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SOME DEMOGRAPHIC, SOCIAL, A N D ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY
The University of Wisconsin Press 114 North Murray Street Madison, Wisconsin 53715
107
T A B U L A T I O N S OF N A T I O N A L A N D RELIGIOUS GROUP
SECTION I I I
86
INDEX
227
209
LIST
A . l . Y e a r b o o k s (Salnames) P u b l i s h e d i n the O t t o m a n E m p i r e a n d the R e p u b l i c of T u r k e y : Chronological and Administrative Distribution . . A . 2 . A d m i n i s t r a t i v e D i v i s i o n of the O t t o m a n State, 1831 ( H . 1247) A . 3 . A d m i n i s t r a t i v e D i v i s i o n of the O t t o m a n State, 1850-1853 ( H . 1266-1270) A . 4. Some B i r t h a n d D e a t h Statistics, 1835-1853 ( H . 1251-1268) 2 . 1 . H e a d Tax Rate Increase, 1804-1834 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. 2.7.
Religious D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1831
B u d g e t of 1776
5.2.
Budget of 1855
12
5.3.
P o p u l a t i o n of I s t a n b u l , 1794-1916: V a r i o u s Estimates
14
5.4.
16 16 21
88 93 103
P o p u l a t i o n of I s t a n b u l : S u m m a r y of C e n s u s Figures 5.5. T o t a l P o p u l a t i o n of I s t a n b u l , 1897 5.6. Ethnic D i s t r i b u t i o n of Istanbul P o p u l a t i o n , 1897 5.7. P o p u l a t i o n of I s t a n b u l i n 1885: N a t i v e s a n d Newcomers 5.8.
21
T A B L E S
O c c u p a t i o n s of I s t a n b u l Residents, 1885
22
P o p u l a t i o n of T u n a P r o v i n c e , 1868 ( H . 1285) P o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n State A c c o r d i n g to S a l a h e d d i n Bey (1867)
25
1.1. The O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n i n C e r t a i n D i s t r i c t s of R u m i l i (Rumelia) a n d A n a t o l i a , 1831
109
25
1.2. O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1844-1856
116
34
1.3. P o p u l a t i o n a n d N u m b e r of V i l l a g e s , T u n a P r o v i n c e , 1868 ( H . 1285)
116
36
1.4. P o p u l a t i o n a n d N u m b e r of V i l l a g e s , T u n a P r o v i n c e , 1869 ( H . 1286)
116
36
1.5. P o p u l a t i o n a n d N u m b e r of V i l l a g e s , T u n a P r o v i n c e , 1874 ( H . 1291)
117
C o m p a r a t i v e Statistics of P o p u l a t i o n of Sivas Province
Samples of P o p u l a t i o n Registers D e v e l o p e d b y t h e O t t o m a n s i n 1874: R e p r o d u c t i o n s of O r i g i n a l Registers w i t h T r a n s l i t e r a t e d a n d T r a n s l a t e d Versions
STATISTICAL APPENDICES
23
38 40
B.3.C. Sample S u m m a r y Register B.4. Directors of the O t t o m a n Statistical O f f i c e , 1892-1916 (R. 1308-1332) .* 3 . 1 . Ethnic D i s t r i b u t i o n of the O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n i n
42 44
I.8.B. S u m m a r y : Totals for P r i n c i p a l A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Districts
the Balkans, 1876-1878 3.2. G r e e k P o p u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e a n T u r k e v , 1878 3.3. G r e e k P o p u l a t i o n i n the O t t o m a n State i n 1878 ( A c c o r d i n g to S y n v e t )
46 48
S u p p l e m e n t to 1881/82-1893 Census Results: P o p u l a t i o n Estimates 1.8. D . Final S u m m a r y : C o u n t e d a n d E s t i m a t e d Totals 1.9. O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1894
48
1.10.
M a c e d o n i a n P o p u l a t i o n ( A c c o r d i n g to V a r i o u s N a t i o n a l Statistics) P o p u l a t i o n of Eastern R u m e l i a before a n d after the W a r of 1877-1878
37
4.2. 4.3. 4.4.
Religious S t r u c t u r e of the O t t o m a n P o p u l a i t o n i n E u r o p e , 1820-1900 S u m m a r y of Religious S t r u c t u r e of the O t t o m a n Population Racial-Ethnic S t r u c t u r e of the O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e , 1820-1900
117 118 121 122 148
I.8.C.
50 50
1.12.
M u s l i m s a n d N o n - M u s l i m s i n the O t t o m a n State, 1896
54 56 69
1.13. 1.14.
O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1897 O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n G r o w t h , 1874/75-1894/95 (R. 1290-1310) :
1.15.
Foreign C i t i z e n s i n the O t t o m a n State, 1899
72 72 73
150 151 152
M u s l i m s a n d N o n - M u s l i n s i n the O t t o m a n State, 1894 155 1.11. M u s l i m a n d N o n - M u s l i m Subjects C o u n t e d i n the Census u p to 1895 156
3.6. A r m e n i a n P o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e , 1882 ( A r m e n i a n Patriarchate Figures) 3.7. M u s l i m s i n E u r o p e a n P r o v i n c e s , 1860-1878 4 . 1 . Refugees f r o m Russian L a n d s i n S a m s u n i n 1880
106
^
B.3.a. Sample Register of P o p u l a t i o n B.3.b. Sample D a i l y E v e n t s Register
3.5.
105 105
D . M a j o r Public a n d Private W o r k s i n I s t a n b u l i n t h e 19th C e n t u r y ,~.
1.6. O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e a n d A s i a , 1872 a n d 1874 1.7. A . P o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n State, 1877/78 ( H . 1294) 1.7. B. S u m m a r v of Totals 1.8. A . O t t o m a n General C e n s u s of 1881/82-1893
3.4.
103 104 104
P o p u l a t i o n of O t t o m a n B a l k a n T e r r i t o r i e s , 1831 . . P o p u l a t i o n of O t t o m a n T e r r i t o r i e s i n E u r o p e , 1820-1840
B. l . Some 1831 C e n s u s O f f i c i a l s B.2. N u m b e r a n d E c o n o m i c Status of S o m e C h r i s t i a n s i n R u m i l i i n 1831 B.3.
5 . 1 . Miri
OF
158 160 160
(R. 1315) 161 1.16. A . S u m m a r v of Census of O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1906 7. . ' Ic2 I.16.B. Final S u m m a r v of O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1906 7 168 •1.17.A. O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1914 (R. 1330) 170 Vll
viii ¡. J7.B_
L I S T OF T A B L E S
S u m m a r y of O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1914
5 : ? ;
u
f
o
t
t
o
m
a
n
C
e
n
s
u
I
s
s
I V . 5 . N u m b e r a n d Percentage of Males a n d Females in the O t t o m a n State, by A g e , 1894
Sports,
s
Ü. 1. C o m p a r a t i v e Table S h o w i n g V a r i o u s ' Estimates of the P o p u l a t e of C e r t a i n Provinces of the Uttoman Empire
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H.3. M u s l i m a n d N o n - M u s l i m P o p u l a t i o n i n Six eastern Provinces, ¡ 8 9 7 (R n i l ) 1884-169/ (R.
11.6.
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B o r o u g h s i n 1878 (R.
Estimates of the P o p u l a t i o n of Six Provinces i n " " Eastern A n a t o l i a i n 1896 1
8
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I V . 2 2 . Cross A n n u a l I n c o m e , b y D i s t r i c t a n d ,
v
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ta,
1894/95 (R. 1310)
2
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226
consistently
reliable
Europe w i t h basic O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n data f o r the p e r i o d
O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t itself; a n d it t u r n e d o u t that the m o s t
1830 to 1914. T h e reasons t h a t i m p e l l e d m e to u n d e r t a k e the
trustworthy European
exceptionally d i f f i c u l t (but v i t a l ) task of c o m p i l i n g t h i s i n -
e.g.,
f o r m a t i o n arose f r o m m y b r o a d e r
socio-
n a m e just a f e w — b a s e d t h e i r w o r k o n O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l
economic a n d p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the O t t o m a n state:
data. O f all the e x i s t i n g statistics, o n l y those of the O t t o m a n
p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s w e r e the direct e x p r e s s i o n of t h a t
g o v e r n m e n t w e r e c o m p i l e d b y m a k i n g an actual c o u n t of
s t u d y of t h e
writers on Ottoman p o p u l a t i o n —
Ubicini, Helle v o n Samo, Kutshera,
and Cuinet,
to
the p o p u l a t i o n . T h e v w e r e c o m p i l e d for s t r i c t l y practical
The b r e a k - u p o f t h e O t t o m a n c o m m o n w e a l t h group of e t h n i c - n a t i o n a l
states f r o m
1815
into a
t o 1920
and
b e y o n d e v e n t o the p r e s e n t d a y has been c o n s i d e r e d ,
and
reaction
elites to t r a d i t i o n a l i s m a n d autocratic
of a n e w class of rule. Actually, the
gradual d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the O t t o m a n state t h a t b e g a n i n
purposes,
such
as tax levies,
military conscription,
the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of m u n i c i p a l b o u n d a r i e s , a n d the b u i l d i n g of railroads a n d h i g h w a y s i n the m o s t u s e f u l l o c a t i o n s . t h e y w e r e r e q u i r e d t o be as a c c u r a t e as p o s s i b l e .
Thus The
p o p u l a t i o n censuses a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m , i n fact, e p i t o m i z e d the O t t o m a n c o m m i t m e n t to a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e f o r m a n d the establishment
of a n e w ,
rational,
systematic
b u r e a u c r a c v a n d u s h e r e d i n the p e r i o d of m o d e r n i z a t i o n .
fundamental
It s h o u l d be n o t e d at the start that the O t t o m a n " c e n s u s "
changes i n its e c o n o m i c a n d social s t r u c t u r e caused b y the
consisted of the r e g i s t r a t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n of each d i s -
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a capitalist e c o n o m i c system a n d the a d o p -
trict b y a c o m m i t t e e . S u b s e q u e n t a n n u a l p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s
the n i n e t e e n t h
century
tion of n a t i o n a l s t a t e h o o d
was
t h e r e s u l t of
as a n e w p r i n c i p l e of p o l i t i c a l
for the r e a l m w e r e o b t a i n e d b v c u m u l a t i v e l y a d d i n g b i r t h s
o r g a n i z a t i o n . These e v e n t s m a n i f e s t e d t h e m s e l v e s n o t o n l y
a n d s u b t r a c t i n g deaths as these w e r e registered
in the e m e r g e n c e of a n e w social o r d e r b u t also i n a v a r i e t y
district b v the p o p u l a t i o n b u r e a u . A s these data w e r e i n o n l v one
i n each
of p o l i t i c a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l a l i g n m e n t s c o n d i t i o n e d as m u c h
t e n d e d f o r i n t e r n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e use,
bv e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t as b y r e l i g i o u s i d e n t i t y , e t h n i c a f f i l i a -
census results
t i o n , or p o l i t i c a l - n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n .
or t w o
w e r e i n A r a b i c script a n d i n a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of copies.
w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n b o o k f o r m , a n d these
i n the O t t o m a n state w e r e
The text of the present b o o k discusses the h i s t o r y a n d
both the a g e n t a n d the c h i e f c o n s e q u e n c e of the s t r u c t u r a l
e v o l u t i o n of the O t t o m a n census a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n arid col-
transformation.
The p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s '
t h a t the m o s t
sources of d e m o g r a p h i c data w e r e the f i g u r e s issued b y the
as a m o v e m e n t of n a t i o n a l r e v i v a l a n d , as w e l l , as the liber-
Potion
1
the e n d , it a p p e a r e d
southeast
s t u d i e d , as t h e c o n s e q u e n c e of f o r e i g n i n t e r v e n t i o n and/or
8/4// to 1894/95 (R. 1290-1310) . .
IV.3. Population Distribution, AdnrinistrativV Units " ' °P
2
I V . 1 7 . A g r i c u I t u r a l L a n d A r e a a n d C u l t i v a t i o n i n the' " ^ O t t o m a n State, 1894/95 (R 1310) ->->, i v Jo' r : " p e r k m , 1894/95 (R 1310) ' ' I V . 1 9 . E s t i m a t e d V a l u e of Y e a r l y Cereal P r o d u c t i o n ^ ' '
S
"
^
His W O R K p r o v i d e s those i n t e r e s t e d i n the social trans-
f oXr mH a t i o n of t h e M i d d l e East, A n a t o l i a , a n d
al, i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , m o d e r n i s t
2 0
P
^
S
• -
P
r
) .. . .
3
ru j
e
the O t t o m a n State, 1894/95
n
T
transformation.
^
m
1 D e c e m b e r 1875 to 30 N o v e m b e r 1876 '
l
(R- " l 3 1 0 ) " ' ' 2 «
: 9 5
(R. 1 3 1 0 ) . .
3
IIJ.4. P o p u l a t i o n o f ' i s t a n b u i : ' C o m p a r a t i v e F i g u r e s ' ' ' ' m o . Deaths I s t a n b u l a n d the T h r e e B o r o u g l s '
I I L 6
• ^
1294)
(H S i ) "
HI.2. P o p u l a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l Í
^ " - ' - e ,
d
.
4
^ i v u
P R E F A C E
p
^ 1
I V . 10. Professions i n the O t t o m a n Sta'te,' bv N u m b e r of Practitioners, 1894/95 (R. 1310) . . . [ „ „
I V . 1 4 . E x p e n d i t u r e s f o r Teachers a n d
I
,
Percentage of Persons a b o v e t h e ' ' '
IV.9. L i s t o f O c c u p a t i o n s m i s t a n b u l a n d t h e T h r e e " "
13Ü0-1313)
11.7. P o p u l a t i o n of D o b r u c a , " U . P ^ l a t i o n o f l s ^
-
I V . 7 . N u m b e r a n d Percentage of Persons Emplo'ved i n ' Trade a n d I n d u s t r y (Crafts), 1894 95 ,R , S , IV .8. N u m b e r a n d Percentage of Persons i n "'
the \ ilave s of E r z e r o u m , Bitlis. V a n , D . a r b e k . r S s 8 ^
-
immi-
lection of statistical i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e first c h a p t e r s u r v e y s
varied
the p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e ; the s e c o n d describes a n d analyzes
a m o n g the d i f f e r e n t social, e t h n i c , a n d r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s a n d
i n d e t a i l the v a r i o u s censuses f r o m 1830 t o 1914 a n d the
the s e t t l e m e n t of m i l l i o n s of n o m a d i c t r i b e s m e n i n A n a t o -
p u r p o s e a n d f u n c t i o n i n g of the p o p u l a t i o n registers. C h a p -
Indeed,
emigration
and
g r a t i o n — a l o n g w i t h b i r t h a n d d e a t h rates that
lia, I r a q , S y r i a , a n d o n the o u t s k i r t s of the A r a b i a n P e n i n s u -
ters 3 a n d 4 deal, respectively,
la ( w h i c h i n c r e a s e d t h e n u m b e r s o f t h e s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a -
c o m p o s i t i o n of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n a n d w i t h the m i -
tion a n d s p u r r e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n ) — - w e r e the m o s t
g r a t i o n s that so drastically affected the c o m p o s i t i o n a n d the
o u t s t a n d i n g features of d e m o g r a p h i c c h a n g e .
total size of the p o p u l a t i o n ; these are v e r y general, it b e i n g
I a m p e r s u a d e d b v m y vears of research a n d w r i t i n g that a f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the social a n d p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a tion of the B a l k a n s a n d the M i d d l e East d e m a n d s a c o m p r e hensive s t u d y of the size, g r o w t h rate, a n d r e l i g i o u s - e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n a n d of the social and e c o n o m i c forces that c o n d i t i o n e d its g r o w t h a n d d i f ferentiation. M v o r i g i n a l s f u d v r e q u i r e d a c o m p l e t e r e c o r d of O t t o m a n
w i t h the
ethnic-religious
m y i n t e n t i o n to p r o v i d e a t h o r o u g h analysis of t h e change i n the s t r u c t u r e of the O t t o m a n
population in a
later
v o l u m e of t h i s o n g o i n g s t u d y . The f i n a l c h a p t e r of the text is d e v o t e d to the city of I s t a n b u l , f o r the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the capital e p i t o m i z e d a n d reflected that of the e m p i r e as a w h o l e ; it can be s t u d i e d i n d e t a i l because the c i t v was subjected to five censuses i n the n i n e t e e n t h
centurv.
The c o m m o n s h o r t c o m i n g of O t t o m a n censuses w a s the
I under-
consistent u n d e r c o u n t i n g of p o p u l a t i o n i n general a n d of
took a s y s t e m a t i c a n d critical r e v i e w of p o p u l a t i o n i n f o r m a -
w o m e n i n p a r t i c u l a r . The O t t o m a n officials w e r e a w a r e of
p o p u l a t i o n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r v . T h e r e f o r e ,
t i o n , o n l v t o d i s c o v e r that m o s t o f the e x i s t i n g studies o n
this p r o b l e m a n d d u l y n o t e d t h o s e areas w h e r e the census
the t o p i c — t h a t i s , , m o s t of the m v r i a d so-called
ethno-
of w o m e n or o t h e r g r o u p s w a s i n c o m p l e t e . T h e y p r o v i d e d
•graphic studies p u b l i s h e d i n the W e s t a n d c l a i m i n g to deal
estimates for n o m a d i c tribes a n d f o r areas w h e r e the census
w i t h O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the 1800s—were u n r e l i a b l e . A t
c o u l d n o t be carried o u t . B e i n g c o n s i s t e n t , the u n d e r c o u n t IX
X PREFACE
of the p o p u l a t i o n can easily be corrected p r o p e r m a r g i n of e r r o r .
bv d e v i s i n * a ' °
T h e second, a n d m a j o r , p a r t of this b o o k , the statistical appendices, is d i v i d e d i n t o several sections. T h e first sec t i o n contains basic p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s c o m p i l e d b y the Gov e r n m e n t . O t h e r sections c o n t a i n data o n r e l i g i o u s - e t h n i c g r o u p s , o n the p o p u l a t i o n of the c i t y of I s t a n b u l , a n d o n various social a n d e c o n o m i c facets of the state's d e v e l o p m e n t . M o s t o f ' t h e s e f i g u r e s are p u b l i s h e d for the first t i m e i n this w o r k , w h i c h is the first c o m p r e h e n s i v e , q u a l i t a t i v e s u r v e y - s t u d y of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n to cover system atically the entire n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I have p r e s e n t e d the statistics w i t h o u t m a j o r i n t e r p r e t i v e analysis (after s u b j e c t i n g t h e m to s o m e necessary correc tion, systematization, and clarification), for such'analysis w o u l d have called f o r the use of o t h e r f i g u r e s a n d of h i s t o r ical a n d p o l i t i c a l data t h a t c o u l d have o b s c u r e d the i n t r i n s i c v a l u e of the o r i g i n a l statistics. Extensive i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d analysis w i l l be p r o v i d e d i n a n o t h e r v o l u m e i n w h i c h the d y n a m i c s of t h e p o p u l a t i o n changes are s t u d i e d . I have p r o v i d e d s o m e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g b o u n d a r i e s of the O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s , i n a s m u c h as the lists g i v e p o p u l a t i o n statistics a c c o r d i n g to the var ious d i s t r i c t s a n d a p p e a r e d i n n e e d of e l u c i d a t i o n o n this p o i n t . I have also a t t e m p t e d to g i v e u s e f u l technical i n f o r m a t i o n (for e x a m p l e , a b o u t the h i s t o r y of the O t t o m a n
calendar) w h e r e it seemed this w o u l d h e l p the reader to u n d e r s t a n d the p o p u l a t i o n records better. It has r e q u i r e d years of e x c e p t i o n a l l y t e d i o u s w o r k to sort out, t y p e , a d d u p , a n d check the o r i g i n a l figures, to make necessary technical c o r r e c t i o n s , a n d t h e n to p u t t h e m i n some m e a n i n g f u l o r d e r a n d , finally, to r e t y p e t h e m i n final f o r m . It is m y f e r v e n t h o p e t h a t this s t u d y w i l l s t i m u l a t e n e w interest i n the v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o p i c of O t t o m a n de m o g r a p h y a n d w i l l be s u p p l e m e n t e d a n d e x p a n d e d b y a d d i t i o n a l studies as the 21,000 or so p o p u l a t i o n registers k n o w n to exist i n v a r i o u s a r c h i v a l stores are f u l l y cata l o g u e d a n d m a d e available to scholars. I a m d e e p l y g r a t e f u l to the v a r i o u s persons w h o h a v e assisted m e i n m y en d e a v o r to p r e s e n t this first c o l l e c t i o n of statistics i n usable f o r m . T h a n k s are d u e f i r s t to H a y r i M u t l u ç a ğ f o r his var ious i n p u t s i n t o t h i s w o r k ; a n d I also t h a n k Eric B i n g e n M i c h a e l H a r p k e , H ü l y a S o w e r w i n e , Barbara H u s s e i n i ' Robert Eıls, D r . T e v f i k G ü r a n , N u r h a n a n d E r o l Katircioğlu' Dr. Justin M c C a r t h y , a n d E n g i n A k a r l i , a n d the p a t i e n t ' h a r d - w o r k i n g staff o f the D e p a r t m e n t of H i s t o r y , U n i v e r s i ty of W i s c o n s i n - M a d i s o n , f o r t h e i r v a r i o u s efforts o n behalf of this w o r k . I a m also v e r y g r a t e f u l to the G r a d u a t e School U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n - M a d i s o n , a n d to the Social Science Research C o u n c i l f o r the salary s u p p o r t a n d research assist ance that has e n a b l e d m e to a c c o m p l i s h t h i s w o r k . KEMAL H.
Madison,
KARPAT
20 June
1982
I N T R O D U C T I O N
I T H A S BEEN m y a i m , i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of v o l u m i n o u s and diverse m a t e r i a l , to p r e s e n t the statistics a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s v o l u m e i n t h e m o s t usable f o r m possi ble. Several p r o b l e m s h a v e b e e n s o l v e d a l o n g the w a y , b u t others r e m a i n f o r the reader to sort o u t ; s o m e w i l l n o t be c o m p l e t e l y solvable w i t h o u t m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n . For e x a m ple, as I have p o i n t e d o u t i n text, i n s o m e cases p o p u l a t i o n c o m p a r i s o n s c a n n o t u s e f u l l y be m a d e because w e d o n o t have i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e exact b o u n d a r i e s of t h e areas for w h i c h p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s are g i v e n . A l t h o u g h p o p u l a t i o n lists f o l l o w e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n s after 1870, there w e r e f r e q u e n t r e s h u f f l i n g s of d i s t r i c t b o u n d a r i e s , a n d o n e cannot be sure, w i t h o u t f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h a t a d i s t r i c t has r e m a i n e d t h e same i n area f r o m o n e p o p u l a t i o n list to the next e v e n w h e n its n a m e r e m a i n s t h e same.
Place N a m e s a n d S p e l l i n g The same l o c a l i t y m a y be called b y d i f f e r e n t n a m e s i n d i f f e r e n t sources, or a n a m e m a y a p p e a r i n several d i f f e r e n t spellings—e.g., Kosova, Kossovo, Cosovo. I n general, 1 have used the f o r m of the n a m e t h a t appears i n T u r k i s h sources a n d h a v e u s e d O t t o m a n T u r k i s h s p e l l i n g s , as o p p o s e d t o E u r o p e a n or t r a n s l i t e r a t e d A r a b i c n a m e s or spellings, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the statistical m a t e r i a l ; t h u s , M a n astir i n s t e a d of M o n a s t i r , H a r p u t r a t h e r t h a n K h a r p u t , D o bruca i n s t e a d of D o b r u j a , a n d so o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , s o m e tables are p r e s e n t e d e s s e n t i a l l y as t h e y a p p e a r i n t h e source, c o m p l e t e w i t h E u r o p e a n v e r s i o n s of n a m e s ; a n d i n the text I o f t e n use t h e c o m m o n p r e s e n t - d a y n a m e s f o r f o r m e r O t t o m a n possessions, d e p e n d i n g o n c o n t e x t . A l t e r nate or p r e s e n t - d a y n a m e s of m a j o r locations are f r o m t i m e to t i m e g i v e n p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y or i n notes. The n a m e C e z a y i r - i B a h r - i Sefid is t r a n s l a t e d as " A e g e a n I s l a n d s , " a l t h o u g h the b o u n d a r i e s o f that p r o v i n c e o f t e n e x t e n d e d b e y o n d t h e A e g e a n Sea to the n o r t h a n d t h e south. I have also u s e d T u r k i s h s p e l l i n g s , i n general, r a t h e r t h a n E u r o p e a n or t r a n s l i t e r a t e d A r a b i c , f o r w o r d s o t h e r t h a n place n a m e s ; sancak r a t h e r t h a n sanjak or sandjak, ciziye rather t h a n jiziyc or djiziye, harac r a t h e r t h a n khamj, etc. The o r t h o g r a p h y is m o d e r n T u r k i s h , i n w h i c h c = j , g = soft g, c = c h , § = s h , a n d 6, u = o, u w i t h u m l a u t as i n G e r m a n . T h e short l , h o w e v e r , appears t h r o u g h o u t as a n o r d i n a r y d o t t e d i , w h i l e t h e l o n g capital 1 is u n d o t t e d . I have also i g n o r e d the c o n v e n t i o n t h a t uses a, 6, a n d u i n T u r k i s h w o r d s of A r a b i c or Persian o r i g i n a n d have e l i m i n a t e d l o n g v o w e l m a r k i n g s (a, i ) .
Tables W h e r e it seemed advisable, a n d as n o t e d , 1 h a v e cor rected f i g u r e s i n the tables. I h a v e g i v e n totals f o r c o n v e n ience w h e r e c o l u m n s w e r e n o t t o t a l e d i n the o r i g i n a l . 1 have corrected totals t h a t are i n c o r r e c t i n t h e o r i g i n a l ( r e a l i z i n g the w h i l e that the error i n the o r i g i n a l m a y be i n fact i n the f i g u r e s for w h i c h the total is g i v e n r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n of the O t t o m a n statistician). N o n e of these correc tions s i g n i f i c a n t l y affects the basic d a t a . E x t e n s i v e notes give i n f o r m a t i o n of significance a b o u t p a r t i c u l a r f i g u r e s .
Calendar and Dates I n general the O t t o m a n s u s e d the M u s l i m calendar, i.e., the H i c r i - K a m e r i ( H . ) calendar t h a t w a s t i e d to t h e l u n a r year a n d b e g a n w i t h the year of t h e H e g i r a ( A . D . 622). H o w e v e r , as early as 20 J u l y 1677 the device of a d d i n g one year to the calendar every t h i r t y years w a s a d o p t e d . T h i s a d d e d year came to be k n o w n as t h e year o f " ş i v i s " — r o u g h l y , of " o v e r l a p p i n g " or " i n t e r p é n é t r a t i o n . " B y 1740 salaries a n d a p p o i n t m e n t s w e r e b e i n g calculated o n the basis of a solar calendar year b e g i n n i n g i n M a r c h , w h i l e revenues a n d e x p e n d i t u r e s w e r e still calculated a c c o r d i n g to the H i c r i calendar. By July of 1794, d u r i n g the r e i g n of Selim I I I , a t r e n d t o w a r d a p p l i c a t i o n of the solar calendar i n all f i n a n c i a l matters w a s e s t a b l i s h e d . The solar calendar was k n o w n as M a l i or R u m i ( R o m a n ) a n d w a s the same as the calendar i n t r o d u c e d i n 1582 b y P o p e G r e g o r y X I I I a n d called i n the W e s t the G r e g o r i a n calendar. I t w-as a d o p t e d as a second o f f i c i a l O t t o m a n calendar o n the first o f M a r c h of the H i c r i year 1256 ( A . D . 13 M a r c h 1840). R u m i (R.) d a t i n g t h e n became s t a n d a r d i n the g o v e r n m e n t statistical offices as w e l l as i n the f i n a n c i a l offices, a l t h o u g h the H i c r i calen dar c o n t i n u e d i n use also t h r o u g h o u t the r e i g n of A b d u l h a ¬ m i d I I (1876-1909). W i t h the rise to p o w e r of the U n i o n a n d Progress Society i n 1908, use of the R o m a n calendar became general. I n 1912 the g o v e r n m e n t i n t r o d u c e d the t w e n t y f o u r - h o u r d a y {saati zevali); a n d o n 1 M a r c h 1917 the solar calendar became the official calendar f o r a l l ' g o v e r n m e n t transactions. A f t e r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the R e p u b l i c (1923) the G r a n d N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y b r o u g h t the T u r k i s h calendar completely i n t o accordance w i t h the western calendar, a d o p t i n g , o n R. 26 D e c e m b e r 1341 (1925), a l a w decreeing that the d a t i n g system h e n c e f o r t h u s e d i n the Republic of T u r k e y w o u l d be the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y accepted o n e — i . e . , t h e solar calendar w i t h the year b e g i n n i n g J a n u a r y 1 . For a fuller e x p l a n a t i o n of the O t t o m a n system of d a t i n g , see Faik xi
xii Reşit U n a t , Hicri Tarihleri Miladi Tarihe Çevirme Kılavuzu ( G u i d e to the c o n v e r s i o n of H i c r i vears to solar vears] ( A n kara, 1959). I n c o n v e r t i n g dates i n this w o r k I have r e l i e d o n U n a t ' s Guide a n d , p r i n c i p a l l y , o n Gazi A h m e t M u h t a r Paşa, Takvim-i Sinin [ T h e C a l e n d a r of Years] ( I s t a n b u l : Ceride-i H a v a d i s , 1331 [1915]). Late i n the c e n t u r y p o p u l a t i o n statistics w e r e p r e p a r e d by b o t h the P o p u l a t i o n Bureau (Sicill-i N ü f u s ) a n d the Sta t i s t i c a l O f f i c e . These offices w e r e a t t a c h e d to d i f f e r e n t m i n i s t r i e s , a n d each c o m p i l e d its o w n statistics, o f t e n w i t h o u t reference to the o t h e r . A l t h o u g h the Statistical Office used the R u m i calendar year (as d i d the f i n a n c i a l services), most o t h e r offices, i n c l u d i n g the P o p u l a t i o n B u r e a u , a d h e r e d to the H i c r i calendar. I have t h r o u g h o u t g i v e n the w e s t e r n ( M i l a d i ) date a l o n g w i t h the o r i g i n a l date. W h e r e the source i n d i c a t e d m o n t h a n d d a y , the exact date of an event is g i v e n ; i n cases i n w h i c h the source gives o n l y a year, a M i l a d i date s u c h as 1881/82 m a y be u s e d , because of the fact that the H i c r i year o v e r l a p p e d t w o w e s t e r n calen dar years.
Sources a n d A b b r e v i a t i o n s F r e q u e n t l y c i t e d sources are a b b r e v i a t e d i n notes as f o l lows: (1) I U K T Y = I s t a n b u l Ü n i v e r s i t e s i Kitaplığı ( I s t a n b u l U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ) , T ü r k ç e Yazmalar ( T u r k i s h m a n u s c r i p t section); the a b b r e v i a t e d m a i n reference is f o l l o w e d b y the d o c u m e n t n u m b e r a n d , s o m e t i m e s , o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n such as the date and/or title of t h e d o c u m e n t . (2) B A = B a ş b a k a n l i k Arşivi (the B a ş b a n k a n l i k A r c h i v e i n I s t a n b u l ) ; the reference to the a r c h i v e is f o l l o w e d b y section a n d subsection d e s i g n a t i o n s , the d o c u m e n t n u m ber, a n d , occasionally, the date and/or title of the d o c u m e n t . BA sections a n d subsections are a b b r e v i a t e d as f o l lows: (C) = C e v d e t ( c o l l e c t i o n of d o c u m e n t s f i l e d u n d e r the n a m e of t h e i r cataloguer); (D) = D a h i l i y e ( I n t e r i o r M i n i s t r y ) ;
INTRODUCTION
( H H ) = H a t t - i H ü m a y u n (orders sent b v the s u l t a n to the g r a n d v i z i e r for e x e c u t i o n ) ; (I) = I r a d e (decrees); ( K K ) = K a m i l Kepeci ( d o c u m e n t s f i l e d u n d e r the n a m e of t h e i r c a t a l o g u e r ) ; ( M ) = M a l i y e (Finance O f f i c e ) ; ( M H ) = M a b e y n - i H ü m a y u n (Secretariat of the I m p e r i a l P a l a c e — p r i v a t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of the s u l t a n ) ; ( M M ) = M e c l i s - i M a h s u s (Special C o u n c i l ) ; ( M V ) = M e c l i s - i Vala ( S u p r e m e C o u n c i l ) ; (P) = P e r a k e n d e ("scattered"—miscellaneous d o c u m e n t s n o t classified precisely i n t o sub sections); (ŞD) = Şuray-i D e v l e t ( C o u n c i l of State); (Y) = Y i l d i z (a c o l l e c t i o n of d o c u m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of S u l t a n A b d u l h a m i d t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m Y i l d i z Palace in toto a n d k e p t t o g e t h e r i n the a r c h i v e s ) . (3) F M = the T u r k i s h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y archives; t h i s m a i n reference is f o l l o w e d b y t h e s e c t i o n d e s i g n a t i o n , d o c u m e n t n u m b e r , a n d , f r e q u e n t l y , a d e s c r i p t i o n of the d o c u m e n t a n d date. Section a b b r e v i a t i o n s are the f o l l o w ing: (Id) = I d a r e ( a d m i n i s t r a t i v e file); (S) = Siyasi ( p o l i t i c a l file). (4) F O = B r i t i s h F o r e i g n O f f i c e a r c h i v a l m a t e r i a l f r o m the Public Records O f f i c e i n L o n d o n ; this reference i n c l u d e s a file n u m b e r , v o l u m e or d o c u m e n t n u m b e r , a n d , f r e q u e n t l y , a date a n d d e s c r i p t i o n of the d o c u m e n t . (5) H C A P = the H o u s e of C o m m o n s Accounts and Papers i n Great B r i t a i n ' s series of p u b l i s h e d Parliamentary Papers; the a b b r e v i a t e d m a i n reference is f o l l o w e d b y the Parliamen tary Papers v o l u m e n u m b e r a n d the n u m b e r of the Accounts and Papers v o l u m e (separated b y a slant l i n e ) , the v o l u m e year, a n d , o f t e n , the page n u m b e r a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the m a t e r i a l c i t e d . A n i m p o r t a n t source for b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n , a l t h o u g h n o t m u c h c i t e d , w a s the F r e n c h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y A r c h i v e i n Paris.
M A P S
OF
T H E
O T T O M A N
E M P I R E
A S I A N
P R O V I N C E S
E U R O P E A N
P R O V I N C E S
Map. 1. Asian Ottoman Empire, 1883. Based on Synvet's adaptation of a map by H . Kiepert. Note: Some of the divisions shown on the map as provinces or *,,,<*** were, in fact, special districts. Samos was a /«,/,*, while Canik (bamsun), Cebdilubnan, Beyrut, and Kudus (Jerusalem) were mutwrifliks and were administered directly from Istanbulrather than from the provincial centers. xiv
XV
I
r
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Map. 2. l-uropean Ottoman Empire, before the Treaty of Berlin, 1878.
xvi
P O P U L A T I O N ,
1830-1914
C O N C E P T U A L I N
T H E
p I O P L ' L A T I O N M O V E M E N T S have a l w a y s p l a y e d a d y n a m i c role i n the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of h u m a n society. I n d e e d , i n all of the h i s t o r y of t h e w o r l d , t h e i m p a c t of m i g r a t i o n a n d settlement—as w e l l as of h i g h or l o w rates of b i r t h a n d m o r t a l i t y a n d of the social, c u l t u r a l , e c o n o m i c , a n d p o l i t i c a l effects of these d e m o g r a p h i c e v e n t s — i s clearly a n d w i d e l y discernible. I n t h e h i s t o r y of t h e M i d d l e East o n e f i n d s excellent e x a m p l e s . The M u s l i m calendar begins w i t h an act of m i g r a t i o n , t h a t is, the hejira of A . D . 622. M i g r a n t s g o i n g from the c o u n t r y s i d e to u r b a n centers or f l e e i n g f r o m areas hostile to I s l a m have a l w a y s exerted crucial i n f l u e n c e o n t h e social a n d p o l i t i c a l d e s t i n y of M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s . T h e refugees f l e e i n g f r o m S p a i n to N o r t h A f r i c a i n the f i f t e e n t h and s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , the f o r c e d m i g r a t i o n of M u s l i m s from Russia (the Caucasus a n d C r i m e a ) i n the e i g h t e e n t h to t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e s h i f t s of p o p u l a t i o n s i n I n d i a , Pakistan, a n d Palestine since 1948, to cite j u s t a f e w e x a m ples, have been m a j o r factors a c c o u n t i n g , at least i n p a r t , for the social t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the e n t i r e M u s l i m w o r l d . (Ali Shariati, the I r a n i a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t teacher [1933-1977], stated that he became a w a r e of the i m p o r t a n c e of m i g r a t i o n i n I s l a m b y r e a d i n g the K o r a n . ) The socio-political a n d e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y of the M i d d l e East i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s i n large m e a s u r e the p r o d u c t of m a j o r p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s . These p r o d u c e d increased social m o b i l i t y , c h a n g e d the rates of b i r t h a n d death, i n t e n s i f i e d u r b a n i z a t i o n , a n d g e n e r a t e d a v a r i e t y of related changes. T o d a y , m i g r a t i o n f r o m villages to cities has changed the d e m o g r a p h i c p i c t u r e of p r a c t i c a l l y all the M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s a n d has b e e n a p o w e r f u l factor i n sociopolitical c h a n g e . For e x a m p l e , i n the Islamic r e v o l u t i o n i n Iran the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the n e w a r r i v a l s i n T e h e r a n w a s a major factor. Despite their obvious importance, p o p u l a t i o n movements i n t h e M i d d l e East, especially d u r i n g the O t t o m a n era, have n o t vet been s t u d i e d i n a b r o a d h i s t o r i c a l a n d conceptual f r a m e w o r k . T h e f e w e x i s t i n g studies deal essentially w i t h d e m o g r a p h i c p r o b l e m s as isolated p h e n o m e n a , ignoring their w i d e r historical, political, and regional d i m e n s i o n s . F e w scholars n o w a d a y s seem to have the t i m e
A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L
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or patience t o pore over h u n d r e d s of d o c u m e n t s f o r m o n t h s on e n d i n d u s t y archives i n o r d e r to extract i n f o r m a t i o n that can be c o n d e n s e d i n a f e w pages a n d m a y r e m a i n l o n g u n n o t i c e d a n d u n a p p r e c i a t e d . It is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , therefore, that considerable i n g e n u i t y a n d i m a g i n a t i o n have been i n v e s t e d i n d e v i s i n g " c o n c e p t s , " " t h e o r i e s , " a n d " m o d e l s " to e x p l a i n the e n t i r e h i s t o r y a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the society i n t h a t area. I n s o m e cases the theorists have m a d e s w e e p i n g false assertions, i n t e r p r e t i n g M i d d l e Easte r n events o n the basis of p r e c o n c e i v e d w e s t e r n concepts or scattered i m p r e s s i o n s w i t h o u t r e g a r d f o r the d i f f e r e n c e s — i n c u l t u r e , h i s t o r i c a l experience, a n d g o a l s — t h a t l i m i t the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of these alien concepts. Yet, p a r a d o x i c a l l y , a m a j o r s h o r t c o m i n g o f M i d d l e East social studies i n general a n d of p o p u l a t i o n studies i n p a r t i c u l a r d e r i v e s f r o m t h e lack of concepts a n d theories capable of e x p r e s s i n g the social a n d h i s t o r i c a l experience of the M i d d l e East w i t h i n its o w n value system a n d p a t t e r n s of change a n d a c c u l t u r a t i o n . The d e v e l o p m e n t o f suitable concepts a n d theories, of course, d e p e n d s first o n the a c c u m u l a t i o n of usable e m p i r ical data. A n y o n e a t t e m p t i n g to s t u d y p o p u l a t i o n p r o b l e m s i n the M i d d l e East, especially precise topics such as f e r t i l i t y or m o r t a l i t y rates or f a m i l y size i n a g i v e n p e r i o d of h i s t o r y or f o r a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n , is h a m p e r e d b v i n s u f f i c i e n t data o n the size of the p o p u l a t i o n a n d b y lack of k n o w l e d g e about p r o c e d u r e s f o r r e g i s t e r i n g b i r t h s a n d deaths. I n d e e d , the studies of M i d d l e Eastern p o p u l a t i o n h i s t o r y , besides f a i l i n g to a p p l y m e t h o d s a n d techniques a d a p t e d to the s o c i o - c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s , suffer basically f r o m lack of i n f o r m a t i o n . A l t h o u g h archives i n the area, especially those in Istanbul and Ankara, contain m u c h material on populat i o n size a n d t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n systems, v e r y little of this material has been sorted o u t a n d used to s t u d y specific d e m o g r a p h i c p r o b l e m s . T h e r e f o r e , the first task of the 1
1. There are some notable exceptions. Ottoman censuses and surveys of the land i n the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are known of through O. L. Barkan's pioneering works: "Tarihi De¬ mografi Arastirmalari ve Osmanli T a r i h i , " Tarih Mccmuasi 10 (1953); "Essai sur les données statistiques des registres de recensement 3
4 OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
scholar interested i n the social h i s t o r v a n d the t r a n s f o r m a tion of the M i d d l e East, southeast E u r o p e , a n d N o r t h Africa is to assemble, systematize, a n d analyze the p o p u l a t i o n data available in T u r k i s h archives a n d o t h e r places a n d to s t u d y the p r o c e d u r e s used i n g a t h e r i n g these data. This is p a r t i c u l a r l y v i t a l for the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r v , w h e n p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s w e r e m o r e i n f l u e n t i a l t h a n ever before i n g e n e r a t i n g social a n d p o l i t i c a l changes t h r o u g h o u t the entire O t t o m a n state.
Studies of O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n : A n Evaluation There is no d e a r t h of w r i t i n g s a b o u t the p o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t m o s t of these are e t h n o g r a p h i c w o r k s . I t is t r u e t h a t t h e v are, i n a w a y , i n d i s p e n s a b l e to a n y s t u d y of this t o p i c . G e n e r a l l y h o w e v e r , t h e i r value is l i m i t e d . T h e y suffer f r o m three major s h o r t c o m i n g s . First, o n l y a f e w of t h e m u t i l i z e reliable statistical i n f o r m a t i o n based o n the actual c o u n t of p o p u l a t i o n . Second, these s t u d i e s o f t e n w e r e u n d e r t a k e n w i t h the sole p u r p o s e of s u p p o r t i n g the p o l i t i c a l claims of certain ethnic or religious g r o u p s w i t h i n the e m p i r e ; besides d e m -
dans l'Empire ottoman au X V et X V I * siècles, journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 1, no. 1 (1957); 9-21; and "Research on the Ottoman Fiscal Surveys," in Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East, ed. M . A . Cook (London: Oxford University Press 1970), pp. 163-71. See also Heath W. Lowry, "The Ottoman Tahrir Detters as a Source of Urban Demographic History: The Case Study ofTrabzon(ca. 1486-1583)" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1977); Leila Erder, "The Measurement of P r e i n d u tnal Population Changes: The Ottoman Empire from the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth C e n t u r y , " Middle Eastern Studies 11 (1975)284-301; M . A . Cook, Population Pressure in Rural AnatoliaUoO-1600 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971); Ronald J Jennings, "Urban Population in Anatolia in the Sixteenth Century- A Study of Kayseri, Karaman, Amasya, Trabzon, and Erzurum " International journal of Middle East Studies 7 (1976): 21-57; Wolf-Dieter Hutteroth and Kamal Abduifattah, Historical Geography of Palestine Transjordan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Centura (Erlangem Frànkische Geographische Gesellschaft, 1977). A survey of the Western bibliography on Ottoman population in the nineteenth century is in Engin Akarli, " O t t o m a n Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territorial, Racial, and Religious Composition " ( M . A . thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1970). See also Marc Pinson, "Demographic Warfare: A n Aspect of Ottoman and Russian Policy, 1854-1866" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University 1970). For further bibliographical information, see my The Cecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanization in Turkey (New York' Cambridge University Press, 1976), and my "Ottoman Immigration Polices and Settlement i n Palestine," in Settler Regimes in Africa and the Arab World, ed. Ibrahim Abu-Lughod and Baha Abu-Laban (Wilmette, 111.: Medina University Press International, 1974), pp 37-72. For a general survey of current population studies, see Georges Sabagh, "The Demography of the Middle East," Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 4, no. 2 (1970): 1-19. For a comprehensive study of Ottoman statistics, see Justin McCarthy The Arab World, Turkey and the Balkans (1878-1914): A Handbook if Historical Statistics (Boston: G. K. Hall and Co., 1987)
5 TTUAL A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L PROBLEMS
o n s t r a t i n g an a p p a l l i n g lack of i n f o r m a t i o n o n practically every aspect of M u s l i m life, t h e y s t r o n g l y reflect the p o l i t i - - . , T h e a u t h o r s stated t h a t these f i g u r e s w e r e f r o m the cal biases of the w r i t e r s or of their i n f o r m a n t s , a n d , w o r s t of , a1 O t t o m a n censuses. I n d e e d , t h e final totals g i v e n m all, i n some of t h e m the statistics w e r e b l a t a n t l y m a n i p u - * r r c e k a n d O t t o m a n statistics coincided perfectly; lated or falsified o u t r i g h t i n o r d e r to s u p p o r t some territo- , L i n t h e i r classification of the p o p u l a t i o n a c c o r d i n g rial c l a i m of an e x i s t i n g or p o t e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l state. T h i r d , L i e o r i g i n the G r e e k - s p o n s o r e d statistics i g n o r e d the most of these " p o p u l a t i o n s t u d i e s " (or e t h n o g r a p h i c surO t t o m a n classification a n d s u b s t i t u t e d i n f l a t e d n u m b e r s for veys, as they are p r o p e r l y called) by westerners dealt w i t h u Creeks These false statistics w e r e used by the G r e e k the E u r o p e a n part of the O t t o m a n state, l e a v i n g A n a t o l i a nremier E l e u t h e r i o s V e n i z e l o s , at t h e peace conference at a n d the A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s u n a c c o u n t e d for; a n d v a i l l e s i n 1919 as the basis f o r c l a i m i n g w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a after m o s t of the Balkans h a d achiev ed the desired i n d e for Greece; a n d later t h e L e a g u e of N a t i o n s used t h e n , to pendence (1878), the rate of p r o d u c t i o n of studies of O t t o calculate the n u m b e r of G r e e k refugees f r o m T u r k e y . T h e man p o p u l a t i o n d r o p p e d drastically. A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h a d o p t e d a d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d for a r r i v i n g Because the m a n e u v e r i n g for t e r r i t o r y a n d influence i n at his i n f l a t e d figure f o r the n u m b e r of the A r m e n i a n s m the the lands of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e had' such a p r o f o u n d O t t o m a n state. S u b m i t t e d t o t h e B e r l i n C o n g r e s s m 1878, i m p a c t , I here address i n s o m e d e t a i l the issue of the disthis deceptive f i g u r e has since b e e n used e x t e n s i v e l y b y a honest use of p o p u l a t i o n statistics. The precedent for the variety of scholars a n d p o l i t i c i a n s . T h e p a t r i a r c h s i m p l y political m a n i p u l a t i o n of d e m o g r a p h i c data was set bv Rusa d d e d i n w i t h h i s f i g u r e s for the A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n of sia, a n d the practice w a s t h u s i m m e d i a t e l y l e g i t i m i z e d — a s the p r o v i n c e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n seemed to be the case w i t h a n y s u c h d e e d of a b i g p o w e r i n of one or m o r e n e i g h b o r i n g p r o v i n c e s a n d e x c l u d e d f r o m the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; a n y s u b t e r f u g e e m p l o y e d against his c o u n t M u s l i m s , r e f u g e e s , a n d , at t i m e s , K u r d i s h the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t w a s at that t i m e m o r e o f t e n t h a n nomads T h i s s u b t e r f u g e w a s d i s c o v e r e d b y the B r i t i s h ofn o t v i e w e d as i n e v i t a b l y r i g h t a n d p r o p e r . D u r i n g the talks ficials i n charge of i m p l e m e n t i n g r e f o r m s i n the eastern at the I s t a n b u l C o n f e r e n c e , h e l d i n D e c e m b e r 1876 for the p r o v i n c e s , a n d t h e p a t r i a r c h w a s f o r c e d to a d m i t h i s discussion of " r e f o r m s " (actually a u t o n o m y ) f o r the Bal" e r r o r " (see C h a p t e r 3). kans, the Russian delegate s u b m i t t e d a series of p o p u l a t i o n A n o t h e r s u b t e r f u g e u s e d b v advocates of the v a r i o u s statistics alleged to have b e e n p r e p a r e d b y a great a u t h o r groups was to reclassify all t h e C h r i s t i a n s as " B u l g a r i a n " or i t y . These statistics i n d i c a t e d that the B u l g a r i a n s f o r m e d a " G r e e k " or s o m e o t h e r c h o s e n n a t i o n a l i t y . I n o t h e r cases m a j o r i t y i n m o s t of the c e n t r a l a n d n o r t h e a s t e r n parts of the M u s l i m s w o u l d be d i v i d e d i n t o t r i b a l g r o u p s , or i n t o Shute Balkans—that is, i n the area w h i c h became p a r t of Greater and S u n n i , a n d classified as n o n - M u s l i m i n o r d e r to p r o Bulgaria u n d e r the San Stefano treaty i n 1878. I n fact, the mote the p r e f e r r e d g r o u p to n u m e r i c a l m a j o r i t y . For e x a m Russian statistics h a d i n f l a t e d the c o m p a r a t i v e n u m b e r of ple, a statistical table p u t o u t b y t h e A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h i n Bulgarians b y c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r i n g the V l a h s , Greeks, a n d 1917 gives t h e total n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s i n six p r o v i n c e s m Serbs, w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g the n u m b e r of M u s l i m s . I n reaceastern A n a t o l i a ( V a n , B i t l i s , Sivas, E r z u r u m , H a r p u t t i o n to the Russian statistics, the Greeks a n d , occasionally [ K h a r p u t ] , a n d D i v a r b e k i r ) as 1,183,000, or 45.2 p e r c e n t of some o t h e r g r o u p s issued t h e i r o w n statistics. Faced w i t h the total p o p u l a t i o n , a n d the n u m b e r of the A r m e n i a n s as this s t r o n g reaction f r o m C h r i s t i a n s w h o , no less t h a n the 1 018,000—about t w i c e the n u m b e r i n the o f f i c i a l O t t o m a n M u s l i m s , objected to b e c o m i n g p a r t of B u l g a r i a , the B r i t i s h census. T h e p a t r i a r c h p l a c e d the t o t a l n u m b e r of M u s l i m s g o v e r n m e n t d e c i d e d to i n v e s t i g a t e the n u m b e r s of Greeks, at 1,178,000, or 45.1 percent of the t o t a l , t h a t is, just a s h a d e M u s l i m s , a n d o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s i n Thrace a n d other areas u n d e r the p e r c e n t a g e of C h r i s t i a n s . T h e r e m a i n i n g 9.7 perof c o n t e n t i o n . I t sent to these places a n u m b e r of m i l i t a r y cent of the p o p u l a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g to the p a t r i a r c h ' s statisofficers, w h o s e v o l u m i n o u s p o p u l a t i o n reports ( a l t h o u g h tics, was m a d e u p of " v a r i o u s o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . " = I n a d i f f e r o f t e n d i s t o r t e d i n f a v o r of the Greeks) are w o r t h y of s t u d y . ent c o l u m n it is i n d i c a t e d that these " o t h e r r e l i g i o n s " c o n I believe that these r e p o r t s w e r e at least p a r t l y responsible sisted of Kizilba§, Zaza, Çarikli, a n d Y e z i d i s , that is, A l e v i for i n d u c i n g the B r i t i s h to o p p o s e , at the B e r l i n Congress i n and other n o n o r t h o d o x M u s l i m g r o u p s . These w e r e clas1878, the cession of t e r r i t o r y i n the central a n d s o u t h e r n parts of the Balkans to B u l g a r i a . (The B r i t i s h h o p e d to see 3. Justin McCarthy, "Greek Statistics on Ottoman Greek PopulaGreece acquire these t e r r i t o r i e s , despite the fact that the tion " International journal of Turkish Studies 1, no. 2 (1980): 66-76. M u s l i m s f o r m e d the m a j o r i t y i n m a n y places.) 4. This is how the results of the census of 1866 in Tuna Province The m a n i p u l a t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n statistics for p o l i t i c a l were used. The original register for this census is in the National purposes b y v a r i o u s e t h n i c a n d religious g r o u p s was w i d e Library in Sofia. 1 have requested a copy of the register but have not received it and have therefore relied on the figures as pubspread a n d i n g e n i o u s . For e x a m p l e , early i n the t w e n t i e t h lished in the yearbook and by Nikolai Todorov in Balkanskiat Grad, c e n t u r y the Greek Patriarchate issued figures p u r p o r t i n g to X T - X I X - V E K [The Balkan t o w n , XV-XIX centuries] (Sofia, 19/2), s h o w t h a t the Greeks i n w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a n u m b e r e d 1.7 pp. 327 ft. See the English version of Todorov's book, The Balkan Citv, 1400-1900 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1983). 5. The tables w i t h detaile'd ethnic and religious classifications 2. These reports, discussed more fully in Chapter 3 can be may be found in Marcel Léart, La Question arménienne à la lumière des found in the FO 78 and 242 series. documents (Paris: A . Challamel, 1913), pp. 60-61. (It is mterestmg to note that Léart was actually an Armenian from Istanbul whose real name was Kirkor Zohrap; see FO 96 205.) n i o n
1
4
2
sified as n o n - M u s l i m i n o r d e r to back the assertion t h a t the C h r i s t i a n s f o r m e d a m a j o r i t y i n eastern A n a t o l i a . T h i s p r e posterous c l a i m w a s rejected b y the even most biased of European statesmen. E v i d e n c e o f t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s of n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p o p u l a t i o n studies is clearly revealed i n t h e m o n u m e n t a l , m u l t i v o l u m e bibliographical w o r k by Nikola V. M i k h o v . M i k h o v ' s s t u d y was u n d e r t a k e n i n p a r t to j u s t i f y B u l g a r i a n n a t i o n h o o d a n d advance ( i n d i r e c t l y ) B u l g a r i a n claims to M a c e d o n i a a n d i n p a r t to c o u n t e r Greek a n d Serbian e f f o r t s to i n c l u d e t h e B u l g a r i a n s as p a r t of t h e i r o w n g r o u p s . A l t h o u g h i t is a p e r m a n e n t h i s t o r i c a l source a n d a m o n u m e n t to M i k h o v ' s d e d i c a t i o n to i n d u s t r i o u s s c h o l a r s h i p , the w o r k has basic weaknesses. I n the first f o u r v o l u m e s the titles of 3,050 b o o k s a n d articles, together w i t h extracts c o n t a i n i n g statistics a n d i n f o r m a t i o n o n B u l g a r i a n h i s t o r y a n d society, are l i s t e d . These titles i n c l u d e 1,126 c i t a t i o n s f r o m G e r m a n , 1,123 f r o m F r e n c h , 731 f r o m E n g l i s h , 63 f r o m I t a l i a n , a n d 7 f r o m o t h e r E u r o p e a n languages. T h e r e are n o citations f r o m T u r k i s h , a n d t h e w o r k i n c l u d e s a l m o s t n o direct q u o t a t i o n s f r o m the o f f i c i a l O t t o m a n censuses (except for a reference to S a l a h e d d i n Bey's f i g u r e s d r a w n f r o m A . U b i c i n i ) , a l t h o u g h M i k h o v refers extensively to w r i t i n g s a n d f i g u r e s g i v e n b y w e s t e r n a u t h o r s s u c h as A . U b i c i n i , D a v i d U r q u h a r t , a n d A m i B o u e a n d to statisticians a n d d e m o g r a p h e r s such as E. G . R a v e n s t e i n a n d H u g o K u t schera. I t is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t M i k h o v c o n s i d e r e d t h e scarcity of o f f i c i a l censuses i n the O t t o m a n state to be n o r m a l , f o r e v e n i n E u r o p e r e g u l a r systematic censuses w e r e n o t ' t a k e n u n t i l early i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . M i k h o v takes n o t e of the fact t h a t m a n y of the cited a u t h o r s estim a t e d O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n b y a p p l y i n g subjective j u d g m e n t or u s i n g false i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b y natives. A s an e x a m p l e , he p o i n t s o u t that t r a v e l e r s ' estimates of the t o t a l n u m b e r of B u l g a r i a n s i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1800 to 1878 r a n g e d f r o m 500,000 to 8 m i l l i o n . A s i m i l a r m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a d b e e n n o t e d earlier b y W i l l i a m E t o n , w h o d i s m i s s e d the c l a i m b y the Greeks t h a t t h e y n u m b e r e d 8 m i l l i o n at the e n d of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 6
7
D o u b t a b o u t the accuracy of O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l p o p u l a t i o n figures w a s expressed by s o m e E u r o p e a n s w h o m a d e u n substantiated claims about t h e i r o w n special k n o w l e d g e of a n d i n s i g h t i n t o O t t o m a n affairs. I n m a n y cases these i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e travelers or professionals w h o l i v e d i n e x c l u sively E u r o p e a n sections of O t t o m a n cities, c o m m u n i c a t e d o n l y ' w i t h the C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s , or w o r k e d i n r e m o t e cor-
6. Nasclemento na Turtsii i Bulgani.prez XVU1-X1X v. (La Population dc la Turquic et de la Bulgarie an XV11T ct an XIX ' sieclcs), 5 vols. (Sofia, 1915-1968). The name of the author and the title of this work appear in French on the title page of each volume; each volume also has a preface in French. However, the text is entirely in Bulgarian and 1 therefore cite it under its Bulgarian title only throughout this volume. The essence of this work is in the first volume; volumes 2 through 4 list titles omitted from volume 1, while the last volume concerns itself with Russian works on Ottoman population. 7. .4 Sunvu oi the Turkish Empire, 2d ed. (London, 1799), p. 291. 1
6
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
ners of the r e a l m . U p o n r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r c o u n t r i e s of o r i g i n , these " e x p e r t s " o n O t t o m a n affairs w r o t e b o o k s a n d gave o u t estimates a n d o p i n i o n s r e l a t i n g to e v e r v aspect of O t t o m a n life. A g o o d e x a m p l e is F. B i a n c o n i , w h o w o r k e d as an engineer f o r a r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y f r o m 1872 to 1876 a n d t h e n , u p o n r e t u r n i n g to the West, issued his o w n set of p o p u l a t i o n statistics; he used n o reliable sources b u t t r i e d to enhance his o w n c r e d i b i l i t y b y d e n o u n c i n g the T u r k s a n d t h e i r statistics. ' D e s p i t e t h e i r gross d i s t o r t i o n s , Bianconi's figures have o f t e n been cited as a m a j o r source of i n f o r m a tion o n O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n . 8
O t t o m a n O f f i c i a l D a t a : I t s V a l u e a n d Use A l t h o u g h t h e v i e w s of t h o s e f e w m i s i n f o r m e d i n d i v i d u a l s w h o m i s t r u s t e d O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n statistics en j o y e d considerable p u b l i c i t y i n the E u r o p e a n press, this was c o m p e n s a t e d f o r by the t e s t i m o n y of o t h e r E u r o p e a n s . A large n u m b e r of E u r o p e a n s of all n a t i o n a l i t i e s w o r k e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s i n the O t t o m a n state as d i p l o m a t i c representa tives (consuls, m i l i t a r y a t t a c h é s , embassy secretaries, etc.), teachers, o r business representatives. T h e y l e a r n e d the l a n g u a g e , r e a d the loca! press, a n d became i n t i m a t e l y ac q u a i n t e d w i t h the O t t o m a n b u r e a u c r a c y . T h e y t r i e d to c o m pile statistics o n m a t t e r s s u c h as O t t o m a n t r a d e , militarys t r e n g t h , a n d defense capabilities i n o r d e r to p r o v i d e t h e i r h o m e g o v e r n m e n t s w i t h f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d f o r the m a k i n g o f v i t a l e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l decisions. These m e n h a d to seek the m o s t reliable sources o f i n f o r m a t i o n ; a n d after t h o r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h e y came to accept the O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s as b a s i c a l l y t r u s t w o r t h y , a l t h o u g h t h e y o f t e n m a d e a d j u s t m e n t s to c o m p e n s a t e f o r certain technical s h o r t c o m i n g s . I n s o m e cases, w h e n i n d o u b t a b o u t s o m e f i g u r e s , these E u r o p e a n s q u e s t i o n e d O t t o m a n ministers a n d p r i m e ministers; Ubicini, for exam ple, h a d s o m e of his p o p u l a t i o n figures c h e c k e d b y A h m e t V e f i k Paşa. These E u r o p e a n s d e v e l o p e d a h e a l t h y respect for the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n statistics a n d used t h e m exten s i v e l y , o f t e n p u b l i s h i n g t h e m i n E u r o p e . T h e data c o n 9
8. Bianconi wrote: "Le peu de scrupule qui ont les Turcs étant aujourd'hui universellement reconnu, on doit convenir que jamais les statistiques fournies d'une façon officielle par la Porte, sur ses sujets, n'ont pu être prises en sérieuse considération et ne doivent, en conséquence, servir en aucune manière comme documents pour l'élaboration d ' u n travail ethnographique de ces contrées" {Ethnographie et statistique de la Turquie d'Europe et de la Grèce 2d ed [Paris, 1877], p. 16). 9. For instance, Paul Boutet, who used the Ottoman population lists for 1877/78 wrote: "Tout en tenant compte des erreurs inévi tables qui accompagnent toujours u n premier essai d ' u n genre pareil, surtout pour une oeuvre faite dans u n pays oriental, on peut accepter ces statistiques, publiées officiellement, comme de vant avoir une autorité de beaucoup supérieure à celle des divers chiffres, plus ou moins fantaisistes, donnés jusqu'ici par des publicistes qui pour la plupart, n'avaient pas accès aux sources d'in formation" ("L'Empire ottoman, Documents statistiques " Explora tion 2 [1877]: 159).
t a i n e d i n the o f f i c i a l censuses or p u b l i s h e d i n i m p e r i a l or p r o v i n c i a l yearbooks w e r e accepted as s o u n d a n d used (as shall be s h o w n i n the n e x t c h a p t e r ) b y U b i c i n i , Boue, U r q u h a r t , Kutschera, Paul Boutet, A . Ritter z u r Helle v o n Samo, Ernst B e h m , H . W a g n e r , V i t a l C u i n e t , a n d o t h e r s ; their w o r k s i n t u r n became p r i m a r y sources for m a n y lesser w r i t e r s a n d a great v a r i e t y of p e r i o d i c a l s . N o w a d a y s even scholars b e l o n g i n g to those e t h n i c a n d n a t i o n a l g r o u p s that w e r e at one t i m e u n d e r O t t o m a n r u l e a n d critical of its policies have come to accept the Porte's o f f i c i a l statistics as mainly reliable." 1 0
T h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n statistics w e r e d e v e l o p e d to satisfy pressing a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d m i l i t a r y needs. C e n suses, l a n d surveys, a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , a p e r m a n e n t p o p u l a t i o n register s y s t e m became v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t for the g o v e r n m e n t i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . C e n t r a l i z a t i o n h a d forced it to assume n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , for the successful d i s c h a r g e of w h i c h k n o w l e d g e of the e m p i r e ' s h u m a n a n d f i n a n c i a l resources w a s necessary. The r e c r u i t m e n t of a m o d e r n a r m y a n d its o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t o active a n d r e s e r v e u n i t s r e q u i r e d a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the n u m b e r a n d age of t h e male p o p u l a t i o n . The conscription system for M u s l i m s i n t r o d u c e d by M a h m u t I I i n 1838, the g e n e r a l c o n s c r i p t i o n i n t r o d u c e d i n 1855 ( b u t never a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d to C h r i s t i a n s ) , a n d , especially, the c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f males o b l i g a t e d to d o m i l i t a r y service c o u l d have b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d o n l y u n d e r a s o u n d registra t i o n s y s t e m . I n the latter p a r t of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y M u s l i m males w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r age g r o u p s , w i t h m i l i t a r y o b l i g a t i o n s d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g l y : the active d u t y g r o u p {muvazzaf) s e r v e d f o u r years f r o m age t w e n t y ; the active reserve g r o u p {ihtiyat) s e r v e d f o r t w o m o r e years; the inactive reserve {redif) w a s u n d e r o b l i g a t i o n f o r a n o t h e r f o u r t e e n years; a n d , f i n a l l y , the territorial/local m i l i t i a {mustahfiz) served f o r f o u r years. ( A male M u s l i m t h u s m i g h t have s o m e sort o f m i l i t a r y d u t y f o r as m u c h as t w e n t y - f o u r years.) T h e O t t o m a n m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t w a s therefore the first to s h o w k e e n i n t e r e s t i n p o p u l a t i o n records a n d to exert pressure o n the s u l t a n a n d the g o v e r n m e n t to u n d e r take censuses a n d a d o p t a r e g u l a r p o p u l a t i o n register sys t e m . I n fact, a r m y officers t o o k active roles i n O t t o m a n 10. A group of British statisticians trying to assess the human resources of Turkey and Russia had the following to say about the Ottoman figures: " I n treating the Turkish statistics, therefore, without the aids we are used to in countries where there is a good administration, we need not be absolutely i n the dark. The results will not be so authoritative or so complete in detail as it is expe dient to have them, but they will be much better than no results at all, and may leave no practical doubt on the more important ques tions to be answered. The first question which presents itself is that of population and area. Of this a very good account has lately been given by M r . Ravenstein . . . " ("Turkish Resources," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 40 [1877]: 633-34). (Ravenstein's work is commented on in Chapter 3.) 11. See Todorov, Balkanskiat Grad and "The Balkan Town in the Second Half of the 19th C e n t u r y , " Etudes balkaniques, no 2 (1969)31.
7
CONCEPTUAL A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L PROBLEMS
ses k e p t t h e i r o w n registers f o r the M u s l i m s , a n d ^ o p e r a t e d closely w i t h civilian p o p u l a t i o n officials t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h centuries. To meet t h i s s t r o n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e n e e d , t h e n , the Otto¬ ' n d e v e l o p e d the censuses a n d t h e y e a r b o o k s {saluâmes), both state a n d p r o v i n c i a l , to be basic a n d reliable sources of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e size a n d g e n e r a l r e l i g i o u s c o m p o s i tion of the p o p u l a t i o n a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , a b o u t the e t h n i c division of the C h r i s t i a n s as w e l l . T h e census m e t h o d s a n d the q u a l i t y of t h e statistics p r o d u c e d u n d e r w e n t c o n t i n u a l e v o l u t i o n , r e a c h i n g a q u i t e a d v a n c e d l e v e l i n the census o f 1881/82-1893. (Earlier f i g u r e s , w h i l e g e n e r a l l y reliable, have relatively h i g h e r m a r g i n s of e r r o r t h a n those of t h e census taken i n the 1880s.) 12
The censuses t a k e n at v a r i o u s t i m e s i n the n i n e t e e n t h and early t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s are t h u s the p r i n c i p a l O t t o man source of i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e p o p u l a t i o n . H o w e v e r , these have n o t b e e n p u b l i s h e d o f f i c i a l l y i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y , a l t h o u g h some s u m m a r i e s w e r e m a d e p u b l i c : the i m p o r t a n t census of 1844, f o r instance, is k n o w n t h r o u g h f i g u r e s p u b lished b y U b i c i n i a n d B o r é . T h e d e t a i l e d lists that w e r e the bases for the f i n a l census f i g u r e s ( w i t h the p a r t i a l e x c e p t i o n of lists f r o m t h e 1866 census of T u n a vilayet) p r o b a b l y w i l l not be available u n t i l all t h e O t t o m a n d o c u m e n t s of t h e nineteenth c e n t u r y are f u l l y c a t a l o g u e d . T h e second m a j o r source of i n f o r m a t i o n o n O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n is t h e y e a r b o o k s . A l t h o u g h i m p e r i a l saluâmes covering the en tire r e a l m b e g a n to be p u b l i s h e d i n 1847 ( H . 1263), t h e p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s f o r the w h o l e e m p i r e a p p e a r e d f o r t h e first t i m e o n l y i n t h e v o l u m e i s s u e d i n 1877/78. The first p r o v i n c i a l y e a r b o o k (for Bosnia) w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 1866. By 1868 there w e r e several saluâmes g i v i n g p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s for their respective p r o v i n c e s . These f i g u r e s , u s e d e x t e n sively by v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n e t h n o g r a p h e r s a n d statisticians, were based o n earlier f i g u r e s o b t a i n e d b y actual c o u n t a n d 13
12. This census w-as begun in the Hicri year 1299, corresponding to 1881/82, but it was not declared complete until more than ten Gregorian years later. As will be demonstrated i n detail in Chapter 2, it was, w i t h the possible exception of the partial census taken i n Tuna Province in 1866, the most advanced and comprehensive of all the Ottoman population surveys conducted i n the nineteenth century. 13. The imperial yearbooks, k n o w n as Dcvlct-i Ahyc Salnamelcri, or sahmmes for short, consist of sixty-six volumes published reg ularly, except during the First World War, from 1847 to 1918. The provincial saluâmes, which began to be published roughly from 1868 onwards and amount to several hundred volumes of various sizes, are very valuable sources on Ottoman socio-economic his tory despite the fact that, w i t h the partial exception of those for Avdm and Hudavendigar provinces, few were published regular ly. The best and most comprehensive study of the saluâmes, which includes information about their location i n libraries i n Turkey, is that published by the Research Centre for Islamic History, A r t , and Culture, Ottoman Year-Books (Salnamc and Nevasal) (Istanbul, 1982). See also Justin McCarthy and I . Dennis Hyde, "Ottoman Imperial and Provincial Salnames," Middle East Studies Association Bulletin 13, no. 2 (1976): 10-20; and Hasan R. Ertug, "Osmanli Devrinde Salnameler," Hayai Tanh Mecmuasi 10, nos. 103, 104 (1973). See"also Islam Ansiklopedesi, s.v. "Salnamc."
also f r o m tax registers a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n available to the p r o v i n c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . P o p u l a t i o n estimates g i v e n b y v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n scholars a n d d i p l o m a t s , as w e l l as b y O t t o m a n g e o g r a p h e r s a n d e n c y c l o p e d i s t s , rely e i t h e r o n these o f f i c i a l p u b l i s h e d records or o n the i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b y officials i n charge of p o p u l a t i o n affairs. A list of y e a r b o o k s a c c o r d i n g t o p u b l i c a t i o n date is i n c l u d e d as A p p e n d i x A . l f o l l o w i n g this chapter. The statistical tables c o m p i l e d by the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y also p r o v i d e excellent i n f o r m a t i o n f o r m e a s u r i n g the level of u r b a n i z a t i o n . T h e cen sus results are g i v e n b y vilayet/eyalet ( p r o v i n c e ) , livalsancak, a n d kaza—that is, a c c o r d i n g to t h e m a i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s of the t i m e . O f t e n the first f i g u r e g i v e n f o l l o w i n g t h e name of a specific a d m i n i s t r a t i v e center is t h e p o p u l a t i o n of the capital c i t y , u s u a l l y u n d e r a h e a d i n g such as merkez kcizasi (central kaza). I n the case of E d i r n e P r o v i n c e , for ex a m p l e , the central kaza i n c l u d e s the m a i n city a n d the v i l lages i n the v i c i n i t y of the c i t y . A l t h o u g h t h e size of t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e central kaza v a r i e s , the p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e villages" is s e l d o m m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n the p o p u l a t i o n of t h e c i t v i t s e l f ; t h e r e f o r e , , o n e can a r r i v e at a t e n t a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e f o r the c i t y b y s u b t r a c t i n g f r o m the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of the central kaza a certain n u m b e r of p e o p l e d e e m e d to l i v e i n the villages attached a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y to i t . Some censuses refer specifically to t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a g i v e n t o w n ; t h e census of 1831 occasionally i n c l u d e s t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c i t y , e . g . , of K o n y a , E d i r n e , M a n a s t i r (Bitolia), a n d o t h e r smaller t o w n s . T h e s u r r o u n d i n g areas (the n e i g h b o r h o o d s — nahiyes) i n d i c a t e d separately, m a k i n g possible t h e c o m p a r i s o n of t h e u r b a n a n d r u r a l p o p u l a tions.
P o p u l a t i o n Censuses a n d A d m i n i s t r a t i v e D i v i s i o n T h e s t u d y of O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n is v i t a l l y d e p e n d e n t o n precise, u p - t o - d a t e m a p s s h o w i n g the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i sion of the r e a l m . I n t e r n a l p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t is after all s i m p l y a transfer of p e o p l e f r o m o n e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t to a n o t h e r . I n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i sion of the O t t o m a n state u n d e r w e n t several changes that t e n d to confuse one u n f a m i l i a r w i t h the process. The o r i g inal d i v i s i o n , a d o p t e d i n the second h a l f of t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h a d s u r v i v e d , d e s p i t e v a r i o u s changes, u n t i l that t i m e , a n d t h e Cihanmima, t h e classical w o r k o n g e o g r a p h y of K a t i p Çelebi (1609-1658), p r o v i d e s f a i r l y estensive i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h i s . A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of the a d m i n i s trative d i v i s i o n of a later p e r i o d w a s g i v e n at t h e b e g i n n i n g of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y (1804) by P. L . I n c i c i y a n , w h o d e v o t e d three v o l u m e s of his e l e v e n - v o l u m e w o r k o n w o r l d g e o g r a p h y to the d e s c r i p t i o n of I s t a n b u l ( v o l u m e 5), R u m i l i ( v o l u m e 6), a n d A n a t o l i a ( v o l u m e 1 0 ) . Joseph, Freiherr von Hanvmer-Purgstall, M . D'Ohsson, and Ubicini, a m o n g 14
14. The section on Rumili has been published recently i n a ver sion prepared by H . D. Andreasyan; see "Osmanli Rumelisi Tarih ve C o g r a f v a s i , " Güney Doğu Avrupa Araştırmaları Dergisi 2-3 (1973-1974): 11-88, and 4-5 (1975-76): 101-152.
8
O T T O M A N POPULATION, 1830-1914
w e s t e r n s t u d e n t s of O t t o m a n affairs, p r o v i d e d i l l u m i n a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o n the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n s of the late e i g h t e e n t h a n d the n i n e t e e n t h centuries. A m o n g o t h e r re cent w o r k s , a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y by A n d r e a s B i r k e n is noteworthy. l ?
It is n o t necessary here to p r o v i d e a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n ; it suffices f o r the p u r p o s e of this s t u d y to say that the O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n i n 1831—that is, w h e n the first m o d e r n census was t a k e n — i n c l u d e d 29 eyalets ( w i t h one or t w o of t h e m , e.g., Viranşehir, r e t a i n i n g a rather c o n f u s i n g status) s u b d i v i d e d i n t o livas or sancaks; one of these s u b d i v i s i o n s w a s chosen as the seat of the p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r a n d was k n o w n as " p a ş a s a n c a g i . " The liva or sancak was d i v i d e d i n t u r n i n t o kazas, w h i c h w e r e basically j u d i c i a l districts u n d e r a j u d g e (kadi). T h e kazas w e r e f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n t o nahiyes—mainly r u r a l districts w h i c h h a d a g i v e n n u m b e r of villages. I n 1834 S u l t a n M a h m u d I I i n t r o d u c e d a n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n c o n s i s t i n g of 28 eyalets, 31 sancaks, a n d 54 i n d e p e n d e n t voivodas s u b d i v i d e d i n t o 126 livas a n d 1,267 kazas. Five years later this n e w d i v i s i o n was a b a n d o n e d , a n d the e m p i r e r e v e r t e d to the o l d a d m i n istrative s y s t e m . lb
Yearbooks p u b l i s h e d after 1847 g i v e i n f o r m a t i o n o n the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n . I n the early 1850s the O t t o m a n state appears to have b e e n d i v i d e d i n t o 36 eyalets, of w h i c h 15 w e r e i n E u r o p e , 18 i n A s i a , a n d 3 i n A f r i c a ; h o w e v e r , their p o l i t i c a l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e status w a s v a r i e d , E g y p t , W a l l a c h i a , M o l d a v i a , a n d Serbia b e i n g a l m o s t i n d e p e n d ent, w h i l e T u n i s i a h a d special status. T h e eyalets w e r e sub d i v i d e d i n t o 440 livas, or sancaks ( a d m i n i s t e r e d b y a kayma kam or mutassanif), kazas ( a d m i n i s t e r e d b y a mildir assisted by a c o u n c i l of n o t a b l e s ) , a n d nahiyes ( a d m i n i s t e r e d b y elected muhtars or kocabaşı, the first u s u a l l y a m o n g M u s l i m s , the second i n n o n - M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s ) . Lists of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s of 1831 a n d the early 1850s are g i v e n i n a p p e n d i c e s A . 2 a n d A . 3 f o l l o w i n g t h i s chapter. The g r a d u a l e v o l u t i o n of a n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n began w i t h the p r o m u l g a t i o n of the V i l a y e t L a w of 1864. ' T h e r e f o r m w a s a s l o w process. I t w a s p a r t l y c o m p l e t e d b y 1871 b u t c o n t i n u e d t h e r e a f t e r . T h e vilayet o f T u n a w a s the first, created i n 1864 b y c o m b i n i n g the eyalets o f S i l i s t r e , V i d i n , a n d Niş i n t o a u n i t u n d e r the g o v e r n o r s h i p of M i t h a t P a ş a ; t h i s w a s the p i l o t project f o r a c h i e v i n g m o d e r n i z a t i o n . I n 1867 a n d 1871 n e w vilayets w e r e created; i n 1870 there w e r e 23 vilayets; i n 1875 the n u m b e r w a s 25. By 1893 t h e r e w e r e 27 vilayets i n E u r o p e 18
1 9
a n d Asia ( e x c l u d i n g N o r t h A f r i c a ) , 4 special d i s t r i c t s (Çatal ca, Biga, K ü d u s - i - Ş e r i f [ J e r u s a l e m ] , a n d i z m i t ) , a n d the capital. (It s h o u l d be r e m e m b e r e d that t e r r i t o r i e s i n the Balkans a n d Caucasus h a d b e e n lost t h r o u g h the treaty of Berlin i n 1878: these w e r e Bosnia, T u n a [ B u l g a r i a ] , KarsA r t v i n , a n d eastern R u m e l i a . ) The Vilayet L a w of 1864, as a m e n d e d , basically preserved the o l d d i v i s i o n (eyalet, liva/sancak, kaza, nahiye) b u t changed the eyalets i n t o vilayets a d m i n i s t e r e d b y valis (governors) a p p o i n t e d by the central g o v e r n m e n t . T h e r e w e r e changes also i n the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e titles: a mudir became the a d m i n istrator of the nahiye. T h e p u r p o s e of the r e f o r m was to s t r e n g t h e n the a u t h o r i t y of the c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t by e l i m i n a t i n g or n e u t r a l i z i n g the i n f l u e n c e of the derebei/s a n d o t h e r local l o r d s . O r i g i n a l l y the vilayet w a s larger t h a n the o l d eyalet; g r a d u a l l y , h o w e v e r , the vilayets w e r e p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o smaller u n i t s for m o r e e f f i c i e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . For ex a m p l e , i n 1878/79 the vilayet of E r z u r u m w a s s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t h e vilayets of V a n , Bitlis, Mamuretülaziz, and E r z u r u m ; i n 1880 Bağdat ( B a g h d a d ) w a s d i v i d e d i n t o Bağ dat, Kerkük ( M o s u l ) , a n d Basra; m e a n w h i l e , parts o f Z o r (Deir) w e r e a t t a c h e d to H a l e p ( A l e p p o ) a n d Damascus, w h i l e H a l e p itself was d i v i d e d i n t o H a l e p a n d A d a n a ; a n d D i y a r b e k i r c e d e d S i i r t to B i t l i s a n d M a l a t y a to H a r p u t ( K h a r p u t ) . A n y c o m p a r i s o n of the p o p u l a t i o n s of the var ious regions, especially o f t h e vilayets, i n d i f f e r e n t years m u s t be sure to take i n t o a c c o u n t the c r e a t i o n of these n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s as w e l l as the c o n c u r r e n t use of T u r k ish a n d A r a b i c , Slavic, o r G r e e k n a m e s f o r a g i v e n locality w i t h i n the same vilayet. I n s u m , it is e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t to h a v e a c o m p l e t e a n d detailed s t u d y of the O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n a n d of the b o u n d a r y changes i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . U n f o r t u n a t e l y such a task goes far b e y o n d the scope of this w o r k , w h i c h is c o n f i n e d to a q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d y o f p o p u l a t i o n .
16. See Ernest Dottain, "La Turquie d'Europe d'apès le Traité de Berlin," Revue de géographie 3 (1878): 97-123. 17. George Young, Corps de droit ottoman 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905): 47-69. 18. For a survey of the administrative reform (but without the list of vilayets), see Roderic H . Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire 1856-1876 (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1963) D D 157-71. , ' ' F F
19. See for details Hans-Jurgen Kornrumpf, Die Territorialverwal tung im östlichen Teil der europäischen Turkey vom Erlass der Vilayets-
O t h e r s s t e m f r o m the special O t t o m a n concept of
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tors a f f e c t i n g the c o m p o s i t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e c u l a t i o n ; t h e s e are less easily -corrected. T h e
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° t h o d s w e r e d e v i s e d i n accordance w i t h the special O t t o e
m a n p h i l o s o p h y of the p o p u l a t i o n c o u n t , a n d the results reflected the s o c i o - c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h i t w a s carried o u t . The p e r v a s i v e flaw i n these data is the u n d e r s t a t e m e n t of " o v u l a t i o n . N o census taker, i n c l u d i n g t h e m o s t s o p h i s t i cated c o n t e m p o r a r y o n e , can t r u l y c o u n t the e n t i r e p o p u l a tion For instance, t h e New York Times of 9 M a r c h 1980 reported, i n r e g a r d to t h e U n i t e d States census to b e g i n o n 1 A p r i l 1980, t h a t " t h e C e n s u s B u r e a u is u n d e r intense a n d m o u n t i n g pressure to p r o v i d e a m e a n s of a r t i f i c i a l l y a d j u s t ing its f i n a l c o u n t to i n c l u d e t h e m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e w h o are expected to e l u d e t h e census takers A p r i l 1 , d e s p i t e all efforts to i m p r o v e t h e c o u n t . " T h e C e n s u s B u r e a u esti mated that i n certain d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d areas as m u c h as 18 percent of s o m e age g r o u p s w o u l d escape the c o u n t . I f t h e U n i t e d States, w i t h all its t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l a n d s o p h i s t i cated c o m p u t e r s , c a n n o t c o n d u c t a perfect census i n t h e late t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , it is t o t a l l y u n r e a l i s t i c to criticize t h e Ottomans f o r n o t h a v i n g b e e n able to c o u n t exactly t h e i r entire p o p u l a t i o n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The raison d'etre of O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n c o u n t s w a s o r i g i nally not the s i m p l e desire to have a n accurate record of the total n u m b e r of p e o p l e i n t h e r e a l m or details a b o u t t h e i r socio-ethnic c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l O t t o m a n tahrir was a s u r v e y c a r r i e d o u t f o r tax p u r p o s e s , a n d its results were r e c o r d e d i n l a n d d e e d registers (tapu defteri). The fifteenth- a n d s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y tahrirs i n v o l v e d t h e reg istration of a d u l t m a l e s — e s p e c i a l l y h o u s e h o l d s heads as taxpayers b u t also bachelors a n d o t h e r s — a n d t h u s the tapu defteri are r e g a r d e d as a f a i r l y g o o d source of d e m o g r a p h i c information; b u t t h e o b j e c t of t h e tahrir, i t m u s t be e m p h a s i z e d , w a s to assess the area of c u l t i v a t e d l a n d s f o r the l e v y i n g of taxes o n t h e c u l t i v a t o r . I n the n i n e t e e n t h century n e w c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d i c t a t e d a n e w t y p e of s u r v e y . H o w e v e r , f o r t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t the first m o d e r n style census, b e g u n i n 1831 (or 1830, a c c o r d i n g t o new- b u t u n v e r i f i e d i n f o r m a t i o n ) , w a s still n o t a n e n d i n itself. Its m a i n p u r p o s e w a s to establish a q u a n t i t a t i v e basis for the l e v y i n g of p e r s o n a l taxes o n n o n - M u s l i m s a n d , as p r e v i o u s ly p o i n t e d o u t , f o r the c o n s c r i p t i o n of M u s l i m male a d u l t s into the a r m y . T h i s direct assessment of the male p o p u l a tion replaced the f o r m e r reliance o n i n c o m p l e t e i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b y c o m m u n a l h e a d s . H o w e v e r , the g o v e r n m e n t was n o i t h e n i n t e r e s t e d i n a n d d i d n o t seek to register those i n d i v i d u a l s — w o m e n , o r p h a n s , C h r i s t i a n s b e l o w t h e age of p u b e r t y , the m e n t a l l y or p h y s i c l a l y i n c a p a c i t a t e d , h i g h r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s , e t c . — w h o w e r e n o t o b l i g a t e d to p a y per sonal taxes or d o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . L a n d s u r v e y s , t h e n 2 1
P r o b l e m s i n the Use o f O t t o m a n C e n s u s D a t a O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n statistics c a n n o t be accepted at face value. T h e y have p a r t i c u l a r characteristics w h i c h m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d , as w e l l as s h o r t c o m i n g s w h i c h m u s t be over come or, at least, t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . B r i e f l y , the standards to be a p p l i e d i n e v a l u a t i n g O t t o m a n data are (1) i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y , (2) c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h m o d e r n e n u m e r a t i o n s g i v e n b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t s of the n e w states, a n d (3) consistency w i t h d e m o g r a p h i c r u l e s . Some of thé deficiencies revealed b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of these standards are technical a n d easily r e m e d i e d by a r i t h m e t i c a l adjust2 0
15. Die Provinzen des osmanischen Reiches (Wiesbaden- Reichert • 1976).
9 CONCEPTUAL A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L PROBLEMS
ordiumg (1864) bis zum Berliner Kongress (1878) nach amtlichen osma nischen Veröffentlichungen (Weisbaden: Klaus Schwarz Verlae 1976). ' &
20. See Justin McCarthy, "Population of the Ottoman Fertile Crescent" (Paper delivered at the International Conference on the Economic History of the Middle East, 1800-1914, Haifa Israel De cember 14-19, 1980), pp: 3-4. (The final version of this paper is "The Population of Ottoman Syria and Iraq, 1878-1914," Asian and African Studies 15, no. 1 [ 1981 J: 3-44.)
21. See opinions summarized in A m n o n Cohen and Bernard Lewis, Population and Revenue in the Towns of Palestine in the Sixteenth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), p. 3; see also Lowrv, "Ottoman Tahrir Deltas."
k n o w n as emlak tahrin, c o n t i n u e d to be c o n d u c t e d b u t w e r e taken separately f r o m the p o p u l a t i o n c o u n t . ~ Bv the m i d d l e of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , that is, after t h e s i g n i n g of the Paris treaty i n 1856, the O t t o m a n census p h i l o s o p h y u n d e r w e n t a n o t h e r c h a n g e . The Porte began to embrace the E u r o p e a n concept of f u n c t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d service to society. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it felt the need to reassess its h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l resources. M o r e o v e r , t h e r i s i n g n a t i o n a l consciousness a m o n g the C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s h a d m a n i f e s t e d i t s e l f i n t h e f o r m of a v a r i e t y o f d e m a n d s — e . g . , f o r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n a t i o n a l c h u r c h e s a n d schools—as w e l l as i n claims f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d t e r r i t o r y , o f t e n s u p p o r t e d b y data i g n o r i n g o t h e r g r o u p s ; hence there arose the necessity of l e a r n i n g the exact n u m ber of each m a j o r C h r i s t i a n e t h n i c g r o u p . These h u m a n i s t functionalist-nationalist considerations were manifest i n the census a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m i m p l e m e n t e d i n 1881' 82-1893. T h i s census used several e t h n i c - c o n f e s s i o n a l cate gories for the C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n , b u t all t h e M u s l i m s c o n t i n u e d to be c o u n t e d as one h o m o g e n e o u s g r o u p , de spite the e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c differences a m o n g t h e m . A s the g o v e r n m e n t ' s census p h i l o s o p h y c h a n g e d , s o . d i d the r e g i s t r a t i o n u n i t . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l tax u n i t i n t h e f i f t e e n t h a n d s i x t e e n t h centuries was the hane, or avanz hanesi, that is, the h o u s e h o l d as r e p r e s e n t e d b y its male h e a d . The"' o l d O t t o m a n " h o u s e h o l d " d i d n o t necessarily c o r r e s p o n d to either the nuclear or the e x t e n d e d f a m i l y : it w a s a h o u s e h o l d d e f i n e d f i n a n c i a l l y , i n accordance w i t h the t a x p a y i n g p o t e n t i a l of its m e m b e r s r a t h e r t h a n i n accordance w i t h its n u m e r i c a l size. H o w e v e r , s o m e of t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n lists issued i n the second h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m e n t i o n e d the n u m b e r of hane i n a r e g i o n or i n the e n t i r e c o u n t r y . T h u s u s e d , the t e r m r e f e r r e d either to the socio logically d e f i n e d nuclear f a m i l y or to the e x t e n d e d f a m i l y rather t h a n to the t a x p a y i n g h o u s e h o l d . T h e exact size of the O t t o m a n " f a m i l y " has n o t y e t been accurately estab l i s h e d , a n d it is e r r o n e o u s to a r r i v e at categorical c o n c l u sions r e g a r d i n g the size of t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n w i t h o u t clearly e s t a b l i s h i n g the exact m e a n i n g of the t e r m hane a n d w i t h o u t considering other variables. O n e p o l i t i c a l l y i n s p i r e d r e p o r t d i d g i v e s o m e f i g u r e s on 22. The existing records on taxation and the distribution of miri (state) land to cultivators could yield excellent figures on the Otto man population in the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. For instance, the yoklamas, censuses of the timars taken i n 1596, 1606, 1672, 1691, 1694, 1698, and 1715, indicate that tradition was not abandoned altogether. These surveys show a continuing preoc cupation with the size of cultivable lands—at least w i t h those given as fiefs to the stpahis—and with their revenue. See Vera P. Mutafchieva and Stashimir Dimitrov, Sur Petal du systeme des timars des XVII'-XVIW siccles (Sofia: Academie Bulgare des Sciences, 1968). The complexity of the population problem in the Ottoman state in the sixteenth century becomes evident if one approaches it from the viewpoint of agricultural production and urbanization; see Hurican Islamoglu, "Dynamics of Agricultural Production, Popula tion Growth and Urban Development: A Case Study of Areas in North Central Anatolia, 1520-1575" (Ph.D. diss.. University ol Wisconsin-Madison, 1979).
10
O T T O M A N POPULATION, 1830-1914
f a m i l y size, b u t they are c e r t a i n l y inaccurate. V l a d i m i r Tep l o v u n d e r t o o k a s t u d y of the Balkan p o p u l a t i o n u n d e r the auspices of the Russian g o v e r n m e n t a n d u s e d , i n a d d i t i o n to the official O t t o m a n y e a r b o o k s , i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b v churches a n d native i n f o r m a n t s . H e based his figures o n the latter t w o sources a n d a r b i t r a r i l y c o n c l u d e d that M u s l i m families consisted of 5 m e m b e r s , w h i l e n o n - M u s l i m families h a d f r o m 7 to 9.37 m e m b e r s . ' These figures are c o n t r a v e n e d by those f r o m an actual f a m i l y s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d b y VV. L. S t o n e y , a B r i t i s h c o n s u l a r o f f i c i a l i n the P h i l i p p o p o l i s ( P l o v d i v ) area of Bulgaria. I n o r d e r to a n s w e r some i n q u i r i e s f r o m E n g l a n d a b o u t the exact size of the Balkan f a m i l y , Stoney s u r v e y e d 50,622 i n d i v i d u a l s b e l o n g i n g to 10,110 families i n 55 villages h a v i n g a p r e d o m i n a n t l y B u l g a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n . H e a r r i v e d at the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t each f a m i l y h a d a n average of 5.007 members. " O n the o t h e r h a n d , one B r i t i s h c o n s u l a r agent i n d i c a t e d that the average size of s o m e 600 A r m e n i a n families p l a n n i n g to m i g r a t e to_ Persia i n the late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s 7 members. A recent s u r v e y o f a b o u t 10,000 i m m i g r a n t families settled in A n a t o l i a t o w a r d s the e n d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s h o w s t h a t i n a locality r e p r e s e n t i n g the m i n i m u m the average f a m i l y consisted of 1.99 persons, w h i l e i n a n area r e p r e s e n t i n g the m a x i m u m the average w a s 9.60. T h e average f o r all the families i n these i m m i g r a n t villages was a b o u t 4 . 1 0 i n d i v i d u a l s per f a m i l y . 2
2
4
2 3
2 6
For the 1831-1838 census t h e a d u l t m a l e , regardless of h o u s e h o l d status, became the o f f i c i a l r e g i s t r a t i o n u n i t ; he r e m a i n e d so u n t i l the 1881/82-1893 census, at w h i c h t i m e the basic u n i t became the i n d i v i d u a l , regardless of age or sex. These changes i n the O t t o m a n census p h i l o s o p h y a n d i n the o f f i c i a l l y d e s i g n a t e d r e g i s t r a t i o n u n i t w e r e reflected i n the results of the v a r i o u s s u r v e y s . T h e u n d e r r e p o r t i n g of the p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t , h o w e v e r . E v e n after the g o v e r n m e n t a d o p t e d t h e g o a l of r e g i s t e r i n g a l l its citizens as i n d i v i d u a l s , factors such as i s o l a t i o n , d i f f i c u l t i e s i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d the resistance of s o m e subjects to the census r e s u l t e d i n a considerable n u m b e r of persons b e i n g left u n r e g i s t e r e d . 27
P o p u l a t i o n statistics issued before the 1880s s e l d o m ever m e n t i o n e d the n o m a d i c tribes. Such tribes w e r e o n l y occas i o n a l l y subjected to a n actual c o u n t ; w h e n the n u m b e r of n o m a d i c t r i b e s m e n w a s r e c o r d e d at a l l , the census officials 23. Materialy Dlya Statistikii Bolgarii, Trakii i Makedonii [Statistical materials on Bulgaria, Thrace, and Macedonia] (St. Petersburg, 1877). Teplov's data also pointed to a relatively rapid rise in Christian population and to a decrease in the Muslim population in certain areas of the empire, a phenomenon discussed later in this chapter. 24. HCAP 92/44 (1877), p. 1. 25. HCAP 96/49 (1890), p. 25, Lloyd to White, 6 March 1890. 26. Nejat Goyunc, " A i l e Deyimi H a k k i n d a , " Tarih Derglsi 32 (1979): 331^13; for other estimates, see Haim Gerber, "The Population of Syria and Palestine in the Nineteenth Century," Asian and African Studies 13, no. 2 (1979): 58-20. 27. See McCarthy, "Population of the Ottoman Fertile Crescent," pp. 4-5.
had relied i n m o s t cases o n f i g u r e s s u p p l i e d bv the tribal chieftans. The census of 1881 '82-1893 w a s the first to p r o v i d e c o m p r e h e n s i v e e s t i m a t e s of the p o p u l a t i o n of the tribes a n d of the areas n o t subject to actual c o u n t . As to the c o u n t of w o m e n , e v e n after t h e y began to be i n d i v i d u a l l y registered i n the 1880s t h e i r n u m b e r appears as consistently less t h a n that of the m e n , r a i s i n g some q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r there existed factors t h a t caused a h i g h e r m o r t a l i t y a m o n g women. It is possible to o v e r c o m e , at least p a r t l y , the inaccuracies r e s u l t i n g f r o m the u n d e r c o u n t i n g of v a r i o u s segments of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n . A reasonable estimate of the total p o p u l a t i o n can be m a d e f o r p e r i o d s w h e n w o m e n w e r e n o t c o u n t e d s i m p l y by d o u b l i n g the n u m b e r of m e n , as is r e g u l a r l y d o n e b y m a n y s t u d e n t s of O t t o m a n p o p u l a tion. I n a d d i t i o n , h o w e v e r , one must adopt a margin-oferror percentage to a c c o u n t f o r persons u n r e g i s t e r e d by the census takers because t h e y w e r e e x e m p t f r o m taxes or w e r e not subject to c o n s c r i p t i o n or because t h e y c o u l d n o t be reached. I n this s t u d y I h a v e a d o p t e d 8 p e r c e n t as the marg i n of e r r o r f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the p o p u l a t i o n of some areas a n d of s o m e e t h n i c g r o u p s ( b u t the figures i n the statistical a p p e n d i c e s are n o t corrected f o r e r r o r ) . This percentage w a s a d o p t e d after c o m p a r i n g v a r i o u s figures g i v e n for one area or one g r o u p o v e r a p e r i o d of t i m e a n d assumi n g — b a s e d o n v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t a l statistics—that the a n n u a l g r o w t h rate w a s 1 p e r c e n t d u r i n g the second half of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ( A c t u a l l y this p e r c e n t a g e of error m a y be raised to 10, o r e v e n 15, f o r r e m o t e m o u n t a i n areas.) O n e m i g h t a r r i v e at a m o r e precise c a l c u l a t i o n of the error by s t u d y i n g the b i r t h a n d d e a t h entries d u r i n g a g i v e n p e r i o d of t i m e i n a g i v e n area a n d b y d e v i s i n g a variable f o r m u l a to a c c o u n t f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t escaped the c o u n t . T h i s c o u l d be a c h i e v e d o n l y b y l o c a t i n g a n d u s i n g the actual p o p u l a t i o n registers k e p t i n v a r i o u s a d m i n i s t r a tive centers. M a n y o f these s e e m to have been d e s t r o y e d , b u t m a n y others h a v e s u r v i v e d . 2 8
The M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n w a s u n d e r c o u n t e d m o r e o f t e n t h a n the C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n , the latter being mostly sedentary, c o m p a c t l y s e t t l e d , a n d easily accessible. H o w e v er, the registers of t h e i r r e l i g i o u s c o n s t i t u e n c y k e p t b y the C h r i s t i a n ecclesiasts a p p e a r to have o n l y l i m i t e d value. M o s t o f the c h u r c h e s r e g i s t e r e d o n l y marriages a n d the n u m b e r of h o u s e s , n e i t h e r of w h i c h is a reliable index of p o p u l a t i o n . A s far as the tax lists w e r e concerned, it is g e n e r a l l y accepted t h a t these s h o w e d the C h r i s t i a n males to be far f e w e r t h a n t h e i r a c t u a l n u m b e r . I t is t r u e that m a n y C h r i s t i a n prelates d e v e l o p e d special rosters for registering t h e i r f o l l o w e r s i n o r d e r to extract f r o m t h e m a p a y m e n t for t h e i r o w n services, as t h e y d i d n o t receive r e g u l a r salaries; h o w e v e r , as w o u l d be e x p e c t e d , m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s , u s u a l l y those l i v i n g i n large c o m m u n i t i e s , failed to register. M a n y s m a l l , closely k n i t c o m m u n i t i e s , i n w h i c h the priest k n e w e v e r y b o d y a n y w a y , d i d n o t have s u c h registers at all. Lists prepared by various n o n - M u s l i m communities and 28. For a full discussion of the procedures that may be adopted, see ibid., pp. 5-7 and esp. n . 23.
11
CONCEPTUAL A N D M E T H O D O L O G I C A L PROBLEMS
tionalisl o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n w h i c h the n u m b e r of these various e t h n o - r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s w a s g e n e r a l l y o v e r s t a t e d , w e r e c o n s i d e r e d u n r e l i a b l e even b y E u r o p e a n s f r i e n d l y to t h o s e communities. The assessment of f e r t i l i t y rates is a n absolute necessity f the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the g r o w t h rate o f the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n . I t is g e n e r a l l y a s s u m e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e first thirtv years of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the O t t o m a n p o p u l a tion decreased, b e g i n n i n g to increase again after 1850. T h i s assumption is o n e - s i d e d a n d o n l y p a r t l y t r u e , f o r it i g n o r e s ' the differences i n g r o w t h rates b e t w e e n M u s l i m a n d n o n Muslim groups. The n o n - M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n actually g r e w at a f a i r l y fast rate a f t e r t h e 1 8 3 0 s — p r o b a b l y 2 p e r c e n t annually; the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e d or r e m a i n e d the same i n n u m b e r . T h e r e are i n d i c a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , t h a t f e r t i l jtv rates a m o n g the M u s l i m s b e g a n to increase after 1850. The causes of the d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e f e r t i l i t y rates a m o n g the two g r o u p s are to be f o u n d i n the special e c o n o m i c a n d social c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h f a v o r e d n o n - M u s l i m s a n d p e n a l ized the M u s l i m s , especially T u r k s . M a l e T u r k s spent t h e i r peak r e p r o d u c t i v e years i n m i l i t a r y service a n d w e r e u n a b l e to m a r r y a n d settle d o w n t o take a d v a n t a g e of e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s . T h e n , w h e n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the O t t o m a n state w a s e x p o s e d to t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e E u r o pean capitalist e c o n o m y a n d to i n t e n s i f i e d i n t e r n a l a n d i n ternational t r a d e , several n o n - M u s l i m g r o u p s became t h e early recipients of t h e e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s — a n d t h e p r o m o t ers as w e l l — o f the n e w e c o n o m i c s y s t e m . A l t h o u g h n u m e r ically a m i n o r i t y , t h e n o n - M u s l i m s , w h o h a d n o m i l i t a r y obligations, t h r o v e u n d e r t h e c h a n g e d e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l , and social c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h i s h a d a p o s i t i v e effect o n t h e size of t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s . T h e M u s l i m s , except f o r s o m e small bureaucratic a n d a g r a r i a n g r o u p s , became t h e s u p porters r a t h e r t h a n t h e beneficiaries of the n e w o r d e r . T h e y appeared to r e t a i n p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l o f t h e state m a c h i n e r y , but even this c o n t r o l was s l i p p i n g a w a y . M o r e o v e r , epidemics s e e m e d to take a greater t o l l a m o n g M u s l i m s , i n part because of m i s c o n c e p t i o n s t h e y h a d a b o u t disease a n d the w a y to f i g h t i t , w h i c h l e d to a f a i l u r e to take necessary precautions against its s p r e a d . H o w e v e r , it w a s d i m i n i s h e d economic o p p o r t u n i t y t h a t , m o r e t h a n w a r , f a m i n e , d i s ease, or o t h e r c a l a m i t i e s associated w i t h u n d e r d e v e l o p ment, s l o w e d t h e g r o w t h of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e increase i n t h e g r o w t h rate after 1850, besides r e f l e c t i n g the absence of w a r a n d the presence of better h e a l t h practices, w a s a t t r i b u t a b l e also to the i m p r o v e d w o r l d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s that f a v o r e d t h e a g r i cultural sector, i n w h i c h m o s t of the M u s l i m s w o r k e d , a n d to the emergence of a M u s l i m m i d d l e class t h a t b e g a n to adopt the same e c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , a n d p o l i t i cal i n s t i t u t i o n s (as w e l l as s a n i t a r y f a c i l i t i e s ) t h a t h a d p r o v e d so b e n e f i c i a l to the n o n - M u s l i m s . o r
s
I n s u m , t h e n , i n s t u d y i n g the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , one m u s t take i n t o account t h e i m p a c t of social a n d e c o n o m i c forces t h a t affected the f e r t i l i t y rates a m o n g v a r i o u s e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s i n accordance w i t h t h e i r roles a n d f u n c t i o n s w i t h i n the" e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m . ( A p p e n d i x A . 4 f o l l o w i n g t h i s c h a p t e r has tables g i v i n g a f e w b i r t h a n d d e a t h statistics for the p e r i o d 1835-1850 w h i c h s h o w the differences b e t w e e n M u s l i m s a n d n o n - M u s l i m s i n t h i s respect.) The s o c i o - c u l t u r a l a n d e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s altered p r o f o u n d l y b y i n t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g r a t i o n s . T h i s massive p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t w a s scarcely reflected i n the census data a n d has n o t b e e n s t u d i e d at a l l , despite its v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e to a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the socio-political changes i n t h e M i d d l e East. T h r o u g h o u t the nineteenth century the g o v e r n m e n t m a d e a s u s t a i n e d e f f o r t to settle v a r i o u s T u r k m e n , K u r d i s h , A r a b i c , a n d o t h e r n o m a d i c tribes t h r o u g h o u t A n a t o l i a , Syria, a n d I r a q w h e r e v e r c u l t i v a b l e l a n d w a s a v a i l a b l e . " These tribes w e r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y M u s l i m a n d t h e r e f o r e increased t h e t o t a l of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n as t h e y became accessible to the census takers. M o r e o v e r , b e t w e e n 1854 a n d 1908 t h e O t t o m a n state received a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 m i l l i o n M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s f r o m Russia (Caucasus, C r i m e a , K u b a n , a n d C e n t r a l A s i a ) a n d t h e Balkans; at t h e same t i m e s o m e 500,000 to 800,000 G r e e k s , A r m e n i a n s , a n d A r a b s e m i g r a t e d , c h i e f l y to Russia a n d t h e A m e r i c a s . T h e n u m b e r of the settled t r i b e s m e n a n d i m m i g r a n t s w a s n o t i m m e d i a t e l y r e f l e c t e d accurately i n the O t t o m a n statistics, as these p e o p l e u s u a l l y w e r e registered o n l y after t h e y w e r e f i r m l y established i n t h e i r assigned places a n d h a d b e c o m e e c o n o m i c a l l y capable of p a y i n g taxes a n d p r o v i d i n g m e n for m i l i t a r y service. A n y s t u d e n t o f O t t o m a n d e m o g r a p h y , t h e r e f o r e , o u g h t to be aware of the crucial b u t u n r e c o r d e d factor of m i g r a t i o n , w h i c h s t r o n g l y affected the q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d q u a l i t a t i v e c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n , c h i e f l y its M u s l i m c o m p o n e n t . 9
I n c o n c l u s i o n , one can say t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g O t t o m a n censuses a n d y e a r b o o k s are reliable sources of i n f o r m a t i o n o n the size a n d c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h e Balkans a n d t h e M i d d l e East i n the n i n e t e e n t h a n d early t w e n t i e t h centuries. T h e y c o n t a i n technical errors w h i c h d e r i v e f r o m k n o w n causes a n d can be c o r r e c t e d b y d e v e l o p i n g t h e necessary statistical criteria. These O t t o m a n statistics
can
be m a d e i m m e d i a t e l y u s e f u l b y a d o p t i n g a s i m p l e m a r g i n of error p e r c e n t a g e . 29. For the settlement process, see Wolf-Dieter Hütteroth, Ländlich Siedlungen im südlichen Inneranatalien in den letzten vierhundert Jahren (Göttingen: Selbstverlag des Geographischen Instituts der Universität Göttingen, 1968).
A p p e n d i x A . l . Y e a r b o o k s (Sahiames)
P u b l i s h e d i n the O t t o m a n E m p i r e a n d the R e p u b l i c of T u r k e y :
1340-41 (1924-25): Türk Ticaret 1340 (1925): Resimli Yi! -,341 (1925)- Milli Nevsal ,34 -42 (1925-26): T C. Devlet. Bahn. Büyük Salname 19,6 Türk Deniz Ticareti. T C İstanbul Şehremaneti. - 2 7 : T.C. Devlet, Resimli ' ^ Salnames,
Turk, Yilı, Resimli Ay Almanağı. 1928-1929: Muallim Almanağı
13
, Research Centre for Islamic History. Art. and Culture. OKomar, Yearbook .Salname 'and News*/) (Istanbul. 1982V 112- ^ ^ ^ Notes- Devlet is the imperial or sWe yearbook g ı v j ^ ^ ^ Beginning in 1866 the «mes that toow ^ ^ J e s for v,ncesthai published y e r t * ^ , interest, and S o u r c
r M | m
a l s 0
pr0
volum
a l t o p l C 5 o f
military yearbook.
13
f
Appendix A.2.
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e D i v i s i o n o f the O t t o m a n State, 1831 ( H ,
III. KARAMAN 1. Konya 2. Beyşehir 3. Akşehir 4. Kayseriye 5. Niğde 6. Kirşehir 7. Aksaray
VII MARAŞ 1. Maraş 2. Malatya 3. Samsat 4. Gerger
1247)
IX. SİVAS (RUM) 1. Sivas 2. Amasya 3. Bozok 4. Çorum 5. Canik 6. Divriği (Divriki) 7. Arapgir (Arapkir) X. ADANA 1. Adana 2. Tarsus 3. Alanya (Alaiye) 4. İç II (içel) 5. Sis 6. Uzeyir~j 7. BeylanJ
.' A p p e n d i x A . 2 . T h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n D i v i s i o n o f t h e O t t o m a n S t a t e ( c o n t i n u e d ) I : F
1
<' : :
XIV SAYDA 1 Sayda 2. Akka 3 Beyrut 4. Safed 5. Sur
2 'i 5 6 7 6 9 10. 11.
XV. HALEP (ALEPPO) 1. Halep 2 Maarret-el Misnn 3 Matic 4. Balis 5. Ayintap" XVI. RAKKA Ruha (Urfa) Deyrrehbe Cabur (Habur) Birecik Hamase Ben-i Rebia XVII. KARS' 1. Kars 2. Kağizman 3 Keçvan 4. Şuregil 5. Zaruşad XVIII. ÇILDIR Levane (Vartin) Şavşad . Mahcil Cercer (Çirçir) 5. Cebecun (Cebecik) XIX. TRABZON (TREBİZOND) 1. Trabzon 2. Künye
Source: Fazila Akba!. "1831 Tarihinde Osmanli İmparatorluğunda İdari Taksimat ve Nüfus." ße//efen 15. no. 60 (1961): 617-28. (Belleten is the publication of the Turkish Historical Society [Türk Tarih Kurumu}.) Notes: Akbai's list, presented here in revised and condensed form, was based on registers pertaining to various administrative units (e.g., the Detter-i Mutassal Liva-i Saruhan) found in the Archives of Land Surveys and Deeds and in other archival sources. It is probably one of the most accurate and complete administrative list available for the period. The main divisions l-XXIX are eya/eis: the subdivisions are //Vas (the same as sancaks). and the first liva iisted in each case was the "paşa sancaği," that is, the place of residence of the governor, or the capital. "This division is called a sancak in a few sources only.
"Rhodes and Cyprus are indicated as being sancaks only in the register for the Aegean Islands tor the years 1818-1831 (H. 1234-1247). (H) stands for Hükümet, that is. the seat of government of the administrative center. "Shown as a liva in some registers and as a hükümet in other sources. 'These two places are shown in some old registers as being part of Halep Eyalet. 'The old registers do not show Nablus as a liva. Shown as a nahiye in one source. "Several sources indicated Ayintap (Gaziantep) as being a sanca/cin Maraş Eyalet. In 1818 Ayintap was attached to Halep Eyalet as a kaza. 'Registers do not indicate whether the towns in this eyalet were //vas, although one source so labels them. C
ASIA 16 Kastamonu 17. Hüdavendigar 18. Aydın 19. Karaman
Kastamonu 8ursa İzmir Konya
(continued)
3 Muslim Birth and Death Rates in Various Localities Period of Time h__c_ty Guzelhisar Guzelhisar Alaşehir Balabanyolu Balabanyolu Erbaz Karacasu (without Yenışehır-İAydin) Nazilli Nazilli İnegöl İnegöl Inav (Denizli)
Hicri Date
Miladi Date (A.D.)
Number of Deaths
Yearly Rate of Death Increase Rate (Decrease) (,per 1.000) (per 1,000)
1 Eylül 1263—31 Kanun Evvel 1262 1 Eylül 1264—31 Kanun Evvel 1264 1 Eylül 1268—31 Kanun Evvel 1268 1 Recep 1261—29 Zilhicce 1261 1 Eylül 1262—31 Kanun Evvel 1262 1 Eylül 1262—30 Nisan 1263
1 Eylül 1265—31 Kanun Evvel 1265 1 Mayis 1267—31 Ağustos 1262 1 Kanun Sani 1262—30 Nisan 1263 1 Mayis 1267—31 Ağustos 1267 1 Kanun Sani 1267—30 Nisan 1268 1 Mart 1266—31 Teşrin Sanı 1266
Number Birth of Rate Births (per 1,000) 16 135 325
11.9 ' 29 .5 18.5
Number of Deaths 13 126 —
Rate of Death Increase' Rate (Decrease) (per 1,000) (per 1,000) 9.7 27.5 —
2.2 . 2.0 —
5. Muslim Male Population Birth and Death Rates in Some Provinces
Period of Time Locality
A p p e n d i x A . 4 . S o m e B i r t h a n d D e a t h Statistics, 1835-1853 ( H . 1251-1268) Muslim Birth and Death Rates in Akçay Kaza Period of Time Hicri Year
Hicri Date 1 Mart 1263—30 Haziran 1263 1 Recep 1261—29 Zilhicce 1261 1 Muharrem 1247—29 Zilhicce 1247 1 Kanun Sani 1264—30 Nisan 1265 1 Recap 1258—29 Cemayizelahir 1260
Miladi Date (A.D.) 3/13,1847—7/12/1847 7/6-1845—12/29.-1845 6/12 1831—5,30-1832 1/13/1846—512/1849 8/8-1842—7/161844
Source: BA (KK)/6502, 6505, 6417, 629915, 6469, and 6536. and BA (C)/(D)8321; the birth death figures in these four tables were compiled from data scattered through out these documents. Notes: The localities listed in tables 3 and 4 were principally in Aydin Province, those with (Denizli) following the name being neighborhoods attached to the capital town of the kaza Demirhisar (Paşa) was, however, a kaza of Serez Sancak in Selanik.
Total Population
Yearly Number Birth of Rate Births (per 1,000)
Yearly Yearly Population Number Death Increaseof Rate (Decrease) Deaths (per 1.000) (per 1,000)
7,349
41
16.7
15
6.1
10.6
6,182
86
28.6
82
27.3
1.3
15,012 7,797 4,593
231 24 135
15.8 9.2 15.1
264 59 —
18.1 22.7 —
(2.3) (13.5) / —
In calculating percentages given in these tables, the shorter Muslim calendar was used. For an evaluation of these statistics, see Ansley J. Coal and Paul Demeny, Aeg/ona/ Model Lite Tables and Stable Populations (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1966). The totals for this locality include non-Muslims.
a
Muslim Birth and Death Rates in Terme Kaza, Canik (Samsun) Period of Time Hicri Year 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 16
]->47 i n the ( d i v i n e l v ) p r o t e c t e d r e a l m ] . C a r e f u l scru- . of the o r i g i n a l register of 1831 a n d , especially, of the \ i u s official d o c u m e n t s p e r t a i n i n g to t h i s census t h r o w s w liÇ u p o n t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n registers a n d population p r o b l e m s at the b e g i n n i n g of the c e n t u r y . n
%
U
t n
X
P O P U L A T I O N
D I S T R I B U T I O N OF
T . H E PURPOSE of this c h a p t e r is to p r o v i d e b a c k g r o u n d i nJf_o rHl m a t i o n a b o u t v a r i o u s p o p u l a t i o n statistics a p p e a r i n g i n the appendices b y m e a n s of a p e r i o d i z a t i o n a n d a general analysis of e x i s t i n g censuses a n d some of the chief p o p u l a t i o n estimates. T h e reader s h o u l d k e e p f i r m l y i n m i n d t h r o u g h o u t this d i s c u s s i o n t h a t i n the O t t o m a n c o n t e x t the t e r m " c e n s u s , " c o n t r a r y to the m o d e r n usage, does n o t a l w a y s i m p l y an actual h e a d c o u n t ( a l t h o u g h it w a s far f r o m b e i n g j u s t a r o u g h estimate). I t w a s , r a t h e r , the r e c o r d i n g of the p o p u l a t i o n i n special registers (sicils) o n the basis of the best i n f o r m a t i o n available. O n l y i n the late n i n e t e e n t h cen t u r y d i d the O t t o m a n census seek to e n c o m p a s s a n actual c o u n t of i n d i v i d u a l citizens.
