New Kingdom Egypt (Elite)

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NEW KINGDOM EGYPT

EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW

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NEW KINGDOM EGYPT Text by MARK HEALY Colour plates by ANGUS McBRIDE

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NEW KINGDOM EGYPT

INTRODUCTION It

W;lS in the hillel' p:.trt of the second millennium UC that the allcient Neal' East wimcsscd:l prolunged and af times birrcr COlllest hetween Ihe gre"1 powers of the day as they vied for cuntrol ;Illd domination of the Eastern ./\1cditcrr:mC:lll scabo,lrd or Levall!. While

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Ilowevcr, thc presence nfEgyptiall armies camp.ligning as far norlh as the Ri\cr Euphr:Hcs between the 16lh ,inti I3lh CC11lurics Be, comcslin!!-' control of sUl:h str.lleg;caU) impol'lant cities :IS Tunip :tnd Kadesh (sec map). againsl first the K.ingdom of .\'Iil;lllni and lalcr the )-lillitCS, mliSt he seen as a r,ldil.:;ll departure [mm the military polil.:ics of the.: Old ami Miuule Kingdoms. Such ;l hislOric;d divergence aruse.: dire.:clly from a Tilc 1;",.,>(;i"II." ><'ollnd... ifl t/'t·lw;1(1 ,,(till' IIwnll")' U( file t'IIr1\, 1611I-<,:cn/Url He I.:ing .'icqcncllrc '1'''0 iJ illdk:rll' that lu' (Iit·d in 1m II it' fi#ll/ing the 11.,1.:.<;;0....

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THE RULE OF THE

:\Ionet he less, the relat ive slowness of their ad \';\nct: sOlllhwards from the Delta secms to supporl Ihe argument lhal the process of l:lkeo\er waS gmdu.ll ami lhal it did nor \Urn on thc possession of U\Trwhelming milit;lry superiority, It sccms far more Any understanding- of Egypti:l11 imperialism in Ihe reasonahle 1O infer that the superior milit:lr~ techNt\\ Kingdom period must be founded on lhe n:lli,'c nology of the Hyksos was but an adjullc.:t 1.0 their response 10 the cxpcricOI.:c uf fun:ign rule durill~ the n:ploitation oflhe polilical weakness of the late MidSecond Intcrmcdi:atc Perioo bcl\u.:cn 16·HJ ;\lld 1532 dle Kingdom, the eollapsc of which was fmally Ue. The tr.\llitional image of the I-Iyksos descent on broughl ahOlit hy their uwn SlH:eess. :'\Jul\\ithslanding, the Hyhos, h:\vinfj: established thelllsckes in Eg~ pI, in which Ihe military l'oupcrioril)' of these predominantly Scmitit: 'wnqucrors', symholised hy I.ower I~gypt, eschcwed ;lny furthcr expansiun souththeir cmplu~ men! of bronze wcapons, chariots and wanls-:tlthoulth reducing thc resl of I':g:ypl lU V:lScomposite how, sprcatlin~ fire and destruction before saldmll" Their capacity to lllaintainthis holJ ('lVcr the them and rllthlc...s!y subjug;.ning Ihe 'Kingdom of the rest of Egypr was llndoubtedlY:1 consequence of thc Two I.antls·, i:-. ~;(ill one thal h:IS ;tttral.:liuns for Ill,lIly. dTecrivcllcsS llftheir militar~' forces. In il.~ ~illlplicity, Ihis ,1I,;(,:OUI1I scn'cs the desirahle All hough relr-tnlcd as the legitimate rulers of the need for;j comprehensible and precise explanation as whole country, the Ilyksus kings of thc ISrh Dynasty to huw E~ypl succumbed inlhc SCl.:ond Inlermediate lolcmtcd rival claimants, Ihc most imporf:1ll1 ofwhieh Period 10 forciltn rule. If is, howcvcr, likcl) 10 be ;1 was the 17th or Theh;\n dynasty ofnati\'e J~gypti,llls, falsc image. The rc.llity is probably 11100'C pl"Usaic .lIld A lorm;t1 bordn defining: thcil' respective territoric.:s certainly less dram,llic, was eMablished, :lIld hy the lhird year of the reign of The tcrlll Ily!.:sos was firSI cmplo) ed (according to Kamosc the last phar:lllh of the 17th Dynast) -by the Jewish historian Josephus in his OllJlrti ,-Ipill/INII) at Cllsae, ncar modcrn As)'ur in Middle Egypt. Fur by thc E~ypti:1ll historian \1:methn. who translated it the Theb;tn dyn.lsts the continued diminution 01" 10 me;:1ll 'shepherd-kings'. Ii is thus all inaccur,lIc n;llin: E~yptian power \l;tS fUrlha compounded hy rendering of the earlier designaliull of Ihese inter- rhc loss of Nuhia :tnd its valuable l1al111":\1 ami human lopers hy thc Egyptians of the time as hilw/t klwsul or resourc.:es as the rulers of ellsh (southern :'\Jubia, 'rulers of foreign counlries'. ,'\s such it was employed eXlending tll the southern cnd of the second catar.1L:I) b~ them to refer spL't:itic'llly 10 the ruling elSie of the exlenucd their own power norThwards, invaders, whereas the term II~ ksos h:1S beL:Ollle synWhilst arc.:h'leo]ogy has revealed :1 rel:lIi\"c1y ausonymoll~ with Ihe whole people. len: eullun.: ill 'J"hebes ;IS:l consequence, in the p<.:riou Therule of the J-Iyksus can hc seen as the climax of of pe.ICc hetwccn I-Iyksos ,Ind 'I'hebes trading: links alwan:s of i\siatic immih'T,lliun ,llld infillmtion into thc lowed the nali\·c Egyptialls to :u:quire .he benefils of north-L
HYKSOS

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bron'l.C \\e;lpOns, chariot's aod composite btm~ which they had acquired from their foreign overlords. and which were the key to the continued Ilyksos domination OHr them. :Vlorc imporlantl), the b;l1t:ful experience of foreign rule h;ld done much to sh;llter a tr:.u.litional mindsct expressed in the Old and Middle Kingdom's prcsumption of the superiority of Eg)ptian culture and the security of the state in thc face Hf extermll Ihre:lls, The perception tl1;11 Egypt's boundaries in the cast were not im iolable W,IS to result in the formulation of a str:Hcg~' that was to govern Egyptian militury und foreign policy in :\'ubia and the Levant for the nextlhree hundred ycars.

War ofLihcration The beginning of outright Theban resistance to the rule orlhe Hyksos may date from the rei~n ofSC(ICncnrc Tau II, whose exten"i\'e1y dam:lgcd skull strongly poinrs to his death in hattie" II is \\ ith his son K:tmose, howc\'cr, that the lirst explicit attempts were made to 'liberate' Egypt whcn the decision wa~ tuken to open hostilities against the Ilyksos king, Apophis. It is dear from the steb on whic.:h Kamose recorded the details of his t:
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The e,ltupaign "amuM,: l:llI1H:hed in his third }C,lr \Ias in the tradition:11 Egyptian fashion of a walerhorne 'IItad:. supported by lrib,,1 mercenary troops li'om .'J ubi,l {\I'hll elll he ident ifieu as Ihe Medjil} ) upcrating along the hanks. These soldiers had been eXlcnsi\'cly employed ,IS scout» ami light infalltry sinr.:e the late Old Kin~dom, and were in the \';ttl of the Thcban aSS:1lI11 on lhe southernmust Ilyks4Is stron~hllld :11 Nefrusy, Th,H J..::aT1\osc·s :lttad may h,l\c WIllC withuut \\arnin~ i:-- implied hy Ihe lack of all)' suggestion that the Theh:lns eng.lged thc main em:rny furces in bailie. Indeed J..:::lllltlSC'S accounl of till,.' Cilpture uf many II}kso:o, ships 1(I:lded with weapOllS, :lnu Ihe impunity with which he sailed P;ISI Ihe \\:llls of their capital (If A\'aris in the eastern Della, slrongly :--uppllrt» such ;\ vic\\'. Contrary 10 the more 8

grandiusl: l:bims Illiuk by IIll: kill!! lin this raid. it al:hie\'ed litlle e'\cept to ser\'e nuti..:e ul"j'hch:ln intent to rid Eygpt ufthc fiu'eigners, It fellllot to Kamose. hllWe\'er. but lu hi:-- younger brother AnHlsi:--lin'llly tll free Eg'~ pt of Iheir dum inat iun, Ilalin~ liN defe:lteu the Egyptian allies or" Ihe H}ksos in .\Iiddlc f.l:!'YPI, i\musis allll the Thehan flm:es took ~ 1elllphis befure beginning the lln:lI aJ\ance inlo Ihe eastern Delra in order If) lay siege 10 Aval'is, An inilial \\illerhorlll: operatiun was fullu\\cd up by it prolonged siege. Our only conlemporanl.·tlus aCCOllllt oflhesc C\CllIS is 10 he fuund in th!.: biu~raph­ ietl record of Ihe ('~Iptain llf a \ (;SM:I in thl' ser\'i..:e of the kin~ whose nanll::sal...e he was. Ilis desoiption of cvents clearly demollstr:ltcs lhe amphibious nature of Ihe Egyptian operations. Ah-muse, son of Ebetl, ldls us thaI',., I \\':lS taken onlhe shipNIII'/hcrn, because I was \'alianl. Thus I llsed to accompany Ihe Stl\erelg'tl (to \\hom be) life, prosperity, heahh! un foot, folluwing his c'\r.:ursions in his chariot', \Ve :Ire here presented wilh one of the first refer· cnces III the l'mployment uf chariots h~ the Eg~plian forces, The inference is, ho\\'e"er, that apart frollllhc

n:hidc carrying the king, the sllpporling forces operaled on (001, amI lhal in lhe~e early days lhe ..:hariUl (orce ,l\"aitlble 10 lhe Theham, was prohahly {Iuil..: smllll in Ilumber. Indeed, ,I slighlly earlier reference !O lhe Hyksos chario!s (Ill !he ":lInuS{: stela implies thai Iheir capture was greatly prized, Ah-mose conlinues:', When the town of A\'aris was lx:sicv;cd, then 1 shuwed valuur on fOOl in the pn;scm:c uf his Itlaiest~. Thereupun I \\3S :lppOinled 10 the ~hip Appel/r/1/g 11/ Mal/phis, Thcll t here was fighl illg on I he waleI' in the c:l1lal Pa-Djcdku uf A\"aris"' The 1;lIc of the H~kstls L":lpil:11 is dc."c.:rih..:d hy Ah-mose: '. ..h aris W,IS despoiled, Then I carricd off spoil from there: one man, thrL'C W(Imen, a Inial uf fi,ur persons, Then hismajcst) g':1\'C them In me ti,r sl:l\es,' Althoug;h A\".lris h.ld f:tllen Am/lsis did nOI bclic\'c thai EI,Q pI \\as entin:l~ s:lfe. )-Ie pursued the retreating Ilyksus into southern PalcslillC, delermined lH dcstroy an~ rcsidll:ll c,:.lpatily to mounT a COllntcTnffem,ive, The fc,cus ufllH:ir stand agolinsl Ihe Eg)ptian advance was the ti'rTre"s of Sharuhen. The strenph of the site was ~llch lhat il took Amusis Ihree ~C'ITS to li,r..:e the deCem:es and dcslroy the Ilyksos forces ooll1cd up \\ithin, Clearly (;o11\·ineed th:ll Ihis \iCl\JfY had elilllin;lted ;ll1y immediate thrc'll frOllllhe cast} the amI) n..:turncc.\ lo 1::g) Pl. and was Ihen marched sourh and employed in the sllccessful rcconquest of .'Jubi:l. With Ihe !IJrlller Middle "ing-dom

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explain her invo]'Clllcnt

lere O\"CI' the next filur ccnlUrics. The corollary of Jeh a poli!';)' W,IS the cxistcno.; of an army suited to 1C lask ami a slale urganised for supporting warf,ue n a large sc:dc. In the pcrivd of l,x:unumil.: n;cun:lolrm;liun ;1Ilt! pulicall.:cntralisatiun Ihal fulluwed, ,Ill.; fuumb'iu!ls of 1C Egypt ian Illi litar)' Sl.atc, ahle to sustain a powerful rmy and .1 widc-r;lllging impcl'hli policy in I\ilcslinc nd heyund. were I'lid.

THE LIMITS OF CONQUEST Whilst 1l1I.:rc is lillie disagreement ,lnlOng schul;lrs that the Fgypti,lIl Army W,IS employed in Nuhi;1 hy Amcnnphis I, I he SUCCL'Ssor 10 l\mo.<;is. the evidence is ;nnhivalclll as to whether he campaigned in Ilalcsline and S) ri'l during: his reign. Such that lhel'e is suggests

Sl,m .." in gre:ul'r del:,il :Ire IH'apOnS:lS carril'c/ by tilt, irrf:lIllr.,' ;1Ilht, prt'l';OIlS illwurlH;tl/l, lypiC'11 of tile earl,"18111 VyIllISI.". Tile primary otTens;"e "'1.':lp01l i,~

IIII.' l,rOIlZC 1IIIIt/(o:I,\:c,

TI't' 1,,"1' d"1!1!t'r (h-(r) <::1...' ill I,rml%t', ami

;,~

rC"rL"'crll.~ all inlcnllt'r/i,uc ... t:I/J1.' bcll,rt, lilt, appt':lr:IIIH' of, lie 10/l}[ Mr:liglll sword illlroduccd

to Ek"pf lilte ill tile lVew J-:inge/orrl pcr;IJe/ bJ' S/lcre/cn IIIcrc{',mric." :"Ind fIle 'St'll l'co"/c:s', (c. d ,\':111(/.,)

10

tnat all Egyplian arlll)' lllay h~l\'e adyanced ~IS far north as the cit}' SI;IlC ufTunip un thc River OTontes. If this did occur, ir perhaps indicates Egyptian rcco~­ nilion orthe need fur:1 demonstration ufslrcngth in the face:: of the cmel'!:dng ptlwcr of the Ilurrian Kingdum uf Milanni, whose principal foreign policy objcctive was 10 become tht: contrul uf Syria, a terriwry rcgardl~tI b) the F.~)pli;HlS as failing within Iheir own sphere Dfinlcrest. Indeed.lhe succession 10 the throne of Egypt on the death of Amcnophis I, in 1625 UC. of a miJdle-aged anti experienced general. suggests ~Ill aW;lrcness lhal power ami secllril) had hecome .~yn()nym(lus with the l1laintt:l1:1111~e :llltJ employmellt ufherarm~ in dcfclll,;C ()(her interesls. It also implies Ih,l1 the :ll'm) \\;\s ;t1re~ldy a much more powcrful ~md signil'ic:lnt institlllion in Eg~'ptiall soeiel)' lhan it e\'er had becn in Ihe carlier Old and .V1iJdle Kingdom periods. This \\'~IS 10 h;t\C;1 signific~llH impact on internal political de\'c\opmenls within Egypt in the centuries ahead. The ycars following the accession ofTuthmosis I witnCSS(.'(1 a vigorous outburst of Tllilit~lry ;H:tivily as

""lrow...tick... lI'crc ollC or

til..· u/(/e.';' \I·..·;l/wflS lI.';l·d I,>, I/'l' f.e.' p' i,I/I.... nl'spite tllcir,>.imp/ici,.' ,1J"'ir l·fli:ctin·lll'S... IlIC:lfI' ,/lt·y

lI'cre reglll;lrly C1ll1./'lycd IJ)' i,./:1/I try II'"i I t /,... ell(/ of t/,... :\,'CW Kill~dmll. (C d M,.'I(I.~)

the new phar~lOh took lhc Egypti;lll army further ahcld than e\'er before in its history. Indeed. this ph;lraoh was to l1efine the limits oftcrritory conquered hy Egypti;lll arms. Although Tmhmosis I did nOI idclUif)' his enemies by name. his employmenl oflhe tcrlll ~:th:lrin, 1:lIer llSl:d by lhc Egyplians to dl'Sign;lle 1'\'1 ilanni. scr\'es fO demonstrate thai his forces clashed succe~sfu lIy wit h t hose of Ihe new power. II is phlcement ofa stela, carved into the side oLl111uuntain, on the hanks of the Euphrates was a formal me;lIls of asserting E~}'Pli:lll control O\'cr ~1111and5 10 the 50mh oflhe ri"er. Thi~ dcmonstration of might, somc 1,300 kilomell'cs from Eg:~ pI, was ell1ulaled hy his camp~lign in .\"ubia. Ad\'ancin~ nearly 800 kilomelres 1(1 the south orThehl'~, TulimlOsis reached Kurgus. upstream of the Fourth C:lI~lf;.ICt oflhe ~ile. Significantly. th,.-lOe ;\lhallCCs did nul result in any pcnnallenl occupation of the tcrritory conquered.

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°l·here wa... nl) atlempt III re\ i~e the pnlit:y initi;tted by i\nlUsis \\herchy th<.' PCtl) st~lles IIf S~ri:. and 1';.1L':'-tinc werc lefl fre<.· to rule Ihel1\!:>el\ es ~.m.l indulgc in their continual internecine \\arfarc a~ ll)n~ as the} paid Iheir Irihutc to Egypl. J\t best th(:fic EgYPli:Ul c:\pnlitions lllUS! bc seen as prc-t.:mpti\c t"'Jids or reactivc rc....ponses 10 pen;ei\ed threat~ to Egyptian interests militar} delllonstnil iuns designeli 10 cnsure foreign recognition "f th(l~e intcr(.'St..... :llld a forceful rcminder til I)alcslini:lll and Syrian \'ass::als not W W:l\'cr from lo}ah~ lU their o\erlurd. It had to await the b'T:I.ndson oflhe firM TUlhmosis ror Egypti:ll1 intcr<.'SIS 10 beM.'Cured b} :a formal imperi:ll policy rccogniM.·J as ·empirc'.

,

Neilher during the reign of t\ Illcnophis I IIr "lOut 111 W:I~ ,\lil:llllli sirong enou~h to lIndermine or dest:lhilise Eg~ pli:lll :lulhurity :llllon~ ils \':lSS,1JS in S}ria or P:1Je~line. U}' Ihe lime of TUlhmusis III, howe\·c... Ihe military IhrC:lI frlJlll ,h:ll direction was sueh Ihal Eit} pi had little choice but 10 relinquish her polic)' ofloosc hegemony and tre;ulthe formal road 10 empire. lllu~is

The Kingdom of.\lit:uHli 'I'he origins of the kingdom or1\lilanni la~ in the uni6c:ation 01':1 number of ~mall Slates in norlhern iIolesopotallli:l in Ihe sccund hal( of Ihe 161h cent un RC The hl.-.Ir1I:md o(lhis new l.in~dom was inlhe regiun

of the Hahur Ri\er, where its capital ufWashukkani \\:11> locatcd, :llthough the ex:u;t ~itc has p.'t til be loc:Hed, Whil~l the population and culture of these peH}' st:llCS and of ,\ t itanni \\ ere predul11ill:lIH ly Illlrri:m. the appearance of names (If Indo-Ary:m origin suggl'StS Ihc dominatiun uflhe nati\'C popul:ltion h~ a l1on-llurrian chariOl-m\ ning military aristocracy. The na01($ orthe ~ods \\orshippcd by this small ruling da~ were non-l-I11rriall, :lIlll point 10 a \er~ strung: rel:Jtiollship wilh Ihe Aryall ill\"adl"fS of India, That thcir power and stalUS was a direct L'Ol1M.:4uellee oflhcir militar) sUf>\:riorit~, and thar such was \ cstl"d in their chariots and horsc:.. i~ indicated hy their names. For n:ample. Tushr:ltIa. Ihe name oCthe kin~ of l\litanni who corresponded \Iith Phar:loh Amenaphis 111, tT311Slatl"S :IS 'owner of teniblc chari(m~', and Biridash\\3 mL-JnS 'pc",sL'ssing gTl..-JI horscs', CoIIccti\c1~ this charioH)wning :lriswcT3cy were called IIIl",.y(UUlU. a \\unl wh~ origin is hclic\'cd 10 mean 'young warrior. The '-'Ontrihuliun oflhe l\tir.lIlni 10 the hi~turr of warfarc in thc;l1lcicnt I\L'ar East c,mnOi hco\'t,.·rSlalnl.

