHFRPPHQWVDERXWWKH$XVWUDOLDQFRQWH[WDUHSUHVHQWHGVRDV WRVKRZWKHLVVXHRILQHTXDOLWLHVZLWKLQGHYHORSHGDVZHOODVGHYHORSLQJQDWLRQV $FKLHYLQJ*RDO HDUO\FKLOGKRRGFDUHDQGHGXFDWLRQ (&&( ,QQHDUO\PLOOLRQFKLOGUHQXQGHU¿YHGLHGIRUZDQWRIEDVLFK\JLHQHIRRG DQGVDQLWDWLRQ7KH\ZHUHPLOOLRQFKLOGUHQZKRGLHGXQQHFHVVDULO\,QWHUQDWLRQDO UHVHDUFK VXJJHVWV WKDW ELUWK WR ¿YH \HDUV LV WKH WLPH RI PRVW UDSLG FRJQLWLYH GHYHORSPHQWDWLPHZKHQFKLOGUHQ¶VEUDLQVDUH³SULPHGIRUOHDUQLQJ´&RJQLWLYH GHYHORSPHQWLVOLQNHGZLWKWKHTXDOLW\RIIRRGQXWULWLRQDQGKHDOWK&RQVHTXHQWO\ contemporary national policies are giving greater priority to early childhood care DQG HGXFDWLRQ IRU H[DPSOH $XVWUDOLD 86$ ,Q WKH GHYHORSLQJ FRXQWULHV RQH LQ IRXU FKLOGUHQ XQGHU ¿YH \HDUV RI DJH LV DIIHFWHG E\ XQGHUQXWULWLRQ DQG 171
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malnutrition. This, of course, makes them more susceptible to illness, less likely to enrol in school and less likely to complete school. Around the world there have been gains. Child mortality rates have dropped from 92 per 1000 in 1995 to 78 per 1000. However, early childhood care and education generally do not reach the poorest and most disadvantaged where the LPSDFWZRXOGEHJUHDWHVWDQGRQO\RIFRXQWULHVKDYHRI¿FLDO(&&(SURJUDPV &RXQWULHVDFURVVVXE6DKDUDQ$IULFDDQGWKH$UDE6WDWHVKDYHLQFUHDVHGWKHLUSURvision of ECCE, but still fall well behind most other areas. Achieving Goal 2: universal primary education %\ 81(6&2 GHVFULEHG WKH SURJUHVV LQ XQLYHUVDO SULPDU\ HGXFDWLRQ DV KDYLQJ PDGH ³UDSLG VWULGHV´ EXW QRW \HW FORVH :LWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI WKRVH FRXQWULHV H[SHULHQFLQJ IHUWLOLW\ GHFOLQHV 1RUWK $PHULFD :HVWHUQ (XURSH (DVW $VLD SULPDU\ VFKRRO HQUROPHQWV LQFUHDVHG ZLWK VXE6DKDUDQ $IULFD LQFUHDVLQJ HQUROPHQWV E\ 1LQHW\¿YH SHUFHQW of 203 countries/territories now have compulsory education laws, but there are disparities within countries (even more GHYHORSHGFRXQWULHV DQGEHWZHHQVWDWHV UHJLRQV ,WLVHQFRXUDJLQJWKDWWKHQXPEHURISULPDU\VFKRRODJHGFKLOGUHQZKRDUHQRW LQVFKRROKDVGHFOLQHGIURP PLOOLRQLQ WRPLOOLRQLQ7KLUW\¿YH ³IUDJLOH´VWDWHVDFFRXQWIRURIDOORXWRIVFKRROFKLOGUHQ,QWKH$UDEVWDWHV RI WKH RXWRIVFKRRO FKLOGUHQ DUH JLUOV LQ 6RXWK DQG :HVW$VLD ZKLFK LQFOXGHVFRXQWULHVVXFKDV$IJKDQLVWDQDQG,QGLD RIWKHRXWRIVFKRROFKLOGUHQ DUHJLUOV(QUROPHQWPXVWDOVRFRQVLGHUUHWHQWLRQZLWKWKH³VXUYLYDO´UDWHRIFKLOGUHQUHPDLQLQJLQVFKRROWKURXJKWR
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recognition, not only that literacy is a fundamental human right, but is also directly OLQNHGWRUHGXFLQJSRYHUW\DQGHPSRZHULQJDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQVRFLHW\ 7KHUHSRUWFDUGIRUDGXOWOLWHUDF\LQUHDGVDVIROORZV FRQVHUYDWLYHO\ PLOOLRQ DGXOWV ZRUOGZLGH ODFN EDVLF OLWHUDF\ RI WKHVH DUH ZRPHQ ,W LV QR surprise that the highest rates for illiteracy are found in the countries with greatHVW SRYHUW\ ,Q IDFW PRUH WKDQ WKUHH TXDUWHUV RI WKH ZRUOG¶V LOOLWHUDWH DGXOWV OLYH in just 15 countries. There has been little progress in increasing the rate of adult OLWHUDF\RYHUWKHSDVWWHQ\HDUV±DVKLIWIURPWREHWZHHQ DQG 1995-2004, and even this increase is distorted by improvements in China where the number of adult illiterates dropped by 98 million. $FKLHYLQJ*RDO JHQGHUSDULW\ HTXDOLW\ 7KH UHSRUW KHUH LV VLPSOH DQG VWDUN JHQGHU LQHTXDOLWLHV SUHYDLO$V LQGLFDWHG LQ the previous section under adult literacy, globally, there are 89 literate women for every 100 literate men. Within countries and regions, there are also disparities, for H[DPSOH6RXWKDQG:HVW$VLD OLWHUDWHZRPHQIRUOLWHUDWHPHQ $UDEVWDWHV DQGVXE6DKDUDQ$IULFD +RZHYHUVWUHVVLQJWKHDFKLHYHPHQWVRIFRXQWULHVKDYHQRZDFKLHYHGJHQGHU SDULW\ LQ SULPDU\ HGXFDWLRQ ZLWK D PXFK ORZHU ¿JXUH RI IRU VHFRQGDU\ HGXFDWLRQ 7KLV HTXDWHV WR FRXQWULHV DFKLHYLQJ JHQGHU SDULW\ DW ERWK SULPDU\ DQGVHFRQGDU\OHYHOV,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDWWKHJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHVLQVHFRQGDU\ VFKRROVFDQIDYRXUJLUOVDVRIWHQDVER\V+RZHYHUWKHXUJHQF\RIHQVXULQJHTXLW\ of access to education for girls is critical, given their role in the health and nutrition RIWKHQH[WJHQHUDWLRQDQGWKHLPSDFWZHKDYHDOUHDG\VHHQRQFKLOGUHQ¶VSDUWLFLSDtion in education. Achieving Goal 6: quality of education 7KH JHQHULF REVWDFOHV WKDW LPSDFW WKH TXDOLW\ RI HGXFDWLRQ DUH VLPLODU LQ DOO FRXQWULHV DSSURSULDWH SK\VLFDO IDFLOLWLHV DGHTXDWH WLPH RQ WHDFKLQJ DSSURSULDWH WH[WERRNVDQGUHVRXUFHV DGHTXDWHVXSSO\RIZHOOTXDOL¿HGWHDFKHUV$OORIWKHVH need to be facilitated and supported by strong national policy, educational goals and management. ,WLVXVHIXOIRUWKRVHIURPPRUHGHYHORSHGFRXQWULHVWRUHFRJQL]HWKHVWUHQJWKV RIWKHLURZQV\VWHPVLQOLJKWRIWKHVSHFL¿FREVWDFOHVFKDOOHQJLQJTXDOLW\HGXFDWLRQ LQWKHSRRUHVWFRXQWULHV SRRUSK\VLFDOIDFLOLWLHV LQDGHTXDWHWLPHRQWHDFKLQJ ODFN RI WH[W ERRNV DQG UHVRXUFHV DQ XQHYHQ DQG LQDGHTXDWH VXSSO\ RI ZHOOTXDOL¿HG WHDFKHUV XQHYHQO\GHYHORSHGQDWLRQDOSROLF\HGXFDWLRQDOJRDOVDQGPDQDJHPHQW widespread low achievement and achievement disparities within countries. 2QHRIWKHPRVWFULWLFDOIDFWRUVKRZHYHUUHPDLQVWKDWRIWHDFKHUV,IWKHZRUOG community is to realise the EFA goals, 18 million new primary school teachers will need to be found and trained. As country populations increase and as nations 173
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implement a higher rate of education for all, the demand for teachers will continue WRRXWVWULSWKHVXSSO\,QDGGLWLRQLQWKHIDFHRIDVKRUWDJHRIWHDFKHUVWKHJDLQV of increased enrolment are compromised by the use of untrained contract teachers. A human face of the right to education Of course, it is possible to read such global-focused overviews, and yet lose sight of the fact that human beings are central players in the right to education DQGLWVUHDOL]DWLRQ*RYHUQPHQWVVFKRROV\VWHPVDQGFRPPXQLWLHVPDNHGHFLVLRQV and implement educational policies which impact upon individuals, and thereby enhance or hinder human dignity and well-being. ,WLVHVVHQWLDOIRUHGXFDWLRQDODGPLQLVWUDWRUVDQGWHDFKHUVWREHDZDUHRIWKHSRVVLEOH FRQVHTXHQFHV WKHLU GHFLVLRQV DQG DFWLRQV FDQ KDYH RQ WKH TXDOLW\ RI OLIH RI individuals, both now and in the future. This is, if you like, the micro level at which the right to education needs to be guaranteed. A case study, drawn from the experiences of an Australian Aboriginal woman, serves well to highlight the points being made here. :HSLFNXSKHUVWRU\LQDQ$ERULJLQDO³PLVVLRQ´QHDU&DLUQV4XHHQVODQGLQWKH 1960s. Dawn was one of six children. Both her parents were indigenous Australians who saw the value of education. They made sure that the children went to school, DQGWKDWRQHER\ZLWK'RZQ6\QGURPHDWWHQGHGDVKHOWHUHGZRUNVKRS%XWWKH\ did not know how to work in and around the bureaucracy and regulations of the HGXFDWLRQ V\VWHP DQG VR ZHUH HGXFDWLRQDO DGYRFDWHV ³RQ WKH RXWVLGH´ IRU WKHLU children. The expectation and discipline they structured for their children and the formation in values they provided was a powerful informal education which was to KDYHORQJWHUPEHQH¿WVHVSHFLDOO\IRU'DZQ Entering high school in the mid-1960s, Dawn was a bright student, in the top TXDUWLOH RI KHU FODVV 7KH VFKRRO ZDV VWUHDPHG DQG DOO WKH LQGLJHQRXV VWXGHQWV found themselves placed in the same class, along with a few other non-indigenous students. There were no indigenous students in other streams of her year group. When it came time for subject selection for the later years of high school, Dawn wanted to choose to study a language, which was part of a pathway for entry to higher education. However, she was told that language was not an option for her class, who would instead be taking subjects such as short-hand, typing and domestic science. For the indigenous students in this year-group, future options were automatically limited not by aptitude or performance, but by the administrative decisions which established an educational structure which de facto excluded indigenous students. For Dawn, such decisions had not only immediate effects, but also shaped her options in ways that would surface years into the future. 8QGHUO\LQJ WKHVH VWUXFWXUDO DUUDQJHPHQWV ZHUH FHUWDLQ VRFLDO SUHFRQFHSWLRQV about indigenous students, for example, that they would not aspire to higher educaWLRQ WKDWWKH\QHHGHGWRVWXG\VXEMHFWVWKDWHTXLSWKHPWR¿QGDMRE WKDWZKDWWKH\ ³ZDQWHG´ ZDV LUUHOHYDQW 6XFK DWWLWXGHV VHUYHG WR UHLQIRUFH WKH ORZ VHOIHVWHHP 174
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LQGLJHQRXV VWXGHQWV RIWHQ FDPH WR VFKRRO ZLWK /DEHOHG FRYHUWO\ DQG VRPHWLPHV overtly as non-achievers, they found little at school to inspire hope for the future, DQGPDQ\IDLOHGWR¿QLVKKLJKVFKRROZLWKDQ\UHFRJQL]HGFUHGHQWLDO$VDUHVXOW the personal, economic and social opportunities open to them were narrowed. $IWHUOHDYLQJVFKRROLQVSLUHGE\KHUPRWKHU¶VLQVLVWHQFHRQWKHLPSRUWDQFHRI HGXFDWLRQ 'DZQ FRPSOHWHG D FRXUVH DW EXVLQHVV FROOHJH DW D OHYHO HTXLYDOHQW WR JUDGH 6KH JDLQHG HPSOR\PHQW LQ D QXPEHU RI JRYHUQPHQW SRVLWLRQV EXW EHFDXVHVKHGLGQRWKDYHWKHRI¿FLDOO\UHFRJQL]HGFHUWL¿FDWHIURPWKHVFKRROV\VWHP she was not able to gain a permanent appointment. However her innate abilities, her passion for advocacy for indigenous Australians and her ability to get things done VDZKHUDSSRLQWHGWRPDQ\SRVLWLRQVRIQDWLRQDOVLJQL¿FDQFHLQFOXGLQJHYHQWXDOO\ LQDXJXUDO'LUHFWRURIWKH1DWLRQDO0XVHXPRI$XVWUDOLDDQGFXUUHQWO\'LUHFWRURI WKH3RZHUKRXVH0XVHXPLQ6\GQH\$XVWUDOLD 2QH RI$XVWUDOLD¶V OHDGLQJ UDGLR LQWHUYLHZHUV FDSWXUHG LQ XQGHUVWDWHPHQW WKH VLJQL¿FDQFHRIKHUDFKLHYHPHQWZKHQKHUHIHUUHGWRKHUDV³«DQ$ERULJLQDOJLUO IURP1RUWK4XHHQVODQGZKRLPSUREDEO\PDGHJRRG´ /DQH 7KHLPSUREDELOLW\KHUHIHUVWRZDVSDUWO\WKHUHVXOWRIDVFKRRODQGVFKRROV\VWHP¶VIDLOXUHWR UHFRJQL]HDQGKRQRXUWKHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQE\DGHTXDWHSURYLVLRQDQGDFFHVVWR educational opportunity. For Dawn the right to education of indigenous students in Australia today rePDLQVWREHIXOO\UHDOL]HG7KHSHUVRQDOVRFLDODQGHFRQRPLFOHJDF\RIWKH6WROHQ *HQHUDWLRQVi continues to impact upon Aboriginal students, who still need addiWLRQDOVXSSRUWHYHQMXVWWRDFFHVVHGXFDWLRQHIIHFWLYHO\,QWHUYHQWLRQVQHHGWREHJLQ much earlier (for example, pre-school) and to include supports for well-being (for example, breakfasts at school) to allow them to function optimally in the school setting. 8QIRUWXQDWHO\LQWKHODVWWHQ\HDUVRUVRWKHUDQJHRIVXSSRUWVIRULQGLJHQRXV VWXGHQWVKDVEHHQUHLQHGLQ$FFHVVWRDGGLWLRQDOWXWRULQJUHPDLQVLQDGHTXDWHDQG at tertiary level, allowances to facilitate greater indigenous access to technical and higher education have not brought about desired increases in indigenous enrolments and participation. As a grandmother, Dawn seeks to pass on to her grandchildren the same reVSHFWDQGGHVLUHIRUHGXFDWLRQDVVKHUHFHLYHGIURPKHUPRWKHU1RZUHFRJQL]HG DVDOHDGLQJSXEOLF¿JXUHLQ$XVWUDOLDVKHKDVWKH¿QDQFLDOZKHUHZLWKDOWRSURYLGH WKHPZLWKHQKDQFHGHGXFDWLRQDORSSRUWXQLWLHVZKLFKZHUHQRWDYDLODEOHWRKHU,Q KHUYLHZWKH³FDWFKXS´QHHGHGE\$ERULJLQDOVWXGHQWVLVQRWDGHTXDWHO\RIIHUHGLQ public schools. Additional resources are still needed to ensure they get the learning opportunities and pastoral care they need in order to progress and achieve in the school system as it exists today. A new foundation for schools and communities Throughout this paper, the right to education has been seen as a basis for personal DQGVRFLDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQZKLFKZLOOLPSURYHWKHTXDOLW\RIOLIHIRUFKLOGUHQDQG 175
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adults in a variety of social, economic and cultural contexts. When realized, the right to education offers people the possibility to move from disadvantage to hope, from victim to agent. When realized, the right to education empowers people to act on their own behalf, for their own well-being and that of their families and communities. By surveying elements of the right to education at the global systemic and national systemic levels, and by considering the right to education at a particular loFDOOHYHOZHKDYHLGHQWL¿HGVRPHRIWKHDFKLHYHPHQWVDQGVRPHRIWKHREVWDFOHV that remain in realizing the right to education. Prejudice and lack of access on the basis of gender and race, in particular, present strong challenges to the right to education in many societies, and in some ³XQGHUGHYHORSHG´ QDWLRQV FRPSRXQG WKH HFRQRPLF SUREOHPV DQG ODFN RI VRFLDO LQIUDVWUXFWXUH ZKLFK OLPLW WKH SURYLVLRQ RI HGXFDWLRQ JHQHUDOO\ ,Q WKLV UHJDUG LW is interesting to note that international law recognizes certain groups have been subjected to historic discrimination and disadvantage. Temporary special measures may be needed to address the legacy of that disadvantage so that members of these JURXSVPD\HQMR\DOOWKHLUKXPDQULJKWVRQWKHEDVLVRIHTXDOLW\ZLWKRWKHUV 7KH Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Article 5.4, the Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Article 2.2 and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women Article 4). 1DWLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWVDQGVFKRROV\VWHPVKDYHWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\WRSURYLGHWKH opportunities, resources and structures essential for the right to education to be UHDOL]HG,QWKHLUSODQQLQJDQGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQSULRULW\PXVWEHJLYHQWRWKH¿YH V\VWHP DWWULEXWHV LGHQWL¿HG E\ WKH &RPPLWWHH RQ (FRQRPLF 6RFLDO DQG &XOWXUDO 5LJKWVDQGUHIHUUHGWRHDUOLHULQWKLVSDSHU $YDLODELOLW\ IXQFWLRQLQJLQVWLWXWLRQVDQGSURJUDPVLQVXI¿FLHQWTXDQWLW\ $FFHVVLELOLW\ ZLWKLQ VDIH SK\VLFDO UHDFK JHRJUDSKLFDOO\ RU E\ PRGHUQ WHFKQRORJ\ $IIRUGDELOLW\ IRUHYHU\FKLOGZLWKRXWGLVFULPLQDWLRQ $FFHSWDELOLW\ UHOHYDQWFXOWXUDOO\DSSURSULDWHDQGRIJRRGTXDOLW\LQIRUPDQG VXEVWDQFH DQG $GDSWDELOLW\ ÀH[LEOH DQG UHVSRQVLYH WR FXOWXUH DQG QHHGV DV WKH\ H[LVW DQG FKDQJH &RPPLWWHHRQ(FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWV*HQHUDO&RPPHQW ³7KHULJKWWRHGXFDWLRQ´SDUDJUDSK 6FKRRO V\VWHPV ZKLFK GHOLYHU WKHVH IRU VWXGHQWV DQG FRPPXQLWLHV DUH ZHOO RQ the way to recognizing and making realizable the right to education. Of course, actions to support and promote the right to education need to be undertaken not just at national and system levels, but also by teachers, administrators and teacher educators at the local level. Those who work in education need themselves, to be educated with regard to the right to education. They need to understand what the right actually entails, be able to identify impediments to LWVDFKLHYHPHQWDQGPRVWLPSRUWDQWO\EHHTXLSSHGZLWKWKHNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV that will allow them to contribute to its realization in the lives of the individuals and communities they serve. There are implications here for pre-service teacher training, as well as on-going professional development for classroom practitioners, 176
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complementing subject content and methodology with a broader understanding and appreciation of the role educators and education can play in empowering people and communities for personal and social transformation. Perhaps, too, in these times of increasing globalization, a more active role is to be envisioned for the worldwide educational community. Content, methodology, technology, ideology and other issues are and will remain matters of vital and valid FRQFHUQ IRU HGXFDWLRQDO FRQIHUHQFHV DQG IRU SURIHVVLRQDO ERGLHV VXFK DV ,6$77 However, all these concerns must be subordinate to the moral purposes of the educational enterprise, and to the greater well-being of the individuals and communities towards whom education is directed. By becoming an advocate for the right to HGXFDWLRQDQGXVLQJLWVOHYHUDJHWRLQÀXHQFHQDWLRQVDQGVFKRROV\VWHPVWRZDUGV HQKDQFHPHQW RI HGXFDWLRQDO SURYLVLRQ DQG DFFHVV IRU DOO ERGLHV VXFK DV ,6$77 PD\ VSHDN DI¿UPDWLYHO\ QRW PHUHO\ DV DQ HGXFDWLRQ VSHFLDOLVW EXW DV DQ DJHQWRI hope. 5()(5(1&(6 &RPPLWWHH RQ (FRQRPLF 6RFLDO DQG &XOWXUDO 5LJKWV *HQHUDO &RPPHQW ³7KH ULJKW WR HGXFDWLRQ´ SDUDJUDSK8QLWHG1DWLRQV &RQYHQWLRQRQWKH(OLPLQDWLRQRI$OO)RUPVRI'LVFULPLQDWLRQ$JDLQVW:RPHQ8QLWHG1DWLRQV &RQYHQWLRQRQWKH(OLPLQDWLRQRI5DFLDO'LVFULPLQDWLRQ8QLWHG1DWLRQV &RQYHQWLRQRQWKH5LJKWVRI3HUVRQVZLWK'LVDELOLWLHV8QLWHG1DWLRQV &RQYHQWLRQRQWKH5LJKWVRIWKH&KLOG8QLWHG1DWLRQV ,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQWRQ&LYLODQG3ROLWLFDO5LJKWV8QLWHG1DWLRQV ,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RYHQDQWRQ(FRQRPLF6RFLDODQG&XOWXUDO5LJKWV8QLWHG1DWLRQV /DPE6 0DVRQ. How young people are faring 2008. Retrieved from KWWS ZZZI\DRUJ DXGRZQORDGV)<$B+<3$)5HSRUWB21/,1(BSSSGI /DQH7 3UHVHQWHU Dawn Casey and the National Museum. Retrieved from KWWS ZZZDEFQHW au/rn/talks/natint/stories/s1003297.htm /HIHYUH3 Center teaches entire families in Ecuador. Retrieved from KWWS QFURQOLQHRUJQHZV global/center-teaches-entire-families-ecuador 0LQLVWHULDO&RXQFLORQ(GXFDWLRQ(PSOR\PHQW7UDLQLQJDQG
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³7KHIRUFHGUHPRYDORI$ERULJLQDODQG7RUUHV6WUDLW,VODQGHUFKLOGUHQIURPWKHLUIDPLOLHVZDVRI¿FLDO JRYHUQPHQWSROLF\IURP WR «7KHJHQHUDWLRQVRI FKLOGUHQZKR ZHUH WDNHQIURP WKHLU IDPLOLHVEHFDPHNQRZQDVWKH6WROHQ*HQHUDWLRQV«WKHSUDFWLFHRIIRUFHGUHPRYDOZDVKLJKO\WUDXmatic not only for the children but also for their families. The policy broke important cultural, spiritual and family ties which crippled not only individuals, but whole families and even whole communities.” 5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ6WROHQ*HQHUDWLRQV)DFW6KHHW
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COSMOLOGIES AND LIFESTYLES: A CULTURAL ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATION SYSTEMS Phil Bayliss and Patrick Dillon
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7KLVSDSHURSHQVZLWKDFULWLTXHRIWKHPDMRULWDULDQSRVW(QOLJKWHQPHQWVFLHQWL¿F worldview, the assumptions it makes about human cosmologies and lifestyles DQG KRZ LQ WXUQ WKHVH DVVXPSWLRQV LQÀXHQFH WKH QDWXUH RI HGXFDWLRQDO V\VWHPV 7KH FULWLTXH IRFXVHV RQ KRZ WKH H[SHULHQFHV RI PLQRULW\ FXOWXUHV SDUWLFXODUO\ those cultures that are nomadic or pastoralist, challenge some of the fundamental premises of majoritarian education. There follows a cultural ecological framing which compares the ways in which western (majoritarian) cultures and minoritarian FXOWXUHV FRQWH[WXDOLVH HGXFDWLRQ ,Q ZHVWHUQ HGXFDWLRQDO VLWXDWLRQV VWUXFWXUHV FRQWH[WV DQG VFKHPDWD DUH VXEVWDQWLDOO\ SUHGH¿QHG DQG ZH WDON DERXW WKLQJV DV µFRQWH[WGHSHQGHQW¶ VLQFH FRQWH[W LV VRPHWKLQJ WKDW FDQ EH GHVFULEHG DV WKH EDFNGURSWREHKDYLRXU,QPLQRULWDULDQFXOWXUHVERWKPHDQLQJand context emerge IURP SHRSOH¶V LQWHUDFWLRQV ZLWK WKHLU HQYLURQPHQWV DQG PD\ subsequently be described. These are respectively relational and co-constitutional manifestations of situations. The manifestations are different, not oppositional or mutually exclusive. We present an ecological framework in an attempt to simultaneously embrace both interpretations. &2602/2*,(6$1'/,)(67
2XU FRQFHUQ LV QRW ZLWK WKH VFLHQWL¿F FKDUDFWHU RI WKH VFLHQFHV EXW UDWKHU ZKDW the sciences in general have meant and could mean for human existence. The H[FOXVLYHQHVVRIWKHVFLHQWL¿FDOO\RULHQWDWHGPRGHUQZRUOGYLHZDQGWKHDSSDUHQW µSURVSHULW\¶LWKDVSURGXFHGKDVOHGWRDJHQHUDOLQGLIIHUHQFHWRTXHVWLRQVZKLFKDUH IXQGDPHQWDOIRUDJHQXLQHKXPDQLW\ ³0HUHO\IDFWPLQGHGVFLHQFHVPDNHPHUHO\ fact-minded people.” (Husserl, 1970, 5-6). 7KH PRGHUQ ZRUOGYLHZ RU FRVPRORJ\ í %D\OLVV JUHZ RXW RI WKH ³(QOLJKWHQPHQW FRQYLFWLRQ RI WKH SURJUHVV RI KXPDQ NQRZOHGJH UDWLRQDOLW\ wealth, civilization and control over nature with which the eighteenth century was GHHSO\LPEXHGWKHµ(QOLJKWHQPHQW¶GUHZLWVVWUHQJWKSULPDULO\IURPWKHHYLGHQW A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 179–189. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
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SURJUHVVRISURGXFWLRQWUDGHDQGWKHHFRQRPLFDQGVFLHQWL¿FUDWLRQDOLW\EHOLHYHG to be associated inevitably with both... A secular, rationalist and progressive indiYLGXDOLVPGRPLQDWHGµHQOLJKWHQHGWKRXJKW¶ +XVVHUORSFLW Husserl (1970, 10) describes ‘the ardent desire for learning, the zeal for a philoVRSKLFDO UHIRUP RI HGXFDWLRQ DQG RI DOO KXPDQLW\¶V VRFLDO DQG SROLWLFDO IRUPV RI H[LVWHQFH ZKLFK PDNHV WKDW PXFKDEXVHG$JH RI (QOLJKWHQPHQW VR DGPLUDEOH¶ The drive for rationality which has underpinned the material progress of western nations and the education systems associated with it have developed into the ‘gloEDOLVDWLRQ SURMHFW¶ RI ODWHPRGHUQ FDSLWDOLVP ZKLFK LV QRZ H[SRUWHG ZRUOGZLGH 6WHLQHU.KDPVL 6WROSH 7KH:RUOG%DQNDVWKHFKLHISURSRQHQWRIDµJOREDOLVHGSURMHFW¶LQHGXFDWLRQ KDVµSUHFRQGLWLRQV¶ZKLFKFDQRQO\EHXQGHUVWRRGDVDQLGHRORJLFDOVWDQFHLQSURmoting an integrated world economic system along market lines. This ‘ideal econRP\¶KDVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKLWDSDUWLFXODUIRUPRISXEOLFHGXFDWLRQZKLFKLVPDQDJHG E\ FHQWUDOLVHG RU VWDWH JRYHUQPHQWV DQG DOORZV OLWWOH URRP IRUWKH ÀH[LELOLW\ WKDW OHDGV WR HIIHFWLYH OHDUQLQJ :RUOG %DQN ,W LV DQ HFRQRP\ LQ ZKLFK ‘educational priorities should be set with reference to outcomes, using economic analysis, standard setting and measurement of achievement through learning asVHVVPHQWV :RUOG%DQN -RQHV ,QVXFKDQDSSURDFKWRHGXFDWLRQDOGHYHORSPHQWWKHUROHRIJRYHUQPHQWLVQRW to support or promote cultural or national identity but to provide accountability -RQHV 6WHLQHU.KDPVL 6WROSH &DUQR\ '\HU DUJXHVWKDW6WDWHRYHUVLJKWEXWQRWFHQWUDOLVHGFRQWUROGHWHUPLQHVWKHQDWXUH RI VFKRROLQJ LWVHOI ³FKRLFHV DERXW FXUULFXODU FRQWHQW ODQJXDJH RI GHOLYHU\ DQG the delivery mode itself prioritises not only whose knowledge counts, but also the forms of learning.” Does schooling thus genuinely prioritise individual empowerment, as the rhetoric promises, or work more effectively towards socialising people into becoming docile citizens of the nation state (Foucault, 1971). 7KLVµQRUPDWLYHKHJHPRQ\¶ 0H\HU ¿QGVLWVFOHDUHVWPDQLIHVWDWLRQLQWKH µ(GXFDWLRQIRU$OO,QLWLDWLYH¶ :(&)$ 81(6&2 ZKLFKDLPVWRSURYLGH³$QHGXFDWLRQRIKLJKTXDOLW\>ZKLFK@PHDQVWKDWLQGLYLGXDOVZLOOGHYHORS their potential... education will make a difference to the chances they have in life. ,QVRFLHW\DVDZKROHTXDOLW\HGXFDWLRQVXSSRUWVSRVLWLYHVRFLDOFKDQJH,WZLOOHQable people to progress through effective learning outcomes... gaining the knowledge, competencies, skills and behaviours which are essential for development.” 7KHODQJXDJHRIµSRWHQWLDO¶µSRVLWLYHVRFLDOFKDQJH¶µHIIHFWLYHOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHV¶ µFRPSHWHQFLHV¶µVNLOOVDQGEHKDYLRXUV¶DOOWLHGWRFRQFHSWRIGHYHORSPHQWSUHVXSpose a set of theories and models for learning. 6IDUG FKDUDFWHULVHVWKHPRGHOVLQWZRPHWDSKRUV WKHµDFTXLVLWLRQPHWDSKRU¶DQGWKHµSDUWLFLSDWLRQPHWDSKRU¶µ$FTXLVWLRQPHWDSKRUV¶GHVFULEHWKHWUDQVmission of knowledge from the expert to the novice. This is determined by a set of VRFLDOSUDFWLFHVZKLFKVHHWKHWHDFKHUDVµSHGJRJXH¶ GHWHUPLQLQJERWKFXUULFXOXP DQGRXWFRPHVRIWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVVZKHUHµRXWFRPHV¶DUHVHHQDVWKHDFTXLVLWLRQ RI FRQFHSWV 7KH µSDUWLFLSDWLRQ¶ PHWDSKRU LV JURXQGHG LQ VRFLRFXOWXUDO WKHRU\ which sees the learner as being a member of a community of practice, and the role 180
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RIWKHWHDFKHULVWKDWRIµDQGURJRJXH¶ZKHUHWKHQDWXUHRIOHDUQLQJLVVHHQDVDGLDOHFWLFHPHUJLQJIURPLQWHUDFWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHOHUQHUDQGRSWKHUVLJQL¿FDQWRWKHUV H[SHUWVQRYLFHV 6IDUG 0F*XLQQHVV GHYHORSVDPRUHQXDQFHG DSSURDFKWRWKHLVVXHRIµPHWDSKRU¶ VHH7DEOH However, the issue here is that all of these theories and models presuppose (i) an identity for the learner (and teacher) as autonomous, and (ii) that the nature of the FRQWH[WRUFRPPXQLW\WKDWWKHOHDUQHU¿QGVKLPKHUVHOILQLVJLYHQRUSUHVSHFL¿HG7KXVWKHUDWLRQDOLW\RI(QOLJKWHQPHQWWKLQNLQJSURGXFHVWKHRULHVZKLFKFKDUDFWHULVH WKH OHDUQHU DQG WKH FRQWH[W RI OHDUQLQJ DV VHSDUDWH EXW UHODWHG /HDUQHUV HLWKHUDFTXLUHNQRZOHGJHDVSUHJLYHQRUDUHLQGXFWHGLQWRDUHJLPHRINQRZOHGJH ZKLFKLVSUHIRUPHGE\µH[SHUWV¶ 7DEOH$PXOWLOHYHOYLHZRIµWKHRULHV¶RIOHDUQLQJ 0F*XLQHVV Metaphors for learning
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as becoming expert in a domain
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as developing epistemological beliefs as mindful self regulation
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Participation
,Q WKH FDVH RI QRPDGLF RU SDVWRUDO KHUGLQJ SRSXODWLRQV WKH µ(GXFDWLRQ IRU $OO¶ LQLWLDWLYH DV DQ LGHRORJLFDO QRWLRQ IDLOV EHFDXVH LW UHÀHFWV YDOXHV WKDW FRQWUDGLFW WKRVHRIQRPDGLFJURXSV '\HU .UDWOL .UDWOLDDQGE µ1RPDGV traditional occupation of animal husbandry has allowed them to thrive outside the FRQ¿QHVRIDPRGHUQSROLWLFDOVWDWHDQGWKH\KDYHFDUYHGRXWDXQLTXHHFRQRPLF 181
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QLFKH WKURXJK WKHLU DELOLW\ WR H[SORLW PDUJLQDO UHVRXUFHV LOOVXLWHG WR DJULFXOWXUH¶ '\HU +RZHYHUWKLVLVWRYLHZµQRPDGLVP¶WKURXJKWKHZHVWHUQOHQVDQG to think of nomadism in purely economic terms. Pastoralism is not just an economic ZD\RIOLYLQJ LWLVDZD\RIOLIH D OWKRXJKWKHPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIDOOYDULHWLHV RI PRELOH SDVWRUDOLVP LQ P\ RSLQLRQ LV WKHLU VSHFL¿F HFRQRPLF VSHFLDOL]DWLRQ LW ZRXOG EH IRROLVK WR GHQ\ WKDW WKLV YHU\ VSHFLDOL]DWLRQ LQYROYHV VSHFL¿F OLIHVW\OHV world views, cultural values, preferences and ideals. Pastoralism is not only a way RIPDNLQJDOLYLQJ LWLVDOVRDZD\RIOLYLQJ´ .KD]DQRY [[[LLL .UDWOL D DUJXHVWKDWIRUSDVWRUDOLVPJHQHUDOO\ ,W LV ZLGHO\ DFFHSWHG DPRQJ VSHFLDOLVWV WKDW PRELOH SDVWRUDOLVP LV DPRQJ the most economically effective uses of very large areas of land in some of the poorest countries, and that such pastoralism only succeeds because of H[WUHPHO\KLJKOHYHOVRIERWKLQGLYLGXDODQGVRFLDOVSHFLDOL]DWLRQ1HYHUWKHless, formal schooling marginalizes and often ridicules both the technical knowledge upon which pastoralism is based and the social relationships and institutions (or social capital, in the sense of social norms, networks and relationships of authority) in which it is embedded and which underpin it. ConseTXHQWO\DOWKRXJKIRUPDOHGXFDWLRQPD\VXFFHVVIXOO\SUHSDUHQRPDGFKLOGUHQ for new forms of livelihood outside pastoralism, virtually everywhere formal education is antagonistic to a pastoral livelihood. The cosmologies of Fourth World peoples ( a phrase which derives from Pentikainen, 2006), situated predominantly with the Arctic region in the north, FKDOOHQJH µ(QOLJKWHQPHQW¶ DSSURDFKHV WR XQGHUVWDQGLQJ NQRZOHGJH DQG OHDUQLQJ VHH DOVR +XPSKUH\ 8UJXQJH LQ WKH FRQWH[W RI 0RQJROLD ZKLFK 3HQWDNDLQHQ DOVR LQFOXGHV LQ WKH )RXUWK :RUOG ,Q D )RXUWK :RUOG FRVPRORJ\ NQRZOHGJHLVQRWMXVWVHHQZLWKLQUDWLRQDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJV /RJRV DVVRPHWKLQJWR EHDFTXLUHG 7KHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWNQRZOHGJHLVDFTXLUHGRQO\WKURXJKKXPDQUHDVRQPD\ be predicated upon the worldview that primary experience is physical or empirical and that other experience are secondary. An extreme interpretation of this is that all spiritual reality is simply an imaginary creation of the human mind. All extraordinary human experience that cannot be explained by emSLULFDO PHDQV DUH PHUH GHOXVLRQV RU ¿JPHQWV RI KXPDQ LPDJLQDWLRQ $WOHR 2004, xv). $WOHRDUJXHVWKDWµ)RXUWK:RUOG¶FRVPRORJLHV¿QGUHVRQDQFHLQPRGHUQWKHRULHVRI FKDRV VHH*OHLFN DQGFRPSOH[LW\ VHH&RYHQH\DQG+LJK¿HOG DQG challenge dichotomous (Cartesian) cosmologies founded on a separation of mind and body (the relational and the material, which has no place for the metaphysical). Atleo refutes the Cartesian duality of mind-body in his theory of Tsawalk (a &DQDGLDQ )LUVW 1DWLRQV 1XXFKDKQXOWK ZRUG ZKLFK PHDQV µHYHU\WKLQJ LV RQH¶ $WOHR II )XUWKHU ZLWKLQ D %XGGKLVW WUDGLWLRQ /HYLWW D 182