P o p u l a t i o n S u r v e y s , 1800-1878 The first p e r i o d stretches r o u g h l y f r o m the e n d of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y to the census of 1844. D u r i n g t h i s early t i m e the chief sources of i n f o r m a t i o n o n O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n available i n the W e s t w e r e the results of the census of 1831 a n d the estimates of E u r o p e a n s , s o m e of w h o m , such as W i l l i a m E t o n , D a v i d U r q u h a r t , G e o r g H a s s e l , a n d o t h e r s , a p p a r e n t l y h a d access to s o m e o f f i c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n . A s was p o i n t e d o u t i n C h a p t e r I, the m a j o r i t y o f the E u r o p e a n estimates w e r e based o n u n f o u n d e d a s s u m p t i o n s , erroneous i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d p l a i n , biased i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y they m u s t be used w i t h extreme care. M o s t of the estimates a n d f i g u r e s are available a n d need n o t be cited at a n y l e n g t h h e r e .
1
A N D T H E
E V O L U T I O N ?
O T T O M A N CENSUSES,
1800-1914
d i d n o t c o u n t the p o p u l a t i o n i n all the kazas of the e m p i r e ! The h i s t o r i a n L u t f i has n o t e d t h a t after the a b o l i t i o n of the? Janizaries i n 1826 " m a n y of the o l d c u s t o m s a n d procedures^ c h a n g e d , a n d the p o p u l a t i o n s u r v e y , w h i c h is the basis of* the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w a s c a r r i e d o n i n the capital, b u t the!" a d v e n t of the w a r [ w i t h Russia i n 1828-1829] p r e v e n t e d te g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . " B o t h S u l t a n M a h m u d I I (1808-1839) and; Sultan A b d u l h a m i d I I (1876-1909), the t w o o u t s t a n d i n g rul-i ers of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w h o a t t e m p t e d to r e f o r m the* e m p i r e ' s i n s t i t u t i o n s b y a d h e r i n g to the o l d O t t o m a n tradi-j tions of g o v e r n m e n t a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w e r e d e e p l v in>i v o l v e d i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g the p o p u l a t i o n ' surveys. They personally o r d e r e d the establishment of p o p u l a t i o n registers a n d s u p e r v i s e d the c o n d u c t of cen-' suses. T h e y l o o k e d u p o n the g a t h e r i n g of p o p u l a t i o n data, a n d all related m a t t e r s as m a j o r r e f o r m s l i k e l y to restore* s o u n d practices i n g o v e r n m e n t , s u c h as those o b t a i n i n g in the days of past g l o r y . :. 3
T h e census of 1828/29-1831 is c o m m o n l y k n o w n as the " f i r s t " census because t h a t is w h a t it w a s called i n the title of the b o o k b y Professor E n v e r Z i y a K a r a l i n w h i c h the' s u m m a r y of its results w a s first p u b l i s h e d ; Professor Karal t r a n s c r i b e d i n t o the L a t i n a l p h a b e t the contents of the regis* ter (defter) c o n t a i n i n g a c o n s o l i d a t e d a n d corrected sum m a r y of the results of t h a t c e n s u s . T h e essence of h u n d r e d s of i n d i v i d u a l registers p r o d u c e d by the census of ficials i n 1831 is c o n t a i n e d i n t h i s s u m m a r y register, known; as "1247 senesinde m e m a l i k - i m a h r u s e - i ş a h a n e d e mevcut n ü f u s d e f t e r i " [Register of the p o p u l a t i o n present i n tht 4
3. Tarih-i Liitfi, vol. 3, p. 142. 4. Osmanli imparatorluğunda Ilk Nüfus Sayimi 1831, General Directorate of Statistics Publication no. 195, Research Ser. no. 8i (Ankara, 1943). The author provided a succinct but informative introduction (translated i n Charles Issawi, The Economic History << j Turkey, 1800-1914 [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 19-22) and included, as well as the material from the register itself,' the consolidated list of the census tables of 1831 compiled by the". General Directorate of Statistics through the efforts of Celal Aybar, the general director, w h o was keenlv interested in Ottoman statii tics. ;
1. See Eton's A Survey of the Turkish Empire, 2d ed. (London, 1799); Urquhart's Turkey and Its Resources, Its Municipal Organization anil Free Trade (London, 1833); and Hassel's Statischer Umriss der Sämtlichen europäischen ( B r a u n s c h w e i g , 1805), Geographisch statistisches Handwörterbuch (Weimar, 1817), and Lehrbuch der Statis tik der europäischen Staaten (Weimar, 1822). 2. See Nikola V. Mikhov, Naseleniento na Turtsii i Bulgarii prez XVlll-XlX v., 5 vols. (Sofia, 1915-1968). ' . 18
n i
A l t h o u g h the census of 1831 has b e e n described as b e i n g the first one u n d e r t a k e n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , after a hiatus of almost t w o c e n t u r i e s , the accuracy of t h i s designa tion may be d o u b t e d : f i r s t , because the collection of taxes could not have been carried o u t w i t h o u t p o p u l a t i o n data of some sort; a n d s e c o n d , because c o r r e s p o n d e n c e e x c h a n g e d d u r i n g the p r e p a r a t i o n s for t h e census i m p l i e s o t h e r w i s e . The kaymakam paşa—that is, t h e o f f i c i a l at the Porte s u b s t i t u t i n g for the g r a n d v i z i e r a n d i n charge of c o r r e s p o n d ence—suggested to t h e s u l t a n t h a t one year m i g h t n o t be sufficient to c o m p l e t e the census, t h a t the p o p u l a t i o n o u g h t to be classified a c c o r d i n g to age, a n d t h a t the secrecy of the census o u g h t to be d o n e a w a y w i t h . O n the s u g g e s t i o n of Hüsamettin (the j u d g e of I z m i t a s s i g n e d to c o n d u c t the census i n K ü t a h y a ) , the kaymakam p r o p o s e d that a l l males below the age of e i g h t be classified as asgar (smallest), t h o s e between eight a n d f i f t e e n as sagir ( s m a l l ) , those b e t w e e n fifteen a n d f o r t y as şabbi-anrcd (beardless), those b e t w e e n fortv a n d sixty as sinni vusta ( m i d d l e aged), a n d those a b o v e sixty as pir (sage, o l d m e n ) . H e n o t e d t h a t " n o b o d y w i l l understand a n y t h i n g of t h i s . ' " T h i s m a y have b e e n a n a l l u sion to the n e w t e r m i n o l o g y d i f f e r i n g f r o m that u s e d b y t h e p o p u l a t i o n s p e a k i n g the v e r n a c u l a r T u r k i s h or to the cen sus itself as a n e w u n d e r t a k i n g . I n response to the sugges tion, Sultan M a h m u d I I h i m s e l f w r o t e a n g r i l y that the cen sus of R u m i l i ( R u m e l i a — E u r o p e a n side) a n d A n d o l u ( A n a tolia) was a m a t t e r d e s e r v i n g special a t t e n t i o n a n d care ( " d i k k a t ve i t i n a " ) a n d t h a t it s h o u l d n o t be c o n d u c t e d b y deviating f r o m the o l d m e t h o d ( " b u n u u s u l - u s a b i k a s i n d a n çikarmaga g e l m e z " ) . H e expressly o r d e r e d that each o f f i c i a l be i n s t r u c t e d t o c o n d u c t t h e c e n s u s b a s e d o n t h e o l d method ("usul-u sabika"). 6
8
The o l d m e t h o d r e f e r r e d to b y t h e s u l t a n w a s p r o b a b l y a classification that d i d n o t d i v i d e t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t o age groups b u t m e r e l y m e n t i o n e d t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y f o r m i l i t a r y service or tax p a y m e n t . O n the o t h e r h a n d , it m a y be t h a t
r
2
The " f i r s t " m o d e r n O t t o m a n census was c o n d u c t e d be g i n n i n g i n 1828/29 i n b o t h E u r o p e a n d A n a t o l i a , a l t h o u g h i t
19
T ] O N D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D T H E E V O L U T I O N OF O T T O M A N C E N S U S E S
5. IUKTV D-8/8867. Karal refers to this as being in the Istanbul "Üniversitesi Kütüphanesi, istatistik Defteri, B 29" (Osmanli impa ratorluğunda, p. 12, n. 6). Some other documents cited by Karal also appear now under different catalogue numbers in the Başbakanlık Arşivi; 1 have been unable to locate at all some population statistics for Kastamonu, probably because the document was recatalogued under a different number in a different section. Presumably the many discrepancies between Karal's references and the current catalogue numbers of these documents are the result of a reclas sification of the sources without reference to their old numbers. I give throughout this volume the current registration numbers of the sources. 6. BA (MH)(HH)'19217, " A b o u t the instructions to be issued for the officials w h o will conduct the census in Anatolia and R u m i l i , " possible date 1246 (1830). 7. ibid. 8. Ibid.
w h a t the s u l t a n w a s r e l u c t a n t to a b a n d o n w a s the t r a d i t i o n al O t t o m a n d i v i s i o n of the çiziye taxpayers i n t o three cate¬ gories a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r w e a l t h : ala ( g o o d ) , evsat (average), a n d cdna ( l o w ) . T h e three categories had been d e v i s e d i n order to achieve an equitable d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e tax b u r d e n . I n t h e past t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d r e p e a t e d l y r e f u s e d to accept o n e u n i f o r m çiziye tax, d e s p i t e the fact that this w o u l d have b r o u g h t m o r e r e v e n u e to the t r e a s u r y . T w o s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d o c u m e n t s g i v e e v i d e n c e of t h e o p p o s i t i o n to a single rate f o r the head tax: w h e n at one p o i n t the n u m b e r of çiziye taxpayers i n a l o c a l i t y decreased f r o m 2,956 to 2,450 f a m i l i e s , the g o v e r n m e n t refused to spread the loss over the r e m a i n i n g families by l e v y i n g a n equal (ales-scviye) a m o u n t o n each, regardless of differences i n w e a l t h , b u t r e t a i n e d i n s t e a d the three-layer system as b e i n g m o r e e q u i t a b l e ; a n d i n K a y s e r i the g o v e r n m e n t re f u s e d to c o m b i n e all three categories i n t o a single o n e desig nated ala ( h i g h e s t ) , o r d e r i n g t h a t the taxpayers be classified i n t o three categories as b e f o r e . It appears also t h a t t h e classification of a C h r i s t i a n i n one of the three tax categories w a s based o n h i s o w n d e c l a r a t i o n of w e a l t h before the local j u d g e (kadi) a n d the chief n o t a b l e (ayan), a l t h o u g h at t i m e s the g o v e r n m e n t asked the taxpayer to p r o v i d e a w i t n e s s or g u a r a n t o r (kefil) to s u p p o r t h i s d e c l a r a t i o n . I n a n y e v e n t , the fact t h a t i n 18'30 e v e r y b o d y , i n c l u d i n g the s u l t a n , k n e w of this " o l d m e t h o d " i n d i c a t e d t h a t , w h a t e v e r it w a s , it h a d been r e p e a t e d l y used i n a n o t t o o d i s t a n t past, a p p a r e n t l y i n census t a k i n g . 9
The p o p u l a t i o n office a n d the p o p u l a t i o n registers, w h i c h w e r e the p r e c u r s o r s of the s i m i l a r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e de vices i n the Balkans a n d the M i d d l e East, w e r e created i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1829 to 1831. A m e m o r a n d u m addressed by the Porte to the s u l t a n indicates t h a t registers c o n t a i n i n g the results of the census h a d b e g u n to a r r i v e i n t h e capital a n d that the m a i n t e n a n c e a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of these regis ters w a s a d i f f i c u l t a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g task, r e q u i r i n g t h e e m p l o y m e n t of a f u l l - t i m e o f f i c i a l assisted b y a n u m b e r of secretaries. T h e Porte suggested, a n d the s u l t a n agreed, that Sait E f e n d i , a m e m b e r of the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e offices of the Porte, be p l a c e d i n charge o f p o p u l a t i o n affairs, assisted by five to ten s e c r e t a r i e s . (This was a p r o m o t i o n for Sait, w h o was p a i d a n a n n u a l salary of 7,500 kuruş.) T h e n e w l y f o r m e d p o p u l a t i o n office w a s called the Registrar's O f f i c e , or O f f i c e for S u p e r v i s i o n of Registers (Defatir Nezareti). 10
The s u l t a n s u b s e q u e n t l y d e c l i n e d to a p p o i n t p o p u l a t i o n officials f o r all the kazas, as h a d already b e e n d o n e for the kazas of M a h m u t p a ş a a n d H a y r a b o l u . " H e f o u n d the idea generally acceptable b u t left the m a k i n g of the a p p o i n t ments to a later date w h e n p o p u l a t i o n registers for the entire r e a l m w o u l d be c o m p l e t e d , that is, u n t i l a p p r o x i m a t e l y one year later. The s u l t a n also expressed his objec9. These documents for the seventeenth century may be found in BA (KK)3508, dated 1101 (1698) and BA (M) 'Yenı ser. 769, dated 1092 (1681); both were supplied to me through the courtesy of Professor Halil İnalcık. 10. BA (MH)<(HH)'19210, possible date 1246 (1830). 11. Ibid., 19263, possible date 1246 (1830).
20
O T T O M A N - P O P U L A T I O N , lS30—19i4j P O P U L A T I O N D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D T H E E V O L U T I O N O F O T T O M A N
t i o n to the title C h i e f of Registers (Dcfatir Naziri) g i v e n to Sait E f e n d i , a n d he asked that the office be'Ceride Nezareti a n d that all p o p u l a t i o n registers be assembled t h e r e . (Dc fatir a n d ceride b o t h m e a n " r e g i s t e r s , " b u t ceride h a d at the t i m e a more m o d e r n c o n n o t a t i o n ; the census office was the Ceride-i Kaleni.) 1 2
T h e p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t r a t i o n svstem established i n 1829 f u n c t i o n e d fairlv r e g u l a r l y u n t i l a b o u t the b e g i n n i n g of the C r i m e a n W a r i n 1853 (at w h i c h t i m e t h e d r i v e f o r E u r o p e a n i z a t i o n led to the neglect of O t t o m a n i n s t i t u t i o n s in favor of E u r o p e a n m o d e l s ) . The p o p u l a t i o n officials i n the kazas w e r e r e q u i r e d to register all b i r t h s , deaths, a n d m i g r a t i o n s a n d to r e p o r t several times a year to the central office i n I s t a n b u l . T h e kaza w a s the m a i n u n i t of p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t r a t i o n (a s y s t e m s i m i l a r to that a d o p t e d i n 1881/82, to be discussed later). T h e s y s t e m p r o d u c e d a large n u m b e r — possibly a b o u t 2 1 , 0 0 0 — p o p u l a t i o n registers, t h u s g i v i n g a relatively g o o d i n d i c a t i o n of the size a n d c o m p o s i t i o n of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the early n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . 1 3
T h e census o f 1831 c o u n t e d o n l y males. Its p u r p o s e , a c c o r d i n g to the o f f i c i a l e x p l a n a t i o n , w a s to correct the tax inequities w h i c h h a d r e s u l t e d f r o m the c h a n g e i n p r o p e r t y values, f r o m transfers of l a n d a n d use of o l d l a n d deeds, a n d f r o m the c o n t i n u a t i o n of tax e x e m p t i o n s g i v e n i n the past to derbends f o r the m a i n t e n a n c e of roads a n d b r i d g e s n o w n o l o n g e r i n e x i s t e n c e . T h e g o v e r n m e n t also w a n t e d to d e t e r m i n e the n u m b e r of M u s l i m s e l i g i b l e f o r m i l i t a r y service a n d to reassess the çiziye. T h i s h e a d tax, l e v i e d o n n o n - M u s l i m s , u s u a l l y those b e t w e e n the ages of f i f t e e n a n d sixty, for m i l i t a r y p r o t e c t i o n , later came to be k n o w n as the iane-i askeriyye or bedelat-i askeriyye, t h a t is, the " d o n a t i o n " or " c o s t " i n lieu of m i l i t a r y service. I t is k n o w n t h a t S u l t a n M a h m u d I I p l a n n e d to use the r e v e n u e f r o m the çiziye to finance the m o d e r n a r m y w h i c h , after the a b o l i t i o n of the Janizaries i n 1826, became the m a i n s t a y of the O t t o m a n military. 14
The census was " s e c r e t . " Census officials w e r e r e c r u i t e d f r o m a m o n g j u d g e s a n d scholars, t h a t is, f r o m the p r e s t i gious r e l i g i o u s e s t a b l i s h m e n t , i n o r d e r to allay the s u s p i cions of the M u s l i m p u b l i c already t i r e d of l e n g t h y periods of m i l i t a r y service ( b e t w e e n 1774 a n d 1829 m a n y m e n , m o s t l y M u s l i m T u r k s , h a d to serve t w e n t y or m o r e years i n the a r m y ) a n d to i n s p i r e c o n f i d e n c e i n the r e s p o n d e n t s , so that t h e y w o u l d g i v e correct i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e i m p o r t a n c e attached to the census of 1831 is attested by the fact t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y e i g h t y - f i v e h i g h officials, assisted b y a n u m ber of secretaries, w e r e sent o u t i n t o the f i e l d ( A p p e n d i x
12. Ibid. 13. Of the individual population registers of 1831 only a few are presently available; see BA (KK)/6299, 6417, 6502, and 6505, and BA (C)»(D)8-321. It has been recently ascertained that there are some 21,000 population defters, with a two-volume index, in the Başbakanlik Arşivi—all as yet uncatalogued. A register for Ankara that was located and subjected to a careful analysis shows the usefulness of such data (see n. 24), and it is to be hoped that more of this material will become available soon. 14. See Karal, Osmanll imparatorluğunda, pp. 189-90.
21
CENSUSES
7 5 m i l l i o n , w h i c h w a s far b e l o w the actual n u m b e r T h e B . l f o l l o w i n g this c h a p t e r gives a p a r t i a l list of the o f f i c i a j t . , 9 1 H e a d Tax Rate Increase, 1804-1834 q u i t e substantial u n d e r c o u n t i n t h i s case w a s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o ible i- • i n v o l v e d i n the census e f f o r t ) . several factors. T h e one-year t i m e p e r i o d , g i v e n t h e i n e x Each census o f f i c i a l w a s a s s i g n e d a n u m b e r of kazasf perience of the officials, w a s e x c e p t i o n a l l y s h o r t , w h i l e he O n l y very general g u i d e l i n e s w e r e issued, a n d the c e n s u * territory to be c o v e r e d w a s e x t e n s i v e . It i s ' q u i t e clear that takers used v a r i o u s m e t h o d s i n their classification of the! f e w officials w e n t o u t to the v i l l a g e s or e v e n to the r e m o t e p o p u l a t i o n . The census register at o u r d i s p o s a l s h o w s thai] t o w n s ; t h u s it m u s t be said t h a t there w a s n o real a t t e m p t to the officials r e m a i n e d f a i t h f u l to the o l d , classical Ottoman: c o u n t a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t - p r o b a b l y close to 50 p e r c e n t - o f p r o c e d u r e , c l a s s i f y i n g the p o p u l a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to the reli-j the p o p u l a t i o n . I n Kars a n d A d a n a the c o u n t s w e r e respec g i o n as M u s l i m s , C h r i s t i a n s ( O r t h o d o x ) , A r m e n i a n s , Jews,: t i v e l y o n l y 19,741 a n d 92,619; these f i g u r e s are b y e v e r y a n d gypsies. T h e y also i n t r o d u c e d i n n o v a t i o n s dictated bvji n d i c a t i o n v e r y l o w . M o r e o v e r , t h e officials seemed to be •Dzizja ili Harac." Prilozi 5 (Sarajevo: Orienta! Institute, 1954-1955): 102. the specific p u r p o s e s of the census a n d s t e m m i n g as wel| Source: m o s t i n t e r e s t e d i n c o u n t i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n s as accurately as f r o m a certain awareness of l i n g u i s t i c differences. Muslims; possible i n v i e w of the i m p o r t a n c e the s u l t a n attached to w e r e classified i n g e n e r a l as matluba muvafık a n d matlubi. nitu criye, a n d t h i s w a s d u l y n o t e d b y t h e officials (The [ h e h e a d tax. D e s p i t e the g o v e r n m e n t ' s interest m k n o w i n g gayrimuvafik ("suitable to the p u r p o s e " a n d " u n s u i t a b l e tof " i was collected o n a p e r - h o u s e h o l d basis u n t i l late m the p o t e n t i a l n u m b e r of its s o l d i e r s , the officials a p p e a r e d the p u r p o s e , " i . e . , to m i l i t a r y service). Because of the lacltj ^ s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y despite t h e shariat's p r e s c r i p t i o n to have p a i d o n l y l i m i t e d a t t e n t i o n to the registration of of u n i f o r m p r o c e d u r e s , s o m e officials classified some of th£ hat this tax be an i n d i v i d u a l l e v y . I n 1691, h o w e v e r , p r o b M u s l i m s , f o r c o n s c r i p t i o n b a s e d o n the registers w a s h a r d l y M u s l i m s as w e l l as the C h r i s t i a n s a c c o r d i n g to age (1-12 o£ y because of the n e e d f o r m o r e r e v e n u e f o r the p r o s e c u a n established p r o c e d u r e . T h a t the census of 1831 d i d n o t 1-14; 12-40 or 14-40; 40 a n d above); o t h e r s s i m p l y dividedt f o n of the w a r w i t h the H a b s b u r g s , t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t h e serve the m i l i t a r y e n d s envisaged b y the g o v e r n m e n t ,s t h e m i n t o " y o u n g " a n d " o l d " ; a n d s t i l l others used clas-i diye r e v e r t e d to t h e o r i g i n a l Islamic p r i n c i p l e a n d w a s clearly i n d i c a t e d ' b y the fact t h a t t h i r t e e n years later, m sifications such as tuvana, sibyan, a n d amelmande ("strong/I levied i n d i v i d u a l l y . ) ' 1844 a n e w census w a s t a k e n u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of a " c h i l d r e n , " " r e t i r e d , incapable of w o r k " ) . I t is interesting! m i l i t a n - officer especially for the a r m y ' s p u r p o s e s . E v e n o m e cases t h e C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s w e r e m e n t i o n e d b y to note that i n s o m e areas s u c h as H i r s o v a a n d Kostenje in' t u a l l y ' i n 1855, general c o n s c r i p t i o n for M u s l i m s w a s i n t r o d r ethnic n a m e s . T h u s t h e B u l g a r i a n s (ta,fe-i Bulgarian D o b r u c a ( D o b r u j a ) t h e M u s l i m s w e r e r e f e r r e d to occa-r specifically m e n t i o n e d i n t h e census of Filibe ( p r e s e n t - d a y d u c e d i n A n a t o l i a a n d R u m i l i , t h a t is, i n the areas w h e r e s i o n a l l y b y t h e i r e t h n i c n a m e s (e.g., K a b a i l - i T a t a r a n ) , while! the M u s l i m s w e r e m o s t l y T u r k i s h . Plovdiv), as are the A r m e n i a n s ; special reference >s m a d e t o the gypsies (kipti) w e r e a l w a y s classified separately, w i t h a" the PauUcians ( P a v l i k i a n ) . T h e general n a m e f o r O r t h o d o x D e s p i t e t h e gross u n d e r c o u n t of M u s l i m s t h e figures c i t a t i o n also of t h e i r r e l i g i o n . Christians w a s reaya-z t e r m u s e d u n t i l t h e n i n e t e e n t h cen s h o w t h e m to have b e e n i n t h e m a j o r i t y i n the r e g i o n as a The C h r i s t i a n s , as p o i n t e d o u t a b o v e , w e r e d i v i d e d into tury to designate all the l a n d c u l t i v a t o r s regardless of t h e i r w h o l e ; C h r i s t i a n s are s h o w n as t h e m a j o r i t y m R u m i h , an categories a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r w e a l t h : g o o d (ala), m e d i u m of S o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s . Jews w e r e l i s t e d separately, as h a d area w h e r e t h e census of M u s l i m s w a s especially n o n r i g o r average (evsat), l o w (edna); a n d , occasionally, " i n c a p a b l e of: been the practice t h r o u g h o u t the p r e v i o u s c e n t u r i e s . o u s . Table 2.2 s h o w s the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n of w o r k " (amelmande—destitute, o l d , o r h a n d i c a p p e d and' A c c o r d i n g to the ( u n c o r r e c t e d ) census results t h e tota the p o p u l a t i o n . hence e x e m p t f r o m tax). C h i l d r e n w e r e n o t c o u n t e d . The male p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e O t t o m a n s t a t e m 1 8 3 1 w a s three m a i n çiziye categories h a d b e e n m a i n t a i n e d almosl 3 722 738 T h i s f i g u r e , i f d o u b l e d to g i v e a c o u n t i n c l u d i n g 18 See Faz.la Akbal, "1831 Tarihinde Osmanli İmparatorluğun f r o m the i n c e p t i o n of the O t t o m a n state. I n 1831 the tax da Idari Taksimat ve Nüfus," Belleten 15, no. 60 (1961): 628. There w o m e n , w o u l d p u t the t o t a l O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n at a b o u t rates w e r e 48, 24, a n d 12 kuruş, respectively, for the three « différences between Akbal's totals and those shown m the categories of w e a l t h , b u t s o o n a f t e r w a r d s t h e y w e r e raised statistical appendices (1.1), the appendix figures being based on 17 See Bruce McGowan, Economy life in Ottoman Europe (Lon recalculated totals for some areas and on corrected lists. b y 20 percent to p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l r e v e n u e for the sultan's, don and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p p . 80-82. m o d e r n a r m y . H a m i d H a d z i b e g i c indicates that the ratesr began to c l i m b s h o r t l y after the t u r n of the c e n t u r y a n d that the increases became p r o g r e s s i v e l y greater t h r o u g h o u t the first t h i r d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y (see Table 2 . 1 ) . Table 2.2. R e l i g i o u s D i s t r i b u t i o n nf the O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n , 1831 T h e r e is no d o u b t t h a t at t h i s date the h e a d tax was Armenians Jews Muslims Christians _ Gypsies_ g e n e r a l l y p a i d i n d i v i d u a l l y (neferen), r a t h e r t h a n as one' Total Number Number Administrative % l u m p s u m l e v i e d u p o n a c o m m u n i t y (maktu), a system thai Number % Number Number District h a d been w i d e l y u s e d before a n d w a s also used afterwards; 751.448 0.0005 368 0.01 b u t there w e r e a f e w places i n A n a t o l i a that still p a i d a Rumıli 7,780 0 02 20.313 0.67 505,760 537.774 0.004 0.29 1.755 217.227 0.005 (Rumelia) 2,353 0.015 8,151 0.47 251.579 1.188.961 0.003 0 51 3.727 273.936 0.001 Silistre 1,361 0.0004 485 0.11 15. For example, the Muslims of Petriç were registered in three 138.463 320.473 0.87 1.044.925 Anatolia 0.0001 60 0.15 49,593 - 263.403 categories: ihtiyaran (old), of w h o m there were 1,088; the 12 to 48 0.84 270,820 Sivas 92.619 0.13 34,461 age group, which numbered 1,255; and sibyan (children under 12), 0.03 0.87 228,942 2.826 Karaman 0.06 5.865 0.03 2.762 0.88 numbering 1,550. 81,166 Adana 136.550 16. "Dzizja i l i Harac," Prilozi 5 (Sarajevo: Oriental Institute, Trabzon 0.08 19,741 11,431 0.10 0.92 125.119 2.161 1954-1955): 102. It is interesting that as early as the sixteenth cerr. (Trebızond) 78.773 0.062 0 90 17,580 4,887 0.004 Kars fury the well-known şeyhülislam Ibn Suud, w h o played an impor 318 0 002 191 0.002 105 0 93 73,272 Çildir tant role in bringing Ottoman legislation into conformity with Is-; Cezayir-1 Bahrı-i lamic law, declared that the cızıye should be 48 kuruş for the rich, 24 332.996 0.01 3.142 0 01 Sefid (Aegean 3.659 0 002 910 for the middle class, .and 12 for the poor; see Budin Kanunname» 0.53 176.531 0.44 148.754 Islands) 3.722.738 0 005 18.866 0.004 (Istanbul, 1973), p. 84. A detailed study of the çiziye l e w is in 15.471 0 01 35.975 0.31 1,170.685 0 66 '2,481.741 Cevdet Küçük, "Tanzimat 'in Ilk Yillarinda Erzurum ' u n Çiziye Tota! ^ ^ ^ ^ Nutus. Be**, 15, no 60 (1961): 628 F,ures bave been rounoeo 0,1, Geliri ve Reaya Nüfusu," Tarih Dergisi 31 (1977): 199-234. Source: F a b
1
l D
I n
S
t h
!
1 8
16
(
22
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
There is no q u e s t i o n b u t t h a t the size of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n was rather l i m i t e d , b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y b e l o w the n u m b e r necessary for a viable e c o n o m y a n d defense. (Today a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 m i l l i o n people live i n the area subject to the census i n 1831.) H o w e v e r , s t u d e n t s f a m i l i a r w i t h the p o p u l a t i o n of the Balkans d u r i n g this p e r i o d have g i v e n m u c h h i g h e r figures t h a n the census of 1831. U r q u h a r t , w h o was b y far the best i n f o r m e d s t u d e n t of O t t o m a n affairs, had the f o l l o w i n g to sav a b o u t the g o v e r n m e n t ' s efforts to collect statistical i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a b o u t the size of the B a l k a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the 1830s: Previous to the last Russian w a r [1828] the Porte e n t e r t a i n e d the m o s t extravagant n o t i o n s as to the p o p u l a t i o n of the c o u n t r y . I t t r u s t e d to its o l d registers or a d m i t t e d i n s c r u p u l o u s l y the s w o l l e n estimates. . . . But the passage of the Balkans has q u i c k e n e d their sight, and awakened energy w i t h apprehension, statistical details have b e e n d e m a n d e d t h r o u g h o u t the w h o l e c o u n t r y , a n d these can easily be collected f r o m the m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . T h e g o v e r n o r s a n d pashas of late a p p o i n t m e n t . . . seem to have taken u p statistics w i t h s p i r i t . I can bear t e s t i m o n y to the readiness w i t h w h i c h t h e y have c o m m u n i c a t e d to me all the i n f o r m a t i o n they themselves p o s s e s s e d . 19
rang of the n i m - t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A large n u m b e r of Chris tians apparently- w e r e n o t p a y i n g the head tax at a l l , f o they d i d not possess the c u s t o m a r y receipts. The majorityof C h r i s t i a n s M-cmed to have possessed e n o u g h p r o p e r t y to place t h e m i n tl„. evsat category, that is, the m i d d l e range of taxpayers. A i . , l , | s h o w i n g the tax status of C h r i s t i a n s in various kazas in K u m i l i is i n c l u d e d as A p p e n d i x B.2 follow i n g this chapU-i. It is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t the p r o p o r t i o n of the Chris tians i n the three çiziye categories r e m a i n e d m o r e or less constant. H a d / i b e g i c calculated t h a t t h r o u g h o u t the eight-i eenth a n d i n t . . the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the ala com-i p r i s e d r o u g h l y 7.5 to 8 percent of the C h r i s t i a n s ; the evsat,\ 65 to 68 percent,- a n d the edna, 24 to 27.5 p e r c e n t . j
Table 2.4.
amount appears to be r a t h e r l o w , despite change i n t h e
r
c
v a
|
u e
of the c u r r e n c y .
The s u m m a r y register of 1831 c o n t a i n s also a v a r i e t y of information o n the n a m e s of tribes a n d t h e i r s u b d i v i s i o n s , the n u m b e r of i m m i g r a n t s a n d seasonal w o r k e r s , the n u m ber of houses a n d l a n d estates i n a knza, the n u m b e r of fcllahin as d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m A r a b s ( i n Tarsus), a n d the like. I n s u m , the census of 1831 ( r e p r o d u c e d i n t h e statisti cal appendices 1.1) is an e x c e p t i o n a l l y v a l u a b l e q u a n t i t a t i v e source for t h e s t u d y of O t t o m a n social h i s t o r y , a n d it de serves far m o r e a t t e n t i o n t h a t h i t h e r t o g i v e n i t .
The true size , ,f the h e a d tax a n d its relative i m p a c t can bet A p p a r e n t l y o n the basis of t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a n d o t h e r ascertained o n l y if w e k n o w - t h e a n n u a l i n c o m e a n d the j sources U r q u h a r t gave the p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s f o r the Bal a m o u n t of p r o p e r t y o w n e d b y the taxpayers o f each cate-i k a n s ( a d j u s t e d a c c o r d i n g to r e l i g i o n a n d e t h n i c o r i g i n ) g o r y . T h i s is i n d e e d essential if the social effect is to bès h o w n i n Table 2 . 3 . d e t e r m i n e d at a l l . T h e s u m m a r y results of the census for) 1831 d o n o t c o n t a i n a n y i n f o r m a t i o n o n the subject. There! Table 2.3. P o p u l a t i o n of O t t o m a n B a l k a n T e r r i t o r i e s , 1831 are, h o w e v e r , ,, n u m b e r of i n d i c a t o r s w h i c h s h o u l d p e r m i t j Muslims Christians one to f o r m an o p i n i o n a b o u t the relative b u r d e n of the; Turks 700.000 Greeks (excluding çiziye. T h e r e s u l t s of a s t u d y c o n d u c t e d i n Bulgaria are! Albanians 1,066,000 Greece) 1,180,000 rather suggestive. T h i s s t u d y concerns the economic status} Bosnians, Tuleman Slavs 4,000,000 of the B u l g a r i . i l , peasants i n the 1870s; h o w e v e r , one can! 2,000,000 Pomaks Albanians 530,000 Vlahs 600,000 say that the s i t u a t i o n i n the 1830s, a l t h o u g h a d m i t t e d l y less, Total Muslims 3,766,000 Total Christians 6,310,000 favorable, c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n too d i f f e r e n t f r o m the pre-i v a i l i n g some f o r t y years later. A c c o r d i n g to L . Berov andj Others (Jews. N i k o l a i T o d o r o y , peasants possessing u p to 30 dönüms (one: Armenians, etc.) 600,000 dönüm b e i n g - , | i 919.3 meters) of l a n d were 6,910,000 considered " p o o r " ; t h o s e possessing 31 to 100 dönüms were] c o n s i d e r e d " m i d d l e " or " a v e r a g e " ; a n d those possessing! GRAND TOTAL 101 to 150i/o)iK.'.. s w e r e d e e m e d " r i c h . " T h e average income i 10,676,000 w.ı„ c a l c u l a t e d to be 54 kuruş (12.9 French Source: David Urquhart, Turkey and Its Resources, Its Municipal Organization and p e r dönüm francs). C o n s e q u e n t l y , the average a n n u a l i n c o m e of a poor Free Trade (London, 1833), pp. 272-73, peasant was a b o u t 700 kuruş; of the average peasant, 700 to2,000 kuruş; a u | f the r i c h f a r m e r , 2,000 to 3,750 kuruş. It is h i g h l y desirable t h a t the census of 1831 be s t u d i e d The three categories d e f i n e d b y the B u l g a r i a n scholars were f u r t h e r i n o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e the extent of the r u r a l area n o t the same , , those u s e d for çiziye p u r p o s e s ; neverthe that r e m a i n e d u n c o u n t e d a n d the reasons f o r t h i s neglect. less, if the tot.,! a n n u a l i n c o m e of the C h r i s t i a n s i n all the T h i s can be a c h i e v e d o n l y after the c o m p l e t e registers for at three categories i c o m p a r e d to t h e tax p a i d , the latter' least f i f t e e n or t w e n t y kazas are located a n d p r o p e r l y cata logued. 21. "Dzizja ill Harac," p. 42, no. 1. T h e census register f o r 1831, i n a d d i t i o n to the n u m e r i c a l 22. O n the b.i, kground of the çiziye, see Encyclopedia of Islam, information on various religious and ethnic groups, pro new ed., s.v. " I 'l^-va"; for the practice in the Ottoman era, see the vides excellent i n s i g h t s i n t o the social, e c o n o m i c , a n d c u l section written K Halil inalcık. t u r a l characteristics of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n at the b e g i n 23. The figurcv supported by extensive bibliographical data, are cited in Slavka lYaganova., "Différenciation de fortune dans les 19. Turkey and Its Resources, pp. 271-72. village de la B u l , j nord-est durant les années 60 et 70 du 20. Ibid./pp. 272-73. X I X siècle," Hu: n Historical Review, no. 2 (1980): 68-70. 20
Istanbul Thrace Bulgaria Bosnia Albania Macedonia Thessaly and Epirus Livadia Morea Crete Other (inc. Islands)
2 4
Estimates o f t h e O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n f r o m 1831 to 1853
7.990,000
Total
The size of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e w a s t h e
B. By Composition
subject of n u m e r o u s estimates after the census results be came available a n d , a p p a r e n t l y , l e f t m o s t of the i n t e r e s t e d
Ethnic-Religious Composition
parties d i s s a t i s f i e d . Table 2.4 gives t h e average f i g u r e s f r o m
a n u m b e r of these estimates; Serbia ( p o p u l a t i o n 95,000) a n d Wallachia a n d M o l d a v i a ( p o p u l a t i o n 1,500,000) are
ex
cluded. The d i f f e r e n c e of a b o u t 1.2 m i l l i o n b e t w e e n the t w o totals in Table 2.4 p r o b a b l y stems f r o m the fact t h a t t h e f i g u r e s not b r o k e n d o w n i n t o e t h n o - r e l i g i o u s categories are esti mates f o r t h e b e g i n n i n g of the c e n t u r y , w h i l e the others describe t h e s i t u a t i o n i n the 1830s. B o t h sets of f i g u r e s underestimate the E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n (as a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the m u c h m o r e reliable f i g u r e s c o v e r i n g the p e r i o d after 1882 clearly reveals). Estimates of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of the A s i a n a n d A f r i c a n p r o v i n c e s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d r a n g e d f r o m 6 to 15 m i l l i o n . T h u s the estimates of t o t a l O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g the e a r l y p a r t of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y varied f r o m 14 m i l l i o n to 23 m i l l i o n . By all accounts, t h e highest of the f i g u r e s u n d e r e s t i m a t e d the total b y 10 to 12 million.
Total Christians Greeks Slavs (mainly Bulgarians) Albanians Vlahs Armenians Total
6
24. A great deal of information may be gleaned from some of the 1831 census registers. Musa Çadirci points out in a detailed study of one of the basic registers, namely the census register for Ankara, that some of the vilayet censuses in 183031 included extensive information about the age, occupation, religion, and even the geographic origin of the respondents. Studies of the individual defters for the entire realm similar to the register for Ankara would indicate the age and occupational structure of the Ottoman popula tion at that time; see "1830 Genel Sayimina göre Ankara şehir
Average Figure 1,700,000 1,000.000 1,100,000 200.000 4,000.000
N e w i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n became available after the census i n 1844. T h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n ment a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t p u b l i s h the results of t h i s i m p o r tant census, a n d t h e archives h a v e n o t yet y i e l d e d a n y re lated statistical m a t e r i a l ; f o r t u n a t e l y , U b i c i n i a n d E u g è n e Boré seemed to have h a d access to these f i g u r e s . U b i c i n i , i n his s u m m a r y of t h e census results, c l a i m e d that h i s p o p u l a tion tables " i f n o t r i g o r o u s l y exact . . . are at least as correct as it w a s possible to r e n d e r t h e m . T h e y are c o m p i l e d f r o m the general census t a k e n i n 1844 t h r o u g h o u t the e m p i r e , w h e n Riza Pasha, the M i n i s t e r of W a r , u n d e r t o o k to re organize t h e a r m y b y a l t e r i n g t h e m e t h o d of r e c r u i t i n g . " -
s
e
P o p u l a t i o n of O t t o m a n T e r r i t o r i e s i n E u r o p e , 1820-1840 A. iy Province
21
The a m o u n t <>f the çiziye w a s t h e o r e t i c a l l y the equivalent! of one dirham , , f s i l v e r , as d e c r e e d i n the early Islamic] l a y v s . " C h r i s t i a n s i n the ala category w e r e p a y i n g approx-j innately the e q u i v a l e n t of o n e dirham, w h i l e the others paid) less—an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n a d h e r e n c e to Islamicl practices. M a l u n u d I I , w h o raised the rate several times! d u r i n g his t e n u r e , c l a i m e d t h a t he d i d so because the cur-j rency h a d become d e b a s e d i n v a l u e a n d t h a t i n real termsj the tax r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t . j
23
POPULATION D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D T H E E V O L U T I O N OF O T T O M A N CENSUSES
9,16.0,000
Source: Compiled from statistics given in E. Akarli, "Ottoman Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territorial. Racial, and Religious Composition" (M A. thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. 1970) and from various documents. merkezi nüfusu üzerinde bir araştirma," journal of Ottoman Studies 1 (1980): 109-32. 25. For a compilation of statistics from sixteen major sources on the Ottoman population, see Engin Akarli, "Ottoman Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territorial, Racial, and Religious Composition" ( M . A . thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1970). A m i Boué, w h o gave extensive statistical information of his own, placed the total Ottoman population at about 15 million (of whom 11.5 million were in Europe) and gave the total number of Turks in Europe as 700,000 and of Slavs, as over 7 million; see La Turquie d'Europe (Paris, 1840). 26. Letters on Turkey, trans. Lady Easthope (London, 1856; re print ed.. New York; Arno Press, 1973), pp. 23-24; see also Eugène Boré, Almanach de l'Empire ottoman pour l'année 1849'1850 (Constan tinople, 1849 -50), and A. Yiquesnel, Voyage dans la Turquie d'Europe (Paris, 186S). For the census order, see "Traduction d'un mémor andum de la Sublime-Porte, adressé aux missions étrangères à Constantinople, et relatif au recensement général décrété par S. Hautesse," Le Moniteur universel, no. 248 (4 September 1844).
24
OTTOMAN POPULATION,
A c t u a l l y the census that was started i n 1844 c o n t i n u e d w e l l b e v o n d that date, for the g o v e r n m e n t t r i e d also to c o u n t the n o m a d i c tribes, a p p o i n t i n g census officials i n the vilayets of A y d i n a n d M e n t e ş e i n 1851 a n d m a k i n g efforts to e x p a n d f u r t h e r the census t a k e n i n C y p r u s i n 1857. The census of the n o m a d i c tribes i n these t w o p r o v i n c e s was carried o u t by a r m y officers b e l o n g i n g to the u n i t s s t a t i o n e d i n the a r e a . ' It appears f r o m o f f i c i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e that the cen sus of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n C y p r u s was c o n c l u d e d b y 1861 a n d that a census of the n o n - M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n was o r d e r e d i n 1862, w i t h the p u r p o s e of r e f o r m i n g the tax system. The census of the n o n - M u s l i m s was c a r r i e d o u t by f o u r teams, each c o n s i s t i n g of one M u s l i m a n d one C h r i s tian o f f i c i a l p l u s a secretary. It was expected that the census of the n o n - M u s l i m s l i v i n g i n villages a n d t o w n s w o u l d take f o u r to f i v e m o n t h s . T h e Porte d e b a t e d at l e n g t h w h e t h e r the expenses of the census s h o u l d be c o v e r e d f r o m the general treasury, raised t h r o u g h a tax l e v y of one kuruş per p e r s o n , or d e d u c t e d f r o m t h e a n n u a l tax collected f r o m Cyprus. ,
m o n o p o l i z e the i n t e r n a l a n d external t r a d e , as w e l l as the n e w l y created professions. T h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l shift w o r k e d to the d e t r i m e n t of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n , w h i c h became the a g r i c u l t u r a l sector of the e m e r g i n g capitalist o r d e r . In general the M u s l i m s m a n a g e d to r e t a i n t h e i r h o l d o n the l a n d ; b u t even there the s i t u a t i o n became precarious, be cause m a n y b i g l a n d o w n e r s — a s w e l l as the s m a l l farmers w h o were w i t h o u t legal p r o t e c t i o n against usurers, often n o n - M u s l i m s — b e g a n to sell t h e i r l a n d to the C h r i s t i a n s . C o n t r a r y to a v a r i e t y of u n i n f o r m e d o p i n i o n s , the eco n o m i c status of the C h r i s t i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the Bulgarians, i m p r o v e d r a p i d l y after the 1830s, a n d especially d u r i n g the; 1850s, thanks to special p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s created at first by the T a n z i m a t r e f o r m s i n 1839 a n d t h e n r e i n f o r c e d b y the F e r m a n of 1856. T h e e c o n o m i c i m p r o v e m e n t experienced by v a r i o u s C h r i s t i a n e t h n i c g r o u p s w a s a c c o m p a n i e d by v i t a ! c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e s t h a t increased their n a t i o n a l consciousness, as clearly i n d i c a t e d b y the estab l i s h m e n t of n a t i o n a l c h u r c h e s a n d t h e e m e r g e n c e of nationalist m o v e m e n t s (see C h a p t e r 3).
U b i c i n i r e p r o d u c e d the results of the O t t o m a n census w i t h a p p a r e n t l y o n l y m i n o r a d j u s t m e n t s . H e was the chief source for m a n y O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n studies t h a t i n t u r n s u p p l i e d m a t e r i a l for. o t h e r s t u d i e s . H i s figures have been used, intact or w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n , b y a v a r i e t y of peo ple r a n g i n g f r o m the B r i t i s h c o n s u l a r agents (an exact re p r o d u c t i o n appears i n t h e H o u s e of C o m m o n s Accounts and Papers of 1860) to J. L . Farley, E m i l e Isambert, Sir James Porter, H . v o n B o e h n , F. W . R e d e n , E. H . M i c h e l s e n , C. M o l b e c k , a n d others w h o s e w o r k s s e r v e d as sources of i n f o r m a t i o n for a v a r i e t y of almanacs a n d o t h e r p o p u l a r p u b l i c a t i o n s . T h e results of t h e census of 1844, as p u b l i s h e d by U b i c i n i a n d Bore, w e r e c r i t i c i z e d b y some Europeans as b e i n g p a r t i a l to M u s l i m s , a l t h o u g h Bore, i n fact, exagger a t e d the n u m b e r of Slavs w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g the n u m b e r of T u r k s . ( U b i c i n i ' s figures are r e p r o d u c e d i n the statistical appendices, 1.2.)
T h e census of 1866 i n T u n a ( D a n u b e ) P r o v i n c e (a partial census was carried o u t also i n Iraq) w a s r e q u i r e d because of the p r o f o u n d changes w h i c h h a d t a k e n place i n the ethnic,: religious, economic, a n d social c o m p o s i t i o n of t h i s vital area. T u n a P r o v i n c e w a s c o m p r i s e d o f R u s ç u k , V i d i n , Sofia, T i r n o v a , V a r n a ( n o r t h e r n B u l g a r i a ) , Niş (Serbia), a n d Tulça ( D o b r u c a - R o m a n i a ) . C a r r i e d o u t o v e r the p e r i o d f r o m 1866 to 1873 u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of M i t h a t Paşa, the gov e r n o r , this census was p r o b a b l y the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e of all O t t o m a n censuses, r e g i s t e r i n g t h e o c c u p a t i o n s a n d properties of the r e s p o n d e n t s i n a d d i t i o n to the usual data ( a l t h o u g h females still w e r e n o t r e g i s t e r e d ) . M u l t i p l e regis ters w e r e u s e d , a n d these e v e n t u a l l y w e r e r e d u c e d to a single one. O f f i c i a l s w e n t f r o m house to h o u s e to note the n u m b e r of people i n a h o u s e h o l d , t h e i r ages, m a r i t a l status, occupations, a n d real estate h o l d i n g s . Special lists i n d i c a t e d the n u m b e r of h o u s e h o l d h e a d s , t h e i r real estate h o l d i n g s a n d r e n t s , t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n s , a n d t h e i r t o t a l incomes. A l l these data w e r e s u m m a r i z e d i n s t i l l o t h e r lists s h o w i n g the total n u m b e r of the taxable p o p u l a t i o n a n d its ethnic com p o s i t i o n , the n u m b e r of d w e l l i n g s , the t o t a l i n c o m e of the p o p u l a t i o n , the t o t a l v a l u e o f real estate, a n d the a m o u n t of tax collected. O n e of the p u r p o s e s of t h e census of 1866 was to issue to all O t t o m a n subjects a tezkere-i osmaniyye, or O t t o m a n i d e n t i t y c a r d , w h i c h c o u l d t h e n be u s e d to register changes i n a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s status. P r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e made to p r i n t a n d d i s t r i b u t e 5 m i l l i o n c a r d i n the T u n a vilayet a n d , i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of a c o u n t r y w i d e census, a n o t h e r 15 m i l l i o n for the rest of the r e a l m .
2
2 8
The T u n a Province Census and P o p u l a t i o n Statistics to 1878 T h e r e l i g i o u s - e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the Balkans became a n i m p o r t a n t issue after the Islahat Fenuani was i s s u e d i n 1856. The chief p u r p o s e of this edict p r e p a r e d b y E u r o p e a n p o w e r s was to i n t r o d u c e " r e f o r m s " for the b e n e f i t o f t h e n o n - M u s l i m subjects of the Porte; i n fact, t h e edict accelerated the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a capitalist e c o n o m y a m o n g t h e n o n - M u s l i m s a n d p r e p a r e d the g r o u n d for the e m e r g e n c e of the n e w e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l g r o u p s w h i c h , as w a s m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r 1 , began to 27. See BA (I)/(D)/14855, letter of 7 Safer 1268 (2 December 1851); see also Felix Philipp Kanitz, Donau-Bulgarien and der Balkan, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1875), and La Bulgarie danubienne et le Balkan: Etudes de voyages, 1860-18S0 (Paris, 1862). 28. See BA (I)/MV)/21366, letter of 28 Safer 1279 (25 August 1862).
25
1830-1914
The i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s census m a t e r i a l is so a m p l e a n d u n i q u e as to m a k e it a p r i m a r y source o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n the social a n d d e m o g r a p h i c h i s t o r y o f the E u r o p e a n posses- : sions of the O t t o m a n s t a t e . Professor N i c o l a i T o d o r o v , a m e m b e r of the B u l g a r i a n A c a d e m y , w h o w a s the first to use 29
,, po
A T I 0
N D I S T R I B U T E AND THE EVOLUTION OE OTTOMAN CENSUSES Table 2.6. P o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n State A c c o r d i n g to
p U
S a l a h e d d i n Bev (1867)
,< m a t e r i a l i n d e t a i l , i n c o n d u c t i n g h i s s t u d y of the *i6Cen Zand t h e i r social s t r u c t u r e , has e x p l i c i t l y ac* Tic t v a l u e a n d r e l i a b i l i t y . * A succinct s u m m a r y ' ^ i î l c n s ù s d ta for T u n a P r o v i n c e is g i v e n ir, Table ° * n t f . r o m t h e T u n a P r o v i n c e y e a r b o o k s of 1869 a n d ^ n c l u d e d n t h e statistical a p p e n d i c e s , 1.3 4, a n d „ t h a t t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of t h e D a n u b e p r o v -> o >Tr T m l n o n p'eorple; a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e , of the o r i g i n a l s u r v e y s c o u l d y i e l d a d d i t i o n a l clues •f K 4 at n w e accurate ( a n d p o s s i b l y h i g h e r ) f i g u r e s £ * e w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n of t h i s i m p o r t a n t p r o v i n c e . l
k
a
Europe Edirne (including Istanbul) Danube (Bulgaria) Prezerin, Tirhala, Rumelia Bosnia Yanina and Salonica Islands, including Crete but not Cyprus
f
1 8 7 4
3
l t i S
a
C
e
i n C e
a
T a b l r ^ J ^ g u ^ ^ Number ot Villages 833 391 434 711 453 252 549
of 1285 (1868) and c e n s u s ^ « e » Hie no, Tthe Oriental Section of the National Library of Bulgana m Soda.
5.050.000 40,000,000
GRAND TOTAL nnivu lu"-"-
3,160,000
80,000
5,050,1
——
Source: Salaheddin Bey, La lur uie a imposition un.erseiie de 1867 (Paris. 1867), Q
pp. 210-14.
d S d ,0
o n l y s l i g h t l y f r o m .he ( i r s . se. o f
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z
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29. See the Tuna Vilayet Salname of 1285 (1868); the census material, under the serial number PC 79/8, is found in the Oriental Section of the National Library of Bulgaria i n Sofia. T , I , « m U t M n l ' s own noi.s . o p ™ " ' ? » ™ r i S n , b Î i n « , d o- = H „ * „ . o d c o d i n g « M 8
blamed the Ottomans.
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B,ys »
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26
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N , 1830-1914
Jews;- Y a k s h i t y c l a i m e d that he had w o r k e d w i t h i n f o r m a tion and documents obtained directly f r o m O t t o m a n ad m i n i s t r a t o r s i n E u r o p e . E. G . Rayenstein, the E n g l i s h stat istician, u s i n g the m a i n l i t e r a t u r e available at the t i m e , gave the total p o p u l a t i o n of E u r o p e a n T u r k e y as 9,561,000 (ex c l u d i n g the a r m y ) a n d t h a t of Asia ( i n c l u d i n g the A r a b i c s p e a k i n g areas) as 6,4S3,000, to make a total of 16,325,868 for the e n t i r e ' r e a l m . 14
3 3
M o r e c o m p l e t e a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h a n the t a b u l a t i o n of S a l a h e d d i n Bey w a s the w o r k of A . Ritter z u r H e l l e v o n Samo, the A u s t r i a n m i l i t a r y attaché i n I s t a n b u l , w h o c o m p i l e d a series of statistics based o n the O t t o m a n p r o v i n c i a l yearbooks for 1871-1876. H i s w o r k stands as s o m e of the best of its k i n d , n o t o n l y f o r its critical h a n d l i n g of the data i n the saluâmes a n d o t h e r sources b u t also f o r its b r o a d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d p e o p l e s . H e l l e v o n Sa mo's statistics f o r 1872 a n d 1874 are r e p r o d u c e d i n the statistical appendices (1.6). T h e p o p u l a t i o n statistics of 1844 s h o u l d be read i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h these figures, w h i c h g i v e the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n e m p i r e as 40,512,111. 36
E v a l u a t i o n of O t t o m a n Censuses a n d Statistics o f 1831-1878 O n e can c o n t i n u e f o r m a n y pages c i t i n g a u t h o r s w h o s h o w e d great interest i n the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1865 to 1878. D u r i n g those years the O t t o m a n state a n d Russia a n d , as w e l l , the E u r o p e a n p o w e r s that s t o o d r e a d y to e x p l o i t w h a t Russia h a d secured b y the s w o r d , w e r e fast a p p r o a c h i n g a s h o w d o w n i n the Balkans. The o u t c o m e w a s to d e p e n d o n the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s allegiances of the p o p u l a t i o n . A s was p o i n t e d o u t i n C h a p ter 1 , at the I s t a n b u l c o n f e r e n c e of D e c e m b e r 1876 the e t h n i c - r e l i g i o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n of the B a l k a n p o p u l a t i o n h a d already become the basis f o r p r o p o s e d " r e f o r m s , " i n c l u d i n g a u t o n o m y for the v a r i o u s e t h n i c g r o u p s . A t t h a t confer ence the R u s s i a n delegates p r o d u c e d p o p u l a t i o n tables compiled by "expert statisticians," including Heinrich K i e p e r t , w h o , it t u r n e d o u t , h a d c o m p i l e d his statistics strictly i n accordance w i t h Russian w i s h e s . These Russians p o n s o r e d statistics p u r p o r t e d to s h o w t h a t m o s t of the eastern a n d central p a r t of the B a l k a n p e n i n s u l a was i n h a b i t e d by B u l g a r i a n s , t h u s s u p p o r t i n g a n d l e g i t i m i z i n g the Russian e f f o r t to establish a large B u l g a r i a n state b o r d e r i n g o n the Aegean Sea. T h i s p o l i t i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n of d e m o g r a p h i c a n d e t h n o -
34. First published by Ernst Behm and H . Wagner, Die Bevölker ung der Erde (Gotha, 1874); see also later editions of this work, which are numerous. 35. "The Populations of Russia and T u r k e y , " journal of the Royal Statistical Soclet}/ 40 (1877): 449. 36. See Die Volker des osmanischen Reiches (Vienna, 1877) and Dus Vdajet der Inselen das Weissen Meeres, das Priviligirte Beylik Santos(Syssain), und das selbständige Mutessarflik Cypren (Kybris) (Vienna 1878).
g r a p h i c data h a d a r a t h e r b e n e f i c i a l effect o n O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n studies. P r i m a r i l y the Greeks, b u t also Alba nians a n d o t h e r M u s l i m s w h o felt t h r e a t e n e d bv the pros pect of i n c l u s i o n i n a G r e a t e r Bulgaria-, e n g a g e d in a frantic r e b u t t a l of the Russian a n d B u l g a r i a n figures t h r o u g h the p u b l i c a t i o n of their o w n p o p u l a t i o n statistics. E n g l a n d , s u p p o r t e r of the G r e e k s , came to the rescue, delegating several of her officers t r a i n e d i n c a r t o g r a p h y to conduct field i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a m o n g the p o p u l a t i o n of the Balkans. The reports of these officers, a l t h o u g h t e n d i n g to t h r o w l i g h t o n the e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of s o m e areas i n the Bal kans, are too n u m e r o u s a n d too i n c o m p l e t e to be of use for this s t u d y . H o w e v e r , at the B e r l i n C o n g r e s s i n 1878 Eng l a n d used these r e p o r t s o n t h e p o p u l a t i o n c o m p o s i t i o n of the Balkans i n her a r g u m e n t i n f a v o r of l i m i t i n g Bulgaria's t e r r i t o r y a n d w a s s u c c e s s f u l i n g e t t i n g M a c e d o n i a and Thrace ( g i v e n to B u l g a r i a u n d e r the San Stefano treaty s i g n e d j u s t three m o n t h s earlier) d e t a c h e d f r o m the new state. a
B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n censuses taken i n the last q u a r t e r o f the c e n t u r y , i t is essential to elucidate the inconsistencies i n v a r i o u s p o p u l a t i o n figures issued i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1844 to 1878. L e a v i n g aside a great n u m b e r of w o r k s o n the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n p u b l i s h e d f r o m 1860 to 1 8 7 8 , o n e can d i v i d e the tabulations a n d the o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d b y t h e c o m p i l e r s i n t o t w o g r o u p s , w h i c h I call minimalist a n d maximalist. The m i n i m a l ist g r o u p i n c l u d e s p r a c t i c a l l y all of the O t t o m a n i m p e r i a l a n d p r o v i n c i a l y e a r b o o k s a n d t h e t a b u l a t i o n s based on t h e m , s u c h as those of U b i c i n i , Y a k s h i t y , K u t s c h e r a ( w h o was A u s t r i a n c o n s u l i n R u s ç u k ) , H e l l e v o n Samo, Synvet, Steinhouser, a n d o t h e r s . These E u r o p e a n m i n i m a l i s t s , it m u s t be e m p h a s i z e d , i n c l u d e d the l e a d i n g experts o n the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n , scholars w h o accepted the data i n the saluâmes a n d o t h e r o f f i c i a l f i g u r e s as s o u n d a n d reliable. T h e y e s t i m a t e d the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n as r a n g i n g be t w e e n 8 a n d 10 m i l l i o n i n E u r o p e a n d b e t w e e n 9 a n d 15 m i l l i o n i n A s i a . T h e y r e g a r d e d the O t t o m a n official figures as b e i n g rather l o w , b u t t h e y f a i l e d to present a reliable yardstick for correcting t h e m . 37
3 8
T h e m a x i m a l i s t s c h o o l , of w h i c h the m o s t notable repre sentatives w e r e S a l a h e d d i n Bey a n d Reclus, came close to an a g r e e m e n t a b o u t the t o t a l O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n b u t they d i f f e r e d o n the details of its d e m o g r a p h i c - e t h n i c d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e i r f i g u r e s ( w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of those of Reclus) are h i g h e r f o r E u r o p e t h a n those of the m i n i m a l i s t s , but l o w e r for A s i a a n d A f r i c a . T h e differences b e t w e e n the m i n i m a l i s t s a n d m a x i m a l i s t s m a y i n fact i n d i c a t e k n o w l -
37. These are reproduced by Mikhov in great detail and need not be repeated here. However, special mention should be made of A. Synvet's much-cited Traité de géographie générale de l'Empire otto man (Istanbul, 1872); and see Carl Sax, Ethnographische Karte der europäischen Türkei und ihrer Dependenzen zur Ziel des Kriegsaus bruches im Jahre 1877 (Vienna, 1877), and "Bevölkerung der Tür k e i , " Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient, no. 7 (1877). 38. Much of Kutschera's work was published in the Österreichis che Monatsschrift für den Orient of the years 1875 to 1878.
27
porui-ATioN D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D T H E E V O L U T I O N O F O T T O M A N C E N S U S E S
m the m i n d s of s o m e i n s i d e r s of the i m p o r t a n t d e m o g ' "i^c factors of i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n , i m m i g r a t i o n , a n d setfcnient, factors o v e r l o o k e d b y the official registers. A f t e r ',856 the' e x p a n d i n g capitalist r e l a t i o n s , w h i c h increased the p r e of s m a l l i n d i v i d u a l e n t e r p r i s e s a n d services m o s t l y the g r o w i n g u r b a n areas, a t t r a c t e d large n u m b e r s of bcIflis (single males; see chapters 4 a n d 5) to the cities. Exter nal m i g r a t i o n s m e a n w h i l e became a m a j o r factor (as it h a d been i n earlier t i m e s : i n the s e v e n t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h enturies, f o r e x a m p l e , Serbians a n d B u l g a r i a n s e m i g r a t e d to A u s t r o - H u n g a r y a n d t o the area n o r t h of D a n u b e ; a n d during the p e r i o d f r o m 1774 t o 1783 t h e T u r k i c peoples h a d immigrated t o O t t o m a n l a n d s f r o m C r i m e a a n d s o u t h e r n Russia as these areas w e r e a n n e x e d b y Russia). '' B e g i n n i n g in 1862, a n d c o n t i n u i n g t h r o u g h t h e first decade of the twentieth c e n t u r y , m o r e t h a n 3 m i l l i o n p e o p l e o f Caucasian stock, o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o c o l l e c t i v e l y as Ç e r k e ş (Circassians), were forced b y t h e Russians to leave t h e i r ancestral l a n d s , which lay b e t w e e n the Black a n d the C a s p i a n seas, a n d came t o settle a n d s w e l l the p o p u l a t i o n of O t t o m a n l a n d s i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I n a d d i t i o n , large n u m b e r s of nomadic t r i b e s m e n were settled t h r o u g h o u t A n a t o l i a , Syria, a n d I r a q a n d b e g a n to f a r m the l a n d w h i l e still m a i n taining, to a large extent, t h e i r p a s t o r a l h a b i t s . à o C
L
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The O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l statistics f a i l e d f o r m o s t p a r t t o reflect p r o m p t l y t h e presence of the i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e n e w l y settled p o p u l a t i o n , l a r g e l y because these p e o p l e d i d not at once b e g i n t o p a y taxes or p r o v i d e m e n f o r t h e a r m y but a p p e a r e d to be t r a n s i t i o n a l , u n s t a b l e , a n d , i n s o m e i n stances, at o d d s w i t h the e s t a b l i s h e d p o p u l a t i o n . I t is t r u e that once t h e i m m i g r a n t s became e n g a g e d i n p r o d u c t i v e occupations t h e y w e r e subject to r e g i s t r a t i o n , b u t t h i s d i d not take place f o r a considerable p e r i o d of t i m e . T h e O t t o man g o v e r n m e n t recruited m a n y i m m i g r a n t Çerkeş for m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i c e d u t i e s — t h e zaptiye ( p o l i c e m e n ) i n t o w n s were o f t e n Ç e r k e ş — b u t t h i s w a s a c h i e v e d i n m a n y i n stances t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y of the leaders of t h e tribes rather t h a n t h r o u g h c o n s c r i p t i o n based o n the p o p u l a t i o n registers. A considerable n u m b e r of t h e seasonal w o r k e r s , immigrants, and tribesmen remained unregistered despite the p r o v i s i o n d e s i g n e d to r e s u l t i n the i n c l u s i o n of t h e itinerant p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e registers. Some lists of statistics occasionally h a d a c o l u m n f o r i m m i g r a n t s (muhacir); this was the case w i t h the D a n u b e census of 1866 ( w h i c h gives extremely l o w f i g u r e s f o r i m m i g r a n t s ) , b u t it w a s n o t the usual practice t h r o u g h o u t the r e a l m . By the late 1890s s o m e O t t o m a n officials a n d B r i t i s h agents began t o r e p o r t t h e p o p u l a t i o n of an area b y c i t i n g , i n separate c o l u m n s , the n u m b e r s of the established r e s i d e n t s , M u s l i m a n d n o n M u s l i m , a n d of i m m i g r a n t s . These r e p o r t s w e r e i n c o m p l e t e but nevertheless s h o w e d that some O t t o m a n officials, chiefly those I h a v e called m a x i m a l i s t , w e r e a w a r e of t h e effect'of i n t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l m i g r a t i o n a n d strove to take this factor i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . S a l a h e d d i n Bey w a s the first to g i v e a r a t h e r accurate 39. See my article; "Population Movements i n the Ottoman State in the Nineteenth Centurv: A n O u t l i n e " in Contributions à l'Histoire Économique et Sociale de l'Empire Ottoman. Collection Turci-
estimate of the n u m b e r of Circassian n e w c o m e r s i n the O t t o m a n state. H e m e n t i o n e d a total of 1,008,000, i n c l u d i n g recent a r r i v a l s f r o m C r i m e a , w h o s e n u m b e r w a s a r o u n d 100,000; he c l a i m e d that 595,000 Circassians w e r e settled i n E u r o p e a n d 413,000 i n Asia M i n o r . If o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e fact t h a t these f i g u r e s w e r e p u t f o r t h i n 1867—that is, w e l l before the Caucasian i m m i g r a t i o n e n d e d — t h e n t h e e n o r m o u s i m p a c t of t h i s d e m o g r a p h i c factor becomes clearly e v i d e n t . (The f e w E u r o p e a n statisticians w h o m e n t i o n e d the Circassians p l a c e d t h e i r m a x i m u m n u m b e r at 200,000, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e - u n a w a r e o f the m a g n i t u d e of t h i s migration.) 4 0
The status of p o p u l a t i o n censuses a n d estimates before the B e r l i n C o n g r e s s i n 1878 can be s u m m a r i z e d as f o l l o w s : (1) The O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t itself, w i s h i n g o n l y t o r e g ister its m a l e p o p u l a t i o n for p u r p o s e s of tax assessment a n d m i l i t a r y c o n s c r i p t i o n , c o n s i d e r e d e t h n i c or n a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of n o i m p o r t a n c e a n d d i d n o t r e c o r d i t ; r e l i g i o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n w a s i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , because p e r s o n a l taxes w e r e assessed against C h r i s t i a n s , w h i l e t h e d u t y of m i l i t a r y service w a s d e m a n d e d of M u s l i m s . ( A d e c i s i o n h a d b e e n m a d e t o i n c l u d e t h é C h r i s t i a n s i n the a r m y after general c o n s c r i p t i o n w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n 1855, b u t t h e C h r i s tians objected a n d w e r e e x e m p t e d , for w h i c h . p r i v i l e g e t h e y c o n t i n u e d t o p a y the çiziye, n o w called the m i l i t a r y tax.) T h e o r i g i n a l census, t h e r e f o r e , h a d separate categories f o r M u s l i m s , C h r i s t i a n s , J e w s , g y p s i e s , a n d , i n s o m e cases, n o m a d s , a l t h o u g h i n m o s t cases p e r s o n s i n t h e latter t w o categories w e r e n e i t h e r c o n s c r i p t e d n o r t a x e d . S o m e M u s l i m areas (Syria, Bosnia) w e r e subjected t o census o n l y after the scope of c o n s c r i p t i o n w a s e x t e n d e d t o cover t h e m . T h e p o p u l a t i o n of r e g i o n s s u c h as A r a b i a t h a t d i d n o t s u p p l y troops was n e v e r subject t o a f u l l census c o u n t . (2) T h e E u r o p e a n s , except for a f e w persons such as Re clus a n d R a v e n s t e i n w h o p u r s u e d special p r o f e s s i o n a l ends, w e r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n state largely f o r p o l i t i c a l reasons. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i r i n quiries centered o n the e t h n i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n a n d , c h i e f l y , o n the E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s — t h a t is, t h e areas w i t h t h e h e a v i e s t C h r i s t i a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h e r e r i s i n g e t h n i c n a t i o n a l i s m w a s expected to c u l m i n a t e in political independence. The Europeans generally s h o w e d n o interest i n the n u m b e r a n d t h e u l t i m a t e fate of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n the Balkans. T h e y o f t e n i n f l a t e d the n u m b e r of the n o n - M u s l i m s i n t h e i r t a b u l a t i o n s , c l a i m i n g t h a t M u s l i m s a c c o u n t e d for o n l y 20 to 30 percent of the t o t a l . Serious s t u d e n t s , o n the o t h e r h a n d , stated other w i s e ; for e x a m p l e , U b i c i n i a n d Y a k s h i t y stated t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 43 percent of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e Bal kans w a s M u s l i m , 54 percent C h r i s t i a n , a n d the rest Jewish and others. (3) T h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s c o n s i s t e n t l y u n d e r c o u n t e d . T h e n u m b e r of i m m i g r a n t s a n d e m i g r a n t s w a s not p r o p e r l y reflected i n the records. M o r e o v e r , once t h e cen¬ ca, vol. 3, ed. jean-Louis Bacque-Gramont (Istanbul, Paris, London, 1983). 40. See La Turquie à 1'Exposiiion. chapter 3.
and Paul Dumont
28
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N , 1830—19h
sus began to register w o m e n as w e l l as m e n , the O t t o m a n statistics c o n s i s t e n t l y s h o w e d m e n to be s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n w o m e n . (This m a y have m e r e l v been a reflection of the census takers' i n a b i l i t y to register all the w o m e n p r o p e r l y or it m a y have revealed a real i m p a c t of factors such as w o r k c o n d i t i o n s , age of m a r r i a g e , f a m i l y size, etc., u p o n the n u m b e r of w o m e n . Ravenstein was the o n l y E u r o p e a n w h o , to m y k n o w l e d g e , m e n t i o n e d these d e m o g r a p h i c aspects o f the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n studies carried o u t d u r i n g his t i m e ; b u t i n s t e a d of p r o p o s i n g mea sures for c o r r e c t i n g O t t o m a n figures, he i n d u l g e d i n subjec tive c r i t i c i s m . ) T h e s h o r t c o m i n g s of the O t t o m a n censuses results m a y easily be r e m e d i e d t h r o u g h a critical s t u d y of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n registers f o u n d i n v a r i o u s p r o v i n cial centers, as has b e e n p o i n t e d o u t ; these registers c o n t a i n entries c o n c e r n i n g b i r t h s a n d deaths, f r o m w h i c h one m a y e x t r a p o l a t e f e r t i l i t y rates, f a m i l y sizes, a n d o t h e r d e m o g r a p h i c data. 41
4 2
T h e P o p u l a t i o n R e g i s t e r S y s t e m , 1831-1878: Effects of the B e r l i n T r e a t y T h e B e r l i n C o n g r e s s of 1878 w a s a w a t e r s h e d i n the his t o r y of the O t t o m a n state. T h e peace treaty itself d e p r i v e d the state of its m a j o r possessions i n E u r o p e . T h e o l d vilayet of T u n a w a s p a r t i t i o n e d b e t w e e n Serbia ( w h i c h t o o k Niş) a n d the p r i n c i p a l i t y of B u l g a r i a ( w h i c h w a s created o u t of the f i v e sancaks of R u s ç u k , V i d i n , T i r n o v a , V a r n a , a n d Sofia) a n d R o m a n i a ( w h i c h received Tulça [Tulçu]; Roma nia, c o n s i s t i n g of W a l l a c h i a a n d M o l d a v i a , h a d already be c o m e f u l l y i n d e p e n d e n t ) . A s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the vilayet of E d i r n e ( A d r i a n o p l e ) became an a u t o n o m o u s p r o v i n c e u n d e r t h e n a m e E a s t e r n R u m e l i a , a n d i n 1885 i t w a s a n n e x e d b y the p r i n c i p a l i t y of B u l g a r i a . Bosnia a n d H e r z e g o v i n a (except for the N o v i b a z a r sancak) w e r e o c c u p i e d b y A u s t r o - H u n g a r y ; M o n t e n e g r o a n d Greece t o o k sections of
41. For example, he sought to explain the discrepancy between the number of males and females by saying, " W h e n females lead a life of seclusion and ease, not conducive to health, as in an Oriental harem, their life will naturally be shortened, and the immoral prac tices carried on there, and generally speaking amongst most Orien tals, must lead to the same result" ("The Populations of Russia," p. 446). Obviously the author was influenced by the western vision of a "decadent Orient" mired in sex and general debauchery and thus ripe for cleansing reform—i.e., occupation by "civilized" Euro peans. Ravenstein showed his strong anti-Turkish bias elsewhere also; while discussing the population figures for the Balkans, he wrote; "The intervention of little Serbia [in the war i n 1878] was as wise as it was chivalrous. It has brought about a state of things which will force Christendom, for very shame, to abate the Turkish nuisance . . . " ("Distribution of the Population in the Part of Europe Overrun by T u r k s , " The Geographical Magazine 3 [1876|: 259). 42. See, e.g., Justin McCarthy, "The Muslim Population of Ana tolia, 1878 to 1927" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1978).
Işkodra (Scutari i n A l b a n i a ) , T i r h a l a , a n d Prevesa; a n d Rus sia o c c u p i e d i m p o r t a n t sections of the Caucasus. It was estimated t h a t the O t t o m a n state lost a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4.5 m i l l i o n p e o p l e w i t h these c e d e d t e r r i t o r i e s . T h u s the major ity of the C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s r e m o v e d f r o m O t t o m a n c o n t r o l , l e a v i n g t h e O t t o m a n state a n o v e r w h e l m i n g l y M u s l i m c o u n t r y w h o s e m a i n t e r r i t o r y l a y i n Asia M i n o r and the M i d d l e East. The actions of the F r e n c h a n d the B r i t i s h i n o c c u p y i n g , respectively, T u n i s i a (1881) a n d E g y p t (1882) s p u r r e d the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t to i n s t i t u t e r e f o r m s i n its e f f o r t to s u r v i v e . M o r e o v e r , t h e B e r l i n C o n g r e s s h a d expressly charged the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t w i t h the c a r r y i n g o u t of r e f o r m s i n the eastern p r o v i n c e s i n h a b i t e d b y A r m e n i a n s . The r e f o r m s m a d e after 1878 b y A b d u l h a m i d I I w e r e con centrated o n the p r a c t i c a l , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g d i r e c t e d to w a r d s m a i n l y c o s m e t i c c h a n g e s i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and p o l i t i c a l spheres, as h a d b e e n t h e c u s t o m since the Tanzi m a t edict of 1839. T h e O t t o m a n officials c o n s i d e r e d t h a t the successful i m p r o v e m e n t of m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n the coun try r e q u i r e d a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e of i t s h u m a n a n d natu ral resources, so t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t c o u l d be c o n c e n t r a t e d in the m o s t d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d areas. T h e y o p t e d eventually for the t o t a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n registers and the m e t h o d s of census t a k i n g a n d i n i t i a t e d the first compre h e n s i v e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n census of 1881/82-1893. 4 3
I n t h e 1830s t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d , as men t i o n e d , e s t a b l i s h e d t h e O f f i c e of P o p u l a t i o n Registers (Ceride-i Nüfus Nezareti) as p a r t of the M i n i s t r y of I n t e r i o r . By 1839 the census r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w e r e d e c e n t r a l i z e d . Var i o u s o f f i c i a l s — i n s p e c t o r s o f p o p u l a t i o n (nüfus nazırı), p o p u l a t i o n o f f i c i a l s (nüfus memuru), a n d registrars (mukayyid)—were a p p o i n t e d to t h e p r o v i n c e s a n d smaller a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i s t r i c t s a n d c h a r g e d w i t h r e c o r d i n g births a n d deaths a n d p e r i o d i c a l l y c o m p i l i n g lists (cedvels) indicat i n g the t o t a l n u m b e r of p e o p l e i n each d i s t r i c t . These of ficials w e r e o r i g i n a l l y a t t a c h e d to the O f f i c e of Population Registers i n the c a p i t a l ; b u t , o w i n g to a v a r i e t y of internal causes, this office w a s s o o n a b o l i s h e d a n d the p r o v i n c i a l p o p u l a t i o n offices w e r e r e a s s i g n e d , f i r s t to the O f f i c e of P r o p e r t y S u r v e y s (Tahrir-i Emlak idaresi) a n d t h e n , for a s h o r t p e r i o d , to t h e M i l i t a r y A f f a i r s O f f i c e . D u r i n g this p e r i o d i n t e r e s t i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f the registers Ian-' 44
guished, r e v i v i n g o n l y w i t h the r e n e w e d concern for p o p u l a t i o n censuses i n t h e late 1860s. A f t e r the C o u n c i l of State (Suray-i Dcvlet) w a s established i n 1867, it a s s u m e d j u r i s d i c t i o n of all p o p u l a t i o n m a t t e r s , i s s u i n g r e p o r t s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s t h r o u g h its T a n z i m a f b u r e a u or its g e n e r a l c o u n c i l . I n 1874 the C o u n c i l i n t r o d u c e d a series of mea sures for t a k i n g a census a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g a r e g i s t r a t i o n system; a n d i n 1881/82 it e n g i n e e r e d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a General P o p u l a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (Niifus-u Umumi ldaresi) attached to t h e M i n i s t r y of I n t e r i o r ( w h e r e it r e m a i n e d u n t i l the e n d of the e m p i r e ) . I n the later 1880s a statistical office attached to the M i n i s t r y of T r a d e a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n (later reorganized as the M i n i s t r y of T r a d e a n d A g r i c u l t u r e ) w a s established; i t i s s u e d p o p u l a t i o n statistics o n t h e basis of information supplied by the Population A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . 45
A f t e r 1870, census t a k i n g a n d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an accurate, p e r m a n e n t r e g i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m became a m a t t e r of p r i o r i t y f o r b o t h the s u l t a n a n d t h e office o f t h e p r i m e minister, as attested b y t h e i r f r e q u e n t o r d e r s to t h e offices concerned. These officials r e c o g n i z e d t h a t the o l d p e r m a nent p o p u l a t i o n registers h a d b e c o m e useless. T h r o u g h o u t the vears w h e n o f f i c i a l interest w a s l a c k i n g t h e y h a d suf fered f r o m neglect. T h e great m o v e m e n t s of p e o p l e i n t o and w i t h i n the r e a l m h a d gone u n r e c o r d e d ; f u r t h e r m o r e , the p r o m u l g a t i o n of the V i l a y e t L a w of 1864 a n d i t s ' a m e n d ment i n 1870/71 h a d l e d to t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n s assigned to p o p u l a t i o n officials a n d t o t h e d i v e r s i o n of t h e f u n d s f o r m e r l y a l l o c a t e d f o r t h e i r salaries t o o t h e r p u r poses. T h i s p r o d u c e d f u r t h e r d i s o r d e r i n the d e t e r i o r a t i n g situation of the p o p u l a t i o n registers a n d u n d e r m i n e d t h e collection of taxes a n d c o n s c r i p t i o n . T h e C o u n c i l of State a p p o i n t e d a special c o m m i t t e e to s t u d y the p o s s i b i l i t y of taking a n e w census a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g a n e w register sys tem. The c o m m i t t e e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n , u p d a t i n g , a n d c o r r e c t i o n of the e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n registers w o u l d take a v e r y l o n g t i m e ; it c o m m e n t e d t h a t t h e i n f l u x of bona f i d e f o r e i g n e r s (ecnebi) a n d the r a p i d increase i n t h e n u m b e r of O t t o m a n - b o r n n o n - M u s l i m s w h o h e l d passports f r o m E u r o p e a n p o w e r s a n d s e r v e d as n a t i v e p r o t é g é s a i d ing f o r e i g n interests (mahmi) a g g r a v a t e d f u r t h e r t h e w o e s of the r e g i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the c o m m i t t e e rec o m m e n d e d , a n d the C o u n c i l agreed, t h a t the best s o l u t i o n was to c o n d u c t a n e w census a n d to establish n e w registers to cover the e n t i r e c o u n t r y , except f o r H e j a z a n d Y e m e n . In 1874 the C o u n c i l issued an o r d e r a n d three r e g u l a t i o n s for the c a r r y i n g o u t of a n e w census a n d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a n e w r e g i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m . T h e first r e g u l a t i o n c o n c e r n e d the census m e t h o d s ; the second p r o v i d e d for the establish ment of a system based o n three t y p e s of registers; a n d the t h i r d dealt w i t h t h e a p p o i n t m e n t of p o p u l a t i o n o f f i c i a l s . 4 6
43. Henry D. Barnham, a British consular official in eastern Ana-1 tolia, reported in 1880 that a census was planned for the Armenian-' inhabited Diyarbekir Province; he believed that this census would ı meet a need for better and more complete statistics, the data in the hands of the government and Christian clergymen being so un satisfactory that both sides wanted a new census. See HCAP 100/44 (1881), pp. 235-36. 44. See Stanford J. Shaw, "The Ottoman Census System and, Population 1831-1919," International journal of Middle East Studies 91 (1978): 325-36. The name ceride, given originally to some of the land and population registers, came later to mean "newspaper." The name ceride-i nüfus (population register) was later changed to nüfus sicili and nüfus kütüğü to indicate its role as the source of all popula tion information.
29
POPULATION D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D T H E E V O L U T I O N OF O T T O M A N CENSUSES
45. Some information on the history of Population Administra tion is found in Council report no. 438 of 21 Cemaziyulevvel 1298 (21 April 1881) in BA (I)/(SD)-3148 and in a letter of 7 Safer 1268 (2 December 1851) in BA (1)/(D)/14855. 46. See BA (I)-'(MM)'2086, Council report no. 695 of 29 Zilhice 1290 (17 February 1874); all the reports concerning the census of 1874 are in one folio.
The census w a s to be taken by a c o m m i t t e e established i n each kaymakamlik (kaza, or d i s t r i c t ) . T h e c o m m i t t e e w a s to consist of o n e g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l (a M u s l i m ) , one n o n M u s l i m c h o s e n f r o m a m o n g c o m m u n i t y leaders, a secre tary-, a n d his a s s i s t a n t . ' O l d p o p u l a t i o n registers w e r e to be used w h e n possible, b u t the census w a s to be c o n d u c t e d m a i n l y b y g o i n g to each village a n d t o w n q u a r t e r (mahalle) i n the area. A l l male i n h a b i t a n t s , i n c l u d i n g c h i l d r e n , h a d to appear before this c o m m i t t e e a n d the v i l l a g e c o u n c i l of elders (ihtiyar meclisi) to r e g i s t e r t h e i r ages, n i c k n a m e s (künye), color o f eyes a n d c o m p l e x i o n , a n d special p h y s i c a l disabilities " w h i c h w i l l n o t fade w i t h a g e " ; a n d the census c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r s w e r e i n s t r u c t e d to see " w i t h t h e i r o w n e y e s " even n e w b o r n babies, to s t u d y each c l a i m to e x e m p t i o n f r o m m i l i t a r y service, a n d to see to it t h a t n o b o d y r e m a i n e d " h i d d e n " a n d u n r e g i s t e r e d . Each f a m i l y h a d to be registered as a u n i t . T h e r e s u l t i n g roster of the v i l l a g e census w a s to be v e r i f i e d b y the elders' c o u n c i l a n d a copy of it g i v e n to the p o p u l a t i o n office at t h e kaza center; the kaza o f f i c i a l i n t u r n w o u l d send a c u m u l a t i v e list of the n u m b e r of males i n his district to the s u p e r i o r a d m i n i s t r a tive u n i t , w h i c h w o u l d c o n v e y the lists to the u l t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y at the center, the M i n i s t r y of P r o p e r t y Records (Defter-i Hakani). O f f i c i a l s i n each kaza w e r e o b l i g e d to send copies of t h e registers of M u s l i m males t o the r e g i o n a l a r m y offices a n d to serve as the r e p o s i t o r y of all v i l l a g e p o p u l a t i o n registers. 4
4 8
T h e census c o m m i t t e e w a s e m p o w e r e d to use force to b r i n g before t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n officials t h o s e w h o refused to appear; h o w e v e r , i t w a s i n s t r u c t e d to act w i t h tolerance a n d respect t o w a r d villagers a n d to refuse a n y g i f t o f f e r e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e census i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n t a i n e d a series of p r o v i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the r e g i s t r a t i o n of those absent f r o m the l o c a l i t y , of foreigners, a n d o f " p r o t e c t e d " p e o p l e , the latter t w o g r o u p s b e i n g listed i n special registers. 4 9
A census s y s t e m based o n t h e use of t h r e e t y p e s of p o p u l a t i o n registers w a s e n v i s a g e d . T h e basic register (esas defter) w a s to list all males l i v i n g i n villages a n d t o w n quarters (the V i l a y e t L a w of 1871 d e f i n e d a t o w n q u a r t e r as a cluster of at least f i f t y h o u s e s ) , n u m b e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s consecutively i n t h e first c o l u m n a n d , i n t h e second col u m n , l i s t i n g the families a n d t h e i r respective m e m b e r s . This register, to be k e p t b y the o f f i c i a l i n t h e kaza center, i n c l u d e d c o l u m n s f o r r e g i s t e r i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s age a n d changes i n h i s military' a n d p e r s o n a l status. The second register, t h e s u m m a r y (icmal), listed t h e total n u m b e r of people f o u n d i n the villages a n d t o w n s of the kaza, a n d it 30
47. See BA (])-(MM)'2089, "Tahir-i Nüfusun Suret-i Icraiyyesini Mutazammin Talimattir" [Instructions concerning the conduct of the population census], 1 Rebiyülevvel 1291 (18 April 1874). 48. Ibid., article 2. 49. Ibid., arts. 8-10. Boys under the age of three, the sick, and others who had valid excuses could be registered by proxy. 50. Ibid., "Tahrir-i Nüfus için İttihaz Olunacak Uç Türlü Defter in Suret-i İstimalini Mübevvin Tarifnamedir" [Information con cerning the use of the three registers to be created for conducting the population census].
30 OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
was to be c o m p i l e d o n the basis of i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m village a n d mahalle registers. O n e c o l u m n i n the s u m m a r y register p r o v i d e d for the l i s t i n g of C h r i s t i a n s accord i n g to their millet (religious a n d e t h n i c a f f i l i a t i o n ) a n d f o r the separate r e c o r d i n g of M u s l i m s , G r e e k s , B u l g a r i a n s A r m e n i a n s , Jews, a n d o t h e r s . A t h i r d register, d a i l v events (yevmiye vukuat), was to be k e p t i n the kaza f o r the r e c o r d i n g of b i r t h s , deaths, m i g r a t i o n s i n t o or o u t of the d i s t r i c t , a n d c h a n g e s i n a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s m i l i t a r y s t a t u s . E v e r y six m o n t h s , the total n u m b e r of these " d a i l y e v e n t s " w a s ' t o be entered i n the icmal register. A m o d e l for each of the newregisters w a s d r a f t e d b y the C o u n c i l ; r e p r o d u c t i o n s a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e s e m o d e l r e g i s t e r s are p r e s e n t e d i n A p p e n d i x B.3 f o l l o w i n g t h i s chapter. T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e officials of the census a n d register system p l a n n e d i n 1874 i n c l u d e d a p o p u l a t i o n m i n i s t e r inspector (nüfus naziri) at the p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l , a r e g i s t e r i n g official (mukayyid) at the kaza l e v e l , a n d t w o secretaries f o r each o f f i c i a l . These officials registered all the births, deaths, a n d o t h e r changes as r e p o r t e d to t h e m b y the local leaders o n special i n f o r m a t i o n certificates (ilmuhabers) s u p p l i e d by the g o v e r n m e n t . T h e p o p u l a t i o n officials w e r e o b l i g e d to take t r i p s i n t o the c o u n t r y s i d e to s t u d y the situa t i o n o n the spot a n d to r e p o r t all changes to t h e i r s u p e r i o r s a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , to the O f f i c e of I m p e r i a l Registers (Defter-i Hakanı Nezareti— the n e w n a m e g i v e n i n 1871 to the o l d Defterhane) i n the c a p i t a l . A c o p y of the registers k e p t i n areas i n h a b i t e d b y M u s l i m s w a s to be sent to the p r o p e r m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s . T h o s e f a i l i n g to r e p o r t b i r t h s , deaths, a n d changes i n p e r s o n a l status w e r e subjected to v a r i o u s penalties. 3 1
T h e i n s t r u c t i o n s issued b y the C o u n c i l w e r e s u b m i t t e d b y Premier H ü s e y i n A v n i Paşa to the s u l t a n , w h o a p p r o v e d t h e m a n d issued a special o r d e r f o r t h e i r e x e c u t i o n Prepa r a t i o n s w e r e m a d e , b u t the census a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m d e v i s e d i n 1874 c o u l d n o t be c a r r i e d o u t . The revolts i n B o s n i a - H e r z e g o v i n a i n 1875, t h e a b d i c a t i o n a n d suicide of S u l t a n A b d u l a z i z , the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f a c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d accession to the t h r o n e of S u l t a n A b d u l h a m i t I I i n Î 8 7 6 a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , t h e d i s a s t r o u s w a r w i t h Russia of 187/-1878 a n d the r e s u l t i n g loss of t e r r i t o r y s u b s t a n t i a l l y upset O t t o m a n i n t e r n a l o r d e r . I n a d d i t i o n , the i n f l u x of large n u m b e r s of M u s l i m refugees f r o m t h e Balkans i n 1877/78 a n d , thereafter, a n d t h e need to settle t h e m , cre a t e d d e m o g r a p h i c p r o b l e m s n o t f o r e s e e n i n 1874 ' T h e census was therefore d e l a y e d u n t i l these p r o b l e m s w o u l d be w o r k e d o u t . 5 2
J w u „ T Mahnısa-i Şahanede Tahrir-i Nüfus icra Kılınan Mahallerde istihdam Olunacak Nüfus Nazirlari ve Katipleri de Mukayyit erin Suret-, Tertip ve Tayinler, ile Vazifeleri Hakklnda Talimattır [Instructions concerning the organizations, appoint ment, and responsibilities of the population inspectors, secretaries and registrars to be appointed in the localities of the realm where census has been decreed]. 1874) '
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9
Rebiyülahir 1291 (25, 26 May
T h e Census a n d R e g i s t r a t i o n S y s t e m of 1881.82 A s soon as the p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s t a b i l i z e d , the s u l t a n issued an o r d e r for a n e w census. He c o m p l a i n e d t h r o u g h his secretary- that as the c o u n t r y d i d n o t possess registers i n d i c a t i n g the exact n u m b e r of soldiers available for'aetive a n d reserve d u t i e s he c o u l d n o t carry o u t a p l a n n e d reor g a n i z a t i o n of the a r m y . I n 1881 the Palace c h a r g e d the War M i n i s t r y w i t h the d u t y of c o u n t i n g M u s l i m males; officials i n the M i n i s t r y of I n t e r i o r w e r e to c o u n t the n o n - M u s l i m s . A s u s u a l , the issue w a s r e f e r r e d to the C o u n c i l of State This m o d e r n - m i n d e d o f f i c e , eager to a d o p t a d v a n c e d tech niques of o r g a n i z a t i o n , d e b a t e d the issue a n d came o u t w i t h a series of r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w h i c h w e r e based i n large m e a s u r e o n t h e 1874 r e g u l a t i o n s . These r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a n d the r e s u l t i n g regulations ( w h i c h were b r o a d e r m scope a n d d i f f e r e n t i n essence f r o m the sultan's directives) became the basis f o r the census a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n system used after 1881. T h e C o u n c i l a c k n o w l e d g e d that the census of 1874 c o u l d n o t be c a r r i e d o u t because of i n t e r n a l problems, although the k n o w l e d g e gained i n devising it was v e r y u s e f u l i n p l a n n i n g t h e n e w one. I t agreed w i t h the m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t the d i v i s i o n of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n t o age g r o u p s w a s a m a t t e r o f v i t a ! practical i m p o r tance. I t stressed also the necessity of p r o v i d i n g each O t t o m a n c i t i z e n w i t h a n i d e n t i t y c a r d (tezkere) to be used i n the increasingly frequent contacts between the g o v e r n m e n t and individuals. The Council recognized that population statistics w e r e u s e f u l f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e as w e l l as for m i l i tary p u r p o s e s , especially f o r the assessing of the tax instead o f m i l i t a r y service (bedelat-i askeriyye) o n n o n - M u s l i m s A s m e n t i o n e d , the tax h a d b e e n l e v i e d i n the past as a l u m p s u m o n each c o m m u n i t y w i t h o u t a s c e r t a i n i n g the exact n u m b e r of its n u m b e r s ; b u t as the n u m b e r of n o n - M u s l i m s was h i g h e r t h a n i n d i c a t e d i n the tax rolls, there was a sig n i f i c a n t loss of r e v e n u e , so once m o r e t h e n g o v e r n m e n t e n d e a v o r e d to p u t the c o l l e c t i o n of the h e a d tax o n the i n d i v i d u a l basis t h a t w a s p r e s c r i b e d by Islamic l a w . 5 3
5 4
A n e w census was clearly necessary. H o w e v e r , the C o u n c i l p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a " c e n s u s s h o w s the size o f the p o p u l a t i o n at a g i v e n m o m e n t . T h e p o p u l a t i o n changes b e i n g c o n t i n u o u s a n d . . . n a t u r a l , it is necessary to device a s o u n d basis, a n e w s y s t e m w h i c h w o u l d r e c o r d a l l p o p u l a t i o n changes a n d t h u s d e r i v e the u t m o s t benefit f r o m a c e n s u s . " " I n o t h e r w o r d s , the C o u n c i l no l o n g e r r e g a r d e d the census as a s u f f i c i e n t goal i n itself, b u t n o w c o n s i d e r e d i t a p r o v i s i o n a l m e a s u r e necessary to the estab l i s h m e n t of the statistical f o u n d a t i o n for a p e r m a n e n t regis ter s y s t e m to r e c o r d c o n t i n u o u s l y all b i r t h s a n d deaths a n d to p r o v i d e g e n e r a l s t a t i s t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n o n the e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n . The i m p o r t a n c e of statistical data was s t r o n g l y emphasized.
53. BA (I)/(D)/65276, order of 15 Recep 1297 (23 June 1880) 54. BA (1)/(SD)/3148, Council report no. 438 of 21 Cemazivülevve! 1298 (21 April 1881). 55. Ibid.
31
POPULATION D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D T H E E V O L U T I O N OF O T T O M A N CENSUSES
Indeed, d u r i n g t h e 1870s the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t be¬ e i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e r e s t e d i n m o d e r n statistics, b e g m to p u b l i s h s o m e statistical i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e v e n t u a l l y establishing a separate statistics office. Statistics o n f o r e i g n d e w e r e c o m p i l e d r e g u l a r l y b e g i n n i n g m 1878 (R. 1294). The statistical s y s t e m w a s f o r m e d i n 1879 o n the r e c o m mendation of K ü ç ü k Sait Paşa f o r t h e p u r p o s e of p r o v i d i n g central a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h s o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n f o r deci sion m a k i n g . I n 1891 the Statistical C o u n c i l of the S u b l i m e Porte w a s created. T h e statistics office w o r k e d m collabora tion w i t h the G e n e r a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of P o p u l a t i o n a n d came to be h e a d e d l a r g e l y b y h i g h - r a n k i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l s , many of w h o m w e r e n o n - M u s l i m s or f o r e i g n e r s . The de gree'of c o n t i n u i t y of d i r e c t o r s a n d t h e i r r a n k i n d i c a t e s , I believe, the d e g r e e of p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m a m o n g the collectors of statistics a n d the i m p o r t a n c e attached to such data a n d , hence the q u a l i t y of the statistics. Yearbooks p u b l i s h e d between 1892 ( H . 1310) a n d 1916 ( H . 1334) g i v e the n a m e s and r a n k s , a n d I h a v e c o m p i l e d t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o a list given as A p p e n d i x B.4 f o l l o w i n g t h i s chapter. a r n
L
i n e
l r a
t n e
I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e basis for the n e w s y s t e m it d e e m e d desirable, t h e C o u n c i l p r o p o s e d to u n i f y a n d c o n s o l i d a t e all the e l e m e n t s i n v o l v e d i n p o p u l a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t , i n c l u d i n g census t a k i n g , p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t r a t i o n , a n d a d m i n i s t r a tive o r g a n i z a t i o n . A l l p r o v i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the census a n d registration s v s t e m w e r e t h e r e f o r e c o m b i n e d i n t o a single "Regulation for P o p u l a t i o n R e g i s t e r s . " ' The regulation was debated a n d a p p r o v e d b y the general c o m m i t t e e of t h e C o u n c i l a n d p r o m u l g a t e d b y the s u l t a n i n 1 8 8 1 . 3
3
I n a d d i t i o n t o e x p r e s s i n g s t r o n g l y t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of o b t a i n i n g accurate p o p u l a t i o n statistics, the C o u n c i l b o l d l y a f f i r m e d t h a t it w a s necessary t o l o o k at t h e practices of other c o u n t r i e s i n E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a a n d to take t h e m as m o d e l s . I n a r e p o r t o n the census the C o u n c i l stated: It is a d u t y to m e n t i o n before e v e r y t h i n g else t h a t t h e interest of a g o v e r n m e n t i n the c o m p i l a t i o n of systematic p o p u l a t i o n statistics does n o t s t e m solely f r o m m i l i t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . To k n o w the exact n u m b e r of its o w n p o p u l a t i o n is a great a c h i e v e m e n t m m a t t e r s of order a n d r e g u l a r i t y f o r a g o v e r n m e n t i n t e r e s t e d m l a w , p r o p e r t y safeguards, f i n a n c i a l s t a b i l i t y , a n d m u n i c i p a l o r d e r a n d s e c u r i t y . T h e E u r o p e a n States attach great a n d c o n t i n u o u s care to the c o l l e c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n o n the [ e n t i r e ] p o p u l a t i o n I t is i m p e r a t i v e , u r g e n t , a n d essential f o r us to a c c o m p l i s h this i m p o r t a n t task [census a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n ] m a perfect fashion. 3 9
56 These statistics, published bv the General Directorate of Sta tistics are available in their entirety for the period 1878-1900 and ,n less complete form for 1900-1913; see Osmanlı İmparatorluğunun Ticaret Muvazenesi, 1878-1913, nos. 123-73 (Ankara, 1939). 57 See BA (I)/(SD)/3148, "Sıcill-ı Nüfus Nizamnamesi of 8 Şaban 1298 (5 July 1881); all reports and correspondence concern ing the census of'1881/82 are in one folio. 58 Ibid., "Şuray-i Devlet U m u m i Heyeti Mazbatası" ot 8 Şaban P98 (5 July 1881).'Of the twenty committee members w h o partici pated in the debate, only two voted against the proposal; all the three non-Muslims voted tor it. 59. Ibid., Council report no. 438 of 21 Cemazivulevvel 1246 (¿1 April 1881).
The keen i n t e r e s t of the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t i n the a d o p t i o n of m o d e r n statistical m e t h o d s a n d its w i l l i n g n e s s to l o o k to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s f o r g u i d a n c e w a s s h o w n also d u r i n g a r e c e p t i o n g i v e n for the A m e r i c a n ambassador i n 1886 A m b a s s a d o r Samuel S u l l i v a n Cox ( w h o replaced i n that p o s t G e n e r a l L e w i s Wallace, the a u t h o r of Ben Hur) m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e U n i t e d States h a d c o m p i l e d n e w p o p u l a t i o n statistics w h i c h w e r e of great use to his c o u n t r y a n d s u g g e s t e d t h a t such statistics w o u l d be u s e f u l also to the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t . H e w a s t o l d t h a t an actual cen sus (the o n e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n here) was b e i n g c o n d u c t e d , a n d the s u l t a n t h e n asked h i m f o r a statistical r e v i e w a v a i l able i n the A m e r i c a n embassy. E v e n t u a l l y , the ambassador sent w i t h the i n t e r p r e t e r of the embassy t w o v o l u m e s of the r e v i e w f o r t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o T u r k i s h . T h e s u l t a n t o l d the ambassador t h a t he was g r e a t l y i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h w o r k s a n d p o i n t e d o u t t h a t it w a s h i s h i g h h o p e to have c o m p i l e d a c o m p l e t e a n d systematic statistical r e c o r d of the entire p o p u l a t i o n i n his r e a l m , a n d that he h a d issued a n o r d e r to carry o u t his i n t e n t i o n . 6 0
Cox
w h o as the c h a i r m a n of t h e census c o m m i t t e e w a s
i n s t r u m e n t a l i n p a s s i n g the census l e g i s l a t i o n i n the U n i t e d States C o n g r e s s , c o n f i r m s t h i s s t o r y . I n his m e m o i r s
he
writes: I n s o m e m e e t i n g s w h i c h I h a d w i t h the S u l t a n , a n d i n r e p l y to h i s c u r i o s i t y as to the m i r a c u l o u s g r o w t h of o u r o w n l a n d i n p o p u l a t i o n a n d resources, I t o l d h i m t h a t the o n l y w a y i n w h i c h he c o u l d p o s s i b l y u n d e r s t a n d our a d v a n c e m e n t w o u l d be to take the salient p o i n t s o u t of o u r C e n s u s r e p o r t s , a n d especially t h e T e n t h C e n s u s (1880), h a v e t h e m s u i t a b l y t r a n s l a t e d , a n d a p p l y t h e m to his o w n l a n d . H e w o u l d t h u s see w h a t a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t a g o o d census w o u l d be of the vast resources of his o w n e m p i r e . A c c o r d i n g to C o x , t h e s u l t a n w a s p r e s e n t e d later w i t h copies of the U n i t e d States census data a n d c o n c l u d e d that w i t h such data available f o r use i n f o r m u l a t i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o l i c i e s , t h e A m e r i c a n s c o u l d n o t be o t h e r t h a n prosperous. 6
The S u l t a n w i t h i n t e l l i g e n t g r a s p , c o m p r e h e n d s t h e i r [the census data's] u t i l i t y , a n d the need of t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n to h i s o w n c o u n t r y . T h e n he r e m i n d s m e of o u r c o n v e r s a t i o n about a census for h i s o w n c o u n t r y a n d said that he h a d d i r e c t e d his G r a n d V i z i e r , K i a m i l Pasha to o r g a n i z e a c o m m i s s i o n to b e g i n t h e w o r k . H e w a s a n x i o u s as to its costs. H e asked m e if I w o u l d aid it b y m y a d v i c e , w h e n the c o m m i s s i o n was f o r m e d , l o w h i c h I r e s p o n d e d t h a t , consistent w i t h m y d u t i e s to m y c o u n t r y a n d h e a l t h , 1 w o u l d d o so, if t h e President d i d n o t object. T h e l a w , the i n s t r u c t i o n s to s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , e n u m e r a t o r s , a n d b l a n k s for r e t u r n s , a n d the m o d u s o p e r a n d i of special experts, w e r e f u l l y d e t a i l e d b y the p r i n t e d papers i n the envelopes w h i c h w e r e i n the box. These envelopes he sealed w i t h his
60 For the sultan's orders concerning the American statistics, see BA (1)'(D)77419, letter from the sultan's private secretary, Surevva of 21 Cemazivulevvel 1303 (25 February 1886). 6 l ' See Diversions via Dsr>mi "> Turkey (New York, 1887), p. . v .
32
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
o w n h a n d , a n d gave t h e m d i r e c t i o n at once. So that p r o b a b l y T u r k e y m a y , if peace p r e v a i l , h a v e a census of her o w n . " ' The p o p u l a t i o n census a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n r e g u l a t i o n issued by the C o u n c i l of State consisted of f i f t y articles d i v i d e d i n t o n i n e sections. T h e first t h i r t y - e i g h t articles, c o n s t i t u t i n g e i g h t sections, w e r e d e v o t e d to the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the register s y s t e m , w h i l e the last t w e l v e , assembled u n d e r the h e a d i n g " p r o v i s i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n " (ahkam-i muvakkate), dealt w i t h the census itself. I n accordance w i t h the C o u n c i l ' s p r e v i o u s l y discussed r e a s o n i n g , the r e g u l a t i o n treated the census as an ad hoc project, w h i l e its b y - p r o d u c t , the regis ter s y s t e m i n t e n d e d to be c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d p e r m a n e n t , was g i v e n great a t t e n t i o n . T h e census p r o p e r was to consist essentially of registra t i o n i n the sicil, to be c a r r i e d o u t b y c o m m i t t e e s established in each kaza. Each c o m m i t t e e consisted of o n e m e m b e r f r o m the kaza a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o u n c i l , o n e f r o m the m u n i c i p a l c o u n c i l , t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f f i c i a l , a n d a r e s e r v e militaryofficer (redif). I n the kazas t h a t h a d v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s , one a d d i t i o n a l m e m b e r w a s selected f r o m the m o s t n u m e r ous n o n - M u s l i m g r o u p ; a p o p u l a t i o n secretary a n d his assistant a c c o m p a n i e d the c o m m i t t e e (arts. 39-40). T h e reg i s t r a t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n was to i n c l u d e the r e s p o n d e n t ' s name and n i c k n a m e , his or h e r father's n a m e , a n d his address, age, r e l i g i o n , o c c u p a t i o n or p r o f e s s i o n , electoral status, p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t i e s , a n d c i v i l status. N o n - M u s l i m s w e r e registered i n a separate register so as to facilitate the tax levy. T h e i n f o r m a t i o n w a s to be s u p p l i e d d i r e c t l y b y the p e r s o n i n v o l v e d ; b u t l e g i t i m a t e e x c e p t i o n s w e r e recog n i z e d , a n d i n s u c h cases a t h i r d p e r s o n a c c o m p a n i e d byt w o witnesses o v e r the age of t w e n t y - o n e c o u l d register for an absent p a r t y . ( T h i s p r o v i s i o n a p p a r e n t l y w a s i n t e n d e d to excuse w o m e n f r o m a p p e a r i n g before the census c o m m i t t e e , as this w a s to be t h e i r first experience w i t h the r e g i s t r a t i o n s y s t e m . ) A t the e n d of the census o f a village or t o w n q u a r t e r , the accuracy, c o m p l e t e n e s s , a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y of the result w a s to be c e r t i f i e d b y the imam, the muhtar, a n d the c o m m u n i t y c o u n c i l . T h e kaza p o p u l a t i o n o f f i c i a l was o b l i g e d to c o m p i l e , w i t h i n three m o n t h s after the e n d of the census, a list of a l l i n h a b i t a n t s i n his d i s t r i c t a n d to send it to t h e p r o v i n c e c a p i t a l , w h i c h sent it u l t i m a t e l y to the G e n e r a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of P o p u l a t i o n (Niifus-u Umumiyye Idaresi). C o m p l i a n c e w i t h the census r e g i s t r a t i o n w a s e n s u r e d i n the f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r . Each registered i n d i v i d u a l was issued a n o f f i c i a l " p o p u l a t i o n b u l l e t i n , " or i d e n t i t y card (nufus tezkeresi) g i v i n g a l l the relevant register i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the bearer ( i n t h e R e p u b l i c t h i s c a r d came to be k n o w n as the nufus ciizdani—"population c a r d " ) . The card had to be s h o w n to t h e a u t h o r i t i e s before b u y i n g , s e l l i n g , or i n h e r i t i n g p r o p e r t y , before b e i n g accepted i n a n o c c u p a t i o n or p r o f e s s i o n , f o r o b t a i n i n g travel d o c u m e n t s , or for c o n d u c t i n g a n y o f f i c i a l business. A p e r s o n w i t h o u t s u c h a card, besides b e i n g v i r t u a l l y u n a b l e to c o n d u c t business, w a s 62. Ibid., p. 44.
p u n i s h e d by a stiff fine a n d a jail t e r m ( w h i c h m i g h t be t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s o r as l o n g as o n e m o n t h ) if he c o u l d not present to the c o u r t a n acceptable excuse f o r his lack of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (art. 5). A n y o n e w h o h a d failed to register in o r d e r to a v o i d m i l i t a r y service was to be i m m e d i a t e l y con scripted. T h e P o p u l a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n s i s t e d of a centra! a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h a d i r e c t o r g e n e r a ! a n d a secretariat attached to the I n t e r i o r M i n i s t r y (Dahiliye). Each kaza had a p o p u l a t i o n o f f i c i a l , w h i l e the special d i s t r i c t s had p o p u l a tion a d m i n i s t r a t o r s (nüfus naziri); each o f these was assisted by a p o p u l a t i o n secretary a n d his a s s i s t a n t . T h e loca! lead ers a n d kaza p o p u l a t i o n officials w e r e m a d e responsible for the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p e r m a n e n t r e g i s t e r s y s t e m . Births, deaths, m i g r a t i o n s , a n d marriages o c c u r r i n g i n the villages a n d mahalles after the census w e r e to be recorded by the muhtars i n one of f o u r types of s t a n d a r d i n f o r m a t i o n certificate (ilmühaber) i n accordance w i t h the instructions issued b y the p o p u l a t i o n o f f i c i a l (arts. 11-12). The latter in t u r n w e r e o b l i g e d to f o r w a r d the a n n u a l s u m m a r y (icmal) of the village a n d mahalle p o p u l a t i o n r e p o r t s — a f t e r d u e i n spection a n d a p p r o v a l b y the kaza a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u n c i l — to the s u p e r i o r offices n o t later t h a n A p r i l 1 of each year. E v e n t u a l l y , the r e p o r t s f r o m a l l the vilayets reached the capital: " T h e copies of the r e g i s t r a t i o n s r e a c h i n g the M i n i s try of I n t e r i o r w i l l p r o v i d e the G e n e r a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of P o p u l a t i o n w i t h [statistical d a t a ] necessary to c o m p i l e the a n n u a l general statistics a n d w i l l be p r e s e r v e d intact. A list of p e o p l e r e a c h i n g m i l i t a r y age t o g e t h e r w i t h the [descrip t i o n ] o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y w i l l be c o m p i l e d a n d f o r w a r d e d to the M i l i t a r y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n " (art. 1 4 ) . 63
64
T h e r e g u l a t i o n c o n t a i n e d o t h e r d e t a i l e d i n s t r u c t i o n s con c e r n i n g the r e g i s t r a t i o n o f b i r t h s (arts. 15-22), marriages (arts. 23-26), d e a t h s (arts. 27-29), a n d m i g r a t i o n s (arts. 30-31). A special section (arts. 32-39) established proce dures f o r the c o n t r o l a n d s u p e r v i s i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n regis ters ( t h u s a s s u r i n g a c o n s t a n t u p w a r d f l o w of i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the villages to the s u p e r i o r p o p u l a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s ) , for r e g i s t e r i n g those m i s s e d d u r i n g the o r i g i n a l census, a n d for c o r r e c t i n g the registers' s h o r t c o m i n g s , if a n y . The regula t i o n p r o v i d e d f o r f i n a n c i n g the register s y s t e m b y charging small s u m s f o r r e g i s t e r i n g b i r t h s a n d i s s u i n g travel certifi cates. A l l these p r o p o s a l s w e r e accepted b y the s u l t a n , w h o o r d e r e d their i m p l e m e n t a t i o n as s o o n as p o s s i b l e . 63
63. During the debates in the Council of State the general com mittee suggested that, as some non-Muslim community leaders could not speak Turkish and consequently faced difficulty in filing the birth certificates, the population officers sent to these areas should be selected from those w h o spoke the native languages. In other words, instead of compelling the citizens to learn Turkish, the language of the administration, the Ottoman government sought at this date to get its o w n officials to speak the regional languages; this custom remained long in practice. 64. BA (I)/(SD)/3148, "Sicill-i Nüfus Nizamnamesi" of 8 Şaban 1298 (5 July 1881). 63. Ibid., correspondence between Porte and Palace and the sul tan's orders, 7 Şevval 1298 (1 September 1881) and 8 Şevval 1298 (2 September 1881).
33
POPULATION D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D T H E E V O L U T I O N OF O T T O M A N CENSUSES
The system of r e g i s t r a t i o n , the i d e n t i t y card r e q u i r e m e n t , n d the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o m u l g a t e d i n 1881/82 r e i m p l e m e n t e d , w i t h certain e x p a n s i o n s a n d m o d i f i c a tions, a n d r e m a i n e d i n effect t h r o u g h o u t the rest of the existence of t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . A l a w issued i n 1318 (1900T) b r o a d e n e d c o n s i d e r a b l y the r e g i s t r a t i o n p r o v i s i o n s f the r e g u l a t i o n of 1881/82 a n d w a s i n t u r n s u p e r s e d e d i n 1320 (1902/3) b y a n o t h e r l a w w i t h a c c o m p a n y i n g r e g u l a tions t h a t f u r t h e r c l a r i f i e d t h e process of census t a k i n g a n d registration. (The t a k i n g of a census u n d e r this n e w e s t lawwas a p p a r e n t l y b e g u n i n 1321 [1903/4]; see the f o l l o w i n g section.) T h e basic e l e m e n t s of t h e s y s t e m s u r v i v e to the present d a y i n a v a r i e t y of f o r m s i n T u r k e y a n d o t h e r places in the M i d d l e East. a
v e
0
I m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the 1881/82 P o p u l a t i o n C e n s u s and
Registration
Because of t h e t i m e n e e d e d f o r p r e p a r a t i o n , the census and r e g i s t r a t i o n c o m m i t t e e s established at kaza l e v e l w e r e unable to b e g i n t h e i r w o r k u n t i l s o m e t i m e i n 1882. T h e census i t s e l f — t h a t is, the r e g i s t r a t i o n of all t h e i n h a b i t a n t s in the villages a n d t o w n q u a r t e r s a n d the issuance o f t h e i d e n t i t y d o c u m e n t s — t o o k far l o n g e r t h a n expected because of p h y s i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s s u c h as lack of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d bad w e a t h e r . T h e first r e s u l t s f r o m the m o r e accessible areas came i n d u r i n g 1884/85. S o m e of these p r e l i m i n a r y statistical results w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n v a r i o u s places, s u c h as the saluâmes, b u t they have been used by o n l y a few w r i t ers, a n d o n l y r e c e n t l y . M a n y p r o v i n c e s a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t complete t h e i r censuses or establish their register systems u n t i l 1886/87; for instance, e v e n the city of I s t a n b u l , w h i c h had c o n d u c t e d f i v e censuses d u r i n g t h e c e n t u r y a n d w a s g i v e n p r i o r i t y i n t h i s o n e , b a r e l y c o m p l e t e d its n e w census by 1 8 8 5 . 66
I n 1881/82 the census c o m m i t t e e s , a n d especially t h e local p o p u l a t i o n o f f i c i a l s , h a d the d o u b l e task of c o n d u c t i n g t h e census i n villages a n d of k e e p i n g u p to date t h e registers of districts i n w h i c h the census w a s already c o m p l e t e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p o p u l a t i o n officials h a d to file t h e i r y e a r l y r e p o r t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the census p r o g r e s s e d r a t h e r s l o w l v . I n o r d e r to e x p e d i t e the w o r k , the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n e w p r o v i n c e census teams, called kol, w a s decreed late i n 1884. A s the w o r k i n some of the vilayets a p p e a r e d near c o m p l e t i o n , the g o v e r n m e n t d e c i d e d , late i n 1885, to send special66. A report giving some estimates for 1882 by the head of the census committee (niififs talmr komisyonu) indicated that this was the fifth census of the city but that the lists for the first two cen suses could not be found. It appears that these were conducted after 1265 (1848) when the government empowered the ihtisah (the Office of the Censor of Morals—later becoming first the Zaptiye [gendarmerie] and then the Interior Ministry) to maintain popula tion lists to be completed every year according to the deaths and births occurring in the country; this measure was abandoned and then revived after the Crimean War. See 1UKTY 89 and BA (I).'(D)/ 24 and 402. See also Chapter 5, and Section III of the statistical appendices, which includes the first census (1830) of the city.