Ahholl~h they did nOI irUI'Olluce Ihe chariot 10 lhe region, it was their laclical clllploylllclll of this weapun in co01bin:uion with their de"e1opment of armour for hurse and l;fCW th:1I did lllllch 10 influence nut Hnl~ Ihe olrlllics uf Egypt blll also Ihuse of Ihe Ilill itcs and Assyria. Ahhou~h hronY-e "L';l!c ami lamellar l'XKly armour M,"('IllS 111 h:l\e heen a Ilurrian il1\cnlion daling to about the 17th ccnlur~ BC, 11 was first encounlered in (Iuantity being "orn b~ lhe 1I/(ITI)'(IIUm of t\ litanni. The :mnnur p:lntJpl~ uf Ihe noble and wyal t\liranni "'''TI}'(/11l11l \\a~ \cr~ \alliable and suphiMi-

1hhuul'h Iht'll.l'k.~!1· illtroduccd tll(:' l."f.mlpf)Si't,

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0014 didnol dis;lppe:lr frrmll/~h;"tfdjdditt

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KinJ[Jllln. II hilt· "l(' pCllrtrdti, ... pow·er"fl/ll.· '\~... w

mrllpusi,(' 14 ('''IJOII 1I"11S lJttJc,ni~b/(,

it ,,";ts ,iml'-

colIsumill/t.I.,bcJllr i"tclIsi,'c 'flld ...,,,c.'n!l·i, c proJIK·I'. Sm.'h 0011"$ II ere :llso St.'Il,.it i, I' '0 1II0iswr... :11I(/ could 11llr" 1I11/1'SS

'u

colered: Ihe." werl:e.":lrrie.-d ill CISCo'" It., j~r:JIlIr)' :IIul 011 Iht' ,.~iJ",--.. ufc11;lriol.... SI"n' tu'''$l:UuIJ be l'nHlu.....-d in 1.111:'" rrullllx,rs fur tht' hl/lk ur,hc nrdu:rs, "hill.' Iht' "I ;.iI"bk e."VlJlfHl...i,c #Hms ""'''' firs. lu ,he.' eh;,riufn'. IIhcre.·tllcirpe.....(r,j';n~ 1,"14 cr II as nt'l.'e."S.'J';lr.., tu pi..f«' m:lri~ :UlIlU M-":l!f: i1rmUllr. (C d ..\ I:lhd.., )

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Il

c.ued in de~i~n (sec.: Plale I~). :ami OCl..1ll1C Ihe me:aSlIre :againsl which mher NC;lr 1':;ISlcrn pf)\\CrS modelled their own; j\I;I:Il111iall influcm:e is dearly diM.:ernihle ;nthe armour oflhe F.~YPli:lll ch:lr;ot :lrchcr in !'I:lle B. That lhe F.~;)PI;;Ill~ rl.'l'>peeled Ihe If/(myamlll and their equipment highl~ <::111 be ~ugcd hy the frcquenl referem.:e 111 their Gtpillre as hooly in Ihc annals of Iheir eampaign~ in Syria and P:llcSline. It is alslI indicued in Ihe wa~ Ihal dn,riHls and assol.;:lled equipmcnt filmlCd a .. i~n;ncaTlt proportion of lhe dowr) !>Cnt b~ King ,\rl:lIal11a let TUlhmosis IV \\hen :I diplomal;c marriage sc:lled a tTl.'3I) bel\\Ccn ~Iilanni and Egypl in Ihccarly I . h h cemury Be. It is Iherefore nOI ~urprising Ihal Ihe E,n pli:lI\~ \ ie\\ed \\ ;lh al>)>«.'hensiun the riM: Hf lhi... formidable milir:lry I)()\\cr This sn:,ion f)f rdit:f:.hl,l"'$ btc:r SCll' Ki"gdolll clnsccomb", itlfol/llr) oflhe (ime: of'he: 1l..J I I Ie: (If Q,uJc:sh. V"liit, 'hoSt: ilJll...',....J,aJ rolrlirr Jllt.'\ fWIl ........r 'c.\lilt: '"....ul . prOlIX'I;"",II'hile"

.

nunlber :o,ill t":lrn 'he hro".-.c: "/r;1\ e: ulilcr.>

',;1

c,npJoJ Ih(' lh(lllCSh ..r •...id.lc· :o"vnl ill 11(1\1'

addiliollio Ihc"'llCar :lnd shidd, (C d M:lhd~ I

with which the~ woultl. helitre lung. he emhroiled in inc\ il:lble eonfliu, Beyond \Iilanni, the Ilurrian cit) siales uf S)ria and lhuse ruled hy Ilurri:ms and non-Ilurrians in r:l!t... . . line al~1 emhraced :lIld emulaled the 1II(lr~I'(/1II1lI ~ystem and the milil;lI'y leehnology :lSSOCi;lled \\ilh it. Thcir milil:ar) cffLX:li\'ene~s gues some way to explain Tuthlllo~is III nL'Cding 17 :ll1nu:lIGlmpaigns mer a 2n-~ear perilKI in unlel'lo COlllr()II':lle~lincand S) ria. The Ruad w Emllirc If during the rei~ns (If t\mcnophis I :llld TUlhmosis I I\lil:anni had )el 10 maLe il:. po\\er slrongl~ felt, E~) pLian innuence in the l,c\'anl showed :l m:lrkcd, albeit sclf-induL'Cd, decline under their rWlI successors, Tuthmo~is II .lI1d Ilatshepsul. Ouring the 20-)Io-'::Ir rei~'11 uf Halshepsul no F.l-rypliall milir:uy cxpcdilion \enlurcd ttl Ihe I.c\'anl. wilh the consequence Ihal h~ Ihe lime of her de:lIh there nOb a marll·d decrease in thc lribule recei\Co frum Egypr's Lissa Is in S) ri:l, In the f:lee oflhi:-. pcreei\l'd naning of Eg~pli:lll power, ~til.llllli Illmcd npidl) I() a~rl

its control over Syria as far as rhe l\lcditcrrallcan coast, \Iith nlflSt of Egypt's former vassals no\\ aeknowlcd!!ing the killg in \Va~hllkk:tni a!'> their overlord. 'I'hc re,ll measure of Eg) pi i;11l wC;lkncss, ho\\"(;\,er, em he seen in thc manner in which the king of Qldesh on lhe Ol'OIltcS had cxpantlcd his dumain in S) ria anti thell SUlllhl\anl into Paleslinc with 100ai impunil). On ncws of the tlc:uh uf I-Ialshepslll in 1-+1'1211(: he or~:lniscd ;tll alliance ofcit) Slales in Syria :md Palest inc to challenge Egypt ian Pll\\ er in Canaan by seizing theeity ofi\'\cgidJII. \Ve must inli.:r thai the King of(~dcsh h;td the 1;lcit, ifnot open, support (If his 0\ erlunl in Washukk:mi lilr this prtl\"tK:'llion. ','hc city oCnJpied :1 srrategic position astride the main tradc rmllc bctwl.'el1 EV;YIH :ll1d MesopOI;lmia, i\"ol only did this 11:1 \'C eeullumil.: implicatioll!'> filr the I..ingUllin; hut the :mdacirr of the act itself promised, UIlIc~s dc;t11 \Iilh quickly, to undermine the credibility of EgypI's rule amung her \-:Issals in Canaan. :\1 risk lIas the whole Ilfher sel.:llrity po"irioll in C'maan and thc intcgrity of (he easlern bunlers uf Egypt it~c1f. The fil1'ei~n pulie) init i;lled b)' TUI hmu::.is [II as :1 response, and the military campaign!'> undertaken III rcalise ii, hC:lr all thc hallmarks of an llllderl~ ing grand sLr:tll:~Y de:trl} !iJrmttl:lleu in au\:mce :lnd designed 10 addrcss the sit uat ion Eg~ pt 11()\1 !"ound itselfin, 'I'hc polie) (If lea\ in~ I assals to t heir own de\iccs upun pa)lllent or lrihule turned un the willingness of the Egypti.m ph:I~lohs to undert;ll..c re~lll:lr al'nletl dcmunslnllions in Palesline and S) ria. In the absence of such reminders thc llel..lt:: :llleg-iam.:es of SYI'i:1ll and Palcsrini;l1l tily st;lIes could no longer be :lssuretl, SUdl ein,:ulllstalll.;Cs now ohl:lim:d; and also scr\·ed tv demollst rilte hO\1 different \\ as t he sit ualion in the l,c\':l.llI from Ihe rime of /\mHsis, when Ihe policy \\";IS uriginall) furmulatcd, Egypt was nu\\" npl}()sed by :1 major power in 1\ 1ilanni where none had existed hefore, a powel" ahle to challenge her pretensiolls to SllZel"lillt~ o'er the rq~ion. i\lit
Tlli.~ khnp~sh I'I:IfC_~ from "Il'IOlIt' Nt,,,, Kingdom: rIu: II"C:lr.IQn lI"as IJIlfIlt,d fur ;(Ii s;m i /llr;(." (I) ,Ilt' (OI'CIt.'!t 0"

all :11I;111:1/, :lI.uJ,

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.

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TI,('y II t're c:I.·fl'lJ.';in'/.I' 11$<-'(1 "-"

.'it'll

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die fgYl,,;;1/I Army 1/lruu~/lUr" 1IIl' Nt'll'

"·;ngdmn. (Ur;,is/l ,\IUSI'lIIll)

Frum till' tilllc o(lIlt· dt,ft';1f uftll(" Hd':"m.~ until till' t'ml nfrllc ;"rh ('('IIIl1n

1Jr. r:Il.'

1'1 i:lll c"ariols . lJ'rrutll~h' rcst:mblcd 11I().~c:

nftfl::i; Gm,umilc: mCI/Wl'S, ..11':11'/1;'0/11

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"II dl"ri()/s prior'" ,11(' rci;:11 ofTm/HllUsis 11' i...

thc: Itlllr-spukc:d" /ltTI. :11,/",";:11 dill rim... "cre: built ill [l!."I)/, mallY lI'crc }til'ell as IriblJf(' f).' (,';1O,1I1II;1C :Iml

5_"1';;111

,·:I.;;'''allJ·. "krc ,ht' dlarim i... bt:j,,/; c1IIplu.\,(,'4.1

for

hunlilll!. T/lc dr;, cr II",,, II'ounl;'}/(: rcjtl.~ :lrullml/lis lI":li,"', fredll}! hi... ll;Jlld.'· tIl ...II()()/ hi... "Illl'. (t.,,,l/rlt·s."

J'irchirellmok...)

\cnted by the impositiun of milit;u'y garri~lIls, ;\fld administered by provincial !'ovt.:rnors under the direct eOlltrol uf the pharaoh. The loyalty of vassal rulers was 10 be fUriher elll.:oumgetl hy rcmo\'in~ their sons 10 Egypt as hostages. It is dC;lr, ho\\'c\'er, th;lt even TUlhmosis III never envisaged the regiun being tutall~ subjug;lletl ami perm:llleTltly occupied by the army. Slleh a grandiose model uf empire was probably beyond Egypt's resources, :Inti was not Ihe apprupri:lIe mechanism Itl .lchicvc her more limited objl.'t:lives. In Ih'll sense the Icrm 'empire' is used of Egypt's va~;i1tcrrituriesin;J 16

diflcrcnt W;IY Ihan when ulili:>.ed. for eX:llllple, to describe Ihe 1'c1,l1ionship or Romc IH the terrilories she conquered. i\t besl Egypt':>. attitudc til hcr \,:lssal lerrituries (.';Ill be descrihed ,IS indifferent, The milit:try campaigns of'rut hmosis wcre designed '0 ensure ;1 more eflCCli\e eOlllrol u\cr lerritoril'S se...n to be of \'aluc for security reOl:-.tJnS and ;IS 'milch cuws' from which the m;lsimum cconomic benefit could he extraCled in lhe furm or 'll1llll:lltribute. In:lsnluch:ls TUlhlllu~is lit saw !'vlilanni :lS:I thrc;lI tOMH:h a polic) hc as:>.llllled [h:lt il W;IS sc1f-i.. '\'idellllhat it \\mlld inc\'ilabl~ lead to:l direcl dash or ;ll'Ill:>. hetweCllthe two great J'!1l\\erS, It is a measurc of his ~cl1ills that all his camp,ligns in P:I1cstine and Syria were conscious steps lO\\':lnls cnsuring: [hal lhe incvitable conf'runlaliun wOllld bc broughl ;lboUI on his lerms. The demisc ofll:l1shepsul ;Illuwed Tuthmosis III IH exercise sole rule as ph:lmoh fur the first time in his 22-ycar reign. Ilis respunse to the ch:lllenge uf the hustile eO;llitio!l was typical of tht: Ill:ln: measured, but very r.lpid. In shol'l order he led the Egyptian

army inw Palestine 10 do hanlc wilh the cncm) furce. Althouf(h illacti\e jilr some lime, lhere is no douhting I hal under Ihe command of this d vnamie and remarkable king, who is rCj.,rardcd hy many as Ihe grearest pharaoh l<J have occupied thc lhrone of Egypt, the arm) was superbly trained, equipped, and \\ell prcp,!rcd for the COlllesl of arms f,lcing" it. Alxwc ;111, il must hc assumed th;1I it was hifl"lliy moti\;1ted, gO\'crncd as il was by;1ll ovcrwhelming desire to \'cnt its profcssional frllslr,lIion on the cnemy :llld redress the cOcct of lhe ye;lrs of self-induced we:lkness th;ll had brought Egyptian power and preslige beyond its borders 10 such sorry pass, II would seem mo:.l apposite at this point, with Egypt Ull the road lU cmpire, III explurc very briclly thl' wa~'rhe Male had e\uhed 10 service tIll' needs of the military. ami lU examine in olliline Ihe army itself.

a

THE MILITARY STATE The head of Ihe Eg~ plian SI;ltc ;llld commandcr-in.:hieJ of the armed furces (army ;1Ilt! n;l\,~) was the ph:lf:lOh, who, as suprcme warlord, exercised ahsolule control (IVer the machinery Ill' ~o\"crnmenl and resources of the kingdom, and was thus able to wield unhindered power in the pursuit of his aims, The martial n:llllreofthi~ power is rclln;ted in the inscriptions and pharaonic ieonognlphy oflhe ISth :lnd 191h Dyna:-.ties, where Ihe king is depicted in tradilional ~lylc as sun god but is :llso portraycd as an inGlrnation of the war god i\lnnlu ami The personification of Eg) pl it:.c1f. Prcp,lr;ltion for Ihis role heg,1Il e;lIly. with lhc heir apparenl reccivinl!:l lIistim;tl) military nlm.:alion at lhe hands of \'elenms appoinled by the pharaoh, Expertise was :Ic(luired in ,Illthc arts
army on l:ampail;n, Nol only did thi:. enlail the plur;loh defining lhe str,lleg) ;md pl;1ll of C;ullp;lign but also his personal involvelllem on the field ofh;\lIlc. TUlhmosis III, Amellophis II :lnd Ibmassc,'i II \\ ere all renu\\ ned fur Iheir leadership uf their l:hariot corps in haltle, :lnd their personal hra\'er~ :.eems ne\cr tu havc been in queslion, The l:uneentr;Uiun uf power in the hand:. of lhe pharaoh me:lnt that he alone controlled the diverse machinerr Hf gO\'crnmenl. Clearly such responsihilitits dl'manded mtn of great self-confidence, intdlCCI, stamina, abililY and visiun. As in Ihe case of rhe kings uf i\SS) ria, Ihe fOrl une~ of Ihe sl:lte were heavily dependent un thl: qualil) of whurnsuc\'l:1' Ol;cupied lhe tlmllle, It was indced forlunale for I~gypl rhat during Ihe period of Ihe Nc\\ "ing-dom lhc Ihrune \\as occupiC(j by tine ph,lraoh of genius ;lnd many uf Ic:.ser, hUI ntlncthcles~ \er~ high, calibre, The reorganisalion nf lhe SI:lle under Amnsis sa\\ the emcrg:em:e of' thc professiollal milir;lry as a dislinet CI:-II: in Egyptian :-ocicty, The maintenance ofa standing arm) ahle III deplo) Ihe rull p;uwply of \\eapons and resoun:es eonsislent \\ith late Bronze Age w;lrbrc required the ere,lIion of new ,Idministl~lti\'c ;lllli (,'Conomie structures within the st,lle, Thus tllc provision ur\cr~ large qU:lIltitics ofbwnze \\'C;lllOIlS, such as klwpl'sll swords and vasr numhers of ;lrrowheads, could only be sust;\ined by ;1 stale bureaucracy ,hal u\'ersaw the pro\'ision of the raw materials fill' the melal, amI arsenals lhal produced the weapon~ thcm:"c1ves, This ranged frum lhe prudUClion of shields, duriots and bows in Slale workshops. to ships filr Ihe navy in Ihe dod:y:ml at lI
The structure of the military atlminiSfnllion in the e.lrly New Kingdum mirrored thaI of the civil administr:ltion. The garrison hL':.ulquancrs of the northern army corps b~ at \'lemphis and thal filr the south al Thehes, each under the command Or.l scnitll' oOIl:cr of the army; latcr ;I third lIas added, anti Uamasses LI added a fourlh. I':ach was named alkr the god of the region in whit:h il \\as b:lsed, thaI in Thebes being namcd for i\mun, in ,\ lcmphis fi,r Plah and in llcliopolis, Re. The arm)' furmed in the 14.)th Dynasty :lnd hased at I'i-R:unasses \\:ll> named for Set (Sulckh). The genemls in command at these t:enlres wcrc ch;lrgcd with the lraining of recruits, \\ ith lheir

"

MJppl) to lIlilit,lry unit.. ,mt! g;ll'risUIll>, and the pru\ ision of royal esenrts and p:tr:ulc troops, Ih,'{;unl:- uf recruitment and stocks of milit;l["~ ~llpplies and the myri:ld 'II her "dminislr;lli\'ctlct,lils 1:1) in the hantls of the milit;lry scrihe:-, \\ho were under the conll"ul of the ~ing's St:rilx: of Recruits and the ChicfSt:rilx:s of the Arm). They in thcir turn answercd lu thc pharaoh's \ izier, who also m'crsaw lhe wurl of the 'g-cneral st,lIT' of Ihe arlll)'. This milit.lr) burc:lUl.:racy, imbued with :111 the scribal traditions of Egypti;1ll :ldministralion, maintained ;1 ,hor"ugh ami up-tltdate record f,rt he :lrm)'~ strength. It was this administrali\·c eniciency which goc... some \\":1)" to ac-

couminv: fUI" Ihe status of lhe army of I::gypt in Ihe 'Jew Kingdom as one Ilf The mUSI formidable tlf The I.ale Brunze A~e. il is ;1 llIC,ISUI"e of lhc atlr,l("lioll of lhe :ll"lll~ ;IS ;1 c;trcer to the YOUllP: men of EP:YPI th;1l denullci;llions of the milil;II"~ lif'c arc f"requcllIly 10 he found in the SdlOUI wriTing..:; or New Kingdom scrihe!'.. Indeed. ;IS