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UHOLJLRXVHGXFDWLRQLVPRUHFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHDFTXLVLWLRQRIZLVGRPUDWKHUWKDQ NQRZOHGJHDQGLVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIµHPSWLQHVV¶±WKHFRPPRQ µFRUH¶ RI H[LVWHQFH RI ZKLFK WKH SUHVHQW KXPDQ LGHQWLW\ RI µSHUVRQKRRG¶ LV EXW D WUDQVLHQW PDQLIHVWDWLRQ ,Q %XGGKLVW WKRXJKW WKH VSLULWXDO GRPDLQ XQGHUSLQV DOO NQRZOHGJH /HYLWW LELG LQ KHU GLVFXVVLRQ RI WKH 7LEHWDQ %XGGKLVW FRQFHSW RIµZLVGRP¶ORFDWHVWKHDFTXLVLWLRQRIµZLVGRP¶LQWKH%XGGKLVWXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI reality, the importance of altruism and the process of self-examination in gaining ZLVGRP:LVGRPLVQRWDFTXLUHGE\LQGLYLGXDOVEXWLVHPEHGGHGLQWKHDVVLVWDQFH RI RWKHUV HVSHFLDOO\ WKH WHDFKHU µ/DPD¶ µ*HZHVKH¶ 7R DFTXLUH ZLVGRP LV WR KDYH ³« D PRQDVWLF HGXFDWLRQ D VXSSRUWLYH IDPLO\ IULHQGV FRPPXQLWLHV DQG WHDFKHUV«WKURXJKWKHLQÀXHQFHRIRWKHUVLQGLYLGXDOV>ZHUH@WKRXJKWWROHDUQWKHLU behaviour, morals and values. The roles of others [are] seen as necessary both to cultivate intelligence and wisdom and to provide behavioural guidance.”. This tradition is based on sutras (religious texts) – the interface between the OLWHUDWH DQG WKH RUDO ZKDW =H GHVFULEHV DV µVHGLPHQWHG RUDF\¶ 7KH XVXDO didactic is that the child learns Tibetan characters and reads the texts in Tibetan while learning some of them by heart. At the beginning this happens without knowing Tibetan language. The concept of learning by heart is thought to be useful as it OHDGVWRLQWHUQDOLVDWLRQDQGLQWHUQDOLVDWLRQLVVHHQDVDSUHFRQGLWLRQWRµGLYH¶LQWR WKHFRQFHSWV 6WROSH 2QFHWKHFKLOGKDVDVVLPLODWHGWKHDQDO\WLFNQRZOHGJH contained in the word, the child then enters into dialogue (through debate with the WHDFKHUDQGFODVVPDWHV±/HYLWW WRGHYHORSWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHZRUGLQ order to develop wisdom. Wisdom is not contained in the sutras, in the logos, in the ZRUG WKHODPDSURYLGHVWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIWKHNQRZOHGJHWREULQJLQWRZLVGRP Wisdom comes out of the performance, in conjunction with the lama. The teacher provides the performative action to bring the knowledge into being (scaffolding, blossoming, unfolding, etc) (Dillon et al, 2009). This process is not contained with WKHµPHWDSKRULFDO¶W\SRORJ\RIZHVWHUQVFKHPDV VHHWDEOHDERYH 7KLV/DPDLVWWUDGLWLRQRIµVHGLPHQWHGRUDF\¶ =H GHSHQGVRQZULWWHQWH[WV ZKLFKDUHGHVLJQHGIRUPHPRUL]DWLRQDQGUHFLWDWLRQ/HDUQLQJZLWKLQWKLVVW\OHRI ‘gegeerel’ 0RQJROLDQ µWREULQJLQWRHQOLJKWHQPHQW¶ is (following Ong, 1982) essentially oral (as opposed to literate), and it is additive, aggregative, redundant, conservative, close to the human lifeworld, agonistically, empathetic, homeostatic DQGVLWXDWLRQDO,WVDLPVDUHWRµOHWFKLOGUHQEHFRPHFLYLOL]HGZLWKPRUDOLQWHJULW\¶ ,Q )RXUWK :RUOG FRVPRORJLHV WKH VSLULWXDO XQGHUSLQV D WKHRU\ RI NQRZOHGJH $WOHRFDOOVWKLVµ2VVXPLFK¶±$WOHRII ZKHUHWKHSK\VLFDODQGVSLULWXDO realms are interdependent. Pentikainen, (2006, 49) describes Fourth World (Artic) VKDPDQLVWLFSUDFWLFHVRIWKHDFTXLVLWLRQRIZLVGRPLQ6DPLSHRSOHZKLFKUHTXLUH LQLWLDWLRQLQWRDµJUDPPDURIPLQG¶µ:HFRXOGVSHDNRIDERXWDVSHFLDOµJUDPPDU RIPLQG¶W\SLFDORIVKDPDQLVP,WPHDQVFRPSHWHQFHLQFHUWDLQVKDPDQLFIRONORUH UHSHWRLUHV 6SHFLIF VNLOOV LQ SHUIRUPLQJ ULWXDO DFWV NQRZOHGJH RI WKH µVKDPDQLF ODQJXDJH¶DQGWKHUXOHVRIWKHJHQHULFDQGULWXDOµJUDPPDU¶REVHUYHGQRWRQO\LQ VKDPDQLFVHVVLRQVEXWLQWKHEHKDYLRXUDQGHYHU\GD\OLIHRIWKLVNLQGRIVRFLHW\¶ 7KHDOWHUQDWLYHFRVPRORJLHVFKDOOHQJHWKHDFFHSWHGPHWDSKRUVRIWKHµDFTXLVLWLRQ¶ RUµSDUWLFLSDWLRQ¶PHWDSKRUV¶ 183
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,QKLVERRNWe Have Never Been Modern%UXQR/DWRXUFODLPHGWKDWSUHPRGHUQ people wove everything – animals, tools, medicine, kin, plants, songs, weather – LQWR DQ LPPHQVH FROOHFWLYH PDWUL[ RI PLQG DQG PDWWHU 1RWKLQJ LQ WKLV ZHE FDQ EH QHDWO\ GLYLGHG EHWZHHQ QDWXUH DQG FXOWXUH LQVWHDG WKH PDWUL[ LV FRPSRVHG RI K\EULGV µVSHDNLQJ WKLQJV¶ ZKLFK DUH QDWXUDO DQG FXOWXUDO UHDO DQG LPDJLQHG VXEMHFW DQG REMHFW /DWRXU 7KH DVVXPSWLRQ LV WKDW ZH QR ORQJHU WKLQN WKLV ZD\ WRGD\ EHFDXVH ZH DUH PRGHUQ ± DQG PRGHUQLW\ LV SDUWO\ GH¿QHG E\ WKH enormous conceptual distinction erected between nature and culture out of which knowledge has been developed and applied and educational systems have evolved. :LWKLQ (QOLJKWHPHQW PRGHV RI WKRXJKW µQDWXUH¶ LV VRPHWKLQJ WR EH PDQLSXODWHG WKURXJK PDVWHU\ ,W ZLOO EH DSSDUHQW IURP WKH DUJXPHQWV PDGH LQ WKH IRUHJRLQJ section that we want to challenge this assumption. For sure modernity has given us science the pursuit of objectivity, understanding of the way things are . From this economic prosperity for a few has emerged. Modern education helps as develop sophisticated knowledge and skills. But the µK\EULGV¶ WKDW /DWRXU VSHDNV RI WKH WKLQJV WKDW FRPH RXW RI LQWHUDFWLRQV EHWZHHQ QDWXUH DQG FXOWXUH VWLOO H[LVW :H PD\ NQRZ WKLQJV DERXW RXU HQYLURQPHQW ZH may be able to explain, for example, how photosynthesis works, or the problem of climatic change. But in addition we still have an intuitive relationship with our environment, of the interconnections within it and our place within the interconnections. This aspect of education has been neglected in the majoritarian system. Our perspective is from cultural ecology (see also Dillon, 2008b). Cultural ecology is about relationships between people and their environments, about how they interact and transform each other. Environment is more than just physical surroundings. Environment includes social relations and the collective capabilities of all the people who inhabit it – their lifestyles, beliefs, ideas and aspirations. Educationalists call these aspects of the environment the affective and conative – respectively the way people feel in their environment and the way they respond to it. ,QWKHVRFDOOHGPRGHUQZRUOG SHUKDSVEHWWHUFKDUDFWHULVHGDVWKHµIRUPDOLVHG ZRUOG¶ NQRZOHGJH LV RUJDQLVHG LQWR GRPDLQV ERGLHV RI GLVFLSOLQHG NQRZOHGJH ZKLFKFDQEHDFTXLUHGSUDFWLFHGDQGDGYDQFHG:RUNLQJZLWKGLVFLSOLQHGNQRZOedge necessarily involves discerning what is important from what is not, and the VNLOIXOXVHRIWKHWRROVDQGWHFKQLTXHVWKDWDUHDYDLODEOH,QDEURDGVHQVHHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHPVKDYHFRHYROYHGZLWKWKHJURZWKRIPRGHUQNQRZOHGJHDQGUHÀHFW WKHYDOXHVHPERGLHGZLWKLQLW WKHDFDGHPLFVHSDUDWLRQRIµSXUH¶NQRZOHGJHIURP µDSSOLHG¶ WKH RULHQWDWLRQ RI OHDUQLQJ WRZDUGV µUHFHLYHG ZLVGRP¶ ZKLFK LV W\SLcally embodied in textbooks or handed down by teachers (Dillon, 2008a). We call this relational education. Relational education in cultural ecological terms is where VLWXDWLRQVDUHGH¿QHGUHODWLYHWRHDFKRWKHU HJWKURXJKVHSDUDWHGLVFLSOLQHV EHhaviour may be predicted (e.g. by setting objectives) and understanding is part of a historical continuum which recognises a past, a present and a future. Relational education places great emphasis on conceptual understanding, the cognitive dimension of learning. 184
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However, recent work on consciousness suggests that the human mind works LQFRPSOH[DQGG\QDPLFLQWHUDFWLRQZLWKWKHHQYLURQPHQWZKHUHPHDQLQJLVÀXLG UDWKHU WKDQ ¿[HG DQG LQIRUPDWLRQ LV LQWHJUDWHG ZLWK H[SHULHQFH LQ SURFHVVHV WKDW involve the continual construction, deconstruction and reconstruction of knowledge 'DPDVLR (GHOPDQ 7RQRQL 7KLVDOORZVNQRZOHGJHWREHYLHZHG DVDVHWRISRVVLELOLWLHVUDWKHUWKDQD¿[HGHQWLW\WKDWFDQEHWUDQVPLWWHGLQOLQHDU form. This provides the possibility of an additional way of interacting with our enYLURQPHQWDFRFRQVWLWXWLRQDOZD\,QFRFRQVWLWXWLRQDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVVLWXDWLRQV µHPHUJH¶EHKDYLRXUVDQGHQYLURQPHQWVFRFRQVWUXFWHDFKRWKHUDQGWKLQJVKDSSHQ µLQWKHPRPHQW¶$QHGXFDWLRQWKDWUHFRJQLVHVWKHVHW\SHVRILQWHUDFWLRQPLJKWEH called co-constitutional education. Cultural ecology is concerned with interactions between the behaviour of people in the environments which they inhabit and how these interactions transform both the people and the environment. The interactions in most formal educational institutions like schools and universities are relational. They depend on the transfer RIHVWDEOLVKHGFRQVWUXFWVZLWKLQGH¿QHGVWUXFWXUHV,GHDOO\HGXFDWLRQDOWUDQVIRUPDtions should be both relational and co-constitutional when they can facilitate both conceptual and perceptual understandings and the connections between them. The FRFRQVWLWXWLRQDODVSHFWRIHGXFDWLRQZRXOGUHFRJQLVHSHUVRQDOµLQWKHPRPHQW¶H[periences. Taken together, the relational and the co-constitutional offer a vision of OHDUQLQJLQDQHFRORJLFDOVHQVH PHDQLQJIXOZD\VRIUHODWLQJSHUVRQDOµLQWKHPRPHQW¶H[SHULHQFHVWRKLVWRULFDOO\HVWDEOLVKHGSUDFWLFHVDQGZD\VRINQRZLQJ7KLV YLVLRQUHÀHFWVWKHLQWHJUDOUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQQDWXUHDQGFXOWXUH7KXVOHDUQLQJ in a cultural ecological sense is also an integrational form of education – integrational between people and the places that are important to them. ,W IROORZV IURP WKH DUJXPHQWV PDGH DERYH WKDW WKH HGXFDWLRQDO VHSDUDWLRQ EHWZHHQ VFKRRO DQG KRPH LQ WKH PDMRULWDULDQ FXOWXUH LV XQIRUWXQDWH 6LPLODUO\ WKH distinctions between academic and vocational and formal learning and informal OHDUQLQJ DUH GDPDJLQJ (GXFDWLRQ LV WRR UHOLDQW RQ QDUURZO\ GH¿QHG FRXUVHV /HDUQLQJLVRIWHQIUDJPHQWHGVXSHU¿FLDODQGUHSHWLWLRXV$FXOWXUDOHFRORJLFDODSproach to learning would provide people with frameworks in which they can locate WKHPVHOYHVDQGWKHLUH[SHULHQFHV6RPHH[SHULHQFHVZLOOEHLQIRUPDOVLWXDWLRQV RWKHUVLQIRUPDO VRPHLQWKHKRPHVRPHLQWKHZRUNSODFH6RPHH[SHULHQFHVPD\ RYHUODS DOOZLOOFRQQHFWLQVRPHZD\ZLWKRWKHUH[SHULHQFHV(DFKH[SHULHQFHUHlates to a personal story. And, in turn, each personal story relates to the story of humanity. ([SHULHQFH LV WKH PHDQV E\ ZKLFK OHDUQLQJ KDSSHQV ,QIRUPDWLRQ LV VHQVRU\ raw material. People interact with information through experience and learning. Consider what happens when an individual encounters a new situation. He or she experiences the sensory stimuli available, some consciously, some unconsciously, DQG µPDNHV VHQVH RI LW¶ WKDW LV KH RU VKH HVWDEOLVKHV PHDQLQJ 7KH SURFHVVHV WKURXJKZKLFKWKLVKDSSHQVFDQEHVXPPDULVHGLQWKHIROORZLQJGLDJUDP
185
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7KHZKROHSURFHVVUHSUHVHQWVDQHFRORJLFDOYLHZRIOHDUQLQJ1RWHWKDWDOORIWKH parts are interconnected. Representing the parts as a diagram is an analytical device WR KHOS XQGHUVWDQG ZKDW LV JRLQJ RQ ,Q SUDFWLFH DOO RI WKH WKLQJV UHSUHVHQWHG LQ the diagram are happening simultaneously. When an individual encounters a new VLWXDWLRQ ZKHQ KH RU VKH µLQWHUDFWV ZLWK WKDW HQYLURQPHQW¶ WKHUH LV D FRQVWDQW interplay between the conceptual, where the individual relates the new experience WRZKDWLVDOUHDG\NQRZQDQGWKHSHUFHSWXDOWKHµLQWKHPRPHQW¶HQJDJHPHQWZLWK the environment. Another way of looking at this is as the interplay between abstraction and lived experience. Abstraction is relational, we drawn on metaphors, models and established ways of thinking about things and we engage with familiar ways of doing WKLQJV/LYHGH[SHULHQFHLVFRFRQVWLWXWLRQDOZHDUHWU\LQJWKLQJVRXWDVWKH\KDSpen, literally enacting situations and sometimes unexpected things emerge. The relational and the co-constitutional are themselves constantly reforming HDFK RWKHU ZKLFK LV ZK\ OHDUQLQJ LV D FRPSOH[ SURFHVV ,W LV FRPSOH[ EHFDXVH there are predictable things that can be said about it, but at the same time there is a degree of unpredictability that comes through the emergent possibilities of the situation. Educational institutions like schools and universities, and educational researchers in the majoritarian culture, concentrate almost exclusively on the relational part of learning, on the objective, conceptual type of meaning established through expeULHQFH/LWWOHDWWHQWLRQLVJLYHQWRKRZWKLVµREMHFWLYH¶H[SHULHQFHLQWHUDFWVZLWKWKH YHU\SHUVRQDOW\SHRIPHDQLQJZKLFKFRPHVIURPµLQWKHPRPHQW¶HQJDJHPHQWWKH µOLYHGH[SHULHQFH¶WKHPHDQLQJHQDFWHGWKURXJKFRQWLQXRXVUHFLSURFDOLQWHUDFWLRQ with the environment. /LYHGH[SHULHQFHLVDWWKHFRUHRI%UXQR/DWRXU¶VPDWUL[DQGOLYHGH[SHULHQFH is very much involved with meaning making in minoritarian cultures. Consider, for H[DPSOHWKHIROORZLQJDFFRXQWRIPHDQLQJPDNLQJLQ+DZDL¶L The native way of storymaking is an intellectual tradition that is articulated LQDYDULHW\RIWH[WVLQ+DZDLLDQDUWDQGFUDIWDQGLQ+DZDL¶L¶VSRHWU\DQG 186
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folklore. The work of the storymaker is to re-collect and re-collect events, WKHQUHÀHFWRQWKHHYHQWV¶PXOWLSOHPHDQLQJVERWKSHUVRQDODQGSXEOLFDQG ZLWKLQ WKHLU WLPH DQG DFURVV WLPH 7KLV UHÀHFWLRQ H[WHQGV WKH PLQG WR QRW RQO\ZKDWLVNQRZQEXWWRZKDWLVVXUSULVLQJ.DRPDLVWKHJRDOKHUHWKDW is to tolerate ambiguity and shifting meanings in order to come to truth. As all things in Hawaiiana are practical, the process of storymaking presses the storyteller to make sense of these multiple thoughts within a current conWH[W WKDWLVWRFRQVLGHUWKHSROLWLFDOWKHVRFLDODQGWKHFXOWXUDO2QFHWKHVH thoughts are framed and articulated in a text, the storymaker must encourage ±HYHQSURSRVH±DFWLRQ %HQKDP +HFN But the relational and co-constitutional are also evident in contemporary western VRFLHW\ )RU H[DPSOH 0LFKDHO %R\G$UWLVWLF 'LUHFWRU RI WKH 5R\DO 6KDNHVSHDUH &RPSDQ\ DQG 2OLYHU 6DFKV 3URIHVVRU RI 1HXURORJ\ DQG 3V\FKLDWU\ DW &ROXPELD 8QLYHUVLW\KDYHEHHQORRNLQJDWKRZDFWRUVPHPRULVHWKHLUOLQHV7KH\LQYHVWLJDWHG DVLWXDWLRQZKHUHDFWRUVUHWXUQHGWRDVHWRISOD\VDIWHUDJDSRIVL[PRQWKV The process started with actors on their own going through their lines. They GLGQ¶W UHPHPEHU WKHP :H WKHQ PRYHG RQ WR ZRUNLQJ WRJHWKHU LQ D URRP VLWWLQJGRZQGRLQJDOLQHUXQ,WZDVQ¶WYHU\JRRG7KHQZHGHFLGHGWRFXW WR WKH FKDVH DQG MXVW ÀLQJ DOO IRXU SOD\V RQWR WKH VWDJH ± ZLWKRXW FRVWXPH without decor, without all the effects. And the actors were very nearly wordperfect straightaway... And there was further improvement when they were not only together on stage, but also together with an audience. Then they became absolutely pitch-perfect and word-perfect, with an urgent need to communicate... Maybe our memory is our body as well as our cranium. (Times Online) 6DFKV LQWHUSUHWV WKLV DV DFWRUV µWU\LQJ WR UHWULHYH D EURNHQ ELW RI PHPRU\¶ $Q alternative interpretation is the interplay between the relational and the coconstitutional, the enactment of conceptual schemas, or learning in a cultural HFRORJLFDOVHQVH,QERWKWKLVDQGWKH+DZDLLDQH[DPSOHLPPHGLDWHH[SHULHQFHLV interacting with recalled experience, the abstract and the lived are co-constructing HDFK RWKHU /HDUQLQJ KDV DQG DOZD\V ZLOO EH DQ HFRORJLFDO SURFHVV ,Q WKLV VHQVH WKHUH LV QR GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ µSUHPRGHUQ¶ DQG µPRGHUQ¶ µWUDGLWLRQDO¶ DQG µIRUPDOLVHG¶LWLVRQO\FRQWH[WVWKDWFKDQJH The relational view of context that characterises the majoritarian culture, where VLWXDWLRQV VWUXFWXUHV DQG VFKHPDWD DUH GH¿QHG UHODWLYH WR HDFK RWKHU LQHYLWDEO\ WKLVOHDGVWRDGHJUHHRISUHVSHFL¿FDWLRQIRUJLYHQVLWXDWLRQVUHODWLYHWRVRFLDOLQstitutions, which in a structural sense are enduring, even if their internal dynamics DUH VXEMHFW WR IUHTXHQW FKDQJH )RU H[DPSOH WKH:HVWHUQ QRWLRQ RI D µVFKRRO¶ LV built around physical and organisational infrastructure such as classrooms, curricula, pedagogies, examination systems and so on. For Mongolian nomads, the µVFKRRO¶HPERG\LQJWKHYDOXHVRIDVHGHQWDU\FXOWXUHLVVHHQDVSDUDOOHOWRDQG co-existent with, nomadic culture. The nomadic cosmology of the Daur people of 187
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QRUWKHDVWHUQ0RQJROLD +XPSKUH\ 8UJXQJH LVQRWUHODWHGWRDEVWUDFW thinking about a world which can be separated from the self (and therefore transPLWWHGWKURXJKDVFKRROFXUULFXOXP EXWGHULYHGIURP«µGLUHFWSHUVRQDOHQJDJHPHQWZLWKREMHFWVDQGSURFHVVHV¶IURPGLIIHUHQWZD\VRIHQJDJLQJZLWKWKHZRUOG DVµODQGVFDSHV¶7KLVVLWXDWHVKXPDQLW\LQPDQ\YHUVLRQVRIWKHZRUOGDVLWZHUH µVODWWHG¶RYHURQHDQRWKHUHDFKRQHHODERUDWHGDQGH[WHQGHGLQVXFKDZD\DVWR offer different causal understandings of human society and personality. Thus, conYHQWLRQDOVRFLDOGLYLVLRQVDUHQRWWKHRQO\PHDQVRIGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ SHRSOHLQGLYLGXDOO\DQGFROOHFWLYHO\DUHOLNHQHVVHVRIWKHZRUOGRXWVLGH +XPSKUH\ 8UJXQJH 1996, 105). :KHUHWHQVLRQVH[LVWLQWKH:HVWEHWZHHQµHGXFDWLRQ¶DQGµEHFRPLQJKXPDQ¶ the Mongolian experience suggests a possibility of reframing the educational SURFHVVDVRQHRIDµMRXUQH\LQDODQGVFDSH¶UDWKHUWKDQDVDµMRXUQH\WKURXJKD ODQGVFDSH¶,IZHIROORZWKHH[DPSOHRIWKH'DXUSHRSOHRI1RUWKHDVWHUQ0RQJROLD +XPSKUH\ 8UJXQJH ZKR DUH VLWXDWHG LQ µPDQ\ YHUVLRQV RI WKH ZRUOG¶ WKHQ HQJDJLQJ WKURXJK WKH µGLYLVLRQV RI WKH ZRUOG¶ WKURXJK OLNHQHVVHV could ‘supersede those generated by purely social rules of identity, membership DQGVXFFHVVLRQ¶:HZRXOGOLNHWRVHHDUHODWLRQDODQGFRFRQVWLWXWLRQDOIUDPHZRUN ZKLFKLVLWVHOIERWKUHODWLRQDODQGFRFRQVWLWXWLRQDO,QRWKHUZRUGVDQDSSURDFKWR HGXFDWLRQLQERWKPDMRULWDULDQDQGPLQRULWDULDQFXOWXUHVWKDWLVQRWµLPSRVLWLRQDO¶ QRUµWUDQVLWLRQDO¶EXWUDWKHUHFRORJLFDOLQWKHVHQVHWKDWLWLVORFDOO\DGDSWLYHJLYLQJ ULVH WR QLFKHV RI FXOWXUDO SURGXFWLRQ ZKLFK µUHÀHFW WKH SDUWLFXODULW\ VXEWOHW\ idiosyncrasy, and patina of locality at scales, at time frames, and through modes of RUJDQLVDWLRQDSSURSULDWHWRWKRVHSODFHVDQGWKHHQWHUSULVHVZLWKLQWKHP¶ 'LOORQHW al, 2009). 7KH*OREDOLVD]DWLRQ3URMHFWKDVJLYHQVRPHSDUWVRIKXPDQLW\DHFRQRPLFULFKness beyond the dream of medieval societies, or of Fourth World Peoples, but at JUHDWFRVWWRRXUSODQHW,IWKHFRFRQVWLWXWLRQDODVSHFWVRIDQHFRORJLFDODSSURDFKHV WRXQGHUVWDQGLQJHGXFDWLRQDFURVVFXOWXUHVFDQSURYLGHµVODWV¶WKHQFURVVFXOWXUDO understandings may provide directions for change. This is not to argue for an (QOLJKWHQPHQWDSSURDFKWRGHYHORSLQJDµV\QWKHVLV¶ ZLWKLQ+HJHO¶VWULSDUWLWHXQderstanding of history), but to argue for a post-Enlightenment understanding which VHHVHGXFDWLRQDVµFRQQHFWLYLW\¶±DFURVVJHQHUDWLRQVDQGDFURVVSHRSOH 5()(5(1&(6 $WOHR5 7VDZDON±D1XXFKDKQXOWK:RUOGYLHZ9DQFRXYHU 8%&SUHVV Bayliss, P. (2009). Mongolian Education in a time of change: cosmologies, history and cultural formations3DSHUVXEPLWWHGWR-RXUQDORI0RQJRO6WXGLHV XQGHUUHYLHZ %HQKDP 0.3 +HFN 5+ Culture and Educational Policy in Hawai’i. 1HZ -HUVH\ /DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV Carnoy, M. (1999). Globalization and educational reform: what planners need to know.3DULV 81(6&2 ,,(3 Damasio, A. (2000). The Feeling of What Happens: body, emotion and the making of consciousness. /RQGRQ 9LQWDJH
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WHAT PERSONAL FACTORS MOTIVATE THE CARING TEACHER? Wendy Moran
The importance of caring teachers has been well demonstrated in the literature. &DULQJWHDFKHUVDVVLVWVWXGHQWVDFDGHPLFDOO\ &ROOLQVRQ.LOOHDYH\ 6WHSKHQVRQ *ROGVWHLQ 1HZEHUJ 3HUH] 5RJHUV :HEE 6DQDFRUH :KLWH FDULQJ WHDFKHUV DVVLVW VWXGHQWV VRFLDOO\ DQG HPRWLRQDOO\ 'D\ 1RGGLQJV 2¶'RQRJKXH%URRNHU 3XUGLH 3HUH] 5RJHUV :HEE DQG FDULQJ WHDFKHUV WHDFK VWXGHQWV KRZ WR FDUHIRURWKHUV 1RGGLQJV 'H¿QLQJWKHQRWLRQRIFDUHDQGWKHFDULQJUHODWLRQLVGLI¿FXOWGXHWRWKHEUHDGWK DQGGHSWKRILWVPHDQLQJ $JQH &KDVNLQ 5DXQHU :KLWH 2XU understanding of caring comes from seeing it in action, as Rogers and Webb (1991) QRWH ³RXUNQRZOHGJHRIFDULQJLVWDFLWZHKDYHGLI¿FXOW\GH¿QLQJLW>EXW@ZHNQRZ LWZKHQZHVHHLW´ S 1RGGLQJV GLVWLQJXLVKHVQDWXUDOFDULQJIURPDQ HWKLFRIFDUHFODLPLQJWKDWQDWXUDOFDULQJLVD³FRQGLWLRQWRZDUGZKLFKZHORQJDQG strive, and it is our longing for caring – to be in that special relation – that provides the motivation for us to be moral” (p.5). An ethic of care, argues Hargreaves (1994), 1RGGLQJV DQG(OED] LVDPRUDORULHQWDWLRQ WKDWLVLPSRUWDQW to understand as a moral basis upon which people make their decisions about carLQJ'H¿QLQJFDULQJWHDFKHUVDSSHDUVWREHOHVVGLI¿FXOW ³DFDULQJWHDFKHU´FODLPV 1RGGLQJV ³LVVRPHRQHZKRKDVGHPRQVWUDWHGWKDWVKHFDQHVWDEOLVKPRUHRU less regularly, relations of care in a wide variety of situations.” (pp. 100-101). For the purpose of this study, caring will be addressed within the context of the teacherVWXGHQWUHODWLRQZKHUHFHUWDLQEHKDYLRXUVDUHLGHQWL¿HGDVFDULQJ $WHDFKHU¶VPRWLYDWLRQWRXVHFDULQJDSSURDFKHVKDVUHFHLYHGOLWWOHDWWHQWLRQLQ the literature. A recent study conducted in an Australian secondary school context VRXJKW WR DGGUHVV WKLV GH¿FLW E\ H[SORULQJ SHUVRQDO IDFWRUV WKDW ZHUH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK FDULQJ WHDFKHU SUDFWLFHV7HQ WHDFKHUV LGHQWL¿HG DV FDULQJ ZHUH LQWHUYLHZHG and spoke of their reasons for choosing to care for students, and the personal facWRUVWKDWWKH\EHOLHYHFRQWULEXWHWRVXFKDQDSSURDFK7KLVSDSHUUHSRUWVWKH¿QGLQJV IURPWKLVVWXG\DQGGH¿QHVWKHSHUVRQDOIDFWRUVDV WKHGHPRJUDSKLFFKDUDFWHULVWLFV of teachers, for example, gender, the number of years of teaching experience, and WKHVXEMHFWVWDXJKW WKHEHOLHIVKHOGE\WKHWHDFKHUDERXWWHDFKLQJDQGWKHWHDFKHU UROH DQGWKHVRXUFHVRIGHYHORSPHQWDVDWHDFKHU
A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 191–205. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
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9LHZVRQKRZFDULQJWHDFKHUVGHPRQVWUDWHFDUHKDYHEHHQJDWKHUHGWKURXJKPDQ\ empirical studies, some of which have focused on the teacher perspective (Barber, +DQVHQ 0XOKROODQG /DUVRQ 6LOYHUPDQ 6KDFNORFN 9RJW :HLQVWHLQ DQGRWKHUVWKDWKDYHJDLQHGWKHVWXGHQWYLHZ $OGHU &DOGZHOO 6KROWLV )HUUHLUD %RVZRUWK 0XOOHU 6FKXVVOHU &ROOLQV 7HYHQ 7HYHQ +DQVRQ :HQW]HO Findings to date from these two perspectives are summarised in Table 1. 7DEOH7HDFKHUDQGVWXGHQWSHUVSHFWLYHVRIFDULQJSUDFWLFHV Teacher perspective
Student perspective
Academic care
Academic care
Personal care
Personal care
Commitment to students 3HUVRQDOTXDOLWLHV Relationship building
Commitment to students 3HUVRQDOTXDOLWLHV
With the exception of relationship building, student perspectives encompassed the same notions as teachers of caring practices. Examination of these two perspectives of care suggests that academic and personal care are the types of care administered to students, while relationship building, commitment to students, DQGSHUVRQDOTXDOLWLHVDUHWKHYHKLFOHVWKURXJKZKLFKSHUVRQDODQGDFDGHPLFFDUH DUH DGPLQLVWHUHG +HQFH IRU WKH SXUSRVH RI WKLV SDSHU µFDUH¶ ZLOO EH GH¿QHG DV having both personal and educational (or academic) domains. To the extent that HGXFDWLRQDODQGSHUVRQDOGHYHORSPHQWLVWKHUHVXOWRIFDULQJWHDFKHUV¶HQGHDYRXUV it is important to learn more about the personal factors that motivate their practices. .H\SRLQWVIURPWKHOLWHUDWXUHLQUHODWLRQWRWKHVHIDFWRUVIROORZ Individual Characteristics $ VWXG\ RI WKH OLWHUDWXUH UHYHDOV WKDW JHQGHU PD\ LPSDFW RQ D FDULQJ WHDFKHUV¶ DELOLW\WRFDUHHGXFDWLRQDOO\DQGSHUVRQDOO\IRUKLVKHUVWXGHQWV6RPHZRXOGVD\ WKDW DQ HWKLF RI FDUH LV PRUH RIWHQ SRUWUD\HG E\ ZRPHQ *LOOLJDQ 1RGGLQJV GXHWRKHUH[SHULHQFHVUDWKHUWKDQKHUJHQHWLFGLVSRVLWLRQ
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in the ways that they demonstrate care. These differing views with regard to the connection between gender and the demonstration of care suggest gender is worthy of further investigation. ,WPD\DOVREHKHOSIXOWRFRQVLGHU\HDUVRIH[SHULHQFHDVDWHDFKHUZKHQLGHQWLI\LQJWKHFDULQJWHDFKHU/LPLWHGUHVHDUFKVXJJHVWVWKDWEHJLQQLQJWHDFKHUVKDYH GLI¿FXOW\UHFRQFLOLQJWKHLUDOWUXLVWLFEHOLHIVDERXWFDULQJIRUVWXGHQWVZLWKWKHQHHG WRFRQWUROEHKDYLRXULQWKHFODVVURRP *ROGVWHLQ /DNH *RPH]$OOHQ Clinton, 2004). While other studies focusing on more experienced teachers suggest that caring for students was integral to their beliefs and that this motivated them in WKHLUDSSURDFKHVZLWKVWXGHQWV &ROOLQVRQHWDO 2¶'RQRJKXHHWDO ,QERWKRIWKHVHODWWHUVWXGLHVWKHWHDFKHUV¶EHOLHIVDSSHDUHGWRGHULYHIURPWKHLUH[periences of working with their students and from their understandings about how children best learn. Further research is needed to determine if the personal factor of teaching experience affects how teachers care for their students. $QRWKHULQGLYLGXDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFLVWKDWRIWHDFKLQJDUHDV6RPHVXEMHFWVPD\ RIIHUWHDFKHUVLQFUHDVHGRSSRUWXQLWLHVWRFDUHIRUVWXGHQWV,WLVHTXDOO\OLNHO\WKDW caring teachers may be drawn to teach certain subjects because of the opportunity to care that they afford. The literature review did not reveal any investigation to GDWHLQWRWKHLQÀXHQFHVRIWKLVIDFWRUXSRQFDULQJWHDFKHUSUDFWLFHVGHVSLWHVRPH HPSLULFDOUHVHDUFKGHWDLOLQJSUDFWLFHVRIWHDFKHUVLQSDUWLFXODUVXEMHFWDUHDV /DUVRQ 6LOYHUPDQ 6DQDFRUH :KLWH Beliefs The role of beliefs in caring teachers is another personal factor illuminating the PRWLYDWLRQV RI D FDULQJ WHDFKHU ,Q D VWXG\ H[DPLQLQJ WKH SUDFWLFHV RI SULPDU\ WHDFKHUV1LDV LGHQWL¿HVVL[WDFLWEHOLHIVWKDWDUHUHÀHFWHGLQWKHLUZRUNZLWK FKLOGUHQ,QVXPPDU\WKHVHEHOLHIVHQFRPSDVVOLNLQJFKLOGUHQ HQJDJLQJWKHZKROH FKLOG HQFRXUDJLQJ UHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWKLQ WKH VFKRRO FRPPXQLW\ DOWUXLVP VHOI VDFUL¿FHDQGREHGLHQFH RYHUFRQVFLHQWLRXVQHVV DQGFRPPLWPHQWDQGLGHQWLW\7KLV ODVWEHOLHIKDVEHHQUDLVHGE\RWKHUUHVHDUFKHUVDVDPRWLYDWLRQWRFDUH .RUWKDJHQ 6XPVLRQ ZKLOHRWKHUVOLNH+DUJUHDYHV DVVHUWWKDWFDULQJLVD central reason why teachers enter primary teaching. /DWHUUHVHDUFKKDVVKHGIXUWKHUOLJKWRQWKHVXEMHFWRIWHDFKHUEHOLHIV$VWXG\ FRQGXFWHG E\ /DUVRQ DQG 6LOYHUPDQ LGHQWL¿HG FDULQJ WHDFKHUV ZLWKLQ D VSHFL¿F VXEMHFW DUHD DQG VKRZHG WKDW WKHVH WHDFKHUV KHOG WKUHH FRPPRQ EHOLHIV DERXWWKHLUWHDFKLQJ7KHWHDFKHUVFODLPHGWKDWWKHLU¿UVWFRPPRQEHOLHI±FDULQJ IRUVWXGHQWVEHLQJKLJKO\LPSRUWDQWWRWHDFKLQJ±ZDVLQÀXHQFHGE\WKHUROHPRGHO RIWKHLURZQ3K\VLFDO(GXFDWLRQWHDFKHUV,WDSSHDUVIURPWKLVVWXG\WKDWWHDFKHUV KROGSHUVRQDOEHOLHIVDERXWWHDFKLQJDQGWKDWWKHVHDUHLQÀXHQWLDORQWKHLUFDULQJ practices towards students.