]y q u a l i f i e d teams of inspectors t o c o n t r o l the census re sults, to c o m p i l e general p o p u l a t i o n statistics, a n d to take w h a t e v e r m e a s u r e s s e e m e d necessary t o e n s u r e a c o n t i n u o u s a n d accurate r e g i s t r a t i o n of all p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e s . I n s p e c t o r s w e r e sent to H ü d a v e n d i g a r (Bursa), E d i r n e , T r a b z o n , C e z a y i r - i B a h r - i Sefid ( A e g e a n I s l a n d s ) , A d a n a , Sivas, a n d Karesi (Balikesir). A b o u t three m o n t h s later, T r a b z o n i n f o r m e d the g o v e r n m e n t t h a t it h a d c o m p l e t e d its census, a n d i t w a s p l a c e d i n t h e category of the first-class vilnyets. T h e Palace s h o w e d constant interest i n the census a n d issued d e a d l i n e s for its c o m p l e t i o n a n d t h e d r a f t i n g of e m p i r e - w i d e p o p u l a t i o n s t a t i s t i c s . I t is safe to assume t h a t t h e censuses of m o s t of the O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r i e s i n the Balkans, A n a t o l i a , a n d Syria ( i n c l u s i v e of J o r d a n , m o s t of L e b a n o n , a n d Palestine) w e r e a l m o s t f i n i s h e d b y 1888/89. T h e r e still r e m a i n e d a f e w p e o p l e n o t r e g i s t e r e d , even i n the areas w h e r e t h e census w a s declared t o be c o m p l e t e . I n a f e w inaccessible areas t h e p o p u l a t i o n s , par t i c u l a r l y the n o m a d i c tribes, w e r e n o t c o u n t e d at a l l , b u t w e r e e s t i m a t e d o n the basis of i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b y tribal leaders a n d local officials. 67
bS
69
It is i m p o s s i b l e at t h i s stage t o state p r e c i s e l y w h e n the census e n d e a v o r t h a t began i n 1881/82 e n d e d , i f , i n d e e d , it ever a c t u a l l y e n d e d at a l l . H o w e v e r , o n 5 Safer 1311 (17 A u g u s t 1893), P r e m i e r Cevat P a ş a s u b m i t t e d the census records i n a b o u n d m a n u s c r i p t to the s u l t a n , w h o h a d so c o n s i s t e n t l y pressed for t h e i r accurate c o m p l e t i o n . These p o p u l a t i o n records issued i n 1893 r e p r e s e n t t h e m o s t c o m plete a n d reliable O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s c o m p i l e d i n the n i n e t e e n t h century'. U n l i k e earlier general p o p u l a t i o n statistics, these gave precise a n d d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n the p o p u l a t i o n of all areas, n o t i n g the d i s t r i c t s a n d r e g i o n s w h e r e the census w a s n o t c o m p l e t e d a n d p r o v i d i n g esti mates f o r t h e areas n o t s u b j e c t e d to i n d i v i d u a l census a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n . The figures i n these statistics w e r e c o n s i d e r e d d e f i n i t i v e a n d reliable a n d w e r e used as a basis for o f f i c i a l statistics c o n c e r n i n g the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n a n d f o r sub sequent a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m e a s u r e s . 7 0
71
67. BA (1)/(D)/760006, letter from premier's office, 20 Zilkade 1302 (31 August 1885). 68. BA (1).'(D)/80019, Palace letter of 9 Rebiyüiahir 1304 (5 Janu ary 1886). 69. In 1886 the vilayet of Halep (Aleppo) demanded at least nine more months to finish its census, and the indications are that it took much longer than that; see BA (1)/(D)'77419, correspondence of 19 Cemaziyülevvel 1303 1303 and 25 Cemaziyülahır 1303 (23 February' 1886" and 31 March 1886). 70. The accompanying letter states that the register was pre pared by the Population Administration following the sultan's orders and that it included the number of the Muslim and nonMuslim population and of the foreigners; see BA (Y)-(P)'11S 311 215, Bab-i A l i , Dairev-i Sadaret, Amedi Divan-i Hümayun, no. 333. 71 See 1UKTY 9184, Ministry of Trade and Construction, Gener al Directorate of Statistics, Dcvlet-i Aliye-i O&namyyenm Binüçyüzoııüç Senesine Mahsus Istatıstik-i Unmmiyyesi [General statistics of the Ottoman State for the year 1313] (Istanbul, 1316 [1898]); this pub lication was compiled by the statistical office on the basis of i n formation supplied by the Population Administration.
35 34 The final c o n c e r n is the m a r g i n of e r r o r , t h a t is, the n u m ber of u n r e g i s t e r e d p e o p l e i n the statistical tables f o r 1881/ 82-1893. It is i m p o s s i b l e to p r o v i d e a d e f i n i t i v e a n s w e r . M v o w n v i e w , s t e m m i n g i n p a r t f r o m i n s i g h t s g a i n e d by w o r k i n g w i t h such m a t e r i a l s , is t h a t the m a r g i n of e r r o r for established c o m m u n i t i e s located i n the r e l a t i v e l y d e v e l o p e d areas w i t h reasonably g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s is l o w , possibly betw een 2 a n d 5 percent. T h e need f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l to p r o d u c e an i d e n t i t y card i n all his dealings w i t h the g o v e r n m e n t forced practically e v e r y o n e i n such areas to register. The m a r g i n of e r r o r i n r e m o t e areas p r o b a b l y increased to b e t w e e n 6 a n d 12 percent; b u t e v e n here the n e e d f o r tax revenues a n d for p e r s o n n e l for the a r m y f o r c e d the g o v e r n m e n t to be as t h o r o u g h as possible. The p o p u l a t i o n i n s o m e areas s u c h as I§kodra (Scutari) i n A l b a n i a o p p o s e d t h e c e n s u s f o r r e l i g i o u s reasons; the n o m a d i c tribes i n eastern A n a t o l i a r e m a i n e d , as u s u a l , e l u sive; some of the p o p u l a t i o n i n s o m e vilayets c o u l d n o t be registered f o r a v a r i e t y of i n t e r n a l reasons. T h e O t t o m a n statistical office w a s c a r e f u l to m e n t i o n the specific vilayets, sancaks, a n d tribes left o u t o f the c o u n t a n d to g i v e p o p u l a t i o n estimates f o r these areas; the " s u p p l e m e n t a r y statem e n t " attached to t h e census (see the statistical a p p e n dices, I . 8 . C ) m u s t be' read i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h , a n d reg a r d e d as a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of, the census r e p o r t . For i n stance, the basic statistical table does n o t s h o w the n u m b e r of w o m e n or the n o m a d i c tribes l i v i n g i n Basra a n d Baghd a d ; h o w e v e r , the s u p p l e m e n t a r y s t a t e m e n t gives the estim a t e d total of w o m e n a n d n o m a d s i n Basra a n d B a g h d a d as 900,000. T h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y s t a t e m e n t also reveals t h a t a n e s t i m a t e d 3 m i l l i o n p e o p l e l i v i n g i n v a r i o u s vilayets u n d e r direct O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e r e left o u t of the census. A d d i n g this f i g u r e to t h e t o t a l of 17,388,562 p e r s o n s actuall y c o u n t e d , w e get a t o t a l O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e , A n a t o l i a , Syria, a n d I r a q i n 1893 of 20,488,562. T h e overw h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of those l e f t o u t of t h e r e g u l a r c o u n t w e r e M u s l i m s , t h u s i n c r e a s i n g t h e percentage of M u s l i m s to s l i g h t l y above 80 p e r c e n t of the t o t a l . T h e r e is n o quest i o n t h a t the O t t o m a n officials d i d t h e i r u t m o s t to p r o d u c e the best p o p u l a t i o n r e c o r d p o s s i b l e u n d e r t h e c i r c u m stances p r e v a i l i n g at the e n d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The e n d p r o d u c t of t h e i r e f f o r t s c o m p a r e s f a v o r a b l y w i t h the statistics p r o d u c e d b y s o m e of the technically m o r e a d vanced c o u n t r i e s . T h e v a l i d i t y of the census results c o m p i l e d i n 1893 can be tested against s o m e o t h e r reliable f i g u r e s . F o r t u n a t e l y , w e have a n u m b e r of estimates o n the p o p u l a t i o n of v a r i o u s i m p o r t a n t vilayets i n A n a t o l i a a n d R u m i l i . For e x a m p l e , the B r i t i s h consulate collected e i g h t d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n estimates for the p o p u l a t i o n of Sivas. O n e of these w a s t h a t issued b y the A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h , w h o s e f i g u r e s w e r e grossly w r o n g f o r b o t h M u s l i m s a n d n o n - M u s l i m s . T h e r e m a i n i n g seven estimates, m a d e b y the A r m e n i a n b i s h o p i n Sivas, b y f o r e i g n e r s , a n d b y O t t o m a n officials a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e l o c a l s i t u a t i o n , d o n o t d i f f e r g r e a t l y f r o m the figures o b t a i n e d b y the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t i n 1893. T h e g o v e r n m e n t figures^ w h i c h i n c l u d e d b i r t h s registered after 1880, gave the. total p o p u l a t i o n of Sivas as 926,671, of w h o m
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N , 1830-19U
160,113 w e r e C h r i s t i a n a n d 766,558 M u s l i m . The A r m e n i a n Catholic Patriarch H a s s o u n IX s h o w e d the C h r i s t i a n s to be 62,000 i n n u m b e r to the M u s l i m s ' 80,000, for a C h r i s t i a n M u s l i m ratio of 1:1.3 (he also c l a i m e d t h a t there w e r e 10,000 A r m e n i a n s , w h i l e the O t t o m a n f i g u r e w a s o n l y 3,052); h o w e v e r , the o t h e r e s t i m a t e s of the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of Sivas i n 1881 r u n f r o m 708,550 to 895,682 a n d place the C h r i s t i a n - M u s l i m ratio at f r o m 1:3.4 to 1:5.01, exclusive of 50,000 Circassians. These v a r i o u s estimates are s h o w n i n Table 2 . 7 .
k ™ r F V O I I ' T I O N OF O T T O M A N CENSUSES P O P U L A T I O N D I S T R I B U T I O N A N D T H E E\ O L L T I O ,
T
h e Last O t t o m a n C e n s u s , 1905/6 The census of 1905/6, t h e last O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n c o u n t , I
,
v a s
u n d e r t a k e n f o r reasons b o t h technical a n d p o l i t i c a l . undertake
.
a
n
d
u
n
d
a
t
e
d
memorandum
72
Table 2.7.
S
C o m p a r a t i v e Statistics of P o p u l a t i o n of Sivas P r o v i n c e
Source of Statistics Supplied by the Armenian Patriarch to Majesty's Ambassador Supplied by the Armenian Bishop of Sivas to Lieutenant-Colonel Wilson, Jan. 1880 Supplied by the Armenian Bishop of Sivas to Lieutenant Chermside, Aug.1880 Supplied by Abedine Pasha to Lieutenant-Colonel Wilson, Jan. 1880; statistics obtained by doubling the males Supplied by unknown to LieutenantColonel Wilson, Jan. 1880; statistics obtained by doubling the males Supplied by Government to Lieutenant Chermside, Aug. 1880; statistics obtained by doubling the males Sivas Almanac for 1878; statistics obtained by doubling the males According to Baker Pasha; statistics obtained by doubling the males
ChristianMuslim Muslims Christians Ratio
peninsula, * e
Total
62,000
1:1.3
80,000
142.000
201,245
1:3.4
694,437
895,682
201,245
1:3.4
694,431
895,676
143.174
1:4.0
584,604
727,778
136,432
1:4.2
578,166
714,598
S
wa
r e r
n a i n e d unregistered and
d e t r i m e n t a l b o r n to the M u s l i m cause a n d t
t r e a s u r y T h u s t h e O t t o m a n officials are s h o w n to b ' e t a k e n h I census d u t i e s seriously a n d b e e n c o n n e d to correct t h e i r e r r o r s . T h e p o l i t i c a l reason f o r t h , ™ t n c a r r y o u t a n e w census s t e m m e d f r o m t h e ! n W i s t s r u l i e " L n g G r e e k s , B u l g a r i a n s , Serbians
1:5.1
729,872
873,048
131,586
1:3.9
711,264
892,850
140,732
1:4.0
567,818
708,550
Source: HCAP 100-44, p. 99. The p a t t e r n of a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n i n f o r m e d a n d relativel y u n b i a s e d estimates a n d the O t t o m a n statistics is m o r e or less the same f o r o t h e r vilayets. I n s u m , t h e census of 1881/ 82-1893, the first c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d r e l a t i v e l y s o p h i s t i cated O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n s u r v e y , can be u s e d , w i t h m i n o r a d j u s t m e n t s , as a s o u n d q u a n t i t a t i v e basis i n s t u d y i n g O t t o m a n d e m o g r a p h y . T h e s e statistics, w h e n p r o p e r l y used, m a y g i v e a p i c t u r e of the O t t o m a n state d i f f e r e n t f r o m the stereotype h i t h e r t o p r e s e n t e d . 73
72. See HCAP 100/44, p. 99. 73. See Vedat Eldem, Osmanli Imparatorlugunun Iktisadi Sartlari Hakkinda Sir Tetklk (Ankara, 1970), pp. 49-65; Eldem mentions the fact that the Ottoman government took a census in 1882-84 but does not elaborate further. However, Vital Cuinet also seems to have relied on that source; see Syrie, Ld'an et Palestine: geographic administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonnee (Paris, 1896). For some information on the population of Palestine, see Moshe Ma'oz, ed., Studies on Palestine during the Ottoman Period (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1975).
0 der to p u t an e n d to this battle of p o p u l a t i o n statistics, the Porte d e r i d e d to c o n d u c t a n e w census, e n l i s t i n g he sup1 one aeciu port a C
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I
w l to be e n h t l e d to a p p o i n t the p r i e s t (or " d e s p o t , " as r o t o m a n s called h i m j ' l n cases w h e r e ethnic c o m m u m t h e a p p o i n t its o w n priest. ^ o S t d d e f t o S n i s h the c e L u s i n three m o n t h s u
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or t r a v e l card, " s u e d » r , n g ^ 1 8 4 * was e s t i m a t e d t h a t the census w o u l d cost 4,563 /Ui M "
i n L i ' l h e , 1 8 i pt. 9/2631, 2632, folder 4, envelope 72, and BA W ^ )
143,176
c h u r c h it m e a n t t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l or g r o u p h a d d e e d e d o be " G r e e k , " regardless of l a n g u a g e a n d b a c k g r o u n d . The b r e a k d o w n of the u n i v e r s a l O r t h o d o x c o m m u n i t y m the age of n a t i o n a l i s m h a d m a d e n a t i o n a l i t y a m a t t e r o i n d i v i d u a l preference. T h e fierce s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e n a h o n a £ t £ d « of the B u l g a r i a n , G r e e k , a n d Serbian c o m m u n i ¬ es centered o n t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n statistic " h each side c l a i m i n g to possess n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o n over the o t h e r . T h e fiercest s t r u g g l e t o o k place , n t h e Balk a m w h e r e m o s t of t h e O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s l i v e d . »
and 17.
d
,r, these — n t s
a m o n g the statistical a p p e n d i c e s (1.16, ! / ) •
It
ate m C n d e d
Appendix
B . l . S o m e 1831 Census Officials
Divan-i hümayun kaleminden ibrahim Nabi Efendi Dıvan-i hümayun Mühımme nüvısanindan Naili Efendi Oivan-i hümayun Mühımme nuvisanindan Ata Efendi Divan-i hümayun keîebesinden Tayfur Bey Divan-i hümayun ketebesınden Tahsin Efendi Müderrisinden Sıtkizade damadi Arif Efendi Hacegandan Osman Efendi Seyit Mehmet Ragıp Efendi Ruznamçe-ı evvel Arif Efendi Mevaliden Ahmed Efendi Mektubi hulefasinden Sadullah Efendi Kapicibaşi Sirri Bey Kapicibaşilardan Hakki Paşazade İzzet Bey Müderrisinden Seyit Mehmet Raşid Efendi Remzi Paşazade İzzet Enver Bey Hacegandan Osman Ferit Efendi Hacegandan Ragip Efendi Mektubi Hulefasindan Haci Ahmed Efendi Bursa muhtesibi Hafiz Ağa ve şeriki Hüseyin Bey Reaya sayimini yapan Mevall-i devriyyeden Hüsnü Efendi Mevaliden Mustafa Paşazade Osman Bey Mevali-i devriyyeden llyaszade Seyld İbrahim Efendi Müderris Ahmed Nazif Efendi Mevaliden sabik Belgrat kadisi İbrahim Efendi
A p p e n d i x B.2.
N u m b e r and Economic
Status of S o m e Christians i n R u m i l i i n 1831
Kaza Tikves Berkofga" Sofia Uzuncaabat, Hasköy, and Sultanyeri Radovişte Vardar Perzinek Avrathisar Donice Radomir Ivraca Perlepe Köprülü Kesriye 1
0
d
e
(Member of the imperial secretariat) (Imperial secretariat, important affairs) (Imperial secretariat, important affairs) (Secretary of the imperial secretariat) (Secretary of the imperial secretariat) (High ranking member of the ulema. or religious establishment) (Bureau chief) (Probably same rank as above) (Chief finance official in charge of daily accounts) (High ranking ulema: mevali is the plural of molls) (Correspondence clerk) (Chief of the imperial guard) (One of the chiefs of the imperial guard) (High ranking ulema) (Member of the Ottoman bureaucratic aristocracy) (Bureau chief) (Bureau chief) (Correspondence clerk) (Weights and measures clerk of Bursa) (High ranking ulema in charge of Christians' census) (High ranking ulema) (High ranking ulema) (High ranking ulema) (Former judge of Belgrade, member of the ulema)
Rich (a/a)
Middle (evsat)
Poor Non(edna) Taxpayers Taxpayers
131 234 1,589
2,369 5,978 12,794
1,475 1,124 12,794
268 122 (2,133 148 55 747 544 629 238 569 303
Source: Compiled from the register of the 1831 census (but not exhaustive of all such figures in the register). Note: "Taxpayers" are those found to possess receipts for the head tax; "nontaxpayers" are those who did not have receipts. There is no correlation between the numbers of taxpayers and non-taxpayers and the numbers in the three wealth columns. "Tikve? is shown to have had a population of 2,131 children and 3,975 taxable persons. 0f the 234 persons in the "rich" category in Berkofca, only 3 had previously paid the head tax. °The numbers for Sofia contain some error which could not be corrected because of b
our inability to find the actual material used to compile this figure. It should be noted that the numbers of taxpayers in the "middle" and "poor" categories are equal; usually the latter would be 22 to 27 percent of the total, or roughly 3,600 people. Of the 1.589 persons in the "rich" category, only 250 had previously paid the head tax. "The totals exclude several hundred people subject to a variant of the ciziye. 'The official taking the census indicated that 305 Christians of all ages had come to Kesriye from otherfetzas.Of the new arrivals, 44 were working outside the locality. Figures for newcomers are given for several other teas too, indicating the existence of a certain degree of demographic mobility.
^
B
' ' 3
g
^
S
^
m»- While I have sought to make the English translations as literal as possible, J Z « some awkwardness, , have also given guile free trans at.ons where ,Pri for sense For example, the word "fiane," commonly translated family, is ;^;:,ed as household," as that is Cose, to the sense in which it was used in these I n the translated versions of the registers I have conserved space by deleting lines j ; and 2 0 1 APPendix B.3.a and lines 4-12 in Appendix B.3.b. where there are no entries in the original. 7
5
^
^
^
^
S
u
^
Note that persons and households are numbered consecutively m cols 1-3 of Appendix B 3.c. The last figures in cols. 1 and 3 when registration was complete would b tal of persons and households in Petrig; subtotals in col. 2 show the number ot nersons m each ot the numbered households. As this register was designed for the use of the military in the draft system, only males are noted. ' ° We J l s l a . e s as "person" or "individual." or simply "number , to save repeti tion, it is not translated in the column headings of Appendix B.3.C
A p p e n d i x B.3.a.
Sample Register of Population
(continued) A
p p e r x d i x B
;
3 ^ ^
DEFTER-I NÜFUS REGISTER OF POPULATION
SsüHl aded
// . Va ••strict
Vilayet Province
Page NumDer
Kaza Township
Kasaba Town
Sehir City
Cemaat Community
Aşiret Tribe
çıfthk Farm
Karye Village
Malazie town Quarter
Bad-et-tahnr olan Vukuat E vents after registration Tenzilat Subtractions
Varidat Add tions Additions Aded-i umum nut us General popularon number
Beher haneye mahsus numara Number per household
1
1
2
Hane Household (number) 1
Şöhret ve esami-i nüfus Title and name of pcrsons
Eskali-i mahsusa Boy ve levn ve gözdür Personal description. Height. complexion. eye color
Sene-ı veledat Birth year
Şerif oğlu Muştala kısa boylu bin Ali short ela gözlü Şerif oğlu Mustafa. son of Ali brown eyes beyaz benizli white complexion
1240 1824.25
2
Oğlu AH sen, Ali
orta boylu medium height siyah gözlü black eyes beyaz benizli white complexion
1263 1846.47
3
3
Diğer oğlu Süleymanuzun boylu ûtherson, Süleyman tail siyah gözlü black eyes Beyaz benizli white complexion
1265 1848 49
4
4
Diğeri Ibrahim other son. Ibrahim
siyah gözlü black eyes beyaz benizli white complexion
1281 1864-64
5
5
Hafidi Mahmud veled-i AH nephew Mahmud. son of Ali
mavi gözlü blue eyes beyaz benizli while complexion
1285 1868.69
Hafidi Abdürrezzak mavigöziü veled-i AH blue eyes nephew , beyaz benizli Abdul-Rezzak, son white complexion of Alt Katib oğlu Yusuf orta boylu veled-i Süleyman medium height Katıpoğlu Yusuf, son mavigöziü of Süleyman blue eyes bğday benizli wheat-colored (iight brown) complexion
esnan-i askeri olduğu sene Year of reaching military service age
Kura isabet eylediği sene Year ol selection by lottery [for conscription]
Esnam İhtiyata tecavuz'e dahil rsd.fe dahii olduğu oldugu sene sene Year of Year of reaching reaching first second reserve age reserve age
1260 1844
mavigöziü blue eyes esmerce somewhat dark
1282 1865-66
Diğeri Ibrahim other son, ibrahim
ela gözlü brown eyes esmer-ülevn dark complexion
1285 1868.69
1255 1839-40
M usta fh iz Muvazzaf dansilkine redife dahil dahil olduğu olduğu sene sene Year ol Year ol joining transfer militia to first reserve
ita-i hizmetle ifirac oldugu sene Year of discharge from duty of service
MaluHyyeti cihetiyle ihrac olduğu sene Yeaı of disability discharge
Aded-i Numara-i Doğan ve ahar mahalden dettee-i gelenlerin tarih-i umum veladet ve vürudlari yevmiye Daily Dates ol birth and General arrival of those coming register daily number from other places number
Aded-i deftet-i yevmiye Daily register number
1
Numara-i umum yevmiye General daily number
Vefat edenlerin ve OlVSr-l Sria'c (Jluciııcıııı Melhuzat j• ; f,-*5 nlri&nlprin tatih-t vefat ve hareketlenRemarks n-i-n 4 Hnnth a n H ripnarture Dates ot oeaın anu usyouun. of those dying or moving to other places n
1285 1868'69
1285 1868 69
1283 186667
bir eli cpklakdir one hand crippled
Velali death 3 Şubat 89 3 February 1289 (1872)
1289 1872 73
Oğlu Süleyman son. Süleyman
Çoban oğlu Halil ela gözlü veled-iMehmed brown eyes Cobanoğiu Hali!, son uzun boylu of Mehmed tali beyaz benizli white complexion
Sakat ve nakis-ulaza mahal-i is,areti Serious defects and missing limbs, location of stigma
1
1
Veladeti birth 2 Şubat 89 2r-ebıuary 1289 (1872)
1284 1867 E
1285 1868 6
1
2
Damad o/mus. Became son-in-law 2 Şubat 89 2 February 1269 (1872)
Merkum Halil Dere kan/e» olup buraya damad ulmağla serh venidı T ne atoıementıoned Halil ıs Iram Deıekay village and was married here 39
38
A p p e n d i x B.3.b.
Sample Daily Events
Register
Appendix B.3.b. Sample D a i l y Events Register
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YEVMIYYE-I VUKVAT-I NÜFUS DAILY POPULATION EVENTS Sahife aded 1 Page Number 1
Umumi General number
Tarih-i yevmiyye Date of the day
Liva-i Siroz District of Siroz Şehir, kasaba ve karye City, town, and village
Tevellüd eden ve gelenlerin sene-i veladet ve cedid numara ve haneleri (New) births and birth dates of new arrivals and their arrivals new numbers and families Sene-i veladet Numara Birth year Number
1
2 Şubat 1289 2 February 1872
Petriq 1289 kasabasında 1872 73 Emirler mahallesi Quarter of Emirler in the town of Petriç
3 Şubat 1289 3 February 1872
keza same
3 Şubat 1289 3 February 1872
40
keza same
Kaza-i Petric, Township of Petriç
1255 1839.40
1285 1868 69
6
Hane Household
Gelenlerle giden ve vefat Gelenlerin nereden edenlerin atiyk numara vegeldiği ve giden haneleri nereye gittiği Families and old number of Place of origin of the deceased, the {new] those arriving and_ and the departed destination of - the departed Numara Hane Number Household
Eskal Boy levn ve gözdür Marks: height, complexion, eyes coior
1
Gayr-i Muslim Non-Muslim
Müslim Muslim Zam tenzil hAA Q ı Thtrart AÛG ûUUUOlj Keler Neler Number ot Number ot persons persons
Zam Add
Tenzil Subtract
Sifat-i Askeriyyesi
Nev~i Vukuat
Military status
Type ot event
Neler Neler Number ot Number of persons persons
1
Timurhisar kazasından from Timurhisar township
ela gözlü brown eyes uzun boylu tall beyaz benizli white complexion
redil sene reserve year 1285 1868/69
1
1
Esami Names
Melhuzal Vukuat-i niitus ve makule delatir ve Remarks umuma naklolunmustui The register ang general register where the population events were noted Delter Register
Umum General
1
6
mevlud birth
Abdurrezzak veleö-ıAlı Abdurrezzak. son ot Ali
vandal arrival
Çooar? oğlu Halil veled-i Mehmed Çobanoğlu Halil, son of Mehmed
velat death
Şenloglu Mehmed veied-t Ali ISentoîu Mehmed. son ol Alı
Sıtoz sancağı kazalaıindan Timurhisar kazasında Dere karyesinden mekum Halil bu mahallenin ikinci hanesinde mukayyed Katıpoglu Yusula damad olmuştur The atoremenlioned Halil from the village of Derekoy. Timurhisar township. Siroz district, became the son-in-law of Katipoğlu Yusut. registered in the second household ot this ouaner 2
10
41
A p p e n d i x B.3.C.
Sample Summary
appendix B.3.c. S a m p l e S u m m a r y Register ( c o n t i n u e d )
Register
* \ \
V
[
1
i
İCMAL SUMMARY Vilayet-i Selanik Province of Salónica lcmal-i umum nüfus Summary ot genera population
Hane Household
Liva-i Siroz Oistrict of Siroz Millet-i Islam Muslim community
Millet-i Rum Greek communıty
Kaza-/ Peine Township ot Petrig Millet-i Bulgar Bulgarian community
Millet-i Ermeni Armenian community
Millet-i Yehud ve saire Jewish and other communities
Islamdan sıfat-i askenyyeyi haiz olanlar Muslims qualifying for military service SiniN askeriye tiaiz oianiarin icmali Summary (ol classifications) of those qualified for military service
Dahil-i esnan-i askeri Those in military service
lia-yi hizimetle ihraç Discharged on completion of service
Nefer
Nefer
Nefer
Neler
Nefer
Nefer
Neler
Neter
Neter
Neter
Neter
Neter
Nefer
Neter
Malutiyetiyle irhac Released (from obligation) of service on account of Bsami-i kura ve disability kasabat Names of towns and villages Neter
7.500
2,500
5.000
250
2,000
100
150
3.250
500
500
750
750
500
500
250
2
000
2
00
00
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
7,502 01 7,501
2,500 00 2.500
5,002 01 5.001
250 00 250
2,000 00 2,000
100 00
150 00 150
3.250 0
500 0
500 0
750 0
750 0
500 0
500 0
150 0
3.250
500
500
750
750
500
500
250
too
Kura isabet Those selected by lottery
Redif First reserve
İhtiyat Second reserve
Musteh faz Local militia
Melhuzat Remarks
Petriq kasabasi Town of Petrç Ber musib-i yevmiyye-i vukuat zam Daily events addition as required
An ibttda-i Kanun-i evvel ila gaye-i Subat ba-itibar 3 mah From the beginning of December to the end of February. 3 months
Be/ mucıb-i yevmıyye-ı vukuat tenzil Daily events subtraction as required
keza same
Mevcuti Ha gaye-1 Şubat Total at end ol February 42
Miladi or A. D 1892 1393 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1091 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1915
Source: Salnames of H. 1310-1334 (1892/93—1915/16). Notes: It should be noted that for fifteen out of the twenty-three years for which precise information is available, the director was a non-Muslim, and for eleven of those years, he was foreign also. Fethi Bey apparently was Jewish. Migirdig Sinabyan Efendi was an Armenian who had served as assistant director of trade from 1892 until he assumed the statistics post in 1897 and who after 1902 returned to the trade ministry as assistant minister (the statistical office was placed under the jurisdiction of the trade ministry in 1910). Rober (Robert) Efendi was apparently an American.
General Director of Statistics Nuri Bey Fethi Bey Fethi Bey Fethi Franko Bey Fethi Franko Bey Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Migirdiç Sinabyan Efendi Rober Efendi Rober Efendi Rober Efendi Rober Efendi Rober Efendi Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey
Assistant to the General Director
3
T H E
OF
A N D E T H N I C T H E
D I S T R I B U T I O N
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N : A N
Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey Mehmet Behiç Bey
It is interesting to observe the effort made by these officials to disseminate information about statistics. Mehmet Behiç Bey, who served first as assistant director and then as general director and came to be a good statistician in his own right, produced several works. One of his publications giving demographic, economic, financial, and other data for the Ottoman state in 1310 (1894) begins with a general introduction discussing the meaning and importance of statistics; see IUKTY 9075, Yevmiye Kalibi Mehmet Behiq Tarafindan Tanzim Olunan Istatistik Defteri.
Introduction U n t i l the census o f 1881/82, d e s p i t e occasional a l l u s i o n s to ethnic g r o u p s (as i n t h e 1831 census), O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l statistics classified t h e p o p u l a t i o n o n l y a c c o r d i n g t o r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n — e x c e p t f o r a f e w e t h n i c categories i n c l u d e d i n s o m e of the p r o v i n c i a l sahinmes, c h i e f l y after 1868. Despite the absence of a n y actual c o u n t of e t h n i c g r o u p s , Europeans divided and subdivided t h e ' n o n - M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n , c h i e f l y the C h r i s t i a n s , i n accordance w i t h t h e i r n a t i o n a l interests a n d subjective preferences. H o w e v e r , after 1868 p r o v i n c i a l y e a r b o o k s (vilayet salnamcleri), a l t h o u g h issued s o m e w h a t i r r e g u l a r l y , b e g a n to p r o v i d e , a l o n g w i t h general p o p u l a t i o n statistics f o r the i n d i v i d u a l p r o v i n c e s , solid data o n the e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s . This n e w source o f d e m o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n w a s used p r o p e r l y o n l y b y the serious a n d i m p a r t i a l E u r o p e a n scholars a n d s t a t e s m e n ; t h e o t h e r s c o n t i n u e d to r e l y o n f a u l t y — o f t e n w h o l l y f i c t i t i o u s — d a t a . T h u s , f o r o b v i o u s reasons, the p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s p r e s e n t e d b v those w h o i g n o r e d O t t o m a n statistics v a r i e d g r e a t l y f r o m the f i g u r e s g i v e n b y the m o r e c o n s c i e n t i o u s r e p o r t e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , E. G . Ravenstein, despite h i s o u t s p o k e n s v m p a t h v f o r the C h r i s tians, used statistics f r o m several sources, s o m e o f w h i c h relied o n O t t o m a n d a t a , to s h o w t h a t the M u s l i m s i n the Balkans ( e x c l u d i n g Bosnia) c o n s t i t u t e d a b o u t 43 p e r c e n t of (he t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n ; F. B i a n c o n i , u s i n g sources of i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t are h i g h l y suspect a n d f i g u r e s t h a t w e r e a p p a r e n t l y i m a g i n a r y , placed t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n at a mere 16 p e r c e n t . T h e r e p o r t p r e p a r e d b v H e i n r i c h K i e p e r t for the use of Russian delegates at the I s t a n b u l conference i n 1876 r e l i e d m a i n l y o n Slavic sources a n d o n B i a n c o n i ' s false statistics a n d o v e r e s t i m a t e d the Slavic p o p u l a t i o n to the d e t r i m e n t o f all o t h e r g r o u p s . A m o n g the t h i r t v - t h r e e 1
2
3
1. "Distribution of the Population in the Part of Europe Overrun bv T u r k s , " The Geographical Magazine 3 (1876): 260. 2. Ethnographic el statistique de la Tunpiie d'Europe ct de la Grece (Paris, 1877), pp. 50 ff. 3. See Das Aiisland, no. 20 (20 May 1878): 393-116. It was common practice for "authorities" on Ottoman population simply to copy, without regard for the authenticity or accuracy of the i n 44
R E L I G I O U S
O V E R V I E W ,
sources d e a l i n g w i t h the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the Balkans there is a s t o u n d i n g v a r i a t i o n . T h e f i g u r e s g i v e n f o r the p r o p o r t i o n of Bulgarians i n the E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s r a n g e f r o m 24 to 39 percent; of Greeks, f r o m 9 to 16 p e r c e n t ; of T u r k s , f r o m 11 to 24 percent; a n d so o n , despite considerable a g r e e m e n t about the total size (10 to 14 m i l l i o n ) of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the Balkans. Table 3 . 1 , w h i c h c o m p a r e s the f i g u r e s g i v e n by Ravenstein a n d b y K i e p e r t a n d B i a n c o n i , s h o w s t h e effect of the use o f biased a n d p u r p o s e l y false i n f o r m a t i o n about the size of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e Balkans. Sources of i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s dist r i b u t i o n of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the A s i a n p r o v i n c e s are f e w e r t h a n f o r the Balkans. T h e y are g e n e r a l l y i n agreement that M u s l i m s constituted an o v e r w h e l m i n g majority i n A s i a , a l t h o u g h there is s o m e d i s a g r e e m e n t as to the exact ratio of M u s l i m s to C h r i s t i a n s , especially i n areas subject to p o l i t i c a l claims.'' The p r o b l e m of n a t i o n a l i t y i n the O t t o m a n state acquired a n e w d i m e n s i o n after 1878 as the n e w i n d e p e n d e n t or a u t o n o m o u s states i n the Balkans—Serbia, B u l g a r i a , M o n tenegro, R o m a n i a , a n d G r e e c e — s o u g h t to a c q u i r e i a d d i t i o n al t e r r i t o r i e s , to w h i c h t h e y c l a i m e d to h a v e h i s t o r i c a l r i g h t s . These states h a d e m e r g e d d e s p i t e the M u s l i m prep o n d e r a n c e i n areas such as D o b r u c a a n d t h e sancaks of eastern Bulgaria. O t h e r C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s , f o r e x a m p l e , the A r m e n i a n s , e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e success o f t h e B a l k a n Christians i n achieving statehood, sought their o w n independence, again i g n o r i n g the w i s h e s o f the o v e r w h e l m i n g M u s l i m m a j o r i t y . Some M u s l i m s — e . g . , the K u r d s ( w h o i n habited m o r e or less the same areas as those c l a i m e d bv the A r m e n i a n s ) , the A l b a n i a n s i n the Balkans, a n d the A r a b s i n Syria—began also to advance d e m a n d s for a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t o n o m y . T h e r i s i n g f e e l i n g of n a t i o n a l consciousness formation, the figures of other "authorities," and i r i s interesting to see in this article what in general were the sources that Kiepert drew upon and, especially, the manner in which he treated Bianconi as a great authority on the Ottoman population. 4. See Justin McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities: The Population of Anatolia at the End oi the Empire (New York: New York University Press, 1983). 45
OTTOMAN POPULATION,
46
Table 3 . 1 . Ethnic D i s t r i b u t i o n of the O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n i n the Balkans, 18/6-18/ S According to Ravenstein Total Population
i n E u r o p e a n - p r o d u c e d figures was f u l l v c o m p e n s a t e d for bv the i m p r o v e m e n t i n the q u a l i t y a n d coverage of the O t t o m a n s ' o w n statistics after 1881 a n d bv the field reports of British consular agents a n d special m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l w h o v i s i t e d each area a n d c o m p i l e d v o l u m i n o u s data. The British r e m a i n e d i n t e r e s t e d i n p o p u l a t i o n figures for the provinces of eastern A n a t o l i a w h e r e A r m e n i a n s claimed to be a large p o r t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n because of t h e i r respon sibility for r e f o r m s there. I n this chapter I s u r v e y the G r e e k , B u l g a r i a n , A r m e n i a n , a n d M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n s of b o t h E u r o p e a n d Asia, e m p l o y i n g statistics f r o m O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s — m a n y u n p u b l i s h e d u n t i l n o w — a n d f r o m the special B r i t i s h reports on Ottoman population. 6
The Greeks
100
The H e l l e n e s i n the O t t o m a n state e n j o y e d , u n t i l the Greek u p r i s i n g of 1821, a p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n u n s u r p a s s e d Number Number Christians Muslims by a n y other e t h n i c g r o u p — i n c l u d i n g the T u r k s , w h o s e 3.000,000 750.000 Pure Greeks Turks and Tatars claims to n a t i o n a l s u p r e m a c y h a d l o n g since been sub Greeks-Albanians 630,000 Circassians 200,000 m e r g e d b y M u s l i m u n i v e r s a l i s m a n d the O t t o m a n - M u s l i m 150,000 Greeks-Wallachs 70,000 Bosnians i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m p r o m o t e d b y the s u l t a n . Because of their 3,000.000 Pomaks 140,000 Bulgarians (Orthodox) h i s t o r i c a l c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e P a t r i a r c h a t e , t h e Greeks Albanians and Greeks 170,000 Bulgarians (Catholic) 100,000 came to represent, a n d to speak o n b e h a l f of, the entire Albanians (Orthodox) 290.000 Total 1,410,000 Orthodox Christendom in Europe a n d Asia. The Orthodox Albanians (Catholic) 80,000 Croatians (in Bosnia) 75,000 Patriarchate, s h i e l d e d b y O t t o m a n m i g h t , e n j o y e d p o w e r 140,000 Herzegovinians a n d prestige to a degree u n k n o w n e v e n d u r i n g the h e y d a y Serbians (in Bosnia) 550,000 of B y z a n t i u m . A s late as the 1840s the O t t o m a n g o v e r n Armenians 110.000 m e n t still r e f e r r e d to all the C h r i s t i a n O r t h o d o x i n the r e a l m 90,000 Vlahs (Romanians) as R u m , or R o m a n s . A s a n e t h n i c g r o u p , t h e Greeks w e r e 8,135,000 Total the first to be g i v e n p o s i t i o n s w i t h i n the h i g h O t t o m a n Sources: E. G. Ravenstein, "Distribution of the Population in the Part of Europe bureaucracy w i t h o u t h a v i n g to c o n v e r t to I s l a m , first as Overrun by Turks," The Geographical Magazine 3 (October 1876): 260: F. Bianconi, Ethnographie et statistique de la Turguie d'Europe et de la Grèce (Paris. 1877), pp. 50 interpreters a n d t h e n , f r o m 1711 to 1821, as r u l e r s ( k n o w n as phanariots) of W a l l a c h i a a n d M o l d a v i a . T h e Greeks were ff.: Heinrich Kiepert, Das Ausland, no. 20 (20 May 1878): 393-416. also the f i r s t to embrace the E u r o p e a n capitalist system, a n d t h e y became its m a i n p r o p o n e n t s a n d beneficiaries. a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s a n d M u s l i m s after 1878 s t e m m e d essen According to Sianconi and Kiepert
t i a l l y f r o m e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c a t t a c h m e n t s . Each e t h n i c g r o u p , c o n s c i o u s l y or n o t , became i n t e r e s t e d i n its o w n numerical strength. T h r e e m a j o r a r e a s — M a c e d o n i a , eastern A n a t o l i a , a n d , to a s o m e w h a t lesser extent, Thrace a n d w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a — became the b a t t l e g r o u n d of c o n f l i c t i n g n a t i o n a l a m b i t i o n s . P o p u l a t i o n statistics w e r e the f i r s t w e a p o n s i n the battle that was later carried f o r w a r d w i t h g u n s a n d b u l l e t s . T h e p o p u l a t i o n statistics w a r p r o d u c e d a mass of i n f o r m a t i o n n o t o n l y a b o u t the size of v a r i o u s e t h n i c - r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s b u t also a b o u t the social, e c o n o m i c , a n d c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e i n general. A f t e r 1878 the E u r o peans' interest i n the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n slackened c o n siderably, as the c h i e f s t i m u l u s of this interest, that is, the q u e s t i o n of the fate of the B a l k a n C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n , h a d been r e m o v e d b y the B e r l i n treaty: the " E a s t e r n Q u e s t i o n " h a d a l w a y s been essentially a " C h r i s t i a n P o p u l a t i o n Q u e s t i o n . " W i t h the e x c e p t i o n of Felix K a n i t z ' s studies a n d a f e w others, the v o l u m e a n d q u a l i t y of E u r o p e a n w o r k s o n O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n after 1878 is scarcelv c o m p a r a b l e w i t h that p u b l i s h e d just p r i o r to t h e B e r l i n C o n g r e s s . T h e deficiency 3
T h e rise of a G r e e k m e r c h a n t elite i n the O t t o m a n state, a n d its v i t a l role i n the e m e r g e n c e of a secular f o r m of h e l l e n i s m ( w h i c h came i n t o c o n f l i c t s h a r p l y w i t h the Istan b u l Patriarchate's r e l i g i o u s d r e a m of a B y z a n t i n e n a t i o n a l revival), r e s u l t e d f r o m e c o n o m i c forces g e n e r a t e d b y the e x p a n d i n g E u r o p e a n c a p i t a l i s m . B o t h the English and French, w h o h a d d i s c o v e r e d the c u l t u r a l r o o t s of the West i n the ancient c i v i l i z a t i o n of Greece, w e r e i n t e r e s t e d i n the economic role w h i c h a n i n d e p e n d e n t Greece c o u l d plav i n d i s t r i b u t i n g to the East g o o d s m a n u f a c t u r e d b y their i n d u s -
5. A good source was the Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient, which continued to publish articles on Ottoman popula tion, many written by pre-1878 authors such as Hugo Kutschern (see his "Geographisch-ethnographische Ubersicht," Österreichis che Monatsschrift 8 [1882]: 149-52). 6. For bibliographical references, see my "Population Move ments in the Ottoman State in the Nineteenth Century: A n Out line," in Contributions i ! I'Histoire Econotuique et Sociale de l'Empire Ottoman, Collection Turcica, v o l . 3, ed. Jean-Louis BacqueGramont and Paul Dumont (Istanbul, Paris, London, 1983).
T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
tries. The w e s t e r n i n f a t u a t i o n w i t h ancient Greece t h u s sprang n o t o n l y f r o m historical r o m a n t i c i s m b u t also f r o m strong e c o n o m i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . A s t h e beneficiaries of t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l , n a t i o n a l , a n d e c o n o m i c forces, and aided b y a p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n i n the O t t o m a n hier archy, the G r e e k s w e r e able to create a f a s t - e x p a n d i n g m i d dle class w h i c h , i n t u r n , caused an increase i n the size of the G r e e k - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n a n d o f g r o u p s t h a t i d e n tified w i t h the G r e e k Patriarchate, regardless of t h e i r e t h n i c origins. Before the m i d d l e of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y the G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n of A n a t o l i a a p p a r e n t l y w a s r a t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t in size. I n 1830 t h e p o p u l a t i o n of I z m i r was e s t i m a t e d to have consisted of 80,000 T u r k s a n d 20,000 Greeks; h o w e v er, i n 1860 there w e r e 75,000 G r e e k s to 41,000 T u r k s ( M u s lims). Because of t h e favorable c o n d i t i o n s created b y t h e edicts of 1839 a n d 1856, the C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n of the Aegean I s l a n d s h a d b e g u n to increase r a p i d l y . U n a b l e to f i n d e m p l o y m e n t , m a n y m i g r a t e d to w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a a n d settled t h e r e . A B r i t i s h c o n s u l a r agent e s t i m a t e d i n 1880 that the n u m b e r of these m i g r a n t s w a s as h i g h as 200,000 over a p e r i o d of n o t q u i t e t w e n t y years. The G r e e k i m m i g r a n t s w e r e f a v o r e d b y e c o n o m i c c o n d i tions. T h e y w e r e n o t subject to c o n s c r i p t i o n or v a r i o u s other h e a v y o b l i g a t i o n s . W h i l e t h e M u s l i m , h a r d p r e s s e d by e c o n o m i c d i f f i c u l t i e s , k e p t h i s f a m i l y s m a l l b y e v e r y possible m e a n s , i n c l u d i n g a b o r t i o n a n d , i n s o m e cases, i n fanticide, the Greeks, free of m i l i t a r y obligations a n d p a y i n g i n s i g n i f i c a n t taxes i n p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r i n c o m e s , c o u l d a f f o r d t o raise large f a m i l i e s . A c c o r d i n g t o a B r i t i s h consular r e p o r t , e v e r y w h e r e i n western Anatolia the Greeks replaced t h e T u r k s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r : A G r e e k arrives i n a M u s l i m v i l l a g e a n d c o m m e n c e s life as a small t r a d e s m a n . H e g r a d u a l l y g r o w s r i c h w h i l s t the peasants b e c o m e p o o r ; e v e n t u a l l y he is j o i n e d b y f r i e n d s or relatives a n d t h e p o v e r t y of the peasant increases, u n t i l a succession of b a d h a r v e s t s forces t h e m to p a r t w i t h t h e i r l a n d s a n d m o v e f u r t h e r i n l a n d . A m o n g s t t h e w e a l t h y M o s l e m s the process is m u c h t h e same . . . i n n e a r l y every t o w n M o s l e m s are now to be f o u n d , i n a state of p o v e r t y , w h o a f e w years ago w e r e comparatively wealthy m e n / 7
The i n f l u x of Greek colonists was not c o n f i n e d to seashore t o w n s s u c h as A y v a l i k ( w h i c h i n a m a t t e r of t h i r t y years h a d b e c o m e a m a j o r G r e e k c u l t u r a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l center i n h a b i t e d b y 40,000 p e o p l e , a n d d o t t e d w i t h h o s p i tals a n d schools a n d h a r b o r i n g 2,000 ships); the Greeks also settled i n t h e i n t e r i o r t o w n s s u c h as M a n i s a , A k ş e h i r , A v d i n a n d m a n y other places b e n e f i t i n g f r o m the Greekm a n a g e d e c o n o m i c b o o m . I n t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of Asia M i n o r , Greeks f r o m the i n t e r i o r m o v e d to the seaports of T r a b z o n a n d G i r e s u n to create i n these cities a s m a l l econo mic r e v o l u t i o n based o n free e n t e r p r i s e a n d f o r e i g n t r a d e . The d i s p l a c e m e n t of M u s l i m s b y G r e e k m i g r a n t s c h a n g e d the e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n of e n t i r e t o w n s a n d villages i n a f e w years' t i m e i n a process w h i c h i n v o l v e d no p r e d e t e r m i n e d 7. HCAP 100 44 (1881), pp. 389-90 (Wilson to Goschen).
47
p l a n of c o l o n i z a t i o n ( a l t h o u g h such a scheme d i d e v e n t u a l l y take shape) b u t m e r e l y the e x p l o i t a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t y . I n t o w n s near I z m i r the p r o p o r t i o n of M u s l i m s decreased c o n s i d e r a b l y . For e x a m p l e , i n a p e r i o d of n i n e t e e n years f r o m 1305 to 1326 (1887-1908), t h e M u s l i m s w e n t f r o m 19.1 p e r c e n t of the p o p u l a t i o n of Ç e ş m e to o n l y 16 percent; f r o m 20.6 to 12.4 p e r c e n t i n U r l a ; a n d f r o m 64.5 to 58.6 p e r c e n t i n S e f e r i h i s a r . T h i s p a t t e r n p r e v a i l e d t h r o u g h o u t m o s t of the kaza. D u r i n g t h e same n i n e t e e n year p e r i o d a n d i n t h e same area, the p r o p o r t i o n of the T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n is also s h o w n to h a v e decreased: i n Ç e ş m e , f r o m - 1 2 to 10.9 p e r c e n t ; i n U r l a , f r o m 34.9 to 24.7 percent; a n d i n Seferihisar, f r o m 82.1 to 74 p e r c e n t . 8
M e a n w h i l e , r i c h Greeks sent t h e i r c h i l d r e n f o r e d u c a t i o n to h i g h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s of l e a r n i n g f r o m w h i c h these y o u n g m e n r e t u r n e d as d o c t o r s , m e r c h a n t s , or schoolmasters to s t i m u l a t e o t h e r s by t h e i r e x a m p l e . T h e y h a v e a n a r d e n t love a n d y e a r n i n g for l i b e r t y , a deep-seated intolerance of f o r e i g n r u l e , a n d , i f the present m o v e m e n t c o n t i n u e s f o r a n o t h e r f i f t y years, a p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n of the h i g h e s t i n t e r e s t a n d i m p o r t a n c e w i l l arise f o r s o l u t i o n . 9
I n d e e d , some t h i r t y - f i v e years later the success of the G r e e k migration into Anatolia culminated in invasion by Athens a n d the b l o o d y T u r k o - G r e e k W a r of 1919-1922. T h e G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n state i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1860 t o 1870 w a s e s t i m a t e d at a b o u t 1 m i l l i o n i n E u r o p e (Greece p r o p e r excepted) a n d a b o u t 1 m i l l i o n also i n A n a t o l i a ; t h e f i g u r e for E u r o p e w a s o b v i o u s l y s o m e w h a t l o w . T h e o p p o s i t e was t r u e for t h e p r e - B e r l i n C o n g r e s s statistics d e s i g n e d to s h o w t h a t G r e e k s f o r m e d a large p a r t of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n of T h r a c e , M a c e d o n i a , a n d east e r n R u m e l i a , all s c h e d u l e d for i n c l u s i o n i n B u l g a r i a . The p u b l i c a t i o n Gobi w a s able, t h r o u g h m a n y sensational a r t i cles, to c o n v i n c e the B r i t i s h that t h e G r e e k s w e r e a b o u t to suffer a great i n j u s t i c e . T h e i n f l a t e d statistics s u b m i t t e d to the B r i t i s h to s h o w the size of t h e G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n as c o m p a r e d w i t h t h a t of o t h e r r e l i g i o u s - n a t i o n a l g r o u p s i n the E u r o p e a n d o m a i n s of the O t t o m a n state are r e p r o d u c e d i n Table 3 . 2 . 1 0
A . S y n v e t c o n d u c t e d a s u r v e y of the G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n based p a r t l y o n the G r e e k c o m m u n i t y registers b u t m o s t l y o n the p o p u l a t i o n statistics a c c u m u l a t e d b y the svllogues. Svnvet d i d n o t t r u s t the c o m m u n i t y registers because t h e y gave o n l y the n u m b e r of houses a n d the n u m b e r of m a r r i e d people a n d because, i n a d d i t i o n , there w e r e m a n v people w h o a v o i d e d such r e g i s t r a t i o n i n o r d e r n o t to p a v taxes to the ecclesiasts. The svllogues w e r e ostensibly l i t e r a r y a n d 8. See Tuncer Baykara, "XIX Yuzyilda Urla Yarimadasinda Nüfus H a r e k e t l e r i , " i n Social and Economic History of Turken 1071-1910, ed. O. Okyar and Halil Inalcik (Ankara, 1980), p. 283. 9. HCAP 100 44 (1881), p. 287 (Wilson to Goschen); for a more detailed view of this process, see mv An Inquiry into the Social Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman State: Trow. Social Estates to Classes, from Millets to Xations, Research Monograph no. 39, Center of International Studies, Princeton University (Princeton, 1973). 10. FO 78 2784.
48
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914 T
Table 3.2. C r e e k P o p u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e a n T u r k e y , Thr2ce (including Istanbul. chiefly Edirne vilayet) Greeks Bulgarians Muslims Others Foreigners
, i
Total
1878
Macedonia (Salónica. Drama. Serres. Monastin
743.900 315.520 558.300 223.000 132,000
705.500 140.500 349.000 100,000 35.000
1,972,720
1.330,000
Source' FO 78 2784. s c i e n t i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e s i g n e d to p r o m o t e e d u c a t i o n a m o n g the Greeks; t h e y w e r e s u p p o r t e d by rich Greek mer chants, i n c l u d i n g s u c h p r o m i n e n t O t t o m a n financiers as C h r i s t a k i E f e n d i , Z o g r a p h o s , a n d G . Z a r i f i . A c t u a l l y they were p o l i t i c a l - l i t e r a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s a i m e d at a w a k e n i n g a n a t i o n a l consciousness a m o n g G r e e k s a n d at p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t f o r the Patriarchate's endea v o r to h e l l e n i z e the Bulgarians, Serbs, R o m a n i a n s , a n d o t h e r O r t h o d o x C h r i s tians. S y n v e t , w h o s e statistics d r e w sharp r e b u t t a l , gave the total n u m b e r o f Greeks i n the entire O t t o m a n r e a l m as over 4 m i l l i o n ; see Table 3 . 3 . u
Table 3.3.
Greek P o p u l a t i o n i n the O t t o m a n State i n 1878 ( A c c o r d i n g to S y n v e t )
Thrace Macedonia Epirus Tessaly Other European areas Aegean Islands Asia Syria Greek Catholics Total
Source: A. Synvet, Les Grecs de l'Empire ottoman (Paris, 1878), p. 8 H o w e v e r , H . S y n g e , a m i l i t a r y officer sent especially by the B r i t i s h embassy i n I s t a n b u l to f i n d o u t the exact n u m b e r of the M a c e d o n i a n p o p u l a t i o n , stated i n a p r e l i m i n a r y re p o r t t h a t the t o t a l G r e e k m a l e p o p u l a t i o n of Selanik, M a n astir, Serez, a n d D r a m a a m o u n t e d i n 1878 to o n l y 166,964, as agajnst 116,024 B u l g a r i a n s , 50,152 V l a h s (Romanians),' a n d 25,043 A l b a n i a n s ( w h o also r e c o g n i z e d the Greek Pa triarchate i n I s t a n b u l ) . A t o t a l of 67,042 Bulgarians h a d already o p t e d f o r the n e w established (1870) B u l g a r i a n Ex archate. (Soon m a n y o t h e r B u l g a r i a n s w e r e to s h i f t their r e l i g i o u s a n d also n a t i o n a l allegiance to the Exarchate, c h u r c h a f f i l i a t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l i t y h a v i n g c o m e to coincide.) T h u s , a c c o r d i n g to S y n g e , the total n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s (males) l i v i n g i n M a c e d o n i a w a s 425,225, as against 310,441 M u s l i m s a n d 28,122 J e w s . 1 2
As u s u a l , there w a s n o t m u c h a t t e n t i o n p a i d to the M u s l i m s , a l t h o u g h Synge r e p o r t e d t h a t the p o p u l a t i o n of D r a ma consisted of 112,487 persons, of w h o m 88,620 w e r e T u r k s a n d the rest w e r e Greeks a n d B u l g a r i a n s . A c t u a l l y U . See Les Crees de I'Empire ottoman (Paris, 1878) 12. See FO 424/99, p. 226.
p 8
the B r i t i s h vice-consul Stanislas Recchioli h a d alreadv re p o r t e d t h a t i n 1878 the D r a m a sancak h a d a p o p u l a t i o n of 314,747 (males a n d females), of w h o m 270,998 w e r e M u s lims (249,165 of these b e i n g e t h n i c T u r k s ) a n d o n l v 43,549 Christians. 1 3
The O t t o m a n census of 1881:82-1893 gave the first t r u l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e account of the G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n still l i v i n g in the O t t o m a n state. It s h o w e d , first, that Svnvet's statis tics w e r e w r o n g . It also s h o w e d t h a t the G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n was spread t h r o u g h o u t the O t t o m a n d o m a i n s , its heaviest c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e i n g i n the vilayets of Y a n y a , the A e g e a n Islands, E d i r n e , Selanik, M a n a s t i r , T r a b z o n , a n d I s t a n b u l . The t o t a l Greek p o p u l a t i o n , c o n s i s t i n g o f 1,234,550 males a n d 1,097,641 females, w a s 2,332,191. ( A n o t h e r total f i g u r e of 2,666,628 was o b t a i n e d b y r o u n d i n g o f f the total for females a n d a d d i n g 8 percent f o r e r r o r . ) Later the O t t o m a n official p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s f o r 1895 s h o w e d t h a t the Greek p o p u l a t i o n h a d risen to 2,377,343 ( u n a d j u s t e d ) . F i n a l l y , the census f i g u r e s for 1914, after Y a n y a ( J a n i n a ) , E p i r , M a c e d o nia, Thrace, a n d the I s l a n d s w e r e lost to Serbia a n d Greece (1912-1913) a n d A l b a n i a h a d b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t , s h o w t h a t t h e G r e e k s s t i l l n u m b e r e d 1,729,657 ( u n a d j u s t e d f i g u r e s ) , o r r o u g h l y a b o u t 9 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n state. A t t h a t t i m e m o s t o f t h e G r e e k ' p o p u l a t i o n (that is, o v e r 50 percent) was c o n c e n t r a t e d i n the vilayets o f E d i r n e , A y d i n ( I z m i r ) , T r a b z o n , C a n i k (Sams u n ) , K a r e s i , a n d I s t a n b u l , w h i c h w e r e t h e m o s t prosper ous a n d c o m m e r c i a l l y active p r o v i n c e s (see the statistical a p p e n d i c e s , 1.8 a n d 14). T h e f i n a l page i n the b o o k o f T u r k i s h - G r e e k p o l i t i c a l rela¬ tions i n v o l v i n g issues r e l a t e d to p o p u l a t i o n was w r i t t e n i n 1926—that is, after the G r e e k i n v a s i o n of A n a t o l i a was re-'p e l l e d i n the b l o o d y w a r of 1919-1922. T h e r e w a s an ex change of p o p u l a t i o n , the G r e e k s of A n a t o l i a b e i n g ex c h a n g e d f o r the T u r k s of t h a t p a r t of M a c e d o n i a w h i c h became p a r t o f Greece (Salonica) a n d of eastern Thrace; the G r e e k s i n h a b i t i n g I s t a n b u l a n d t h e M u s l i m s of w e s t e r n Thrace w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s e x c h a n g e .
The
Bulgarians
A S l a v i c - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e w i t h T u r a n i c r o o t s , the Bulgar ians i n h a b i t e d c h i e f l y a q u a d r a n g l e of t e r r i t o r y s a n d w i c h e d b e t w e e n the D a n u b e a n d the B a l k a n M o u n t a i n s a n d , as w e l l , the s o u t h e r n slopes of those m o u n t a i n s , w h i c h ex t e n d e d s o u t h w a r d to T h r a c e a n d to M a c e d o n i a , the ethnicc h a r a c t e r of the l a t t e r b e i n g d i s p u t e d b y Serbians a n d G r e e k s . T h u s the O t t o m a n D a n u b e p r o v i n c e c o n t a i n e d a 1 4
13. FO 78/2787 (Recchioli to Barker, 21 A p r i l 1887). 14. The literature on the Bulgarians during the Ottoman era is too rich to be cited in detail. For bibliographical references, see Nikola V. Mikhov, Naseleniento na Turtsii i Bulgarii prez XVI1I-XIX v., 5 vols. (Sofia, 1915-1968); Peter Sugar, Southeastern Europe Under Ottoman Rule, 1354-1804 (Seattle; University of Washington Press, 1977); and my review in' American Historical Review 84 (1979): 798-80; see also Stanley Lane Poole, The People of Turkey, vol. I (London, 1878), and Daniel Panzac, "La population de i'Empire
H
, s t a n t i a l p a r t of the B u l g a r i a n - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n . A L „ n u m b e r of B u l g a r i a n s i n the R h o d o p e M o u n t a i n s h a d aep' s i x t e e n t h centuries b u t t i n u e d to speak t h e i r n a t i v e t o n g u e . K n o w n as P o m a k s ("Helpers"), t h e y w e r e r e g a r d e d b y t h e O t t o m a n s as p a r t of e M u s l i m g r o u p ; b u t later, after B u l g a r i a became i n d e pendent a n d a c q u i r e d m o s t o f the areas i n h a b i t e d b y t h e Pomaks, t h e y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d " B u l g a r i a n s " a n d subjected to a massive process of " n a t i o n a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , " t h a t is, Bulgarization—at t i m e s C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n — a n d t h e i r M u s l i m names w e r e c h a n g e d to C h r i s t i a n n a m e s . (This process s t i l l continues a n d has b e e n e x t e n d e d to the T u r k i s h - s p e a k i n g Muslims.) A h a r d - w o r k i n g a n d frugal people w i t h strong group loyalties, t h e B u l g a r i a n s l i v e d m o s t l y i n a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s b u t also e n g a g e d i n trade a n d crafts i n the towns. A g r o u p of cattle m e r c h a n t s ( k n o w n as jelcp) h a d been active as earl}' as the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n s u p p l y i n g meat a n d d a i r y p r o d u c t s to t h e m a r k e t s i n I s t a n b u l . rut
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o n
tri
B e g i n n i n g i n the second h a l f of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the B u l g a r i a n c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r w e n t a p r o f o u n d i n t e r n a l economic a n d d e m o g r a p h i c r e v o l u t i o n ; a n d i n the nineteenth c e n t u r y the B u l g a r i a n m i d d l e classes, b e n e f i t ting f r o m t h e i r p r o x i m i t y to the O t t o m a n capital a n d f r o m the r e f o r m s i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t (these include a v a r i e t y of measures c o n c e r n i n g l a n d t e n u r e ) , de veloped r a p i d l y a n d a c q u i r e d considerable e c o n o m i c p o w er, w h i l e the peasants secured, d i r e c t l y a n d i n d i r e c t l y , c o n trol of m u c h of the l a n d . T h e p r o g r e s s i v e measures i n t r o duced b y M i t h a t Paşa i n t h e D a n u b e p r o v i n c e d u r i n g t h e second h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y increased a g r i c u l t u r a l production and i m p r o v e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i l e massive g o v e r n m e n t m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e i n the area a d d e d to its p r o s p e r i t y . T h i s f u r t h e r s t i m u l a t e d the m i g r a t i o n of B u l g a rians f r o m m o u n t a i n o u s areas, first i n t o t h e v a l l e y s (a p r o cess that h a d b e g u n earlier i n the R h o d o p e s , h a v i n g b e e n caused i n i t i a l l y b y the K i r j a l i r e v o l t s ) a n d t h e n i n t o t h e t o w n s . T h u s , d u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o m e sections of the B u l g a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d , b e c o m i n g u r b a n a n d d e v e l o p i n g a m e r c h a n t elite w h i c h became active in I s t a n b u l a n d even i n Russia, as w e l l as i n the D a n u b i a n p o r t s i n R o m a n i a . M e a n w h i l e , i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e there emerged a n a t i v e p e t t y l a n d l o r d class (sometimes r e f e r r e d to as Çorbaci) c o n s i s t i n g of c o m m u n a l leaders a n d notables w h o b o u g h t u p m u c h of t h e l a n d h e l d b y M u s l i m peasants a n d l a n d l o r d s . By the 1870s t h e B u l g a r i a n s h a d a w e l l r o u n d e d m i d d l e class of m e r c h a n t s a n d p r o d u c e r s w h o d i d not relv solely o n the exchange of g o o d s a n d a little m a n u f a c t u r i n g , as d i d m o s t of t h e Greeks i n A n a t o l i a , b u t c h i e f l y o n the p r o d u c t i o n a n d exchange of t h e i r o w n p r o d u c t s . M o r e o v e r , m u c h of t h i s f a s t - d e v e l o p i n g B u l g a r i a n m i d d l e class l i v e d o n l a n d s w h i c h t h e y h a d i n h a b i t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d to w h i c h t h e y h a d h i s t o r i c a l c l a i m s . 1 5
ottoman et de ses marges du X V " au XIX siècle: Bibliographie (1941-1980) et bilan provisoire,". Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée 31 (1981): 119-37. 15 See Slavka Draganova, Materials on the Danube Province [m Bulgarian] (Sofia, 1980).
A g a i n d i f f e r i n g f r o m the G r e e k s , w h o , after a p e r i o d of f r i e n d s h i p w i t h the Czar, h a d o p t e d for the p a t r o n a g e of the B r i t i s h , the B u l g a r i a n s f r o m the b e g i n n i n g p i n n e d t h e i r hopes o n Russia. T h e Pan-Slavic m o v e m e n t o r i g i n a t i n g i n Moscow f o u n d ready adherents a m o n g t h e Bulgarian n a t i o n a l i s t i n t e l l i g e n t s i a , m a n y of w h o m h a d b e e n e d u cated i n M o s c o w a n d o t h e r Russian c i t i e s — o f t e n as the recipients of special f e l l o w s h i p s established by the Russian Pan-Slavists. T h e n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t , w h i c h at first h a d a l i m i t e d f o l l o w i n g i n B u l g a r i a , came to s u d d e n f r u i t i o n i n 1877/78 after Russia, w i t h o u t real cause, declared w a r o n t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e czarist a r m i e s s w e p t across the Balkans, s t o p p i n g at the gates of I s t a n b u l . D u r i n g this m a r c h R u s s i a n soldiers a n d B u l g a r i a n b a n d s k i l l e d o u t r i g h t s o m e 200,000 to 300,000 M u s l i m s a n d u p r o o t e d m o r e t h a n a m i l l i o n w h o w e r e l i v i n g i n a n area s t r e t c h i n g all the w a y f r o m the D a n u b e to I s t a n b u l . T h e u p r o o t i n g of the M u s l i m s f r o m t h e D a n u b e a n d E d i r n e p r o v i n c e s i n 1877/78 is described i n the g r i m m e s t d e t a i l i n the r e p o r t s of the B r i t i s h c o n s u l a r agents s t a t i o n e d i n P h i l i p p o p o l i s , Rus çuk, V a r n a , Burgas, E d i r n e , etc. These r e p o r t s are available i n the B r i t i s h P u b l i c R e c o r d s . O f f i c e . (See also C h a p t e r 4.) 16
W i t h the s i g n i n g of the B e r l i n treaty i n 1878, w h i c h oc c u r r e d after t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n , the B u l g a r i a n s w e r e o f f i c i a l l y recog n i z e d as h a v i n g n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y i n the a u t o n o m o u s B u l g a r i a n p r i n c i p a l i t y a n d i n eastern R u m e l i a (the latter w a s a n n e x e d i n 1885 i n o u t r i g h t v i o l a t i o n of t h e t r e a t y ) . People s p e a k i n g a dialect of B u l g a r i a n r e m a i n e d u n d e r O t t o m a n r u l e i n M a c e d o n i a after 1878 a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y became the subject of d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n B u l g a r i a , Serbia (Yugoslavia after 1918), Greece, a n d t h e O t t o m a n s . T h e O t t o m a n s ceased to be a p a r t y to t h e d i s p u t e i n 1913, h a v i n g b e e n defeated i n the B a l k a n W a r a n d r e l i n q u i s h e d a u t h o r i t y over M a c e d o n i a a n d m o s t of Thrace. The statistical h i s t o r y of the B u l g a r i a n s is a r a t h e r p e c u l iar o n e , as t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t r e g a r d e d t h e m as p a r t of the O r t h o d o x millet a n d d i d n o t classify t h e m as a sepa rate e t h n i c g r o u p u n t i l the second h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( a l t h o u g h the census of 1831 occasionally refers to t h e m b y t h e i r e t h n i c n a m e ) . T h i s w a s d e s p i t e t h e fact that travelers i n t h e Balkans i n the p r e v i o u s centuries h a d re peatedly r e f e r r e d to the B u l g a r i a n s as a separate n a t i o n a l i t y . A f t e r the c h u r c h of O h r i d a , c o n s i d e r e d to be the s y m b o l of B u l g a r i a n i d e n t i t y , w a s closed i n 1767 (largely t h r o u g h the efforts o f the O r t h o d o x Patriarchate i n I s t a n b u l ) , the Bulgarians became subject to i n t e n s i v e h e l l e n i z a t i o n e f f o r t s by the Greek schools a n d c h u r c h e s . T h e h e l l e n i z a t i o n p r o cess came to a s t a n d s t i l l after the B u l g a r i a n c o m m u n i t y i n I s t a n b u l , l e d b y m e r c h a n t s a n d w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l of the s u l t a n , i n i t i a t e d i n the 1850s a m o v e m e n t f o r a n a t i o n a l c h u r c h . T h e m o v e m e n t c u l m i n a t e d i n the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a B u l g a r i a n Exarchate i n 1870. H e n c e f o r t h , t h e B u l g a r i a n c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e free to choose the Exarchate or to r e m a i n w i t h the Greek Patriarchate, m a k i n g i n effect a p o l i t i c a l declaration of B u l g a r i a n or Greek n a t i o n a l i t y . M o s t of the 16. See FO 78 and 242, correspondence for 1S77-1879.
50
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
Table 3.4.
M a c e d o n i a n P o p u l a t i o n ( A c c o r d i n g to V a r i o u s N a t i o n a l Statistics)
634.017 332.162 652.797 not indicated 25,101 not indicated 53.147 8.911 18.685
2,258.222
2:870.600
1,724.820
Total
Source: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Enquête dans les Balkans (Paris: Centre Européen de la Dotation Carnegie. Edition Georges Cres et Cie. 1914), pp. 9-10. O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s i n T u n a P r o v i n c e a n d close to t w o t h i r d s of those i n M a c e d o n i a o p t e d for the Exarchate. ( A f t e r m o s t of the B u l g a r i a n s h a d chosen t o a f f i l i a t e w i t h their n a t i o n a l c h u r c h , t h e Patriarchate came t o represent c h i e f l y the Greeks i n the O t t o m a n state, w h i l e a n i n d e p e n d e n t Greek C h u r c h w a s established i n Greece itself.) A s one w o u l d expect, there was a great deal of c o n f u s i o n in national and religious identification. Some Bulgarians p e a k i n g g r o u p s , especially i n Thrace, r e m a i n e d w i t h the Patriarchate i n I s t a n b u l a n d w e r e r e g a r d e d as " B u l g a r i a n speaking Greeks," while a few Greek-speaking groups o p t e d for the Exarchate a n d became " G r e e k - s p e a k i n g B u l g a r i a n s . " T h e R o m a n i a n - s p e a k i n g V l a h s l a r g e l y re m a i n e d w i t h the Patriarchate a n d w e r e i n g o o d p a r t h e l l e n i z e d ; those c h o o s i n g the Exarchate w e r e b u l g a r i z e d . There w e r e also a f e w C a t h o l i c C r e e k s a n d B u l g a r i a n s , w h o w e r e classified i n accordance w i t h t h e i r l i n g u i s t i c a f f i l i a t i o n . T h i s c o n f u s i o n a n d c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r the n a t i o n a l i t y of the O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s i n M a c e d o n i a was m a n i f e s t e d i n the three d i f f e r e n t sets o f statistics s u b m i t t e d to the C a r n e gie m i s s i o n c h a r g e d w i t h i n v e s t i g a t i n g the atrocities of the Balkan W a r of 1912-1913; these statistics are r e p r o d u c e d i n Table 3 . 4 . 1 7
The exact n u m b e r o f the B u l g a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n for the p e r i o d f r o m 1800 to 1878 p r o b a b l y w i l l n e v e r be k n o w n because of the e x t r a o r d i n a r y circumstances a c c o m p a n y i n g the emergence of the B u l g a r i a n n a t i o n - s t a t e . Some p r o B u l g a r i a n sources ( s u c h as A . N . M o s h n i n , V l a d i m i r Tep l o v , a n d K i e p e r t ) are too subjective, t h e i r figures b e i n g too greatly exaggerated a n d l a c k i n g scientific bases (as is recog n i z e d t o d a y b y s o m e B u l g a r i a n scholars), to deserve de tailed s t u d y . K a n i t z ' w o r k , a l t h o u g h v e r y u s e f u l , does n o t rest o n a n actual p o p u l a t i o n c o u n t except i n s o f a r as he used official O t t o m a n s o u r c e s . For e s t i m a t i n g the n u m b e r of 18
17. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Enquête dans les Balkans (Paris: Centre Européen de la Dotation Carnegie, Édi tion Georges Crès et Cie, 1914), pp. 9-10; for the controversy over' nationality, see my "The Memoirs of N . Batzaria: The Young Turks and N a t i o n a l i s m , " International journal of Middle East Studies 6 (1975): 276-99.
Table 3.5.
P o p u l a t i o n of Eastern R u m e l i a before a n d after the W a r of 1877-1878
Bulgarian Catholics Bulgarian Exarchists Greek Bulgarians Greeks Greek Viahs Greek Albanians Armenians
Before the War
After the War
210.000 to 220.000 20,000 to 25,000 5.000 to 10.000 6,000 to 10,000 24.000 to 25.000
80,000 to 90,000 20,000 to 24.000 5.000 to 8.000
8,000 to
9,000
8.000 to 9,000 380,000 to 400.000 25,000 to 35.000 25.000 to 35.000 1,000 to 2,000 1.000 to 2.000 1,000 to 2,000
15.000 to 16.000 7.000 to
8.000
8,000 to 9.000 370.000 to 380.000 25,000 to 30.000 24,000 to 30.000 1,000 to 2,000 1.000 to 2.000 1,000 to 2,000
Source: FO 424/75 (Drummons-Wolff to Salisbury, 26 September 1878),
B u l g a r i a n s , t h e O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s are the best source, even t h o u g h t h e y d o n o t d i s t i n g u i s h ethnicn a t i o n a l g r o u p s b u t refer o n l y to O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s . O n e m a y a t t e m p t to d e t e r m i n e the t o t a l n u m b e r of the Bulgarians b y t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c a l dis t r i b u t i o n . I t is c e r t a i n t h a t the o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of the O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s l i v i n g i n the T u n a vilayet w e r e Bulgar ians: the Salname of 1285 (1868) p l a c e d t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s (males) i n t h i s p r o v i n c e at 610,892 a n d of M u s l i m s at 412,417. If o n e excludes Niş ( i n w h i c h a g o o d p a r t of the p o p u l a t i o n was Serbian) a n d the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 21,000 Greeks i n V a r n a , o n e can use this salname to estimate that the t o t a l n u m b e r of m a l e B u l g a r i a n s i n T u n a Province was 490,467, as o p p o s e d to 359,907 M u s l i m s . ( I n fact, the n u m ber of the M u s l i m s is g r o s s l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d because most of the 200,000 to 300,000 Circassians a n d C r i m e a n m i g r a n t s w h o w e r e settled a l o n g the D a n u b e i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1862 to 1878 w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m the c o u n t . ) A sizable .Bulgarians p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n also l i v e d i n E d i r n e , especially i n the n o r t h e r n section also k n o w n as eastern R u m e l i a ; of the total p o p u l a t i o n of this p r o v i n c e ( g i v e n b y A . Ritter z u r H e l l e v o n Samo as 1,304,352 i n 1878), 810,294 w e r e C h r i s t i a n s a n d 503,058 w e r e M u s l i m s . R o u g h l y 65 p e r c e n t of the C h r i s t i a n s l i v i n g i n E d i r n e P r o v i n c e c o u l d be c o u n t e d as Bulgarians. A n estimate g i v e n i n a B r i t i s h c o u n s u l a r r e p o r t o n the p o p u l a t i o n of eastern R u m e l i a before a n d after the w a r of 1877-1878 is r e p r o d u c e d i n Table 3 . 5 . 19
A f t e r r o u n d i n g o f f the n u m b e r of males a n d a d j u s t i n g for error, o n e reaches a n e s t i m a t e o f a b o u t 1,800,000 as the total n u m b e r of B u l g a r i a n s i n the O t t o m a n state (exclusive o f M a c e d o n i a ) i n 1878. T h e S a l n a m e o f 1295 gave the p o p u l a t i o n of the areas t h a t became p a r t of Bulgaria p r o p e r 18. See Donau-Bulgarien and der Balkan (Leipzig, 1875) and La Bulgarie danubienne et le Balkan, Etudes de voyages (Paris, 1882). 19. See FO 424/75 (Drummons-Wolff to Salisbury, 26 September 1878). The report notes that there was great loss of life during war and that a large group'of Muslims fled, only few of whom subsquently returned to their homes. "Greek A l b a n i a n " means a Christian Orthodox Albanian recognizing the Patriarchate in Istan bul.
51
RELIGIOUS A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N or THE O T T O M A N POPULATION
-j 924,638 ( w i t h o u t a d j u s t m e n t ) . A l e n g t h y a n d d e t a i l e d Ottoman m e m o r a n d u m p r e p a r e d f o r the B e r l i n C o n g r e s s e d the registers of the B u l g a r i a n Exarchate ( c o u n t i n g f i v e people per h o u s e ) a n d also t h e t o t a l f i g u r e s g i v e n b y t h e Russian T e p l o v t o e s t i m a t e t h a t B u l g a r i a n s w e r e i n the majority i n a p r o p o r t i o n of 2:1.60 i n the kazas of V i d i n , Tjrnovo, Ni§, a n d Sofia b u t w e r e i n the m i n o r i t y i n R u § c u k , Varna, Tulca, I s l i m i y e , a n d P h i l i p p o p o l i s ; these areas (ex cept for Tulca) w e r e all m a d e p a r t of B u l g a r i a . a s
u S
2 0
Reliable i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e B u l g a r i a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s provided b y a n official census c o n d u c t e d b y the B u l g a r i a n government itself i n 1888, t h a t is, t e n years after a u t o n o m y . The census s h o w e d t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n of Bulgaria p r o p e r was 2,193,434—an increase of 9.4 p e r c e n t over the t o t a l shown i n the 1881 c e n s u s — w h i l e t h a t of eastern R u m e l i a was 960,941, f o r a g r a n d t o t a l of 3,154,375. O f these, t h e T u r k i s h - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s n u m b e r e d 607,372; the Greeks, 58,326; a n d " o t h e r s , " 162,453; i n a d d i t i o n there w e r e at least 200,000 B u l g a r i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s . T h u s i t is shown t h a t t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f e t h n i c Bulgarians i n Bulgar ia p r o p e r a n d eastern R u m e l i a i n 1888 w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,130,000. These f i g u r e s are i n l i n e w i t h the earlier esti mates based o n O t t o m a n f i g u r e s . 2 1
The O t t o m a n census of 1881/82-1893 p u t t h e t o t a l n u m ber o'f B u l g a r i a n s s t i l l l i v i n g i n the O t t o m a n state at 962,288 (figure a d j u s t e d ) . T h e s e w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d c h i e f l y i n t h e provinces of E d i r n e , Selanik, M a n a s t i r , a n d K o s o v a . T h e y did n o t f o r m a m a j o r i t y i n a n y of these areas, b e i n g o u t n u m b e r e d i n each case b y t h e c o m b i n e d t o t a l of M u s l i m s and G r e e k s . I n K o s o v a t h e B u l g a r i a n s w e r e far m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n t h e G r e e k s b u t d e f i n i t e l y fewrer t h a n t h e Muslims, w h o were mostly Albanians. The Christian p o p u l a t i o n of S e l a n i k , M a n a s t i r , a n d Kosova w a s o f f i c i a l l y described as c o n s i s t i n g c h i e f l y of Greeks a n d B u l g a r i a n s , hut n o t Serbians; the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t classify this p o p u l a t i o n as M a c e d o n i a n , l a r g e l y i n o r d e r n o t t o antagonize b o t h t h e G r e e k s a n d t h e B u l g a r i a n s . In s u m , the t o t a l B u l g a r i a n - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n of the Bal k a n s — b o t h i n B u l g a r i a a n d o u t s i d e i t — a t the e n d of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s a b o u t 3,100,000. A s the p o l i t i c a l battle f o r M a c e d o n i a i n t e n s i f i e d , so d i d the e f f o r t to issue p o p u l a t i o n statistics exaggerated so as t o be favorable t o t h e p o s i t i o n of e a c h of t h e n a t i o n a l g r o u p s ; b u t t h e m o r e reasonable f i g u r e s d i d n o t d i f f e r t o o m u c h f r o m the O t t o m a n official statistics.
20. FO 424/70 (Musurus Paşa to Salisbury, 11 April 1878; list transmitted by Safvet Paşa). 21. See A . Ubicini, "La Principauté de Bulgarie," Revue de géo graphie 5 (1879): 86-91; and (no author), "Population of Bulgaria," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 55 (1892): 674-75. For the population of Macedonia, see the excellent study by Fikret Adanir, Die makedonische Fragc (Wiesbaden: Skiner, 1979), pp. 1-14 and bibliography; see also Helle von Samo, Die Volkcr des osmanischen Retches (Vienna, 1877), p. 117; S'alaheddin Bey, La Turquie l'exposi tion universelle de 1867,'p. V; and E. G. Ravenstein, "The Popula tions of Russia and Turkey," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 40 (1877): 456.
The A r m e n i a n s The A r m e n i a n s i n the O t t o m a n state w e r e at the h e a d of the millet b e a r i n g t h e i r n a m e a n d e n j o y e d a p r i v i l e g e d sta tus t h a t w a s e n h a n c e d after 1821 w h e n t h e y b e g a n to re place the Greeks i n the g o v e r n m e n t ' s o p i n i o n as t h e m o s t reliable C h r i s t i a n g r o u p i n the state. T h e socio-economic d e v e l o p m e n t of the A r m e n i a n s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o l l o w e d i n t h e m a i n a course s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Greeks a n d B u l g a r i a n s , a l t h o u g h it d i f f e r e d i n scope a n d i n t e n s i t y . The A r m e n i a n s w e r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l i n t h e i r so cial o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d c u l t u r a l o u t l o o k , w i t h s h a r p d i f f e r ences b e t w e e n r e f i n e d u r b a n g r o u p s a n d t h e s i m p l e r u r a l f o l k , the m e r c h a n t s , a n d the c r a f t s m e n . A r m e n i a n s c o u l d be f o u n d i n all O t t o m a n areas, b u t t h e i r heaviest c o n c e n t r a t i o n w a s i n the six eastern p r o v i n c e s : E r z u r u m , Sivas, V a n , Elaziz, D i y a r b e k i r , a n d B i t l i s . (The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o u n d aries of these p r o v i n c e s w e r e established d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1864 t o 1870, t h e n c h a n g e d i n 1876/77.) T h e C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n of these six vilayets, w h i c h became the subject of political d i s p u t e after 1878, w a s l a r g e l y , b u t n o t e x c l u s i v e l y , Armenian. The statistics o n the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n A s i a M i n o r p r i o r t o 1878 are too f e w a n d too general to be of m u c h use. I n 1867 S a l a h e d d i n Bey placed the t o t a l n u m b e r o f A r m e nians i n E u r o p e at 400,000 a n d those i n A s i a at 2 m i l l i o n (at that date, K a r s , A r d a h a n , a n d B a t u m p r o v i n c e s h a d n o t yet been lost t o Russia). R a v e n s t e i n , r e l y i n g o n w h a t statistics he c o u l d f i n d i n 1878, e s t i m a t e d t h e n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n E u r o p e a n d Asia to be 112,200 a n d 760,000, r e s p e c t i v e l y , for a t o t a l O t t o m a n A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n of 872,200. H e l l e v o n Samo, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , gave the total C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n of the Sivas, E r z u r u m , a n d D i y a r b e k i r vilayets i n 1874 (before t h e y w e r e d i v i d e d u p i n t o six p r o v i n c e s ) as 601,244, of w h o m the m a j o r i t y m u s t h a v e been A r m e n i a n s . The scarcity of p o p u l a t i o n statistics o n A r m e n i a n s . b e f o r e 1878 was m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e d f o r b y the f l o o d o f i n f o r m a t i o n generated after t h e B e r l i n C o n g r e s s b y the s t r u g gle b e t w e e n Russia a n d E n g l a n d f o r i n f l u e n c e i n eastern A n a t o l i a . ( B a t u m , Kars, a n d A r d a h a n , w h i c h c o m m a n d e d the h i g h l a n d s f r o m w h i c h a descent u p o n the Persian G u l f c o u l d easily be m a d e , already h a d g o n e to Russia.) T h e A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h ' s statistics p u r p o r t i n g t o s h o w t h e A r m e n i a n s as a substantial p r o p o r t i o n , i f n o t the m a j o r i t y , of the p o p u l a t i o n there of eastern A n a t o l i a w e r e soon c h a l lenged a n d exposed as false by B r i t i s h agents s t a t i o n e d i n the area. The San Stefano treaty, s i g n e d u n d e r Russian pressure, had i n c l u d e d a p r o v i s i o n (art. 16) that c h a r g e d t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of c a r r y i n g o u t r e f o r m s i n the strategic area s e p a r a t i n g Russia f r o m the Persian G u l f , t h u s g i v i n g Russia a legal excuse t o i n t e r f e r e t h e r e . Despite the E n g l i s h liberals' desire to p r o m o t e the a u t o n o m y a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , the i n d e p e n d e n c e of A r m e n i a , the British g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t p u s h t h i s cause, f e e l i n g t h a t an A r m e n i a n g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d n o t w i t h s t a n d the attacks of the K u r d s , w h o w e r e a c o m p o n e n t of t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n the area. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the B r i t i s h s o u g h t to revise the Treaty of San Stefano to g i v e t h e m s e l v e s the r e s p o n s i -
;
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52
OTTOMAN POPULATION,
büıty for the six eastern p r o v i n c e s . The n e w treatv, s i g n e d after the Congress of B e r l i n , i n c l u d e d a p r o v i s i o n (art. 61) c a l l i n g for r e f o r m i n the A r m e n i a n - i n h a b i t e d p r o v i n c e s . M e a n w h i l e , the B r i t i s h i n d u c e d the s u l t a n to p r o m i s e to carry o u t u n s p e c i f i e d r e f o r m s , w h i c h w e r e to be agreed u p o n at a later d a t e , a n d t h e y t h e m s e l v e s p r o m i s e d to oppose by a r m s f u t u r e e n c r o a c h m e n t s of Russia u p o n O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r y . I n exchange f o r her p r o m i s e of p r o t e c t i o n , Britain received the i s l a n d of C y p r u s ; hence the O t t o m a n British a g r e e m e n t o n the r e f o r m s i n eastern A n a t o l i a is called the C y p r u s C o n v e n t i o n . A s a r e s u l t of these m a n i p u l a t i o n s , the B r i t i s h f o u n d themselves b u r d e n e d w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of seeing t h a t the desired changes w e r e car ried o u t — a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y that w a s seen as necessary. T h e d i s m a n t l i n g of the O t t o m a n territories i n Europe w a s p r o o f that Palmerston's p o l i c y , i n i t i a t e d i n 1841, of m a i n t a i n i n g O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y against Russian e x p a n s i o n h a d f a i l e d . E n g l a n d felt that she h a d to assume, d i r e c t l y or b v p r o x y , c o n t r o l of the areas m o s t v i t a l to her strategic i n terest. T h i s v i e w became o v e r t ' p o l i c y after Beaconsfield's g o v e r n m e n t fell i n A p r i l of 188Ü a n d the liberals, h e a d e d b v the s e v e n t y - y e a r - o l d G l a d s t o n e — t h e s w o r n e n e m y of the T u r k s — t o o k o v e r ; a n d s o o n after the n e w g o v e r n m e n t came to p o w e r G e o r g e G r a n v i l l e , the f o r e i g n secretary, be g a n to press for e x e c u t i o n of the c o n d i t i o n s of the T r e a t y of Berlin. G e o r g e G o s c h e n w a s s e n t to I s t a n b u l to replace H . L a y a r d ( u n j u s t l y c o n s i d e r e d a T u r k o p h i l e ) as ambassador. Soon after a r r i v i n g i n the O t t o m a n capital o n 28 M a y 1880, G o s c h e n set o u t to secure e n f o r c e m e n t of the clause m a n d a t i n g r e f o r m s i n the eastern p r o v i n c e s . A s the enforce m e n t of the r e f o r m s d e p e n d e d first a n d f o r e m o s t u p o n accurate i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t d e m o g r a p h i c a n d e t h n o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s i n eastern A n a t o l i a , A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n be g a n b y a s k i n g several of the v e r y capable B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y m e n ( n o w consuls) s t a t i o n e d i n the eastern p r o v i n c e s to c o m e to I s t a n b u l to discuss i n p e r s o n " t h e relative n u m e r i cal p r o p o r t i o n s of the d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s i n h a b i t i n g Asia M i n o r , a n d available m e a n s f o r t e s t i n g the statistics w h i c h have been p u t i n b y v a r i o u s p e r s o n s . " Those s u m m o n e d to the capital i n c l u d e d L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l C. VV. W i l s o n and Major H e n r y Trotter. Ambassador Goschen reported that " C o l o n e l W i l s o n a n d M a j o r T r o t t e r are closely e x a m i n i n g the figures g i v e n b y A b e d i n e Pasha a n d b y the A r m e n i a n Patriarch r e s p e c t i v e l y b y the a i d of s u c h data as t h e v have collected at v a r i o u s t i m e s . " 2 2
2 3
M a j o r H e n r y T r o t t e r w a s u n i q u e l y v a l u a b l e to the B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t ' s e f f o r t to secure reasonable p o p u l a t i o n esti mates. H e e n j o y e d the h i g h e s t c o n f i d e n c e o f the g o v e r n m e n t b o t h as its r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a n d as a statistician. It w a s he w h o h a d b e e n a s s i g n e d to o b t a i n reliable figures a b o u t the B u l g a r i a n , G r e e k , a n d M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n s of Thrace a n d M a c e d o n i a . I n J u l y of 1879 he w a s n a m e d C o n s u l of K u r d i s t a n , w h i c h i n c l u d e d the vilayets of E r z u r u m , D i y a r b e k i r , H a r p u t , M u ş , a n d V a n — t h e area c l a i m e d b y the 22. HCAP 100/44 (1881). p. 61 (Goschen to Granville, 3 Septem ber 1880). 23. Ibid.
A r m e n i a n s . T r o t t e r w a s to t a k e a n a c t i v e p a r t i n im p l e m e n t i n g the r e f o r m s there a n d , as a n a n t i c i p a t e d div i d e n d thereof, s e c u r i n g the f r i e n d s h i p of the A r m e n i a n s for B r i t a i n . T h u s , i n a d i s p a t c h to the M a r q u i s of Salisbury, he advocated c h a n g i n g the title of his o w n office to "Consulate of T u r k i s h A r m e n i a - a n d K u r d i s t a n " as a concession to A r m e n i a n s e n t i m e n t . H o w e v e r , o n the q u e s t i o n of popula t i o n , T r o t t e r rejected A r m e n i a n claims: I cannot h o w e v e r a d m i t the accuracy of the statistics s h o w n i n the i n c l o s u r e w h i c h are the same, I u n d e r s t a n d , as those s u b m i t t e d to the C o n g r e s s of B e r l i n . W i t h o u t e n t e r i n g i n t o details, I m a y state that, , a c c o r d i n g to o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t s the relative n u m b e r of male C h r i s t i a n s a n d M o s l e m s i n the p r o v i n c e s of E r z u r o u m a n d V a n are as f o l l o w s : E r z u r o u m ; M o s l e m s 197,768, n o n - M o s l e m s 55,043, V a n ; M o s l e m s 126,208, n o n - M o s l e m s 97,555 ( i n c l u d i n g at least 20,000 N e s t o r i a n s ) , w h i l e M r . T a y l o r , f o r m a n y years C o n s u l in these p r o v i n c e s , e s t i m a t e d the total p o p u l a t i o n of the vilayets n o w u n d e r m y j u r i s d i c t i o n as f o l l o w s , v i z . , i n the vilayets of E r z u r o u m , V a n , D i a r b e k i r a n d K h a r p u t : Turks 442,500 Kurds 848,000 Kizzilbas Moslems Christians
200,000 649,000
To the f i r s t , or o f f i c i a l T u r k i s h estimates [ f o r V a n a n d E r z u r u m ] I h a v e g o o d reason to s u p p o s e that an a d d i t i o n of a b o u t 40 p e r cent, to the n u m b e r o f C h r i s t i a n s w o u l d g i v e a r e s u l t a p p r o x i m a t e l y the truth. 2 4
A l t h o u g h the chief r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the p r e p a r a t i o n of reliable p o p u l a t i o n estimates f e l l u p o n T r o t t e r a n d Colonel W i l s o n , m a n y o t h e r B r i t i s h officials also l e n t t h e i r efforts to the a t t e m p t to collect a l l of the available p o p u l a t i o n data; a m o n g these w e r e C o n s u l T a y l o r , C a p t a i n E m i l i u s C l a y t o n i n V a n , a n d L i e u t e n a n t C h e r m s i d e , w h o was attached to the R e f o r m C o m m i s s i o n b u t s t a t i o n e d i n Sivas. It is to the credit of these officials that t h e y s o u g h t to d o a careful and i m p a r t i a l j o b a n d w e r e o f f e n d e d b y devices e m p l o y e d by some i n t e r e s t e d parties to bias the statistics i n a gross man ner. T h e y w e r e c o n s t a n t l y c r i t i c a l of the A r m e n i a n Patriarch Nerces, w h o s u p p l i e d f i g u r e s m a n i p u l a t e d so as to maxi m i z e the n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g the n u m ber of M u s l i m s . T r o t t e r also d e p l o r e d the a t t i t u d e of the c o m m i t t e e f o r m e d b y the representatives of the b i g powers to supervise e n f o r c e m e n t of the r e f o r m s . T h i s committee i n s i s t e d that t h e census p r o p o s e d b y the O t t o m a n govern m e n t (the census o f 1881/82) s h o u l d c o u n t o n l y the settled p o p u l a t i o n , that is, the A r m e n i a n s a n d " O s m a n l i s " ( T u r k s ) , w h i l e the " n o m a d i c K u r d i s h e l e m e n t that lives in the m o u n t a i n s a n d descends i n t o the p l a i n s i n h a b i t e d by C h r i s t i a n s o n l y i n o r d e r to create d i s t u r b a n c e s , s h o u l d not be i n c l u d e d i n t h e census b y w h i c h the m a j o r i t y of the i n h a b i t a n t s of each v i l l a g e w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d . " " H o w e v er, i n the same b r e a t h i n w h i c h it a d v o c a t e d the exclusion of n o m a d i c K u r d s f r o m the scope of the i n t e n d e d r e f o r m s , the 24. FO 424/86, p. 109. 25. HCAP 100/44 (1881), p. 144.
E
jttee u r g e d t h a t t h e r e f o r m s " s h o u l d i n c o m m o n Jusextended to the n u m e r o u s N e s t o r i a n s " ( i n h a b i t a n t s tire e central a n d s o u t h e r n p a r t s of the area), a l t h o u g h , f these N e s t o r i a n s also w e r e n o m a d s . This partia t t i t u d e a p p e a r e d to be s u c h a flagrant v i o l a t i o n of the ciples of fairness t h a t M a j o r T r o t t e r felt called u p o n t o 'jnt out to A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n t h a t t h e e f f o r t to l a y ^ess o n A r m e n i a n claims m i g h t " p r o p a g a t e the false n o that H e r M a j e s t y ' s g o v e r n m e n t is o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e velfare of the C h r i s t i a n subjects of t h e Porte to the exclu com
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RELIGIOUS A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
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sion of the M u s l i m s . "
2 /
Trotter a n d W i l s o n , w h o a p p a r e n t l y w e r e t r a i n e d m sta tistics, c a r t o g r a p h y , a n d e c o n o m i c s , t r i e d to devise the best possible m e t h o d ' f o r r e a c h i n g r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e s of t h e population i n eastern A n a t o l i a . T h e m e t h o d t h e y a d o p t e d produced the reasonable estimates d e s i r e d , b u t at t h e same {• e it elucidates the p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n the t a k i n g of a census i n t h e O t t o m a n state a n d is w o r t h e x a m i n i n g i n some d e t a i l . T h e y u s e d a c o m p a r a t i v e analysis of all t h e population i n f o r m a t i o n available. T h e i r sources for t h i s i n formation w e r e , f i r s t , t h e A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h a n d b i s h o p s ; second, O t t o m a n officials a n d p u b l i s h e d y e a r b o o k s ; t h i r d , various i n d i v i d u a l e s t i m a t e s ; a n d , f i n a l l y , t h e i r o w n observations f r o m v i s i t s to all t h e m a j o r c o m m u n i t i e s , w i t h which t h e y h a d a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r i z e d t h e m s e l v e s . T h e c o m prehensive r e p o r t e v e n t u a l l y p r e p a r e d f r o m t h i s i n f o r m a tion is p r o b a b l y the best of its k i n d . m
The figures s u b m i t t e d b y the A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h w e r e regularly c h a l l e n g e d . C l a y t o n w r o t e to A m b a s s a d o r G o schen i n I s t a n b u l that the p a t r i a r c h h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n of V a n c o n s i s t e d of 252,500 A r m e n i a n s a n d 150,000 M u s l i m s , w h i l e o t h e r A r m e n i a n sources i n V a n i t self s u p p l i e d a list s h o w i n g t h a t t h e actual n u m b e r s of A r m e n i a n s a n d M u s l i m s w e r e 138,559 a n d 109,640, respec tively. H e a d d e d t h a t a l t h o u g h these tables c o m e f r o m a n A r m e n i a n source, the p r o p o r t i o n of M u s s u l m a n s t o A r m e n i a n s is considerably larger t h a n that g i v e n b y the A r m e n i a n Patriarch . '. . . T h e n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n these tables is p r e t t y f a i r l y r e c k o n e d , b u t I a m i n c l i n e d to believe t h a t the v i l l a g e K u r d s are s o m e w h a t u n d e r e s t i m a t e d , a n d I feel p r e t t y sure that the ashiret [ t r i b a l - n o m a d i c ] K u r d s are c o n s i d e r a b l y s o . 2 S
A major c o n t r o v e r s y arose over the f i g u r e s s u b m i t t e d to the Berlin C o n g r e s s , i n his m e m o r a n d u m a d d r e s s e d to the Congress ( s u b s e q u e n t l y u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y b y v a r i o u s w r i t ers) Patriarch Nerces placed the n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n E r z u r u m , V a n ( M u ş a n d Siirt i n c l u d e d ) , Sivas, H a r p u t , D i y a r b e k i r , a n d H a l e p at 780,000 a n d the n u m b e r of Syrians ( i . e . , A s s y r i a n s , or Syriacs) a n d G r e e k s at 251,000 a n d .25,000, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o r a total of 1,056,800 C h r i s t i a n s . T h e total n u m b e r of M u s l i m s i n these areas, a c c o r d i n g to the p a t r i a r c h , a m o u n t e d to a m e r e 770,000, of w h o m o n l y 320,000 w e r e T u r k s , the rest b e i n g K u r d s , Kizilbaş, a n d T ü r k m e n ; of course, the last t w o g r o u p s w e r e also e t h n i c a l 26. Ibid., p. 145. 27. Ibid., p. 162. 28. Ibid., p. 158.
ly T u r k s . " T h e p a t r i a r c h gave t h e p o p u l a t i o n of A d a n a as c o n s i s t i n g of o n l y 86,000 M u s l i m s , as a g a i n s t 134,000 C h r i s t i a n s ; o n the o t h e r h a n d , C a p t a i n Casper, the f o r m e r B r i t i s h v i c e - c o u n s u l i n A d a n a , n u m b e r e d t h e M u s l i m s at 327,980 a n d the C h r i s t i a n s at 3 3 , 7 8 0 . 2
30
The B r i t i s h officers i n charge of p o p u l a t i o n statistics w e r e so u p s e t b y these i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s t h a t t h e y p e r s u a d e d A m b a s s a d o r G o s c h e n to ask the A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h to ex p l a i n his m e t h o d of c a l c u l a t i o n , a n d the p a t r i a r c h t h e n h a d to change his o r i g i n a l f i g u r e s . It w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t f o r Sivas C h r i s t i a n s l i v i n g i n areas o u t s i d e the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e borders of the p r o v i n c e h a d b e e n c o u n t e d b u t that M u s l i m s i n some areas w i t h i n the vilayet h a d n o t ; f u r t h e r m o r e , the figures d i d n o t i n c l u d e K u r d s a n d Circassians, b u t l i s t e d as M u s l i m s o n l y t h e T u r k s . I n e x p l a n a t i o n Nerces w r o t e t h a t he " h a d i n v i e w o n l y the A r m e n i a n p a r t of t h e v i l a y e t s u c h as the [ c i t y ] of Sivas, D i v r i t a n d its e n v i r o n s " a n d stated that he h a d o m i t t e d " a l l the s a n d j a k s of sudest w h i c h are n o t p a r t of A r m e n i a , f o r e x a m p l e T o k a t . . . . " *~ I n the case of Sivas the p a t r i a r c h c o m p l e t e l y reversed h i m s e l f , s h o w i n g the actual n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s of that p r o v i n c e to be 605,065, of w h o m o n l y 199,245 w e r e A r m e n i a n s , the. rest Muslims. It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e that W i l s o n rejected even the r e v i s e d figures f r o m the p a t r i a r c h , because statis tics s u p p l i e d b y the A r m e n i a n b i s h o p of Sivas i n d i c a t e d that the total n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s there, i n c l u s i v e of t h e Greeks, w a s o n l y 201,245, w h e r e a s the M u s l i m s n u m b e r e d 694,431, e x c l u d i n g refugees a n d i m m i g r a n t s , w h o w e r e p r o b a b l y m o r e t h a n 8 0 , 0 0 0 . T h e B r i t i s h q u e s t i o n e d also the figures s u p p l i e d b y the A r m e n i a n C a t h o l i c p a t r i a r c h , A n t o i n e Pierre I X H a s s o u n of C i l i c i a , because he i n f l a t e d the n u m b e r of the Catholics to the d e t r i m e n t of o t h e r s . 3 1
3 3
34
The B r i t i s h officers' second source of i n f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s i n the O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . C h e r m s i d e f o u n d the g o v e r n m e n t statistics " m o s t v a g u e a n d unsatisfactory as are all those i n the possession of t h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t . . . as, h o w e v e r , the c o n s c r i p t i o n list a n d an i m p o r t a n t tax are d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m , t h o s e i n t h e possession of the g o v e r n m e n t are the b e s t . " " T r o t t e r , w h o seemed to h a v e d e v e l o p e d a k e e n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n matters ( a l t h o u g h he w a s v e r y critical of the O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e c o r d ) , i n d i c a t e d that t h e official lists w e r e c o m p i l e d f r o m the records e x i s t i n g i n the v a r i o u s local g o v e r n m e n t s , " f r o m w h i c h , f o r the M u s l i m s , the lists of m e n w h o are liable to c o n s c r i p t i o n are d r a w n u p , a n d l o r C h r i s t i a n s , the n u m b e r s f o r w h o m the m i l i t a r y e x e m p t i o n has to be p a i d . " H e accepted the fact t h a t i n s o m e areas 3
3 6
29. It is interesting to note that up until as late as 1912 the Armenian Patriarchate listed the Kizilbas, the Zazas, and the Tchareklis as groups belonging to "other religions," although thev all were Muslim. 30. HCAP 100 44, p. 158. 31. Ibid., p. 94 (Chermside to Goschen, 9 August 1880). 32. Ibid., p. 171 (Nerces to Goschen, 10 September 1880); see also ibid., pp. 389-90 (Wilson to Goschen, 23 August 18S0). 33. Ibid., p. 172 (Nerces to Goschen). 34. Ibid., p. 98 (Wilson to Goschen, 22 September 1880). 35. ibid., p. 94 (Chermside to Goschen, 9 August 1880), 36. Ibid., p. 123 (Trotter to Goschen. 7 September 1880).
OTTOMAN POPULATION,
54 b o t h M u s l i m s a n d C h r i s t i a n s failed to r e p o r t their exact n u m b e r s i n o r d e r to a v o i d c o n s c r i p t i o n a n d taxes, a n d tor such areas considered that the p o p u l a t i o n figures h a d to be raised b v 20 or 25 percent to account for the u n r e g i s t e r e d . In some districts, h o w e v e r , the lists are v e r y m u c h m o r e carefully c o m p i l e d t h a n others; i n the c o m p a r a t i v e l y settled districts, such as the sanjaks of K a r p u t , E r z e r u m , Baiburt, I believe the o f f i c i a l lists to be c o m p a r a t i v e l y accurate . . . i n districts w h i c h are i n a c h r o n i c state of r e b e l l i o n a n d s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n c e , the statistics are m u c h less r e l i a b l e . ' 3
The rebellious areas h a p p e n e d to be those i n h a b i t e d p r i n c i pally by M u s l i m s — n o m a d i c K u r d s a n d T ü r k m e n — b u t also bv C h r i s t i a n \ e s t o r i a n s . I n d i v i d u a l estimates w e r e a t h i r d source of i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t the British officers w e r e careful to accept figures o n l y f r o m persons w h o m t h e y k n e w to have s o u n d k n o w l e d g e of the area a n d its p e o p l e a n d c o n s i d e r e d to be o t h e r w i s e t r u s t w o r t h y . T h e i r f o u r t h s o u r c e was t h e i r o w n k n o w l e d g e , w h i c h was i n t i m a t e a n d p r o b a b l y q u i t e reliable, of the area, its p o p u l a t i o n , its c u s t o m s , a n d , a p p a r e n t l y , its l a n g u a g e s . The net result of this a r d u o u s team e f f o r t , u n p a r a l l e l e d i n the statistical h i s t o r y of the O t t o m a n state, was a series of c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d d e t a i l e d c o m p a r a t i v e tables of the p o p u l a t i o n i n eastern A n a t o l i a ( r e p r o d u c e d i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y w i t h o n l y a f e w e d i t o r i a l changes i n the statistical a p p e n dices, I I . 1 ) . The n u m b e r of n o n - M u s l i m s ( m o s t l y A r m e nians) i n the vilayets of E r z u r u m , V a n , Bitlis, D i y a r b e k i r , a n d H a r p u t was g i v e n as a b o u t 567,000 a n d the n u m b e r of M u s l i m s as a b o u t 1,488,000, e x c l u d i n g n o m a d s , refugees, a n d i m m i g r a n t s . (If the last g r o u p h a d b e e n i n c l u d e d , the total M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d have c o m e to n e a r l y 3 m i l l i o n . ) A l t h o u g h still u n d e r s t a t i n g the n u m b e r of M u s l i m s , these statistics p r o v i d e f a i r l y accurate i n f o r m a t i o n about the p r o p o r t i o n of n o n - M u s l i m s i n eastern A n a t o l i a at the t i m e . T h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r the size of the A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e d , c a r r i e d f o r w a r d a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d b y the r i s i n g t i d e of n a t i o n a l i s m . A n e w c o m p a r i s o n , c o m p i l e d b y the B r i t i s h i n 1896, gave estimates of the M u s l i m a n d n o n M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n the six eastern A n a t o l i a n p r o v i n c e s i n 1890 a n d 1896. A c c o r d i n g to the later of the t w o estimates (made b y the C o n t r o l C o m m i s s i o n ) , there w e r e 697,598 n o n - M u s l i m s i n the area a n d over 2.75 m i l l i o n M u s l i m s (see the statistical a p p e n d i c e s , I I . 6 ) . A special O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d i n a b o u t 1897, not p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d , indicates that the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e area h a d r i s e n b y t h a t y e a r to 3,179,000, of w h o m a b o u t 2.5 m i l l i o n w e r e M u s l i m s , 566,267 w e r e A r m e n i a n s , a n d the rest w e r e o t h e r n a t i o n a l i ties (see the statistical a p p e n d i c e s , I I . 3 ) . T h e O t t o m a n cen sus of 1881/82-1893 h a d g i v e n the n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n these p r o v i n c e s to be a b o u t 540,000, w h i l e s h o w i n g the M u s l i m s to be 2,159,000 ( r o u n d e d - o f f figures w e r e u s e d for females). The relative change i n the p o p u l a t i o n ratio, s h o w n i n b o t h B r i t i s h a n d O t t o m a n estimates, was caused by the i m m i g r a t i o n of M u s l i m s , the s e t t l e m e n t of n o m a d i c 37. Ibid.
Table 3.6.
A r m e n i a n P o p u l a t i o n of the O t t o m a n 18S2 ( A r m e n i a n Patriarchate Figures) Asia
Contested Viiayets Van Bitlis Diyarbekir Erzurum Mamuretüiaziz Sivas Total
Adana (Cilicia) Aleppo Trabzon Bursa Aydin (Izmir) Ankara. Konya. & Kastamonu Syria. Musul. Baghdad, Beyrut. & Basra İzmit [sancak)
280,000 100.000 120.000 60.000 50.000
Total
835.000
Istanbul and vicinity Edirne Other areas Total
135.000 50.000 10.000 195.000
T H E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
1896 at 651,134. " I f the f a i r l y large total of A r m e n i a n i n habitants i n the p r o v i n c e s of T r a b z o n , H a l e p , a n d A d a n a ( i n c l u d i n g K a y s e r i , Kir§ehir, a n d Yozgat) h a d been a d d e d to that for the east A n a t o l i a n vilayets, t h e n the g r a n d t o t a l for the ten p r o v i n c e s that c o n t a i n e d the b u l k of t h e A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d h a v e a m o u n t e d to a b o u t 939,000. The M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n of t h e same ten -vilayets n u m b e r e d , b y some c o n s e r v a t i v e estimates, o v e r 5 m i l l i o n . 4
120,000 The M u s l i m s 40.000 65.000
GRANO TOTAL 2.660.000 Source: Marcel Léart [Kirkor Zohrap], La Question arménienne à ta lumière des documents (Paris: A Challamel, 1913), pp. 50-59. tribes, a n d the e m i g r a t i o n of some A r m e n i a n s a n d Greeks to Russia a n d to o t h e r parts of A n a t o l i a . O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l statistics issued after 1881/82 h a d so i m p r o v e d i n consistency a n d r e l i a b i l i t y that t h e B r i t i s h came to rely o n t h e m a n d t h e y w e r e accepted b y m o s t of the for eigners w i t h o n l y m i n o r r e s e r v a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , despite o v e r w h e l m i n g i m p a r t i a l o p i n i o n i n s u p p o r t of the m e r i t of the O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l statistics, o t h e r subjective a n d u t t e r l y false i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n con t i n u e d to be p u b l i s h e d a n d r e p u b l i s h e d as v a r i o u s "ex p e r t s " c o n t i n u e d to use s u c h data. Table 3.6 reproduces the figures s u p p l i e d b y the A r m e n i a n p a t r i a r c h as these were issued again as late as 1913 b y a n o f t e n - c i t e d s o u r c e . 38
39
Excessive a t t e n t i o n w a s p a i d to the size of the C h r i s t i a n , a n d especially the A r m e n i a n , p o p u l a t i o n i n the six east A n a t o l i a n p r o v i n c e s d e s i g n a t e d b y the B e r l i n treaty as re f o r m areas a n d as the t e r r i t o r y of an i n d e p e n d e n t A r m e n i a , w h i l e the fact that m a n y m o r e A r m e n i a n s w e r e l i v i n g i n other O t t o m a n p r o v i n c e s w a s i g n o r e d . T h e census of 1881/ 82-1893 s h o w e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e 1,076,908 (figures r o u n d e d for females) A r m e n i a n s l i v i n g i n O t t o m a n lands a n d that areas such as A n k a r a a n d T r a b z o n h a d large p o p u l a t i o n s of A r m e n i a n s . Statistics f o r later years i n d i c a t e that the A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n u n d e r w e n t c o n s i d e r a b l e g r o w t h a n d that by 1914 their t o t a l n u m b e r h a d reached 1,165,088, despite the fact that a sizable p o r t i o n h a d either m i g r a t e d to Russia or h a d been d e t a c h e d f r o m the O t t o m a n state a l o n g w i t h the territories lost to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1897 to 1913. A m u c h - q u o t e d G e r m a n p u b l i c a t i o n t h a t u s e d V i t a l C u i n e t ' s rather p u z z l i n g statistical w o r k as a basis p u t the n u m b e r of A r m e n i a n s i n the six east A n a t o l i a n provinces i n 38. In 1890, for example, the British reported that the population of the six provinces consisted of 1,233,402 Muslims and 566,297 non-Muslims, while the Porte's o w n statistics gave the number of Muslims as 1,432,075 and of non-Muslims as 512,372; see HCAP 96/49 (1890), p. 38 (White to Salisbury, 26 May 1890). 39. Marcel Léart [Kirkor Zohrap], La Question arménienne à la lu mière des documents (Paris: A Challamel, 1913), pp. 50-59.