.... . l/llu.m;:lI ";1:.'pl llcquirccl" cI'HritJI anll ill

fh,' II-:,I.T or t11(' efef,-:" uf lilt, 111 I."."" 111,' Ii III i, ,'rI 'll':li',~hilin' o{flOn,c." prcn'lIlce'-if!>' r:lpill l:.\p:'II.";fJlI. 1/ ",'''' flnf." ru"':lrds 11ll: ,'ud uftlu: re;!!" "fTur/llllU."i." 111 tlllll if n,-:.dH:d" I,,,'!!" _"j-,.,., H"rs,'," ,n'r" "'It' I'" tIlt' lIl"sr \'; ulwlllcr "",jill' snlllTC nr SlIpl,l." U·'I.!> frum tritwtc-in thi." flit-lUre wc .'it't' IIf"U hurses brill/! hrflugl,r III F,[!ypr. A I,w of si/!"i/imm;e: i." I1Il' ,mrli,,1 illw,:e fit' file eIJillJ "n Ille

."Iwu/d"" ..r,lle Ii!!un' fill Ih" rigll/, I'ru1l1 111" 1'1:1;..'1' nrTurl.mn."i,,, 111 nnwurds C:m;w/I;I,' :md SI'ri:m ,"1.....;;,1 rukr." II "~l' rC:
Iln'ir !;4JllS W f:.gypl ,I>t'ir Q'III r;nm:ll,cll:u'iour. TlIe.w: wns wen' brulI}!ht lip ",itll £g,,·,"i'JII roy'" children 'Ifl !>en'l' fheir Jora "tICl s':lf1(1 IJllh"I'Orl'jl orr/Ie kill/;'. (IJrifi.o;;/, ,"II,n'lIm) /(J .'it'III'

US hQSllI;Il'S fix

.... Rq::Inh-d :II>' /lle ;.:re:u,·sr I'lm,.,ml. c,'er,n fK:cul'.l' dIe rhrum' Ur£/f.'"lJI, 7"Ullmlflsi." IIJ crmducrl'<1 IIU Ic.~s dlllll

17 t:1I11l,J:li/fll.~

;11 C:mllllfl :H,d.s, ri,1 If> ".~."crt l.i!>'d(JIllil/~,/i"" "r Ill" J,C'·'"It. 1Ii." '''qfidd" ('a"'/J:li~'1' dl'IIIIIIIS,r;/"·.,, qU:lIi/i,·." ,111I1 IImh' ir ulldl·r.~·I''''(''''''C wlu' Jr(. is Wflll"/;m,'!>' rcfi:rrni ") liS

,11('

,:,,,,'t~''''flllllf:llldcllt

£1:."1'1'. (c. cI M"/ll('"

the demands on the army im.:n:ased so did Ihe upporlunilies for advam:cmcnl Ihrou~h ils ranks for \\c;l1th~ and 100dy alike. While those or high birlh could secure positions in clilc ullits sueh as the dl.lriot corps. :lble commoners cuuld ;\\:hic\e promotion 10 olliccr Stalus, No heller illllstnllion of this c;ln be offered ,han the l':.lreer of Horcmh.lh. who

hc~"n his army C.lreer :1":1 St.·ribe amI cndc(1 up :lS phar:lClh. Olhcr pharJuhs who l~.ln their l.i1fl.'Cl"l> in the :lrlll~ indm.led A), RalllaSM.~ I :md, as \\c ha\c aln::ld~' Sl..'Cn, TUlhmo<;is I. Bra\Cf) \\.1:- \Cf) frcqucnll) rc\\ :mJcd h) thc '\'Jlour of gold.' \\ hich \\;1..";:1\\ arded in the form uf I{ukl urn:llllents :Illd \\capons. (Ah-muse: Sj>c-JL:s ofbcing gi\'cn it t\\ ice h) Amu..;;s) J .:lI1d ~r:lIllS. s!;l\c:-, amI a sh:lrc in thc l)("tty of l.'llllpaign pro\idcd many an ;11I,;cl1li\'c for \oluntar~ cnli:-t 1111.:111. 'I'hc CllSte natul'c tlf 1hc E~YPli,lll sl:llll! ing milil:ll'Y W;IS rcinfun.:cd b~ the lendene~ li,r military M:r\'kc to bL'COllW hcrct.lilar~ as son followed father intn thc r.lnks. This \\as foslered and clU.:uurJ~cd by

'11,(·II.I...i." ,,(,he ",mr:ITI vu,,-('r ur,./te C:uM,,,,i,c'

cin ,"'ales .. ~ Ihedil('

('h:,ri",r,

11Nnlll

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nmri~al;nu, 'IlIi" C.\·:lllll'/(o, ml.clI rrmn 11t~ rd;.,r~ ,m lIlt, ('h;,ri", bod,' I)r

10

Twilltw"i,,"', ...1"",'" ,lit, ~"'Cllt;;11 ft',lIl1~ :11111

apIH:;Jr:mn' fir ,IIcs,' Co",:!;",i/(' • (,hid,,,. :lItcl

their ere.. ~. (t-"in'bird 11<1.,4,

the pr.u:t it:c (If l..-sl;lhli:-hin~ III ilitary colonies Ihruul;h(lut Eg~pl. Ilo\\'c\'cr, al()n~'1.ide Ihc rq,'lII:lr ;Irmy scrvcd tho·:-c l..i1lkd up hy ~ollscriplinn, Ih~ir n:lm~ lx'in~ dr.l\\n from thc distrk1 rc;:"i:-tcrs Lxpt by the St:rilx: of RecruiL..;, The .\ liddlc "in~dom draft rollio uf flnc in c\cr~ hundred eligihle had inerea~l.'(l subMJllliall~ IO\\':lnl!> lhc dose of the Nl'W Kingdom periud, su th:1l in lhe rei~n of R:llll:IS:-CS 111 olle in C\'CI')' ten men c1ig:iblc fur eOIlM:riptiun \I.Il> \:allcd 10 the culour:-', 11 i:- de:lt" from a !lumber of eOlllcmput"ary :ICl,;tlUlll:- th:lI in ~tl1ne t'loSes the (;UI1St:l'ipliun \\:IS Illorc like impl't-:-slllcnl, \\ ilh 1)(ltlies Ill' ;Il'mctl troO\)S prL~lIt to enfurce Ihc call-up and sCP:II':lIC Ihe ehflM'n men frullliheir f.1milicl>, This is m)( ~urpri:-inl:"; h~ the: time of Ramas.~ I1lthc largc number tlf men hcin~ con'tCriplcd into Ihe arm~ was ilsclf s~ mptum:llit.: uf the military dan!!crs (.Icing Eg~pt on her \er~ horclen..

THE NEW KINGDOM ARMY AT WAR The

;lrmy

th;)1 Tuthmosis III led

HUI hc~und

the

frontier fOrlrcs~ of Silc to do haltlc wilh fhe enemy ctJ,alitiull:1( .U..:[;iddo in 14M2 Be dillcrct! liuh: from th,1I .:tken fun her !lnrthwanl h) Ram;lsscs 1110 I.:onfront the Iliuiles:lI Q'ldcsh one hundred ant! cig:hl~ )C:lrs bier. \Vhik the army (IrRam.. s:,c~ was ..:crlainly larftcr, dcpluying four field armies rather than IWIl. and while the appc:lI'ancc of soldiers t:h:mgcd ~onll':­ \\ h:1t 10 lake :U;CHl/111 of tcdmic:11 dc\'clupll1CIlIS ;Inti the Icssum. ufulmhat. there \\';15 in ,llllllhcr n:spcclS a remarkable cuntinuity. \/UlwilhM:mding lhe ill1rodul.:tiun uf the ch'lriol. Ihe Egypli:lIl standing army uf the en' Kingdolll W,IS, like its i\tiddlc Kingdom prcd<:ccssor, mainly all infanlr~ forl;C. In this the EgypTi~n :tI'nl) diflcred from those of l\lil~nni or Ihe Syrian ami Canaanite l:ity sT:lles, \\hose primal') arm was lhe ch~lriolry. This rdlects what wen: undoubtedl) hlO \ er} strung 'ld".mla~cs the E~YPlian ;\l"m) l,;uuld nploil. ReI,llivc 10 her uppunents Egypt's large j>fJJlul,lIioll allowed Ihe deplo)lTlell1 of:J large infantry lim:e; ~Irld the experience flf ccnlUrit:s in the urg:lI1is~llioll ~\lld discipline of large budil:s of Illen Irall:-bted Ihell\~ehes n;lIur;llIy In Ihe army. The infanlry The in(;mtry were of Iwo :-nl"ls. The ,!fehers, equipped either \\lth lhe nlder Sl;IVC 01' newcr composite buws, would hc deployed in lillear fOrlnation but employed aeeurding: IU the nalllre of The uppositiun. When faced b) li~htly prote(;(cd Iroops SUl.;h :l~ lhe Lihyan:-, massed vlIlle)s alone \\ere frCllucnlly sufficient to elkcl Ihe Ilcce.<;;sary level of destruelion. :\b'OlinSl lllorc he:l\'ily :mlled and prutl.:clcd inf:ullry Ihe archers wlIuld hc l.:lllployed III deli vcr hca\'y (o\ering: lirc lor the close cOIubal infantry, \"IlClwn as II,,£-hllt-Ilft or 'I he sl rong-:trm 00) s'. These would advance rapidly, discharging Ihcir ~1}(,:,lrs in the proCl.:ss beforc c1osin~ wilh :1Il enemy :llre:l(ly softened Ill' by The supporting: lire ufthe archers, and sellill~ to wilh their brol17.(.' ""IOPi~,'" sWHrd:- or tong mace :l~es, While

Ihere W,IS clear cu-upentliOll betweeo Ihe:-e Iwn br:lIlc!ll.:S of the ;l\l~nlry, lhcl'e is nu eXlant C\idence III suggest they operated logelher in c1n:-e comb:lI flll'm,uiollS, Infanlry flf eilher :-url were normal!) deployed in cump;my units uf approxim:llc1y lOU In 250 men, distinguishable on Ihe field ufhaltle by the comp;lIl) st:md:Il"lI; the morale :llld slat us of e;leh CtIlllp:lllY \\ :IS enhanced by t itks closely rel:lleli til Ihe illlage~ on the siandard, Ex:uuplcs include Ihat 01';1 ~llhi;11l company under Amenuphis II called 'Aut! in ~uhia', :lnd others under Amellophis III c:IIlcd 't\ bnilCSI in Jusliee' and 'Splendour of Aten', 1\10\ emelll cOlllml W:I:- effecled h) signals from war IrumpelS, eX;llnples of whicll h:t,"c I}(,:ell reeHvercd from tombs.

The chariot arm II is clear Thai ~iven till' centnl! rule uflhe inl;llllry in lhe Egyptian arlll) iT would hcCtlme a primar) lar~el fur the mass ehariotr)' of Ihe Syrians and (:an;lanitc~. Ideally lhl.:y ,\Uuld :llTcmpl In surprise the Egyptian infantry \\hen \ulncr;\bly strung (lui lin lhe march. (miceli, il was in order IU delly thelll eX~lctl) Ih;1I uppol'lunil) lh:11 Tlllhmosis 111 eho:-e to :l\oill the obvious line of 1ll;lreh, through either the northern Ill' southern ellll") POilUS inlo the V.tle of Esdradull, on hi~ approach to .I'v'egiddo, Illl\\'cvcr, :-lleh :1 taetil.: W:IS used \ cry sUl.:ce~sfull)' by the Ililrites at (~Idesh when Iheir llla~sed chariots cr:lshed inln the :Irlll) curps of Re. Eg) pli~1ll inf:lIllry, while able III deploy to receive eh:trillts, depended Ill;linly lIn thei.' own I.:h:\riol units lH tlcfcmllhclll from Ihe enemy's. It can be SCl..'1l how \er) diffcrcm was The Egypliall lise of The chariot al'm from lh;1\ of the lI/(m)IIIf/lIII, :\ prim;lry rule was Ihe :-uppOrl and protection of rhe illf~lllry, b) dcnying enemy ehariotry lhe opporlunil) of sllrprisin~ rhlo'm oilihe march oroI' allowing Ihem to h;lI'ry the intulIr) from :1 distance ami reduce their numbers Ihrough allriliull h) long-range archery. The Ilylsos had heen the great mentors fur Ihe E~yplians in dlariul warl:lre, :md while the I:ltler dre\1 quite freel) llll Ih(: lechnology of t he (::IIl:lanites and ulhers in Ihe development of 1I1l.:ir fI\'1\ ch:lrim arm it is apparent that from carl) on il de\dnped in a dislinl.:t;,c1~ idiosyncratic f;lshiun. 'I'his \\as ref1cclcd in lhe dc.'iign uftheir chariulS. COlllp;\red tn those of Ihc I Iilt lIes, !\ Iitalllli. and Ihe lI/(lr~r'llIIlI/ uf Syri:1 :1Ilt! Clll:lan lhey appe:\r quile delicate, (:\el1 errett' fur

"

.... A rclicrrrulII tllf:

't-"'/"c uf,ltIlllll ", K'lrfl:II. in " lrigllly s,yfi.~cd im"JH' hulding h.",fll·/m;r t!l"

05/1(111':-' Tulllfllosis

."',llt:!): ufC<JlIlw/I m:lck

(:tlp,;I'(; b,\' lIi." CilUlpiliJ!fI.... (C d '\""Illy)

~

,ll,lIuugllllle fir,~1

"ropL-rl.. recordt.·d lJSt" "f Iwr!l't""t.·11 tiS l.11\''''n' d:lft.'s 10 Iht.·A,«SI·ri"f1.\i in ilw 'hi, Cl",turv lie it i.~ elL'ilr th", f/,c ff.!-i"/lti:III:O' t'IIlI,J().n-d rillt'rs ill 1~lri(JIIS ruk.~" Tile 1Jl<)(/d illllSlmtcd Iwn' ''''(L~ fr(J1Il ,/'t't\nmnm

Agt.·. Cunlr.l.'1t rltis with flit' inl1lgc frum the ItIl1lb ur lIon·tIlfmh, i" "hid, tile ric/cr,,,ilS ill Idlal i.~L·;lf1t.'d r/.c 'dullkc,' sC:lI: ;lsIri,/(o ti,e Iwrsc:~ rWIII' lI'i,h"ut II $lddJc dm1l. (C d M"J'dy)

.,,

..-

~

-

-
wal'fal'C. This impression was dear!} more :lpparcnt ,h,m rcal. ;\ h~l\') chariol is designed for the charge and c1osc-ordcr cum bat; the weight lhe machine is itM.:lf \l;lrt of ils offensive pOl'cntial, and presupposes lhe avail:lhility of Open terrain 10 allow acceleratiun and momentum ttl huild up during the charge. SUl.:h vchide.... wuuld be IUlally inappropriale either for lhe primary tasks required uf Egyptian chariotry or fur the lerrain uf Egypt 01' Canaan. While Egypl ian chariot units were employed in scouting ;lhc.ll! of the

or

"

:uJ\'ancing army they l:uultl nut ;llways ensure that enemy unilS in hiding \\ould be discu\'cred; thus rcal:tion time when atlaeked was l:I"udal. If supp"ning eh:l .. iot~ were to prutel:t the infantry rapid acceleration to meet the charging: enemy was Vii'll, I .ighlweight chariots: slll:h as those used by Ihe Egyp1i:lllS could rllUil such :l rule. -I 'he lightweight but \'cry stUI'd) design alsu rellcels the nature of Ihe terrain over which they wcre nUr'm:llly employed, Dcserts and upklnds arc nul :11 all slli!,lblc for hc;!vy r.:;h;lfiots

(as lhe Assyrians dis(:O\crcd), :md ;IS thc Ev:ypti;lIls hot h t ra\'el'~ct! :Jnd fought o\·cr such tcrmin in Ev:~ pt, Sin.li and Canaan, the th.lriot ntclkd lu be suitcd ror lhe I':\sk. II i~ dear lh.lI 1;ICtil:s te) meet their he.. v~ brethren

..... ~

'11'1

in their opponent's' annies wcrc well dc"elopcd and Sllcl.:L'ssfully emplo~cd hy Egyptian chariot unilS. They \\ere abu\"e all designed to exploit the inherent ~pecd ;In
13

would h,ne included c01llingenls from the city SI;lIc!'. ufS)ria and Cll1:lan. Others arrived in the E~~pti;ln army h~ ;l mure cin.:uiwus rUllle, ha\'in~ SI:lrted Out a~ priM)ll(:rs of \\:11', whose oh"ious fig-hI in~ pOlenti;llled to their being incurpnr;lled into Ihe army, TheM: included Nubians, Libyans ;llld the famous Sherd,,'n, one cOllling-e111 of which was <:mploycd .tS :1Il elite guard infantry unil by Ramasses II. The field armies On e:lmp,lip:n, the :lrlny corp:-. mentioned 'Iho"..· would al:I as sell:'contained field armies emhracin,; all arm!'., An ,Hh:ln("e into cnemy IcrrilUry would sec these field :lrlllies sep;tl~llcd by some IOkm bUI within :.upporling distance of e,leh other, l:Ulllnlllnic;llIUlls bein~ maintained by rider!'. or chariulS. Th..· lo~ic of this org:'lIlisation is :lpp,lrent given Ihal Ihe prindp;11 lactl!.: of the oppositiun W;IS the elllploymelll of skirtllishin~ eharil)lfy to strike at an alh;11lcill~ arm)' on Ihe march. The short dist'lIll.:e bell\een each corps ensured that in Ih" n ent I,rlhe prolel.:ling charilllS of one heinp: ~mep' :IW;ly, ~lIpporl coul..1 he Illovcd (01'w,lnlljuiekly tu hclp Ihe inEmlry nO\\ under atrack. This, hu\\e\el", did not al\,'''~ s \\ork, as at Qldesh (!'.ee diag"rams). The armies could eilher he empluyed in COllcerl lU form a single hody for h,ltde; or sepOlrated, \\here need dem:lllded, to address individual tasks, wilh III ,11., Imk(' nnri f:uJ,,·r:.. 111,' ,'umpns;,.· bUlI'"t reli,'( urders for later rC:lssembl~. The sdf-cont:lined ,1/ Kurll"l. SIIOI..... '.;... :lh;J;',~' d.';ul•. llla·n""/ri 11 IU slllXJt I,i.'" bUI.. I;",,, 'I crnb:.rll.,d "1'0" " 11II1l,b"r nature of Iheir organisation is dearly indicated in :l /llIlI in): dmrim a",/ ur,·mllp"igm' If> I
of his gcncralDjehul)' 10 lay sieg:e III the cilY of Jan a; Amosis laid sieg:e 10 Sh;lruhen ftlr three years, and TUlhmosis 111 IU ~1cg:iddtl for sc\'cn munths. When SiL'gCS are illllsimied in 1111.: ann:lls, as in l\ lcrneptah 's l..':lmpaign in Palcsline, the principal mel hod uf ast':llllt is sh{l\\ n a:-. hieing hy selling h1dde~, :lnd b) infantry :I.lIcmpling 10 breal.. inw Ihe t:il) by u~ing a\e~ on Ihe \\Ollden g".Iles. \\ ilh Ihe lar~e number of furlifled t:itics throughuut I)alestinc and (".;1I1:lan it is underst:lndable Ih;1I Ihe Eg) pi iall:> ~l\\ the haltlefield as Ihe I1lL.lnS IIf fim.:ing a mililar) dl..-cisiun and, like uther pc)\wr!o !ouch a., The !\s,c;yri,llls, Ihe) tried tu :lwlid sieges where IXIS~ible. H

The ml\'Y The use of ri\·er \e,,>scl .. ami ships in Eg) plian warfare i:- as uld as eunfliel in Eg) pt it..;clf. In thc Ne\\ Kingdum the 'na\"y' ".IS nOI :-.ccn:l~ a scp.lr:lle sen icC" but as:ln imq;nl p;lrt ur llH: Jrlll) ami ";1." emplu)ed exten:-i\c1) in amphihiuLL' upl.'f3tiun". \\ e ha\c 3Irc:u.l) mClllium:d such 01)Crations ocing cunduclcd by K:lIno"e ami Amw.is in the warab.....insl the II) l.'iCIS. TuLhnm"is 111 had a lar{Z"c Ilccllmilt:1.1 the royal dock~Jrd:ll I'erunefer, ne;lr ~Icmphi", these \ essels bt.:ing cmplo)cd to lr:lllSpurt elenu'llIs of the :lrlllY alung the l.VilSI lu purl.... in lhe l,eb:ll1on on a number of ncca"ioll!; in suppurt of hi" operalions :!g:-Jin~t the c.il~ slates nf SOUThern Syria allll.~1it:lnni it..df. .\I:my of these :.hip:. \1 ere adapted cargo \cssels.