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Sources of Development ,QH[DPLQLQJWKHSHUVRQDOIDFWRUVWKDWPRWLYDWHFDULQJWHDFKHUVLWLVDOVRQHFHVVDU\ WRH[SORUHKRZWHDFKHUV¶EHOLHIVGHYHORS,WKDVEHHQDVVHUWHGWKDWFDULQJYDOXHVDQG GLVSRVLWLRQVQHHGWREHIRVWHUHG $UQVWLQH 7KD\HU%DFRQ DQGWKDWWKLV most likely occurs within the family context where children are nurtured (Chaskin 5DXQHU 1RGGLQJV $JQH FODLPVWKDWKLJKO\HIIHFWLYHWHDFKHUV have either developed deep caring capacities before entering the profession, and, having experienced success continue to perpetuate it, or, that through a committed analysis of the teaching/learning process and the use of careful observations and H[SHULHQFHWKH\KDYHDFTXLUHGDGHHSFDULQJVWDWHGXULQJWKHLUWHDFKLQJSURFHVV The role of family and experiences in their own schooling may also have a personal effect on the motivation of a caring teacher. With regard to empirical research there KDVEHHQOLWWOHUHSRUWHGDERXWWKHHIIHFWVRIWKHVHLQÀXHQFHVRQWKHFDULQJWHDFKHU ,QVXPPDU\WKHSHUVRQDOIDFWRUVWKDWPD\LQÀXHQFHWKHPRWLYDWLRQRIDFDULQJ teacher have received some attention in research over the last twenty years but this research has not been systematic in its approach. The purpose of this paper is to UHSRUWWKH¿QGLQJVRIDVWXG\WKDWH[DPLQHVWKHUROHRISHUVRQDOIDFWRUVPRWLYDWLQJ the caring teacher. 0(7+2'2/2*<
Three metropolitan secondary schools were randomly selected as sites for the study. The study was designed to provide information about caring teachers and consisted RI WZR PDLQ SDUWV D VXUYH\ RI WHDFKLQJ VWDII LQ DOO WKUHH VFKRROV DQG LQWHUYLHZV ZLWK WHQ SHHUQRPLQDWHG FDULQJ WHDFKHUV 6XUYH\V ZHUH XVHG WR JDWKHU GDWD IURP WHDFKHUVLQWKHWKUHHVFKRROV7KHDGYDQWDJHRIXVLQJDVXUYH\WRROZDVWKUHHIROG ¿UVWO\DUHODWLYHO\ODUJHQXPEHU N RIWHDFKHUV¶RSLQLRQVFRXOGEHJDWKHUHG H[SHGLHQWO\ &RKHQ0DQLRQ 0RUULVRQ VHFRQGO\LWZDVKRSHGWKDWDEULHI VXUYH\ ZRXOG LQFUHDVH UHVSRQVH UDWHV GXH WR WKH OLPLWHG FRPPLWPHQW RI WHDFKHUV¶ WLPH RIUHVSRQVHVZHUHDWWDLQHG DQGWKLUGO\DGPLQLVWUDWLRQRIDQLQYHQWRU\ DQG UDWLQJ VFDOH ZDV PRUH VXLWHG WR WKLV W\SH RI GDWD FROOHFWLRQ ,QWHUYLHZV ZHUH also utilised with a smaller group of teachers to gain greater understanding than a VXUYH\FRXOGSURYLGHDORQJZLWKWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRSUREHLVVXHV,QWHUYLHZVHQDEOHG descriptive data to be gathered in the words of the participant, assisting the researcher WRGHYHORSLQVLJKWVRQWKHLUSDUWLFLSDQWV¶SHUFHSWLRQV %RJGDQ %LNOHQ ,QWKHVXUYH\WHDFKHUVZHUHDVNHGWRSURYLGHSHUVRQDOLQIRUPDWLRQVXFKDVQDPH (for cross-checking with part two of the study later), gender, years of teaching exSHULHQFH DQG VXEMHFWV WDXJKW 6HFRQGO\ WHDFKHUV ZHUH DOVR UHTXLUHG WR FRPSOHWH D 6WXGHQW&RQWHQW 7HDFKLQJ ,QYHQWRU\ 6&7, 6SLHU ZKLFK PHDVXUHG D WHDFKHU¶V RULHQWDWLRQ WR FRQWHQW DQG WR VWXGHQWV )LQDOO\ WKH VDPH WHDFKHUV ZHUH DVNHGWRQRPLQDWHXSWR¿YHWHDFKHUVRQWKHLUVWDIIZKRWKH\EHOLHYHGZHUHHGXFDtionally and personally caring teachers. Once the ten most nominated teachers from across the three schools were selected, interviews were organised with each. The 194
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following section describes in more detail the measures and analysis procedures used to learn more of the personal factors that motivate caring teachers. The Survey 7KH 6&7, 6SLHU ZDV LQFOXGHG WR JLYH HDFK WHDFKHU D VFRUH IRU WKHLU orientation to students and their orientation to content. The similarity between VWXGHQWFRQWHQW RULHQWDWLRQ IURP 6SLHU¶V LQYHQWRU\ DQG SHUVRQDOHGXFDWLRQDO practices of caring teachers enabled a fair comparison, hence establishing with some reliability the attitudes of the teachers. 7KHLQYHQWRU\UHTXHVWHGWKDWUHVSRQGHQWVVHOHFWWKHµPRUHLPSRUWDQW¶WDVNIURP VHWV RI SDLUHG LWHPV 7KH ¿UVW VHW RI DQVZHUV FRXOG EH WDOOLHG WR SURGXFH DVFRUHRXWRIUHSUHVHQWLQJVWXGHQWRULHQWDWLRQ6WXGHQWRULHQWDWLRQFDQEHGHVFULEHGDV³UHÀHFWLQJDQHPSKDVLVRQVKDULQJYHUVXV>DQ@HPSKDVLVRQSHUVRQDOO\ UHWDLQLQJFODVVURRPDXWKRULW\´ 6SLHU S 7KHVHFRQGVHWRIDQVZHUV produces a content orientation score, also out of 20. Content orientation represents ³DWWLWXGHVDQGEHKDYLRXUVUHÀHFWLQJHPSKDVLVRQMREDFWLYLWLHVYHUVXVHPSKDVLVRQ UROHDWWULEXWHV´QRWHV6SLHU S 3HUVRQDOGDWDLQFOXGLQJJHQGHUWHDFKLQJ H[SHULHQFHDQGVXEMHFWVWDXJKWZHUHHQWHUHGLQWR6366 YHUVLRQ 7KHUHVSRQVHV IURPWKH6&7,ZHUHDOVRHQWHUHGDQGVFRUHVZHUHGHULYHGIRUWKHFRQWHQWDQGVWXGHQWRULHQWDWLRQVIRUHDFKSDUWLFLSDQW WKLVDOORZHGVWDWLVWLFDOWHVWLQJRIVLJQL¿FDQW DVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQSHUVRQDOIDFWRUVDQGWKHRULHQWDWLRQVRIWHDFKHUV,QGHSHQGHQW t-tests were performed on the data to determine whether gender had an effect on 6&7,RULHQWDWLRQVZKLOH$129$VZHUHXVHGIRUWKHLQGLYLGXDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRI teaching experience and subjects taught. The Interview The ten most nominated caring teachers participated in a one hour interview. Additionally, they were observed for a full day to validate their caring practices. )RU WKH SXUSRVHV RI WKLV SDSHU KRZHYHU WKH GLVFXVVLRQ ZLOO IRFXV RQ ¿QGLQJV related to motivation to care which were determined through the interviews held at the end of the observation day. Of the ten teachers, there were three males and seven females ranging in teaching experience from three years to over 30 \HDUV 7KH VHPLVWUXFWXUHG LQWHUYLHZ TXHVWLRQV DOORZHG WHDFKHUV WR WDON RI WKHLU caring practices, about the beliefs that they held concerning teaching and caring, DQG ¿QDOO\ RI WKH IDFWRUV WKDW WKH\ EHOLHYHG LQÀXHQFHG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI WKHLU FDULQJFDSDFLWLHV,QWHUYLHZVZHUHWUDQVFULEHGWKHQUHDGWKURXJKDQGFKHFNHGIRU DFFXUDF\ZLWKQRWHVDGGHGWRVKRZYRLFHLQÀHFWLRQVRURWKHULPSRUWDQWQRQYHUEDO communicators. The transcripts were coded using content analysis to determine key categories and themes (Burns, 1997) and were clustered together with relation EHWZHHQFOXVWHUVUHFRUGHG&DWHJRULHVZHUHPRGL¿HGDQGUHWHVWHGWKURXJKRXWWKH SURFHVVWRHQVXUHFRQVLVWHQF\DQGYDOLGLW\ %RJGDQ %LNOHQ 7KHUHVXOWV 195
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which will be discussed shortly, indicate that individual characteristics, beliefs and VRXUFHVRIGHYHORSPHQWPD\LQÀXHQFHWKHPRWLYDWLRQVRIDFDULQJWHDFKHU 5(68/76)5207+(6859(<
The survey conducted with 178 teachers across the three schools provided data concerning the three individual characteristics of gender, years of teaching H[SHULHQFH DQG VXEMHFWV WDXJKW 1RW DOO WHDFKHUV FRPSOHWHG DOO VHFWLRQV RI WKH VXUYH\ WKH 6&7, ZDV FRPSOHWHG E\ RQO\ WHDFKHUV DQG QR PRUH WKDQ teachers gave information regarding the subjects they taught. Gender 7KH UHVXOWV SUHVHQWHG LQ 7DEOH VKRZ WKH 0HDQ 6WDQGDUG 'HYLDWLRQ 6' DQG 6'HUURUIRUWKH6&7,DFFRUGLQJWRJHQGHU7DEOHVKRZVWKHHTXDOLW\RIPHDQV between student and content orientation and gender. The results indicate that males are less oriented towards content than females in this sample of teachers (p = 7KHUHZDVQRVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQPDOHVDQGIHPDOHVIRUVWXGHQW orientation. Table 2. Mean & Standard Deviation of Student & Content Orientation for Females & Males
Student orientation Content orientation
*HQGHU
n
Mean
6'
6' error
Female
114
13.39
3.65
.342
Male
63
12.95
4.04
.510
Female
114
11.42
2.88
.270
Male
63
9.94
3.30
.416
7DEOH(TXDOLW\RI0HDQVEHWZHHQ6WXGHQWDQG&RQWHQW2ULHQWDWLRQDQG*HQGHU t
df
p
Student orientation
.742
175
.459
Content orientation
3.096
175
.002
Years of Teaching Experience Teaching experience varied considerably within each of the three secondary schools. The number of years of experience were categorised into phases of 196
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WHDFKLQJ DFFRUGLQJ WR 'D\ 6DPPRQV 6WREDUW .LQJWRQ *X DQG ZHUH FRPSDUHG ZLWK WKH UHVSRQVHV IRU WKH 6&7, 7KH UHVXOWV DUH OLVWHG LQ 7DEOH VKRZLQJWKHPHDQVDQGVWDQGDUGGHYLDWLRQV7KHUHZHUHQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW results for teaching experience. Table 4. Mean and SD of Participants for the S-CTI According to Years of Experience Orientation
Student
Total
Content
Total
1
Mean
6'
31
0–3
13.22
4.12
48
4–7
12.94
3.52
38
8 – 15
13.45
3.90
27
16 – 23
13.11
4.59
29
24 – 30
13.21
3.93
4
30+
13.00
2.94
13.17
3.89
177 31
0–3
11.09
2.83
48
4–7
10.71
3.74
38
8 – 15
10.26
3.16
27
16 – 23
11.07
2.59
29
24 – 30
9.25
2.62
4
30+
10.85
2.63
10.87
3.11
177
Subjects Taught The subjects taught by participants were reduced from the sixteen original categories down to six by grouping together like subjects (see Table 5). Each WHDFKHU¶VVXEMHFWVZHUHFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHLUVFRUHVIRUWKH6&7,XVLQJ$129$V UHVXOWLQJLQDQLOHIIHFWRIVWDWLVWLFDOVLJQL¿FDQFH7KHUHVXOWVDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH showing the means and standard deviations for content and student orientation.
197
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7DEOH0HDQDQG6'RI3DUWLFLSDQWVIRUWKH6&7,$FFRUGLQJWR6XEMHFW7DXJKW Orientation
Student
Total
Content
Total
1
6XEMHFW
M
6'
76
Humanities
12.57
3.80
41
0DWKV 6FLHQFH
13.20
4.05
16
Creative Arts
14
4.41
24
Technical and Practical 6WXGLHV
14.17
3.68
13
PDHPE
12.85
4.00
6
Other
14.2
3.42
13.5
3.89
76
Humanities
11.19
2.94
41
0DWKV 6FLHQFH
10.85
2.84
16
Creative Arts
11.56
3.74
24
Technical and Practical 6WXGLHV
10.17
3.52
13
PDHPE
10.31
3.04
6
Other
10.20
2.95
10.71
3.17
176
176
Preliminary Conclusion from Survey Results from the survey showed that males in the study were less oriented towards content than their female counterparts indicating that gender may play a UROHLQHGXFDWLRQDOO\FDULQJIRUVWXGHQWV+RZHYHUWKHUHVXOWVIURPWKH$129$V FRPSDULQJ \HDUV RI WHDFKLQJ H[SHULHQFH DQG WKH VXEMHFWV WDXJKW ZLWK WKH 6&7, scores showed that these two individual characteristics had little to do with an orientation towards caring for students educationally or personally. 5(68/76)5207+(,17(59,(:6
,QWHUYLHZ WUDQVFULSWV ZHUH DQDO\VHG WR GHWHUPLQH WKH EHOLHIV WKDW PRWLYDWH FDULQJ practices. Particular thought patterns emerged from the interviews that were held with each of the caring teachers. These thought patterns may be described as PLQGVHWV D VHW RI EHOLHIV DQG PRWLYDWLRQV FDXVLQJ WKH FDULQJ WHDFKHUV WR EHKDYH in an educationally and personally caring manner. While beliefs underpinning care 198
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KDYH EHHQ DFNQRZOHGJHG LQ WKH OLWHUDWXUH WKH ¿QGLQJV RI WKLV VWXG\ VXJJHVW WKDW WKHVHEHOLHIVRSHUDWHWKURXJKµPLQGVHWV¶KHOGE\WHDFKHUVDQGWKDWWKHVHPLQGVHWV motivate their care. Mindsets The mindsets that emerged appeared to represent a way of thinking about people and the role that a teacher could play in working for good outcomes. Ten mindsets ZHUHLGHQWL¿HG¿YHRIZKLFKDSSOLHGWROLIHJHQHUDOO\ SHUVRQDOPLQGVHWV DQG¿YH which applied to teaching in particular (teacher mindsets). The personal mindsets DSSHDUWRXQGHUSLQWKHFDULQJWHDFKHUV¶YLHZVRIKRZRWKHUVVKRXOGEHWUHDWHGDQG KDYH EHHQ OLVWHG LQ 7DEOH DFFRUGLQJ WR KRZ IUHTXHQWO\ HDFK PLQGVHW HPHUJHG from the data. Table 6. Personal mindsets of caring teachers Personal mindset
Description
Do all you can / try to solve the problem
,IWKHUHLVDSUREOHPRUQHHG\RXVKRXOGGRDOO you can to solve it or make things better.
Be fair
*LYHHYHU\RQHDIDLUFKDQFHWRVXFFHHGµ/HYHO WKHSOD\LQJ¿HOG¶DVPXFKDVLVSRVVLEOH
*RRGRXWFRPHVRIWHQUHTXLUHKDUG work and/or time
([SHFWWKDWORQJWHUPJDLQZLOOUHTXLUHHIIRUW and hard work.
People can change for the better
*LYLQJKHOSDQGDVVLVWDQFHZLOOEHZRUWKLW because people can change.
Everyone matters
,WGRHVQ¶WPDWWHUZKHWKHUDSHUVRQIDOOV XQGHURQH¶VVSHFL¿FUHVSRQVLELOLW\±FDUHIRU everyone.
Personal mindsets, in summary, are motivated by a need to solve problems or issues as they arise and by a need to ensure that the outcomes are as fair as possible. As RQHWHDFKHUH[SODLQHG 2K , DP VXUH WKHUH ZRXOG EH SHRSOH ZKR ZRXOG MXVW JR LQ DQG VD\ µ,¶YH H[SODLQHGLWRQFHRUWZLFHDQGQRZ\RXZLOOKDYHWRJRDZD\DQGGRWKHUHVW¶ %XW,FDQ¶WGRWKDWOLNH,MXVWWKLQNWKDW¶VZKDW,¶PSDLGWRGRLVWRJHWWKHP WRXQGHUVWDQGWKLVDQGLI,FDQ¶WJHWWKHPWRXQGHUVWDQGLWWKLVZD\WKHQZH¶OO JREDFNDQGWU\LWWKLVZD\DQGWKHQ,¶OO¿QGVRPHRWKHUZD\$QGLI,FDQ¶W H[SODLQLWWKHQZH¶OOJHWVRPHRQHHOVHWRH[SODLQLW $Q H[SHFWDWLRQ RI WKHVH WHDFKHUV LV WKDW VXFK RXWFRPHV PD\ UHTXLUH VLJQL¿FDQW hard work and time but that overall such effort is worthwhile because people can 199
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change for the better. Referring to teachers who expect little of their students one SDUWLFLSDQW VDLG ³7HDFKHUV ODEHO NLGV µKH¶V GXPE¶ µKH¶OO QHYHU JHW LW¶ µKH¶V DQ LGLRW¶ µGRQ¶W ZDVWH \RXU WLPH¶ , WKLQN P\ WUDLQLQJ WDXJKW PH WKDW WKDW ZDVQ¶W ULJKW´)RUWKHVHFDULQJWHDFKHUVµZKR¶LVWKHEHQH¿FLDU\RIWLPHDQGFDUHLVQRW the important issue because all people are important whether it be a colleague or a student, whether within the school grounds or out of it, whether under their direct GXW\RIFDUHRUQRW HYHU\RQHPDWWHUV &DULQJ WHDFKHUV DOVR KHOG ¿YH PLQGVHWV WKDW ZHUH GLUHFWO\ UHODWHG WR WHDFKLQJ 7DEOHOLVWVWKHVH¿YHPLQGVHWVDQGJLYHVDEULHIGHVFULSWLRQRIHDFK 7DEOH7HDFKHUPLQGVHWVRIFDULQJWHDFKHUV Teacher mindset
Description
Make a difference
A teacher should make some sort of positive difference to the lives of his/her students.
Work with the whole student
The whole student is important – a teacher should relate to the emotional and educational aspects of each student.
Have boundaries
A teacher should maintain professional boundaries with students whilst maintaining approachability.
Enjoy teaching and like kids
A teacher should like kids and enjoy teaching as it makes it easier to care for them.
Be concerned for both content delivery and student well-being but student well-being is more important
A teacher should be concerned for the educational and emotional needs of students but if emotional needs are hindering learning then deal with these as a priority.
7KHFDULQJWHDFKHUPLQGVHWVDSSHDUHGWREHTXLWHVWURQJO\OLQNHGWRWKHWHDFKHUV¶ LGHQWLW\DVDWHDFKHU,QIDFWWKHWHDFKHUVEHOLHYHGWKDWWREHSDUWRIWKHWHDFKLQJ SURIHVVLRQ\RXVKRXOGKROGWRVXFKEHOLHIV7KHPLQGVHWRIµPDNLQJDGLIIHUHQFH¶ ZDV WKH PRVW IUHTXHQWO\ HPHUJLQJ PLQGVHW ZKHQ WHDFKHUV VSRNH RI H[DPSOHV RI WKHLU FDUH DQG LW DSSHDUHG WR EH ¿UPO\ OLQNHG WR WKH UHDVRQV ZK\ WKHVH WHDFKHUV FKRVHWHDFKLQJDVDFDUHHU7KLVLVLOOXVWUDWHGLQWKHIROORZLQJFRPPHQW ,WKLQN,EHFDPHDWHDFKHULQWKHHQGEHFDXVH,WKRXJKW,KDGVRPHWKLQJWR RIIHUWKHPDQG«,WKRXJKWWKDW,FRXOGFKDQJHSDUWRIWKHLUOLIHDQG,VHH, KRSHWKDWLQP\WHDFKLQJWKDW,PDNHWKHPEHWWHUSHRSOHZLWKZKDW,WHDFK ZLWKKRZ,WHDFKDQG,WKLQNWKDW¶VZK\,FDUH Another example of this may be found in comments that several of the teachers UDLVHGZLWKUHJDUGWRµHQMR\WHDFKLQJDQGOLNHNLGV¶2QHWHDFKHUQRWHG 200
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,I\RXDUHVRPHRQHZKRMXVWVHHVLWDVDMREWKDW\RXGRIURPQLQHWLOOWKUHH then you are not going to show or demonstrate as much care as someone else ZKRWDNHVLWDVDYRFDWLRQDVVXFK VRPHWKLQJWKDWWKH\GREHFDXVHWKH\UHDOO\ love it and enjoy it, with all its good and bad things. ,W ZRXOG DSSHDU WKDW WKH EHOLHIV WKDW FDULQJ WHDFKHUV KROG JXLGH WKHP LQ WKHLU practice and becomes a key motivation in their choice to care for students. Sources of Development The interviews also provided an opportunity to discover more about the GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH WHDFKHUV¶ SHUVRQDO FDSDFLW\ WR FDUH 7HDFKHUV ZHUH DVNHG WR talk about their personal experiences of growing up, learning to be a teacher, and WKHLQÀXHQFHVWKH\EHOLHYHGKDGKHOSHGWKHPGHYHORSLQWRFDULQJSHRSOH7HDFKHUV responded by describing the effect upon them of parents, and their own school and university teachers. 6L[RIWKHWHQWHDFKHUVPHQWLRQHGWKHUROHRISDUHQWVZKRQRWRQO\WDXJKWFDUH through their actions but also instructed them to care for others and to put others ¿UVW$VRQHWHDFKHUVDLG ,WKLQNP\GDGZDVYHU\PXFKP\PRGHO+HZDVVRPHRQHZKRDOZD\VKDG WLPHDQGFRQVLGHUDWLRQIRURWKHUSHRSOH,WKLQNWKDWSUREDEO\ZDVRQHDUHD, JRWLWIURP,WKLQNWKDWWKHZD\0XPDQG'DGEURXJKWXVXSZDVYHU\PXFK the way that you looked after others and considered others. Other teachers spoke about the example given them by their own teachers at school. This was especially true of two of the caring teachers who felt that their own parents were not good role models for them. One of these two teachers said WKDWWKHWHDFKHUVVKHKDGDWVFKRROZHUHYLWDOLQKHUGHFLVLRQWREHFRPHDWHDFKHU ,WKLQNSDUWRILWZDVWKDW,KDGWHDFKHUVZKRFDUHGDORW«OLNHWKHGLIIHUHQFH WKDWWKH\PDGHIRUPHDQGWKH\HQGHGXSDIIHFWLQJZKDW,FKRVHIRUDFDUHHU VR,VXSSRVH,DPUHDOO\DZDUHRIWKHGLIIHUHQFHWKDWDWHDFKHUFDQPDNHWR VRPHRQH¶VOLIH Five of the ten caring teachers mentioned that university staff modelled care in word DQG GHHG ,Q LQVWDQFHV SURYLGHG E\ WZR RI WKH FDULQJ WHDFKHUV GLI¿FXOW SHUVRQDO circumstances made continuing their teaching education course an overwhelming prospect. The support given by lecturers made it possible to continue with studies thus modelling how to act as a teacher. Furthermore, some university teachers discouraged their students from labelling school children and encouraged them to SXWLQHIIRUWEHFDXVHLWZRXOGµSD\RII¶LQWKHORQJUXQ These experiences and role models played an important part in developing the FDULQJWHDFKHUV¶PLQGVHWVDQGFDSDFLW\WRFDUH7KH\UHÀHFWYLFDULRXVOHDUQLQJDQG 201
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H[SHULHQFH DQ LPSRUWDQW DVSHFW RI WHDFKHU HI¿FDF\ ZKLFK LV JURXQGHG LQ VRFLDO cognitive theory (Bandura, 1994)), demonstrating how these factors are vital to the motivation to care for students. ',6&866,21
7KHUHVXOWVVXJJHVWWKDWVRPHSHUVRQDOIDFWRUVLQÀXHQFHWKHPRWLYDWLRQRIWHDFKHUV WRFDUHIRUWKHLUVWXGHQWVZKLOHRWKHUVGRQRW:KHQWKH6&7,VFRUHVZHUHt-tested with gender it became clear that males were less oriented to content than females DWDVLJQL¿FDQFHOHYHORIp ,IWKHDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQRULHQWDWLRQVLQ6SLHU¶V (1974) work could be aligned with the educational and personal dimensions of care, the results here concerning the difference between males and females in educational orientation may contribute further to the gender debate surrounding care. There has been a suggestion by some researchers that women may be more XQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGQXUWXULQJ±PRUHQDWXUDOO\FDULQJ %XOORXJK 1RGGLQJV ±ZKLFKPD\VXSSRUWWKH¿QGLQJVIURPWKLVUHVHDUFK6XFK¿QGLQJVKRZHYer, are not consistent with the work of Barber (2002) who claims that male teachers DUHMXVWDVOLNHO\DVIHPDOHWHDFKHUVWREHDWWDFKHGWRWKHLUVWXGHQWV9RJW DOVR DVVHUWV WKDW WKHUH GLG QRW DSSHDU WR EH VLJQL¿FDQW GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ PDOHV and females with regard to ways in which they demonstrated care. While the role RIJHQGHUZLWKUHJDUGWRVWXGHQWDQGFRQWHQWRULHQWDWLRQVDSSHDUVWREHTXLWHFOHDU in this research, its transferability to the educational and personal care dimensions PD\ QRW EH FRQFOXVLYH 7KH SHUVRQDO IDFWRUV WKDW GR QRW DSSHDU WR LQÀXHQFH WKH caring teacher are years of teaching experience and subjects taught suggesting that the motivation to care for students is a result of factors more deep-seated than, for example, whether you are a beginning teacher or a teacher of History. Teacher beliefs about students and the teaching role are vitally important factors in the extent to which a teacher demonstrates care. The ten mindsets that emerged IURPWKHLQWHUYLHZGDWDFRQ¿UPHGWKHZD\VLQZKLFKWKHFDULQJWHDFKHUVYLHZHG students and the teaching role. This has a direct impact on the way that the teachers worked with their students. There is some alignment between the mindsets deterPLQHG LQ WKLV VHFRQGDU\ WHDFKHU VWXG\ DQG WKH WDFLW EHOLHIV RI 1LDV¶ ZRUN ZLWKSULPDU\WHDFKHUV6XFKDJUHHPHQWFRQ¿UPVWKDWEHOLHIVDUHYHU\LPSRUWDQWWRD WHDFKHU¶VDSSURDFKLQWKHFODVVURRPQRPDWWHUWKHDJHRIWKHVWXGHQWV7KLVQRWLRQ LVVXSSRUWHGE\$JQH¶V FODLPWKDWXQGHUVWDQGLQJZKDWDWHDFKHUEHOLHYHVLV WKHNH\WRWKHFODVVURRPDQGE\'D\ ZKRDVVHUWVWKDW³PRUDOSXUSRVHVDUH DWWKHKHDUWRIHYHU\WHDFKHU¶VZRUN7KH\XQGHUSLQWKHLUVHQVHRIFRPPLWPHQWWR their pupils which includes but goes beyond the instrumental policy agendas of governments” (p. 24). 8QGHUSLQQLQJWKHPLQGVHWVDSSHDUVWREHDVSLULWRIRSWLPLVP DKRSHWKDWVLWXDtions will improve if help and assistance is given. Mayeroff (1971) draws attention WRKRSHZKHQKHVWDWHV ³WKHUHLVKRSHWKDWWKHRWKHUZLOOJURZWKURXJKP\FDULQJ´ S 7HDFKHUVQHHGWRKDYHKRSHLQWKHLUHIIRUWVRUWKH\VLPSO\ZRQ¶WWU\7KH\ 202
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need to believe that through their care, change will result and that the changes will be better than whatever was before. This possibility for change is a fundamental belief of caring teachers and this is what motivates their inner response and their outward actions. 6RXUFHV RI GHYHORSPHQW VXFK DV SDUHQWV WHDFKHUV DQG XQLYHUVLW\ OHFWXUHUV GR seem to play a role in shaping the motivations and mindsets of caring teachers. 0RGHOVRIFDULQJPHQWRUVKDYHLQÀXHQFHGWKHFDULQJWHDFKHU¶VGHFLVLRQWREHDFDULQJSHUVRQDQGWHDFKHU7KLVLVDVLJQL¿FDQWIDFWRUHPHUJLQJIURPWKHGDWD WHDFKers, and those who train teachers, can have an impact on the way that teachers behave towards their students. However, it is important to note that those people who have acted as mentors to teachers should also be sure to not only demonstrate FDUHEXWWDONDERXWWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIFDUHDVDUHODWLRQDOWRRO$VLPLODU¿QGLQJZDV UHYHDOHGLQWKHVWXG\FRQGXFWHGE\*ROGVWHLQDQG)UHHGPDQ ZKRIRXQGWKDW pre-service teachers needed both the dialogue about using caring practices with students and the role modeling of caring teachers in the tertiary context. The results of this study have revealed that caring teachers are not caring because of the subjects they teach or their years of teaching experience. Caring teachers are not caring simply because they are female although that may be helpful. Caring teachers are caring educationally and personally to students because they believe that the role of a teacher implies such behaviour, and because they believe that they can make a positive difference to students even if it takes hard work, commitment and time. These beliefs and mindsets are vital motivators to caring teachers and are developed and shaped by not only the parents of the caring teachers but by the teachers they had at school, and by university lecturers who demonstrated and talked about care. 5()(5(1&(6 $JQH.- &DULQJ 7KHZD\RIWKHPDVWHUWHDFKHU,Q5/LSND 7%ULQWKDXSW (GV 7KH5ROH RI 6HOI LQ7HDFKHU 'HYHORSPHQW SS ± $OEDQ\ 1HZ
203
CHAPTER 14 &KDVNLQ5 5DXQHU' +::LOVRQ±('8&@ *LOOLJDQ& ,QDGLIIHUHQWYRLFH 3V\FKRORJLFDOWKHRU\DQGZRPHQ¶VGHYHORSPHQW&DPEULGKH 0DVVDFKXVHWWV +DUYDUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV *LOOLJDQ& 5HSO\WRFULWLFV,Q0/DUUDEHH (G $Q(WKLFRI&DUH SS± 1HZ
204
:+$73(5621$/)$&7256027,9$7(« 3HUH]6 $QHWKLFRIFDULQJLQWHDFKLQJFXOWXUDOO\GLYHUVHVWXGHQWV(GXFDWLRQ ± 5RJHUV' :HEE- 7KH(WKLFRI&DULQJLQ7HDFKHU(GXFDWLRQ-RXUQDORI7HDFKHU(GXFDWLRQ 42(3), 173–181. 6DQDFRUH- *HQXLQHFDULQJDQGOLWHUDF\OHDUQLQJIRU$IULFDQ$PHULFDQFKLOGUHQ7KH5HDGLQJ Teacher, 57(8), 744–753. 6FKXVVOHU' &ROOLQV$ $QHPSLULFDOH[SORUDWLRQRIWKHZKRZKDWDQGKRZRIVFKRROFDUH Teachers College Record, 108(7), 1460–1495. 6KDFNORFN* 3URIHVVLRQDOLVPDQGLQWHQVL¿FDWLRQLQWHDFKLQJ $FDVHVWXG\RIµFDUH¶LQWHDFKHUV¶ ZRUN$VLD3DFL¿F-RXUQDORI7HDFKHU(GXFDWLRQ ± 6SLHU0 6WXGHQW&RQWHQW7HDFKLQJ,QYHQWRU\ 6&7, ,Q-3¿HIIHU --RQHV (GV 7KH $QQXDO+DQGERRNIRU*URXS)DFLOLWDWRUV/D-ROOD 8QLYHUVLW\$VVRFLDWHV3XEOLVKHUV,QF 6XPVLRQ- &DULQJDQGHPSRZHUPHQW $WHDFKHUHGXFDWRU¶VUHÀHFWLRQRQDQHWKLFDOGLOHPPD Teaching in Higher Education, 5(2), 167–179. Teven, J. (2001). The Relationship among Teacher Characteristics and Perceived Caring. Communication Education, 50(2), 159–169. 7HYHQ- +DQVRQ7/ 7KHLPSDFWRIWHDFKHULPPHGLFDF\DQGSHUFHLYHGFDULQJRQWHDFKHU FRPSHWHQFHDQGWUXVWZRUWKLQHVV&RPPXQLFDWLRQ4XDUWHUO\ ± Thayer-Bacon, B. (1997). The nurturing of a relational epistemology. Educational Theory, 47(2), 239– 260. 7URQWR- %H\RQGJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHWRDWKHRU\RIFDUH6LJQV -RXUQDORI:RPHQDQG&XOWXUH DQG6RFLHW\ ± 7URQWR- :RPHQDQGFDULQJ :KDWFDQIHPLQLVWVOHDUQDERXWPRUDOLW\IURPFDULQJ",Q03HDUVDOO (G :RPHQDQG9DOXHV SS ± %HOPRQW&DOLIRUQLD :DGVZRUWK3XEOLVKLQJ&RPSDQ\ 9RJW) $&DULQJ7HDFKHU H[SORUDWLRQVLQWRSULPDU\VFKRROWHDFKHUV¶SURIHVVLRQDOLGHQWLW\DQG HWKLFRIFDUH*HQGHUDQG(GXFDWLRQ ± :HLQVWHLQ & ³, :DQW WR EH 1LFH %XW , +DYH WR EH 0HDQ´ ([SORULQJ 3URVSHFWLYH 7HDFKHUV¶ &RQFHSWLRQVRI&DULQJDQG2UGHU7HDFKLQJ 7HDFKHU(GXFDWLRQ ± :HQW]HO.5 6WXGHQWPRWLYDWLRQLQPLGGOHVFKRRO 7KHUROHRISHUFHLYHGSHGDJRJLFDOFDULQJ Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 411–419. White, B. (2003). Caring and the teaching of English. Research in the Teaching of English, 37(3), 295– 328.