The O t t o m a n o f f i c i a l p o p u l a t i o n records d i d n o t d i v i d e the M u s l i m s a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r e t h n i c or l i n g u i s t i c a f f i l i a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e C h r i s t i a n s b e g a n to be d i v i d e d i n t o e t h n i c g r o u p s u n d e r the p r e s s u r e of v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i s t claims based u p o n n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y , the ethnol i n g u i s t i c categories d e v i s e d b y t h e O t t o m a n officials still c o n f o r m e d closely to the c o n f e s s i o n a l d i v i s i o n s t h a t h a d e m e r g e d after t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the classical millet sys t e m . The O t t o m a n state s o u g h t to r e m a i n , f o r m a l l y at least, a M u s l i m state, u n t i l its f i n a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n — w h i c h , para d o x i c a l l y e n o u g h , w a s accelerated b y the rise of e t h n o l i n g u i s t i c n a t i o n a l i s m a m o n g its M u s l i m subjects. W e s t e r n s t u d e n t s of t h e O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e aware of e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c d i v i s i o n s a m o n g t h e M u s l i m s , generally d i d n o t m a k e a n y serious effort to ascertian the exact n u m b e r of each g r o u p . M a n y w e s t e r n e r s , l i k e t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t itself, r e g a r d e d I s l a m a l m o s t as a n a t i o n a l i t y a n d therefore w e r e r e a d y to place all the M u s lims i n one category. O f t e n they were labeled s i m p l y " T u r k s , " for " M u s l i m " a n d " T u r k " h a d become s y n o n y m o u s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h e n e v e r it a p p e a r e d e x p e d i e n t , the E u r o p e a n s w o u l d s u b d i v i d e t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n t o smaller e t h n i c or l i n g u i s t i c factions so that it m i g h t be asserted that t h e M u s l i m s d i d n o t c o n s t i t u t e a single m a j o r i t y g r o u p i n d i s p u t e d areas. The general t e n d e n c y of the West E u r o p e a n s , a n d especially of the B a l k a n C h r i s t i a n nationalists, w a s , as w e h a v e p o i n t e d o u t , to m i n i m i z e t h e n u m b e r of M u s l i m s as far as possible i n o r d e r to s t r e n g t h e n their o w n claims of n a t i o n a l interest a n d t e r r i t o r i a l r i g h t s . A f t e r a c q u i r i n g p o w e r , m a n y of these g o v e r n m e n t s ( e . g . , Serbia a n d Bulgaria) cited t h e i r o w n biased statistics as j u s t i f i c a t i o n for d r i v i n g o u t all or a l m o s t all of t h e i r M u s l i m subjects. Estimates i n s o m e e i g h t e e n sources s h o w that the M u s l i m s c o n s t i t u t e d a b o u t 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l B a l k a n p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g m o s t of the f i r s t h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r v , w h i l e i n t h e second h a l f of the c e n t u r y the p r o p o r t i o n g r e w to at least 43 p e r c e n t . T h i s increase i n M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y was caused b y a slight increase i n the b i r t h rate, c o u p l e d w i t h the m a j o r m o v e m e n t of C r i mean a n d Caucasian M u s l i m s i n t o v a r i o u s E u r o p e a n p r o v 40. See Dr. A. Petermann'sMitteilungen aus Justus Petcrke's geograpliischcr Anstall 24 (3878): 8; and Cuinet's La Turquie d'Asie, 4 vols. (Paris, 1890-1894). Cuinet failed to list his sources and did not indicate why his figures differed from those of the Ottoman gov ernment; however, the differences were minor.
55
inces. The total n u m b e r of such m i g r a n t s i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1853 to 1878 r e a c h e d an e s t i m a t e d 700,000 to 800,000, c h a n g i n g the p o p u l a t i o n balance i n t h e Balkans i n the favor of the M u s l i m s . D u r i n g the last q u a r t e r of the c e n t u r v , h o w e v e r , M u s l i m s f r o m the Balkans, i n c l u d i n g practically all of the Circassians, began e m i g r a t i n g to A n a t o l i a , t h u s setting i n m o t i o n a process of a c c u l t u r a t i o n , a s s i m i l a t i o n , and i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h far-reaching social and p o l i t i c a l effects. T h e t o t a l n u m b e r of M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s f r o m t h e C r i m e a , the Caucasus, arid the Balkans w h o h a d settled i n A n a t o l i a (and to some extent i n Syria a n d Iraq) b v 1908 w a s about 5 m i l l i o n . A n O t t o m a n official estimate gives the t o t a l of i m m i g r a n t s i n the O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r i e s i n the n i n e t e e n years b e t w e e n 1877 a n d 1896 as 1,015,015. The O t t o m a n government derived information about immigrants f r o m special registers of i m m i g r a t i o n , b u t a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of m i g r a n t s w h o w e n t d i r e c t l y to villages a n d t o w n s w h e r e t h e i r relatives w e r e already l i v i n g or w h o settled w i t h o u t b e i n g r e g i s t e r e d w e r e o v e r l o o k e d i n t h e official c o u n t s . T h a t the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t ' s estimates w e r e l o w can be seen f r o m a q u i c k c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r f i g u r e s . O f f i c i a l B u l g a r i a n statistics, for e x a m p l e , s h o w t h a t i n 1893 a total of 11,460 e m i g r a n t s f r o m that c o u n t r y a l o n e w e n t to T u r k e y ; the s e m i - o f f i c i a l O t t o m a n statistics g i v e t h e total n u m b e r of i m m i g r a n t s w h o entered t h e c o u n t r y i n t h a t same vear as o n l y 18,437, a l t h o u g h at t h i s t i m e t h e r e w a s m a j o r i m m i g r a t i o n n o t o n l y f r o m Bulgaria b u t also f r o m the C a u c a u s u s , Crete, a n d B o s n i a . I n d e e d , a v a r i e t y of other p r o v i n c i a l statistics s h o w that i n 1897 at least 65,000 p e o p l e f r o m B u l garia, w e s t e r n R u m e l i a , Russia, Greece, Bosnia, R o m a n i a , C e n t r a l A s i a , a n d o t h e r u n s p e c i f i e d places e n t e r e d t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . O t h e r statistics s h o w t h a t i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1880 to 1900 a total of 239,335 M u s l i m s e m i g r a t e d f r o m Bulgaria to t h e O t t o m a n state. 41
4 2
43
T h e n u m b e r s of M u s l i m s i n O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r y m o u n t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y u p w a r d i n s u c h a w a y as to t r a n s f o r m t h e e m p i r e i n t o a p r e d o m i n a n t l y M u s l i m state after 1878. Bv 1880 the A n a t o l i a n p o p u l a t i o n was a l r e a d y 80 p e r c e n t M u s l i m , and this percentage increased steadily thereafter. O b v i o u s l y , a n y estimate of the exact n u m e r i c a l size of var ious M u s l i m e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s can be o n l y tenta tive u n t i l m o r e d e t a i l e d studies o n m i g r a t i o n a n d settle m e n t are c o m p l e t e d . A s the O t t o m a n statistics d o not d i vide the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n into ethnic and linguistic g r o u p s , a researcher can o n l y rely o n the y a r d s t i c k of geo graphical d i s t r i b u t i o n for his estimates. T h a t y a r d s t i c k is a fairly reliable one; for a l t h o u g h i n b o t h t h e Balkans a n d t h e M i d d l e East the M u s l i m e t h n i c g r o u p s l i v e d p a r t l y i n t e r -
41. IUKTY 9184, Ministry of Trade and Construction, General Directorate of Statistics, Dcvlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniuvenin Bmiiçvfiztvttic Senesine Mnhsus lstatistik-i Ummniyyesi (Istanbul, 1316 |1K98J). 42. Chief Statistical Office, Statistique de l'émigration de la princi pauté dans les pays étrangers de 1S93 à 1902 (Sofia, 1906); see also K. G. Popoff, "La diminution de la population turque de la principa uté de Bulgarie," Journal de la société de statistique de Paris 46 (1905): 347. 43. See 1UKTV 9184, Dcvlc!-i Aliye-i Osmamuyewn.
56
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
m i x e d , most h a d their o w n special districts a n d regions of concentration. The largest M u s l i m g r o u p i n the Balkans w a s the T u r k s p r o p e r , w h i c h consisted of the r e m a n e n t s of T u r k i c m i grants w h o h a d first c o m e i n t o the t e r r i t o r y as early as the sixth c e n t u r y . T h e m a j o r T u r k i s h s e t t l e m e n t i n the Balkans o c c u r r e d i n the S e l j u k i a n d O t t o m a n p e r i o d s i n the t h i r teenth t h r o u g h the s i x t e e n t h centuries. T h e m a j o r i t y of the Balkan T u r k s were S u n n i M u s l i m s , except for the Kizilbaş, of D e l i o r m a n a n d n o r t h e r n D o b r u c a ( m a n y f r o m the latter area b e i n g f o l l o w e r s of Baba Ishak, a social rebel). O n e g r o u p , the Gagauz, were Christians; they were Seljuki T u r k s w h o settled i n the Balkans i n the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d c o n v e r t e d to the O r t h o d o x r e l i g i o n b u t m a i n t a i n e d their T u r k i s h language. T h e y i n h a b i t e d eastern Bulgaria a n d w e r e classified b y the O t t o m a n s as C h r i s t i a n s ; the Bulgarians c l a i m e d i n c o r r e c t l y that t h e y w e r e o n l y l i n g u i s t i cally T u r k i f i e d a n d classified t h e m as B u l g a r i a n s ' T h e M u s l i m T u r k s w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n the p r o v i n c e s of the E d i r n e , T u n a , Selanik, Y a n y a , a n d p a r t of ' M a n a s t i r . The Kosova a n d Işkodra vilayets w e r e i n h a b i t e d largely b y A l b a n i a n M u s l i m s , k n o w n also as Skipetars a n d A r n a v u t , w h o w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o v a r i o u s g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g to r e g i o n , dialect, a n d tribe.' T h e B o ş n a k , t h a t is, the SerboC r o a t i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , i n h a b i t e d a l m o s t exclusively Bosnia a n d H e r z e g o v i n a . These territories w e r e o c c u p i e d by A u s t r i a i n 1878, a n d p a r t s o f t h e m w e r e c e d e d to M o n tenegro, w h i l e the sancak of N o v i b a z a r w a s placed u n d e r a j o i n t O t t o m a n - A u s t r i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( r e s u l t i n g i n a large e m i g r a t i o n f r o m Bosnia to the O t t o m a n state). T h e Bulgar i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , that is, the P o m a k s , i n h a b i t e d t h e i r o r i g i n a l h o m e i n the R h o d o p e M o u n t a i n s i n the vilayets of E d i r n e a n d Selanik. T h e Caucasus M u s l i m s , k n o w n as C i r cassians, w e r e o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y settled i n the Balkans be t w e e n 1862 a n d 1878 a n d n e e d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d a m o n g the n a t i v e g r o u p s . T h e C r i m e a n s , the m a i n M u s l i m g r o u p of T u r k i c o r i g i n s t i l l s p e a k i n g a dialect v e r y close to T u r k i s h , were settled i n D o b r u c a a n d parts of eastern a n d n o r t h e r n Bulgaria. T h e average d i s t r i b u t i o n of M u s l i m s i n the E u r o pean p r o v i n c e s i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1864 to 1877, a c c o r d i n g to figures g i v e n b y several of the m o s t reliable sources, is s h o w n i n Table 3 . 7 . 4 4
It is r e l a t i v e l y easy to d e t e r m i n e the e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c clas sification of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n N o r t h A f r i c a , E g y p t , the A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a , a n d the s o u t h e r n parts of Syria a n d I r a q , for i n these areas a n A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n p r e v a i l e d . H o w e v e r , the t e r r i t o r y i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t of Syria a n d the h i g h l a n d s of I r a q , w h i c h became the place of e n c o u n t e r f o r A r a b i c , T u r k i c , P e r s i a n , a n d K u r d i s h tribes, was a c h e c k e r b o a r d o f v a r y i n g languages a n d social
44. I have relied on the calculation made by Engin Akarli, " O t t o man Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territorial, Ra cial, and Religious C o m p o s i t i o n " ( M . A . thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1970), p. 82; see also Ernest Dottain, "La Tur quie d'Europe d'après le Traité de Berlin," Revue de géographie 3 (1878): 152; and McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities. (For Ottoman ligures, see Appendix 1.)
Table 3.7.
Muslims in European
Provinces, 1860-1878
A. By Ethic Group Ethnic Group
Vilayets
Turks, a small number of Crimeans. Çerkeş. Pomaks, and Albanians
Istanbul Edirne Tuna Sofia Selanik Yanya
342.200 597.100 945,600 154.200 264,800 430.500
57 39 45 23 49 36
Albanians and Turks (small groups only)
Manastir (Kosova) Işkodra
860,600 141,100
56 47
Bosnians
Bosnia and Herzegovina
520,000
40
Turks
Crete Islands
48,400 80.000
50
4.384,500
44.6
Total
Number
'O
B. 8y Ethnic Total* Turks Albanians Bosnians Circassians Others
2,000,000 1,300,000 600.000 400,000 84.500
Total
4,384,500
Source: Engin Akarli, "Ottoman Population in Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territo rial, Racial, and Religious Composition" (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1970), p. 82. 'Approximate totals. o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h i s c h e c k e r b o a r d became m o r e c o m p l e x as Circassians a n d o t h e r M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s w e r e settled a r o u n d B e i r u t , a l o n g the H e j a z r a i l r o a d , i n the A l e p p o a n d B a g h d a d areas, a n d a l o n g t h e S y r i a n s e a b o a r d . I n that area t h e r e w e r e n o n - o r t h o d o x g r o u p s ( t h a t is, n o n S u n n i s — s o m e t i m e s n o t c o n s i d e r e d g o o d M u s l i m s ) , such as the a p p r o x i m a t e l y 150,000 D r u z e s w h o i n h a b i t e d the Leba n o n , the 200,000 N u s a i r i s ( A l a w i t e s ) w h o l i v e d a l o n g the S y r i a n seaboard, a n d t h e 150,000 Y e z i d i s ( f i r e w o r s h i p e r s ) f o u n d c h i e f l y i n the n o r t h e r n p a r t s of A l e p p o a n d M o s u l . T h e e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n A n a t o l i a needs a l e n g t h y a n d d e t a i l e d s t u d y , w h i c h I h o p e to c o m p l e t e i n the n e a r f u t u r e . I l i m i t m y s e l f here to a f e w general o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t e n d e d to t h r o w s o m e i n t e r p r e t i v e l i g h t u p o n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d i n the appendices. A n a t o l i a h a d b e e n r e l a t i v e l y h o m o g e n e o u s , at least i n the i n t e r i o r , u n t i l d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , but it came to p r e s e n t a n e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e x ethnol i n g u i s t i c p i c t u r e after the M u s l i m i m m i g r a t i o n t o o k place. The p l a i n s of the e n t i r e area, s t r e t c h i n g f r o m the sea of M a r m a r a to E r z u r u m i n t h e east a n d to the A d a n a - A y i n t a p r e g i o n i n the s o u t h , w e r e o r i g i n a l l y i n h a b i t e d b y T u r k s ; u n t i l the m i d d l e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n l y a f e w s m a l l 45
4 6
45. See my "The Status of Muslims under European Rule: The Eviction of the Circassians from the Caucasus and Their Settlement in Syria," journal of Muslim Minorities 1 (1980). 46. The Ottoman government, in its drive to register the entire population, found that the Yezidis agreed to register only if their nationality was specified as " y e z i d i . " The government accepted this demand lest the Yezidis become subject to conversion bv some Christian missionary groups and cause trouble.
57
THE R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H L O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
groups of n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m s c o u l d be f o u n d t h e r e . T h e situation i n t h e m o u n t a i n o u s areas w a s s o m e w h a t m o r e complex, b u t t h e r e also t h e n o m a d i c g r o u p s w e r e p r e d o m i nantly of T u r k i s h s t o c k . T h e r e w e r e social d i f f e r e n c e s among the T u r k s , s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e i r d i f f e r i n g occupa tions a n d s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , a n d t h i s i n d u c e d m a n y E u r o peans to classify t h e sedentary' f o l k , r u r a l a n d u r b a n , as " O s m a n l i " or " r e a l T u r k s , " w h i l e t h e n o m a d i c a n d s e m i nomadic g r o u p s , s u c h as t h e T ü r k m e n , Y ö r ü k , Z e y b e k , Çetni, T a h t a c i , Kızılbaş (Shiites), etc., w e r e placed i n d i f f e r ent e t h n i c categories, t h e fact t h a t t h e y w e r e of t h e same linguistic g r o u p b e i n g e n t i r e l y i g n o r e d . The eastern p a r t of A n a t o l i a h a r b o r e d , i n a d d i t i o n to Turks, S u n n i a n d Shiite K u r d s b o t h sedentary a n d n o m a d ic. The K u r d s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s — t h e smaller Zaza a n d the l a r g e r K i r m a n j i — a n d also i n t o a S u n n i m a j o r ity a n d a Shiite m i n o r i t y ; t h e latter w a s d e s c e n d e d p r o b a b l y from t h e T u r k i s h Kizilbaş tribes t h a t h a d rebelled against the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d sought r e f u g e i n t h e d o m a i n s of the K u r d i s h l o r d s , w h e r e they a c q u i r e d t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e i r p r o t e c t o r s . T h e Shiite K u r d s ' r e l i g i o u s beliefs w e r e i d e n t i c a l w i t h those of the Shiite T ü r k m e n . T h e Zaza a n d K i r m a n j i languages w e r e n o t w r i t t e n ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e K u r d i s h elites o f t e n u s e d Per sian as t h e i r l a n g u a g e of w r i t t e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d m a n y K u r d i s h tribes, especially the Shiites, t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d themselves Persian. T h e t o t a l O t t o m a n K u r d i s h p o p u l a tion, e s t i m a t e d to be a b o u t 1.5 m i l l i o n i n t h e 1880s, a g o o d part of w h i c h w a s n o m a d i c or p a s t o r a l , l i v e d i n t h e area c o m p r i s i n g w h a t is n o w southeast T u r k e y , I r a q , a n d p a r t of Syria. T h e r e w e r e large g r o u p s of e t h n i c T u r k s , b o t h seden tary' a n d n o m a d i c , l i v i n g i n these areas, i n c l u d i n g t h e h i g h lands of D e r s i m , H a r p u t , a n d D i y a r b e k i r . A s early as the 1880s a small g r o u p of K u r d i s h leaders r e g a r d e d these areas as t h e i r f u t u r e n a t i o n a l h o m e l a n d , w h i c h t h e y t r i e d to se cure against the claims of o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s — p a r t i c u l a r l y against t h e A r m e n i a n s , w h o r e g a r d e d m o s t of the same area as the t e r r i t o r y of a f u t u r e i n d e p e n d e n t A r m e n i a . A s the i m m i g r a t i o n s of the years 1862-1900 increased t h e size of the T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n i n A n a t o l i a , t h e p r o p o r t i o n of n o n T u r k i s h e l e m e n t s , b o t h C h r i s t i a n a n d M u s l i m , decreased accordingly. I n the s e c o n d h a l f of t h e n i n e t e e n t h century' t h e n o r t h eastern p a r t of A n a t o l i a u n d e r w e n t massive e t h n i c c h a n g e . The o v e r l a n d i m m i g r a t i o n of v a r i o u s Caucasian g r o u p s af ter 1853 b e g a n t h e process; a n d after 1878, w h e n t h e n o r t h ern p r o v i n c e s of A r d a h a n , B a t u m , a n d Kars w e r e c e d e d to Russia, D a g h i s t a n i s , Ç e ç e n , G e o r g i a n s , Lazes, a n d m a n y other M u s l i m g r o u p s , s o m e of T u r k i s h o r i g i n b u t m o s t l y of Caucasian stock, came to settle i n eastern A n a t o l i a . M e a n w h i l e large g r o u p s of M u s l i m i m m i g r a n t s f r o m the Balkans, consisting m a i n l y of e t h n i c T u r k s f r o m Bulgaria a n d eastern Rumelia a n d of Circassians, w e r e settled t h r o u g h o u t w e s t ern, central, a n d s o u t h e r n A n a t o l i a w h e r e v e r there w a s available l a n d . L a t e r , n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m s such as Bos n i a n s , P o m a k s l a n d , i n lesser n u m b e r s , A l b a n i a n s also came to settle i n A n a t o l i a , t h e i r heaviest c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e i n g i n the w e s t . A f t e r the o c c u p a t i o n of Crete b y Greece,
the M u s l i m s there,
m a i n l y T u r k s b u t also s o m e
large
g r o u p s of G r e e k - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s , e m i g r a t e d a n d settled a l o n g t h e s o u t h e r n shores of A n a t o l i a . I n a d d i t i o n t h e i m m i g r a t i o n total w a s steadily a u g m e n t e d b y t h e
constant
i n f l u x of C r i m e a n M u s l i m s , w h o h a d b e g u n to settle i n v e r y small n u m b e r s i n central a n d w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a as early as the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The d e m o g r a p h i c structure of A n a t o l i a was f u r t h e r c h a n g e d t h r o u g h the s e t t l e m e n t , b o t h v o l u n t a r y a n d i n v o l u n t a r y , of n o m a d i c tribes. I n d e e d , t h r o u g h o u t the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t succeeded i n s e t t l i n g large n u m b e r s of K u r d i s h , T u r k i s h , a n d A r a b tribes i n A n a t o l i a ( n o r t h e r n I r a q b e i n g u n s u i t a b l e for a g r i c u l t u r e ) . These settled tribes w e r e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y M u s l i m , a n d the m a j o r i t y w e r e T u r k i s h . Thus the political events that triggered the M u s l i m e m i g r a t i o n f r o m the Caucasus a n d the Balkans c o m p l e t e d b o t h the I s l a m i z a t i o n a n d the T u r k i f i c a t i o n of A n a t o l i a . T h e t w o processes w e r e i n fact c o m p l e m e n t a r y a n d w e r e r o o t e d i n the O t t o m a n c u l t u r e , i d e n t i t y , a n d s p i r i t ; t h e i r c u l m i n a t i o n w a s the s y n t h e s i s e m b o d i e d i n t h e T u r k i s h n a t i o n . I n d e e d , the T u r k i s h national consciousness, a l t h o u g h stirred p a r t l y b y a sense of e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , w a s raised m a i n ly b y the p o w e r f u l forces e m b o d i e d i n the O t t o m a n p o l i t i c a l a n d ' c i v i c c u l t u r e . T h e O t t o m a n state h a d created á s t r o n g c u l t u r a l u n i t y a m o n g v a r i o u s M u s l i m e t h n i c g r o u p s subject to its i n f l u e n c e i n the areas a d m i n i s t e r e d d i r e c t l y a n d i n t e n sively b y the central a u t h o r i t y — t h a t is, R u m i l i a n d A n a t o lia. T h u s , the a s s i m i l a t i o n of t h e n o n - T u r k i s h M u s l i m i m m i grants i n t o the T u r k i s h m a j o r i t y w a s n o t t r u l y " a s s i m i l a t i o n " i n the o r d i n a r y sense of t h e w o r d : r a t h e r , it w a s a m e l d i n g of all the v a r i o u s I s l a m i c - O t t o m a n c o m m u n i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g the T u r k s , i n t o a n e w f o r m of p o l i t i c a l a n d social o r g a n i z a t i o n — t h e n a t i o n a l state. U n d e r this n e w f o r m of p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s w e r e able to m a i n t a i n t h e i r i n h e r i t e d s o c i o - c u l t u r a l characteristics b u t were provided w i t h a new national identity and were assured of f u t u r e s u r v i v a l . To p a r a p h r a s e K a r l D e u t s c h , a n a t i o n is f o r m e d w h e n the o l d f o r m s of association d i s i n t e grate a n d p e o p l e are c o m p e l l e d to i n t e g r a t e i n t o n e w e r a n d larger social u n i t s w i t h a n e w p o l i t i c a l a n d social o r i e n t a t i o n a n d a n e w collective i d e n t i t y . M i g r a t i o n a n d settlement p l a y e d a m a j o r role i n c r e a t i n g a large g r o u p o f p e o p l e w i t h s i m i l a r b a c k g r o u n d s , o u t of w h i c h t h e architects of the e m e r g i n g T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l state d r e w t h e necessary m a n p o w e r to o p p o s e the c o n t i n u o u s o n s l a u g h t s of E u r o p e f r o m 1897 to 1922 a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , to a f f i r m t h e i d e n t i t y of their new nation. T h e c o n t e n t i o n that m i g r a t i o n s p e e d e d u p the-Tslamizat i o n a n d T u r k i f i c a t i o n of A n a t o l i a is s u p p o r t e d b y statistical evidence. A s u m m a r y p u b l i s h e d b y t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t s h o w s that the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n increased f r o m 19.8 m i l l i o n i n 1875 to 24.5 m i l l i o n i n 1885 a n d to 27.2 m i l l i o n i n 1895 (see t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a p p e n d i c e s , 1.14). T h i s p o p u l a t i o n increase (about 40 percent i n t w e n t y years) was d u e chiefly to i m m i g r a t i o n a n d the s e t t l e m e n t of tribes and was a u g m e n t e d o n l y s l i g h t l y b y an increase i n t h e b i r t h rate (seemingly o n l v about 1 percent a n n u a l l y ) . H e l l e v o n Samo
58
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914 T H
i n d i c a t e d o n the basis of data f r o m the p r o v i n c i a l salnames that i n 1874 the A s i a n p r o v i n c e s ( A r a b i a excepted) h a d a p o p u l a t i o n of 10.3 m i l l i o n M u s l i m s a n d 2.8 m i l l i o n n o n M u s l i m s , c h i e f l y C r e e k s a n d A r m e n i a n s , or a total of a b o u t 14 m i l l i o n p e o p l e — a f i g u r e accepted b y m o s t observers as c o r r e c t . ' I n 1885, that is, eleven vears after the m a j o r w a v e of i m m i g r a t i o n f r o m the Balkans h a d been absorbed, the n u m b e r of M u s l i m s i n A n a t o l i a h a d increased to over 15 m i l l i o n , despite the loss ( i n 1878) of n o r t h e a s t e r n A n a t o l i a to Russia. D u r i n g this p e r i o d the n u m b e r of C h r i s t i a n s i n creased o n l y s l i g h t l y . 4
The p a t t e r n of g r o w t h of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n , b o t h i n n u m b e r s a n d i n p r o p o r t i o n , c o n t i n u e d after 1885 b u t w i t h out s h o w i n g the large increases p r e v i o u s l y r e c o r d e d ; m i g r a t i o n , t h o u g h steady, h a d d w i n d l e d c o n s i d e r a b l y . I n fact, the statistics s h o w e d the o v e r a l l O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n to have increased by o n l y a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l n u m b e r i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1885 to 1914. T h e r e w a s d o u b t l e s s a real s l o w d o w n i n g r o w t h at t h a t t i m e d u e to a v a r i e t y of causes, i n c l u d i n g losses i n the w a r w i t h Greece i n 1897 a n d the B a l k a n W a r of 1912-1913; b u t also, because b i r t h a n d d e a t h registrations w e r e n o t satisfactorily carried o u t s o m e of the decrease i n the rate o f . g r o w t h w a s a p p a r e n t rather t h a n actual. T h e relative s l o w i n g o f the rate of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h d i d not r e t a r d the i s l a m i z a t i o n a n d T u r k i f i c a t i o n of A n a t o l i a ; this process g a i n e d n e w m o m e n t u m w i t h the mass i m m i g r a t i o n of m o s t of the r e m a i n i n g e t h n i c T u r k s f r o m the Balkans as a consequence of the w a r o f 1912-1913. H a l f a c e n t u r y of p e r s e c u t i o n a n d m i s t r e a t m e n t of M u s l i m s b y Russia a n d the n e w l y established states of the Balkans f i n a l ly f o r c e d a l m o s t all of t h e m to seek n e w h o m e s a n d a n e w p o l i t i c a l existence i n A n a t o l i a — a search t h a t u l t i m a t e l y re s u l t e d i n the emergence o f m o d e r n T u r k e y .
Social C o n d i t i o n s M a n y of the tables i n Section I V of the statistical a p p e n dices at the e n d of t h i s b o o k c o n t a i n statistics t h a t are i n fact social i n d i c a t o r s d e s c r i b i n g t h e O t t o m a n state's socio economic p o s i t i o n at the e n d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e y are taken f r o m m a t e r i a l i n the l i b r a r y of the U n i v e r s i t y of I s t a n b u l , the section o n T u r k i s h m a n u s c r i p t s . A seal m a r k o n one of the i n t e r i o r pages ( p . 229) bears the name of that M e h m e t Behic w h o w a s assistant d i r e c t o r a n d , later, d i r e c t o r of the O t t o m a n Statistical Directorate (see C h a p t e r 2 a n d A p p e n d i x B.4). A p p a r e n t l y this statistical b o o k was the result of a j o i n t e f f o r t c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r the s u p e r v i s i o n of the h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t i e s i n the statistical office; h o w e v e r , there is n o i n d i c a t i o n of the m e t h o d used i n c o m p i l i n g the figures, a n d one m u s t have reservations a b o u t accepting at face value some of the i n f o r m a t i o n w h e n one does n o t 4 8
47. Die Viilker des osnianischen Reiclws, pp. 68, 117; see also Dottain, "La Turquie d'Europe," 209-16. 48. See IUKTY, 9184 and 365, Dev!et-i Aliye-i Osmaniyyenm.
k n o w its b a c k g r o u n d . " N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e statistics, w h a t e v e r their degree of accuracy, d o present a p i c t u r e of O t t o m a n state q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m the d i s m a l p o r t r a i t of the " s i c k m a n " o f f e r e d b y m a n y E u r o p e a n w r i t e r s . Recent d o c u m e n t a r y research o n the O t t o m a n e c o n o m y b v a n u m ber of y o u n g scholars has i n d i c a t e d that i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1870 to 1900 a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n increased, railroads m a d e the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of c o m m o d i t i e s to the markets easier a n d m o r e e f f i c i e n t , e d u c a t i o n a l facilities e x p a n d e d , the p u b l i c debt w a s s t a b i l i z e d , a n d the O t t o m a n society d e v e l o p e d a n e w p o l i t i c a l a n d social awareness. T h u s the official O t t o m a n statistics p r o b a b l y p a i n t a reasonable like ness of the true circumstances i n the O t t o m a n state. 4
There is n o q u e s t i o n t h a t the s e t t l e m e n t of i m m i g r a n t s h a d b r o u g h t n e w a g r i c u l t u r a l lands i n t o c u l t i v a t i o n a n d increased f a r m p r o d u c t i o n . M o r e o v e r , the m i g r a t i o n was a c c o m p a n i e d by a transfer o f c a p i t a l a n d skills, for a con siderable n u m b e r of the i m m i g r a n t s b e l o n g e d to w e l l - t o - d o g r o u p s ( l a n d l o r d s , h i g h officials, ulema) i n t h e i r c o u n t r i e s of o r i g i n . O n e can t h e r e f o r e state t h a t the d e m o g r a p h i c trans f o r m a t i o n of the O t t o m a n state i n the second half of the nineteenth century was accompanied by economic g r o w t h a n d social changes as w e l l as b y p o l i t i c a l m o b i l i z a t i o n . T h e statistics r e l a t i n g to literacy ( I V . 15) g i v e rates that appear, a n d p r o b a b l y are, r a t h e r h i g h . T h e reason for this can be f o ^ n d , at least i n p a r t , i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of the O t t o m a n e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m . T h e s y s t e m c o n s i s t e d i n the second half of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y of b o t h g o v e r n m e n t f i n a n c e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d " m o d e r n " schools a n d t r a d i t i o n a l classrooms s u p p o r t e d b y vakifs ( p i o u s f o u n d a t i o n s ) . The latter w e r e essentially r e l i g i o u s schools a n d c o u l d be f o u n d e v e n i n v i l l a g e s ; t h e y t a u g h t c h i l d r e n h o w to read a n d w r i t e , a n d a p e r s o n g r a d u a t i n g f r o m one of these schools c o u l d be called literate. I t is t r u e that the m o d e r n schools, t o w a r d s w h i c h the g o v e r n m e n t officials s h o w e d a strong bias, t e n d e d to replace t h e o l d , b u t the t r a d i t i o n a l religious schools still s u r v i v e d i n large n u m b e r s a n d p r o d u c e d their o w n graduates f o r a l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e . O n the other h a n d , after the acceptance of the L a t i n s c r i p t i n T u r k e y i n 1928 there w a s a t e n d e n c y to c o n s i d e r " l i t e r a t e " a n d to register as s u c h o n l y the p e o p l e w h o c o u l d read the Latin script. T h u s the q u e s t i o n of the literacy rate m u s t be ex p l o r e d w i t h d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r the specific educational c o n d i t i o n s a n d the p r e v a i l i n g d e f i n i t i o n of a " l i t e r a t e " per son i n the O t t o m a n state at a g i v e n t i m e . I n a n y case, the statistics o n the v o l u m e o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d the price of some a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t i e s ( I V . 18-23) suggest the existence of the t y p e of s o c i o - e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t w o u l d ex p l a i n the p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , i n c l u d i n g the r e v o l u t i o n o f the Y o u n g T u r k s i n 1908. T h e t w o lists of p r o f e s s i o n s a n d professionals g i v e n i n 49. The material has been used in part by some other scholars; see Vedat Eldem, Osmanli imparatorluğunun iktisadı Şartlari Hakkında Bir Tetkik (Ankara, 1970), and Stanford J. and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire,and Modern Turkey, vol. 2 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
E R E L I G I O U S A N D E T H N I C D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T H E O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N
statistical a p p e n d i c e s ( I V . 9 a n d 10) are of c o n s i d e r a b l e significance. T h e first list, d e s c r i b i n g the o c c u p a t i o n a l scene i,i Istanbul i n 1878/79, i l l u m i n a t e s the m o d e of life a n d so cial habits, as w e l l as the e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e , of the t r a d i tional s o c i e t y : a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f these p r o f e s s i o n s should i n d i c a t e the level of s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n taste a n d l i v i n g reached b y t h e O t t o m a n society as w e l l as r e v e a l i n g t h e structure of its c o m p l e x crafts o r g a n i z a t i o n . " T h e s e c o n d list, issued b a r e l y t w e n t y years later, a l t h o u g h m o r e gener al and w i d e r i n scope, indicates a b o v e all the r a p i d p r o l i f eration of n e w professions a n d o c c u p a t i o n s a n d the d i s appearance, or at least the f a d i n g a w a y to i n s i g n i f i c a n c e , of the t r a d i t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n s . A l t h o u g h m a n y t r a d i t i o n a l p r o fessions s u r v i v e d , t h e y became r e l a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t a n d u n p o p u l a r , the p r o f e s s i o n s associated w i t h the " m o d e r n " order b e i n g m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s . t h e
3
The p r o f e s s i o n s associated w i t h the n e w o r d e r w e r e i n timately related to the m a r k e t - o r i e n t e d , c a p i t a l - i n t e n s i v e , western-style enterprises a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s that h a d b e g u n to c o n t r o l t h e O t t o m a n e c o n o m y . A g o o d m a n y of these enterprises w e r e t h e subsidiaries of large E u r o p e a n f i r m s or the d i s t r i b u t o r s of goods m a n u f a c t u r e d b y E u r o p e a n i n d u s 50. See Pretextat Lecomte, les Arts et metiers de la Turquie et de VOrient (Paris, 1902).
59
tries. L i s t e d are a large n u m b e r of b a n k e m p l o y e e s (there w a s o n l v one small O t t o m a n - o w n e d b a n k — t h e Ziraat Ban¬ kasi, or A g r i c u l t u r a l B a n k ) a n d secretaries, i n d i c a t i n g that the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of capital a n d of business h a d g a i n e d p r i o r i t y over man}- o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n s . T h i s m i g h t be seen as an i n d i c a t o r of s t r o n g e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t t h a t v i e w is n o t s u p p o r t e d by o t h e r e v i d e n c e . For e x a m p l e , the total n u m b e r of f a c t o r y w o r k e r s w a s o n l y 186,000—less t h a n t h e total n u m b e r of v a r i o u s categories of servants, m a i d s , a n d secretaries. T h e O t t o m a n e c o n o m y h a d b e c o m e i n fact a dependent "service" economy whose developing " m o d e r n " laver served as i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n the p r o d u c t i v e sector—that is, the t r a d i t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e r e s t i n g o n a g r i c u l t u r e — a n d the t o p lavcr of beneficiaries of the n e w o r d e r , c o n s i s t i n g of the representatives of E u r o p e a n capital (there w e r e large n u m b e r s of f o r e i g n citizens i n I s t a n b u l ) a n d of a r a p i d l y g r o w i n g n a t i v e m i d d l e class. I n s u m , these social statistics, besides p r o v i d i n g factual i n f o r m a t i o n , suggest the existence of forces that s h a p e d t h e u l t i m a t e d e s t i n y of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e . T h e y o f f e r n e w i n s i g h t i n t o — i n fact, a p r o f o u n d l y n e w vista o f — t h e O t t o m a n society a n d its i n t e r n a l d y n a m i c s . T h e s t u d e n t s of O t t o m a n h i s t o r y m a y better u n d e r s t a n d t h e rise a n d d o w n fall of t h i s p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y if t h e y can a p p r o a c h its s t u d y w i t h some d e t a i l e d factual k n o w l e d g e a b o u t its society.
61
POPULATION M O V E M E N T S I N THE O T T O M A N STATE
mortality a m o n g M u s l i m males of r e p r o d u c t i v e age. M e a n while, the n o n - M u s l i m s increased
i n n u m b e r s a n d de-
veloped i n t o a p r o s p e r o u s m i d d l e class. T h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s remained w e l l i n t e g r a t e d ; t h e y a d o p t e d a m o d e r n educational s y s t e m a n d h e a l t h services, a n d t h e y e n j o y e d P O P U L A T I O N
M O V E M E N T S I N
Introduction A n y s t u d y of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the n i n e t e e n t h a n d t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s — e v e n of such q u e s t i o n s as age, f a m i l y size, a n d f e r t i l i t y , a n d b i r t h a n d d e a t h rates t h a t are c o n s i d e r e d p u r e l y d e m o g r a p h i c — i s b o u n d to be i n c o m plete w i t h o u t a s t u d y ' a l s o of e m i g r a t i o n a n d , especially, i m m i g r a t i o n . T h e s t r u c t u r e of O t t o m a n society u n d e r w e n t e n o r m o u s social, e t h n i c , r e l i g i o u s , a n d l i n g u i s t i c change d u r i n g the years i n w h i c h m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e m o v e d f r o m E u r o p e to the A s i a n territories of the O t t o m a n E m p i r e a n d f r o m Asia to E u r o p e . Every facet of O t t o m a n d e m o g r a p h y was affected b y these vast m i g r a t i o n s ; hence it is essential that t h e y be t h o r o u g h l y c o n s i d e r e d i n p o p u l a t i o n studies of the e m p i r e d u r i n g its last s e v e n t y - f i v e years of existence. T h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t n e s s e d the g r a d u a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e a n d the emergence of i n d e p e n d e n t or a u t o n o m o u s states i n the Balkans t h a t c l a i m e d s t a t e h o o d a n d n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y o n the basis of o f t e n exa g g e r a t e d c l a i m s of h i s t o r i c a l g r a n d e u r . T h e shapers of these n e w B a l k a n e n t i t i e s e n v i s a g e d t h e i r " n a t i o n s " as h o m o g e n e o u s i n r e l i g i o n , e t h n i c i t y , a n d language—a v i s i o n t h a t w a s e n t i r e l y false. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n t h e e a r l y phase of n a t i o n f o r m a t i o n the Balkans a d o p t e d the c e n t u ries-old v i e w ( w h i c h w a s the v i e w h e l d b y the O t t o m a n s t a t e ) t h a t r e l i g i o u s ties w e r e p r i m a r y b o n d s , s t r o n g e n o u g h to h o l d the c o m m u n i t y t o g e t h e r a n d c o n f e r u p o n it a c u l t u r e a n d an i d e n t i t y . T h e leaders stressed the C h r i s t i a n identity a n d religious/cultural peculiarities, not o n l y i n o r d e r to s t r e n g t h e n the c o h e s i o n of their f o l l o w e r s , b u t also i n o r d e r to d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e m f r o m the r u l i n g a u t h o r i t y def i n e d as T u r k i s h or M u s l i m , t w o t e r m s t h a t came to be r e g a r d e d as s y n o n y m o u s . T h u s , despite the existence of a variety of o t h e r forces, C h r i s t i a n i t y became the f o u n d a t i o n of n a t i o n h o o d i n the Balkans; a n d since the m a j o r i t y of O t t o m a n C h r i s t i a n s i n E u r o p e b e l o n g e d to the O r t h o d o x c h u r c h , spoke Slavic languages (the V l a h s , or R o m a n i a n s , a n d the A l b a n i a n s w e r e the exceptions), a n d relied o n Russia to f u r t h e r their, g o a l of i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h e i r n a t i o n a l i s m o f t e n expressed the c o n s e r v a t i v e , r e l i g i o n - o r i e n t e d p o l i t i c a l v i e w s of the Russian pan-Slavists rather t h a n those of the 60
I N T H E
T H E
O T T O M A N
N I N E T E E N T H
STATE
C E N T U R Y
liberal West, w h i c h o n l y later became a m o d e l for r e f o r m . T h e i m p a c t of these d e v e l o p m e n t s o n t h e character of the B a l k a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s p r e d i c t a b l e . T h e leaders of the n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t s , a l t h o u g h i m b u e d w i t h f e r v e n t relig i o u s - e t h n i c n a t i o n a l i s m , w e r e n o t u n a w a r e t h a t the territories t h e y d e f i n e d as t h e i r f u t u r e n a t i o n s w e r e i n h a b i t e d b y v a r i o u s peoples, a m o n g w h o m the M u s l i m s , or i n some cases o t h e r C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s , f o r m e d e i t h e r the m a j o r i t y or a strong m i n o r i t y . Consequently, even before independence was a c h i e v e d , s o m e of the leaders of these nationalist m o v e m e n t s , s u c h as the B u l g a r i a n G e o r g e R a k o w s k i , h a d m a d e plans f o r b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e d e s i r e d c u l t u r a l a n d e t h n i c h o m o g e n e i t y b y s o l v i n g the " p r o b l e m " of the T u r k ish p o p u l a t i o n . T h e s o l u t i o n called f o r the e r a d i c a t i o n or f o r c e d exile to A n a t o l i a o f a l l " T u r k s , " t h a t is, M u s l i m s , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t a m o n g t h e m w e r e m a n y Slavics p e a k i n g g r o u p s . T h e B a l k a n M u s l i m s w e r e a b o u t to suffer the same fate as h a d been i n f l i c t e d o n t h e i r coreligionists i n Sicily a n d S p a i n c e n t u r i e s earlier. I t is a p p a r e n t , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s i n the O t t o m a n state i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y are related to e t h n i c a n d c u l t u r a l factors. I n fact, m o s t o f the studies made of the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g this p e r i o d w e r e called " e t h n o g r a p h i c " s t u d i e s . T h i s w a s a n a p t title, as d e m o g r a p h i c c h a n g e — t h a t is, t h e r e p l a c e m e n t of o n e ethnic g r o u p b y a n o t h e r , the c o n g r e g a t i o n of peoples o f the same e t h n o - r e l i g i o u s a n d l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p w i t h i n the same t e r r i t o r y a n d the a d o p t i o n of measures necessary to increase the b i r t h rate a n d l o w e r the d e a t h rate of t h e chosen g r o u p — was affected by e t h n o - p o l i t i c a l considerations. Indeed, e v e n " p u r e " d e m o g r a p h i c d e v e l o p m e n t s s u c h as b i r t h a n d d e a t h rates, a n d " s o c i a l " e v e n t s s u c h as e c o n o m i c diff e r e n t i a t i o n a n d the rise of certain social classes i n the O t t o m a n state, can c l e a r l y be l i n k e d to c u l t u r a l a n d e t h n i c causes. For e x a m p l e , the relative decline i n the n u m b e r of the T u r k i s h a n d M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n the Balkans a n d A n a t o l i a at the e n d of the e i g h t e e n t h a n d the b e g i n n i n g of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a y be a t t r i b u t e d to, i n a d d i t i o n to n a t u r a l calamities a n d e p i d e m i c s , the fact that the O t t o m a n a r m y w a s m a d e u p c h i e f l y of T u r k s : the l o n g wars w i t h Russia b e t w e e n 1768 a n d 1829 t h u s caused w i d e s p r e a d
assistance of C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s
the
a n d the s u p p o r t of
European p o w e r s . I n s u m , t h e n , t h e s t u d y of p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s i n the O t t o m a n state i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m u s t a d o p t c o n cepts a n d u t i l i z e a m e t h o d o l o g y capable of t a k i n g i n t o account n o t o n l y d e m o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s b u t also t h e cultural, religious, and ethnic e n v i r o n m e n t that generated, and d e t e r m i n e d t h e course of, d e m o g r a p h i c c h a n g e . It is not m y i n t e n t i o n to d e n y the i m p o r t a n c e of e c o n o m i c factors i n d e m o g r a p h i c change b u t , r a t h e r , to e m p h a s i z e t h a t u n d e r certain c o n d i t i o n s s o m e n o n - e c o n o m i c factors m u s t be g i v e n t h e i r d u e c r e d i t f o r i n c r e a s i n g the scope of econ o m i c i n f l u e n c e or f o r c r e a t i n g t h e i r o w n spheres of interact i o n . C u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s , a n d p o l i t i c a l factors p l a y e d a large part i n the d e m o g r a p h i c changes i n t h e O t t o m a n state i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h u s c o n c e p t s d e v e l o p e d i n E u r o p e s h o u l d be a p p l i e d w i t h e x t r e m e c a u t i o n t o t h e s t u d y of O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s i n general a n d of m i g r a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h e b u l k of t h e w e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e o n h i s t o r i c a l d e m o g r a p h y deals m o s t l y w i t h f e r t i l i t y a n d m o r t a l i t y rates, f a m i l y size, a n d o t h e r s i m i l a r t o p i c s ; t h e relationship between politics and ethno-demographic change is n o t m u c h m e n t i o n e d , a l t h o u g h s o m e e f f o r t s i n this d i r e c t i o n have b e e n m a d e . The n e w l y d e v e l o p i n g f i e l d of p o l i t i c a l d e m o g r a p h y , w h i c h has b e e n d e f i n e d as t h e 1
2
1. The literature in this field is extensive; therefore, i n this reference 1 list only a few major works and bibliographies. See Daedalus 97, no. 2 (1968), and F. F. Mendels, "Recent Research in European Historical D e m o g r a p h y , " American Historical Review 75 (1970): 1065-75. A n excellent, and probably the most extensive, source on historical demography is the Annales de démographie historique, published by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique i n Paris; this series, published since 1964, has nine volumes. See also ] . J. Spengler and Otis D . Duncan, eds., Demographic Analyses (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1956); David M . Heer, ed., Readings on Population (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967); Charles B. N a m , ed., Population and Society; A Textbook of Readings (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968); Roger Mois, introduction à la démographie historique: Les miles d'Europe du XIV au XVlil siècle, 3 vols. (Louvain: Publications Universitaires de Louvain, Editions J. Duculot, S.A. Gembloux, 1954-1956); and Jean-Pierre Poussou, "Les Mouvements m i gratoires en France . . . approches pour une synthèse," Annales de démographie historique (Paris: Sirey, 1971). 2. David Landes pointed out that most of the genera] books on the history of Europe, and even of world civilization, written before the Second World War (and many others written after) give little or no space to population problems; see "The Treatment of Population i n History Textbooks," in D. V. Glass and Roger Revell, eds., Population and Social Change (New York: Crane Russak, 19/2), pp. 23-45- For some efforts to assess the role of demography i n history, see T. H . Hollingsworth, Historical Demography (Ithaca: Cornell'University Press, 1969). and E. A . Wrigley, Population and History (London:"Wiedenfeld and Nicolson, 1969). The work of Louis Henry also contains useful insights.
" s t u d y of the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n d e m o g r a p h i c v a r i a b l e s , " deals p r i m a r i l y w i t h the g o v e r n m e n t a l p o p u l a t i o n policies or w i t h the effect of p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h o n
government
policies. I n v i e w of t h i s , it is i m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e n a t u r e a n d the scope of p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s i n the O t t o m a n state be d e f i n e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e forces that e n g e n d e r e d t h e m a n d c o n d i t i o n e d t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t . M i g r a t i o n s cons t i t u t e d t h e b u l k of these p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s . T h e m i g r a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g the O t t o m a n e m p i r e w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y i m m i g r a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s also some o u t w a r d m o v e m e n t , c h i e f l y of Syrians e m i g r a t i n g to the A m e r icas a n d of Greeks a n d A r m e n i a n s w h o w e n t to Russian t e r r i t o r y . I n a d d i t i o n there w a s a m o v e m e n t o f m o u n t a i n a n d desert tribes i n t o the f e r t i l e areas of A n a t o l i a , Syria, a n d I r a q . These p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s , especially the i m m i g r a t i o n s , drastically a l t e r e d the e t h n i c , r e l i g i o u s , a n d social c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e Balkans, A n a t o l i a , a n d p o r t i o n s of t h e A r a b i c - s p e a k i n g c o u n t r i e s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r I present o n l y an o u t l i n e of some of the m i g r a t i o n s that so p r o f o u n d ly affected the O t t o m a n society; a n extensive a n d d e t a i l e d s t u d y of t h i s t o p i c m u s t be reserved f o r a n o t h e r v o l u m e . ' 3
1
Ottoman I m m i g r a t i o n . Policy T h e O t t o m a n state w a s faced at t h e b e g i n n i n g of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e p r o b l e m of scarcity of p o p u l a t i o n . Large areas'of f e r t i l e l a n d r e m a i n e d u n c u l t i v a t e d , b o t h because of the d i s a r r a y i n the l a n d t e n u r e s y s t e m a n d because of p o l i t i c a l - m i l i t a r y p o l i c y ; m e a n w h i l e the d e m a n d f o r f o o d s t u f f s a n d r a w m a t e r i a l s w a s i n c r e a s i n g apace. These d e m a n d s came m o s t l y f r o m a b r o a d , f r o m the r a p i d l y i n d u s t r i a l i z i n g c o u n t r i e s of w e s t e r n E u r o p e , a n d h a d been s t i m u l a t e d g r e a t l y b y the C r i m e a n W a r (1853-1856). I n fact, f r e e d o m of trade! n o t a b l y f r e e d o m to p u r c h a s e a g r i c u l t u r a l commodities f r o m O t t o m a n territories, had been an i m p o r tant c o n d i t i o n i n peace treaties s i g n e d w i t h A u s t r i a a n d Russia since 1718. T h e T r e a t y of E d i r n e i n 1829 h a d freed W a l l a c h i a a n d M o l d a v i a f r o m t h e o b l i g a t i o n to sell t h e Porte some of t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e , f o r c i n g the P o r t e to 3. See Richard L. Clinton and R. Kenneth G o d w i n , Research in the Politics of Population (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1972) and Political Science in Population Studies (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1972). 4. For general reference to migration, see]. J. Mangalam, H r a u i i Migration: A Guide to Migration Literature in English. 1955-2962 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1968); I . A . Jackson, ed., Migration ( C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1969); Clifford J. Jansen, ed., Readings in the Sociology of Migration (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1970), Hans-Joachim Hoffman N o w o t n y , Migration: Ein Beitrag zu einer soziologischen Erklärung (Stuttgart: Enke, 1970); and Richard Startup, "Sociology of M i g r a t i o n , " The Sociological Quarterly 12 (1971) 177-90. See also Justin McCarthy, "The Muslim Population of Anatolia, 1878 to 1927" (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1978) and "Age, Family and Migration in Nineteenth-Century Black Sea Provinces of the Ottoman Empire," International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 309-23.
62
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N , 1830-1914
make u p the d e l i c i e n c v i n g r a i n p r o d u c t i o n b v b r i n g i n g v i r g i n lands u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n . T h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t came to believe t h a t a large p o p u l a t i o n w a s the p r e - c o n d i t i o n for e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t as w e l l as for a s t r o n g defense against o u t s i d e ene mies. T h e g o v e r n m e n t s o u g h t to r e m e d y the e c o n o m i c s t a g n a t i o n a n d to. increase revenues b v first r e v i t a l i z i n g a g r i c u l t u r e . Reports s u b m i t t e d bv a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p e r t s — i n c l u d i n g I o n l o n e s c u - B r a d , a R o m a n i a n c o n s i d e r e d to be a n expert o n l a n d t e n u r e — a v e r r e d t h a t O t t o m a n a g r i c u l t u r e c o u l d be i m p r o v e d a n d state revenues increased substan tially o n l y if a d d i t i o n a l l a n d was b r o u g h t u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n , a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n d e p e n d e n t u p o n there b e i n g e n o u g h t r a i n e d m a n p o w e r for a g r i c u l t u r e . The p o p u l a t i o n p o l i c y a d o p t e d b y the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t s h o r t l y after 1856 w a s d e s i g n e d to meet t h i s n e e d . O n 9 M a r c h 1857 (5 C e m a ziyülahır 1272) the h i g h c o u n c i l of T a n z i m a t issued a decree o n m i g r a t i o n a n d s e t t l e m e n t t h a t was s a n c t i o n e d also b y the s u l t a n . I t declared t h a t m i g r a t i o n i n t o the O t t o m a n state w a s o p e n to a n y o n e w h o w a s w i l l i n g to g i v e his alle giance to the s u l t a n , to b e c o m e his subject, a n d to respect the c o u n t r y ' s l a w s . I t s t i p u l a t e d f u r t h e r t h a t settlers w o u l d be p r o t e c t e d against a n y i n f r i n g e m e n t of t h e i r r e l i g i o u s observances a n d w o u l d e n j o y r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m l i k e all o t h e r classes of the e m p i r e ' s subjects (art. 3). If the l o c a l i t y i n w h i c h the m i g r a n t s established themselves d i d n o t have chapels or c h u r c h e s f o r t h e i r rites, t h e y c o u l d request a n d o b t a i n f r o m the i m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t p e r m i s s i o n to b u i l d the chapels t h e y n e e d e d . T h e g o v e r n m e n t p r o m i s e d to g i v e the s e t t l e r s , w i t h o u t a n y c h a r g e , t h e b e s t arable l a n d s o w n e d b y the t r e a s u r y a n d to e x e m p t t h e m f r o m all taxes a n d m i l i t a r y service f o r six years, if t h e y settled i n R u m e l i a , or f o r t w e l v e years, if t h e y settled i n A s i a (arts. 4 - 6 ) . T h e m i g r a n t s c o u l d n o t sell t h i s l a n d for t w e n t y years, a n d those w h o d e c i d e d to leave the c o u n t r y w o u l d have to re t u r n t h e l a n d to the g o v e r n m e n t . Each f a m i l y d e s i r i n g to settle i n O t t o m a n d o m a i n s w a s asked to c o m p i l e a list of the n a m e s a n d professions o f its m e m b e r s a n d to i n d i c a t e the capital or w e a l t h it possessed; the list w a s to be s u b m i t t e d to the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h its legations a n d c o n sulates a b r o a d . A m i n i m u m f a m i l y c a p i t a l of 60 mecidiye (about 1,350 francs) w a s r e q u i r e d f o r i m m i g r a t i o n (art. 13). 3
6
T h e s e t t l e m e n t decree w a s t r a n s l a t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d i n the m a j o r E u r o p e a n j o u r n a l s so t h a t a large n u m b e r of peo ple w o u l d become a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the O t t o m a n i m m i g r a t i o n p o l i c y . G o v e r n m e n t representatives a b r o a d received n u m e r o u s i n q u i r i e s a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y , a n d h a d to ask the g o v e r n m e n t for details a n d precise i n s t r u c t i o n s . A l i Paşa, the f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , i n a letter of 9 D e c e m b e r 1857 to the
5. A portion of the following material on Ottoman immigration policies has appeared in my article, "Ottoman immigration Policies and Settlement in Palestine," in Settler Regimes in Africa and the Arab World, ed. Ibrahim Abu-Lughod and Bahu Abu-Laban (Wilmette, 111.: Medina University Press International, 1974), pp. 52-72. 6. FM (Id) 127. See also Stanford J. and Ezel Shaw History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 2 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
O t t o m a n ambassadors, m i n i s t e r s , a n d consuls i n L o n d o n , Paris, V i e n n a , St. P e t e r s b u r g , M a d r i d , T h e H a g u e , Berlin, Brussels, T u r i n , N a p l e s , L i v o r n o , a n d C o r f u , a d v i s e d t h e m that some measures s t i l l h a d to be t a k e n before the decree c o u l d be i m p l e m e n t e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , he i n s i s t e d that the g o v e r n m e n t was f i r m i n its d e c i s i o n to i m p l e m e n t its origi nal decree.' E u r o p e a n response to the decree w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g . I n quiries a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s came f r o m e v e r y p a r t of the conti n e n t — f r o m as far to t h e n o r t h e a s t as Prussia a n d to the n o r t h w e s t as I r e l a n d a n d f r o m all p o i n t s s o u t h . A l e x a n d r e Baggio of T u r i n asked f o r a concession of l a n d i n A l b a n i a , h a v i n g established a c o m p a n y a n d e v e n a c q u i r e d a s h i p to carry the a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t i e s p r o d u c e d o n his l a n d to E u r o p e a n m a r k e t s . H e w a s o f f e r e d l a n d near Silistre on the D a n u b e , b u t the p r o j e c t f a i l e d to m a t e r i a l i z e because he d i d n o t have s u f f i c i e n t c a p i t a l . A n u m b e r of families f r o m T u s c a n y s h o w e d i n t e r e s t i n m i g r a t i n g a n d a s k e d for i n f o r m a t i o n . P h i l i p p O l k o n s k i f r o m L o d z asked about m i g r a t i o n to Palestine, h a v i n g h e a r d t h a t the " e m p e r o r " of T u r k e y o f f e r e d l a n d a n d t r a v e l expenses to those w h o w a n t e d to settle i n t h a t c o u n t r y . T h e C o m p t e d'Haussv i l l e , p r e s i d e n t of the C o m m i t t e e f o r the P r o t e c t i o n of the Alsace-Lorrainers, i n q u i r e d a b o u t l a n d o n w h i c h to estab l i s h F r e n c h colonies i n the O t t o m a n state s i m i l a r to the G e r m a n c o l o n i e s f o u n d e d i n Jaffa a n d " C a i p h a " ; the Committee h a d already established colonies i n Algeria, h a v i n g b e e n e n c o u r a g e d to d o so b y A z i z Paşa, the gov e r n o r of C y p r u s . D o r m a n n G a s p a r i n i , w h o s u b m i t t e d of ficial papers to p r o v e h i s status as a c i t i z e n of the c a n t o n of St. Galle, as a n officer i n the Swiss a r m y , a n d as a former m e m b e r of the p e n a l c o u r t , also s h o w e d interest i n m i g r a t i n g to O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r y : he e x p r e s s e d the v i e w t h a t Turkeyw a s a r i c h c o u n t r y t h a t d i d n o t have g o o d c u l t i v a t o r s of l a n d , a n d he g u a r a n t e e d the m i g r a t i o n of 2,000 Swiss; but he asked t h a t the t e r m of the p r o h i b i t i o n against s e l l i n g the l a n d be s h o r t e n e d . H e p r o p o s e d v a r i o u s schemes of settle m e n t to be a d o p t e d , d e p e n d i n g u p o n w h e t h e r he h a d gov e r n m e n t s u p p o r t or n o t . T h o m a s L a m e s , B r i t i s h c o n s u l in Larnaca, C y p r u s , d e m a n d e d s o m e 130,000 doniims of l a n d o n the i s l a n d for the s e t t l e m e n t of 300 I r i s h f a m i l i e s ; his d e a t h p u t a n e n d to these p l a n s , h o w e v e r , despite his b r o t h e r ' s insistence o n t a k i n g o v e r the p r o j e c t . 8
9
1 0
1 1
1 2
13
14
Some of those w h o i n q u i r e d a b o u t s e t t l e m e n t i n O t t o m a n 7. FM (Id) 127. 8. FM (Id) 177, 17 November 1859. 9. Ibid., 14 A p r i l 1857. 10. FM (Id) 587, 60786/214. 11. F M (Id) 177, 4 June 1876. 12. FM (Id) 177, 10059/99, 4 February 1864. 13. F M (Id) 177, 2283, 23 March 1859. According to an official pronouncement of the high council of Tanzimat, a dönüm consisted of 1,600 archines, and each archine consisted of 7 square centimeters; thus a dönüm amounted to 1,200 square meters and was 200 square meters larger than a hectare. Others give the size of the dönüm (or dulum) as one-third of an acre. In Turkey today the official size is one-tenth of a hectare. (The equivalent usually given is 919 square meters.) 14. FM (Id) 177, 6885/36.
63
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domains e n v i s i o n e d large-scale m i g r a t i o n . A g r o u p of 2,000 families of G e r m a n o r i g i n l i v i n g i n Bessarabia i n f o r m e d t h e O t t o m a n c o n s u l a t e i n Odessa t h a t t h e y d e s i r e d to settle i n T u r k e y ; m o r e o v e r , if t h e i r d e m a n d s w e r e received f a v o r ably, m o r e t h a n 18,000 f a m i l i e s , a n d p o s s i b l y h a l f o f the G e r m a n colonies located i n s o u t h e r n Russia, w o u l d c o m e to the O t t o m a n s t a t e . 13
The n e w s a b o u t O t t o m a n l a n d g r a n t s a r o u s e d i n t e r e s t even across the ocean i n A m e r i c a . J. O x f o r d S m i t h , the O t t o m a n c o n s u l i n N e w Y o r k , asked i n several letters f o r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e l i b e r a l i m m i g r a t i o n p o l i c y of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , a b o u t w h i c h he h a d r e a d notices i n t h e European Times. H e w r o t e t h a t t h e r e w e r e " m a n y i n d u s t r i o u s , steady m e n w h o w o u l d l i k e to take u p t h e i r residence i n t h a t l a n d , especially Syria a n d Palestine, i f t h e y can o b t a i n l a n d a n d be p r o t e c t e d i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of it . . . the c u l t i v a t i o n o f cotton is o n e p r i n c i p a l object i n v i e w . " S m i t h also i n q u i r e d " w h e t h e r p e r s o n s of c o l o u r w h o are n a t i v e s of t h i s c o u n t r y or o t h e r s are i n c l u d e d i n t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . " Fuat Paşa stated i n r e p l y t h a t , as far as blacks w e r e c o n c e r n e d , t h e y w o u l d have t h e same r i g h t s as a n y o n e else, as " t h e i m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t d o e s n o t r e c o g n i z e a n y d i f f e r e n c e of color. . . . " 1 6
A p p l i c a t i o n s f o r p e r m i s s i o n to settle i n certain p a r t s of the e m p i r e w e r e less freely g r a n t e d . For e x a m p l e , i n 1869 a n u m b e r of f a m i l i e s f r o m t h e i s l a n d of M a l t a asked p e r m i s s i o n t o s e t t l e at T r i p o l i i n N o r t h A f r i c a a n d p o s s i b l y e l s e w h e r e . T h i s request, l i k e others of its k i n d c o n c e r n i n g settlement i n N o r t h A f r i c a a n d Palestine, d i d n o t receive a f a v o r a b l e a n s w e r , it b e i n g f e a r e d t h a t s u c h m i g r a t i o n s w o u l d alter the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s s t r u c t u r e o f t h e area. The g o v e r n m e n t ' s p o l i c y o n i m m i g r a t i o n to Syria, p a r t i c u larly the area of Palestine, h a d b e e n f o r m u l a t e d t w o a n d o n e - h a l f years earlier (1886) w h e n O t t o m a n officials re p o r t e d f r o m Jerusalem t h a t a g r o u p of a b o u t f o r t y A m e r i c a n families (there is no i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i r r e l i g i o u s o r ethnic a f f i l i a t i o n ) h a d l a n d e d i n Jaffa w i t h the express i n t e n t i o n of f o r m i n g a c o l o n y a n d s e t t l i n g p e r m a n e n t l y i n Pales tine. T h e officials asked f o r i n s t r u c t i o n s f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t , w h i c h , after r e c e i v i n g a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the g o v e r n o r of Jerusalem, rejected t h e s e t t l e m e n t p e t i t i o n because t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s m i g r a t i o n w a s " e v i d e n t l y to colonize a p a r t of the E m p i r e a n d b e c o m e o w n e r s of its s o i l . " The O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t reasoned that if this i n i tial settlement w e r e to be f o l l o w e d b y a d d i t i o n a l m i g r a t i o n s of its k i n d , the soil a n d a g r i c u l t u r e of o n e of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o v i n c e s w o u l d pass to f o r e i g n e r s — a d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t w o u l d be d e t r i m e n t a l to the n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . 17
1 8
Syria, i n c l u d i n g Palestine, w a s o p e n to s e t t l e m e n t b y O t t o m a n subjects, h o w e v e r . T h u s , w h e n N o r t h A f r i c a , especially the d i s t r i c t of T r i p o l i , w a s h i t by d r o u g h t a n d 15. FM (Id) 177, 2384/19, 2 March 1872. 16. The communications w i t h Smith are in FM (Id) 177, 2097 and are dated, respectively, 17 August and. 7 December 1858, and 2 Februarv 1859. 17. FM (Id) 24971796 , 9 June 1869. 18. FM (Id) 1804]'8, 28 November 1866.
f a m i n e i n 1871 a n d 1872, a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of families w e r e t r a n s p o r t e d first to I z m i r a n d t h e n to D a m a s c u s , e i t h e r f o r t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e f a m i n e or p e r m a n e n t l y . A p p a r e n t l y the use of I z m i r as a c l e a r i n g p o i n t caused con siderable d i f f i c u l t } ' ; i n response to a m e m o f r o m the T r i p o l i g o v e r n o r , t h e g r a n d v i z i e r gave i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h e m i grants to be t r a n s p o r t e d d i r e c t l y to a n d p o s s i b l y settled i n the vilayet of S y r i a . 1 9
T h e l i b e r a l i m m i g r a t i o n p o l i c y of t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t w a s e v e n t u a l l y r e s t r i c t e d , b u t n o t before s o m e large g r o u p s , p r i n c i p a l l y Jews a n d B u l g a r i a n s , h a d m a n a g e d to i m m i g r a t e a n d settle i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f the e m p i r e . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t the decree of 1857 d i d n o t excite i m m e d i a t e interest i n m i g r a t i o n a m o n g t h e Jews of E u r o p e . T h i s is especially s i g n i f i c a n t i n v i e w of t h e fact t h a t as early as 1839, at t h e t i m e of the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e B r i t i s h con sulate i n Jerusalem ( w h i c h w a s the f i r s t E u r o p e a n repre sentation i n the H o l y C i t y ) , the B r i t i s h began m a k i n g stre n u o u s efforts to s t i m u l a t e J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t i n Palestine. A f t e r w a r d s , h o w e v e r , a n d n o t a b l y after 1882 w h e n t h e presecution of Jews b y the czarist g o v e r n m e n t i n t e n s i f i e d , the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t w&s subjected t o d e m a n d s h o t o n l y f r o m t h e Jews of Russia b u t also f r o m those f r o m as far a w a y as C e n t r a l Asia a n d Y e m e n f o r p e r m i s s i o n to settle i n Palestine. A f t e r the f o r m a l e m e r g e n c e of p o l i t i c a l " Z i o n i s m i n 1897, the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t , w h i l e still a l l o w i n g i n d i v i d u a l s to i m m i g r a t e , f o r b a d e mass J e w i s h m i g r a t i o n t o a n d settlement i n Palestine. T h e p r o h i b i t i o n w a s f o r m a l i z e d i n a letter s i g n e d b y the p r i m e m i n i s t e r i n 1 9 0 6 . 20
The Bulgarian M i g r a t i o n The g o v e r n m e n t a d o p t e d a p r o t e c t i v e p o l i c y t o w a r d all Slavs a n d C h r i s t i a n s a t t e m p t i n g to get a w a y f r o m Russian rule b y m i g r a t i n g to O t t o m a n l a n d s . T h e O l d Believers, or L i p o v a n s , w h o left Russia i n o p p o s i t i o n to Peter the Great's r e f o r m s , settled i n D o b r u c a i n the localities of Jurilofca, Slava, a n d Tulça, a n d a l o n g t h e n o r t h e r n b r a n c h of the Danube (the Kilia) in the t o w n of Periprava and elsewhere. H o w e v e r , after D o b r u c a w a s ceded to Roma21
19. FM (Id) 587, 32420 12, 11 May 1872. 20. For a general view of Jewish migration, see my "Ottoman Immigration Policies." A good but incomplete collection of British consular reports on the "Jewish question," including the issue of migration to Palestine, may be found in A . M . Hyamson, The Brit ish Consulate in Jerusalem: 1838-1914, 2 vols. (London: Published for the Society by E. Goldston, L t d . , 1939-41). See also Israel Margalith, Le Baron de Rothschild el la colonisation juive en Palestine (Paris: Libraire M . Riviere, 1957); A . C. Eren, Türkiye 'de Göç ve Göçmen Meseleleri (istanbul, 1966) pp. 50, 90-115; and Neville ] . Mandel, " O t t o m a n Practice as Regards Jewish Settlement in Palestine, 1881-1908," Middle Eastern Studies 11, no. 1 (1975): 33-46. 21. Some still live there, now under Romanian or Soviet rule. In a recent visit to Jurilofca, a thriving community inhabited by over 3,000 Old Believers, I was told bv one of the communal leaders the historv of the settlement as transmitted orally from generation to generation. He said that the community had obtained the permis-
64
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
nia i n 1878 several h u n d r e d L i p o v a n s left t h e i r villages to j o i n their co-religionists l i v i n g i n T u r k e v p r o p e r , i n d e e d , a d i s p a t c h f r o m the O t t o m a n f o r e i g n m i n i s t r y to Bucharest o r d e r e d its representative there to p e r m i t 200 f a m i l i e s of L i p o v a n s a n d N e m o l i a k s to m i g r a t e to T u r k e y . Those w h o settled i n w e s t e r n T u r k e y a r o u n d Lake M a n y a s c o n t i n u e d their o l d life, a l t h o u g h after the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the republic m o s t of t h e m r e t u r n e d to t h e i r n a t i v e l a n d or m i grated to the U n i t e d States, c h i e f l y because the m e n faced d i f f i c u l t i e s i n f i n d i n g marriageable g i r l s of t h e i r o w n reli g i o n a n d language. 2 2
A m o n g o t h e r Slavs w h o m i g r a t e d a n d s e t t l e d i n the O t t o m a n state there w e r e m a n y P o l i s h p o l i t i c a l leaders a n d their f o l l o w e r s w h o h a d been i n v o l v e d i n the u p r i s i n g s o f 1 8 4 8 . Some of these c o n v e r t e d to I s l a m , c h a n g e d t h e i r names, a n d p l a y e d i m p o r t a n t parts i n the p o l i t i c a l , m i l i t a r y , a n d c u l t u r a l life of T u r k e y . For e x a m p l e , M a h m u d C e l a l e t t i n Paşa ( C o n s t a n t i n e B o z n e c k y ) , w h o s e w r i t i n g s a n d service to the s u l t a n i n the latter's r e l a t i o n s w i t h E u r o p e w e r e i m p o r t a n t i n the process of m o d e r n i z a t i o n , w a s a c o n v e r t e d Pole; his g r a n d s o n , N a z i m H i k m e t R a n , b e c a m e the greatest leftist poet of T u r k e y . A P o l i s h a r m y w a s f o r m e d i n T u r k e y d u r i n g the C r i m e a n W a r , a n d P o l i s h officers a n d regulars f o u g h t a l o n g s i d e the S l a v i c - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s of the R h o d o p e M o u n t a i n s i n the 1877-1878 w a r against Rus sian a n d B u l g a r i a n t r o o p s . 23
There w a s also an i m m i g r a t i o n of M a g y a r s , m o s t l y rev olutionaries led by Koschutz. The liberal p o l i c y t o w a r d s Slavic i m m i g r a t i o n w a s p u r sued for s o m e t i m e i n the second h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , e s p e c i a l l y after i t became i m p e r a t i v e t o a d o p t measures l i k e l y t o s t i m u l a t e d e m o g r a p h i c g r o w t h . A s early as the e n d of 1856 a n d the b e g i n n i n g of 1857 an issue arose c o n c e r n i n g the s e t t l e m e n t o f soldiers f r o m the second reg i m e n t of Cossacks, l e f t o v e r f r o m the 1853-1856 w a r w i t h Russia, w h o d i d n o t w a n t to r e t u r n t o Russia. T h e y w e r e p e r m i t t e d to settle i n the E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s of Selanik, T i r h a l a , a n d Y a n y a a n d i n Bursa i n A s i a after t h e y agreed to become O t t o m a n subjects a n d to s u b m i t to the e m p i r e ' s l a w s . M o s t of these Cossacks w e r e f a r m e r s a n d f a r m w o r k ers, a n d m a n y f o u n d i m m e d i a t e e m p l o y m e n t o n the f a r m s of the G r a n d V i z i e r Reşit Paşa i n the p r o v i n c e of T i r h a l a .
sion to settle and to fish in Lake Razelm from the "Sultan of Tur key" in the eighteenth century, and that the settlers had developed fishing into a major industry. Interestingly enough, the leader still referred to various points around the community by their Turkish names, but he p r o n o u n c e d them i n accordance w i t h Slavic phonetics. 22. FM (Id) 587, 56477, 10 November 1879. 23. See A d a m Lewak, Dzieji emigracji polskiej w Turcji (1831-1878) (Warsaw, 1935). Three Turkish sources on Slavic migration are Mehmet Eroz, "Türkiyede islav Muhacirleri ve Kazaklar Etrafında Bazı Kaynaklar," and F. Z. Findikoğlu, "Türkiyede Slav Muhacir leri" and "Türkiyeden Rusya ve Amerikaya Göç Eden islav Muha cirleri," in Sosyoloji Konferanstan (istanbul, 1964), pp. 121-36, 1-30, and 56-92, respectively; see also Findikoğlu, "Türkiyede islav Muhacirlerine Dair," İktisat Dergisi (January-March 1966): 39-55'.
T h e y t r a v e l e d o n a s h i p called the Tahrir-i Bahnt to Salonica, a n d f r o m there w e n t o v e r l a n d . There is no i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the fate of these Cossacks w h o established themselves i n w h a t is t o d a y n o r t h e r n Greece. It is k n o w n , h o w e v e r , t h a t some of these soldiers w h o h a d settled i n the villages of M a i n o s (its T u r k i s h n a m e w a s Eskikazaklar, or O l d Cossacks) m o v e d back to Russia after 1910, a l t h o u g h at least t w e n t y - s e v e n f a m i l i e s s t a y e d o n . 2 4
2 3
The largest w a v e of Slavic m i g r a t i o n i n t o the O t t o m a n lands i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s the B u l g a r i a n i m m i g r a t i o n . These i m m i g r a n t s w e r e p a r t of a larger c o n t i n g e n t of f o r m e r O t t o m a n subjects w h o h a d e m i g r a t e d to Russia earlier i n the c e n t u r y to replace the o u t g o i n g Tatars a n d Circassians. A c c o r d i n g t o o n e d o c u m e n t , a b o u t 12,000 Bulgarians w e r e settled i n C r i m e a o n the l a n d l e f t vacant by the Tatars ( w h o w e r e m o v i n g i n the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n to w a r d s s o u t h e r n Bessarabia, D o b r u c a , B u l g a r i a , a n d Asia M i n o r ) . Several t h o u s a n d of these B u l g a r i a n s came o r i g i n a l l y f r o m the villages of Bela, R e a n o v i ç , K r i v o b a r a , M e t k o viç, T a t a r m a h a l l e , B a y r a k t a r m a h a l l e , S k o m a , M e d o v i ç , Baroviç, Belapole, Visiloviç, H u t l o m , a n d Bastoin i n thé district of L o r n , o r the p r o v i n c e o f V i d i n i n w e s t e r n Bulgaria. By 1861/62 t h e y h a d b e c o m e d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r life i n Russia a n d expressed the desire to r e t u r n to the O t t o m a n state. I n a l o n g letter ( i n B u l g a r i a n ) a d d r e s s e d to the s u l t a n , t h e y c l a i m e d t h a t t h e y , " b e i n g f o r the m o s t p a r t illiterate persons w i t h o u t e d u c a t i o n , w e r e i l l a d v i s e d b y malicious p e o p l e w h o k n o w i n g t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t to t h e i r forefathers' r e l i g i o n d e c e i v e d t h e m to believe t h a t a l o n g e r stay i n T u r k e y w o u l d m a k e t h e m lose t h e i r f a t h e r s ' f a i t h " ; conse q u e n t l y , t h e y asked the s u l t a n n o w to " a l l o w us to enter o u r o w n hearths, a n d t h u s d e p a r t f r o m this strange l a n d [Russia], w h e r e w e f i n d o u r s e l v e s d e s p i t e ourselves w i t h o u t a g u i d e like a lost sheep . . . , a n d [ t h u s ] regain the lost h a p p i n e s s . " A series of o t h e r letters i n the same v e i n , f u l l of praise f o r the s u l t a n a n d c r i t i c a l of the Russians a n d the m e t h o d s t h e y h a d u s e d to i n d u c e e m i g r a t i o n , indicate a rather general desire a m o n g B u l g a r i a n s t o r e t u r n to their o r i g i n a l h o m e s i n O t t o m a n l a n d s . ( R e p r o d u c t i o n s of some of these letters are i n c l u d e d as A p p e n d i x C f o l l o w i n g this chapter). 2 6
2 7
O n e m a y believe t h a t t h e B u l g a r i a n s ' expression of a de sire to r e t u r n to t h e i r n a t i v e villages w a s p a r t of a p l a n n e d n a t i o n a l i s t u p r i s i n g i n B u l g a r i a a n d that t h e representatives w h o s i g n e d the letters w e r e i n t r u t h agents w o r k i n g h a n d i n h a n d w i t h the Russians. T h e fact t h a t the Russian a u -
P O P U L A T I O N M O V E M E N T S I N THE O T T O M A N
65
STATE
•horities d i d n o t o p p o s e , but actually s u p p o r t e d , t h e r e p a triation of the Bulgarians tends t o sustain such a v i e w . However, t h e i m p r e s s i o n derived f r o m r e a d i n g these let ters—the fact t h a t t h e y were w r i t t e n i n B u l g a r i a n a n d addressed d i r e c t l y t o the sultan i n l i n e w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l petitioning p r o c e d u r e used by subjects i n a d d r e s s i n g t h e i r grievances t o the s u l t a n - i s that these B u l g a r i a n s h a d a genuine desire n o t based on any u l t e r i o r p o l i t i c a l m o t i v e t o return to t h e i r n a t i v e l a n d . F u r t h e r m o r e , the letters s i m p l y ¿0 not s o u n d p a r t i c u l a r l y nationalistic; i n d e e d , n o n e of t h e documents r e l a t e d t o migration p r i o r t o 1870 i n d i c a t e s t h e presence of s t r o n g nationalist feelings a m o n g r a n k - a n d - f i l e Christians, a l t h o u g h t h e y do c o n t a i n s o m e e v i d e n c e of r e l i gious differences a n d , occasionally, s o m e v a g u e a l l u s i o n s to " d a n g e r o u s " persons—possibly i n t e l l e c t u a l s a n d Rus sian a g e n t s — d i s s e m i n a t i n g n a t i o n a l i s t ideas. The s u l t a n r a p i d l y acceded to t h e B u l g a r i a n s ' request f o r repatriation. Five s h i p s (the Alma, the Plodd, t h e Calliope, the Alexandre a n d the Ajios Gherasimov) w e r e c h a r t e r e d b y the Porte a n d soon docked i n t h e p o r t s of Feodosia (Kaffa) and E u p a t o r i a , f r o m w h i c h the B u l g a r i a n s e m b a r k e d . E v e n tually t h e y a l l w e r e landed i n S u l i n a , a s m a l l p o r t o n t h e middle b r a n c h of t h e Danube at its j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e Black Sea. O t h e r s h i p s , sixteen vessels a l t o g e t h e r , w e r e c h a r t e r e d to t r a n s p o r t a b o u t 7,500 other B u l g a r i a n s t o n o r t h e r n D o bruca a n d to B u l g a r i a proper. T h e O t t o m a n c o n s u l a t e i n Odessa gave the f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n o n the n u m b e r of Bulgarians m i g r a t i n g f r o m his a r e a : 2 8
M i g r a n t s sent t o Galatz M i g r a n t s e m b a r k e d for r e p a t r i a t i o n u n d e r the C o n s u l a t e ' s care: Men Women M a l e c h i l d r e n (less t h a n 10 y r s . o l d ) Female c h i l d r e n (less t h a n 10 y r s . o l d ) Children born during migration People d e a d d u r i n g m i g r a t i o n People left i n villages
430
2
8
3
3
2
7
9
4
979 972 122 1820 5
0
0
M o s t of these Bulgarians w e n t b a c k to t h e i r n a t i v e villages i n V i d i n , w h i l e some seem t o have b e e n established i n northern Dobruca. It is a p p r o p r i a t e to conclude t h i s section w i t h a q u o t a t i o n f r o m a letter, p u b l i s h e d i n the Morning
Post of 18 O c t o b e r
1876, w h i c h gives i n a n u t s h e l l t h e s t o r y of the B u l g a r i a n m i g r a t i o n . T h e w r i t e r , M r . C. A . D e C r e s p i g n y , w a s a g e n
24. FM (Id) 177, 6 November 1856. 25. Ibid., correspondence of 1910-1913. 26. FM (Id) 177, 736; this document states that only 6,000 Bulgar ians eventually remained in Crimea, the rest having died of "nos talgia and misery." 27. FM (Id) 177, 11 October 1861; the letter was signed by the migrants' representatives, Diadoghieutsza, Dimitri Ilieff, Ignat Bralieff, Hristo Ilieff, Mlodin Tzvetkoff, and Dimitri Christoff. Other villages mentioned as the migrants' places of origin in Bulgaria were Golovitza, Polovitza, Verba, Vertok, Turtzina, Makrice, Vuetcek, and Ostrokapci.
settled i n Circassia a n d t h e i r relatives left b e h i n d , b y w h i c h m e a n s t h e y h o p e d t o Russianise t h e feelings of the B u l g a r i a n s i n t h e i r f a v o u r . T h e Russian agent for t h i s p u r p o s e w a s B a r o n O f f e n b u r g , the t h e n R u s s i a n C o n s u l at Galatz, a m a n against w h o m n o one c o u l d say a w o r d , as he w a s a m o s t p o l i s h e d g e n t l e m a n a n d a most distinguished official. He was afterwards made C o n s u l - G e n e r a l at Bucharest, a n d is n o w Russia's representative i n Persia. T h e i n d u c e m e n t s for t h e Bulgarians t o e m i g r a t e w e r e , t h a t w h e n t h e y a r r i v e d i n Circassia ( w h e r e t h e y w e r e t a k e n free of expence), the head of each f a m i l y s h o u l d be g r a n t e d a c e r t a i n s u m of roubles (about 51.), so m a n y arcres [sic] of g r o u n d , a n d , I believe, a c o w . S o m e t h o u s a n d s of B u l g a r i a n s came d o w n the D a n u b e i n " s c h l e p p e s , " or barges, t o G a l a t z , w h e r e I w a s s t a t i o n e d ; t h e y came dressed i n t h e i r s h e e p s k i n c l o t h i n g , p a c k e d like sheep, u n w a s h e d , u n s h a v e n , a n d d i r t y , a n d t h e y l i v e d , w o r k e d , a n d slept i n t h e i r clothes f o r w e e k s at a t i m e . T h e y b r o u g h t w i t h t h e m s m a l l - p o x , t o w h i c h I w a s m y s e l f a v i c t i m , for, although they were p u t into quarantine and not allowed to l a n d o n t h e t o w n side of the r i v e r , t h e disease spread t h r o u g h o u t the t o w n , several f u n e r a l s t a k i n g place d a i l y for a m o n t h or t w o . A t Galatz t h e y w e r e t r a n s h i p p e d i n t o t w o steamers b e l o n g i n g t o Messrs M o r t o n a n d B e l l , of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , each m a k i n g several t r i p s , across the Black Sea—the B l a r n e y b e i n g the n a m e of o n e of t h e m ; the n a m e of the o t h e r I f o r g e t . T h e b i l l s of h e a l t h a n d o t h e r papers to these vessels w e r e i s s u e d b y m e , so t h a t I speak f r o m p e r s o n a l k n o w l e d g e . W h e n these emigrants arrived i n Theodosia they were marched into the i n t e r i o r , n o m o n e y , l a n d , or c o w s u p p l i e d t h e m , a n d t h e y w e r e expected t o take the place o f t h e Circassian serfs. B e i n g d e s t i t u t e , t h e y a p p e a l e d t o t h e E n g l i s h consular b o d y a n d t o t h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t , w h o , t h r o u g h the i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y of t h e late L o r d D a l l i n g ( t h e n Sir H e n r y B u l w e r ) , H e r M a j e s t y ' s A m b a s s a d o r at the Porte, sent vessels t o carry t h e m a w a y ; a f t e r w a r d s t h e y w e r e t a k e n to V a r n a , w h e r e t h o u s a n d s o f t h e m d i e d f r o m disease a n d d e s t i t u t i o n . T h i s is a p r e t t y g o o d p r o o f of Russia's s o l i c i t u d e f o r the B u l g a r i a n C h r i s t i a n s , a n d yet these p o o r s i m p l e - m i n e d [sic] b e i n g s are still l e d t o believe t h a t Russia is n o w w i l l i n g to be t h e i r benefactor.
t l e m a n w h o r e s i d e d for some years i n a n official capacity at Galatz, a n d he narrates the h i s t o r y f r o m his o w n p e r s o n a l knowledge. Russia h a v i n g beaten the Circassians o u t of Circassia ( h u n d r e d s of w h o m I saw p a r a d i n g the streets of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , w h i t h e r t h e y h a d flown), w a s d e s i r o u s of i n d u c i n g the Bulgarians t o e m i g r a t e t o Circassia to take t h e i r place, i n o r d e r to b r i n g a b o u t a u n i o n of f e e l i n g a n d s e n t i m e n t b e t w e e n the é m i g r é s t h u s to be 28. See FM (Id) 177, communications nos. 834 and 856 of 16 and 21 June and of 30 June and 12 July 1862.
The M u s l i m M i g r a t i o n s : The C r i m e a n a n d Circassian I m m i g r a t i o n The m i g r a t i o n of the C r i m e a n s , or the Tatars, o u t of their h o m e l a n d w a s p r o b a b l y t h e first M u s l i m m i g r a t i o n i n t o the O t t o m a n state. I t began s h o r t l y after C r i m e a w a s i n c o r p o rated i n t o Russia. I t is e s t i m a t e d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80,000 Tatars left C r i m e a i n the year 1783/84 alone a n d settled i n Bessarabia a n d D o b r u c a a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , i n A n a t o l i a . (The published figures o n m i g r a t i o n f r o m Crimea d o not usually i n c l u d e the m i g r a n t s f r o m the area n o r t h of the P e r k o p [ O r k a p i ] i s t h m u s . ) T h e m i g r a t i o n i n t e n s i f i e d after the T u r co-Russian W a r of 1812, a n d c o n t i n u e d u n t i l m a j o r f i g h t i n g was r e s u m e d i n 1853. I n a d d i t i o n , large g r o u p s of M u s l i n s f r o m f u r t h e r n o r t h a n d f r o m areas i n eastern Russia, such as K a z a n , O r e n b u r g , U f a , a n d n o r t h e r n K u b a n , m i g r a t e d
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a n d settled i n the O t t o m a n state t h r o u g h o u t the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y (a subject n o t t h u s far s t u d i e d ) . The earliest C r i m e a n m i g r a t i o n s w e r e o f t e n t h e ' r e s u l t of i n d i v i d u a l decisions to m o v e ; or s o m e w e r e the conse quence of a R u s s i a n - O t t o m a n agreement, s u c h as the one i n 1803. There is little e v i d e n c e t h a t the Russians p l a n n e d d u r i n g this early p e r i o d to force all the Tatars o u t of their ancestral h o m e s , d e s p i t e the h o s t i l e , a n t i - M u s l i m a t t i t u d e of some g o v e r n o r s . Forcible e v i c t i o n became state p o l i c y o n l y after 1856 w h e n the Russian o f f i c i a l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s its m i n o r i t i e s t o o k o n a d i s c r i m i n a t o r y b e n t . (The c o n t i n u o u s p e r s e c u t i o n of the C r i m e a n M u s l i m s c u l m i n a t e d f i n a l l y i n 1944 i n the t o t a l u p r o o t i n g of the Tatar p o p u l a t i o n ; about 300,000 p e o p l e w e r e e x p e l l e d to Siberia, w h e r e m o r e t h a n half d i e d . ) D u r i n g a n d after the C r i m e a n W a r , the Russians began to suspect the Tatars of d i s l o y a l t y a n d the Tatars began to fear R u s s i f i c a t i o n as w e l l as forcible resettle m e n t i n o t h e r a r e a s . By 1860 s o m e 100,000 a d d i t i o n a l " t a x able p e r s o n s " a n d s o m e 46,000 to 50,000 N o g a i Tatars h a d e m i g r a t e d , despite b e i n g f o r c e d to p a y h e a v y taxes a n d passport dues. These w e r e settled m o s t l y i n D o b r u c a . I n the p e r i o d f r o m 1861 to 1864 the C r i m e a n m i g r a t i o n f u r t h e r i n t e n s i f i e d ; o n e s o u r c e g i v e s t h e t o t a l of e m i g r a n t s as 227,627, i n c l u d i n g 101,605 w o m e n a n d 126,002 m e n . The m i g r a t i o n c o n t i n u e d u n t i l the e n d of the c e n t u r y , b u t i n a more l i m i t e d w a y after I s m a i l Gaspirali, the C r i m e a n n a t i o n a l i s t e d u c a t o r a n d p u b l i s h e r of the Tercüman, urged his c o m p a t r i o t s to stay o n i n t h e i r n a t i v e places a n d raise their c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m i c s t a n d a r d s . T h e t o t a l n u m b e r of Tatars w h o m i g r a t e d to O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r i e s b e t w e e n 1783 a n d 1922 w a s p r o b a b l y a b o u t 1,800,000. 2 9
3 0
31
3 2
I n 1877 a n d 1878 a large n u m b e r of Tatars l e f t D o b r u c a a n d Bulgaria a n d settled i n A n a t o l i a . S o m e settled d i r e c t l y i n the A n a t o l i a n c o u n t r y s i d e ; others settled i n large cities such as I s t a n b u l a n d I z m i r or i n smaller t o w n s s u c h as i z m i t , B a n d i r m a , i n e g ö l , a n d Eskişehir. I n the area b e t w e e n Eskişehir a n d A n k a r a there still are a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of villages i n h a b i t e d b y Tatars; a n d i n Eskişehir itself, a city of about 200,000 i n 1970 a n d a m a j o r c o m m e r c i a l center i n central A n a t o l i a , t h e y m a k e u p a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e of the
29. See Turk Ansiklopedisi, s. v. " g ö ç " [migration]. See also James Barker, Turkey in Europe, 2d ed. (London, 1877), and Ahmet Özenbaşli, Çarlık Hükümetinde Kirim Faciası, Yalıud Tatar Hicretleri (Sim feropol, 1925).For new material that leads to an upward revision of the figures on Crimean emigration, see my article in International Journal of Turkish Studies 3, no. 1 (1983). 30. See Alan W. Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1978), and "The Crimean Tatars, the USSR, and Turkey," in Soviet Asian Ethnic Frontier, ed. W. O. McCagg, Jr., and Brian D. Silver (New York: Pergamon Press, 1979), pp. 1-23. 31. See A. F. Soysal, Z. Dziejon Krymu (Warsaw, 1938), and also V. K. Kendaraki, Universal'noe opisanie Kryma, vol. 3 (Moscow, 1875), chap. 8. 32. See Feyzi Gozaydin, Kirim Türklerinin Yerleşme ve Göçmeleri, (istanbul, 1948), p. 84; a somewhat lower figure is given by Marc Pinson in "Russian Policy and Emigration of the Crimean Tartars to the Ottoman Empire, 1854-1862," Güney-Doğu Avrupa Araştirmaları Dergisi 1 (1972): 47. See also n. 29.
p o p u l a t i o n . Statistics o n the total p o p u l a t i o n of C r i m e a n o r i g i n i n p r e s e n t - d a y T u r k e y are n o t available, for most of the Tatars became f u l l y a s s i m i l a t e d . T h e y h a d close c u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s , a n d l i n g u i s t i c a f f i n i t i e s to t h e A n a t o l i a n T u r k s . ( I n fact, the t e r m " T a t a r " is u s e d m a i n l y b v Rus sians, the C r i m e a n s o f t e n r e f e r r i n g to themselves as " C r i mean T u r k s . " ) Furthermore, many M u s l i m s originally from A n a t o l i a , w h e r e t h e i r c u l t u r e h a d d e v e l o p e d u n d e r the i n fluence of the S e l j u k i a n d O t t o m a n T u r k s , h a d settled i n the C r i m e a , especially a l o n g the l i t o r a l , w h i l e it w a s p a r t of the e m p i r e . V a r i o u s estimates place the present T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n of Tatar e x t r a c t i o n at s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 1 a n d 3 m i l l i o n . H o w e v e r , o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200,000 people, m o s t l y i n the villages, c o n t i n u e to speak the C r i m e a n d i alect, w h i c h is v e r y close to A n a t o l i a n T u r k i s h . T h e f o r c e d mass m i g r a t i o n of the Circassians f r o m the Caucasus i n t o the O t t o m a n d o m a i n , b e g i n n i n g i n 1862/63, w a s a m a j o r p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t t h a t r a d i c a l l y affected the social, e t h n i c , a n d r e l i g i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n of the O t t o m a n state. T h e e v e n t a t t r a c t e d w o r l d - w i d e a t t e n t i o n be cause of its m a g n i t u d e a n d because of the coercive means used b y the Russians to achieve i t ; t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n this m i g r a t i o n is therefore r i c h . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d there w e r e a n u m b e r of T u r k i s h - s p e a k i n g g r o u p s i n h a b i t i n g the Cau casus r e g i o n as w e l l , a l t h o u g h m o s t o f the sources do n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n Circassian a n d T u r k i s h tribes. 3 3
T h e Circassians w e r e o n e of the m a j o r , a n d oldest, of the n o n - T u r k i s h g r o u p s i n h a b i t i n g the r e g i o n a l o n g the Black Sea a n d i n the A p s h e r o n Peninsula o n the w e s t e r n coast of the Caspian Sea. O r g a n i z e d i n tribes w i t h social structures r a n g i n g f r o m rigidly d i f f e r e n t i a t e d strata of p r i n c e s , nobles, free peasants, a n d serfs to t r u l y d e m o c r a t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s u n d e r chosen leaders, the Circassians h a d n o t i n the nineteenth century developed a c o m m o n national political i d e n t i t y . F r o m the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d s s o m e m a j o r Circassian g r o u p s , s u c h as t h e K a b a r d i n i a n s a n d A b k h a zians, accepted I s l a m , l a r g e l y because of t h e p r e a c h i n g of the N o g a i mullets f r o m the n o r t h w h o h a d t h e tacit b a c k i n g of O t t o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n A n a p a . E v e n t u a l l y , the M u s -
33. Extensive information on Circassia may be found in the Islam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. "Kaukas," "Mürid," "Çerkeş," "Abaza," and "Dağıstan," and i n the Encyclopedia of Islam, under the same subject heads; see also John F. Baddeley, The Russian Conquest of the Cau casus (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1908). On population specifically, see A. P. Berzhe, "Vyselenie Gortsev s. Kaukaza," Ruskaia Starına (January-February 1882); HCAP for 1860-1878; V. Minorsky, "Transcaucasia," Journal Asiatique 217 (1930); and E. G. Ravenstein, "The Populations of Russia and Turkey," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 40 (1877). The Caucasian Review, published in Munich, also has a series of excellent articles and bibliographical references on the Circassians. The fullest and best-documented account in English, although covering a restricted period of time, is Marc Pinson, "Demographic Warfare: A n Aspect of Ottoman and Russian Policy, 1854-1866" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1970). M y o w n extensive research on the Circassian migrations from the Caucasus and the Balkans to Anatolia from 1850 to 1914 will be included in another study under preparation.
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lim Circassians c a m e to r e g a r d t h e s u l t a n as the C a l i p h , t h a t ¡5, the s u p r e m e t e m p o r a l leader i n charge of t h e M u s l i m c o m m u n i t y . T h e l o n g (1830-1859) f u n d a m e n t a l i s t - m u r i d i s t revolt of Sheik S h a m i l against Russian o c c u p a t i o n , w i t h the egalitarian social p h i l o s o p h y t h a t u n d e r l a y i t , p l a y e d a m a jor role i n t h e c r e a t i o n of a c o m m o n i d e n t i t y f o r the Circas sians a n d o t h e r M u s l i m s i n n o r t h e a s t e r n Caucasia a n d i n mobilizing them around it. The Russians o c c u p i e d the k h a n a t e s of B a k u a n d K u b a i n 1796, g a i n e d E r i v a n , N a h c i v a n , a n d T a l i s h i n 1828 t h r o u g h the Treaty of T i i r k m e n c a y s i g n e d w i t h I r a n , a n d f i n a l l y w o n A n a p a a n d P o t i i n 1829 i n the T r e a t y of A d r i a n o p l e s i g n e d w i t h the P o r t e . H o w e v e r , the M u s l i m s t r o n g h o l d i n the m o u n t a i n s successfully resisted t h e Russians, a n d Circassia remained u n c o n q u e r e d u n t i l the c a p t u r e of Sheik S h a m i l i n 1859 b r o k e t h e back of t h e resistance. T h e Russians t h e n advanced a l o n g t h e coast of A n a p a to N o v o r o s s i y s k a n d d o w n to S u k u m k a l e . By 1862 Circassia w a s o c c u p i e d ; a n d by 1865 the m a j o r resistance i n t h e m o u n t a i n s also w a s p u t d o w n , a l t h o u g h sporadic f i g h t i n g against the Russians c o n t i n u e d to the e n d of the decade. The Russians o c c u p i e d Circassia f o r t h e g o o d m i l i t a r y a n d strategic reasons of the defense a n d s e c u r i t y of t h e Caucasus, f r e e d o m of trade a n d n a v i g a t i o n o n t h e Black Sea, a n d the n e e d f o r safe r a i l w a y c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the Black a n d C a s p i a n seas a n d Persia. I n a d d i t i o n , h o w e v er, s t r o n g i d e o l o g i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d e r i v i n g f r o m Russia's messianic self-image s p u r r e d the c o n q u e s t and e x p u l s i o n of t h e Circassians f r o m t h e i r l a n d s . Russia claimed to possess a s u p e r i o r O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r e , a n d she r e g a r d e d I s l a m as the i n f e r i o r c u l t u r a l s y s t e m of a people she h a d defeated a n d w a s r u l i n g w i t h a n i r o n h a n d . The Circassians a n d t h e i r t r i b a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w e r e l o o k e d u p o n as " p r i m i t i v e . " Russia s o u g h t to " c i v i l i z e " t h e m b y settling t h e m o n the s w a m p y p l a i n s n o r t h of the K u b a n (and g i v i n g t h e i r l a n d s to the Cossacks), b y s u b j e c t i n g t h e m to taxes a n d m i l i t a r y service, a n d b y c o n v e r t i n g t h e m to C h r i s t i a n i t y . W h e n the Circassians r e f u s e d to accept t h i s p r o g r a m a n d c o n t i n u e d to f i g h t the Russian i n v a d e r s , t h e y w e r e s i m p l y f o r c e d to m i g r a t e .
m u c h later. A s early as 1859 the Russian g o v e r n m e n t c o n tacted the T u r k i s h a u t h o r i t i e s a b o u t a c c e p t i n g a n u m b e r of the Circassians; i n 1860 L o r i s M e l i k o v w a s n e g o t i a t i n g the issue o n b e h a l f of the czarisl g o v e r n m e n t . A c c o r d i n g to Russian estimates, the t o t a l n u m b e r of i m m i g r a n t s to T u r key w o u l d n o t be m o r e t h a n 40,000 to 50,000. T h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t debated the issue a n d d e c i d e d t h a t it c o u l d not refuse h o s p i t a l i t y to the Circassians w h o w a n t e d to settle i n its d o m a i n s i n o r d e r to escape t h e pressure of Russian t r o o p s ; the s u l t a n felt t h a t his basic d u t y as c a l i p h w a s to e x t e n d h o s p i t a l i t y a n d p r o t e c t i o n to all his subjects w h o h a d m a i n t a i n e d allegiance to h i m even after o c c u p a t i o n b y a f o r e i g n p o w e r . M o r e o v e r , the g o v e r n m e n t expected that the m i g r a n t s w o u l d h e l p to ease t h e m a n p o w e r shortage, a n d it h o p e d to e m p l o y t h e m i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of roads, a n d i n the c u l t i v a t i o n of c o t t o n , a n d especially, i n the a r m y . 3 3
I n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o b l e m s that w o u l d be created b y the i m m i g r a t i o n , t h e g o v e r n m e n t established i n 1860 (7 C e m a z i y ü l a h i r 1276) t h e G e n e r a l M i g r a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a t i v e C o m m i s s i o n Udare-i Umumiyye-i Muhacirim Komisyonu) u n d e r H a f i z Paşa, t h e g o v e r n o r of T r a b z o n , to direct all m a t t e r s related to m i g r a t i o n . The O t t o m a n gov e r n m e n t r e g a r d e d its a g r e e m e n t w i t h Russia as a l i m i t e d one; i t expected t h a t o n l y the 40,000 to 50,000 Circassians m e n t i o n e d b y the Russians w o u l d be m i g r a t i n g , a n d it h o p e d to b r i n g t h e m i n t o the c o u n t r y i n a n o r d e r l y a n d g r a d u a l f a s h i o n . H o w e v e r , b y 1862 t h e Cossack t r o o p s w e r e m o v i n g t o w a r d s the sources of t h e K u b a n , a n d i n 1863 t h e y a d v a n c e d i n t o the Circassian m o u n t a i n e e r s ' s t r o n g h o l d s , f o r c i n g t h e p o o r l y a r m e d Circassians to flee to w a r d s the sea or i n some cases, s o u t h w a r d s o v e r l a n d . The m i g r a t i o n became a mass e x o d u s . Russian sources indicate that the total n u m b e r of Circassians m i g r a t i n g i n 1858, 1859, 1862, a n d i n the s u m m e r of 1863 came to 80,000, w h i l e i n the s p r i n g of 1864 alone the n u m b e r w e n t u p to n e a r l y 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 . D e p a r t u r e s f r o m v a r i o u s Russian p o r t s i n the w i n t e r a n d s p r i n g of 1864, a c c o r d i n g to one source,,reached the f o l l o w i n g f i g u r e s : ' 3 6
37
8
Taman Anapa Novorosine
D u r i n g the early 1850s s o m e Circassians m i g r a t e d v o l u n tarily o n t h e i r o w n i n i t i a t i v e or w e r e p e a c e f u l l y p e r s u a d e d to m o v e . D u r i n g the C r i m e a n W a r the e m i g r a t i o n became a mass m o v e m e n t t h a t r e a c h e d a p e a k i n t h e t h r e e - y e a r p e r i o d f r o m 1862 to 1865 a n d l i n g e r e d o n i n t o t h e 1920s, w i t h sporadic p e r i o d s of i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n i n 1877-1878 a n d again f r o m 1890 to 1908. There w a s n o f o r m a l a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n the Russians a n d the Porte c o n c e r n i n g the m i g r a t i o n of M u s l i m s f r o m Crimea a n d the Caucasus i n 1856; t h e o n l y a g r e e m e n t at that t i m e w a s a p p a r e n t l y a special " u n d e r s t a n d i n g " c o n c e r n i n g the m i g r a t i o n of some t r i b e s . H o w e v e r , a f o r m a l i m m i g r a t i o n a g r e e m e n t seems to have b e e n s i g n e d n o t too 3 4
34. See the telegram sent from the Ottoman foreign ministry to the embassy in Si. Petersburg in 1880 after the extent of the migra tion became an issue in contention. FM (Id) 687, 60852/216, 21 December 1880.
Toupasse Sotcha Adler, Hoso O n T u r k i s h ships
M a r c P i n s o n states that the t o t a l n u m b e r of p e o p l e e m i g r a t i n g f r o m eastern Circassia alone i n t h i s p e r i o d a m o u n t e d to 522,000.
39
35. See FM (Id) 177, 6513 139, 8 and 21 December 1862. 36. For the text of the order establishing the commission, see Eren, Türkiye 'de Göç ve Göçmen Meseleleri, pp. 55-56, 96-113. 37. FM (İd) 175, 23 September and 3 October 1864; the report is translated from the Russian press. 38. Ibid. 39. "Demographic Warfare," p. 122.
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
68
The figures available i n o f f i c i a l statistics u s u a l l y refer o n l y to those w h o e m b a r k e d at p o r t s , e x c l u d i n g those w h o m i grated o v e r l a n d s o u t h w a r d s or w e s t w a r d s o n h o r s e b a c k or i n w a g o n s a n d those w h o e m b a r k e d i l l e g a l l y o n scores of p r i v a t e l v o w n e d s m a l l boats. T h e D a n u b e p r o v i n c e alone is r e p o r t e d to have received s l i g h t l y o v e r 40,000 f a m i l i e s — a quarter of a m i l l i o n C i r c a s s i a n s — d u r i n g this p e r i o d . It w a s clear t h a t the Russians, w h o h a d already b e g u n d i s t r i b u t i n g the Circassians' l a n d to the Cossacks, h a d d e c i d e d to u p root all the tribes that r e f u s e d t h e i r " c i v i l i z i n g " m i s s i o n a n d resisted e n r o l l i n g i n the Russian a r m y . For e x a m p l e , the British c o n s u l i n S u k u m k a l e r e p o r t e d t h a t the U b i k h a n d Fighett tribes w e r e fast e m b a r k i n g f o r T r a b z o n because "af ter their l a n d h a v i n g b e e n l a i d waste b y fire a n d s w o r d , e m i g r a t i o n to T u r k e y is the o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e a l l o w e d to those m o u n t a i n e e r s w h o refuse to transfer t h e m s e l v e s to the K u b a n steppes a n d c o n t r i b u t e p e r i o d i c a l l y to the militia." 4 0
There are i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t the m i g r a t i o n b e g a n to acquire t h e f e a t u r e s of a s m a l l R u s s i a n - O t t o m a n e x c h a n g e of p o p u l a t i o n , w i t h b o t h M u s l i m s a n d C h r i s t i a n s m i g r a t i n g to areas w h e r e t h e i r c o - r e l i g i o n i s t s a p p e a r e d to be i n the m a j o r i t y . I n fact, it was a n e x c h a n g e p o p u l a t i o n of the sort that e v e n t u a l l y became a m e t h o d f o r s e t t l i n g n a t i o n a l d i s putes. I n d e e d , a c c o r d i n g to a r e p o r t f r o m the O t t o m a n c o n sul i n K e r c h , C o u n t S u m a r k o f f , w h o w a s the h a t m a n of the K u b a n Cossacks a n d the g o v e r n o r of Caucasia, h a d agreed to a l l o w all C h r i s t i a n s of T r a b z o n to m i g r a t e a n d settle i n Russia, a n d the Russian c o n s u l i n T r a b z o n r e p o r t e d t h a t 600 C h r i s t i a n families w e r e r e a d y to m i g r a t e a n d settle i n the C a u c a s u s . A l r e a d y m a n y Greek C h r i s t i a n families f r o m A n a t o l i a h a d a r r i v e d i n C r i m e a w i t h the i n t e n t i o n of s e t t l i n g there; t h e y u s e d certificates issued b y t h e i r local priests a n d legalized b y the R u s s i a n c o n s u l as t r a v e l d o c u m e n t s . H o w e v e r , as i n the case of the B u l g a r i a n s p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , a n u m b e r of the Greek m i g r a n t families c h a n g e d their m i n d s a n d d e c i d e d to r e t u r n to T u r k e y ; some i n fact r e t u r n e d i l l e g a l l y to S i n o p . I n 1869 t h e G r e e k s addressed a letter to the s u l t a n a s k i n g f o r p e r m i s s i o n a n d assistance for t h e i r r e t u r n to T u r k e y . E v e n t u a l l y the O t t o m a n consulates i n C r i m e a w e r e allocated 12,000 r u b l e s to pay for the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of G r e e k f a m i l i e s f r o m C r i m e a back to S a m s u n . 41
4 2
T h e w a r of 1877-1878, c o n s i d e r e d to be the c l i m a x of Russia's pan-Slavist, r e l i g i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d p o l i c y t o w a r d s
40. HCAP 63/32 (1864), "Papers Respecting the Settlement of Circassian Emigrants in T u r k e y , " presented to the House of Com mons on 6 June 1864; the paper includes fifteen reports by British consuls in the Caucasus area, the report quoted being dated 13 A p r i l 1864. 41. F M (Id) 587, 233/78, 12 and 24 A p r i l 1867. The transportation of immigrants had become a lucrative business; as early as A p r i l 1863 the Russians had published a notice to shipowners in Kerch that 200,000 Circassians w o u l d have to be carried to Samsun w i t h i n the next four years. 42. FM (Id)'l77, 76/6, 13 and 25 July 1869, and 113/3719, 29 May 1869.
the O t t o m a n state, g a v e n e w m o m e n t u m to Circassian m i g r a t i o n . T h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d d r a f t e d i n t o the a r m v 18,000 y o u n g Circassians w h o h a d l a n d e d i n T r a b z o n , a n d , after the w a r b r o k e o u t , a n o t h e r 3,000 Circassians f r o m the same city v o l u n t a r i l y j o i n e d the O t t o m a n a r m v to f i g h t the Russians. K u n d u k o v , a Circassian general c o m m a n d i n g six cavalry b a t t a l i o n s c o m p o s e d of Circassians, f o u g h t o n the O t t o m a n eastern f r o n t , w h i l e some of the r e m a i n i n g tribes i n Circassia a n d A b k h a z i a p r e p a r e d to re b e l . T w o C i r c a s s i a n c o n t i n g e n t s l a n d e d at A d l e r a n d G u d a u t i a n d w e r e j o i n e d there b y local i n s u r g e n t s . A f t e r d e f e a t i n g the O t t o m a n forces, the Russians, i n p a r t i n reac t i o n to the Circassians' actions d u r i n g the w a r , t u r n e d their w r a t h once m o r e u p o n t h e Circassians a n d A b k h a z i n a s re m a i n i n g i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l h o m e s . A n e w w a v e of m i g r a t i o n e n s u e d , as the Circassians f r o m the Caucasus once more l a n d e d i n T r a b z o n , S a m s u n , S i n o p or D o b r u c a , a n d Bulgar ia (Kostenje, V a r n a , B u r g a s ) to be e m b a r k e d o n ships for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n to A n a t o l i a a n d Syria. ( I n a d d i t i o n , the Cir cassians p r e v i o u s l y s e t t l e d i n the Balkans, w h e r e they had caused great u n r e s t a n d b e e n the source of c o m p l a i n t s f r o m the n a t i v e M u s l i m s a n d C h r i s t i a n s , m o v e d to A n a t o l i a and Syria.) A t t h i s t i m e the Russians b e g a n i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e i r m i g r a t i o n a g r e e m e n t w i t h the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t was a gener al one c o v e r i n g the e n t i r e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n of the Cau casus. I t is n o t clear w h e t h e r a n o t h e r a g r e e m e n t h a d been s i g n e d after 1860; b u t i n a n y case, the O t t o m a n s averred t h a t t h e i r a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n e d o n l y a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of Circassian tribes a n d , a p p a r e n t l y , s o m e T u r k i s h - s p e a k i n g g r o u p s i n D a g h i s t a n a n d o t h e r r e g i o n s o f the C a u c a s u s . (It is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t i n 1861, w h e n the Russians seemed to be s t e m m i n g the f l o w of m i g r a n t s , t h e s u l t a n h a d asked that restrictions o n m i g r a t i o n be l i f t e d . ) 43
T h e estimates of the n u m b e r s i n v o l v e d i n the Circassian m i g r a t i o n range f r o m 700,000 to over 1 m i l l i o n . U b i c i n i , w h o w a s closely f a m i l i a r w i t h the d e m o g r a p h i c s i t u a t i o n i n the O t t o m a n state, e s t i m a t e d t h a t i n 1864—-that is, before the first e x o d u s w a s c o m p l e t e d — t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of Cir cassians i n the O t t o m a n d o m a i n s came to a b o u t 700,000 a n d t h a t , d e s p i t e h i g h m o r t a l i t y , t h e i r n u m b e r h a d reached 1 m i l l i o n b y 1866. B i a n c o n i claims t h a t b y the e n d of 1876 there w e r e 600,000 Circassians s e t t l e d i n the Balkans alone. O t h e r sources p u t the t o t a l n u m b e r of m i g r a t i n g Circas sians at u p to 1,200,000 s o u l s . B e r z h e , w h o c o n d u c t e d his s t u d y based o n Russian sources, says t h a t 493,194 people left Russia's Black Sea p o r t s i n the 1858-1866 p e r i o d ; he does n o t g i v e the n u m b e r of Circassians w h o left Russia after 1866 or estimate the n u m b e r of those w h o traveled by l a n d r o u t e s . T h e size of the post-1878 w a v e of i m m i g r a 4 4
4 5
43. 44. Turtsii vol. 4 teille, 45.
FM (Id) 587, 60852/216, 21 December 1880. See figures reproduced in Nikola V. Mikhov, Naseleniento ml i Butgani prez XVUI-XIX v., vol. 2 (Sofia, 1915), p. 47, and (Sofia, 1924), p. 265; see also A . Ubicini and Pavet de CourEtat présent de l'Empire ottoman (Paris, 1876). "Vyselenie Gortsev S. Kaukaza."