The best i11l1slration~ of Ep:~pti;ln \I:lrships in acliull ;11"1,,' 10 be found un Ihe wall:. of the tempk :\f J\!edinel Ibbu. "hieh del;lillhe dele:lI ora Ikel (If \'essels helonging: tu the 'Sea Pcuplcs' during thc reign of Ramas:.cs Ill. 'I 'he cre\\:. of such \'c:.scls \\ cre infalllr~ companiL'S dcsignalcd lutrain and then scn·c un :.hip:., ahhvugh those \c:-.scls depi<.:tcd Oil the l\ttdinel Ilabu reliefs l.":lrried a erc\\ uf ahuut fifty. ThC" \\ hole l"re\\ werc lrainetl 3" lllarin~ and. althou!!h l.'S.'>Cnlial1~ fighting men, duuhletl up ,L.. the oarsmcn and gener:ll :.hiphanJkr... 10 comhat some 20 of the cre\\ \HlOld he t1c1cg-.lted to ro\1 lhc \e:-.sel while the remainder funned the comh:ll lruups fur the enl"(llUltCr. Pulling direcll~ lU\\3nls Ihe enem) \l.1>Sc1s, thc nurine!'> wuuld usc bows :lml slin~'S In fOIke rhe dccks \\ hile a numocr uf the ere\\ \\ollid lhro\\ grappling huul.... inlo the ri~­ ging \\ ith the uhjl.'CT uf either c;lp~il:ing ur hnardinp: the eoem) ship. Iflhe !:tiler, then a" Ihe HMd.. c1oM:d a number uf marine.. l.. . rr~ ing spears fur du:-.e-urder thruMing \\ould hUJ.rd .he enemy \'l.'S5OC1 under cOler Ilf an.:hery from Iheir 0\\ n :.hip. It is a Sl..'Cnc from Ihis h:lltlc th.lt has bt....'n illu:.traled in PI:llCj. The dcfe:lI 111 ti,t· rd;"."
1\ ' F.1l.' 1" i'lII I:II:1ri",... bt:J::I II /(J

IhrtJlI

olt/heir

ClfI:l:mi,c d",r:u'lt'r :mll :1......'""t';1 ,"ort' "" I j I t' SI.' It-. IJj' ,lit· t'lId

reigll

"It'

nf1lit>

":/1:.' ''';:111 dmrim

.. /lt~·III:1l1
This C\':lIl1plt, 1111.'; rC('fl,·cn.·1I frum ,ht· tmull uf' 11\'11, tIlt' (ailicr.i,,·';, .. or 'n·It:f1uplli.~ III. (C, cI

.\Jahd.l)

"

of fhe Sea Peoples :If the mmllh of Ihe Nile \\;If; ,I COflSequem:c of a carefully Iail! trap in \\hidl the I':l;y!)t ians herded fhe enemy \ esscl~ I()\\ :\I'{\s Ihe shore, wherc ranks of archers poured ,ll'rO\\~ 01110 their deds, .\1.111)' of fhe Sell Pcoplcs' vcssels were eap~ized; 1a1'~C numners of prisoners were lal.:en, and man) olhers drowned, sUl.:h delails hcing carefully rendered inlhe ,\tcdincl Ilahu reliefs.

THE BATTLE OF MEGIDDO It was not only ;\,lpo}eoll who Ill:lde war \\ ilh his soldiers'legs. Within nille days or le,l\ ing- Eg~Jlt TUlh1llclSis III and hisar1lly had rcached G:IZ,1 in sOlllhern C:.lI1aan, The m:m.:h Ihl'Ou!!h Sin,li hy Ihe rU,lu kno\\ II as Ihe '\Vays of Ilorus' sUbbests :1 marching" rale of anout 15 miles per day; however, Ihe nile of march slo\\ed to abollt eighl pCI' da~ there:ll'tcr, pcrhaps indie.l.livc uf fatiguc, ur of Gin.: being cxen:isl:d as the a
26

siege !)llinlS 10 \\ ide SUpplll'l fur Ihe coal it ion in southcrll Cm'l;ln. It is :Ils{) si~wilicarH Ih,lt 'l'ul h11ln~is felt it T1cl:eSsary 10 lx:siq,~e to ,I eity Ihat lay aSlride hi:. COlllmunications and possible line of retreal. The approach Arriving in the \'ieinit)" of 1\lq:dddo hy mid-l\by, Tuthrnm,is l.oulkd ,I council uf his senior slalr u!1lccrs 10 di:.t:u:.s the opliun.. ;\\"ail:ible IU the army. Critical stlld~ of lhe texl t1l:seribin~ lhe cunferenel.: and thc baltic (cll'\'nl on the \\ ,Ills of lhe '[\'mple of Karnak) su!!"~t:sls thaI it is \'cry much ;\ dcvice for projcctill~ Ihe \.. ing in a hcroic role. NOl \\ iIhstallli ing. t hl: subject mal tel' 111'1 hl.:ir deliberalions was the choice or ruUle intu lhe Pbin or!':sdradnn, where l\ leg-ilion wa~ ~i'l.:d. Of lhe Ihree, 1\\'0 offered less dillicull approad\\'s, Thl.: third, the :\runa 'road', was lhrough a Ilarrow and dil1indl pa~s on:r the rid~e that W'I:. presumed (ceI'l~tillly h) the cnem~ cualililJll) 10 be tou difficuh fill" an army lo 1l~1.:. II:. principal ad\':mla!{1.: lay in its HI'I'C

tin,

Miler ('\';11111'''''''

Ul"l:I/C Ili,1I-l)\"Imsl,

l"I'ar;Ol.... 1l/,~, 'n'c", 'crcxl Irmll tflillbs. :In' sllllw" 011 di...pb.1 i" II", C.iru :\IU...CUJll. l'rOtH;"cflt Oil

/XI//I is I/n'/ar/:"c;:mb-mil

n:tcmlill{; lil,-" ;1'-(/ Ii-"",

'V"

till' "I' till' ('a b, whirll nilS l'm/lu,1 (·tllu 1ill'ml.I

rile Ilrcl,cr wlicli tl,c diariul ;ull'll/lI'cd:1/ .liP('I'
dirl.:cf approach 10 Megiddo itself. lor il would allow thc :lrlllY to debouch onto Ihc Plain of Est.lraclon less than.1 mile from the city. The sClltimenls ahmu the Ihird romc were, :ll.:col'ding to lhe repn1"t, unanimous among lhe pharaoh's generals: lhey believed thallhe t.Iangcl1; outweighed the ad\'.uuages. To go by this way me,ltH th:ll 'hurst: must follow horse, and man af.. ler man'; 10 hc c'lUght when slrungoUl in such:l manner \\',IS :1 recipe for disaster, The discllssiun of the opl ions eou lei llOl, however, have laken pl:ICe purcly on lhe Icvd of ,Ihst~\etinns, Tlllhmosis and his generals must h:l\'e knnwn, through reconnaissancc, Ihal the (.'(J;llilion fi.lrccs, p'lrlicularly their ehariuny, were t.Ieplo) Ct.1 to co\ er rhe appnmehes of Ihe IWO e:lsier rOUle;; 10 !\!lcgiddo, in p:lrticubr the one from '1",\,II1.Ieh. They would h.lve been ideally p1:u.;cd to allack lhe Egyptian forces as they entered the plain, The 'll"llly corp!> would h:l\'C been surprised while on the march, scpar:llct.I, .md vulnerahle til the mass t:hariot ;lll"ICks of lhe /IIar;.1'11111111, whose intentions were nol only to inni!.:t ;1 suund l.h:feal un the Egyptian chariot unils, but-once Ihe latter's effectiveness had hcen scverely il1lp:lired-lo hegin ,I process ofallritioll of the in fan-

Iry by long-range archery, Thus, cven hdllre the Egypli:lll army was finally able to deploy lor b:lItlc, the encmy coult.l h:l\'c inflicted vcry heavy losses. Canaanite tactics werc well known to the F,gyptians, and not wilhslanding Ihe 20-ycar hiarus in operalions in the regiun there must ha\'c heen plenty of officcrs present who had personal experience of fighting the 1II(1"~11'1I11111 in CIIl:lan. 'rllthmosis c1carly hdic\ed thal the benefits of the morc difficult route lilT oUlweighed the disadvantages, and was perhaps confirmed in Ihe correctness or his own view hy Ihe vehemclll.'C wilh which his own generals argued lheir corner. Iflhey were prepared In risk thc luss(..... cm,liled in appru.H:hing Megiddu \ i,1 one ()f Ihc 01 her t Wit routes rat her than I:lke t hc Arllll;l road, hu\\' much more likely was it thai Ihe enemy, lhinking in thc same way, would have len Ihe more difficult rOllle undefended? By lhc timc the cncmy T/I;.'>l!rt1pi,i<' 1!; "'":> ;J n l',n:clkm IJrllfik I';clI'of":1 dnl";m orrl,c .4nlllrna Al!l·. CJl~lrl.\· showlJ is IlIl' $i.\StWl.'lOCJ ",'Icel ;Ifld tl,e (,·;I."C

ffw tlu: coml'w.itc Imll', Til..: ,,/;ll·t·/IlCII/ uf tile :....Ie

:11 IlIl' C.\'Irellll' rcar "ftlll: cah I;:' IT Ihe n·llieit';'

n'm:lrl.·abk lunl;lI/r 1:lciliry. a [",,'lOr ofIVC';I' i/npurt:llll·..· in E;ryplian

,·h:,riOl t:,etit·s. (FireIJird Hnnl.:...)

27

t;m/cr "Imn"."

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It was ill 'he reip!

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aftcrm:uh url,i_~ ...uC'C'C1>...nr ,lmt'rlfI/,his II' (·llo/,ew.tell)

.

!h.1 t ,.~~.,It: crmceru.'1 funu..t I ;nlmrds 'I." il \\"'1." com'lI/sed 11.1 n:tiJ[iflus

n:"ulll/iun :md poli,ic:,'

,.....,I(:'iOIl. It u..,s during tI.i." IlCrind III:H "'t·lli"i't·s dt."truyt"t1 tile IH'"'cr of .\1 il" ""; "lid ... /11..·'1t"t·d :1_.. tilt' dOllli":ulI IH,"er ill the 1.("nUlt. (t: cI.\lr,hd.I'

had disl;O\ered his errur the Egyplians would have !--':Iined the hl,:ncfil of surprise amllhc army wl)uld he deployed on the plain. re;\d~ fDr hallie :and h:ning enlailed nnnc of Ihe los...es allcndant llIt usin~ Ihe other fOutes. ",olwithstanding the continued doubt:. of his officers, '!'mIU1lllsis ann'lunced hi.. Jel;i!'>ilm in::l manner thai ~i"cs some insi~ht intn hi" grasp of psy("hulogy: ', .. ~\1~ majl'st~ shall pruCl'Cd upon this Aruna road! Let him of~ou \\lto \\i..hcs o.Jme in Ihe followin~ of Ill) majcsl~! \\ halc\cr their doubls ::loom his plan, their lu)alt~ tu their lnrd. a.. hc \'cry well !.:new, W:l.'i nOl in doubt" O\'er the fullowing tWO days Ihe arm~ J.scended lhe hills thai led 10 thc t\runa ro;ad. but it \\a..... llnl) in the c;lfl~ huur.. uf Ihe third da~ Ihal the 3ctu::t1 pasSdge Ihrough thc pa:.s tx.".... n. 1\ t il!> \\ idest the pass i" hUI 30 ((.'Ct widc. It i~ intcresling IhJt :l number of t:ommenta tors, in remarkin~ hm\ diffit:uh the route W:l.<; for chariots, Sl.."Cnl I(J ha\c forgotlen that one of Ihe majur \ irtUl"S ufthc E~~:) ptian Jl,:,>ign wa... irs lighrncss: it is certain I) more than eCll1eci\able lhal many were Glrricd Jnd the hur.;\.... led through sq):lratd~. The paSs:lge of Ihc wholc arm) took M,mc 12 huun.. ami it was not untillJle in the c\cning that il \\3:. cnl'::lmpcd on Ihe plain. E",:n as the Egypti,Ul arlll) puureJ uut from Ihe pass Iht: It.i.uling clements t:llItld l'>CC t he main enemy forces rushing hat:k 10 Cfl\'cr the ilpprOJeh\.~ to :'\lcgidJu, so thilt b) the time night feU the coalition arm~ lay in fmlll of Ihe E~ypti:lll lines ami in rmnt IIf the cil~. The pharaoh'!,> gamhlc h:HI paid on: (mel t:IClicll !'>urpri!'>c had heen :Iehic\'ed. ThaI the Egyptian camp was on edge Ihrou~hollt the hours of d:lrl.nes:. is dearly implied by the text. The po:.sihilit~ of:1 night altack l;ould not hc discounted, allllthl.: phal'aoh delllanded uf Ihc semries th:lt they' ... he slc:ldra.e;t, he :.le:ldf:l:.I! lk \ igibnl, be \ igihlllt!' His unlers thai ;lllthe Imups prep:lre themsches and ', .. maLc )lIur \\capuns l'e:Hly, sinu: one (thc pharaoh) will cn~I~C ill cmnhal \\ilh the \\rctl:hed cnelll) in thc nwrning' !'>uggc..t1> Ihal many had a skcplcss nigill. While Ihe infcrem.'C is th:,t the pharaoh W:l3 optimistic abuut the outcome. such positin: fedings may nol ha\e becn shared h) all. Should thl' baltic he lost then rel,'cat would hcc:.trel1lcl~ difficult, with lhe rcar of the Eg)ptian :lrl1l~ hutting up a~":IiI\M the hill.... Thc !'>oCllM: of J. g:':lmble. J deL;~i\e cncounler in \\hich a \er~ ~'Teat dC311urned on the OllK"'UI1lC, i.e; IUSI amid the triumph:llist language em-

ployed in the n,lrr-.l1i\·c. As far ;l~ we kno\\ it was the firsl m;ljor b:lIlle in whil.:h TOlhmosi~ \\:lS in U\"l.:rall ('"Ommand-and uf:m arm~ th31 had nO! fou!thl a major engagemenl for M)l1le 20 ) ('::In>.

The deployment The fullo\\ing morning Iht: phanoh ordcrc(1 lhe dq}lu~mcnt uf hi~ army. Resplcndelll in his \\ar chariot of line guld and ek:clrum. and wearing- thc 'hille' or w:lr enl\\ n, he is described as being 'adurned with Ihe 3C(.'OUiremt:nls uf (.'"Omb:lI. like I lor us. Ihe ~lig:hty of Arm, :1 lord ofaclion like o\lonlU, the Theban, whilc hi~ father Amun Ill,lde .;ll'ung his arms.' The cniglll;llie phra~e 'NU\\ a charge was laid upon the encire ,lrTlly to pass hy",.' dcarl~ refers to this carr)' sf:lIlclllrd.~,

/llllllllhcr ,,( fe'l (un'S ill

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Tht, first fuur 6/furt-s on flIt' ri/f/ll uf fhe upper N:"~i.~lcr arc

Inrcign

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)0

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"un'I"lIIit'!<' fJll lilt, hM/fdic-IeI, TI,e /""H:r rt'1!iSfl'r dt·I,ic:t.~ d(ose-

<'Umbal i"limln, (C d .\I,J/ld.') ,

dcpluymem. bUI carries with it thc implicalion thai in the nUWe!llenl to their position~ Ihe ann~ paraded p:1~llhe ph:lr:toh. It is not inCflncehahlc Ih:lI thi~ 1001.: place, The .,pecl:u:le of Ihe Egyptian :lrm~. rcsplendcnt in full uniform wilh armour glillcring. horse plume.; and fla~"S flottering in lhc hreeze. slamlard!!o l.":lrrictl alofl, \\ilh \\ar trumpcts sountling. t1rum:o. IlC;Iling. and Ihunderous shouls of acclaim as lhe~ Il:l<;scd lhc phaT'.loh '!!o ehariol, Illa) well ha\c h.ld a dire impacl on Ihe morale uflhe enem), who \\cre Ihcmseht,:s deplll~ ing In their pu"itions for h;lItlc, NOI the IC;lst reasun for TUlhmosis ordering such ;l parade \\uuld h;l\e been thl.: impact nf the speclacle on thc Eftypi i;lns thcmscl \'CS. mall) of \\ hum wOllld he seeing cumhat for the first time: theatre h:IS its p:lrt to pIa)' i II war. and i rsuch a parade d ill precede the h;llllc Ihell it Ill;!)' well h,l\'c pl.l ycd ;1 rcal part in its outcome. TUlhmu!!ois di\idctl his ,11"111) illlU three di\·isiuns. The northern wing: \\;11' ;lIlchored in pusiliun t'tJ Ihe nurth-wcsf lJf ,\Ie~iddu. 'I'ht: ph,tr
werc (h.:scrihed ,1:-' \;1>;1, numbering no fc\\ er than :UO J..in~:-., eaeh wilh his uwn ann): 'millions ofmcn, and hundrcds oftholl~mdsurthc chiefesl of :tlllhe lands, Mandin~ in their chariOIS.' The ballle lJelails of the actual bailie arc sparse. hUI Ihe O\'cr\\helming impression is thai shorlly ;lfter it beb"3n. \\ilh a forceful d\arge h~ the ph'lr.lOh with his chariot, from Ihe centre, Ihc encm) line 3imply folded up under Ihe .ld\·,1I1ccoflhc EgypliJn forces, A \\a\c of pani..: M\..:pl through the cl1,1lilin" army. with \\(:apon~. L1.juil>melll, chariots and hun.L~ heing ahandoned as hL'adlung Ilight turned inlo roUI. The s:.lf..:t~ of the w'llled cil~ was denied, as the inhahitant' tlf l\1cboiddu duscd il>; greal ~ICS 10 stOll thc Eg)ptiam. emering. Therc then fulluwed the ludicrous Jiight of knotted shect... heing: lu\\ered so that al ka!>t the high and might) amung Ihe defeated, including the king nf Kalksh and Ihc rulcr of \tegidl.lu, ..:ould lx: r~cucd by scrdmbling up the \\alls. \Ian) othcrs u\\cd Iheir S3h'alion to the ;mraclilln:-. of the V:lSI qu:mtilies of bout) they h:lI.! ,lhanduned: " , , if only hi!> m:ljl'Sty's army h:ll.1 nol gi\en their hL...r!., III L'3pturing the posM:ssinns uf the enemy, the) \\nuld h:l\e L'3ptured Megiddo:ll Ihis lime... .' It i.. cle;lf Ih;11 Ihc official narml i\ e rel:ugn iscd th,u this \>reaJ..dHl\ n uf discipline had rohhcdthl: phar:wh elf lellal "ictor~, as .\ Icg:iddo could ha\e Ixcn stormed :111<1 1:lken in the n~suhanl panic Some h:t\'e M:en in this brcaJ..du\\ n of diSl.:ipline cvidence or the pc",r discipl inc elf Ihe Ei(ypi i,ln ,Irlll~, This is not .1 sclf-c\ idl:llt l:undusion: there arc tuu many olhcr l:xamples Ihrou~hout hislOI'~ (If \\c1Idisciplined and professional armics sllCcumhing to like lemptation Wdling-loll's mcn;1I Vitori.. in IXU spring at OIl!,;C 10 mind. 'I'ul hmo..is p1:lced the l:il) limier siege and ordered that it be laken:11 all cnst~, '.. , fur the rukr of e\er~ nurthcrn L"Ountry is in Mc~iddll, and it~ . .: apturc is Ihe L':IplUre HI' :IthouS:lIld citics', A moat \\ ,IS llug around Ihe cil~' and bc~und Ihis;I \\uodm palisade was constructed ttl M:al in the populace, It \\:I~ nut unlil some scven month!> taler, in I)I.'Cemher I4-X2 IlC. th:1I Ihe eily surrendered. TIll.: boot~ liMed \\:I!'- \ a:-.t, hut pride of pl:IL"C \\ a!'- ~i\"en III the 2,04-1 horscs Ihal \\ ere taken and used 10 s\\ellihe breeding stock in E~yp1. The \il:tur) of I\lcgiddu \\:l!> of great impunam:e. lis impact W:IS ccrtainl~ MIOicient 10 rendcr Ihe whole