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CHAPTER 15
THE EFFECT OF TEACHERS’ PERSONAL BELIEFS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ON QUALITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING Lefkios Neophytoui, Mary Koutselini and Leonidas Kyriakides
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&RQWHPSRUDU\ UHVHDUFK LQ WKH ¿HOG RI WHDFKHU HIIHFWLYHQHVV KDV EHHQ GHYHORSHG LQ WKH IUDPHZRUNV RI WZR GLVWLQFW PRGHOV WKH SURFHVVSURGXFW´ PRGHO DQG WKH ³WHDFKHU NQRZOHGJH DQG EHOLHIV´ PRGHO &DPSEHOO HW DO 7KH PDLQ assumption underlying the process–product model is that effective teaching EHKDYLRXUFDQEHDFFXUDWHO\GHVFULEHGDQGSUHVFULEHG&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHVHPRGHOV focus on observable and measurable aspects of teacher-student interactions such DVWKHSDFLQJRILQVWUXFWLRQTXDQWLW\RIWHDFKHUVWXGHQWLQWHUDFWLRQVWLPHRQWDVN HWF HJ%RULFK %URSK\ *RRG %URZQ 6DNV 'R\OH Teacher knowledge and beliefs models on the other hand, are concerned with the subjective nature of teaching. Their focal point is what teachers feel and believe in terms of their practice. The emphasis lies on the process of understanding how WHDFKHUV¶OLIHVWRULHVVKDSHWKHLULQVWUXFWLRQDOSUR¿OHKRZHI¿FLHQWDQGFDSDEOHWKH\ consider themselves to be in terms of pedagogical skills and content knowledge, what do they believe about effective teaching and how they feel about students HJ %\UQH )HQQHPD /RHI)UDQNH 0XLMV 5H\QROGV 6XWWRQ :KHDWO\ Each model has had its share in the development of educational policy (Brown HWDO &DPSEHOOHWDO 6FKHHUHQV 7KHSURFHVVSURGXFWPRGHOV KDYHEHHQXVHIXOLQWHUPVRIGHYHORSLQJWHDFKLQJZKLOHEHOLHIV¶PRGHOVHQKDQFHG the understanding of teachers and their practice. From this perspective each model FRXOG EH FRQVLGHUHG DV FRPSOHPHQWDU\ WR WKH RWKHU 6XUSULVLQJO\ DFDGHPLF GLVcourse has been consumed in an ongoing debate focusing on segregation rather WKDQ V\QWKHVL]LQJ 6FKRODUV DOLJQHG ZLWK WKH SURFHVVSURGXFW PRGHO TXHVWLRQ WKH methods and consistency of the beliefs approach and doubt its ability to provide coherent conclusions that can be used to improve teaching (Pajares, 1992). On the other hand, the process-product model has been criticized in terms of its regulatory approach and by the fact that such approaches have often been aligned with conservative educational policies and have been used as the vehicle of transforming WHDFKHUVLQWRREMHFWV 6OHH :HLQHU :HLQHU A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 207–224. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 15
The academic jury is still trying to decide which approach is best. Despite the XVHIXOQHVVRIVFLHQWL¿FGHEDWHVLQWKHHYROXWLRQRINQRZOHGJHDULJRURXVSROHPLcal approach may be disorienting scholars from what might be the most important WKLQJ LQ HGXFDWLRQ WKH DGYDQFHPHQW RI OHDUQLQJ %RWK PRGHOV FDQ FRQWULEXWH WR IXO¿OWKLVJRDO8QGHUVWDQGLQJWHDFKHUVDQGWKHLUSUDFWLFHLVDSUHUHTXLVLWHIRUWKH development of optimum teaching practices. Based on these premises, the aim RIWKLVDUWLFOHLVWRHQKDQFHXQGHUVWDQGLQJLQHIIHFWLYHQHVVDQGTXDOLW\RILQVWUXFtion through establishing common grounds between the two competing models of educational effectiveness. Methods of the process-product model can provide an objective account of effectiveness. These, supplemented by the approaches of the EHOLHIV¶PRGHOFDQKHOSWRIXUWKHULOOXPLQDWHWKHXQGHUO\LQJDQGXQLTXHIDFWRUVWKDW KDYHDQLPSDFWRQWKHTXDOLW\RIWHDFKLQJDQGWHDFKHUV¶HIIHFWLYHQHVV The Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness '0(( .\ULDNLGHV &UHHPHUV LVWKHVWDUWLQJSRLQWLQRXUDWWHPSWWRMRLQWKHWZRFRPSHWing approaches on teacher effectiveness research. The DMEA is the evolution of the Creemers (1994) model, ZKLFK7HGGOLH 5H\QROGV GHVFULEHDVRQHRI WKHPRVWLQÀXHQWLDOWKHRUHWLFDOFRQVWUXFWVLQWKH¿HOG7KHSULPHFRQFHUQZLWKLQWKH DMEE is the generation and testing of theories which can explain the various relaWLRQVKLSVWKDWLQÀXHQFHHIIHFWLYHLQVWUXFWLRQ7KXVWKH'0((FDQEHFRQVLGHUHGDV a process-product model. However, the DMEE goes beyond the establishment of statistical relationships between variables, providing a way out of the a-theoretical dead-end, a condition that has often been indicated as a major shortage of existing studies in the area of Educational Effectiveness (Creemers, 2002). Effectiveness in the DMEE is approached by examining both the effect that the teacher has on LPSURYLQJVWXGHQWSHUIRUPDQFHDORQJZLWKWKHTXDOLW\RIKLVKHULQVWUXFWLRQ Many studies used multiple methodologies to examine the main assumptions RI WKH '0(( 'H -RQJ :HVWHUKRI .UXLWHU .\ULDNLGHV &DPSEHOO *DJDWVLV .\ULDNLGHV .\ULDNLGHV 7VDQJDULGRX DQGSURYLGHG HPSLULFDOVXSSRUWWRWKHPDLQDVVXPSWLRQVRIWKHPRGHO+RZHYHUDFRPPRQ¿QGLQJLQWKHVHVWXGLHVLVWKDWPRUHWKDQRIWKHYDULDQFHUHPDLQHGXQH[SODLQHG This might be attributed to the fact that some further variables might have to be LQFOXGHG LQ WKH '0(( .\ULDNLGHV $WWHPSWLQJ WR ¿QG VRPH RI WKHVH DGditional variables we shift our interest on the teacher. The teacher is probably the most important factor for success or failure in every educational endeavour. As *RRGVRQ S± QRWHV ³7HDFKHUV DUH QRW RQO\ IRUPDO UROH LQFXPEHQWV WKH\ DUH DFWLYH DJHQWV PDNLQJ WKHLU RZQ VWRU\´ DQG LV ¿QDOO\ WKH WHDFKHUV VWRU\ WKDWUHDFKHVDQGLQÀXHQFHVFRJQLWLYHHPRWLRQDODQGVRFLDOGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHVWXGHQWV &RQVHTXHQWO\ ZH DGRSW D EURDGHU SHUVSHFWLYH WKDW H[FHHGV WKH FODVVURRP OHYHO LQWKHSURFHVVRIDFKLHYLQJRSWLPDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHWHDFKHUV¶EHKDYLRXU LQWKHFODVVURRPZHQHHGWRH[DPLQHDGGLWLRQDOIDFWRUVUHODWHGWRWHDFKHUV¶SUDFWLFH 7KHUHIRUH ZH H[DPLQH WKH UROH WKDW WHDFKHUV¶ HPRWLRQV DQG EHOLHIV KDYH RQ effectiveness. 7KHWHDFKHULVQHLWKHUD¿QHWXQHGLQVWUXPHQWQRUDZHOORLOHGPDFKLQH2XUDSproach is focused on the teacher as a person whose knowledge, experiences, beliefs DQGHPRWLRQVDUHWKHWKLQJVWKDW¿QDOO\GHWHUPLQHWKHTXDOLW\RIKLVKHUSUDFWLFH 208
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Emotions, as Hargreaves (1998) comments, are at the heart of teaching. They comSULVH LWV PRVW G\QDPLF TXDOLWLHV *RRG WHDFKHUV DUH HPRWLRQDO SDVVLRQDWH EHLQJV ZKRFRQQHFWZLWKWKHLUVWXGHQWVDQG¿OOWKHLUZRUNDQGWKHLUFODVVHVZLWKSOHDVXUH creativity, challenge and joy. What teachers believe and feel determines their efIHFWLYHQHVV7KHUHIRUHJRRGWHDFKLQJLVQRWMXVWDPDWWHURINQRZLQJRQH¶VVXEMHFW EHLQJHI¿FLHQWKDYLQJWKHFRUUHFWFRPSHWHQFHVRUOHDUQLQJDOOWKHULJKWWHFKQLTXHV 7HDFKHUV¶ HPRWLRQV DUH DQ LPSRUWDQW FRPSRQHQW RI WKHLU EHOLHIV DERXW WHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ%HOLHIVSULPDULO\UHÀHFWDQHPRWLRQDOZD\RIWHDFKHUVWKLQNLQJ and reacting in terms of effective teaching. (Entwistle et al., 2000). Teachers in WKHLUWHVWLPRQLHVRIWHQHTXDOL]HJRRGDQGHIIHFWLYHWHDFKLQJZLWKFHUWDLQHPRWLRQDO VNLOOVDQGTXDOLWLHVVXFKDVSDWLHQFHFDULQJFRPSDVVLRQIULHQGOLQHVVZDUPWKDQG FRQFHUQ :LOVRQDQG&DPHURQ 6WXGHQWFHQWUHHOHPHQWVVXFKDVFODVVURRP FOLPDWHDQGSRVLWLYHVWXGHQWWHDFKHULQWHUDFWLRQDUHSODFHGDWWKHFHQWUHRIWHDFKHUV¶ FRQVWUXFWLRQVRIHIIHFWLYHWHDFKLQJ,WLVWKHUHIRUHHYLGHQWWKDWIHHOLQJH[SUHVVLQJ and regulating emotions is a key component of teachers beliefs and a major determinant in the way teachers teach. (PRWLRQVDQGUDWLRQDOLW\DUHLQWHUZRYHQLQWKHIRUPDWLRQRIWKHWHDFKHUV¶SHUsonal beliefs and theories. Beliefs and theories are deeply rooted conceptual maps, consisting of arrays of concepts that have been proved to hold true through several tests. The endurance of beliefs in these trials produces an emotional wrapper, which holds all the constituting concepts together. The emotional wrapper makes beliefs HYHQ PRUH HQGXUDEOH WR FKDQJH ,Q RUGHU IRU EHOLHI FKDQJH WR RFFXU RQH VKRXOG DGGUHVVWKRVHFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHEHOLHIVV\VWHPWKDWDUHDFFHVVLEOHWRUHDVRQ FRQceptions. Conceptions are consciously constructed whereas beliefs are emotionally FKDUJHG (QWZLVWOH HW DO .RXWVHOLQL 7KHUHIRUH DGGUHVVLQJ FRQFHStions is probably the only way to bypass the resistance placed by the emotional charging of beliefs. 7KHSURFHVVRIEHOLHIFKDQJHLVPHGLDWHGE\DUDWLRQDOLQWHQWLRQDOHIIRUW,WLV an effort to bypass the emotional barrier, or better, to manage it effectively in order WRDOLJQLWZLWKUDWLRQDOLW\DQGIRVWHUFKDQJH,QWKLVGLUHFWLRQWKHHSLVWHPRORJLFDO FRQVWUXFWRI(PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH (, SURYHVWREHYHU\KHOSIXOVLQFHLWLVEDVHG on the assumption that emotions can be recognised, controlled and regulated in orGHUWRDFKLHYHYDULRXVJRDOV(,LVWKHVHWRIDELOLWLHVWKDWDFFRXQWIRUKRZSHRSOH¶V emotional reports vary in their accuracy and explain how more accurate underVWDQGLQJRIHPRWLRQVOHDGVWREHWWHUSUREOHPVROYLQJLQDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VHPRWLRQDO OLIH *ROHPDQ 0D\HU6DORYH\ &DUXVRD 7KLVLVZK\ZHFKRRVHHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFHRYHUDJHQHUDOGH¿QLWLRQRIHPRtions. Emotional intelligence may provide evidence of how through intentional action teachers can recognise and regulate their emotions in order to have a better understanding of the concepts and emotions underlying the personal beliefs that deWHUPLQHWKHLUSUDFWLFHDQGLQÀXHQFHWKHTXDOLW\DQGHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKHLUWHDFKLQJ 7KHQRWLRQRITXDOLW\LVRIH[WUHPHVLJQL¿FDQFHLQWKLVHQGHDYRXU'HVSLWHWKHIDFW that numerous studies examined the relation between Educational Effectiveness and (PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH (, QRVWXG\VRIDULQYHVWLJDWHGZKDWLQWHUYHQHVEHWZHHQ WKHVHWZRYDULDEOHV6WXGLHVLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQ(,DQGHIIHFWLYHQHVV 209
CHAPTER 15
HJ(GLVRQ ,RUGDQRJORX 1HZVRPH'D\ &DWDQR 6FKXWWH HWDO 'UHZ 9DQGHU=HHHWDO VHHPWRQHJOHFWTXDOLW\DVWKH LQWHUYHQLQJIDFWRUIRUHIIHFWLYHQHVV6LPLODUO\DOLQHDUUHODWLRQLJQRULQJTXDOLW\RI teaching is underlying research designs that examined effectiveness and beliefs 1HVSRU )HLQPDQ1HPVHU )ORGHQ 5LFKDUGVRQ HW DO 7KH basic assumption in our study is that we cannot fully comprehend effectiveness unOHVVZHH[DPLQHZKDWDWHDFKHUGRHVLQDFODVVURRPLQRUGHUWRLPSURYHVWXGHQWV¶ DSWLWXGH DQG SHUIRUPDQFH7KLV VLJQL¿HV WKH QRWLRQ RIQuality of teaching which refers to the factors which are under the direct control of the teacher and have an LPSDFWRQVWXGHQWV¶SHUIRUPDQFH &DPEHOOHWDO +HQFHWKHVSHFL¿FUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQRIWKHVWXG\LV 7R H[DPLQH LI WKH YDULDEOHV RI (PRWLRQDO ,QWHOOLJHQFH WUDLW RU DELOLW\ DQG 7HDFKHUV¶%HOLHIVKDYHDQHIIHFWRQWKHTXDOLW\DQGHIIHFWLYHQHVVRILQVWUXFWLRQ 0(7+2'2/2*<
Participants Data was collected in Cyprus during April-June 2007. Participants of the study were 82 teachers of the 5th and 6th grade of public elementary schools in Cyprus. Data RQHIIHFWLYHQHVVDQGTXDOLW\RILQVWUXFWLRQGHULYHGIURPWKHGDWDEDQNRIDSUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK FRQGXFWHG E\ .\ULDNLGHV DQG &UHHPHUV &RQVHTXHQWO\ WKH VDPH teachers where approached. Two hundred and eight teachers where approached but only 82 of them agreed to participate. Participants were asked to complete three LQVWUXPHQWV (4,06&(,7DQG7HDFKHUV¶%HOLHIVTXHVWLRQQDLUH Analysis 2XUJRDOLQDQDO\]LQJWKHGDWDZDVWRVHHZKHWKHUWHDFKHUV¶(,DQG7HDFKHUV¶%HOLHIV LQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV KDYHDQHIIHFWRQWKH4XDOLW\DQG(IIHFWLYHQHVVRIWHDFKLQJ (dependent variables). Quality of teaching refers to the factors that according to contemporary educational research are important traits of good practice. Focusing LQWKHFODVVURRPOHYHOTXDOLW\UHIHUVWRWKRVHIDFWRUVZKLFKDUHLQGLUHFWFRQWURO RI WKH WHDFKHU DQG KDYH DQ LPSDFW RQ VWXGHQWV¶ SHUIRUPDQFH 4XDOLW\ LQ WHUPV RI WKH '0(( FRQVLVWV RI HLJKW IDFWRUV ZKLFK GHVFULEH WHDFKHU¶V LQVWUXFWLRQDO UROH RULHQWDWLRQVWUXFWXULQJTXHVWLRQLQJWHDFKLQJPRGHOOLQJDSSOLFDWLRQVPDQDJHPHQW of time, teacher role in making classroom a learning environment, and assessment. (DFKIDFWRUFDQEHPHDVXUHGE\WDNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIIUHTXHQF\ IRFXVVWDJHTXDOLW\DQGGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQii'DWDIRUWKH4XDOLW\RIWHDFKLQJGHULYHG IURP WZR OHYHOV WKH 7HDFKHU OHYHO DQG WKH 6WXGHQW OHYHO 'DWD IRU WKH WHDFKHU level were collected from independent observers conducting multiple classroom REVHUYDWLRQVDQGFRPSOHWLQJORZDQGKLJKLQIHUHQFHTXHVWLRQQDLUHVEDVHGRQWKH '0(('DWDIRUWKHVWXGHQWOHYHOZHUHFROOHFWHGXVLQJVWXGHQWTXHVWLRQQDLUHV,Q 210
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WKHVH TXHVWLRQQDLUHV VWXGHQWV ZHUH DVNHG WR HYDOXDWH WKHLU WHDFKHU EDVHG RQ WKH dimensions and factors of the DMEE. Effectiveness of teaching, is the actual and measurable impact that classrooms factors, such as teaching methods, teacher expectations, classroom organisaWLRQ DQG XVH RI FODVVURRP UHVRXUFHV KDYH RQ VWXGHQWV¶ SHUIRUPDQFH &DPEHOO .\ULDNLGHV0XLMVDQG5RELQVRQ 'DWDDERXW(IIHFWLYHQHVVRIWHDFKLQJZHUH FROOHFWHGWKURXJKVSHFL¿FWHVWVPHDVXULQJWKHWHDFKHUV¶FRQWULEXWLRQLQUDLVLQJVWXdent achievement. Tests (in mathematics) were administered at the beginning and WKHHQGRIWKHVFKRRO\HDU(DFKWHDFKHU¶VHIIHFWLYHQHVVZDVUHSUHVHQWHGE\DVLQJOH QXPEHUZKLFKUHÀHFWVWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQVWXGHQWDFKLHYHPHQWEHWZHHQWKHWZRWHVWV $QDO\VLVRIWKH.\ULDNLGHVDQG&UHHPHUV GDWDDOORZHGIRUDSDUVLPRQLRXV indicator for each one of these variables. Thus, two numerical values were used for HYHU\ WHDFKHU RQH UHÀHFWLQJ KLVKHU RYHUDOO HIIHFWLYHQHVV DQGDQRWKHU WKH RYHUDOO TXDOLW\RIKLVKHULQVWUXFWLRQ 7KH¿UVWLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHZDVWKH(PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH (, RIWKHWHDFKHUV(,UHIHUVWRDELOLWLHVIRULGHQWLI\LQJSURFHVVLQJDQGPDQDJLQJHPRWLRQVLQERWK VHOI DQG RWKHUV HJ *ROHPDQ 0D\HU DQG 6DORYH\ 'XH WR WKH IDFW that supporting scholars have not yet reached to an agreement about a common GH¿QLWLRQDQGPHDVXUHPHQWRIWKHQRWLRQWKHWZRGRPLQDQWPRGHOVRIHPRWLRQDO intelligence were used in the present study. Hence, Emotional intelligence in our VWXG\FRQVLVWVRIWZRGLIIHUHQWYDULDEOHVUHÀHFWLQJWKHWZRVFKRROVRIWKRXJKWDERXW (, EI as mental ability (EIa) 0D\HU DQG 6DORYH\ DQG EI as mixed trait ability (EIm) (Bar-On, 1997). Emotional Intelligence as a mental ability (EIa) can be roughly described by a single overall performance level. At the same time this can be divided into sub areas of Experiential and Strategic (PRWLRQDO ,QWHOOLJHQFH ([SHULHQWLDO (, VFRUH DVVHVVHV D UHVSRQGHQW¶V DELOLW\ WR SHUFHLYH UHVSRQG DQG PDQLSXODWH HPRWLRQDO LQIRUPDWLRQ ZLWKRXW QHFHVVDULO\ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LW 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG 6WUDWHJLF (, assesses the ability to understand and manage emotions without necessarily perceiving feelings well or fully experiencing them. These two areas are divided into IRXU EUDQFKHV Emotional Perception and Expression, Emotional Facilitation of Thought, Emotional Understanding, Emotional Management. The former two are FRQQHFWHG ZLWK ([SHULHQWLDO (, ZKLOH WKH ODWWHU WZR WR WKH 6WUDWHJLF (, 6DORYH\ 0D\HU &DUXVRF ,QRXUVWXG\(PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH as a mental ability (EIa) was assessed using the Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test±9HUVLRQ 06&(,79 06&(,7 LV DQ DELOLW\EDVHG VFDOH SURYLGLQJ D VLQJOH RYHUDOO SHUIRUPDQFH VFRUH DORQJZLWKVFRUHVUHÀHFWLQJWKHWZRVXEDUHDVDQGWKHIRXUEUDQFKHVRIWKHPRGHO $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH LQVWUXPHQW¶V WHFKQLFDO PDQXDO WKH 06&(,7 KDV D IXOOVFDOH reliability of .91, with area reliabilities of .90 (experiential) and .80 (strategic) 0D\HU6DORYH\ &DUXVRF 7KH*UHHNYHUVLRQRIWKHLQVWUXPHQWZDVXVHG in the present study and was administered to 300 individuals. The examination of &URQEDFK¶VDOSKDLQGH[UHYHDOHGWKDWUHOLDELOLW\ZDVYHU\JRRGFRQFHUQLQJWKHWRWDO VFDOHRIWKHLQVWUXPHQW DQGH[FHOOHQWFRQFHUQLQJWKHVFDOHRI([SHULHQWLDO(, 5HOLDELOLW\ZDVDOVRVXI¿FLHQWIRUPRVWRIWKHFRPSRVLWH EUDQFK VFDOHVRI 211
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the instrument (Emotional Perception and Expression (0.87), Emotional Facilitation of Thought (0.59), Emotional Management (0.59)). However, the reliability for the VFDOHRIWKH6WUDWHJLF(,VFDOHZDVTXLWHORZ (YHQORZHUZDVWKHUHOLDELOLW\ RIWKHVFDOHRI(PRWLRQDO8QGHUVWDQGLQJ 7KH VHFRQG YDULDEOH UHÀHFWLQJ (PRWLRQDO LQWHOOLJHQFH LQ RXU VWXG\ was EI as mixed trait ability (EIm). This variable UHIHUVWRWKH%DU2Q¶VPRGHORI³(PRWLRQDO 6RFLDO,QWHOOLJHQFH´$FFRUGLQJWR%DU2Q (,LVDFURVVVHFWLRQRILQWHUUHlated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand others and relate with WKHPDQGFRSHZLWKGDLO\GHPDQGV(PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFHDFFRUGLQJWRWKH%DU 2QVPRGHOLVDFFHVVHGXVLQJWKH%DU2Q¶V (PRWLRQDO4XRWLHQW,QYHQWRU\ (4L 7KH (4L LV D VHOIUHSRUW PHDVXUH RI HPRWLRQDOO\ DQG VRFLDOO\ LQWHOOLJHQW EHKDYLRXU ,W FRQWDLQV LWHPV LQ WKH IRUP RI VKRUW VHQWHQFHV DQG HPSOR\V D SRLQWUHVSRQVHVFDOHZLWKDWH[WXDOUHVSRQVHIRUPDWUDQJLQJIURP³YHU\VHOGRP RUQRWWUXHRIPH´ WR³YHU\RIWHQWUXHRIPHRUWUXHRIPH´ 7KHLQGLYLGXDO¶V UHVSRQVHV UHQGHU D WRWDO (4 VFRUH DQG VHSDUDWH VFRUHV RQ ¿YH FRPSRVLWH VFDOHV ,QWUDSHUVRQDO,QWHUSHUVRQDO$GDSWDELOLW\6WUHVV0DQDJHPHQWDQG*HQHUDO0RRG ,QWKLVVWXG\ZHXVHGWKH*UHHN9HUVLRQRI(4LDQGWHVWHGLWV¶UHOLDELOLW\E\H[DPLQLQJWKH&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDLQGH[LQDVDPSOHRISDUWLFLSDQWV5HOLDELOLW\ZDV IRXQGWREHYHU\KLJKFRQFHUQLQJWKHWRWDO(4LVFDOH DQGYHU\JRRGLQDOO WKH RWKHU FRPSRVLWH VFDOHV RI WKH LQVWUXPHQW ,QWUDSHUVRQDO ,QWHUSHUVRQDO $GDSWDELOLW\ 6WUHVV0DQDJHPHQW *HQHUDO0RRG 7KH WKLUG LQGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH RI WKLV VWXG\ ZDV 7HDFKHUV¶ 3HUVRQDO %HOLHIV which refers to the tacit and often unconsciously held assumptions and attitudes DERXWVWXGHQWVFODVVURRPVDQGWKHDFDGHPLFPDWHULDOWREHWDXJKW .DJDQ 'DWD IRU7HDFKHUV¶ %HOLHIV¶ ZHUH FROOHFWHG ZLWK D VFDOHG TXHVWLRQQDLUH FRQVLVWLQJ RIVWDWHPHQWVGHULYHGIURPDOLWHUDWXUHUHYLHZRQWKHWRSLF7KHTXHVWLRQQDLUH FRQVLVWHGRIWZRSDUWV,QWKH¿UVWSDUWRIWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHDQDUUD\RILWHPVH[amined general aspects of beliefs such as attitudes about contemporary pedagogiFDODSSURDFKHVPLVFRQFHSWLRQVDERXWJRRGWHDFKLQJDQGWHDFKHUV¶VRFLDOUROH7KH VHFRQG SDUW RI WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUH IRFXVHG RQ LWHPV GHDOLQJ ZLWK WHDFKHU¶V EHOLHIV DERXWWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIVSHFL¿FWHDFKLQJWDVNV7KXVZKLOHWKH¿UVWSDUWUHIHUUHG to beliefs and assumptions in general, the second part was focused on beliefs about VSHFL¿FWDVNVWKDWWHDFKHUVXQGHUWDNHLQWKHLUGDLO\URXWLQHVXFKDVWHDFKLQJDVVHVVing, communicating with parents, collaborating with colleagues and carrying out administrative duties. ,WHPVIURPHDFKSDUWZHUHIDFWRUDQDO\]HGLQRUGHUWRUHDFKWRSDUVLPRQLRXVDQG LQWHUSUHWDEOH IDFWRUV IRU IXUWKHU DQDO\VLV 6HYHUDO IDFWRU VROXWLRQV ZHUH H[DPLQHG and problematic items were eliminated on the basis of statistical criteria (factor loading > .40, loadings to more than one factor with second factor loading >0.3 and GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH WZR IDFWRUV ORDGLQJ ! &URQEDFKV¶ DOSKD DQG 3HDUVRQ Correlation >0.3). Afterwards items were entered or removed in order to obtain the PRVWLQWHUSUHWDEOHVROXWLRQ'HVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWERWKSDUWVRIWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHUHsulted into interpretable factor solutions, only factors from the second part were reWDLQHGLQWRRXU¿QDOPRGHOVLQFHPXOWLOHYHODQDO\VLVLQGLFDWHGQRHIIHFWRQTXDOLW\ 212
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DQGHIIHFWLYHQHVVIURPWKHIDFWRUVRIWKH¿UVWSDUWRIWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHiii. The factor structure that resulted from the factor analysis is presented in table A3 (appendix). 7KXVFRQFHUQLQJWKHVHFRQGSDUWRIWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHYDULPD[RUWKRJRQDOURWDWLRQ SURGXFHGIRXUIDFWRUVUHVSRQVLEOHRIWKHYDULDQFH&URQEDFKV¶DOSKDIRUHDFK IDFWRUVFDOHZDVțĮȚUHVSHFWLYHO\7KH¿UVWIDFWRUQDPHGDV Immediate Teaching DutiesH[SODLQHGRIWKHYDULDQFHZKLOHWKHVHFRQGIDFWRU Non-teaching duties, was UHVSRQVLEOHIRURIWKHYDULDQFH7KHWKLUGIDFWRU was named as Student Assessment DutiesDQGH[SODLQHGDQGWKHIRUWKIDFWRU Duties of Communication and Collaboration, H[SODLQHGRIWKHYDULDQFH 0XOWLOHYHO DQDO\VLV ZDV QRW RQO\ SHUIRUPHG DERXW WKH %HOLHIV¶ 4XHVWLRQQDLUH $OOWKHIDFWRUVWKDWHPHUJHGIURPDOOWKHLQVWUXPHQWV %HOLHIV4XHVWLRQQDLUH(4L DQG 06&(,7 ZHUH HQWHUHG LQWR D ¿QDO PRGHO WR WHVW WKH UHODWLRQVKLS DPRQJ WKH YDULDEOHVRIRXUVWXG\)LQDODQDO\VLVZDVH[HFXWHGXVLQJWKH0/:LQ 5DVEDVKHW al., 2002) multilevel analysis software. Diagram 1 presents the effect that our indeSHQGHQWYDULDEOHVKDYHRQ4XDOLW\DQG(IIHFWLYHQHVVRI7HDFKLQJ $FFRUGLQJWR'LDJUDPRQO\IDFWRUVDSSHDUWRKDYHVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWHIIHFWRQ4XDOLW\RI7HDFKLQJ7ZRRIWKHVHIDFWRUVGHULYHGIURP(4L $GDSWDELOLW\ DQG*HQHUDO0RRG DQGWZRIURPWKH4XHVWLRQQDLUHRQ7HDFKHUV¶%HOLHIV 'LUHFW 7HDFKLQJ 'XWLHV 6WXGHQW$VVHVVPHQW 1RQH RI WKH 06&(,7 IDFWRUV DSSHDUHG WRKDYHDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWLPSDFWRQ4XDOLW\DQG(IIHFWLYHQHVVRI7HDFKLQJ $GDSWDELOLW\KDVWKHVWURQJHUHIIHFWRQ4XDOLW\ KHQFHH[SODLQLQJRILWV YDULDQFH *HQHUDO 0RRG DOVR DSSHDUHG WR KDYH D VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQL¿FDQW HIIHFW RQ 4XDOLW\ ZKLFK LV KRZHYHU YHU\ ORZ LQ FRPSDULVRQ ZLWK$GDSWDELOLW\ 2EVHUYLQJWKHIDFWRUVWKDWHPHUJHGIRUWKH%HOLHIV¶4XHVWLRQQDLUH 'LUHFW7HDFKLQJ 'XWLHV 6WXGHQW$VVHVVPHQW ZHFDQVHHWKDWHDFKRQHRIWKHPLVUHVSRQVLEOHIRU RIWKHYDULDQFHLQ4XDOLW\RI7HDFKLQJ)LQDOO\ZHFDQREVHUYHWKDWQRQHRIWKH factors has a direct effect on Effectiveness. However we may see indirect effects, PHGLDWHGE\4XDOLW\
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'LDJUDP 7KH¿QDOPRGHO2EVHUYHGFRUUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQ(PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH 7UDLW and Ability), Teachers Personal Beliefs and Theories and their effect on Quality and Effectiveness of Instruction at the Student and Teacher Level.
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7KHDLPRIWKLVVWXG\ZDVWRH[DPLQHLIWKHYDULDEOHVRI(PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH WUDLW RUDELOLW\ DQG7HDFKHUV¶%HOLHIVKDYHDQHIIHFWRQWKH4XDOLW\DQG(IIHFWLYHQHVVRI instruction. :HEHJLQE\GLVFXVVLQJWKHHIIHFWWKDWWHDFKHUV¶EHOLHIVKDYHRQWHDFKLQJ2XU UHVXOWVEURXJKWWRVXUIDFHVSHFL¿FQHVWHGSUHVXPSWLRQVWKDWWHDFKHUVVKDUH7KHVH SUHVXPSWLRQVZHUHWKHUHVXOWRIWKHIDFWRUDQDO\VLVRIWKH¿UVWSDUWRIWKH%HOLHIV¶ TXHVWLRQQDLUH DQG KDG WR GR ZLWK EHOLHIV DQG DWWLWXGHV DERXW FRQWHPSRUDU\ SHGDJRJLFDODSSURDFKHVPLVFRQFHSWLRQVDERXWJRRGWHDFKLQJWHDFKHUV¶VRFLDOUROHDQG teacher centred instruction. The existence of presumptions, according to Boulgaris (2003) may hinder any attempt for change and block innovations (Pajares, 1992) WKXV UHVXOWLQJ LQWR HQIRUFLQJ FRQVHUYDWLYH DSSURDFKHV PLQLPL]H ÀH[LELOLW\ DQG cause indecisiveness. The indication of these factors associated with presumpWLRQV PD\ EH LQWHUHVWLQJ LW ZDV QRW KRZHYHU DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH 4XDOLW\ DQG (IIHFWLYHQHVV RI 7HDFKLQJ DV GH¿QHG LQ WKH '0(( 7KLV ¿QGLQJ LQGLFDWHV WKH H[LVWHQFH RI D JDS WKDW GLVWLQJXLVKHV WKHRU\ DQG SUDFWLFH 9DULRXV VWXGLHV KDYH SRLQWHG RXW WKLV GLYLGH LH 'XII\ DQG$QGHUVRQ .LQ]HU ȀRXWVHOLQL 3HUVLDQLV 3RXOVRQ HW DO 5HDGHQFH .RQRSDN DQG :LOVRQ $V .RXWVHOLQL SRLQWV RXW WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ EHOLHIV DQG SUDFWLFH LV FRPSOH[DQGDSSHDUVWREHGLDOHFWLFDOUDWKHUWKDQXQLODWHUDO LQWKDWSUDFWLFHGRHV 214
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not always follow directly from beliefs. Although there may be some congruence between practice and beliefs, the relationship is not so strong. There is a conseTXHQWSRWHQWLDOIRUFRQÀLFWERWKLQWHUQDOO\ZLWKLQWKHFRUSXVRIEHOLHIVKHOGDQGH[ternally with the reality of teaching, of schools and of the education system within ZKLFKWHDFKHUVRSHUDWH 'XII\DQG$QGHUVRQ 3RXOVRQHWDO 6RZKLOH teachers may be able to articulate their beliefs outside the classroom, their actual practices are often governed by the nature of teaching and classroom life and the constraints, which these impose (Poulson et al, 2001). +RZHYHUDVLJQL¿FDQWHIIHFWZDVREVHUYHGZKHQLWFDPHWREHOLHIVDVVRFLDWHG ZLWKWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIVSHFL¿FWHDFKLQJGXWLHV2XUUHVXOWVLQGLFDWHWKDWWKHIDFWRUV Direct Teaching Duties and Student Evaluation tasksKDYHDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW DQG GLUHFW LPSDFW RQ 4XDOLW\ RI7HDFKLQJ DQG ,QGLUHFW RQ (IIHFWLYHQHVV 7KHVH two factors are those that are directly related to the teaching duties at the classroom OHYHO 7KLV ¿QGLQJ LQGLFDWHV WKDW WHDFKHUV¶ EHOLHIV KDYH DQ HIIHFW RQ WKH 4XDOLW\ and Effectiveness of instruction when they are associated with the actual teaching GXWLHVWKDWDWHDFKHUFDQFRQWURO$WHDFKHU¶VEHOLHIVDERXWWKHLPSRUWDQFHof DirectImmediate Teaching Duties and Student Evaluation are something that the teacher can directly apply in his/her practice. This kind of beliefs escapes the notion of WDFLWDQGLPSOLFLWVLQFHLWLVGLUHFWO\FRQQHFWHGZLWKDWHDFKHU¶VHYHU\GD\URXWLQH ,Q WKLV FRQWH[W WKH QRWLRQ RI EHOLHIV FDQ EHFRPH D FOHDU JXLGH IRU SUDFWLFH 7KH importance of beliefs in terms of duties performed in everyday teaching is further enforced by the fact that the other two of the factors that emerged from the factor DQDO\VLV RI VHFRQG SDUW RI WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUH Non teaching duties, and Duties of Communication and Collaboration) ZHUHOHIWRXWRIWKHPRGHO,WLVWKHUHIRUHHYLdent that teachers´ beliefs about duties that are not directly related to teaching (adPLQLVWUDWLYHFROODERUDWLYHHWF KDYHQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWHIIHFWRQWKH4XDOLW\ and Effectiveness of instruction. Hence, the classroom level appears to be the most VLJQL¿FDQWOHYHOLQWHUPVRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHLQVWUXFWLRQDOSURFHVV7KLV¿QGLQJLV LQOLQHZLWKPDQ\RWKHUUHVHDUFK¿QGLQJV LH&UHHPHUV 7HGGOLH 5H\QROGV VWUHVVLQJ WKH FODVVURRP OHYHO DV D SHUTXLVLWH IRU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LQÀXHQFHV RQ DOO RWKHU OHYHOV 6XPPDUL]LQJ WKH ¿QGLQJV LQ WHUPV RI EHOLHIV DQG WKHLU HIIHFW RQWHDFKLQJZHFDQFRQFOXGHWKDWRQO\EHOLHIVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWHDFKHUV¶HYHU\GD\ SUDFWLFHDUHWKRVHKDYLQJDQHIIHFWRQTXDOLW\DQGHIIHFWLYHQHVVRILQVWUXFWLRQ :H QRZ FRQWLQXH E\ H[DPLQLQJ WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ (PRWLRQDO ,QWHOOLJHQFH DQG4XDOLW\(IIHFWLYHQHVVRI7HDFKLQJ5HVXOWVLQGLFDWHGWKDWRQO\RQHRIWKHWZR PRGHOV RI (, QDPHO\ EI as mixed/ trait ability (EIm) KDV DQ LPSDFW RQ 4XDOLW\ (IIHFWLYHQHVV7KHIDFWWKDWRQO\RQHRIWKHWZRPRGHOVRI(,KDVSURYHGWRKDYHDQ HIIHFWRQ4XDOLW\GRHVQRWFRPHDVDVXUSULVHGXHWRWKHIDFWWKDWWKHWZRPRGHOV GHVSLWHWKHLUFRPPRQQDPHVWLOODUHGLVWLQFWHQWLWLHV LHǺUDFNHWDQG0D\HU 2¶6XOOLYDQ0 3HWULGHV )XUQKDP 7KHHIIHFWRI(,WRQ4XDOLW\ (IIHFWLYHQHVVRIWHDFKLQJLVQRWKRZHYHUDWWULEXWHGWRWKHWRWDOFRQVWUXFW,WLVUDWKHU WKHRXWFRPHRIWZRRILWVGLPHQVLRQV $GDSWDELOLW\DQG*HQHUDO0RRG$GDSWDELOLW\ DSSHDUV WR KDYH WKH VWURQJHU HIIHFW RQ 4XDOLW\ KHQFH H[SODLQLQJ RI LWV YDULDQFH7KLV¿QGLQJLVDJDLQPRUHRUOHVVH[SHFWHGHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQRQHFRQVLGHUV WKH HQYLURQPHQWV LQ ZKLFK WHDFKHUV ZRUN &ODVVURRPV DUH QRW MXVW EXLOGLQJV 215
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WKH\DUHDUHQDVRIVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQ7KXVEHLQJÀH[LEOHDQGDGDSWDEOHLVDSUHUHTuisite for effective teaching nowadays more than ever, when differentiation of inVWUXFWLRQLVFRQVLGHUHGDVDQHVVHQWLDOSDUWRISURIHVVLRQDOHWKLFV$ÀH[LEOHWHDFKHU is more likely to respond better in the demands placed by the contemporary mixed DELOLW\ FODVVURRPV DQG WKHUHIRUH EH PRUH HIIHFWLYH 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG *HQHUDO 0RRGDFFRUGLQJWR%DU2Q FRQVLVWVRIWZRVSHFL¿FDELOLWLHV +DSSLQHVVDQG Optimism. These abilities are associated with a general feeling of cheerfulness and HQWKXVLDVP7KHUHIRUHDWHDFKHUPDVWHULQJWKHVNLOOVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK*HQHUDO0RRG would be more likely to create a colourful and joyful classroom culture that could EH EHQH¿FLDO LQ WHUPV RI DGYDQFLQJ VWXGHQWV¶ OHDUQLQJ &RQVLGHULQJ KRZHYHU WKH PDJQLWXGHRIWKHLQÀXHQFHWKDW*HQHUDO0RRGKDVRQ4XDOLW\DQG(IIHFWLYHQHVVRI WHDFKLQJRQHPXVWQRWEDUJHLQWRDPELWLRXVFODLPVRYHUHVWLPDWLQJLWV¶LPSRUWDQFH 2XUUHVXOWVSRLQWRXWWKDW(,DQGWHDFKHU¶VEHOLHIVKDYHDQHIIHFWRQWKH4XDOLW\ and Effectiveness of teaching. However, it is important to examine the nature of WKHHIIHFW$VRXUDQDO\VLVUHYHDOVDOOWKHIDFWRUVLQFOXGHGLQRXU¿QDOPRGHOKDYH DGLUHFWLPSDFWRQ4XDOLW\DQGDQLQGLUHFWLPSDFWRQ(IIHFWLYHQHVV$Q\HIIHFWRQ (IIHFWLYHQHVVLVWKHUHIRUHPHGLDWHGE\4XDOLW\7KLV¿QGLQJLVRIH[WUHPHLPSRUWDQFHZKHQZHH[DPLQHWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQ(,%HOLHIVDQG4XDOLW\(IIHFWLYHQHVV RIWHDFKLQJ7KHGH¿QLWLRQRIHIIHFWLYHQHVVDGRSWHGE\PDQ\VWXGLHVLQHGXFDWLRQLV XVXDOO\QDUURZPDWFKLQJHIIHFWLYHQHVVZLWKWKHRXWFRPHRIVWXGHQWV¶SHUIRUPDQFH LH(GLVRQ 'XII\DQG$QGHUVRQ 'XII\DQG%DOO -DHJHU 1HVSRU 3DUNHUHWDO 6FKXWWHHWDO 6ZDUW 7KLVDSSURDFK may provide information that can guide educational and social policy on the macro level. However, little information can be derived that can be used at the micro level DQGSURYLGHWHDFKHUVZLWKLQIRUPDWLRQRQKRZWRWHDFKEHWWHU7KHNH\¿QGLQJLQ RXU UHVHDUFK LV WKDW WKH LPSDFW RI (, RQ HIIHFWLYHV LV LQGLUHFW +HQFH 4XDOLW\ DSSHDUVWREHDIDFWRUWKDWQHHGVWREHFRQVLGHUHGZKHQWU\LQJWRDVVRFLDWH(,WHDFKHUV¶EHOLHIVDQGWHDFKLQJ4XDOLW\LVWKHLQGLFDWRURIKRZZHOODWHDFKHULVDEOHWR consider and put into practice all those things that contemporary research has indiFDWHGDVLPSRUWDQWIRUVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ &DPEHOO.\ULDNLGHV0XLMVDQG5RELQVRQ (IIHFWLYHQHVVPD\EHUHÀHFWHGE\D¿QDOPDUNLQGLFDWLQJWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQ VWXGHQWV¶SHUIRUPDQFHEHIRUHDQGDIWHUDQLQWHUYHQWLRQ7KLV¿QDOPDUNLVQRWKRZHYHUDXQLODWHUDOIDFWRU(TXDOL]LQJHIIHFWLYHQHVVVROHO\ZLWKVWXGHQWV¶SHUIRUPDQFH in tests encapsulates the danger of neglecting many other important factors. We do not suggest that all these factors can actually be found or controlled. However, foFXVLQJRQWKHQRWLRQRITXDOLW\ZHDUHDEOHWRGLVFULPLQDWHDPRQJFRQWUROODEOHDQG non-controllable effectiveness factors. Thus, the endeavour of improving education FDQ EHFRPH IRFXVHG DQG HI¿FLHQW$FNQRZOHGJLQJ TXDOLW\ LQ ERWK UHVHDUFK DQG LQWHUYHQWLRQGHVLJQVFDQLQIRUPKRZWHDFKHUVFDQLPSURYHWKHLUSUDFWLFH,QWKLV way effectiveness becomes tangible, manageable and improvable.