J, IJLATION M O V E M E N T S I N THE O T T O M A N STATE
69
O P
fable 4.1- Refugees f r o m Russian L a n d s i n S a m s u n i n 1880
Landed at Samsun assian-Abkazians (trom the Caucasus) Circassians trom Rumelia Tatars (Caucasus) Georgians (Caucasus) Turks of Batum
Settled in Samsun or . Janlk Sandjak
Sent on to Angora or Sivas
Died at Samsun
Circ
Total
12,116 6.252 14,824 1,594 91 34,877
4.668 964 881 25 6,538
7,028 4,838 13,472 1,535 91 26,964
420 450 471 34 1,375
Source: FM (S) 122. report by C. W. Wilson. 23 January 1880. tion m a y be e x t r a p o l a t e d f r o m t h e f i g u r e s i n Table 4 . 1 , taken f r o m a r e p o r t g i v i n g the n u m b e r of refugees i n S a m sun i n 1 8 8 0 . 46
Several p o i n t s a f f e c t i n g the v a l i d i t y of these estimates should be m e n t i o n e d . First, the O t t o m a n state a l r e a d y h a d a n u m b e r of Circassian s e t t l e m e n t s before the Russian ex odus b e g a n i n 1860. S e c o n d , t h e f i g u r e s i n c l u d e d s o m e non-Circassians also. T h i r d , as already m e n t i o n e d , the sta tistics u s u a l l y d o n o t i n c l u d e m a n y of t h e m i g r a n t s w h o came o v e r l a n d or e n t e r e d t h e c o u n t r y w i t h o u t b e i n g r e g istered. I n 1865, f o r e x a m p l e , 2,000 C h e c h e n e s came to K a r s with their horses a n d cattle, u s i n g l a n d routes a n d apparently w i t h o u t b e i n g r e g i s t e r e d ; 60,000 m o r e Chechenes w e r e expected to a r r i v e b y t h e same r o u t e s a n d to be sent s o u t h to the p r o v i n c e s of M u ş a n d D i y a r b e k i r . F o u r t h , the f i g u r e s u s u a l l y o m i t those w h o d i e d o n b o a r d ship or w h o t r a v e l e d o n t h e i r o w n . T r a v e l w a s d i s o r g a n ized. A n u m b e r of w e a l t h y Circassians c h a r t e r e d ships a n d landed i n I s t a n b u l or at p o r t s o n the Black Sea w i t h o u t checking i n w i t h a n y officials. People w h o h a d ships trans ported m i g r a n t s across t h e Black Sea f o r a fare of a b o u t f o u r dollars a p e r s o n , o f t e n l a n d i n g t h e m at obscure p o r t s ; b u t m a n y of these craft w e r e lost at sea. ( E v e n t u a l l y , the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of t h e C i r c a s s i a n s w a s e n t r u s t e d to d u l y r e g istered O t t o m a n , F r e n c h , B r i t i s h , a n d Russian s h i p s . ) F i f t h , a large n u m b e r of m i g r a n t s f r o m Caucasia, p o s s i b l y a b o u t 20 percent of the t o t a l , d i e d of m a l n u t r i t i o n a n d disease. I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t i n 1864-1865 the d e a t h rate i n S a m s u n was 120 to 150 p e r s o n s a d a y ; a n d i n T r a b z o n , a m a j o r e n t r y p o i n t , the total n u m b e r o f d e a t h s at t h e e n d of 1865 w a s 53,000. 4 7
48
46. FM (S) 122, report by C. W. Wilson, 23 January 1880. 47. Sew York Times, 24 September 1865. 48. HCAP 63'32 (1864), "Papers Respecting the Settlement of Circassians." The European newspapers of the period contained ample information on the subject, and Europe was outraged by the situation. In England an attempt was made to form an aid com mittee; but the projected "assistance"—actually a loan—did not materialize because the Ottoman government refused to guarantee repayment or the payment of any interest on the loan; see ibid., report of 23 May 1864. Eventually a Comite Internationale de Secours Aux Refugies des Provinces de l'Empire Ottoman was formed, mostly on the initiative of the French and a few English residing in Istanbul. The committee occasionally indicated the
T a k i n g i n t o account all the q u a l i f y i n g factors, it seems reasonable to estimate that a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m i l l i o n Cauca sians, m o s t l y Circassians, l e f t Russia i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1859 to 1879 "but t h a t o n l y a b o u t 1,500,000 a c t u a l l y s u r v i v e d a n d w e r e settled o n O t t o m a n d o m a i n s . F r o m 1881 u n t i l 1914 there w a s a f u r t h e r e m i g r a t i o n f r o m Russia o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f a m i l l i o n m o r e Circassians, a l o n g w i t h a large n u m b e r of M u s l i m s f r o m K a z a n a n d the U r a l s . T h e p r o b l e m of w h e r e to settle t h e Causasian refugees was a m a j o r o n e a n d gave rise to c o n s i d e r a b l e debate w i t h i n the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t . O n e u n d a t e d r e p o r t advises the g o v e r n m e n t to settle the Circassians i n s o u t h e r n T u r k e y , a l o n g the E u p h r a t e s i n the B i r e c i k a n d R a k k a areas, a n d to use t h e m to d e v e l o p a m o d e r n a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m there to t r a n s f o r m A l e x a n d r e t t a o n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n t o "a t r u e n a t u r a l sea o u t l e t f o r T u r k e y w h i c h w o u l d m a k e Odessa less i m p o r t a n t if n o t obliterate i t . " The report suggests t h a t the colonists, i f o r g a n i z e d i n special u n i t s , c o u l d b e c o m e a b a r r i e r against the p r e d a t o r y tribes f r o m the s o u t h , such as t h e A n e z e a n d S h a m a r s , a n d m i g h t force the n o m a d i c tribes to settle, t h u s a s s u r i n g t h e safety of the entire B a g h d a d p r o v i n c e . ' 4 9
H o w e v e r , the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t was prevented f r o m s e t t l i n g the Circassians w h e r e v e r it t h o u g h t suitable. The R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t m a d e i t clear t h a t the C i r c a s s i a n s s h o u l d be settled " a t a considerable distance f r o m o u r f r o n tiers a n d i n all cases n o t closer t h a n t h e l i n e E r z i n c a n , Tokat, A m a s y a , and S a m s u n . " T h e Russians i n s i s t e d t h a t the Circassians be established i n Syria a n d i n the i n t e r i o r of Asia M i n o r , w h e r e some 3,000 to 4,000 f a m i l i e s h a d b e e n settled earlier. M e a n w h i l e t h e B r i t i s h , e x p r e s s i n g the v i e w p o i n t of the G r e e k g o v e r n m e n t , o b j e c t e d to t h e p l a n n e d settlement o f 8,000 Circassian f a m i l i e s i n Thessaly; t h e y w i s h e d to p r e s e r v e the l a n d f o r G r e e k i n h a b i t a n t s a n d to avoid "disorder and d e m o r a l i z a t i o n . " 3 0
3 1
A b o u t h a l f o f t h e Caucasian r e f u g e e s , those Circassians a n d A b k h a z i a n s w h o a r r i v e d i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1863 to 1865, w e r e settled first i n n o r t h e r n a n d central D o b r u c a a r o u n d Tulça, Babadağ, a n d Boğazköy (Çernavoda), and Kostenje a n d t h e n i n the s o u t h a r o u n d V a r n a a n d a l o n g the D a n u b e i n R u s ç u k (Russe), N i c o p o l i s , V i d i n , Silistre, Ş u m u ( K o l a r o v g r a d ) , a n d as far w e s t as the area a r o u n d Niş a n d Sofia (some 12,000 families w e r e settled i n t h e last area alone). Others were settled i n Macedonia and Thrace a r o u n d Salonica, Serez, a n d L a r i s s a . I n A s i a , t h e m i g r a n t s 32
number of refugees at a particular place; in 1879 it stated that there were 80,000 i n Istanbul alone. 49. FM (Id) 175; the report is signed Fuat A m i n . 50. FM (Id) 175, 7 May 1874. 51. FM (Id) 176, 16 February 1874. 52. FM (Id) 177, 367 17, 27 June 1867; for a detailed account of the settlement of the Circassians, see Marc Pinson, " O t t o m a n Col onization of the Circassians in Rumili after the Crimean War," Etudes balkaniques, no. 3 (1972): 71-85; see also my "The Status of Mulsims under European Rule: The Eviction of the Circassians from the Caucasus and Their Settlement in Syria," journal of Mus lim Minorities 2 (1980).
70
O T T O M A N POPULATION, 1830-1914
71
POPULATION M O V E M E N T S I N T H E O T T O M A N STATE
w e r e settled i n the p r o v i n c e s of Dıyarbekir, M a r d i n , A l e p po, a n d D a m a s c u s a n d , i n Asia M i n o r p r o p e r , i n E r z u r u m , Sivas, Ç o r u m , Çankiri, A d a p a z a r i , Bursa, a n d E s k i ş e h i r . A n u m b e r of Circassians w e n t d i r e c t l v to Palestinian p o r t s . T h e Russian c o n s u l t o o k n o t e of 365 Circassians that i n 1883 a r r i v e d o n a n O t t o m a n boat at Jaffa a n d agreed that they c o u l d be settled a l o n g t h e J o r d a n r i v e r , b u t n o t o n sites likely to be v i s i t e d by p i l g r i m s to the H o l v P l a c e s . 33
w e s t e r n M a c e d o n i a . G r o u p s of M u s l i m T u r k s a n d Greeks p e a k i n g M u s l i m s w e r e f o u n d also i n E p i r a n d Thessaly and o n Crete a n d the D u o d e c a n e s e Islands, w h e r e t h e y w e r e g e n e r a l l y , b u t n o t a l w a y s , i n the m i n o r i t y .
T h e M i g r a t i o n o f the B a l k a n M u s l i m s
A c c o r d i n g to the O t t o m a n census of 1831, the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n of R u m i l i ( i n c l u d i n g Silistre) n u m b e r e d 549,228, or 37.5 percent of the t o t a l , a n d the C h r i s t i a n s , 867,844 or 59.3 percent; there w a s also a s m a l l percentage of o t h e r g r o u p s . H o w e v e r , the f i g u r e s a r r i v e d at b y t h i s census w e r e incomplete and conservative. A m i Boué and David Urq u h a r t , the b e s t - i n f o r m e d observers of t h i s early p e r i o d , estimated the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n of R u m i l i to be a b o u t 4.5 m i l l i o n o u t of a total of a b o u t 15 m i l l i o n ; t h e i r totals i n cluded Wallachia a n d M o l d a v i a , w h i c h had about 2 million i n h a b i t a n t s b u t a l m o s t n o M u s l i m s . T h e O t t o m a n census of 1844 gives the p e r c e n t a g e of M u s l i m s i n R u m i l i as 29.4, their n u m b e r as a b o u t 4.5 m i l l i o n — a g a i n , a n u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n ; of this p o p u l a t i o n , o n l y a b o u t 1.6 m i l l i o n w e r e esti m a t e d to be e t h n i c T u r k s , t h e rest b e i n g A l b a n i a n s a n d Slavs. P o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s i s s u e d f r o m 1864 to 1877 s h o w e d the p o p u l a t i o n of R u m i l i as v a r y i n g b e t w e e n 8.4 a n d 10.5 m i l l i o n , e x c l u d i n g M o l d a v i a , W a l l a c h i a , Serbia, a n d M o n t e n e g r o , w h i c h c o n t a i n e d a b o u t 6 m i l l i o n p e o p l e . The per centage of M u s l i m s g i v e n f o r t h i s later p e r i o d varies accord i n g to the sources: f i v e sources i n d i c a t e t h a t M u s l i m s c o n s t i t u t e d 30 percent of t h e p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e f i f t e e n sources give 43 percent; g e n e r a l l y the h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e is s u p p o r t e d b y the m o r e reliable observers. T h e T u r k s w e r e said to be a b o u t 18 to 20 p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n in Europe."
T h e e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t o t a l n u m b e r of M u s l i m s i n h a b i t i n g t h e R u m i l i (or R u m e l i a — t h a t is, t h e E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s o f the O t t o m a n state, e x c l u d i n g t h e capital) i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y has b e e n the subject of considerable debate. A s p o i n t e d o u t , the E u r o p e a n sources v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y o n the q u e s t i o n of the n u m b e r o f M u s l i m s versus n o n - M u s l i m s . T h e r e is less d i s a g r e e m e n t as to the e t h n i c o r i g i n of the M u s l i m s , w h o o f t e n w e r e all l a b e l e d " T u r k s . " The b u l k of the M u s l i m s i n D o b r u c a , i n the eastern, c e n t r a l , and s o u t h e r n p a r t of p r e s e n t - d a y B u l g a r i a , a n d i n Thrace a n d M a c e d o n i a w e r e , i n fact, e t h n i c T u r k s . T h e B u l g a r i a n a n d B o s n i a n M u s l i m s , k n o w n as the P o m a k s a n d B o ş n a k s , respectively, spoke Slavic a n d i n h a b i t e d the R h o d o p e M o u n t a i n s a n d Bosnia a n d H e r z e g o v i n a . T h e A l b a n i a n M u s l i m s w e r e settled o n ancestral l a n d s i n A l b a n i a a n d
T h e percentage of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n i n the R u m i l i increased s u b s t a n t i a l l y after 1860. T h e r e is n o q u e s t i o n b u t that t h i s increase r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e i m m i g r a t i o n of the Tatars a n d Circassians. T h e i m m i g r a t i o n n o t o n l y m a d e u p for the h e a v y losses s u f f e r e d i n the v a r i o u s w a r s f o u g h t since 1812 b u t also increased the p r o p o r t i o n of M u s l i m s i n the area. H o w e v e r , after t h e San Stefano a n d B e r l i n treaties of 1878 there w a s a g e n e r a l decrease i n the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n because of the t e r r i t o r i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l changes t h a t e n d ed O t t o m a n r u l e o v e r large areas of E u r o p e . Tables 4.2, 4.3, a n d 4.4, w h i c h are based o n the calculations of E n g i n A k a r l i a n d o n the analysis of statistical data f r o m E u r o p e a n w o r k s a n d O t t o m a n y e a r b o o k s , g i v e a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of the e t h n o - r e l i g i o u s d e m o g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f the O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( w i t h a l l o w a n c e m a d e for loss of t e r r i t o r y i n E u r o p e ) .
34
T h e O t t o m a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y A r c h i v e s c o n t a i n a series of o t h e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g the m i g r a t i o n of M u s lims f r o m Russia, f o r i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1895 to 1908 large g r o u p s of Circassians w e r e g i v e n p e r m i s s i o n b y Russia to leave: i n 1895, f o r e x a m p l e , 1,000 families f r o m the K u b a n area, f r o m the villages of V o l n y , K o n a k a s i , K o u r g o k a u , U r u p , a n d K a r a m u r s i n e , l a n d e d i n I z m i t a n d w e r e sent b v t r a i n to A n k a r a ; i n 1899 three g r o u p s f r o m T a m a r a a n d Ufa, c o m p o s e d of 395,353, a n d 790 f a m i l i e s , respectively, ap p l i e d f o r p e r m i s s i o n a n d w e n t to Rostov to e m b a r k o n ships for T u r k e y ; i n 1906 s o m e 233 f a m i l i e s b e l o n g i n g to the K u b a r t i tribe of U y u m a n d 372 families f r o m K u p a n s k i e m i g r a t e d a n d settled i n A d a n a p r o v i n c e ; a n d i n 1909 families f r o m the villages of C i v c i v l i a n d V a g o r i i n the g o v e r n o r s h i p of E l i s a b e t h p o l , 135 i n a l l , w e r e also settled i n A d a n a . 5 5
I n s u m , the estimate t h a t at least h a l f a m i l l i o n people w e r e i n v o l v e d i n the C a u c a s i a n i m m i g r a t i o n of 1881-1914 is a h i g h l y reasonable o n e .
3 6
53. See reports of the Migration Commissions; see also Mikhov, Naseleniento na Turtsii, vols. 1-4, passim. 54. FM (Id) 176, 18 October 1883. 55. F M (Id) 268, 13282/81, 66695/181, and 1830/090. 56. For background information concerning Turkish settlement in Rumili, see Tayyib Gökbilgin, Rumeli'de Yörükler, Tatarlar ve Evlad-i Fatihan (istanbul, 1957); Cengiz Orhonlu, Osmanlı İmparator luğunda Aşiretleri İskan Teşebgüsü (istanbul, 1963); and Ö. L. Barkan, "Osmanli imparatorluğunda Bir Iskan ve Kolonizasyon Metodu Olarak Sürgünler," İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Mecmuası 13 (1951-1952) and 15 (1952-1954).
The Russians' w a r s w i t h the O t t o m a n s a n d the treaties that f o r m a l i z e d the d i s m e m b e r m e n t of the e m p i r e w e r e the c u l m i n a t i o n of a n eastern t y p e of n a t i o n a l i s t d e v e l o p m e n t that h a d been n u r t u r e d b y s o c i o - c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s p e c u l iar to the O t t o m a n state. T h e O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s ' d r i v e t o w a r d n a t i o n a l i s m w a s f e d e m o t i o n a l l y b y Russia's mes57. See Engin Akarli, " O t t o m a n Population i n Europe in the 19th Century; Its Territorial, Racial, and Religious Composition" (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1970), esp. pp. 39 and 79-83. It should be kept in mind that Akarli's figures are taken almost exclusively from western sources.
sianic appeal to t h e i r sense of r e l i g i o u s i d e n t i t y a n d solidar ity and i n t e l l e c t u a l l y b y w e s t e r n ideas of the E n l i g h t e n m e n t and, later, of l i b e r a l i s m . The p r i m i t i v e capitalist s y s t e m i n iroduced i n t o t h e O t t o m a n state t h r o u g h the i n t e r m e d i a r y of the n o n - M u s l i m m i d d l e classes p r o v i d e d the e c o n o m i c basis of t h e i r n a t i o n a l i s m ; m o r e o v e r , Russia, E n g l a n d , France, a n d A u s t r i a forced t h e Porte to a d o p t e c o n o m i c a n d political measures t h a t s e r v e d , as w e l l as t h e i r o w n i n terests, the interests of the O t t o m a n C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n . The i d e o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t of t h i s a m a l g a m of h i s t o r i c a l a n d m o d e r n forces o p e r a t i n g a m o n g e t h n i c g r o u p s w h i c h d i d not yet possess a n a d v a n c e d l i n g u i s t i c h o m o g e n e i t y , a national consciousness, or a w e l l - d e f i n e d t e r r i t o r i a l base was f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m the n a t i o n a l i s m t h a t be came the f o u n d a t i o n of s t a t e h o o d i n w e s t e r n E u r o p e . Bal kan n a t i o n a l i s m w a s based o n e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p c o n sciousness n u r t u r e d b y t h e idea of an O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n revival a n d a s u b s e q u e n t u p r i s i n g against the Islamic o r d e r represented b y t h e T u r k s . T h e i d e o l o g i c a l gap b e t w e e n M u s l i m and O r t h o d o x Christian groups was deepened by economic, social, a n d e d u c a t i o n a l differences. T h e C h r i s tians, l e d b y a p r o s p e r o u s m e r c h a n t class, c r a f t s m e n , a n d rural leaders, a n d b y a r a d i c a l i z e d n a t i o n a l i s t i n t e l l i g e n t s i a , c o n f r o n t e d a p o l i t i c a l l y d o m i n a n t M u s l i m elite, c o m p o s e d of b u r e a u c r a t s , l a n d o w n e r s , a n d clergy, a n d a r e l a t i v e l y poor a n d u n e d u c a t e d p e a s a n t r y . T h e m o r e a d v a n c e d of the C h r i s t i a n elites l o o k e d w i t h e n v y to a d e v e l o p e d w e s t e r n Europe a n d b l a m e d the M u s l i m s ( T u r k s ) a n d t h e i r sociocultural s y s t e m f o r B a l k a n u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e m e r e thought that the O r t h o d o x Christians h a d been r u l e d for centuries b y t h i s " p r i m i t i v e A s i a t i c n a t i o n " increased the nationalists' f u r y . E v e n t u a l l y t h e y came to r e g a r d a n y M u s l i m presence i n the t e r r i t o r y as a n obstacle to n a t i o n a l f u l l f i l ment. B e h i n d t h e a n t i - M u s l i m f e r v o r of the B a l k a n n a t i o n a l i s t s there w e r e , of course, s o m e d e f i n i t e practical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e M u s l i m s c o n s t i t u t e d e i t h e r the m a j o r i t y or a p o w e r f u l m i n o r i t y i n m o s t of t h e l a n d s envisaged as n a t i o n al t e r r i t o r y b y t h e v a r i o u s C h r i s t i a n n a t i o n a l i s t s . M o r e o v e r , a s u b s t a n t i a í p a r t of the c u l t i v a b l e l a n d s w a s i n the h a n d s of the M u s l i m l a n d l o r d s or w a s h e l d b y the vakifs. It w a s clear that t h e s u c c e s s f u l e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n a t i o n a l states de p e n d e d o n t h e l i q u i d a t i o n of t h e M u s l i m e l e m e n t or, at least, o n the r e d u c t i o n of the M u s l i m s to the status of a p o l i t i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y h a r m l e s s m i n o r i t y . T h e first step i n the e f f o r t to achieve t h i s goal w a s the p r e v i o u s l y discussed p r e s e n t a t i o n of the false p o p u l a t i o n statistics at the I s t a n b u l c o n f e r e n c e i n 1876. The w a r o f 1877-1878 p r o v i d e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y for a complete s o l u t i o n to the e t h n o - r e l i g i o u s p r o b l e m . T h e Rus sian armies t h a t crossed the D a n u b e a n d m o v e d f r o m Rus çuk (Russe) s o u t h e a s t w a r d across the Balkans i n t o eastern Rumelia m o u n t e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e attacks against the c i v i l i a n M u s l i m , c h i e f l y T u r k i s h , p o p u l a t i o n w i t h the i n t e n t i o n of d r i v i n g t h e m a w a y f r o m the t e r r i t o r y that w a s to b e c o m e Bulgaria. T h e Serbians d i d l i k e w i s e i n n o r t h e r n M a c e d o n i a a r o u n d the t o w n of Niş. T h e fate of the M u s l i m s i n the Balkans is a t o p i c i g n o r e d by m o s t scholars, a l t h o u g h t h e y c o n d e m n i n the harshest possible terms M u s l i m or T u r k i s h
excesses."" The B r i t i s h consuls s t a t i o n e d i n R u s ç u k , P h i l i p p o p o l i s , V a r n a , Burgas, a n d other localities w e r e f u l l y aware of the i l l - t r e a t m e n t accorded M u s l i m c i v i l i a n s , a n d they sent t h e i r r e p o r t s to the embassy i n I s t a n b u l , w h i c h i n t u r n t r a n s m i t t e d t h e m to L o n d o n . These r e p o r t s of the B r i t ish c o n s u l a r agents s h o w the reasons f o r , as w e l l as t h e m a n n e r of, the Russian a n d the B u l g a r i a n recasting of the e t h n o - d e m o g r a p h i c s t r u c t u r e of R u m i l i . T h e B r i t i s h a m b a s s a d o r i n I s t a n b u l r e p o r t e d t h a t the idea of the e x p u l s i o n of all the M u s l i m s f r o m t h e B u l g a r i a n p r i n c i p a l i t y , o r i g i n a l l y p u t f o r t h b y t h e Russian p l e n i p o t e n t i a r y d u r i n g the a r m i s t i c e talks i n E d i r n e early i n 1878 b u t osten s i b l y w i t h d r a w n u n d e r w e s t e r n p r e s s u r e , c o n t i n u e d to p r e o c c u p y t h e Russians: [Before] l o n g the w h o l e M o h a m m e d a n p o p u l a t i o n w i l l , by direct or i n d i r e c t m e a n s b y d r i v e n o u t of i t . . . . T h e object i n v i e w has been the a g g r a n d i s e m e n t of the Slav race, a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n of a Slave [sic] State, w h i c h , e n d o w e d w i t h Russian i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d p l a c e d u n d e r Russian s u p e r v i s i o n , is to be a b s o l u t e l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n Russia, i f it does n o t s p e e d i l y b e c o m e v i r t u a l l y a Russian P r o v i n c e . T h e Slav c o m m u n i t i e s n o w u n d e r the d o m i n i o n of A u s t r i a , t o g e t h e r w i t h Bosnia a n d Servia, w i l l p r o b a b l y be absorbed u l t i m a t e l y i n t o t h i s vast Slav n a t i o n a l i t y , a n d t h e Russian E m p i r e m a y t h e n i n c l u d e the w h o l e of Eastern E u r o p e . . . . L e a v i n g o u t o f v i e w the i n j u s t i c e of p l a c i n g large a n d i m p o r t a n t M u s s u l m a n a n d G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n s u n d e r t h e r u l e of the B u l g a r i a n s , I m a y be p e r m i t t e d to p o i n t o u t its i m p o l i c y . I t is n o t p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e T u r k s w i l l ever a t t e m p t , w i t h any p r o s p e c t of success, to r e s u m e t h e i r o l d d o m i n i o n i n R o u m e l i a . But the Greeks are n o t l i k e l y to r e n o u n c e the h e r e d i t a r y claims t h a t t h e y are c o n v i n c e d t h e y possess to M a c e d o n i a . . . . T h e Russian a n d B u l g a r i a n a u t h o r i t i e s a n d agents are accused, b o t h b y T u r k s a n d Greeks, of b r i n g i n g , i n m a n y i n s t a n c e s , a f e w B u l g a r i a n s to t o w n s a n d villages i n w h i c h there w e r e p r e v i o u s l y n o n e , g i v i n g t h e m m u n i c i p a l offices, a n d t h e n d e c l a r i n g the place to be B u l g a r i a n , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y to be i n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e n e w Principality. :
58. The centennial of the Ottoman-Russian War and of the Ber lin Congress of 1878, celebrated w i t h considerable pomp i n the West and i n southeastern Europe, was used as a convenient podium by official representatives (and by scholars as well) of the Balkan countries to denounce the "Turkish atrocities," making no mention meanwhile of the hundreds of thousands of Muslims killed or forced to flee their ancestral homes. Several "experts" on Balkan history, when confronted w i t h the evidence of this treat ment of the Muslims, expressed utter surprise. Yet considerable i n f o r m a t i o n on these events is available i n the H C A P for 1877-1885, especially in the British consular reports, and in Turkish archives. See my "The Social and Political Foundations of National ism in South East Europe after 1878: A Reinterpretation," in Dor Berliner Kongress von 1S7S, ed. Ralph Melville and Hans-Jurgen Schroder (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1982), pp. 385-410; and see also Bilal Şimşir, Rumeli 'den Göçler, Belgeler, Vol. 2, Bir Geçiş Y,lı 1S79 (Ankara, 1970). pp. 254-55, and Vedat Eldem, Osmanlı İmptnatorluğumın İktisadı Şartları Hakkında Bir Tetkik (Ankara, 1970).
O T T O M A N POPULATION,
Table 4.2.
1830-1914
Religious S t r u c t u r e of the O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n i n Europe 1820-1900 (in t h o u s a n d s ) 1820s
Religious Group
1340s
Number
Greek Orthodox Bulgarian Catholics Others
6.225 405
Total Christians Jews/Others Total Non-Muslims Muslims GRAND TOTAL
Number 61.0 4.0
9.145 620
18 70s Number
%
59 0 4.0
Table 4.4.
Racial-Ethnie S t r u c t u r e of t h e O t t o m a n P o p u l a t i o n i n E u r o p e , 1820-1900 (in t h o u s a n d s )
189 0s %
Number
5,106 406 30
50.3 4.0 03
3.137
73
POPULATION M O V E M E N T S I N T H E O T T O M A N S T A T E
Source: Compiled from European and Ottoman yearbook statistics and from Engin Akarli, "Ottoman Population in Europe in the 19th Century; its Territorial, Racial, and Religious Composition" (M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1970).
Number
Ethnic Group
Total Slavs
6.630
1890s
1870s
1840s
1820s
%
GRAND TOTAL
'
—
—
Source: See Table 4.2. Table 4.3.
Years 1820s 1840s 1870s 1890s
S u m m a r y of Religious S t r u c t u r e of the O t t o m a n
5 9
Europe
Asia
Total
Total % of Population Muslims
Total % of ' Population Muslims
Total % of Population Muslims
10,200 15,500 10,150 6,337
a n d t r a n q u i l l i t y are r e s t o r e d . I h a v e h e a r d the n u m b e r placed even as h i g h as 200,000! I n a n y case the M u s s u l m a n p o p u l a t i o n w i l l be g r e a t l y r e d u c e d .
32.0 36.1 43.0 47.5
11,100
—
16,500 16,000
80-90 80-90 87.5
21,300
59.6
26,650 22,337
68.0 76.2
Source: See Table 4.2. (Variations in figures are due to losses of territory.)
A c c o r d i n g to the P r e l i m i n a r i e s of Peace, the M u s s u l m a n s m a y c o n t i n u e to reside i n the B u l g a r i a n P r i n c i p a l i t y a n d i n the d i s t r i c t s c e d e d to Servia a n d M o n t e n e g r o . S h o u l d those w h o h a v e e m i g r a t e d n o t r e t u r n , they may retain their lands a n d other immovable p r o p e r t y u p o n c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h are to be f u l f i l l e d w i t h i n t w o years, u p o n p a i n of c o n f i s c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the d e m a n d first p u t f o r w a r d b y C o u n t I g n a t i e w for the e x p u l s i o n of the M a h o m m e d a n p o p u l a t i o n was w i t h d r a w n , y e t there can be little d o u b t that the o r i g i n a l d e s i g n of Russia to r e m o v e the M u s s u l m a n s a l t o g e t h e r f r o m B u l g a r i a w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t by indirect, if not by violent, means. Judging f r o m w h a t t o o k place i n Servia after she was c o n s t i t u t e d a s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t State, n o a r r a n g e m e n t m a d e w i t h M u s s u l m a n s w i l l be r e s p e c t e d . M e a n s w i l l be f o u n d to d r i v e t h e m , i n t h e course o f t i m e , f r o m t h e i r h o m e s , a n d to c o m p e l t h e m to sacrifice the l a n d s a n d p r o p e r t y that m a y h a v e r e m a i n e d to t h e m . A l t h o u g h t h e R u s s i a n a u t h o r i t i e s n o w p r e t e n d that the M u s s u l m a n f u g i t i v e s m a y r e t u r n to t h e i r h o m e s , t h e y refuse to g u a r a n t e e t h e m p r o t e c t i o n against the B u l g a r i a n s , except i n s o m e of the p r i n c i p a l t o w n s . W i t h o u t s u c h p r o t e c t i o n the M u s s u l m a n s w o u l d n o t v e n t u r e to g o back, a n d I a m i n f o r m e d that the Porte w o u l d n o t p e r m i t t h e m to d o so. I t is d i f f i c u l t to say how m a n y of t h e m w i l l have perished f r o m Bulgarian massacres, f r o m e x p o s u r e d u r i n g t h e i r f l i g h t before the i n v a d i n g Russian a r m i e s , a n d f r o m disease, before o r d e r
A m b a s s a d o r L a y a r d also described the m a n n e r i n w h i c h the M u s l i m s w e r e t r e a t e d d u r i n g the i n i t i a l stages of the war: W h e n the Russians crossed the Balkans last s u m m e r a n d , d i s a r m i n g the M u s s u l m a n s w h o m t h e y h a d i n d u c e d to s u b m i t b y p r o m i s e s of justice a n d p r o t e c t i o n , h a d h a n d e d over t h e i r w e a p o n s to the B u l g a r i a n s , a scene of i n d i s c r i m i n a t e s l a u g h t e r a n d d e v a s t a t i o n e n s u e d , such as h a d n o t b e e n k n o w n since the m o s t barbarous times. T h e w h o l e of the c o u n t r y i n v a d e d b y the Russians was l a i d w a s t e , a n d the t o w n s a n d villages sacked a n d d e s t r o y e d ; the f e r t i l e v a l l e y of the T u n d j a , one of the fairest a n d m o s t p r o s p e r o u s r e g i o n s i n E u r o p e , was d e v a s t a t e d ; t h e M a h o m m e d a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f the i n v a d e d d i s t r i c t s , w h o w e r e u n a b l e to save themselves b y f l i g h t , w e r e o u t r a g e d a n d massacred, a n d e v e n the Jews, w h o u n d e r T u r k i s h r u l e h a d e n j o y e d r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m a n d c i v i l e q u a l i t y , s h a r e d the same fate. . . . It has b e e n asserted b y those w h o w o u l d palliate the c o n d u c t o f the Russians, that t h e y t o o k no p a r t i n the " a t r o c i t i e s " c o m m i t t e d b y the Bulgarians, a n d c a n n o t , t h e r e f o r e , be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e m . But s u c h is n o t the case, as t h e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s that I have f o r w a r d e d to y o u r L o r d s h i p p r o v e . T h e y w e r e Russian officers w h o e m p l o y e d t h e B u l g a r i a n police at P h i l i p p o p o l i s to c a r r y o f f M u s s u l m a n w o m e n a n d girls to be the v i c t i m s of t h e i r l u s t s . Cossacks h a v e a c c o m p a n i e d a n d assisted B u l g a r i a n s i n the d e s t r u c t i o n o f M u s u l m a n villages, a n d i n the massacre of the f u g i t i v e s f r o m t h e m . T h e R u s s i a n a u t h o r i t i e s have s a n c t i o n e d a n d e n c o u r a g e d the d e s t r u c t i o n of T u r k i s h p r o p e r t y i n all the t o w n s a n d villages t h e y have o c c u p i e d , to the v e r y gates of the c a p i t a l . T h e y have 59. FO 424/68, pp. 272-79 (Layard to Derby, 13 March 1878); see also my "The Social and Economic Transformation of Istanbul in the Nineteenth Century" in Istanbul à la-jonction des cultures balkaniques, méditerranéennes, slaves et orientales aux XVI-XIX siècles (Bucharest, 1977), pp. 395—436.
defiled the m o s q u e s , a n d t u r n e d t h e m to v i l e uses; t h e y have desecrated t h e M u s s u l m a n graves, b r o k e n u p the t o m b s t o n e s , a n d t u r n e d t h e cemeteries i n t o p u b l i c gardens a n d places of a m u s e m e n t , c o m p e l l i n g t h e u n f o r t u n a t e M u s s u l m a n s t h e m s e l v e s to d o the w o r k . M u s l i m s w e r e d r i v e n o u t b y d i r e c t t h r e a t s t o t h e i r life a n d p r o p e r t y , as r e p o r t e d b y t h e B r i t i s h A c t i n g C o n s u l E. C a l vert f r o m E d i r n e . C a l v e r t , i n t e r e s t i n g l y e n o u g h , c a n n o t help c o m p a r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t of t h e T u r k s i n 1878 w i t h t h e events t h a t l e d to t h e T u r k i s h " a t r o c i t i e s " against t h e B u l garian i n s u r g e n t s i n 1876: I , w h o a s s u r e d l y h a v e at n o t i m e b e e n b a c k w a r d i n d e n o u n c i n g T u r k i s h p r o v i n c i a l m i s r u l e , m a y be b e l i e v e d w h e n I state t h a t t h e e v i l state of t h i n g s n o w p r e v a i l i n g is of a n i n c o m p a r a b l y m o r e w i d e s p r e a d , h a r s h , a n d barbarous t y p e t h a n t h a t t o w h i c h it is m a n i f e s t l y i n t e n d e d as a set-off. I speak, o f course, of the n o r m a l T u r k i s h r e g i m e , to w h i c h a l o n e a c o m p a r i s o n can f a i r l y a p p l y . I f t h e h o r r o r s e n a c t e d i n M a y 1876 be i n s i s t e d u p o n , it s h o u l d be r e m e m b e r e d , i n the f i r s t place, t h a t t h e y w e r e t h e r e s u l t of e x a s p e r a t i o n a n d panic e n g e n d e r e d b y r e p o r t s of d a s t a r d l y a n d u n i m a g i n a b l e cruelties p e r p e t r a t e d b y t h e B u l g a r i a n i n s u r g e n t s u p o n i n o f f e n s i v e p e r s o n s , a n d t h e r e a l i t y of w h i c h p e c u l i a r class of cruelties, i n the s u b s e q u e n t instance of t h e t r a g e d y i n t h e Balkans a b o v e M u f l i s , i n the K y z a n l i k district, h a v e b e e n attested b y several E n g l i s h d o c t o r s w h o e x a m i n e d t h e b o d i e s o f the v i c t i m s . A g a i n , the atrocities c o m m i t t e d o n t h e M u s s u l m a n i n h a b i t a n t s of the same d i s t r i c t of K y z a n l i k , w h o , so far f r o m h a v i n g o f f e r e d a n y p r o v o c a t i o n , h a d s t o o d b y t h e Bulgarians a n d p r e s e r v e d t h e m f r o m m o l e s t a t i o n d u r i n g the f i r s t troubles; a n d the deliberate a n d p a r t i a l l y successful a t t e m p t to e x t e r m i n a t e t h e a d u l t male T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n of t h a t d i s t r i c t b y w h o l e s a l e a n d c o l d - b l o o d e d e x e c u t i o n s , m u s t be h e l d as, at least, a c o u n t e r b a l a n c e to the massacres of B u l g a r i a n s i n t h e T a t a r - B a z a r d j i k d i s t r i c t , w h e r e there w a s a d m i t t e d l y provocation. I n the N o r t h B a l k a n d i s t r i c t s , to m y o w n k n o w l e d g e , 60. FO 424 72, p. 27 (Layard to Salisbury, 24 June 1878).
and, I h a v e been t o l d , i n those s o u t h of t h e B a l k a n s also, a n d a g a i n at the present t i m e i n the R h o d o p e , as lately r e p o r t e d b y m e , the excesses c o m m i t t e d b y M u s s u l m a n s h a v e b e e n l i m i t e d to o f f e n d i n g C h r i s t i a n villages. The C h r i s t i a n s u n d e r R u s s o - B u l g a r i a n r u l e , o n the o t h e r h a n d , v e n t t h e i r h a t r e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y o n the w h o l e M u s s u l m a n p o p u l a t i o n , w i t h t h e a v o w e d object of b r i n g i n g a b o u t its e x p u l s i o n f r o m the c o u n t r y . L e a v i n g aside, h o w e v e r , as r e g a r d s t h e T u r k s , exceptional events a r i s i n g f r o m e x c e p t i o n a l causes, a n d t a k i n g the o r d i n a r y state of t h e c o u n t r y as a basis of c o m p a r i s o n , I m a y say that w h e r e instances of r o b b e r y a n d assassination of i n d i v i d u a l C h r i s t i a n s o c c u r r e d u n d e r T u r k i s h r u l e , w h o l e M u s s u l m a n villages are n o w liable to that t r e a t m e n t ; a n d w h e r e a s t h e T u r k i s h a u t h o r i t i e s h a d at least the grace to profess a d e s i r e to a f f o r d redress, Russian r u l e i n T u r k e y does n o t m a k e even that concession to p u b l i c o p i n i o n . Instances of outrages b y T u r k s o n C h r i s t i a n females w e r e i n o r d i n a r y t i m e s of far less f r e q u e n t occurrence t h a n appears to be c o m m o n l y b e l i e v e d at h o m e . W'hen a single case of the sort h a p p e n e d it w o u l d set a w h o l e p r o v i n c e i n c o m m o t i o n . Since t h e R u s s i a n o c c u p a t i o n , it is h a r d l y too m u c h to say t h a t t h e B u l g a r i a n s i n the r u r a l districts' outrage at t h e i r w i l l T u r k i s h w o m e n a n d girls b y the score. The m a t e r i a l w e l l - b e i n g of t h e , B u l g a r i a n peasant u n d e r T u r k i s h r u l e has b e c o m e a n a d m i t t e d fact, a n d the n a t i o n a l as w e l l as i n d i v i d u a l s p i r i t of h o s p i t a l i t y of the T u r k is p r o v e r b i a l . N o w that the B u l g a r i a n s have t h e u p p e r h a n d , t h e i r chief a i m a n d e n d ( a n d i n t h i s , I regret to say, t h e y are j o i n e d b y n o s m a l l p a r t of the G r e e k r u r a l ' p o p u l a t i o n ) is u t t e r l y to r u i n the T u r k a n d to eject h i m f r o m his h o m e i n E u r o p e . By d e p r i v i n g t h e M u s s u l m a n p e a s a n t r y of t h e i r o n l y m e a n s of i n d e p e n d e n t subsistence, n a m e l y , t h e i r l i v e stock, a n d b y s t r i p p i n g t h e m of all t h e i r m o n e y a n d p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y , it is e v i d e n t l y i n t e n d e d to force t h e m to dispose of or to a b a n d o n t h e i r useless f i e l d s , a n d to reduce those T u r k s w h o m a y r e m a i n i n the c o u n t r y t o the c o n d i t i o n of f i e l d - l a b o u r e r s , a state o f life h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n to all b u t a s m a l l f r a c t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n . 61. FO 424 74, p. 329 (Calvert to Layard, 16 September 1878). 6 1
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
74
R. Reade, one o i the B r i t i s h c o n s u l a r aides s t a t i o n e d i n the Balkans, r e p o r t e d t h a t s i m i l a r occurrences t o o k place i n Varna, a p o r t city i n eastern B u l g a r i a , e v e n after the f o r m a l s i g n i n g of the T r e a t y of B e r l i n i n July 1878. F r o m the f o r e g o i n g as w e l l as o t h e r c o n d u c t of the Russians a n d Bulgars it appears to be v e r y e v i d e n t that their real object is to r i d the c o u n t r y of all M u s s e l m a n s , and so clear is this t h a t w h i l s t I was l e a v i n g R u s t c h u c k a f e l l o w traveller of m i n e w a s c o n f i d e n t i a l l y i n f o r m e d i n a w h i s p e r b y the Russian C o l o n e l i n charge of the s t a t i o n that all the t r o o p s h a d j u s t received o r d e r s to be o n the " q u i v i v e " the G e n e r a l h a v i n g reason to suspect a r i s i n g of the M u s s e l m a n s against the R u s s i a n s — n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e y w e l l k n e w t h a t there is n o t a s i n g l e a r m e d M u s s e l m a n i n t h e i r p a r t of the p r o v i n c e . T h i s w a s t o l d to m y f e l l o w traveller b u t as he s a i d , i t w a s i n t e n d e d for m e — i t w a s also to serve as an excuse f o r the d i s a r m i n g of the M u s s l e m a n s . It is also v e r y clear t h a t the Russians a n d Bulgars are d o i n g t h e i r u t m o s t o n t h i s subject a n d w i t h t h e greatest speed possible b e f o r e the a r r i v a l here of t h e C o m m i t t e e , subject of article 6 of t h e B e r l i n T r e a t y , f e a r i n g n o d o u b t and i t is to be h o p e d w i t h reason, t h a t t h i s C o m m i s s i o n w i l l p u t a s t o p to t h e i r p r e s e n t o u t r a g e o u s c o n d u c t t o w a r d s the M u s s e l m a n s . 6 2
That the treatment inflicted u p o n M u s l i m s was general and t h a t the l a n d p r o b l e m p l a y e d a m a j o r role i n the rela tions b e t w e e n M u s l i m s a n d n o n - M u s l i m s are s h o w n b y the r e p o r t of C o n s u l G . F. G o u l d . I n the r e p o r t he a t t r i b u t e d the mass e x o d u s of the M u s l i m s f r o m Niş ( t h e i r n u m b e r fell f r o m 8,300 i n 1876 to 300 i n 1879) to e m i g r a t i o n p r o v o k e d b y official m i s c o n d u c t — i n c l u d i n g a r b i t r a r y arrests, f l o g g i n g s , and r o b b e r i e s — o n the p a r t of local a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ; b y the d e s t r u c t i o n of the h o m e s of T u r k i s h residents; a n d b y the m o r e or less v o l u n t a r y d e p a r t u r e of w e a l t h y T u r k s to places of safety across the b o r d e r w h e r e t h e y c o u l d w a i t f o r i m p r o v e m e n t i n the s i t u a t i o n . R e f e r r i n g to h i s talks w i t h spe cial c o m m i s s i o n s l o o k i n g i n t o t h e l a n d p r o b l e m G o u l d wrote:
The n u m b e r of t c h i f l i k s ( m a n o r s ) i n t h i s n e i g h b o u r h o o d w h i c h are i n possession of Servians, and c l a i m e d by T u r k s , m a y be e s t i m a t e d at f r o m S0-10Ü. The relative rights b e t w e e n the o w n e r s a n d the occupiers of the soil v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y . I n s o m e cases the peasants have e n j o y e d r i g h t s e q u a l to those of c o p y h o l d e r s of i n h e r i t a n c e ; i n others t h e i r t e n u r e seems to have b e e n of a p r e c a r i o u s , u n d e f i n e d , a n d most unsatisfactory character. T h e S e r v i a n G o v e r n m e n t i n t e n d s to b r i n g before the S k u p t c h i n a a p r o p o s a l to c o m m u t e the r i g h t s of the T u r k i s h l a n d l o r d s for an a n n u a l rent-charge or f o r a capital s u m pavable w i t h interest b y equal i n s t a l m e n t s e x t e n d i n g o v e r a p e r i o d of f r o m ten to t w e n t y - f i v e years. T h e T u r k s a p p e a r to be favourable to the p r i n c i p l e o f this s c h e m e , t h o u g h the peasants seem to h o p e f o r a s w e e p i n g m e a s u r e m o r e or less c o n f i s c a t i n g i n its n a t u r e . . . . T h e S e r v i a n C o u r t s of l a w m a y be said to be e n t i r e l y closed to T u r k s a n d Jews (except as d e f e n d a n t s ) . M a n y have c o m e to me to c o m p l a i n t h a t they are d r i v e n a w a y f r o m the C o u r t - h o u s e a n d c a n n o t o b t a i n redress f o r w r o n g s against p e r s o n or p r o p e r t y . 6 3
The B a l k a n n a t i o n a l i s m o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y de m a n d e d the e r a d i c a t i o n of e v e r y c u l t u r a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , or economic i n s t i t u t i o n associated w i t h O t t o m a n - M u s l i m r u l e . The m o s q u e s w e r e targets f o r d e s t r u c t i o n , as is e v i d e n t f r o m a series of r e p o r t s b y the B r i t i s h c o n s u l s . A field i n spection of t h i r t y - t h r e e m o s q u e s i n P h i l i p p o p o l i s s h o w e d that o n l y one w a s usable, w h i l e the rest h a d b e e n d e s t r o y e d or t a k e n o v e r f o r h a y storage, a r m s d e p o t s , a n d the like; a n d the same w a s t r u e i n N i ş . 6 4
T h a t the vakifs, w i t h t h e i r l a n d , w e r e subject to e x p r o p r i a t i o n is clearly s h o w n b y the p e t i t i o n a d d r e s s e d to the B r i t i s h embassy b y M a h m u d N e d i m Bey, a caretaker {mütevelli) of a vakif. E v e n m a k i n g a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e p l a i n t i f f ' s selfinterest, the c o m p l a i n t is w o r t h q u o t i n g f o r the i n s i g h t it gives i n t o the h a n d l i n g of vakif p r o p e r t y : N ' e s t - i l pas encore u n e allégation d i a m é t r a l e m e n t o p p o s é e à l'équité et à la justice a i n s i q u ' a u x d i s p o s i t i o n s d u T r a i t e de p r é t e n d r e q u e les terrains de la n a t u r e s u s m e n t i o n é e ne p e u v e n t pas être des F o n d a t i o n s Pieuses? N ' e s t - i l pas é t o n n a n t q u e les terrains situés d a n s la R o u m é l i e - O r i e n t a l e p u i s s e n t être des F o n d a t i o n s Pieuses et q u e ceux q u i s o n t situés dans la Bulgarie ne p u i s s e n t pas l'être? A - t - o n oublié q u ' à l ' é p o q u e o u la B u l g a r i e était encore sous la d o m i n a t i o n d u G o u v e r n e m e n t O t t o m a n , certains terrains d o n t o n p e u t à p e i n e faire le t o u r p e n d a n t d o u z e h e u r e s , et q u i a v a i e n t été affectés c o m m e F o n d a t i o n s Pieuses, a u M o n a s t è r e de K i l a , f u r e n t dotes des m ê m e s p r é r o g a t i v e s q u i é t a i e n t accordées aux F o n d a t i o n s Pieuses e n q u e s t i o n ? N ' e s t - i l pas v r a i q u ' à la m ê m e é p o q u e o n t é t é o c t r o y é s des F i r m a n s c o n s t a t a n t q u e ces terrains d u s u s d i t m o n a s t è r e sont r e c o n n u s c o m m e F o n d a t i o n s Pieuses exceptionnelles? A - t - o n v u à cette é p o q u e , et m ê m e
F r o m w h a t I h a v e h e a r d i n these c o n v e r s a t i o n s , a n d f r o m o t h e r sources, I believe these C o m m i s s i o n s h a v e collected a n e n o r m o u s mass of evidence o n the a g r a r i a n q u e s t i o n ; b u t the e v i d e n c e is a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o n the side of the C h r i s t i a n s , a n d a b o u n d s i n g r a v e i m p u t a t i o n s o n the i n c e p t i o n o f the titles of t h e T u r k i s h l a n d l o r d s , f r a u d , f o r g e r y , a n d force b e i n g freely alleged against t h e m o r t h e i r predecessors i n title. T h e r e is, i n some instances n o d o u b t , s o m e t r u t h i n these allegations; b u t it seems o b v i o u s , t h a t e v i d e n c e so collected f r o m p e r s o n s i n t e r e s t e d , a n d n o t subjected to cross e x a m i n a t i o n , is n o t of a h i g h l y v a l u a b l e character. T h e m e m b e r s of these C o m m i s s i o n s lay great stress o n the fact of the T u r k s h a v i n g b u r n t the t o w n s a n d villages i n the T i m o k V a l l e y i n 1876, a n d seem to r e g a r d those sad e v e n t s as s u f f i c i e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n for c o n f i s c a t i n g T u r k i s h p r o p e r t y . . . . These v i e w s as to c o n f i s c a t i o n are n o t p e c u l i a r to the m e m b e r s o f these C o m m i s s i o n s , b u t are c o m m o n to all S e r v i a n officials w i t h w h o m I have c o m e i n contact.
63. FO 429/90, pp. 114-17 (Gould to Salisbury, 8 September 1879).
62. FO 78/2795, p. 60 (Reade to Layard, 30 July 1878).
64. See FO 424.76, pp. 308-9, enc. 2 and 4 (Mahir to Abro, 7 and 10 November 1978.
75
POPULATION M O V E M E N T S I N THE O T T O M A N STATE
après la c o n s t i t u t i o n de la P r i n c i p a u t é exercer u n e i m m i x t i o n q u e l c o n q u e p a r r a p p o r t à ces terrains? N o n ! on les avait au c o n t r a i r e r e c o n n u s c o m m e F o n d a t i o n s Pieuses, en respectant l'usage a d o p t é a i n s i q u e t o u t ce qui d e v a i t être r e s p e c t é ab antiquo e n ce q u i concernait ces t e r r a i n s . C'est d o n c d a n s le b u t d ' a n é a n t i r les F o n d a t i o n s Pieuses d e s t i n é e s a u x M u s u l m a n s , que les Commissaires Bulgares p r é t e n d e n t , c o n t r a i r e m e n t a u x p r i n c i p e s g é n é r a u x d u d r o i t i n t e r n a t i o n a l q u e les terrains ne p e u v e n t pas être des F o n d a t i o n s P i e u s e s . 65
The c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e e v e n t s of 1877-1878 f o r the e t h n o - d e m o g r a p h i c c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e B a l k a n p e n i n s u l a and the O t t o m a n state w e r e far r e a c h i n g . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 250,000 to 300,000 M u s l i m s , m o s t l y e t h n i c T u r k s , w e r e killed, a n d a b o u t 1.5 m i l l i o n w e r e f o r c e d to take r e f u g e i n the O t t o m a n d o m a i n s . T h e B u l g a r i a n - s p e a k i n g M u s l i m s (Pomaks) l i v i n g i n t h e R h o d o p e M o u n t a i n s , rose against the a d v a n c i n g Russians a n d k e p t t h e m at bay f o r several m o n t h s . T h e i r i n s u r r e c t i o n w a s p u t d o w n , l a r g e l y at the u r g i n g of the s u l t a n , w h o w a n t e d to c o n c l u d e a peace w i t h the Russians. T h e A l b a n i a n s d e c i d e d , i n a m e e t i n g k n o w n as the League of P r i z r i n , t o take u p a r m s a n d f i g h t a n y force w h i c h m i g h t o c c u p y t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . T h e M u s l i m Bos nians a n d H e r z e g o v i n i a n s , a i d e d o n l y p a r t l y b y the local pan-Slavist Serbians, f o u g h t a t h r e e - m o n t h battle against the A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n forces t h a t , i n accordance w i t h a p r o vision of t h e B e r l i n T r e a t y , h a d o c c u p i e d t h e i r c o u n t r y . Soon after these e v e n t s m o s t of t h e P o m a k s , A l b a n i a n s , and B o s n i a n s , f e e l i n g insecure u n d e r t h e n e w r e g i m e s or w a n t i n g to l i v e a m o n g t h e i r o w n c o - r e l i g i o n i s t s , m o v e d to O t t o m a n d o m a i n s . A large n u m b e r of M u s l i m s f r o m n o r t h ern D o b r u c a , w h i c h w a s l e f t to R o m a n i a , d i d t h e same. I n the sancak of Filibe ( P h i l i p p o p o l i s ) , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e n u m b e r of T u r k s d r o p p e d f r o m 300,000 i n 1875 to 15,000 i n 1878. This e x o d u s f r o m B u l g a r i a , R o m a n i a , Greece, Serbia, a n d M o n t e n e g r o c o n t i n u e d a f t e r 1879, a l t h o u g h at a s l o w e r pace. B u l g a r i a n statistics i n d i c a t e t h a t b e t w e e n 1893 a n d 1902—that is, d u r i n g t e n years o f peace—72,524 p e o p l e emigrated f r o m B u l g a r i a , of w h o m 70,603 (35,418 males a n d 35,185 females) w e n t to T u r k e y . 6 6
The e m i g r a t i o n f r o m t h e B a l k a n c o u n t r i e s began to i n crease again i n 1908-1909 a n d r e a c h e d its peak d u r i n g the Balkan W a r of 1913. A t t h i s t i m e M a c e d o n i a a n d T h r a c e , i n h a b i t e d b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.5 m i l l i o n M u s l i m s , w e r e lost to Greece, Serbia, a n d B u l g a r i a . T h e e x o d u s c o n t i n u e d d u r ing the First W o r l d W a r , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a n o f f i c i a l exchange of p o p u l a t i o n b e t w e e n T u r k e y a n d Greece (1924-1926). There w e r e m i g r a t i o n s i n t h e 1930s also, these e n c o u r a g e d by the T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t . F i n a l l y , a large c o n t i n g e n t of 152,000 T u r k s f r o m B u l g a r i a w a s f o r c e d to e m i g r a t e i n 1951-1952.
65. See FO 424/61, p. 47 (Lacelles to Earl Granville, 22 December 18S4). 66. Bulgarian Chief Statistical Office. Statistique de I'emigration de la principaute dans les pays etrangers de 1S93 a 1902 (Sofia, 1906).
Conclusion: The Socio-Economic and Political Impact of M i g r a t i o n The p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t i n the nineteenth century changed the character of t h e O t t o m a n state a n d i n d i r e c t l y p r e p a r e d t h e g r o u n d f o r t h e e m e r g e n c e of a series of n a t i o n a l states, i n c l u d i n g m o d e r n T u r k e y . T h e M u s l i m m i g r a t i o n i n t o the O t t o m a n t e r r i t o r i e s a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t s l o w b u t steady rise of the r a t i o o f M u s l i m s w i t h i n t h e overall O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n h a d a p r o f o u n d i m p a c t u p o n A b d u l h a m i d I I , m a k i n g h i m d e t e r m i n e d to a d o p t a n Islamic p o l i c y . The m o t i v e s f o r a d o p t i o n of t h i s p o l i c y w e r e p r a c t i cal rather t h a n i d e o l o g i c a l . I t w a s o b v i o u s f r o m 1878 o n w a r d s that the g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d cater to the i d e o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l a s p i r a t i o n s of t h e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n , w h i c h had attained an o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y . Islam and the O t t o m a n t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l c u l t u r e became, h e n c e f o r t h , t h e l i n k u n i t i n g t h e l i n g u i s t i c a l l y a n d e t h n i c a l l y heter o g e n e o u s p o p u l a t i o n of T u r k s , C i r c a s s i a n s , B o s n i a n s , P o m a k s , A r a b s , a n d o t h e r s , n o w f o r c e d to l i v e t o g e t h e r , i n t o a n e w f o r m of p o l i t i c a l association. T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w a s b o t h social a n d c u l t u r a l . For ex a m p l e , w h i l e settled t e m p o r a r i l y i n t h e Balkans, t h e Circas sians h a d n o t c h a n g e d t h e i r o l d h a b i t s . S o m e g r o u p s w h o c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s w a r r i o r s b e g a n a t t a c k i n g the v i l lages of t h e B u l g a r i a n s a n d o t h e r established a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s , a n d the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d to use t r o o p s to q u e l l t h e s e r a i d s . H o w e v e r , a f t e r 1878 t h e C i r c a s s i a n s a d a p t e d to the n e w social a n d e c o n o m i c e n v i r o n m e n t i n A n a t o l i a . A l a r g e g r o u p s e t t l e d i n the w o o d e d , m o u n t a i n o u s area b e t w e e n A d a p a z a r i , H e n d e k , a n d B o l u i n w e s t e r n A n a t o l i a , r e s u m e d the t r a d i t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n of cattle r a i s i n g , a n d b e c a m e s u p p l i e r s o f meat a n d d a i r y p r o d u c t s to the n e i g h b o r i n g t o w n s a n d cities. O t h e r s w e r e settled i n , or d r i f t e d i n t o , t o w n s a n d cities a n d , searching for h i g h e r status, u s e d the available e d u c a t i o n a l facilities a n d the m i l i t a r y c h a n n e l s to a c h i e v e g o o d social p o s i t i o n s . The Circassians h a d p r e s e r v e d t h e i r t r i b a l f o r m of o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d l o y a l t y d u r i n g t h e early stages of m i g r a t i o n , but, f o l l o w i n g its t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i c y , the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t t r i e d to l i m i t the a u t h o r i t y of t h e tribal leaders as m u c h as possible b y s e p a r a t i n g t h e m f r o m t h e i r k i n . Ö . L . Barkan has p o i n t e d o u t t h a t as early as the f i f t e e n t h a n d sixteenth centuries the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t p e r s i s t e n t l y t r i e d to p r e v e n t t r i b a l chiefs a n d c o m m u n a l leaders f r o m e s t a b l i s h i n g m a j o r i t y a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e i r g r o u p s . Such leaders w e r e o f t e n f o r c e d , or i n d u c e d t h r o u g h g e n e r o u s pav, to settle a w a y f r o m t h e i r o w n g r o u p s i n o t h e r regions or t o w n s . T h e g o v e r n m e n t p u r s u e d t h i s p o l i c y w i t h e v e n greater v i g o r i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h u s , u p r o o t e d f r o m t h e i r n a t i v e places, d e p r i v e d of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l t r i b a l leaders, a n d f r a g m e n t e d i n t o s m a l l g r o u p s f o r s e t t l e m e n t , the Circassians i n t e g r a t e d t h e m s e l v e s r a p i d l y i n t o the large socio-political u n i t , that is, i n t o a M u s l i m - T u r k i s h n a t i o n f o r m e d u n d e r the O t t o m a n aegis. T h e l i n g u i s t i c differences b e t w e e n Circassians, e t h n i c T u r k s i n A n a t o l i a , a n d o t h e r refugees w h o h a d settled i n A n a t o l i a w e r e s u p e r s e d e d by c o m m o n r e l i g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l ties as all of t h e m w e r e
77 OTTOMAN POPULATION,
76 a m a l g a m a t e d i n t o a single p o l i t i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l e n t i t y . I n 1960, for e x a m p l e , the C i r c a s s i a n - s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n of T u r k e y n u m b e r e d o n l y 147,000. T h e e c o n o m i c a n d social i m p a c t of the m i g r a n t s f r o m C r i m e a was s i g n i f i c a n t also. These p e o p l e spoke a dialect v e r y close to the A n a t o l i a n T u r k i s h a n d h a d w e l l established t r a d i t i o n s of a u t h o r i t y a n d h i e r a r c h y . I n their o r i g i n a l h o m e s the C r i m e a n p o p u l a t i o n was d i v i d e d social ly i n t o a s m a l l g r o u p of nobles a n d larger g r o u p s of traders a n d farmers w h o i n h a b i t e d the fertile area a l o n g the n o r t h eastern shore. T h e Tatars l i v i n g a l o n g the s h o r e , or the yaliboyu, as t h e y called i t , w e r e i n v o l v e d i n trade a n d c u l t i vated f r u i t trees, w h i l e t h e peasants l i v i n g o n the a r i d l a n d s i n the i n t e r i o r a n d o n the s t e p p e n o r t h of the P e r e k o p raised a v a r i e t y of d r y - l a n d c r o p s . T h e K i r j i s , the i n t e r m e diaries w h o b o u g h t w o o l , b u t t e r , h o n e y , a n d o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s i n the i n t e r i o r a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t h e m to K a f f a a n d T a m a n for s h i p m e n t e l s e w h e r e , a n d the s o a p m a k e r s w e r e other m a j o r o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p s i n the d i v e r s i f i e d C r i m e a n society. A t the t i m e of t h e i r m i g r a t i o n some C r i m e a n notables a n d m e r c h a n t s w e r e able to sell t h e i r p r o p e r t y ; t h u s t h e y b r o u g h t w i t h t h e m to A n a t o l i a c o n s i d e r a b l e c a p i t a l , o f t e n i n the f o r m of g o l d , as w e l l as t h e i r t r a d i n g skills. These i m m i grants o c c u p i e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n the s m a l l b u t g r o w i n g class of m e r c h a n t s a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r s w h o e m e r g e d as a n i m p o r t a n t s e g m e n t of a M u s l i m m i d d l e class d u r i n g the second h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . C r i m e a n business m e n established p r o s p e r o u s t r a d i n g e n t e r p r i s e s i n I s t a n b u l , I z m i r , Balikesir, Bursa, A n k a r a , K o n y a , Eskişehir, a n d other areas i n w h i c h t h e y w e r e settled. E v e n t o d a y s o m e of the m a j o r business enterprises i n these t o w n s , especially i n Eskişehir, b e l o n g to the d e s c e n d a n t s of C r i m e a n m i g r a n t s . C r i m e a n s f r o m the p l a i n s settled i n the s t e p p e areas i n central A n a t o l i a a n d became w h e a t c u l t i v a t o r s . I t is general l y recognized t h a t w h e a t c u l t i v a t i o n i n A n a t o l i a — i n the t r i a n g l e b e t w e e n Eskişehir, A n k a r a , a n d K o n y a t h a t is the " w h e a t b a s k e t " of T u r k e y — d e v e l o p e d l a r g e l y after the C r i means settled i n t h a t area. Eskişehir o w e s its rise as a c o m mercial center to the t r a d e g e n e r a t e d b y w h e a t c u l t i v a t i o n . O t h e r C r i m e a n s settled i n the A e g e a n r e g i o n , w h e r e t h e y raised f r u i t , grapes, a n d o t h e r cash c r o p s . T h e e c o n o m i c i m p a c t of the m i g r a n t s f r o m the Balkans was s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t . A m o n g these p e o p l e w e r e l a n d l o r d s , r e t i r e d officials, a n d a v a r i e t y of o t h e r upper-class M u s l i m s . (The M u s l i m s w h o r e m a i n e d i n the Balkans w e r e t h u s d e p r i v e d o f l e a d e r s h i p , a n d t h i s w a s o n e of the reasons for the q u i c k d i s p e r s a l of the T u r k i s h c o m m u n i t i e s left u n d e r f o r e i g n r u l e . ) T h e r i c h M u s l i m s i n the Balkans t r i e d to sell t h e i r l a n d a n d o t h e r p r o p e r t y b e f o r e t h e y e m i g r a t e d , a n d o f t e n d i d so, b u t at v e r y l o w prices; s o m e b r o u g h t the proceeds, s o m e t i m e s i n t h e f o r m o f usable g o o d s , w i t h t h e m to A n a t o l i a . K. J. Jiricek, a n a u t h o r i t y o n Bulgaria, reports that f r o m 1879 to 1883 the t o t a l value of sales of l a n d i n eastern R u m e l i a , m a d e i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h certain i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n Bulgaria a n d the O t t o m a n state, was 108 m i l l i o n kuruş, of w h i c h 72 m i l l i o n came f r o m the sale of l a n d b y T u r k s to B u l g a r i a n s , despite the fact that the sale prices w e r e v e r y l o w . I n Stara Zagora
1830-1914
POPULATION M O V E M E N T S I N THE O T T O M A N STATE
l a n d v a l u e d at 50.5 m i l l i o n kuruş c h a n g e d h a n d s , 40 m i l l i o n kuruş' w o r t h of this b e i n g s o l d b y M u s l i m s . ' T h u s , Balkan refugees w h o b e l o n g e d to the u p p e r classes o f t e n b r o u g h t w i t h t h e m s u f f i c i e n t capital at least to start businesses of their o w n , a n d these became p a r t of the nucleus for the n e w social t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
lated e v e n t u a l l y i n t o special ideologies a n d a d r i v e for sta-
The fate of the r a n k - a n d - f i l e B a l k a n m i g r a n t s was d i f f e r ent f r o m that of those c o m i n g f r o m Circassia a n d C r i m e a . Some w e r e e m p l o y e d as w o r k e r s b y the c o m p a n i e s b u i l d i n g the A n a t o l i a n r a i l r o a d s . O t h e r s w e r e settled, w i t h o u t p r o g r a m or p a t t e r n , i n a v a r i e t y of places i n A.natolia. M u c h of the best l a n d h a d a l r e a d y b e e n d i s t r i b u t e d ; b u t some Balkan m i g r a n t s w e r e f o r t u n a t e e n o u g h to be settled i n fertile areas, such the l a n d s a r o u n d B u r s a , Balikesir, Ban dırma, a n d the A e g e a n coast, a n d t h e y q u i c k l y became p r o s p e r o u s , w h i l e o t h e r s , settled o n the a r i d lands i n cen tral A n a t o l i a a n d the east, w e r e i m p a i r e d b y disease a n d m a l n u t r i t i o n . I n s o m e cases m i g r a n t s i n t r o d u c e d n e w crops such as p o t a t o e s , a n d n e w m e t h o d s of c u l t i v a t i o n as w e l l , a n d this h a d a b e n e f i c i a l effect u p o n the a g r i c u l t u r e of A n a tolia as a w h o l e .
tribes-expressing
6
I t m a y be s a i d t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , t h e m i g r a n t s h e l p e d s t i m u l a t e e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y i n t h e O t t o m a n state. For exam ple, a c c o r d i n g to t w o of t h e best available accounts of the economic h i s t o r y of the O t t o m a n state, p r o d u c t i o n i n general, a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r , rose be t w e e n 1885 a n d 1 9 1 2 . Prices w e r e stable, g o l d reserves increased, a n d i n v e s t m e n t i n t e n s i f i e d . A n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l class e m e r g e d . T h e r e c o r d s o f t h e C h a m b e r of Trade, estab l i s h e d i n 1880 i n I s t a n b u l , s h o w t h a t i n t h a t c i t y , as w e l l as elsewhere i n the c o u n t r y , a g r o u p of T u r k i s h M u s l i m en t r e p r e n e u r s arose a n d g r e w s t e a d i l y i n size a n d p r o s p e r i t y f r o m 1880 to 1890. A n u m b e r of these b u s i n e s s m e n w e r e m i g r a n t s . A s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the u r b a n g r o w t h i n I s t a n b u l ( a n d i n o t h e r cities as w e l l ) w a s d u e d i r e c t l y to the i n f l u x of T u r k i s h m i g r a n t s . T h e r i c h e r ones j o i n e d the u p p e r echelon of the O t t o m a n h i e r a r c h y ( w h i c h h a d b e e n u n t i l t h e n large l y n o n - M u s l i m ) , w h i l e the p o o r e r o n e s — a n d these w e r e the o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y — s w e l l e d the r a n k s of the m a i n l y M u s l i m a n d T u r k i s h u r b a n l o w e r classes. 68
The s o c i o - c u l t u r a l i m p a c t o f t h e m i g r a t i o n was equally important. The migrating groups included m e n from welleducated, rich f a m i l i e s , s o m e o f t h e m d e s c e n d a n t s of the n o b i l i t y w h o h a d f o r c e n t u r i e s o c c u p i e d l e a d e r s h i p posi^ tions i n the E u r o p e a n t e r r i t o r i e s . T h e y b r o u g h t w i t h t h e m n o t o n l y a m o r e a d v a n c e d l e v e l of e d u c a t i o n a n d a sense of n o b i l i t y a n d class, b u t s t r o n g a n t i - R u s s i a n feelings a n d a b u r n i n g desire to r e c a p t u r e t h e i r lost l a n d s . T h i s was trans67. K. J. Jiricek, Cesty po Bulharska [Travels in Bulgaria] (Prague, 1888), cited i n Doreen Warriner, ed., Contrasts in Emerging Societies: Readings in the Social and Economic History of South-Eastern Europe in the Nineteenth Century, select, and trans. G. F. Cushing et al. (Lon don: University of London, Athlone Press, 1965), pp. 244-45. For background, see also John R. Lampe and Marvin R. Jackson, Balkan Economic History, 1550-1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982). 68. See Donald Quataert, "Commercialization of Agriculture in Ottoman Turkey, 1800-1914," International journal of Turkish Studies 1, no. 2 (1980): 38-55; and Eldem, Osmanli imparatorluğunun iktisadi.
= a n d p o s i t i o n i n t h e n e w society.
t u
The O t t o m a n a r c h i v e s c o n t a i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f r o m r i c h a n
d n o b l e M u s l i m f a m i l i e s still i n R u s s i a - t h e czar.st g o v
e r n m e n t w a s s o m e w h a t f r i e n d l y to t h e m because it h o p e d use t h e m to c o n t r o l t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s
t 0
and
a desire to m o v e o u t of Russia a n d settle
i n T u r k e y . I n 1868, f o r e x a m p l e , the f a m i l y of Gazı M e h m e t E f e n d i w h o w a s closely related t o Sheik S h a m i l , a s k e d the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t to facilitate its m i g r a t i o n to T u r k e y . A m o n g i m p o r t a n t f a m i l i e s of t h e Caucasus w h o m i g r a t e d to T u r k e y w e r e t h o s e of S u l u k Bey of t h e K a b a r t a y t r i b e , Tanis Bev L e k a t a o ğ l u ,
Elhaj S h e i k A l i , M o l l a A l , E f e n d i ,
H a j i I s l a m E f e n d i , R u s t e m Bey, E l h o j a Ağa Bey, K a z a k M i r za
Elhaj H e r a v , A b d u l Rezai, M u g h a n H a s a n Bey,
and
mânv others. ( E f e n d i a n d Bey are titles d e n o t i n g h i g h social p o s i t i o n . ) S o m e of these f a m i l i e s e d u c a t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n m i s t a n b u l ; o t h e r s sent t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o M o s c o w ' , Pans
Vienna,
a n d e l s e w h e r e for s c h o o l i n g . M a n y of these w e l l -
educated o f f s p r i n g of m i g r a n t s later o c c u p i e d l e a d i n g p o s i tions i n O t t o m a n u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d m its i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e . _ Husevin A h u n z a d e , Yusuf Akçura, A h m e t A g a o g l u , and m a n y o t h e r s w h o became closely i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the rise of T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l i s m a n d m o d e r n i s m w e r e m i g r a n t s or sons of m i g r a n t s . T h e same can be said of t h e leaders of Y o u n g Turks and the Republicans: M e h m e t M u r a t (Mizancı) whose family was f r o m Daghistan, played a fundamental role i n t h e Y o u n g T u r k m o v e m e n t at the t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y (1895-1910); E n v e r Paşa w a s t h e g r a n d s o n of a m i g r a n t f r o m Russia; the first P r e s i d e n t of T u r k e y , K e m a l A t a t ü r k , wa< b o r n i n Salonica; the m o t h e r of i s m e t i n ö n ü , T u r k e y s
second p r e s i d e n t , was an i m m i g r a n t ; a n d b o t h p a r e n t s of Celal Bavar
the t h i r d p r e s i d e n t , w e r e f r o m B u l g a r i a .
A
detailed s t u d y of the role p l a y e d b y these f a m i l i e s i n the d e v e l o p m e n t of I s l a m i s m a n d t h e n of n a t i o n a l i s m a n d I a n T u r a n i s m , w o u l d be a m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e
under
s t a n d i n g of t h e i d e o l o g i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l c u r r e n t s i n the O t t o m a n state. T h e m i g r a t i o n of t h e e t h n i c T u r k s f r o m the Balkans ga\e the T u r k i s h e l e m e n t , already i n a m a j o r i t y i n A n a t o l i a , the o v e r w h e l m i n g n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y that a l l o w e d it to i m press its o w n l i n g u i s t i c a n d c u l t u r a l m a r k o n o t h e r i n c o m i n g - r o u p s . By the e n d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e re maining O t t o m a n provinces i n Anatolia and i n R u m i l i had an i n t e g r a l , d i s t i n c t l y T u r k i s h character, except for some isolated areas i n the Balkans a n d eastern A n a t o l i a . I n s u m t h e successful i n t e g r a t i o n of m i g r a n t e t h n i c eroups into the O t t o m a n c o m m u n i t y altered f u n d a m e n t a ly the t r a d i t i o n a l social s t r u c t u r e of A n a t o l i a a n d p r e p a r e d the g r o u n d for t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n e w f o r m s of social a n d p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a n a t i o n a l state. T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l process of social a n d p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n su p e r s e d e d all a n c i e n t f o r m s of l o y a l t y a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n and m a d e t h e p o p u l a t i o n r e a d y to a d o p t a n e w p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y T h e process c u l m i n a t e d e v e n t u a l l y i n the e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n 1923 of a n a t i o n a l T u r k i s h state t h a t was n o t o n l y the synthesis of t h e c e n t u r y - l o n g p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t b u t was p o l i t i c a l l y , the m o s t suitable s y s t e m for u n i f y i n g the v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s assembled t h e r e . T h e T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l state w a s b o r n of a n d f u r t h e r fostered the n e w sense of p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y a n d a f f i l i a t i o n based u p o n a com m o n h i s t o r i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e a n d u p o n aspirations for the f u t u r e .
A p p e n d i x C.
Letters
from
Bulgarian Emigrants Petitioning the Sultan
R e t u r n H o m e to O t t o m a n L a n d s f r o m
Russian
to A l l o w T h e m
to A p p e n d i x C. Letters f r o m B u l g a r i a n E m i g r a n t s
Territories
(continued)
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A p p e n d i x C. Letters f r o m B u l g a r i a n E m i g r a n t s (continued) appendix C. Letters f r o m B u l g a r i a n E m i g r a n t s (continued)
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Source: FM (Id) 177. Note: This letter in French is a translation: the translator is not known, but presumably it was someone in the Ottoman foreign ministry. 80 81
Appendix C . Letters from Bulgarian Emigrants (continued)
Appendix C . Letters from Bulgarian Emigrants (continued) , Jf
n
fJ (iiv
PlMliif>f\Wf/>< r,t> PuAit'ti frnrifi
(V
Aftrj(mi)/iHI*M
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61
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y U^iryty^
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(
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Wi
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f^hJ/iWAU
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WCttfMm
y
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Appendix C . Letters from Bulgarian Emigrants (continued) Appendix C . Letters from Bulgarian Emigrants (continued) 'Imo ir KrHcyA'h
HcuiiiA
rAypJKAAC
yyn
y[Hftm<\ e»x*
ret
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T H E P O P U L A T I O N A N D T H E S O C I A L A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N OF I S T A N B U L
5
THE POPULATION AND THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION OF ISTANBUL: THE OTTOMAN
Introduction D u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y thé c i t y of I s t a n b u l u n d e r went a transformation. This transformation stimulated f u r t h e r change i n the i n t e r i o r of the c o u n t r y , a n d t h e n the city i n t u r n was subjected to a v a r i e t y o f n e w pressures f r o m the i n t e r i o r . I s t a n b u l w a s the m i c r o - m o d e l of the de m o g r a p h i c , social, a n d e c o n o m i c change i n the e n t i r e c o u n t r y . L i k e the O t t o m a n state as a w h o l e , it received a f l o o d of n e w i m m i g r a n t s ; a n d i t , t o o , fell u n d e r the g r o w i n g i n fluence of t h e c a p i t a l i s m a n d the l i b e r a l p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t of E u r o p e , e v e n b e g i n n i n g to a d o p t E u r o p e a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l styles a n d p a t t e r n s of u r b a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n the course of a l t e r i n g itself u n d e r the i m p a c t of these o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s . T h e process w a s a l l the m o r e r a p i d a n d c o m p l e t e because I s t a n b u l w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y sensitive to o u t side s t i m u l i . T h e c o u n t r y s i d e , p r o t e c t e d b y distance a n d l i m i t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , c o n t i n u e d i n its t r a d i t i o n a l m o l d . T h e d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n c i t y a n d c o u n t r y was m a n i f e s t e d w i t h i n the city of I s t a n b u l itself i n its " o l d " a n d " m o d e r n " sections: Pera ( B e y o g l u ) a n d Galata, t w o m o d e r n d i s t r i c t s o n the n o r t h e r n shore of the G o l d e n H o r n j u s t o p p o s i t e the part of the o l d city i n h a b i t e d b y E u r o p e a n s , g r e w a n d be came a k i n d of c o l o n i a l replica of E u r o p e a n cities, w h i l e the old city stagnated a n d decayed. T h e p h y s i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of I s t a n b u l was a c c o m p a n i e d b y a c u l t u r a l c h a n g e of c r u c i a l i m p o r tance. O t t o m a n a n d n o n - O t t o m a n observers seem to agree that b e t w e e n 1844 a n d 1880 m o r e t h a n 50 percent of the city's p o p u l a t i o n w a s n o n - M u s l i m . H o w e v e r , b y 1885 the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n h a d r i s e n to over 54 percent, a n d i n 1900 it reached a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 percent, despite the fact that the gross n u m b e r of n o n - M u s l i m s h a d also increased. T h u s , b y the e n d of the c e n t u r y the c o l o n i z a t i o n process w a s reversed, a n d I s t a n b u l h a d become once m o r e Islamic a n d T u r k i s h i n character, j u s t as it h a d been f r o m the f i f t e e n t h t h r o u g h the e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The changes i n the socio-ethnic a n d c u l t u r a l c o m p o s i t i o n A shorter version of this chapter appeared in Association Interna tionale d'Etudes du Sud-Est Européen Bulletin 12, no. 2 (1974). 86
MICROCOSM
of I s t a n b u l i n the s e c o n d h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h century w e r e the direct c o n s e q u e n c e of the increased trade and e x p a n d e d economic o p p o r t u n i t y that f o l l o w e d the C r i m e a n W a r a n d the R u s s o - O t t o m a n W a r of 1877-1878. T h e influx of capital a n d skills b r o u g h t b y the i m m i g r a n t s f r o m the Caucasus a n d the Balkans t u r n e d the city i n t o a center of e n t e r p r i s e a n d c u l t u r e ; n e w businesses, r u n b y M u s l i m ( a n d n o n - M u s l i m ) e n t r e p r e n e u r s , attracted f r o m the in terior p o o r p e o p l e a n d peasants w h o became a sort of city proletariat. I s t a n b u l came to p l a y a n e w role i n the n i n e t e e n t h cen t u r y , as the center of c o m m u n i c a t i o n s (the press w a s con centrated there), t h e g a t h e r i n g place of e x i l e d provincial elite, a n d the e c o n o m i c heart of a r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g society, as w e l l as the p o l i t i c a l c a p i t a l of the O t t o m a n state. T h e city felt soonest a n d i n greatest degree the effects of the forces u n l e a s h e d b y c a p i t a l i s m a n d the tensions caused b y the rise of n e w social g r o u p s a n d the m i g r a t i o n s t h a t s p u r r e d the d e v e l o p m e n t of e t h n o - n a t i o n a l consciousness a m o n g var ious c o m m u n i t i e s . I t also w a s the first to experience the s e m i - c o l o n i a l , d e p e n d e n t t y p e of c a p i t a l i s m that replaced the o l d , r i g i d , O t t o m a n statist r e g i m e . I n d e e d , I s t a n b u l be came the n e r v e center of the n e w s y s t e m , s e r v i n g as the m a j o r d i s t r i b u t i o n p o i n t f o r i m p o r t e d wares a n d attracting w e a l t h f r o m t h e c o u n t r y s i d e to be s p e n t o n consumer goods. T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a s t r o n g c e n t r a l government based o n a large b u r e a u c r a c y a n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a centralized b u d g e t s y s t e m h a d the net effect of bringing i n t o the city a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the tax revenues, to pay the salaries of the b u r e a u c r a t s w h o , i n t u r n , o f t e n spenl their m o n e y o n v a r i o u s i m p o r t e d i t e m s .
Istanbul on the E v e of T h e Socio-Economic
Transformation:
Life
T h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y d r e w to a c l o s e a n d the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y b e g a n w i t h o u t m a n i f e s t i n g a n y conspic u o u s s y m p t o m s to suggest t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l life of Istan b u l was d u e for drastic c h a n g e . I n fact, the e x i s t i n g portraits of life i n I s t a n b u l i n t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h centuries
are, except f o r a f e w m i n o r differences, p o r t r a i t s also of the life as it still w a s i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d the early n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e c i t y w a s still c o m p o s e d of three m a i n parts: the chief p a r t w a s t h a t c o n c e n t r a t e d b e t w e e n the defense walls o n the w e s t a n d the shores of the M a r m a r a Sea a n d the G o l d e n H o r n , or Haliç, i n the n o r t h , east, a n d s o u t h east; Galata, t h e o l d Genoese q u a r t e r across the Haliç, a n d Ü s k ü d a r i n A s i a w e r e its t w o o t h e r m a i n sections. A n u m ber of small v i l l a g e s o n either side of the B o s p o r u s a n d the G o l d e n H o r n w e r e also p a r t of t h e c i t y . T h e r e l i g i o u s groups inhabited their traditional quarters, not m i x i n g w i t h each o t h e r i n t h e i r d a i l y lives except i n t h e bazaar, w h e r e all differences s e e m e d to d i s a p p e a r . T h e G r e e k s , w h o e n j o y e d special f a v o r s , w e r e located m a i n l y i n Fener, S a m a t v a , Cibali, a n d i n s o m e of the villages a l o n g t h e B o s p o r u s . T h e A r m e n i a n s l i v e d m o s t l y at K u m k a p i a n d S a m a t v a . T h e Jews i n h a b i t e d Balat, H a s k ö y (these w e r e m o s t l y Karaites), K a s i m p a ş a , a n d a f e w o t h e r places. Galata w a s t h e n h o m e to Greeks, A r m e n i a n s , a f e w E u r o p e a n s , a n d a f e w M u s l i m s . Pera, o r B e y o g l u , w a s the residence of t h e E u r o p e a n ambassadors, b u t it gave little s i g n o f the great i m p o r t a n c e it w a s to a c q u i r e later. T h e o l d c i t y g l i t t e r e d i n t h e s u n i n t h e f u l l majesty o f its n e a r l y 400 m o s q u e s , o v e r 100 churches, h u n d r e d s of l i b r a r i e s , medresses, s q u a r e , tall a q u e d u c t s , palaces, o v e r 300 d e r v i s h tekkes, a n d o t h e r m o n u m e n t s of the past. T h e d a i l y life of I s t a n b u l w a s g o v e r n e d b y the I s t a n b u l efendisi, or m a y o r , w h o p e r f o r m e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d u t i e s a n d h a d c i v i l j u r i s d i c t i o n over t h e c i t y . T h e naib, his assist ant, s u p e r v i s e d t h e s u p p l y of f o o d a n d f i x e d the p r i c e o f f o o d s t u f f s . T h e w h a r f area b e t w e e n S a r a y b u r n u a n d Fener, k n o w n g e n e r a l l y as U n k a p a n i , w a s the e c o n o m i c heart of the city, as it h a d been i n p r e v i o u s c e n t u r i e s . A H ships c a r r y i n g g r a i n f r o m the Black Sea a n d t h e A r c h i p e l a g o u n l o a d e d t h e i r cargoes o n t h i s w h a r f . T h e naib k e p t a register of the q u a n t i t y of w h e a t d e l i v e r e d , f i x e d a p r i c e , a n d t h e n d i s t r i b u t e d it to t h e bakers. I n o r d e r to p r e v e n t m o n o p o l i e s a n d s p e c u l a t i o n , t h e b u y e r s w e r e n o t a l l o w e d to store g r a i n for m o r e t h a n a f e w d a y s , a n d p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s c o u l d n o t b u i l d granaries or w a r e h o u s e s to store f o o d . O n l y t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s p e r m i t t e d to collect g r a i n i n large q u a n t i t i e s a n d store it f o r use i n t i m e of n e e d . 3
The q u a n t i t y of w h e a t purchased for the capital a m o u n t e d , at the t u r n of the c e n t u r y , to one m i l l i o n kiles (a kile was equal i n w e i g h t to a b o u t sixty p o u n d s ) . T h e w h e a t w a s collected f r o m V o l o , Salonica, K a r a a ğ a ç , V a r n a , a n d o t h e r places i n D o b r u c a a n d W a l l a c h i a . T h e price of o r d i n a r y w h e a t p a i d to the p r o d u c e r v a r i e d b e t w e e n three a n d 1. See Thomas Thornton, The Present State of Modern Turkey 2, 2d ed. (London, 1809): 23-24. Some of the older Turkish sources on the history of Istanbul used in this study are Asim Tarihi, Cevdet Tarihi, and Lit t fi Tarihi; Ahmet Refik (Altunay), Hicri On Altinci Asirda istanbul Hayati (istanbul, 1932); Celal Esat Arseven, Eski istanbul (istanbul, 1928); and Osman Nuri Ergin, lstanbulda imar ve Iskan Hareketlen (istanbul, 1937). See also Ali Rıza (Bey), Bir Zaman lar istanbul (istanbul, n.d.) and the new edition of this work, edited bv N . A. Banoglu; and see Mehmet Hali! Bayri, İstanbul Folkloru, 2d ed. (Istanbul, 1972).
f o u r piasters p e r kilc. The g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d sell its s t o r e d g r a i n ( w h i c h w a s k e p t i n w o o d e n shacks i n an area a r o u n d the arsenal i n Kasimpa§a) w h e n the n e w year's s h i p m e n t s a r r i v e d , w h e n it t h r e a t e n e d to become s p o i l e d , or w h e n the m a r k e t prices rose h i g h e n o u g h to a l l o w a h a n d s o m e p r o f i t . G o v e r n m e n t p r o f i t s f r o m the sale of o n e year's s u p p l y of w h e a t a m o u n t e d to 2 to 3 m i l l i o n piasters, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the g r a i n w a s sold at 60 to 75 percent a b o v e the price p a i d on delivery i n Istanbul. T h e r e also existed the p o s s i b i l i t y of considerable p r o f i t for the mubayaaci, or w h e a t c o l l e c t o r . T h e mubayaaci w a s a l l o w e d to b u y f r o m the p r o d u c e r f o r h i s o w n account onet e n t h of the a m o u n t of w h e a t collected f o r the g o v e r n m e n t , p a y i n g f o r his o w n share the same p r i c e as the g o v e r n m e n t ; b u t he w a s t h e n a l l o w e d to sell h i s w h e a t at free m a r k e t p r i c e s a n d k e e p t h e d i f f e r e n c e . T h e mubayaaci often a r r a n g e d , b y b r i b i n g the r e s p o n s i b l e officials, to s u b s t i t u t e barley or rye f o r the g o v e r n m e n t w h e a t purchase; o r he s o m e t i m e s p o u r e d sea w a t e r over t h e g r a i n to s w e l l it a n d m a k e it appear to be larger i n a m o u n t . T h u s he m e t the quota set b y the g o v e r n m e n t a n d still w a s able to k e e p a g o o d s u r p l u s for h i m s e l f . W h e a t s o l d p r i v a t e l y was u s u a l l y s u p e r i o r i n q u a l i t y to that sold b y the g o v e r n m e n t . 2
W h e n there w a s an o v e r a b u n d a n c e o f w h e a t a r r i v i n g at the w h a r f , the naib l o w e r e d t h e p r i c e a n d forced the bakers to b u y larger q u a n t i t i e s t h a n t h e y n o r m a l l y d i d . I n such cases, there w a s a s u r p l u s of b r e a d , w h i c h w a s o f t e n s o l d at l o w prices o r g i v e n free to the p o o r of I s t a n b u l . W h e n there was a s h o r t a g e of w h e a t (as, f o r e x a m p l e , f r o m 1828 to 1829 w h e n the A l l i e s closed the straits a n d p r e v e n t e d the s u p p l y of I s t a n b u l b y sea) the bakers w e r e f o r c e d to use s p o i l e d g r a i n or to m i x it w i t h o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s to p r o d u c e a l o w q u a l i t y b r e a d t h a t sold at h i g h prices. Shortages also w e r e caused b y the fires that f r e q u e n t l y d e s t r o y e d the g o v e r n m e n t storage shacks, p u s h i n g u p the p r i c e a n d f u r t h e r en r i c h i n g the mubayaaci. T h e r e g u l a t i o n of w h e a t sales b v the g o v e r n m e n t a p p e a r e d to be less t h a n satisfactory. The same m e t h o d was used f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n a n d dis t r i b u t i o n of o t h e r f o o d i t e m s c o n s u m e d i n the c a p i t a l . Every year large n u m l i e r s of Greek a n d T u r k i s h m e r c h a n t s h o l d i n g f i r m a n s f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t w e n t to the Balkan p e n i n sula a n d o t h e r f o o d - p r o d u c i n g areas to collect b u t t e r , cheese, h o n e y , w a x , t a l l o w , a n d , especially, l i v e s t o c k . The a n n u a l collection of sheep alone a m o u n t e d at the e n d of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y to 500,000 to 600,000 h e a d . T h e fat of u p w a r d s of 80,000 oxen, sheep, a n d goats w a s m e l t e d o n the spot i n W a l l a c h i a a n d M o l d a v i a a n d t r a n s p o r t e d to the capital as t a l l o w . A substantial p a r t of these s u p p l i e s was collected f o r the Janizaries a n d the s u l t a n ' s h o u s e h o l d . The collectors, as expected, secured h a n d s o m e p r o f i t s for t h e m selves, especially as the possibilities f o r s p e c u l a t i o n i n meat and dairv products were even more favorable than i n wheat. 2. It is interesting that the mubayaaci in Salonica was a descend ant of the famous Evrenos family that remained in virtually abso lute control of the Vardar valley until well into the eighteenth century.
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N , 1830-1914
88
89
THE P O P U L A T I O N A N D T H E S O C I A L A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N O F I S T A N B U L
A t the b e g i n n i n g of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the g o v e r n m e n t faced g r o w i n g d i f f i c u l t y i n s u p p l y i n g I s t a n b u l w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t i e s at f i x e d prices. I t therefore i n creased the i n c e n t i v e f o r the f o o d collectors b y a l l o w i n g t h e m l a r g e r m a r g i n s o f p r o f i t . H o w e v e r , it became i n creasingly o b v i o u s that c h a n g i n g circumstances h a d m a d e the olci m e t h o d s obsolete. T h e o b v i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e w a s to a d o p t a s v s t e m t h a t ; w o u l d be relatively free o f g o v e r n m e n tal interference a n d c o u l d operate i n response t o m a r k e t forces. T h e need for change w a s d r a m a t i z e d w h e n , d u r i n g the w a r i n 1812 a n d later d u r i n g the b l o c k a d e o f the straits after t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e O t t o m a n fleet a t N'avarino (1827), I s t a n b u l s u f f e r e d acute f a m i n e . T h e s u p p l y p r o b l e m first faced b v I s t a n b u l at the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r v w a s t h e consequence of a series o f i n t e r - r e l a t e d e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l factors. T h e a b i l i t y o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t to f i x t h e price o f f o o d a n d r a w materials d e p e n d e d o n its a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l its i n t e r n a l a n d external trade f u l l y . T r a d e c o n t r o l i n t u r n w a s based o n the capacity o f t h e O t t o m a n state to p u r s u e a n i n d e p e n d e n t external p o l i c y a n d to a d o p t t h e e c o n o m i c measures m o s t suitable to its o w n interests. B u t at t h e e n d o f t h e eight e e n t h a n d t h r o u g h o u t the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the O t t o m a n state w a s g r a d u a l l y d e p r i v e d o f t h e f r e e d o m t o f o l l o w an economic p o l i c y o f its o w n c h o o s i n g . T h e e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s responsible for the c h a n g e d s i t u a t i o n w e r e t h e f o l l o w i n g . First, t h e g r o w i n g E u r o p e a n d e m a n d f o r f o o d s t u f f s a n d r a w materials f r o m O t t o m a n lands p u s h e d the price o f local c o m m o d i t i e s , especially i n the Balkans, a b o v e the prices p a i d by the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t . T h e effect o f this w a s felt even i n t h e internal O t t o m a n markets. Early i n the nineteenth century there d e v e l o p e d i n I s t a n b u l a free c o m m o d i t i e s m a r k e t t h a t g r a d u a l l y s u r p a s s e d a n d u n d e r m i n e d the g o v e r n m e n t f o o d collection a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o p e r a t i o n . I n 1829 t h e g o v e r n m e n t t r i e d u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t o fix t h e price o f coffee; a n d i n 1832 i t t r i e d , again w i t h o u t success, t o set the price o f o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s s o l d i n I s t a n b u l . M e a n w h i l e f o o d prices soared. M a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s f r o m E u r o p e w e r e also s o l d i n the free m a r k e t a n d s t i m u l a t e d its d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e O t t o m a n response t o E u r o p e a n d e m a n d s f o r f o o d a n d r a w materials w a s d i c t a t e d b y p o l i t i c a l as w e l l as eco n o m i c events. T h e peace treaties s i g n e d b y t h e O t t o m a n state w i t h A u s t r i a a n d Russia i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r v e x p l i c i t l y e n v i s i o n e d a l i b e r a l i z a t i o n o f t r a d e — t h a t is, free d o m f o r these c o u n t r i e s t o b u y a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m o d i t i e s f r o m the O t t o m a n m a r k e t . T h e Treaty o f K ü ç ü k Kaynarca, s i g n e d i n 1774, e n d e d the O t t o m a n m o n o p o l y o f the Black Sea trade a n d w a s a m a j o r e c o n o m i c b l o w t o t h e state i n general a n d to I s t a n b u l i n p a r t i c u l a r . H e n c e f o r t h , the goods f r o m the Black Sea p o r t s w e r e c a r r i e d n o t o n l y b y O t t o m a n vessels b u t , i n c r e a s i n g l y , b y t h e ships o f Russia a n d o t h e r n a t i o n s , ships w h i c h d i d n o t stop i n I s t a n b u l . I n fact, i n o r d e r to a v o i d delays, seizure, a n d taxes, m a n y ships c a r r y i n g cargoes o r i g i n a t i n g i n O t t o m a n lands 3
3. See Henry Grenville, Observations sur l'état actuel de l'Empire ottoman (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1956).
Table 5 . 1 .
Miri
B u d g e t o f 1776
Revenue Sources
Purses
Fixed (Haraç) Various taxes Unfixed
39.077 36.794 14.0U
•
Total
,
.
89.885 (or 44,942.500 piasters)
Expenditures
Purses
Pay of the city guards or militia of Istanbul Pay ot the bostancis and of the people in the sultan's kitchen Pay of the ağas and officers of the sultan's palace To the harem of the old palace To the ağa and seraglio of Galata Expenses of the kitchen (purses rumi) To the chief of the butchers Expenses of the imperial tables Arbitrary assignments Payment of all the other fortresses of the Ottoman empire A donation to Mecca and Medina (this had been paid annually for centuries) Pay of the sailors of the fleet Provision for the fleet Expenses of the admiralty Pensions of the sultanas and of the deposed khans of the Crim Pay of the garrison of Vldin Pay for those of Bosnia For maintaining recruits Expenses of the iesser department, called Küçük Kalem Payment of the Danubian guards Expenses of maintaining the posts
Source: William Eton, A Survey of the Turkish Empire, 2d ed. (London, 1799), pp. 41-47.
c h a n g e d t h e i r cargo certificates b y g o i n g t o Russian p o r t s . T h e cargo w o u l d t h e n a p p e a r o n p a p e r t o have originated i n Russia a n d the s h i p c o u l d sail past I s t a n b u l w i t h o u t any p r o b l e m s . E v e n O t t o m a n m e r c h a n t s p r e f e r r e d n o t to go to I s t a n b u l at a l l because o f loss o f t i m e : w h e n there was h e a v y t r a f f i c , as o f t e n h a p p e n e d i n t h e fall w h e n large q u a n t i t i e s o f f o o d w e r e d e l i v e r e d t o t h e c i t y , ships had to w a i t f o r d a y s , e v e n w e e k s , t o u n l o a d t h e i r cargoes, chiefly because o f the lack o f p r o p e r storage places. T h e Treaty of A d r i a n o p l e (1829), w h i c h a b o l i s h e d t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f Wallachia a n d M o l d a v i a t o sell c e r t a i n q u a n t i t i e s o f f o o d t o the Porte, e n d e d the g o v e r n m e n t - s p o n s o r e d s y s t e m o f food c o l l e c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n at f i x e d prices t h a t h a d been in force since t h e late f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e e c o n o m y and e v e n t h e social o r g a n i z a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l w a s p r o f o u n d l y affected b y t h e s y s t e m ' s demis'e. 4
T h e e n t i r e O t t o m a n e c o n o m y w a s s u f f e r i n g f r o m the s t r a i n o f c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m t h e free m a r k e t e c o n o m y of the W e s t . Yet, the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t seek to adjust to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e free m a r k e t , l a r g e l y because its o w n f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n , as e x p r e s s e d i n t h e b u d g e t , a p p e a r e d t o be r e l a t i v e l y s e c u r e , i n d e e d , t h e O t t o m a n b u d g e t f o r 1776, as c o m p i l e d b y W i l l i a m E t o n (reproduced i n Table 5.1) s h o w e d t h a t the g o v e r n m e n t was t h e n i n good 4. Thornton, Modern Turkey, p . 24.
financial h e a l t h . T h e r e v e n u e s a n d e x p e n d i t u r e s of the miri (public t r e a s u r y — e x c l u d i n g t h e p r i v a t e treasure o f the s u l n , t h e paşas a n d t h e vakif m o s q u e s ) , t r a n s l a t e d i n t o pounds s t e r l i n g , c a m e to £ 4 , 4 9 4 , 2 5 0 a n d £ 3 , 6 9 6 , 8 1 3 , respec tively, g i v i n g a s u r p l u s o f £ 7 9 4 , 4 3 7 . T h e haraç w a s a t i t h e paid b y n o n - M u s l i m s . ( T h e çiziye—officially a h e a d tax rather t h a n a t i t h e — w a s o f t e n also r e f e r r e d t o as haraç.) For Istanbul i n 1776, haraç r e v e n u e w a s 2,916 purses (a p u r s e was 500 piasters), a n increase o f 360 purses, o r 180,000 piasters. ( I f o n e takes 6 kuruş as t h e a m o u n t collected p e r person as haraç, t h e n the n o n - M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n o f I s t a n bul i n 1776 w a s a b o u t 243,000 o u t o f a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f about 870,000.) 5
( a
Four basic factors w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the h a p p y state o f the O t t o m a n b u d g e t i n 1776. (1) T h e r e w a s a m o r e o r less reliable n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l source o f p a y m e n t f o r h i g h g o v ernment officials: m o s t o f these d e r i v e d t h e i r i n c o m e f r o m various real estate h o l d i n g s a s s i g n e d t o t h e m u p o n t h e i r a s s u m p t i o n o f p o s i t i o n , so t h e salar}' r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e budget w a s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l ; (2) t h e m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e was r e l a t i v e l y l o w a n d w a s b a l a n c e d b y equal a n d c o n s t a n t revenue; (3) t h e r e w a s a lack o f g o v e r n m e n t e x p e n d i t u r e f o r health, social, e d u c a t i o n a l , o r o t h e r services, these b e i n g met either b y t h e vakifs o r b y r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s o f v a r ious p e r s u a s i o n s ; a n d , f i n a l l y / ( 4 ) t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s free of f o r e i g n d e b t . E v e n t u a l l y , a l l these c o n d i t i o n s w e r e t o change. R e v e n u e s h a d a l r e a d y b e g u n t o d i m i n i s h ; t i t h e , customs, a n d haraç collections decreased as t e r r i t o r i e s w e r e lost. Still, because o f its r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g m i l i t a r y p o s i t i o n , u n t i l t h e 1820s t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t f e e l pressed t o m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e m a r k e t e c o n o m y w i t h its u n d e r l y i n g p h i l o s o p h y o f economic liberalism. The q u e s t i o n o f e c o n o m i c p h i l o s o p h y is so i m p o r t a n t t o the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c h i s t o r y o f t h e O t t o m a n state as t o call f o r s o m e e l a b o r a t i o n . The O t t o m a n p h i l o s o p h y o f e c o n o m i c s a n d c o m m e r c e w a s essentially statist. Some B a l k a n n a t i o n a l i s t h i s t o r i a n s have labeled it " f e u d a l " and dismissed i t . A c t u a l l y , the O t t o m a n commer cial a n d e c o n o m i c p h i l o s o p h y , i d e a l l y s p e a k i n g , rested u p o n the m o r a l concept t h a t all c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y , espe cially the sale o f f o o d a n d h o u s e h o l d g o o d s , s h o u l d n o t be m o t i v a t e d b y t h e desire f o r p r o f i t b u t s h o u l d serve the w e l l b e i n g o f society; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t h e means for extensive p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e h a n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , as w e l l as t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l , w a s f o r b i d d e n . D a v i d U r q u h a r t , w h o i n m y e s t i m a t i o n h a d the m o s t p e n e t r a t i n g u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the O t t o m a n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c sys t e m , stated t h e M u s l i m s ' basic o b j e c t i o n t o E u r o p e a n eco n o m i c habits: 6
[ T h e y ] object t o o u r ( E u r o p e a n ! p r i n c i p l e s o f f i n a n c e and of commercial legislation. Freedom of commerce a n d i n d u s t r y , is n o t , i n d e e d w i t h t h e m an object o f 5. See A Survey of the Turkish Empire, 2nd ed. (London, 1799), pp. A\-i7. It must be remembered that the budget came after the war with Russia was concluded i n 1774. 6. The best source for a statement of this economic philosophy is a declaration in the Moniteur ottoman of September 1832.
i n d e p e n d e n t i n q u i r y ; it is a consequence w h i c h f l o w s f r o m , a n d w h i c h never can be separated f r o m direct t a x a t i o n . I d o n o t m e a n f r e e d o m o f c o m m e r c e b u t that f r e e d o m w h i c h facilitates the exchange o f c o m m o d i t i e s w i t h the v i e w o f e n h a n c i n g the v a l u e o f l a n d a n d p r o p e r t y . . . . These p r i n c i p l e s have b e e n p r e s e r v e d b v practice, n o t s o l i c i t u d e , b u t b y the absoluteness o f eastern g o v e r n m e n t , w h i c h have a l w a y s been t o o s t r o n g to require t o disguise their i m p o s t s ; a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e evils o f i n d i r e c t t a x a t i o n , f l u c t u a t i o n s , g l u t s , over-trading, bankruptcies, fictitious wealth, u n w h o l e s o m e i n d u s t r y , excessive prices o f t h e necessaries o f l i f e , p a u p e r i s m , a b l o o d - s t a i n e d code f o r the p u n i s h m e n t o f f i c t i t i o u s c r i m e s , w h i c h n e v e r existed i n T u r k e y , are a r g u m e n t s w h i c h a M u s s u l m a n is o n l y made acquainted w i t h by visiting E u r o p e / The practical consequence o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l e c o n o m i c philosophy was evident in the O t t o m a n inability to thwart the challenge o f a p o w e r f u l E u r o p e ; O t t o m a n c o m m e r c i a l c o m p e t i t i o n w a s c h e c k e d , credit w a s n o t available, a n d trade s t a g n a t e d . T h e T u r k i s h m e r c h a n t s d i d n o t w a n t t o speculate b y s e l l i n g expensive articles o r rare c o m m o d i t i e s abroad b u t m e r e l y w a n t e d , t o trade w i t h a n y o n e w h o s o l d u s e f u l articles. M o n e y w a s n o t a c c u m u l a t e d a n d i n v e s t e d as capital b u t w a s used for m e e t i n g t h e d a i l y n e e d s o f t h e m e r c h a n t a n d h i s t r a d e . Business w a s transacted in..a m a n ner r e m i n i s c e n t o f b a r t e r . M o r e o v e r , O t t o m a n m e r c h a n t s d i d n o t f o r m extensive r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h each o t h e r ; E u r o p e a n m e r c h a n t s e s t a b l i s h e d associations w h i c h r a m i f i e d i n t o every m a j o r f i e l d o f a c t i v i t y a n d i m b u e d t h e m w i t h a p r a g m a t i c , m e r c a n t i l i s t s p i r i t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , as t r a d e i n the O t t o m a n state w a s geared t o s e r v i n g t h e i m m e d i a t e needs o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f l o n g - r a n g e f i n a n c i a l goals, e v e r y o n e c o u l d engage i n i t . I s t a n b u l w a s a bazaar f r o m o n e e n d t o t h e o t h e r , n o t be cause o f lack o f g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l b u t because o f t r a d i n g habits a n d t r a d i t i o n s . s
I n d e e d , b y the b e g i n n i n g o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e capital w a s a l r e a d y f u l l o f all k i n d s o f p e o p l e e n g a g e d i n some sort o f p e d d l i n g . T h r o u g h o u t t h e first t h r e e q u a r t e r s of the e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y there h a d b e e n a constant i n f l u x of c o u n t r y p e o p l e i n t o I s t a n b u l , i n p a r t d u e t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g i n s e c u r i t y i n t h e r u r a l areas a n d i n p a r t because o f t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the d e v e l o p m e n t o f a " s e r v i c e " sector i n t h e O t t o m a n e c o n o m y — t h e result o f the s l o w t r e n d t o w a r d s a capitalist s y s t e m . The i n f l u x s l o w e d d o w n t o w a r d s the e n d of t h e c e n t u r y as O t t o m a n crafts p r o d u c t i o n a n d , hence, the need for m a n p o w e r began t o decrease u n d e r the press ure of w e s t e r n c o m p e t i t i o n a n d as t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n s t i tuted rigorous p o p u l a t i o n controls: t h e search f o r u n w a n t e d n e w c o m e r s i n I s t a n b u l , u n d e r t a k e n every three years a r o u n d 1750, w a s m a d e e v e n m o r e t h o r o u g h a n d , t o w a r d s the e n d of the c e n t u r y , c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s w e r e car ried o u t every six m o n t h s . ( P r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o r s also w e r e o r d e r e d to p r o h i b i t e m i g r a t i o n f r o m t h e i r p r o v i n c e s b y set7. Turkey and its Resources. Its Municipal Trade (London, 1833). pp. 16-17. 8. Eton, Surivy, pp. 246-48.
Organization and Free
90
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N , 1830—1914
t i n g u p roadblocks o n the m a i n h i g h w a y s to the capital a n d t u r n i n g back those i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h o u t v a l i d reasons for g o i n g to the c i t y . ) N e v e r t h e l e s s , the city w a s o n the p a t h to drastic change, a n d s u c h g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l measures c o u l d n o t halt the process. 9
Istanbul D u r i n g the R u l e of M a h m u d I I (1808-1839) The r u l e of M a h m u d I I , " t h e R e f o r m e r , " b e g a n i n 1808 at a time w h e n the e m p i r e w a s f e e l i n g the steady pressure of the n e w economic a n d social forces. M a h m u d h a d been b r o u g h t to the t h r o n e b y the ayan of R u s ç u k , A l e m d a r M u s tafa Paşa, w h o became the sultan's v i z i e r a n d , as s u c h , i n 1808 n e g o t i a t e d a n d s i g n e d w i t h the ayans t h e concession k n o w n as the Sened-i ittifak g r a n t i n g t h e m considerable a u t o n o m y i n t h e i r vast d o m a i n s i n the Balkans a n d A n a t o lia. The ayans h a d e f f e c t i v e l y c h a l l e n g e d the a u t h o r i t y of the s u l t a n a n d l i m i t e d i t , a l t h o u g h o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y . Scholars w h o have s t u d i e d the ayans t e n d to i g n o r e the essential fact that the p r o d u c t i o n a n d exchange of c o m m o d i t i e s i n the territories t h e y c o n t r o l l e d f o l l o w e d largely t h e p r i n c i p l e s of the m a r k e t e c o n o m y , a n d m a n y of these areas became rather p r o s p e r o u s because, of t h i s . These p r o v i n c e s c o n t i n u e d to practice r e l a t i v e l y free trade e v e n after M a h m u d confiscated the lands o f the ayans, ( h a v i n g s u b d u e d t h e m over the p e r i o d f r o m 1812 to 1820). H e h a d d e a l t m e r e l y w i t h the effects, n o t the causes, of the p r o b l e m . I n a d i f f e r e n t s t u d y I have stressed the fact t h a t the clas sical O t t o m a n state s t o o d o n a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c f o u n d a t i o n c o m p o s e d of f o u r social g r o u p s — t h e m i l i t a r y , t h e scholars, the m e r c h a n t s , a n d the f o o d p r o d u c e r s , or p e a s a n t s — a n d o n a n e t h n o - r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n a l s y s t e m c o n s i s t i n g of the millets a n d the local c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e rise of the ayans a n d of v a r i o u s a g r a r i a n , c o m m e r c i a l , a n d c r a f t s m a n g r o u p s a n d s u b g r o u p s signaled the f i n a l b r e a k d o w n of the social o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t h a d e n d u r e d since t h e l e g i s l a t i o n of M e h m e d I I (1451-1481). By the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the f o u r t r a d i t i o n a l social classes (erkani erbaa) h a d , i n fact, already d i s i n t e g r a t e d o r t r a n s f o r m e d themselves i n t o a v a r i e t y of n e w social g r o u p s . H o w e v e r , at the b e g i n n i n g of the cen t u r y the millet s y s t e m s t i l l o u t w a r d l y m a i n t a i n e d its classical shape, c h i e f l y because its s u s t a i n i n g basis, the c o m m u n a l r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n , h a d r e m a i n e d m o r e o r less u n changed. 1 0
The G r e e k , A r m e n i a n , a n d , to a lesser degree, J e w i s h millets h a d d e v e l o p e d a class s t r u c t u r e of t h e i r o w n . T h e i r u p p e r strata, c o m p o s e d of the h i g h c l e r g y , the m e r c h a n t elites r e s i d i n g i n I s t a n b u l a n d the o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l centers, a n d the l a n d e d g e n t r y i n the c o u n t r y s i d e , s h o w e d a p r o f o u n d allegiance to the s u l t a n a n d the s y s t e m he r e p r e 9. See M . Münir Aktepe, " X V I I I Asirin Ilk Yarisinda Istanbulun Nüfus Meselelerine Dair Bazı Vesikalar," istanbul Üniversitesi Ede biyat Fakültesi Dergisi 9, no. 13 (1958): 1-30. 10. See An Inquiry into the Social Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman State: From Millets to Nations, from Estates to Social Classes, Center of International Studies, Research M o n o g r a p h no. 39 (Princeton, 1973).
sented. People of the l o w e r strata i n these millets—the newmerchants a n d the c r a f t s m e n — a c c e p t e d the p r i n c i p l e s of the E u r o p e a n e c o n o m i c s y s t e m ( i . e . , its capitalist philoso p h y ) a n d c o n f o r m e d to s o m e extent to its business prac tices. The Serbian a n d G r e e k m e r c h a n t s w e r e the first to embrace this n e w c a p i t a l i s t p h i l o s o p h y , a n d their sym pathies lay d e f i n i t e l y w i t h w e s t e r n E u r o p e . The conflict b e t w e e n the l o w e r e c h e l o n m e r c h a n t - c r a f t s m e n g r o u p s and their leaders, w h o w e r e p a r t of the O t t o m a n bureaucratic s y s t e m , came o u t i n t o the o p e n i n a r a t h e r t w i s t e d way b e g i n n i n g i n 1821 a n d e v e n t u a l l y c u l m i n a t e d , b e t w e e n I860 a n d 1870, i n the drastic r e f o r m of the millet s y s t e m . Istanbul w a s the battle arena i n w h i c h the t r a d i t i o n a l millet m e t its end. The effect of the social changes i n the O t t o m a n state, i n w h i c h d e m o g r a p h i c changes p l a y e d a v i t a l role, was deeply felt i n I s t a n b u l . The Janizary-u/ema r e v o l t t h a t e n d e d Selim I l l ' s rule i n 1807, the c o u n t e r a t t a c k b y A l e m d a r Mustafa Paşa t h a t b r o u g h t M a h m u d I I to the O t t o m a n t h r o n e i n 1808, a n d , f i n a l l y , the u p r i s i n g t h a t r e s u l t e d i n A l e m d a r ' s d e a t h h e r a l d e d s i g n i f i c a n t social s t r i f e . A p p a r e n t l y the l o w er classes i n I s t a n b u l h a d p l a y e d a p a r t i n these events. T h e r e f o r e , i n 1808, s o o n after A l e m d a r ' s d e m i s e , the gov e r n m e n t closed a n d d e s t r o y e d the b a c h e l o r s ' i n n s (bekarodalari). These i n n s , f o u n d i n each m a j o r O t t o m a n center, h a d become shelters f o r n e w m i g r a n t s i n the c i t y , menial w o r k e r s , p e t t y e n t r e p r e n e u r s , a n d a v a r i e t y of o t h e r mar g i n a l , l o w - i n c o m e g r o u p s . T h e y w e r e also centers of social u n r e s t a n d p r o t e s t against t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r . B e t w e e n 1807 a n d 1817 I s t a n b u l e x p e r i e n c e d massive d e s t r u c t i o n , the c o n s e q u e n c e of b o t h social u n r e s t a n d accidental fires. T h e d e s t r u c t i o n was f o l l o w e d by a con s t r u c t i o n b o o m t h a t a t t r a c t e d w o r k e r s to the c i t y . The m a i n b u i l d i n g at t h e P o r t e — t h a t is, t h e o f f i c e o f the g r a n d v i z i e r — d e s t r o y e d i n 1808, b e g a n to be r e b u i l t i n February of 1810. C o n s t r u c t i o n or r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f m a n y o t h e r private a n d p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s also w a s started d u r i n g this p e r i o d , especially r i g h t a f t e r the o c c u r r e n c e of a series of fires (altogether s e v e n t y - t h r e e ) t h a t d e s t r o y e d a g o o d p a r t of the c i t y . (By 1845 the g o v e r n m e n t w a s o f f i c i a l l y e n c o u r a g i n g the use of bricks i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of h o u s e s to m a k e t h e m m o r e resistant to f i r e . ) O n e of t h e effects of the increase i n the b u i l d i n g a c t i v i t y was c o n f l i c t a m o n g b u i l d i n g entre p r e n e u r s . A g r o u p of e s t a b l i s h e d b u i l d e r s t r i e d to m o n o p o lize the c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k a n d the sale of m a t e r i a l s so as to secure e x o r b i t a n t p r o f i t s ; a n d s o m e i n f l u e n t i a l villagers a n d some w o r k e r s c l a i m i n g to be Janizaries a p p a r e n t l y forced p r o s p e c t i v e b u i l d e r s to engage as laborers m e n s u p p l i e d by t h e m at t w i c e the p r e v a i l i n g w a g e , these m i d d l e m e n then r e t a i n i n g h a l f of the w a g e s e a r n e d b y w o r k e r s . Wages w e n t u p so m u c h that the g o v e r n m e n t f o u n d it necessary to fix the s c a l e . " T h e changes i n the life of I s t a n b u l t h a t began to be felt at the b e g i n n i n g of the c e n t u r y g a i n e d m o m e n t u m after the 11. See Islam Ansiklopedisi,, s.v. " I s t a n b u l " ; for the document showing the wages, see Refik, Hicri On Altinci Asirda Istanbul Hayati, pp. 21-25.