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nmlrflllf

of C:lnaall quiesl:cnt fut' \ il'luall) the rest (If Ihe rcign. Thl: major husiness ofTu,lullOsis'l':llllp;!igns in the nc\t 20 )c:trs, huwever, I.ly in his (.'OIl1l:~t with Mil:lnni fur 'he eUllIrul ufS) ria. 'I'he Campaign ufYc:lr Thirly-'rhrcc If .I\lcgiddu \\:lS une Hfthe Ihree most impon:lnt hattles fought h) the E~~rti:ln arm~ in the Nc\\ l':ingdUIll period, olle of the most interesting, and musl pcrsol1all~ S'Jli~f) ing lilr TUlhl1lu~is III, was Ihc t1mpaig-n of Ihe thirly-third )Car Clfhi:-. reign (14-71 liC). Immen!>C encrgie~ Jlld l:thours had been c\:pcllllcd tn

prep.ln.: lhe ~gyptian army, no\\' h'l1Ilc-h:m.lcned, Iu al last cuntest with· ... thar wretched ,\liranni;lll foe' in Ihe land of IVlit"nni itself. The previolls years had seell the E~ypli.m .1TlllY longage<.l in a systematic redlll.:l'ion of the puwer uf the city stalcs of the t:elllral Syri:m ellast ami hinterland as " Ill:eessmy prelude 10 Ihe assault lln .\'lilanl1i. Althou~h neither Tunip nOT Q..lc!csh suel.:ulllbed 10 lhe Eg:ypti:\Il ;lS~lUhs, their pl/\\er was sufficiently redw.:ed for Tuthnmsis 10 recei\e rich tribule fmm other city st:llCS formerly under their sway. In the late spring of 1471 UC large numbers of Imops were hrought hy se;l to Syri'l. disembarking ,It \'ariuus porls. These juined up with the hulk uf thl: :Inny, Ilhidl had marched northwards l"nlm Egypr. Using timber from the lilrcsls around Byhlos, ponloons were construCled 10 :lHu\\' the arm~ 10 11l,Ike pass;lge ,lCruss the fa:'I-f1owing: Euphr:lIc.<;. II:t\"ing t:rossetl the Ri\'cr 01"OIIle:-.. Tuthnwsis ,\lld his .11"my had their fir:.t successful el1~.,!:!emel1t with tWOJlS uf .'\'1itanni tn the west uf the cil y Ilf j\ leppo. C:lrehel11i~h W:lS the uhjeeti\"e, and it was here that Ihe Euphrate:. W;lS hridged, using the pontoons lhat h,ld been so laboriously transported northwanl un ox W,II;0l1s. It was also here that the ph:lr,lOh realised .1 long-held ambition to elllu1:lrc his ~r;lI1dElIht:r, :Ind phecd his UI\II stela ;tlon~side Ihat of the lir~1 Turhrnnsis. .1\ larchinl; south\\anl alon~ the h;lnl:s or the river the Egypri,lll:' r~.leheJ:ls far il.\ Em;!r hetilre crossin~ back mer it. The b(x)l~ lhey had t:lken was \er~ poor, ,111(\ tbe failure to dr,1\1 J'vtit:l1lni into a major b.ll1k suggests lhat the kin~ in Washukk:1I1i saw thi~ EgypTian filra) as twthing more than a raid in strength, \\"ilh liltle ur nothin~ hUI prestige to be ~pillCU, .Vlil.mni ne\'er obJigeu TUlhmosis III wilh the grell hanle he wuuld so dearl~ h:l\'e lo\"ed to fight. Other campaigns in later years \\"ould euntinue In ensure Eg)ptian cuntrol tIIcr the region; hUI Ihe realily oflhe hlSl 12 years nfhis reign, when old ,lg-e prevenred him taking the field ;llld the tribute frum the region ceased 10 flow, W,\S th:11 Eg:~Ptian contrcll so far north was cphcmeral. II was simply 100 l~lI" ;IW,lr from lhe home h,lSC to ,11101\ permanent control llJ be ensurcd. Ur thc end of his reign, it was e1e:ll" thar J\litanni was once more encl'O:tching upon Ihe n:gion, negating the immense cffcms expended by this liol1he.lrlcd ph'lr:luh in :lllempting III bring- Ihe region penmlllently under the SW:l~ ofEg~pl.

Rapprochcmcnl with !\'Iitanni It \1.1:. ,I truism of Egypt's relations wilh the rulers of its \';\ssal st,lt~ in the l.e\";ll1t tllal e.n;h tI\\'l'd their allq,!i:lnee to;\ p,lTlieular pharaoh who had e:lrned their f(.'Speet, :l1ll1 not 10 Egypt itself. So il \\a~ th:tl !\mcnuphis II set out on Ihe rU,HllO S~rja ttl suppress the re\olt that had hroken out there follU\ling: the death Ilfh is fal her in 1450 B(:, and rn il11llOSe his own stamp on the rq6on. '1'\\0 GllllJlaif::lls, in the third :tnd se\enth yell'S (lfhis reig-n, saw his armies operating in the vicinity of Q~l(lcsh on the Ororltes. The 6rsl or these was memorahle Iv,. Ihe ruthless m:lllncr in which t he rebellion \\'a~ Mlppresscd, with Amen(lphis himself executing the rin~deaders; six of their hodies were exposed al Thehes, \\hile the ~C\"cnth was hung: I\) l'tIl on the walls of Napal:l in :'\ uhia as a g-rim \\:tl"lling 10 other pot'elllial rehels. IIi:. last militar~ filf:ly was 10 suppress a rebellion in C;IIl;\.lll. Not\1 ithslanding the olliei:!1 histllries uf the reigns of;\mellophis II and his SOil 'I\lthlllhsis IV, it would seem thal Egypt was sluwl y lu:.ing: grtlund 10 1\ t itanl1i in Syria. It \\as the tempor..lry re-emergence on the scene in northern Syri:t oflhc IlittilCs and Ihe t:olk~­ li\"e thre.u to Eg:YPliall and .\'1it;\l1l1ian interests in the region th;1l prU\ idcu the calalyst for thc rapprochenu:nl ht.:t\\"CCll the I\\'O grc;11 powers. TUlhmusis IV \\Quld seem, huwen:r, In ha\"e bcen the prindpal suilor. The peace Ircat) was scaled by diplolll.uil.: marriages; ;\nu hy the reign nr Amelluphis III il is pllssiblc 10 identify a louse statlls quo .1llJ accepted spheres of inl1uence defining Mil',l1\ui ,md Egyptian inlerests in central S) ria, ahhollf::h the power ufthc latter in this region w..s sluwl~ waning. The rci~..., of !\menophis 111 :.aw the high Iloint in the we,llth, culture and presti!te of New hinp:dom Eg) pl. 'I'he peace wit h .\ lit;lnni .Iud the quiescence of Ihe Canaanite \as~als lent an ,lir of perlllam;llcy to the inlernation:ll Silll:llion. The Anurna tahlets, whieh dale frum Ihe reign of Amcnophis III .. nd his son Amcnophis IV (Al.henaten), nOI only inc1udl,.' sample:. of diplolll.uic letters hut ~ive .. unique insight into ClIla:ln in this period. The squ,lbblcs hetween the rulers of the petty st,lles of thc re~ioll ,\I'C set ,llongside ;lccuunts uf dillicultie:-. in eoturollin~ the nlulladic SUlli and the landless Ilapiru. One ol"lhc lahlets among" Ihe I\marna lCllcrs hear~ the namc of Suppilllliulll.IS. king: of Ihe Ilillitc:., in whidl he exj)1"esses hi~ hopes th.1I the .1l11ic:lhlc relatiuns cst'lh..

Early Nc,,' Kingdom Infanlry I: Archer

2: Nak"tl'-40 c1ose-eombal infanlry

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1&2~ Egyplian dose-combat infanlry 3&4: Lib}'an IriballO'arriors

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lishe(l hetween the land of Ihni :md Egypt 'in the rl.:i~n uf the ph~lr'loh's fathl'f' ean hl' maintained. It was t hi~ man mure th,1Il ,IllY ot hn who dominated the !·hh el.:ntur~ Be. By his grl.:at military e:mlpai~ns in Syria he recast t he map uf the alleiellt '\Jear East, drawin~ funh from Egypt her last and ~re:l1eSI military effort to scum: her imperial imerests in the l.evanL

THE HITTITE THREAT

as I\lit~lIllli before them, the~ encouraged their new \':l:.sal:o. III foster dissension amongSI those st;ltes :o.lill lopl to Eg) pI. Ne\"l·rthcles~, The S;Hlle rationale [hat had led TO I~~~ pti,lJlS cOJllesting with I\lilanni u\"er Syri;l still oht~lincd; all that had ehan~ed \\;IS The llame nfthe threat. As E~~pt still claimed ~uzerainty mer the l.c",tI11 it W,IS mercl~ ;1 lllilller of lime befure an Egyplian army tramped norll\\\anls on(;(; more. It was not until the accession neSeti [in lJlH Be that a dctermined altempT \\as made h~ the Egypti;lns 10 rccO"cr their position and pn.:stigl.: in c.ma:m ilnd the [ .e\"anl. The eampaiglls llfSeli I

Even as the peoples of the Ncar Ea!':t \\itne~sC(lthe Thi:o. ne\\" kin~, the sewml uf the 191h DYlla~fY, rC\'i\",11 .lIld c"p'ln!':ion of 1I1C 1-1 ill ilc rc,tlTll, it \\ ~t!': par- etc;lrl~ iOi~n;lllcd his ;Imhit inn III re~tl)re EgypT's pres,lllcled by the demise of the Kingdom of .\Iilanni. Tigc as a ~rl'at pIJwcr in !ht: adoptiull of the tillc The laner power, wracked by illlernal pO\\cr strug-- 'Repeater of Birth' till' hi~ Horus n:lllle. In the four g-lcs, was unable eilher tu resist thl' military ;Issaults of cillllpaigns he f()lI~ht, of which three \\ere in Cal1~I;1ll Suppiluliurn;ls ,md his ilrm~ or IU withstand the and Syria, he laid thl' liJllllllatiolls fill' the gre:H 1.:011expansion of the !\ss~Tians into their eastern tcrri- tesf o(;IfITlS betwcen his son Ibm:Is.
"

Iliuitc!>. Although dctails arc sketch}'. it would seem that a major b,utlc rook place tH the north of (~\dcsh in whieh lhe EgYJllian!> cbimt:d a great \'iewry. M:lll)' IlilliIC." Wl.:rl.: said 10 ha\'e hl.:t:n killed and Seli returned to Egypt wilh much huoty ami m:my caplivcs. In t'Ommon with many aCCQUIHS of Egyptian operations in Syria during Ihe time of i\'litanni. il i!> the infl.:rl.:nee we can draw from Ihe silent:c thai is imporlal\l when considering Egypt's retltions with the Hittites in the rcgion. :'\lOlwilhslanding Sl.:ti's daims 10 ha\'e inflicted a major defeat on the Hittites :lnd captured Q;ldcsh, Ihe f:lct that he entered into a trcalV with Muwatallish implies Ihat the Egyptian posilion in celllr.11 Syria was al hest tenuous. It would seem lhal thc treat)' rl.:eogniscd both I-fillite and Egyplian sphen:s ofinfluem.:e in the region, !lUI did nOI demarcalC dear and formal huundaries. NC\'crlheless, Qtdesh mUSl have been gi\'en lip to Iht: Ilillites-otherwise we ha\'c no way of accounting Itlr Ihe dim:ll:lic haltle for tht: city fought in the reign of his son and sueCl.:ssor, Ramasscs II.

THE BATTLE OF QADESH Ram:lsses II was about 2S years of age when he ascended Ihe Ihrone of Egypt in 1304 lie, absolute master of one of the world's great powers. lie was young, vigorous. able and resourceful; bUI above all. full of :unbition 10 emulate his illU~lrious forebears thc early 181h Dyn,uay hy extending Egypt's northern frontiers to encompass again Ihe territories of ccntral Syria, notwithstanding that those territories lay firmly wilhin the Hittite sphere and th:ll such W:lS l:lcitly recognised by the trl.::Ily agreed with Hani by his father Seti I. Ful/ilment of his ambition meant Ihat Ramasse!> accepted the inc\'ilabilily of war wilh Egypl's powerful northern rival. Although he wa~ unable 10 engage in military operations in Syria unlil Year Fuur of his reign. it is app,trent that frOI11 an early date much energy was expended wilhin EgYPl in preparing the arlllY for its coming contest wilh Ilani. This included adding a fourth tield army to the

nr

order ofb;lltlc, and the e:\panSi0111lflhe eastern Oell'3 eity of I)i-Ralllasses to :lct as lhe !
The l.Jillite response There is no duubt lhal ,'Vluwal;lllish saw the Egyptian c;llllpaign as the first stage of a conccTled attempt tu recovcr their position in l:cntf;tl Syria .md lhcrr.:ancr extend their power into the nOTlh orthe region. Cnwilling to stand passively by and sec t he whole 1-1 iuile position in Syri;l demolished, Muwatallish resolved upon a strategy lhat would put paid 10 any further Egyplian ;lspir;ltions in the region. The military campaign now planned for the following year idemified two major tasks. Amurru W;lS In he rel;o\·ercd; and the Egyptian ;lTtny l;iven such a tfUum:ing that Ram;lsses would he denied the means to reJlise any of his wider political and territorial ambitions in the region. Ir was clear many m011lhs before Ihe b:lItle took place th:lI (~l(lcsh would be the arena of contest. The Egyptians had contended ownership of the city wilh IVlit;mni and then Hatli since the d;lyS of Tuthillosis Ill. Such cunsislelll and prolonged interest in the site arose naturally from ils strategic position: not only W;lS it the ke)' 10 Ihc Elculhcros Plain and therefore to Amurru, it was :tlso the door to the Syrian Plain, and muSt be central to Ram:lsscs' aspirations 10 extend Egyptian rule into northern Syria. It has also hcen suggested by a number of commentatOrs thai Q:lllesh was actually agn:t.:d upon in advance h) the rival conteslantsas the venue ror their haule, as indecd h:td the time. 'rhe exiSTence of a measure of protocol concerning battles in the ancient pcriod implies that prior agreement can be inferred by the proximity of the respectivc contestants at Qadcsh al a particular lime late in the month of May I.JOO Be .:\Ot withstanding, the site gave immensc ad vantage to lhe Hiltiles. Muwalallish was operating in territory under Hittite control, supplied by loyal vassals and at the end or rel:lli\·e1y short lines uf wmmuni<"'3Tiun, whereas the Egypli;ms would be opcr;lting somc 1,6lKlkm from their home base. Funhermore,lhe city itself was large enough to at:I.:OmmOdale the Hinitc army should thl; battle go :1g"J.insl them. It was alsH a very STrongly fortified position. beinp; enclosed h) a moat and surrounded by the River Qrolltes itself. 5 ,"r;:. liS amI C'lllIi,mjtcs. :/J/holllfh till: fmc jnlfllcdi:UcI.r In Ih ...·

III rhi.'i/':I;tIIcd rdi"rrrlJlll 8c;t·:.I- Wali ill Nuh;,1 'I ruXllllJrillCe (,X,s!>'ibly

:1 rt:

R:lnl:l.~.~c... Il) lelJd... rclln·... CJI r,1I i \'c!>' (.1)II(Jut·rcd ·f1C/Il;C... illw 'h ...· prcl>cn ·c ufSc'; I. '\10...· '

rCllr IIf 11lt.·I,rincc ;... II Ub)':m. (British MIJs...· llm)

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The army (Jr~anised by thc Ilittite kill~ was lIlIl' "f the larg:cst ner :lsM:mblcd by the kingdum of I1;1IIi, Ilowcn:r. no dOCUlllcnt has l.:Ullle 10 li~hl from Ihal source llctailing: either it:-. make-up or S1l"l·ll~th. ,\11 srx:eu\;llionl.:()nn·rnin~ Slh.:h m:Hh.:r:-. musl rcst s{Jld~ upon the detail.... provided h~-Ihe ,-arilllls E~~ ptian acl.:ount:-. Ill' the (~llksh c;unp:lign (t his and mall Y 01 her TTl;Eltcrs to do \\itl1 thc h.lttlc \\hieh I,;annot he explored here "ill be so in a ftJrlhcoming Osprey C(llIlPIII:r~1I title). RalU:t:-.ses speaks of the J-1illiles and Iheir IX :!lIied ;lnd \assal states l1c1ding .1:-' mallV :1:-. ",7l10 i,:harioIS and .17,000 fOot soldier... Openin~

moves

'I'hroug-houl thl' mOllths lit" "'larch :Ind .\prilthl·l,;it~ ()f Pi Ram:l:-....es hCc;lllle the :I:-.sel11 hi y puint ICIl" lUle or the largest :lnnics en:r raised b~ the I·:gyptian:-., Unil:-' Were alloGllnllU OI1C "fthe IOllr tidd :lrmies (:11:-'0 referred 10 in tlll' text:1:-. di\isiuns), :--':oliee;1hlc \\:IS the increasing. liSle" of forcign troops in the rq!ul:tt' ;lrm~;

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(lfth<' rdid.... ill ""rllaJ. dewi/i"t: .";(" i 1\· !>"('n/lld cmlll':,iJo:Il ill ('(',111',11 S"ri:" ill ,,1,idl/lt:;1/ I:u·k('d Ille !tn.-a I I.·i." ul'll"cks/l u1I1II(' Urmllcs, "'/1(' image sl..",,~ ,11(' pl"'nwl,:... <'Imr;').