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Joining the process-product and the beliefs models facilitates understanding of both the processes and the agents of teaching. Having a concrete knowledge on both these factors, the product of teaching -which is none else than learning – can certainly improve. The venture of improving teaching should probably begin with D FRPSUHKHQVLRQ RI WKH WHDFKHU ,QVLJKWV DERXW WHDFKHUV¶ EHOLHIV DWWLWXGHV DQG emotions are of a paramount importance. However, these insights need not to be FRQVXPHG LQWR DQ HQGOHVV WKHRUHWLFDO HQGHDYRXU ,I UHVHDUFK RQ WHDFKHUV¶ EHOLHIV wants to be aligned with effectiveness it should be focused on what teachers WKLQN DERXW WKH WDVNV SHUIRUPHG LQ WKHLU HYHU\GD\ SUDFWLFH 6LPLODUO\ HPRWLRQV and emotional intelligence abilities come into play when they are connected with WKHFKDOOHQJHVRIWKHFODVVURRPV¶VRFLDOHQYLURQPHQW(IIHFWLYHWHDFKLQJFDOOVIRU ÀH[LEOH KDSS\ DQG RSWLPLVWLF LQGLYLGXDOV$SSDUHQWO\ UHVHDUFK RQ HIIHFWLYHQHVV needs to seek answers and device methods that would help teachers feel happy in WKHLU FDUHHU FKRLFHV ,Q DGGLWLRQ UHVHDUFK VKRXOG SURYLGH DQ DUUD\ RI WHFKQLTXHV that would make teachers more emotionally competent into handling frustrating conditions. Prescription and regulation of teachers behaviour is not however an option. The future is unpredictable and therefore impossible to prepare for any precise set of FRQGLWLRQV 6R ZKDW FDQ WHDFKHU HGXFDWRUV GR" 0DQ\ \HDUV DJR WKH SURPLQHQW American philosopher John Dewey, addressing the issue of preparation for the fuWXUHPDGHDVLPSOHEXWVWULNLQJDUJXPHQW ³7RSUHSDUHKLPIRUWKHIXWXUHOLIHPHDQV to give him command of himself” (Dewey, 1929, p. 293). Dewey was of course UHIHUULQJWRWKHFKLOG KLVVXJJHVWLRQVDUHQHYHUWKHOHVVDSSOLFDEOHWRWKHWHDFKHUDV well. Teachers would be more effective if they are able to understand their own SUDFWLFHH[SODLQDQGFKDOOHQJHWKHLUEHOLHIVDQGEHFRPHDI¿OLDWHGZLWKWKHLUHPRtions. An alliance between the process-product and beliefs models is apparently much better than a mere competition. 5()(5(1&(6 Bar-On, R. (1997). The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Technical manual7RURQWR&DQDGD 0XOWL +HDOWK6\VWHPV,QF %DU2Q5 7KH%DU2QPRGHORIHPRWLRQDOVRFLDOLQWHOOLJHQFH,Q3)HUQiQGH]%HUURFDO 1 ([WUHPHUD *XHVW(GV (PRWLRQDO,QWHOOLJHQFH>6SHFLDO,VVXH@3VLFRWKHPD, 13–25. %RXOJDULV 1RYHPEHU Questionnaire of teachers personal theory3DSHUSUHVHQWHGDWWKH$8/$ FRQIHUHQFHRIWKH6FKRRORI3KLORVRSK\8QLYHUVLW\RI$WKHQV $WKHQV*UHHFH LQJUHHN %RULFK*' Observation Skills for Effective Teaching.(6thHG $OO\Q %DFRQ %UDFNHW0$ 0D\HU-' &RQYHUJHQWGLVFULPLQDQWDQGLQFUHPHQWDOYDOLGLW\RIFRPSHWLQJ model of measures of emotional intelligence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(9), 1–12. %URSK\- *RRG7/ 7HDFKHU%HKDYLRXUDQG6WXGHQW$FKLHYHPHQW,Q0&:LWWURFN (G Handbook of Research on Teaching SS± 1HZ
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CHAPTER 15 %URZQ%: 6DNV'+ 0HDVXULQJWKHHIIHFWVRILQVWUXFWLRQDOWLPHRQVWXGHQWVOHDUQLQJ evidence from the beginning teacher evaluation study. American Journal of Education , 94. 480–500. %URZQ 0 $VNHZ 0 0LOOHWW $ 5KRGHV 9 7KH NH\ UROH RI HGXFDWLRQDO UHVHDUFK LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW DQG HYDOXDWLRQ RI WKH 1DWLRQDO 1XPHUDF\ 6WUDWHJ\ British Journal of Educational Research, 29(5), 655–672. Byrne, C.J. (1983). Teacher knowledge and teacher effectiveness: A literature review. Paper presented at WKHDQQXDOPHHWLQJRIWKH1RUWKZHVWHUQHGXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK$VVRFLDWLRQ(OOHQYLOOH1< &DPSEHOO5-.\ULDNLGHV/0XLMV5' 5RELQVRQ: 'LIIHUHQWLDOWHDFKHUHIIHFWLYHQHVV towards a model for research and teacher appraisal. Oxford Review of Education, 29 (3), 347–362. &DPSEHOO 5- .\ULDNLGHV / 0XLMV 5' 5RELQVRQ : (IIHFWLYH WHDFKLQJ DQG YDOXHV someimplications for research and teacher appraisal. 2[IRUG5HYLHZRI(GXFDWLRQ(4), 451–465. Creemers, B.P.M. (1994). The effective classroom/RQGRQ &DVVHOO &UHHPHUV %30 )URP 6FKRRO (IIHFWLYHQHVV DQG 6FKRRO ,PSURYHPHQW WR (IIHFWLYH 6FKRRO ,PSURYHPHQW %DFNJURXQG7KHRUHWLFDO$QDO\VLVDQG2XWOLQHRIWKH(PSLULFDO6WXG\Educational Research and Evaluation, 8(4), 343–362. 'H-RQJ5:HVWHUKRI.- .UXLWHU-+ (PSLULFDOHYLGHQFHRIDFRPSUHKHQVLYHPRGHORI VFKRROHIIHFWLYHQHVV DPXOWLOHYHOVWXG\LQ0DWKHPDWLFVLQWKH¿UVW\HDURIMXQLRUJHQHUDOHGXFDWLRQLQ WKH1HWKHUODQGV6FKRROHIIHFWLYHQHVVDQGVFKRROLPSURYHPHQW 3 – 31. Dewey, J. (1929). My pedagogical creed. -RXUQDORIWKH1DWLRQDO(GXFDWLRQ$VVRFLDWLRQ(9), 291–295. 'R\OH : &ODVVURRP RUJDQL]DWLRQ DQG PDQDJHPHQW ,Q 0 & :LWWURFN (G Handbook of research on teaching SS ± 1HZ
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7+(())(&72)7($&+(56¶3(5621$/« .RXWVHOLQL0 7HDFKHUVSHUFHSWLRQVEHOLHIVDQGWKHRULHVRIHIIHFWLYHWHDFKLQJCurriculum and Instruction,$WKHQV *UHHN/HWWHUV LQ*UHHN .RXWVHOLQL0 3HUVLDQLV3 7KHRU\SUDFWLFH'LYLGHLQ7HDFKHU(GXFDWLRQDQGWKH5ROHRIWKH 7UDGLWLRQDO9DOXHVTeaching in Higher Education,(4), 501–520. .\ULDNLGHV/ ([WHQGLQJWKH&RPSUHKHQVLYH0RGHORI(GXFDWLRQDO(IIHFWLYHQHVVE\DQ(PSLULFDO ,QYHVWLJDWLRQ6FKRRO(IIHFWLYHQHVVDQG6FKRRO,PSURYHPHQW(2), 103–152. .\ULDNLGHV / &UHHPHUV %30 7HVWLQJ WKH G\QDPLF PRGHO RI HGXFDWLRQDO HIIHFWLYHQHVV Teacher effects on cognitive and affective outcomes. 3DSHUSUHVHQWHGDWWKHth Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association&KLFDJR86$ .\ULDNLGHV/ &UHHPHUV%30 8VLQJDPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDODSSURDFKWRPHDVXUHWKHLPSDFWRI FODVVURRPOHYHOIDFWRUVXSRQVWXGHQWDFKLHYHPHQW DVWXG\WHVWLQJWKHYDOLGLW\RIWKHG\QDPLFPRGHO School Effectiveness and School Improvement, (2), 183–205. .\ULDNLGHV / 7VDQJDULGRX 1 7RZDUGV WKH 'HYHORSPHQW RI *HQHULF DQG 'LIIHUHQWLDWHG 0RGHOV RI (GXFDWLRQDO (IIHFWLYHQHVV $ 6WXG\ RQ 6FKRRO DQG 7HDFKHU (IIHFWLYHQHVV LQ 3K\VLFDO Education. %ULWLVK(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK-RXUQDO(6), 807–838. .\ULDNLGHV/&DPSEHOO5- *DJDWVLV$ 7KHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIWKHFODVVURRPHIIHFWLQSULPDU\ VFKRROV $Q DSSOLFDWLRQ RI &UHHPHUV FRPSUHKHQVLYH PRGHO RI HGXFDWLRQDO HIIHFWLYHQHVV School (IIHFWLYHQHVVDQG6FKRRO,PSURYHPHQW(4), 501–529. 0D\HU-' 6DORYH\3 :KDWLVHPRWLRQDOLQWHOOLJHQFH",Q36DORYH\ '6OX\WHU (GV Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications 1HZ
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Corresponding author.
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$33(1',; 7DEOH$ 7KH¿YHFURVVOHYHOGLPHQVLRQVDFFRUGLQJWRWKH.\ULDNLGHVDQG&UHHPHUV (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2006· Kyriakides & Creemers, 2006;2008) Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness (DMEE). Dimension
Description
Frequency
FrequencyUHIHUVWRWKHTXDQWLW\WKDWDQDFWLYLW\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKDQ effectiveness factor is present in a system, school or classroom while the focusGLPHQVLRQUHIHUVWRWKHVSHFL¿FLW\RIWKHDFWLYLWLHVDQGDOVR addresses the purpose for which an activity takes place.
Stage
Stage examines the phase of the instructional process at which various DFWLYLWLHVWKH\WDNHSODFH,WLVH[SHFWHGWKDWWKHIDFWRUVQHHGWRWDNH place over a long period of time to ensure that they have a continuous direct or indirect effect on student learning.
Focus
FocusUHIHUVWRWKHVSHFL¿FLW\RIWKHDFWLYLWLHVDQGDOVRDGGUHVVHVWKH purpose for which an activity takes place.
Quality
QualityUHIHUVWRWKHSURSHUWLHVRIWKHVSHFL¿FIDFWRULWVHOIDVWKHVHDUH discussed in the literature and at the same time, makes clear and guarantees that teachers are expected to make use of the information gathered from assessment in order to meet their student needs.
Differentiation Differentiation refers to the extent to which activities associated with a factor are implemented in the same way for all the subjects involved with it.
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Table A2: The eight factors describing teacher’s instructional role-quality of teaching according to the Kyriakides and Creemers (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2006· Kyriakides & Creemers, 2006;2008), Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness (DMEE). Orientation
Orientation refers to teacher behavior in providing the objectives for ZKLFKDVSHFL¿FWDVNRUOHVVRQRUVHULHVRIOHVVRQVWDNH V SODFHDQGRU challenging students to identify the reason for which an activity takes place in the lesson.
Structuring
Structuring UHIHUVWRWKHYDULRXVZD\VWHDFKHUVVWUXFWXUHWKHLUOHVVRQV e.g. by beginning with overviews and/or review of objectives, by outlining the content to be covered and signaling transitions between OHVVRQSDUWVE\FDOOLQJDWWHQWLRQWRPDLQLGHDV DQGE\UHYLHZLQJPDLQ ideas at the end.
Questioning techniques
Questioning techniques examine how effective teachers ask a lot of TXHVWLRQVDQGDWWHPSWWRLQYROYHVWXGHQWVLQFODVVGLVFXVVLRQ7KLVLV ERRVWHGE\FRQVLGHULQJWKHRSWLPDOTXHVWLRQGLI¿FXOW\DQGLWVYDULDWLRQ depending on the context as well as by mixing product and process TXHVWLRQV PRUHSURFHVVTXHVWLRQV
Teaching Modeling
Teaching Modeling has to do with how teachers help pupils to use strategies and/or develop their own strategies which can help them solve different types of problems and help them organize their own learning (e.g., self-regulation, active learning).
Application
Application refers to the extend that teachers provide needed practice and application opportunities for immediate exercise of topics taught during the lesson.
The classroom as a learning environment
The classroom as a learning environment concentrates on measuring teacher contribution in creating a learning environment in his/her classURRPDQG¿YHHOHPHQWVRIFODVVURRPDVDOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWDUH WDNHQLQWRDFFRXQW WHDFKHUVWXGHQWLQWHUDFWLRQVWXGHQWVWXGHQWLQWHUDFWLRQVWXGHQWV¶WUHDWPHQWE\WKHWHDFKHUFRPSHWLWLRQEHWZHHQVWXGHQWV and classroom disorder.
Management of The factor Management of Time focuses on how teachers organize and Time PDQDJHWKHFODVVURRPHQYLURQPHQWDVDQHI¿FLHQWOHDUQLQJHQYLURQment and thereby to maximize engagement rates. Teacher Evaluation
222
Teacher Evaluation examines how information gathered from assessPHQWFDQEHXVHGLQRUGHUWRHQDEOHWHDFKHUVWRLGHQWLI\WKHLUVWXGHQWV¶ needs as well as to evaluate their own practice.
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7DEOH$ 5RWDWHGFRPSRQHQWPDWUL[ )DFWRUORDGLQJVHLJHQYDOXHVDQGSHUFHQWDJHVIRU the four factors that emerged for the second part of the questionnaire on Teachers’ Beliefs %HOLHIVDERXWWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIVSHFL¿FWDVNVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHWHDFKLQJSURIHVVLRQ Questionnaire Items
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F4
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39. Planning and preparing lessons is a very important aspect of the teaching profession.
,701
-,076
,066
,164
,529
40. Differentiated teaching is a very important aspect of the teaching profession
,679
,076
,231
,100
,531
6XSSRUWLYHLQGLYLGXDOL]HGLQVWUXFWLRQ is a very important aspect of the teach,653 ing profession
,347
,198
-,111
,599
42. Attending to discipline problems is a very important aspect of the teaching profession.
,621
,100
-,006
,242
,455
48. Attending staff meetings is a very important aspect of the teaching profession
,020
,844
,037
,144
,735
47.Extra curricular activities is a very important aspect of the teaching profession
-,002
,663
-,014
,263
,510
49. Attending training seminars is a very important aspect of the teaching profession
,255
,658
,144
,008
,519
43. Formative assessment is a very important aspect of the teaching profession
,116
,060
,838
,029
,720
6XPPDWLYHDVVHVVPHQWLVDYHU\LPportant aspect of the teaching profession
,310
-,080
,777
,037
,707
*UDGLQJVWXGHQWZRUNLVDYHU\LPportant aspect of the teaching profession
-,003
,182
,598
,183
,424
51. Working with colleagues is a very important aspect of the teaching profession
,080
,078
,049
,855
,745
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CHAPTER 15
52. Communication with parents is a very important aspect of the teaching profession
,358
,143
,084
,616
,535
50. Administrative duties are a very important aspect of the teaching profession
,091
,315
,192
,500
,395
Eigenvalue
2,08
1,89
1,82
1,59
Percent %
16,03
14,59
14,07
12,25
Cumulative Percent %
16,03
30,62
44,69
56,94
224
ICT IN TEACHING AND LEARNING
CHAPTER 16
LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR PROBLEM SOLVING AND ICT SKILLS AND THEIR ICT EXPERIENCE AS PART OF THEIR TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM Shukri Sanber and Marea Nicholson
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*UDGXDWH WHDFKHUV LQ 1HZ 6RXWK:DOHV DUH H[SHFWHG WR KDYH IXQFWLRQDO OHYHOV RI computing literacy that would help them in the management and the facilitation RIVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ7KH3URIHVVLRQDO6WDQGDUGVRIWKH16:,QVWLWXWHRI7HDFKHUV QRW RQO\ VWDWH WKDW D JUDGXDWH WHDFKHU VKRXOG ³GHPRQVWUDWH FXUUHQW NQRZOHGJH DQG SUR¿FLHQF\´ 16: ,QVWLWXWH RI 7HDFKHUV S LQ LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG communication technology, but they are expected to develop their knowledge and skills as indicators of their professionalism (see Table 1). 7DEOH(OHPHQWLQWKH3URIHVVLRQDO6WDQGDUGVRI16:7HDFKHUV 7HDFKHUV¶ Professional /HYHOV
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A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 227–241. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 16
Professional Competence
SSO\FXUUHQWNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVLQWKHXVHRI,&7LQWKH $ FODVVURRPWRPHHWV\OODEXVRXWFRPHVLQWKHIROORZLQJ - Basic operational skills ,QIRUPDWLRQWHFKQRORJ\VNLOOV 6RIWZDUHHYDOXDWLRQVNLOOV - Effective use of the internet - Pedagogical skills for classroom management
Professional Accomplishment
([KLELWDQGVKDUHFXUUHQWVNLOOVLQWKHXVHRI,&7LQWKHFODVVURRPWRPHHWV\OODEXVRXWFRPHVLQWKHIROORZLQJ - Operational skills ,QIRUPDWLRQWHFKQRORJ\VNLOOV 6RIWZDUHHYDOXDWLRQVNLOOV - Effective use of the internet - Pedagogical skills for classroom management
Professional /HDGHUVKLS
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Teacher education programs are expected to provide students with opportunities to develop the skills that will allow them to grow in their workplaces and use effectively the ever-changing technological environment in the classroom. (Watson, 3URFWRU)LQJHU /DQJ There is widespread recognition of the potential of computers in the classroom. 'HSDUWPHQW RI (GXFDWLRQ DQG 6FLHQFH ,QWHUHVW LQ WHDFKHUV¶ FRPSXWHU DQG ,&7VNLOOVLVJURZLQJDWSKHQRPHQDOVSHHGZRUOGZLGH,WZRXOGEHVXUSULVLQJWR ¿QG DQ\ VFKRRO SURIHVVLRQDO GHYHORSPHQW SODQ LQ$XVWUDOLD WKDW GRHV QRW LQFOXGH RQHRUPRUH,&7UHODWHGVNLOOV7HDFKHUVDUHEHLQJVNLOOHGLQWKHXVHRIWKH,&7WR support and enhance their programming and their design of learning activities, and at the same time to help their students make effective use of digital environments DQG FDSDELOLWLHV 6WHNHWHH LQ D UHYLHZ RI WKH OLWHUDWXUH LGHQWL¿HG IRXU ,&7 LQWHJUDWLRQDSSURDFKHV ,&7VNLOOVGHYHORSPHQWDSSURDFKZKHUHDFRUHFRXUVHLQFRPSXWHUHGXFDWLRQLV EXLOWLQWRWKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDP ,&7 SHGDJRJ\ DSSURDFK ZKHUH WKH VWXGHQWV DUH VKRZQ DV SDUW RI WKHLU SHGDJRJLFDOXQLWVKRZWRLQWHJUDWH,&7LQWKHFODVVURRP 6XEMHFWVSHFL¿F DSSURDFK ZKHUH VSHFL¿F ,&7 SURJUDPV DUH LQFOXGHG LQ WKH FXUULFXOXPXQLWVRQRIIHUZLWKLQWKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDP DQG 3UDFWLFHGULYHQ DSSURDFK ZKHUH VWXGHQWV GHVLJQ ,&7 UHVRXUFHV IRU WKHLU practicum experiences (p. 102). Computer education courses that are offered to students who specialise in teacher education do not meet the expected needs of the new generations of teachers. These stand alone courses seem to be inconsistent with the level of computing 228
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skills of the entrants to teacher education programs and with the expectations of the GLJLWDOUHYROXWLRQZKHUH,&7³LVQRORQJHUMXVWDQRWKHUVXEMHFWWDXJKWE\VFKRROVLW is a means of learning across all subjects – from English, mathematics and science, to the humanities, technical and applied studies, music and visual arts.” (Rudd, 6WHYHQ &RQZD\S 7KH OLWHUDWXUH VXJJHVWV WKDW WHDFKLQJ ,&7 VNLOOV LQ VHSDUDWH FRXUVHV GRHV QRW QHFHVVDULO\OHDGWRWKHLUWUDQVIHUWRWKHFODVVURRP $OELRQ :DWVRQ3URFWRU )LQJHU /DQJ 6WHNHWHH 1LFKROVRQ 6DQEHU 0RGHOOLQJ LV UHFRJQLVHG DV D SRZHU VRXUFH IRU VNLOO WUDQVIHU ,W LV D FRUQHUVWRQH FRQFHSW RI DSSUHQWLFHVKLS 7KHUHIRUH LW VHHPV ORJLFDO WR GHGXFH WKDW ,&7 VNLOOV VKRXOG EH integrated within the education and curriculum units that are offered in teacher HGXFDWLRQSURJUDPV 1LFKROVRQ 6DQEHU 7KH$XVWUDOLDQ&DWKROLF8QLYHUVLW\ $&8 LQLWLDWHGLQDQLQQRYDWLYHSURgram where primary student teachers are exposed to and immersed in learning FRQWH[WVZKHUHWKH\KDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOWRDFTXLUHDQGGHYHORSUHOHYDQW,&7VNLOOV within the contexts of their professional and foundational units in Education. The SURJUDPZDVGHYHORSHGLQUHVSRQVHWRLGHQWL¿HGQHHGVRIIXWXUHWHDFKHUVDQGWKH rationalisation of courses in response to economic pressures that Australian universities have been undergoing since 1998. ,&7,17(*5$7,2102'(/
,&7 ,QWHJUDWLRQ 0RGHO ,&7,0 WKDW ZDV LPSOHPHQWHG LQ DW$&8 DLPV WR HTXLSWKHVWXGHQWVZLWK,&7DQGSUREOHPVROYLQJVNLOOVDQGSUDFWLFDOSHGDJRJLFDO skills that would enable the graduate teacher to employ the technology in the FODVVURRP7KHPRGHOHQYLVLRQVWKDWWHFKQRORJ\LQJHQHUDODQG,&7LQSDUWLFXODU ZLOOEHXVHGDV 0HGLXPRIVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJVLPLODUWROLWHUDF\DQGQXPHUDF\ 5HVRXUFHVWRVXSSRUWDQGIDFLOLWDWHVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJ DQG Processes for interaction and communication among the learners and with the teacher. The adopted model provides the students with learning environments where they DFTXLUHDQGGHYHORS,&7VNLOOVWKURXJKH[SHULHQWLDOOHDUQLQJDVWKH\FRPSOHWHWKHLU learning activities in the targeted contextual units (or course). These contextual units are offered as part of the professional, curriculum and foundational units of WKHHGXFDWLRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDP)LJXUHVKRZVWKDWWKH model is expressed through three modules. The targeted outcomes of each module appear in Table 2.
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CHAPTER 16
ICT Modules at ACU
Module 1
Modules
Focus
Learning Activities
5HÀHFWLQJRQ2ZQ/HDUQLQJ 8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKHVFRSHRI ,&7IRUOHDUQLQJSURFHVVHV GHYHORSLQJ,&7VNLOOVDQGXVing them for effective learning
5HÀHFWLQJ PDQDJLQJ personal learning and growth
Records
Facilitating Student Learning: 8QGHUVWDQGLQJRI,&7SRWHQWLDO in the study of student learning GHYHORSLQJDGYDQFHG,&7 skills in text and data processing and management
Exploring & organising learning resources
Module 3
Ļ Fostering Professional Growth (PSOR\LQJ,&7DVDPHGLXPRI SURIHVVLRQDOJURZWK GHYHORSLQJ,&7VNLOOVWKDWUHODWHWR designing personal and shared spaces and evaluating classroom software and resources
Digital Portfolios
Module 2
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Generating and recording evidence of professional growth
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learning and development. The focus of the second unit is teaching and managing learning environments. The third unit in the integration program focuses on transition to the profession. The three chosen units for the integration provide the student ZLWK Pedagogical and psychological foundations. Curriculum theory and methods of teaching. 2SSRUWXQLWLHVWRDSSO\WKHLUSHGDJRJLFDODQG,&7NQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVWKURXJK controlled school experience. Table 2. Targeted Outcomes of ACU Integration Model (ICTIM) 7DUJHWHG/HDUQLQJ2XWFRPHV Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
- To understand the scope RI,&7IRUOHDUQLQJ processes, application and HTXLSPHQW - To manage personal spaces 7RXVH,&7VNLOOVIRU own learning (e.g. word processing, organisation of concepts, presentations, computer mediated communication) 7RXVH,&7IRUHIIHFWLYH OHDUQLQJ 'H¿QLQJORFDWing, selecting, organising, and presenting information 7RXVH,&7VNLOOVIRU simple data management and processing
7RXQGHUVWDQG,&7 potentials in the study of student learning - To manage shared spaces 7RXVHDGYDQFHG,&7 skills for learning (e.g. word processing, presentations, computer mediated communication) 7RXVH,&7IRUHIIHFWLYH OHDUQLQJ /RFDWLQJDVsessing, integrating and evaluating information 7RXVH,&7VNLOOVIRUDGvanced data management and processing
7RHPSOR\,&7DVD medium for evidence of professional practice - To design personal and shared spaces 7RLQWHJUDWH,&7DQGPXOtimedia resources through designing planning student learning - To evaluate appropriate classroom software and resources - To use databases to store, manipulate and extract teaching and learning materials and activities
7KH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI ,&7,0 ZDV PRQLWRUHG WKURXJK D YDULHW\ RI SURFHVV HYDOXDWLRQGDWDJDWKHULQJVWUDWHJLHVIURPWKH¿UVWVHPHVWHURI7KHGLI¿FXOWLHV DQG LVVXHV WKDW ZHUH LGHQWL¿HG KDYH EHHQ UHSRUWHG HOVHZKHUH VHH 6DQEHU 1LFKROVRQ 0F1DPDUD 1LFKROVRQ 6DQEHU 7KHFKDSWHUUHSRUWVWKHFKDQJHVLQVWXGHQWV¶SHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHLUSUREOHPVROYLQJVNLOOVDQG,&7FDSDELOLWLHVDFURVVDIRXU\HDUVSDQEHWZHHQDQG 7KH SHUFHLYHGJURZWKRIWKHVHVNLOOVVKRXOGKHOSWRGHWHUPLQHLIEXLOGLQJ,&7FRPSRQHQWVZLWKLQUHJXODUSURIHVVLRQDODQGFXUULFXOXPFRXUVHVLVDYLDEOHDQGDGHTXDWH RSWLRQWRIDFXOWLHVRIHGXFDWLRQ6SHFL¿FDOO\WKLVFKDSWHUDGGUHVVHVWKHIROORZLQJ UHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV 231
CHAPTER 16
,V WKHUH D VLJQL¿FDQW FKDQJH LQ WKH SHUFHLYHG OHYHOV RI WKH JHQHUDO SUREOHP
solving skills of the primary education students at the end of their program when compared with the perceived levels of the same skills at the beginning of the program? ,VWKHUHDVLJQL¿FDQWFKDQJHLQWKHSHUFHLYHGOHYHOVRIWKHFRPSXWLQJWH[WDQG data processing and web-authoring skills of the primary education students at the end of their program when compared with the perceived levels of the same skills at the beginning of the program? 0(7+2'2/2*<
,W ZDV GHFLGHG WR XVH D FRPSUHKHQVLYH TXHVWLRQQDLUH WKDW ZDV GHYHORSHG E\ D UHVHDUFKHU LQ WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 6\GQH\ 0DUNDXVNDLWH WR DVVHVV VWXGHQWV¶ SHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHOHYHOVRIWKHLU,&7VNLOOV8SRQVHFXULQJWKHDXWKRU¶VSHUPLVVLRQ WKHUHVHDUFKHUVDGDSWHGVRPHRIWKHUHVSRQGHQWV¶EDFNJURXQGLWHPVWRDOLJQZLWK WKHFRXUVHRIIHULQJDW$&8 The data set that is presented in this chapter was gathered from the 2006 priPDU\HGXFDWLRQFRKRUWHQUROOHGDW6WUDWK¿HOGFDPSXVRI$&81DWLRQDO7KHTXHVWLRQQDLUHZDVDGPLQLVWHUHGWRWKLVFRKRUWGXULQJWKHLU¿UVWOHFWXUHRIRQHRIWKHFRUH HGXFDWLRQXQLWVDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHLUSURJUDPLQ,WZDVUHDGPLQLVWHUHG to the same cohort of students during the last lecture of one of the core educaWLRQXQLWVRQRIIHUDWWKHHQGRIWKH¿UVWVHPHVWHULQDQG 3DUWLFLSDQWVZHUHQRWFRHUFHGWRFRPSOHWHWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUH7KHUHIRUHWKHQXPEHU RIFRPSOHWHGTXHVWLRQQDLUHVYDULHGIURPRQHDGPLQLVWUDWLRQWRDQRWKHU VHH7DEOH 3). 7KH TXHVWLRQQDLUH ZDV LQLWLDOO\ GLVWULEXWHG WR DOO ¿UVW \HDU HGXFDWLRQ VWXGHQWV ZKRZHUHHQUROOHGLQWKH¿UVWFRUHXQLW (')' &RQWH[WVIRUOHDUQLQJDQGGHYHORSPHQW DFURVVWKUHHFDPSXVHVRI$&87KHWRWDOQXPEHURISDUWLFLSDQWVZDV 287. The responses of this sample of participants were factor analysed using the 3ULQFLSDO&RPSRQHQWH[WUDFWLRQPHWKRGZLWK9DULPD[URWDWLRQ7KHDQDO\VLVSURduced four factors (see Appendix 1). 7DEOH1XPEHURISDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHVWXG\EHWZHHQDQG
232
1RRIFRPSOHWHG TXHVWLRQQDLUHV
Base (February, 2006)
67
May 2006
72
May 2007
89
May 2008
95
May 2009
99
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The items with a loading of less than 0.40 were not included in the computation RI WKH IDFWRU VFRUHV ,WHPV WKDW ORDGHG HTXDOO\ RQ PRUH WKDQ RQH IDFWRU ZHUH dropped. Four scores were computed for each respondent. These scores represented WKHLGHQWL¿HGIDFWRUV7KH\ZHUHFRPSXWHGZLWKDPD[LPXPSRVVLEOHVFRUHRI The results of factor analysis were consistent with the outcomes of the process of ORJLFDODQDO\VLVWRWKHLWHPVRIWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHE\WKHUHVHDUFKHUV7KHLGHQWL¿HG IDFWRUVWKURXJKWKHVHDQDO\VHVDUH *HQHUDOSUREOHPVROYLQJVNLOOV 7KLVIDFWRUPHDVXUHVUHVSRQGHQWV¶DELOLW\WR VROYHJHQHUDODQG,&7UHODWHGSUREOHPV7KH&URQEDFKDOSKDUHOLDELOLW\RIWKHVFDOH EDVHGRQWKH$&8VDPSOHLV %DVLF FRPSXWLQJ VNLOOV 7KLV IDFWRU PHDVXUHV UHVSRQGHQWV¶ VNLOOV LQ RSHUDWing a computer and performing tasks common to many software applications. The &URQEDFKDOSKDUHOLDELOLW\RIWKHVFDOHEDVHGRQWKH$&8VDPSOHLV &RPPRQO\ XVHG ZRUG WH[W DQG GDWD SURFHVVLQJ VNLOOV 7KLV IDFWRU PHDVXUHV UHVSRQGHQWV¶ VNLOOV LQ RSHUDWLQJ FRPPRQ ZRUG SURFHVVLQJ DQG GDWD SURFHVVLQJ DSSOLFDWLRQV7KH&URQEDFKDOSKDUHOLDELOLW\RIWKHVFDOHEDVHGRQWKH$&8 sample is 0.94. :HE DXWKRULQJ VNLOOV 7KLV IDFWRU PHDVXUHV UHVSRQGHQWV¶ VNLOOV LQ SODQQLQJ creating and publishing web pages. The Cronbach alpha reliability of the scale EDVHGRQWKH$&8VDPSOHLV 5(68/76
7KH DQDO\VHV LQ UHVSRQVH WR WKH UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV ZHUH FRQGXFWHG RQ WKH EDVLV of the computed scores for each respondent on the four factors that are discussed DERYH7KHDQDO\VHVDUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHVHVFRUHV(DFKDQDO\VLVLQFOXGHV 7UHQGVLQSDUWLFLSDQWV¶SHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHLUVNLOOVRQHDFKVFDOH ,QIHUHQWLDOWHVWVRIWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHDQG UHVSRQVHV &KDQJHHIIHFWVL]HXVLQJWKHIROORZLQJIRUPXOD , where d = effect size (or change),
X 0HDQVFRUHV6' 6WDQGDUGGHYLDWLRQ DQG 6WXG\SDUWLFLSDQWVLQDQG The effect size is used as a measure of the meaningfulness of the change between the two years. The computed effect sizes of the four factors are presented in Table 4 (Cohen, 1988).
233
CHAPTER 16
Table 4. Perceived effect size between 2006 and 2009 measures of ICT skills 3HUFHLYHG6NLOOV
&KDQJH6L]H to 2009
*HQHUDOSUREOHPVROYLQJVNLOOV
0.73
Basic Computing
0.51
Text and data processing skills
0.56
Web-authoring skills
0.81
General Problem Solving Skills The mean scores of the respondents on the general problem solving skills increased from 3.18 at the beginning of the primary teacher education program in 2006 to DWWKHHQGRIWKHVHPHVWHU7KHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶SHUFHSWLRQVDVPHDVXUHGE\WKLV scale, increased steadily between 2006 and 2009 while the spread of their scores remained constant (see Figure 2).