T H E P O P U L A T I O N A N D T H E S O C I A L A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N OF I S T A N B U L
Greek r e v o l t of 1821. T h e G r e e k clergy h a d a l w a y s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e l o y a l t y of the O r t h o dox C h r i s t i a n s to the s u l t a n . T h i s service w a s r e c o g n i z e d and r e w a r d e d . (For e x a m p l e , w h e n the Serbian p a t r i a r c h and his f o l l o w e r s m o v e d to H u n g a r y i n 1600, a Greek, K a l i n i k , w a s b r o u g h t i n to h e a d t h e S e r b i a n c h u r c h . T h i s church w a s e v e n t u a l l y a b o l i s h e d i n 1767, at the s u g g e s t i o n of the p h a n a r i o t r u l e r s of W a l l a c h i a a n d M o l d a v i a . ) T h e r e fore, w h e n b e t w e e n 1790 a n d 1795 t h e ideas of the F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n s e e m e d to b e c o m e a t t r a c t i v e to some C h r i s t i a n elements, t h e P a t r i a r c h A n t h i m o s of Jerusalem c o u n t e r e d by i s s u i n g h i s Paternal Teaching (1798), i n w h i c h the s u l t a n was described as a gift sent b y G o d f o r t h e g o o d of t h e Orthodox Christians. It w o u l d be t o t a l l y w r o n g to assume that the G r e e k s ' a t t i t u d e s t e m m e d f r o m m e r e o p p o r t u n i s m or sheer s u b servience to t h e P o r t e . It came r a t h e r f r o m the fact t h a t the Greek millet, t h r o u g h its r e p r e s e n t a t i v e the p a t r i a r c h , h a d a basic c o n s t i t u t i o n a l place i n t h e O t t o m a n s y s t e m . T h e Greek r e v o l t of 1821, especially the a c t i o n of Y p s i l a n t i , w h o was s u p p o r t e d b y t h e Russians, w a s c o n s i d e r e d i n I s t a n b u l an act of u t m o s t b e t r a y a l o n the p a r t of the p a t r i a r c h a n d was a d e a d l y b l o w to the e n t i r e millet system a n d to t h e traditional balance established a m o n g religious-ethnic g r o u p s . T h e O r t h o d o x p a t r i a r c h a t e i n I s t a n b u l b e g a n to lose its p o w e r — a r r i v i n g f i n a l l y at t h e i n s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n it h o l d s t o d a y ; f o r t h e r e v o l t h a d separated the r e l i g i o u s head f r o m its b o d y : it h a d cut the Patriarchate o f f f r o m O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s i n Greece a n d e l s e w h e r e , a l l o w i n g each g r o u p to f o l l o w i t s o w n p o l i t i c a l d e s t i n y . F i n a l l y , it p u t an effective e n d to t h e p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n w h i c h the G r e e k s h a d e n j o y e d . (Later, especially after 1856, the Greeks, w i t h the s u p p o r t of t h e B r i t i s h , a c q u i r e d a l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n i n the trade of I s t a n b u l . ) The s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s of the Greek r e v o l t w e r e d e e p l y felt i n I s t a n b u l . T h e p a t r i a r c h , a l t h o u g h p e r s o n a l l y i n n o c e n t of r e b e l l i o u s deeds, w a s h a n g e d because, as h e a d of the c o m m u n i t y , h e w a s h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e for the acts of his flock. T h e chief d r a g o m a n ( i n t e r p r e t e r ) , C o n s t a n t i n e M o r u z z i , w h o h a d i n t e n t i o n a l l y o m i t t e d one i n c r i m i n a t i n g p a r a g r a p h w h i l e t r a n s l a t i n g a secret letter, w a s d i s m i s s e d f r o m his p o s i t i o n (as was h i s successor after o n l y a s h o r t p e r i o d of service). T h e p o s t of d r a g o m a n , reserved f o r a Greek since t h e m i d - s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w a s o c c u p i e d h e n c e f o r t h b v a T u r k . G r e e k sailors i n the O t t o m a n n a v y w e r e n o l o n g e r t r u s t e d ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , the g o v e r n m e n t , aft er an unsuccessful e f f o r t to d r a f t b o a t m e n o n the B o s p o r u s i n t o the n a v y , h i r e d Genoese a n d o t h e r i d l e m e n i n Galata for the n a v y . M o r e o v e r , b e i n g f e a r f u l of a Greek u p r i s i n g i n the c i t y , the M u s l i m s , especially y o u n g s t e r s k n o w n as ycrli kulu, w e r e a l l o w e d to a r m t h e m s e l v e s ; s o m e of t h e s e attacked the C h r i s t i a n s a n d c o n t r i b u t e d to a rise i n robberies a n d general d i s o r d e r i n the c i t y . (It w a s at t h i s 1 2
12. See Robert Walsh, Residence at Constantinople during a Period Including . . . the Greek and Turkish Revolutions, 2 vols. (London, 1S36). 1:308; Walsh was chaplain of the British embassy in Istanbul and served there from 1820 until 1834.
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t i m e that the sale of a r m s became a v e r y l u c r a t i v e business i n I s t a n b u l , r e m a i n i n g so even after the p r o h i b i t i o n against b e a r i n g a r m s w a s reinstated i n 1839.) A large n u m b e r of Greeks f r o m the p r o v i n c e s , w h o h a d come to I s t a n b u l to increase t h e i r capital b y s e l l i n g groceries, o i l s , a n d b u t t e r , w e r e f o r c i b l y sent back to t h e i r n a t i v e areas. M o r e o v e r , as a p r e c a u t i o n against spies, check p o i n t s w e r e established at v a r i o u s places, such as K ü ç ü k ç e k m e c e a n d Bostanci, to k e e p track of t h e passes (mürur tezkiresi) carried by t h e i n c o m i n g travelers. I n a d d i t i o n , the M u s l i m character of I s t a n b u l b e g a n to b e ' s t r o n g l y e m p h a s i z e d t h r o u g h t h e repair of the m o s q u e s a n d o t h e r h o l y places. I n 1824 t h e f o r t r e s s at A n d o l u h i s a r b e g a n to f i r e f r o m s e v e n of its t o w e r s t h e g u n s a n n o u n c i n g the e n d of t h e f a s t i n g d a y d u r i n g R a m a d a n ; i n t h e p a s t o n l y t h e f o r t r e s s at R u m e l i h i s a r h a d f i r e d its g u n s . T h u s , f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s the l o n g peace b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s a n d ethnic groups i n Istanbul was e n d e d , a l t h o u g h for a l o n g t i m e to come t h e force of c u s t o m p r e v e n t e d a n y v i o l e n t sectarian strife. It is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t the decline of the Greeks after 1821 h e l p e d o t h e r e t h n i c g r o u p s t o rise t o p o w e r . T h e A r m e n i a n s became i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i l e the B u l g a r i a n m e r c h a n t c o m m u n i t y i n I s t a n b u l g a i n e d i n n u m b e r s t h r o u g h the arrivals" f r o m t h e countryside a n d acquired w e a l t h and influence.
T h e R i s e of a N e w Social C l a s s : T h e Bureaucracy M a n y c o u n t r i e s have been t r a n s f o r m e d as a consequence of c h a n g i n g social a n d e c o n o m i c r e l a t i o n s . I n T u r k e y , the social r e s t r u c t u r i n g of the M u s l i m society b e g a n at the t o p a n d w a s i n i t i a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e place w h e r e t h i s process started a n d s h o w e d its greatest effect w a s I s t a n b u l . The change began w i t h the g r a d u a l r e p l a c e m e n t of the o l d bureaucratic o r d e r b y a n e w a n d m o d e r n o n e . The a b o l i t i o n of t h e Janizaries b y S u l t a n M a h r h u d I I i n 1826 d e p r i v e d I s t a n b u l of one of its m o s t c o l o r f u l , a n d also m o s t t r o u b l e s o m e , social g r o u p s . I n p r a c t i c a l . t e r m s , i t m e a n t t h a t a large n u m b e r of p e o p l e lost the social status, the r a n k , a n d the p o s s i b i l i t y f o r concerted action that h a d been p r o v i d e d b v t h i s q u a s i - m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n . Those Janizaries w h o w e r e n o t executed e v e n t u a l l y became small e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d servants, some i n I s t a n b u l b u t m a n y i n small t o w n s , w h e r e t h e y felt safer t h a n i n t h e c a p i t a l . Some became o r d i n a r y laborers, s e e k i n g e m p l o y m e n t i n t h e p o r t s or i d l i n g i n the coffee houses of Galata. T h e e l i m i n a t i o n of the Janizaries freed the s u l t a n f r o m t h e m o r b i d fear t h a t t h e y m i g h t depose or assassinate h i m a n d t h u s enabled h i m to proceed w i t h the r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of h i s a r m y and the bureaucracy. A l s o i n 1826 the Bektaşi r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s (Haci Bektaş w a s the Janizaries' p a t r o n ) w e r e f u s e d w i t h the N a k ş i b e n d i o r d e r s , t h u s g i v i n g the latter f u r t h e r p o w e r , a n d the Bektaşi leaders w e r e e x i l e d to A n a t o l i a . A t t h e same t i m e t h e Freemasons' l o d g e w a s a b o l i s h e d a n d its leaders forced to leave the c i t v . (The first M a s o n i c l o d g e h a d been e s t a b l i s h e d i n I s t a n b u l i n a b o u t 1820 b v I s m a i l F e r r u h
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OTTOMAN POPULATION,
E t e n d i , w h o had served as O t t o m a n ambassador i n E u r o p e . The l o d g e w a s restricted to a s m a l l n u m b e r o f people a n d h e l d secret meetings.) The s u l t a n also a b o l i s h e d t h e f i r e m a n u n i t s (tulumbaci), a n o t h e r o f the l a n d m a r k o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f I s t a n b u l ; b u t soon a f t e r w a r d s , w h e n a fire caused extensive d a m a g e i n t h e city, he established a [new v o l u n t a r y f i r e m a n corps. A s the rate o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n I s t a n b u l accelerated, t h e g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r t o o k a p o p u l a t i o n s u r v e y o f a l l male inhabitants of the city proper, Üsküdar, a n d Galata. (Catholics, h o w e v e r , w e r e n o t c o u n t e d . ) A c c o r d i n g to t h i s obviously incomplete survey, which probably included o n l y f a m i l y heads, t h e M u s l i m s n u m b e r e d 45,000; t h e A r m e n i a n s , 30,000; a n d t h e Greeks, 20,000. D u r i n g t h i s time an i m p o r t a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n n o v a t i o n w a s i n t r o d u c e d : t h e M u s l i m q u a r t e r s (mahalle) w e r e t o be a d m i n i s t e r e d h e n c e f o r t h b y a h e a d m a n (muhtar) a n d h i s d e p u t y , a n d the Christian quarters b y a superintendent (kahya) a n d a muhtar. Each q u a r t e r b a d its o w n imam o r priest. These a d m i n i s t r a t i v e officials w e r e g i v e n a seal w i t h w h i c h t o s t a m p o f f i c i a l papers a n d w e r e m a d e responsible for m a i n t a i n i n g o r d e r i n t h e i r respective q u a r t e r s . T h e last vestiges o f the timars w e r e e l i m i n a t e d i n 1831. In a b o l i s h i n g all t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s M a h m u d I I d e p r i v e d the t h r o n e o f its basic s u p p o r t : these i n s t i t u t i o n s , together w i t h t h e millet o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f the n o n - M u s l i m s , h a d i n s u l a t e d the s u l t a n f r o m contact w i t h the p o p u l a t i o n a n d p r o t e c t e d h i m a g a i n s t d i r e c t c h a l l e n g e . F r o m 1826 o n w a r d s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e s u l t a n b e g a n t o seek p o p u l a r s u p p o r t . I n fact, the search f o r b a c k i n g f o r his f i g h t against i n t e r n a l e n e m i e s , especially against the s u r v i v i n g ayans a n d o l d m i l i t a r y chiefs, became a c a r d i n a l feature o f M a h m u d ' s p o l i c y after 1829. The consequences o f this n e w p o l i c y w e r e s o o n e v i d e n t i n I s t a n b u l . M a h m u d h a d b e g u n h i s r e i g n as a ferocious despot, b u t he m e l l o w e d r a p i d l y . H e declared t h a t ' f r o m n o w o n w a r d s the t h r o n e s h a l l n o t f r i g h t e n the p e o p l e a n y more b u t w i l l become their s u p p o r t e r . " H e began to travel t h r o u g h o u t the c i t y a n d evert the c o u n t r y s i d e . (Later, d u r i n g t h e reigns o f A b d u l m e c i d [1839-1861], A b d u l a z i z [1861-1876], a n d A b d u l h a m i d I I [1876-1909], t h e i m p e r i a l fayton became a c o m m o n s i g h t o n t h e streets o f I s t a n b u l . ) M a h m u d I I a l l o w e d m a n y o f the Greeks w h o h a d fled t h e city i n 1821 t o r e t u r n to t h e i r h o m e s a n d t o r e p a i r t h e i r churches, a n d even o f f e r e d t h e m p r o t e c t i o n . M o r e o v e r , h e a b o l i s h e d t h e o l d practice o f s e n d i n g f o r e i g n ambassadors to jail i n case of w a r w i t h t h e i r respective c o u n t r i e s . H e also e n d e d t h e c u s t o m o f e x p e c t i n g each n e w ambassador t o offer g i f t s w h e n first p r e s e n t e d t o the Porte; t h i s w a s d o n e , a p p a r e n t l y at t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h ambassador, " w i t h o u t o b j e c t i o n , a n d t h e p r o f i t as w e l l as t h e a s s u m p tion of superiority were forever a b a n d o n e d . " 1 3
1830-1914
conservatives. H e o r d e r e d t h e p r i n t i n g o f b o o k s o n anat o m y , a n d , after his o w n son d i e d o f s m a l l p o x , he h a d all of his o t h e r c h i l d r e n v a c c i n a t e d b y a F r e n c h d o c t o r a n d took effective measures against t h e p l a g u e a n d cholera. Even tually quarantine b u i l d i n g s w e r e established i n Istanbul a n d o t h e r p o r t s . T h e s u l t a n ' s p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h public w e l f a r e a n d h i s f r i e n d l y policies t o w a r d C h r i s t i a n s made some c l e r g y m e n , a l w a y s eager t o p r o m o t e t h e i r f a i t h , t h i n k that he m i g h t c o n v e r t to C h r i s t i a n i t y . H o w e v e r , his forced r e f o r m s d i d n o t really e n d e a r M a h m u d I I to e i t h e r M u s l i m s or C h r i s t i a n s ; t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f h is life he became very u n p o p u l a r , a n d t h e c o u n t r y a p p e a r e d t o be m i l i t a r i l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y w e a k e r t h a n i t h a d been a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f his r e i g n i n 1808. 1 5
The explanation f o r the u l t i m a t e u n p o p u l a r i t y of M a h m u d I I is s i m p l e : h e h a d created a large c i v i l bureaucra cy a n d a n e w a r m y w i t h o u t i n s t i t u t i n g a d e q u a t e controls over t h e m a n d , especially, w i t h o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g the basis o f a n e w economic o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e f i n a n c i a l sup p o r t f o r h is n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e b u r e a u c r a c y , w h i c h w a s c o m p o s e d i n i t i a l l y a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f M u s l i m s , became a d o m i n a n t class o f efendis w h o m n o b o d y c o u l d criticize o r q u e s t i o n . T h e y became also t h e social s y m b o l s o f the socie ty's n e w i d e a l — n a m e l y , m o d e r n i z a t i o n . I n t h e e n d this group assumed control o f the g o v e r n m e n t , d o m i n a t i n g and o u s t i n g sultans a n d , f i n a l l y , a b o l i s h i n g t h e sultanate. The need f o r a p r o f e s s i o n a l b u r e a u c r a c y w a s o b v i o u s . The broadening economic a n d commercial relations w i t h E u r o p e as w e l l as a n u m b e r o f new i n t e r n a l p r o b l e m s called for t h e c r e a t i o n o f specialized t e c h n i c a l cadres. T h e vakifs t h a t h a d i n t h e past p r o v i d e d s o c i a l , e d u c a t i o n a l , a n d h e a l t h services w e r e i n a d e q u a t e to m e e t n e w needs. Conse q u e n t l y , t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s f o r c e d t o a s s u m e respons ibilities i n e v e r y f i e l d o f a c t i v i t y a n d t o u n d e r t a k e to deliver a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i c a l services t o t h e p u b l i c . T h i s r e q u i r e d the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a b u r e a u c r a c y s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the traditional O t t o m a n one. The rise o f a n e w b u r e a u c r a t i c o r d e r became e v i d e n t first i n I s t a n b u l , w h e r e m o s t o f the offices w e r e l o c a t e d . S h o r t l y after t h e dismissal o f M o r u z z i i n 1821, Y a h y a Efendi, k n o w n also as B u l g a r z a d e , w a s a p p o i n t e d t o t h e post o f d r a g o m a n to serve as b o t h t r a n s l a t o r a n d l a n g u a g e teacher. H e began t r a i n i n g p e o p l e i n t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e a n d i n a n i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h came t o be k n o w n as t h e C h a m b e r o f T r a n s l a t i o n (Tercüme Odnsi). B y 1841 this t r a i n i n g school h a d a staff o f t h i r t y . I n t h e past m o s t O t t o m a n statesmen had risen f r o m the ranks of the m i l i t a r y administration; h o w e v e r , b e g i n n i n g i n the 1830s t h e y c l i m b e d t o p o w e r via the Chamber o f Translation o r the Foreign Office. The f a m o u s r e f o r m i s t p r i m e m i n i s t e r s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h cen t u r y , s u c h as Reşit, A l i , Fuat, a n d M i t h a t p a ş a s , w e r e p r o d -
1 4
The s u l t a n , i n fact, w e n t e v e n f u r t h e r i n h i s quest f o r p o p u l a r i t y . H e had his p o r t r a i t p a i n t e d a n d asked to have i t h u n g o n office w a l l s — a n act t h a t scandalized t h e r e l i g i o u s 13. E. Englehard, La Turqule et le Tanzimat 1 (Paris, 1882): 17. 14. Walsh, Residence at Constantinople 2:297.
15. Ibid., p. 294. After 1834 the sultan permitted the sale of pigs in Istanbul; i n the past, they could be sold o n only one day each year i n places unseen by Muslims. 16. See C. V. Findley, "The Foundation of the Ottoman Foreign M i n i s t r y , " International journal of Middle East Studies 3 (1972): 338-416.
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THE P O P U L A T I O N A N D T H E S O C I A L A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N O F I S T A N B U L
s of these i n s t i t u t i o n s . Yet, it m u s t be stated t h a t E u r o pean languages, n o t a b l y F r e n c h , h a d been t a u g h t at s o m e Military O t t o m a n i n s t i t u t i o n s e v e n b e f o r e t h e establish¬ e n t o f t h e T r a n s l a t i o n B u r e a u . T h e significance o f t h a t institution lay i n t h e fact t h a t i t s y m b o l i z e d the o r i e n t a t i o n f the O t t o m a n state t o w a r d s E u r o p e , t h e a d o p t i o n o f a evv m e n t a l i t y , a n d t h e a s c e n d a n c y o f a m o d e r n c i v i l i a n bureaucracy. 1 6
u C t
m
0
n
D u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h e role o f t h e g r a n d v i z i e r w a s f o r a short t i m e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h a t o f a p r i m e m i n i s t e r (Başve kil), w h i l e t h e Reisülküttab became a f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , a n d two n e w l y created c o u n c i l s , t h e Dar-i Şura-i Bab-i AH a n d the Meclis-i Vala-i Adliye, t o o k over t h e c o n s u l t a t i v e a n d j u d i c i a r y f u n c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d i n t h e past b y t h e g r a n d vizier. T h e h i g h echelons o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a c y were a b o l i s h e d , a n d t h e o l d s y s t e m o f a n n u a l r e n e w a l o f appointments w a s replaced b y a system u n d e r w h i c h a p p o i n t m e n t s a n d dismissals c o n f o r m e d w i t h the n e e d f o r personnel. T h u s , b y 1835 t h e O t t o m a n b u r e a u c r a c y h a d changed so d r a s t i c a l l y as t o m a k e t o t a l l y obsolete Joseph Freiherr v o n H a m m e r - P u r g s t a l l ' s 1815 s t u d y o f t h e O t t o man administration ( H a m m e r himself acknowledged t h e rapid change i n t h e O t t o m a n b u r e a u c r a c y ) . A r o u n d 1850 the O t t o m a n central g o v e r n m e n t — t h a t is, the divan, o r p r i vate c o u n c i l , a c t u a l l y the m o d e r n c a b i n e t — c o n s i s t e d o f t h e f o l l o w i n g officials: 1. Grand Vizier (presiding) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
Şeyhülislam Serasker ( m i n i s t e r o f w a r ) Kaptanpaşa (minister of navy) President o f t h e C o u n c i l o f State M a s t e r o f A r t i l l e r y (also g o v e r n o r o f all fortresses) M i n i s t e r o f F o r e i g n A f f a i r s ( f o r m e r l y Reis efendi) M i n i s t e r o f Finance M i n i s t e r o f T r a d e a n d P u b l i c W o r k s (1838) Superintendent of the Treasury (mint chief) S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e Vakifs
12. Müsteşar,
o r C o u n s e l o r o f the V i z i e r (also M i n i s t e r
of the I n t e r i o r ) 13. M i n i s t e r o f Police ( f o r m e r l y t h e Kahyabey) The n e w b u r e a u c r a c y w a s e v e n t u a l l y o r g a n i z e d i n t o a n u p p e r a n d a l o w e r section. T h e u p p e r section consisted o f five m a j o r r a n k s , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d e d t o a m i l i t a r y h i e r a r chy as f o l l o w s : general o f a d i v i s i o n ; b r i g a d i e r general a n d colonel; l i e u t e n a n t c o l o n e l ; m a j o r , o r b a t t a l i o n h e a d ; a n d captain. T h e müşir (field m a r s h a l ) w a s above r a n k . T h e f u n c t i o n a r i e s w h o a t t a i n e d t h e first t w o r a n k s w e r e called paşa, a t e r m h a r d l y used i n the p r e v i o u s centuries. N e e d l e s s to sav, the paşa w a s a m a n o f w e a l t h , p o w e r , a n d p r e s t i g e ; he h a d a c h i e v e d t h e h i g h e s t r u n g o n t h e l a d d e r o f social aspiration climbed b y t h e u p c o m i n g bureaucrats. T h e salaries o f these u p p e r r a n k i n g officials w e r e v e r y h i g h . M a h m u d I I p l a n n e d t o p a y a t o p o f f i c i a l as m u c h as 100,000 kuruş p e r m o n t h . I n a b o u t 1850 a chief of service received 1,000 t o 1,200 francs salary, p e r m o n t h , w h i l e a s i m p l e f u n c t i o n a r y received o n l y a r o u n d 25 t o 30 francs. The same differences i n salaries p r e v a i l e d a m o n g a r m y per sonnel. (The c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n the h i g h - r a n k i n g b u r e a u c r a c y
affiliated w i t h t h e s u l t a n a n d t h e l o w - p a i d , r a n k - a n d - f i l e bureaucrats c o m i n g f r o m m o d e s t social strata became t h e catalyst o f p o l i t i c a l change at t h e e n d o f t h e c e n t u r y . ) T h e b u d g e t f o r 1855, as g i v e n b y U b i c i n i , s h o w s that a s u b s t a n tial p a r t o f the state r e v e n u e w e n t t o p a y t h e officials o f the " m o d e r n " b u r e a u c r a c y ; see Table 5.2 ( a n d c o m p a r e i t w i t h Table 5 . 1 ) .
17
Table 5.2. B u d g e t o f 1855 Income (in francs) Haraç Customs Tithe Indirect taxes Real estate Tribute of Egypt Tribute of Wallachia Tribute of Moldavia Tribute of Serbia Total
Source: A. Ubicini, La Turquie actuelle (Paris, 1855), p. 191.
T h e need t o meet the expenses o f the n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i o n forced the s u l t a n t o raise the taxes. M o r e o v e r , t h e prices o f staple i t e m s s o l d b y t h e state m o n o p o l i e s w e r e
increased,
a l t h o u g h drastic p l a n s t o m a k e m o r e extensive use o f state monopolies were largely abandoned
f o r fear o f p o p u l a r
reaction. T h e idea o f a b o l i s h i n g t h e 10 p e r c e n t tax collected b y t h e r e l i g i o u s heads f r o m t h e e x c h a n g e o r sale o f p r o p erties a n d f r o m cases settled b e f o r e r e l i g i o u s t r i b u n a l s w a s also a b a n d o n e d . The b u r g e o n i n g of the m o d e r n bureaucracy made a s t r o n g e c o n o m i c a n d social i m p r e s s i o n o n the life of I s t a n b u l . The h i g h - r a n k i n g bureaucrats received r e g u l a r salaries f r o m t h e state b u d g e t , i n s t e a d o f l i v i n g o f f t h e r e v e n u e s f r o m l a n d as h a d b e e n the case i n the past, a n d t h e y s p e n t m o s t o f these salaries i n t h e c a p i t a l , a s s u m i n g t h e status of a m a j o r c o n s u m i n g g r o u p a n d p a y i n g cash f o r p u r c h a s e s . The b u y i n g p o w e r o f the bureaucrats affected seriously t h e three basic sectors o f t h e city's e c o n o m y : f o o d , c l o t h i n g , a n d h o u s i n g ( b o t h r e n t a l rates a n d p r o p e r t y values). T h e effect o f the large a m o u n t o f tax r e v e n u e s b e i n g c h a n n e l e d f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s a n d s p e n t as cash i n I s t a n b u l w a s reflected i n t h e increase o f t h e c i t y ' s p o p u l a t i o n , i n t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g s h o p s o f all varieties, a n d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h a t m a y be called service g r o u p s . H e n c e f o r t h I s t a n b u l ' s economic g r o w t h w a s based c h i e f l y o n trade a n d service-related activities r a t h e r t h a n o n crafts a n d p r o d u c t i o n . M a n y of these service occupations, a l t h o u g h o f f e r i n g s o m e e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s , con t r i b u t e d l i t t l e or n o t h i n g to the basic e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t of the c o u n t r y . Factories established i n I s t a n b u l i n t h e first half o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r v served c h i e f l y m i l i t a r y needs, as the shores o f the G o l d e n H o r n a n d Galata became d o t t e d w i t h
17. La Turquie actuelle (Paris, 1855), p . 191.
94
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1 8 3 0 - 1 9 U P O P U L A T I O N A N D T H E S O C I A L A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N OF I S T A N B U L
m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , some of w h i c h w e r e v e r v m o d e r n . W a l s h w r o t e i n the 1830s that the arsenal e x t e n d e d
w h i c h had been i n existence since the conquest of the citv in 1453, was a b o l i s h e d .
f r o m Galata a l o n g the h a r b o u r , for a m i l e a n d a half, h a v i n g a g r a n d range of stores a n d w o r k h o u s e s . . there are [ w o r k i n g there] five h u n d r e d labourers w i t h as m a n y slaves, w h o have been c o n d e m n e d for v a r i o u s crimes, w h o are c h a i n e d together. . . . I v i s i t e d the arsenal a n d the d o c k y a r d s at Fieri [Piri] Pasha, the c a n n o n - f o u n d r y a n d the d e p o t at T o p h a n e , a n d I t h i n k t h e m m o r e extensive, a n d a p p a r e n t l y as w e l l - s u p p l i e d a n d c o n d u c t e d , as those at P o r t s m o u t h or W o o l w i c h ; n o r are t h e y to be exceeded, 1 suppose, b v a n v c o u n t r y in E u r o p e .
I n the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y caravans still came to I s t a n b u l , b r i n g i n g f r o m A n a t o l i a , Syria, Iraq, a n d b e v o n d goods of all varieties a n d d e p a r t i n g w i t h m e r c h a n d i s e for sale i n l a n d o n the r o u t e back.' O t h e r m e r c h a n t s loaded goods, o f t e n of E u r o p e a n o r i g i n , o n s m a l l boats, carried t h e m to the iikele, that is, the s m a l l p o r t s a l o n g the coasts of the M a r m a r a , M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a n d Black seas, a n d then t r a n s p o r t e d t h e m o v e r l a n d to t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n s . I s t a n b u l , h o w e v e r , c o n s u m e d m u c h m o r e t h a n it e x p o r t e d ; I z m i r ! Salonica, a n d B e y r u t g r a d u a l l y a c q u i r e d l e a d i n g roles as e x p o r t i n g a n d exchange places.
H o w e v e r , s o m e o t h e r s m a l l i n d u s t r i e s h a d b e g u n to be d e v e l o p e d . Selim H i h a d established i n Ü s k ü d a r a large factory for p r i n t e d c o t t o n s that i n 1812 o p e r a t e d 600 l o o m s ( b u t o n l y 41 l o o m s i n 1841). T h i s factory e m p l o y e d several h u n d r e d w o r k e r s ( w h o m W a l s h c o n s i d e r e d to be as expert as the w o r k m e n of M a n c h e s t e r ) . A, p r i n t i n g press, w h i c h o c c u p i e d a sizable b u i l d i n g , .was located i n Ü s k ü d a r also. M u s t a f a , a m a n of h u m b l e o r i g i n s w h o became a f a v o r i t e of Sultan M a h m u d I I , established a t a n n i n g p l a n t , w i t h advice a n d tools f r o m a b r o a d , at B a l t a l i m a n . By 1827 a c o t t o n t h r e a d (iplikhane) p l a n t w a s ' c o n s t r u c t e d at T a ş l i b u r u n i n the district o f E y u b ; m u l e s w e r e u s e d to operate i t , a n d it p r o d u c e d 22 o k k a of t h r e a d d a i l y . These b e g i n n i n g s of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n I s t a n b u l d i d n o t go far because o f lack of a class of e n t r e p r e n e u r s , of c a p i t a l , a n d , especially, of tech nically t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l — t h e result of the restrictive p h i l o s o p h y of social e l i t i s m . The b u r e a u c r a c y t r a i n e d i n " m o d e r n " schools g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d a n interest n o t i n the basic p r o b l e m s of its o w n c o u n t r y b u t i n the wares a n d the c u l t u r e of E u r o p e , so the relatively h i g h c u l t u r a l level of the bureaucracy m a n i f e s t e d itself i n the r e f i n e m e n t of habits of c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e h i g h er the, i n c o m e a n d e d u c a t i o n , the stronger the desire for E u r o p e a n g o o d s . I s t a n b u l became i n c r e a s i n g l y the recipient of a great v a r i e t y o f E u r o p e a n i m p o r t s , a n d i t a d o p t e d Euro p e a n - s t y l e s h o p s a n d a m u s e m e n t h a b i t s . T h e c i t y was r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g i n t o a n e w k i n d of c o n s u m p t i o n center. The O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n as a w h o l e felt the i m p a c t of these s o c i o - e c o n o m i c changes i n I s t a n b u l d e e p l y . T r a d i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s attracted large n u m b e r s o f T u r k s , Greeks, A r m e n i a n s , Bulgarians, a n d others f r o m far-away pro vinces w h o m o v e d to I s t a n b u l i n search of f o r t u n e s . M a n y of these t o o k u p o c c u p a t i o n s as f o o d sellers or d i s t r i b u t o r s , a n d m a n y of these p e t t y v e n d o r s f r o m the p r o v i n c e s be came r i c h a n d w e r e able to establish successful businesses. M e a n w h i l e , the m a r k e t s o f I s t a n b u l h a d b e g u n to change. I n the past, these h a d been a d m i n i s t e r e d or c o n t r o l l e d b y sııbaşi, head of g u i l d s , a n d ulema. Because the m a r k e t s w e r e g r o w i n g too fast to be a d m i n i s t e r e d b y t r a d i t i o n a l means, the g o v e r n m e n t t o o k o v e r t h e i r s u p e r v i s i o n , i n c l u d i n g the c o n t r o l o f w e i g h t s a n d measures—a job heretofore per f o r m e d b y the ulema. I n 1831, the o l d office of the şehremini,
18. Residence at Constantinople 1:379.
The e c o n o m i c life o f I s t a n b u l d u r i n g the early vears of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e v o l v e d m o s t l y a r o u n d the bazaar, or bezistan. A s the c e n t u r y a d v a n c e d , i t s p i l l e d o u t of the bazaar o n t o the side streets, to the trade centers of the mahalle, a n d to Pera a n d Galata. A r o u n d the m i d d l e of the c e n t u r y the central bazaar of I s t a n b u l h a d o v e r a t h o u s a n d shops. T h e T u r k i s h m e r c h a n t s specialized i n the sale of hides, f u r s , c l o t h i n g , b o o k s , p e r f u m e s , a n d e n g r a v i n g s ; the Greeks sold c o t t o n g o o d s a n d w o r k e d as tailors a n d leather w o r k e r s ; the A r m e n i a n s d e a l t i n j e w e l r y , watches, and e m b r o i d e r i e s ; a n d Jews w e r e e n g a g e d i n a v a r i e t y of other occupations. M a n y o f the c r a f t s m e n w e r e o r g a n i z e d i n cor p o r a t i o n s . The business a t t i t u d e s of t h e bazaar merchants varied g r e a t l y . A s U b i c i n i describes i t , the T u r k i s h mer chant w o u l d ask a set p r i c e : y o u w o u l d insist i n v a i n [ b u t ] he w o u l d n o t l o w e r the price even one para. I t is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t w i t h the C h r i s t i a n or J e w i s h m e r c h a n t s i n t h e bazaar. T h e y come d o w n successively f r o m one h u n d r e d piasters to sixty, to f o r t y or even b e l o w . T h e g e n e r a l r u l e is this: o f f e r ' t o the A r m e n i a n h a l f of the a s k e d p r i c e , o n e - t h i r d to a Greek, a n d o n e - q u a r t e r to a Jew. B u t if y o u really w a n t e d to b u y the m e r c h a n d i s e of t h e M u s l i m resign y o u r s e l f to p a y i n g the price he a s k e d f i r s t . 1 9
There was safety i n the bazaar, w h i c h a d h e r e d to its o w n w a y o f m u t u a l t r u s t a n d c o n f i d e n c e . I n Galata a n d P e r a — the u p c o m i n g , E u r o p e a n - t y p e b u s i n e s s d i s t r i c t s — t h e f t was a c o m m o n occurrence. O u t s i d e the bazaar, the exchange of c o m m o d i t i e s was largely i n the h a n d s of t h e bekar—single m e n , or "bache l o r s , " m o s t o f w h o m w e r e n o t n a t i v e to the c i t y . The total n u m b e r of bekar i n I s t a n b u l i n 1853, a c c o r d i n g to U b i c i n i , was about 75,000. T w o - f i f t h s of these w e r e T u r k s , the rest Greeks, A r m e n i a n s , a n d o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s . M o s t came f r o m t h e p r o v i n c e s w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n of a c c u m u l a t i n g some capital a n d e v e n t u a l l y r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r native places to start businesses. M a n y h a d no skills a n d t o o k a n y avail able jobs. T h e y w o r k e d as harnais ( p o r t e r s ) , saka (carriers of w a t e r i n b i g leather bags), helvaci (makers a n d sellers of
19. La Turquie actuelle, p. 327. A description of professions may also be found in Théophile Gautier, Constantinople (Paris, 1883), pp. 110-12, and lists of professions are given in Section IV of the statis tical appendices.
,,|vA î (candy m a k e r s a n d sellers), ciğerci (sellers of ' " ' j liver), a n d i n o t h e r s i m i l a r o c c u p a t i o n s , because of its n a r r o w a n d steep streets, w h i c h w e r e u n jtable f o r w h e e l e d t r a n s p o r t , I s t a n b u l d e p e n d e d f o r f " o r t a t i o n (as it still does i n parts) o n the Immals. These , s , n u m b e r i n g a b o u t 5,000, w e r e m o s t l y T u r k s or C e n i ' a n s . K n o w n for t h e i r h o n e s t y , the p o r t e r s w e r e anized i n odas, or c h a m b e r s , u n d e r a chief (hamalbaşı). î ev s t a t i o n e d t h e m s e l v e s r e a d y f o r h i r e i n G a l a t a , Tophane, or at the entrances of the bans— that is, i n b u s i es p l a c e s . T r a n s p o r t a t i o n across the w a t e r d e p e n d e d largely o n kayikçi ( b o a t m e n ) u n t i l m i d - c e n t u r y , w h e n the modern ferryboats o n the B o s p o r u s b e g a n to operate. M a n y f the b o a t m e n w e r e bekar. B o a t i n g i n I s t a n b u l h a d a r a t h e r complex o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e ; it w a s , i n fact, a n i n s t i t u tion in itself. S o m e boats w e r e o p e r a t e d b y i n d i v i d u a l o w n ers. H o w e v e r , s t a t i o n e d at v a r i o u s p o i n t s a l o n g the shores there w e r e vessels o p e r a t e d b y one to three b o a t m e n , that ere used for p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . T h e r e was also a n o t h e r tvpe of p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t , the pazar kaik, o p e r a t e d b y six to eight o a r s m e n (there was a r e g u l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the n u m ber of o a r s m e n : the m a x i m u m w a s f o u r t e e n ) . These ferries were p a t r o n i z e d b y large n u m b e r s of p e o p l e of all ages, sexes, a n d r e l i g i o n s . M u s l i m s , . C h r i s t i a n s , Jews, m e n , veiled w o m e n , a n d c h i l d r e n m i x e d freely w h i l e t r a v e l i n g o n them. e k c r a
n s p
lra
rter
rR
h
b
95
w i t h i n the city itself, w h i l e 137 w e r e o u t s i d e the w a l l s ; the latter i n c l u d e d K a s ı m p a ş a , H a s k ö y , Galata, Pera, T o p h a n e , Fındikli, Ü s k ü d a r , a n d E y ü b a n d its d e p e n d e n c i e s . O f these, Galata, Pera, K a s i m p a ş a , a n d T o p h a n e w e r e a d m i n istered by t h e voyvoda, or the g r a n d j u d g e , of-Galata, w h i l e E y ü b a n d its d e p e n d e n c i e s w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d b y a n o t h e r j u d g e . U n t i l 1854, w h e n a n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n was installed, the city proper was officially u n d e r the au t h o r i t y of the g r a n d v i z i e r , the Kaptanpaşa, and the Istanbul efendisi.
20
0
W
The T u r k s i n I s t a n b u l h a d a l m o s t exclusive c o n t r o l over an i m p o r t a n t p r o f e s s i o n r e q u i r i n g some l e a r n i n g — t h e p r o fession of letter w r i t i n g . T h e letter w r i t e r (katip) c o u l d be seen a r o u n d bazaar or m o s q u e , c a r r y i n g w i t h h i m a s m a l l table, a special belt d e s i n e d to h o l d a n i n k b o t t l e , a q u i l l p e n (kalem), a n d a s m a l l k n i f e . T h e katips w r o t e letters of all kinds, a m u l e t s , a n d a n y o t h e r t y p e of message. Some of them w e r e c a l l i g r a p h e r s w h o c o u l d w r i t e i n a n y of the seven types of h a n d w r i t i n g u s e d b y t h e O t t o m a n c h a n c e r y . There w e r e , i n a d d i t i o n to t h e professions m e n t i o n e d above, a great v a r i e t y of other o c c u p a t i o n s w h i c h h a d b e e n vital i n the t r a d i t i o n a l s y s t e m . I n t h e second h a l f of t h e nineteenth c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r , m o s t of these o l d professions either d i s a p p e a r e d c o m p l e t e l y or h a d to adjust to n e w c o n ditions a n d c o n t i n u e i n s u b s t a n t i a l l y altered f o r m . For ex ample, the place of the katip w a s e v e n t u a l l y t a k e n b y t h e arzuhalci, a m a n w i t h a t y p e w r i t e r w h o c o m p o s e d , i n ex change for a s m a l l fee, p e t i t i o n s to v a r i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s . (The c h a n g i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l p i c t u r e w a s discussed i n C h a p t e r 3.) Both i n n u m b e r s a n d i n e t h n i c , social, a n d r e l i g i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n , the e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n of I s t a n b u l , i n c l u d i n g the inhabitants of t h e s u b u r b s , u n d e r w e n t great change i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . The g r o w t h of e c o n o m i c o p p o r t u n i t y , the i n t r o d u c t i o n of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n facilities, a n d the i n crease i n p o p u l a t i o n h a d c o m b i n e d to s t i m u l a t e the g r o w t h of s u b u r b a n c o m m u n i t i e s a l o n g the shores of M a r m a r a a n d the B o s p o r u s . By the m i d d l e of the c e n t u r y , the p o p u l a t i o n of I s t a n b u l l i v e d i n 455 t o w n quarters, of w h i c h 318 w e r e 2 1
20. Ubicini, Lfl Turquic actuelle, p. 332. 21. See Thornton, Modern Turkey 2:20, and Eton, Survey, pp. 41-45, 272-79.
Istanbul i n the Second H a l f of the Nineteenth
Century
T h e life of I s t a n b u l i n the second h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h century appears to have been d o m i n a t e d by Europe t h r o u g h centers established i n Galata a n d , especially, Pera ( B e y o ğ l u ) . I n d e e d , d u r i n g this p e r i o d Pera became increas i n g l y the center of social i m p o r t a n c e i n I s t a n b u l , s y m b o l i z i n g the ascendancy of E u r o p e over the t r a d i t i o n a l O t t o m a n c u l t u r e i n a l l fields of a c t i v i t y . C o m m e r c i a l treaties w i t h E n g l a n d i n 1838 a n d 1861, the C r i m e a n W a r i n 1853, the Treaty of Paris, a n d , especially, t h e Edict of 1856 p a v e d the w a y f o r the rise of E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e i n the O t t o m a n state a n d i n d i r e c t l y f a c i l i t a t e d the social a n d e c o n o m i c rise of a n o n - M u s l i m m i d d l e class. The i n i t i a l O t t o m a n c o m m e r c i a l t r e a t y w i t h E n g l a n d i n 1838 e l i m i n a t e d a n u m b e r of trade r e s t r i c t i o n s . Subsequent l y , the m a n u f a c t u r e d goods of E n g l a n d p o u r e d i n t o the O t t o m a n state, a n d i n a m a t t e r of years the M u s l i m O t t o m a n m i d d l e class, w h i c h h a d consisted of c r a f t s m e n a n d small shopkeepers, was w i p e d out. A n e w Greek and A r m e n i a n m i d d l e class, w h o s e m a i n f u n c t i o n was to dis t r i b u t e the cheaper, m a c h i n e - m a d e goods of E u r o p e a n d to become i n the process E u r o p e ' s p r o t é g é s a n d agents, rose to p o w e r . T h e Edict of 1856 (the İslahat Fermani), w h i l e s u p posedly establishing equality between M u s l i m s a n d - n o n M u s l i m s , i n fact h e l p e d the C h r i s t i a n s achieve e c o n o m i c p o w e r . F i n a l l y , t h e c o m m e r c i a l t r e a t y b e t w e e n t h e Porte a n d Great B r i t a i n s i g n e d at Kanlica ( I s t a n b u l ) o n 29 A p r i l 1861 gave t h e E n g l i s h e v e n m o r e extensive f r e e d o m of trade a n d m o r e p r i v i l e g e s w i t h i n the O t t o m a n d o m a i n s . I s t a n b u l , as the m a j o r i m p o r t i n g p o r t , became the center of the re s u l t i n g socio-political t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . There w e r e also p s y c h o l o g i c a l factors t h a t p r e d i s p o s e d the city to o r i e n t itself t o w a r d s E u r o p e . T h e C r i m e a n W a r h a d p r o v i d e d t h e occasion for I s t a n b u l to establish contact w i t h E u r o p e a n citizens. The city w a s host to French a n d E n g l i s h soldiers a n d officers, w h o w e r e received there as f r i e n d s a n d allies f i g h t i n g i n t h e c o m m o n w a r against the Russians. I n a d d i t i o n to the o p p o r t u n i t y for f r i e n d l y e n counters at the h u m a n level, the p e o p l e of I s t a n b u l h a d t h e chance to b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d at first h a n d w i t h E u r o p e a n a m e n i t i e s a n d facilities i n s a n i t a t i o n , h e a l t h , a n d trans p o r t a t i o n a n d , as w e l l , w i t h a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t foods a n d c l o t h i n g . T h e alliance w i t h t h e West t h u s h e l p e d r e m o v e some i n h i b i t i o n s a n d d i s p e l the fear felt b y M u s l i m s to w a r d s E u r o p e a n d its c u l t u r e .
THE
P O P U L A T I O N A N D T H E S O C I A L A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N OF I S T A N B U L
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
96
The o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s E u r o p e a n d the t r e n d t o w a r d m o d e r n i z a t i o n w e r e assisted by the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a varie ty of m o d e r n i n s t i t u t i o n s . A n e w e d u c a t i o n a l system w a s established a n d d e v e l o p e d r a p i d l y i n the second half of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H o w e v e r , u n t i l w e l l i n t o the 1870s the basic f u n c t i o n of the schools r e m a i n e d the t r a i n i n g of per sonnel for g o v e r n m e n t service rather t h a n the e d u c a t i o n of the p o p u l a t i o n at large. T h u s , e d u c a t i o n i n the m o d e r n school, a d i p l o m a of g r a d u a t i o n , a n d , p e r h a p s , k n o w l e d g e of a f o r e i g n language became the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g m a r k s of the n e w d o m i n a n t class, the b u r e a u c r a c y - i n t e l l i g e n t s i a . A t the b e g i n n i n g of the c e n t u r y , the M u s l i m s i n the O t t o man state d i d n o t have a n y m o d e r n schools, except for a few i n s t i t u t i o n s for m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g . H o w e v e r , by 1860 I s t a n b u l h a d a c q u i r e d a n u m b e r of p r o f e s s i o n a l schools. A m o n g these, the M e d i c a l School (tıbbiye). C i v i l Service T r a i n i n g S c h o o l (mülkiye), M i l i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g School, N a v a l A c a d e m y , M i l i t a r y College (harbiye) a n d the A g r i c u l t u r a l a n d V e t e r i n a r y schools deserve special m e n t i o n . M o s t of t h e i r g r a d u a t e s j o i n e d the ranks of the b u r e a u c r a c y . D u r i n g the 1880s the s y s t e m w a s f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d so that there w e r e three levels: the p r i m a r y level (sibyan a n d riişdiye), the s e c o n d a r y l e v e l ( c o m p o s e d of the idadiye, sulta niye, t h e c i v i l a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e schools), a n d the u p p e r level ( u n i v e r s i t y a n d special schools of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l schools). A m o n g the special schools there w a s also the French school, the Galatasaray Sultanisi, e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1868 at the insistence of the F r e n c h , w h o s o u g h t to p r o m o t e t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a m b i t i o n s i n the O t t o m a n state w i t h p r o p e r c u l t u r a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l s u p p o r t . I n i t i a l l y the m o d e r n schools w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n Istan b u l or s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s ; " after 1866, a n d n o t a b l y d u r i n g the r e i g n of A b d u l h a m i d I I , the m o d e r n e d u c a t i o n a l system was e x p a n d e d i n t o the p r o v i n c e s , t h u s p r o v i d i n g a c h a n n e l for u p w a r d m o b i l i t y f o r the c o u n t r y p e o p l e . M o r e o v e r , d u r i n g the s e c o n d h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y m o r e f o r e i g n schools, t e a c h i n g I t a l i a n , G e r m a n , a n d F r e n c h , w e r e estab l i s h e d , a n d the e x i s t i n g o n e s w e r e e x p a n d e d . A t the b e g i n n i n g of the t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y a total of 62,336 s t u d e n t s i n the O t t o m a n state w e r e r e c o r d e d as l e a r n i n g French i n var ious schools, m a n y of w h i c h received f i n a n c i a l h e l p f r o m the F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t . ( P a u l Fesch p u t s the t r u e t o t a l of F r e n c h - l e a r n i n g p u p i l s at a m u c h h i g h e r f i g u r e ) — a t least 70,000: I s t a n b u l alone h a d 6,668, a n d B e y r u t h a d 2 2 , 6 9 5 . 23
The p i c t u r e of r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g I s t a n b u l c a n n o t be c o m p l e t e d w i t h o u t m e n t i o n of t h e e x p a n s i o n of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n systems. T h e first T u r k i s h n e w s p a p e r , the Takvim-i Vekai [ C a l e n d a r of E v e n t s ] , a sort of b u l l e t i n , w a s p u b l i s h e d b y the g o v e r n m e n t i n 1831. It also h a d a F r e n c h e d i t i o n , i s s u e d e v e r y S a t u r d a y . T h e n e w s p a p e r h a d a r a t h e r u n u s u a l feature, w h i c h attracted readers a n d gave the press a h i g h status: the s u l t a n o f t e n w r o t e the l e a d i n g a r t i c l e . I n d e e d , the s i g h t of a n e w s p a p e r c a r r y i n g the ideas of t h e s u l t a n was an i n t e l l e c t u a l r e v o l u 22. Ubicini, La Turquie actuelle, p. 58. 23. Constantinople aux dormers jours d'Abdul-Humid (Paris, 1907), p. 449.
t i o n i n itself. The i m p a c t of the p u b l i c a t i o n is w e l l described by W a l s h : The p u b l i c a t i o n of the n e w s of the e m p i r e i n this w a y soon became of u n i v e r s a l a t t r a c t i o n . T h e p a p e r m a d e its w a y to the coffeehouses, a n d the same T u r k that I n o t i c e d before d o z i n g h a l f - s t u p i f i e d w i t h coffee a n d tobacco, I n o w saw a c t u a l l y a w a k e w i t h a paper i n his hands eagerly s p e l l i n g o u t the n e w s . But the m o s t usual m o d e of c o m m u n i c a t i n g it are the n e w s r o o m s , a n d a place is taken w h e r e those w h o w i s h to hear it assemble . . . the a t t e n t i o n p a i d [ t o the n e w s p a p e r reader] is very d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t w h i c h I saw t h e m g i v e to a story-teller. There w a s n o m i r t h or l a u g h t e r excited, b u t all seemed to listen w i t h p r o f o u n d a t t e n t i o n . . . the rayas of the e m p i r e s o o n c a u g h t the s p i r i t of such a p u b l i c a t i o n , a n d w e r e d e l i g h t e d w i t h the p e r m i s s i o n to imitate i t . 2 4
The Takvim-i Vekai w a s s o o n f o l l o w e d b y Ceride-i Havadis a n d Terciimani Hakikat, w h i c h h a d a c o m b i n e d c i r c u l a t i o n of 32,000. T h e r e w e r e also n i n e w e e k l i e s , w i t h a c o m b i n e d c i r c u l a t i o n of a b o u t 10,000. T h e A n g l o - F r e n c h d a i l y press (Moniteur oriental, Levant Herald, Eastern Express, La Turquie) a n d w e e k l i e s c o n s i s t i n g of three c o m m e r c i a l r e v i e w s (as against a single one i n T u r k i s h ) h a d a t o t a l c i r c u l a t i o n of a b o u t 25,000 (20,000 f o r the dailies). T h e Greek-language press, w i t h n i n e p u b l i c a t i o n s , h a d a t o t a l c i r c u l a t i o n of 17,000 to 18,000. Five A r m e n i a n dailies a n d e i g h t weeklies had a c i r c u l a t i o n of a b o u t 10,000. I n a d d i t i o n there was one paper each i n G e r m a n , I t a l i a n , a n d Serbian. T h e Jews had t w o dailies, o n e i n S p a n i s h (the L a d i n o s p o k e n by Sephardic Jews) a n d the o t h e r i n H e b r e w . T h u s , b y the e n d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of the c i t i z e n r y of I s t a n b u l , p e r h a p s as m a n y as 300,000 p e r s o n s , read some sort of d a i l y or w e e k l y p u b l i c a t i o n i n o n e of t h e languages s p o k e n i n the c i t y , a l t h o u g h t r a n s p o r t a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s still p r e v e n t e d the s e n d i n g of n e w s p a p e r s to the p r o v i n c e s . The appearance of the n e w s p a p e r , as W a l s h p u t i t , was " b y far the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n n o v a t i o n . . . it was p r o o f that p u b l i c o p i n i o n w a s e v e n there b e c o m i n g a r u l e of d i r e c t i o n to the g o v e r n m e n t . " " - " ' F i n a l l y , the i m p r o v e m e n t of the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system g r e a t l y i n t e n s i f i e d the c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n I s t a n b u l a n d E u r o p e a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , b e t w e e n the capital a n d the i n l a n d t e r r i t o r i e s . T h e s t e a m b o a t s h o r t e n e d the travel time f r o m I s t a n b u l to Marseilles f r o m six w e e k s to six days. I n the second half of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , I s t a n b u l was serviced by some t w e n t y m a r i t i m e lines l i n k i n g it w i t h all parts of the w o r l d . T h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t itself pur chased a passenger steamer a n d i n 1844 t w o ships, the Mesr-i bahri a n d the Eser-i Hayir, b e l o n g i n g to the n a v a l forces w e r e assigned to c a r r y passengers to v a r i o u s points o n the shores of the B o s p o r u s . A f e w years later a conces2 6
24. Residence at Constantinople 2:283; see also my "The Mass Media" in Robert Ward and Dankwart A . Ruston, eds., Political Modernization in japan and Turkey (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 255-82. • , " . 25. Residence at Constantinople 2:279. 26. See Islam Ansiklopedisi, s.v. " I s t a n b u l . "
97
sion to carry passengers w a s g i v e n to t h e Şirket-i Hayriyye, a F r e n c h - c o n t r o l l e d n a v i g a t i o n society, w h i c h established a n e t w o r k of f e r r y b o a t l i n e s i n t h e B o s p o r u s a n d the G o l d e n H o r n . The railroad further expanded communications for the c a p i t a l . A l i n e c o m i n g f r o m E u r o p e e n d e d i n I s t a n b u l i n a n e w l y b u i l t t e r m i n a l at Sirkeci, w h i l e a l o n g A s i a t i c l i n e began at the m a s s i v e b u i l d i n g i n H a y d a r p a ş a o n the A s i a t i c shore. ( T o d a y , b o t h these stations c o n t i n u e t o serve t h e city.) A m o d e r n p o s t a l service w a s i n s t i t u t e d i n 1840, a n d a h u g e post office b u i l d i n g w a s erected i n the o l d c i t y . E v e n t u a l l y t h r e e p o s t a l r o u t e s to E u r o p e v i a Marseilles, Trieste, and the D a n u b e w e r e established; t h e last, u s e d o n l y i n t h e summer, was the most expeditious.
c e n t u r y I s t a n b u l possessed a great v a r i e t y of o l d m o n u m e n t s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g . A list of s o m e m a j o r c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s (extracted f r o m v a r i o u s sources) is i m p r e s s i v e . I n a b o u t 1850 I s t a n b u l h a d m o r e t h a n 350 m o s q u e s of all sizes, 91 G r e e k a n d A r m e n i a n c h u r c h e s , 8 C a t h o l i c c h u r c h e s , 37, s y n a g o g u e s , 518 medreses, 37 p u b l i c libraries, 200 h o s p i t a l s of v a r i o u s sizes, 100 imarcts ( w e l f a r e centers), o v e r 300 haman (baths), a n d several h u n d r e d ham ( i n n s ) . (The census of 1831 p r o v i d e s f i g u r e s f o r s o m e of these e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . ) Yet all these d i d n o t i m p r e s s the m o d e r n O t t o m a n M u s l i m intellectual. A n insignificant ob ject m a n u f a c t u r e d i n E u r o p e w a s c o n s i d e r e d a priceless treasure; a n d residence i n a E u r o p e a n c i t y w a s life's d r e a m .
These d e v e l o p m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e m o d e r n e d u c a t i o n a l system, w h i c h h a d b e e n c o p i e d f r o m E u r o p e w i t h o u t m u c h concern f o r t h e n a t i v e c u l t u r e or local needs, all s e r v e d to enhance t h e p r e s t i g e of t h e W e s t . S o o n I s t a n b u l became t h e filter t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e so-called E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e — d i l u t e d , v u l g a r i z e d , a n d d e g e n e r a t e d b y its representatives i n P e r a — t r i c k l e d t o t h e o t h e r areas of t h e O t t o m a n state.
E u r o p e a n c u l t u r e first came to I s t a n b u l n o t as l e a r n i n g a n d t e c h n o l o g y b u t i n the f o r m o f m e r c h a n d i s e sold freely o n c i t y streets. These g o o d s p o u r e d i n t o t h e c i t y t h r o u g h its c u s t o m s h o u s e ( o t h e r p r i n c i p a l c u s t o m s houses w e r e i n Salonica, T r a b z o n , a n d I z m i r ) . T h e c o l l e c t i o n o f c u s t o m s w a s f a r m e d o u t t o t r a d e r s , w h o a u c t i o n e d the c u s t o m s a n d t h e n i m p o r t e d t h e i r o w n m e r c h a n d i s e p r a c t i c a l l y free of d u t y , thus competing on unequal terms w i t h independent m e r c h a n t s , w h o h a d t o p a y h e a v y d u t i e s . I n a d d i t i o n , the O t t o m a n tariff structure favored western i m p o r t s but levied a h e a v y tax o n e x p o r t s . T h e r a n k - a n d - f i l e m e r c h a n t s w e r e d e m o r a l i z e d ; m e a n w h i l e the government's revenue was c o n s t a n t l y d i m i n i s h i n g . T h e c u s t o m s i n Bosnia a n d H e r z e govina, sold by auction to native companies, brought £ 6 , 7 7 6 in r e v e n u e ; t h e n e x t year t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o o k over and realized £23,980. Properly managed, the customs house in Istanbul probably w o u l d have more than tripled its r e v e n u e . ( E v e n t u a l l y i t d i d so w h e n p l a c e d b y the g o v ernment u n d e r the management of K a n i Paşa.)
I n the e a r l y p e r i o d o f contact w i t h E u r o p e ( i . e . , u n t i l a b o u t 1850) t h e T u r k s seemed f u l l y a w a r e o f the fact t h a t they h a d b u i l t i n I s t a n b u l a n i m p r e s s i v e c i v i l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r o w n a n d h a d e n d o w e d t h e c i t y w i t h w o r k s of art a n d u t i l i ties w h i c h w e r e e q u a l , i f n o t s u p e r i o r , t o t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n E u r o p e . For e x a m p l e , E u r o p e a n v i s i t o r s to I s t a n b u l w e r e deeply impressed by the city's traditional water system, called terazi, w h i c h p u r i f i e d the w a t e r t h r o u g h a n i n g e n i o u s use of the g r a v i t a t i o n a l force of t h e l i q u i d ' s n a t u r a l f l o w . I n the second h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y interest i n t h e n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e w a s r e p l a c e d b y a n e f f o r t to absorb E u r o pean culture. T h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t r a d i t i o n a l i s m a n d m o d e r n i t y is well defined b y the descriptions of the t w o h u m a n types that r e p r e s e n t e d t h e i d e a l of t h e t w o p e r i o d s . D u r i n g the first h a l f of t h e c e n t u r y t h e g e n t l e m a n of I s t a n b u l w a s ex pected to be a r e l a t i v e l y w e l l - t o - d o m a n , t h e scion of g o o d f a m i l y , w h o k n e w A r a b i c a n d Persian, c o u l d recite b y h e a r t H a f i z , Ö m e r K h a y y a m , N e d i m , a n d o t h e r poets, w r o t e p o e t r y h i m s e l f , c o u l d speak w e l l , a n d h a d delicate, gra cious m a n n e r s . D u r i n g t h e second h a l f of t h e c e n t u r y , t h e ideal c i t i z e n w a s o n e w h o possessed a d i p l o m a f r o m o n e of the m o d e r n p r o f e s s i o n a l schools, k n e w F r e n c h , h a d a re spectable p o s i t i o n i n t h e bureaucratic h i e r a r c h y , a n d d i s p l a y e d m a n n e r s t h a t o f t e n c o m b i n e d reserve a n d r o m a n t i cism w i t h exaggerated p o l i t e n e s s . The n e w istanbullu Efendi (the t e r m w a s u s e d to designate a c u l t i v a t e d , s u p e r i o r m a n ) w a s p o l i t i c a l l y s e n s i t i z e d a n d p r o n e to engage i n l o n g de bates i n w h i c h he s o u g h t to d e m o n s t r a t e the w o r t h i n e s s of his c o u n t r y a n d c u l t u r e . Yet, t h i s " m o d e r n " m a n ' s ties t o his o w n c u l t u r e , d e s p i t e h i s declarations to t h e c o n t r a r y , w e r e w e a k e n i n g r a p i d l y , a n d he l o o k e d a d m i r i n g l y to E u r o p e a n d b e g a n t o i m i t a t e E u r o p e a n m a n n e r s a n d to dress h i m s e l f i n F r e n c h clothes i n the n a m e of p r o g r e s s . T h e c u l t u r a l a l i e n a t i o n h a d b e g u n . W e s t e r n c u l t u r e , thea ters, l i t e r a t u r e , a n d a r t s ' s e e m e t T t e fascinate the m o d e r n e x e m p l a r , w h i l e t h e ancient treasures of his o w n c i t y left h i m u n m o v e d - , d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t i n the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h r
)
2 7
T h e R i s e of Pera a n d the Introduction of E u r o p e a n S h o p s The s e c o n d h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t n e s s e d the rise of Pera as t h e m o d e r n E u r o p e a n section o f I s t a n b u l . A c t u a l l y , Pera ( w i t h Galata) d e v e l o p e d i n t o a n i n d e p e n d e n t city i n practically every respect. Its p o p u l a t i o n in the second h a l f of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y consisted l a r g e l y of n o n - M u s l i m s — m o s t l y G r e e k s , A r m e n i a n s , Jews, F r e n c h , A u s t r i a n s , a n d s o m e o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s . T h e large t r a d e houses a n d b a n k s h a d t h e i r h e a d q u a r t e r s t h e r e . M o d e r n shops, theaters, a n d a v a r i e t y of E u r o p e a n - s t y l e a m u s e m e n t places also w e r e f o u n d t h e r e . S o m e of t h e m o d e r n schools a n d m i l i t a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n s as w e l l w e r e established i n Pera or its v i c i n i t y . E u r o p e a n s of all n a t i o n a l i t i e s a n d t y p e s , f r o m p o w e r f u l d i p l o m a t s to s h r e w d b u s i n e s s m e n a n d professionals, f l o c k e d t h e r e . Pera became the s y m b o l o f m o d e r n i t y , n o t o n l y f o r I s t a n b u l b u t also f o r the e n t i r e realm. Pera h a d a c q u i r e d a d i s t i n c t l y E u r o p e a n character w h e n established as the residence of t h e F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r i n the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t its i n f l u e n c e at t h a t early t i m e w a s i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h e ascendancy of Pera to p o l i t i c a l , eco27. James Lewis Farley, Turkey (London, 1866), p p . 98-99.
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OTTOMAN POPULATION, J830-1914
nomic, and cultural prominence w a s thé immediate con sequence of the g r o w i n g E u r o p e a n influence over the Otto-, man state.,Pera became a second Ottoman capital, m a n n e d by E u r o p e a n s a n d e x e r t i n g a v i t a l i n f l u e n c e over the empire's fate. 1
In the second half of the nineteenth century Perâ har bored sixteen diplomatic missions, w h o s e heads w e r e con sidered the leaders of their respective national colonies. The language of communication in Pera w a s F r e n c h . T h e dominant cultural a n d political position of France i n Pera was maintained a n d , in fact, increased throughout the cen tury despite the limited n u m b e r of F r e n c h m e n (or F r a n k s , as they were called in Istanbul) living there. A c c o r d i n g to Ubicini, the French inhabitants of Pera i n 1849 n u m b e r e d about 1,000; at that time the total population of the area w a s 28,000 to 30,000, d i v i d e d a m o n g the various nationalities other than French as follows: 6,000 G r e e k s , 1,000 Maltese and Ionians, 1,600 A u s t r i a n s , 1,000 R u s s i a n s , a n d the rest A r m e n i a n s , E n g l i s h , S a r d i n i a n s , T u s c a n s , Belgians, D u t c h , Spanish, Prussians, A m e r i c a n s , and P e r s i a n s . A l t h o u g h Pera came to be considered desirable because of its E u r o pean character, its reputation among E u r o p e a n s w a s some what tarnished. E a r l y in the century it attracted adventur ers a n d even criminals from Mediterranean shores, espe cially after the D u c e de Boglie, the F r e n c h minister of for eign affairs, abolished i n 1833 the regulation that prohibited the settlement in Pera of a n y o n e w h o did not possess a c e r t i f i c a t e i s s u e d b y t h e C h a m b e r o f C o m m e r c e of Marseilles. 28
usually on the slopes descending towards T o p h a n e , Findikli, and C i h a n g i r , became rich overnight. In the .second half of the nineteenth century Pera itself > u n d e r w e n t a substantial social a n d economic change, being superseded b y and absorbed economically a n d ethnically into Galata, to w h i c h , at the same time, it transmitted it's o w n p s e u d o - E u r o p e a n cultural characteristics. Galata was the fast-developing, m o d e r n business district of Istanbul. T h e G r e e k a n d , to a lesser extent, A r m e n i a n and Jewish merchants w h o w o r k e d there h a d gained great economic power. Benefiting f r o m ' t h e British efforts to establish a strong economic foothold in the O t t o m a n state and Istan bul, the G r e e k merchants replaced the F r a n k s as business leaders while continuing to identify themselves culturally and linguistically with the F r e n c h (although they frequently spoke G r e e k also, especially the small shopkeepers and their workers). T h e decline of the F r a n k s as a dominant group in Pera resulted partly from their o w n restrictive attitude towards T u r k s a n d other O t t o m a n ethnic g r o u p s — a n attitude w h i c h prevented intensive commercial interaction. A t this time Britain w a s advocating extensive commercial liberalization, a n d she looked u p o n the G r e e k s as the group best qualified strategically a n d professionally to help establish the British commercial hegemony in the Mediterranean a n d the M i d dle East. U r q u h a r t , one of the most outspoken apologists for Britain's designs i n the area, wrote that under the old system of special trade privileges
29
Initially the territorial limits of Pera w e r e rigidly re stricted. Because of limited construction space, therefore, it was hard to accommodate all the people attracted there by economic opportunity. T h i s circumstance determined the architectural plan of the district—tall buildings a n d very narrow streets designed to use the available b u i l d i n g space to the utmost. A s w o u l d be expected, rents a n d the cost of dwellings soared. For example, the rent for a single room was more than the cost of a two- or three-room suite in the best hotel in Paris. A n average house, w h i c h cost about 80,000 piasters w i t h the land i n cl u d ed , rented a n n u a l l y for 15,000 to 16,000 piasters, each o w n e r being anxious to re cover his investment as soon as possible, lest one of the frequent fires b u r n d o w n his building. (In 1870 a fire des troyed 3,000 structures a n d c a u s e d b a n k r u p t c y a m o n g building owners.) In Pera a pic of land (a pic w a s equal to 80 cm ) cost 1,000 to 1,200 piasters, w h e r e a s the same amount of land on the outskirts cost only 15 to 20 p i a s t e r s . M a n y Europeans w h o , by bribing the government officials, ac quired permission to build houses in the areas a r o u n d Pera, 2
30
28. La Turquie actuelle, p. 439. 29. Around 1818 there was an Italian song about Pera which attested to its ill repute: "Pera, Pera, dei scellerati i! nido." For a rather extensive treatment, see Steven T. Rosenthal, The Politics of Dependency: Urban Reform in Istanbul (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980). 30. Ubicini, Lâ Turquie actuelle, p. 442 Other prices in Pera were high also; for example, a meal cost five times more there than in the old city. • • * '* c
the class called F r a n k s has g r o w n u p . T h i s class not only prevents communications between the T u r k s and E u r o p e a n s , but also perpetrates old antipathies, misrepresents the one to the other, disqualifying E u r o p e a n s from j u d g i n g of T u r k s or rayas, by instilling their o w n prejudices, a n d debasing E u r o p e a n s in the eyes of the T u r k s by our apparent identity with them. It might be s u p p o s e d that w h e r e E u r o p e a n s reside there w o u l d be the greatest intercourse w i t h the T u r k s — i t is just the reverse; if y o u w i s h to k n o w the natives or be on friendly terms w i t h them, go to a place where a Frank population has not m a d e E u r o p e a n s objects of contempt. 31
T h e merchants of Galata, w h o played a significant role in uprooting the F r a n k s from their position of power, subse quently became the strongest supporters of French culture. T h e y had originally used Italian as their business language, although practically all of them spoke T u r k i s h and Greek. H o w e v e r , as they became rich a n d influential, thev aban doned Italian in favor of F r e n c h . (In the 1870s, after the proclamation of Italian unity, F r e n c h rapidly replaced Ital ian as the language of all the Mediterranean seaports.) T h e y established their homes in Pera, w o r k i n g d u r i n g the day in their Galata offices a n d returning home in the evening' up the steep hill that linked the two districts. Indeed, after 1850 the merchants from Galata began to buy quite expen sive houses i n Pera a n d became frequent guests of the di plomatic missions. T h e i r sons a n d daughters attended so31. Turkey and Its Resources, p. 208.
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. j events g i v e n b v E u r o p e a n s a n d s t r o v e to d i s p l a y t h e i r L o w l e d g e of E u r o p e a n art a n d l i t e r a t u r e a n d t o speak n c h . K n o w l e d g e of F r e n c h , h o w e v e r d e f i c i e n t , became s y m b o l of m o d e r n i t y a n d d i s t i n c t i o n . A n y self-styled teacher of F r e n c h , d e s p i t e the fact t h a t he m i g h t be i g n o r a n t f g r a m m a r a n d p h o n e t i c s , f o u n d easy e m p l o y m e n t (as evinced b y the q u a l i t y of the F r e n c h still s p o k e n i n I s t a n b u l ) . Pera h a d six n e w s p a p e r s i n v a r i o u s l a n g u a g e s . H o w e v e r , as far as c u l t u r e w a s c o n c e r n e d , Pera, the s h o w case of t h i n g s E u r o p e a n , d i d n o t r e a l l y offer a n y t h i n g re markable. U b i c i n i w r o t e t h a t " i f t h e r e w e r e n o t here a n d there g r o u p s of T u r k i s h w o m e n i n f r o n t of shops s e l l i n g new F r e n c h i t e m s , o n e c o u l d t h i n k t h a t one w a s i n a second or t h i r d - r a t e I t a l i a n c i t y . . . t h o u g h a n n e x e d to I s t a n b u l this city [Pera] is as d i f f e r e n t f r o m it as it w o u l d be f r o m Peking or C a l c u t t a . " A t m i d - c e n t u r y Pera " r e m a i n e d as alien t o ideas a n d m o r a l life of the W e s t as it w a s t w e n t y years earlier w h e n one n e e d e d n o t less t h a n six w e e k s t o cover the distance b e t w e e n it a n d Marseilles or G e n o a : Pera is the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n t i - l i t e r a r y e n v i r o n m e n t I k n o w . " ' The E u r o p e a n s i n Pera n o r m a l l y a m u s e d themselves b y g o i n g several t i m e s a w e e k t o the theater, to d i n n e r s , a n d , occasionally, t o balls t o w h i c h o n l y the m e m b e r s of the u p p e r class w e r e i n v i t e d . Pera r e c e i v e d w h a t e v e r it w a n t e d f r o m E u r o p e , as the m a n y m a r i t i m e lines k e p t it i n c o n s t a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h the W e s t . I t w a s , i n fact, a base f o r E u r o p e a n d o m i n a t i o n of t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e . ia
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T h e g r o w t h of Pera a n d the rise of the m e r c h a n t s as a d o m i n a n t g r o u p , as w e l l as t h e p s e u d o - E u r o p e a n aspect of the d i s t r i c t , w e r e the consequences of several e c o n o m i c , d e m o g r a p h i c , a n d c u l t u r a l factors. A s economic i n t e r a c t i o n increased a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n a m o n g e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s groups expanded, the n o n - M u s l i m communities i n Istanbul g r e w i n size. T h o s e i n Pera a n d Galata w h o w o r k e d p a r t i c u larly w i t h E u r o p e a n s f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s b e i n g t o r n a p a r t b y the c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n t h e i r ecclesiastical leaders a n d the heads of the n e w l y risen m e r c h a n t , p r o f e s s i o n a l , a n d craft g r o u p s . T h e b u s i n e s s g r o u p s h a d d e v e l o p e d a secular orientation a n d h a d adopted a European economic philoso p h y a n d concepts of n a t i o n a l i t y a n d r e l i g i o n that d i f f e r e d f r o m t h e p a r o c h i a l , a n t i - w e s t e r n a t t i t u d e s of t h e i r c l e r g y . The o l d millet s y s t e m seemed t o p e r p e t u a t e the s u p r e m a c y of the c o n s e r v a t i v e clergy a n d p r e v e n t e d the b u s i n e s s m e n a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l s f r o m g a i n i n g i n i n f l u e n c e . F i n a l l y , i n the 1860s, the t h r e e o l d millets ( O r t h o d o x , A r m e n i a n , a n d Jew ish) w e r e r e o r g a n i z e d t o give t o t h e lay e l e m e n t , that is, the m e r c h a n t s a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l s , the m a i n a u t h o r i t y f o r the c o n d u c t of affairs i n these c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e millet r e f o r m e v e n t u a l l y h e l p e d m e l d the r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s i n t o l a r g 3 4
32. La Turquie actuelle, p. 443 33. Ibid., p. 455. 34. Edson Lvman Clark, The Races of European Turkey. Their His tory. Condition and Prospects. In Three Parts . . . (New York, 1878), pp. 204 ff. For the most comprehensive treatment of religious groups in the Ottoman state, see B. Lewis and B. Braude, eds., Christians and ]eivs in the Ottoman Empire, 2 vols. (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982). For the economic background, see Jacques Thobie, Intérêts et Impérialisme Français dans L'Empire Ottoman OS95-19I4) (Pans: Publication de la Sorbonne, Imprimerie nation al. 1977).
er n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t i e s , c o n s i d e r a b l y u n d e r m i n i n g t h e i r l o y a l t y to the Porte a n d o p e n i n g t h e m t o f u r t h e r E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e . T h u s t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n the clergy a n d the r i s i n g m e r c h a n t classes of the n o n - M u s l i m g r o u p s i n Istan b u l e n d e d i n v i c t o r y f o r the n e w e c o n o m i c e l i t e s .
3:1
The
appearance o f m a n y n e w c h u r c h e s , cemeteries, a n d schools i n a n d a r o u n d Pera f u l l y attests the g r o w t h of t h e n o n M u s l i m c o m m u n i t i e s . I t w a s at t h i s p e r i o d t h a t the B u l g a r ians b e g a n to e m e r g e as a d i s t i n c t e t h n i c g r o u p i n I s t a n b u l a n d , u n d e r the l e a d e r s h i p of i n f l u e n t i a l m e r c h a n t s , started p r o m o t i n g the idea of a B u l g a r i a n n a t i o n a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e Porte. The n o n - M u s l i m m e r c a n t i l e g r o u p s h a d to p a y a p r i c e f o r the e c o n o m i c g r a t i f i c a t i o n g a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e i r a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h E u r o p e a n e n t e r p r i s e s : Greeks a n d A r m e n i a n s l i v i n g i n Pera a n d Galata w e r e p r o n e t o c o n v e r s i o n t o C a t h o l i c i s m or P r o t e s t a n t i s m as p r e a c h e d b y F r e n c h a n d E n g l i s h m i s sionaries. These European C h r i s t i a n missionaries w e r e o f t e n a n a d d i t i o n a l focus of c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n the t r a d i t i o n a l ists a n d the m o d e r n i s t s . A s early as 1827—a t i m e w h e n C a t h o l i c p r o p a g a n d a , became i n t e n s i v e i n I s t a n b u l , t h a n k s to F r e n c h s u p p o r t — a g r o u p of c o n v e r t e d A r m e n i a n s f r o m Ankara w h o were proselytizing a m o n g their k i n were b a n n e d f r o m the c i t y . Some of t h e c o n v e r t e d A r m e n i a n s eventually reverted to their o l d faith a n d were t h e n p b l i g e d to l i v e i n K u m k a p i , Samatya, a n d H a s k ö y — t h a t is, i n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l d i s t r i c t s r a t h e r t h a n i n B e y o ğ l u , Galata, a n d o n the B o s p o r u s w h e r e t h e p r i v i l e g e d classes ( t h a t is, t h e Europeanized element, often converted Catholics) had their h o m e s . H o w e v e r , after 1850 these r e s t r i c t i o n s n o l o n g e r a p p l i e d , as n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g s s u p e r s e d e d r e l i g i o u s allegiances. T h e " m o d e r n " l i f e i n Pera h a d n o a u t h e n t i c n a t i o n a l or social r o o t s . T h e m e r c h a n t c o m m u n i t i e s o w e d , , w i t h f e w exceptions, t h e i r e c o n o m i c a n d social status to t h e F r e n c h , E n g l i s h , G e r m a n , a n d other E u r o p e a n p o w e r s t h e y s e r v e d , a n d t h e y c o u l d be " n a t i o n a l " — a c t i v e l y p r o - G r e e k or p r o B u l g a r i a n — o n l y t o the extent p e r m i t t e d b y the E u r o p e a n p o w e r s a n d t o l e r a t e d by t h e O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t . The social p y r a m i d reflected the d e p e n d e n c y o n E u r o p e . A t the t o p w e r e t h e d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n s a n d t h e i r vast p e r s o n n e l , i n c l u d i n g d r a g o m a n s ( w h o f o r m e d a special class) a n d mes sengers " " ( t o s ) , m i s s i o n o f f i c i a l s , a n d s e r v a n t s . The d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n s w e r e s u s t a i n e d by t h e i r respective c o m munities, whose members had European citizenship by b i r t h or b v " o p t i o n " (that is, t h r o u g h the a c q u i s i t i o n of the special iVraf g r a n t i n g the p r o t e c t i o n of a w e s t e r n state). The second h i g h e s t social g r o u p w a s c o m p o s e d of t h e n e w eco nomic elites—bankers, merchants, a n d shopkeepers and t h e i r f a m i l i e s a n d relatives, all of w h o m c o n s t a n t l y s t r o v e to rise ever h i g h e r i n status b y b e c o m i n g i n v o l v e d i n n e w c o m m e r c i a l v e n t u r e s a n d b y a d o p t i n g the l a n g u a g e of their E u r o p e a n d i p l o m a t i c p a t r o n s . P h y s i c i a n s , a c c o u n t a n t s , lan guage teachers, a n d o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s f o r m e d the t h i r d social s t r a t u m of Pera, w h i l e the f o u r t h c o n s i s t e d of v a r i o u s low-echelon employees, servants, and menial workers; 3 6
35. See mv Social Foundations of Nationalism, p p . 88 ff. 36. Refik, Hicri On Altıncı Asırda Istanbul Hayatı, p p . 31-33
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O T T O M A N POPULATION, 1830-1914 101
THE P O P U L A T I O N A N D T H E S O C I A L A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N OF I S T A N B U L
there was also a g r o u p of M u s l i m T u r k s , associates of some E u r o p e a n s , w h o h a d b e g u n to favor the " m o d e r n " life of Pera. T h e socio-economic life of I s t a n b u l i n the second half of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m that of m a n y o t h e r large cities i n A s i a , A f r i c a , a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a t h a t have s e r v e d as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b e t w e e n the p o w e r f u l i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s of the W e s t a n d t h e i r o w n i m p o v e r ished c o u n t r y s i d e s . T h e c i t y became, i n fact, a s e m i - c o l o n i a l post f o r the e x c h a n g e of g o o d s . Paul Fesch, w h o k n e w I s t a n b u l i n t i m a t e l y a n d f o u g h t to restore F r e n c h i n f l u e n c e there, p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t o w a r d s the e n d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y I s t a n b u l possessed n o h e a v y i n d u s t r y . Its m o s t i m p o r t a n t m a n u f a c t u r e s w e r e of tiles a n d c e m e n t b r i c k s , fezzes, leather g o o d s , cigarette cases, p o t t e r y , suitcases, rosa ries, c l o t h i n g , nails m a d e f r o m scrap i r o n , a n d the l i k e . M o s t of t h e s e e n t e r p r i s e s b e l o n g e d to E n g l i s h m e n , or French or Swiss; o n l y a f e w w e r e o w n e d by the O t t o m a n g o v e r n m e n t o r b y n a t i v e i n h a b i t a n t s . F o r e i g n f i r m s chose n o t to m a n u f a c t u r e t h e i r p r o d u c t s i n I s t a n b u l , o n the pre text that the c i t y lacked q u a l i f i e d w o r k e r s . Fesch w r o t e : C o n s t a n t i n o p l e is a c t u a l l y a large m a r k e t place, a bazaar . . . a n d a b o v e e v e r y t h i n g else a p o r t of t r a n s i t . F r o m C o n s t a n t i n o p l e d e p a r t s f o r t h e W e s t a v e r y large p a r t of the s i l k , w i n e s , d r y f r u i t s . . . o i l s , m i n e r a l ore, grains, f l o u r , hides o f a l l k i n d s p r o d u c e d b y E u r o p e a n a n d Asiatic T u r k e y a n d the i s l a n d s of the A r c h i p e l a g o . I t is also i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t h a t a r r i v e a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of goods s u p p l i e d b y E u r o p e to T u r k e y s u c h as r e a d y c l o t h i n g , f l o u r s , a l c o h o l i c beverages . . . g l o v e s , h a b e r d a s h e r y , candles, s o a p , p e t r o l e u m , m e d i c i n e , w o o d a n d steel p r o d u c t s , m a c h i n e s a n d t o o l s . 3 7
N o m a t t e r h o w s m a l l the m a r k e t , f o r e i g n f i r m s still m a n aged to m a k e a p r o f i t , as i n d i c a t e d b y their insistence u p o n s t a y i n g i n the c i t y ; f o r e x a m p l e , all the chief m a n u f a c t u r e r s of s e w i n g m a c h i n e s , s u c h as Singer ( A m e r i c a n ) , G r e t z n e r , C l e m e n s , M e u l l e r , K o c h l e r , Pfaff, K n o c h (all G e r m a n ) , a n d O r o s d i Bach ( F r e n c h ) , h a d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i n I s t a n b u l , a l t h o u g h the total n u m b e r of s e w i n g m a c h i n e s i n the city was b a r e l y 10,000 at t h e e n d of the c e n t u r y . O t h e r types of i m p o r t e d g o o d s h a d l a r g e r m a r k e t s . I s t a n b u l possessed at least three elegant s h o p s s e l l i n g n o t h i n g b u t hats to m o d e r n - m i n d e d , rich customers. The city i m p o r t e d annually, m o s t l y f r o m France, 1,300,000 bags of flour a n d 600,000 pairs of r u b b e r shoes (galoche); i n 1897 w h e n I t a l y was able to capture s o m e of the m a r k e t s h e l d b y E n g l a n d a n d sold 5,000 tons of c o t t o n g o o d s i n I s t a n b u l , the t o t a l i m p o r t w a s at least 11,000 tons. (Some of these E u r o p e a n g o o d s w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n the i n t e r i o r t o w n s . ) It is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t the p o p u l a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l , h o p i n g to m a k e u p i n a p p e a r a n c e w h a t it lacked i n economic s u b s t a n c e , p a i d special a t t e n t i o n to l u x u r i o u s c l o t h i n g . Fesch w r o t e : To be w e l l - d r e s s e d is the a m b i t i o n of b o t h sexes; e v e r y t h i n g else falls o n the second level a n d i n o r d e r to o w n b e a u t i f u l dresses, the i n h a b i t a n t s of I s t a n b u l w o u l d 37. Constantinople aux derniers jours d'Abdul Hamid, p. 515.
u n d e r t a k e all sacrifices. T h e French f a s h i o n [designers] are q u i t e n u m e r o u s i n Pera; t h e v g u i d e t h e i r r i c h c u s t o m e r s i n the selection a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n of n e w fashions. W i t h o u t t h e m , o u r [ F r e n c h ] p r o d u c t s , o f t e n c o p i e d a n d d e f o r m e d . . . w o u l d h a r d l y a p p e a r i n this capital i n t h e i r t r u e s h a p e . . . .- T h e L e v a n t i n e s w h o are so elegant m u s t also h a v e g o o d shoes. T h e y w o u l d b l u s h if t h e y w e r e to w e a r those v u l g a r shoes w h i c h m a n y m e n of their rank i n France are satisfied to w e a r . . . to have elegant shoes there is n e e d for g o o d leather. T h i s explains the reasons for w h i c h r a w m a t e r i a ! of h i g h q u a l i t y is u s e d a n d the great f a v o r e n j o y e d b v the hides a n d leather i m p o r t e d f r o m France a n d f i n i s h e d i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . O u r c o u n t r y c o u l d i n fact increase f u r t h e r its sale a n d w o u l d enlarge its o u t l e t s if it a d o p t e d the c h r o m e t a n n i n g . * 3
The d i c h o t o m y i n the life of I s t a n b u l d u r i n g the second half of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s h o w s clearly i n the contrast b e t w e e n the s h o p s of Pera a n d those i n the o l d section of I s t a n b u l . T h e c o m m e r c i a l l i f e of the o l d c i t y w a s still cen tered i n the bazaar a n d w a s c o n d u c t e d i n the same s p i r i t as i n years past (except t h a t the c o l o r f u l slave m a r k e t was closed q u i e t l y i n 1846). T h e s h o p s h a d n o d i s p l a y w i n d o w s or a n y o t h e r features d e s i g n e d to attract c u s t o m e r s . Goods w e r e n o t a t t r a c t i v e l y p r e s e n t e d , a n d the m e r c h a n t s , espe cially the M u s l i m s , m a d e n o e f f o r t to p r o m o t e their mer chandise. T h e bazaars h a d b e g u n to specialize i n the s e l l i n g of cheaper g o o d s at l o w prices to the p o o r of I s t a n b u l ; b u t t h e y also c o n t i n u e d to m a n u f a c t u r e t r a d i t i o n a l c l o t h i n g a n d h o m e f u r n i s h i n g s s t i l l u s e d by a great p a r t of the M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n . T h e m e r c h a n t s i n the bazaar i n c l u d e d T u r k s , A r m e n i a n s , Jews, a n d a f e w G r e e k s . H e n r y O t i s D w i g h t , t h o u g h he s h o w e d s o m e r e l i g i o u s bias, p r e s e n t e d a rather g o o d p i c t u r e of the c o n t r a s t i n g e c o n o m i c establishments of Pera a n d the o l d c i t y . H e w r o t e : Greater contrast can h a r d l y be i m a g i n e d t h a n is f o u n d b e t w e e n the E u r o p e a n b u s i n e s s houses of Galata, o n the one h a n d , w i t h t h e i r c o m m o d i o u s c o m f o r t ; t h e i r desks, chairs, w r i t i n g m a c h i n e s , file-cases a n d o t h e r p a r a p h e r n a l i a of a p r o m p t a n d accurate business system, a n d o n the o t h e r h a n d t h e c r a m p e d q u a r t e r s of native m e r c h a n t s . For the latter h a v e the o n l y r o o m y t h i n g a b o u t the place, t h e a r m c h a i r f o r the h e a d o f the f i r m . . . . I n the E u r o p e a n p a r t of the c i t y there is spaciousness a n d t h o u g h t f u l p r o v i s i o n of conveniences based o n the assurance t h a t t h e c u s t o m e r w i l l p a y for t h e m . I n the Asiatic d i s t r i c t s of S t a m b o l is c o n t r a s t i n g n a r r o w n e s s o f l i m i t e d e x p e c t a t i o n . . . . But to a d o p t as a rule a business s y s t e m of w h i c h the p r i n c i p l e is f r u g a l self-denial i n p e r s o n a l expenses c o u p l e d w i t h l a v i s h e x p e n d i t u r e s i n b u s i n e s s , w o u l d o v e r t h r o w the p h i l o s o p h y of the w h o l e life [ o f the M u s l i m s ! . 3 9
M u s l i m s w h o h a d s u f f i c i e n t i n c o m e a n d the necessary p s y c h o l o g i c a l - c u l t u r a l d i s p o s i t i o n also p a t r o n i z e d the 38. Ibid., p. 520. 39. Constantinople and its Problems (New York, 1901), pp. 171-172. See also Donald Quataert, Social Disintegration and Popular Resis tance in the Ottoman Empire, 1881-1908: Reactions to European Econom ic Penetration (New York: New York University Press, 1983).
shops i n Pera. A s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of these w e r e m e m bers of the n e w r u l i n g class of bureaucrats, a g r o u p t h a t as steadily i n c r e a s i n g i n n u m b e r , as each g r a d u a t e of a m o d e r n school s o u g h t , a n d e v e n t u a l l y f o u n d , e m p l o y m e n t with the g o v e r n m e n t . M o s t of the u p p e r - r a n k i n g bureaucrats l i v e d o u t s i d e the c i t y , u s u a l l y i n one of the n e w districts n o r t h o f Pera a n d i n localities a l o n g the B o s p o r u s , and a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of t h e m b o u g h t c l o t h i n g a n d other a m e n i t i e s at s h o p s i n Pera a n d Galata, g e n e r a l l y s h o p p i n g t h e r e o n T h u r s d a y , w h i c h as early as 1830 h a d been declared a rest d a y . These h i g h - r a n k i n g b u r e a u c r a t s received i n c o m e f r o m the c o l l e c t i o n of taxes (the g o v e r n ment, faced w i t h r a p i d decline i n t h e v a l u e of the T u r k i s h currency a n d l o w e r state r e v e n u e s , a n d h a v i n g m a d e a n u n s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t to a d o p t a c e n t r a l i z e d tax s y s t e m , farmed o u t the tax c o l l e c t i o n to i n d i v i d u a l s i n 1845), w h i c h they o f t e n s u p p l e m e n t e d t h r o u g h the l u c r a t i v e , t h o u g h i l licit, practice of g r a n t i n g concessions. (Even Reşid P a ş a , t h e p r e m i e r associated w i t h the r e f o r m s i n 1838, w a s accused of h a v i n g t a k e n m o n e y f r o m a r i c h A r m e n i a n f a m i l y t h a t oper ated the c u s t o m s houses i n I s t a n b u l a n d o n the A s i a t i c shores.) A f t e r 1856 the O t t o m a n b u r e a u c r a t s c o u l d f r e q u e n t l y be seen m i x i n g w i t h E u r o p e a n s as w e l l as w i t h the n o n - M u s l i m m e r c h a n t s a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l s of Pera; S u l t a n A b d u l m e c i d h i m s e l f a t t e n d e d a b a l l g i v e n b y the F r e n c h ambassador. I n d u e t i m e t h e f a v o r e d places f o r a m u s e m e n t , s h o p p i n g , a n d , e v e n t u a l l y , residence o f a s p i r i n g ) m o d e r n i s t M u s l i m s became Pera a n d its s u r r o u n d i n g d i s tricts. vV
4 0
It is o b v i o u s t h a t Pera a n d Galata a n d the districts estab lished n o r t h of t h e m h a d d e v e l o p e d a n e w m o d e of u r b a n life t h a t d i f f e r e d s t r i k i n g l y i n p r a c t i c a l l y all c u s t o m s a n d habits f r o m life i n t h e o l d c i t y . T h e concept of m o d e r n u r b a n l i v i n g w a s o n e of, a b o v e a l l , m a t e r i a l c o m f o r t d e r i v e d f r o m an increase i n i n c o m e , a n d Pera a n d its a d j o i n i n g areas t h u s c a m e to s y m b o l i z e n o t m e r e l y m o d e r n i t y b u t also w e a l t h a n d h i g h social status. Avrupa hayati—a E u r o pean w a y of l i f e — b e c a m e the a s p i r a t i o n of the n e w genera t i o n of M u s l i m s , m a n y of w h o m w e r e s t i l l l i v i n g i n t h e o l d c i t y . "Success" m e a n t to t h e m the a b i l i t y to b u y a h o u s e a n d a d o p t the w a y of life p r e v a i l i n g i n the m o d e r n p a r i of Istanbul. O t h e r m a j o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l factors affected t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d c o m p o s i t i o n of I s t a n b u l ' s o l d a n d n e w d i s t r i c t s . A s early as 1845 S u l t a n A b d u l m e c i d h a d m a d e a n e f f o r t t o create a c o u n c i l of notables, c o n v e n i n g several d o z e n p r o v i n c i a l d i g n i t a r i e s i n I s t a n b u l to a d v i s e a b o u t r e f o r m s . S l i g h t l y m o r e t h a n t w e n t y - f i v e years later a c o n s t i t u t i o n was a d o p t e d a n d a p a r l i a m e n t , w h i c h c o n d u c t e d its b u s i ness i n a b u i l d i n g i n the o l d d i s t r i c t , w a s c o n v e n e d . T h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y e x p e r i m e n t of 1876-1878 was u n i q u e l y i m -
40. See Ubicini, La Turquic actuelle, p. 236. Meanwhile, the n u m ber of the ulenia, w h o constituted the bulk of the traditional elite, had begun to dwindle rapidly, although in mid-century the n u m ber of softa (students in religious-schools) was still estimated to be around 22,000 to 25,000.
p o r t a n t to the life of I s t a n b u l : it s y m b o l i z e d the transfer of some of the s u l t a n ' s absolute p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y to the r i s i n g m i d d l e classes i n the c o u n t r y s i d e , a n d it gave at least i m plicit r e c o g n i t i o n to the fact t h a t the c i t y w a s r a p i d l y l o s i n g its central p o s i t i o n a n d b e i n g forced to share its w e a l t h a n d p o w e r w i t h the d e v e l o p i n g t o w n s a n d p r o v i n c e s of the i n t e r i o r . T h e V i l a y e t L a w of 1864 h a d already created n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s i n the c o u n t r y s i d e ; t h e l a w w a s r e v i s e d i n 1867 a n d 1871 to create m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t h r o u g h out the c o u n t r y . ' T h e e c o n o m i c g r o w t h ' o f I s t a n b u l l e d to the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the I s t a n b u l C h a m b e r of C o m m e r c e (Istanbul Ticaret Oda sı) to represent the m e r c h a n t c o m m u n i t y . T h e first Associa t i o n of T r a d e (Cemiyet-i Ticariyye) h a d b e e n established i n 1870. T w o years later, o n 16 J a n u a r y 1882, the C h a m b e r of C o m m e r c e , w h i c h h a d a m e m b e r s h i p of 250, w a s o f f i c i a l l y established; o n 27 F e b r u a r y 1888 the n a m e w a s c h a n g e d to C h a m b e r of T r a d e , A g r i c u l t u r e , a n d I n d u s t r y ; a n d f i n a l l y , o n 31 M a y 1910, it became the C h a m b e r of T r a d e a n d I n d u s t r y (Ticaret ve Sanayi Odasi). O t h e r changes o c c u r r e d later. 41
D u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y t h e p h y s i c a l appearance of the c i t y w a s v e r y m u c h a l t e r e d t h r o u g h the a d d i t i o n of p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c w o r k s s u c h as a r c h i v e b u i l d i n g s , b r i d g e s , a n d f e r r y b o a t s . S u l t a n M a h m u d I I , i n fact", asked his G e r m a n a d v i s o r , M o l t k e , to d r a w a d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n . A f t e r 1865 street cars, gas storage t a n k s , r u n n i n g w a t e r , an u n d e r g r o u n d t r a i n , docks, a n d a v a r i e t y of o t h e r facilities w e r e a d d e d . N e w m o s q u e c o n s t r u c t i o n d e c l i n e d greatly, b u t t h e s u l t a n s e r e c t e d at l e a s t t h r e e h u g e , l u x u r i o u s palaces. F u r t h e r m o r e , d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d t w o bridges w e r e b u i l t b e t w e e n I s t a n b u l a n d Galata. The b r i d g e s , be sides e n d i n g the c e n t u r i e s - o l d use of boats a n d m a k i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n easier a n d m o r e c o n v e n i e n t , f u r t h e r en h a n c e d the i m p o r t a n c e of Pera a n d Galata a n d the n e w l y established d i s t r i c t s n o r t h of t h e m . ( A list of m a j o r p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e w o r k s c o n s t r u c t e d a n d n e w i n s t i t u t i o n s estab l i s h e d i n I s t a n b u l d u r i n g the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y is i n c l u d e d as A p p e n d i x D f o l l o w i n g t h i s c h a p t e r . ) 4 2
T h e process of the p h y s i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of I s t a n b u l w a s reflected i n the p r o g r e s s i v e e m e r g e n c e of its m u n i c i p a l g o v e r n m e n t . T h e c e n t r a l i z e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n for m a r k e t s w a s created d u r i n g M a h m u d IPs r u l e . A şehremaneti in charge of m a r k e t s ( s i m i l a r to the F r e n c h prefect de ville) was installed i n 1854; a n d i n t h a t same year a C i t y P l a n C o m m i s sion (Intizam-i Şehir Komisyonu) w a s created to r e p o r t o n the E u r o p e a n m u n i c i p a l s y s t e m a n d p r o p o s e m e a s u r e s for m o d e r n i z a t i o n . These w e r e d e s i g n e d largely to solve the p r o b l e m s caused b y the g r o w t h of P e r a . T h e E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n l i v i n g i n Pera d e m a n d e d p a v e d streets, street l i g h t i n g , a n d o t h e r facilities s i m i l a r to those f o u n d i n the West. The c o m m i s s i o n , w h i c h i n c l u d e d many' F r e n c h m e n , 41
41. 42. Tarihi 43.
See Istanbul Yıllığı (1967), pp. 511-12. For additional information see Doğan Kuban, "lstanbulun Yapisi," Mimarlık 70, no. 5 (1970): 26-48. Osman Nuri Ergin, Mecelle-i Umut-u Belediye (Istanbul, 1922).
102
O T T O M A N POPULATION,
agreed to r e c o m m e n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a n u m b e r o f u t i l i ties, a n d t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s w e r e a p p r o v e d b v the T a n z i m a t H i g h C o u n c i l . H o w e v e r , the p r o p o s e d utilities w e r e for Pera a n d Galata o n l v . E v e n t u a l l y , this area w a s recog n i z e d as a separate a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t a n d became t h e s i x t h d i s t r i c t (daire) tó be a d m i n i s t e r e d b v a c o u n c i l o f twelve members plus a chairman. I n 1868 a m u n i c i p a l code o f r e g u l a t i o n s w a s a d o p t e d , applying the administrative organization introduced in Pera-Galata to t h e o t h e r f o u r t e e n districts o f the citv. Bv 1876/77 t h e n u m b e r o f c i t y districts h a d increased f r o m f o u r t e e n to t w e n t y , the r e s u l t o f t h e i n f l u x o f m i g r a n t s . I n 1882 t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y o f I s t a n b u l was r e o r g a n i z e d i n t o t e n districts t h a t i n c l u d e d the e n t i r e o l d city a n d adjacent areas s u c h as B e y a z i d , F a t i h , C e r r a h p a ş a , B e ş i k t a ş , Y e n i k ö y , Galata-Pera, B ü v ü k d e r e , K a n l i c a , Ü s k ü d a r , a n d Kadiköv. The n e w city a d m i n i s t r a t i o n consisted of a n appointed c o u n c i l t o assist the c i t y a d m i n i s t r a t o r a n d a d i r e c t o r {miidir) for each d i s t r i c t . T h i s s y s t e m r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d u n t i l 1908. F i n a l l y , i n 1912 I s t a n b u l w a s m a d e a s i n g l e m u n i c i p a l i t y w i t h n i n e m a j o r d i s t r i c t branches. T h e şehremaneti (that is, the m u n i c i p a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h e a d e d b y the şehremini) con sisted o f n i n e d i r e c t o r a t e s , o r mihiirh/ets, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the n i n e kazas, w h i c h w e r e the f o l l o w i n g : B e y a z i d a n d Fatih i n the o l d c i t y , a n d Galata ( i n c l u d i n g Pera), Y e n i k ö y , A n a d o l u - H i s a r , Ü s k ü d a r , K a d i k ö y , the I s l a n d s , a n d B a k i r k ö y . The f u n c i t o n o f each miidiriyet was to p r o v i d e m u n i c i p a l services, t o collect r e v e n u e , a n d f u l l y a d m i n i s t e r its respec tive b r a n c h . G e n e r a l m u n i c i p a l d u t i e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d b y the O f f i c e o f T e c h n i c a l A f f a i r s (Heyet-i fenniyye miidiriyeti) the O f f i c e o f Sanitary A f f a i r s (Heyet-i sihhiyye miidiriyeti), a n d t h e O f f i c e o f E c o n o m i c A f f a i r s (Umur-u iktisadiyye miidiriyeti). A d m i n i s t r a t i v e functions were discharged b y the O f f i c e o f the G e n e r a l I n s p e c t o r (Müfettiş-i umumilik), the O f f i c e o f C o r r e s p o n d e n c e a n d R e g i s t r a t i o n (Heyet-i tahririyye miidiriyeti), t h e O f f i c e o f A c c o u n t s (Heyet-i hesabiyye miidiriyeti), a n d the Office of Director of Legal Affairs (Umur-u hukukiyye miidiriyeti). 44
T h e p o l i c e i n I s t a n b u l e v o l v e d i n a special w a y . Police r e f o r m w a s i n s t i t u t e d u n d e r A l i a n d F u a d p a ş a s , a n d a newcorps w a s f o r m e d w i t h the f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n n e l , w h o f u n c t i o n e d c h i e f l y i n I s t a n b u l : (1) Kavasse, w h o w o r k e d i n t h e capital a n d w e r e a t t a c h e d to embassies a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n offices; (2) Seymen, w h o p e r f o r m e d police d u t i e s i n the c i t y itself; a n d (3) Zaptiye, o r f o o t police, w h o f u n c t i o n e d u n d e r the d i s t r i c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t w e n 4 3
44. From 1896 to 1898 the municipal districts were Şehzadebaşi, Fatih, and Cerrahpaşa in the old city, and Pera, Beşiktaş, Yeniköy, and Büyükdere (the last three along the'Bosporus). Üsküdar was not included. 45. O n the full organization of police, see Clarence R. Johnson, Constantinople Today (New York: Macmillan, 1922), pp. 107-13, and Walter Behrnauer, "Sur les institutions de police chez les árabes, les persians, e les tures," [ournal asiatique, ser. 5, vol. 16 (1860): 114-190; see also Rpderic H . Davidson, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 159-60.
1830-1914
tieth c e n t u r y , after several o r g a n i z a t i o n a l changes, all police d u t i e s i n I s t a n b u l came t o be s u p e r v i s e d b v t h e General Police D i r e c t o r a t e , w h i c h w a s responsible n o t to the head o f t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y ' b u t t o t h e m i n i s t e r o f the i n terior. I s t a n b u l w a s d i v i d e d i n t o police d i s t r i c t s , each o f w h i c h h a d its o w n c e n t r a l p o l i c e s t a t i o n a n d w a s headed b y a chief o f police (Merkez Memuru). O n the A s i a t i c side there were six chief districts a n d stations, whereas o n the E u r o pean side there w e r e t w e n t y - t h r e e . 4 6
O n 22 July 1909 ( r . 1325) I s t a n b u l was r e o r g a n i z e d i n t o a vilayet ( p r o v i n c e ) a n d a t t a c h e d t o t h e central g o v e r n m e n t .
Number of Persons
Area City Greater city Year 1794 1829 1864-75 1877
300 km
City Residents
(Temporary Residents)
Totai
46,931 48,693
137,945 144,115
75,748 94,119
213.693 238,234
Women
Men
Total
1882
161,431
219,945
381,376
1885
364,751
508,814
873,565
2
Census Year
3,600 km
2
Population 426,000 359,089 490,000-796,000 606,000-722.098 (100,000-200,000, including the
T h e e c o n o m i c , social, a n d p h y s i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l discussed i n t h e p r e c e d i n g sections w a s effected t h r o u g h a c o n t i n u o u s m o v e m e n t o f p e o p l e f r o m the c o u n tryside to the capital a n d f r o m d i s t r i c t t o d i s t r i c t w i t h i n t h e city. T h e transformation of Istanbul w e n t h a n d i n h a n d w i t h g r o w t h i n its size a n d changes i n the e t h n i c , c u l t u r a l , a n d r e l i g i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n o f its p o p u l a t i o n . T h e t w o d e velopments were intimately interrelated. Demographic change i n I s t a n b u l can be s t u d i e d easily, t h a n k s t o at least six censuses t a k e n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n 1246, 1254, 1260, 1273, 1298, a n d 1301 ( a . d . 1830, 1838, 1844, 1856, 1882, a n d 1 8 8 5 ) — a l t h o u g h d e t a i l e d s u m m a r i e s o f o n l y five of these have been l o c a t e d . Before d i s c u s s i n g these p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s f o r t h e c i t y , i t is essential t o d e f i n e t h e i r geo g r a p h i c a l scope. M o s t o f t h e e a r l y censuses refer to the c a p i tal as " D e r s a a d e t ve B i l a d - i Selase," t h e t e r m t a k i n g i n t h e m a i n c i t y a n d t h e three " b o r o u g h s " — E y u b , Galata, a n d Ü s k ü d u r o n the A s i a n side o f B o s p o r u s — a n d occasionally i n c l u d i n g some o f t h e s m a l l e r villages a l o n g t h e B o s p o r u s a n d t h e Sea o f M a r m a r a . A f t e r 1882 t h e n e w q u a r t e r s , such as O s m a n b e y , Şişli, B o m o n t i , M a ç k a , a n d others to the n o r t h a n d n o r t h w e s t o f Pera, w h i c h became (and still are) some o f the m o s t f a s h i o n a b l e d i s t r i c t s o f t h e city w e r e i n c l u d e d i n the census. T h e later censuses also i n c l u d e d the n e w districts t h a t s p r a n g u p a l o n g t h e M a r m a r a a n d t h e Bosporus a n d b e y o n d the o l d c i t y w a l l s t o w a r d s the w e s t .
895,000 1,116,946 1,159,000 1,600,000
Source: Compiled from figures in European works and Ottoman sources.
Bekars
Number of Families
1844 1857
vilayet of Istanbul)
1901 1914-16
46. I n the country at large there were the süvari (mounted police), charged w i t h public safety and mail protection, and the bekçi (rural police), each of w h o m were stationed along roads 6 to 10 km apart to safeguard transportation. The suvari could, and often d i d in case of need, assume duties in cities. The entire police force was supervised by the müfettiş (detectives). See Stanley Lane Poole, The People of Turkey (London, 1878), 1:270. 47. For an early city plan, see Joseph, Freiherr von HammerPurgstall, Constantinoplis u'nd der Bophorus (Pesth, 1822; reprint ed. Osnabruck: Biblio Verlag, 1967). The plan is by F. Kauffer, who also produced the 1882 Guide de Constantinople.
of Census Figures
V a r i o u s Estimates
1884 1896-97
As previously noted, m u c h of the p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h of I s t a n b u l r e s u l t e d s i m p l y f r o m t h e e x p a n s i o n o f trade. T h e o r d i n a r y o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f the c a p i t a l c i t y h a d f o r centuries d r a w n the a m b i t i o u s f r o m the c o u n t r y s i d e , a n d these occa sionally m a d e f o r t u n e s , o f t e n b y w o r k i n g f o r the palace o r for state d i g n i t a r i e s . H o w e v e r , i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y
Table 5.4. P o p u l a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l : S u m m a r y
Table 5.3 P o p u l a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l , 1794-1916:
The Population of Istanbul
4 7
303
THE POPULATION A N D THE SOCIAL A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N OF ISTANBUL
Source: Summarized from figures in the statistical appendices, III.2, 3, 4.
g i v e n strict o r d e r s t o t u r n a w a y these p e d d l e r s a n d season al w o r k e r s , s o m e o f w h o m came f r o m as far a w a y as Trab¬ zon.
the a t t r a c t i o n s o f t h i s u r b a n center increased i m m e a s u r a b l y , as t h e scope o f e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y b r o a d e n e d a n d chances f o r a c h i e v i n g u p w a r d social m o b i l i t y o u t s i d e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s w e r e c r e a t e d . Tens o f t h o u s a n d s o f y o u n g m e n f r o m t h e provinces—especially Greeks a n d other n o n - M u s l i m s — p o u r e d i n t o the c i t y t o f o r m t h e sort o f service g r o u p c o m m o n t o e v e r y t h r i v i n g p o r t c i t y o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d . T h a t these n e w c o m e r s , w h o w e r e n e a r l y a l l single m e n (bekar), w e r e easily able t o f i n d e m p l o y m e n t , w o r k i n g directly for Europeans a n d engaging i n i n d e p e n d ent o c c u p a t i o n s as bakers, m i l l e r s , g a r d e n e r s , a n d the l i k e , as w e l l as f i l l i n g t h e r a n k s o f t h e occasional laborers a n d p e d d l e r s , is e v i d e n c e o f t h e scope o f t h e e c o n o m i c b o o m a n d the g r o w i n g n e e d f o r m a n p o w e r . These C h r i s t i a n n e w comers, i t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e , b e g a n w e a r i n g a special hat, t h e kepele, t h a t i s , t h e E u r o p e a n - s t y l e b r i m m e d h a t , instead o f t h e l o c a l l y m a d e f u r h a t . T h e E u r o p e a n hat came to s h o w b o t h social s t a t u s a n d r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n ; f o r C h r i s t i a n a f f i l i a t i o n h a d a c q u i r e d special prestige w i t h t h e increase i n E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e , a n d t h e kepele i d e n t i f i e d i t s wearer as a C h r i s t i a n i n I s t a n b u l t o w o r k .
H o w e v e r , t h e m a j o r cause f o r t h e e x p l o s i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n i n I s t a n b u l w a s t h e a l r e a d y - d e s c r i b e d i m m i g r a t i o n of M u s l i m s f r o m the Caucasus a n d t h e B a l k a n s f r o m 1862 o n . Large n u m b e r s o f Caucasian M u s l i m s a r r i v e d i n t h e O t t o m a n state i n the p e r i o d f r o m 1862 t o 1908, a n d t h e i r leaders, chieftains, a n d ulema, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s , settled i n I s t a n b u l . A l s o , d u r i n g a n d after t h e R u s s o - O t t o m a n W a r o f 1877-1878, w h e n t h e M u s l i m p e o p l e s o f t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n Balkans a n d Macedonia a n d D o b r u c a were d r i v e n o u t , m a n y refugees settled i n I s t a n b u l .
O t t o m a n official c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t there w a s a considerable i n f l u x o f n o n - M u s l i m s i n t o t h e c a p i t a l i m m e d i a t e l y after the c o m p l e t i o n o f the census o f 1844; t h u s , one year later officials w e r e c o m p l a i n i n g t h a t a large n u m ber o f p e o p l e f o u n d i n t h e c i t y w e r e n o t l i s t e d i n the regis ters f o r n o n - M u s l i m s (reaya defteri) a n d therefore d i d n o t pay t h e çiziye. (Officials o f the Greek a n d A r m e n i a n P a t r i archates also r e p o r t e d o n the presence o f u n r e g i s t e r e d n e w comers.) T h e Porte w a s , o f course, a n x i o u s to register these n e w c o m e r s a n d l e v y t h e h e a d tax, a n d these p e o p l e w e r e , i n fact, e v e n t u a l l y subject t o r e g i s t r a t i o n : subsequent cen suses of I s t a n b u l i n d i c a t e d i n a special c o l u m n those w h o w e r e bekars o r taşralı ( " f r o m the c o u n t r y " ) . I n 1857, o u t o f a total of 238,234 males c o u n t e d i n I s t a n b u l , 24,119 q u a l i f i e d as bekar. B y 1894 the police a u t h o r i t i e s i n I s t a n b u l h a d been
T h e gross difference b e t w e e n t h e f i g u r e s f o r 1882 a n d 1885 is traceable t o several technical f a i l i n g s t h a t caused the f i g u r e o f 1882 t o be o n l y a p a r t i a l r e s u l t : f i r s t , t h e Esnaf Tezkerelcri Kalemi w a s charged also w i t h c o l l e c t i n g special fees f r o m m e r c h a n t s , a n d its census d u t i e s w e r e i g n o r e d or not p r o p e r l y fulfilled; second, it appears f r o m a com m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n the palace a n d t h e p r e m i e r ' s office that
4 8
48. See BA (1)/(MN)T177 of 21 Zilhicce 1260 (1 January 1845).
V a r i o u s f i g u r e s f r o m official a n d p r i v a t e sources f o r the p o p u l a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y are g i v e n i n Table 5 . 3 . For t h e p e r i o d 1865-1878, t h e r e w e r e esti mates o f the city's p o p u l a t i o n as l o w as 304,000 a n d as h i g h as 2 m i l l i o n . U b i c i n i gave t h e p o p u l a t i o n as 8 9 1 , 0 0 0 ^ — a f i g u r e t h a t c e r t a i n l y is v e r y h i g h a n d p r o b a b l y i n c l u d e d t h e h i n t e r l a n d s o n b o t h sides of the B o s p o r u s a n d c o u n t e d m e n i n the a r m y a n d f o r e i g n e r s . 4 9
Table 5.4 s u m m a r i z e s t h e e x i s t i n g o f f i c i a l census f i g u r e s f o r 1844, 1857, 1882, a n d 1885 ( g i v e n i n d e t a i l i n t h e statis tical a p p e n d i c e s , I I I . 2 , 3, 4 ) .
49. The figures are derived from Eton, Karal, Reclus, Yakshity, Bore, Ravenstein, Ubicini, Walsh, Urquhart, and others, and some are based on Ottoman sources. One reason for the variation is that early censuses generally included only the old city, whereas later ones included the suburbs that eventually became part of the city. The 1829 figure included Galata and Uskudar and is from a census taken with the aim of instituting bread rationing. At that time some 4,000 bekars were sent back to their places of origin. 50. Letters on Turkey, trans. Ladv Easthope (London, 1856; re print ed., New York: Arno Press, 1973), p. 24.
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
104
105
THE POPULATION A N D THE SOCIAL A N D E C O N O M I C T R A N S F O R M A T I O N OF ISTANBUL T a b l e 5.5.
Total P o p u l a t i o n of I s t a n b u l ,
Table 5.6. Ethnic D i s t r i b u t i o n o f I s t a n b u l P o p u l a t i o n , 1897
1897 Population
Area City ol Istanbul (the old city. Pera. and villages along the Bosporus) Üsküdar Kadıköy
875.565 105.690 32.211
,
Total
1.013.466
'
Greater Istanbul Islands (four islands in the sea of Marmara, including Büyük Ada. or Pnnkipo) Gebze (a town along the Asiatic shore of Marmara) Kartal (a town along the Asiatic shore of Marmara) Beykoz (along the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus) Şile (a town on the Black Sea coast of the Asiatic shore) Kanlica (along the Asiatic shore ot the Bosporus) City of Istanbul Total
Source: Annuaire oriental du commerce, de l'industrie et de l'administration et de la magistrature (1896), pp. 71-72.
the o r i g i n a l i n t e n t w a s t o c o n d u c t a census just o f n o n iMuslims, i t b e i n g d e c i d e d o n l y at the last m i n u t e t o c o u n t the M u s l i m s also, so p r o p e r p r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e n o t m a d e ; f i n a l l y , t h e s u m o f 400,000 kuruş allocated b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t for the p a y m e n t o f census takers seemed i n s u f f i c i e n t to meet t h e i r n e e d s . T h u s t h e census o f 1882, a l t h o u g h v e r y u s e f u l for i n d i c a t i n g t h e t y p e of d w e l l i n g s i n w h i c h the city residents l i v e d , as w e l l as the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n o f the city, m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d i n c o m p l e t e . T h e f i g u r e s g i v e n f o r 1885, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , are b a s e d o n a c o m p l e t e c e n s u s . A f t e r 1882 t h e c i t y p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o i n crease. A v a r i e t y o f g o v e r n m e n t sources i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f i m m i g r a n t s w e n t f r o m 30,000 i n 1880 t o 200,000 i n 1906. T h u s , b y 1896/97, a c c o r d i n g to a reliable source, t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f greater I s t a n b u l h a d reached 1,115,946, w i t h t h e c i t y p r o p e r h a v i n g 8 7 5 , 5 6 5 r e s i d e n t s ( o r 162,950 houses), Ü s k ü d a r , 105,690; a n d K a d i k ö y , 3 2 , 2 1 1 . Table 31
32
53
5.5 s h o w s the general p o p u l a t i o n p i c t u r e i n 1896/97. Table 5.6 s h o w s the e t h n i c a n d r e l i g i o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f I s t a n b u l ' s p o p u l a t i o n a n d its e n v i r o n s i n 1 8 9 7 . 54
51. See BA (I)/(D)/65848, memorandum of 22 Zilhicce 1297 (26 October 1880); for more extensive information on the census of 1882, see IUKTY 8949/b, dated 11 Teşrinevvel 1298 (23 October 1882). 52. The memorandum explaining the census of 1885 is i n BA (I)/(D)/75538, dated 28 Ramazan 1302 (11 July 1885). 53. See Annunire oriental du commerce, de l'industrie et de I'administration et de la magistrature (1896), pp. 71-72; this source is to be found in the archives of the municipal library i n Istanbul. 54. The census of 1897 does not provide a distribution of popula tion according to ethnic origin. I compiled this list from various official sources. Vedat Eldem claimed, based on the same lists, that the total population of Istanbul in 1896 was 1,181,000, but he over estimated the number of Turks by almost 20,000 and underesti mated the Serbian and, especially, the Bulgarian population by about 13,000; see Osmanli imparatorluğunun iktisadi Şartiari Hakkinda Bir Tetkik (Ankara, 1970), p. 52.
Source: Compiled from figures given in Section III of the statistical appendices
Table 5.7. P o p u l a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l i n 1885: N a t i v e s a n d
Newcomers
Those Born in Istanbul
•
Male Religious Group
Total
Muslim Greek Orthodox Armenian Orthodox Bulgarian Catholic Jewish Protestant Latin
143.586 68.764
Total
T h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f I s t a n b u l i n 1885 a n d thereafter consisted m o s t l y o f n e w c o m e r s , that is, i m m i g r a n t s a n d bekars, is f u l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e figures i n Table 5 . 7 .