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1r.IIlIl'lill,!! Ili.~ "II('lIIic,~

IIl1d.'r" ..". I1Il;u('\ /..'1' til/..' Ulllcmlle 0(,11., il/.ad., iJ is c/;;:;II" tlml 1>., .Ile ,'-11(1 "rllr\ reiJo:II ll;ulcs/r 1:1) '~'llmrdy II i tI,i" Ill/..· IIi II it e s"Jll'rl.· uf ;1l/llJl·II/..'/..', ({.'. d ,\I:IJI
indeed this was to hel:ollle e\"(:n more markcd in Ihe centuries ahead. Apan from the :"Jubialls ,lnd ShcrdCll.l.ib~;lIlsand Canaanites were now inlhe cmploy of the ~tanding army ,IS mcrt:enaries, Thc Eg~ pti;m char:lctcr of lhe anll~ \\;1:-. bein!! diluled nut jll~l tn inerl'aSl' manpowcr hill :llso in pursuit ufa ddibcralc polil:~ ttl di\'l'J'sif~ the elhnil.: b:ISis tlf the army ;IS much;'ls possihk. The tlltal streng-Ih oflhe E~D ptiall fOrl:l' was in the regiun of 20.000 men divided equally among the fulll' field armies, Ch;lriot stn;n~th is nol !,;:i\cn;ls a ~q):Jr:Ue fi~ure, hllt h~' this dalc Ihe Egypti,lns lllU:-.1 h,l\'c hel:n ;lhle III mll~ter a "cry signilkant fClree, Ll:a\ lng r.g~pt .Il the cnd of April. Ihl' :lnl1y totll. the l:U,IM road 10 (j;\Z:I. \\hel'e Ralll
Valley in '\murrll. The pharaoh had ml duubl impressed on their commander the need 10 arrive on a specific date, :lnd lherein hi)' lheir imporl'ance to Ra1ll:lsscs' str:llcgy. II is dear when eX:lmining suu:-'Cllllcnt C\'cnIS Ihal the IlittileS wc.;rc un;lw.lI'C "flilis dct'H.:hcd unit.

.. '~!Zypr;:lIl.~;c1!t'lIll"tl"'d,~ Uffil<-'period ;In· "'<--11 ,:o11Vll'1I ill rlJi.~ Uluslnui"" in wllidllh(' Ilrm'·Qf H.;1IJ1IIS"'C.~11.~tor;ll.~ 11s;/IJ.clQn in sQllfllcrll CIIIl"III1; rile IlrI;S' llt-picls 'ill: dilTcrClltplJlI"'C.~ofIllc siege ;11 Oil'" ,:ocellI:. .4.r IOll'er left the J-:gypt;:l1I b:ullt· lille lul\";III('cs UII the \\'1111..., dear;ll/{ Illc CI1(·Ill." in/,.,I/r)'. '1'11(' I,tlllck un II/(' d/." I,rupe:r r;lke.... 1,I"c<' 11';11, !>'cllli,,1' f:u/dcrs; tilt, :lsc.·mling ;111:/1111'.1 prUI ..." Ihcfll!>'cll'<-"" lI'irll S/lidd." '''/I/lll; :lcrO$$ Illeir bilCkN. I. hite bdJlg g;vclJ 'cm'crill/! fire' ".' "n:hers N/u.ttJtill}!:lt r/,<-' blllt/clilcrus. Or ireI' '1'£101'1' :It/em,,r W"'ur ,/lrnllgli rIJe cit.1 /f:lrt'S wi,lI

,lldr II.H'S. (Fir.:llir
IdcllIified in thc Qldcsh in:-.criplions as simply the ',Vei/rill', thc question nccds to be .Isl.ed whu c,al.:tly they wcrc. The tcrm itself nU'::IIlS 'yolln~ men' ,lnU suggests that Ihc~ wcrc:I (;r,u;k ClIu,ltlilC unit scrving: in thcst;lnding ;Ifllly ;Im! Whll:-'C loy.II,)' 10 K'll1l'IS'<;C~ II was beyond qucMion. It is most likely thaI lhe~ Were

l/I(/r~)'IUIII/I

C\lllipl>nl a!> a \\c1I-;lrIm:d n~ing culumn with c.:h:ariol':-'. c.:h;ll'iol rllnllcr~ and olher suppurling int:.mt I'}. ;ahle 10 Ir:l\'c.:rsc.: Ihe greatc.:r dislallc.:c tCI atlesh and !olill reach the \ icinil~ ofthc cit) 011 the appointed da~" II is. 11(I\\e\er, of sume illleresl Ih:u some C0l1lmellt:lInrs lu\"c :-.ugge:-.led Ihis unil was in (;lel lhe fourth :lrOl) di\ ision named fur SCI. F.ucl1~ one month ;Iflcr Ie,l\ ing Eg~ pi Ramas.,~ \\:I!> enc:'lml>cJ with the di\"i"ion of Amun on Ihe morning of day 9 of the third month uf Shemu (late .\1a)) on Ihe "amu'at c1-llarmci ridge 10 the Mluth of (~dcsh. From thi!> \:lnl:lbrc point lhe \:llle~ lay ahead \\ilh the cit~ it~lf in sight. AI this poinl the IIthl"r field J.rmi~-Re. Prah and Sct lJ.y to the rC;lr (If i\mull :Ilon~ the line uf march and scparated b~ ahout

nne iff'r (:Ibollt If).5~m), ,u..::cunling tn standard operaling procedure. Striking' Glmp, R'\ln;b~e!> and Amun descended frum the ridg:c. tr.l\er~ed lhe rore~1 of 1.:llmi :lnd hcg:an cros.<;ing IhcOrontcs by the fonl at Shab!un;\. It \\as then Ih.1I two Sha~u-bedouin (\\holll it i>; gencr-J.lly :\Ssumed h:ld heen ddi~fOIlc1~ sent out h~ the Ilinite king 10 misinform Rama!>scs) apl>C3rcd and flOcred the inform:lliun Ihat I\lo\\3tallish ,lIld hi~ :1fn1) \\ erc nn\\ hcrl' nC'J.r <1;1dc,h, hut in Ihe land of Aleppo to the nClrth urlhe cit) ofTunip, some 120 Illilc~ di~tant. If true, Ihis \\Cluld place Rolmasscs in :1 \cr) :-.trung pc"-ilion: he could collL-C:1 hi>; anllY. cmurc Ih;H it \\;l~ rcslcd. :lOll bL- r,-";ld~ for battlc before the Iliuiu:.'s arriH:d. In short. he cuuld do lulhem t:\.aetly \\halthe~ intended to do 10 him.

1/1 almllf I1H He ."·f-·fi I .. :l,~ "hli,:e" If) t:lke I'ullitil·..· an j"" ,'J!:I im" J.i" 1,. II 'ril,..·... "n "ll." ,n·.lit~1"1I IJflnkrflfl·:J.~JJt.I" flli... /minted rdi•.: ffrfJIn A"l"Imk I,..· i... se"'11 in "re (:I"ssil' rrilllllplml 11O."C, SII.ill",: rl,e Lilly;lI'... will. Iii... khtlpcsh. i\flJ.~, arc Jl:lh'd c.n·cIl' ti'I":' k,ul''''1" lI'I:IIIIIS !,,./.C;/f!l: olllers II car ,. l,il1..· dl);,k a." " IJlC
or

eonhdcm:c of Ihc pharaoh was shared hy the whoit' al'lll) ami lhat its ~cm::ral cunduet \\:Is remarkably tard)'. Suhsequent C\CntS Illa~ aIM) scrve lu sug:~cst th;lr rhe :mll)' fielded hy R;lm;lsses II W;l~ uf:l luwer qU~llity than that dcplo~ed h) 'l\lIhmw,is II :1I !\Iegiddo, ;lnd that ils professionalism W:l'i open tu question. It seems that if such ;1 l'ecOl1nais'iance had bccn Glrried out then lhe prC!'oCllce of l\luw:Il:lllish and his large ;)filly in such close prll:\imit~ tu the cast ofQ1(lesh must h,l\e heen detected. i\s it W~lS, l{;lm~lSSI.'S ;Hh';lllccd lill'thwilh. With the division of Amull he estahlished Clmp sli~htl~ 10 the nurth-\\cst of the t.:it) , in ignorann' 01" the pre'icnce of the llillitcs c;\Tcfully screcned on the j;.If !'oide "rthe Orontcs. 'l'hc di\'ision of Rc was hy llOW heginning- tl) crosS lhe Shabtuna tunl (sec map 1). While scouts might han hecn l1oticc;lblc by lheir absence earlier, their aetivitics now g:lVC Ram:lsscs his first imimatioll Ihat all W:I!'o far from well. \Illwat:lllish, h~I\'ing rccei\ed infill'mation th:ll Ramassc!'O W:lS :Hkal1cing 011 Qldesh from. in :111 likelihood, the vcr\, Shasllhedouin who h~ld mi!'Oled R:lrn
~ HITTITES ~

o

,

o

.

• Sub:-;Clluem c\"t:nts can only be undcrsllM.d if we ,1l:l,;Cpt (h~H Ramasscs, thruu!,(h gullibilit~ lkri\ ing fnull blind IlJll'imism and over-confidence, ,lcccptcd thi~ infurmatiun withuut ljucMiun. It \\uuld cl'1'lailll~ ~cm ,hal nu reconnaiSS:lIlt.:e was ordered as \crification. If !'otll:h was the C:lSC. Ihcn the uutcomc Wa'i;l mailer of ~lbsollJlc ncgligclH:c. While historians fre4ucntl~ lay the bbmc ;11 thc fecI of narn;ISSt'S, it is \cr~ hard to helie\'l:: lhal the sCl'ccnin~ furce of chariots or horsemen which normally 1110\ ul aheHI uf the m:m:hing army \\crc in this c:t'ic :lhscnl. Such forces operated :IS a maller ofcourse, ,lIld it would not ha\'c heen the I,lsk ufthc ph;lr'lOh 10 OI'der th;1I such ,l normal uperational pl'Ol.:cdure be Glrricd (Jul, If il W;IS nul abscll1, then it may wcll be lhat the ll\Cr-

5

5

\';lllla~e point or the c~mp of" Amlin the ~cene Ih"l now unfoldcd must havc heen despcr:\te (() behold. Behind the lines offlceing- infantl") tr) ing: 10 reach Ihe shield w;111 of Amlln. hug-c numbers of Ilillite chariots could be ~een hllrtlin~ lowards the camp, raising: a w;lll of dUi-I. their Ihous,l1lds of hurses' hum·cs poundin~ the h;lnl earth like thunder. Countless Egypli;Ul inbntry were ridden down or ~pcared from hchind by the chariut crc\\ s. The w;\\·e tlf panic then cngulfed the e;11l1p of Amun. the defendcrs :Ih;lllduning their P(J~iliuns and weapons as thc Hiuilc chariotry broke in from thc weSlcl'll sidt.: (map J). Walt.:hing thc t.:abmity from his OWIl c;lmp. which The b;ulle \\:lS i-Cl apart from th:l.I of ,"-mUll, Ram;ls~es acted in Thc reaclion "rthe increduluu:. phamoh was lOcal! an perhap.~ Ihe only wa) (lpen to him iI' the rOLLt \\:li- 10 be immedi;llc conference with his senior officers. the prc\"cnlcd frum dc~eneratillg inlo a disaslcr. Donoutcome uf which was the dCi-patch. POSI haste, of the ning hii- hattie-armour. he mountcd his ehariol and vizier sourh\\'anl~ 10 demand the rapid ctlilcentratiml prcp;lrcd 10 goo into ;lction ag:;linst the Ilirtitc charinrs of the divisions of Plah :IllU Sel on Q~ldcsh. Until \'inually sing-Ie-handed. ~Io\'in~ 1(IWanls Ihe enemy their arrival Kalllasses must depend on Ihc power of at speed. while al rhc same lime ;lppealing: 10 his flecthe divisions of Amlin and Ke to resi:.t all} immediatc in~ rmops 10 rally. Ihe ph;lraoh attacked lhe enemy Ilinilc :l.1tad. III this hc W;lS to he disappninled. i\s Wilh Ihl' assislant.:<.· ur perhaps onl) hi~ immedi;lIe Rc marched across Ihc plain lnward~ the Cllllp of chariOl-oornc Cllll)Uragc. I.aun(;hing- themsel\'e~ al l\mull, J'Vluwatallish l:wllehcu a major attack a~J.inst the tlank or Ihe cXlended. mal"l.:hing dh'isiun (map 2). EmerginK fr(lm Jead g:rnund and covcr,;l mighl~ hllSI of Ilitiitc t.:hariorry poured 'It.:ross Ihe OroIlICi- tel lhe immediale SOuth of(~luesh itscJf"nu cr:t...hed into AM UN • the nank Hf Re, The prolective screen of Egyptian ch,lrims W;IS simply swept a\\a) by the slll..'t.'r weight or the Ilillitc chuge, While thc exact sizc oflhe Ilillitc IClrce is slill ;lll1altCr of grcal disputc. it is dear Ihat il \\;IS suflicielllly large ltl oyer\\ hdm thc di\ i:-illll ofRe; RE hO\\c\er, it could not ha\"eapprnaebed in any way lhe \';lstllgurc of2,50(l chariots implied by R;lmasses ;Illd seemingly 4uOled in ~ueh;111 uncritiL'.III;\shioll hy so m,l1ly commenr'llors ..The nuliull Ih;)t ;ll:tl'~e Ilill'ilc demdullenl rather than lhe full charilll forcc \\as invol\"ed rcnders their rapid lransit acro:-s lhe Omntc.<; ford quite credihle. II also places Ihe 'singlehanded' 0Plllli-iliotl or R:I1lKISM:S Ialcr in the proceedings within lhe hounds of eredibi1il~ as wcli. With their own proleCli\c chariotr) \·:lnquishcd the cohesion of Ihe Egyptian inf.·lIllry comp;lllies who wcrc tOlally unprepared for eomhal e\aporated, and blind panit: led l\J Ihe disintegralion of the wholc of the division, with thl' ~lIrvi\'ors f1eein~ nunh\\anls lowards the camp of Amun. 1,'1'0111 the

W;IS two of Ihese So.:uuls whom lhcir Egypli:l.ll cOlintcrparlS nuw captured. Beaten, lhey wen.: Jrag~eJ in frOllt orlhc ph<1I';lOh: 'Then s;liJ I lis ~1:lj(;st~, "Wh;ll arc you?" Tho.:y replied, "We helong-to tho.: rulerofl lalli! IlesCnllli-llllt to Sl.'t.' where Your Maje~ty was." Solid Ilis j\'ttjCSlY to them. "\Vhere is he.lhe RulerofHalti? Sec. I heard it said Ihal he was in Ihe hmd of Aleppo, norlh of Tunip." They replied, "Behold, the Ruler of I hllli has already come, tog:elher wilh many foreign lands lhat he hrought as allies Sec, they arc poised armed and ready 10 li~ht hehind Old Qlde~h?'"

,

•

52

. •, (,~),

R

R

AMUN

•

•

~

~

AMUN ~(& REI I .

0:. ~

(;)

•

, the IlillilC eastern llank,tht: small numhers urE~Y1)­ 11:\11 dl.lriOis proceeded Iu wreak haH)l,': ;lJllllng lhe enemy, whose own I:Clhcsion ,Uld momentum was rap-

idly dissipating. Ctilising 10 the full the n:marbblc speed and

Illa-

nueuvrability of the E!'D pI iall chariots. Ra1llasscs ;Ind his few supporters bcg::m 10 pid Ih<: enemy in I:ll'gc numhers. With a (crocit) hol'll of lkspcr:llion

orr

the philrauh ,lOci his suppm'lcl'S :utaded. turned ;lT1d attacked :lg;l;n ,\I IC;ISI six limes. In the swirling melee it is \"Cry po~siblc th;\11hc 1-littilCS wen: nol ;\\\arc uf thc small size uf the force :mucking them. From " vantage pllitll o\"erlooking the C:llllp of f\mull fwm ;leross Ihe ri\'cr. :\JIll w'llallish cc)uld sec hl)\\' Rarnasscs was heginning to rectify Ihe situalion; and ordered a second W:I\'t: ofchal'iols across Ihe ri vcr Ie) SliPPUI'l Ihe firsl w,lve, whu wcrc now in trouble. Onr.:e :1golin we arc faced wilh the problem uf numbers. II is unlikely Ihill the Ilillite scclInd wave cont:1incd as many as 1,000 chariots. Re:lction time for MlIw:lI:lllish was critil;:l1 he had to gel chariots across [he Gronles 10 allack Ramasscs :11 oncc. Ilc u:.ed Ihuse he had to h,md, which in all likelihood

meant thc aristucr..lIir.: eluoura~l,; whu l'lllrrolllH.lcd his persun and whll wcrc :.haring his view of Ihe phar:luh's COUllIcr,ltt'lck. They r.:rosscl1lhe Gruntes, blll instead uf making for R:1Il1;I.SSI.:S IH::nled instl:ad fur his l::llllp in the hope of dislracting him from his h:lrryillg uf the first ~rou p of Ilill ite ch:lriots (map ~). 110\\ ever,lhe appear:mec Oil the scent: al this mumcllI "fthe Nc'uril/ prcvented lhis. They :lIlacked Ihe I Iillilc reinlim.:t.:lllents, ,\11(\ were bter joined b} Ramassc.:s. In the slIhsnlucnt cunlcst fcw of the sccond W:l\·C flf Ilittite ch,lriotry escaped bad across Ihc riH;r (map 5); amI many Ihosc ~\;lin were of high nl1lk from among the Ilitlile and allied SI:lIeS scn ing j\ III \\ at:lllish. B~ the end ofthc (by The ph,lr:lOh had m,magecl to recoup the situ,lti(lIl. The division of i\mun 1\:lS I'Cassclllblnl, :mu lhal of Prah had :1150 :Irri\'cd al O?desh hy a forcecl march. In the afterm:Hh Hf the baltic il would secllllhat Ra1llaSSt:s Illily have \isilcd grim punishmcnt Ull mallY of his HOOpS in the divisinns ()f Am un :lnd Re, 1\ ho in his eyes had committcd Ircason ag:linst his person by running :I\V:l)-. i\ccllnling to some scholars there i~ evidence Ih:lt on the

or

51

northern empire was swept awa~ in the Iide ufhlllll;11l mi~ratiunlha( covered the Near East al the he~innin~ ufthe 12th celltur) 13(:. By then, huwe"cr, R;llllaSSe!. II h,ld alreuly been in his gra\e fill' nearly 50 yeus.