5.0 4.0 Scores
3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 Base Mean 6'
2006
2007 Years
2008
2009
Figure 2. General problem solving skills.
The difference in the mean scores between the perceptions of the participants in DQG LVERWKVLJQL¿FDQWDQGPHDQLQJIXO 7DEOH 7KHVL]HRIWKHFKDQJHRQWKH*HQHUDO3UREOHP6ROYLQJVFDOHLV7KLVHIIHFW size is large enough to show a meaningful change between the two administrations RIWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUH &RKHQ 7KHPHDQVFRUHVRIWKHUHVSRQGHQWV¶UDWLQJVRIWKHLUEDVLFFRPSXWLQJVNLOOVLQcreased from 3.91 at the beginning of entry to the primary teacher education proJUDPLQWRDWWKHHQGRIWKHVHPHVWHU7KHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶SHUFHSWLRQVDV measured by this, scale increased steadily in the following years while the spread of their scores remained more or less constant (see Figure 3).
234
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7DEOH*HQHUDOSUREOHPVROYLQJVNLOOV WWHVWIRUHTXDOLW\RIWKHDQG PHDQV Fourth
First
t
Degree of Freedom
p
Mean Difference
6WG(UURU Difference
4.460
164
0.000
0.499
0.112
Mean
3.68
3.18
6'
0.73
0.68
* ,WZDVGHFLGHGWRXVHWKHWWHVWIRUXQFRUUHODWHGGDWDVHWVDVWKHUHVSRQVHVIRUWKHDQG were not matched.
5.0 4.0
Scores
3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 Base
2006
2007
Mean
2008
2009
Years
6'
)LJXUH%DVLFFRPSXWLQJVNLOOV
The difference in the mean scores between the ratings of the participants of their EDVLFFRPSXWLQJVNLOOVLQDQG LVERWKPHDQLQJIXODQGVLJQL¿FDQW 7DEOH 6). Table 6. Perceived basic computing skills: t-test for equality of the 2006 and 2009 means WWHVWIRU(TXDOLW\RI0HDQV Fourth
First
t
Degree of Freedom
p
Mean Difference
6WG(UURU Difference
Mean
4.36
3.91
3.623
164
0.000
0.449
0.124
6'
0.70
0.89
The size of the change on the Basic Computing scale is 0.51. This effect size is moderate but shows a meaningful change between the two administrations of the TXHVWLRQQDLUH 235
CHAPTER 16
Text and Data Processing Skills 7KHPHDQVFRUHVRIWKHUHVSRQGHQWV¶UDWLQJVRIWKHLUWH[WDQGGDWDSURFHVVLQJVNLOOV increased from 2.83 at the beginning of the primary teacher education in 2006 to DWWKHHQGRIWKHVHPHVWHU7KHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶SHUFHSWLRQVRQWKLVVFDOHLQFUHDVHG dramatically after their second year in 2007. The increase was slow but steady after 2007 (see Figure 4).
4.5
Scores
3.0 1.5 0.0 Base
2006
Mean
2007
2008
2009
Years
6'
Figure 4. Text and data processing skills.
The difference in the mean scores between the perceptions of the participants of WKHLUWH[WDQGGDWDSURFHVVLQJLQDQG LVERWKPHDQLQJIXODQGVLJQL¿FDQW (Table 7). 7DEOH3HUFHLYHGWH[WDQGGDWDSURFHVVLQJVNLOOV WWHVWIRUHTXDOLW\RIWKHDQG means WWHVWIRU(TXDOLW\RI0HDQV Fourth
First
t
Degree of Freedom
p
Mean Difference
6WG(UURU Difference
Mean
3.50
2.83
3.840
120*
0.000
0.668
0.174
6'
0.95
1.19
(TXDOLW\RIYDULDQFHZDVQRWDVVXPHG
The size of the change on the Text and Data Processing scale is 0.56. This effect size is moderate but shows a meaningful change between the two measurements.
236
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Web Authoring Skills 7KH PHDQ VFRUHV RI WKH UHVSRQGHQWV¶ UDWLQJV RI WKHLU EDVLF FRPSXWLQJ VNLOOV increased modestly from 2.08 at the beginning of entry to the primary teacher education in 2006 to 2.29 at the end of the semester. The increase was slow but steady in the following years (see Figure 5).
5.0 4.0
Scores
3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 Base
2006
2007
2008
2009
Years
Mean 6'
)LJXUH:HEDXWKRULQJVNLOOV
The difference in the mean scores between the perceptions of the participants of WKHLUZHEDXWKRULQJLQDQG LVERWKPHDQLQJIXODQGVLJQL¿FDQW 7DEOH Table 8. Perceived web authoring skills: t-test for equality of the 2006 and 2009 means WWHVWIRU(TXDOLW\RI0HDQV Fourth
First
t
Degree of Freedom
p
Mean Difference
6WG(UURU Difference
Mean
2.98
2.08
5.219
162
0.000
0.906
0.174
6'
1.08
1.11
The size of the change on the Web Authoring scale is 0.81. This size of the change is high and shows a meaningful improvement between the two measurements. ',6&866,21$1'&21&/86,21
7KLVFKDSWHULVGHVLJQHGWRSUHVHQWWKH,&7LQWHJUDWLRQPRGHOWKDWZDVHQYLVLRQHG E\$&8LQUHVSRQVHWRH[SHFWHGSUHVHUYLFHSUHSDUDWLRQRIWHDFKHUVUDWLRQDOLVDWLRQ of education courses within competing skill demands and limitation of resources, 237
CHAPTER 16
and the technological and digital revolution that impacts the input and process IDFWRUVZLWKLQVFKRROVDQGFODVVURRPV7KHH[SHULHQFHRIWKHWHDFKLQJVWDIIDW$&8 and the researchers who monitored implementation of the model, indicate that such integration is possible. The preceding presentation shows that the education units or courses provide suitable contexts for students of teacher education colleges to GHYHORSWKHLUNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOVLQ,&7 0RUHWKDQRIWKHUHVSRQGHQWVLQLQGLFDWHGWKDWWKHLU¿UVWH[SHULHQFH with computers occurred between the ages of 13 and 18. These are the expected DJHV RI VHFRQGDU\ VFKRRO VWXGHQWV LQ 1HZ 6RXWK:DOHV
238
/21*,78',1$/678'<2)7+(5(/$7,216+,3« Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences QGHG +LOOVGDOH1- /DZUHQFH Earlbaum Associates. 'HSDUWPHQWRI(GXFDWLRQ6FLHQFHDQG7UDLQLQJ '(67 A Proposal for the Development of an ICT Competency Framework for Teachers&DQEHUUD $XWKRU )LQJHU * &KDUOHVWRQ ' 2¶%ULHQ 5 3XJK / &RQFHSWXDOLVLQJ WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ WHFKQRORJLHV ,&7V MRXUQH\V RI IXWXUH WHDFKHUV DQG SUDFWLVLQJ WHDFKHUV ¿QGLQJV FKDOOHQJHVDQGUHÀHFWLRQV,QEducational research, risks and dilemmas: NZARE/AARE Conference. $XFNODQG 1HZ=HDODQG 1RYHPEHU±'HFHPEHU +R: 8VHRILQIRUPDWLRQDQGPXVLFOHDUQLQJLQWKHVHDUFKIRUTXDOLW\HGXFDWLRQBritish Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1), 57–67. .DUDJLRUJL< &KDUDODPERXV. ,&7LQVHUYLFHWUDLQLQJDQGVFKRROSUDFWLFHV LQVHDUFKIRUWKH impact. Journal of Education for Teaching. 32(4), 395–411. /LP & +XQJ ' :RQJ 3 +X & 7KH SHGDJRJLFDO GHVLJQ RI ,&7 LQWHJUDWLRQ LQ RQOLQH OHDUQLQJ $FDVHVWXG\International Journal of Instructional Media, 31(1), 37–47. /RXJKODQG7 0H\HQQ% ,QIRUPDWLRQWHFKQRORJ\DFURVVWKHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQFXUULFXOXP More claims than evidence. Change: Transformations in Education, 6 (2), 102–108. 0DUNDXVNDLWH/ Exploring differences in trainee teachers. ICT literacy: Does gender matter? 6\GQH\ $XWKRU 0DUNDXVNDLWH/ *HQGHULVVXHVLQSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUV¶WUDLQLQJ ,&7OLWHUDF\DQGRQOLQHOHDUQLQJ Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(1), 1–20. 0F1DLU9 *DODQRXOL' ,QIRUPDWLRQDQG&RPPXQLFDWLRQVWHFKQRORJ\LQWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQ &DQDUHÀHFWLYHSRUWIROLRHQKDQFHUHÀHFWLYHSUDFWLFH"Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 11(2), 181–196. 1HZ6RXWK:DOHV,QVWLWXWHRI7HDFKHUV Professional Teaching Standards6\GQH\ $XWKRU 1LFKROVRQ0 6DQEHU6 -XO\ ,QWHJUDWLQJ,&7LQWRSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPV &KDOOHQJH DQG UHVSRQVH 3DSHU SUHVHQWHG DW WKH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 6WXG\ $VVRFLDWLRQ RQ 7HDFKHUV DQG 7HDFKLQJ ,6$77 5HWULHYHG IURP KWWS ZZZLVDWWRUJ,6$77SDSHUV,6$77SDSHUV1LFKRO VRQB ,QWHJUDWLQJ,&7LQWRSUHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPVSGI. 5XGG.6PLWK6 &RQZD\6 A Digital Revolution: An Election Policy&DQEHUUD&LW\$&7 *DUWUHOO 6DQEHU61LFKROVRQ0 0F1DPDUD6 -XO\ Teacher educators and the integration of ICT into education studies sequence: Threats and opportunities3DSHUSUHVHQWHGDWWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO6WXG\ $VVRFLDWLRQRQ7HDFKHUVDQG7HDFKLQJ ,6$77 5HWULHYHGIURPKWWS ZZZLVDWWRUJ,6$77SDSHUV ,6$77SDSHUV6DQEHUB7HDFKHU(GXFDWRUVDQGWKH,QWHJUDWLRQRI,&7LQWR(GXFDWLRQ6WXGLHV6HTXHQFH pdf. 6R +- .LP % /HDUQLQJ DERXW SUREOHP EDVHG OHDUQLQJ 6WXGHQW WHDFKHUV LQWHJUDWLQJ technology, pedagogy and content knowledge. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 25(1), 101–116. KWWS ZZZDVFLOLWHRUJDXDMHWDMHWVRKWPO. 6WHNHWHH & ,QWHJUDWLQJ ,&7 DV DQ LQWHJUDO WHDFKLQJ DQG OHDUQLQJ WRRO LQWR SUHVHUYLFH WHDFKHU training courses. Issues in Educational Research, 15(10), 101–112. 6WHNHWHH& 0RGHOOLQJ,&7LQWHJUDWLRQLQWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQFRXUVHVXVLQJGLVWULEXWHGFRJQLWLRQDV a framework. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(1), 126–144. :DQJ< :KHQWHFKQRORJ\PHHWVEHOLHIV 3UHVHUYLFHWHDFKHUV¶SHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHWHDFKHUV¶UROH in the classroom with computers. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(1), 150–162. :DWVRQ*3URFWRU5)LQJHU* /DQJ: $XGLWLQJWKH,&7H[SHULHQFHVRIWHDFKHUHGXFDWLRQ undergraduates. Australian Educational Computing, 19(1), 3–10.
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Items that formed the four factors
Loadings
General problem solving skills Outline a plan for the solution of information-based learning or research task
.742
Find information and select appropriate tools for the solution of a problem
.774
0DQDJHLQIRUPDWLRQWKDW,KDYHFROOHFWHGRUJHQHUDWHG
.685
,QWHJUDWHLQIRUPDWLRQ
.766
Evaluate information and problem solutions
.832
Produce a solution to a problem
.801
Collaborate and communicate with various people in a variety of contexts
.739
Convey a solution in a variety of forms and to different audiences
.762
-XGJHWKH¿QDOSURGXFW
.836
5HÀHFWRQP\SUREOHPVROYLQJSURFHVV
.790
Basic computing skills Operate a computer and software
0.850
0DQDJH¿OHVIROGHUVDQGKDQGOHRWKHUFRPSXWHUVWRUDJHWDVNV
0.788
Perform basic tasks common to many software applications
0.831
Perform advanced tasks common to many software applications
0.760
Perform basic word processing tasks
0.758
Create simple images
0.543
1DYLJDWHWKH,QWHUQHWDQGDFFHVVRWKHUGLJLWDOUHVRXUFHV
0.689
6HDUFKDQGJDWKHULQIRUPDWLRQIURPWKH,QWHUQHWDQGRWKHUGLJLWDO resources
0.667
(YDOXDWHWKHUHOHYDQFHDQGTXDOLW\RIGLJLWDOUHVRXUFHVDQGLQIRUPDWLRQ 0.599 Communicate with others via email and other network tools
0.822
Commonly used text and data processing skills Perform advanced document formatting tasks
0.642
Manage simple data using spreadsheets
0.741
Manipulate data and solve various problems using spreadsheets
0.803
8VHH[LVWLQJGDWDEDVHV
0.698
Design and manipulate my own databases
0.759
Design presentations with multimedia elements
0.732
240
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Items that formed the four factors
Loadings
Edit and design graphics
0.602
Web authoring skills Create a basic web page
0.765
Create and maintain a multi-page website
0.798
3XEOLVKDQGGHOLYHUWKHUHVXOWVRIDUHVHDUFKDFWLYLW\XVLQJ,&7SUHVHQtation tools and networks
0.735
&ROODERUDWHZLWKRWKHUVXVLQJYDULRXV,&7WRROV
0.750
8VHSODQQLQJDQGGHFLVLRQVXSSRUWWRROV
0.684
241
CHAPTER 17
PROFESSIONAL LINKS – PROFESSIONAL SUPPORT: PROMOTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY PEDAGOGY AND TEACHERS’ SELF-EFFICACY IN THE USE OF ICT WITHIN A SUPPORTIVE PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITY Carolyn Broadbent, Maureen Boyle and Jo Brady
,1752'8&7,21
The research reported in this paper has been developed to support the priorities of WKH 1DWLRQDO &HQWUH IRU 6FLHQFH ,&7 DQG 0DWKHPDWLFV (GXFDWLRQ IRU 5XUDO DQG 5HJLRQDO$XVWUDOLD 6L0(55 WKURXJKWKHZRUNRILWVORFDO+XEZKLFKLVORFDWHG DW $XVWUDOLDQ &DWKROLF 8QLYHUVLW\ LQ &DQEHUUD $XVWUDOLD 7KH &HQWUH DLPV WR support student achievement and to enhance teacher growth through research and professional learning, by working collaboratively with communities, educational DXWKRULWLHVSURIHVVLRQDODVVRFLDWLRQVDQGLQGXVWU\JURXSV,QSDUWLFXODUWKH&HQWUH seeks to address problems faced by teachers who otherwise might be professionally isolated in rural and regional areas. 7KLV 6L0(55 SURMHFW DLPV WR SURPRWH WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI TXDOLW\ SHGDJRJ\ DQGWHDFKHUV¶VHOIHI¿FDF\LQWKHXVHRILQWHUDFWLYHZKLWHERDUGVLQWKHLUFODVVURRPV through the establishment of a professional learning community, which brings toJHWKHUDXQLYHUVLW\WHDFKHUVOHDUQLQJWHFKQRORJ\RI¿FHUVDQGVHOHFWHGVFKRROVLQ rural, regional and urban settings. The paper provides an overview of the implementation and evolutionary development of the research project with reference WR WKH VWUXFWXUH DQG UDWLRQDOH IRU WKH SURMHFW DQG WKH TXDOLWDWLYH DQG TXDQWLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK PHWKRGRORJLHV XVHG7KHVH LQFOXGH WKH FROOHFWLRQ RI GDWD WKURXJK TXHVtionnaires, semi-focused interviews with teachers and students, and lesson observaWLRQV LQFOXGLQJ YLGHRWDSHG OHVVRQV RI WHDFKHUV¶ XVH RI LQWHUDFWLYH ZKLWHERDUGV LQ their classrooms. Research outcomes to date, the teaching strategies used and the challenges faced during the conduct of the research, are presented. 7KHSDSHUKLJKOLJKWVWKHEHQH¿WVWKDWDFFUXHZKHQUXUDODQGUHJLRQDOFRPPXQLties are provided with support for the development of learning that addresses idenWL¿HGQHHGV,QDJHRJUDSKLFDOO\ODUJHFRQWLQHQWVXFKDV$XVWUDOLDWKLVDVSHFWLVRI particular importance. Finally, it is argued that collaborative partnerships between universities, schools and the wider educational community are to be encouraged as WKH\KDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOWRUHYLWDOLVHWHDFKHUV¶SURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJFUHDWHDYHQXHV A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 243–257. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
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for the construction of new knowledge and development of skills, and, through SXUSRVHIXO DQG PXWXDOO\ UHFLSURFDO HQJDJHPHQW FDQ OHDG WR PRUH HTXLWDEOH DQG sustainable outcomes for all. /,7(5$785(5(9,(:
7KHXVHRI,QIRUPDWLRQDQG&RPPXQLFDWLRQ7HFKQRORJLHV ,&7 KDVEHHQDIHDWXUH in the provision of education and training around the world for at least the last GHFDGH ,WV XVH QRZ H[WHQGV EH\RQG WKH WUDGLWLRQDO SDWWHUQ RI VWXGHQWV XVLQJ computers and associated software in a desktop or computer laboratory situation WRDPXFKPRUHLQWHUDFWLYHOHDUQLQJH[SHULHQFH .HQQHZHOO %HDXFKDPS 0RVVHWDO :DOODFH $PRQJVWWKHQHZHUDVSHFWVRIWKHWHFKQRORJ\ LVWKHXVHRIWRXFKVHQVLWLYHZKLWHERDUGVFUHHQVRULQWHUDFWLYHZKLWHERDUGV ,:%V with access to the internet, as well as the possibility of development of email-based learning communities which can link and support students and teachers in diverse educational locations. $ UHYLHZ RI VWXGLHV XQGHUWDNHQ WR LQYHVWLJDWH WKH XVH DQG LPSDFW RI ,&7 RQ VWXGHQWOHDUQLQJLQ(8FRXQWULHVKLJKOLJKWVWKHXQHYHQSURJUHVVDQGFRQVLGHUDEOH GLIIHUHQFHVZLWKLQDQGEHWZHHQFRXQWULHVDQGVFKRROVLQWKHXSWDNHDQGXVHRI,&7 %DODQVNDW %ODPLUH .HIDOD 7KLV UHYLHZ IRXQG WKDW LQ PDQ\ FRXQWULHV PRVWVFKRROVDUHLQWKHHDUO\SKDVHRI,&7DGRSWLRQZLWKYHU\XQHYHQFRRUGLQDWLRQ RISURYLVLRQDQGXVHRIWKHWHFKQRORJ\,WUHSRUWVWKDWWKHUHZDVVRPHHQKDQFHPHQW LQWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVVµEXWQRSURIRXQGLPSURYHPHQWVLQOHDUQLQJDQGWHDFKLQJ¶ (Balanskat, et al., p. 2). The review draws on evidence from 17 recent impact studies and surveys ± LQFOXGLQJ ODUJH VFDOH LPSDFW VWXGLHV QDWLRQDO ,&7 SURJUDPV RU LQLWLDWLYHV QDWLRQDO LQVSHFWLRQ UHSRUWV DQG VSHFL¿F LQWHUYHQWLRQV UHVHDUFK UHYLHZV LQWHUQDWLRQDO DQG (XURSHDQ FRPSDULVRQV DQG (XURSHDQ FDVH VWXGLHV *LYHQ WKH FRQVLGHUDEOH LQYHVWPHQW ZRUOGZLGH LQ SURYLGLQJ ,&7 LQ VFKRROV DQG WKH UHFHQW IHGHUDO JRYHUQPHQW LQLWLDWLYHV LQ$XVWUDOLD WKLV (XURSHDQ 6FKRROQHW VWXG\ LV RI LPSRUWDQFHDVLWKLJKOLJKWVVSHFL¿FDVSHFWVUHJDUGLQJWKHSRVVLEOHUHVXOWVDQGYDOXH of this investment in the two major areas of learning outcomes and learners and teaching methodologies and teachers. 8VLQJ VL[ SUHGRPLQDQWO\ TXDQWLWDWLYH VWXGLHV WKH UHYLHZ VRXJKW WR HVWDEOLVK D FDXVDOOLQNEHWZHHQWKHXVHRI,&7DQGVWXGHQWRXWFRPHV,WDOVRHVWDEOLVKHGWKH FRQFHSWRIµHPDWXULW\¶ZKLFKLVWKHGHJUHHWRZKLFKRUJDQLVDWLRQVPDNHVWUDWHJLF DQGHIIHFWLYHXVHRI,&7WRLPSURYHHGXFDWLRQDORXWFRPHV7KHUHYLHZVXPPDULVHG LWV¿QGLQJVUHODWHGWRWKHLPSDFWRI,&7RQOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHVLQHLJKWVWDWHPHQWV ,&7 LPSDFWV SRVLWLYHO\ RQ HGXFDWLRQDO SHUIRUPDQFH LQ SULPDU\ VFKRROV particularly in English, and less so in science and not in mathematics (Machin, et al., 2006). 8VHRI,&7LPSURYHVDWWDLQPHQWOHYHOVRIVFKRROFKLOGUHQLQ(QJOLVKLQVFLHQFH and in design and technology between ages 7 and 16, particularly in primary schools (Harrison, et al., 2002). 244
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,Q2(&'FRXQWULHVWKHUHLVDSRVLWLYHDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQWKHOHQJWKRIWLPHRI ,&7XVHDQGVWXGHQWV¶SHUIRUPDQFHLQ3,6$PDWKHPDWLFVWHVWV 2(&' 6FKRROVZLWKKLJKHUOHYHOVRIµHPDWXULW\¶GHPRQVWUDWHDPRUHUDSLGLQFUHDVHLQ SHUIRUPDQFHVFRUHVWKDQWKRVHZLWKORZHUOHYHOV 8QGHUZRRGHWDO 6FKRROV ZLWK JRRG ,&7 UHVRXUFHV DFKLHYH EHWWHU UHVXOWV WKDQ WKRVH WKDW DUH SRRUO\HTXLSSHG 3LWWDUG%DQQLVWHU 'XQQ ,&7 LQYHVWPHQW LPSDFWV RQ HGXFDWLRQDO VWDQGDUGV PRVW ZKHQ WKHUH LV IHUWLOH JURXQGLQVFKRROVIRUPDNLQJHI¿FLHQWXVHRILW 0DFKLQHWDO %URDGEDQG DFFHVV LQ FODVVURRPV UHVXOWVLQ VLJQL¿FDQW LPSURYHPHQWV LQ SXSLOV¶ SHUIRUPDQFHLQQDWLRQDOWHVWVWDNHQDWDJH 8QGHUZRRG ,QWURGXFLQJ LQWHUDFWLYH ZKLWHERDUGV UHVXOWV LQ SXSLOV¶ SHUIRUPDQFH LQ QDWLRQDO tests in English (particularly for low achieving pupils and for writing), mathematics and science, improving more than that of pupils in schools without interactive whiteboards (Higgins, 2005). With regard to learners and learning, the overwhelming majority of these studies VKRZHG WKDW ,&7 GHYHORSV PRWLYDWLRQ DQG KDV D SRVLWLYH HIIHFW RQ EHKDYLRXU FRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGSURFHVVVNLOOV,WDOORZVJUHDWHUGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQDQGWDLORULQJRI programs to meet individual needs and facilitates more independent and effective learning. Multimedia and interactive content on interactive whiteboards was also reported to be more engaging and motivating, particularly for primary students ZKR SD\ PRUH DWWHQWLRQ GXULQJ OHVVRQV +LJJLQV ,Q D PRUH UHFHQW SDSHU +LJJLQV HW DO DUJXH WKDW LQ WHUPV RI WKH YDOXH JDLQHG IURP ,:%V LW LV the professional knowledge and skills of the teacher mediating interactions with VWXGHQWVWKDWLVPRVWEHQH¿FLDO 6LPLODUO\ WKH (XURSHDQ 6FKRROQHW UHSRUW RQ WKH XVH RI ,&7 DOVR GHPRQVWUDWHV a variety of areas of impact on teachers and teaching resulting from increased use RI WHFKQRORJ\ %DODQVNDW %ODPLUH .HIDOD SS ± 7KHVH LQFOXGH LQFUHDVHG HQWKXVLDVP DQG SRVLWLYH DWWLWXGHV E\ WHDFKHUV LQFUHDVHG HI¿FLHQF\ DQG collaboration between teachers in sharing lessons and curriculum plans, and enKDQFHPHQW RI WHDFKHUV¶ ,&7 VNLOOV +RZHYHU WKH XVH DQG LPSDFW RI ,&7 LV VWLOO highly dependent on how it is used, and the report highlights that as yet, teachers GRQRWH[SORLWWKHFUHDWLYHSRWHQWLDORI,&7DQGHQJDJHVWXGHQWVPRUHDFWLYHO\LQ WKH FUHDWLRQ RI NQRZOHGJH ,W DOVR VWDWHV WKDW WKH XVH RI ,&7 IRU FRPPXQLFDWLRQ ZLWKDQGEHWZHHQSXSLOVLVVWLOOLQLWVLQIDQF\ YDQ.HVVHOHWDO An extensive review of the literature regarding the introduction of interactive ZKLWHERDUGVLQHGXFDWLRQDOVHWWLQJVLVSURYLGHGE\6PLWK+LJJLQV:DOODQG0LOOHU (2005). Although the review found that teachers and students demonstrate a strong SUHIHUHQFH IRU WKH XVH RI ,:%V LW UHPDLQV XQFOHDU ZKHWKHU WKLV HQWKXVLDVP LV µWUDQVODWHGLQWRHIIHFWLYHDQGSXUSRVHIXOSUDFWLFH¶ S 7KHXQLTXHQHVVDQGYDOXH RI,:%WHFKQRORJ\LWLVDUJXHGµOLHVLQWKHSRVVLELOLW\IRUDQLQWHUVHFWLRQEHWZHHQ WHFKQRORJLFDODQGSHGDJRJLFLQWHUDFWLYLW\¶ S DQGIXUWKHUUHVHDUFKLVUHTXLUHG µLI SUDFWLWLRQHUV DUH WR XVH ,:% WHFKQRORJ\ LQ WKH IXWXUH DV WUDQVIRUPDWLRQDO GHYLFHV¶ S The potential for developing independent learning and more advanced skills in the use of interactive whiteboards in conjunction with other technology is discussed 245
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LQWKH/LFNKLOO/RGJH)LUVW6FKRROLQ:RUFHVWHUVKLUH(QJODQGRQOLQHUHSRUW At this primary school, seven-year-olds are involved in recording podcasts, holding interviews with scientists and monitoring weather stations. This approach highOLJKWVKRZ,&7WRJHWKHUZLWK,:%VFDQEHFRPHPXFKPRUHHIIHFWLYHWKDQMXVWDVD collaborative tool for communication. By focusing on the differing learning styles DQG HQJDJHPHQW LQ DFWLRQ UHVHDUFK WKLV DZDUG ZLQQLQJ VFKRRO ,&7 ([FHOOHQFH $ZDUGV /HDUQLQJDQGWHDFKLQJ 3ULPDU\ GHPRQVWUDWHVWKHZD\RIWKHIXWXUH IRU LQGHSHQGHQW OHDUQLQJ DW LWV EHVW 6RPHNK DQG +DOGDQH DOVR KLJKOLJKW WKH SRWHQWLDO RI ,:%V WR FUHDWH PRUH DXWKHQWLF FRQWH[WV IRU VLWXDWHG OHDUQLQJ E\ DVVLVWLQJWHDFKHUVFUHDWHOLQNVEHWZHHQWKHLUFODVVURRPVDQGVSHFL¿FDVSHFWVRIWKH outside world. This can result in more immersive and engaging environments for learning (Rudd, 2007). 5XGG DUJXHVWKDWZKLOHWKHOLWHUDWXUHPLJKWVXJJHVWWKDW,:%VKDYHWKH SRWHQWLDO WR µVXSSRUW H[WHQG DQG XOWLPDWHO\ WUDQVIRUP FODVVURRP SUDFWLFH¶ S WKHUHDUHVRPHGLI¿FXOWLHVLQDVFHUWDLQLQJWKHH[WHQWWRZKLFKWKH\DUHEHLQJXVHG to encourage greater interactivity and co-construction of knowledge by teachers DQGOHDUQHUV1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHUHLVVRPHHYLGHQFHWRVXJJHVWWKDWµIDFWRUVVXFKDV increasing familiarity, good training, time and space to practice and try new apSURDFKHVDQGWKHJURZWKLQWHDFKHUFRQ¿GHQFH¶DUHPRUHOLNHO\WRKDYHDSRVLWLYH impact on teaching and learning (p. 5). 0LOOHU*ORYHUDQG$YHULV SURYLGHHYLGHQFHRIWKUHHSHGDJRJLFSKDVHV WKDWWHDFKHUVSDVVWKURXJKDVWKH\OHDUQWRXVH,:%VHIIHFWLYHO\,QWKH¿UVWSKDVH the supported didactic phase, teachers use the technology in the same way as a standard whiteboard and not as an integral tool to concept development. There is little interactivity, discussion or student involvement. The second phase, interactive, involves deeper understanding of the technology and results in teachers enhancing WKHLUWUDGLWLRQDOWHDFKLQJSUDFWLFHE\XVLQJWKH,:%WRGHPRQVWUDWHFRQFHSWVDQG to challenge students to think by the use of a variety of verbal, visual and aesthetic VWLPXOL,QFRQWUDVWWKHWHDFKHUVZKRDUHVHHQWRXVH,:%VPRVWHIIHFWLYHO\DUHLQ the enhanced interactive phase. These teachers structure lessons so that there is FRQVLGHUDEOHRSSRUWXQLW\IRUVWXGHQWVWRUHVSRQGWRWKH,:%DVLQGLYLGXDOVSDLUV RUJURXSV7KH,:%LVXVHGDVDPHDQVRISURPRWLQJGLVFXVVLRQH[SODLQLQJSURcesses and developing hypotheses, which are then tested to exploit the interactive capacity of the technology. 2YHUDOOWKHUHYLHZVUHODWHGWRWKHXVHRI,:%VDQGWKHLULPSDFWLQWKHFODVVURRPGRQRWSURYLGHGH¿QLWLYHRXWFRPHV:KDWLVFOHDU5XGG DUJXHVLVWKH QHHGIRUIXUWKHUUHVHDUFKWKDWLV ORQJLWXGLQDO IRFXVHGRQSDUWLFXODUSHGDJRJLHVDQG pedagogical practices, interventionist, design focused, learner-centred and focused RQ DOWHUQDWLYH LPSDFW PHDVXUHV LQFOXGLQJ IRU H[DPSOH µWKH W\SH RI HGXFDWLRQDO IXWXUHV DQG G\QDPLF OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQWV UHTXLUHG IRU OHDUQHUV WR GHYHORS DSSURSULDWHVNLOOVDQGFRPSHWHQFLHVUHTXLUHGLQWKHVWFHQWXU\¶ S
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7KH 1DWLRQDO &HQWUH IRU 6FLHQFH ,QIRUPDWLRQ DQG &RPPXQLFDWLRQ 7HFKQRORJ\ DQG 0DWKHPDWLFV (GXFDWLRQ IRU 5XUDO DQG 5HJLRQDO $XVWUDOLD 6L0(55 ZDV established in 2006 in Australia to work with rural and regional communities to DFKLHYH LPSURYHG HGXFDWLRQDO RXWFRPHV IRU DOO VWXGHQWV LQ WKH DUHDV RI 6FLHQFH ,&7DQG0DWKHPDWLFV7KH&HQWUHZDVGHYHORSHGVRWKDW Parents can send their children to rural and regional schools and know they will H[SHULHQFHHTXDORSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUDTXDOLW\HGXFDWLRQ 6WXGHQWVFDQDWWHQGUXUDORUUHJLRQDOVFKRROVDQGUHDOLVHWKHLUDFDGHPLFSRWHQWLDO LQ6FLHQFH,&7DQG0DWKHPDWLFV DQG Teachers can work in rural and regional schools and be professionally connected DQGVXSSRUWHG 6L0(55ZHEVLWH 7KH SURMHFW UHSRUWHG LQ WKLV SDSHU VXSSRUWV WKH SULRULWLHV RI 6L0(55 WKURXJK WKH ZRUN RI LWV ORFDO +XE ZKLFK LV ORFDWHG DW$XVWUDOLDQ &DWKROLF 8QLYHUVLW\ LQ Canberra. The increasing use of interactive whiteboards, especially in primary FODVVURRPV 6PLWK HW DO .HQQHZHOO DQG D NHHQQHVV WR OHDUQ PRUH about the potential of interactive whiteboards to strengthen pedagogical practice in classrooms provided the impetus for the development of this collaborative reVHDUFKSURMHFWWKDWEURXJKWWRJHWKHUWHDFKHUVLQVFKRROVLQUXUDO16:DQGWKH$&7 DQGDOVRPHPEHUVRIWKH&DWKROLF(GXFDWLRQ2I¿FH &DQEHUUD*RXOEXUQ'LRFHVH ZKLFK HPSOR\V /HDUQLQJ7HFKQRORJLHV 2I¿FHUV WR ZRUN ZLWK VFKRROV WR GHYHORS SURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJSURJUDPVWKDWHQDEOHWHDFKHUVWRLPSOHPHQWTXDOLW\WHDFKLQJ SUDFWLFHVWKDWXWLOLVHOHDUQLQJWHFKQRORJLHV7KH2I¿FHUVZRUNFROODERUDWLYHO\ZLWK VWDIILQWKHSURYLVLRQRIVSHFL¿FSURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJRSSRUWXQLWLHVUHODWHGWRWKH GHOLYHU\RITXDOLW\OHDUQLQJDQGWHDFKLQJ SURYLVLRQRIDVVLVWDQFHZLWKWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIVRPHUHVRXUFHV DQGOLDLVRQZLWKWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVLQYROYHGLQWKHSURMHFW from 2006–2008. Project Participants – Phase One and Phase Two 7KUHHDFDGHPLFVWDIIPHPEHUVIURP$XVWUDOLDQ&DWKROLF8QLYHUVLW\ 7KUHH&(2 &DQEHUUD*RXOEXUQ SHUVRQQHO DQG )LIW\WHDFKHUVIURPHLJKWVFKRROVLQUXUDODQGUHJLRQDO16:DQG&DQEHUUD$&7
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colleagues. This new aspect of the project investigated and supported the teaching DQG OHDUQLQJ SURFHVV IROORZLQJ WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ RI ,:%V LQWR WKH FODVVURRPV DW 6DFUHG +HDUW &HQWUDO 6FKRRO &RRWDPXQGUD 16: 6W $QQH¶V &HQWUDO 6FKRRO 7HPRUD16: DQG6W0DU\¶V6FKRRO
Methodology 7KLV UHVHDUFK SURMHFW XWLOLVHV TXDOLWDWLYH DQG TXDQWLWDWLYH PHWKRGRORJLHV LQ WKH FROOHFWLRQ RI GDWD WKURXJK TXHVWLRQQDLUHV VHPLIRFXVHG LQGHSWK LQWHUYLHZV ZLWK teachers and students, and lesson observations, including videotaped lessons. 7KHUHVHDUFKDGGUHVVHVWKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQV :KDWEHQH¿WVDQGFRVWVKDYHUHVXOWHGIURPWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDSURIHVVLRQDO learning community for teachers and students in the participating schools? How has the use of the information and communication technologies assisted in building community and enhancing the learning outcomes for all participants? What implications are there from this study for the development of effective models of professional learning experiences for teachers in rural, regional and urban schools? Analysis and Discussion of Teacher Interviews Following each phase of the project, which involved a total of 50 teachers, 18 individual teacher interviews (tape recorded) lasting on average some 35–40 249
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minutes were used to explore the impact of the two phases of the project. Teachers were asked to comment on the development of their personal and professional use RI,:%VLQFODVVURRPSUDFWLFH4XHVWLRQVZHUHDOVRDVNHGUHJDUGLQJWKHFRQFHSWRI µRQVLWH¶UXUDOSURIHVVLRQDOGHYHORSPHQWDQGWKHFUHDWLRQRIDVXSSRUWLYHOHDUQLQJ community. 8VLQJ D VHPLVWUXFWXUHG LQWHUYLHZ VFKHGXOH WR JXLGH WKH GLVFXVVLRQV WHDFKHUV VSRNH IUDQNO\ DERXW WKHLU SHUVRQDO H[SHULHQFHV LQ DGDSWLQJ WR WKH XVH RI ,:%V 7KH\ FOHDUO\ DFNQRZOHGJHG WKDW LQLWLDOO\ WKH\ ZHUH YHU\ PXFK µRQ WKHLU RZQ¶ LQ many respects in learning how to use the boards as an integral part of day-to-day WHDFKLQJ7KHTXDOLWDWLYHGDWDJDWKHUHGIURPWKHGLVFXVVLRQDQGLQWHUYLHZJURXSV VXJJHVWVWKDWXVLQJDQ,:%IDFLOLWDWHVFXUULFXOXPLQWHJUDWLRQDQGWKHGHYHORSPHQW of information and communication technology skills. 7HDFKHUV DWWHQGLQJ WKH UHJLRQDO IRUXPV ZHUH DOVR RI WKH RSLQLRQ WKDW DQ ,:% enhances competency in literacy and numeracy, encourages deep engagement in learning, and strengthens visual learning processes. These perceptions are in accord ZLWK D VWXG\ E\ 0DQFKHVWHU 0HWURSROLWDQ 8QLYHUVLW\ SXEOLVKHG E\ %HFWD that found attainment gains, particularly in mathematics, science and English, reVXOWHGIURPWKHXVHRI,:%V7KHVHJDLQVZHUHKRZHYHUOLQNHGWRWKHOHQJWKRI WLPHWKDWVWXGHQWVKDGEHHQWDXJKWZLWKDQ,:% Themes arising from the Interviews The following analysis of data obtained during the 18 teacher interviews provides an insight into the views and thoughts of these teachers on their learning journey. Pedagogy and teaching style changes. $VGH¿QHGE\0LOOHUHWDO WHDFKHUVPRYHWKURXJKDVHULHVRISKDVHVDVWKH\DGRSWDQHZ,&7SHGDJRJLFDOIUDPHZRUN WKDW KDV DV LWV PDMRU IRFXV WKH µHQKDQFHPHQW¶ RI WKH µWHDFKLQJ¶ FRPSRQHQW RI WKHLU HYHU\GD\ FODVVURRP SUDFWLFH 7KH GLJLWDO FRQYHUJHQFH SURYLGHG E\ ,:% technology allows teachers to manage the teaching and learning process so that the class can interact much more effectively with the content and context of the lesson. 7HDFKHUV¶ FRPPHQWV RQ WKLV DVSHFW VKRZ FOHDUO\ WKH FKDQJHG SHGDJRJ\ WKDW WKH\ EHOLHYHKDGRFFXUUHGLQWKHLUFODVVURRPV 7KH,:%KDVRSHQHGXSP\SHGDJRJ\LQWKHZD\WKDWWKHFKLOGUHQDUHPXFK PRUHLQYROYHGLQWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVV,WDOORZVPRUHRIWKHWHFKQRORJ\VLGH RIWKLQJVWRFRPHLQWRWKHWHDFKLQJSURFHVV,WH[SRVHVWKHPVRPXFKPRUHWR DYDULHW\RIWHFKQRORJ\
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DQGSD\DWWHQWLRQDQGWHQVHFRQGVODWHUKHZDVRIIGRLQJVRPHWKLQJHOVH+H¶V QRWGRLQJWKLVQHDUO\VRPXFKQRZDVLW¶VDOOWKHUHLW¶VFRORXUIXOLW¶VLQWHUDFWLYHDQGKHJHWVDFKDQFHWRKDYHDJRRQWKHERDUGKLPVHOI7KH,:%KDV YHU\PXFKKHOSHGWKHVORZOHDUQHUV
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We have a shared drive and are putting things there but as we are all at differHQWOHYHOVWKLVZLOOWDNHWLPHWRGHYHORS