No.
78.679 46 3,722 42.363 225 609
55,300 23,292 24,995 22 1.533 21,029 118 261
337.994
126.550
Those Born Outside of Istanbul
Female %
No
27.5 25.4 27.7 5.5 47.8 93.9 24.2
48.1 74.6 81.7 60.0 27.7 97.1 32.3 62.9
88,286 45,472 53,684 24 2,189 21,334 107 348
48.5
Male %
211,444
Total
No.
241,324 83.977 70.911 4,331 2.720 1,998 594 473
146,039 68,512 58,875 3,955 1,676 1,365 370 267
406,328
281,059
.
Female
%
No
72.5 75.6 71.2 99 5 52.2 61.0 75.8 51.5
95,285 15.465 12.036 376 1.044 633 224 206
51.9 25.4 18.3 94.0 32.3 29.0 57.7 37.1
125.269
Source: Stanford J Shaw. "The Population of Istanbul in the Nineteenth Century," Tarih Dergisi 32 (March 1979): 411
33
Statistics o n t h e o c c u p a t i o n s o f t h e residents of the city that s h o w t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s - e t h n i c g r o u p s i n g o v e r n m e n t a n d n o n g o v e r n m e n t service are g i v e n i n Table 5 . 8 .
Table 5.8. O c c u p a t i o n s o f I s t a n b u l Residents, 1885 Commerce. Trade, Industry
3 6
The c o n c l u s i o n s expressed i n this c h a p t e r are s u p p o r t e d by t h e statistics. These s h o w , f i r s t , that t h e p o p u l a t i o n of I s t a n b u l d o u b l e d i n less t h a n a c e n t u r y a n d , second, that the ethnic a n d r e l i g i o u s character o f t h e c i t y w a s c h a n g e d drastically b y t h e i n f l u x o f large n u m b e r s o f M u s l i m s . Be fore t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e M u s l i m s h a d reached a n absolute n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y ; a n d the increase in their majority continued unabated into the twentieth c e n t u r y . B y 1885 a l m o s t 60 p e r c e n t o f the city's residents h a d b e e n b o r n e l s e w h e r e , a n d t e n years later t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f n o n - n a t i v e s w a s e v e n greater.
Religious Group Muslim Greek Orthodox Armenian Orthodox Bulgarian Catholic Jewish Protestant Latin
5 7
T h e statistics s h o w as w e l l the increased u r b a n i z a t i o n of the capital a n d the c u l t u r a l a n d social changes t a k i n g place there. O c c u p a t i o n a l data s h o w a d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f profes sions a n d a n e t h n o - r e l i g i o u s r e a l i g n m e n t : M u s l i m s w e r e h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e bureaucracy, w h i l e t h e n u m b e r of n o n - M u s l i m s e m p l o y e d i n trade a n d i n d u s t r y — t h a t is, the h i g h l y r e m u n e r a t i v e w e s t e r n - t y p e occupations—ex ceeded t h a t o f t h e M u s l i m s b y a l m o s t 50 p e r c e n t , despite the fact that the M u s l i m s w e r e m o r e n u m e r o u s b y far. This was e v i d e n c e o f the s u p r e m a c y a c h i e v e d b y E u r o p e a n eco n o m i c interests w i t h t h e i r bias t o w a r d s n o n - M u s l i m s . T h e e c o n o m i c changes t h a t caused t h e r e l i g i o u s , ethnic, a n d social c o n f l i c t w h i c h beset t h e e n t i r e O t t o m a n state i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y are easily observable i n the statistics for I s t a n b u l . T h a t c i t y w a s a m i r r o r o f all o f those changes that c u l m i n a t e d i n the p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the e n t i r e realm.
55. See Stanford J. Shaw, "The Population of Istanbul i n the Nineteenth Century," Tarih Dergisi 32 (1979): 411. 56. Ibid., p. 412.' 57. See my The Cecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanization in Turkey (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976).
Total
Population 201,339 91,804 83,870 3,977 3,209 22,394 488 528 407,609
8
% Of Totals in Occupations
Number
% of Population
49.40 22.52 20.58 .98 .79 5.49 .12 .13
51,073 33,866 35,979 3,238 1,783 6,984 123 251
25.4 368 43.0 81.4 55.5 31.1 25.3 47.5
133,297
Source: Stanford J. Shaw, "The Population of Istanbul In the Nineteenth Century," p. 412 Number of male residents only. 1
State Service
% of Totals in Occupation 38.32 25.41 26.99 2.43 1.34 5.24 .09 .19
Number 22,984 348 490 1 150 99 3 28 24,103
% of Population
% of Total in Occupation
11.4 4
95 34 1.44
.6 .03 4.7 .4 .6 53
2.05 005 62 .41 .01 .12
Palaces and Mnsoues
Public Works and Institutions
REIGN OF MAHMUO II (1 808-1 839) Kağitnane Palace (1808) Beyazid firetower (wooden) (1808) Nusretiye (Tophane) Mosque (1821)
Medical and surgery schools (182/) First steamboat (Üsküdar) (1828) Selimiye barracks finished (1829) Regular postal service established (1832) Military Academy founded (1834) Wood bridge between Unkapan and Azapkapi (Galata) built (1836)
Start of university building (1845) Bridge between Eminönü and Galata ( ı 8 4 b ) Night duty established for doctors (1845) Treasury and document archives (1846) Şirket-ı Hayriyye Navigation Company (1850) Science Academy (Encümen-I Oaniş) (1851) Bridge built in 1836 enlarged (1853) Haliç Navigation Company (1857) Pangalti (Harbiye) Military Academy (completed ?) State Archives building (completed ?)
Tunnel company (1868) Streetcar company (1869) Teacher's college for girls (1870) Ottoman University (Darülfünun-u Osmani) (1870-71) Maritime Administration (1872) Haydarpaşa-lzmlt and Istanbul-Edirne-Filibe railroads opened (1873) Gas depot at Dolmabahce (1874) Istanbul water company (1875) Military barracks at MecidiyekSy Ruşdiye military schools at Fatih, Koca Mustafa Paşa, Üsküdar, Sogukçeşme
Yildiz Palace Hamidiye Mosque
ABDULHAMID II (1 876-1 909) Bosporus gas depots (1879) Yedikule gas company (1886) Üsküdar and Kadıköy Water Company (1866) Kadikoy gas company (1890) Istanbul docks (1890) Haydarpaşa docks (1898) Museum of Antiquity Fine arts school (Oarülbedai) New postal and telegraph building Land registration office
Note- The information in this table has been collected from a variety of sources. Dates vary in the sources, as some refer to the time the decision to build was made, while others indicate the beginning or the end of actual construction.
STATISTICAL
APPENDICES
SECTION I GENERAL OTTOMAN POPULATION STATISTICS FROM CENSUSES, REGISTERS, AND YEARBOOKS
1.1 N o t e s : I t s h o u l d be k e p t i n m i n d t h a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i s t r i c t s l i s t e d i n t h e census reports a n d other statistics i n t h i s section w e r e c o n s t a n t l y being changed i n minor, a n d sometimes major, w a y s . Compari sons s h o u l d be m a d e w i t h c a u t i o n , t h e r e f o r e . The figures i n t h e O t t o m a n official statistics are n o t cor rected i n accordance w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d i n C h a p ter 1 , a l t h o u g h t h e y have been s y s t e m a t i z e d a n d m i n o r corrections m a d e . T h u s t h e totals g i v e n i n census lists u p to 1881/82 d o n o t i n c l u d e females, a n d n o percentage-of-error a d d i t i o n s have b e e n m a d e i n a n y list. The terms t r a d i t i o n a l l y a p p l i e d to citizens of the various religious persuasions i n the O t t o m a n Empire acquired d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s a n d n e w census categories w e r e a d d e d as e t h n i c - n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g b u r g e o n e d i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h cen t u r y . T h e t e r m " G r e e k s " ( R u m ) o r i g i n a l l y e n c o m p a s s e d all O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s ; h o w e v e r , d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h cen t u r y i t a c q u i r e d a n a r r o w e r m e a n i n g , a n d those w h o re t a i n e d their allegiance t o t h e I s t a n b u l p a t r i a r c h a t e a n d to o t h e r Greek n a t i o n a l c h u r c h e s ( e . g . , t h e C h u r c h of Greece, the C h u r c h o f C y p r u s ) c a m e to be t e r m e d " O r t h o d o x Greeks." The O r t h o d o x c h u r c h was b r o k e n u p into various n a t i o n a l c h u r c h e s ( B u l g a r i a n , Serbian, R o m a n i a n ) , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d to use the O r t h o d o x rites (all o f B y z a n t i n e o r i g i n ) but w e r e g i v e n their o w n c o l u m n s i n later censuses. By the e n d of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y " G r e e k " h a d c o m e t o m e a n simply "Greek-speaking peoples." The term " A r m e n i a n s " (Gregorians) o r i g i n a l l y w a s u s e d t o d e s i g n a t e m e m b e r s of t h e A r m e n i a n O r t h o d o x c h u r c h ; l a t e r , as s o m e e t h n i c A r m e n i a n s accepted other faiths, the terms "Catholic Armenians" and "Protestant A r m e n i a n s " were introduced. (Some N e s t o r i a n s j o i n e d t h e A r m e n i a n O r t h o d o x c h u r c h and were termed " A r m e n i a n Nestorians.") " L a t i n s " were o l d E u r o p e a n C a t h o l i c s , b u t t h e t e r m c a r r i e d also some connotation of "Latin-speakers" (i.e., persons speaking E u r o p e a n languages). " R o m a n C a t h o l i c s " w e r e those w h o w e r e o u t r i g h t Catholics d i r e c t l y a f f i l i a t e d w i t h the Vatican (as o p p o s e d t o those w h o s e c h u r c h e s m e r e l y accepted the a u t h o r i t y of R o m e ) .
The Ottoman Population in Certain Districts of Rumili (Rumelia) and A n a t o I i a , J j 3 1
Oensui
District
Muslims
Reaya
a
Gypsies'
Jews
Armenians
Total
Census District
Muslims
848 887
e
3,440 887
2,592
127
127
Çekmeceıkebır
794 464
794 464
Çekmeceısagır
403
403 29 12,924
29
Tiirkeşçıttiığı Reaya (6 kazas)
12,924
Tekturdağl Inecik Malkara Gelibolu Şarköy
3.773
.7.727
57
11,557
812
836
1.672
1.511 4.1.79
4,010 6,613
24 64
962 1,860 971
Bergos Çorlu
177 542
Ereğli Babayiatik Havas Mahmutpaşa Hayrabolu Evreşe
'
7.752 3.154 1.938 554
684
896 1.051 956 2,327
850 1,929
4,557
955
1,512 6,747
8.313
(N)
32 ' 45 24
5,585 10,792 8.714 5,097 3,027
51 73
755 1,795 1.580 3.254
1.253
2 203 666 274
Inoz Keşan Çisriergene
1,661 2,663
39 62 72
5.479 10.815 2.467
8,886 750
1.541
1,443
18,794
2,422
2,422
3.048
3.048
Üsküdar and Manastır ( N ) _ Edirne (kaza') Üsküdar (N) Manastır (N) Çdke (N) Ada (N) Tırfelli (village) Jews and Armenians (6 localities) Çisn Muştala Paşa Çirmen Çirpan Ahlçelebi Akçakizanllk Zağraiatık Dimetoka Ferecık Meğri Gumülcine Yenıceikerasu Uzuncaabat Hasköy Sultanyeri Drama Cığlacik and San Şaban Tırnova Hutallç (N) Torluk (N) Sahra (Nl Filibe
ANOOL'J EYALET, contır Teke Sancak Antalya (town) Antalya (viliagesl istanoz (N) Elmali Kaş Kalkat Fenike Eğridir and Kaddıç Serik, Beşkonak Karavelüer (,Mi and Has Bucak and Germiye Kizılkaya Immigrants Tribes Tahtacı and Apdallar (Alevi groups!
2.879 1.963 5.033 4.735 2.933 1.672 1.307 1.893
2.110 1,724 942 961 7.148
2.110 1.724 942 961 7,148
539
539
35,839
0
Karesi Sancak Balıkesir Gelenbe Kozak Bigadiç Slndirgi Kemer Ayazmend Manyas Hat and Aşami Edremit İvrindi Ayvalik
SİVAS EYALET, continued Amasya Sancak Amasya (town) Ezinepazari, Akdağ. and Geldikten (N) Day. Zennunahad, and Kelkurasl Kedegre (Köprü) Havza Ladik Gümüş Madeni
1.1. The Ottoman Population in R u m i l i and Anatolia, 1831 (continued) Census District
Reaya
Muslims
G.cs.es"
3
Jews
Armenians
Total
TRABZON EYALET Trabzon Sancak Trabzon 5,597
5.972
11 569
Sapanca Akhisar
5,337 3.623
;
4.274 1 314
9.611 4.942
Geyve İznik Pazarkoy
2,679 3.220
'
1.108 957 3.434
3.787 4 177 5.414
3 011 1,496 814
3.929
Yalakabad Karamürsel
1,980 918
2,939
Kaymas Şeyhler Kandlra and Gençli
1.443 3.388 3.382 3.066
Ağaçlı Hendek and Akyazı
1.732 2,107
1.732 2.107
Karasu Ibsafi Sarıçayır
1,302 780 849
1.302 780 849
Beşdivan Akabad Foreigners
342 1.236 1,667
1.236 2,361
Şile" Taşköprü
3.517 3.766
Total, Kocaeli Sancak Biga Sancak Kalaısultanıye Kumkale Ezineikazdaği 8ayramıç
51.936
Reaya
3
Gypsies
5
Jews
Armenians
Total
ANATOL A
ANATOLIA CEZAYİR-I BAHR-l SEFID EYALET Kocaeli Sancak Iznikmıt Adapazarı and
11, The Ottoman Population i n R u m i i i and Anatolia, 1831 (continued)
Muslims
Census District
4 202 3.861 3 066
479
Künyen [liva] Rize and Hemşın Giresun and Keşap Görele Vakfıkebir and Sağır Polathane Yümrenek Tonyan Sürmene Of Reaya
55
41
29
25.551
84
5,529 3,836 0
0
77,571
2.208 632
2.208 632 2,253 3,327
S
6.300 20 532 30.547
6.300 20.532 30.547
8.785 3.973
8.785 3 973
5.962 8.432
5 962 ' 8 432
6.755 1.910
6.755 1.910
12,985 18.940
12 985 18.940 11.431
11,431
EYALET
125.121
11.431
0
0
0
136.552
ÇILDIR EYALET " 1
KARS EYALET
73,282
4.887
191
2.161°''
17,580
78,360
19.741
Visitors and merchants in Kars and Çildir TOTAL, ÇILDIR AND KARS EYALETS TOTAL, ANATOLIA
105
105 105
191
0
7.048
98.206
297,130
1.802
5,164
16.643
2 323.660
90,862°° 2,002,921
2,253 3,327
S U M M ARY
1,856 2,323
1,856 2,323
EUROPE ANATOLIA
487,971
783,333
33.905
1.317.441
297,130
1.802
10.133 5.164
2.099
2.002,921
16.643
2.323.660
Balye Güvercinlik
5.992 575
5,992 575
GRAND TOTAL
2,490.892
1.080.463
35.707
15.297
18.742
3.641,101
Biga Lapseki
1,925 2,442 4,333
1,925 2.442
Yörüks Bozcaada (ıslandı İmroz (island) Reaya (foreigners) Exiles (in Bozcaada and Kumkale)
439
793 2,505 4614
4.333 1.232 2,505 4,614
,
25
25
Consular service personnel Marmara (island) Paşa lımani
218
1,629
58 1,847
660
2,003 224
2.633 224
29.208
11.768
2.058 761 3.102
8.878 7.390 8.134
511
690 4.937
5?
Imrali (island) Total, Biga Sancak
0
58
0
41.034
Cezayır-i Bahr-i Sefid Sancak
miT5
Midilli Kalonya Molva Yunda Limnı Bozbaba Taşoz
8.151 11.236 690 43
5,491
16
310 1,821 433 3,194 9,434
310 1,821
Semadirek Istankoy
3 1,356
Sakiz Rodos
791 3.095
Cyprus Erdek
14.983 620 111
Kapu-daği Bandırma
10.936
884
430 1.838 8 558 7,420 29 190 1,426
69
10,515 44,216
43
2.046 2,641
2,530 848
773
2.505
28.275
84,400
102
69
773
113.619
114
n
Of these. 3.235 were townspeople, while 13.361 were villagers. ' Includes 750 soldiers. Includes Jews. l n the original register it is stated that the count of Christians in these seven kazas is given in a different register (which could not be located), their number should be somewhat less than that of the Muslims, who were numerous in these areas, but one may safely estimate that the total oi Christians was not less than 20,000. m
"Muslims were found mostly in the town. includes 35 persons described as European merchants. The figures for Babadağ! are from a second register for the census of Silistre apparently compiled alabout the same date as Ihe 1831 census register (and used by Karal), see BA, Hatt-ı H ü m a y u n , no. 49088 A, None of the kazas listed in the 1831 census register is listed also in the second register, except for B a b a d a ğ ! ! have used the second set of figures for this kaza because the number of Christians is given; the 1831 census register gives a iota! of 1,968 Muslims and 14 gypsies only. It should be noted that the 1831 census register gives no figures forthe town of Silistre itseli. According to the census of 1866, Silistre had a total of 3,787 taxable inhabitants, including 2.351 Muslims at the same time Babadağ! had a total of 2,035 taxable inhabitants, ol whom 1,200 were Muslims. About ir, 1850 the population ol Babadağı (town) consisted of 2,555 Musfims (481 families) and 1,131 non-Muslims (229 families), for a total of 3.686 population in 710 families The total tor the entire km was 3.099 Muslim families, or 14.756 persons, and 2,622 non-Muslim families, or 15,016 persons, for a total of 5,721 families, or 29,772 people. See Hans-Jurgen Kornkrumpf, "Zur Verwallungspjıedeıung der Dobrudscha in den letzlen Jahren der Osmanischen Herrschati," Miinchener Zeitschrift fur Balkankunde 1 (Munich: Rudolf Trofenik, 1978), 139-55. ^In the census of Anatolia the term reaya often includes both the Greek Orthodox and the Arme nians, if there is not separate listing of the latter.
The foreigners {musteminin) are described as being persons under the protection of foreign powers. y
In this tabulation tor Karaman Eyalet, the sancak totals include persons living in the district outside the towns and villages 7
The nomadic tribes include the Pehüvanlu. Cermandelu, Sherefli. Boynumcelu. Abdalan, and some Yörüks (Marchers). The last-named group (known also as Yürük) is of Turkish stock; it was conservatively estimated that there were about 250,000 Yörüks in Ottoman lands, to be found mostly in the mountainous areas of southern Anatolia. SE
bt
7 h e population of the town of Çorum was 4.822.
"Greeks and Armenians are counted together. S o m e 135 persons are designated as members of various tribes. 0i
"Includes 304 Yörüks. This is the sancak area not in the village, and it includes Payas Kaza. Includes 79 Tahtaci. 335 Dikiti, and 245 Torak—that is, Alevi and other non-orthodox Muslims and persons practicing the trade of charcoal-making {torak). Includes 1,083 Yörüks. "Includes Tahtacılar (Alevis). n
05
M
Includes 4,800 persons classed as fellahin—that is. Egyptians (usually workers In the cotton fields)—who are listed in the Muslim totals of Adana (town), Yuregir (village and nahiye). Bilan Sancak, Azir Sancak, Tarsus (town) Kusun, a/id Evanii. !J
:
^includes some Armenians, as both Greeks and Armenians were included in the reaya total of Bilan Sancak, Azır Sancak, and Payas Kaza, Tarsus (town). Kuş-Timur. and Gökçe. Şile and T a ş k ö p r ü , although included under Kocaeli Sancak in this list, were not actually in that district.. i;
'Includes 1.972 soldiers, 4.799 immigrants, and 6.392 visitors.
""'"'The listed localities ol Cezayır-i Bahr-i Sefid Sancak are islands, with the exception of Erdek. Kapu-daği, and Bandırma, which are non-insular kazas.
figures in parentheses indicate the number of villages in these kazas. There is no explanation for the failure to indicate the number of Muslims in the Botu Sancak.
A total of 17 livas were included in this census. Çildir, which was composed ol Sarad, Levane, Circiv, and Cebecik, was located east of Trabzon.
:
u
Source: Defter (register) entitled "Mema!ik-i Mahrusa-i Şahanede 1247 Senesinde Mevcut Olan
"The total population for Urla, Ayasefıd. Birunabad, Tiryanda. and Cumaabad is 6.303 people in 2.817 tones
These are specifically described as being Rum, or Greeks.
*The original 1831 census register from which most of the figures in this table have been compiled
n n
0 0
p p
Includes some Catholic Armenians. Includes a small number of tribesmen in each eyalet.
Nüfus Defteri," Istanbul University. Ms. Cat. D-8, no. 8867. (The original register, which is a summary of hundreds ol other registers, consists of 119 pages of text plus 77 blank pages} Notes: The listing of localities in the original register followed to a large extent the form officially adopted by the General Directorate of Statistics: for that listing, elucidated by notes by Enver Zıya Karal, see Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Ilk Nüfus Sayimı 1831 (Ankara, 1943). Each census taker in 1830/31 had his own methods, but I have tried to provide as uniform a listing as possible The totals in this table differ from those of the General Directorate because I have made (minor) necessary recalculations and corrections in the figures and have also rearranged the listed localities, grouping them in their proper administrative districts (in the register they are listed without regard to administrative boundaries); for the administrative listing, I follow Fazila Akbal. "1831 Tarihinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda İdari Taksimat ve N ü f u s , " Belleten 15, no. 60 (1961): 617-28 The largest administrative division at the time of the 1831 census was the eyalet, while the most important unit in the division was the sancak, headed by a sancakbey (the liva was the equivalent of a sancak). The kaza was the main judiciary district, while the nahiye was the rural district of a kaza. The majority of locality names in the fable are of kazas: the names of other types of areas are specifically labeled. Also listed under "census localities" are some non-geographical designations—the names of groups (e.g., "reaya." "nomads." "foreigners")—that are totalled for several localities rather than counted separately for each. Males only were counted in this census. l n the nineteenth century the term reaya came to be officially applied to Christians in general, whereas in the past it had covered all land cultivators regardless of religion: however, m practice. reaya, especially m the Balkans, meant Orthodox Christians, that is, the Greeks. Bulgarians. Serbians, and Vlahs. The census of 1831 for the first time distinguishes the Bulgarians, occasionally referring to them by their ethnic name. The census takers occasionally refer also to non-Muslims as a group as "reayay-i milei-i setase." that is. Christians of the three "nations," Orthodox. Armenians, and Jews: but more often than not these are listed separately in the old Ottoman tradition. (See also note q below.) a
l n the original register the Muslim and Christian gypsies are listed separately; here the two groups are combined into one category. Their number is more or less equal D
At the time of the census of 1831 the European section ot the empire consisted of three e/a/eis. Rumeli. Silistre. and Bosnia. The last was not included in the census. The original register uses the term "Rumeli" for the European section of the realm, despite the fact that administratively Rumeli was an eyalet comprising only a portion of the European territory The designation !N) after the name of a locality indicates that it is a nahiye (ptural: nevan/)—a rural district of a kaza.
TOTAL, CEZAYİR-! BAHR-l SEFID EYALET
cmcludes Jews living in Karlova 0 f these. 877 lived m town, the rest lived in villages.
does not include results from Kastamonu The figures are included in Karai's work and were taken, he states, from a special register for Kastamonu that he found in the library of istanbul University. Isatistik ve Defatır Katalog. no 8. Despite intensive search. I have been unable to locate this register, therefore the figures 1or Kastamonu are as given m Karal, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda, pp. 180-85. Note that there is no explanation for the failure to include any figures for Christians *The total number ot hanes. or families, is 3,430.
c
Total, Cezayir-ı Bahr-i Sefıd Sancak
'Of these. ¿4 391 are described as being Bulgarian and 568 as Latin, elsewhere they are described "Pavlikan." Actually Filibe (ot Phıtlıppopoils) had a large Greek population, as indicated by later censuses. 2 S
p
Ünye
Can
e
These are specifically mentioned as being Bulgarians
TOTAL. TRABZON
342 694 1.957
|, ( rj here, but this first sel of population totals has been excluded from the final tolals in this section, the second sel of totals, immediately following, has been used.
d
109,419
121,719
186
127
773
232,224
e
Edirne. Ada, Çoke. Üsküdar, and Manastır are mentioned twice in the original register They are so
115
1.2. Ottoman Population, 1844-1856 A. BY REGION European Turkey Thrace Rumelia and Thessaly Bulgaria Albania Bosnia and the Herzegovina Wallachia scecial Moldavia [• autonomous Servia ! status The Islands (Aegean) Total (
1.3. Population and Number of Villages, Tuna Province, 1868 ( H . 1285)
Source: Tuna Vilayet Salname of 1285. Notes: The yearbook from which this census list is taken was apparently the first one issued for Tuna Province The population totals and number of villages given in this census list are higher than those given for 1874 (see 1.5) because figures for Niş are included. This population list is significant, as it was intended to complement the property survey {tahriri emlak) carried out in the towns of Tuna Province in 1866. and it therefore includes areas omitted from that tabulation. Women are not counted in this census, a fact noted in the yearbook. It is also reported that the male population had not been subjected to census since 1260 (1847) and that the registration of births and deaths had not been properly kept up.
1,200,000
Total
3.800,000
GRAND TOTAL
35,350,000
1.4. Population and Number of Villages, Tuna Province, 1869 ( H . 1286)
Total 21,000.000 13,000.000 900,000 150.000 300.000
Muslims Greek Orthodox Catholics Jews Other Sects
4,550,000 10,000,000 640,000 70,000
12.650.000 3,000.000 260,000 80.000
3,800,000
Total
15,260,000
15.990.000
3,800,000
35,350,000
Source: [Jean Henri] A[bdolomyne] Ubicini. Letters on Turkey, trans. Lady Easthope (London, 1856; reprinted., New York: Amo Press. 1973), pp 13-19, 22. Notes: Ubicini's figures are based on statistics compiled in the Ottoman census of 1844; the census figures cannot be found. There are some differences between population figures in the English and French versions of Ubicini's book; those in the English translation are presumably more accurate. As will be observed, these tabulations include Wallachia and Moldavia, both over whelmingly Orthodox Christian; the inclusion of these two principalities and Serbia distorts the Muslim-Christian ratio in the last section of the table The population of east Arabia is not included in this account.
ASIA (1874) Vilayets Istanbul (Asia) Bursa Aydin Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Cyprus Kastamonu Ankara Konya Adana Trabzon and Canik Sivas Erzurum Diyarbekir Baghdad Aleppo Syria Hejaz and Yemen Total Beylik of Samos TOTAL, ASIA
•
—
77,973 334,200
SUMMARY Ottoman Population Region
Area (mi )
Muslims
Non-Muslims
Total
5,170 4,029 3,618 3,385 499
Europe Asia Africa (including
9.795 9 34,998.7
3,841.174 11.426.057
10.911.646 2.854.234
1.4,752.820 14.280.291
54.301.0
11.308,550
170,450
11.479.000
44,878
16.701
GRAND TOTAL
99.095.6
26,575,781
13.936.330
40.512.111
504.297
491,742
Egypt)
2
Source: A Ritter zur Helle von Samo, Die Völker des osmanischen Reiches (Vienna 1877)
Source: Tuna Vilayet Salname of 1291. Notes: Niş is excluded from this table, and. as usual, only males were counted. The census districts named are mainly kazas: nevahi are identified by IN) following the name. The district listed first in each group is the central kaza.
117
1.7. A .
Population of the Ottoman State, 1877/78 (H. 1294)
Main Census District Edirne
Sancak
Population
Edirne
190,585
20.200
Tekfuraağı Gelibolu Filibe
49,751 58,561 266.088
5.875 9.080 8,600
Islımıye Total
Buildings (Houses)
1.7 A . Population of the Ottoman State, 1877/78 (continuée^ Kazas ın District Babayatik. Pınarhisar. Çesriergene. Çermen. Çesrımustafapaşa. Havsa. Hatuneiı. Oimetoka. Ferecik. KirkkıTıse. Kızılağaç Çorlu. Hayrabolu, Lüleburgaz. Midye, Malkara, Vize. Eureşe. Inoz, Şarköy. Keşan, Gümuicıne Ahıçelebi, Pazarcık. Çirpan. Haskoy. Kizanlik. Zağraiatik. Sultanyeri Ahyolu, Aydos. Bergos. Zagraicedıt, Karinabat. Museurı.
yam Census District Cezayir-j Batır-i Sefid (Aegean Islands)
87.691
8,700
(5)
652.676
52.455
(35)
Rusçuk
309.797
22,854
Varna Vidin Tulça Tirnova
85.805 178.823 87.455 245.894
9.849 91,624 9.429 26,495
Pilevne, Cumaiatik, Ziştovi, Silistre, Ş u m n u , Niğbolu. Hezargrad. Tutrakan Balçik, Pazarcık, Pravadi, Mankalya. Ivraca, Berkofça, 8elgratcik. Rahova, Adliye, Lom Babayiatik, Hirsova, Sunne, Köstence, Maçin, Mecidiye. Şerli, Osmanpazari, Gabrova, Lofça.
Edirne Tuna Sofya Selanik Bosna Hersek Manastir Yanya Işkodra Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Girit Hüdavendigar Aydın Ankara Konya Kastamonu Sivas Trabzon Canik Erzurum Van Diyarbekir Mamuretülaziz Erganlmadeni Suriye Cebelilübnan Beyrut Kudüs Adana Halep Trablusgarp Bağdat Basra Yemen Hicaz
Total Halep (Aleppo)
(4) Halep
Ganze, Kevkep, Meskene, Yenişehir, Total Trablusgarp (Tripoli in Libya)
Notes to Tables 1.7.A. and I.7.B. Source: Salname of 1294. Notes: This population list probably is based on the 1844 census results and esti mates of population made after calculating the number of births and deaths (including losses in the war). The main census districts in this list are primarily vilayets. Sofya and Hersek are valiliks—z term applied to a European province administered by a vali (viceroy); Canik (Samsun) Cebelilübnan, Beyrut, and Kudüs (Jerusalem) were mulasauitliks—i.e.. small districts governed by a mutasarrit (a civil administrator traditionally charged with the collection and distribution of taxes); Mamuretülaziz and Erganimadeni are sancaks: Basra still Is listed as an eyalet, the name given the largest administrative divisions before the promulgation of the Vilayet Law (1864) and the reorganization that followed. Also listed, but not included in the census, were some special districts' Misir (Egypt) and Tunus (Tunisia) in Africa, Sisam (the island of Samos), and Eflak (Wallachia), Boğdan (Moldavia), Sirp (Serbia), and Karadağ (Montenegro) in Europe; the last two districts were beyliks.
Notes follow Table I.7.B.
121
1.8. A. Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893
1.8.A. Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued)
1.8.A. Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued)
Administrative District
F
M
.
M
F
M
F
Bulgarians
Arme mans
Greeks
Muslims
F
M
I H A . Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued)
Cathoi es F
M Protestants
Jews EDİRNE PR0VINCE Edirne Central Sancak Gelibolu Kaza Dedeağaç Kirkkılise (Kırklareli) Tekırdaği (Tekfurdağı) Gümülcine TOTAL, EOIRNE PROVINCE
57.162 12.239 13.205 17,111 21,397 90,364
60,046 13,366 15.327 19,216 23,235 91.698
37.449 28.250 12.093 26.208 18.361 6,492
40,381 30,903 11,734 27,455 20.532 7.362
211,478
222,888
128,853
138.367
14.708 805 5.835 16.320 1.765 9.828
16.213 869 6.614 17,679 2.010 9.599
136
173
33 45 5.403 175
1.924 556 • 254 63 5.601 147
35 44 274
35 40 287
8,097
8.545
49,261
52,984
489
535
1.917 524
__232 ERZURUM PROVINCE' Erzurum Sancak Erzurum Central Kaza Ova Tercan Bayburt İspir Keskin Tortum Pasinler Kiği Hinis Total, Erzurum Sancak Bayezit Sancak Bayezit Central Kaza Diyadin Tutak (Antap) Karakilise (Karakose) Eleşkirt Total, Bayezit Sancak Erzincan Sancak Erzincan Central Kaza Refahiye Kemah Kiruçay (İliç) Total, Erzincan Sancak TOTAL, ERZURUM PROVINCE ADANA PROVINCE Adana Sancak Adana Central Kaza Tarsus Mersin Karaisalı Total, Adana Sancak Kozan Sanjak Sis (Kozan) Kadirli Sayimbeyli (Haçin) Feke Total, Kozan Sancak İçel Sancak Silifke Mut Ermenek Gülnar Anamur Total, İçe! Sancak
Total, Kayseri Sancak Yozgat Sancak Yozgat Central Kaza Çorum Sungurlu Boğazlıyan Maden (Akdağmadeni) Total, Yozgat Sancak Kirşehir Sancak Kirşehir Central Kaza Keskin Çiçekdağı (Mecidiye) Avanos Total, Kirşehir Sancak TOTAL, ANKARA PROVİNCE
1.8.A. Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued) Muslims Administrative Oistnct
F
Greeks M
F
Armenians M
F
Bulgarians
M
F
I.8.A. Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued)
Catholics
M
F
M
Jews
OIYARBEKIR PROVINCE, continued Mardin Sancak Mardin Central Kaza Midyat Cizre Avniye Nusaybin Total, Mardin Sancak Maden (Ergani) Sancak Maden Central Kaza Çermik Palu Total, Maden Sancak TOTAL, DIYARBEKIR PROVINCE
Zor Sancak Deyr Aşare Resülayn
Protestants M
11,266 9,742 3.168 10.112 2.349
11,292 11.784 2.867 11.788 2.289
37.137
40.020
24
24
29
29
1.994 93 790 51
2.233 118 791 70
2.928
3.212
85
64
Monophysites (Syriacs)
Latins
F
M
218 146 24 63
214 200 36 79
1,646 1,614 103 260 1,279 4,902
154
107
239
171
451
529
F
M
F
Non-Muslim Gypsies
M
F
M
Foreign Citizens F
Total
M
j
o t a i
F
M
Population
1,913 2,043 94 318 1,210
15,124 11,619 4,170 10,486 4,282
15,652 14,174 3,852 12,255 3,606
30,776 25,793 8,022 22,741 7,888
5,578
45,681
49,539
95,220
22,938 16.737 27,538
44,246 30,922 50,859
18.976 11,050 17.035
20,053 13,363 20.588
372
440
1.729 2.330 6.104
2.250 2.614 6.729
73
165 200
132 211
372
440
10,163
11.593
73
365
343
128
119
23 430 201
33
54.004
27 477 164
39
47.061
18
20
21,308 14,185 23,321
138.487
151.104
530
636
22,053
24.770
73
4.680
5.113
128
119
668
654
57
53
58,814
67,213
126,027
569
482
1,940
2,041
82
81
176,108
192,856
368,964
2
1
1
7,955 5,334 4.152
7,697 5,170 3,942
15,652 10,504 8,094
2
1
1
17,441
16,809
34,250
3.088
3,177
32
29
5
7
152 9
162 13
5 22
2 29
220
7,767
8,622
5
Total, Zor Sancak
7,801 5Î334 4,152
7,464 5,170 3,942
28
55
125
175
17.287
16.576
28
55
125
175
SURİYE (SYRIA) PROVINCE" Şam (Damascus) Sancak Şam Central Kaza Duma Hasbiya Raşya Vadiülacem Baalbek Beka Nebak
ffi.A. Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued)
M Jews-
SUBURBS ADMINISTERED BY ISTANBUL MUNICIPALITY Kuçükçekmece Gebze • Karta! Beykoz Şile Adalar (Islands)
TRABZON PROVINCE Trabzon Sancak Trabzon Central Kaza Ordu Giresun Tirebolu Görele Vakfikebir Akçaabat Sürmene Of
F
440
15,557
138 139
I.8.A. Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued)
L 8 . A . Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued) M
"Administrative District CASTAMONU PROVİNCE, continued 3olu Sancak ı Bolu Central Kaza Bartın Ereğli (K. Deniz) Gerede Göynük Düzce • Mudurnu (Mud) Hamidiye Total, Bolu Sancak
Catholics
Bulgarians
Armenians
Greeks
Muslims
F
M
Jews
F 21,632 24,284 15,926 20,174 8,377 14,497 13,341 21,389
1.8. A. Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued) 8 A . Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893 (continued) F
Administrative Dısîrıct VAN PROVINCE" Van Sancak Van Central Kaza Erciş Adiicevaz Kariçkan Gevaş Mekri Muradiye (Bargıri) Çatak (Sitak) Totai, Van Sancak Hakkari Sancak Mamuretulhamıdiye Totai, Hakkari Sancak TOTAL, VAN PROVINCE
YAN YA (JANINA) PROVINCE Yanya Sancak Yanya Central Kaza Aydonat Filat Meçva Leshovik Koniçe Pogon Permedi Totai, Yanya Sancak Ergiri Sancak Ergiri Central Kaza Delvine Tepedelen Kurveles Totai, Ergiri Sancak Berat Sancak Berat Central Kaza Goşince Avlonya Lusne Totai, Berat Sancak Prevese Sancak Prevese Central Kaza Loros Margiliç Totai. Prevese Sancak TOTAL, YANYA PROVINCE
f.g-B- Summary: Totals for Principle Administrative Districts (continued)
Catholics
Bulgarians
F
M
District
Total
Armenians
Greeks
Muslims
Aydın Edirne Erzurum Adana Işkodra Ankara İzmit Special Dıstnct Bağdat Basra Beyrut Bitlis Biga Special District Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Special District Halep Hüdavendigar Diyarbekir Zor Sancak Suriye Selanik Sivas İstanbul Suburbs Trabzon Kastamonu Kosova Konya Kudüs Special Oistrict Elaziz Musul Manastir Van Yanya
gnppİPment to 1881/82-1893 Census Results: Population Estimates District or Unit
Administrative Districts with Uncompleted Census Erzurum Işkodra Bitlis Bağdat Basra Cezayir-i Bahr-ı Sefıd Halep Zor Sancak Kosova Eiaziz Musul Manastır Suriye
Van Total
Administrative Units Not Included in Census Asir and Yemen Hicas (Hejaz) Trablusgarp (Tripoli in Libya) Bengazi Mutasarriflik Total
Area and or Group
Celalls and other tribes Işkodra Sancak Sason, Mutki, and some tribes Nomadic tribes and women Nomadic tribes and women Sporato Islands Tribes Tribes and Bedouins Prizren. Ipek, and Yenipazar Sancaks Dersim Sansak Estimates of tribes and women not covered by the census Debre and llbasan Sancaks Havran Sancak and tribes of Hama Sancak (partly subject to the census) Hakkari Sancak
1,8.D. Final Summary: Counted and Estimated Totals Counted population of all administrative units included in census Estimated population of areas with uncompleted census Estimated population of administrative units not included in census Estimated population of special and autonomous provinces Ottoman citizens in foreign countries
17,388,562 3,100,000 7,300,000 11,306.091 14,978
TOTAL
39,109,631
Notes to Tables I.8.A, 1.8.B, I.8.C. and I.8.D. Source: BA (Y)/(P)/11s 311, no, 215, Notes: Females were counted forthe first time in the 1881/82-1893 census, and the columns headed F give their number; the columns headed M. of course, give the tabulation of males. Females were excluded, however, totally or largely, from the census count in Bağdat, Basra, and Musul Provinces and Ipek and Prizren Sancaks. In 18S0 boundary changes, reflected in the 1881/82 census, took place as follows: the sancak of Manastir (Bitolia) was elevated to the rank of province by adding to it portions of Kosova (Prizren, Diakovo, and Dibra) and of Selanik (to which it had previously been attached); Üsküp (Skopje) was detached from Selanik and added to Kosova. This census tabulation is for the most part by vilayet (province), sancak (county/ district), and kaza (judicial district), with kaza populations being totaled to give the sancak population and sancaks totaled for the province figure. Some of the listed main units (including some provinces as well as special districts and urban areas) do not have sancafr divisions, however, but only teas. Sancaks are identified as such; un labeled small divisions are irazas. Districts in which the census was certified as completed were Aydin, Edirne, Adana, Ankara, İzmit, Biga, Diyarbekir, Selanik, Kastamonu, Konya. Kudüs, and Yanya; in Sdme other areas the census was quite close to completion, while some districts lagged far behind in their count, as indicated by the lettered notes.
'Census completed except for the Celali tribe. Census completed only for Drac Sancak and dependent kazas and the centrally dependent Akgahisar Kaza. Census completed except for Lazkiye Sancak. Census far from completion. 'Census completed except for the Sporato Islands. 'Census completed except for tribal population. 'Tribes excluded from census. b
c
c
"Census completed except in Havran Sancak. which was excluded from the census, as were a few tribes. 'Census completed except in Prizren, Ipek, and Yenipazar. 'Dersim Sancak excluded from census. Tribes excluded from census (as well as females). Census completed except for the sancaks of Debre and llbasan. Census completed except in Hakkari Sancak. k
m
"The following is a breakdown of the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Mus lims, 492,710; Orthodox Christians. 571.250; Catholics. 265.788; Jews, 5,805; other religious groups, 538; total, 1,336,091.
7,300,000
Spec/a/ Administrative
or Autonomous Units Misir (Egypt) Tunis (Tunisia) Eyalet Şarki Rumeli (Eastern Rumelia) Bulgarian Principality Girit (Crete) Bosnia and Herzegovina" Kibris (Cyprus) Cebeliiubnan (Mount Lebanon) Sisam (Samos) Beylik Total
150
6,000,000 I . 500,000 500,000 1,500,000 200,000 1,336,091 120,000 100,000 50,000 I I , 306,091
151
1.9. Ottoman Population, 1894
1.9. Ottoman Population, 1894 (continued)
Admınıstratıve Dıstrıct Edirne Erzurum Adana r Ankara ' Aydın : Işkodra (Scutari) İzmit Sancak Bağdat (Baghdad) Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Sancak Cezayır-i Batır-i Sefid Çatalca Sancak Halep (Aleppo) Hüdavendigar Oıyarbekir Zor Sancak Sivas Selanik (Salonlca) Suriye (Syria) Şehremaneti Mülhakatı Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs-ü Şerif (Jerusalem) Sancak Musul Mamuretüiaziz Manastir Van Yanya 0
Source: BA(Y) (Sadaret. Hususi Maruzatı) H 3 C1312, no. 2072 ot R 20 Teşrinisani 1310 (2 December 1894). Note' This table is based on the 1893 census in which various tribes and the populations of Hejaz and Yemen were not counted. The full title of this tabulation is "List Indicating the Population of the Capital and Its Boroughs and the Subjects Who Were Counted in the Vilayets Subject to Census." It was compiled by the premier's office in answer to a direct request by the sultan.
"The term "Greek" includes also those attached to the Orthodox church whose language is Arabic; the "Greeks" in Syria and Jerusalem should be m some other category. "Şehremaneti Mülhakatı is Greater Istanbul, and it includes the kazas of Kücükçekmece. Gebze. Kartal. Beykoz. Şile. and Adalar. Dersaadet ve Bilad-i Selase is the Capital City and the Three Boroughs, consisting of Istanbul. Beyoğlu, and Üsküdar. c
153
I 10. M u s l i m s and N o n - M u s l i m s i n the Ottoman State; 1894 AdmınistFöt've Dıstrıc!
Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra izmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Bafır-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakatı' Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova TK09UF) Girit" Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen Total
Source: BA (Y)/(Sadaret, Hususi Maruzati)/3 C 1312, no, 2072, Note: This table, compiled by the prime minister's office, covers areas the population of which was only partially tabulated in the 1893 census.
155
1.11.
M u s l i m and N o n - M u s l i m Subjects Counted in the Census up to_1895
Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydın Işkodra İzmit Sancak Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Sancak Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Sancak Halep Hüdavendigar (Bursa) Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakatı" Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Musul Mamuretülaziz (Elazig) Manastir Van Yanya Total İstanbul GRAND TOTAL GRAND TOTAL, BOTH SEXES
, '
Armenians
Greeks
Muslims "Administrative District
Catholics
Bulgarians
1.11. M u s l i m and N o n - M u s l i m Subjects i
oàb,v4z> dOA OOA Qo4.oc4 387,481 918,117 y/o 87,312
I .HDD, or\r>
"île
197,756 8,853 351,640 568,014
1My.ouo OQ CAO 264.374 58,822 799,185 11.ob/,U1c OC~7 Di 1 4 U 1, ¿ 9 9 ion non
19.414
IV\:ID\:i ili
M
Foreign
373
485
2,035 82,353
Snnrrp- RÛ
F
49
22,065
s
M
39
3,535 19
190,983
F
Non-Muslim
Old Syrians
4
199 54 364 135 3,764 19
2,502
1
F
Census up to 1895 (continued)
Chaldeans
118 901 4,142 4,675 1 2,570
I lö
fine; ÖUO A RRA
73,497
778 1,037 22
1,834 1,041
30
35
1,031,824
142
960 1,028 1,387 47
444
148,498
2.377,343
137
3
157,367
61,041
13,821,250
7.113
186 12.650
Latins
M
1
!U
1,545 1.182 9.409 196 699
F
6,60 3
1 fi"
8.896 1,685 4.145
35
97,459
M
22 12,51i
309 1 2,957
875
117,459 388
378
-Protestants • • •
Jews F
n
U m u m i y y e s r
of1 7 R a m a z a n
1 3 1 2
3,493
3.493
3,952
1,827
3,952
1,827
7,445
* 2 ? S £ % S t '
,
n
2,096
2,096
M
n
9
K
u
*
k
m
e
e
-
G
e
7no IXJC
988,114 07n Af\a y/u,4Ub 721,342 ¿08,602 251,094 571,070 664,399 t o i Q7fï ,y/u 516,467
74,300
27,m
99,564
1,030,234
65,936
173,864
18,735,218
239.800 c
RA OU,
1t ,U; fi7flö .TOO jyy
38,748
3.923 c
nen «ne yoy,4yo Qûn >tnn yyu,4uu Cin r\ a *\ b2u,943
t
o
-
™-
V,704,984
18,735,218
**• «*
Notes: The figures do not cover areas (Basra, Heiaz, Scutan-l kodra, etc ) where the census was nol completed in 1893. Crete is excluded. §
156
157
¡,12. Muslims and Non-Muslims i n the Ottoman State,_1896
M
"dministrative District >lanik zmi! Çatalca "rafczon ;ezayir-i Bahr-i Seflö Musul Halep Sığa . Kastamonu Bitlis Konya .Diyarbekir Adana Zor Edirne Erzurum Ankara Mamuretülaziz {Elazığ) Hüdavendigar Kosdva •Manasîir Aydin Suriye Sivas Yanya Van Beyrut Kudüs Işkodra Bağdat Basra Şehremaneti Mulhakati* Total ' İstanbul GRAND TOTAL GRAND TOTAL, BOTH SEXES
Source: BA (Y)/(P) 1313/1459. Note: This table is based on the 1893 census; it includes estimates for tribes not subject to the census and the annual population figures reported by the province officials (the full original title of the list reters to the estimate of tribes and to results "obtained by cable").
Greater İstanbul in this case includes Küçükçekmece, Gebze, Kartal, Şile, and Adalar, a
158 159
1.13. Ottoman Population, 1897
1.13. Ottoman Population, 1897 (continued)
Administrative District
M
Dersaadet .Edirne Aydın Erzurum Adana •Işkodra i Ankara İzmit Beyrut Bitlis Bağdat Basra Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hüdavendigar Oiyarbekir Zor , Selanik ; Suriye Sivas Şehremaneti Mülhakatı Trabzon Kosova Kastamonu Konya Kudüs : Manastir Namuretülaziz ; Musul Van Yanya
1.14. Ottoman Population G r o w t h , 1874/75-1894/95 (R. 1290-1310) Population
1290 1300 1310
19,865,800 24,675,950 27,299,500
Increase 4,810,150 2,553,550
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: This accounting of population growth over a twenty-year period compiled by Ottoman officials is evidence of the changing attitude of the Ottoman government toward census and population statistics.
' v
Year
1.15. Foreign Citizens i n the Ottoman State, 1899 (R. 1315)
-M
Foreign Citizens
Foreign Citizens
Administrative District
M
F
Total
Administrative District
İstanbul Edirne Aydin Erzurum Işkodra Ankara İzmit Beyrut Bağdat Basra Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca
Source: IUKTY 9184. Note: This tabulation of foreigners was compiled by the Statistical Directorate of the Trade and Construction Ministry in 1915. but it was based on the original statistical list (compiled eighteen years earlier). "The General Statistics of the Ottoman State in R. 1313 11897]."
160
161
L16. A. Summary of Census of Ottoman Population, 1906/7
M s'anbui 151 dıstnct 2d dıstncı 3ö d strıc!
57.680 25.710 34.679 16.797
4!h dıstnct ı 5thı distr.ct
2.393 39.468 3 335
Sin dıstnct 7tîı dıstnct .. atfı dıstrıct :
5.956 19.536 6.597
9tfı disînct 10th dıstfict "
Cossacxs
Muş ıms
Ajmınıstralıve
212.151
Totai. İstanbul
f
M
f
Greeks M
13.771
32.809 22.281 32.197
9.687
13.658
7.182 12,433
2.118 23,867
2.671 32.660
2 025 4.829 18,412
3 309 2,402
5,992
3.861 3,908
158,188
91,884
Bulgarians
Armenians F
7.625 7.410 5.731 8.789 2,349 22,354
M.
M
F
F
Greek
Armenian
Wailacnians
Catholics
Calhol'CS
M
M
F
F
M
6 168
542
99
11
13
138 386
29 84
2
3
4 838 474
1.060 4.004 3.717 474
171
50
7.044
7 206
359
8 899 17
1 240 14
10
12
6.405 1.156 4.012
141
117
46 158 12
I.16.A. Summary of Census of Ottoman Population, 1906/7 (continued)
Protestants
F
M
31 153
Süryani
F
96 152 1
491 27
12 ' 515 12
220
3.726 11
3,536 12
190 13
8 67
9 37
3
Latins
102 152 2 32 162 10
2 828 1 590 2,549
216 3 727
381 204 4.007
2.181
2.330
91 28
28 22
14
16
232
245
81 44
77
4,056 65,281
30.412
29.551
2.290
579
168
149
4.770
4,562
300
570
M
F
26
(Syriac)
M
M
F
16
35 6 1
53 5
1,048
1.331 30
26
Maronıtes
16
360
Chaldeans
F
M
F
2
118
291
108
33
I h e V ı c i n ı t y of
18 25
19 24
8
14
1,184
1.478
384
134
291
Jacobites M
108
F
Jews M
Samarıîans
F
M
569
516
5.293 147
5.405 147
2.233
2 358 72
79 12.263
12,395
91 142
100 140
2,042 887
2 055 845
23.746
24,033
F
Yezıdıs M
Gypsies
F
M
Foreigners
F
M
887 828
81 459 43.527
48.266 37.321
129.727
430 1.580 207
42,663 30 672
89.908 70,607
21.661
47.245 39.935 6.070 188.054
5,265 93.183
11.335 281,237
280 276
7.786 9.089
13.466
1.645 244
31.986 14.269
16.149 60.860
345
5.680 7,060 28,874 13.821
101.211
28.038
469,420
312.807
782.227
2.769 10.578
5.959 21,541
11.280 7,196
23,980
1.236 3
791 2.966 197 89.884
88
625
'
129
352 2.517
45 136
t
F
2.298
46
T o t a
M
3
80
Tolal
F
Population
80.646
28.090
İstanbul 2.308
Beykoz
6,705 10,046
Sile Gebze Kuçukçekmece
8.285 6,260
Kartal
2,015 6,326 9,023 5.571
882
754
4,256 2,654
4 252 2,257
1.594
1,225
785
4.881
618
900 326
3.190 10.963 12.700
2
400 510
10.779 7.371
Total.Vicinityof İstanbul
33,604
27.816
1.0.171
9,106
1,226
510
176,157
165,279 174,279 108,274
100,516 23,093
92,764
6.544
136
49
2,340
383
17
18
85,258
21,120 12,698 7.904
5.729 2 194
2 1 Aydın (İzmir)
180,148
Manisa Aydin
124,451
8.967 1,864
1.533
453 8 331
674,011
657,541
149,086
136,019
9,676
8.611
2. Ankara
179,956
1,835
4,802
82,259 72,804
1,532 4.805
5.047
Yozgat Kayseri ' Kırşehir
170,635 73,670
16.735 22,491
13,935 20.130 1,481
Çorum
102,257
81,469 95,541
1,723
524,782
108,219 83.650 125,837
Menteşe (Muğla) Denizli Totaî, Aydin
:
3 Adana Mersin Cebelibereket (Payas) Kozan İçel Total. Adana 4. Erzurum Erzincan Bayazid Hınıs Totai, Erzurum 5. Bitlis Muş Surt Genç Total. Bitlis 6 Cezayir-ı Bahr-i Sefid Midilli Sakız Lımnı
.
11
330 4 32
342 8 42
98 100
701
67
17
11
366
392
198
249
7
7
3.196 14
3,336 7
426 546 1,115
361
1
601
540
1.619 1.817
486,784
21,895
19,881
47,709
42,071
7
7
4.064
4.076
2,246
1,916
53,571
49,673
1,043 1,552
7.531
6,941
328
401 304
4
7,092 196
10 1 1
130 847
132 683
518 307 707
466 279
158 857
1,764 5,837
27 98
91 981 1,697
2.409 6,700
32 110
468
42,293 33,836 32,242
1,391 1,898
848 6
731 2
92 67
701
701
2
1,399
212.451
6,058
5,009
25,217
21.830
154
129
1.773
1.520
2,505
2,228
5
1
189,498 58,805 39,590
160,213
2,127
856
4
2.259
3.561
181
169
949 330
706 124
609
1,162
33,618 11,343 3.266
1
57.036 29.043
36,961 12,037
598
452
138 22
1
9,582
7.739
20 215
297,475
254,031
57,350
51.960
1
4
924
60 1,088 1,194
359 321
295
19,335
15,623 27,709 3,643
12,209
70
22,060 3,023
1,360 1,402
21,761
17,502
3,383
2 569
108,820
89,086
50.358
39,861
6,995 9,697
6,390 8,267 1.144
36,478 58,169
32,621
18 39 18
13 19
52,355
55,313 46,494
1.829
17.813
17,599
2
17,630
164,815
152,027
189
27
40
648
52 96 1
49 79
155
1,065
23,465 28,784
1,303 1.976
626 857
4,013
31,688 30.715
18 1
973
2,857
24,656
1
77
2.832
2,342
869
682
10 7
13
4
3
493 71
209
37 432
82.435
330.232 207.838 125.273 93.414
299.892 199.710 123.034 93,834
8
, 11
13
10
5
128.053
126,301
248.307 187.248 254.354
11
13
34.176
23.042
884.810
842,771
1,727,581
191.102
181,305 93.079 98.B84
372.407
666
16,404
16,117
633
632
2 177
4
105,316
28
109,700
19B.395 208.584 175.144
84.449 97.859
202.601
601,555
555.576
1.157 131
5
64,400 47.510
59.239 45.257
123.639 92.767
632
192
177
27
32
5 34
3
2
36 1
3 7
2 3
41,575 43,485 63,288
36.708 38,437
78.283 81.922
64.497
127.785
260.258
244 138
504,396
198,946 69.494
430.646 141,656
33.143 11.627
77,342 26.211
362.645
313 210
675 855
155
40.697
32.054 46.821 34,180
72,951 107,899
1.000
61 078 37.415 25,144
20 071
71,595 45.215
164,534
133.126
297,660
45.756 69.338
41.187
86.943
64.925 48.727
591
227
164
51
47
21 24
10 25
6
10
6
4
1.655
5 20
90,695 104,742
748
1.466
213
630.124 407.548
150 11
35
1
2
7
12
6
4
10
14
45
28
55
42
104
47
231,700
10
3
72.162 44.199 14,584
114
50
1.155
25 196
2.098 16 179
1
35
30
49 1 399 940 87
1
2.439
2.323
2.475
1,951 74
1.809
2.183
3 1
17
275
27
189
1
19
45.003
5
22
54
22 549
356 403 4
61 1 1
45
208 179
37 19.971
33.403
1,739 1,406
633
61,402
2,135
12,306
1,789
55
223,344
3,669
12.327
192
63 2 34 t
3.733
7
2
8,402 175
3,565 4,787
8
1,503 785
41,093 29,868 28.919 62,898
380
7
481 936 83
Total, Cezayir-i Bahr-i Selid
2
1
11,590 1.414
65,469
701
6 299 153
17,975 12.980
162 87
5,565 12,422 1,472
87,506
Total, Ankara
14,646
17
5,609
18
4
27
3 38
30
1
46 1.305 861 69
54.849 19.914
19 52Z
134.263 103.576 39.441
2.281
189 857
174.366
364 223
183.364
173.901 117.392
357.265 240,601 399.742
7. Hudavendigar (Bursa) Ertuğrul (Bilecik)
133,141 102,937
126,600 98,210
30,048 7,257
28,284 7,146
16.978 12.341
Kütahya Karahısar (Afyon) karesi (Balıkesir)
192.880 130,855
187,652 127,526
5,270
4,813 178
3.636 3,307
170.272
160.425
782
730.085
700 413
782
Total. Hudavendigar
15,962 11,459 3,492
804
390 42.144
40.838
3,628
3.195 3.867
804
85,109
81.259
39.890
37,975
338 279
397
204
233
448 1
475 1
321 114
228 279 96 7 26 636
2.544
2.452
68
48
2 22
2,544
2,452
1.134
1,154
663
76
65 75
5 142
2 138
2.248
2.089
704
621
123.209 118
822
113
734
289
289
195
195
196,911 130.909
202.831 134.560 219.602
208.598
265.469 428.200
863.566
827.711
1.691.277
162 163
I.16.A. Summary of Census of Ottoman Population, 1906/7 (continued) Greek Cossacks
Muslims OıStr.Ct 8 Diyarbakır Mardin Ergan. madeni Total. Dıyarbekır
49,218
307
365
9 419
8.915
288
233
508
533
143.607
563
562
22.379
21 231
4.345
4.058
1.848
1.723
F
M
F
842
785
3.215
3.040
953 387
866 324
9.795
325
353
260
69.471
1.670
1.630
2,160
2 093
12.151 10,124
624
590
617
43.468 696 20.607
13.216 12.006 !4 1.280
1
96
118
613
591 628
111.829
103.645
26,516
23,539
1
720
708
1.230
1.219
4.650 26.116
4.785 2.130
4,276 1.798
3 24
3 18
126
84
102.261 36.633
5,348 28.284 1,344
255
113 502
4.618 5,174
5,081
595 408 270
561
73.622 111,777
1,278 4,668
311 28
460 254
5
582.749
562.964
44,768
41,793
8,188
7.349
5
98,063 55,733
122.690 97.382 50,350
47.750
Lazıstan (Rize) Gümüşhane
938 19,887
549,949
522.039
11. konya
247,943
238,671
Niğde Burdur
111,296 36.517
İsparta Antalya
73.491
208 262 107.06; 67.33S
105
105
101
101
4,446
1,727
1.525 649
1,289 691 4,528
833 218
1.581 805 204
2.368
2.073
10,954
5.146
4.663
155,253 142,575
77.526 167,673
69.966 155.499
5,319
564,844
523.293
12,107
81,877 93,362 30,165 205,404 42,064 30,798
72,422 86,857
338
313
26,101 185,380
338
41.142 30,072
8,666 3,041
43,949
13,218 2,740 594 28,259
313 7,761
999 278
905 55
M
M
F
48 1
31
49
31
27
21
465 3
6
7 4
6
2 1
1
1
3
2 10
6
23.374
736
558
5.183
5,055 3.984
751 1.651
751 1.773
35,099
32,413
3,138
3,082
4
2.288 340
3 2.943 344
211
228
2.839
3.515
4,529
4,432
3,498 292
2,969 217
649 204
270
186
463
6
2
3 175
8,595
7,806
1,132
1
Total, Suriye 19. Trablusgarb Humus Cebeiigarbı Fizan Rıngazı Total. Trablusgarb
164
165
101
9,460
334
356,332
4,739
4,181
34,831
29.527
9,087
196
164
47.114
50,398
10,953 7,386
199.299
208,700
18,339
14,831
196
122.696 63.625 42,682
114.219 56.271 37,000
68 5
70 2
43
4.042 12 4,054
207.490
73
72
2.685
2,498
3.529
2.191 499
2.315 435
2.346 750
5.375
5.248
6.625
6,904
296
305
164
7.607
7,209
17
13
15
17
531 139
149
169 427
396
1.173
1.066
90
102
385 132
90
102
517
13
15
17
2
4
2
F
29
31
87,927 142,167
169.631
136,388
278,555
29
31
618 110
576,262
1,194,372
59 969 9
43 254 1
323.657 191,725 99.024
303,866 177,302
627.523 369.027
2
76.902
98 096 72 206
197.120
2 1.039
300
691,308
651.470
1.342.778
256,368
247,622
142,047 38,484
130.448 38,497
506.190 272.495
78,567
76.981 157,357 236,754
149 108
4
2
139
119
50 212
30
119.332
78,790 117,422
143
119
264
235
30
636,798
612.979
1.249,777
127
116 23
21
22
173.945
161.421
335,366
27 14
20 1
154,662 78,426
144,734
299,396 149.294
62
43
26 1
27
1
9
5
1
42
25
106
5,329
5,284
89
89
621
564
996
8
5
4,989
3,643
659
611
228
184 11,598
30
40 191
175,360
70.868 162 100
337.460
582.393
539.123
1.121 516
30 1
111.032
100.354
99.423 37,210
93.219 32.086
211,386 192.642
31
247,665
225,659
473,324
819 3,185
62.263 42,017
60.261 40.651 57.697
122,524
29
157
139
4
10,102
4 841 3.118 29
69
89
327
327
2
791 755 538 23
715
1,316
1,247
518 14 967 2,730
2,221
2
2.763
43
487.926 258.260
20
729
39
229,003
126.149 81.704
33
82
55
10
7.311
5,744
3
737
40
3,851
3.861
2 1
146
169
158,302
232.021
132,111
M
150
20
2
40
723
7,460 2,000
3
582
2
152,185
255,905
17
487
1,024
383,876
392.705
20
339
55
18 Suriye Hama Kerk Havran
180,807
3
331
1,055
7.003
211.898
3
189 35 2
373
723
7
593
F
624
3,814
10
112.209 123.507
149
2
159,129
4
12,792 10.218 6.517
152
150
452 130
2
15,097
156 989
50.477 59,416
2
345 142
530
12.731
70,914
M
M
Total Population
61,732 64.091
F
F
Tola!
86,075
1
258 81
1,311
4,174
Foreigners
Gypsies
F
M
577
264 67
371
4.729
2
1
1,973
233,507 62,101 60.724
1
572
3
109,568 29,185 20,376
239,392 69.449 75.035
9.033
Yezidis
M
202 239
187
10.229
Samaritans F
235 150
1
224.342
17. Haleb Maraş Urta
Jews M
6,246
3
235,878
Total. Basra
F
364
59,177
16. Basra Amara Münteíik Need
M
F
2,787
1
Nabius
Totai, 8ağdat
Jacobites
M
3,322
1
56,392 52.787
Divaniye Kerbela
Chaldeans
6,907
3
45,275 58,564
15. Bağdat
F
1
1
4.760
14
M
25
8
2,943 9,819 2,476 23,462
F
942 864
Lazkiye Total. Beyrut
(Synac)
Maronites
Laims
1
25.156
14
940
17 1.247
4,614
167.453 152.192
1.0B2 263
1.16.A. Summary of Census of Ottoman Population, 1906/7 (continued) Süryani
74.585
38.874
Akka Trablusşam
,V,
10.688
43,254
14. Beyrut
F
10.688
251.617
Total, Mamuretülaziz
M
35,080
265.886 130.267
13. Mamuretiılaziz Malatya Dersim
f
45 242
10 Trabzon Canık [Samsun)
Total. Kastamonu
M
12 882 9.770
32,294
Sinop
12.316
F
10.928 10.649
466.740
Bolu Çankiri
12.960
M
37 024
123.383
12. Kastamonu
F
42.320
506.048
Total, Konya
M
2,451 11.292 10 649
9.718 6,934
Total. Trabzon
Protestants
197 •
61.101 114.765
Total, Sivas
Catholics
256
F
3.301 12,341
Tokat
Armenian
Catbo-cs
53,761 40,628
67 555
M
190.605 100.269
9 Sivas Amasya Karahısar-t Şarkı
Waiiachians
ç
F
171.962
Bulgarians
Armenians
M
M
50.988 53.419
Greeks
2,273
46
41
95
71
63,912 62,236 60.321
95
71
4,074
290,749
271,970
562 719
70
124.017
2.045
126.062
22
29 720
1.333
155
2
20,531
532
31,053 21,063
13,621
94
174,268
3.910
178,178
266 174
7,927 2.343
7.927 2,343
440
10.270
10.270
1,298 108
192
163
786
200
205
373
338
2.597
2.194
392
368
6.311
5.353
24
24
24
24
655 2,172
3,618
2,827
59.667 53,694
4,034
1.022
755
82,666 121,609 121,903 114.015
12,933 533
1,451 124
2,863
69,296
5,938
5.015
52
44
130
279.136 87,391
268.341 77.811
85,073
69 927
155,000
130
451,600
416.079
867.679
9
179.677 57.826
182.464 58788
362.161 116.614
13
9
237,503
241,272
478,775
70
37
127,784 64,804
119 125 57.413
246.909 122.217
43,112
37 385
80,497
235.700
213.923
449.623
•
4.939
4.596
4.964 1.104
4 604 1,103
430
385
6,498
6 292
_ 52
_
158
108
44
158
108
57
40
37
547.477 165.202
165
r
I.16.A. Summary of Census of Ottoman Population, 1906/7 (continued) Greek
:
0's;rc!
Cossacks
Muslims
lAdmiivslrabve M
F
M
'Greeks
F
F
M
:20 Musul
43.775
1
ı
67.458
2
Kerkük Suieymanıye Total. Musul 21. Van Total.Van
Arr-'emans
Bulgarians
F
M
M
Wailacbians F
M
F
Armena.n
Catholics M
F
' 45
F
Protestants M
I.16.A. Summary of Census of Ottoman Population, 1906/7 (continued)
F
Süryani
74
3 882
Gypsies
(Synac)
Total F
788
36.929
56
148.162 29.408
Cat hOliCS M
3
45
25.174
74
4,726
2,071
54.421
54.421
1,758
70.006
70.006
25.388
336
37.321
37,321
33,994
25.388
4,165
161,748
161.748
33.994
29.408
25.174
40.508
40,642
3,291
2,807
3
3
1,058
1.120
40.508
40,642
3,291
2,807
3
3
1 058
1.120
• 23 Selanik
118.262
108.324
99.039
86.646
269
155
44,841
37.640
8.744
7.717
1,597
1.084
Sereı
34.837
33.331
18,577
27.441
22
35,643 3.026
33.391 1 169
2,064
1,836
75
50
7
5
83,510
72.200
10.883
9.603
1.604
1,089
; 22. Işkodra Oraç Total. Işkodra
144
149
Orama Tolal, Selanik 1
65.330
59,520
18.522
13,656
132
9 50
218.429
201.175
136.138
127,743
423
214
26
24
8
34
24
101
91
13 64
16 44
178
151
149
144
14
12
4
1
63,402
50.562
113,964
63.402
50.562
113.964
23
28
45.104
44,744
89.84B
23
28
45,104
44,744
89,848
24.269 741
24,520
948
795
164
98
296,278
267.106
565,384
679
1.036
993
2
2
92.957
97.699
190,656
89.007
64,886
53,066
50,192
2,493
2.406
18.759
18,024
164
106
20
24
1.163
1,013
471
493
273
256
89.063
76.256
165,319
121.725
118.145
11,614
262
231
14.929
13,685
8
9
10
3
26.183
26,212
2 455
2.281
439
356
480.298
441.061
921,359
Kirkkılise
41.252
37,086
35.752
9,931 34,749
91
58
14.727
15.009
101
106
Oedeağaç
23.438
20,297
13.065
215
241
8.625
8.298
3
4
7,769
7,765
990
923
13
8
172,281
144.334
316.615
Tekfurdağı
40,408 13,374
36,405
14,508 28,114
25.313
11.876
7.138
2,768
2,978
68
52
76
70
640
650
99
102
46
26
149.336
142.784
292.120
33,239
31 365
550
583
669
805
821
878
293
280
93,038
88.166
181.204
329,204
289,400
176,293
164.615
15.487
10.657
60.677
58.799
97
167
159 1,289
54
1,365 1,241 12.003
11,836
630 153
24. Edirne Gümülcıne
/
Population
Gelibolu Total. Edirne
12,581
25 Kosova
59,301
54,302
Priştme
72.462
50,828
İpek
20.760
Senice
28.328
Prezrin
72,086
Tolal, Kosova
252,937
:
4.636
3.968
1
21,528 4.990 126,658
9.626
3,968
1
29.873
8.523 18,691
16.969
157,344
47,943
47.248
Sertice
40,031
36.839
Debre
32,526
llbasan
30,364
7.692
Gorice
44,081
41.827
43,760
38.265
2
2
194,945
133,606
149.702
136,299
5
3
Total, Manastır
68,632
37.082
41,824
1
56.210
2
1
277
25
26
23
23
106 119
16
13
1
17.135
26, Manastir
43,905 62.037
75.913
344
1
605
235 115.474
2
1.242
235
119
54
88,236
83.382
356
296
1,769
1,624
941
773
5,814
4,890
1.724
1.466
1
4
107,192
89,896
3.021
2,535
1
4
1.303
1,303
818
46
49,347
46.475
95.822
223
596.250
537.546
1.133.796
568
141,205
127.524
268.729
152
110.939
82 156
193.095
83
83
47.101
865
803
2,332
2,227
271
264
16
17
7
423
288
22
106
85.956
78,384
231
150
73,281
69.266
164.340 142.547
72 14
270
90
28,698
24,200
52,898
22
83,425
73.556
156,981
2,035
1,642
652
346
271,360
245,406
516,766
408
404
12,671
12,111
24,782
11,249
10.361
21.610
42,011 19,447
38,777
80 788
18 109
37.556
49
35
148,798
137.794
49
35
1,829 14 170
5,944
3,994
3,717
645
615
2
8
376
350
336
285
220
202
Ayvacık
10,110
9,328
9,328
8,778
5
3
Bayramiç
10,230
10.206
569
401
12
13
t
72.708
68,063
19,826
18,465
1.218
1.118
380
Total, Biga 29. İzmit
19,535
Adapazari
38.251
17.755 34,797
2,588
2,361 3,600 7,284
11.082 7.967
10.456
Karamürsel and Yalova
11,012
9,611
4,095 7.849
2.657
2.487
Geyve
15,946
15.357
3,198
3,196
4,147
4,035
Kandıra
19,546
18,750
875
820
272
260
104,290
96,270
18,605
17,261
26,125
25,140
20,717
19.869
4
9
31
28
Resülayn
1.245
1,180
Aşara
9,020
8,342
Total, İzmit 30. Zor
353
2
8
1
214
188
7,902
1,435
1,394
2
6
89
76
32
32
76 1
63
514
500
134
117
18
10
10,966
10,753
21 719
311
317
1,735
1,650
443
422
96,344
90.111
186 455
102
82
111
125
34.130
31.459
65.589
44
76 41
69
57
43
50.722
46 703
97.425
21,522
19 386
40.908
23.393
22 670
46.063
1
1
1 17
9
214
186
151
82
927
899
1
2
1
3
4
5
5
Ebukemal 29,391
—4
9
27,093
25,997
5,819
5,438
23,739
21,139
2,051
1,820
31,456
27.849
380
377
21,631
18,797
»
Total, Zor 31 Kudüs Yafa Gazze Halilürrahman
30,982
— 32
— 28
322 45
300
18
12
230
209
39
199
172
46
35
9
151
32. Çatalca Total. Çatalca
103,919
93,782
8,250
7,635
367
339
217
12,502
10,626
23,314
21,011
505
491
3,985
3,603
12.502
10,626
23,314
21.011
505
491
3.985
3.603
184
8
3
3
1
3
2
20 699
19.833
40 532
171
170
120
114
150,466
140 051
290 517
21.014
20 048
41 062
1.250
1,180
2 430
9,020
6.342
17 362
31.284
29 570
60 854
82
1
Blrulsebi and Nasıra Total. Kudüs
2
14
93
1 17
43,081 38,874
151
19,053
119.826 , 105.589
2,939
7.692
31,182 96.244
7
21,717
2.630
200,986
1.549
54.454
3,175
358,317
95.743
183.570
9,493
2,760
176.257
105.243
824.828
61,637
7.370
15
87.326
993
35.215
183.060
94,446
366.018
441
1,111
8.064
671.653
458,810
417
2,665
38 150
248.260
15
431
2,794
Biga and Lapseki
423.393
38
445
36.866 16.368
26
85.681
43,081
65,507
30
38.580
94.446
70,330
3
29,702
29.702
37,986
3
159.002
74
11,222
6,154
73.716
340
32,243 7,670
28. Biga Ezine
85,286
1.617
13,646
Total, Yanya
89.033
136
1,769
1,095
35,050
16,765
42 071
199
Ergiri Berat
46.962
312
27. Yanya Preveze
7
387
419
2,266
10,555
6
276
244
3.072
2.836
393
311
11
9
3.476
3.156
166
Kotes lonox labte I 16 B
3 543
3.525
40.146
38.352
78 496
217
162
26.690 31.847
23 678 26 235
50.368
220
216
21,851
19.013
40.864
3.980
3.903
120.534
109 278
229 812
938
828
938
828
265
60.062
_V02
75
41,630
36 899
76.529
102
75
41.630
36 699
78 529
167
I.16.B. Final Summary of Ottoman Population, 1906/7 Armenian
Greek Cossacks
Muslims Adnmıstratıve Dstnct
M
F
istanbul The Vıcınıty ot İstanbul
212.151 33.604
Aydın
674.011 524.782 223.344
158.188 27.816 657.541
Ankaıa Adana Erzurum Bitus Cezayır-ı Banr-ı Sefıd Hudavendıgar Dıyarbekır Sivas Trabzon Konya Kastamonu Mamuretulaziz Beyrut Bağdat Basra Halep Suriye Trablusgarb Musul Van Işkodra Selanik Edirne Kosova Manasür Yanya Biga İzmit Zor Kudüs Çatalca Total
Notes to Tables 1.16.A and 1.16.B. Source: iUKTY 947, "Memalik-i Osmaniyyede Dehil-t Tahrir Otan Nufusun Icmaii" [The summary oi Ottoman population included in the census]. Notes The register (59 pages long) containing these summary figures does not give information about the year to which they pertain. However, it can be deduced, from comparison with other statistics and factors such as the arrangement of the provinces in the list, that this summary was compiled in 1906 or 1907 and that certainly it summarizes data obtained in the countrywide census oi 1905 6. That census was carried out for each kaza under the direction of a general committee consisting of the kaza population officials plus one member each from the provincial executive committee and the municipal council, two reserve officers, and representatives of the local communi
I.16.B. Summary of Ottoman Population 1906/7 (continued)
F
F
34.831 196
3 423 15.487 1
Protestants
M
M
7 154
19 2.544
Catholics
Catholics
373 36
356.332
252.937
9 676
Wallachians F
M
M
F
M 91.884
486 784 212.451
297,475 108.820 i 19.97! : 171.962 506.048
M
Bulgarians
Armenians
Greeks
ties, Muslim and non-Musltm. Census teams (secretaries) visited each village to record the population and compile a census list, the accuracy of which was attested by the kaza general committee and by village leaders including the muhtar (elected elder), the imams and priests of the religious communi ties, and the community council. In order to keep the population records up to date, the officials were required to report each quarter on birtns, deaths, immigration, and emigration See Memalik-i Osmaniyyenin 1330 Senesi Nüfus Istatistikı (istanbul. 1919), Introduction. Districts 1-27 are vilayets; the capital is listed first in each case, followed by the other sancaks in the province. Districts 28-32 are sancaks; the capital is listed first, followed by the other kazas in the sancak.
168
169
1.17.A. Ottoman Populat ion, 1914 (R. 1330) Admintstraîîve Oısîrict İstanbul (Capital and Vicınity) İstanbul (Oıd City) Makrikoy (Bakırköy) Adalar (Islands) Beyoğlu (former Pera-Galata and . Bosphorus. European Shore) ; Üsküdar \ Gebze / Kartal > m Asıa Beykoz \ Şile ) Total, İstanbul 1. Edirne Mustafa Paşa Seymenli Lala Paşa Dimetoka Uzunköprü A. Kirk Kilise (Kırklareli) Lüleburgaz Baba-yi Atik Vize Demirköy Pinarhisar B. Tekfurdaği (Tekirdağ) Çorlu Malkara Hayrabolu Saray C. Gelibolu Keşan İpsala Şarköy Mürefte Inos Eceabad Tdtal, Edirne 2. Erzurum Pasinler Bayburt İspir Tercan Tortum Keskin Kiğı Narman Hinis A. Erzincan Pülümür Refahiye Kuruçay Kemah B. Bayazid Eleşgird Diyadin Tutak Karakilise Total, Erzurum
I.17.A. Ottoman Population, 1914 (continued) l . l / . r V . v_/ı.ı.uıııaıı ı w p Muslims'
AO İTİ'î i'bil alı VC Uı Jll lı_l
K3rais3Ü Vı ırnı ırtalik T UM IUı inli r\
A. MJidll Hsçin Fsks Kars o rphpühprpkpi
r
Dörtyol İslahiye Bağçe, Bulanık Hassa C Marcln U. ivicisin Tarsus
4 Ankara Ayaş Bala Beypazari Haymana Kalecik Nallihan Yabanabad A. Çorum İskilip Sungurlu Osmancik Mecitözü B. Kirşehir Mucur Keskin Mecidiye Avanos C. Yozgat Akdağmadeni Boğazliyan Total, Ankara
12. Sivas Tonus Halik Darende Divriği Aziziye Kangal Koçgiri Gürün Yildizeli A. Amasya Havza Küprü Gümüşbaciköy Merzifon Ladik B. Tokat Erbaa Zile Niksar Reşadiye C. Karahisarişarki Alucra Mesudiye Suşehri Koyulhisar
1.17.B. Summary of Ottoman Population, 1914 Administratıve District Edirne Erzurum İstanbul Adana Ankara Aydın Bitlis Beyrut Halep Hüdavendigar Diyarbekir Suriye Sivas Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Mamuretülaziz Van Eskişehir Antalya Urfa İçil İzmit Bolu Canik Çatalca Zor Kudüs-i Şerif Karahisar-i Sahip Karesi Kale-i Sultaniye Kayseri Kütahya Maraş Menteşe Niğde Total
11,169 Notes to Tables 1.17.A and I.17.B. Source: Ministry of the Interior, Directorate General of the Administration of Popula tion Registers, Memalik-i Osmaniyyenin 1330 Senesi NOtus Istatistiki [Population sta tistics of the Ottoman state In the year 1914] (Istanbul, 1919). Notes: According to the official introduction, these statistics were prepared by using the figures from the 1905'6 census and adding births and subtracting deaths registered during the intervening years. Estimates of current population were made for tribes In eastern Anatolia, such as the nomadic Nestorians, and for areas not subject to the
census (these included Hicaz, Yemen, Musul, Bağdat, Basra, Cebililübnan, Asir, Me dian, and areas o1 European Turkey incorporated into Greece, Serbia, and Albania). In Table 1.17.A. districts 1-17 are vilayets. Listed first is the vilayet capital, followed by the towns in the central kaza. The lettered districts are the capitals of other teas in the vilayet, followed by other towns in the kaza. Districts 18-35 are independent sancalcs (müstakil sancaki). The central kaza is listed first, followed by other kazas in
the sancak.
t
188 189
1.18.
Summary of Ottoman Census Reports, 1893-1914
Administrative District Aydin Edirne Erzurum Adana Işkodra Ankara İzmit ; Bağdat Basra Beyrut Bitlis Biga Cezayır-i Bahr-ı Sefid Çatalca Halep (Aleppo) Hüdavendigar Diyarbekir Zor Suriye (Syria) Selanik Sivas Şehremaneti Mülhakati (Greater İstanbul) Trabzon Kastamonu Kosova Konya Kudüs Elaziz Musul Manastir (Bitolla) Van Yanya (Janına) Dersaadet ve Bilad-i Selase (Istanbul and the Three Boroughs) Total
Notes: Because the 1914 census list reflected major changes in the territorial bound aries and administrative division of the Ottoman state, the 1914 column in this sum mary table required some adjustment. The population figures for newly created prov inces have been added to the figures for the larger areas from which they were detached Thus Icel is included with Adana; Menteşe with Aydin; Kayseri with Ankara; Canlk with Trabzon, Bolu with Kastamonu; Niğde and Antalya with Konya; Maraş and Urla with Halep; and Kale-i Sultaniye, Karahisar-i Sahip, Kütahya, Eskişehir, and Karesi with Hüdavendigar. Of course, this must distort the totals in many cases, as each new administrative division usually included parts of more than one former province; for example, Biga, which was added to the new Karesi province, is counted in with Hüdavendigar in the adjusted total. The total figure for Istanbul and its suburbs in the 1914 list is placed opposite Dersaadet ve Bilad-i Selase in the summary.
190
Net Gain (Loss) 1893-1906
1893'
Note that the column showing net gain or loss compares 1893 with 1906 rather than with 1914, the administrative alignment having been so drastically altered by the latter date that a province-by-province comparison was not in order. The grand total for 1914 shows a net gain of 1,131,454; this reflects the loss of territory and population in Europe, as the total net gain figure for 1906 is 3,496,068. The counts for Basra and Bağdat never approached completion; therefore no net gain/loss figures at all are included for these two areas. The figure for Basra given in the 1897 column is much higher than that for other years because that figure is from the Statistical Office. The Statistical Office was less conservative than the Population Directorate and would publish figures gathered by other means than actual count.
STATISTICAL APPENDICES
SECTION" II TABULATIONS OFNATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS GROUP POPULATIONS IN VARIOUS PROVINCES
II.1. Comparative Table S h o w i n g Various Estimates of the Population of Certain Provinces of the Ottoman Empire (Report of Major Henry Trotter)
11.1. Various Estimates of Population i n Certain Provinces
(continued)
A V'layets o Erzeroum Van. and Billis 'excluding S e n Armenians Gregorian. Catnolic Protestant
Authority (1) Sir Robert Dalyell. 1863 (2) Mr Consul Taylor. 1869 13| Berlin Protect. 1878
B Viiay t of D'arbekir (including Saert. or Siirt) a
Authority (9) Mr Taylor, 1869 (10) Patriarch to Ambassador (11) Official figures, 1880 (12) Sal-nama, 1879
Armenians*
Syrians'
Christians, 108,000 88.800 55,000° 76,958 : 10,212 s
(13) Private
19,200
Greeks
Jews
Zmganls
Kurds, Kurmandji
45,000' 55.000"
1.000 5,000 306
Turks &c.
1
12,500°
Totals Arabs 118.000
55.000'
Yezidis 8.000 5,000
Non-Moslems
Moslems'
109.000
574.500
148.800 87,908
145.000 328,174
129.092
562,778
m
11
l t is not clear in original whether or not this estimate includes Zaza Kurds Probably Kizilbash Turks
The Patriarch apparently claims 40,000 Nestonans and 15.000 Syrian Catholics There are. in point of fact, no Nestonans permanently resident in the Oiarbekir Vilayet, but {here are a number of Jacobites, or Old Syrians, and Chaldeans c
•40,000 Turks and 15.000 Circassians Called by Patriarch Arab-Kurds 'The Patriarch claims 40.000 Alivis and 15 000 Kizilbash Alivis and Kizilbash are. as far as is known, one and the same thing. c
The population of the Saert Sandjak, recently transferred from Oiarbekir to Bitlis. is included in this estimate E
"Including the Yezidis. or Devii-worshippers. amongst the Moslems, as they are so included in the official lists for purposes of conscription "includes 20 Copts
'including Gregorians. Catholics, and Protestants "Including Nestonans. Chaldeans. Jacobites, and Syrian Catholics including Orthodox and^ Catholic
218,584 Turks. 2.800 Circassians, 2.000 Lazes, and 100 Persians. "This includes 3,000 Pochas. Armenian-speaking gypsies, claimed by Patriarch as Armenians. Called Bedouins in original document
* Including Turks and Circassians. "Including 3,000 so-called Armenian Greeks. 60.000 Turks anrj 10.000 Circassians 'Including 30.000 Zaza Kurds, 10.000 Aiivis. and 15 000 Kizilbash
c
e
Kurds. Zaza and Kiziibash
391,000™ 30.000° 328.174
432
Notes to Table 11.2. Source- HCAP 100 44 (1881). "Report of Maior Henry Trotter." pp 125-29 Note These tables of estimated populalion for the frontier provinces of Turkey were compiled by (Vajor Trotter on 7 September 1880 and transmitted from Ambassador George J Goschen in Istanbul to Earl Granville in the Foreign Office in London, They are reproduced here almost exactly as submitted by Major Trotter The spellings oi names ot the provinces and ethnic-religious groups are Major Trotter's. The arrangement of the tables and the notation system has been adjusted somewhat but all the following notes are Maior Trotier's, the numbered notes headed "Reference to Authorities" are his source notes with comments Note that the figures m (3!. (4) and (5i. all derive from the Armenian Patriarchate and do not support the figures submitted by the Patriarch to the Berlin conference of 1878.
'This includes 10,000 Alivis. or Kizilbash. claimed as Armenians by the Patriarch, but, being undoubtedly Mussulmans (Shiahs), they counted as such, includes 3.000 Kmchors or gypsies "including Gregorians, Catholics, and Protestants. 'Including Nestonans. Chaldeans, Jacobites or Old Syrians, and Syrian Catholics. Including Zaza or Kizilbash Kurds anrj Kizilbash Turks, 'including the Yezidis amongst the Moslems. '30,000 Turks and 15,000 Tchetchens. 1
y
aa
Including Gregorians, Catholics, and Protestants lnciuding Nestorians Chaldeans. Jacobites, and Syrian Catholics
bb
c c
Including Orthodox and Catholics
Called by Patriarch Arab-Kurds. 4 0 000 Nestorians and 66.000 Syrian Catholics In point of fact there are no Nestonans. and the number of Syrians generally appears to be vastly over-estimated. " Including 50.000 Turks, 10.000 Afshars. and 20.000 Turkomans. 6 6
ee
370 C Viiayet of Kharpul
Authority (14) Mr. Taylor, 1869 (15) Patriarch to Ambassador (16) Official figures (17) Private
Armenians
Turks
Syrians Sc "
1
Greeks*
Jews
Zinganis
&c "
5,000
140,000 70.000*
130,000 Christians 155,000 88,204
5.000 826
5,000» 2,382
Kurds, Kurmandji 100.000
Kurds. Zaza and Kizilbash
Totals Non-Moslems
30,000 55,000'
337.788
378
Moslems
130,000
270,000
170,000 91.790
125,000 337,788
1,500 D. Vilayet of Aleppo
Authority (18) Patriarch to Ambassaddr (19) Mr. Consul Skene. 1860 (20) Official figures (21) Vahan Vartabed (22) Private
Armenians
Syrians "
Greeks''
90,500
106,000™
6,000
67,634
5,520
14,750
33
6
Jews
Zinganis 5,000
7.144
654
Kurmandji
Kizilbash
40,000 Approximately 539.702
15.000
Arabs
Yezidis
Non-Moslems 207.500 100,000 95,702
Moslems 135,000 400,000 539,702
82,080 4,650
Reference to Authorities: (1) Sir Robert Dalyell. 1863.—This gentleman was at one time Her Majesty's Counsul at Erzer oum. The figures are abstracted from my own notes, which were extracted at Erzeroum from an old volume of Consular Reports {No. of volume unknown). The original estimate included the Sandiaks of Kars and Tchildry, and excluded Erzinjan. To reduce to present limits I have subtracted Sir R. Oalyell's own estimate of the population ot the two former districts, and have added the present official estimate of population of Erzinjan, (2) Mr. Counsul Taylor. 1869 —Figures abstracted from Blue Book. Turkey, No, 16 (1877), pp. 27 and 31. Mr. Taylor was for several years Counsul of Erzeroum and Oiarbekir, and had travelled much in the frontier vilayets. (3) . (4), and (5) all derive originally irom the Armenian Patriarch; the figures in No. (3) are extracted from a pamphlet, printed m Armenian and French, which I obtained last year at Erzeroum. entitled "Projet de Reglement Qrgamque pour Armenia Turque," 1878 I was given to understand that this document had been submitted unofficially to the Plenipotentaries at Berlin. 1878. I have submit ted a copy of this pamphlet to his Excellency the Ambassador (4) Official to Sir C. Dike. 1880.—!s abstracted from a document furnished me by Her Maiesty's Ambassador Extraordinary, being a confidential communication made to Sir Charles Oike m June 1880. It is stated therein that the figures are taken from statistics of the Armenian provinces prepared by the Armenian Patriarch. (5) Patriarch to Ambassador, 1880.—These figures are abstracted from statistics officially sup plied by the Armenian Patriarch during the current year to Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary. I believe that this document had already been printed at the Foreign Office, and it is therefore unneces sary to supply a copy here. (6) Vahan Vartabed—These figures were supplied to me at Erzeroum in 1879 by Vahan Vartabed. an Agent of the Patriarchate, who was specially employed far several years in visiting the Armenian provinces and collecting statistics thereoi. (7) Vice-Counsul Clayton, 1880 —These figures were received by me from Captain Clayton whilst these Tables were being prepared They are the result of careful personal inquiries during a recent tour through the Nestorian country (8) Official figures. 1880 —These figures are abstracted !rom Table 1 They are the official figures
192
&c. 80,000"
that have been collected by his Excellency Baker Pasha on his recent tour of inspection. As far as the Provinces of Erzeroum and Van are concerned, these figures agree with the latest official statistics collected independently by myself during my recent tour in those provinces. The Province of Saert, recently transferred from Oiarbekir to Bitlis, is not included in this estimate. As the Turkish official figures give the number of males only, they have been multiplied by two. to give an approximation to the totai population. (9) Mr. Taylor, 1879.—Vide note 2. (10) Patriarch to Ambassador.—Vide note 5 (11) Vide note 8—The Province of Saert which has very recently been taken from Oiarbekir lo form a part of the newly-formed Vilayet of Bitlis, has been {for convenience of comparison) included in the estimate ot the Oiarbekir Vilayet. I have serious misgiving as to the accuracy of the figures for Saert, which were supplied to General Baker by telegram. The number of Syrians (Jacobites) in the Mardin Sandjak have also. I think, been very much under estimated. (12) Sal-nama, 1879.—These figures are derived from detailed statistics ot population published in Oiarbekir Sal-nama, or Official Almanack, for 1297 (1879) (13) These figures are obtained from an approximative record ot the number oi houses of Syrian and Chaldean communities obtained by me from a non-official source last winter at Oiarbekir. t have allowed six inhabitants to each house. (14) Vide note 2. (15) Vide note 5. (16) Vide note 8. I have no good check on these estimates, f think the number of Christians is under estimated. (17) Vide note 13 (18) Vide note 5. (19) Extracted from page 50 of Reports received from Her Majesty's Consuls relating to condition ot Christians in Turkey, 1860. Mr. Counsul Skene writes, " I should calculate the Christian population to be about one-fifth of the whole, and the Mahommedan tour-fifths, with a trifling deduction for Jews. Oeuses, and Ausairis. The population of the province must in the aggregate be slightly under 500.000."
193
II.2. Official Statistics S h o w i n g the Male Population of the Vilayets of Erzeroum, Bitlis, V a n , Diarbekir, Aleppo, Kharput, Sivas, and Trebizond (ca. 1878-1880) Name of Vilayet
Name of Sandjak
Erzeroum
Erzinjan Erzeroum ffaıburt Bayazıd '
Bitlis
Tota!
Bitlis Saert Total
Van
Diarbekir
Orthodox
11,181 28.941 4,702 4.775
722 1.658
362
995 . 545 1,856
49,599
2,380
362
3.396
66,444 11,052
324
77,496
497
10,977 5,805 6,788
482 499 1.538
709 235 221
120
23,570
2.519
1,165
120
Aleppo
8,760
Marastı
12,063 5.312
Kharput Argfıana
26,135 31,674 9,669
Total
41,343 30,176
Amasia
6,390
Kara Hisar
8,322
Total
Jacobites and Nestorians
33
33
1,861 1,480 418
3,870 278
3,227
3,923
3,759
4,148
3,227
1,502
416
Syrian Catholics
Jews
Zinganis or Gypsies
5,899 50,787
120 820 902 94
437 1,939 375 471
524 940
384
JO
2,959
876
17,198
Trebizond Lazistan Djanlk Gumush Kbana
9.640 23 7,903 630
490
Total
18,196
490
37
_
28,960 254 25,077 12,481
37
66,772
Grand Total
12.176 30.570 8.216 4.775
48.933 84.346 41.649 27.146
61.109 114.916 49.865 31.921
55.737
202,074
257.811
68.307 11.839
121.460 23.549
189.767 35,388
1,863
290
80.146
145.009
225,155
1.025
69.488
87.204
156.692
142
302
845 193 2,693
74
13.767 6.732 11.616
32.297 66.833 41.408
46.064 73,565 53,024
761
3,731
216
32.115
140.538
172,653
759
1,226 775
3,354 91 127
77 53 197
24.931 15,738 7,182
173,664 49,818 46,369
198.595 65.556 53,551
759
2.001
3,572
327
47.851
269.851
317.702
34.754
75,871
110.625
29,350
202
189
11.141
93.023
104.164
413
189
45.895
168.894
214,789
109.356 73.792 42.167 57.728
143,272 85,463 58,150 67.368
2,349 4,229 7,661
1.380
Mahommedan
75 215
251
251
Total Non-Mahommedan
1.464 399
459
1,797 1,773 353
700
Chaldeans
211
Maaden
Sivas
Syrians
Catholics
173
Oiarbekir Malada Mardin
Tokat
Trebizond
Greeks Protestants
100
Total
Sivas
Catholics
39,013
Orta
Kharput
Armenians
Van and Hekkiari
Total Aleppo
•— Gregorians
II.2. Official Statistics of Male Population, ca. 1878-1880 (continued) —
114 487 103
265
33.916 11.671 15.983 9.640
103
B66
71,210
283.043
354.253
39,127 277 32.980 13.111
177.563 70,100 85.199 16.421
216,690 70,377 118.179 29.532
86,495
349,283
434,778
Source: HCAP 100/44 (1881), p. 125. Note: This table oi Ottoman official statistics was supplied to the Foreign Office along with the comparative estimates tables reproduced in 11.1. As in that table, the spellings, terminology, and arrangement of the table are basically as they appear in the source.
194 195
, • M u s l i m and N o n ^ i m r ^ p j ^ iViUSiii
1 1
"
SİVAS Sivas Toka! Amasya Karahisar-i Şarki ELAZIZ Harput Malatya Dersim DIYARBEKIR Dıyarbekir Ergani Mardin BİTLİS Bitlis Muş Siirt Genç VAN Wi Total
Erzurum Sivas Elaziz Diyarbekir Bitlis Van TOTAL, SIX PROVINCES
Greeks
172.911 187.208 107,076
187,759 «».893 98.712
123.646 104.624 91.953
Orthodox
Protestant
Latin
Chaldean
Old Syn;
22.364 9.147
4.373 8,741 12.564 15.529
745 210
449 917
68.895 16.185 17,025 18,117
II.3 M u s l i m and N o n - M u s l i m Population, 1897 (continued) Nestorians
Source: BA (Y)/(P)/1313, no. 1459. "Sicill Nufus ldare-i Umumiyyesi Mudiriyeti." Note: This tabulation of the population in the six eastern provinces only was com piled by the Ottomans because of the political controversy over that area. It appears to be based on the 1895 census results
196 197
II.4. Population of M u s l i m and N o n - M u s l i m Millets, 1884-1897 (R. 1300-1313) Musüm
II.7. of Dobruca, IO/O II.7. Population Populan on or u o p r u i d , 1878
Source- IUKTY 9184. Notes: Some of the totals in this table have been corrected in accordance with general statistics reproduced elsewhere: the differences between the corrected totals and the originals are slight. These statistics are higher than those given in Table 1.18 as they were compiled by
the statistical office and include estimates of populations uncounted or unregistered. The population office, from which the Table I 18 figures derive, was more conservative, accepting only actual counts. Immigrants and the population of the Arabic-speaking provinces were excluded from this tabulation, thus making the Muslim total rather low
Romsnians
District
Bulgarians
Turks
Çerkeş
8
Tatars
Germans
Greeks
Others (Jews. Armenians)
Total 27.953
Tulça Town Villages
4,730 4,264
4.240 595
1,500 940
385
605
2,95
".868
1,900
3.560 1.820
320
2,500
3.000
484 27.129
Twh Villages
350
8,922
120
150
-
134 31,265
Köstenje
_
_
T o w n
Villages
~
'
_
-
4
1
°
3
, ,c R
6
0
2 8
'
7
_
1,046
'
-
3 6 7
1.910 Sulina (Sunne)" Town
5
50
Villages
-
_150
Q
3
5
0
^
2
00
—
56.257 Babadağ v
°; " a
9 e s
^^
^ 3.568
16'.302
_
17'.694
6.466
300
_
3.642
650
400
480 28,213
II.5. Population of Religious Communities, 1897 (R. 1313)
II.6. Estimates of the Population of Six Provinces i n Eastern Anatolia i n 1896
Population Community
M
F
Total
Percentage
Muslim Greek Armenian Bulgarian Catholic Jewish Protestant Latin Maronite Chaldean Old Syrian Non-Muslim Gypsy
Erzeroum Mussulman Non-Mussulman Van Mussulman Non-Mussulman
2 233
Hirşova (Harsova) •? " Villages
Bin ™ 6.074
-
3-000 n nsn 3,080
250 _ —
Turkish Official Estimate, 1890
Consul C, Lloyd's Estimate. 1890
Commission of Control, 1895
441.671 113,488
441,671 113.488
545,782 123,935
Isakçe Town
282.582 135,912
115,000 155,988
207,028 101.264
Cernavoda (Boğazköy)' Town
T 0 W
„„, 4
.° -
0 0
4
'
6 6 4
265
17 051
2 127 on 80
22.386
~~ -
_
_
-
— 31.977
c
80
_
— 600
'
9,546
Villages
„ 2,071
—
208
50
50
837
— 2,130
650
l o w n
Villages
_
150
600 _
680
50
—
—
—
7,289
Bitlis Mussulman Non-Mussulman
167,054 109.914
166,794 121.082
352.713 126.874
Mahmudia Town Villages
Diarbekir Mussulman Non-Mussulman
240.574 71,870
304,584 87,584
378,253 83,752
Kiliya (Kill) T-n
1.070
Kharpout Mussulman Non-Mussulman
" ' ' ^
76İÖ7
300,194 81,158
205,353 88,155
494,881 91,422
Sivas Mussulman Non-Mussulman
735.489 156,712
1.088 2.714
45 -
„„„ 1.020 230
_ 2,192 2.023
-
801,630 170,351
Source: F0 424186, p. 263 (Curry to Salisbury, 19 March 1896). Note: This summap/ table is enclosure no 3 in the dispatch, which includes two other large tables. It is reproduced here with only minor editorial changes.
198
Mejdiye Town ru Villages
„„
_
o
30.177
_ 48.783
6.994
71.146
12.748
1.134
^ 3.480
_
Ü f 6
225_692_
The Turks, Tatars, and Çerkeş were all Muslims: they totaled 126.924. or 60 Source: Correspondance Politique des Consuls. Turguie (Tulqa). 1 (1878). 280-82. percent of the population. Notes: These statistics were compiled by the Romanian delegate after it became "A later correction gives for Sulina a total of 4.020, consisting of 60 Romanians. 800 apparent that the Russians would give them northern Oobruca in a kind of exchange for Buloarians, 3,086 Russians, and 80 Greeks. those provinces in Southern Bessarabia which were incorporated into Russia—an arrangement sanctioned by the Treaty of Berlin in July 1878. The total for Cernavoda was later corrected to 3,645. including 2.135 Romanians. These statistics include the population up to the Val of Traian (middle of Dobruja); 150 Bulgarians, and 1,280 Muslims the population south of the Val of Traian on the Kostenıe-Cernavoda (Boğazköy) railroad line was overwhelmingly Muslim. s
c
199
STATISTIC Al
APPENDICES
S E C T I O N III THE POPULATION OF ISTANBUL IN THE NINETEENTH AND EARLY T W E N T I E T H CENTURIES
I I I . l . Population of Istanbul and the Three Boroughs, 1830 (H. 1246) A. Census of Muslims Marned Principal District*
B Census of Non-Muslims Religious Group Greeks Married Single Total
3
•
Good
Average
Poor
Children
4.589 5.610
7,765 15,037
2.701 3.156
8,548 681
536 164
391 145
24,530 24.793
10,199
22,802
5.857
9,229
700
536
49.323
Incapacitated
Exempt
Total
Armenians Married Single
5,949 2,474
9,376 13,632
4.072 2.509
9,167 233
886 160
162 246
29,612 19,254
Total
8,423
23,008
6.581
9,400
1.046
408
48,866
Jews Married Single
1,630 14
4,150 22
1.466 7
4,426 1
266 2
48
11,986 46
Total
1,644
4,172
1.473
4,427
268
48
12,032
Catholics Married Single
1,080 40
1,317 618
429 155
1.176 5
44 5
43 73
4,089 896
Total
1.120.
1,935
584
1,181
49
116
4,985
=
Total Married Total Single
13,248 8.138
22,608 29,309
8.663 5.827
23,317 920
1,732 331
644 464
GRAND TOTAL
21,386
51.917
14.495
24.237
2,063
1,108
Source: BA, Ibnulemin.(D)/3087 (probable date 1830 [H. 1246]). Notes: The heading of this census tabulation in the original document is as follows: "Dersaadet ve Bilad-i Selasede sakin ve mutemekkin nufüs-u zükür ehl-i Islam ve reayanin memurin marifetleriyle tahrirleri hususu saye-i muvaffakiyetvaye-i cenab-i Mülukanede reside-i hüsn-ü hitam bulmuş ve iktiza eden müfredat tahrir defatiri bu defa canib-l Cerideye takdim kilinmiş ve ber-mucib-i defatır-i mutekaddime usul-u cerideye tevfikan tefrik ve tadat olunarak miktar ve kemiyetini mubeyyin hulasa veçhile pusulasldir." As the census of Muslims was conducted simply in order to determine the number liable for military service, only males were counted, and the categories into which they were divided reflected their military potential Hence the males who were members of families (i.e.. "married") were classified merely as "adult" {kebir) or "small" {sagir— too young to be registered for the military). The single males were classified as "strong" [tuvana—suitable for military service, generally 18-50 years ol age), "In fant" {sabi—presumably orphans), and " o l d " (musin). The census of the non-Muslims sought to determine the number of persons subject to the cizlye, the head tax paid in lieu of military service, and the categories employed reflected this intent: persons classified as "good." "average," or "poor" {ala. evsat.
202
e
70,217 44,989 115,206
or edna) paid the head tax but at different rates; "children" {sabij and the "incapaci tated" {amel-i-mande) as well as certain exempt persons were not liable for the tax. "The census of Muslims was carried out according to principal district (kol) and neighborhood {mahalle). There were twelve kol in Istanbul in 1830. The numbers in parentheses following the kol names are the numbers of neighborhoods in each dis trict. "In addition to the population figures for each of these special groups of persons not attached to neighborhoods (non-natives of the city, presumably), the census reports the numbers of the various establishments to which these persons are attached: the students {talebe-i ulum) were attending a total of 161 medreses: there were 174 mills and bakeries and 214 inns: and the gypsies lived in 7 neighborhoods. The "servants" other than those in the palace were attached to the military command, the Porte, the Finance Ministry, the School of Medicine, and the like.
Population Group
Native Male Inhabitants
Bachelors from Provinces
Families
Total
A. Population in 1844 (R. 1260) Palace personnel Muslim subjects Greek subjects Armenian subjects Catholic subjects Total Jewish subjects Karalm (non-rabbinical Jews) Gypsy subjects Total GRAND TOTAL
67,418 24,338 29,349 4,047
1,548 32,966 21,442 18,650 1,079
30,613 6,939 7,471 1,088
1,548 100,384 45,780 47,999 5,126
125,152
75,685
46,111
200,837
12.080
63
598
12,143
24 198
112 601
112 601 12,793
63
820
12,856
137,945
75,748
46,931
213,693
B. Population in 1857 (R. 1273)
The City Palace personnel Muslim subjects Greek subjects Armenian subjects Catholic subjects Total Jewish subjects Karaim (non-rabbinical Jews) Protestant subjects Latin (European Catholic) subjects Gypsies Total
68,796 27,115 27,133 4,317
3,005 39,646 31,401 17,907 1,093
29,242 8,261 7,406 1,511
3,005 108,442 58,516 45,040 5,410
127,361
93,052
46,420
220,413
12,947
143
1,633
13,090
132 231
98
36 153
132 329
591 715
826
200 251
1,417 715
141,977
94,119
48,693
236,096
The Islands' Greek subjects Armenian subjects Catholic subjects Protestant subjects Latin subjects Total GRAND TOTAL
1,944 97 72 1 24
1,944 97 72 1 24
2,138
2,138
144,115
94,119
48,693
238,234
Source: BA (l)/(D)/24402. Notes: These figures for population of Istanbul In 1844 and 1857 (both sets based on the 1844 census) were submitted directly to the sultan by Mustafa Resit, the prime minister, and were accompanied by a short summary of the population increase be tween 1844 and 1857. Receipt of the figures was acknowledged by the sultan in a note dated 19 February 1857 (24 Cemaziyelahlr 1273). Note that the native inhabitants of the city were tabulated separately from the "Bachelors from the Provinces" who, it was noted, were living in the city "for trading purposes." 'This population included persons living on four small Islands in the sea of Marmara.
'The palace servants were classified simply as "singles." "The non-Muslims were counted according to their respective religious communities (mllleli). The number of Greek (R'urni) .churches is-given as 54; Armenian (Ermeni) neighborhoods and churches, 43; Jewish (Yehud) neighborhoods, 18; Catholic (Kato¬ lik) neighborhoods. 13 ' This figure, as it appeared in the list, was higher by 50 than the total of married exempt persons listed for the various millets. It has been corrected here.
203
HI.3. Population of Istanbul and Its Boroughs, 1882 (R^J1298)_ District
Place of Habitation
Armenians
Greeks
Muslims M
M
F
III.3. Population of Istanbul and Its Boroughs, 1882 (continued)
Catholics F
M
F
M
F
OLD CITY 1. Beyazit
M Homes Tekkes' Immigrants" Medreses" Shops' Inns Total
2. Fatih
Homes TeWtes Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns Total
3. Cerrahpaşa
Bulgarians
Homes Testes Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns .Total
2,085
12,398 118 3,700 2,858 8,992 2,018
16,240 87 3,577
19
4,457 1,094
30,084
19,923
7,636
11,749 244 2,394 1,858 3,224 681
13,271 182 2,337
4,055
20,150
1,773
4,736
4,644
,
9
Latins
Protestants
13
5
1,773
9,065
4,657
14
3,843
2,396
2.120
5
4 4
13
1,852 33
5
544 18
15,803
5,940
3,848
2,958
2,120
8
4
14,817 418 4,129 774 2,055 409
16,981 279 3,902
3,888
3,773
4,646
4,292
93
96
109
1,852 23
3
414 95
47
22,602
21,271
5,763
3,775
5,155
4,339
549
4
2
96
70
68
District Totals
22,733 87 3,577
13
19,303 118 3,700 2,858 15,276 6,366
32
42,036 205 7,277 2,858 15,276 6,398
13
47,621.
26,429
74,050
22,357 244 2,448 1,858 6,099 732
23,028 182 2,392
18
45,385 426 4,840 1,858 6,099 750
33,738
25,620
59,358 48,605 697 8,031 774 5,042
55
128
_
677
0
7
4
27
16
13
15
3
93
Total
125
68
4,112
3,759
54
55
4,166
3,814
476 503
16
6
6
23,454 418 4,129 774 5,042 527
25,151 279 3,902
727
6
34,344
29,491
63,835
14
14
11,713 18 1,136
23,121 59 2,457 38 3,102
13
15
721
159
GALATA (PERA) 4. Beşiktaş
Homes TeWtes Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns Total
5. Yeniköy
Homes TeWres Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns Total
6. Beyoğlu
Homes Tekkes Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns Total
7. Büyükdere
Homes Tekkes Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns Total
4,359
4,004
2,090
2,097
278
3,763 18 1,131
5,841
4,912
5,244
4,004
2,800
2,097
292
309
175
966 19 186
1,239 17 195
1,983
1,802
657
713
29
40
189
1,485 13,382 153 1,067 11 5,820 27 20,460 905 212
1,451 13,938 67 922
2,201 3,935
1,802 3,705
4,522 14,927
13 8,470
3 3,708
932 194
787 6,381
3,610 393 10,384 278
1,615
713
31
40
5,985
2,186
2,162
2,273
1,535
14
10
1,534
1,523
15,910
12,867
28,777
1
67
57
3,703 19 186
3,854 17 195
7,557 36 381
0
1
3
67
57
4,582
4,066
8,648
15
12
695
580
5,299
4,906
31,893 153 1,067 11 15,711 433
31,288 67 922
7
63,181 220 1,989 11 15,711 440
49,268
32,284
81,552
3,182
3,268
6,450
212
194
406
2,590
2,162
1,019
313
251
332
1,034
14 12
709 11
433
322 580
5,621
4,906
122
148
26 313
277
332
2 124
204
674
0
4
155 1,126
5
674
5,989
658 1,472
11
11,408 41 1,321 38 3.102
404
1,535
355
1,518
2
130
218
314
1,523
14
710
197,243
309
3,135 41 1,310 38 1,317
885
Summary
4 5
1,221 3,108
Jews
F
1,196 148
4,590
1,196 " 3,462
8,052
127,029
iontnibrti on following
205
IIİ.3. Population of Istanbul and Its Boroughs, 1882 (continued) Muslims Habitation
Dıstrıct
M
Greeks F
M
Armenians F
M
Catholics F
M
F
I I I . 3 . Population of Istanbul and Its Boroughs, 1882 (continued) Bulgarians —_2
ÜSKÜDAR (ASIAN COAST) 8. Kanlıca
Homes Tekkes Immigrants > Medreses : Shops ; Inns Total
9. Üsküdar
Homes Tekkes Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns Total
10. Kadıköy
Homes Tekkes Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns Total
2,069 23 614
2.198 17 551
623
1,009
1,224
810
M 308
333
15
1,819
1,224
375
333
7,795 242 1,674 21 1,752 126
10,691 200 1,903
1,950
1,923
3,236
3,345
11,610
12,794
2,722
1,923
3,923
3,345
0
0
756 1 259
961 2 279
619
651
787
842
3
13
15
F
3
1
M
F
M
Total F
M
0
0
3
1
0
0
0
0
16
12
50
65
1,565
1,782
2
4
5 89
0
16
12
52
37
55
1 65
202
1,171
651
989
842
3
13
25,498
24,233
25,515
24,684
2,869
2.986
11
7,675 3,679
64
449 5
24,244
36,869
24,748
3,323
3.782 17 551
1,500
622 65
552
District F
3,404 23 614
26
89 750 22
1,197
M
Jews
67
2,766
1,498
Protestants —,
Totals
Summary
26
3,329
482
F
Latins
1,500
5,541 .
4,350
9,891
14,701 242 1,676 21 3,130 213
17,818 200 1,907
32,519 442 3,583 21 3,130 213
1,568
1,786
19,983
19,925
39,908
105
131
5
8
2,322 1 264
2,635 2 287
4,957 3 551
3
28
7,186 40 1,165
1,267
1,267
-
SUMMARY Total Total Total Total Total Total
in in of in in In
Homes Tekkes Immigrants Medreses Shops Inns
GRAND TOTAL
67,972 1,259 15,545 5,560 24,934 3,261
80,169 869 14,991
141
16,556 1,185
118,531
96,170
43,239
28
0
55
37
0
0
110
139
3,854
2,879
6,733
151
48
809
671
120
133
12,793
12,301
72
72
135,727 1,259 15,617 5,560 52,997 8,271
145,225 869 15,063
216
280,952 2,128 30,680 5,560 52,997 8,487
219,431
161,373
380,804
20
2,968 128
2,986
3,247
48
829
60
671
180
335 13 133
13,213
12,373
56,532
Source: IUKTY 8949 The feWres were religious fraternities. "These were persons from abroad, presumably not included among other categories wherever they lived. "Students inhabiting the religious schools. "Merchants and craftsmen living at their places of business. a
206
207
III.4. Population of Istanbul: Comparative Figures Census Year
Muslims
Greeks
Armenians
Cathol'cs
Protestants
Bulgarians
Latins
Jews
Total
1.417 829
12.255 13.222 13.212
213.692 236.096 219.945
12.192 13,079 12,792
137.945 141.977 136.979
STATISTICAL
A. Total Male Inhabitants Belonging to Various Nations R. 1260 (1844) R. 1273(1857) R. 1298 (1882)
102.532 112.162 118.535
45.780 58.516 43.752
[ R 1260 (1844) R. 1273(1857) R. 1298 (1882)
47.999 45.040 36.867
5.126 5,410 3_J23
329 180
3.247
.
68.019 69.511 69.235
24.338 27,115 25,579
29.349 27,133 25.513
4,047 4.317 2.869
231 120
591 809
62
C General Population Figures, R. 1301 (1885) Non-Muslims—359,41 2
Foreigners—1 29,243
Total—873,565
Source' BA (I) (0)-75538. Notes: The instruction for the 1882 census is contained in a letter irom the prime minister's office: see BA (l).'(Q) 65848 of 14 Tesrlniewal 1296 (26 October 1880)
For the detailed list of figures for 1885, see BA, "lrade-l Senlyye-i Cenab-I Padişahı İcra Olunan Tahrir-i Sabik Yoklamasi Mucibince Dersaadet ve Bılad-i Selasede Mevcud Nüfusun İstatistik Cedvelldir" (Istanbul, 1886).
I I I . 5 . Deaths in Istanbul and the Three Boroughs from 1 December 1875 to 30 November 1876
III.6. Deaths in Istanbul from 1 December 1878 to 31 October 1879
Muslims
December January February March April May June July August September October November Total
Non-Muslim
M
F
M
F
258 352 366 345 273 249 204 266 233 213 184 264
318 322 396 362 307
164
246 249 273 149 232 279 271
" 191 209 202 242 198 186 183 219 158 161 188 212
3,207
3.404
2,349
Source: Salname of 1294 (1878), p, 422.