NE'ARIN

• PTAH

5

day fullowing 11110: barrie he urdcn;d a dl,;l,;imalion :UllOng his troups in full ,"lew of.he Ilillite king. Aftermath An offer frolll 1Iv.; (Iiuitl.: kinf,!: of ;\ mill'''f) discng:\gcmcnt lill lhe hasis of peaceful cl~cxi~lcnCl' was ,u.:cq)lcd by the pharaoh. While no hard ami fast lcrrilClrial dClll,lrC;.llion followed. Rmnasscs nevcr ,lgol;" c.:ampaigncd in r'ceugnisably Ililtilc IcrrilUl')'. Although he was cngagctl in :\murru some three YC;lfS aflcr
THE SEA PEOPLES 'I'he ueath ••fthe Phar;lOh .\'lcrncptah in 1223 13(: is ,. signilicant marker in the history of the New Kingdom, IiII' therealier t~gyptiall decline was \'cry rapid. Merm.:ptah had left a kingdom Ihat in terms of size corresponded ruughly to th;tl of his father' ,IlHI was still outwan.lly puwerful, 'I'hel'e:lfiel' dynastic struggles chamcterised the closing: years of the 19th Dyn;Isty prior to the accession of Selhnakhte, the first ph;!r'lOh of the 20th Dymlsry. in 1200 Ue. Ilis SllCO":SSUr', Rarn;lsses III, the last great pharaoh of Ihe New J(inp:dull\. S,IW the I1n;11 disilllCl,rraliun of Egypt's empire in Canaan and the LCV;lllt ;IS, alung

with tlw whole Oflhc Nc:!r Easl, th~ r~g;cl1l 'las <:llll\uls~d b) a mass im"asion of di~po...scsscd 'naTions' Imuwl1 <:ulle<:li, d} as '"I'h..' P~l)plc~ of th... Se;I'. Some lIf those identified hy Ramasscs III \\CI'C ;111'l~d~ known 10 the Egyptians, In the fifth ye;lr of the reign or .\Icrneprah (r. 1221) Be) a coalition of peopk~ ~ltl(;mptcd a mass invasion of Eg} III frum rhc we~1. The) c1e;trly <:allle 1U ~<:ll1c, 1'01' Ihey brought with them their Ellnilies, their c;\Itlc :lIld household pl)sse<;sillll<;, :'.Jati\"e i'\orrh f\ frican tribes of old Eg) ptian a<:quail1tallee (nutabl~ Ihe Libu, IVleshwcsh and "ehck) had allied themschcs with uthers \\ho::;c urigin is thollg'ht 10 h,ln: been the l,;11:lsl and isbnds oflhe Aege:11l and Asia .\liI101'. Tlw<.;e identified included the Sherdcn, Sheklcsh, l.ukka, TLlr~ha and Aka\\a:,h:1. They h,ld pen~lrat,,'d ~l~ 1':.\1' intu E~)pl a... lhc F:lI'afra oasis and the ClIlopic hrandt of Ih.., Nile hell)]'c the ph;lt~lOh defi:ated them in banle. The \lJ'ig:in of Ihc blcr wa\'e of 'Sea Peoples' is thought to ha\'e bcellthe same gencral arC~I, although there is srilllll11Ch scholar1~ debatc abour the nri~ins

ofall Ill' these ct hnieall~ di \ ersc peuples. Ralll:lsscs III had lo ~(up t\\'o furl her :\ltempts at il1\ ~t~iOIl from the \1 est ;n 119J :Jill! liS, UC bU1 the 1l10st serious lhre:!l lICcurn:d in Ye~lr I':il;ht of his reign, when thc whole of the lul1g-e~tahlishcd pulitil.::J1 order of the Ncu bl'il .:;cemetl 10 t1i"in1cgr:llc: '. The iilreign countries made a g-re:lt l:onspiracy in their islands. All :IT unee the lands \\en: n:mll\ed and SGltu:rcd in lhe fnly" No land could stant! hcfllrc their ;lrms, from Halti, "ode, T/l-.; Ike:i.";1 l"l'IIC()llllfcr lIellll'l'/l I~}!YIJ/ ami ",,1/;

,lJr

l'amc' ill Ihl' rdj..... R"'Il:I!<Sl·.~'II. 1110111' ,,(,hc II/o... t (Tkomtcd I",t IIl-S ,,( tl.t" 1I"dl'1l1 ""rid Iht, yDlm,: 1,/1:,r;IOIJ iHl(/lIi... :lrIn., came f,c·riloU';I.I'

dwu: to '0"11 dis;,src·r. In IIlmll·nJII.'" rdid.:; ,If dit1i:n'n/ ."irc·... ill f:j..")'I)/ tl,c' plmm,," IIC'I (;/'tllCk~ leli dC'laikd 1leCOIIIII... of,llc c':IIlllmigll. 'l'hl... sec'IlC', 1i-')11I I II(' 1.1I.\·ur te",,,/(-.

slwII'/>' R,.III,.

;;c... p/llll!!i/l~

illl" IlIe 111:1 ofllittill' cllilrlflfS ,ifill furdm: ,I.c'/I, 'I,.. 111(' \"II/our <J fI.i,~' "rill ' ,,; rc:lrc::u /J,lek ;IC·.·O...... till" Ril c'r ()"'IIlIC·S. "hidl /'H'p." round (hl' i,,"mll'," i",,,nte'" to inll'I'\'(:IlC in tlte.o d/;lriul h,urk "'I tIll" ",ilt",. Il'/IIJ..

Carchcmish, /\rzaw.l, :lnd :\1ol:-hi):I, hcin~ CUI oIl' at 'UlC Iillll·. 1\ C.H11p was sel up in ;t pl:u.:c in 1\ m urru (I he l.eh'lIlon), They desobled the people, ,lIId ils land w;l:-like th.lt \\hich h:ls ne\er come intv being. They were cuming IOw;mls Egypl, while Ihc fla111e \\:lS preparcd heforc them, Their Ic.lgue \\~IS l)ek..,cI, Tjeker, Shcklcsh, Denyen :md "lcshwcsh, united lands.' The Sea Peoples' ad\,;\ncc 011 Eg) pt W,IS h) land and waleI'. The uhser\'aliun madc hy Ram;lsses Ihal 'this was I.:crt'ainly ,I ~re:lt cmergelll.:~ :Ind all had 10 go 10 Ihe defenec of their l1;1ti\c land' pid:s up the 'Jhscr\.Ilioll made earlier :thmll Ihe le"eI of call-up hcing as high as tlnc in tcn al this limc. Ck::trl~ Ihis invasion was percci\cd as;1 \ery gre.1l danger, on:l SC'.I!c the " "lIS ill rile '" "'11/ ,'-firsl n~ar {If 1/1..• 1'''';1:/1 {If ·R:lIn:I.~.~('s II lil:U ,il..· 'cold 11':'1" ben,·cell f:~., pI ami 11:1 r t j ..." ... t'/llkd I,,' III(' .~jglli,,}! "fa I'e".....:".t·;u... ,...'t'''b.."j.~jlll!:1 lIIutual {rourh'r ill .""·ri". Th ..· pnH·i...iom' :r'/su ,,·/If;Ii/..d,, mll/w,l ""'t-rlec p
bei,,/: urnu .,'/Il;11I ... i~nitic;/llt .... tu Ill(' l1;flir ....~,

wflU 'I'l·rcck;.r!,' ''''I'wrb'''d II.,' II;c ri.~itl~ pmr"r .. r.'lssyri:l 011 tll"';r "':ISft'rll /)(Jrtler.~. IlIil,~Ir;llnl IIc:r<.' ;$/,,,rl "fIll..· 1'''1'.' 1.>1' III..· trC;I/\' ;nll:ll/\ 1,,,,;;1/1 1'.mdti,r;lI. 11Ie dll'lom:uit' lill1#U:1 Ir;HI(';1 "ftllt' Ilgr. lIi.,·..·'lI'cred In' 'Irdml·,,',,~j,;'''':11tl'l: IIi f/; f e cllj,; ,,(I Iliff u.~"s.

t,,'

like uf whieh had nC\'er threalened Egypt before. This 1"1'/:" ,'1/ l!/tlSS,' \\as dearly hclieved to be ahsollllcl~ lleceSS:lrY. :\n initial line in southern Cllla,lll manncd by ~lrri~Jll t'rnop~ :tllli \ aSSallll'lI'~l'ffllll/l did nul hold, for the main land dri\'e hy the Sea Peoples \\as almost certainly halted on the horders of E~YJlI itself. In the hattie whieh nnw oo.:lll'red the E~~I)(i;ln line comprised infalltr~ and chariots wi,h SUppOrl frum SllI.;rden ,lllsili,lries, These ,m.: shuwn dashing wirh the encm~, somc of whul11 arc in Ilittite-type threc-man hca\'~ chariols. The image of the innders :IS a 'pcop!culllhe movc' is well cunveyed all thc \\all:-. uf l\lcdinel Ilabu by lhc w,ly the Eygpli~IIlS arc seen li~hling amnn~ the ox-dr;1\\11 c;lrt:- containing the \\ omcn :l1ll1 ehildrcn of the Sea Peoples. The all.ll:k by SC.I, li!..e that hy lallll, W,IS alsu rouled, Ibm,lsses st',ltes (h;1I the b.llIle ~lctually rook place in the muuth orthe lJelt~1 itself. The E~yptian:-. seem til h;l\e mohilised c\er~ son of cr,lft: ' ... I causcd thc river mmllh 10 be prepared like ,I strung w,lll with \\arships, tr:lllSportS and men:hantmen, (hey were manned cntirely from bu\\ Itl Siern with brave tif.:!uing' men, ,IT\ll their we
soun,:c lor Ihc hall1c.1t is dear thallhe Egyptian ships planlled lu drive the enemy ,'cssc1s close 10 tbe :-hun; su that cmplaced ,m.:hers cHuld r.lke tbe ships with arrows. Fur a mure del ailed ,llx:uunt of this batlle sec lhe c(Jmmentar~' on 1'1atc J. De:-pilc the overwhelming victories claimed by Ramasscs lhe mere r.tct lhat these in";ulers \\ere able to sc1l1e in lhe euast,ll towns ol"P;llestine is tcslimon~ 10 the impOlenceofEgypl 10 deny Them. A lillIe nlllre than:l ct,:n1ury hiler Ihe t1e:lth IlfRarnasscs XI brought TO ;1 duse the 20th D) nasty. and with it Ihe :"Jew Kingdllm Period.

THE PLATES 11: f::lrly New Kingdum In[Hllry

As wilh many other ,lSpects uf life in ancielll EgYPl, ,he euntinuity wilh The past is clearly seen in thc appear,mce of Ihcse early New Kingdom inf'lIllry. Except lor the :u.:quisitiun of a numher of new we'lpons like the brunze-ht;;lded axe ,md Iht,: HWpl'Jh sword, these three figures would not havc heen uut of pl,lCC in the .Middle Kingdom period. NolWilhslanding, the bulk of the annies urlhe pharaohs ofthl.: carl} ISlh Dyn:ua), wOllld have comprised soltliers whose .lppe.lf
JJ: E'Jrly New Kingdom chariot .Hld C:"CIV, c14.10 Be Until the reign of TUlhmusis IV (14-25-I·H7 Be) Eg)"ptian chariots had cvolved lillie from Ihoseuflhe laler Ilyksos and Canaanite I}PCS that were their

""IC 1I1U1I11nJ' (If J>/w radii ,\lcmqll,,11 (r.1lJ6-23 IIC). AJtlwlIJ[h lIe ilccJllc,ull<:cI 'Ill clllpin: fUlli!> .~II'T'·I'i.~flrs ,,/1I1fl.~t ,I.~ /;'rJ[" ;/,~ II"" CJf IJi.~·

fil fI,er.

lit'

"·II.~

'll·n·rt"clt-,..... fI,e

h~'r

1,lwr;lf/li CJI"/liC {V,·", KillJ[dwJl toc:'I,npai.l:n;n til,' "Id st:llllpillJ[ }!rllllrld... {/ftllc /.
.·''''hd.v)

models. They \\cre l.:hara<':lerised hy IOlll'-spoked wheels and eXlrcme lighlness. Allholl~h this parlieular chariot dr,lI\s upon an illustration from thc IOmh of L"serhel, a royal scribe in Ihe reign of Amcnophis 11, the following dt:l.lils :lrc hased upon ;1 l:hariUI of this period in the Museum nfFlorenl:C. In prolilc the bud)' of Ihe \'ehide is cssentially an open wooden fr;lme. Although the original tn;l!eri;l1 has nOI survived, the whole frOlll' of Ihe cah extending: 10 Ihe lowcr sides \\(lulJ havc been covercd in le;llher. The hcighl of lhe cah cxtended to ;Iboul halfway Up the Ihighs of the crew. They would h;we SUKJlloll a c.lb base madc of le;lIber thongs. The pl:lcclllcnl of Ihc axle rod:lI the rear uflhe vehide made il very stable and m:mocuvrah1c. Analysis of the \\'(K)d:- llsed in Ihcsl.: ch;lfiots (sud,;ls elm fur the pole, tyn.'S nfpinc 57

I

It lI'llS un fht, oordt'rs ur f:gJ'l" il.'.clr,II;1f R:lllllJ.'i.~e,. . 111 ddeafcd rllc rlfrcmpfcil nl:l.o;s irJ\'.)1/ the r.'III/II(' \1';/11,; :It

,\Icdincf 11:llm f./!.",,,i:l1I ;11/;1 III ry nllllllllll :I ml

1Jrisofll'~ ':IJ.:e"

ill rlre

h"lIk. Tlwsc'ill (/1l'1c.>lH" nlllJ.. lIrt' Oem ('II, Pcl(~~/ Tjckkcr: 'fl'f).'ic lI'it.11 Iwrl/(:d JrellllCt.s arc Ilt>rnmlly, a/,II()Ilj!IIII()(

,,,,eI

c.\'('Iu...i\T/I' ;Ih'milicd
prCpilrC IV ('.\eCl.'utc

and birch lor paris ofthc body) points to allced til illlpOri such materials frum ahroad, as the) wen: not natil'e lo Egypt; that such woods came in quantity from the Le"ant perhaps explains, in p:ll"1, the ~eat exertions made by the pharaohs ofthc New f\:ingdom to conlrol it. The horses used to pull thcse "chides were small, nne buried at Thebes being: no mure lhan alxJUI 12~ hands high. ,vtiralllliall :md Can.t:lIlite inlluem:c is \leI') dead) discernihle in the armuur wurn hy Ihe )'C1/f!lJl' or arl:her. Thl: brom~e corselet worn hcre W.1S 111.1
:trmour fHund in the palace of Amellophis III .11 Thl:bcs arc "bout 115mm in length and come wa point al thc hollum. Thesl: scaks were sewn until ,tll 111llkrgarrnen\ of leather or doth. The weigh\' of the armour \\.1:': quitc considerable and uncomlol"Table TO wcar, hut such ;t price \\as \\onh paying for proto.;\iOll against lhc pellctr.Hillg power of a wmposite bow, Around his neck the archer wcars a hl:a"y hronze eullar; his helmet, also of bronze, is similar to that illllstr.llcd in Phuc E, No Egypt-ian repn:Sl:nlation exists showing lhis panoply being worn in haltle lUll much oflhisequipmelll nu) have bl:en ;rnpllrled 10 Egypt as Iriburc. The lwlj('// or t1ri\'l:r would h:l\'e heen pourly protected rdali"l: lu Ihl: .tn:hl:r. The unrart llllate Canaanite !?t:ing ridden duwn is a I ~ pil::d peasatH levy c:tllcd up to support the 1/1It1"lJ'iI/1II1/ in b:lllk.

C: Enemies ofEgypt: Milium; :\lthough the Egyptians and .lVlilanni never mel in a bailie as Illomenluu!'> as that ofQ.a. dcsh, it i!'> de:!f th,H contact with thcm h:td'l m:ljor impact fill lhe Egyp-

111:1 IIi"III.' sl.dised ;Ill~gc R,ulla.'iseslll i.'i IHlrlmJ"ed pre.'iCIII ;,,~ nl Ilk!> or c;"pl i I'C Sea "~"(Jple!> If} rill" f!m/,'i fllllUlI >Hul ;\11/1 1m I/le 11'11/1 or rlic U'mplc al ;\lcclillcI II"b". ·nlt· WI' lillc' "n' ;d...' II,ifh·d ,,!> Sca I'co/,k k;ldcrs. llic' middle mil' I).·/I)"CII lIt1c1I/IC'[XJIt<Jf1l "delil·I~llle... e I,dll" rhe lilrd'...· :lr... or Ihe lilfe,'

Pililist ;nc,".

,.

.

..... . .... ~

rians. Foremust among: their military innontions was the /IIlITh'fllI/lII, ~l mililary aristua:u.:y whidl in h~lItlc provided Ihe t.:utting edge Hf the IIurri-IVlil:mni:lIl army. Illustrated hcre is an C1ite IIltm:VtllIIlII chill'iot (;few and their vchicle.lloth wcar heav) scale armour, Ihe innuence uf which is c1earl~ di:-.t.:crniblc in the

Egyptian palloply in Plale B. The hody armour uCthe archer comprises approximately SUO klrge scale.... for the hody, 500 smaller scales for the arms, and about 200, smallcl' still, for thc helmet. Such a p;moply WilS vcry expensive to produce. lie L';lrries .. pu\\crful composite hcm. 'fhe dri\'cr is equipped in more ur

less the same fashion, amI carries a shield, ,\'litannian innovatiun (.":.lJl also hl.: seen in the lise of armour for the ch:.lriOl cab and on lhe horse it"c1f; the horse tcam illustrated here wcar~ a Sl.:ale :lfmour 'CO;1I', The weapons complement of a Mit'annian chariot comprised IWO bO\\ S, t\\'o t! ui \'crs, a long spear and a chuiot shield.

IJ: Egypt jan jlllilIJtry clt-'spatclljng <:rt.'W of 'Caml;lnitc tWlr;YlInnu dmriol; reign ()fSC1; I Egyptian inf.-mtry began to ch;mge in appear;lllcc in the carly 14th century He with the introduction ofa rudimentary form of body armour; the tnrso \\';IS lH)\\ protected by stillcned textile h;llltb, as was the unshielded shoulder. Helmets also begin 10 make Iheir ;lppearam;e among thc infantry, ;lS illustrated by D2: sug-gested malerials for thl.: helmet indudl.: textile, le;lther, or more pl'llbabIY~;IS shown here~bronze. Both men arc wielding vcr) long IWohanded Ihrusting swords, lhe weapon measured about .. metre, and was el1lplll)ed in ils \';Irious guises throughout the IHth Dynasty. In this L":.lse the infantr)' arc usin~ their weapuns tn dl'Sp;lleh the crew of a crashed Can;lanite lIum)I{/1/I1/l chariol. Such soldicrs would also havc been employed in the garrisons in C:ln:lan during lhe !\rn:lfl1
bearers the lllanoell\Te of large fClrmations on Ihe ban lefield lhe Egypi ians relied ll!'XIIl Ihe pas..;;ing of signals by w;lr trumpel'S. Alt!HIUgh they were only capable of produf.:ing ;1 lew basic notes, Ihe.'>e wcrc clearly keyed to inst'l'llClion~ such as 'adV;lllcc', 'retre;lI" etc. As in Olher armies down through history, the drums would 110 doubt ha\c accompanied the infantry inlo balllc. diclating their rol\e of :Idvancc, ;IS wcll as being: employed in morc pacific tasks such as a~eompan) ing marching troops on parade. It is known Ihat entry ill to hattlc by the Eg:ypti;ll1s W;\S accompanied by much noise from {he instrument's ;IS well as from the battlecrics and sonb'S of the T'roops, SI:IlHhmls in the Egypli;lll army r;mged from lhose 1"01'

employed at the he;HI of the field ;Irmies represellting the gods Amun, Re, Ptah and Set (in the time of Ram;lsses II) 10 lhose carried by thl.: st;mdanllll:arers in the chariot and infanlry units. As in all ;trmies sut.:h IOkens fulfilled a number of roles, Cle;\r1y, unit identification un the hattlefield was neces....lry for command and t.:onll"ol; the standard was also important 10 unit muralc and status, Th:lI (;:Irried in the bearer and numbered l::.J is all animal mutif, exact mClIling uneerlain. F.5 is;lJl ostrich plume (;;Irried hy Ihe ch;lriotry and high-ranking onicers, E6 a t.:Ullllllllll fan smndard, and Ei lhe war ~od .'lnnru. F: 19th-l)J'lm... ty infil1Jtry jn hallie w;Ih LjbY;l11... By Ihe early l1)th Dynasty I::g~,ptian c\ose-colllhat troups h;ld aCljuired the appearance that was (I) h\!<.1 ulllillhl.: end oflhc Ncw Kingdom. A dislingllishin~ feature of inf:llltr) of this period whkh sets thcm apart fmlll those tht, l/ollh Dynasty is Ihe :::.tripcd hC;lddolh. The shield has becollle larger ami more rel;t;lIlgular than th:lI shown in Plate I), ;tnJ :llluwed infantry hodies tn presclll ;1 'shield wall' \\ hen nt.:t.:essary. :\lbny reliefs ti'om the period shuw tht'se shields sl u ng :ICroSS Ihe backs of inr:lI1t ry eil her on thc man.:h or in bailie, parlicularly when two hands were nceded tl) wield the m:ll.:t.: axe, :IS 1'2 is doing. The ~hields \\ere ;Ilso slung acmss the b:lck wht'n ascending st.:;tling ttdders in a siege, Other we;lpons l":.lITicJ b~ infantry include Ihc bronze i'//IIPI'SIt, which b~ this period had bccullle large and very lilrmidahlc, Illdi\iduals \\'ould also ha\c cmployed lhruwsticks as a mat IeI' of preference. Throughout Ihe Il.Jth Dyn;tSI) the Egyplians h;ld Ifl deal with irruptions at:ros~ thcir Wt.:stCl'll border.'> by I,ibyantribes. l\S can be seen, attire ufallY surt \\as minimal; must Libyan warriors wore 1l00hing except 1;1lI00S ami a leather phallit.: sheath. The hair \\as llorm:l1ly arranged and t.!et.:uralcd with nSlrit.:h plumes whkh may h;\\'e indicated .'>Iallls. When dOlhing of any sort was worn it W;IS nOflllally in the IiII'm of a hide doak that fum.:tiunet.! as a body protector. SignillL":.llltl~, the warrior 1'hO\\ n as F4 wields;\ s\\un.l at.:quired from Ihe 'Se;1 Peopk'S' ami very similar to those used hy the Sherdcll empluyed by Raillasses II.

or

G: LHC

New KjngdQI1l ch,lrjot,

rdf,rrl

or

R"m;/ssc:; II Cumpared to thai in Plate B, this chilriot shows

;I

"'''C.'M'I'

b.luJc.-a"he

III/IIU/I o('''e Vi'c.',ou," "I.ln' II(rc:r tI,C illl'.,dc.''''' 11:ld IIccII c/c(c."Uc.·c' ,m 'mul.