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Students’ Interview Responses )RFXVJURXSVRIDSSUR[LPDWHO\VWXGHQWVIURPHDFKRIWKHFODVVHV .LQGHUJDUWHQ –
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Written Evaluations of the Professional Development Courses ,QZULWWHQHYDOXDWLRQVRIWKH7ZLOLJKW:RUNVKRSVWHDFKHUVVWDWHGWKDWWKH\YDOXHG the use of small ability-based group instruction by more experienced peers (teachers from Phase One of the project) and the fact that these sessions were hands-on and LQWHUDFWLYH$V SDUW RI VHOIGLUHFWHG SHHU OHDUQLQJ WKH\ LGHQWL¿HG LQGLYLGXDO DUHDV IRU VXEVHTXHQW ZRUNVKRSV DQG FRPPHQWHG WKDW WKH ZRUNVKRSV ZHUH µexcellent value’ and µ, ZLOO QRZ XVH WKH ,:% DV D VSULQJERDUG IRU KLJKHU RUGHU WKLQNLQJ¶ ,QZULWWHQHYDOXDWLRQVRIWKHIXOOGD\WUDLQLQJFRXUVHEDVHGRQWKHXVHRI,:%VWR develop the pedagogy of higher-order thinking in the classroom, rural and regional WHDFKHUV UDWHG LWV RYHUDOO YDOXH DV ([FHOOHQW 9HU\ JRRG *RRG 7KHYDOXHRIWKHFRXUVHZDUHPDQXDODQG&'RIOHVVRQVSURYLGHGWRHDFK SDUWLFLSDQWGXULQJWKLVFRXUVHZDVDOVRKLJKO\UDQNHGDV ([FHOOHQW 9HU\ JRRG *RRG 7KH WHDFKHUV¶ ZULWWHQ FRPPHQWV KLJKOLJKWHG WKHLU JURZLQJ SHUFHSWLRQ RI WKH YDOXH RI ,:%V LQ WKHLU FODVVURRPV $V RQH WHDFKHU FRPPHQWHG VKH µFRXOG QRW imagine being without it’ and the use of the interactive whiteboard had given her µD new lease of life trying out other things and manipulating objects’. Another teacher felt she now had µDQHZIRFXVDQGWKDWKHUWHDFKLQJZDVPXFKPRUHLQWHUDFWLYH¶ 7KH RQOLQH OHDUQLQJ FRPPXQLW\ ZDV VHHQ E\ D VLJQL¿FDQW SHUFHQWDJH RI UHVSRQdents to provide ongoing professional support and development of best practice for isolated teachers. The fact that much of the project was facilitated in the rural ORFDWLRQZDVSDUWLFXODUO\DSSUHFLDWHG)RFXVJURXSDQDO\VLVDOVRLGHQWL¿HGJUHDWHU WHDFKHUVHOIHI¿FDF\DQGIXUWKHUVWXGHQWOHDUQLQJHQKDQFHPHQW7KLVZDVWUXHIRU ERWKUXUDODQGUHJLRQDOWHDFKHUV*LYHQWKHZLGHYDULDWLRQLQOHQJWKRIWLPHWKDWWKH WHDFKHUVLQWKLVVWXG\KDGEHHQZRUNLQJZLWK,:%VIURPWKUHHZHHNVWRWZR\HDUV WKHLQWHUYLHZVUHYHDOHGHYLGHQFHRIDOOWKUHHSHGDJRJLFSKDVHV VXSSRUWHGGLGDFWLF LQWHUDFWLYHDQGHQKDQFHGLQWHUDFWLYH 0LOOHU*ORYHU $YHULV DPRQJWKH teachers in this project. &21&/86,21
This project has led to the development of an effective professional community of practice and an emerging on-line support network that provides access to current resources and professional learning opportunities. The network assisted teachers to use and integrate information and communication technologies in their classrooms, with a particular focus on enhancing pedagogical knowledge in the use of interactive whiteboards. ,QFUHDVHG FROODERUDWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH &(2 &DQEHUUD*RXOEXUQ $XVWUDOLDQ 255
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&DWKROLF8QLYHUVLW\VFKRROVDQGWHDFKHUVZRUNHGHIIHFWLYHO\WREXLOGDVXVWDLQDEOH SURIHVVLRQDOOHDUQLQJFRPPXQLW\IRFXVHGRQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRITXDOLW\SHGDJRJ\ DQGLQQRYDWRU\SUDFWLFHVLQVFKRROVWKDWSURPRWHVHIIHFWLYHDQGHTXLWDEOHOHDUQLQJ for all students. 7KH3URMHFW7HDPLVFRQ¿GHQWWKLVLQLWLDWLYHKDVPDGHDYHU\ZRUWKZKLOHFRQWULEXWLRQWRUHDOLVLQJWKHDLPVRI6L0(55WKURXJKLWVIRFXVRQVXSSRUWLQJWKHSURfessional learning of teachers in rural schools and thereby improving the learning outcomes of their students. The evidence to date suggests that classroom use of software and the internet not only improves the thirst for factual knowledge among students but also leads to more interactivity and co-construction of knowledge between teachers and students as, together, they explore the world in which they live. 7KH3URMHFW7HDPEHOLHYHVWKLVSURMHFWFRXOGEHUHJDUGHGDVDµOLJKWKRXVH¶PRGHO for future projects that link together urban, regional and rural school communities to create more authentic, complex and sustainable learning opportunities for all. 5()(5(1&(6 %DODQVNDW$ %ODPLUH 5 .HIDOD 6 The ICT Impact Report: A Review of Studies of ICT Impact on Schools in Europe (XURSHDQ6FKRROQHW$FFHVVHGDW KWWS LQVLJKWHXQRUJ Becta (2003). Using ICT to Enhance Home-school Links – An Evaluation of Current Practice in England, %HFWD8. Becta (2006). The Becta Review (2006) Evidence on the Progress of ICT in Education%HFWD8. Becta (2007). Evaluation of the Primary Schools Whiteboard Expansion Project, Education and Social Research Institute, 0DQFKHVWHU0HWURSROLWDQ8QLYHUVLW\8. +DUULVRQ & &RPEHU & )LVKHU 7 +DZ . /HZLQ & /XQ]HU ( 0F)DUODQH $ 0DYHUV ' 6FULPVKDZ36RPHNK% :DWOLQJ5 The Impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Pupil Learning and Attainment%HFWD8. +LJJLQV6 3ULPDU\VFKRROVWXGHQWV¶SHUFHSWLRQVRILQWHUDFWLYHZKLWHERDUGV, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21. +LJJLQV6%HDXFKDPS* 0LOOHU' 5HYLHZLQJWKHOLWHUDWXUHRQLQWHUDFWLYHZKLWHERDUGV Learning, Media and Technology, 32(3), 213–235. +LJJLQV6)DO]RQ&+DOO,0RVHOH\'6PLWK)6PLWK+ :DOO. Embedding ICT in the Literacy and Numeracy Strategies: Final Report&HQWUHIRU/HDUQLQJDQG7HDFKLQJ6FKRRORI (GXFDWLRQ&RPPXQLFDWLRQDQG/DQJXDJH6FLHQFHV1HZFDVWOH 8QLYHUVLW\RI1HZFDVWOHXSRQ7\QH 8. .HQQHZHOO 6 µ5HÀHFWLRQV RQ WKH ,QWHUDFWLYH:KLWHERDUG SKHQRPHQRQ 6\QWKHVLV RI UHVHDUFK IURPWKH8.¶, SDSHUSUHVHQWHGDWWKH$$5(&RQIHUHQFH$GHODLGH1RYHPEHU .HQQHZHOO 6 %HDXFKDPS * )HDWXUHV RI LQWHUDFWLYH ZKLWHERDUGV Learning, Media and Technology, 32(3), 227–241. Machin, 6 et al. (2006). New Technologies in Schools: Is There a Pay Off?,QVWLWXWHIRUWKH6WXG\RI /DERXU*HUPDQ\ 0LOOHU ' *ORYHU ' $YHULV ' Developing Pedagogic Skills for the Use of Interactive Whiteboards in Mathematics. 0RVV * -HZLWW & /HYDDLF 5 $UPVWURQJ 9 &DUGLQL $ &DVWOH ) 7KH ,QWHUDFWLYH :KLWHERDUGV3HGDJRJ\DQG3XSLO3HUIRUPDQFH(YDOXDWLRQ $Q(YDOXDWLRQRIWKH6FKRROV:KLWHERDUG ([SDQVLRQ 6:( 3URMHFW /RQGRQ&KDOOHQJH,QVWLWXWHRI(GXFDWLRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI/RQGRQ'I(6 /RQGRQ OECD (2004). Are Pupils Ready for a Technology-rich World? What PISA Studies Tell Us, OECD, France.
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352)(66,21$//,1.6±352)(66,21$/6833257 3LWWDUG 9 %DQQLVWHU 3 'XQQ - The Big pICTure: The Impact of ICT on Attainment, Motivation and Learning, 'I(6 3XEOLFDWLRQV 8. $FFHVVHG DW KWWS ZZZGIHVJRYXNUHVHDUFK GDWDXSORDG¿OHV7KHELJS,&7XUHSGI Ramboll Management. (2006). ELearning Nordic 2006: Impact of ICT on Education, Ramboll Management, Denmark. Rudd, T. (2007). Interactive whiteboards in the classroom)XWXUHODEUHSRUW$FFHVVHGDW www.futurelab. org.uk/events/listing/whiteboards/report 6FKXFN6 .HDUQH\0 Exploring Pedagogy with Interactive Whiteboards: A Case Study of Six Schools, &HQWUHIRU/HDUQLQJ,QQRYDWLRQ16:'(7 6L0(551DWLRQDO&HQWUHZHEVLWH$FFHVVHGDW www.une.edu.au/simerr/pages/index.php 6PLWK + +LJJLQV 6 :DOO . 0LOOHU - ,QWHUDFWLYH :KLWHERDUGV ERRQ RU EDQGZDJRQ" &ULWLFDOUHYLHZRIWKHOLWHUDWXUH¶Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(2), 91–101. 6RPHNK% +DOGDQH0 +RZFDQLQWHUDFWLYHZKLWHERDUGVFRQWULEXWHWRSHGDJRJLFFKDQJH" /HDUQLQJIURPFDVHVWXGLHVLQ(QJOLVKSULPDU\VFKRROV3DSHUSUHVHQWHGDW ,PDJLQLQJWKH)XWXUHIRU ,&7DQG(GXFDWLRQ&RQIHUHQFH±-XQH$OHVXQG1RUZD\$FFHVVHGDW ZZZL¿SLQI HOWHKXDOHVXQG"T QRGH 6RPHNK%/HZLQ&0DYHUV')LVKHU7+DUULVRQ&HWDO ImpaCT2 Pupils’ and Teachers’ Perceptions of ICT in the Home, School and Community,%HFWD8. 8QGHUZRRG-HWDO Impact of Broadband in Schools, 1RWWLQJKDP7UHQW8QLYHUVLW\%HFWD-XQH 2005. 8QGHUZRRG-HWDO ICT Test Bed Evaluation-Evaluation of the ICT Test Bed Project, 1RWWLQJKDP 7UHQW8QLYHUVLW\ 8.$FFHVVHGDW KWWS ZZZHYDOXDWLRQLFWWHVWEHGRUJXNDERXW 9DQ .HVVHO 1 HW DO µ,&7 (GXFDWLRQ 0RQLWRU (LJKW \HDUV RI ,&7 LQ VFKRROV¶ 1HWKHUODQGV 0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQ&XOWXUHDQG6FLHQFH :DOODFH$ 3UHVHQWDWLRQDW 'R,:%6KDYHDIXWXUHLQWKH8.FODVVURRP"Promethean / Futurelab debate/RQGRQ0D\
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CHAPTER 18
DESIGNING A PEDAGOGICAL MODEL FOR VIRTUAL REALITY AND SIMULATION-BASED LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS OF HEALTHCARE Tuulikki Keskitalo and Heli Ruokamo
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This research is designed to address the pedagogical use of virtual reality (VR) and simulation-based learning environments of healthcare. Pedagogical issues are VLJQL¿FDQWLVVXHVWRFRQVLGHUEHFDXVHVLPXODWLRQLWVHOILVQRWVXI¿FLHQWWRHQVXUH HIIHFWLYH OHDUQLQJ .QHHERQH $FFRUGLQJ WR 5DOO DQG 'LHFNPDQQ ³VLPXODWLRQ LQ VKRUW PHDQV WR GR VRPHWKLQJ LQ WKH µDV LI¶ WR UHVHPEOH µUHDOLW\¶ (always not perfectly, because then it would be reality again), e.g. to train or learn VRPHWKLQJZLWKRXWWKHULVNVRUFRVWVRIGRLQJLWLQUHDOLW\´ZKHUHDV³VLPXODWRUVDUH tools used to resemble parts of reality, mostly to allow simulations” (p. 2). Today, 95VKDYHFUHDWHGPRUHRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUH[SHULHQWLDOOHDUQLQJ:KLOH95LVGH¿QHG LQYDULRXVZD\VKRZHYHULQWKLVDUWLFOH95LVXVHGWRUHIHUWRWKHFRPELQDWLRQRI WHFKQLTXHV WKDW DUH XVHG WR FUHDWH DQG PDLQWDLQ UHDO RU LPDJLQDU\ HQYLURQPHQWV &REE )UDVHU 5LYD This research aims to develop a pedagogical model to support facilitating, training and learning (FTL) processes (cf. teaching, studying and learning (TSL), .DQVDQHQ 7LUUL 0HUL .URNIRUV +XVX -\UKlPl 8OMHQV LQ 95 DQGVLPXODWLRQEDVHGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWV$SHGDJRJLFDOPRGHO³FDQEHXVHGWR shape curriculums (long-term courses of studies), to design instructional materials, DQGWRJXLGHLQVWUXFWLRQLQWKHFODVVURRPDQGRWKHUVHWWLQJV´ -R\FH :HLO p. 1). An effective pedagogical model would make teachers aware of the different choices and means available and help in planning, realisation and evaluation of HGXFDWLRQLQ95DQGVLPXODWLRQEDVHGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWVZKLOHHQVXULQJWKDW VWXGHQWVEHQH¿WIURPWKHPRUHPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJH[SHULHQFH Designing a pedagogical model is conducted using the design-based research (DBR) method, which is based on continuous cycles of design, enactment, analysis DQGUHGHVLJQ %URZQ 'HVLJQEDVHG5HVHDUFK&ROOHFWLYH ,QWKLVDUWLFOHWKHWKHRUHWLFDOEDFNJURXQGVWKHSHGDJRJLFDOPRGHODQGWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQ as well as the preliminary results of the enactment of the pedagogical model and WKHGDWDFROOHFWLRQLQ$UFDGD8QLYHUVLW\RI$SSOLHG6FLHQFHV +HOVLQNL)LQODQG LQ VSULQJ DUHSUHVHQWHG7KH¿QDOUHVXOWVDUHSUHVHQWHGLQ.HVNLWDOR5XRNDPR DQG9lLVlQHQ )LQDOO\WKHUHGHVLJQHGPRGHOLVLQWURGXFHG A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 259–270. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
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Educational Use of VR and Simulation-based Learning Environments 6LPXODWRUVDQGVLPXODWLRQVIRUKHDOWKFDUHHGXFDWLRQKDYHEHHQLQWURGXFHGEHFDXVH WKH\FDQSURYLGHVWXGHQWVH[SHULHQWLDOOHDUQLQJRSSRUWXQLWLHVDQGVDIHDQGHI¿FLHQW HQYLURQPHQWIRUSUDFWLFH &OHDYH+RJJ 0RUJDQ $OVRSDWLHQWVDIHW\LVVXHV have been a strong motivator, because it is no longer acceptable that healthcare SHUVRQQHOJDLQWKHLUVNLOOVRQDFWXDOSDWLHQWVRUDQLPDOV *DED 5LYD $ VLPXODWLRQEDVHG FRXUVH LV W\SLFDOO\ VWUXFWXUHG DV IROORZV ,QWURGXFWLRQ 6LPXODWRU %ULH¿QJ 6FHQDULRV DQG 'HEULH¿QJ 'LHFNPDQQ *DED 5DOO cf. Learning through Simulations Model-R\FH&DOKRXQ +RSNLQV 2002). According to the model of Joyce and associates (2002, p. 136), in phase 1, Introduction, the facilitator presents the course topic and the most important concepts as well as explains the concept of simulation to the students. This phase should also include the explanations of how the course is organised as well as what kind of pedagogical models and methods are used. During phase 2, Simulator %ULH¿QJ, participants begin to enter into the simulation. This is the phase in which the facilitator introduces the scenario. As a learning trigger the facilitator can use problems or real-world examples. The second phase includes the introduction of WKH JRDOV RI WKH VLPXODWLRQ SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ UROHV UXOHV SURFHGXUHV DQG DQ\ GHFLVLRQV WKH\ ZLOO EH UHTXLUHG WR PDNH ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV VWXGHQWV QHHG WR NQRZ DQG XQGHUVWDQG ZKDW LV H[SHFWHG RI WKHP ,Q SKDVH Scenarios, students participate in the simulation. During this phase the students are active, while facilitators stay OLWWOH ELW DVLGH 6LPXODWLRQ WUDLQLQJ FRXOG LQYROYH WKH SUDFWLVLQJ RI EDVLF VNLOOV RU team skills, problem-solving and assessing performance and competency of indiYLGXDO RU WHDPV *DED ,Q SKDVH 'HEULH¿QJ, the facilitator encourages WKH VWXGHQWV WR DQDO\VH WKH HQWLUH SURFHVV IRU H[DPSOH KRZ WKH VFHQDULR ZHQW what problems were encountered, how was the learning process, and what has been OHDUQHG )DQQLQJ *DED ,QWKLVSKDVHLWLVDOVRLPSRUWDQWWRFRPSDUHWKH simulation to the real world, because students need to understand how the knowlHGJH DQG VNLOOV WKH\ KDYH OHDUQHG DUH DIIHFWHG E\ WKH XVH RI95 DQG VLPXODWLRQV /DQH6ODYLQ =LY Pedagogical Model for Virtual Reality and Simulation-based Learning *HQHUDOO\ WKLV UHVHDUFK EXLOGV RQ WKH VRFLRFRQVWUXFWLYLVW DQG VRFLRFXOWXUDO SHUVSHFWLYHVRQOHDUQLQJ /DYH :HQJHU 9\JRWVN\ ,QRWKHUZRUGV learning is related to all actions that take into account a person as a whole and the role of cultural tools and artefacts. Principles of the pedagogical model are derived from the idea of teaching, studying and learning (TSL SURFHVV .DQVDQHQHWDO 8OMHQV ±UHIHUUHGWRLQWKLVDUWLFOHDVIDFLOLWDWLQJWUDLQLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ FTL) ±DVZHOODVWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJ HJ-RQDVVHQ 1HYJL 7LUUL 5XRNDPR 3RKMRODLQHQ ,Q¿JXUHWKHSHGDJRJLFDOPRGHOIRU 260
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,QWKLVPRGHOIDFLOLWDWLRQLVYLHZHGDVWKHSXUSRVLYHDFWLYLW\RIIDFLOLWDWRUVDLPLQJ DW SURPRWLQJ WKH VWXGHQWV¶ PHDQLQJIXO OHDUQLQJ ZKLFK LQFOXGHV WUDLQLQJ DV ZHOO DV RXWFRPHV RI WKDW SURFHVV (QJHVWU|P +DNNDUDLQHQ -RQDVVHQ .DQVDQHQ HW DO +RZHYHU LW VKRXOG EH QRWHG WKDW OHDUQLQJ FRXOG EHXQFRQVFLRXV LQRWKHUZRUGVVWXGHQWVFDQOHDUQZLWKRXWDWHDFKHUDQGZLWKRXW VSHFL¿FDOO\GHFLGLQJWROHDUQVRPHWKLQJ .DQVDQHQHWDO $FFRUGLQJWRWKLV PRGHOWKHIDFLOLWDWRUV¶WDVNVLQFOXGHVWKHGHVLJQLQJRIDQ)7/SURFHVVWKDWNHHSV LQ PLQG WKH VSHFL¿F OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQW DQG OHDUQLQJ REMHFWLYHV DV ZHOO DV WKH VWXGHQWV¶ FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DQG FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI PHDQLQJIXO OHDUQLQJ$GGLWLRQDOO\ facilitator must choose appropriate scenario and resources as well as steer the activities of the students. The simulation course can be structured according to the Learning through Simulation Model -R\FHHWDO $WEHVW)7/FDQEHOHDG to learning, which is meaningful for the students and where the intended learning goals are met. A pedagogical model is based on the characteristics of meaningful learnLQJ ZKLFK SUHYLRXV VWXGLHV KDYH GH¿QHG VHYHUDO LQFOXGLQJ DFWLYH VHOI directed, constructive, individual, collaborative, contextual, intentional, and UHÀHFWLYH +DNNDUDLQHQ -RQDVVHQ 1HYJL 7LUUL 5XRNDPR 3RKMRODLQHQ 7LVVDUL9DKWLYXRUL+lQQLQHQ9DDWWRYDDUD5XRNDPR 7HOOD 261
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,QLWLDOO\+HO/DUHVHDUFKJURXS 7LVVDULHWDO GLVFRYHUHGWKDWVRPH of the characteristics of meaningful learning better describe the studying process, ZKLFKLVLQNHHSLQJZLWKWKHLGHDRIWKH76/SURFHVV+RZHYHULWVKRXOGEHQRWHG that these characteristics are interconnected and somewhat overlapping (Jonassen, ,Q WKLV PRGHO IROORZLQJ FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI PHDQLQJIXO OHDUQLQJ DUH VHlected from theories and results of previous researches, because we think that they EHVWGHVFULEHWKHWUDLQLQJLQ95DQGVLPXODWLRQEDVHGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWV Experiential and Experimental.([SHULHQFHVKDYHDQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQ95DQG VLPXODWLRQEDVHGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWV )DQQLQJ *DED ,QWKHOHDUQLQJ process, students can utilise their own experiences as the starting point for learning .ROE EXWWKH\DOVRKDYHDJUHDWRSSRUWXQLW\WRJDLQYDOXDEOHH[SHULHQFHV EHIRUHHQFRXQWHULQJWKHDFWXDOKHDOWKFDUHSUDFWLVH &OHDYH+RJJ 0RUJDQ 7KHIDFLOLWDWRUV¶UROHLVWRSURYLGHDFRQWH[WZKHUHH[SHULHQWLDODQGH[SHULPHQWDO WUDLQLQJLVSRVVLEOHDVZHOODVIDFLOLWDWHDQGJXLGHWKHVWXGHQWV¶OHDUQLQJ Emotional.(PRWLRQVDUHDOZD\VLQWHUWZLQHGZLWKOHDUQLQJ (QJHVWU|P The simulation setting could arouse strong feelings and motivation to learn, but DOVR GLVEHOLHI EHFDXVH RI LWV DUWL¿FLDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV 'LHFNPDQQ HW DO +RO]PDQHWDO 0RXOHHWDO 7KHVHDOODIIHFWPRWLYDWLRQEXWHPRtions also affect how we act in the simulation setting and what we remember later RQ 'DPDVLR 'LHFNPDQQ HW DO ,Q WKH OHDUQLQJ SURFHVV IDFLOLWDtors are responsible for orientating students towards learning and creating a safe HPRWLRQDOHQYLURQPHQWZKHUHPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJLVSRVVLEOH (QJHVWU|P )DQQLQJ *DED Socio-constructive and Collaborative. Practising in the simulation setting is a social process (Dieckmann, et al., 2007). As applied here, socio-constructivism and collaborative characteristics means that learners exploit each others skills and knowledge, provide support and modelling as well as construct their own knowledge while solving the healthcare cases together with other students (Jonassen, /DYH :HQJHU /HDUQLQJ LV DOVR VHHQ DV EHLQJ WRROGHSHQGHQW 9\JRWVN\ 6WXGHQWV LQWHUDFW ZLWK WKH HQYLURQPHQW VLPXODWRUV DQG RWKHU WHFKQLFDO GHYLFHV 95V VLPXODWLRQV DQG VLPXODWRUV KDYH DQ LPSDFW RQ ZKDW ZH learn and, therefore we should consider what is worthwhile to teach and train in VLPXODWLRQVHWWLQJV 6DODNDUL Active and Responsible. 6WXGHQWV DUH DFWLYH DQG UHVSRQVLEOH IRU WKHLU RZQ OHDUQLQJ )DQQLQJ *DED -RQDVVHQ 6WXGHQWV HQJDJH LQ SUREOHP VROYLQJPHDQLQJPDNLQJDQGSUDFWLVLQJRIVNLOOV,QRWKHUZRUGVWKH\DFTXLUHDQG HYDOXDWHLQIRUPDWLRQDVNTXHVWLRQVWU\RXWGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIKHDOWKFDUHHTXLSPHQW DQG VNLOOV DV ZHOO DV PRGHO DQG LPLWDWH 5XRNDPR 7XRYLQHQ 7HOOD 9DKWLYXRUL 7LVVDUL &RQVHTXHQWO\IDFLOLWDWRUVVKRXOGHPSOR\a cognitive apprenticeship approach to learning, acting as an expert learner modelling good strategies for OHDUQLQJ WKLQNLQJ DQG SUDFWLVLQJ RI VNLOOV WR QRYLFH OHDUQHUV &ROOLQV %URZQ 1HZPDQ 5HÀHFWLYH DQG &ULWLFDO $FFRUGLQJ WR -RQDVVHQ UHÀHFWLYLW\ PHDQV WKDW ³OHDUQHUV DUWLFXODWH ZKDW WKH\ KDYH OHDUQHG DQG UHÀHFW RQ WKH SURFHVVHV DQG GHFLVLRQV WKDW ZHUH HQWDLOHG E\ WKH SURFHVV´ S 5HÀHFWLYLW\ LV DOVR UHODWHG WR 262
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OHDUQHUV¶PHWDFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV 0RUULV ,QVLPXODWLRQEDVHGWUDLQLQJWKHUROH RIGHEULH¿QJLVKLJKO\HPSKDVLVHGEHFDXVHLWJLYHVWKHVWXGHQWVDQRSSRUWXQLW\WR UHÀHFWRQWKHLUOHDUQLQJDVZHOODVUHFHLYHDQGJLYHIHHGEDFN ,VVHQEHUJ0F*DJKLH 3HWUXVD*RUGRQ 6FDOHVH ,QKLJKHUHGXFDWLRQVOHDUQHUVVKRXOGDOVRFULWLFDOO\HYDOXDWHWKHLURZQOHDUQLQJDQGDFTXLUHGLQIRUPDWLRQDVZHOODVWKHOHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQW(VSHFLDOO\LQWKH95DQGVLPXODWLRQEDVHGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWLW LVLPSRUWDQWWRFRPSDUHVLPXODWLRQWRWKHUHDOZRUOG /DQHHWDO 2YHUDOO WHDFKHUVDUHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHJXLGDQFHRIVWXGHQWV¶UHÀHFWLRQ Competence-based and Contextual. Facilitators should structure the simulationEDVHG WUDLQLQJ ZKLOH NHHSLQJ LQ PLQG WKH VSHFL¿F OHDUQLQJ REMHFWLYHV )DQQLQJ *DED 7KHVH OHDUQLQJ REMHFWLYHV DUH XVXDOO\ HPEHGGHG LQWR D VFHQDULR where a problem or case could function as a trigger for learning (Jonassen, 1995). /HDUQLQJLVDOVRFRQWH[WXDO2QHFOHDUEHQH¿WEURXJKWDERXWE\WKHVHHQYLURQPHQWV is their ability to narrow the relationship between theory and practise, thus enhancing the transfer of learned skills and knowledge into an actual situation (Cleave+RJJ 0RUJDQ Goal-oriented and Self-directed. 6WXGHQWV VKRXOG VHW DQG WU\ WR DFKLHYH WKHLU RZQJRDOV HJ-RQDVVHQ 1HYJL 7LUUL E\SODQQLQJH[HFXWLQJDQG evaluating their own learning. This will also enhance the motivation and commitPHQWWRWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVVDFFRUGLQJWR.QRZOHV &RQVHTXHQWO\WHDFKHUV SOD\ D NH\ UROH LQ IDFLOLWDWLQJ DQG PDLQWDLQLQJ WKH VWXGHQWV¶ OHDUQLQJ SURFHVV ,Q particular teachers need sensitivity to recognise when students are going off-track or when they need support or additional guidance. Individual. /HDUQHUV DUH LQGLYLGXDOO\ GLIIHUHQW 'H &RUWH DQG WKH\ DOVR SHUFHLYHWKHOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWLQGLYLGXDOO\ 1HYJL 7LUUL $V-RQDVVHQ /HH
,QWKLVVWXG\WKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQLVDVIROORZV From the students’ perspective, what were the most important characteristics of meaningful learning that were realized during the simulation-based learning? 263
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Designing a pedagogical model was conducted using the DBR method. DBR is based on continuous and iterative cycles of design, enactment, analysis and UHGHVLJQ %URZQ 'HVLJQEDVHG 5HVHDUFK &ROOHFWLYH ,Q RXU '%5 the pedagogical model has been designed according to the theories and results RI SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFKHV .HVNLWDOR .HVNLWDOR LQ SURJUHVV 7KH QH[W SKDVH LQFOXGHG WKH HQDFWPHQW RI WKH SHGDJRJLFDO PRGHO DW WKH $UFDGD 3DWLHQW 6DIHW\ DQG/HDUQLQJ&HQWHULQ$UFDGD8QLYHUVLW\RI$SSOLHG6FLHQFHVDVZHOODVWKHGDWD collection and analysis. '$7$&2//(&7,21$1'$1$/<6,6
Altogether, 14 (6 males, 8 females) second-year paramedic students and four (4 males) facilitators participated in the seven-weeks course titled The Treatment of Critically Ill Patient during April and May, 2009. Before starting the teaching experiment, the pedagogical model was introduced to all participants and they also VLJQHGWKHFRQVHQWIRUP6WXGHQWVKDG¿YHOHVVRQVDWWKH$UFDGD3DWLHQW6DIHW\DQG /HDUQLQJ&HQWHUDVZHOODVOHFWXUHVDQGSHULRGVRIVHOIVWXG\'XULQJWKHWUDLQLQJ sessions, the students worked in teams on scenarios related to the topic areas. The structure of the course followed the Learning through Simulations Model (Joyce, HW DO 'DWD ZDV FROOHFWHG XVLQJ PXOWLSOH PHWKRGV ,Q WKLV UHVHDUFK WKH VWXGHQWV¶LQWHUYLHZVDQGOHDUQLQJGLDULHVKDYHEHHQDQDO\VHG6WXGHQWVZURWHWKHLU OHDUQLQJGLDULHVDWWKHHQGRIWKHHYHU\VHVVLRQLQWKHVLPXODWLRQFHQWUH6WUXFWXUHG interviews were carried out and recorded at the end of the course in May 2009 and these ranged in length from 25 to 90 minutes. The data was transcribed by the research assistant. $QDO\VLVZDVSHUIRUPHGXVLQJWKHFRQWHQWDQDO\VLVPHWKRG %UHQQHU%URZQ &DQWHU $QDO\VLV EHJDQ E\ UHDGLQJ WKH VWXGHQWV¶ LQWHUYLHZV DQG GLDULHV LQ RUGHUWRREWDLQDQRYHUDOOSLFWXUHRIWKHSKHQRPHQRQ,QWKHVHFRQGSKDVHWHQWDWLYH FDWHJRULHV ZHUH IRUPXODWHG UHÀHFWLQJ WKH SXUSRVH RI WKH UHVHDUFK7KH FKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJFRPSULVHWKHPDLQFDWHJRULHVRIWKLVVWXG\,QD WKLUGSKDVHDFORVHUDQDO\VLVZDVPDGHIURPWKHTXDOLWDWLYHPDWHULDO WKHFDWHJRULHV ZHUHVSHFL¿HGDQGWKHQFRPSDUHGWRWKHWKHRU\ 35(/,0,1$5<5(68/76
The preliminary results indicate that the use of simulations supported the experiential, experimental, socio-constructive, collaborative, active, responsible, UHÀHFWLYH FRPSHWHQFHEDVHG FRQWH[WXDO and self-directed characteristics of meaningful learning most clearly. The emotional, critical, goal-oriented and individual FKDUDFWHULVWLFV ZHUH QRW IXOO\ UHDOL]HG *HQHUDOO\ WKHVH FKDUDFWHULVWLFV were emphasised by some of the students, but not all. 264
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,QWKLVUHVHDUFKVWXGHQWVVDZWKDWWKH\FRXOGXVHWKHLURZQH[SHULHQFHVSUHYLRXV NQRZOHGJHDQGH[HUFLVHVDVDVWDUWLQJSRLQWIRUOHDUQLQJ .ROE $GGLWLRQDOO\ VWXGHQWVIHOWWKDWWKH\KDGDQRSSRUWXQLW\WRWU\RXWGLIIHUHQWNLQGRIUROHVHTXLSPHQW DQG VLWXDWLRQV ,QWHUYLHZV DOVR UHYHDOHG WKDW VWXGHQWV OHDUQ IURP WKHLU RZQ experience as well as viewing the practice of others. As these two students have GHVFULEHG ,GRE\P\VHOILQWKHVLPXODWLRQURRPWKDWZD\,OHDUQLWEHWWHU Student 8, Interview) ,KDYHOHDUQHGE\ZDWFKLQJKRZWKHRWKHUVKDYHGRQH« 6WXGHQW'LDU\) ,Q WKLV VWXG\ WKH H[SHULHQFHG VWXGHQWV HPSKDVLVHG PRUH WKH H[SHULHQWLDO characteristics of learning, while those students who had not so much former experience valued the experimental characteristics. As one of the experienced VWXGHQWVWDWHG ,FDQSUHVHQWP\RZQYLHZVDQGWHOOZKDWNLQGRIMREV,KDYHKDGDQGZHFDQ JRWKURXJKWKRVHDQGRQWKHRWKHUKDQG,H[SUHVVWKRVHEHFDXVHWKRVH H[periences) could be useful also for my fellow students. (Student 6, Interview) During the simulation-based training, students worked in teams, where they exploited each others skills and knowledge and also had to negotiate and decide on, e.g., the treatment of the patient and the work diagnoses. Therefore, training was highly supportive for the socio-constructive and collaborative characteristics. 7KHVWXGHQWV¶UROHDVDFWLYHOHDUQHUZDVDOVRFUXFLDO DVRQHRIWKHVWXGHQWVWDWHG «ZHKDYHWREHDFWLYHWKDWZHFDQKDYHPRVWRILW 6WXGHQW, Interview) ,Q GHEULH¿QJ 'LHFNPDQQ HW DO FI -R\FH HW DO VWXGHQWV ZHQW WKURXJK WKH ZKROH OHDUQLQJ SURFHVV WKH FRQWHQWVSHFL¿F WRSLFV VXFFHVVHV DQG failures as well as the process of teamwork. Thus simulation-based facilitating and WUDLQLQJ ZDV VXSSRUWLYH IRU UHÀHFWLYH FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI PHDQLQJIXO OHDUQLQJ ,Q WKLV FRXUVH IDFLOLWDWRUV VRPHWLPHV XVHG WKH YLGHRUHFRUGLQJV WR VXSSRUW VWXGHQWV¶ UHÀHFWLRQDQGGLVFXVVLRQ6WXGHQWVIHOWWKDWLWZDVXVHIXODQGDLGHGWKHLUOHDUQLQJ however, they also stated that it took away too much time from actual training. ,QWHUYLHZVDOVRLQGLFDWHGWKDWVLPXODWLRQVSURYLGHGDQH[FHOOHQWPHDQVWRSURPRWH WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHVWXGHQWV¶PHWDFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV 0RUULV VLQFHLWFRXOG YHU\ KDUVKO\ H[SRVH WKH OHYHO RI RQH¶V FRPSHWHQFH FI &OHDYH+RJJ 0RUJDQ 2002). Therefore, students usually studied the learning material before and after the training in the simulation-based learning environment in order to obtain the learning goals set for the course and to master the situation. 7KRVHGH¿FLHQFLHV,UHSODFHMXVWVHOIVWXG\LQJLQIDFW«MXVWUHDGLQJ Student ,QWHUYLHZ) 265
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, ZDV LOOSUHSDUHG IRU WKH UHKHDUVDO RI WKH GD\ DQG LW LQÀXHQFHG VLPXODWLRQ H[HUFLVHQHJDWLYHO\%HFDXVH,KDYHQ¶WUHDG Student 2, Diary) This study was strongly encouraged by the teachers and it also showed that students felt that they were responsible for their own learning. The competence-based and contextual characteristics were emphasised, since the scenarios and the learning goals were based on the competencies and the situations students need to cope with real life. The ability of simulation-based learning environment to aid the transfer of OHDUQHGVNLOOVLQWRDQDFWXDOVLWXDWLRQZDVFOHDUO\HPSKDVLVHGDVRQHVWXGHQWVWDWHG «WKDW \RX FDQ XQGHUJR XQGHUJR GLIIHUHQW NLQG RI FDVHV DQG WKHQ DW WKH work, when you confront almost a similar case, you can think that, aah, this ZDVZKDWZHFRQFHQWUDWHGRQVFKRRO« Student 4, Interview) When it comes to the emotional aspect of learning, some students felt that training in a simulation-based learning environment raised positively as well as negatively WRQHG IHHOLQJV LQFOXGLQJ ³DFFHOHUDWLRQ´ 6WXGHQW Interview ³DQJHU´ Student 2, Interview ³IUXVWUDWLRQ´ Student 9, Interview ³QHUYRXVQHVV´ 6WXGHQW Interview ³IHHOLQJV RI VDIHW\´ Student 6, Interview DQG ³LQVLJKW´ 6WXGHQW Interview), while others stated that the training was not emotionally involving. According to the students they have an opportunity to discuss about their feelings LQ GHEULH¿QJ LI WKH\ ZDQW EXW WKH\ DOVR IHOW WKDW LW LV QRW DOZD\V QHFHVVDU\ $GGLWLRQDOO\ VRPH VWXGHQWV VWDWHG WKDW WKH DUWL¿FLDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI VLPXODWLRQ PDGHLWVRPHWLPHVGLI¿FXOWWRHPSDWKL]HZLWKWKHVLPXODWLRQDQGHVSHFLDOO\ZLWK the simulator (cf. Dieckmann, et al., 2007). The critical aspect was occasionally emphasised, wherein students stated that they could critically evaluate their own learning. However, such critical evaluation of the information and the learning HQYLURQPHQW ZDV SHUIRUPHG WR D OHVVHU H[WHQW ,QWHUYLHZV UHYHDOHG WKDW D JRDO oriented characteristic was slightly supported. The learning objectives of the course were clear for some students, and some had even set up their own learning JRDOV \HWWKHUHZHUHVRPHVWXGHQWVZKRZHUHXQDZDUHZLWKWKHJHQHUDOOHDUQLQJ objectives. However, it should be remembered that during the scenarios, the patient care is always the most important goal and this was strongly acknowledged by the students. Collaborative work of students may be the factor why individuality of students were not so strongly emphasised. Especially, the experienced students were those who felt that they need more individual guidance and feedback. According to students, it depends also from their activity if their individuality was taking into account. 5('(6,*1('02'(/$1'&21&/8',1*5(0$5.6
,Q WKLV DUWLFOH ZH KDYH LQWURGXFHG WKH SHGDJRJLFDO PRGHO ZKLFK FDQ EH XVHG LQ educational practise within healthcare education as well as the preliminary results RI WKH ¿UVW WHDFKLQJ H[SHULPHQW DW WKH $UFDGD 8QLYHUVLW\ RI $SSOLHG 6FLHQFHV 266
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in spring 2009. According to these preliminary results the newly redesigned pedagogical model could be outlined (¿JXUH).