208
SECTION IV
B. Native Male Inhabitants ol Ottoman Citizenship and Residents
Muslims—384,910
Month
APPENDICES
Muslims
Jews M
F
25 38
972 1081 1167
136 129 168 132 102 139 148
30 27 28 32 32 29 43 53 57 46
16 18 29 33 28 22 18 28 39 32 34 48
1,683
440
345
11,428
142 144 142 137
Total
1151 971 871 815 983 754 793 881 989
Christians
Jews
Month
M
F
M
F
M
F
Total
December January February March April May June July August September October
515 540 435 467 342 273 270 233 272 287 299
667 627 526 564 398 378 314 322 313 340 374
221 358 189 236 191 149 125 152 130 161 167
158 160 137 149 166 121 99 127 99 101 110
16 16 17 17 15 15 6 5 6 8 9
19 13 10 9 14 8 2 7 12 8 12
1,591 1,716 1,314 1.442
3,928
4,823
2,079
1,421
132
109
12,492
Total
Source: Salname of 1297 (1881).
1.126 944 816 840 832 905 966
SOME DEMOGRAPHIC, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OTTOMAN POPULATION IN T H E LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY
I V . 1 . Administrative D i v i s i o n of the Ottoman State, 1900 ( H . 1318, R. 1316) Number of Divisions
Bitlis Erzurum Mamuretülaziz Van Trabzon Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Girit Edime Selanik Kosova Yanya Işkodra Manastır Kudüs Bingazi Zor İzmit Kale-i Sultaniye Çatalca Cebel-i Lübnan Total
Source: Salname of 1318. Notes: The principal districts are mainly vilayets; the last seven listed are special sancaks; villages were not official administrative units but their number was regarded as an important statistic and therefore was included. Egypt. Tunisia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, and Samos, although under Ottoman suzerainty, were not included In this list.
210
I V . 2 . Population Density per k m , and Density Rank, 1894/95 (R. 1310) 2
Administrative District Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hudavendigar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakatı Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen 3
Source: IUKTY 9075. 'Greater İstanbul: K ü ç ü k ç e k m e c e , Gebze, Kartal, Beykoz, 'Şile, and Marmara Islands.
I V . 3 . Population Distribution, Administrative Units, and Population Density, 1899 (R. 1315) Administrative District
Number of Divisions Sancaks
Land Area
Kazas
Nahiyes
33 17 4
117
(km ) 2
Dersaadet Edime Erzurum İzmit
6 3 1
68 10 10 21
'
1.328 64.356 80.368 14.784
1,534,229 488,642
17.10 17.64
87.120 139.960
380 630
4.36 5 14
21 35
4
34 34
Bingazi Beyrut Cezayir-i Bahr-ı Selld
3 1 5 4
9 17 4 16 14
9 34
227.300 24,752
19
Cebel-i Lübnan
1
9
Çatalca Hicaz
1
2 4
40 1 3
Zor Suriye Selanik Sivas Şehremaneti Mülhakatı Trablusgarp Trabzon Kudüs Kastamonu Kale-i Sultaniye Konya Kosova Girit Mamuretülaziz Manastir Musul Van Yanya Yemen Total
I V . 4 . Percentage of Males and Females in the Ottoman State, 1894/95 (R, 1310)
3.28
517,274
2.76 16.59
75
260,132
5,000,000
19 22
1.411
3.272.354
32.276,854
9 86
Administrative District
Males
Females
Edirne Erzurum Adana • Ankara Aydın Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-ı Sefid' Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hudavendigar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
Source: IUKTY 9184. Notes: These population figures, compiled by the Ministry ol Trade and Construction, include both counted and estimated numbers. Some small errors in the original have been corrected. The principal administrative districts listed were mamly vilayets; İzmit. Bingazi. Cebel-ı L ü b n a n , Çatalca. Zor. Kudüs, and Kale-i Sultaniye were special sancaks. while Şehremaneti Mülhakatı (Greater Istanbul). although a traditionally recognized census area, did not have its own administrative set up. The totals of sancaks, kazas. and nahiyes, not provided in the original, have been included here. The overall density figure (inducted in the ongma' bul no! ol very greal significance in view ol the wide variations in density) has been recalculated from the corrected figures.
211
I V . 5 . Males and Females i n the Ottoman State, by Age, 1894 (continued)
I V . 5 . Number and Percentage of Males and Females in the Ottoman State, by Age, 1894 0-1
• M
F
•Afimm-strjsve District
F
-Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkcdra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut -3ıga "leyzaylr-i Batır-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Oersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
I V . 6 . Number and Percentage of Persons above the Age of T e n Engaged in G a i n f u l Employment, 1894/95 (R. 1310) Administrative District
Number
Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Banr-i Setid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendıgar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakatı Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastır Mamuretülazlz Van Yanya Yemen
Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydın Işkodra İzmit Bağdat 8asra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayiribahrisefit Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: Attached to this table is a list ot 117 occupations; of these, the grocers were the most numerous (237,000), followed by millers and mill workers (199,300), coffee shop operators (175,000), and candle- and soapmakers (123,790). The lowest num bers of workers were In meat and fruit wholesaling (2,100) and lottery ticket selling (2,760).
214
I V . 8 . Number and Percentage of Persons in Occupations Other T h a n Trade and Agriculture, 1894/95 (R. 1310) Administrative District
Number
Rank
Percentage
Rank
Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefld Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: The source title fot this table indicates that it gives data about "professionals"—i.e . persons involved in ulum ve lunun. a phrase that translates as "arts and sciences." In fact, the phrase was used to describe a variety of occupations including, as well as intellectual work, menial jobs in businesses and factory work. Therefore, a more accurately descriptive title has been substituted.
215
I V . 9 . List of Occupations in the Istanbul City and the Three Boroughs in 1878 (R._1294) Abaci maker and seller of coarse woolen cloth or garments Atyoncu: opium seller Anin varakası: maker of gold leaf Arabacr (') carrier with a cart; (2) cartwright Arpacı: barley seller Arzuhalci: petition and letter writer Asci ve kebapcr cook and seller of roast meat Astarci' maker and seller of linings for clothing At mihqisi: blacksmith Attar. (1) druggist; (2) (Aktar):Verbalist, dealer ;n small wares Aynaci: maker and seller of locking glasses, mirrors Ayvaz' footman
Entiyeci: maker or selier of snuff Eskici kavaf: seller of second-hand shoes
Bağci' grape grower Baqcivan: gardener Bakır kavafı: maker of (ordinary) copper utensils Bakır kazancı: coppersmith Bakkat grocer Balikaği iplikcjsi: maker and selier of fishnets Balmumcu: maker and seller of wax (beeswax products) Basmacı: maker and seller of calico Basmacı ressamı: calico designer Bastirmaci: maker and seller of pastırma (pressed meat cured with garlic and other spices—pastrami) Bat pazarcı (bit pazarcı): dealer In secondhand goods Berber: barber Bezir yağci: maker and seller of linseed oil Biqak yapicisi: knifemaker Biçakçl: knife seller Biçki talasçsl: sawdust seller Bohçaçi. woman peddler of female garments, linens, etc Boncuk hurdacisi: dealer in secondhand beads Boyaci: (1) dyer, painter; (2) dealer in paints Bozaci ve salepci: maker and seller of öoza and salep (hot drinks made, respectively, of millet and of the root of salep, a type of orchid) Buğday doğücü: wheat cracker Burgucu: maker and seller of screws Bürümcek bükücüsü: spinner of silk
Hattat' maker of simple shoes (and other unpretentious things) Hakkak: engraver Hallaç: cotton Buffer Hamal (beygir): carrier with a packhorse Hamal (sırt): porter Hamam yapici: bath builder Hamamci: public bath keeper Hand: innkeeper Hasir iskemlecisi: maker and seller of wicker chairs Haşir supürgeci: broom maker Hasirci: maker and seller of mats Havyarci: caviar seller Hayalbaz: shadow (karogoz) theater player Helvacı: maker and seller of halva Hokkabaz: clown Horasanci: mortar maker
Qadirci: tentmaker Qalgici: musician Qali süpürgecisi: maker and seller of besoms (brooms) Çamaşirci: washer of clothes and linens Cambaz' acrobat Camci: glazier • Çerçi: peddler Çilingir: locksmith Çiriş, tüccarı: powdered-asphodel-root merchant Çizmeci: bootmaker Çömlekçi: potter Çöpçü: scavenger, sweeper, or garbage collector Çorapçı: maker and seller of stockings Çörekçi ve simitçi maker and seller of buns and simit (ring-shaped bread rolls) Çuhaci: draper Çuval meremetcisi; sack mender Debbağ: tanner De/la/ komisyoncu: auctioneer, broker Derzi (Terzi): tailor Destereci: : handsaw maker Destgah yapicisi: loom maker Devatqi: maker and seller of pen cases Doğramaci: carpenter Dugmeci: button maker and seller Düharçi: tobacconist Dulbentci: muslin maker Duvarcı: stonemason Eğeni: saddlemaker Ekmekçi: bread seller Ekser kesicisi: spike maker Elekçi: sieve maker
Fenerci: lamplighter or maker of lamps fes ve püskülcü: maker of fezes and tassels Fiçici: copper Findik kestane kebapcisr nut and chestnut seller Fırça yapici: brush maker Fodlacı baker of bread distributed in the soup-kitchens Girit lüccari: merchants from Crete or sellers of Cretan goods Gümüş, ayarcisi: silver appraiser
İğneci: maker and seller of needles Imameci: maker and seller of amber mouthpieces for pipes İp bükücüsü: thread spinner Ip kavafi' string maker İşkembe qorbacisi: maker of tripe soup Kadayitçi: maker and seller of kadayif (shredded dough used in sweets) Katesqi: (1) maker and seller of cages or latticework Kağitcj: paper dealer Kahve değirmencisi: coffee mill maker ,
|V.9. Occupations i n Istanbul, 1878 (continued) (urabiyeci: maker and seller of cakes iiirekçi: maker and seller of oars or shovels íiirkqü: furrier (urşuncu: (1) maker of bullets; (2) dealer in lead (uru yemişçi: seller of nuts and dried fruits tutu yapici: box maker tuyumcu: jeweler Hğimci: sewerman lihur şalci: dealer in Lahore shawls leblebici: maker and seller ol roasted chickpeas ijmoncu: lemon seller lüleci: maker and seller of pipe bowls ilahfazaci: jewelry case maker and seller Hanav. fruit and vegetable seller Itanifaturaci: cloth seller Marangoz: carpenter Hesf dikici: shoemaker Keykedeci: tavern keeper Kidillici: one who rents ponies Uisir tuccari: (corn) merchant Disk yağci: musk-oil maker and seller Moloz ve keresteci: seller of construction materials (earth and lumber) fluceilit: bookbinder Kuhalebld: make! and seller of milk dishes Mumcu: candlemaker Mürekkepqi: maker and seller of ink Muytap: maker of hair rope and bags Nakkaş: cam!, engraver, artist Halbant: blacksmith llalbur. hardware dealer tialqaci. maker and seller of iron tips for boots ttalinci: clog- maker Nişastaci; maker and seller of starch Hohutqu: chickpea seller Örücü: weaver/mender Otcu: herb (hay) seller Oymaci: engraver Oyuncakqi: maker and seller ol toys Pabuq dikici: cobbler Paçacı: seller of tripe Paqavra toplayidsi: rag gatherer Pekmezci: seller of grape molasses Penbe iplik kolancisi: maker and seller of cotton belts Penbezar qulhaci: maker and seller of looms for weaving cotton Peştahtaci: maker and seller of small shop counters Peştemalci: bath towel maker and seller Pirinqqi: brass maker Henqber. day laborer (tarm hand) /tended: maker and seller of graters
Saatqi: watchmaker, repairer or seller ol watches Sabuncu: maker and seller of soap Sahat dealer in second-hand books Sahtiyan perdahçı Morocco leather polisher Sahtiyan tüccarı: Morocco leather merchant Saka: water carrier Samancı: straw (fodder?) seller Sandalya yapicisi maker and seller of chairs Sandikqi: maker and seller of boxes, chests, etc Saraç: saddler, leather worker Sarikçi: maker and seller of turbans Sebilci: man who distributes free water Sebzeci: vegetable seller Şekerci: candy seller Semerci packsaddle maker S,emsiyeci: maker and seller of umbrellas Sepetçi: maker and seller of baskets Seyis: groom Simkeş: drawer of gold or silver wire Simsar broker Sirma işlemecisi embroiderer in gold or silver Sivaci: plasterer Sot Wccari: mohair merchant Soğanci: onion seller Sucu: water seller Sülükcü: leech fisher, leech seller Taşcj: stonemason, quarryman Tavukçu: raiser or seller ol chickens Taze balikçi: fresh fish peddler Tekne hamurcu: dough kneader Tekne yapicisi: maker of troughs Terazi kolu yapicisi: maker of arms of balances Terlikqi; maker and seller of slippers Tig biqakci: maker and seller of bodkins Timurcu: ironmonger Tüccar komisyoncusu: agent of a merchant Tuğlacı: maker and seller of bricks Tuhafqi: seller of clothing accessories Tulumba yapici: pump maker Tuzqu: salt seller Usturaci: razor seller Ütücü: inner (maker of irons) Yağ tüccar!: oil merchant Yağli boyaci: oil paint seller Yaglikqi: handkerchief seller Yapagci: wool merchant Yaymaci: azaar peddler (seller of goods laid out on the ground) Yazmaci: maker of or dealer in hand-painted kerchiefs Yemenici: (1) maker or seller of peasant shoes; (2) handkerchief maker or seller Yoğurtçu: maker and seller of yogurt Yorganci: quilt maker Zahireci: keeper of a store of grain or provisions Zeytin yağcisi: olive oil seller.
Source: Salname of 1294, pp. 418-20. Notes: This list is specifically of trades, crafts, and other occupations headed by kethuda; thus they are occupations that had official recognition, as the kethuda were guild chiefs who served as intermediaries between the guild members and the govern ment. The term originally applied to individuals who performed administrative tasks for high government officials or wealthy citizens, but it came to apply to elected guild chiefs when the guild system was reformed in the nineteenth century During the reign
of Abdulhamid. some kethuda were high officials appointed to these posts (The post was abolished in 1912 under the "Young Turks" government and re-established in 1915 under the name katib-i mesul— "responsible secretary"—for the purpose of giving the government control over the crafts and trades and providing patronage jobs). The original list follows the order ol the Arabic alphabet I have rearranged it in Latin alphabetical order The English translations are more or less free, depending upon whether the term has a modern equivalent
216 217
IV.10. Professions in the Ottoman State, by Number of Practitioners, 1894/95 (R. 1310) Pro'essional Pîies
Number of Practitioners
Professional Tities
Religious scholars Government secretaries Prayer leaders, callers to prayer. Koran reciters Factory workers Government officials Architects Service personnel in mosques Teachers and scientists Interior decorators Maids Barbers Cemetery personnel Hotel and restaurant workers Bank secretaries Hospital workers Rug and carpet makers Concession secretaries Hunters Doctors
395.000 " 353.000
Eczacilar Şirket Katip ve Muhasipleri'
Stone carvers Hotel and inn keepers Book dealers and library guards Factory administrators Service personnel in government offices Lawyers Service personnel in churches Bank officials Guild heads Veterinarles Launderers Mail and telegram deliverers Horse caretakers
13,750 12,780
English Translations
Ulema ve Talebeler Hükümet Katipleri Imams, Müezzıns ve Hafif 3
Amele' Hükümet Memurları" , Mimarlar • Cami Hademeler' . Muallimler ve Ulum Erbabı' Nakkaşlar Ev Hizmetkarlar! Berberler Mezarciler ve Kuyucular Otel ve likanla isçileri Banka Katipleri Hastahane Hizmet-kariari Kilim ve seccade vapanlar Reji Katipleri Avcilar Tabipler Taş ve saire Üzerine Oyma yapanlar Otelciler ve Hancılar Kitapcilar ve Hatizi Kütüplet* Fabrika Katipleri Hükümet Daireleri Hademeleri Avukatlar Kilise Hademeleri Banka Memurlari Kethüdalar Baytarlar Camasircilar Posta ve Telgraf Müvezzileri Seyisler 1
Source: IUKTY 9075 The ulema were the top rank of the religious professions, "These were Muslim religious clerks. The current term for factory worker is isci "These were probably lower ranking officials. The Ottoman bureaucracy made a distinction between memur, i.e., an official in charge, and katib, a secretary who had only limited authority. a
c
e
These were the cleaners of the mosques Hademe. the term used in the source,
Ebeler Otel, Lokanta ve Mağaza Katipleri Kimyagerler Mühendisler Cerrahlar Litografcilar Ressamlar Madenciler Kapici ve Hademeler Demiryollarinda Müstahdem Katipler Umumi Ahir İsletenler Sigorta Kumpanyalarinin Katipleri Muzikaci ve Muallimler Tellallar Aktör ve Akterisler Müellifler ve Muharrirler Makinistler Bilardo Salonu İşletenler Kitap ve Harita Neşredenler Hokkabazlar Meddahlar ve Hayalcilar, Kargözculer Fotoğrafçılar Dişçiler Gazete ve Mecumua satanlar 1
Muhbir ve muhabirler Köprü Memurlari ile İskelelerde Para Alanlar Gazeteciler
English Translations Pharmacists Corporation secretaries and cashiers Midwives • Secretaries of hotels. restaurants, and shops Chemists Engineers Surgeons Lithographers Painters Miners Doorkeepers and servants Railroad officials (secretaries) General stable keepers Secretaries of insurance companies Musicians and teachers Auctioneers Actors and actresses Authors and writers Machinists Billiards parlor operators Book and map publishers Magicians Storytellers, magicians, and puppeteers Photographers Dentists Newspaper and magazine sellers Newspaper correspondents Toll collectors at bridges and ports Journalists
refers to individuals performing menial tasks who are paid from a budget or employed by an institution (the term is still in use). 'These were teachers in modern schools. "The original also refers specifically to grave diggers. "Particularly noted as dealing In religious books as well as other types. 'These were mainly employees of European corporations. 'These were the traditional entertainers.
IV.11. Distribution of Schools in the Ottoman State, 1894/95 (R. 1310) Number 550 300 240 420 600 172 130 310 220 245 265 121 175 95 440 250 540 850 228 115 310 445 320 112 413 331 330 360 170 145 285 390 278 155 225 380
Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-1 Bahr-1 Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Dlyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon •Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Manuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
B. By Type of School Number Community schools (elementary) State schools (elementary) Ruçdiye (high schools) Foreign schools Mldlevel schools Science schools Higher-level Institutions Industrial schools Schools for the blind and deaf Total Schools for girls Schools for boys Total
Source: IUKTY 9075. Notes: Community schools were those administered by private citizens; the Educa tion Ministry was in charge of the state elementary schools and probably also of all the other types except the foreign schools. Included in the source along with the statistics about numbers and types ol schools in 1894 95 is the information that the total in 1884 (1300) had been only 7,980 schools of all types. Thus there had been an increase of 2.935 in 10 years. The Ottoman educational system consisted prior to 1908 of four levels: beginning iptidai). mid-level [rusdi). mid-upper (/dad/), and superior (all) The msbi schools established In 1838. however, were actually at the elementary level, for the tiaditional 218
Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Dlyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakat! Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen Total
10.915
Total
Adminlstrative District
elementary schools (sibyan) were of such inferior quality that the material had to be retaught at the supposedly higher level Later on. the msd/ye became the equivalent of high schools, as the Ottoman educational system came to consist ol only three levels' elementary, intermediate, and superior. 219
IV.13. Schools and Pupils in T u n a Province 1874 ( H . 1291) Muslim Pupils Administratlve Oıstrict Rusçuk Silıstre Şumnu Yenipazar (N) Hezargrad Ziştovl Niğbolu Piievne Cumaiatik Tutrakan Vidin Adakale (N) Berkofça Lom Rahova Adliye Ivraca Belgratçik Sofya Köstendil Samakov Dupnlçe Orhaniye Radomir Izladi Cuma Tirnova Elne (N) Dranova (N) Travena (N) Bebreve (N) Rahotça (Nj Lofça Toyran Osmanpazari Kazgan (Kazan) (N) Gabrova Selvi Tulça Sünne J Babadağ! f Maçin Hlrsova ( Mecidiye ] Köstence ' Varna Pazarcık Kozluca (N) Balçık Pravadı Mankalya Total
No of Schools 143 181 86 19 166 53 38 35 38 43 24
Non-Muslim Pupils
Girls
:
73 6 1.13 5 85 0 12 3 1.47 I 17 76 i 89 J 76 i 36. 2i:
Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-1 Bahr-i Sefld Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendlgar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakat! Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülazlz Van Yanya Yemen Total
Teachers Arabic and Persian Language (Turkish) Mathematics Science History Natural Science Directors Janitors and others Total
District Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayiribahrisefit Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen Total
B, By Type of Personnel
(Lists not received)
IV.15. Illiteracy in the Ottoman State, 1894/95 (R.1310)
District . Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-ı Bahr-i Sefld Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendlgar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: The incapacities are expressed per 1,000 population.
Source: IUKTY 9075 Note: These statistics take into consideration only individuals over 10 years of age. 34,3 percent of whom appear to have been illiterate. The total number of children under 10 years old was 4,057,277, of whom only 853,125 were attending school; the remain ing 3.204.152 must be counted as among the Illiterate, thus raising the total to 12,382,502, or about 46 percent of the total Ottoman population.
848,160
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: The total of the expenditures listed in part B of this table is less than the total of the district-by-district expenditures in part A; presumably the discrepancy occurs be cause only the major salary expense categories were listed in part B.
220
221
IV.17. Agricultural Land Area and Cultivation in the Ottoman State, 1894/95 (R. 1310)
Adana Ankara Aydın işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayır-i Bahr-i-Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Diyaröekir Zor Sivas Selanik
İşkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Dlyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik
21 5 34
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: The information combined in this table is from two separate places in the source The data on the percentage of land under cultivation were accompanied by a summary of the increase in agriculture for the whole state over a 20-year period. The figures given are the following: R. 1290 (1874/75), 697,00 km or 40,05 percent; R. 1300 (1884,85) 189.000 km or 46.33 percent; and R. 1310, 984,650 km or 53,12 percent. There is no correlation between the information in the table and the summary, which was prepared separately.
•
Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakatı Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretulaziz Van Yanya Yemen Total production
Source: IUKTY 9075. Notes: The information in this table appeared in various places in the source; It is here assembled on one page for convenience. The production totals are expressed In hectoliters (1 nctl. = 2.8 bu.)
IV.19. Estimated Value of Yearly Cereal Production, 1874/75 to 1894/95 (R. 1290-1310) Year (Ruml)
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: Ottoman official rates of conversion, which did not change between 1844 and 1914, pegged the lira (a gold coin) to U.S $4,3355.
IV.20. Livestock O w n e d by the Ottoman Population, 1894/95 (R. 1310) Admınistratlve Dıstrict Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin İşkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Dıyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakatı Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: The totals in this table have been corrected and rounded off
2
2
222
2
223
IV.21. Dairy and Wool Production, 1894/95 (R. 1310) Administrative District
Milk
Butter
Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Işkodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-ı Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Dıyarbekır Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
IV.22. Gross A n n u a l Income, by District and per Capita, 1894/95 (R. 1310) Admlnistrative Dlstrict Edirne Erzurum Adana Ankara Aydin Iskodra İzmit Bağdat Basra Bitlis Beyrut Biga Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid Çatalca Halep Hicaz Hüdavendigar Dersaadet Diyarbekir Zor Sivas Selanik Suriye Şehremaneti Mülhakati Trabzon Kastamonu Konya Kosova Kudüs . Girit Musul Manastir Mamuretülaziz Van Yanya Yemen
Source: IUKTY 9075. Notes: The column totals were not included In the original but are added here for convenience. The production totals are expressed in kiyye (1 kiy = 1283.5 gr,). "Butter prices in the period from 1875 to 1895 are shown to have varied between a minimum of 13.25 kuruş per kiyye (in R. 1296) to a maximum of 19.25 kuruş (in R 1302).
224
" The minimum and maximum prices for cheese during the 20-year period from f 875 to 1895 were, respectively, 12.25 kuruş per kiyye (in R. 1310) and 18 25 kuruş (in R 1300). These statistics also include information showing an increase in wool production from 19,786,800 in 1875 (R. 1290) to 23,678,950 in 1884/85 (R 1300) to over 25,000,000 in 1894/95 (R. 1310). c
Source: IUKTY 9075. Note: Income is expressed in kuruş.
Notes: This table includes totals of some items for which no individual table is given. Revenue and product values are expressed in kurus. The expenditure given for education is for government schools only: community, religious, and private schools are not included.
The index incorporates bibliographical and glossarial information. Works are cited under the author's name, unless the author is un known or the w o r k is a periodical, in which case the listing is by title. Definitions or identifications of foreign words are supplied i n parentheses after main entries, and, where appropriate, after subentries.
Abdulaziz, Sultan (1861-1876): abdication and suicide of, 30; travel throughout Istanbul by, 92 Abdulhamid I I , Sultan (1876-1909): Islamic policy of, 75; reform attempts of, 18, 28; travel throughout Istanbul and countryside by, 92; use of Hicri calendar by, xi Abdulmecid, Sultan (1839-1861): efforts to create a council of not ables by, 101; travel throughout Istanbul and countryside by, 92 Abdul Rezai, 77 Abedine Pasha; figures for population of eastern Anatolia of, 52 Abkhazians: acceptance of Islam by, 66; number of emigrants from Russia, 68 Abortion: among Muslims, 47 Acculturation: of immigrants in Anatolia, 55 Adana: census inspectors sent to, 33; conflicting population sta tistics for, 53; undercounting of population i n , 21; vilayet formed, 8 Adanir, Fikret: Die Makedonische Frage, 51 «21 Adapazari; settlement of Circassians i n , 70 Administrative divisions: nahiye, 7; of Ottoman Empire, 7-8, 15; sancak, 8; special districts, 8. Sec also Liva; Kaza; Mahalle; Vilayet Adrianople, Treaty of (1839): abolished duty of Moldavia and Wallachia to sell food to Istanbul, 88 Aegean Islands: census inspectors sent to, 33; Greek population of, 48 Ağaoğlu, Ahmet, 77 Age classification: of population by, 19 Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankasi), 59 Agriculture: increases in production, 58 Ahmet Vefik Paşa [pseud. A l t u n a y ] , 6 Ahunzade, Hüseyin, 77 Akarli, Engin: 70, 73; " O t t o m a n Population in Europe in the 19th Century': Its Territorial, Racial and Religious Composition" ( M . A . thesis), 4 ; i l , 23fi25, 56i;44, 70»57, 72 Akbal, Fazila: "1831 Tarihinde Osmanli İmparatorluğunda İdari Taksimat ve N ü f u s , " Belletin, 15, 2\ıû8 Akçura, Yusuf, 77 Akşehir; Greeks i n , 47 Aktepe, Münir: " X V I I I , A s i r i n İlk Yarisinda Istanbulun Nüfus Me şelerine Dair Bazi Vesikalar," istanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakül tesi Dergisi, 90n9
Ala ("good"-a tax category): percentage of Christians i n , 22: mentioned, 19 Albanians: demands for administrative autonomy by, 45; i m m i gration to Ottoman Empire of, 75; formation of League of Prizren by, 75; immigration to Anatolia of, 57; i n Macedonia, 48; Muslim, 56, 70; threatened by a Greater Bulgaria, 26 Alemdar Mustafa Paşa (Bayraktar): ayan of Rusçuk, 90; support of Mahmud I I by, 90 Aleppo: settlement of Circassians i n , 70 Alevi: classification as non-Muslims of, 57 Ali Paşa: reform of police in Istanbul by, 102; mentioned, 62, 92 Ali Riza (Bey): Bir Zamanlar Istanbul, 87n\ Altunay. See Refik, Ahmet Amelmande (retired, incapable of work); age classification, 20 Anapa: base for conversion of Caucasians to Islam, 66; gained by Russia, 67 Anatolia: census finished by 1888/89 i n , 33; conflicting national ambitions i n , 51; demographic structure of, 57; ethno-linguistic composition of, 56; Greeks i n , 47; Islamization and Turkification of, 57-58 Anatomy books: published by order of M a h m u d I I , 92 Andreasyan, H . D . : "Osmanlı Rumelisi Tarih ve Coğrafisi," Güney Doğu Avrupa Araştirmalari Dergisi, 7ııl4 Aneze tribes, 69 Ankara: Armenian population of, 54 Annales de demographic historique, 61 n\ Annuaire oriental du commerce, dc Vindustrie et de Vadministration et de la magistrature: i n archives of Istanbul municipal library, I04J;53 Anthimos, Patriarch of Jerusalem: Paternal Teaching, 91; opposed ideas of French Revolution, 91 Arabia: never subjected to a complete census, 27; undercounting of population of, 35; mentioned, 58 Arabs: demands for administrative autonomy by, 45; emigration from Ottoman Empire by, 11 Archives: in Ankara, 3; contain materials on population and regis tration system, 3-4; in Istanbul, 3 Ardahan: ceded to Russia, 57; strategic value of, 51 Armenian Catholics: numbers of inflated, 53 Armenian merchants: in Galata, 98 Armenian millet: class structure of, 90; privileged status of m Ot toman Empire, 51 Armenian Patriarch: inaccuracy of population figures of, 34; pop ulation figures of challenged by English consuls, 53; statistics of proven as false, 51; undercounting of Muslim population by, 53; use of distorted population statistics by, 5; mentioned, 53»29 Armenian press, 96 Armenians: and reforms in eastern Anatolia, 28; i n areas other than Eastern Anatolia, 54; claim areas inhabited by Kurds, 48; 229
230
231
Armenians
O T T O M A N POPULATION,
'continual)
concentration of in six eastern vilayeti, 51; conflict with Kurds ^ c o n t r o v e r s y over size of population of, 54; emigration from Ottoman Empire ot I M n r i l j h QQ • ,• 61- in r - t . n h i * ' ' S > o n to Russia of, 61, m Istanbul, 8/; mentioned in the census of Filibe, 21- middle das_s_acted as agents for Europeans, 95; In the Ottoman state M - o * m Pera, 97, 99; population of in Sivas, 34; Ravenstein s estimate of population of, 51; replace Greeks as most reliable Chnsnan group, 1 Salaheddin Bey's figures for, 51; scarcity of population statistics for before 1878, 51; survey of population of in Istanbul, 92; use of population statistics by 5 Arnavut. See Albanians Arseven, Celal Esat: Eski Istanbul 87ni l m m i
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Balkan Christians: inflated number of, 27; respond to Russia's messianic appeal, 70-71 Russia s Balkan Muslims: bring capital to the Ottoman Empire 76- class structure of, 76; emigration of, 11, 55; receive low price's for land e
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INDEX ïïveïToit"
Bifolia. SccManastir Boating: as public transportation i n Istanbul, 9o Boehn, H . v o n : use of Ubicini's statistics by, 24 Boğazköy: settlement of Circassians i n , 69 Bore, Eugene: /Wmanflch * /'Empire Otfomnn po»r / anee 1849-18,0 23 P6- unpublished Ottoman population figures available to, Z>, exaggerates the number of Slavs, 24; use of Ottoman censuses by, 7; mentioned, 103,49 Boşnaks: Serbo-Croatian speaking M u s l i m s , 5 6 , 70 Bosnia- first yearbook (salname) for, 7; emigration from to Otto man state, 55, 56-57, 75; lost by Treaty of Berlm, 8; M « a m « « £ ance to Austro-Hungarian occupation by, 75; occupied by Aus tna H u n g a Î 28, Séfrevolt i n , 30; tariff customs of sold to native
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" L ' E m p i r e ottoman, documents, statistiques,
of, 88 Caravans, 94 «„->q Cankli- classified as non-Muslims, 5; mentioned, r3„29 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: Enquête dans les Bab
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of Bulgarians to, 48; establishment
of 35 49; population registers of, 51
%tt2%S^£*"** °*' 49;d
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c î a s s among' I, dissatisfaction w i t h life in K u - a among 64- i n Filibe, 21; immigration to Austria-Hungary of, 27, ımmı ^ " o n to Ottoman Empire f r o m Russia of, 64; improvement m fconomic status of, 24; in Istanbul, 99, 104,54; as merchants, 49, 9 m°g at!Ons into valley and towns of, 49; m Macedonia pop¬ u L i o n of, 48; i n Macedonia and Thrace Trotter^.figures for 2 Mikhov's statistics for, 5; i n Ottoman Empire 4 „51, 6, etters by to Sultan requesting permission to emigrate to th.Ottoman ¿ p i r e 4-65, 64,27, 78-465; manipulation of population statis S 35; migration into Ottoman Empire of, 64^5 Orthodox Christians constitute majority of, 50; regarded as part of OrthoAc^millet, 49; remaining i n Crimea, 64,27; Russians ovennflate numbers of, 4, 26; subjected to hellemzation, 49; vanat.on of fig¬ ures for, 45 Bulgarization: of Pomaks, 49; of Vlahs, 50 Bulgarzade. Sri Yahya Efendi « Î c v ^ I ^ c a t a l v s t for political change, 93; composition and o J a n zation of, 92-93; created by M a h m u d I I , 92; interest o m thf.wares and culture of Europe, 94; need for - order to meet new demands, 92; s o c i o - e c o n o m i c impression o n Istanbul ot, 93- traditional form of abolished, 93 Bursa: settlement of Circassians m , 70. See also Hüdavend.gar Çadirci, Musa: "1830 genel sayimina ğ o r e Ankara
Bitlis: Christian population of, 5, 51, 54; z ^ f f
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8
nüfusu üzerinde bir araşt.rma," lournal ofOttomau Studies, 23,24 Caipha. See Jaffa
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immigration to Ottoman Empire of, 69; s e t t l e m e n t ^ in
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d'après ÉHsée Reclus," Revue des études
number of as immigrants, 70 i?„ j Caucasus: Muslim immigrants from, 11, 55; occupied by Russia,
bureaucrats, 93
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î £ £ " S t S S . Office: S f c r i s ^ * * ^ ta ^ « m ^ r s * 1 » 3 a l90Z, 55,4 Bulearia- Bulgarian-speaking Muslims i n , 51; census of 1888 i n , 51, l i e s i t u s of peasan .s i n , 22; emigration of Mus ims from 75- massacre of Muslims i n , 72-73; population of, 5, seeks to ac c u t r T m o r e territory after 1878, 45; Turkish-speaking Mushms in 51; use of biaseá statistics to justify expulsion of Muslim m -
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c l S c ! propaganda of supported by French i n Istanbul, 99; proselytize in Pera, 99 . • , 69-70 Caucasians- immigration of, 57, 70; as immigrants m Asia 69 / u , as mmigr nts i n t h e Balkans, 69; as immigrants i n Istanbul, 86 p o r t a n t families of immigrate to Turkey, ^ n ^ a h o n ^ f to Ottoman Empire, 11, 27, 55; migration of from Russia, 69,
Budget: miri of 1776, 88; of 1855, 93; substantial part of used to pay
U
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sud-est européenes, 25,33
ploration, 6,8 . Boznecky, Constantine. See M a h m u d Celalettm Paşa Bridges: built between Istanbul and Galata, 101 Britain See Great Britain
B
as economic base of non-Muslim middle-class nation
alism 7 0 ; " Istanbul, effects of, 86; strain o n Ottoman economy
companies, 97 Rnstanci- check points established at, 91 S , A n î l * Turante d'Europe, 23,25; estimates of M u s hm popu lation of Rumili by, 70; estimates of Ottoman population by, 23,25- use of Ottoman population statistics by, 6; mentioned, 5 Boutet/Paul:
E x p o r t s persecutions of Muslims by R u s s i a n s
and Bulgarians, 73 Canik: Greek population of, 48 TanWiri settlement of Circassians m , 70
6
^ÏrsecuHo n o f ^ T ' ^ " ^ b u S i ^persecution of, ,8; settlement of, 76; Ubicini's figures for 27 • :Yakshity's figures for, 27 ' ' Balkan nationalists: characteristics of, 60; eradication of all Muslim . nsftutions by, 74; ideological gap between Orthodox C h r i " 5
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Austnans: in Pera, 97; peace treaties with Ottoman Empire 61 Aoanz hanesr. tax unit in 15th and 16th centuries 9 Ayans (local notables): and tax collectors, 19;'areas under their contro had market economies, 90; M a h m u d IPs measures
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1830-1914
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rate categories of, 27 Census 2 î K İ d u U males as the officia, r e g i s t r a t i o n ^ n i , of 10- fails to serve military ends of the government, 21, n formation on tribes i n , 23; list of officials for, 36; figures for M u T l Z population o f Rumili. 70; need f o r further study of 2 2 ; 7 Ï u r e s f o r total male population, 21; usefulness of, 22, C e ^ f o f m İ continues beyond 1844, 24; criticized as being too partial to Muslims, 24; figures for Muslim population of Rumili of, 70; under direction of a military officer, - 1 Census of 1861/1862, o n Cyprus, 24 Census of 1866-1873: in Tuna province, 5,4; purpose of to ,ssue C
Ottoman identity cards, 24 Census of 1874: could not be earned o u t , 30 Census of 1881/82-1893: as a sound q « a j ^ j v e b . * O» m a n demography, 34; completed m 188.6, 33 m İstan 104,54; description of registration regulations lor 9, iCensus of 5/6; political dimensions of, 35; usefulness of fo, c t u r l v i n c Middle East history, 3 C e n S A s & s from request settlement m Palestine, 6 * M u s 190
l ı m immigration from, 11, ^ Cernie-i Havadis: newspaper published m Istanbul, 96 Çerkeş. See Circassians Cesme- decline in Muslim population of, 4/ Çetni: placed in v a r i o u s ethnic categories, -V Cevdet Paşa, Premier, 33
232 Cevdet Tarihi, 87n 1 Cezayir-i Bahr-i Sefid. See Aegean Islands Chamber of Commerce of Marseilles: issues permission to settle in Pera, 98 Chamber of Trade and Industry [Ticaret ve Sanayi Odası), 76, 101 Chamber of Translation (Tercüme Odasi): as a route to power for Ottoman statesmen, 92 , Check points: established in Istanbul, 91 Chermiside, Lieutenant, 52-53 Chief of Registers (Defatir Nazareti), 20 Christaki Efendi: support of syllologues, 48 Christians: economic status of i n Rumili in 1831, 36; fail to report exact numbers, 54; in Macedonia, number of, 48; priests, role of in compiling population statistics, 10; taxation of, 19 Churches: Catholic, in Istanbul, 97; Armenian, in Istanbul, 97; Greek, in Istanbul, 97; records of, as sources of demographic information, 10 Cibali: quarter of Istanbul, 87 Ciğerci (sellers of fried liver): occupation of many bekars, 95 Circassia: occupation of, 67 Circassians: i n Anatolia, settlement of, 75; in Anatolia (eastern), not counted, 53; authority of tribal leaders of limited by Otto man government, 75; in the Balkans, Bianconi's figures^ 68; in the Balkans, temporarily settled, 56; chartering of ships by, 69; considered by Russians as " p r i m i t i v e " , 67; deaths among dur ing migration, 69; estimates of number of migrants, 68; as Immi grants i n the Balkans, 57, 70; immigration of to Anatolia, 55; as migrants after 1878, 68-69; as migrants, raid sedentary groups, 75; as migrants, total number of according to Pinson, 67,39; mi gration of from the Caucasus, 66; replaced by Bulgarians in the Caucasus, 65; serve as police (zaptiye), 27; settlement of, 69; so cial structure of, 66; total number of underestimated by Euro peans, 27; regard Ottoman Sultan as Caliph, 67; i n Sivas, 34; in Tuna Province, 50 City Planning Commission (tntizam-i Şehir Komisyonu): moderni zation of Istanbul by, 101 Civil Service Training School (Mülkiye): established i n Istanbul, 96 Çiziye (head tax): categories of, 19, 22; Christians excluded from, 22; collection of, 21; method of payment of, 20; mentioned, 27 Clark, Edson Lyman: The Races of Turkey, Their History, Condition and Prospects in Three Parts, 99,34 Clayton, Captain Emilius, 52-53 Clinton, Richard L.: Research in the Politics of Population, 62,3 Coal, Ansley J.: Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Regulation, 17 Coffee houses: in Galata, 91 Cohen, A m n o n : Population and Revenue in the Toions of Palestine in the Sixteenth Century, 9,21 Comité Internationale de Secours aux Réfugiés de Provinces de l'Empire Ottoman, 69,48 Commercial treaties: help facilitate social and economic rise of non-Muslim middle class, 95; increase European influence in the Ottoman state, 95; of 1838 and 1861 between England and Ottoman Empire, 95; of 1838, eliminate many trade restrictions, 95; of 1861, gives the English more trading privileges in the Ot toman state, 95 Committee for the Protection of the AIsace-Lorrainers: establishes colony i n Algeria, 62 Communications: expansion of i n Istanbul, 96 Conscription: and census, 27; categories of, 6; classifications of, 20; for Muslims introduced in 1838, 6; general, introduced in 1855, 6, 21 Constantinople. See Istanbul Constitution of 1876: importance of, 101 Construction: in Istanbul, 90
OTTOMAN- POPULATION,
1830-1914
233
INDEX
Control Commission: estimates of Muslims and non-Muslims bv 54
Draganova, Slavka: "Différenciation de fortune dans les villages de la Bulgarie du nord-est durant années 60 et 70 du XIX siècle," Bulgarian Historical Rcvicîv, 22,23; Materials on the Danube Province, 49,15 Dragoman (interpreter): role of, 91 Drama: population of, 48 Druze: number of, 56 Dwight, Henry Otis: Constantinople and its Problems, 100,39; con trasts Pera and old Istanbul, 100 e
Cook, M . A . : Population Pressure in Rural Anatolia 1450-1600, 4 , 1 Çorbaci (Bulgarian petty landlord class), 49 Çorum: settlement of Circassians i n , 70 Cosovo. See Kosova Cossacks: force Circassians to emigrate, 67; Old (Eski Kazaklar) re turn to Russia after 1910, 64; some remain in Ottoman Empire after Crimean W a r , 64 Council of State (Şuray-i Devlet) acknowledges that 1874 census could not be carried out, 30; established in 1867, 29; reform of census by, 29 Counselor of the Vizier. See Müsteşar Cox, Samuel Sullivan: Diversions of a Diplomat in Turkey, 31,61, 32,62; suggests use of population statistics to Ottoman government, 31
1
Crete: Greek occupation of, 57; Muslim immigrants from, 55 Crimea: Muslim emigration from, 11; success of businessmen from, 76. See also Tatars Crimean War: Crimean Tatars suspected by the Russians of dis loyalty during, 66; economic effect of, 61; as a factor in the rise of European influence in the Ottoman state, 95; helps facilitate the rise of a non-Muslim middle class, 95; helps people of Istanbul establish contact w i t h the West, 95; increases economic oppor tunity in Istanbul, 86; intensifies migration of Circassians, 67; stimulates Europeanization of Ottoman Empire, 20 Cuinet, Vital: Syrie, Liban et Palestine: géographie administrative, sta tistique, descriptive et raisonée, 34,73; La Turquie d'Asie, 55,40; use of Ottoman population statistics by, 6; mentioned, 54 - " Customs: inefficient collection of, 97; revenue collection of triplesunder government administration, 97 Cyprus: census for non-Muslim population of, 62; census of Mus lim population concluded by 1861, 24 Cyprus Convention and Armenian Reforms, 52 ;
Daedalus, 61,1 Daghestanis: settlement of i n eastern Anatolia, 57 Damascus: settlement of Circassians i n , 70; mentioned, 8 ' Danube province. See Tuna vilayet Dar-i Şura-i Bab-i All (official w h o took over consultative functions performed by Grand Vizier), 93 Dates. See Calendars and dates Davison, Roderic: Reform in the Ottoman Empire 1856-1876, 8,18 102,45 Death rate: statistics, 11, 30, 32; mentioned, 60 de Boglie, Duce: allows easier settlement in Pera, 98 de Crespigny, C. A . : story on Bulgarian migration in Morning Post by, 65 Deliorman: Kizilbaş i n , 56 Derebeys (lords of the valley), 8 Dersim: population of, 57 Despot (priest): role in deciding "nationality", 35 Deutsch, Karl, 57 : d'Haussville, Compte: requests land for French colonists in Oftoman state, 62 Divan (private council): composition of, 93 '•'•-'• Diyarbekir: changes in territory of, 8; Christian population of,-'5, 51; claimed by Armenians, 52; non-Muslims in, 54; settlement Of Circassians i n , 70; Turkish population of, 57; mentioned, 69" -, '• Dobruca: classification of Muslims i n , 20; Crimean Tatar settle ment in, 65; Kizilbaş i n , 56; M u s l i m preponderance in, 45 D'Ohsson, M „ 7 Dottain, Ernest: "La Turquie d'Asie d'après le traité de Berlin," Revue de géographie, 25,32, 8,16, 56»44, 58,47 •' •';
;
Easter, Express: weekly newspaper published i n Istanbul, 96 Eastern Question (fate of the Balkan Christian population), 46 Eastern Rumelia: annexed by Bulgaria, 28, 49; Bulgarian popula tion of, 50-51 Easthope, Lady: Letters on Turkey, 23,26, 103,50 Ecnebi (foreigners), 29 Economic development: and emergence of nationalist move ments, 24; i n Istanbul, based on trade and service industries, 93; large population as a pre-condition for, 62; mentioned, 58 Economy: control of, by European firms and their subsidiaries, 59; of Istanbul, spread out from bezistan, 94 Edict of 1856 (İslahat Fermanı): as a factor in the rise of European influence i n the Ottoman state, 95; facilitates the social and eco nomic rise of a non-Muslim middle class, 95; helps Christians achieve economic power, 24, 95 Edirne: annexed by Bulgaria, 28; Bulgarian population of, 50-51; census inspectors sent to, 33; census of 1831 i n , 7; Greek popu lation of, 48, 51; M u s l i m Turks i n , 56; Treaty of, 61 Edna (lcw-a tax category): percentage of Christians i n , 22; men tioned, 19 Educational system: copied from European model, 97; expanded into the provinces under A b d u l h a m i d I I , 96; facilities of, ex panded, 58; levels of, 95-96; structure of, 96 Efendis (bureaucrats): as social symbols of modernization, 92 Efendisi (main administrator [mayor] of Istanbul), 87 Egypt: British occupation of, 28; mentioned, 8 Elaziz: Christian population of, 51 Eldem, Vedat: Osmanli imparatorluğunun iktisadi Şartlari Hakkinda Bir Telkik, 34,73, 58,49, 71,58, 76,68, 104,54 Elhaj Heray, 77 Elhaj Sheik A l i , 77 Elhoja Ağa Bey, 77 Emigrants: not properly reflected in statistics, 27 Emigration: importance of for Ottoman demography, 60. See also under ethnic and religious groups, geographical areas, nation alities, and nations Emlak Tahrir (land surveys), 9 Encyclopedia of Islam: articles on Circassia i n , 66,33 Engelhard, E.: La Turquie et la Tanzimat, 92,13 England. See Great Britain Enver Paşa, 77 Epidemics: take greater tolls among Muslims, 11; mentioned, 60 Epir: Greek population of, 48 Erder, Leila: "The Measurement of Preindustrial Population Changes: The Ottoman Empire from the Fifteenth to the Seven teenth C e n t u r y , " Middle Eastern Studies, 4 , 1 Eren, A. C : Türkiyede Göç be Göçmen Meşeleri, 63,20, 67,36 Ergin, Osman N u r i : İsianbulda İmar ve iskan Hareketleri, 87,1; Mecelle-i Unıur-u Belediye, 101,43 Erivan: gained by Russia (1828), 66 Erkanı Erbaa (traditional social classes), 90 Eroz, Mehmet: "Türkiyede İslav Muhacirleri ve Kazaklar Etrafinda Bazi Kaynaklari," Sosyoloji Konferanslari, 64,23 Erzurum: Christian population of, 51; claimed by Armenians, 52;
non-Muslims i n , 54; settlement of Circassians in, 70; vilayet formed, 8 Eskişehir: settlement of Circassians i n , 70 Esnaf Tezkereleri Kalemi: fails to perform censor's duties, 103 Estimates: of population size, 10; of population of Asian and A f r i can provinces, 23 Esvat (average-a tax category): percentage of Christians in, 22; mentioned, 19 Ethnographic data: political manipulation of, 26; "studies", 60 Eton, William: A Survey of the Turkish Empire, 5,7, 18,1, 88, 89,5, 103,49; dismisses Greek population statistics as overinflated, 5 Europeans: advantages of as merchants, 97; contact w i t h Otto mans i n late 19th century, 97; dominate Istanbul through Galata and Pera, 95; influence of in Ottoman state, 11, 97-98; merchan dise of sold i n Istanbul, 97; i n Pera, 98 European Times, 63 Evrenos family, 87,2 Eyalet. See Administrative divisions Eyüb (district i n Istanbul)': administered by a judge, 95 Factories: i n Istanbul, chiefly serve military needs, 93 Family: heads, counted i n population surveys, 92; size, 28; size, among Armenians and Bulgarians, 10 Famine: in Istanbul, 88 Farley, James Lewis: Turkey, 97,27 Fellalun: as differentiated from Arabs, 23 Fener (quarter of Istanbul), 87 Fertility: i n demographic literature, 61; rates, among Muslims, 11; rates, central i n understanding Ottoman population growth, 11, mentioned, 60 Fesch, Paul: Constantinople aux derniers jours d'Abdul Hamid, 96,23, 100,37; description of Istanbul, 100; gives too high a figure for number of students studying French, 96 Fighett tribes: flee Russian advance, 68 Filibe: Armenians in, 21; Bulgarians i n , 21; Paulicians i n , 21. See also Philippopolis Findikoğlu, F. Z.: "Türkiyede islav Muhacirlerine D a i r , " «rfisflf Dergisi, 64,23; "Türkiyede Slav Muhacirleri," Sosyoloji Koferanslari, 64,23; "Türkiyeden Rusya ve Amerikaya Göç Eden İslav Muhacirleri," Sosyoloji Konferanslari, 64,23 Findley, C. V . : "The Foundations of the Ottoman Foreign M i n istry," International Journal of Middle East Studies, 92,16 Fires: in Istanbul, 87, 90 Fisher, Alan W . : The Crimean Tatars, 66,30; "The Crimean Tatars, the USSR, and T u r k e y , " Soxnet Asian Ethnic Frontiers, 66,30 Food: for Istanbul, collection of, 87; supply of Istanbul, reasons for difficulties of, 88 Foreign Ministry, Turkish (FM): archives, xii; 62,6-14, 63,15-19, 64,22-27, 67,34-38, 68,41-43, 69,46-52, 70,54-55; as a route to power for Ottoman statesmen, 92; information of, on Russian Muslim emigrants, 70; personnel of trained by Yahya Efendi, 92 Foreign trade: statistics on, 31 France: Foreign Ministry Archives of, importance of as source on Ottoman population, xii; occupation of Tunisia by, 28; philhellenism in, 46-47 Franks: decline of i n Pera, 98; as generic term for Europeans, 98; uprooted by merchants of Galata, 98; Urquhart's description of, 98. See also French; Europeans Freedom of trade: peace treaty condition, 61 Freemasons: lodge abolished, 91 French: as ethnic group in Pera, 97 French language: knowledge of as a characteristic of a " m o d e r n " citizen of Istanbul, 97; number of students of, 96; teaching of, 93, 96. See also Galatsaray Sultanisi
234 French Revolution, 91 Fuat Paşa, 63, 92
Gagauz, 56 Galata: as a center of European domination of istanbul, 95; com position of population of, 87, as a meeting place for ex-Jaaizaries, 91; merchants of; become influential, 98; as modern dis trict of Istanbul, 86; as old Genoese quarter of Istanbul, 86; survey of all male inhabitants of, 92 Galatsaray Sultanisi (French school): established at French insist ence, 96 Gasparini, Dormann: plans of for Swiss migration, 62 Gaspirali, Ismail (Crimean nationalist and publisher of Tercüman) 66 Gatzko: population of, 25,31 Gauthier, Theophile: Constantinople, 94« 19 Gazi Ahmet Muhtar Paşa; Takvimi Sinin, xii Gazi Mehmet Efendi, 77 General Administration of Population (\'iıfus-u Umumiyye idaresi): compiles annual general statistics, 32; established i n 1881/82, 29 General Migration Administrative Commission (ldare-l Umumiyye1 Muhacirim Komisyonu): established in 1860, 67 General Police Directorate: responsible to Minister of Interior, 102 Genoese: hired for Ottoman navy, 91 Georgians: settlement of in eastern Anatolia, 57 Gerber, Haim: "The Population of Syria and Palestine in the Nine teenth C e n t u r y , " Asian and African Studies, 10,26 German language: newspaper i n Istanbul, 96; teaching of, 96 Germans: request permission to settle in Turkey, 63 Giresun: Greeks i n , 47 Gladstone, William: anti-Ottoman policy of, 52 Glass, D. V.: "The Treatment of Population in Historical Text books," Population and Social Change, 61,2 " G ö ç " (Refugee): Türk Ansiklopedisi, 66,29 Gökbilgin, Tayyib: Kümelide Yörükler, Tatarlar ve Evlad-i Fatihan, 70/ı56 Golos (a Greek newspaper): arouses British to help Greeks against Bulgarians, 47 Goschen, George: replaces Layard as British ambassador to Porte 52-53 Gould, G. F.: reports on persecution of Muslims in Niş by Ser bians, 74 Göyünç, Nejat: " A i l e Deyimi Hakkindâ," Tarih Dergisi, 10,26 Gozaydin, Feyzi: Kirim Türklerinin Yerleşme ve Göçmeleri, 66,32 Grand Vizier: presides over divan, 93; role transformed into that of a prime minister, 93 Granville, George (Foreign Secretary): presses Porte for execution of the conditions of the Treaty of Berlin, 52 Great Britain: advocates commercial liberalization, 98; attempts to stimulate Jewish settlement in Palestine, 63; information of on massacres of Muslims, 71,58; occupation of Egypt by, 28; Philhellenism in,. 46—17; promotes Armenian autonomy, 51; reports of on deportation of Muslims from Bulgaria, 49; reports by Foreign Office, 4,2, 47,10, 48,12-13, 49,16, 50,19, 51,20, 52, 71,59, 73,60-61, 74,62-64; reports of on ill-treatment of Muslim civilians, 71; reports of on Ottoman population, 46; sends of ficers to investigate population of Balkans, 26; sends officers to ' investigate population of Anatolia, 52-54; supports Greeks against Greater Bulgaria, 26; and territorial changes in the Bal kans, 4; use of Ottoman statistics by consular officials of, 24; use of Ubicini's statistics by, 24 Great Britain, House of Commons: Accounts and Papers, xii, 10,24¬ 25, 28,44, 34/172, 47,9, 53/(22-25, 53,26-36, 54,38; "Papers Re
OTTOMAN POPULATION, 1830-1914
235
INDEX
specting the Settlement of Circassian Emigrants in Turkev " 68/140, 69/148 Greater Bulgaria: ethnic groups in, 4; terms of Treaty of San Ste fano, 4 Greece: emigration of Muslims from, 75; Tirhala and Prevesa oc cupied by, 28; seeks to acquire more territory after 1878, 45 Greek Albanians: definition of, 50,19Greeks: in Anatolia, 4, 47; in Asiatic provinces, 58; as bureaucrats in Ottoman government, 46; and claims against Bulgarians, 71; as clergy, help maintain loyalty of Orthodox Christians to Sul tan, 91; in eastern Rumelia, 47; effects of modern education on, 47; emigration of from the Ottoman Empire, 11; as European; proteges, 95, 98; i n Galata, 98; in Giresun, 47; in Greater Bul garia, 4; immigration of to Russia, 61; increase in population.of,. 47; in Istanbul, 87, 92; i n Macedonia, 47; in Macedonia and Thrace, Trotter's figures, 52; manipulation of statistics by, 35; as merchants, 46-47, 90, 91, 94; migration of to western Anatolia, 47; migration of to Istanbul, 103; millet, class structure of, 90; Muslims as immigrants, 55; opposition of to the settlement of Circassians i n Thessaly, 69; in Ottoman state, 46-48; in Pera, 97¬ 98; and the persecution of Muslims, 73; repatriated to Turkey, after living i n Russia, 68; role of in economic development, 47; and secular hellenism, 46; in Sivas, 53; in Thrace, 4, 47; uprising of, 46, 91; use of population statistics to counter Russian claims, 4 Greek language: press, i n Istanbul, 96 . - , Greek Patriarchate: attempts to hellenize other Orthodox Chris tians, 48; goal of a national Byzantine revival of, 46; and the. Greek uprising, 91; as official representative of Orthodox Chris tians in Ottoman Empire, 46 Greek-speaking Bulgarians, 50 Greek-speaking Muslims, 57 :
Gregorian calendar: adopted as second official Ottoman calendar, xi; use of by Ottoman administration, xi Grenville, Henry: Observations sur l'état actuel de l' Empire ottoman 88,3 Gypsies (kipti): classified separately i n population registers, 20 Hadzibegic, Hamid: "Dzizja ili Harac," Prilozi, 20,16, 22,21 Hafız Paşa, 67 Halep (Aleppo), 33,69; subdivision of vilayet of, 8 Haliç: district of Istanbul, 87 Hamal (porters): number of, 95, occupation of many bekars, 94; or ganized in odas (chambers), 95; role of i n transportation i n Istan bul, 95 Hamalbasi (Chief of hamal) 95 Haman (baths): in Istanbul, 97 Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph Freiherr, von: Constantinople und der Bophorus, 102,47; study of Ottoman administration by, 93; men tioned, 7 Hane (household): as traditional tax units in 15th and 16th cen turies, 9 Hans (inns): in Istanbul, 95, 97 Haraç: tithe paid by non-Muslims, 89 Harput: claimed by Armenians, 52; population of, 57 Hassel, Georg: Geographisch-statlstiches Handwörtbuch, 18,1; Lehr buch der Statistik der europäischen Staaten, 18,1; Statischer Umriss der Sämtlichen europäischen, 18,18,1 Hassoun, Antoine Pierre IX, of Cilicia: figures for population of Sivas of, 34; inflation of number of Armenian Catholics by, 53 ' Hayralolu: population figures of, 19 Heer, David M . : Readings on Population, 61,1 Hejaz, 29 '' • ' Hellenization: of Bulgarians, 49; of Vlahs, 50
Helle von Samo, A . Ritter zur: Das Vilajct der lııscleıı das Weissen Meeres, das Prwiligirte Beylik Samo (Syssam), und das selbsistäntige Mutessarflik Cyprcn (Kybris), 26,36; Die Völker des osmanischcn Reiches, 26,36^ 51,21, 58,47; estimates of Armenian population in eastern Anatolia, 51; as a " m i n i m a l i s t , " 26; statistics for 1872 and 1874, 26; use of Ottoman population statistics, 6; use of salnames (yearbooks), 26; mentioned, 57-58 Helvacı (makers and sellers of helva): occupation of many bekars, 94-95 Henry, Louis, 61«2 Herzegovina, 25,31 Hicri-Kameri (calendar): begins w i t h the year of Hegira ( A D 622), xi Historical demography, 61 Hoffman N o w o t n y , Hans-Joachin: Migration: Ein Beitrag zu einer soziologischen Erklärung, 61,4 Hollingsworth, T. H . : Historical Demography, 61,2 Hospitals: in Istanbul, 97 Hüdavendigar (Bursa): census inspectors sent to, 33 Hüsamettin, 19 Hüseyin A v n i Paşa, Premier, 30 Hütte'roth, Wolf-Dieter: Historical Geography of Palestine, Transjor dan and Southern Syria in the Late 16th Century, 4 , 1 ; Ländlich Sielin gen im sudlichen İnneranatolien in den letzten vierhundert Jahren, 11,29 Hyamson, A . M . : The British Consulate in Jerusalem 1838-1914, 63,20 lane-i askeriyye. See Bedelat-i askeriyye, 20 Ibn Suud: contributions of to Ottoman legislation, 20,16 icmal. See Summary Population Reports Ignatiev, Count, 72 ihtisab. See Office of the Censor of Morals İhtiyar Meclisi (village council of elders), 29 ihtiyat (active reserve), 6 llumlwber (information certificates), 30 lmarets (welfare centers): i n Istanbul, 97 Immigrants: numbers not properly reflected in statistics, 27 Immigration: importance of for Ottoman demography, 60; i n creases size of Turkish population of Anatolia, 57; overlooked by official registers, 27; policy of Ottoman state, 62; registers of, 55. See also under ethnic and religious groups, geographical areas, nationalities, and nations inalcık, Halil: " D z i z y a " , Encyclopedia of Islam, 22,22; mentioned, 19,9 Inciciyan, P. L . : as geographer, 7; description of Istanbul, Rumili and Ottoman Empire by, 7,14; translation of works of, 7,14 Industrialization: i n Istanbul, 94; obstacles to, 94 Integration: of immigrants i n Anatolia, 55 Interior Ministry (Dahiliye): empowered to maintain population lists, 33; mentioned, 32 lonescu-Brad, Ion: studies of land tenure, 62 Iraq: partial census of i n 1866, 24; undercounting of population of, 35 Isambert, Emile: use of Ubicini's statistics by, 24 İskele (small ports on the Mamara and Black Seas), 94 - Işkodra: Muslims of, 56; population of opposed to census, 34 Islahat Fermanı. See Edict of 1856 İslam Ansiklopedisi: articles on Circassia i n , 66,33; articles on Cau casians i n , 66,33; mentioned, 90 Is'lamism, 77 Islamization: of Anatolia, 58 Islamoglu, Hurican: Dynamics of Agricultural Production, Population Growth and Urban Development: A Case Study o( Areas in North Central Anatolia 1520-3575 (Ph.D. diss.), 9,22 Islimiye: Bulgarian population of, 51
Ismail Ferruh Efendi: established first Masonic lodge in Istanbul, 91-92 ismet inönü, 77 Issawi, Charles: The Economic History of Turkey, 1S00-19U, 18,4 Istanbul: administrative organization of, 95; consumes more than it produces, 94; demographic changes i n , 102; difficulty in com pleting 1882 census i n , 33; divisions of, 87; as entry point for European culture, 97; estimate of population of, 95, 103; ethnic distribution of i n 1897, 104; Fesch's description of, 100; growth of economic opportunities i n , 95; increase in population of, 95; municipal administration of, 101; occupational structure of, 104; population of i n 1897, 104; population survey of all male inhabi tants of, 92; as a semi-colonial post, 100; social-economic struc ture of, 59; styles i n , 100 Istanbul Chamber of Commerce (Istanbul Ticaret Odası), 101 Istanbul Conference, 4, 26, 45 İstanbullu Efendi ("modern man") culturally alienated from own society, 97 Italian language: newspaper i n Istanbul, 97; teaching of, 96 IUKTY (Istanbul Üniversitesi Kitapliği, Türkçe Yazmaiar), xii, 19/ı5, 33,66, 33,71, 44, 55,41-43, 58,48 Izmir: as a clearing point, 63; importance of as an export and ex change place; mentioned, 47 Izmit, 8 Jackson, J. A . : Human Migration: A Guide to Migration Literature in English, 1955-1962, 61,4 Jaffa: German colonies i n , 62 Janizaries: abolition of by Sultan M a h m u d I I , 91; labor monopoly of i n Istanbul, 90; occupational structure of, 91; revolt of against Selim I I I , 90 Jansen, Clifford J.: Readings in the Sociology of Migration, 61,4 Jeleps (cattle merchants): economic role of, 49 Jennings, Ronald J.: "Urban Population in Anatolia in the Six teenth Century: A Study of Kayseri, Karaman, Amasya, Trabzond and E r z u r u m , " International Journal of Middle East Studies, 4,1 Jerusalem, 8 Jewish millet: class structure of, 90 Jews: categorized separately i n censuses, 21; immigration of into Ottoman Empire, 63; i n Istanbul, 87; in Macedonia, 48; mas sacred by Russians and Bulgarians, 72; i n Pera, 97; persecution of by Russians, 63; population of in Ottoman Empire, 25-26,34; publication of newspapers i n Istanbul by, 96; from Russia re quest permission to immigrate to Ottoman Empire, 63; settle ment of in Palestine, 63; from Yemen request permission to set tle in Palestine, 63 Jirecek, K. J.: Cesty po Bulbarska, cited in Contrasts in Emerging So cieties: Readings in the Social and Economic History of South Eastern Europe in the Nineteenth Century, 76,67; on sales of land in eastern Anatolia, 76 Johnson, Clarence R.: Constantinople Today, 102,45 Jordan. See Syria Jurilofca, Romania: Old Believers i n , 63-64,21 Kabardians: acceptance of Islam by, 66 Kabartay tribe, 77 Kadi (judge): and tax categories, 19 Kahya (superintendent): administrators of Christian malwlles, 92 Kahyabey. See Minister of Police Kani Paşa: improved collections of customs in Istanbul, 97 Kanitz, Felix: 46; Donau-Bulgarien unci der Balkan, 24,27; La Bulgane damibiennc el 1c Balkan: Etudes de voyages. 1S60-1SS0, 24,27, 50,18 Kaptanpaşa. See Minister of the Navy
236
Karaağaç: collection point for wheat for Istanbul, 87 Karaites: in Istanbul, 87 -Karal, Enver Ziya: Osıııanli imparatorluğunda Ilk Nüfus Sal/imi, 18tı4, 19,5, 20,14, i03,49; use of Ottoman archives by, 19,5 Karesi: Greek population of, 48; mentioned, 33 Karpat, Kemal: review in American Historical Review, 4 8 « 14; The Ge cekondu: Rural Migration and; Urbanization in Türkei/, ini, 104,57; An Inquiry into the Social Foundations of Nationalism in the Ottoman State: From Social Estates to Glasses, From Millets to Nations, 47,9, 90,10, 99,35; "The Social and Economic Transformation of 1si tanbul in the Nineteenth C e n t u r y , " Istanbul à la jonction des cul tures balkaniques, méditerranéens, slaves et orientales aux XVI-XIX ' siècles, 72,59; "Ottoman Immigration Policies and Settlement in Palestine," Settler Regimes in Africa and the Arab World, 4 , 1 , 62,5, 63,20; "Population Movements i n the Ottoman State in the Nineteenth Century. A n O u t l i n e , " Contributions à l'Histoire Écon omique et social de l'Empire Ottoman, 27,39, 46,6; "The Social and Political Foundations of Nationalism in South East Europe after 1878: A Reinterpretation," Der Berliner Kongress von 1878, 71,58; "The Status of Muslims under European Rule: The Evic' Hon of the Circassians from the Caucasus and Their Settlement in Syria, journal of Muslim Minorities, 56,45, 69,52 Kars: ceded to Russia in 1878, 8, 57; strategic value of, 51; under¬ : counting of population i n , 21; mentioned, 69 Kaşimpaşa (quarter of Istanbul), 87 Katip (letter writer): monopoly of Turks in Istanbul, 95 Kauffer, F.: Guide de Constantinople, 102,47 Kavas (messengers): part of diplomatic community of Pera, 99 Kavasse (police attached to embassies), 102 Kayikçi (boatmen): importance of for water transportation in Istan¬ bul, 95; as occupation of many bekars, 95 Kaymakamlik (district). See Kaza Kaymakam (administrator of sancaks), 8 Kiiymakam Paşa (official substituting for Grand Vizier), 19 Kayseri: tax categories in, 19 Kaza (district): 29; administration of, 32; Ottoman administrative division, 7, main unit of population registration, 20 Kazak Mirza, 77 Kazan: migrants from, 65 Kefil (guarantor): and tax categories, 19 Kendarki, V. K.: UniversaTnoe opisanie Kıyma, 66,31 Kepek (or Kapele, European-style brimmed hat): as a sign of social status and Christian affiliation, 103 Kerkük (Mosul): vilayet, formation of, 8 Kharput: Christian population of, 5 Kiamil Paşa, 31 Kiepert, Heinrich: article in Das Ausland, 45,3; distortion of popu lation figures by, 50; overestimation of Slavic population of the Balkans by, 45; population figures of on the Balkans, 46; reliance of on Slavic sources and Bianconi's false statistics, 45; statistics , _ pi used by Russians, 26 fviriali revolts: in Rhodopes, 49 Ki'rjis (Crimean agricultural intermediaries), 76 Kifmanji (Kurdish group), 57 Kizilbaş: classified as non-Muslims, 5; i n eastern Anatolia, 52; number of, 53; placed in different categories, 57; mentioned, 53,29 Kocabaşi (administrator of non-Muslim nahiye), 8 Kjjnya: census of 1831 i n , 7 • Kornrumpf, Hans-Jurgen: Die Territorialverwaltung im östlichen Teil der Europäischen Türkei vom Erlass der Vilayetsordnung (1864) bis zum Berliner Kongress (1878) nach amtlichen osmanischen Veröffent lichungen, 8,19 Roschütz, Lajos, 64 i
4
O T T O M A N POPULATION,
1830-1914
Kosova: Albanians in, 51, 56; Bulgarians i n , 51; Greeks in, 51 Köstenje: settlement of Circassians i n , 68 Kuban, Doğan: "Istanbulun Tarihi Yapisi", Mimarlık, 101 Kuban: migration from, 65; occupied by Russia, 67 Küçükçekmece: check points established at, 91 Küçük, Cevdet: "Tanzimatin Ilk Yillarinda Erzurumun Çiziye Ge liri ve Reaya Nüfusu," Tarih Dergisi, 20,16 ' :;. Küçük Kaynarca, Treaty of: effect on istanbul of, 88 Küçük Sait Paşa: recommends formation of a statistical system; 31 Kumkapi (quarter of Istanbul), 87 Kundukov (Circassian general i n Ottoman service), 68 Kurdistan, 52 : • \ Kurds: claims of against Armenians, 57; conflicts of with Armen ians, 52; demands of for administrative autonomy, 45; popula tion of in Eastern Anatolia, 52; Shiite, 57; Sunni, 57; as a threat"té' an autonomous Armenia, 51; total Ottoman population of, 57; tribes of, 11; unreliable statistics for, 54 Kutschera, Hugo: "Geographische-ethnographische Ubersicht," Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient, 46,5; as "minimalist", 26; use of Ottoman population statistics, 6; works published in Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient (1875-1878), 26)i33; mentioned, 5 Lames, Thomas: British consul i n Lanarca, Cyprus, 62 Lampe, John R.: Balkan Economic History, 1550-1950: From Imperial. Borderlands to Developing Nations, 76,67 ... Land sales: by Muslims in Balkans, 76 Lane-Poole, Stanley: The People of Turkey, 48,14, 102,46 ' ' . Larissa: settlement of Circassians i n , 69 Latin script, 58 Layard, Henry: replaced by Goschen as ambassador in Constan tinople, 52 Lazes: settlement of i n eastern Anatolia, 57 Léart, Marcel. See Zohrap, Kirkor League of Nations: use of Greek statistics, 5 League of Prizren: formation of, 75 Lebanon. See Syria Lecomte, Pretext: Les Arts et métiers de la Turquie et de l'Orient, 59,50 , Levant Herald (weekly published i n Istanbul), 96 Lewak, Adam: Dzieji eınigraciji polskiej w Turcji (1831-18781 64,23. Lewis, Bernard: Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire, 99«34 Lipovans: allowed to settle in Turkey and the United States, 64 Literacy: rates of, 58 Liva: administrative division of Ottoman Empire, 7; number of, 8 Loris-Melikov: negotiates the emigration of Caucasians with Ot toman authorities, 67 Lowry, Heath W.: "The Ottoman Tahrir Defters as a Source of Urban Demographic History: the Case Study of Trabzon (ca. 1486-15831, [Ph.D. diss.], 4 , 1 , 9n21 Lütfi: Tarih-i Lutfi [or Lutfi Tarihi]: on reform attempts in Ottoman Empire, 18; mentioned, 18nl, 87«1 Macedonia: Albanians i n , 48; as a battleground of conflicting na tional ambitions, 46; Bulgarian population of, 48-49; Bulgarian claims to, 5; denied to Bulgaria, 26; disputes over, 49; Greeks im 47, 52; Muslims i n , 48, 52; Serbians attack Muslims in, 71; Turks -' in, 48; Vlahs i n , 48 • Macedonian Question: use of population statistics for, 51. See also. Adanır, Fikret Magyars (Hungarians): immigration of to Ottoman Empire, 64 :: -. Mahalle (quarters of a city or town), 92 -. Mahmi (Ottoman-born non-Muslims who held foreign passports);. 29 , , ,, ;.' Mahmud I I , Sultan: abolition of traditional institutions by, 92; allows Greeks to return to their homes in Istanbul, 92; friendly :
237
INDEX
policies of towards Christians, 92; introduction of new adminis trative boundaries and divisions by, 8; on importance of holding a census, 19«5; raises taxes, 22, 92; reform attempts of, 18; re forms treatment of foreign ambassadors, 92; rise to throne of, 90; scandalizes religious conservatives, 92; seeks popular support after 1826, 92; unpopularity of, 92. Mahmud Celalettin Paşa [pseud. Constantine Boznecky]: service to Sultan of, 64 Mahmud N e d i m Bey: appeal to British Embassy by, 74 Mahmutpaşa: population officials i n , 19 Maktu (community head tax), 20 Malatya: ceded to Harput vilayet, 8 Malta: families from request permission to settle in Tripoli, 63; citi zens of i n Pera, 98 Mamuretulaziz: vilayet formed, 8 Manastir: Bulgarians, Greeks, and Muslims i n , 51; Muslim Turks in, 56; population of, 48 Mandel, Neville J.: " O t t o m a n Practice as Regards Jewish Settle ment i n Palestine, 1881-1908," Middle Eastern Studies, 63,20 Mangalam, J. J.: Human Migration: A Guide to Migration Literature in English, 1955-1962, 61,4 Manipulation of statistics: by Armenian Patriarch Nerces, 52; by Bulgarians, 35; by Greeks, 35; for political purposes, 4; by Ser bians, 35; by Russians, 4; by Vlahs, 35 Manisa: Greeks i n , 47 Ma'oz, Moshe: Studies on Palestine during the Ottoman Period, 34,73 Mardin: settlement of Circassians i n , 70 Margalith, Israel: Le Baron de Rothschil et la colonisation juive en Pal estine, 63,20 Margin of error: i n counting of population, 10, in developed areas, 34, i n less accessible areas, 34; ranges of, 34 Markets: changes i n Istanbul, 88. See also Bazaar; Capitalism Marriages: recorded by muhtars on ilumhabers, 32; registration reg ulations for, 32 Masons: first lodge of established in Istanbul, 91 Master of Artillery: member of divan, 93 Matluba gayrimulvafik (unsuitable for military service), 20 Maximalists: and migration, 27; works of on Ottoman population, 26 McCarthy, Justin: " A g e , Family and Migration in NineteenthCentury Black Sea Provinces of the Ottoman Empire," Interna tional Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 61,4; The Arab World, Tur key and the Balkans (1878-1914): A Handbook of Historical Statistics, 4 , 1 ; "Greek Statistics on Ottoman Greek Population," Interna tional Journal of Turkish Studies, 5,3; The Muslim Population of An atolia 1878 to 1927, [Ph.D. diss ] , 28,42, 61,4; Muslims and Mi norities: The Population of Anatolia at the End of the Empire, 45,4, 56,44; "The Population of Ottoman Syria and Iraq, 1878-1914," Asian and African Studies, 8,20; "Population of the Ottoman Fer tile Crescent", 8,20, 10,27 McGowan, Bruce: Economic Life in Ottoman Europe, 21 Meclis-i Vala-i Adliye (official w h o took over judiciary functions formerly performed by the Grand Vizier), 93 Medical School (tibbiye) established i n Istanbul, 96 Medreses (traditional schools): in Istanbul, 97, number of, 87 Mehmed I I , Sultan (1451-1481), 90 Mehmet Murat (Mizanci), 77 Mendels, F. F.: "Recent Research i n European Historical Demog raphy," American Historical Review, 61,1 Menteşe: census officials of appointed in 1851, 24 Merkez Memuru (Chief of Police), 102 Michelson, E. H . : use of Ubicini's statistics, 24 Middle class: expansion of, 59. See also Capitalism; Economic de velopment
Middle East: need for population studies on, 3 Migrants: strong anti-Russian feelings of, 76; effect of on urban growth i n Istanbul, 76; help stimulate economic activity, 76; help ease manpower shortage, 76; integration of ethnic groups alters traditional social structure of Anatolia, 77 Migration: accounts for bulk of population movements in Otto man state, 61; economic effect of, 58; influence of in generating social and political changes, 4; internal, overlooked by official registers, 27; role of in Islam, 3; of young men to Istanbul, 103; recorded by muhtars on ilumhabers, 32; registration regulations for, 32; role of i n forming Turkish national state, 57; socio-cul tural impact of, 76. See also under ethnic and religious groups, geographical areas, nationalities, and nations Migration Commissions: reports of, 70,53 Mikhov, Nikola N . : Naseleniento na Turtsii i Bulgnrii, prez XV///XlXv, 5, 5u6, 18,2, 48,14, 68,44, 70,53; distorts Ottoman population figures, 5; use of many works on Ottoman popula tion by, 26«37 Military Affairs Office, 28 Military College (harbiye): i n Istanbul, 96 Military Engineering School: in Istanbul, 96 Millet (religious and ethnic affiliation): basis for registering Chris tians, 30; conflicts w i t h i n , 99; Orthodox, 49; reform of, 99, effect of, 99. See also Armenians; Bulgarians; Greek Patriarchate; Greeks; Muslims < Minimalists: and maximalists schools, differences between, 26-27 Minister of Finance: member of divan, 93 Minister of Foreign Affairs: member of divan, 93 Minister of the Interior. See Müsteşar Minister of the Navy: member of divan, 93 Minister of Police: formerly Kahyabey, 92, 93; member of divan, 93 Minister of Property Records (Defter-i Hakani), 29 Minister of Trade and Agriculture, 29 Minister of Trade and Construction, General Directorate of Statis tics: Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniyyenin Binüçyüzonüç Senesine Mahsus Istatistik-i Umumiyyesi (General Statistics of the Ottoman State for the Year 1313),~33,71 Minister of Trade and Public Works: established i n 1838, 93; member of divan, 93 Minister of War. See Serasker Minorsky, V.: Journal Asiatique, article i n , 66,33 ' Miri (state land): registers of, 9,22. See also Budget Mithat Paşa: carries out census while governor of Tuná vilayet (1866-1873), 24; governorship of Tuna vilayet, 8; introduction of reforms i n the Tuna province by, 49, 92 Molbeck, C : use of Ubicini's statistics, 24 Moldavia: and Wallachia, freed from selling agricultural produce to Porte, 61; mentioned, 8, 88. See also Romania Molla A l i Efendi, 77 Mois, Roger: Introduction à la démographie historique: Les ville d'Europe du XIV au XV1I1 siècle, 61,1 Moltke: draws u p a development plan for Istanbul, 101 Moniteur ottoman: as a source for Ottoman economic philosophy, 89,5 Moniteur oriental: weekly published in Istanbul, 96 Montenegro: emigration of Muslims from, 75; occupation of Işkodra by, 28; seeks to acquire more territory after 1878, 45 Mortality rates: in demographic literature, 61. See also Death rate Moruzzi, Constantine: dismissed as dragoman (interpreter), 91-92 Moshnin, A. N . : distortion of population figures by, 50 Mosques: number of i n Istanbul, 87, 97; repair of in Istanbul, 91 Mubayaaki (wheat collector or buyer): duties of, 87; in Salónica, 87,2 Aludir (administrator of nahiye), 8
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N , 1830-1914
• Müfettiş (inspector): supervises police force. 102 Mugham Hasan Bey, 77 _• Muhacir (immigrants): lists of statistics of, 27. Sir also Göç, Immi grants Muhtar (administrator): of Muslim nahiye, 8; of mahalle, 92; respon sibilities of, 92 Mukayyid (registrars): 28, 30 T Municipal administration (şehremaneti), 102 Miirür tezkersi (travel card): carried by Ottoman travelers, 91; men tioned, 35 IMuridism: role in creating a common Islamic identity in the Cau casus, 67 Muş: claimed by Armenians, 52; mentioned, 69 "Müşir (Field Marshal): position in bureaucracy of, 93 Muslims: in Anatolia, 52, 54, 55, 58; in the Balkans, 45, 70; i n Bul garia, number of underestimated, 50; decline in population of, 60; displacement of by Greeks i n western Anatolia, 47; effect of military service on, 11; emigration of from Romania, 75; expul sion of from the Balkans, 60, 71; fail to report exact numbers of, 54; in Greater Bulgaria, 4; immigrants, from Russia, 11; immi¬ gration of to Anatolia, 57; i n Istanbul, 86, 104; in Macedonia, 48; in Macedonia and Thrace, Trotter's figures, 52; massacred by ; Bulgarians and Russians, 49; migration of from Balkans, 55, 70¬ : 75; not categorized according to ethnic or linguistic affiliation, 55; number killed i n 1877-1878, 75; in the Ottoman state, 55-59; persecution of by Balkan states, 58; persecution of by Russia, 58; in Rumili, 70; sell land to non-Muslims, 24; subdivision of into smaller groups in disputed areas, 55; threatened by a Greater Bulgaria, 26; undercounted more than Christians, 10; underes timated by Armenian Patriarch, 52; uprooted from Tuna and , Edirne vilayets, 49. See also Albanians; Bosnians; Caucasians; Circassians; Daghestanis; Kizilbaş; Kurds; Pomaks; Tatars; Turks Mustafa: establishes tanning plant at Baltaliman, 94 Mustahfiz (territorial/local militia), 6 Müsteşar (Counselor of the Vizier and Minister of the Interior): charged w i t h counting non-Muslims, 30; provides registers to i the General Administration of Population, 32; mentioned, 93 Mutafchieva, Vera, P.: Sur l'état du système des tlmars des XVII XVIII" siècles, 9,22 Mutassarrif (administrator of a sancak), 8 Mutevelle (caretaker), 74 Muvazzaf (active military duty): conscription classification, 6 e
Nahcivan: gained by Russia, 66 Nahiye (neighborhood). See Administrative divisions Naib (assistant to mayor): responsibilities of, 87 Nakşibendi (Muslim fraternity): powers of increased, 91 Nam, Charles B.: Population and Society: A Textbook of Readings, 61,1 Nationalism: Bulgarian, 35; difference between Balkan and west,^ of' 71; Greek, 35; Serbian, 35; movements, emergence ' pf linked to economic improvement, 24 r n
239
S'DEX
238
v a r i a n t
Nationality: new dimension of after 1878, 45; of Orthodox ChrisHans in Macedonia, 50; political claims of, 45 National rehabilitation: of Pomaks, 48 Naval Academy: in Istanbul, 96 Navarino, Battle of: destruction of Ottoman fleet at, 88 Nâzim Hikmet Paşa, 64 Nfferen (individual payment of head tax), 20 Nemoliaks: emigration to Turkey and United States of, 64 Nerces, Armenian Patriarch: figures of on Armenians in eastern Anatolia, 53; forced to revise population statistics, 53; manipu lation of population figures by, 52; memorandum to Berlin Con gress by, 53. See also Armenians, Manipulation of statistics
gious affiliation, 45; statistics of, validity accepted by Europeans, 6; statistics of, validity doubted by Europeans, 5; study of statistics b y , developed for political reasons, 6 Htoman Statistical Directorate, 58 )ttoman Statistical Office: lists of directors of, 44 Xtoman Year Books. See Salnamcs )verstatement of p o p u l a t i o n , 10-11 İzenbaşli, A h m e t : Çarlik Hükümetinde Kirini Faciasi, Yahud Tatar Hicretleri, 66,29
Nestorians: and reforms, 53; i n eastern Anatolia, 52 New Army: created by M a h m u d I I , 92 Newspapers: publication of in Istanbul. See also under titles and languages Nicopolis: settlement of Circassians in, 69 Niş: Bulgarian population i n majority in, 51; incorporated into Serbia, 28; mass exodus .of Muslims from, 74;" as part of Tuna,-'.,'.. vilayet, 24; Serbian population of, 50; settlement of Circassians in, 69; under Midhat Paşa, 8 Nogai: mullahs, role of in spreading Islam, 66; Tatars, emigration of from Russia, 66 Non-Muslims: beneficiaries of European capitalist economy; I f ; " ' " 61; assisted by Christian missionaries, 61; increase in numbers of, 61; migration of to Istanbul, 103; in eastern Anatolia, 54; Ot¬ toman officials used languagesof for censuses, 32,63; registers of, 103; support of by European powers, 61. See also Armenians; Bulgarians; Europeans; Greeks; Macedonians; Nestorians; R o manians; Serbians; Vlahs Novi Bazar: under joint Austro-Ottoman administration, 56 ' , z:v Nüfus Memuru (population officials), 28 Nüfus Naziri (population inpector), 28, 30, 32 . Nüfus tezkeresi (Population bulletin), 32 Nusaris (Alawites of Syria): number of, 56
'alestine: settlement i n , 63. See also Syria 'almerston,'Lprd: policy of m a i n t a i n i n g O t t o m a n territorial integ rity, 52 . 'an-Slavism:, influence of i n Bulgaria, 49; influence of on Balkan nationalism, 60 'anzac, D a v i d : " L a p o p u l a t i o n de l'Empire ottoman et de ses marges d u X V au XIX siècle: Bibliographie (1941-1980) et bilan p r o v i s o i r e , " Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée,.48¬ 49,14 Paris, International Exposition of 1867: semi-official p o p u l a t i o n statistics prepared for b y Salaheddin Bey, 25,32 Paris, Treaty of 1856: a n d change i n O t t o m a n census philosophy, 9; as a factor i n rise of n o n - M u s l i m m i d d l e class, 95 Occupations: among non-Muslims, 24; changes of i n Istanbul, 9 5 - , , Paşa (honorific title): 93 97. See also Professions . . .. , , 'aulicians: m e n t i o n e d i n census of Filibe, 21 Offenburg, Baron: Russian consul at Galatz, 65 • Pazar Kaik (ferry), 95 Office for Supervision of Registers (JDefatir Nezareti), 19 ] Pera: absorbed i n t o Galata, 98; as base for European d o m i n a t i o n of Office of the Censor of Morals (lhtisab): empowered to. maintain.' 7 , , r O t t o m a n economy, 99; dependence of o n Europe, 99; develop population lists, 33fi66 ment of business groups i n , 99; fire i n 1870, 98; French i n , 98; Office of Correspondence and Registration (Heyet-i tahririye ihu-" " Greeks i n , 98; h o u s i n g i n , 98; M u s l i m s i n , 101; n o n - M u s l i m s i n , driyeti): performs administrative duties, 102 >• • 98; O t t o m a n bureaucrats i n , 100-101; p o p u l a t i o n of, 97; reasons Office of Economic Affairs (Umur-u iktisadiyye mudriyeti): performs "'' for ascendancy of, 98; rent i n , 98; social structure of, 99-100; as general municipal duties, 102 •* ' site of diplomatic missions, 87, 98; as symbol of ascendancy of Office of the General Inspector (Mufettiş-i umumlik): performs ad--' '"' European over t r a d i t i o n a l culture, 95, 97; as symbol of m o d e r n ministrative duties, 102 ". A ity, 101 Office of Imperial Registers (Defter-i Hakani Nazareti), 30 ' •}> Persian Gulf: Russian designs o n , 51 Office of Population Registers (Ceride-l Nüfus Nezareti), 28 Persian language: spoken by K u r d i s h elites, 57 Office of Property Surveys (Tahrir-i Emlak idaresi), 28 • : • Office of Sanitary Affairs (Heyet-i sihhiye mudriyeti): performs gen-' : v Petermann, A . : Mitteilungen aus Justus Peierke's geographischer An eral municipal duties, 102 stalt, 55n40 Office of Technical Affairs (Heyet-i feniyye mudriyeti): performs Petriç: M u s l i m s i n , age'classifications of, 20 general municipal duties, 102 Phanariots: as rulers of M o l d a v i a and Wallachia, 46 Ohrid: Bulgarian church at closed, 49 Philippopolis: Bulgarian p o p u l a t i o n of, a m i n o r i t y i n , 51. See also Old Believers: i n Jurilofca, Romania, 63,21; settle in Dobruca, 63. Filibe See also Lipovans; Nemoliaks Pigs: sale of i n Istanbul p e r m i t t e d by M a h m u d I I , 92,15 Olkonski, Phillip: requests permission to migrate to Palestine, 62. ,. . Pinson, Marc: Demographic Warfare: An Aspect of Ottoman and Rus Orenburg: migrants from, 65 sian Policies, 1854-1866 [ P h . D . diss.], 4 , 1 , 66,33; " O t t o m a n Col Orhonlu, Cengiz: Osmanli imparatorluğunda Aşiretleri Iskan Teşebonization of the Circassians i n R u m i l i after the Crimean W a r , " güsü, 70,56 , Études Balkaniques, 69,52; "Russian Policy and Emigration of the Orthodox Christians: religious affiliation of as foundation for na Crimean Tatars to the O t t o m a n Empire 1854-1862," Cüney-Doğu tionhood i n the Balkans, 60; community of, breakdown.in the Avrupa 'Âraşti'rmalari Dergisi, 66,32; estimates by of migrants age of nationalism, 35. See also Bulgarians; Greeks; Romanians; "'''' from eastern Caucasus, 67. See also Circassians Russians; Serbians ' •" -'-'i-"Pir (sage, o l d m a n - a census category): males above sixty, 19 Osmanli (classification of sedentary population), 57 ' ' ' Place names: use of T u r k i s h forms for, xi Österreichische Monatsschrift für den Orient, 46,5 .? : ;v. Plovdiv. See Filibe, P h i l i p p o p o l i s Ottoman-Greek Wars: of 1897, 58; of 1919-1922, 47 ' . '' Police: i n Istanbul, personnel of, 103, organization of, 102. See also Ottoman-Russian Wars: of 1877-1878, 68, 71, 103; of 1768-1829,-60 " :sA> Minister of. Police; Zaptiye Ottoman State: budget of, 88-89; crafts in, 89; economic philöso i r i . - i i . ' phy of, 89; "gentleman" of, characteristics of, 97; .government;:;;-, Poles: m i g r a t i o n o f .to T u r k e y , 65; serve i n O t t o m a n army against of, forced to assume new responsibilities, 92; population of irrt Russians and Bulgarians, 64 Europe, Russian figures, .26; population of, sources on, 7; popu/ Political d e m o g r a p h y , 61 lation of, Yakishity's figures,'25; statistics of, use of in measur- •., Pomaks: i m m i g r a t i o n of to A n a t o l i a , 57, 75; i n the Rhodope ing urbanization, 7; statistics of, categorized population by reliMountains, 49, 56, 70; revolt of against Russians and Bulgarians, 75 Popoff, Georg: " L a d i m i n u t i o n de la p o p u l a t i o n turque de la p r i n e
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s
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1
cipauté de B u l g a r i e , " Journal de la Société de Statistiques de Paris, 55,t44 Population A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : administrative structure, 32; men tioned, 33,70 Population Bureau: use of Hicri calendar, xii Population: exchange of between Greece and T u r k e y (1926), 48, 75; ratio of, change of i n eastern A n a t o l i a , 54; registers, regulations for, 31, samples of registers of, 37-39 Porter, Sir James: use of Ubicini's statistics by, 24 Postal Service: m o d e r n i z a t i o n of, 97; routes to Europe of, 97 Poti: occupied by Russia, 67 Pousson, Jean-Pierre: "Les M o u v e m e n t s migratoires en France . . . approches p o u r une s y n t h è s e , " Annales de démographie his torique, 61»1 President of the Council of State: member of divan, 93 Prevesa; occupied by Greece, 28 Professional schools: established i n Istanbul, 96 Professions: disappearance of traditional forms of, 59; prolifera tions of n e w forms of, 59, 95 Public debt: stabilized, 58 Public libraries: i n Istanbul, 97 Public Record Office, x i i . See also Great Britain Public w o r k s : i n Istanbul, 107 Quataert, D o n a l d : " C o m m e r c i a l i z a t i o n of A g r i c u l t u r e i n Ottoman Turkey 1800-1914,"7nferi!ahu)M/ Journal of Turkish Studies, 76,68; Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire,• 1881-1908: Reactions to European Economic Penetration, 100,39 Railroads: i n A n a t o l i a , 97; b u i l d i n g of, 58; expand communication, 97 Rakowski, George: on " t h e T u r k i s h p r o b l e m " , 60 Ravenstein, E. G . : " D i s t r i b u t i o n of the Population i n the Part of Europe O v e r r u n by T u r k s , " The Geographic Magazine, 28ii41; "The Population of Russia and T u r k e y , Journal of the Royal Sta tistical Society, 26n35, 2 8 , 4 1 , 51>t21, 66,33; figures of o n Ottoman population, 26; m e n t i o n of demographic factors by, 28; popula tion figures of o n the Balkans, 46; studies ethnic distribution of Christians, 27; use of O t t o m a n p o p u l a t i o n statistics b y , 6,10; 45, 45)71; m e n t i o n e d , 5, 103)749 Reade, R.: reports on Russian plans to r i d Bulgaria of M u s l i m s , 74 Reaya ( n o n - M u s l i m s ) : term especially applied to O r t h o d o x Chris tians, 21; registers of (reaya dcfteri), 103 Recchioli, Stanislas: report by o n p o p u l a t i o n of Drama sancak, 48, 48,13 Reclus, Élissé: Nouvelle géographie universelle, la Terre et les hommes l'Europe méridionale, 25n33; as " m a x i m a l i s t " , 26; studies ethnic distribution of Christians, 27; use of Salaheddin Bey's popula tion statistics by, 25; m e n t i o n e d , 103,49 Reden, F. W . : use of Ubicini's statistics by, 24 Redif (inactive military reserves), 6 . .. Refik, A h m e t ( A l t u n a y ) : Hicri On Altinci Asirda Istanbul Hayati, 87nl, 9 0 , 1 1 , 99,36 Reform C o m m i s s i o n : i n eastern Anatolia, 52 Registers: basic type (esas defter), 29; daily events (yevnnye vukual), 30, 40-41; of n o n - M u s l i m s in Istanbul, 103; of wheat delivered to Istanbul, 87; organizations of, 29; p o p u l a t i o n , disorder of, 29; provincial, used to overcome shortcomings of O t t o m a n census, 28; summary (icmal), 29, il-43. See also Census; Population^Sta-^ tistics, Birth rate; Death rate Registration: for births, 32; control of, 32; for deaths, 32; difficulties of, 33; factors i n c l u d e d i n , 32; financing of, 32; i n f o r m a t i o n veri fied by c o m m u n i t y council, 32; i n f o r m a t i o n verified by a inukhtar, 32; for marriages, 32; for migrations, 32; permanent system
241
NDEX
240 Registration (continued)
O T T O M A N P O P U L A T I O N , 1830-1914
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of established, 30; provisional (nhkam-i murakaate), 32; regula tions for amended, 33; superceded in 1902-1903, 33,-for travel certificates, 32 -...!Reisiilkiittab (a foreign minister), 93 Reşit Paşa,*92 T Riza Paşa, 23 • Romania: emigration of Muslims from, 55, 75; independence of, 28; seeks to acquire more territory, 45 ..„ .. . . Rosenthal, Steven T.: The Politics of Dependency: Urban Reform in Is tanbul, 98,29 ' Rumili (Rumelia): population of, 70; Muslim immigrants from, 55. See also Balkans; Bulgaria; Eastern Rumelia; Greece; Montene-, gro; Romania; Serbia . "' " Rusçuk (Russe): becomes part of Bulgaria, 28; Bulgarian popula tion of in minority, 56; as part of Tunaı vilayet, 2.4J settlement öf Circassians i n , 69 " ' ' >/ • Russia: claims to possess a superior culture, 67; considers Circas-''' sians as " p r i m i t i v e , " 67; control of sea trade i n Black Sea by, 88; indiscriminate attacks of against the Muslims in Bulgaria, 71; in--' fluence of i n Balkans, 60; insistence of on general migration of • Muslims from Caucasus, 68; M u s l i m immigrants from, 55; occupation of Baku by, 67; occupation of Kuban by, 67;'persecu tion of Muslims by, 58; plan of to remove all Muslims from Bui- . garia, 71-72; Reade's -report o n , ' 74;. Slavic immigrants; from i n Ottoman Empire, 63-64; states.reason for occupation of Circassia, 67; struggles w i t h England in. eastern. Anatolia/51; statistics of..4, 26 _ . . . ,. . '. , Russian Muslims: letters by requesting permission to immigrate to Turkey, 77. See also Caucasians; Circassians;. Central Asia; Daghestanis; Lazes; Muslims . . . . . . . . . . • Russian-Ottoman Agreement on Crimean migration (1803): i n creases economic opportunity, i n Istanbul, 86; mentioned, 66 Russian-Ottoman Wars. See Ottoman-Russian Wars Rusferri Bey, 77 " 1
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itartup, Richard: "Sociology of M i g r a t i o n , " The Sociological Quar
europäischen Türkei u n d ihrer Dependenzen zur Zeit des' Kriegsaubraches in Jahre 1877, 26,37 i. Schools: basic function of,••• 96; development of in Istanbul, 96; modern, establishment of, 58; in Pera, 97. See also Educational:^ System; Medresse ' •; . ' -:. -,;•-Scutari. See Işkodra ; - . . Seferhisar: decline of Muslim population .in-,. 47 •• Şehremini (official position abolished in 1831), 94 Şekerci (candy makers and sellers): occupation of many bekars^S,.,.^ Selanik: collection point for wheat for Istanbul, 87; customs house. • in, 97; Greek population of, 48, 51;,leading position of f n export.,,-, and exchange, 94; M u s l i m Turks i n , 56; population of,-48; settle-" .'j" ment of Circassians i n , 69; settlement of Bulgarians i n , 51 Selim I I I , Sultan [1789-1807]: use of solar calendar in financial. , measures, xi .. Sened-i İttifak (act of concession to ayans), 90 " \'*" Serasker (Minister of War): charged w i t h counting Muslim males,' ' 30; member of divan, 93 Serbia: emigration of Muslims from, 75; independence of, 28; in discriminate attacks of against Muslims i n northern Macedonia/ ' 71; manipulation of population statistics by, 35; mistreatment of Muslims i n , 72; population of i n 1820-1840, 23; seeks te-acquire i more territory after 1878, 45; use of biased statistics to iustifV". driving out of M u s l i m population, 55; menhoned 8 Serbians: emigration of to Austro-Hungarian Empire. 27. 91-: ruefchants of embraced capitalist philosophy,.-,90:.newspaper öf.-in Istanbul, 96; number of i n Istanbul, underestimated' TQ4ii54. : - ^ ; Service economy, 59, 89, 93 Settlement: of Circassians,-56, 69-70; of Crimean Tatars in Anato.- t lia, 66; decree, European response to, 62; of immigrants helps . increase agricultural production, 58; of ,norrtadic tribes 54. 27: • overlooked by official registers, 27; of T u r k s i n the Balkans. 56; role of in Turkish national state,.57, ' , *" . Seymen (Istanbul city police)," 102 Şeyhülislam (chief religious functionary): member of divan. 93 Shamar tribes, 69 Shaw, Stanford J.: History of the Ottoman Empire. 58M.9: 62ii5' "The " "•' Ottoman Census System and Population 1831-1919", Interna tional Journal of Middle East Studies, 28,44; "Population of Istan bul in the Nineteenth C e n t u r y " , Tarih Dergisi, 104,55-56/105- • •> • Sheep, 87 ' V' --.„.. Sheikh Shamil: capture of, 67; leader of M u t i d movement;67 Shiites. See Alevi; Kizibaş ,-, v \ " , - . . Sibyan (children): as age classification, 20 . • Sicil (basic unit of census), 32 ••.A Sicil-i Nüfus (special registers), 18 Siirt (Seert): ceded to Biltis, 8. "-' r . ' v r Silistre: settlement of Circassians i n , 69; under Midhat Paşa, 8 ' , Şimşir, Bilal: Bir. Geçiş Yili 1879, 71,58; Rumeliden Göçleri Belgeler, . v n
t
J
J
J
Sabagh, Georges: "The Demography of the Middle East," Middle East Studies Association Bulletin; 4 n l • Sabbi-emred (beardless-a census category): males between fifteen arid forty, 19 . ' . Sagir (small-a census category): males between eight and fifteen 19
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Sait Efendi: placed i n charge of population affairs, 19 Saka (water carriers): occupation of many fetors, 94 Salaheddin Bey: La Turquie á l'Exposition universelle de 1867, 25,32, 27,40, 51,21; as maximalist, 26; estimates of Circassian immi grants by, 27; use of Ubicini's figures by, 5 Saíname (Yearbooks): 7, 12-13, 58; contain names of statistics col lectors, 31; Imperial (Devlet-i Aliye Salnameleri), 7,13; of 1294 A, (1877/78), first complete list of entire Ottoman population, 25; of •; 1294, groups not counted, 25; of 1295, 50-51; provincial (vilayet i salnameleri), 45; state, 6; of Tuna vilayet, 50 , ¡Salónica. See Selanik Samatya: (quarter of Istanbul), 87 Samsun, 69 Sancak. See Administrative divisions fSan Stefano, Treaty of: and Armenians, 51; British attempt to re¬ vise provisions of, 51-52; results i n decrease of Muslim popula tion in the Balkans, 70; territorial boundaries of Bulgaria stipu lated by, 26; mentioned, 4. See also Armenians; Balkans; Bulgarians; Circassians; Greeks; Great Britain; Muslims Sax, Carl v o n : "Bevölkerung der Türkei," Österrichische Mon atsschrift fiir den Orient, 26,37; Ethnographische Karte der s
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7i/ı58 '' v.."..'_;.'" Sinni Vusta (Middle-aged-a census category): males between forty-;, and sixty, 19 Sirket-i Hayriye (French-controlled .navigation monopoly in Istan"-'.'" bul), 96-97 • • • ... ' •. ;"' Sivas: census inspectors sent to, 33; Christian population of, 5, 5 1 ; ' population statistics of, 4, 34; settlement of Circassians in,'6?-7Ö', * ' Smith J. Oxford: Ottoman consul i n N e w York, 63 ' • " "' ' • ' Sofia: becomes part of Bulgaria, 28; Bulgarian population of in ma jority, 51; as part of Tuna vilayet, 24; settlement of Circassians fn,T 69 Sources, xii . Soysal, A. F.: Z Dziejon Krymu, 66,31 Spelling: use of Turkish forms, xi Spengler, J. J.: Demographic Analysis, 6 1 , 1 1
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terly, 61n4 Itate monopolies: prices of goods increased by, 93 Itatistical Office of the Sublime Porte: created i n 1891, 31; used. Hicri calendar, x i i . itatistics: falsification of for M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n of the Balkans, 45; reliability of, 33; variation of for Istanbul, 103,49. See also Census; M a n i p u l a t i o n of statistics; Registers Steamboats, 96 •' jteinhauser: as a " m i n i m a l i s t ' , 26 itoney, W ; L . : British consular official i n Bulgaria, 10 iubasi (controller of markets of Istanbul), 94 Sugar, Peter: Southeastern turqpe Under Ottoman -Rule, 1354-Ï804, 48,14 , : Sukumkale, 68 Suluk Bey, 77 Sumarkoff, C o u n t , 68 Sumu: settlement of Circassians i n , 69 Sunns M u s l i m s : m a j o r i t y of M u s l i m s i n Balkans, 56 Superintendent of the Treasury ( M i n t C h i e f ) : members of divan, 93 Superintendent of the Vakifs: m e m b e r of divan, 93 Supplementary, statement: attached to census estimates of p o p u lation, 34. ; Suvari ( m o u n t e d police): i n charge of public safety and mail protection,-?.02,46- ... Syllogues (political-literary organizations): role of i n awakening Greek national: consciousness, 48 Synagogues: i n I s t a n b u l , 97 Synge, H.'i Study b f ' M a c e d o n i a n p o p u l a t i o n , 4 8 -• • •• Synvet, A.rEes Grecs deVEmpiré ottoman,'48,11; Traité de géographie generate de l'Empire ottoman, 26M37; as à " m i n i m a l i s t " , 26; survey of Greek p o p u l a t i o n b y , 4 7 - 4 8 n l l , 48 . Syria, 63; census of f i n i s h e d by 1888-1889, 33; government i m m i gration policy i n , 63 Synacs: n u m b e r of i n eastern A n a t o l i a , 53 .. Synans: emigration, of to A m e r i c a , 61 , . :
Tahrir, 9 ', •-'_> , Tahtaei: placed i n d i f f e r e n t categories, 57 Takvim-i Vekai (Calendar of Events-first T u r k i s h newspaper) 96; published by g o v e r n m e n t , 96;- Sultan writes lead,article f o r , 96; Walsh's description of impact of, 96 Tali§burun: cotton thread p l a n t (iplikhane) established at, 94 Talish: gained by Russia, 67 • •' Tanis Bey L e k a t o g l u , 77 Tanzimat Edict of 1839: c o n t r i b u t i o n to i m p r o v e m e n t of economic status of Christians; 24; m e n t i o n e d , 28 Tapu defteri (land deed registers): as a source of demographic i n formation, 8-9 Tariffs, 97 "~ Tatars: develop wheat cultivation i n A n a t o l i a , 76; i n Dobruca and Bulgaria, 56; forcible d e p o r t a t i o n of by Russian and Soviet gov ernments, 66; i m m i g r a t e to A n a t o l i a , 57; migration of into Ot toman Empire, 55, 65; notables and merchants b r i n g capital to Anatolia, 76; social and economic impact of, 76; i n Tuna vilayet, 50 Taxes: types,. 2.0; u n i t s , 9. See also Bedelat-i askeriyye; Ciziye Taylor, C o n s u l , 52 Tekkes (dervish cloisters): i n I s t a n b u l , n u m b e r of, 87 Teplov, V l a d i m i r : Materialy Dlya Statistikii Bolgarii, Trakii i Makedonii, 10n23; distortion of p o p u l a t i o n figures by, 50; estimates of Bulgarian p o p u l a t i o n b y , 51; study of Balkan population by, 9-10 Terazi (traditional w a t e r system of Istanbul), 97 r
Tercüman. See Gaspirali, Ismail Tercüman! Hakikat (newspaper p u b l i s h e d i n Istanbul), 96 Tezkere-i osmaniyye ( O t t o m a n i d e n t i t y card) as a means to force people to register f o r census, 34; m e n t i o n e d , 24, 30, 35.-See Census; Mürur tezkersi; Registration Thessaly: British opposed settlement of Circassians i n , 69 Thobie, Jacques: Intérêts et Impérialisme Français dans L'Empire Ö/toman 1895-1914, 99»34 Thornton, Thomas, The Present State of Modem Turkey, 8 7 , 1 , 88;i4 Thrace: as b a t t l e g r o u n d for c o n f l i c t i n g national ambitions, 46; de nied to Bulgaria, 26; ethnic c o m p o s i t i o n of, 4; Greek population of, 48; m e n t i o n e d , 49 Timars (traditional administrative officials) e l i m i n a t i o n of, 92 Tirhala: occupied by Greece, 20 Tirnova: becomes part of Bulgaria, 28; Bulgarian p o p u l a t i o n of i n majority, 51; as part of Tuna vilayet, 24 Todorov, N i k o l a i : The Balkan City11400-1900, 5n4; 25?i31; Balkanskiat Grad XV-XIX vek, 5n4; 6 n l l ; 25n30; "The Balkan T o w n , i n the Second Half of t h e , 19th C e n t u r y , " . Études Balkaniques, 6 , 1 1 , 25n30; La ville balkanique sous les Ottomans XV-X/Xs, 25,30; ac knowledges reliability of 1868 census data of T u n a vilayet, 24¬ 25,30 :-. Trabzon: A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n of, 54; categorized as first-rate. t>ilayel, 33; census inspectors sent t o , 33; customs house i n , 97; Greek p o p u l a t i o n of, 47-48;. m e n t i o n e d , 68-69 " T r a d u c t i o n d ' u n • m é m o r a n d u m de la' Sublime-Porte, adressé aux missions étrangères à Constantinople, et relatif au recense ment general décrété par Son Hautesse," Le Moniteur universale, 23,26 • -' • .''•'" Translation Bureau: significance of, 93 ' ' V. Transportation: and bridges, 101; expansion of i n Istanbul, 96:'See also Railroads Tribes: Arabie, 56; i n A n a t o l i a , 57; difficulties i n c o u n t i n g popula tions of, 34; g o v e r n m e n t a t t e m p t s ' t o count population of, 24; K u r d i s h , 56; m o v e m e n t of to fertile areas, 61; numbers of not reflected i n O t t o m a n statistics, 11; Persian, 56; populations of estimated, 10, 33; settlement of, 57„ T u r k i c tribe, 56; Türkmen, 11; U b i k h , 68. See also Arabs; K u r d s ; T u r k s Tripoli; d r o u g h t and famine i n , 63 Trotter, M a j o r H e n r y : study of p o p u l a t i o n of eastern Anatolia, 53; m e n t i o n e d , 52 Tulça: Bulgarian p o p u l a t i o n of i n m i n o r i t y , 51; as part of Tuna vi layet, 24; settlement of Circassians i n , 69 Tulumbaci (firemen u n i t s ) : abolition of by M a h m u d I I , 92 Tuna vilayet: Bulgarians i n , 48-49; census of 1866 i n , 7, 24; compo sition of, 24; lost i n 1878, 8; M u s l i m T u r k s i n , 56; partitioned between Bulgaria and Serbia, 28; p o p u l a t i o n of, Sn4, 25; receives Circassians, 68; census of, i n Salname of 1285 (1868), 24,29; sum mary of 1868 census data for, 25 - Tunisia: French occupation of, 28; m e n t i o n e d , 8 Turkic tribe: m i g r a t i o n of to O t t o m a n E m p i r e , 27 Turkification: of A n a t o l i a , 58 Türkmen: n u m b e r of i n eastern A n a t o l i a , 53; placed i n different categories, 57; statistics for are not completely reliable, 54 Turkmençay, Treat)' of, 67 Turks: attracted to Istanbul by t r a d i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s , 94; i n the Balkans, 56, 70; emigration f r o m Bulgaria, 57, 75; i n eastern A n atolia, 52-53; i n Macedonia, 48; overestimation of population of in Istanbul, 104,54-55; variations of figures for, 45 La Turquie (weekly newspaper p u b l i s h e d i n Istanbul), 96 Tuvana (strong): m i l i t a n ' classification, 20 Ubicini, Jean H e n r i A b d o l o n y m e : Etat présent de l'Empire ottoman, 68,44; " P o p u l a t i o n of Bulgaria", journal of the Royal Statistical So-
r
242 Ubicini, Jean Henri Abdolonvme (continual) cicty, 51,21; "La Principauté de Bulgarie," Revue de géographie, 51,21; La Turquie actuelle, 16, 93,17, 94,19, 96,22; Wi28, 30, 99,32-33, 101,40; and unpublished Ottoman population fig ures, 23; as "minimalist", 26; article of in Economiste français, 25,30; article of in Journal de la Société de Paris, 25,31; as chief source on Ottoman population studies, 24; description of Ot toman administrative divisions by, 7; errors of on population of Herzegovina, 25,31; estimates of numbers of Circassian emi grants by, 68; publishes erroneous version of a census list for 1877/78, 25,31; summary of census results by, 23; use of Otto man population statistics, 6, 23; mentioned, 5, 103,49 Ubikh tribes: fled Russian advance, 68 Ufa: migrants from, 65 Ulema (traditional elites): control markets in Istanbul, 94; dwin dling number of in Istanbul, 101,40 Unat, Faik Resit: Hicri Tarihleri Miladi Çevirme Kilavuzu, xii Undercounting of population: in Adana, 21; by censuses, 10, 27-28; in Iraq, 35; in Kars, 21; of Muslims, 10, 21, 34, 53-54; of nomadic tribes, 34; of women, 28, 34 Underestimation of population: in European territories, 23; of immi grants, 55; of Muslims, 50; of Serbians and Bulgarians in Istan bul, 104,54 Union and Progress, Committee of: use of Roman calendar by, xi Unkapani (economic center of Istanbul), 87 Urbanization: in the Middle East, 3 Urla: decline of Muslim population of, 47 Urquhart, David: Turkey and its Resources, Its Municipal Organiza tion and Free Trade, 18, 18,1, 22,19, 22,20, 89,7, 89,31; descrip tion of Ottoman collection of statistical Information by, 5; esti mates of the Ottoman population of Rumelia by, 70; states Muslims' basic objections to European economic habits, 89; use of Ottoman population statistics by, 6; mentioned, 5, 103,49 Üsküdar (Scutari): cotton factory at, 94, population of in 1896¬ 1898, 104; population survey of all male inhabitants of, 92; print ing press located in, 94, mentioned, 87 Vakifs (pious foundations): economic role of in Balkans, 71; inade quate to meet new needs, 92; revenues of, 89; subject to expro priation, 75; mentioned, 58 Valis (governors): administrators of vilayets, 8 Van: Christian population of, 5, 51; claimed by Armenians, 52; layet formed, 8 ' Varna: becomes part of Bulgaria, 28; Bulgarian population of in minority, 51; as collection point of wheat for Istanbul, 87; Greeks in, 50; non-Muslims in, 54; as part of Tuna vilayet, 24 Venizelos, Eleutherios, Premier: use of false statistics by, 5 Veterinary School: in Istanbul, 96 Vidin: becomes part of Bulgaria, 28; Bulgarian population gf in mi nority, 51; as part of Tuna vilayet, 24; settlement of Circassians in, 69; under Midhat Paşa, 8 Vilayet Law, of 1864: formation of vilayets from eyalets, 8, effect on Istanbul of; 101; effect on population registers of, 29; amended in 1871, 29
O T T O M A N POPULATION,
1830-1914
Vilayet (province): census results for, 7; creation of, 8; number of, 8 Viquesnel, A.: Voyage dans la Turqule d'Europe, 23,26, 25,32 Vlahs: ignored by Russian statistics, 4; number of in Greater Bul garia, 4; population of in Macedonia, 48; mentioned, 60 Vojvoda (Grand Judge of Galata): administers Galata, Pera, Kasimpa^a and Tophane, 95 . Volo: collection point for wheat of Istanbul, 87
Wages: increases of in Istanbul, 90 Wagner, H . : use of Ottoman population statistics by, 6. See die Bevölkerung der Erde' Wallace, General Lewis, 31 Wallachia: and Moldavia, excluded from census, 23; mentioned, 8, 88. See also Moldavia; Romania Walsh, Robert: 103: Residence at Constantinople during a Period . . . the Greek and Turkish Revolts, 91,12, 92,14-15; description of ar senal at Galata by, 94 Weights and measures: government takes control of from ulema, 94 Wheat: causes of shortages of, 87; supply of for Istanbul, 87 Wilson, Lieutenant Colonel C. W.: study of population of eastern Anatolia by, 53; mentioned, 52 Wrigley, B. A.: Population and History, 61,2 Yahya Efendi (Bulgarzade): appointed as translator and dragoman, 92 Yakshity (head of statistical department in Belgrade): as "minimal ist", 26; claims that he worked with official Ottoman statistics, 26; figures of for Ottoman population in Europe, 25; mentioned, 103,49 Yanya (Joamina): Greek population of, 48; Muslim Turks in, 56 Yearbooks. See Salnames Yemen, 29 Yerli kulu (armed Muslim youngsters in Istanbul), 91 Yezidis: classified as non-Muslims, 5; number of, 56; registration of, 56,46 Yoklamas (timar censuses), 9,22 Yörük (nomads): placed in different population categories, 57 Young, George: Corps de droit ottoman, 7,17 Young Turks: and revolution of 1908, 58; role of immigrants in, 77
Zaptiye (foot police in Istanbul), 27, 102 Zarifi, G.: support of syllologues by, 48 Zazas: Kurdish group, 57; classified as non-Muslims, 5; men tioned, 53,29 Zeybek: placed in different categories, 57 Zionism: emergence of, 63 Zographos: support of syllologues by, 48 Zohrap, Kirkor [pseud. Marcel LéartJ: La Question arménienne à la lumière des documents, 5,5, 54,39 Zor (Deir): vilayet formed, 8