Thes.: t1I (I ; 1Iu.~·, nil i",,)O "id,.

1>11/

Ihc' dc·'.liI o(,/'t'

F.lOP';;1lI ;11111 .x." Pee'I,It'S· IIrships. mid lin.' 11g:lin (rom ,\Ic'dim" I-J.lbu. T'le or·i}:iml'illus'r:I,iulI'.i I,ru, illt· thc' i"."I,irruiml li'r our 1'/II'c). \I

"

numoer of significanl difTcrenl.:l.'S lhat ilillst....Ite the wa}' the Eg}J)lians rl."Spondcd to the technic-.JI challenges posed hy their enemies, The three most significant features \\ere the aduptiun uf a six-spoked wheel, a ht.'2\'ier C3h and armour for the ho~, The s\\itch frum f(lur lu six spokes C.lll be dOlled 10 the rcipl of'l'uthmosi!> IV. and uccurrctl asa consequence of the grm\ Ih in wcight of the cab :IS it tOO became stronger to carr} the heavicr armoured ere\\ :md gre:ltcr weaponry necd<.-o tu contl."St \\ith the hl."3\ier Iliuite dl:lrioL'i. Eighl-spoked wheelo; \\cre tried at the beginning uf thc 14-lh century BC. but six spokcs became the norm thercarter. The horse armour arose OUI of the need til prutect the Icam from missiles targeted specifically al them; 1,"lr an ar..:her in :l chariot ~lppro~ll;hing an enemy \chide at full tilt the horses made a far larger target than the cre\\', and wounding ur killing a horse would in all likelihood ":;lUse the chariol tu cr~h. 'I'he [ask ofdispClsingoror Clpturing the ..:rew would be left to the chariot runners (G3). \\ho followed Iheir own \"ehicles into hallic. While lhe driver G I wco.lrs textile armuur and cnrics a shield. the archer G2 is dressed in a scalecorsclet \\ ilh the sc:alcs stitchl.'tI 10 a textile underg-.lrmenl. Compared with Ih:1t \\orn by thcehnioteer in Plate B this amlOur "QuId hil\C heen mUl.:h lighl'cr, hUI nC"enheless strong and effCCli\c. The rc!ali"e comfurt of this lightcr p.1noply would no doubt ha\'c bt.'Cn most well."()mc in the high tempc.....I1urc:s oflhe '.,"l.':Ir East. The 'helmet' would ha\'e heen m3de in Ihe S:1I11e manncr a.... Ihe eorselel. H:

l.lIter JVCII' Kingdonl arcber..;, lind tnOUtJfL-d

mC!i;.'icnl:fcr

U)' the Ibmasside period (IlJlh :md 201h Dyn,lsties) archers we.·c wholl)' equipped with the composite bow, Thc :-landard Egyptian I':lctic of emplo)ing massed firepower would now have had :1Il even more devastating effect on the balliefic!d. That archers were sliH nOI expt."Ctl.-o to dose wilh thc enemy is e\-1denced by their general hid of body armour, although a number of reliefs show archers \\l.-.aring striped jerkins that on other figuTl.'S arc assumed to represent Sf.::ale armour, HI dates fmm Ihe reign of Ramasscs ITT and is based upon a relief al Ihe temple of~lcdinell-iabu.

Allhough Ihc Eb') ptians did not emplo) battlefield it is c1C'.Ir Ihal horsemen ne' crt hele:.... fulfilk'tl

I... . "alry,

"

a number ul" important tasks. They \\crc employed essentially to c:lrr) ml.....sages frum nne IKlrt of the hattlefield to another, and ~a1so for forward rcconnaissanl."\:, I)rotection is prmided b) a form of textile aml(1Ur. I; Enent;<.'S ofEb'TPt: U1C Hiuitcs

NCJlwilhstanding the pcjorali\c labelling IIf Ilittitc soldiers ~ 11IU111yor 'women-soldiers' b) Ramasscs ll, un aCl.'Qunt of the way they \\ore their hair, it i~ dear that. the Egyptians found them "er) formidable opponent:.. It ilo 2150 dear thai guile and ingenuity played as greal a role in their military expenisc as did the qualit) of their arm}; indeed, the near-dcstruction of the Egyptian army al Qldesh is te.-.timun) 1,0 Ihal. IliustT:lIcd here is Ihe three-m~lll chariot.lhe primary offensi'·e we:l\lOn of Ihe Ilittite army, The major sources fur the appearance of these vehide:. arc the Qldesh reliefs of Ramaloses II, which elc:lrly det~lilthe ,"ariely oft~ pes employed, reflecting lhat for this battle .\'hm'at:lllish deplo)cd chariot!> belonging to \"as~Is and nUllY states allied to 'Iaui. That illustrated here has irs (.':Ib made of wood and, unlike Ihe Egyptian types, has ils axlc mounled mid-way along the bod~. \\fhil..1many of the ~desh reliefs shuw boTSl."'S lacking armour, other source. do show it hcing \\orn and in a st}le similar to thaI formall~ empluyl.-o by 1\ litanni, Thai around the body is bronze sc:a.tc annour, \\hile the eovcring around the hC:ld is sludded fabric, The cre\\ illu:.trall..-c1 here comprises a drher. shield bearer and ;Irmoured spearman" The first 1\\0 we:lr lightweight tC:l.tile amlUur, the laller a bronr.c helmel and scale body armour, The t1iSlim.:tire Hittite shields shown herc a.·c ck':lrly 10 be seen on Ihe Q1desh reliefs. Although the kingdom of llani was ultimately to be swept away by the Sea Peoples in aboul 1190 HC the rdief... of Ramas:.cs III arc dl..':lr in det:liling Hitlile-typc three-nUll chariots in the land hallie on the border of Egypt. Where poss-ihlc Ihe EgypliJns '\ould allempt 10 usc Ihe superior sp<.'Cd ;Iud m:lOocuvrahilit) of lheir own chariots 10 a\oid close combat \\ilh Ihose oflhe IlillilQ" Ilowc\'er, if lhl' llinilcs t.'3uglu the F.g)ptian ehariotry off guard thc shecr momentum of their heavier vehicles ma) wdl ha\c bt.-en dccish'c, It is precisely this situation which led to the rout of the di,·isiun of Rc at Qadcsh. Gaughl un the march and unable to manucU\ re the

1':g:yptial1 chariol:- were S\\a111pct! 1)\ Iheir heavier Ililtitl: counterparts.

Ihl'ir cumposile ho\\:-. ~i\'enlhc \'cr~ ];Ir~l' numbl'r of dead hllllic:- depicled in the \\':ller. NOlice'lhlt, hy Iheir ab:-cnn' arc :lny llU\\'S among the enemy ne\\'s. II ";IS hcrclc,re;1 majl H' la(;1 ic fill' the E~~ pi i,lns tIl ~t ami :Ind ill this ;ll:t il H1 r hc~ \\ crt' hel pnl h~ archers tlperatin~ li'olllland; Ihe Egyplians herded lhe Sea I)eoples' \-cs"c1s c1llse in shun' to alle.\\ the :lrellt'r:- eJn Ihe he.lt.:h to add Iheir firq)o\\er lu lhal orshiphorne 'll't.:her~,

1

J: The 1m va 111;/ tIle with I he 5(';1 People.'.; d 19U IJe Although Ramasses III sl;llell un hi:- in:-CI'ipt ions al "Iedinel Ilahu lh;ll hoal:- or11lany t~Pt:s \H:rt'11l0hilisctllo clinIc..;. 1he St~;l l'l:ople..;· allaek on I he mUlII h of lhe Nile. lhu...e 1·:g:ypli'1Il \c:-scls th.H 'H:luall~ fuughl in lhe h.1111e \\ere dearl~ wal·ships. \\ hile the Sel I'euple:-' :-hips ;lrc depicted \\ ilhuut oars il is dcar 111,11 thc~ mu:-' h;l\'c had Ihcm: lheir simple square ..ail meanl Ihal tllt·y were una hie 10 lac\.., :llId \\as lhcrt'fore a SIIJlplt-menl II) ,he O'lrs rather Ihall;1 Sullslitule fill' them. The Egyptian ,Inisl may h,l\e tlepietetllhe enemy \csscls "ilholll oars l>CGlUse in cumh;ll Ihe~ wuuld h;l\e bl'en :-hippc(t, since Iht' oarsmen, llllli\..e their I':g:yptian c'Iui\alellts, dmlhlt-tl as fighring: 11ll'n. The SL~1 Pl'uplcs' douhle-ended ships wilh Ihe hird's hl:.\(1 ;If the Pi'll\\' \\ crc proh;lhly mllch 1c~s manuel! \ 1'ahle in h:nrlc Ih;lIl Ihe F.!,O ptian n::-scls. Indeed. Ihe rdier.... ill uSlr;He one Eg:~ plian vessel bad-M:1I11 i Il!-:" as a t-'T:Jpnd linc "lla~etl in the cl1cm~ rigging: i~ pulled bac\..\\al'lb in Ilnkr Ie) e'lpsize Iht, \e:-sel. E\en allu\\in~ fiJI' Ihe pnlp,l~llldisl nature of the I\lcdinci I [;lbu relicls il is dcol1' th,ll lhe Eg:) Jllians inllklcd f'carrul clsllahics 011 the Sea Pcople:- \\ilh

I,n:

J{: ""he.: Se.:a fJf.:up/cs' 1:ltlcI invasiun It is dear frum inscriptions descrihillg the bnd lighlill~ .. g:lin:-t the Se;l Peoplcs Ih;1l the ill\:Jsion of Egypt \\ ,IS carried out b~ \\ hok CIJllllllUllilies amI nOI just by w.u'rilJrs, Tht' rdicfs graphically dcpici Eg~ pI i.ln Imops figluin~ their cnemies among ox-dr'lWll carlS carrying nOl tlnl~ soldiers. bUI WOlllt'n and children:ls \\el1. We t.:an only surmise Ihal in :-tnpping Ihis human tide Ihe 1'~g~pli,lIls inflicted hen}' loss on Ihe ir1\.Hlcrs. _'\e\l'rrhclcss, their rccoil inlo (:;111;I;ln lert Ihem slllncielUl~ slrong 10 ()ccuJl~ Ihe eua...rline of Pak':-I inc and dcn~ 1hose lerrilUries 10 the Egyptian:-. While Itl11lasses III \\'as ahle to fl'eonl, in appropl'iard~ humhaslic f;,shion. his defc:.1l of IIll' Sea I't'opk's Oil the wa lis 11ft he tcmpll: al .\ Inl inet I-Iahu, the event il:-dfis Ihe lasl great milil:lry success of New Kin~­ limn E~ypl. In the ycom. Ihat tillluwcd, the dedim' uf rill' forrner g-re:ll plm er \\:l:- \ er~ swi ft. :lntl lerminal.

INDEX ( 1("1,,, ,"" ,', h' ,II I," " .. " "" .",' .1"." II

12'11

Ih1'.,_)\~,

1:1,10

I),".",,~,

1.',,1. (lId,,,, ...) Illtl''''''4 t"l, l'l1... I~n'l Ih'1;\,.." I ..'

Ix,l, Ih",,,,, 'J Ie, :!(hh Il,,,,,.,, rd. -" 1",1, lh".",\ I.'l.

."III'II,i..".II;'''', ",illl.", Ix 1'1 I..h-'lI""'- ("'·""'I".,ml/'l-!., "'''1

.\""',, 1"'NI) 1.... .\1111"'" I•. 1'1 '\IN,ph" i ,m 11,'" ,,,,1,,,,,...

"
I", .,'''~w." 1..11.).; ~,. 1 11,,1 ,," Ihlll, l!i

(W, "IN""\

.II'".",,, I :\. I I ,"110,. '''.'I1''''''.nu,· ,,(

1:",.,.,,1

1-,. :.!:.!.:l. :.!'-"

'21 ..:11.

".. "I". \1,>:,,1.1.,: <..!... h,,_j,

I.

\,,,,, ......,. ""to.. I I \"",., fl"."t \10').;,,1,1,,21;")

,II,,,,,,, """"',.2:1 I. r:

\" 10'

,h'-ul1<,I,,).;, I

\.__11'.' 1.1. :.!!'.

t~OI,lot"'H,I,

n

:1:.'

,1I.n" .1.< i . .'1-'1. 1:1, lu. to. :!I. 2fi. 27,

~,

-\.hh"" I'· l.l'''·'·11 (i

.'1"'...".. · 'f....' .. 2 I. 30. !,h

\k"".,_,h., "il...Y. \kl ...".III·1I \n' \m",,,.phi.. l\· \1"1'1'" :12

.\,." ',' '"" 1'. !.

....,., (i. 10

·I..tno-l" '1'1". I III 11 I2. I I

\, (1'11,,,.,,,10) '."0

\""-'"'I'I'l,1I I. :!1. 24. :12 \11"'''''1''''' III 1:\. '.!1. 2M. 'I'.!

II>

"",,,I,,,,,,,,,,, ..,,,,,,,

I~,

C.

c.:

""""'1";"" . . . )

",.,,,. -, ( ,,,I. -, (

Ili.• Il, (I'll,,,"'" ',11'1

Hid"", '.!:., 2(;

Iil'l.t:. \ .,1"', 17.

\1'1

\11"'''''1'1"" 1\ 29. :l:.!. l!i \"" ...,.. G 1'l.~', Ill. I:;. I•. :.!!',

Ikll"·,hito., 17

.'t11I,I"lIi, 'Il~' '1"·'.Ho<"''' 1'1, :.!,'~l,

I...,... (''''''l''''''1 13.:!1 II

II,nd,,,I,,•.,

t:1

1').;11";'''' n,k. ,.",.", "j 12 1·.1'·'11),'·1".1'1...., 17. I."

1'.1""" 'I'.! 6J

.....·.I.·',..""'T.", 11-". 7 ......, ('::<0,11 I~

t .... h."'lull _hl"Kuldu 1"1'101";11,'.<. R,..., 71." II. 't!

~1"''''"1'I.,I, :!:',.

c ~,ltl,.· I.,l. I.Ol

"''''''1'''1."",., I.... ",,101...'" .1."'" ,I! Ii \10•."" .. ·C. II·I!>.....;, II ....., I',. C ",,"'" ij.:.."11 Ii

(~" ••

..... "1....",,,;ih.'fI '1'<.'1" ·d. ~'."

7

hh",.II.,II,.I, \1 ..7 ....../... 11 ..,"....; c.!-.. I....I•.

""h. IIC

::..,·'1",.11..1,.,· ',1 ....·III~l.-"I_ 1"",46-7

" ...·"k" II-il., '! I. 11'1. "". r.. , ~hlp' 1!'H'

1\o.uk ..1

~"'l:'"

II....'" R,...., I 1

"'.,10."

, 1"1"'" ",1"' ,l:! 1I.'hhqlo'm II-I"

'.1 56

....·I'I... I"I"'m....

c)".",....

" '·IH......·,

It".·,

",1.""1\ :.!1. A n. F

'i.

....'m' or,h.·

:I~ 1'.!.I',.~:•.

'it".,·I, Ill,

·Il''.! 1·..l'I

...~"I ..,t..!..KI.·,h.t\.,"k ...

11.1"•• I,!. 17

I .•.",... I, '!i I••' 11\' .... I·r.

'1. 1'/ 12. I.·,..... I',

n... I~"" '" 7. 1'1 rh"I"" r,. 11. I."

I',.,.'n"·(," 2:,

10..,.1.·.11 .(

I'.

.,.. ,,,1, I_I. 15

I'., 1I1"ell" {\""",'1

1·.,1....1111<·

:\~,

.... ".·llo /10:'"11 li'l

I\"h.... " II 1'1. \lI

I Ii. lit 2' Illl,. m'"lwlt 1111

19

.......II:r.C, ...~.

•.I. ""I"" "t'! "..."",.,1,..". ~~"l"""" ,... t",., "

1~..·.I.1

",.u, ...."h tK'I" 110",',,,10.," I'I"'~I, :!:\ '

..~,rl.Jn· ~ I-",

...." 2 I

·.'I~'

11..1" 1" ,Ii. III Ihm I. 1"1,:.'1. (.....

11\·

II

..... ,./,.. \Ill•• ",,,

11.,111 _llolult..

IX'

III

I~.')O.I

";h,,,,,I ,,'I. :.!) Sh.llo h 11,1",.. -or,

I'I"",,,,.,.,IH 1',.lt,llI."...·" 11'1. Ii, 11'1 1'1..1, ().:, .. Ij I~

Ih"."o:I,. l.,

/.1... 1",10 .... 1. '! 1.:12

r",l" ...,.,

II I,,,ul' .1. II. :I~ Io",h., "it.. r,;

1.,1".,,,. IX 5lJ-1 f

It""."..... I ...~)

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A series of books on the history, organisation, appearance and equipment of famous fighting men of the past and present; and on other aspects of military history which demand fuller and more flexible coverage than appropriate within QUI: established Men-at-Arms series. The Elite titles covcr subjeclS as diverse as the Ancient Greek ciry armies and the Western and Warsaw Pact forces, in the popular Men-at-Anns fonnat but with extended text and captions, about 50 photographs and diagrams, and 12 full-colour plates.

OSPREY COMPANION SERIES MEN-AT-ARMS

An unrivalled source of infonnation on the history and appearance of the world's fighting men. Each 48-page book includes some 40 photographs and diagrams, and eight pages of full-colour artwork.

K"EW Vt\;..JGL:ARD Key units and weapons systems of 20th century warfare, with a S[rong emphasis on armoured vehicles.

CAMPAIGN Concise, authoritative ac.counts of the great conflicts of history. Each 96-pllge book contains more than 90 illustrations including maps, charts and colour plates, plus a series of three-dimensional battle maps that mark the critical stages of the campaign.

MARK HEALY was

born In 19S). He has a Maste.-'s dqrfllin PolitIcal TheoIOlY from Bristol University. He k by profession a sctoooiteacher and k head of the HlHTlanltles faculty In a larp school In SoilriSiWt. He has a nlHTlber of othw tltles P'lbllshed on the ancient period Inch.idirl. the Elite title on The Ancient A")lrlonl. H;, other "..at Intere'lit I. the modem period and he II the author of the Camp.!:!!!!; title on Kursk ''0. He I. married with one son and lives in Dorset.

ANGUS McBRIDE

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