Figure 2. Redesigned VR and simulation-based learning model.
7KHSUHOLPLQDU\UHVXOWVVKRZWKDWVRPHRIWKHSUHGH¿QHGFKDUDFWHULVWLFVKDGDPRUH important role than others. The characteristics that were strongly supported were experiential, experimental, socio-constructive, collaborative, active, responsible, UHÀHFWLYH FRPSHWHQFHEDVHG FRQWH[WXDO and self-directed. These are presented LQ FDSLWDO OHWWHUV LQ ¿JXUH ,Q WKH IXWXUH ZH PXVW FRQVLGHU KRZ WKH emotional, critical, goal-oriented and individual characteristics could be fully realized, since WKH\DUHFUXFLDOSRLQWVZKHQSURPRWLQJPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJ +DNNDUDLQHQ Jonassen, 1995). The Learning through Simulation Model (Joyce, et al., 2002) is DOVRHPEHGGHGLQWKLVUHGHVLJQHGPRGHO,QRXU95DQGVLPXODWLRQEDVHGOHDUQLQJ PRGHOWKHLQWURGXFWLRQDQGVLPXODWRUEULH¿QJDUHFRQVLGHUHGDVEHLQJIDFLOLWDWRU OHGZKHUHDVWUDLQLQJLVVWXGHQWFHQWUHG7KHGHEULH¿QJSKDVHLVVLWXDWHGXQGHUWKH OHDUQLQJVLQFHLWLVSUHVXSSRVHGWKDWOHDUQLQJZLOORFFXUPRVWO\LQWKHGHEULH¿QJ However, this is just a tentative analysis and the analysis process must continue in order to obtain more an extensive and more reliable picture. Final results of the DQDO\VLVDUHSUHVHQWHGLQ.HVNLWDOR5XRNDPRDQG9lLVlQHQ DQGDOVRUHVW RIWKHGDWDZLOOEHDQDO\VHGLQFOXGLQJYLGHRUHFRUGLQJVTXHVWLRQQDLUHVDQGWHVWV Our DBR and the development of the pedagogical model continues by 267
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DUUDQJLQJ WKH WHDFKLQJ H[SHULPHQWV DW WKH &HQWUH IRU ,PPHUVLYH DQG 6LPXODWLRQ EDVHG /HDUQLQJ CISL LQ 6WDQIRUG 8QLYHUVLW\ 6FKRRO RI 0HGLFLQH 6WDQIRUG &$ 86$ DQG DW WKH (19, 9LUWXDO &HQWHU IRU :HOOQHVV &DPSXV LQ 5RYDQLHPL 8QLYHUVLW\RI$SSOLHG6FLHQFHV 5RYDQLHPL)LQODQG 7KHXOWLPDWHJRDORIWKHGHvelopment of the model is to aid healthcare education to pursue more theoretically MXVWL¿HG HGXFDWLRQ LQ95 DQG VLPXODWLRQEDVHG OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQWV DV ZHOO DV more meaningful learning of students. 5()(5(1&(6 %UHQQHU0%URZQ- &DQWHU' The Research Interview/RQGRQ $FDGHPLF3UHVV,QF %URZQ$ 'HVLJQ([SHULPHQWV 7KHRUHWLFDODQG0HWKRGRORJLFDO&KDOOHQJHVLQ&UHDWLQJ&RPSOH[ ,QWHUYHQWLRQVJournal of the Learning Sciences, 2, 141–178. &OHDYH+RJJ ' 0RUJDQ 3 - ([SHULHQWLDO OHDUQLQJ LQ DQ DQDHVWKHVLD VLPXODWLRQ FHQWUH DQDO\VLVRIVWXGHQWV¶FRPPHQWVMedical Teacher, 24(1), 23–26. &REE 6 )UDVHU ' 6 0XOWLPHGLD OHDUQLQJ LQ YLUWXDO UHDOLW\ ,Q 5 ( 0D\HU (GV The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning SS ± &DPEULGJH &DPEULGJH 8QLYHUVLW\ Press. &ROOLQV$%URZQ-6 1HZPDQ6 &RJQLWLYH$SSUHQWLFHVKLS 7HDFKLQJWKHFUDIWRIUHDGLQJ ZULWLQJDQGPDWKHPDWLFV,Q/5HVQLFN (GV Knowing, Learning, and Instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser SS± +LOOVGDOH1- /DZUHQFH(UOEDXP Damasio, A. (2001). Descartesin virhe. Emootio, järki ja ihmisen aivot. +HOVLQNL 7HUUD&RJQLWD 'H&RUWH( )RVWHULQJ&RJQLWLYH*URZWK $3HUVSHFWLYH)URP5HVHDUFKRQ0DWKHPDWLFV/HDUQLQJ DQG,QVWUXFWLRQEducational Psychologist, 30(1), 37–46. 'HVLJQ%DVHG 5HVHDUFK &ROOHFWLYH 'HVLJQ%DVHG 5HVHDUFK $Q (PHUJLQJ 3DUDGLJP IRU (GXFDWLRQDO,QTXLU\Educational Researcher, 13(1), 1–14. 'LHFNPDQQ3*DED' 5DOO0 'HHSHQLQJWKH7KHRUHWLFDO)RXQGDWLRQVRI3DWLHQW6LPXODWLRQ DV6RFLDO3UDFWLFHSimulation in Healthcare, 2, 183–193. (QJHVWU|P < Mielekäs oppiminen ja opetus [Meaningful learning and teaching]. +HOVLQNL 9DOWLRQNRXOXWXVNHVNXV )DQQLQJ50 *DED'0 7KHUROHRIGHEULH¿QJLQVLPXODWLRQEDVHGOHDUQLQJSimulation in Healthcare, 2(1), 115–125. *DED'0 7KHIXWXUHYLVLRQRIVLPXODWLRQLQKHDOWKFDUHQuality and Safety in Health Care, 13(1), 2–10. Retrieved August 7, 2007, from KWWS KHDOWKSROLF\VWDQIRUGHGX 3W6DIHW\2QOLQH'RFXPHQWV 3URM5HVRXUFHV)XWXUH9LVLRQRI6LP3XEO 0 SGI Hakkarainen, P. (2007). Promoting Meaningful Learning through the Integrated Use of Digital Videos. 5RYDQLHPL 8QLYHUVLW\RI/DSODQG3UHVV +RO]PDQ56&RRSHU-%*DED'03KLOLS-+6PDOO6' )HLQVWHLQ' $QHVWKHVLD FULVLVUHVRXUFHPDQDJHPHQW UHDOOLIHVLPXODWLRQWUDLQLQJLQRSHUDWLQJURRPFULVHVJournal of Clinical Anesthesia, 8, 675–687. ,VVHQEHUJ6%0F*DJKLH:&3HWUXVD(5*RUGRQ'/ 6FDOHVH5- )HDWXUHVDQG XVHVRIKLJK¿GHOLW\PHGLFDOVLPXODWLRQVWKDWOHDGWRHIIHFWLYHOHDUQLQJ D%(0(V\VWHPDWLFUHYLHZ Medical Teacher, 27(1), 10–28. -RQDVVHQ'+ 6XSSRUWLQJ&RPPXQLWLHVRI/HDUQHUVZLWK7HFKQRORJ\ $9LVLRQIRU,QWHJUDWLQJ 7HFKQRORJ\ZLWK/HDUQLQJLQ6FKRROV Educational Technology, July–August, 60–63. -RQDVVHQ'+/HH&%
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ONLINE TUTORING FOR MEDIA EDUCATION INTERNS IN PRACTICAL TRAINING Leo Pekkala, Päivi Hakkarainen and Harri Heikkilä
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Background and Aim of the Research 3UDFWLFDOWUDLQLQJLVDQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIVWXGLHVLQWKH0DVWHU¶V3URJUDPPHIRU0HGLD (GXFDWLRQDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI/DSODQG)LQODQG7KLVWKUHHPRQWKSHULRGKDVQRW LQFOXGHG DQ\ VLPXOWDQHRXV WXWRULQJ IURP WKH IDFXOW\ PHPEHUV ,QVWHDG VWXGHQWV have attended a practical training seminar after the training period. During their practical training, students have relied on mentoring offered from the place of their internship. This paper describes the development, testing and implementation of an RQOLQHWXWRULQJPRGHOIRUVXSSRUWLQJPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJGXULQJVWXGHQWV¶SUDFWLFDO training. '(6,*1)5$0(:25.
The Pedagogical Model for Teaching and Meaningful Learning (TML) 7KHSHGDJRJLFDOPRGHOIRUWHDFKLQJDQGPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJ 70/ +DNNDUDLQHQ +DNNDUDLQHQ6DDUHODLQHQ 5XRNDPR ZDVXVHGDVWKH JHQHUDO GHVLJQ IUDPHZRUN IRU GHYHORSLQJ WKH RQOLQH WXWRULQJ PRGHO 7KH 70/ PRGHO )LJXUH FRQVLVWVRIWHDFKLQJDQGPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJZKLFKLVGH¿QHGLQ terms of 17 process characteristics and their expected outcomes, that is, domainVSHFL¿F DQG JHQHULF NQRZOHGJH DQG VNLOOV 7KH PRGHO DOVR LQFOXGHV SHGDJRJLFDO models or approaches as one component, which covers both the teaching and the OHDUQLQJSURFHVVHV,QWKH70/PRGHOWHDFKLQJDQGPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJDUHXQderstood as processes that can be realized through various pedagogical models or DSSURDFKHVFDVHEDVHGWHDFKLQJDQG3%/EHLQJWZRRIWKHVH$QGHUVRQ5RXUNH *DUULVRQDQG$UFKHU KDYHSURSRVHGWKHFRQFHSWRIWHDFKLQJSUHVHQFHE\ ZKLFK WKH\ PHDQ ³GHVLJQ IDFLOLWDWLRQ DQG GLUHFWLRQ RI FRJQLWLYH DQG VRFLDO SURcesses for the purpose of realizing a personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes”. Echoing Anderson and colleagues, the concept of WHDFKLQJ LQ WKH70/ PRGHO WDNHV D EURDG YLHZ RI WHDFKLQJ DFWLYLWLHV ZLWK WKHVH A. Lauriala et al. (eds.), Navigating in Educational Contexts, 271–279. © 2011 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved.
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understood to include the design and organization of the learning environment. 6XSSRUWDQGJXLGDQFHLVQHHGHGWRSUHYHQWVWXGHQWVIURPEHLQJRYHUZKHOPHGSDUticularly in ill-structured and complex problem-solving activities.
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7KH H[SHFWHG RXWFRPHV RI WKH PHDQLQJIXO OHDUQLQJ SURFHVVHV LQ WKH70/ PRGHO LQFOXGH GRPDLQVSHFL¿F NQRZOHGJH DQG VNLOOV DQG WUDQVIHUDEOH JHQHULF knowledge and skills such as metacognitive skills and higher-order thinking. Transfer of learning means the ability to extend what has been learned in one FRQWH[W WR QHZ FRQWH[WV ,W FDQ EH DUJXHG WKDW LQ SDUWLFXODU WKH VHOIGLUHFWHG FRQWH[WXDO EXWQRWRYHUO\FRQWH[WXDOL]HG DEVWUDFWDQGUHÀHFWLYHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRI meaningful learning processes seem to be able to lead to transferable knowledge and skills (Bransford, et al., 2000). We selected four characteristics of meaningful learning processes that we conVLGHUHGHVSHFLDOO\UHOHYDQWLQSUDFWLFDOWUDLQLQJQDPHO\ H[SHULHQWLDOFROODERUDWLYH JRDORULHQWHGDQGUHÀHFWLYHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIOHDUQLQJExperiential characteristics mean that students can use their own experiences as starting points in learning and that they are able to apply their own practical experiences during the course. ³([SHULHQFHV´DUHXQGHUVWRRG¿UVWDVPHDQLQJVWXGHQWV¶SULRUSUDFWLFDONQRZOHGJH DQGVHFRQGDVWKHDLPVRIOHDUQLQJ/HDUQLQJVKRXOGLQYROYHLQWHJUDWLQJWKHRUHWLFDO knowledge and practical knowledge into experiential knowledge (Poikela, 2006). Working collaboratively PDNHV LW SRVVLEOH WKDW VWXGHQWV FDQ H[SORLW HDFK RWKHU¶V skills and provide social support and modelling for other students (Jonassen, 1995). ,QDgoal-oriented learning process, students work actively to achieve a cognitive 272
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JRDODQGFDQGH¿QHOHDUQLQJREMHFWLYHVRIWKHLURZQ -RQDVVHQ 5XRNDPR 3RKMRODLQHQ ,QWHUWZLQHG ZLWK JRDORULHQWDWLRQ LV WKH SURFHVV RI UHÀHFWLRQ -RQDVVHQ ,QDUHÀHFWLYHOHDUQLQJSURFHVVVWXGHQWVH[SUHVVZKDWWKH\KDYH OHDUQWDQGH[DPLQHWKHWKLQNLQJSURFHVVHVUHTXLUHGGXULQJWKHSURFHVV -RQDVVHQ 5XRNDPR 3RKMRODLQHQ ,QDGGLWLRQZHXVHGWKH70/PRGHOIRUGH¿QLQJH[SHFWHGOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHV IRU WKH SUDFWLFDO WUDLQLQJ :H FRQVLGHUHG 0HGLD (GXFDWLRQ VSHFL¿F H[SHULHQWLDO NQRZOHGJHDVWKHPRVWVLJQL¿FDQWH[SHFWHGOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHIRUSUDFWLFDOWUDLQLQJ 7KLVH[SHULHQWLDONQRZOHGJHLQFOXGHVWKHIROORZLQJNQRZOHGJHDQGVNLOOV professional identity as media educator problem recognising, identifying and solving, collaboration and co-operation, information literacy and communication skills, and ,&7V Design-Based Research The research is conducted as a design-based research (DBR) process. DBR in this VWXG\ LV XQGHUVWRRG IROORZLQJ %DUDE DQG 6TXLUH DV GHYHORSLQJ WHVWLQJ LQYHVWLJDWLQJDQGUH¿QLQJOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWGHVLJQVDQGWKHRUHWLFDOFRQVWUXFWV such as the pedagogical models that support learning and illustrate and predict how learning occurs. This dual goal of meeting local needs and advancing the theory LVDFULWLFDOFRPSRQHQWRI'%5 %DUDE 6TXLUH (GHOVRQ :DQJ +DQQD¿Q 7KHJRDORI'%5LVWRJHQHUDWHSUDJPDWLFDQGJHQHUDOL]DEOHGHVLJQ SULQFLSOHV :DQJ +DQQD¿Q $ '%5 SURFHVV SURFHHGV WKURXJK LWHUDWLYH cycles of design and implementation, and the researcher uses each implementation DV DQ RSSRUWXQLW\ WR FROOHFW GDWD WR VXSSRUW VXEVHTXHQW GHVLJQ (GHOVRQ Within DBR, multiple methods can be used to analyze the outcomes of an LQWHUYHQWLRQ DQG WR UH¿QH LW 'HVLJQ%DVHG 5HVHDUFK &ROOHFWLYH :DQJ +DQQD¿Q 7KHPHWKRGRORJLFDOOLWHUDWXUHSURYLGHVFRQWURYHUVLDOYLHZSRLQWV RQ WKH TXHVWLRQ ZKHWKHU '%5 FDQ EH XQGHUVWRRG DV DFWLRQ UHVHDUFK +HLNNLQHQ .RQWLQHQ +lNNLQHQ ,03/(0(17,1*7+(35$&7,&$/75$,1,1*
The Practical Training Module includes preliminary informational discussion DIWHU ZKLFK D VWXGHQW KDV WR ZRUN DV D WUDLQHH IRU WKUHH PRQWKV IXOO WLPH ,Q WKH WUDGLWLRQDO PRGHO WKLV ZDV IROORZHG E\ D UHÀHFWLYH VHPLQDU ZRUN LQFOXGLQJ D written, topical paper submitted to the Faculty of Education. The objective for the Practical Training Module is to provide an opportunity for a student to know a ¿HOGRIZRUNLQKHUKLVVWXG\DUHD7KHWDVNVFDQLQFOXGHHJUHVHDUFKHGXFDWLRQDO planning, administration, project work etc. 7KH SLORW VWXG\ ZDV FRQGXFWHG ZLWK ¿YH VWXGHQWV RI ZKLFK WKUHH ZHUH IHPDOH 273
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Figure 2. Implementation of Practical Training before and during the pilot study.
'XULQJWKHSLORWVWXG\VWXGHQWV¶OHDUQLQJJRDOVZHUHVHWLQFROODERUDWLRQZLWKWKH IDFXOW\WXWRUSULRUWRWKHWUDLQLQJSHULRGDQGUHYLVHGGXULQJWKH¿UVWWZRZHHNVRI the training. This discussion continued in the dedicated and password protected EORJRSHQHGIRUWKHPRGXOH6LPXOWDQHRXVO\ZLWKEORJJLQJWKHVWXGHQWVDQGWKHLU WXWRUKDGYLGHRFDOOV9R,3FDOOVYLDLQVWDQWPHVVDJLQJV\VWHPVIRUGLVFXVVLQJLVVXHV raised by the students. All of the students worked at a higher education institution during their training, four of them at a university level institute and one at a polytechnic. The tasks 274
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included, among many others, educational planning of courses, web design, conducting of small surveys, administrative organisational tasks, and various small tasks. Two students worked at the same university where the researchers are based and three worked elsewhere. This inevitably led into situation where more face-toface meetings were held with these two home-institution based students than with those who were working somewhere else. Documenting, preserving or possibly publishing of intellectual outcomes of the practical training period has been a challenge for academic community. Wiki was XVHGIRUUHÀHFWLYHZULWLQJDQGLVVHHQDVDIRUXPIRUSXEOLVKLQJH[SHULHQWLDONQRZOedge (Poikela, 2006) gained in the process of experiential learning. All students have also been interviewed and they have self-evaluated their training period in respect to the goals set prior to the training. 5(6($5&+48(67,216
7KHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVZHUHWKHIROORZLQJ (1) How does the online tutoring support the meaningful learning process and outcomes during Practical Training? :KDW LPSOLFDWLRQV GR WKH UHVXOWV KDYH IRU WKH UH¿QHPHQW RI WKH RQOLQH tutoring? '$7$&2//(&7,21$1'$1$/<6,6
7KHGDWDZHUHFROOHFWHGWKURXJKIROORZLQJSURFHGXUHV Students’ blog entries. A dedicated, password-protected blog was created for the Training Module. 5 students wrote blog entries during the pilot phase. There were 37 posts and 34 comments posted. Both the posts and the comments were relatively long texts, totalling up to 33 pages or over 11 000 words of text. The pilot phase lasted for 5 months between January and June 2009. Students’ wiki entries. A dedicated, password-protected wiki was created for the Training Module. However, during the pilot phase the wiki has not been as active as was anticipated. Only two students have completed wiki articles related to educational topics they have worked with during their training. Video recordings of tutor-student video calls. Tutor-student discussions have EHHQUHFRUGHG'LVFXVVLRQVKDYHEHHQKHOGZLWKDOO¿YHVWXGHQWV6RPHRIWKHGLVcussions were conducted face-to-face and video recorded, some over instant messaging system and only audio was recorded. Interviews. All students have been individually interviewed, some twice – both at the beginning and at the end of the training period. These interviews have been video recorded. 7KH UHVHDUFK GDWD KDV EHHQ DQDO\VHG TXDOLWDWLYHO\ FODVVLI\LQJ FRQWHQW WKHPDWLFDOO\ ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WKHPHV UHOHYDQW WR WKH WKHRUHWLFDO FRQFHSWV RI 70/ PRGHO used in this study. 275
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,Q WKH IROORZLQJ WKH UHVXOWV DQG LPSOLFDWLRQV DUH SUHVHQWHG DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH UHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVDQGZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHGHVLJQIUDPHZRUNRIWKHVWXG\ How Does the Online Tutoring Support the Meaningful Learning Process and Outcomes during Practical Training? *RDOVHWWLQJLQWKHEHJLQQLQJRUHYHQEHIRUHWKHWUDLQLQJKHOSHGVWXGHQWVWRIRFXV WRFHUWDLQLVVXHVGXULQJWKHLUWUDLQLQJ*RDOVHWWLQJZKLFKZDVGRQHLQZULWLQJDQG discussed with the academic tutor helped the students not only during the training EXW DOVR DIWHU WUDLQLQJ LQ FRQGXFWLQJ UHÀHFWLYH VHOIHYDOXDWLRQ 7KLV VKRZV WKH LQWHUWZLQHGQDWXUHRIJRDORULHQWDWLRQDQGUHÀHFWLRQ -RQDVVHQ 6WXGHQWVIHOWYHU\SRVLWLYHDERXWWKHSRVVLELOLW\WRFROODERUDWHGXULQJWKHWUDLQLQJ SHULRG ,Q WKH SUHYLRXV PRGHO WKHUH KDV EHHQ QR FROODERUDWLRQ EHWZHHQ VWXGHQWV while in internship. However, there were technical problems related to blog access with two students. «\HVDQG,ZDQWHGWRVD\WKDWHYHQWKRXJKZHFRXOGQ¶WEORJRQWKLVVLWHZLWK VWXGHQW; DQGZHDUHRQOLQHRQO\QRZZHKDYHEHHQEORJJLQJEHWZHHQWKH two of us. We are conducting our training at the same university and have met often for lunch and discussed and shared our experiences (blog entry). 7KHEORJSURYLGHGDQRSSRUWXQLW\IRUVWXGHQWVWRUHÀHFWWKHLURZQWKLQNLQJZRUN SURIHVVLRQDOLVPDQGUHODWHWKLVWRWKHLUSHHUV6WXGHQWVFRPPHQWHGRQWKLVDQGIHOW that the blog was useful for them. 6WXGHQWWXWRUGLVFXVVLRQVDQGEORJJLQJKHOSHGVWXGHQWVWRUHÀHFWHVSHFLDOO\LQD situation where the tutor from their respective working place was not very active. 2QHVWXGHQWGHVFULEHGDUHÀHFWLYHSURFHVVLQKLVWKLQNLQJZKHQZULWLQJWRWKHEORJ KDGVWDUWHG+HVWDUWHGWRUHÀHFWKLVRZQZRUNWKLQJVWKDWKDGKDSSHQHGGXULQJWKH day and sometimes even while the working day was still going on he already was thinking about how to write about this or that incident or topic to the blog. The student also discussed about how the written feedback and comments on the blog felt much better than the usual grade marks, and that the by getting the feedback he got a broader viewpoint to his own ideas. $WWKHEHJLQQLQJLWGLGQ¶WZRUNDVLWZDVPHDQWWR«ZKHQLWVWDUWHGWRUROOD SURFHVVEHJXQWKDWKH\,FRXOGWKURZLQVRPHWKLQJDERXWWKLVRUWKDWWRWKH environment (blog), and then it was really cool to get direct feedback, in writLQJ,PHDQWKDWLWZDVQ¶WMXVWJUDGHQXPEHURUEXW\RXJRWVRPHEURDGHU point of view (interview comment). 6RPH VWXGHQWV UHSRUWHG WKDW ZLWKRXW WKH EORJ DQG LQVWDQW PHVVDJLQJ GLVFXVVLRQV with the academic tutor they would have had very little if any discussions with 276
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RWKHUSHRSOHDERXWWKHLUZRUN$VWXGHQWZKRKDGDZRUNLQJSODFHWXWRUZKRTXLWH RIWHQ GLGQ¶W KDYH HQRXJK WLPH WR WXWRU DQG PHQWRU WKH VWXGHQW IHOW WKDW RQOLQH writing kept him in touch with the academic community and his studies – that he was not left alone. Writing at the blog replaced somewhat the small amount of face-to-face comPXQLFDWLRQLWNHSWPHLQWRXFKZLWKWKHXQLYHUVLW\VR,GLGQ¶WDFWXDOO\PLVV the face-to-face communication since you (academic tutor) were writing all the time (interview comment). Another remarkably positive effect the blog brought out was a possibility for VWXGHQWV WR UHÀHFW WKHLU RZQ SURIHVVLRQDO LGHQWLW\ 7KLV FDPH RXW LQ EORJ HQWULHV written by four students, related to the tasks they were given during their training SHULRG$VWXGHQWZURWHDEORJHQWU\ZLWKDWLWOH³:HZLOOWUXO\EHFRPHVRPHWKLQJ´ ,WLVWUXO\IXQWRQRWLFHKRZPXFK,DFWXDOO\NQRZDERXWWKLQJV,PXVWDGPLW WKDW,KDYHIHDUHGWKDWP\GHJUHHZLOOEHXVHOHVVLQSUDFWLFDOZRUNLQJOLIHEXW WKLVWUDLQLQJSURYHGPHZURQJ,KDYHEHHQJLYHQDORWRIUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQG LWKDVEHHQDVXUSULVHWRUHDOLVHWKDW,DFWXDOO\GRKDYHWKHQHHGHGNQRZKRZ and capacity to complete these tasks (blog entry).
:KDW,PSOLFDWLRQV'RWKH5HVXOWV+DYHIRUWKH5H¿QHPHQWRIWKH2QOLQH7XWRULQJ" 7KH UHVXOWV LQGLFDWH WKH QHHG IRU VRPH GHVLJQ PRGL¿FDWLRQV IRU RQOLQH WXWRULQJ PRGHO ,W KDV EHFRPH FOHDU WKDW WKH PRGHO LV PRVWO\ IXQFWLRQDO EXW QRW SHUIHFW as it was tested during the pilot. More detailed and clear guidelines for students for the online work are needed. The pilot phase indicated that students understood the instructions differently and some would needed more support than others. 6XUSULVLQJO\ WKHUH ZHUH VRPH FKDOOHQJHV LQ WKH ,&7VNLOOV ZLWK VRPH PHGLD VWXGHQWV HVSHFLDOO\ UHODWHG WR EORJ DQG ZLNL XVDJH 6RFLDO PHGLD VNLOOV VHHP WR be focused on particular media that students are familiar with and not necessarily transferable to other social media, which was an assumption in the pilot phase. 6XSSRUWDQGGLVFXVVLRQIRUDV\QFKURQRXVFROODERUDWLRQQHHGVWREHFRQWLQXHGDQG possibilities for synchronous collaborative discussions need to be examined. Web conferencing tools are needed for tutoring, since the instant messaging systems are QRWDOZD\VDGHTXDWH7KHUHLVDKXJHYDULHW\RIRQOLQHHQYLURQPHQWVZKHUHVWXGHQWV are working during their training, and this puts some demand on the academic tutor in terms of providing online support. The previous model has not taken much time from the academic tutor, whereas the online tutoring is very time-consuming effort. The academic tutor needs to allocate more time for tutoring compared to what was available during the pilot phase, especially in the beginning of the training period for each student.
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CHAPTER 19
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Online tutoring and support for practical training for media education students has been piloted now only for few months. The short period of piloting time and the small number of students who have participated are clear limitations to this study. However, the results from our research show some positive effects the online tutoring has had in relation to supporting meaningful learning. The students have been able to collaborate and communicate within each other while at training. This was not possible in the earlier model. They have been in communication with their academic tutor which was not possible before, at least not online. Most importantly, elements of meaningful learning processes have been recognised. Online environment and a selection of social media communication tools have HQFRXUDJHG VWXGHQWV WR LQIRUPDO FRPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG UHÀHFWLRQ ZKLFK LQ PDQ\ FDVHVKDVEHHQVSRQWDQHRXV,WLVFOHDUWKDWWKHGHYHORSPHQWDQGLPSURYHPHQWRI the process for online tutoring will continue and more research on the elements of meaningful learning and thinking during the practical training are needed. 5()(5(1&(6 $QGHUVRQ75RXUNH/*DUULVRQ5 $UFKHU: $VVHVVLQJWHDFKLQJSUHVHQFHLQDFRPSXWHU conferencing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(2). Retrieved August 15, 2009, from KWWS ZZZVORDQFRUJSXEOLFDWLRQVMDOQYQSGIYQBDQGHUVRQSGI %DUDE 6 6TXLUH . 'HVLJQEDVHG UHVHDUFK 3XWWLQJ D VWDNH LQ WKH JURXQG Journal of the Learning Sciences í %UDQVIRUG - ' %URZQ$ / &RFNLQJ 5 5 (GV &RPPLWWHH RQ 'HYHORSPHQWV LQ WKH 6FLHQFHRI/HDUQLQJ ZLWK'RQRYDQ06%UDQVIRUG-' 3HOOHJULQR-:>(GV@&RPPLWWHHRQ /HDUQLQJ5HVHDUFKDQG(GXFDWLRQDO3UDFWLFH How people learn. Brain, mind, experience, and school ([SDQGHGHG :DVKLQJWRQ'& 1DWLRQDO$FDGHP\3UHVV 'HVLJQ%DVHG5HVHDUFK&ROOHFWLYH 'HVLJQEDVHGUHVHDUFK $QHPHUJLQJSDUDGLJPIRUHGXFDWLRQDO LQTXLU\Educational Researcher í (GHOVRQ ' & 'HVLJQ UHVHDUFK :KDW ZH OHDUQ ZKHQ ZH HQJDJH LQ GHVLJQ Journal of the Learning Sciences í Hakkarainen, P. (2007). Promoting meaningful learning through the integrated use of digital videos. 'RFWRUDO GLVVHUWDWLRQ 8QLYHUVLW\ RI /DSODQG $FWD 8QLYHUVLWDWLV /DSSRHQVLV 8QLYHUVLW\ RI /DSODQG)DFXOW\RIHGXFDWLRQ)LQODQG +DNNDUDLQHQ 3 'HVLJQLQJ DQG LPSOHPHQWLQJ D 3%/ FRXUVH RQ HGXFDWLRQDO GLJLWDO YLGHR SURGXFWLRQ /HVVRQV OHDUQHG IURP D GHVLJQEDVHG UHVHDUFK Educational Technology Research & Development í +DNNDUDLQHQ36DDUHODLQHQ7 5XRNDPR+ 7RZDUGVPHDQLQJIXOOHDUQLQJWKURXJKGLJLWDO video-supported case-based teaching. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 23(1), í +DNNDUDLQHQ36DDUHODLQHQ7 5XRNDPR+ $VVHVVLQJWHDFKLQJDQGVWXGHQWV¶PHDQLQJIXO OHDUQLQJ SURFHVVHV LQ DQ (OHDUQLQJ FRXUVH ,Q & 6SUDWW 3 /DMEF\JLHU (GV E-Learning technologies and evidence-based assessment approaches SSí 1HZ
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21/,1(78725,1*)250(',$('8&$7,21« lähestymistavat [From action to knowledge. Methods and approaches of action research@ SS í 9DQWDD)LQODQG .DQVDQYDOLVWXVVHXUD -RQDVVHQ'+ 6XSSRUWLQJFRPPXQLWLHVRIOHDUQHUVZLWKWHFKQRORJ\ $YLVLRQIRULQWHJUDWLQJ technology with learning in schools. Educational Technology-XO\í$XJXVW í 3RLNHOD ( .QRZOHGJH NQRZLQJ DQG SUREOHPEDVHG OHDUQLQJ – 6RPH HSLVWHPRORJLFDO DQG RQWRORJLFDO UHPDUNV ,Q ( 3RLNHOD $ 5 1XPPHQPDD (GV Understanding problem-based learning SS± 7DPSHUH)LQODQG 7DPSHUH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 5XRNDPR+ 3RKMRODLQHQ6 'LVWDQFHOHDUQLQJLQPXOWLPHGLDQHWZRUNVSURMHFW 0DLQUHVXOWV British Journal of Educational Technology, 31(2), 117–125. :DQJ ) +DQQD¿Q 0 - 'HVLJQEDVHG UHVHDUFK DQG WHFKQRORJ\HQKDQFHG OHDUQLQJ environments. Educational Technology Research and Development í
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